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FESSENDEN & CO.'S
ENCYCLOPEDIA
-T*» - OF
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE:
OR,
DICTIONARY
OF
THE BIBLE, THEOLOGY, RELIGIOUS BIOGRAPHY, ALL
RELIGIONS, ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY,
AND MISSIONS;
CONTAINING
DEFINITIONS OF ALL RELIGIOUS TERMS;,
AN IMPARTIAL ACCOUNT OF
THE PRINCIPAL CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS
THAT HAVE EXISTED IN THE WORLD FROM THE BIRTH OF CHRIST TO THE PRESENT DAT,
THEIR DOCTRINES, RELIGIOUS RITES AND CEREMONIES,
AS WELL AS THOSE OF THE
JEWS, MOHAMMEDANS, AND HEATHEN NATIONS
TOGETHER WITH
THE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE EAST,
ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES,
A DESCKIPTION OF THE QUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, FISHES, REPTILES, INSECTS, TREES,
PLANTS, AND MINERALS, MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE ;
A STATEMENT OF THE MOST REMARKABLE TRANSACTIONS AND EVENTS IN
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY;
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES OF THE EARLY MARTYRS AND DISTINGUISHED
RELIGIOUS WRITERS AND CHARACTERS OF ALL AGES.
A MISSIONARY GAZETTEER,
CONTAINING
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE VARIOUS MISSIONARY STATIONS THROUGHOUT THE GLOBE ;
BY REV. B. B. EDAVA RX) S ,
EDITOR OF QUARTERLY OBSERVER.
IHE WHOLE BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME, AND EMBRACING, UNDER ONE ALPHABET, THE MOST VALUABLE PART 07
CALMET'S AND BROWN'S DICTIONARIES OF THE BIBLE; BUCK'S THEOL. DICTIONARY;
ABBOTT'S SCRIPTURE NATURAL HISTORY; WELLS' GEOGRAPHY OF THE
BIBLE; JONES' BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY;
AND NUMEROUS OTHER SIMILAR WORKS.
DESIGNED AS A
COMPLETE BOOK OF REFERENCE ON ALL RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS;
A^'D
COMPANION TO THE BIBLE;
FORMING
A CHEAP AND COMPACT LIBRARY OF RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE.
REV. J. NEWTON BROWN.
JElliistrateli Sj aSfooJi ffitits, JlStaps, anti Suarabfnas on ^Tojipcr anS Stec
PUBLISHED BY TrlE
BRATTLEBORC TYPOGRAPHIC COMPANY,
(INCORPORATED OCTOBER 26,1836.)
BRATTLEBORC, VT.
1837.
1^41-
-BLSI
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year one thousand eight hundred and thirty-five, by
John C. Holbrook and Lemuel Shattuck,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Vermont.
PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT.
valuable results of Ihe
i be best calculatej to
CoMMENTAnv on the Bible"
I. The svbjects embraced in
ational, it cannot fail to be desirable /or
The present is an age, and ours is a country, demanding great condensation and orevity in writers wno wrjuld secure attention. So active ad'j
busy are the habits of the mass of our countrymen, that they have neither time nor patience to turn and per\ise the pases of the cumbersome
quartos and folios of the 1 7th century ; while a tolerable competency would scarcely suffice for the purchase of the numerous worss of which the
modern press is so fruitful, on the subjects embraced in this volume. The work then, combining and condensing the
researches of the best writers on any subject, while it will be most likely to be received with favor, will at the
facilitate the acquisition, and consequently the diffusion of knowledge. "With these views the " Comprehensi
was projected ; and its unprecedented sale has encouraged the same publishers to offer to the public the present vol
this work are interesting to ALL, and as it is not designed to be in the least sectaria7t, or deno
all, whether professedly religioics or not, at least as a book of reference.
The following are some of the peculiarities of the plan : —
1. It is designed to be a standard and permanent work; and here it is believed will be found collected and compressed in one atiper:-royal
octavo volume of upwards of twelve hundred pages, in a shape combining convenience and cheapness, and in a style blending the sweetness of
the popular with the richness of the profound, what has heretofore been scattered through more than ffttj volumes, and mixed with much of
little or no value. Among the works, all the valuable ^natter of which will be found in this, together with some from which copious extracts
have been made, are the following : —
; \\'\- Tancement of Society in Knowledge aud
■" ■ Religion.
CHRISTIAN DENOMINATIONS.
Evans' Sketch of Religious Denominik-
lions; Jones' Diciionfiry of Religious
Opinions; Hannah Adams' do. ; Robbins'
iHt.ui.ULri. ^^*;. Douglas on Errors regarding Reli-
Buck'3 Theological Dictionary, enlarged giou; Benedict's HiElory of All Religions ;
by Dr. Henderson; Jones' Biblical Cy- Williams' Dictionary of do. ; Ward's Fare-
clopedia ; Hawker's Biblical Dictionary ; well Lelters ; Edwards' Quarterly Resia-
,„•-. ._ T,-,.,-__, _ . -"--ological Die- tPr -* J 6
; Campbell
• Edwai-ds' Missionary Gazetteer,
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. Last Houiit of Eminent Chrisli
jsheim'BHistoryoftheChrislianChnrch; ?^^y's»P'l^"T °,^ ^^'^ Baptists; Benedi
Geo- Milner'a do. ; Jones' do.; Waddington
do- ; Mather's Magnalia ; EHio
mer'e Observatio
Mrs. Sherwood's Dictionary of Types and
Kinblems ; Burder's Oriental Customs ; Jo-
! Biblical and Theological Die-
I lllus- tory olthe Primitive Church ; Robins
3 do. ; Har- History of Bapusm ; Sismondi's History
: Jaho's Archjeology ; of the Crusades against the Albigenaee-
REf^IGIOUS BIOGRAPHY,
i' Jewish Customs; Keith's Evidence Fox's Li^ea of the Martyrs ; Middleton'3
ofprophecy ; Cogswell's Harbinger of tJie Evangelical Biography ; ' . ~ ■ ■
■■■" ■ - ■■ ■ " " Bi- Biog. ; r ■ "■
Dhv; On ^ ,
(Female Biography; Clissold's
tCir- Many articles are original, especially those relating to the principal denominations in this country, as will be seen on reference to the
fourth paragraph below.
2. // is designed for a complete book of reference on all religious subjects ; to which a person can turn when any thing occurs in reading
or conversation connected with Religion which he does not understand, or in regard to which he wishes to refresh his memory, as he would t3
a dictionary for a definition of a word. Nearly every subject treated in tho books which form the basis of this, is touched upon ; but those
which are of minor importance are very brief, and those of greater utility handled more at length. Articles rarely recurred to will be found
here ; but it is not burdened with any thing that is altogether useless.
3. In Theology, the general plan of Back's Dictionary is followed ; especially in its evangelical cast and Christian candor, in its copious
illustrations of important topics, and its valuable references to the best works on botii sides of the question. Watson, Jones, and others, how-
ever, have supplied us occasionally with articles of superior value.
tC^" The edition of Buck which has been used is the new one lately published in England, edited by Prof. Henderson, who has added
nearly five hundred new articles, which will be found incorporated in this.
4. The accounts of the History, Doctrines, dj-c. of different denominations, have been prepared with an aim at the strictest impartiality.
Where it was practicable sonie leading man of the principal sects existing in this country has been employed to prepare the article relat-
ing to it ; and where it has not been, the matter has been drawn from some one or more prominent writer of the dcnomina/ion, of acknow-
ledged authority. The work does not aim to effect a compromise of opinions among the different denominations of Chri.slians, but to
present the views of each /m^/i/, and in their own words, leaving the reader to form his own conclusions as to which is most correct. This
must be a truly acceptable course to all who can respond to the sentiment quoted by Robert Hall, "Amicus Plato, amicus Socrates, sed
The following i
3 of the
.rJbulors under this head ;-
Baptism. Pedobaptist Views, Rev. J. Tracy,
Editor of the Boston Recorder. Baptist
Views, Rev. J. D. Knowles. Professor in the
Newton Theological Institution.
Baptists. Prepared under the revision and
sanction of Rev. Dr. Sharp, Boston.
Conoreoationalists. Prepared by a mem-
ber, and revised and sanctioned by Rev. Prof
Emerson, of AndoverTheologicad Seminary,
and Rev. Dr. WisNERof, Boston.
Christians. Rev. J. V. Himes, Boston.
Disciples of Christ, or Reformers. Alex-
ander Campbell, of Bethany, Virginia.
Free Will Baptists. Rev, S. Beede, Editor
ofthe Morning Star, Dover, N. H.
Methodist Episcopal Church. Rev. S. W.
WiLLSON, Editor of Zion's Herald, Boston.
Presbyterians. Rev. Dr. Miller, of Prince-
ton Theological Seminary.
Protestant Episcopal Church, Rev. Mr.
BoYLB, presbyter, of Boston.
Protestant Methodist Church. Rev. T. F,
Norris, President ofthe New England Con-
article prepared by
fen
Unitarians. From ;
Rev. Prof Palfrey.
Universalists. Rev. L. R. Paige.
Universal Restorationists. Rev.
Dean.
5. To adapt it to popular use, all words in foreign languages have been omitted ; or where Hebrew, Chaldee, and Greek terma unavoidably
occur, they are given in English characters.
G. Scripture Biography, which occupies a large space in most Bible Dictionaries, is handled here in the briefest manner possible — giv-
his only the characteristic outlines, except when difficulties occur which require to be cleared up.
7. In consequence of the space thus gained, the new department of Religious Biography is made full and extensive; embracing, it la
believed, every distinguished religious writer, preacher, and character, including the most distinguished females, and those philanthropists who
were actuated by religious principles. Every denomination will find here notices of its most illustrious men, especially such as have lived and
died in this country, from its settlement to this time. To every notice of an author a list of his principal wrhings (so far as possible) is given, with
a reference to the best biographies of the individual.
8. As a Dictionary aiid Gazetteer ofthe Bible, the work will be found, it la believed, more copious and accurate than any other now in use,
adapting it to the wants of the Pulpit and of Sabbath Schools. In the notices of the various cities and countries mentioned in the Bible'', the
fulfilment of the Prophecies regarding them, so far as developed, are particularly noticed.
9. The object of the Encyclopedia being to do good on evangelical principles, the work preserves throughout, as far as possible, a devotional
and practical,' a^ weU as a critical, picturesque, and popular character, that it may minister to the heart, no less than to the judgment and tho
hnaginalioi-. >
iO. Maps and Engravings, as well as Wood Cuts, have been added to enrich and adom, as well as illustrate, the work.
On the whole, the amount of information embodied in this work is immense, and it is hoped the matter, by collation, arrangement, abridgment^
and addition, has been very gi'eatly improved; and while it will be found interesting and valuable to Families, and those individuals who only
desire to acquire general lenowli^ge, to the Sabbath School Teacher and Bible Class Leader it cannot but prove an invaluable treasure.
-^f<?/
t-
PREFACE
Few words are necessary to set forth the advantages of a work like this. A mind of ordinary intelli-
gence must see them at a glance. It is not known that a similar attempt has heretofore been made, to bring
together so wide a range of information from every department of religious knowledge. The works which
have been most used in the compilation of this, and whose separate advantages are here combined, are far
more limited and partial in design. For comprehensiveness of plan, therefore, the present work stands
alone, and without a rival, in the wide field of th..'ological literature. Nor does any single work in either of
the departments of religious knowledge here embraced, contain an equal number of articles in that depart-
ment, or an equal variety and amount of valuable information. In the labor which he has expended on this
work, therefore, the Editor has been cheered by the hope of presenting an acceptable offering to the religious
public, of performing a service of real and lasting utility to the cause of Christ, which he believes and feels
to be, in the language of the eloquent Buckminster, " tlie cause of human happiness forever and ever."
Although, as stated in the Advertisement of the Publishers, this work is prepared with special adaptation
to the wants of this country and of this age, the Editor begs that the nature of this adaptation may not be nv's-
understood. To some minds it may possibly suggest tlie idea that it is merely "got up" for temporary purposes,
and that it consists of light and undigested materials, thrown loosely and hastily together, — a mere book-
selling speculation. The best answer to such a supposition will be found in a careful examination of the book
itself. It claims not however to be faultless. It would be singular indeed if, in a work of some ten thousand
diiferent articles, the eye of even candid criticism could not detect deficiencies, minor mistakes, positive
errors even. No diligence, no research, no comparison of statements, however careful, no sifting of authori-
ties, however severe, no sincerity of aim at the most rigid accuracy and impartiality, he apprehends, can
wholly avoid these things. It is something however to have aimed aright. The true critic will feel this.
He is not qualified for the task of criticism who has not himself passed through a course of mental trial and
discipline in the pursuit of truth, and especially of religious truth, which has taught him the difficulties of
the pursuit, and imbued his heart with a generous sympathy. For the judgment which such men shall form
of his labors, the Editor shall entertain the sincerest deference. If any shall assail the work in a different
spirit, he shall feel little affected by their censure, otherwise than to beseech of God their better illumina-
tion ; while he cheerfully confides in the real value of the work itself, and the favoring providence of the
great Author and Finisher of our faith, (not unbesought to this end, so far as it may be connected with his
glory,) for its ultimate popularity and success.
It is necessary, however, that the Editor should bespeak the attention of his readers, and of all such
especially as shall use this work, to some of the principles by which he has been guided in its preparation.
The most important of these were named in the Prospectus, and are now embodied in the Advertisement ;
yet some of minor consequence it is necessary to mention here.
In compilations of this nature it has not generally been thought of importance to give the names of the
authorities consulted or employed, in connexion with each article. Various reasons have been assigned
for this omission. But the Editor, after proceeding some little way in his work, became dissatisfied with
the prescriptive course on this point, and judged it best in all cases to refer to the sources from which the
several articles were compiled or selected. Various advantages seem to him to attend this met!;. 1. It
is certainly more ingenuous. It renders due honor to those who have previously labored in the field, and
where, as in some instances, but a single name appears, it shows to whom the Encyclopedia is indebted
either for the best original article, the most judicious selection, or the most valuable compilation. In many
cases too, where the article is abridged to adapt it to this work, it enables the reader to consult the works in
which it is treated more at length. Yet even in abridged articles, it is believed, he will often confess
with pleasure, that " the half is better than the whole."
At the same time, in justice both to himself and to others, the Editor would remark, that no writer from
whom he has compiled or selected, and whose name appears at the end of a particular article, is to be held
responsible for its precise form or language, unless his language is expressly quoted. In all other cases the
Editor of the Encyclopei^ia has felt himself at liberty to modify not only the arrangemeni, val the diction
IT PREFACE.
and sentiments, to bring an article nearer to that state of order, accuracy, clearness, and completeness,
which the most recent information, and the habits of his own mind, led him to think desirable and useful
to his readers. Such only as will take the trouble to compare article by article as they stand here, with
the same articles as they appear in the works referred to, will be able to judge of the amount of labor
expended in this manner, or of the degree of improvement by this means attained.
It is perhaps unnecessary to say, that the original articles on the different Chkistian Denominations,
furnished for this work by the several gentlemen whose names are attached to them, are to be exempted
from the above remarks. It has been an invariable rule with the Editor to insert them as prepared bv their
authors, without the slightest alteration; except in a single instance, the omission of a name, which justice
to the individual would not suffer to appear in the connexion where it stood. For whatever appears in
those articles, the respective authors or revisers are alone responsible. To this they have cheerfully con-
sented by giving their names to the public. And the Editor cannot but feel himself happy in having been
able to secure to each denomination so able an organ and representative. No better pledge of authenticity
and impartiality could have been given by the Publishers, or have been desired by the community. Those
articles alone stamp unequalled authority and value upon the Encyclopedia, as a standard work of reference
on those points ; which, amidst the mis-statements and colorings of party spirit, it is always so difficult to
ascertain with any thing like precision and certainty. The Editor regrets that in two or three instances
his applications for similar articles on other denominations, proved unsuccessful. In these cases he has
done the best he could. It may be proper also to observe here, that the article Baptists, to which no name
is attached, as in the case of others, was drawn up by the Editor, under the revision of the Rev. Dr. Sharp,
and actually printed, before the arrangement followed in the remainder of the work was finally adjusted.
In the preparation of the whole work, the Editor has been governed by a single idea — the aim to make
it, to the utmost of his ability, what he should judge most desirable as a companion of the Bible ; a compa-
nion, however, not in the sense of a master or equal, but of a ministering attendant. He is not one of those
who regard the word of God without note or comment, so far as relates to the great doctrine of salvation,
as either defective, equivocal, or obscure. On the contrary, he believes that notwithstanding all the disad-
vantages of a translation, a foreign idiom, and an oriental drapery, it is, in every really important point, fuU,
unambiguous, and clear. A distinction should ever be made between its history and its poetry, between its
doctrine and its allusions. The transparent and vigorous simplicity of the former, requires little aid from
learned labors ; the wayfaring man, though a fool, shall not err therein. But besides its history and its doc-
trine, or, in other words, its facts, and its moral principles, precepts, and promises connected with those
facts, the Bible abounds in allusions, geographical, historical, and analogical, and these, together with prophecy
and its accomplishment, form the proper field for Biblical Illustration. Accordingly, the Editor has
made it a point to collect every ray of light within his reach, and concentrate it on the geography, history,
scenery, sects, customs, and manners, peculiar to every spot of interest referred to on the sacred page, that
the reader may be able to surround himself with the very associations of the sacred writers, or the persons
present in the scenes they describe. Yet while, ■with the feeling of a poet, he has prosecuted these re-
searches, he deems it right to warn his readers that this kind of knowledge is but the literature, "the
letter," not the vital spirit of religion ; and that the most learned critic in these matters is but on a level
in point of real information with the humblest peasant in Judea, or the busiest citizen of Greece and of
Rome, into whose hands at first, without note or comment, the sacred writings came. The same remarks
apply, also, to the articles of Biblical Introduction, which treat of the age, origin, contents, and character
of the several books of the Old and New Testament, including the Higher Criticism, which examines their
authenticity ; though great attention has been paid to these points, as well as to Biblical Interpretation, in the
Encyclopedia. Physiology, also, and Natural History, together with Intellectual and Moral Philosophy,
have been made tributary to Biblical Exposition.
After a knowledge of the sacred documents of our Religion, comes the history of its progress and effects
in the world, together with the changes it has undergone from the neglect or misinterpretation of those
documents ; and this is the province of Ecclesiastical History. The Editor hopes that his attention to
this subject has enabled him to throw a clearer light over some articles in this department. He also owns
himself much indebted to the candor and research of Mr. Williams, in the last English edition of his valua-
ble Dictionary of all Religions.
Closely connected with this is the department of Religious Biography, in which the Editor has aimed to
pursue a liberal course, embracing the most noted writers for and against Natural Religion, for and against
Revelation, for and against Orthodoxy, as generally understood. He has thus enabled his readers to form
just ideas of the character of each, and to feel llie benefits of comparison between men of opposite views
PREFACE. V
on the greatest of all subjects. He has also included many whose writings liave exerted an influence,
favorable or unfavorable to Religion, on intellect and morals in Christian lands. But chiefly he has de-
lighted to dwell on characters eminent for piety and philanthropy, and to preserve some of their most me-
morable sayings, together with glimpses of their dying hours. No collection of Religious Biography of
equal extent and value probably exists in the English, or any other language. It is brought down also
to the present year. The Editor regards this department alone as worth the whole cost of the book.
In the department of Theology, strictly speaking, he has taken no little pains to set every important
subject in the clearest light, and to state it in the most scriptural manner. And as he has had the advantage
of drawing upon authors of different sentiments, who have preceded him in similar works, but with more
partial views, he has sought, as far as he could with a clear conscience, to select and combine what seemed
to him true, and good, and edifying in each, to enrich the present work. All the bibliographical references
in Buck's Theological Dictionary are retained, with copious additions, chiefly, however, of writers of more
recent date, of standard merit, and whose writings are generally accessible in this country. These refe-
rences are rarely made to particular volumes and pages, as these can be of little service where various
editions abound, in various forms, and especially when the topic can be so readily found by turning to an
index. No valuable work, unless alphabetically arranged, is now published without an index. The copious
topical references also introduced throughout this work, the Editor trusts will greatly augment its value.
Although it has been a general rule to exclude from the Encyclopedia all foreign languages, yet in a few
instances, for the sake of the scholar, a Latin quotation has been retained, on account of its aptness or
beauty of illustration. The English reader can pass over these, or get the sense of them from a friend who
understands the language.
Of the BIissioNARV Gazetteer, he needs only to say, that it is wholly prepared by Mr. B. B. Edwards,
whose name is a sufficient pledge of its proper execution.
Articles not found in the body of the work, must be looked for in the Appendix ; where also will be foimd
brief historical articles on the various Pi.eligious and Benevolent Societies of the age.
After all, the Editor wishes the present work, however satisfactory to the general reader, to be looked
upon by the student, not as a full view of any one subject, but rather in the light of ground already gained
and made good, as a starting point for fresh investigations. Each article should be regarded as an organized
nucleus, a living root, aroimd which he is to accumulate the stores derived from his future readitig and
reflections.
Especially does he wish to apply this remark to his junior brethren in the Christian ministry. While we glory
only in the Cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, and justly value all objects by their relation to Him, it is not for us
to stand still, amidst the mighty stream of advancement in human affairs. The best movements of society should
always find us in the front ranks. Such is our commission. What high and generous, yet gentle courage
do we need for its fulfilment. The present, is, not without reason, denominated an age of inquiry. How
far profound, how far impartial, how far governed by the meekness of wisdom, how far springing from the
fervent love of truth and righteousness, we will not say — but still it is an . age of inquiry. All who are
acquainted with the movements of the civilized world, must be aware that within the last fifty years, the
prevailing systems of metaphysics and morals, and the most important doctrines of Christianity, as well as
the evidence of Christianity itself, have undergone a rigorous investigation, by some of the ablest minds of
an age, than which none perhaps has been more fruitful in great men. The whole structure of theology, as
well as of politics, has been re-examined from its foundations, by the searching spirit of the times. And it
is well. The spirit that is moving on these troubled elements, we verily believe, is the Spirit of God. It
is a spirit that is at once purifying our faith at home, and extending it abroad among all the nations. Under
its quickening influence, Biblical Literature and Criticism have been greatly advanced. The Laws of sound
Interpretation have become better understood, and are more generally applied in the investigation of the
Sacred Volume ; though on this point there is still much to be desired. The Baconkm method is by no
means universal yet. Preconceived notions, abstract speculations, illogical reasonings, and partial mduc-
tions of Scripture, still too much abound. And even where these lead not astray, there is far too im-
perfect a faith in the simple word of God. In Religion, reason makes no real discoveries except as she
walks in the clear light of Divine revelation. " The use of reason in religion is to enlarge our minds to the
amplitude of truth ; but the abuse of reason is more common, which would contract truth to the narrowness
of our understandings."
Some advantages have certainly been gained by the recent spirit of inquiry and free discussion. If few
new truths have been discovered, many old ones have been better settled and defined ; and some crude and
impure mixtures purged away. The practical applications of truth have also been more ably illustrated,
vi PREFACE.
and we may hope henceforth to see more and better fruit spring from their belief and inculcation. Besides
this, good men of different communions are becoming every day better acquainted with each other; and a
gradual approximation of sentiment and feeling is taking place, through the agency of spiritual revivals,
of benevolent institutions and associations, and of the religious periodical press. This fact affords a cheer-
ing augury for the future.
The Editor entertains hopes that this work wOl be found to participate in some good degree of this spirit
of the age, and that it will help to diffuse its quickening and healing influence still more widely. No object,
he can truly say, has throughout been dearer to his bosom, than the hope of hastening the triumphs of truth
and charity — the charity and truth of the blessed Gospel — over the whole world. Unless his heart has de-
ceived him, he has labored in the spirit of that fundamental Christian prayer — hallowed be thy name ;
THT KINGDOM COME ; THY WILL BE DONE, AS IN HEAVEN, SO IN EARTH. In that Spirit he would wlsh the work
to be read ; and if any thing has been inserted not in harmony with this, he can most heartily wish it were
expunged.
Should any reader be staggered at the multifarious forms of human belief here presented, especially among
professed Christians, a brief but full solution may be found in the following remarks of Mr. Douglas. "Er-
rors, though they appear infinite at first view, may be reduced to a few classes and to a very few principles.
Errors regarding religion, while they have their original cause in the dimness of the divine image in the fallen
mind, and the consequent obscurity of heavenly truth, may be traced in their proximate causes either to pre-
conceived opinions or to partial views. Thus the old errors of the ancient world, after the coming of our
Savior, re-appeared in a Christian disguise, giving rise to as many heresies in religion as there had formerly
been sects in philosophy; and the good seed of the word had almost been stifled by the indigenous weeds
which revived along with it in the mind ; as they rushed up with all the strength and advantage which they
derived from being the natural and previous occupants of the soil. More lately, in religion, as in philo-
sophy, imperfect induction has been the stumbling-block, instead of preconceived theories ; and a part of
divine truth, separated from its proper place, and exaggerated beyond its just dimensions, has been opposed
to the whole."
If any, question the propriety and use, of perpetuating in this form the various crudities and abortions of
error in the human mind, we reply in the words of the same eloquent and philosophic writer : " Thus wo
complete the ' intellectual globe,' (to use an expression of Bacon,) when we add the darkened to the enlight-
ened hemisphere of thought. Then our belief has its highest and perfect repose, when we ascend to that
point of view which discloses at once the foundations of truth and the outlets of error ; as the wanderings
of the planets are explained away, and disappear with all their epicycles, and nothing remains but the im-
mutable order of the heavens, when contemplated from their centre and point of rest."
The Editor cannot conclude without returning his most grateful acknowledgments to the Publishers
who have furnished him with the opportunity and materials, and to those gentlemen who have assisted him
in making the Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge what it is — the most recent, comprehensive, illustra-
tive, and trust-worthy work of reference on all denominational points, as he hopes it will be found, also, on
the various topics adverted to above. He would particularly express his obligations to the Rev. David
Benedict, for permission to use his valuable History of all Religions, and to President Allen, for the assistance
derived from his copious collection of American Biography. But, above all, would he devoutly acknowledge
the kindness of that gracious Being, who has enabled him to perform this service for the cause of Christ, and
for his fellow-men, and to finish a task of such magnitude and solemn import, at least in his own view from
the first, that he would not have deemed the sacrifice too great had it cost his life. To the favor of that
most glorious of Beings, whose approbation he chiefly covets, to whom he owes the rich gift of an intelligent,
moral, and immortal existence, redeemed too by an inestimable price, as well as to the use of the public for
whom it is prepared, he humbly commends this work. J.N. B.
Boston, January 1, 1835.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE.
A, THE first letter in almost all alphabets. In the
Hebrew it is called Aleph. This, and all the other
letters of the Hebrew alphabet, are found in the 119th
Psalm, prefixed to the several sections of that richest
of all devotional compositions. Both the Hebrews and
Greeks used their letters as numerals. Hence A. (Aleph,)
came to signity the first ; as did also the Greek Alpha, a
distinguishing title assumed by our Lord, Rev. 1 : 8, 11.
21 : 6. 22 : 13. Alpha, in connection with Omega, the
former the first, and the fatter the last letter in the
alphabet, are beautiful sjTnbols of that glorious Being,
of whom, and through whom, and to whom are all things.
Eom. 11 : 36. As appropriated to himself, by our Savior,
it is a subUme affirmation, from his own lips, of his
essential deity, and all comprehending fulness. Perhaps
the best exposition ever given of this glorious title, is
found in Col. 1 : 15—20.
AARON, son of Amram, and the elder brother of
Moses. He was a prince of the tribe of Levi ; and his
name, derived from Har, a mountain, is by some supposed
to signify a moimtaineer ; but by others, to denote eminent,
as if prophetic of his lofty designation ; he being called of
God, not only to take part in the redemption of his people
from Egj'pt, but also to be the first Hish Priest of Israel.
In this most high and sacred relation, he was in several
respects an illustrious type of Christ ; who is the body
and substance of all the Levitical shadows and sacrifices ;
through whose mediation alone, the guilty can have access
to God. Col. 2 : 17. The history of Aaron is found in the
books of Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers ; it is unne-
cessary, therefore, to repeat il here. He died in mount
Hor, A. JI. 2552, aged 123 years. The seeming contra-
diction as to the place of his death, (Nmn. 20 : 22 —
29, with Deut. 10 : 6,) is removed by the fact mentioned
by Burckhardt, that Mosera is the name of the valley
at the foot of moimt Hor. — (See articles High Priest ;
Breast-plate ; Ephod ; Uriji ; Calf ; Type ; Shadow ;
Hor.)
Calmet, in reviewing the history of Aaron, remarks, 1.
A striking instance of divine sovereignty in the prefe-
rence given to Moses, his younger brother. — 2. A strong
confirmation of their di\nne mission in the peculiar cir-
cumstances of their meeting at mount Horeb. — 3. Proba-
ble evidence that Aaron was chief of his people in Egj-pt,
though under the authority of Pharaoh. — 4. That his
consent to make the golden calf in the wilderness pro-
ceeded from exhausted faith and patience, joined with
unjustifiable wealcness and timidity. — 5. That the sedition
of Aaron and Miriam against Moses affords another
argument against the supposition of collusion between the
brothers. — 6. That in the general character of Aaron there
was much of the excellence, and especially of the meek-
ness, of Moses. — 7. That he probably assisted his brother
in writing out some parts of the books which now bear
the name of Moses. — And, lastly, that his death presents
one of the most singiUar and impressive scenes in the
history of our race.
The last idea is thus enlarged upon by Jones : '' Neither
the purity of his character, nor the honor of his high
priesthood, could exempt him from the common lot of mor-
tils, or confer a perpetuity upon his office. The law of
Moses perfected nothing, as the apostle tells the Hebrews.
U served only to the introduction of a better hope. Under
that dispensation 'the priests were many, because they
■were not suffered to continue by reason of death.' Heb.
7 : 23. The continual succession of mortal men, of
which the Aaronic priesthood was made up, while it
strikingly evinced its imperfection and its temporary
duration, was evidently designed to serve as ' an ex-
ample and shadow of heavenly things,' and to lead the
Israelites to look forward to ' better things to come'—
when ' ANOTHER PKiEST sliould arise, after the order of
Melchisedek, and not after the order of Aaron — a priest
who should spring out of the tribe of Judah, and who
should be constituted not after the law of a carnal
commandment, but after the power of an endless life'
— whose priesthood should be imchangeable in the
heavens. In reference to this view of things, the death of
Aaron, and all its train of attendant circumstances, are
replete with instruction. In the sight of all the congre-
gation, at the command of Sloses, he quits the camp of
Israel, accompanied by his brother and his son Eleazer,
and ascends the momiiain where he is to die. Here the
father is stripped of his priestly vestments, one by one,
which Moses immediately places upon his son Eleazer,
his successor in the ofSce of the high priest. Thus
disrobed of the insignia of his office, with a gentle but
melancholy grandeur, the venerable old man resigns him-
self to death, and is ' gathered to his people, according to
the word of the Lord.' "
AB, the eleventh month of the Je-nish civil year, and
the fifth of their sacred year ; con-esponding to our July.
— (See Month, and Jewish Calendar, at the end of this
volume.) Should not Christians, every month, in special
prayer, remember this singular and unhappy people, who,
though rejected for their unbelief, maintain stiU the forms
of religion in the absence of its power ? Yet again they
shall be restored to God in Christ. Rom. 11.
ABADDON, (Hebrew, corresponding to Apollyon, Greek,
and signifying Destroyer,) the angel of the bottomless pit,
and king over the symboUc locusts. Rer. 9: 11. — (See
Locust.) Le Clerc, Grotius, and Hanunond interpret these
locusts of the zealots and robbers, who, under John of
Gischala, desolated Jndea before the destruction of Jeru-
salem. But Mr. Mede remarks, that the title Abaddon
alludes to Obodas, the common name of the ancient
monarchs of that part of Arabia from which IMahomec
came ; and considers the passage as descriptive of the
inundation of the Arabians or Saracens under Blahomet
and his successors. Blr. Lowman, and, after him. Bishop
Newton, adopts and confirms this interpretation. He
shows that the rise and progress of the Mahometan reli-
gion and empire exhibit a signal accomplishment of this
prophecy. All the circumstances correspond to the cha-
racter of the Arabians, and the history of the period that
extended from A. D. 612 to A. D. 762, being five prophetic
months, or one hundred and fifty years. The title of
Destroyer given to their king, was peculiarly suitable to a
succession of caliphs, who, in propagating the Mahome-
tan imposture by fire and sword, destroyed at once both
the bodies and the souls of men ; and seemed to be the
visible representatives of Satan himself, who was " a
mm'derer from the beginning, and abode not in the
truth." John, 8 : 44.
Brown, Brj-ant, and others have given diflerent inter-
pretations of the passage ; but as Dr. Scott observes,
" Every circumstance of this emblematical prediction so
exactly accords to the Saracens, and so little suits the
church or hierarchy of Rome, or any of their religious
orders, (who gained their advantage by priestcraft, not
ABB
[8]
ABB
oy arms J that there can be no propriety in attempting to
explain it of them ; especially as they are described with
suthcient precision in what follows. Prophecies have a
determinate meaning; but by giving loose to a lively
imagination, to find distant resemblances, we are more
like to perplex, than to satisfy the inquirer." — Jones.
Watson ; Brown ; Newton on the Prophecies ; ScotVs Notes
on Rev. ix. ; Fuller's Lectures on the Apocalypse.
ABANA, and PHARPAR ; rivers of Damascus, in
Syria, memorable from the words of Naaman, the Leper,
2 Kings, 5 : 12. The name Ahana is formed from Aben,
a stone, and Bana, to build ; and hterally signifies nailed
with stone. This name may appear significant when it is
known that the Abana is probably that branch of the
Barrady, or (as the Greeks called it) Chrysorrhoas, which
runs tluough the city. The Pharpar, there is reason to
believe, is not the Orontes, as some have supposed, but
another branch of the Barrady, which watered the gar-
dens without the walls of Damascus. The Barrady itself
springs from the foot of mount Lebanon, (or Libanus.)
eastward. Its name seems derived from the refreshing
coolness and puiity of its waters.
The language and conduct of Kaaman afford a strik-
ing illustration of man's natural disafl'ection to the gos-
pel, which is God's chosen method of healing the leprosy
of our fallen nature. Its simpUcity, and gratuitous
character, as well as the self-denial it demands, are aUke
unpalatable to the self-indulgent, the superstitious, and
the self-righteous. Yet it is invariably found, that with-
out submission to God's appointment, without washing
in the " fountain which He has opened in the house of
Jitdah for sin and uncleanness," there is no healing for
us. — Calmet ; Bron-n; Haivker ; Watson.
ABAKIM, a range of mountains or hills bej'oud Jor-
dan, in the country of Moab. Kebo, Pisgah, and Peor,
were in the number. Nebo is chiefly memorable as the
sacred spot where Moses died. Ntim. 33 : 48. Deut. 32 :
49,50.34:1.
ABASE, to treat with contempt; to reduce to mean-
nSs and wretchedness. It comes from a Hebrew word
which signifies the bottom. It is inserted here chiefly with
a view to illustrate that emphatic and oft repeated maxim
of our Lord, (Mat. 23: 12. Luke, 14: U. 18: 14,)
"Whosoever shall exalt himself shall be abased; and
he that shall humble himself shall be exalted."
ABAUZIT, (FiKMiN,) was born in Languedoc, 1679.
In consequence of the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
his mother, who was a Protestant, took refuge \nth her
son in Geneva. He engaged with such eagerness in his
studies, that he made great proficiency in languages,
theolog)^, antiquity, and the exact sciences. At the age
of nineteen, he travelled into Holland, where he became
acquainted with Boyle and Basnage. Thence he passed
into England, where he was favorably noticed by New-
ton, and invited to remain by King William, on very
advantageous conditions. He determined, however, to
return to Geneva, and, devoting himself to study, he
rendered important assistance to a society engaged in
translating the New Testament into French. In 1727,
lie was appointed public librarian in Geneva, and was
presented ■with the freedom of the city. He 'died Ln 1767.
A. was a profound scholar, a true philosopher, and a
sincere Christian. His conversation was unostentatious,
hut instructive and animated. He was simple in his
manners, independent and decided in his opinions, but a
friend to universal toleration. He defended tie Principia,
and even detected an error in that work, wlien very few
men could understand it. Newton declared him " a fit
man to judge between Leibnitz and himself." Rousseau
describes him as the " wise and modest Abaazit," and
Voltaire pronounced him "a great man." His Icnow-
ledge was extensive m the whole circle of antiquities, in
ancient liistory, geography, and chronology. In theology
his researches were deep, and his moderation enabled
him to avoid the violence of theological parties. His
works are chiefly on theological subjects. An Essay on
i.he Apocalypse, Eejlections on the Eucharist, and On the Hys-
terics of Religion, are his principal writings. — Davenport.
ABBA ; an Aramaean or Syriac word of endearment,
Eignifying My Father. (See Akamaean Language.) Da-
vid Levi, in his Lmgua Sacra, derives it from a root,
denoting desire, delight, complacency, satisfaction. The
learned Mr. Sr-!den has proved from the Babylonian
Gemara, that a slave or menial servant was not permitted
to employ tliis appellation in addressing the ab, that is.
the lord and head of the family ; because it wa-s indica^
tive of the closest relationship and the tenderest reciprocal
affection. Its use was restricted to such as sustained this
intimate relationship, and was regarded as the appropri-
ate language of children, whether by birth or adoption.
Its use in the New Testament seems to correspond
exactly with the facts here stated. It is employed by our
Lord himself during his agony in the garden of Gethse-
mane — ''when he offered up prayers and supplications,
wth strong crying and tears, and said, Abba, Father, all
things are possible to thee ; let this cup pass from me."
Mark, 14 : 36. What filial adoration, submission, tender-
ness, confidence, breathe in these words ! So, when
recounting to the Roman and Galatian churches, the
peculiar privileges of those in whom the Spirit of Christ
dwells, the apostle describes this as their peculiar distinc-
tion— above such as still continue slaves to sin or in the
bonaage of a legal state — that through that Spirit they
cry, " Abba, Father ! " In other words, true behevers
address God in a language of filial love and confidence,
corresponding to that new and endearing relation, wliich
they sustain as " children of God by faith in Christ
Jesus." Rom. 8 : 15. Gal. 4 : 6.
Hence it appears that all Christians, by virtue of their
relation to God in Christ, are authorized, (if not, indeed,
enjoined,) to employ this language of filial hope and ten-
derness in their approaches to their Heavenly Father.
And if the reader of this page is enabled to see his own
personal privilege herein, and can enter into a proper
apprehension of the word, in this most endearing view,
he wiU be led to discover the sweetness and blessedness
of it ; and may find it yield him not only a daily assist-
ance in the exercises of devotion, but special support and
comfort in the most dark and trying hour. He will know
that his access into his Father's presence is at all times
free ; and, instead of " the spirit of bondage again imto
fear," will feel the force of the encouragement, (Phil. 4 :
6, 7,) "in every thing by prayer and supplication, with
thanksgiving, to make Imown his requests unto God.'
— Jones; Hawker; Watson.
The word Abba in after ages came to be used in the
Syriac, Coptic, and Ethiopic churches, in an improper
sense, as a title given to their bishops. The bishops
themselves bestow the title Abba more eminently upon
the bishop of Alexandria ; which gave occasion for tlie
people to call him Baba, or Papa, that is, grandfather ; a
title whicli he bore before the bishop of Rome. — Buclc.
ABBADIE, (James, D.D.) an eminent Protestant divine,
was born at Nay, in Berne, in the year 165S. He prosecut-
ed his studies at Saumer, at Paris, and at Sedan, at which
last place he was honored with the degree of doctor in
divinity. He proceeded thence to Holland, and afterward
to Berlin, where he was made minister of the French
church, then lately established by the elector of Bran-
denbm-g. In this city he resided during several years,
and ^^■as in high favor with the elector. The French
congregation at Berlin was at first but thin ; but upon the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, great numbers of the
exiled Protestants retired to Brandenburg, where they
were received with the greatest humanity ; so that
doctor Abbadie had in a little time a gi-eat charge, of
which he took aU possible care ; and by his interest at
court, did many services to his distressed countrymen.
The elector dying in 1688, Abbadie accepted a proposal
from marshal Schomberg to go with him to Holland, and
afterwards to England, with the prince of Orange. In
the autumn of 1689, he accompanied the marshal to Ire-
laud, where he continued till after the battle of the Boyne,
in 1690, in which his great patron was killed. Tliis
occasioned his return to London, where he was appointed
minister of the French church, ir the Savoy. He sometime
afterward was promoted to th' deanery of Kilialoe, in
Ireland, wliich he enjoyed fo' many years. Having
made a tour to Holland, in order to publish one of his
books, he rcttu-ned to London, where he was taken ill,
ABB
[9]
ABB
and died in the parif h of Marj'-le-bone, Sept. 23, 1727.—
He was a firm and decided Protestant, and strongly at-
tached to the '•-.VL.e of king WilUam, as appears by his
elaborate dj». .nee of the Revolution, and his history of the
Assassi.iation plot. He had very superior faeulties, well
cultivated with useful learning. His doctrinal sentiments
were Calvinistic, and he was a most zealous defender of
the Protestant religion. His writings are characterized
by strong nei-vous eloquence, for which he was distin-
guished, and which enabled him to enforce the objects
of his ministry with great spirit and energy from the
pulpit.
The principal work of Dr. Abbadie is a " Treatise on
the Christian Religion," which has gone through seven
editions. It consists of three parts ; in the first he com-
bats the Atheists ; the Deists in the second ; and, in the
last, the Socinians. This work met with ahr.ost unexam-
pled praise, on its first pubUcation. The Abbe Houte-
viLi.E pronounces it, ' the most splendid treatise in defence
of the Christian Religion, published by the Protestants.' —
The late Mr. Abraham Booth, about the middle of the
last century, when the Socinian controversy was warm-
ly agitated in England, published in a 12mo. volume,
that portion of Dr. Abbadie's work which relates to
the Socinians, somewhat abridged, under the title of
" The Deity of Jesus Christ essential to the Christian
Religion ;" and it met with a very favorable accep-
tance from the public* Among the other productions
of Dr. Abbadie's pen may be mentioned, " Sermons on
several Texts of Scripture ;" •' The Art of knowing
One's-self, or an Inquiry into the Sources of Morality;"
'•■ The Truth of the Reformed ReUgion ;" and " The
Triumph of Providence and Religion, or the Opening
of the Seven Seals by the Son of God." Amsterdam,
1723.— Jones's SeHgious Biography ; Biographia Britan-
nica.
ABBE, the name of those literary men in France,
who have passed through a regular course of theological
study ; but have as yet obtained no fixed settlement in
church or state, though very willing to accept of either. —
They are generally employed as public or private instruc-
ters of youth, and enjoy many privileges. As a class,
their writings have exerted a powerful influence on so-
ciety.— Buck ; Enaj. Amcr.
ABBES, (James,) an English martyr of the sixteenth
century. During the persecution under Queen Mary,
this young man was arrested, and brought before Dr.
Hopkins, bishop of Norwich ; who, by means of threats
and fair speeches, gained a temporary victory over his
conscience. But afrer his discharge, his inward anguish
of remorse forced him to return to the bishop, and profess
his hearty repentance that he had ever yielded to his per-
suasions and denied his faith. Being now proof against
all efforts of the adherents of Rome, he was condemned
to the stake ; which for the sake of Christ he cheerfully
endured, until his body was consumed to ashes, in Bury,
Aug. 2, 15o5. — Fox's Book of Martyrs.
ABBESS, the superior of an abbey or convent of nuns.
The abbess has the same right and authority over her
nuns thai the abbots regular have over their monks. The
sex. indeed, does not allow her to perform the spiritual
functions annexed to the priesthood, wherewith the abbot
is usually invested ; but there are instances of some ab-
besses who have a right, or rather a privilege, to com-
mission a priest to act for them. They have even a kind
of episcopal jurisdiction, as Avell as some abbots who
are exempted from the visitation of their diocesan. —
Buck.
ABBEY; a monastery, governed by a superior under
the title of Abbot or Abbess. Monasteries were at first
nothing more than religious houses, whither persons re-
tired from the bustle of the world to spend their lime in
solitude and devotion : but they soon degenerated from
their original institution, and procured large privileges,
exemptions, and riches. They prevailed greatly in Bri-
tain before the reformation, particularly in England ; and
• An American edition of this admirable work
Charleslown (Mass.) in 1818.
2
published i
as they increased in riches, so the state became poor, for
the lands which these regulars possessed could never re-
vert to the lords who gave them. These places were
wholly abohshed by Henry VIII. He first appointed vi
sitors to inspect into the lives of the m.onks and nuns,
which were found in some places very disorderly ; upon
which the abbots, perceiving their dissolution unavoida-
ble, were induced to resign their houses to the king, who
by that means became invested with the abbey lands ;
these were afterwards granted to different persons, whose
descendants enjoy them at this day : they were then valu-
ed at £2,853,000 per annum ; an immense sum in those
days. — Though the suppression of these houses, consider-
ed in a religious and political light, was a gi-eat benefit
to the nation, yet it must be owned, that, at the time
they flourished, they were not entirely useless. Abbeys
were then the repositories as well as the seminaries of
learning: many valuable books and national record;,
have been preserved in their libraries ; the only place;
wherein they could have been safely lodged in those tur
bulent times. Indeed, the historians of England are
chiefly beholden to the monks for the knowledge they have
of former national events. Thus a kind Providence over-
ruled even the institutions of superstition for good. (See
Monastery.) — Buck.
ABBOT, the chief ruler of a monastery Or abbey. At
first they were laymen, and subject to the bishop and or-
dinary pastors. Their monasteries being remote from
cities, and built in the farthest solitudes, they had no
share in ecclesiastical affairs ; but, there being among
them several persons of learning, they were called out of
Ihe deserts by the bishops, and fixed in the suburbs of the
cities, and at length in the cities themselves. From that
time they degenerated, and, learning to be ambitious, as-
pired to be independent of the bishops, which occasioned
some severe laws to be made against them. At length,
however, the abbots carried their point, and obtained the
title of lord, with other badges of the episcopate, particu-
larly the mitre. Hence arose new distinctions among
them. Those were termed mitred abbots who were privileged
to wear the mitre, and exercise episcopal authority within
their respective precincts, being exempted from the juris-
diction of the bishop. Others were called crositred abbots,
from their bearing the crosier, or pastoral staff. Others
were styled acumenical or universal abbots, in imitation
of the patriarch of Constantinople ; while others were
termed cardinal abbots, from their superiority over all
other abbots. At present, in the Roman Cathohc coun-
tries, the chief distinctions are those of regular and com-
mendatory. The former take the vow and wear the habit
of their order ; whereas the latter are secular,;, though
they are obliged by their bulls to take orders when of
proper ages. — Buck.
ABBOT, (Egbert, D. D. S. T. P.) bishop of Salisbu-
ry. He was born in 1550, at Guildford in Surry, of pious
parents ; was educated at Oxford ; and soon became very
popular as a preacher. He was a great scholar, a deep
divine, and an amiable Christian. Gravity was said /c
frurvn in his brother George, but to smile in him. In 1594,
he began to be eminent as a polemic writer, particularly
in the Catholic controversy. In 1597, he received his de-
gree of D. D. He was soon after chosen chaplain in or
dinary to James I. who did him the honor to print his own
Commentary on the Apocalypse along with Abbot's Anti-
christi Deinomtratio. In 1609, he was elected master of
Baliol college, where he distinguished himself, not
only by promoting diligence in study, but by restoring
piety, peace, and temperance, which had been almost
wholly extinguished. In 1610, he was nominated by the
king among the first fellows of the Royal college at Chel-
sea, then newly founded, and designed as a kind of for-
tress of controversial divinity. The same year he was
made prebendary of Normanton. In 1612, his majesty
named him successor of Dr. Thomas Holland in the the-
ological chair at Oxford, which he modestly refused, until
forced by a mandate from the king. This important
station he filled with great honor, until transferred to the
see of Salisbury, Dec. 3, 1615. Here also his labors were
indefatigable to build up his congregation, both by doc-
trine and discipline; but they were interrupted soon by
ABB
[ 10]
ABB
an agonizing attack of the gi'avel and stone, brought on
by his previous close application to study. Amidst the
tears of his flock, but in the triumph of peace, patience,
love, and heavenly hope, he died March 2, 1617, in the
58th year of his age. His last words were, " Come, Lord
fesus, come qukldtj. Finish in me the work which thou
hast begun !"
Dr. Abbot had the character of being a profound di-
vine ; most admirably well read in the fathers, councils,
and schoolmen. As a theological professor, he was more
moderate in his Calvinistic views than either of his two
predecessors, Humphrey and Holland, though decidedly
opposed to the Arminianism of Laud. He is classed in
the same rank with Jewell, Bilson, and Reynolds, among
the prime worthies of the English church, though by
some suspected to favor the Puritans.
His writings were more numerous than his publica-
tions. The latter are, 1. The Mirror of Popish Supersti-
tion, 1594 ; 2. A Sermon on the Exaltation of the King-
dom and Priesthood of Christ, 1601 ^ 3. Antichristi Dcmon-
stratio, 1603 — of this a new edition was issued in 1608,
and it is much commended by Scaliger ; 4. Defence of
the Reformed Catholic of Mr. W. Perkins, against the
Bastard counter-Catholic of Dr. Wm. Bishop — in three
parts, 1606, 1607, 1609, a most elaborate and comprehen-
sive work; 5. The Old Way, a Sermon, at St. Mary's,
Oxford, 1610 ; 6. The true ancient Roman Catholic, be-
ing a Reply to Dr. Bishop, 1611 ; 1. Antilogia,\6\.'i; 8.
De gratia et perseverantia Sanctorum, kc, 1618; 9. In Ei-
cardi Tliomsmii, &;c., 1618 ; 10. De Supremd Potestate Ee-
giil, 6cc., 1610. The three last, were pnnted after his
death. Among his unpublished -nTitings is a Commenta-
ry in Latin on the whole Epistle to the Romans ; which
is called " an accurate work, in which he has handled all
the controversial points of religion, and inclosed the
whole magazine of his learning." The MS. in 4 vols,
folio, is in the Bodleian library. — Middleton's Biograph.
Evan.
ABBOT, (Geokge, D. D., brother of Robert,) arch-
bishop of Canterbury and primate of England, was born
1562. Their father was a clothier. George, as well as
Robert, was educated at Oxford. There in 1598 he pub-
lished a Latin work, which did him great honor, and was
reprinted in Frankfort by the celebrated Scultetus. His
talents were very soon known, and he became a celebrat-
ed preacher in the university. In 1597 he was made
doctor of divinity, and the same year was chosen master
of University college. Here the first difference began
beta'een him and the intolerant Dr. Laud ; a difference
v.'hich continued through life. Dr. Abbot being at all
times the firm and enhghtened friend both of civil and re-
ligious liberty.
In 1599, he was installed dSan of Winchester ; and in
1600 vice-chancellor of the university of Oxford. This
year he published his sermons on the prophet Jonah,
which were received with great applause.
In 1604, Dr. Abbot was the second of eight learned
divines at Oxford, chosen by king James, to whom the
care of translating all (but the Epistles of) the New Testa-
ment was committed. In 1608, he assisted in a design to
unite the churches of England and Scotland ; in which his
prudence and moderation raised him high in the favor of
the king, who bestowed upon him successively the bish-
oprics of Litchfield, and of London. In 1610, his majesty
elevated him to the see of Canterbury, the highest dignity
in the church. In this elevated station, he showed him-
self the temperate yet zealous friend of the Protestant
cause against the Romanists, and of Calvinism against
the Arminians ; while he adorned his place by learmng,
piety, eloquence, and indefatigable diligence.
His enemies had imputed his promotion to his flattering
the king ; but archbishop Abbot had the courage to dis-
please the king, by opposing the Book of Sports, the di-
vorce of the Countess of Essex, and the Spanish Match —
exhiBiting certainly a rare instance of conscientious mag-
nanimity in a courtly prelate. In perfect consistency of
character, he, nine years after, ventured the displeasure
of Charles I. by refusing to license a slavish sermon,
which Dr. Sibthorpe had preached, to justify one of
Charles's unconstitutional proceedings. For this last ho-
norable act he was suspended from his functions, but was
soon, though not Tvillingly, restored to them. Laud and
Buclcingham were his inveterate enemies ; but the good
archbishop pursued his course of Christian duty, as in the
sight of God to the last, without favor or fear.
A cause of deep sorrow to him in his latter days, was
his having accidentally, while aiming at a deer, shot one
of lord Touch's keepers. In consequence of this he kept
a monthly fast while he lived, and settled an annuity of
twenty pounds on the widow. He died in 1633, at the
age of 71 ; and was buried at Guildford, his native town,
for which he ever retained a strong regard, and where he
had generously endowed a hospital for the poor.
He published a number of works, but the most impor-
tant are the three already named. — Middhtcm ; Daven-
port ; Enoj. Amer.
AI3B0T, (Samuel,) one of the founders of the theo-
logical seminary, Andover, (Mass.) Most of his life he
was a merchant in Boston. He was a humble, conscien-
tious, pious man; remarkable for prudence, sincerity,
and uprightness ; charitable to the poor, and zealous for
the interests of religion. He gave several thousand dol-
lars to poor ministers of the gospel, and other objects of
charity. His donation for establishing the seminary
Aug. 31, 1807, was 20,000 dollars; he also bequeathed to
it more than 100,000 dollars. — He died in Andover, his
native town, April 30, 1812, aged 80; leaving a widow
with whom he had lived more than 50 years, and one son.
It was a maxim with Mr. Abbott, to ' praise no one in his
presence, and to dispraise no one in his absence.' Ill his
last sickness he enjoyed a peace which the world cannot
give. ' I desire to live,' he said, ' if God has any thing
more for me to do, or to suffer.' When near his end he
said, ' There is enough in God. I want nothing but
God !' — Allen's Amer. Biog.
ABBOT, (Aeiel, D. D^ minister in Beveriy, (Mass.)
He was born at Andover, Aug. 17, 1770, and graduated
at Cambridge, 1787, with an unsullied character and ele-
vated scholarship. After assisting in the academy at
Andover, and stiidying theology with Mr. French, he was
settled in 1794, at Haverhill. Here he continued eight
years, when an inadequate support for his family induced
him reluctantly to take a dismission, and he removed to
Beverly, where he succeeded Jlr. McKeen, (who had been
chosen president of Bowdoin college,) in 1802. — In 1827
he ■visited the south for his health, and passed the winter
in Charleston. Early the foUoAving spring he embarked
for Cuba, where he remained three months, and recorded
the fruits of his inquiiies and observations in letters to
his family and friends. He died on his return, January 7,
1828, just as the vessel came lo anchor at the quarantine
ground near New-York, and was buried en Staten island.
Dr. Abbot was very courteous and interesting in social
intercourse, and eloquent as a preacher. His biographer
says that " he belonged to no sect, but that of good men."
Happy are all who truly belong to that sect ! who " are
God's workmanship, created in Christ Jesus unto good
works !" — His interesting and valuable letters from Cuba
were published after his death, 8vo., Boston, 1829. He
published also, an Artillery Election Sermon, 1802 ; Ser-
mon to Mariners, 1812 ; Address on Intemperance, 1815 ;
Sermon before the Salem Missionary Society, 1816 ; before
the Bible Society of Salem, 1817 ; Convention Sermon,
1827. — Allen's Am. Biog. ; Flint's Sermon; Sketch in li-
ters from Cuba.
ABE
[11 J
ABE
ABBREVIATIONS, (called by the Romans nota ,
hence notarivs. a shorthand writer.) The desire of sav-
injr time and space, or of secrecy, led to the invention of
abbreviations in writing. — Evety written language has
them. Many of them are indeterminate and uncertain,
and the contents of many old writings and inscriptions re-
main on that account ambiguoits. These abbreviations
often give rise to diHerent readings. — They have been
mtich less used since the invention of printing. The Ger-
mans employ them for ordinar}' words in gi-eater propor-
tion than other civilized nations. — The following occur
most frequently :
Hontan Abbreviations on Coins, &c. A.V.C or AB. U.
C. ah urhe condita, froni.the foundation of the city : C. cen-
tum : CIO. or CXO. 1000 : 00. 5000 : CCCI030.
100,000: C. ML. centum millia : COS. consul: COSS.
consuls: C. R. civis Eomanus: D. 0. diis aptimis, vel deo
optima: I. H. S. Jesus homimim Salvator : IMP. ini-
perator : K. kalendcE : M.S. manu scriptum : NON.-APR.
nonis Aprilis : YOT^S . M. pontifex maxi7nus : PRID. KAL.
pridie kalendas : Q\]\R. qmrites : RE SP. rcspaWica; S. C.
senatus consultum : S. P. Q. R. senatus popuhtsque Eomanus :
VL. videlicet.
Abbreviations in common use. A. B. orB. A. bachelor of
arts : Abp. arriibishop : A. C. ante Christum, before Christ :
A. D. anno Domini, in the year of our Lord : Aif' > ■ Affec-
tionatehj : A. M. anno mundi, ill the year of the world ; and
artium magister, master of arts : B. C. before Christ,:_B^ D.
bachelor of divinity : Bp. bishop : B. V. blessed virgin .--C.
or Chap, chapter : D. D. doctor of divinity : D. F. defender of
the faith : D. G. Dei gratia, by the grace of God : D. T.
doctor of theology : ^. G. exempli gratia: Ex. example : Exr.
executor: F. A. S.fellorv of the antiquarian society : F. L. S.
fellow of the Linnaan society : F. R. S. and A. S. fellow and
associate of the royal society : F. S. A. fellow of the society
of arts : H. M. S: his majesty's ship : lb. or ibid, ibidem, in.
the same place : i. e. id est, that is; I. H. S. Jesus hominum
Salvator, Jesus, the Savior of nifn : I. H. S. in hac cnice
salus, in this cross is salvation :. lit. knight : Ldp. lordiJiip:
L L. D. legum doctor, doctor of laws : M. A. master of arts:.
M. C. member of congress: M. D. doctor of meididne :
Messrs. messieurs, centlemen : M. 7. member of parliament :
Mt. manuscript : iiSS. mamiscripts : N. B. nota bene, talJ?
hotiee: Nem. con. or Nem. dif^ nemine contradiccnte ir
nemine dissentienie, anazi\iaoi\s\y : N. S. raw style : GbhoJe-
dient: O. S. old style: Oxon. Oxford: Pari. Parliament:
P. S. postscript : Q. question : Q. V. quod vide, which see :
R. N. royal navy : Sec. Secretary : Sh. shillings : ss. scilicet:
U. S. United States: V. D. M. minister of God's word : viz.
videlicet, namely : W. or WTf . rveek : 5mas. Christmas :
Xn. Christian: Ye. the: Ym.. them: Yn. then: Yr. your,
and year : Ys. this : Yt. that.
The above list embraces all the abbreviations usually
found in religious books, needing explanation ; except
those of societies, &c. prefixed to the Missionary Gazetteer
in this book ; which see. — Ency. Amer.
ABEDNEGO ; the Chaldean name given to Azariah,
one of the three noble Hebrew youths, who, animated by
an unshaken attachment to the true religion, refused to
render homage to the idol of Nebuchadnezzar. They
were therefore cast into the fiery furnace, heated through
the WTath of the tyrant seven times hotter than usual. —
The splendid miracle by which it pleased God to honor
this consistent and fearless piety, together with its pow-
erful elTect upon the mind of the Chaldean monarch, is
recorded in the third chapter of Daniel. — There is a
circumstance connected with the change of name, which
is wtS'thy of attention. It has been thought that the mo-
tiv;e q?the Chaldeans in giving the new name, was, in fact,
more religious than political. The Hebrew and the
Chaldee languages were very similar. The Chaldeans
. perfectly understood the Hebrew names. And they Imew ,
aiso, how tenacious Hebrew parents were to give names
to their children, which bore some relation to Jehovah,
the God of their fathers. In changing their names, there-
fore, did they not design to make them forget their be-
loved Jerusalem, and all the patriotic feelings which were
associated with their vernacular tongue ? and yet more, to
detach them from the remembrance of Jehovah, the
God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob ? The name before us
is a striking example. The Hebrew Azariah, or more
Uterally Azar-Jah, denotes. My help is Jehovah ; from
Azar, help, and Jah, Jehovah. But the Chaldean
Abed-nego signifies the sen'ant of Nego ; Abed or Obed
being the Chaldee for servant, and Nego, the sun or morn-
ing star, so called from its brightness, and hence adored
among the idolatrous Chaldeans as a god. So that from
being reminded, as often as he heard himself called, that
Jehovah was his help, he was now to be brought into
remembrance whenever he heard his name, that he is the
Servant of an idol, in wdiom there is no help. If such
were the design of this new appellation, its ultimate end
was in the case of Azariah most mercifully defeated ; but
the design itself will sei-ve to set in a more striking light
the danger alluded to by the Psalmist (Psalm 106: 35) of
" minghng with the heathen, and learning their works."
See Daniel ; Shadrach ; Nebuchadnezzar.
ABEL ; he was the second sou of Adam and Eve, and
b'orn probably in the second or third year of the workl. —
His name signifies mourning, and might be given either
because our first parents now began so to feel the empti-
ness and vanity of all earthly things, that the birth of an-
other son reminded them painfully of it, although in itself
a matter of joy ; or it was imposed under prophetic im-
pulse, and obscurely referred to his premature death. His
employment was that of a shepherd ; Cain followed the
occupation of his father — and was a tiller of the ground.
"At the end of the days," — which is a more literal ren-
dering than " in process of time," as in our translation,
that is, on the Sabbath, — both brothers brought an offering
to the Lord. Cain '' Ijrought of the fruit 8f the ground ;"
Abel " the firstlings of Ills flock, and the fat thereof." — '
" Andjhe Lord had respect unto Abel and to his offering;
but unto Cain and his offering he had not respect." The
respect wiiich God was pleased to bestow to Abel's offer-
ing, appears from the account to have been sensibly de-
clared ; for Cain must have known by some token that
the sacrifice of Abel was accepted, the absence of which
sign to his own offering, shotf^j that it was rejected.^
Wlieflier this was by fii'e going forth "from the presence
of the Lord," to consume the sacrifice,' as ift'later instan-
_ces recorded in the Old Testament, or in some Other waj'^,
"it is^in vain to inquire ; — that the token of acceptance- was
a sensible one is however an almost certain inference. — -
The effect of this upon Cain was not to humble him before
God, but to excite anger against his brother ; and being
in the field ■va\\\ him, or, as the old version has it, having
said to him, ■ " Let us go out into the field," " he rose up
against Abel his brother, and slew him ;" and for that
crime, by which the first blood of man was shed by man
upon the earth, a murder aggravated by the relationship,
and the "rigliteous" character of the sufferer, and having
in it also the nattrre of religious persecution, he was pro-
nounced by the Lord, "cursed from the earth."
2. As the sacrifice of Abel is the first on record, and
has given rise to some controversy, it demands particular
attention. It was offered, says St. Paul, " in faith," and
it was " a more excellent sacrifice" than that of Cain. —
Both these expressions intimate that it was expiatory, and -
prefigurative
As to the matter of the sacrifice, it was an animal offer-
ing. Cain brought of the fruit of the ground; and Abel
also brought of the firstlings of his flock, and of the fat
thereof; or, more literally, "the fat of them," that is, ac-
cording to the Hebrew idiom, the fattest or best of his
flocli ; and in this circumstance consisted its specific cha-
racter 'Ss an act o( faith. This is supported by the import
of the phrase, "pleiona thesian," used by the apostle in the
Epistle to the Hebrews, when spealdng of the sacrifice of
Abel. Our translators have rendered it, " a more excellent
sacrifice." Wickliffe translates it, as Archbishop Magee
says, tmcouthly, but in the full sense of the original, "a
much more sacrifice ;" and the controversy which has
arisen on this point is, whether this epithet of "much
more" or "fuller," refers to quantity or quality ; whether
it is to be understood in the sense of a more abundant, or
of a better, a more excellent sacrifice. Dr. Kennicott takes it
in the sense of measure and quantity, as well as quality ;
and supposes that Abel brought a double offering, of the
firstlings of the flock, and of the fruit of the ground aho.
ABE
[ 12]
ABE
His criticism has been very satisfactorily refuted by arch-
bishop Rlagee. The sacrifice of Abel was that of animal
victims, and it wz.s inaicative not of gratitude but of
" faith :" a quality not to be made manifest by the quanti-
ty of an offering, for the one has no relation to the otlier.
3. This will more fully appear if we consider the im-
port of the words of the apostle, — " By faith Abel offered
unto God a more acceptable sacrifice than Cain, by which
he obtained witness that he was eighteous, God testifying
of his gifts ; and by it, he, being dead, yet speaketh." —
Now what is the meaning of the apostle, when he says
that it Ti'as witnessed or testified to Abel that he was
righteous ? His doctrine is that men are sinners ; that all
consequently need pardon ; and to be declared, witnessed, and
accounted righteous, are, according to his style of writing,
the same as " to be justified, pardoned, and dealt with as
righteous." Thus he argues that Abraham believed God,
' ■ and it was accounted to him for righteousness,"—" that
he received the sign of circumcision, a real, a visible con-
fifmatory, declaratoiy, and Tvitnessing work of the right-
eousness which he had by faith." In these cases we have
a similarity so striking, that they can scarcely fail to ex-
plain each other. In both, sinful men are placed in the
condilion.ot righteous men ; the instrument, in both cases,
is faith ; and the transaction is, in both cases also, public-
ly and sensibly witnessed, — as to Abraham, by the sign of
ciiTumcision ; as to Abel, by a 'I'isible acceptance of his
sacrifice, .and the rejection of that of Cain.
Abel had faith, and he expressed that faith by the kind
of sacrifice he offered-. It was in this way that his faith
'' pleased God ;'^ it pleased him as a principle, and by the
act to which it led, which act was the offering of a sacri-
fice to God different from that of Cain. Cain had not this
faith, whatever might be its object ; and Cain, according-
ly, did not bring an offering to which God had " respect."
That which vitiated the offering of Cain was the want of
this faith ; for his offering was not significant of faith :
that which " pleased God," in the case of Abel, was his
faith ; and he had " respect"^ to his offering, because it was
the expression of that faith ; and, upon his faith so ex-
pressing itself, God witnessed to iiim ',' that he was right-
eons." So forcibly do the words of St. Paul, when com-
menting upon this transaction, show, that Abel's sacrifice
was accepted, because of its immediate connection -nith- his
faith, for by faith he is said to have offered it ; and what-
ever it might be, which made Abel's offering differ from
that of Cain, whether abundance, or Hnd, or both, tliis was
the result of tiis faith. So evident also is it from the
apostle, that Abel was witnessed to be " righteous," not
with reference to any previous " habit of a religious life,"
a-s some say, btif with reference to his faith ; and to this
faith as expressing itself by his offeriirg " a more excellent
sacrifice."
4. If, then, the faith of Abel had an immediate connec-
tion with his sacrifice ; and both, with his being accepted as
"righteous," — that is justified, in St. Paul's use of the
term, — to what had his faith respect? The particular ob-
ject of the faith of the elders, celebrated in Hebrews 11,
is to be deduced from the circumstances mentioned by St.
Paul as illustrative of the existence and operation of this
great principle, and by which it manifested itself in them.
Let us explain this, and then ascertain the object of Abel's
faith also from the manner of its manifestation, — from the
acts in which it embodied and rendered itself conspicuous.
Faith, in this chapter, is taken in the sense of affiance
and trust in God, and, as such, it can only be exercised
towards God, as to aU its particular acts, in those respects
in which we have some warrant to confide in him. This
supposes revelation, and, in particular promises or decla-
rations on his part, as the ground of every act of affi-
ance. When, therefore, it is said that " by faith Enoch
was translated that he should not see death," it must be
supposed that he had some promise or intimation to the
effect, on which, improbable as the event was, he nobl}' re-
lied ; and in the result God honored his faith in the sight
of all men. The faith of Noah had immediate respect to
the threatened flood, and to the promise of God to preserve
him in the ark which he was commanded to prepare. The
chapter is filled with other instances, expressed or implied ;
and from the whole, as well as from the nature of things.
it will appear, that, when the apostle speaks of the faith of
the elders in its particular acts, he represents it as hav
ing respect to some promise, declaration, or revelation of
God.
This revelation was necessarily antecedent to the faith ;
but it is also to be observed, that the acts by which the
faith was represented, whenever it was represented by
particular acts, and when the case admitted it, had a na^
tural and striking conformity and correspondence to the
previous revelation. So Noah built the ark, which indicat-
ed that he had heard the threat of the world's destruction
by water, and had received the promise of his own pre-
servation, an4j.l^t of his family, as well as that of a part
of the beasts of the earth. When Abraham went into
Canaan at the command of God, and upon the promise
that that country should become the inheritance of his de-
scendants, he showed his faith by taking possession of it
for them in anticipation, and his residence there indicated
the kind of promise he had received. Thus these instan-
ces show, that when the faith that the apostle eommend.s
exhibited itself in some particular act, that act had a cor-
respondency to the previous promise or revelation which
was the ground of faith. We must therefore interpret the
acts of Abel'^ faith so as to make them also correspond
■nnth an antecedent revelation. His faith had respect to
some previous revelation, and the nature of the revelation
is to be collected from the significant maimer in which he
declared his faith in it.
Now that which Abel did "by faith," was generally to
perform an act of solemn worship, in the confidence that
it would be acceptable to God. This supposes a^ revela-
tion, immediate or by tradition, that such acts orw'orship
were acceptable to God, or his faith could have had no
warrant, and would not have been faith, but fancy. But
the case must be considered more particularly. His faith
led him to offer '■ a more excellent sacrifice" than thai
of Cain ; but this as necessarily implies, that there was
some antecedent revelation to whicli his faith, as thus ex-
pressed, had respect, and»on which that peculiarity of his
offering, which distinguished it from the offering, of Cain,
was founded ; a revelation which indicated that the way '
in which Gcd would be approached acceptabl}', in solemn
-M;arship, was by animal sacrifices. Without tliis, tbe
faith to which his offering, which was an offering of the
firstlings of his flock, ha«l^ special fitness and adaptation,
could have had no warrant in divine authority. But this
revelation must have -included, in order to _its being the
ground of faith, as " the substance of things hoped for," a
promise of a benefit to be conferred, in which promise
Abel might confide. But if so, then this promise must
have been connected, not with the worship of God in ge-
neral, or performed in any way whatever indifferently, but
with his worship, by animal oblations ; for it was in this
way that the faith of Abel specially and distinctively indi-
cated itself. The antecedent revelation was, therefore, a
promise of a benefit to be conferred, by means of animal
sacrifice ; and we are taught what this benefit was, by
that which was actually received by the offerer, — " He ob-
tained witness that he was righteous ;" which must be in-
terpreted in the sense of a declaration of his personal jus-
tification and acceptance as righteous by the forgiveness
of his sins.
The reason of Abel's acceptance and of Cain's rejection'
is hereby made manifest ; the one, in seeking the divine
favor, conformed to liis established and appointed method
of being approached by guilty men ; and the other not
only neglected this, but profanely and presumptuously
substituted his own inventions.
5. It is impossible, then, to allow the sacrifice of Abel,
in this instance, to have been an act of faith, without sup-
posing that it had respect to a previous revelation, which
agreed with all the parts of that sacrificial action by which
he expressed his faith in it. Had Abel's sacrifice been
eucharistic merely, it would have expressed gratitude, but
not faith ; or if faith in the general sense of confidence in
God that he would receive an act of grateful worship, and
reward the worshippers, it did not more express faith than
the offering of Cain, who surely believed these two points,
or he would not have brought an offering of any kind —
The offering of Abel expressed faith which Cain had not ,
ABE
[ 13 J
ABE
and the doctrinal principles which Abel's faith respected
were such as his sacrifice visibly embodied. If it was not
an eueharistic sacrifice, it was an expiatory one ; and in
fact, it is only in a sacrifice of this IcinJ, thai it is possible
to see that faith exhibited which Abel had, and Cain had
not. If then we refer to the subsequent sacrifices of ex-
piation appointed by Divine authority, and their explana-
tion in the New Testament, it will be obvious to what
doctrines and principles of an antecedent revelation the
faith of Abel had respect, and which his sacrifice, the ex-
hibition of his faith, proclaimed : confession of the fact of
being a sinner, — acknowledgment that the demerit and
penalty of sin is death, — submission to an appointed mode
of expiation, — animal sacrifice oflered vicariously, but, in
itself, a mere tj'pe of a better sacrifice, " the Seed of the
woman," appointed to be oflered at some future period, —
and the efllcacy of tliis appointed method of expiation to
obtain forgiveness, and to admit the guilty into the divine
favor.
"Abel," Dr. Magee justly says, "in firm reliance on
the promise of God, and in obedience to his command, of-
fered that sacrifice which had been enjoined as the reli-
gious expression of his faith ; whilst Cain, disregarding
the gracious assurances that had been vouchsafed, or at
least disdaining to adopt the prescribed mode of manifest-
ing his belief, possibly as not appearing to his reason to
possess any efficacy or natural fitness, thought he had suf-
ficiently acquitted himself of his duty in acknowledging the
general superintendence of God, and expressing his grati-
tude to the Supreme Benefactor, by presenting some of
those good things which he thereby confessed to have
been derived from his bounty. In short, Cain, the first-
born of the fall, exhibits the first fruits of his parents' dis-
obedience, in the arrogance and*selfsufficieucy of reason
rejecting the aids of revelation, because they fell not with-
in its apprehension of right. He takes_ the first place in
the annals- of deism, and displays, in liis proud rejection
of the^rdina.nce of sacrifice, the same spirit, which, in
later JHpi, has actuated his erdightened followers, in reject-
ing the sacrifice of Christ." " ■ •' » '
Abel was killed about the year of the world, 130. His
death was that of a martyr. His case presents the first
example of persecution for conscience sake ; a point of
view in which it is held up to us, both by our Lord, and his
beloved disciple, fijat. 23: 35. 1 John 3 : 1».- Thi.swas
the»divine prediction' apparent from the beginning, " I
wiJl put enmity between thee and the woman, and between
thy seed and her seed ;" a constitution of things which
has been made manifest in even,"" age of the" world, and
which continues to this day. John 15: 18 — 20. "If ye
were of the world," said olir Savior to his disciples, " the
world would love its own ; but because ye are not of the
world, but I have chosen you out of the world, therefore
the world hateth j'ou." 2 Tim. 3: 12. — Watson ; Jones.
ABEL-3IIZRAIM, the mourning of the Egyptians ; a
name given to the threshing floor of Atad, in consequence
of the lamentations which attended the burial of the pa-
triarch Jacob, in which all the nobles of Egypt united
with Joseph. Gen. 50: 11. Jerome places it between
Jericho and the Jordan, three miles from the former and
two from the latter, where Bethagla afterwards stood.
ABEL, the plain ; a prefix to several Hebrew names. —
Thus, 1. Abel-eeth-maacha, or plain of the temple of Ma-
acha — the same as Abel, or Abila, a city in the tribe of
Manasseh, north-west of Damascus, between Libanus and
Antilibamis. It was the capital of the tetrarchy of Abi-
lene,-under the government of Lysanias. Luke 3: 1. —
See Abila.
2. Aeel-Carmaim, or the plain of the Vineyards, a vil-
lage of the Ammo.nites, about six miles north-west of Phi-
ladelphia, or Rabbath-Ammon. Judges 11: 33.
3. Abel-jiaim, the same as Abel-beth-Maachah. 1
Kings 16: 20. 2 Chron. 16: 4.
4. Abel-Meholah, or Abel-mea, the birthplace of Eli-
sha. It was about sixteen miles south of Scythopolis, (1
•Kings 4: 12.) and celebrated for Gideon's victory over the
Midianites. Judg. 7: 22.
.T. Abel-Shittim, WEis in Moab about eight miles east
of the Jordan, and opposite Jericho. Eusebius says it
was m the neighborhood of Moimt Peor. It is often called
Shittim only : Shittiin probably being the name of the
town, and Abel of the plain on which it stood. Here Mo-
ses encamped. Num. 25: 1. 33: 49. Here, seduced by
Balak, the people fell into idclatrj', and worshipped Baal
Peor : for which they were severely punished. Num. 25.
6. Abel-Boham, the boundaiy between the tribes of
Benjamin and Judah. Josh. 18: 17. So named from
Bohan, a descendant of Reuben.
ABELA ; a city in Peraea, on the Batanaca, in the half
tribe of Manasseh, about twelve miles east of Gadara. 2
Sam. 20: 14.
ABELARD, (Peter,) the author of what has long been
known under the name of the " Scholastic Theology," was
born in Palais, near Nantes, in France, in 1079. " He
was a man," says Mosheim, " of the most subtle geniu.«,
whose public lectures in philosophy and divinity had raised
him to the highest summit of literary renown." His lec-
tures were attended by more than three thousand pupils of
all nations. He was successively canon of Paris, and monk,
and abbot of Ruys. His character however is stained by
his treatment of his patron's niece, the celebrated Heloise.
He was impgfiched by St. Bernard, for vapious errors, be-
' fore Jie^^ncUs of Soissons, 1121, and Lens, 1140, and
wa's^SBP condemned as a heretic) 'though it cannot be
doubte^hat in talent and erudition he was^uperior to
any one of his judges ; and that, like men of extraordinary
and erring genius in all ages, he mixed up \^'ith his crude
fancies some bold and brilliant trutfis.
Unhappily the fame which Abelard acqjiired bylusuew
method of treating theological truths, engaged many am-
bitious divines to adopt it ; and hence 'the race of scholas-
tic or philosophical divines, who multiplied so prodigiously
not only in France, but also in England and Italy ; and iu
whose hands the pure and peaceable wisdom of the gospel,
was perverted into a science of mere sophistry and chi-
cane. The method of the scholastics exhibited an impos-
ing aspect of learning ; and as they seemed to surpass
their adversaries in sagacity and genius, they excited the
admu-ation of the studious youth, who flocked to their
schools in multitudes ; while the more simple Biblici, or
" doctors of the sacred page" as they were called, had the
mortification and grief to behold their auditories unfre-
quented, and almost deserted. The " subtle doctor-''
meanwhile continued in high repute in all the European
colleges until the time of Luther.
The life of Abelard, taken in connection ■with the history
of Christianity, aifords a most instructive lesson. — His
latter days were embittered by personal and domestic tri-
als, as well as by persecution ; and he closed a. tempestu-
ous existence at the monastery of St.MarceUus, near Cha-
lons, in 1142, aged 63 years.
ABELIANS, or ABELONIANS, a sect in the diocese
of Hippo in Africa, who professed to regulate marriage
after the example of Abel, who they pretended was mar-
ried, but lived in a state of continence : they therefore al-
lowed each man to marry one woman, but enjoined them
to live in the same state. To keep up the secc, when a
man and woman entered into this society, they adopted a
boy and girl, who were to inherit their goods, and to mar-
ry upon the same terms of not having cluldrrn, but of
adopting two of different sexes. As might be supposed,
a sect, originating on principles so false, and opposed to
the divine institution of marriage, was not of ioug conti-
nuance. It arose in the reign of Arcadius, and ended in
that of Theodosius ; but its memory remains among the
«-
ABE
[ IM
ABI
proofs of human weakness, when affecting to be wiser and
purer than the revealed ^visdom and purity of the word of
God. — Buck. Williams.
ABERNETIIY, (John,) an eminent Protestant divine,
was born in Coleraine, Ireland, in 1680. He was the son
of a dissenting minister in that town. He continued to
enjoy the care of his pious parents until he was nine years
of age ; when he was carried by a relation into Scotland.
By this event he proiidentially escaped the hardships of the
siege of Derry, in which Mrs. Abernethy lost all her other
children. After three years he was restored to his pa-
rents at Coleraine. At thirteen he entered the College at
Glasgow, where he resided till he had taken his degree
of master of arts. His first inclination was to the study
of physic, but being dissuaded from that by his fiiends, he
determined to apply liimself to divinity ; in pursuance of
which design he went to the university of Edinburgh, and
was sometime under the care of professor Campbell. —
He prosecuted his studies with such success, that he was
licensed to preach before he was one and twenty. In
1703, being invited to settle m Antrim, Dublin, and Cole-
raine, the synod decided in favor of Antrim, where he was
accordingly ordained.
The native Irish in the neighborhood were almost uni-
versally of the popish persuasion ; a great field was there-
fore opened for his diligence and zeal, beyond the bouirds
of his immediate flock. Into this field he entered ; he vi-
sited, conversed, and lectured among them, in a manner
which showed how much his heart was set upon their con-
version to God and truth ; and although his success was
not equal to his hopes, yet his labors were not in vain. —
Numbers renounced popery, and several gave permanent
evidence of sincere piety, as well as of the adoption of the
Protestant faith.
At the time the Bangorian controversy raged in Eng-
land, a conside;'able number of ministers, and others in tne
north of Ireland, formed themselves inio a society for mu-
tual improvement: Thdr professed object wa^^|Aring '
thing;s to the test ofreason and scripture, ^itl^B^fvile
regard to any human authority. Abernethy wennnto this
plan with much zeal, and constantly attended their meetings
at Belfast, whence it was called the Belfast society. The
discussions here took a range which ended in a rupture
with the general syno_d, in 1726. Even the reputation of
Abernethy was ria security for him. Some of his people .
forsook his ministrj^, and such was the rapid increase of
disaffection, that a distinct congregation was -erected, and '
a minister settled over them, by the synod. Being about
this time invited by the congregation of Wood-street, Dub-
lin, to become their pastor, he accepted. In Dublin he
applied himself to his studies with renewed energy, and
for ten years labored mth increasing reputation. But
while from the strength of his constitution, and his great
temperance, his friends promised themselves a longer en-
joyment of 1dm, he was attacked by the gout to which he
had been subject, in a vital part, and died December, 1740,
in the 60th year of his age.
Mr. Abernethy's character justly entitled him to the re-
spect and esteem of all who had the happiness of his ac-
quaintance ; for his private and public virtues were equally
conspicuous. His piety was manly and rational, fervent
a.:il exalted. He was exactly temperate — even to abste-
miousness ; yet his manners were pervaded by a most
amiable cheerfulness, ease, and freedom : so that in his
character and deportment it was seen that reHgion is in
reality the very perfection of reason. His disposition was
full of sen-sibility, delicacy and kindness ; his wit keen,
but chastised ; his passions naturally strong, but subdued
by wse and constant discipline, into singular meekness
and submission to the divine will. In the family his piety
was most exemplary. As a preacher his first efforts were
very promising ; but his subsequent attainments exceeded
all the anticipations even of his friends. Indeed, he took
tmcommon pains to quaUfy himself for every part of the
public service of the sanctuary, and success corresponded
to his diUgence.
The most celebrated of his works are his " Discourses
concerning the Being and Perfections of God," in two vol-
umes^ the first of which only was published in his lifetime.
They excited general attention and admiration. Four
volumes of his posthumous sermons were likewise pub-
Ushed ; the first two in 1748, and the others in 1757, with
a large preface, cuntaming the life of the author.
ABESTA, the name of one of the sacred books of the
Persian Magi, whicn they ascribe to their great founder
Zoroaster. The Abesta is a commentary on two others
of their religioits books, called Zend and Pazend ; the
three together including the whole system of the Ignicoldj
or worshippers of fire.
ABETTORS, Accessaries, Accomplices, in criminal
cases, such as support another in his designs by conni-
vance, encouragement, or help. In these cases the abettors
are universally regarded as involved in the guilt of the
principal. Ps. 50: 18. Prov. 13: 20. 2 John 11. Abet-
ting evil by connivance is a thing far too common in prac-
tical questions of morals and. rehgion. Our Lord has
determined a point of great importance in the final judg-
ment of character, and one in wliich we are deeply inte-
rested, when he says " He that is not with me, is against
me," (Mat. 12: 30.) i. e. is abetting the evils I came to
abolish from the world.
ABIAH, see Aeijah.
ABIATHAR, the son of Ahimelech, and the tenth
high priest among the Jews, being the fourth in descent
from Eli. 2 Sam. 8: 17. 1 Chron. 18: 16. When Saul
sent to Nob to murder all the priests, Abi&thar escaped
the massacre, and fled to David in the wilderness. Tbere
he continued in the quality of high priest ; but Saul out
of aversion to Ahimelech, whom he imagined to have be-
trayed his interests, transferred the dignity of the high
priesthood from Ithamar's family into that of Eleazer, by
conferring this office upon Zadok. Thus there were at the
same time two high prists in Israel, Abiathar with Da-
vid, and Zadok vd\\\ Saul: In this state things continued
until the reign of Solomon, when Abiathar bein|^attaclied
to the piirty of Adonijah, was by Solomon divested of his
priesthood, A. M. 2989 ; and the race of Zadok >Kirie ■ per-
formed the functions of that office dunng the rei'gnj^^^So-
lomon, toih^xclusion of the family of Ithamar, ^jBtdjpg
to the ■aor.Sfof the LdVd to Eli, 1 Sam. 2: 30, &c.
" A difficulty arises from the circumstance tha\ in'i
Kings 2:.27, Abiathar is said to be deprive.d of the priest's
oflice by Solomon; while in 2 Sam.*a: 17. ]^ Chron. 18:
16. 24: 3, 6, 31. Ahimelech the. soji of Abiathar, is said to
be high pri^t along with Zaddk.;-.THj£ most probable so-
lution is, that boih father and soneach bore the two names
Ahimelec"h and Abiathar ; as was -not at all uimsujl
among the Jews. In this wsty also we may remove the
difficulty aris'ing from Mark 2: 26, where Abiathar is said
to have given David the shew-bread, in allusion to 1 Sam.
21: 1. &c., where it is Ahimelech." — Robinson's Bible Die-
timiary ; Home's Introduction. Vol. I. p. 538.
AEIB, the name of the first month in the Jewish sacred
year. Exod. 13: 4. This month was afterwards called
Nisan; it contained thirty days, and answered to our
March. It signifies green ears, and was so named because
grain, particularly barley, was in ear at that time. It was
an early custom to give names to months from the ap-
pearances of nature ; and the custom is still in force
among many iSitions. The year among the Jews com-
menced in September, and consequently their jubilees and
other civil matters were regulated in that way. Lev. 25: 8
— 10 ; but their sacred year began in Abib, according to
the divine command, Exod. 12: 2. " This shall be to you
the beginning of months." See Mouths.
ABIDE ; this word in the scriptures means more than
mere passive or temporary residence. It is ur.ed for..vo-
luntary vital attachment, dependence and adherence, the
result of the most intimate an?f permanent union. Thus
John 15: 4. our Saiior says, "Abide in me, and I in you.
As the branch cannot bear fruit of itself except it abide in
the vine ; so neither can ye, except ye abide in me." See
also 2 Tim. 2; 13. 1 John 2: 17,28. John 15: 4,9. 14: 16;
but particularly. Col. 2: 6, 7. Christians often speak of
living near to Christ ; the Bible speaks of living in Him. —
What force is there in this idea ! " Return unto thy rest
IN Him, 0 my joul."
If this term then be used to signify a settled residence,
how awful is that passage, John 3: 36. " He that behev-
eth not the Son, shall not see life, but the wrath of God
ABI
[ 16]
ABO
ABiDETH on him." Withering idea ! that a human soul
should be a home for the residence of the -wTath of God !
ABIGAIL, a woman of excellent understanding, and
of great beauty, the v.ik of Nabal, the Carmelite, and af-
terwards of David, 1 Sam. 25: 14 — 42. Her son by the
latter marriage, is called in one place Chiliab, and in an-
other Daniel, (2 Sam. 3: 3. 1 Chron. 3: 1.) and is one ex-
ample among many, of the same person bearing two
names ; a fact which solves several seeming contradictions
in the Old and New Testament. 2. A sister of David,
and mother of Amasa. 1 Chron. 2: Ui, 17.
ABIHU, one of the sons of Aaron, who with his brother
Nadab, was destroyed by fire from God for presuming to
offer incense to Him with strange fire, instead of that from
bis altar. I>v. 10: ], 2. This awful event occurred only
eight days after their consecration : and their sin seems to
have been occasioned by wine, which was afterwards for-
bidden to priests, when about to minister in the sanctuary.
A punishment so sudden and severe, was designed to im-
press all God's ministers with the immense importance of
fidelity in discharging the duties of their office ; observing
his will in every particular, that He may be glorified. —
But had it not also a deeper meaning ? May it not be re-
garded as a standing example of that divine wrath which
shall consume all who pretend to serve God, except with
incense Irindled from the one altar and offering by which
he forever perfects them that are sanctified ? — Jones.
ABIJAH^ or ABIA, a priest of the posterity of Aaron,
and founder of a family. When the priests were divided
into twenty-four classes, the eighth was called from him
the class of Ahia. 1 Chron. 24: 10. Luke 1: 5.
ABILA, or ABELA, called by the Greeks Leucadia, that
is, " white rock town,'' the capital of Abilene, Luke 3: 1.
It was situated in a plain adjacent to the river Croijso/r-
huas, or Abana. Several medals, still extant, serve to
identify its site, and to show that it was a place of consi-
derable magnitude and importance. Two of these are
given by Calmet. Some antiquities and inscriptions are
mentioned by Pococke as still remaining in the neighbor-
hood, which confirm the fact of its former consequence. —
It is now called Bellinas.
ABILENE ; a province of Caelosyria, between the two
Libani, of which Lysanias was tetrarch.
ABILITY ; see Ixaeility.
ABIJIELECH, My father the King: from Abi, my fa-
ther, and Melech, king. 1. The title of the kings of Phi-
listia, as Cssar was of the Eoman emperors, and Pha-
raoh of the sovereigns of Egj'pt. Two kings under this
name are mentioned in Genesis, one of Ttdiom appears to
have been the son of the other. Gen. 20. Gen. 2(5.
In regard to the first, it has been thought strange that a
miraculous interference should have been necessary (as
in the case of Pharaoh, Gen. 12: 14^20.) to convince him
of his criminahty in detaining the wife of Abraham ; and
equally strange that Abraham could not procure Sarah's
release by proper apphcation and request. But such
thoughts arise only from ignorance of the customs of the
east. Whenever a woman is taken into tlie harem of an
eastern prince -n-ith the design of making her his wife, she
is secluded without a possibility of coming out, at least
during Ihe life of the prince on the throne. Nor is com-
rii'i'tication with women in the harem in ordinary cases to
be obtained. The late editor of Calmet has given an af-
fecling instance in the case of colonel Pitt, an officer of the
Russian army, whose wife and daughter, both beautiful
women, fell into the hands of the Tartars, and were pre-
sented to the grand signior at Constantinople. The ef-
forts of the distracted father and husband to procure their
release, only resulted in his own imprisonment in a dun-
geon, with the -dreadful assurance that n-hen any of the sex
ftre once taken into the seraglio, they tvere never suffered to
ytil it more. Critical Review, vol. iii. p. 332. This anec-
dote places tlie propriety of some exertion of Providence
in behalf of Abraham in the strongest light. It seems
also to explain the fears of both Abraham and Isaac, aris-
ing from the remarkable beauty of Sarah and Rebecca,
and tempting them both to use culpable dissimulation. —
The Ufe of a husband,, it may be easily understood, had
but a small chanceof being preserved when it stood in the
wuy of despotic mdulgence. Yet the Abiraelechs of Ge-
rar, at that time seem to have retained somethiag of the
fear of God. A. M. 2200. B. C. 1804.
2. The son of Gideon, a usurper and mu'derer, to ex-
pose whose infamous character to the infatuated people of
Israel, Jotham pronounced his celebrated fable of the
trees. Judg. 9: 1 — 54. This is the oldest fable on record,
and shows with what power the reason and conscience
can be addressed through the medium of the imagination.
A. M. 2771. B. C. 1233.
ABISHAG ; the young and beautiful -wife of David,
selected to cherish him in his old age. After David's
death, his son Adonijah demanded her in marriage ; but
Solomon justly supposing that this was only a step to-
wards his assumption of the regal power, refused his soli-
citation, and punished his treasonable design with death.
1 Kings 1: 3. 2: 13—27.
ABISHAI, son of Zuri and Zeruiah, David's sister, was
one of the most vaUant men of his time and a chief gene-
ral in David's armies. Some of his exploits are mention-
ed in 2 Sam. 21: 16. and 23: 18. He was brother to Joab
and Asahel ; but in his character and services to his uncle
the king, he seems to have surpassed them both, and to
have been tlwough life David's favorite general and friend.
1 Sam. 26: 7—11. 2^am. 2: 18, 24. 10: 10. 16: 9. 18: 2.
20: 6. 21: 16. 23: 18. 1 Chron. 11: 20, 21. 18: 12. 19:
11, 15.
ABISHUA, the son of Phineas. He was the fourth in
succession who filled the office of high priest among the
Hebrews. The Chronicon of Alexandria places him in
the days of Ehud, judge of Israel. Judg. 3. 1 Chron. 6:
50. Josephus calls him Abiezer.
ABLUTION, a ceremony in use among the ancients,
and still practised in several parts of the world. It con-
sisted in washing the body, which was always done be-
fore sacrificing, or even entering their houses. Ablutions
appear to be as old as any ceremonies, and external wor-
ship itself. Moses enjoined them, the heathens adopted
them, and Mahomet and his followers have continued
them. The Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans, the
Jews, all had them. 'The ancient Christians had their
ablutions before communion, which the Komish church
still retain before their mass, and sometimes after. The
Syrians, Copts, &c. have their solemn washings on Good
Friday ; the Turks also have their ablutions, their Ghast,
their Wodou, Aman, &c. — Buck.
ABNER, the son of Ner, uncle to king Saul, and
general of his armies. After the death of Saul, he sup-
ported Ishbosheth for seven years ; but conceiving himself
injured by him, he went over to David. He was treach-
erously slain by Joab under the pretence of his being a
spy ; but more probably either from jealousy of his influ-
ence, or to revenge the death of his brother Asahel. Da-
vid highly disapproved the conduct of Joab, (see Joab,)
and composed an elegy on the death of Abner. 2 Sam.
2d and 3d chs.— A. M. 2956.
ABOMINATION, or Abominable ; these terms ahva.ys
denote things which are hateful and detestable to the last
degree. Genesis 43: 32. Lev. 7: 18. Deut. 7: 25, 26.
They are the strongest terms the language aftbrds. Hence,
1. Sin i.x general, being the reverse of the divine per-
fections and law, and the object of God's most awful bjij
unchangeable displeasure, is frequently styled an abomi-
nation. Prov.3:32. 8:7. 17:15. Jer.7: iO. 44:22. To
be holy as he is holy, we must penitently view it iji the
same light ; and hate, avoid, and oppose it, ■nith the same
inflexible constancy. This is in fact the precise sense of
the precept, (Rom. 12: 9.) " Let love be without dissimu-
lation : Abhor that which is E%aL ; cleave to that which
is good." That is, the proof of the sincerity of yMr love,
n'hether to God or man, lies in its being invariably attended
with a lively abhorrence of sin, and an ardent attachment to '
holiness.
2. Particuxar sins are in various passages of scrip-
ture stigmatized as abojiinations. For example, pride,
Prov. 16: 5. Lawlessness, or a contentious, unteachable,
ungovernable spirit, Prov. 3: 32. False doctrine, Rev.
17: '4. Hypocrisy, Prov. 15: 8. 21: 27. 28: 9. Scorning,
24: 9. False swearing or perjury, Jer. 7: 9, 10. Murder;
adultery, and theft, Jer. 7: 9, iO. Talsehood, Prov. 12: 22:
Things that are highly esteemed among men. particularly
ABO
[ 16]
ABO
covetousness, Luke 16: 14, 15. Idolatry, with all its in-
straments and appendages, Ex. 8: 26. Deut. 17: 2 — 7.
12: 31. 18: 9—14.
3. Vakious forms of pap.ticular sins, especially when
of a very gross description, are marked out as aeomin*-
TioNS — as, offeriDg blemished or deformed sacrifices,
Deut. 17: 1.: eating forbidden kinds of food. Lev. 11.;
every specie's of unchastity, Lev. 18; 29, 30.; wearing
the dress of the opposite sex, Deut. 22: 5.; a false ba-
lance, false Aveights, and measures, Prov. 11: 20. 20: 10,
23.; a proud look, a lying tongue, murderous hands, a
heart ol wicked imaginations, feet swift to mischief, a
false witness, and he that soweth discord among breth-
ren, Prov. 6: 16—19.
4. Ejifhases, or distinctive uses of the term. To
"make an abomination," is to make an idol, Deut. 27: 15.;
to '• commit abomination," is to practise idolatry, or un-
natural crimes, Ez. 16:50. Rev. 21: 27. "Abominable
works," are actions tainted and corrupted by impiety, Ps.
14:1. " The abominable," mentioned as a distinct class.
Rev. 21:8. are probably such as arc guilty of unnatural
crime ; a character mournfully prevalent throughout the
heathen world. Rom. 1: 26— 32. 1 for. 5: 9— 11.
In reference therefore not to idolatry alone, but to every
sin, in every form, and especially the sin that most easily
besets us, let us act as though v.-e heard perpetually those
most affecting words, ever ullered by the All Holy, Oh,
do 7iot this abominnblc thing jvhich I hate.
ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION; this phrase
seems to be used (Dan. 11: 31.) as a general designation,
for whatever denotes the triumph of idolatrous power
aver the sanctuary of God. Its more particular reference
in the New Testament, is to the Roman armies under
Titus. Dan. 9: 27. 12: 11. compared with Mat. 24: 15.
The images of their gods and emperors were delineated on
the ensigns of the Romans ; and the ensigns themselves,
especially the eagles which were carried at the heads of
the legions, were objects of irorship ; and therefore, accord-
ing to the style of scripture, an abomination. The horror
with which the Jews regarded them, suffieiently appears
from two facti mentioned by Josephus — Pilate's attempt
to put his troops in \A-inter quarters at Jerusalem, and
Vilellius' proposing to march through Judea lo attack
Aretas, king of Petra. The people supplicated and re-
monstrated against both, on reUgious accounts, to such a
degree, that Pilate was obliged to remove his army, and
ViteUius to march his troops another way. Jerome in-
forms us that the Jews themselves appUed, Dan. 9: 27. to
the Romans. The appearance of their idolatrous banners
therefore at Jerusalem, was the prophetic sign that " the
desolation thereof was nigh." The evangelists Matthew
and Mark add to our Lord's prediction in a parenthesis,
" Whoso readeth, let him understand ;" hereby intimating
that this event was approaching, though yet future when
their histories were published, and that the reader who
consulted his own safety, would do well to retire seasona-
bly from the devoted city. Mat. 24: 15. Mark 13: 14.—
In forty years from the time " the 3Ie.ssiah was cut off"
by wicked hands, (to use the sublime language of Bos-
suel,) 'the Roman eagle descended, and Judea was no
mort!'
ABORIGINES ; the earliest inhabitants of a country ;
those of whom no original can be traced. It is used
among us in this country, to denote the Indian tribes, in
distinction from the present civilized inhabitants who are
of European descent.
Upon tliis country, it has been said with equal elo-
quence and truth, rests a responsibiUty in relation to the
Indian tribes, of deep and tremendous import. Sovereigns
from time immemorial of the interminable forests which
overshadow this vast continent, this injured race have
gradually been driven within the limits of their present
precarious possessions. One after another of their favo-
rite rivers has been reluctantly abandoned, until the range
of the hunter is bounded by lines prescribed by his invad-
er, and the independence of the. warrior is no more. Of
the innumerable tribes which, a few centuries since,
roamed fearless and independent their native forests, how
many have been swept into oblivion, and are with the
generation.'; before the flood ' Of others not a trace re-
mains but in tradition, or in the person of some solitary
wanderer, the last of his tribe, who hovers hke a ghost
among the sepulchres of his fathers — a spark still faintly
glimmering in the ashes of an extinguished race ! Alas !
shall the corrupt arts of avarice, or the strong arm of
ci'i'ilized power still pursue this unhappy people ? Shall
the increasing and relentless force of emigration drive
them from forest to forest, until the last remnant strug-
gUng for existence, shall fall on the verge of the western
ocean, or perish in its flood ? Will not the voice of hu-
manity prompt us to arrest this unremitting progress of
extermination? But how? Not certainly by breaking
down the restrictions on Indian trade ; for this would lei
loose upon them a horde of selfish and unprincipled ad-
venturers. But continue and enforce those restrictions,
and at the same time encourage and increase the mission-
ary institutions of our country ; and the time is not far
distant, when the savage shall he converted into the citi-
zen, and the hunter be changed into the agriculturist and
mechanic ; when throughout that vast extent of country
from the Blississippi to the Pacific, the red man and the
white man shall be found in every place, mingling in the
same society, cherishing the same benevolent and friendly
views, fellow citizens of the same social and religious
community, and fellow heirs to one eternal inheritance in
the kingdom of heaven.
For particulars respecting the Aborigines of this coun-
try, and the eflbrts now in progress for their Christianiza-
tion, see the Missionary Gazetteer, in the latter part of
this volume.
ABOUND ; the peculiar force of this emphatic word
has never yet been sufficiently illustrated. It is generally
taken to be equivalent Vidth to increase, oi to be full ; but if
so, why does so accurate a writer as St. Paul, in 1 TheFS.
3: 12. add the word abound to the word increase, and in
Phil. 4: 18. after saying, " I have all," immediately sub-
join, "and abound?" This use of the word evidently im-
plies, tliat, in the apostle's own mind, it conveyed some
additional, or stronger idea. What that idea is, may be
ascertained by turning to Prov. 8: 24. where the word first
occurs, in a connection that clearly unfolds its exact
meaning, " fountains abounding "ndth water." This pe-
culiarly rich and beautiful idea of the exuberant and
overflowing fulness of a fountain, a fulness rising and
spreading from deep and inexhaustible springs, is the ap
propriate meaning of this word, as any one may per
ceive who will carefully consult all the passages where it
occurs in the bible. In this Ught what new force is added
to our conceptions of such expressions as the following.
Rom. 5: 20. " Moreover the law entered that the offence
might abound." This may be taken either positively, or
in relation to our conceptions ; shice the introduction of
clearer light, by the iKritten law, did not only manifest
■with more distinctness the extent, the power, the criminal
nature, pollution, and punishment of sin ; but by encoun-
tering the opposition of the human heart, and operating
as a test of its sinfulness, did occasion an incalculable in-
crease in the number and aggravations of huinan trans-
gression. In its light, sin seemed already to have over-
fiejwed the whole world, like the waters of the deluge
when the fountains of the great deep were broken up ;
pervading, filling, overflowing every human heart, lip,
and life ; while new disobedience to its commands, new
violations of its restrictions, new excuses, evasions or
blasphemous objections to its threatened penalties, conti-
nually rising into existence, swelled yet more and more
the appaUing and apparently endless flood of guilt and
ruin.
" But where sin abounded, grace did much more abound."
Even where the introduction of the written law had
charged human guilt -vvith its heaviest aggravations, had
so immensely extended men's conceptions of the univer-
sality and evil of sjn, and proved its power to be beyond
the influence of any light, authoritj', or sanctions of mere
law to repress and subdue ; there the introduction of the
gospel unfolded a depth of contrivance, power, and compas-
sion in the Divine Mind, fully and abundantly adequate to
the exigencies of the case. He therefore who receives
and relies upon the gospel of Christ, though the very chief
of sinners, shall find that the grace of God therein reveal-
ABO
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ABR
ed as flowing thjough the cross, infinitely ejcceeds his
most enlarged conceptions, vants, and desires ; that
springing from sources not only apparently, but absolutely
even inexhaustible, " the unsearchable riches of Christ,"
it overflows, prevails, and triumphs over all his aggravat-
ed guilt, corruption, and unworthiness ; not only pardoning,
but purifying, not only 'saving from endless ruin, but
exalting to endless joy! "That as sin had. reigned"
under the administration of law " unto death," even so
under the administration of the gospel, " might grace
reign through righteousness unto eternal life by Jesus
Christ our Lord."
Eph. 1: 8. " Wherein he hath abounded towards us in
all wisdom and prudence." The apostle here suggests to
us that God, in the method of dispensing the riches of his
grace, has pursued a course in which his prudence and
wisdom appear equally conspicuous as his unfathomable
love — in bestowing his gi'ace on sinners only through a
redeeming mediation, lest the law should be dishonored
and made of no effect, Rom. 3: 31. ; in selecting the only
fit person to be a mediator between God and man, John
3: 16. 1 Tim. 2: 5.; in appointing him his proper work, its
several offices, and periods, Gal. 4: 4, 5. Isa. 53: 10 — 12.
Heb. 3: 1, 2. 8: 6 — 12.; in arranging the circumstances of
his incarnation, sufferings, and glorv, Isa. 42; 1 — 4. 52:
13—15. John 10: 18. 12: 49, 50. 14:' 31. Acts 4: 27, 28.;
in the time, instruments, and manner of publishing the
gospel, Eph. 3: 1 — 11. 4: 7 — 16. ; in the measure and mi-
nisters of its success, and tlie glory of its ultimate issues,
1 Cor. 1: 26—31. 3: 5—9. 2 Cor. 2: 12-16. Gal. 3: 8. 1
John 3: 8. Rev. 11: 15. 20: 1—6. 21: 1—27.; and lastly,
in ordering all the allotments, advantages, afflictions, and
deliverances of individual believers, so as to work out
their spiritual and everlasting good. Rom. 8: 28 — 39. 1
Cor. 3: 21—23. 2 Cor. 4: 15.
Rom. 3: 7. " If the truth of God hath more abounded
through my lie unto his glory, why yet am I also judged
OS a sinner V In this objection to the doctrine of human
responsibility, the truth of God is represented under tlie
image of a perennial and majestic stream, whose depth
and force become more visible by means of the obstruc-
tions raised against it ; which, however formidable in ap-
pearance, it surmounts with the utmost ease in conse-
quence of its own overflowing fulness. This objection —
commonly urged on the admitted fact, that the declara-
tions of God in his word touching human depravity, are
seen to be true with more abundant evidence in every
fresh instance of sin, and especially in the false assump-
tions of those who deny the divine testimony — is repelled
by the apostle, hy appealing to its monstrous consequen-
ces. The principle of the objection is, that whatever con-
duct serves in any waj', even by way of contrast, to illus-
tjate the glory of the divine attributes, cannot be criminal,
and worthy of punishment. The apostle says, if such a
principle be true, (inasmuch as it is certain that the divine
perfections will appear more glorious by opposition to
human depraiqty, and the verj' lie of him who denies it,
but confirms the tnith of that God who affirms it,) then
that depravity might be justified and indulged to any
extent, under the specious pretext of " doing evil that
good might come" — an abominable maxim, confounding
the very distinction between good and evil, scorning every
restraint of virtue, sanctioning every crime, and subvert-
ing the moral government of God from its foundation. —
The apostle therefore pronounces the final condemnation
of such as adopt it, to be just.
Prov. 29: 22. " A furious man aboundeth in transgres-
sion;" and Mat. 24: 12. "because iniquity shall abound,
the love of many shall wax cold." In both these passa-
ges we may remark the allusion to an overflowing foim-
tain or stream, which breaks over its ordinary limits, and
spreads and deepens on every side.
1 Cor. 15: 58. " Always abounding in the works of the
Lord." The addition of the word "always," adds to the
beautiful idea of this passage the utmost force and magni-
ficence. This, then, is the only scriptural nuasure, that n-e
be continually rising above measure ; not resting in present
attainments or usefulness ; not satisfied with the standard
of our predecessors and contemporaries ; but as circum-
stances supply opjiortimity, and experience gives facility,
3
pleasure and skill, breaking away from the limjts of thi'.
past, and seeking a wider sphere of action in the future, in
the fulness of a heart exuberant with zeal and affection,
and " always overflowing in the work of the Lord." —
Philippians 1: 9 — 11. 1 Thessalonians 4; 1. 2 Corinthi-
ans 9: 8.
ABliAHAM, originally called ABRAM, the son of
Terah, born at Ur, a city of Chaldea, A. BI. 2008, only two
years after the death of Noah, though there were nine ge-
nerations between them- He descended from that patri-
arch in the line of Shem, upon whose family the promised
blessing of giving birth to the Messiah appears to have
been entailed by his father's prophecy, and was the
tenth person from him in lineal descent. Gen. 9: 26. His
history claims the attention of the biographer under two
distinct points of view ; first, as the founder of the Jewish
nation, God's peculiar people, who all descended from his
loins, and are termed Israel after the flesh ; and secondly,
as " the father of the faithful," or head of the true Israel,
that innumerable company consisting of both Jews and
Gentiles, who imitate his faith, and are consequently made
participators of that blessedness wherewith Abraham
himself was blessed, Rom. 2: 28, 29, 9: 4—8.
1. A word upon the call of the patriarch. Chaldea,
the native country of Abraham, was inhabited by a pasto-
ral people, who were almost irresistibly invited to the
study of the motions of the heavenly bodies, by the pecu-
liar serenity of the heavens in that climate, and their
habit of spending their nights in the open air in tending
their flocks. The first rudiments of astronomy, as a
science, are traced to this region ; and here, too, one of the
earliest forms of idolatry, the worship of the host of hea-
ven, usually called Tsabaism, first began to prevail. Du-
ring the three hundred and fifty )'ears which elapsed be-
tween the deluge and the birth of Abraham, this and
other idolatrous superstitions had greatly corrupted the
human race, perverted the simple forms of the patriarchal
reUgion, and beclouded the import of its typical rites. —
The family of Abraham was idolatrous, for " his fathers
served other gods beyond the flood," that is, the great
river Euphrates ; but whether he himself was in the early
period of his life an idolater, we are not informed by
Moses. The Arabian and Jewish legends speak of his
early idolatry, his conversion from it, and of his zeal in
breaking the images in his father's house ; but these are
little to be depended on. AVhilst Abraham w-as still so-
journing in IJr, "the God of glory" apj>eared to him,
and said unta him, "Get thee out of thy country and
from thy kindred, and go into the land which I shall show
thee ;" and so firm was his faith in the providence and care
of God, that although the place of his future abode was not
indicated, nor any information given of the nature of the
country, or the character of its inhabitants, he neverthe-
less promptly obeyed, " and went out not knowing whith-
er he went." Terah his father, Nahor his brother, and
Lot his nephew, the son of Haran, his deceased broth'er,
accompanied him ; a circumstance which indicates that
if the family had forr.erly been idolatrous, it had no>v
received the faith of jlbraham. They first migrated to
Haran, or Charan, In Mesopotamia, a fiat, barren region
westward of Ur ■ and after a residence there of a few
years, during w'.iich Terah had died, Abraham left Haran
to go into Palestine, taking with him Sarah his wife, who
had no child, and Lot, with his paternal property, Nahor
appears to have been left in Haran. To this second mi-
gration also he was incited by a divine command^ accom-
panied by the promise of a numerous issue, that his seed
should become a great nation, and, above all, that "in
him all the families of the earth should be blessed ;" in
other words, that the 3Iessiah, Imown among the patri-
archs as the promised "' seed of the woman," should be
born in his line. Palestine was then inhabited by the
Canaanites, from whom it was called Canaan. Abraham,
leading his tribe, first settled at Sechem, a valley between
the mountains Ehal and Gerizim, where God ajipcaied to
him and promised to give him the land of Canaan, and
where, as in other places where he remained any time,
he built an altar to the Lord. He then removed to a
hilly region on the north of Jericho ; and, as the pastures
were shortened, migrated southward, till a famine drove
ABR
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Abiaham and his sons, sliow tlie manner in wliicli the
eai-th was gradually covered with people. In tliose ages,
some cities had been built, and the country to some extent
about them cultivated ; but wide spaces of unoccupied land
lay between them. A part of society following therefore
the pastoral life, led forth their flocks, and, in large family
tribes, of which the parent was the head, uniting both the
sovereign power and the priestho^id in himself, and with
a train of servants attached to the tribe by hereditary ties,
pitched their camps wherever a fertile and unappropriated
district olTered them pasture. A few of these nomadic
tribes appear to have made the circuit of the same region,
seldom going far from their native seats ; which would
probably have been the case with Abraham, had he not
received the call of God to depart to a distant country.
Others, more bold, followed the track of rivers, and the
sweep of fertUe valleys, and at length some built cities
and formed settlements in those distant regions ; whilst
others, either from attachment to their former mode of hfe,
or from necessity, continued in their pastoral occupations,
and followed the supplies afforded for their flocks by the
still expanding regions of the fertile earth. "Wars and
violences, clroughts, famines, and the constant increase of
population, continued to impel these innumerable, but, at
first, small streams of men into parts still more remote.
Those who settled on the seacoast began to use that ele-
ment, both for supplying themselves with a new species
of food, and as a medium of communication by vessels
with other covmtries, for the interchange of such commo-
dities as their own lands afTurded, v.'ith those offered by
maritime states more or less distant. Thus were laid the
foundations of commerce, and thus the maritime cities
were gradually rendered opulent and powerful. Colonies
were in time transported from them by means of their
ships, and settlers on the coasts of still more distant and
fertile countries. Thus the migration of the three princi-
pal families proceeded from the central regions of Ar-
menia, Blesopotamia, and Assyria ; and in succession
they established numerous communities, — the Phenicians,
Arabians, Egj'ptians, Ethiopians, and Lybians, south-
ward;— the Persians, Indians, and Chinese, eastward; —
the Scythians, Celts, and Tartars, northward ; — and the
Goths, Greeks, and Latins, westward, even as far as the
Peruvians and Mexicans of South America, and the In-
dians of North America.
3. Abraham, Imowing the dissolute character of the
Egj'ptians, directed Sarah to call herself his sister, which
she was, although by another mother ; fearing that if they
knew her to be his wife, they would not only seize her,
but kill him. This circumstance indicates the vicious
state of morals and government of Egypt at this early
period. In this affair Abraham has been blamed for want
of faith in God ; but it was perhaps no more than an act
of common prudence, as the seraglio of the Egyptian
monarch was supported by an)' means, however violent
and lawless. Sarah, upon the report of her beauty, was
seized and taken into his harem ; and God sent great
plagues upon his house, which, from their extraordinary
character, he concluded to be divine judgments. This led
to inquirj', and on discovering that he was detaining an-
other man's wife by violence, he sent her back, and dis-
missed Abraham, laden v.'ith presents.
4. After the famine, Abraham returned to Canaan, and
pitched his tents between Bethel and Hai, where he had
previously raised an altar. Here, as his flocks and herds,
and those of Lot, h.ad greatly increased, and strifes had
arisen between their herdsmen as to pasturage and water,
they peaceably separated. Lot returning to the plain of
the Jordan, which, before the destruction of Sodom, was
"as the garden of God," and Abraham to Slamre, near
Hebron, after receiving a renewal of the promise, that
God woidd give him the whole land for a possession.
The separation of Abraham and Lot still further secured
the unmingled descent of the Abrahamite family. The
territories of the kings of the cities of the plain, were a
few years afterward invaded hy a confederacy of the
petty kings of the Euphrates and the neighboring coun-
tries, and Lot and his family were taken prisoners. This
Mitelhgence being brought to Abraham, he collected the
men of his Iribej three husidred and eighteen, and falling
upon the kings by night, near the fountains of Jericho, hr
defeated them, retook the spoil, and recovered Lot. On
his return, passing near Salem, supposed to be the city af-
terwards called Jerusalem, he was blest by its long Mel-
chisedek, who was priest of the most high God ; so that
the knowledge and worship of Jehovah had not quite
departed at that time from the Canaanitish nations. To
him Abraham gave a tithe of the spoil. The rest he gene-
rously restored to the king of Sodoin, refusing, in a noble
spirit of independence, to retain so much as "a shoe
latchet," except the portion which, by usage of war, fell
to the young native sheiks, Aner, Eschel, and Mamre, who
had joined him in the expedition.
5. After this he had another encouraging vision of God,
Gen. 15: 1; and to his complaint that he was still childless,
and that his name and property would descend to the
stranger Eliezer, who held the next rank in his tribe, the
promise was given, that he himself should have a sou, and
that his seed should be countless as the stars of heaven.
And it is emphatically added, " He believed in the Lord,
and he counted it to him for righteousness." He was
then fully assured, that he stood before God, a pardoned
and accepted man, " whose iniquities were forgiven,"
and to whom " the Lord did not impute sin." Still the
fulfilment of the promise of a son was delayed ; and
Sarah, perhaps despairing that it would be accomplished
in her person, and the revelation which had been made
merely stating that this son should be the fruit of Abra-
ham's body, without any reference to her, she gave to
him, according to the custom of those times, one of her
handmaids, an Egyptian, to be his secondary wife, who
brought forth Ishmael. Children born in this manner had
the privileges of legitimacy ; but, fourteen years after-
wards, when Abraham was a hundred years old, and
Sarah ninety, the Lord appeared to him again, established
his covenant with him and with his seed, changed his
name to Abraham, "the father of many nations," pro-
mised that Sarah herself should bring forth the son to
whom the preceding promises had referred, instituted
circumcision as the sign of the covenant ; and changed the
name of his wife from Sarai, my princess, to Sarah, the
princess, that is, of many people, to descend from her.
6. At this time Abraham occupied his former encamp-
ment near Hebron. Here, as he sat in the door of his
tent, three mysterious strangers appeared. Abraham,
with true Arabian hospitality, received and entertained
them. The chief of the three-renewed the promise of a
son to be born from Sarah, a promise which she received
with a laugh of incredulity, for which she was mildly re-
proved. As Abraham accompanied them towards the
valley of the Jordan, the same Divine Person, for so lie
manifestly appears, announced the dreadful ruin impend-
ing over the hcentious cities among which Lot had taken
up his abode. No passage, even in the sacred writing..,
exhibits a more exalted \'iew of the di\'ine condescension,
than that in which Abraham is seen expostulating on the
apparent injustice of involving the innocent in the ruin of
the guilty : " Shall the city perish, if fifty, if forty-five, if
forty, if thirty, if twenty, if ten righteous men be fovmd
within its walls?" "Ten righteous men shall avert its
doom." Such was the promise of the Celestial Visitant:
but the guilt was universal, the ruin inevitable ; and the
violation of the sacred lav^-s of hospitality and nature,
which Lot in his horror attempted to avert by the most
revolting expedient, confirmed the justice of the divhie
sentence.
7. Sarah having conceived, according to the divine
promise, Abraham left the plain of Mamre, and went
south, to Gerar, where Abimelech reigned ; and again
fearing lest Sarah should be forced from him, and himself
be put to death, her beauty having been, it Avould appear,
pretematurally continued, notwithstandJing her age, he
here called her, as he had done in Egypt, his sister.
Abimelech took her to his house, designing to inarry her;
but God ha\'ing, in a dream, informed him that she was
Abraham's wife, he returned her to him with great pre-
sents. This year Sarah was delivered of Isaac ; and
Abraham circumcised him according to the covenjnt
stipulation ; and when he was weaned m.adc a great en-
tertainment. Sarah, having obser\'ed Ishmael, son of
ABR
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Hngar, mocking her son Isaac, said to Abraham, " Cast
out this bondwoman and her son, for Ishmael shall not
be heir with Isaac." After great reluctance Abraham
compUed; God having informed him that this was ac-
cording to the appointments of his providence, with
respect to future ages. About the same time, Abimclech
came with Phicol, his general, to conclude an alUance
uith Abraham, who made that prince a present of seven
ewe lambs out of his ilock, in confirmation that a well he
had opened should be his own property ; and they called
the place Beersheba, or " the well of swearing," because
of the covenant there ratified with oaths. Here Abraham
planted a grove, built an altar, and for some time resided,
Gen. 20. and 21.
8. More than twenty years after this, (A. M. 2133,)
God, for (he final trial and illustration of Abraham's faith,
directed him to o9t;r up his son Isaac. Abraham took his
son and two servants, and went towards mount Moriah.
"WTien within sight of the mountain, Abraham left his
servants, and ascended it with his son only ; and there
having bound him, he prepared for the affecting sacrifice ;
but when he was about to give the blow, an angel from
heaven cried out to him, '■ Lay not thine hand upon the
lad, neither do thou any thing to him. Now I know that
thou fearest God, since thou hast not withheld thine only
son from me." Abraham turning, saw a ram entangled
in the bush by his horns ; and he offered this animal as a
burnt-olfering, instead of his son Isaac. This memorable
place he called by the prophetic name, Jdwvak-Jirch or, the
Lord icill see — or provide, (Gen. 22: 1 — 14.) having respect,
no doubt, to the true sacrifice, which, in the fulness of
time, was to be offered for the whole world upon the same
mountain.
9. Twelve years afterwards, Sarah, wife of Abraham,
died in Hebron. Abraham came to mourn and to per-
form the funeral offices for her. He aildressed the people
at the city gate, entreating them to allow him to bury his
wife among them ; for, being a stranger, and having no
land of his own, he could claim no riglit of interment in
any sepulchre of that counlry. He, therefore, bought of
Ephron, one of the inhaliitants, the field of Machpelah,
with the cave and sepulchre in it, at the price of four
hundred shekels of silver, about forty-five pounds sterling.
And here Abraham buried Sarah, with due solemnities,
according to the custom of the country, Gen. 23. This
whole transaction impressively illustrates the dignity,
courtesy, and honor of those ancient chiefs ; and wholly
disproves the notion that theirs was a rude and unpolished
age.
10. Abraham liaving grown old, sent Eliezer, his
steward, into Mesopotamia, with directions to obtain a
young woman of his own family, as a wife for his son
Isaac. Eliezer executed his commission with fidelity,
and brought back Rebecca, the daughter of Bethuel,
granddaughter of Nahor, and consequently Abraham's
ncice, whom Isaac married. Abraham afterwards mar-
ried Keturah, by whom he had six sons, Zimran, Jokshan,
Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah ; who became heads
of diflierent people, which dwelt in Arabia and around it.
He died, aged an hundred and seventy-five years, and was
buried with Sarah, his wife, in the cave of Machpelah,
wlrich he had purchased of Ephron, Gen. 24. and 25, A. M.
2183, before Christ, 1821.
11. Abraham himself, with his family, may be regarded
OS a type of the church of God in future ages. They in-
deed constituted God's ancient church. Not that many
scattered patiiarchal and family churches did not remain :
such was that of Blelchisedek ; and such probably was
that of Nahor, whom Abraham left behind in Mesopota-
mia. But a visible chui-ch relation was established be-
tween Abraham's family and the Most High, signified by
the visible and distinguishing sign of circumcision, and
followed by new and enlarged revelations of truth. Two
purposes were to be answered by this, — the preservation of
the true doctrine of salvation in the world, which is the great
and solemn duty of every branch of the church of God, —
and the manifestation of that truth to others. Both were
done by Abraham. "Wherever he sojourned he built his
altars to the true God, and publicly celebrated his worship ;
and, a-s we learn from St. Paul, he hved in tents in prefe-
rence to settling in the land of Canaan, though it had been
given to him for a possession, in order that he might thus
proclaim his faith in the eternal inheritaiirc, of which
Canaan was a type ; and in bearing this testimony, his
example was followed by Isaac and Jacob, the " heirs
with lum of the same promise," Avho also thus "confessed
that they were strangers and pilgiims," and that " they
looked" for a continuing and eternal city in heaven. So,
also, now is the same doctrine of immortality committed
to the church of Christ ; and by deadness to the world
ought its members to declare their own faith in it.
12. The numerous natural posterity promised to Abra-
ham, was also a type of the spiritual seed, the true mem-
bers of the church of Christ, .springing from the Iilessiah,
of whom Isaac was the symbol. Thus St. Paul expressly
distinguishes between the fleshly and the spiritual seed of
Abraham ; to the latter of which, in their ultimate and
highest sense, the promises of increase as the stars of
heaven, and the sands of the seashore, are to be rsfcrr^d,
as also the promise of the heavenly Canaan.
13. The intentional oilering up Isaac, with its jt salt,
was probably that transaction in Avhich Abraham, more
clearly than in any other, — " saw the day of Christ, and
was glad." He received Isaac from the dead, sa3's St.
Paul, "in a figure." This could be a figure of nothing
but a resurrection of ovir Lord ; and, if so, Isaac's being
laid upon the altar was a figure of his sacrificial death,
scenically and most impressively represented to Abraham.
The place, the same ridge of hills on which our Lord T.'as
crucified ; the person, an only son, who dies for no offence
of his own ; the sacrijicer, a father ; the receiving back, as it
were, from death to life ; the name impressed upon the
place, importing, the Lord will provide, in allusion to
Abraham's own words to Isaac, "The Lord will provide a
lamb for a burnt-offering ;" all indicate a mysier)'^, or at
least supply an illustration of that which Abraham, as
the reward of his obedience, was permitted to behold.
"The day" of Christ's humiUation and exaltation was
thus opened to him ; and served to keep the great tr'Uh in
mind, that the true burnt-offering and sacrifice for sin
was to be something higher than the immolation of lambs
and bulls and goats, — nay, something more than what
was merely human.
14. The transaction of the expulsion of Hagar was r.lso
a type. It was an allegory in acticai, by -n-hich St. Paul
teaches us to understand that the son of the bondwoman
represented those who are under the law ; an:' the child
of the frccwoman those who by faith in Christ are super-
naturally begotten into the family of God. The bondwo-
man and her son being cast out, represented also the ex-
pulsion of the unbelie'ving Jews from the Church of God,
which was to be composed of true believers of all
/nations, all of whom, whether Jews or Gentiles, v'ere to
become "fellow-heirs."
15. Abraham is also exhibited to us as the representative
of true believers ; and in this especially, that the true
nature of faith was exhibited in him. This great principle
was marked in Abraham with the following characters: —
An entire, unhesitating belief in the word of God ; — an
unfaltering trust in all his promises ; — a steady regard to
his almighty power, leading him to overlook all apparent
difficulties and impossibilities in every case where God had
explicitly promised ; and habitual and cheerful and entire
obedience. The apostle has also described faith in Heb.
11: 1; and that faith is seen living and acting in all its
energy in Abraham.
A few miscellaneous remarks are suggested by some of
the circumstances of Abraham's history : —
1 . The ancient method of ratifying a covenant by sacri-
fice is illustrated in the accoimt given in Geu. 15: 9, 10.
The beasts were slain and divided in the midst, and the per-
sons covenanting passed between the parts. Hence, after
Abraham had performed this part of the ceremony, the
symbol of the Almighty's presence, " a smoking furnace,
and a burning lamp, passed between the pieces," verse
18, and so both parties ratified the covenant.
2. As the beauty of Sarah, w'hich she retained so long
as quite to conceal her real age from ohscr\'ers, attracted
so much notice as to lead to her forcible seizure, once by
Pharaoh, in Egypt, and again by Abimelcch, in Palestine,
ABS
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it may appear strange that, as in the east, women are
generally kept in seclusion, and seldom appear without
veils, she exposed herself to observation. Bal to this day
the Arab women do not wear veils at home in their tents ;
and Sarah's countenance might have been seen in the
tent by some of the officers of Pharaoh and Abimelecb,
who reported her beauty to their masters.
3. The intentional ofl'ering up of Isaac, is not to be sup-
posed as viewed by Abraham an act sanctioning the pa-
gan practice of human sacrifice. The immolation of human
victims, particularly of that which was most precious, the
favorite, the first-born child, appears to have been a com-
mon usage among many early nations, more especially the
tribes by which Abraham was surrounded. It was the dis-
tinguishing rite among the worshippers of Moloch ; it was
)n unison with the character of the religion, and of its
deity. It was the last act of a dark and sanguinary saiper-
stition, -which rose by regnlar gradation to this complete
triumph over human nature. The god, who was propi-
tiated by these offerings, had been satiated with more
cheap and vulgar victims ; he had been glutted to the full
with human suffenng and human blood. In general, it
was the first work of the subjugation of the rational mind
to an inhuman and domuieering priesthood. But the
Mosaic religion held human sacrifices in abhorrence ; and
the God of the Abrahamic family, unifonnly beneficent,
had imposed no duties which entailed human suffering,
had demanded no offerings which w^ere repugnant to the
better feehngs of our nature . The command to oiler Isaac
as " a bumt-offering," was, for these reasons, a trial the
more severe to Abraham's faith. He must therefore have
been fully assured of the divine command ; and he left the
mystery to be explained by God himself. His was a sim-
ple act of unhesitating obedience to the command of God ,-
the last proof of perfect reliance on the certain accom-
plishment of tlie divine promises. Isaac, so miraculously
bestcwed, could be as miraculously restored ; Abraham,
such is the comment of the Christian apostle, "beliered
that God could even raise him up from the dead."
4 . The wide and deep impression made by the character of
Abraham upon the ancient world, is proved by the reverence
which people of almast all nations and countries have
paid to him, and the manner in which the events of his
life have been interwoven in their mythology, and their
religious traditions. .. Jews, Magians, Sabians, Indians,
and" Mahometans, have claimed him as the patriarch and
founder of their sects ; and his history has been embel-
lished with a variety of fictions. One of the most pleas-
ing of them is the following, but it proceeds upon the suppo-
sition that he was educated in idolatry : "As Abraham was
walking by night from the grotto where he was bom, to
the city of Babylon, he gazed on the stars of heaven, and
among them, on the beautiful planet Venns, ' Behold,'
said he within himself, ' the God and Lord of the universe,'
but the star set and disappeared, and Abraham felt that
the Lord of the universe could not thus be liable to change.
Shortly after, he beheld the moon at the full : 'Lo,' he
cried, 'the Divine Creator, the manifest Deity,' but the
moon sank below the horizon, and Abraham made the same
reflection as at the setting of the evenmg star. All the rest
of the night he passed in profound rumination ; at sunrise
he stood before the gates of Babylon, and saw the whole
people prostrate in adoration. ' Wondrous orb,' he ex-
claimed, ' thou surely art the Creator and Kuler of all na-
ture ; but thou, too, settest like the rest to thy setting !
neither then art thou my Creator, my Lord, or my God.' "
— Calmet ; Jones ; Watson.
ABRAHAM'S BOSOM; a figurative mode of describing
the happiness of heaven. Luke 16: 22. The allusion is
to a magnificent feast, at which the redeemed out of every
nation, are represented as sitting down in the kingdom oif
God. Matt. 8: 11. Luke 13: 29. To be, or lie on one's
bosom, refers to the oriental mode of reclining at table.
In this manner, John, as the disciple whom Jesus loved, is
said to have leaned on his bosom. John 13: 23.
ABRAHAMITES ; an order of monks exterminated for
idolatry by Theophilus, in the ninth centurj'. Also the
name of another sect of heretics, who had adopted the
errors of Paulus. See Faulicians.
ABSALOM ; the son of David by Maccah, daughter of
the king of Geshur ; distinguished for his fine person, his
vices, and his unnatural rebellion. Of his open revolt ;
his conduct in Jerusalem ; his pursuit of the king his
father ; his defeat and death ; see 2 Sam. 16 — 18. at
large.
ABSALOM'S PILLAR. Absalom, Kke many other
vain mortals, was ambitious of posthumous fame. At an
early period of life, he caused a pillar to be erected in the
king's valley for the purpose of perpetuating his name ;
" for" said he, " I have no son, and this shall be my monu-
ment.'' 2 Sam. 18: 18. it seems he either lived to have
three sons and a daughter, 2 Sam. 14; 27. after that time,
or they were all dead when he erected the pillar, which is
not very probable. True glory has been said to consist
" in doing what deserves to be written, or m writing what
deserves to be read." Absalom's reputation has indeed
survived hini ; and it wall continue while time shall last;
but if estimated by that standard, it would be difficult to fix
upon any recorded action of his life that would stand the
test.
ABSOLUTION signifies acquittal. It is taken also
from that act whereby the priest declarer the sins of such
as are penitent remitted. The Romanists hold absohition
a part of the sacrament of penance , and the council of
Trent, and that of Florence, declare the form or essence
of the sacrament to he in the words of absolution. " I
absolve thee of thy sins." According to this, no one can
receive absolutions without the privity, consent, and de-
claration of the priest; except, therefore, the priest be
willing, God himself cannot pardon any man . This is a
doctrine as blasphemous as it is ridiculous. The chief
passage on which they gronnd their power of absolution
is that in John 20: 23 : " Whosoever sins ye remit, they
are remitted unto them, and whosoever sinsi ye retain,
they are retained." But this is not to the purpose ; since
this was a special commission to the apostles themselves,
and the first preachers of the Gospel, and mcst probably
referred to the power he gave them of discerning spirits.
By virtue of this power, Peter struck Ananias and Sapphira
dead, and Paul struck Elymas blind. But, supposing the
passage in (jnestion to apply to the successors of the apos-
tles, and to ministers in general, it can only import thnl
their office is to preach pardon to the penitent, assuring
those who believe that their sins are forgiven through the
merits of Jesns Christ ; and that those who remain in un-
belief are in a state of condemnation. Any idea of au-
thority given to fallible, nninspired men to absolve sinners,
different from this, is unscriptural ; nor can I see much
utility in the termi, nrim'steriol, or ckdnrniive absolution, as
adopted by some divines, since absolution is wholly the
prerogative of God ; and the tenns above-mentioned may,
to say the least, have no good influence on the minds of
the ignorant and superstitious. — Burl!.
ABSTEMII ; a name given to snch persons as could not
partake of the cup of the eucharist, on account of their
natural aversion to wine. '
ABSTINENCE ; in a general sense, is the act of re-
fraining from something to which we are accustomed, or
in which we find pleasure. It is more particularly used
for fasting or forbearing of customary food. Among the
Jews, various kinds of abstinence were ordained by their
law. Among tTie primitive Christians, some denied them-
selves the use of such meats as were prohibited by that
law ; others looked upon this abstinence with contempt :
as to which Paul gives his opinion, Rom. 14: 1, 3. The
conncil of Jerusalem, which was held by the apostles,
enjoined the Christian converts to abstain from meats
strangled, from blood, from fornication, and from idolatry,
Acts 15. Upon this passage. Dr. Doddridge observes,
"that though neither things sacrificed to idols, nor the
flesh of strangled animals, have, or can have, any moral
evil in them, which should make the eating of them ab-
solutely and universally unlawful; yet they were forbid-
den to the Gentile converts, because the Jews had such an
aversion to them, that they could not converse freely with
any who used them. This is plainly the reason which
James assigns in the very next words, the twenty-first
verse, and it is abundantly sufficient. This reason is now
ceased, and the obligation to abstain from eating these
things ceases with it. But were we in like circumstances
AB Y
LSI
AB Y
again, Christian charity would surely require us to lay
ourselves under the same restraint."
The spiritual monarchy of the western world introduc-
ed another sort of abstinence, which may be called ritual,
and consists in abstaining from particular meals at certain
times and seasons, the rules of which are called rogations.
If I mistake not, the impropriety of this kind of absti-
nence is clearly pointed out in 1 Tim. 4: 3. — In England,
abstinence from flesh has been enjoined by statute, even
since the reformation ; particularly on Fridays and Satur-
days, on vigUs, and on all days commonly called fish
days. The hke injunctions were renewed under queen
Elizabeth ; but at the same time it was declared, that
this was done, not out of motives of religion, as if
there were any diflerence in meats, but in favor of the
consumption of fish, and to multiply the number of fish-
ermen and mariners, as well as to spare the stock of
sheep.
A more important abstinence, is that referred to by the
apostle, Thess. 5: 22. " Abstain from all appearance of
evil." How much more then, from every thing which is
proved to be really evil ; as some things are, in which, alas,
many indulge ! SeeFASTiNs; Animals; Blood.
ABSTINENTS, or Abstiots ; a set of heretics that
appeared in France and Spain, about the end of the third
centur)'. They are supposed to have borrowed part of
their opinions from the Gnostics and Slanichsans,
because they opposed marriage, condemned the use of
flesh meat, and placed the Holy Ghost in the class of cre-
ated beings. — Buck.
ABUMA ; the same as Rumah, 2 Kings 23: 36.
ABUNDANCE ; an overflowing fulness. See Abound.*
Those who receive the sbiindance of grace and of the gift
of righteousness, Rom. 5: 17. are such as in cordial faith
and love, accept the Gospel of Christ, and receive free jus-
tification thereby ; not excluding, however, the fact, that
faith and love are themselves, wherever they are found,
" the fruits of the Spirit," and therefore " the gift of God."
Gal. 5: 22. Ephes. 2: 8.
ABUSE ; to use things or persons from wrong motives
to wrong ends, in a sinful or dishonorable manner. Judg.
19: 25. Children abuse their parents, when by disobedience
of any kind, or, by neglecting to support or comfort them,
they shorten or embitter their existence. Such as do
these things are called murderers of fathers, and murderers
of mothers. 1 Tim. 1: 9. Men abuse the world when they
use the good things of it to dishonor God, and gratify
their own lusts, forgetful of eternity. 1 Cor. 7: 31.
ABYSS, or deep, ivitliout bottom. The chaos ; the deep-
est parts of the sea ; and, in the New Testament, the
regions of the dead, Rom. 10: 7. also the place of punish-
ment. The devils besought Jesus that he would not send
them into the abyss, a place they evidently dreaded. Luke
8: 31. where it seems to mean that part of Hades in
v/hich wicked spirits are in torment. See Hell.
In the conception of the ancient Hebrews, and of the
generality of eastern people at this day, the abyss, the
sea, or waters, encompassed the whole earth. This was
supposed to float upon the abyss, of which it covered a
smaU part. According to the same notion, the earth was
founded on the waters, or at least, its foundations were on
the abyss beneath. Ps. 24: 2. 13fi: 6. Under these
waters, and at the bottom of this abyss, they represented
the wicked as groaning, and suffering the punishment of
their sins. The Rephaim were confined there, those old
giants, who, whilst living, caused surrounding nations to
tremble, Prov. 9: IS. 21: 16, fee. Lastly, in these dark
dungeons, the kings of Tyre, Babylon, and Egj'pt, are
described by the prophets as suSering the punishment of
their pride and cruelty. Jer. 26: 14. Ezek. 28: 10, kc.
The Abyss is represented in the book of Revelation, as
the abode of evil spirits, and powers opposed to God : " I
saw," says St. John, " a star fall from heaven unto the
earth, and to him was given the key of the bottomless pit.
And he opened the bottomless pit ; and there arose a
smoke out of it, as the smoke of a great furnace ; and
• " Tlie abundance of the seas," Deut. 33: 19, means the opulence
derived from commerce ; but ibe same expression in Isa. 60: o. seems
to refer to the immense mulliiudes of seamen, engaged in carrying on
commercial iniercourae between all nations.
the sun and the air were darkened by reason of the smoke
of the pit. And there came out of the smoke, locustj
upon the earth. And they had a king over ihem, which
is the angel of the bottomless pit," Kev. 9: 1 — 11. See
Abaddon. In another place, the beast is represented as
ascending out of the botlomleas pit, and waging war
against the two witnesses of God, Rev. 11: 7. Lastly,
St. John says, " I saw an angel come down from heaven,
having the key of the bottomless pit, and a great chain in
his hand. And he laid hold on the dragon, that old ser-
pent, which is the devil, and Satan, and bound him a thou-
sand years, and cast him into the bottomless pit, and shut
him up, and set a seal upon him, that he should de-
ceive the nations no more, till the thousand 5'ears should
be fulfilled ; and after that he must be loosed a little sea-
son." Rev. 20: 1 — 3. The original word is abyss.
ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. Very little is known of the
present state of Christianity among the oriental nations ,
and for this little we are cliiefiy indebted to various tra-
vellers, who were far from making it an immediate object
of research : of course our information on this subject
must he attended with some degree of uncertainty. The
seven churches of Asia, existing .in the primitive times,
appear to have vanished from the page of history, without
leaving scarcely a vestige behind; and nothing remains
in their place but the various mutilated forms of Chris-
tianity. See Seven Churches.
Abyssinia, or Ethiopia Superior, is an ancient kingdom
of Africa, whose inhabitants are supposed to have receiv-
ed the Gospel from the Ethiopian eunuch, or prime minister
of their queen Candace, though their general conversion
was net eflTected before the middle of the fourth century.
Their emperor, who is nominally a Christian, exercises a
kind of supremacy in ecclesiastical matters, and confers
all benefices, except that of their chief prelate.
The Abyssinians boast tliemselves to be of .Jewish ex-
traction, and assume to imitate the sen'ice of the taber-
nacle and temple of Jerusaletn ; so that their doctrines
and ritual form a strange compound of Judaism, Chris-
tianity, and superstition. They practise circumcision, and
are said to extend the ceremony to females as well as
males. They obsen'^ both the first and the seventh day
as a Sabbath, and eat no meats prohibited by the law of
Moses. They take ofl" their shoes, before they enter their
churches, and sit on the bare floor. Their w-orship is said
wholly to consist in reading the Scriptures, administering
the eucharist, and hearing some homi'ies of the fathers.
They read the Avhole of the four Gospels every year in
their churches, beginning with Matthew, and proceeding
to the rest in their order. And when they speak of any
event, they say, "It happened in the days of aiatthew;"
that is, while they were reading Matthew's Gospel in tlieir
churches. They observe four fasts in a year with much
severity ; and on their grand festivals they begin their
musit and dancing before daylight, in imitation of David,
■who danced before the ark. They pray for the dead, have
a great veneration for the Virgin Mary, invoke saints and
angels, and have at least as many miracles and legends
of saints as the church of Rome.
The supreme ruler of the Abyssinian church is a bishop,
who receives his appointment from the patriarch of Alex-
andria ; but the inferior clergy are appointed by the
emperor. The primate has an order of men under him,
whom they style Kymos. Every parochial church has
one of these, who is a kind of arch-presbyter, and has
all the inferior priests and deacons, as well as the secular
affairs of the parish, under his caie and government.
The olfice of the inferior priests is to supply that of the
kj'mos in their absence, and to assist them in the puhUc
serrice. They have another order of ecclesiastics, called
Debtaris, who are a kind of Jewi.sh Levites or chanters,
and assist at the public offices of the church. All these
orders are allowed to many, even after they have been
ordained priests; and, which is more singular, even some
of their religious orders or monks, who are numerous, are
allowed the same privilege ; but those who observe celiba-
cy, are commonly in greater esteem.
The distinguishing doctrine of the Abyssinian church,
relates to the person of Christ. They maintain that the
divine and human nature are united in him, -vrithout
AC A
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A CC
either confusion or mixture ; yet though the nature of
Christ is really one, it is at the same time twofold and
compound. They disown the pope's supremacy, and
transubstantiation, though they believe the real presence
of Christ in the sacrament. They believe in a middle state,
in which departed souls must be purged from their sins ;
use confession, and receive penance and absolution from
the priests.
Various attempts have been made to bring this church
under the papal yoke, but without success. The Portu-
guese having opened a passage into Abyssinia in the fif-
teenth century, an emissary was sent to extend the influ-
ence and authority of the Koman pontiif, clothed with the
title of Patriarch of the Abyssinians. The same impor-
ant commission was afterwards given to several Jesuits,
when some circumstances seemed to promise them a
successful and happy ministry ; but the Abyssinians stood
?o firm to the faith of their ancestors, that towards the end
of the sixteenth century the Jesuits had lost nearly all
hope in that quarter.
About the beginning of the seventeenth century, the
Portuguese Jesuits renewed the mission to Abyssinia,
when the emperor created one of them patriarch ; and
not only swore allegiance to the Roman pontiflT, but also
obliged his subjects to forsake the rites and tenets of their
ancestors, and to embrace the doctrine and worship of the
Romish church. At length the emperor became so exas-
perated at the arrogant and violent proceedings of the
patriarch, in subverting the established customs of the
empire for the purpose of confirming the pope's authority,
especially in imposing celibacy on some and requiring
divorce of others who had married more than one wife,
that he annulled the orders fonnerly given in favor of
popery, banished the missionaries from his dominions, and
treated with the utmost severity all who had any connec-
tion with the undertaking. From this period the very
name of Rome, its religion, and its pontifi", have all along
been objects of peculiar aversion among the Abyssinians ;
and so lately as about the middle of the last century, the
edict prohibiting all Europeans to enter into Ethiopia was
still in force, and executed with the greatest rigor. The
present state of the church of Abyssinia, however, is such,
that little besides the name of Christianity is to be found
among them. Their religion is a motley collection of
traditions, tenets, and ceremonies, derived partly from
Judaism and partly from Christianity in its most corrupt-
ed form. In their ritual of worship the former seems to
predominate ; but, like the Catholics, they have festivals
and saints innumerable. One day is dedicated to Ba-
laam's ass ; another to Pontius Pilate and his wife, — to
Pilate, because he washed his hands before he pronoimc-
ed sentence on Christ : — to his lady, because she warned
him to have nothing to do with the blood of that just
person. In legends and miracles, too, they are scarcely
inferior to the church of Rome. And, upon the whole, it
may truly be affirmed, that the religion of the Abyssin-
ians is a monstrous compound of superstitions, unwor-
thily dignified with the name of Christianity. — Moslieim's
Ecclesiastical History ; Brucii's Travels to discover the Source
of the Nile ; Jones's Dictioyiary of Religious Opinions.
ACACIANS ; a sect of heretics in the fourth century ;
BO named from Acacius, bishop of Csesarea,' who denied
tht Son to be of the same substance with the Father,
though some of them allowed that he was of a similar
substance. Also, the name of another sect, named after
Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, in the fifth century,
who favored the opiidons of Eutychtis. See Edttchians.
ACADEMICS ; a name given to such philosophers as
adopted the doctrines of Plato. They were called so from
the Academia, a grove near Athens, where they frequently
indulged their contemplations. Academia is said to derive
its name from one Academus, a god or hero, so called.
Thus Horace, — Atque inter sijlvas Academi qnarere verum.
The Academics are divided into those of the first acade-
my, who taught the doctrines of Plato in their original
purity ; those of the second or middle academy, who dif-
fered materially from the first, and inclined to scepticism ;
and those of the new academy. The middle school laid
it down as a principle, that neither our senses, nor our
rea.«in. are to be trasted ; but that in common afliairs we
are to conform to received opinions. The new academy
maintained, tliat we have no means of distinguishing
truth, and that the most e^rident appearances may lead us
into error ; they granted the wise man opinion, but denied
him certainty. They held, however, that it was best to
follow the greatest probability, which was suflicient for all
the useful purposes of life, and laid down rules for the
attainment of feUcity. The diflTerence between the middle
academy and the new seems to have been this ; that though
they agreed in the imbecility of human nature, yet the
first denied that probabilities were of any use in the pur-
suit of happiness ; and the latter held them to be of use in
such a design ; the former recommended a conformity
with received opinion-s, and the latter allowed men an
opinion of their own. In the first academy Sprusippus
filled the chair ; in the second, Arcesilaus ; and in the new
or third academy, Caneades.
Among the Academics, the existence of God, the immor
tality of the soul, the preferableness of virtue to vice, were
all held as uncertain. This sect, and that of the Epicure-
ans, were the chief that were in vogue at the time of
Christ's appearance, and were embraced and supported by
persons of high rank and weahli. A consideration of the
principles of these two sects, (see Epicureans,) will lead
us to form an idea of the deplorable state of the world at
the time of Christ's birth ; and the necessity there was of
some divine teacher to convey to the mind true and cer-
tain principles of rehgion and wisdom. Jesus Christ,
therefore, is with great propriety called the Day Spring
from on High, the Sun of Righteousness, that arose upon
a benighted world to dispel the clouds of ignorance and
error, and discover to lost man the path of happiness and
heaven. But as we do not mean to enlarge much upon
these and some other sects, which belong rather to philoso-
phy than theology, we shall refer the reader to Euddcexts'
Introduction to the History of Philosophy ; Stanley's Lives ;
Erucker's History of Philosophy, or (which is more mo-
dern) Enfield's Abridgment ; Buck's Theological Dictiona-
ry ; Watson's do.
ACCAD ; one of the four cities builded by Nimrod, the
founder of the AssjTian empirg. Gen. 10: 10. It W"as
contemporary with Babylon, and was one of the first four
great cities of the world. Jerome and otliers say it is the
same as Nisibis, and the Targums read Nisibin. It is
not mentioned under its ancient name by any profane
author. But modern travellers inform us, that abont'six
miles from Bagdad is a gigantic pile of ruins, called, by
the Arabs and Turks, the Hill of Nimrod ; in which the
materials and style of building are so perfectly similar to
those of ancient Babylon, as to make it certain that here
was the site of one of the four cities built by Nimrod. It
was not Babylon ; it was not Erech ; it was not Calneh.
The unavoidable inference, is, that it was Accad ; an in-
ference strengthened by the nam.e of the place Akarkouff,
especially when it is recollected that the Syrian name for
Accad was Achar. — Calmet ; Watson.
ACCEPT, AccEPTAELK, Accepteid. To accept is not
only to receive, but to receive with pleasure and kindness.
Gen. 32: 20. It stands opposed to reject, which is a direct
mode of refusal, and implies a positive sentiment of dis-
approbation. Jer. 6: 30. 7: 29. To receive, says Crabbe,
is an act of right, we receive what is our ovm : to accept, is
an act of courtesy, we acccept what is ofl'ered by another.
Hence, "an acceptable time," or "accepted time," Ps.
69: 13. 2 Cor. 6: 2. signifies, the moUia tcmpora fandi, a
favorable opportunity, a time when acceptance is grant-
ed, and favors are bestowed.
Luke 4: 24. "No prophet is accepted in his own
coimtry." That is, his countrymen do not value and
honor him as they ought ; as we say, " familiarity breeds
contempt."
Luke 22: 21. "Neither acceptest thou the person of
any." The word person, here, and in similar coimections,
signifies the outward appearance, in distinction from inward
character. See Respecter of Persons.
ACCEPTANCE WITH GOD ; a point of Christian doc-
trine, which is of such great importance, that indeed it
may be said to lie at the foundation of all revealed reli-
gion ; and probably, if the subject were fully investigated,
it would be found that most of the erroneous systP"'
ACC
[23]
ACC
vhich prevail iu llic religious world, originate in mistaken
views respecting the Scripture doctrine of a sinner's ac-
ceptance with God. The terra '• accept" in its original
import, implies to receive favorably, and indicates that
divine regard which stands opposed to " hiding of the
face, or the divine frown," but to have a proper view of
the subject, we must keep in mind the Scripture doctrine
of the fall of man ; his natural alienation from God ; the
consequent loss of the divine favor through sin ; and the
revealed medium of his restoration. See Adam ; Fall of
Man; Original Sin.
This general view of things is always supposed, in
whatever the Scriptures teach regarding man's acceptance
■with God. The mediation of the Son of God is founded
upon it ; and the Gospel of divine grace has no meaning
but in reference to it. Had there been no revelation of
mercy to sinners, no call to repentance, or to return to
God, no proclamation of pardon to guilty rebels, there is
too much reason to believe that all the posterity of fallen
Adam would have proceeded, like the angels that fell, in
one undeviating course of rebellion agamst God, without
manifesting a wish to be reconciled to their offended
Sovereign, or seeking to be restored to his favor. But,
"there is forgiveness with \ixm, that He may he feared,"
Ps. 130: 4. The great proof of this delightful truth, is the
mission of his Son into the world, John 3: 16. with the
declared ends of his incarnation and death. 1 John 3:
5 — 8. ch. 4: 9 — 14. the good pleasure of God in his work,
manifested by raising him from the dead, 1 Pet. 3: 19 — 21.
and the numerous calls and invitations of the Gospel,
■wherever it comes, to men of all ranks and degrees, to
siimers of all descriptions, to every one that hears it ; to
forsake their evil ways and return unto God, who ■n'ill
have mercy upon and abundantly pardon them. Isa. 55:
1 — 9. But though the Gospel be glad tidings of great joy
to all who hear it ; though it gives the fullest revelation
of the divine character, and displays aU the perfections
of Deity, as gloriously harmonizing in the economy of
redemption ; though it presents the most powerful in-
ducements for sinners to return to God, by promising the
full remission of sins, and eternal life to every one ■nho
believes the testimony of God concerning his Son ; it
must ever be carefully kept in ■view, that Jesus Christ
alone, is "the way, the truth, and the life ;" and that no
man cometh unto God but by Him, John 14: 6. He is
the "beloved Son of God, in whom the Father is well
pleased," Matt. 3: 17. ch. 17: 5. In him, " the beloved,"
sinners are accepted, Eph. 1: 6. they have redemption in
his blood, verse 7. their sins are forgiven them only for
his name's sake. 1 John 2: 12. The sacrifice he offered
■when he gave himself for them, is to God a sweet smell-
ing savor, Eph. 5: 2. And " he is made of God unto us,
■wisdom, and righteousness, and sanctification, and re-
demption, that, according as it is written, he that glorieth,
let him glory in the Lord," 1 Cor. 1: 30, 31. The virtue
of this perfect sacrifice of the Son of God, by which alone
sin is put away, extended back to the first age of tlie
world ; and will continue its efficacy until aU the elect of
God are called into his kingdom, Horn. 3: 25. Heb. 9: 15.
The promise of this sacrifice, -nhica was made to our first
parents immediately after the fall, ■n-as the great thing
that encouraged them to return to Goil and hope in his
mercy. Gen. 3: 15. Sacrifices were instituted to prefigure
it ; but it was only ■with such as were olfered in the faith
of this great atonement efiected by the High Priest of our
profession, that Jehovah had any delight, or that he
deigned to accept ; and Abel, Noah, Abraham, and the
rest of the Old Testament saints, obtained acceptance be-
fore God only through faith in the divine promise, that, in
the fulness of time, God would raise up unto Israel a
Savior, Heb. 11. And now that the promise is fulfilled,
and the work of human redemption fully accomplished,
siimers can only find acceptance with God, for their per-
sons, their prayers, and their imperfect services, through
faith in the all perfect sacrifice of the Son of God, for
in that alone the Father is well pleased. See Justifica-
tion.
It is no objection to the statement now given of the doc-
trine of acceptance with God, that the apostle Peter hath
Siiid, ■• In every nation, he that fearelh him and workelh
righteousness is accepted with him," Acts 10: 35. because
it is never supposed in the Scriptures, that any truly fear
God and work righteousness, who are not r^eenerated by
the Holy Spirit, 1 John 2: 29. and influenced thereunto by
hope in the divine mercy ; which hope can only arise
from faith in the divine testimony, or promise. Such in-
deed is the explanation that Peter himself gives of the
subject, verse 3ii — 43. Accordingly, it is written, " The
Lord taketh pleasure in them that fear him, in those that
hope in his mercy." Ps. 147: 11. The subject is beauti-
fully illustrated by Christ himself, in the Parable of the
Prodigal Son, who left his father's house, took his journey
into a far country, and there, having wasted his patrimo-
ny in riotous living, was at last ready to perish wiili
hunger, Luke 15: 11. He indeed returned to his father's
house, and met with the most welcome reception ; bni
then the motive or spring of his conduct was a persua-
sion of the abundant stores that were there to be found,
answerable to all his exigencies ; and that even the hired
seiTants of his father had bread enough and to spare,
while he was perishing with hunger. We have also an-
other striking illustration of the subject, in the Parable of
the Pharisee and the Publican. The pharisees, who
despised the Gospel, trusted in themselves that they were
righteous ; and in all their approaches to God, had respect
to the excellency of their characters over other men ;
vainly presuming, that what entitled them to distinction
among their fellow-creatures, w'ould also avail them in the
divine presence. But Christ showed them that, in this in-
stance, they were greatly deceiving themselves. "Ye are
they that justify yourselves before men," said the Savior,
" but God knoweth your hearts ; for that ■which is highly
esteemed among men, is an abomination in the sight of
God." Luke 16: 15. And in the parable just mentioned,
while the pharisee, confidently advancing with his prayers
to the divine throne, would thank God that he was not as
other men, who were extortioners, unjust, or adulterers ;
that he was not like the publican ; that he even fasted
twice in a week, and gave tithes of all he possessed : the
publican, guilty and self condemned, stood afar off,
scarcely daring to hft up his eyes towards heaven, but,
smiting upon his breast, implored the divine clemency,
saying, " God be merciful to me a sinner," Luke 18: 9,
14. The persuasion that there is mercy with God,
through the propitiatory sacrifice of his beloved Son, en-
couraged him to draw nigh, and, praying in faith, he was
heard and accepted ; for he went dowm to his house justi-
fied, while the pharisee was rejected. — Jones's Biblical Cy-
clopedia.
We mistake the terms of acceptance with God, rthen rve
trust in, 1. The, superiority of our virtues to our vices,
Eom. 3: 20. James 2: 10. 2. A faith in Christ which
does not produce good works, James 2: 14. 3. The atone-
ment, without personal repentance from sin, Luke 13: 5.
4. The hope of future repentance, or conversion on a
dying bed, Prov. 1: 24—31.
ACCESS; the privilege of approaching a superior,
with freedom. It is distinguished from admittance, thus :
" we have admittance where we enter ; we have access to
him Mhom we address. There can be no access where
there is no admittance ; but there may be admittance with-
out access. Servants or officers may grant us admittance
into the palaces of princes ; the favorites of pnnces only
have access to their persons." — Crabbe's Synonymes.
In Scripture this important word occm's but three times,
and rlways in connection with our reconciliation to God
through Christ. In Komans 5: 2. where it first occurs, it
signifies our introduction into a state of settled friendship
■with God ; a state in which we are permitted to enjoy the
freest intercourse and communion ■nith him, and can re-
joice in hope of his eternal glory, through his Sou as our
Mediator. "In whom," says the apostle, iu that exquisite
passage, Eph. 3: 12. "we have boldness, and access with
CONFIDENCE, BY THE FAITH OF HiM."
Under the law, the High Priest alone had access to the
divine presence within the mysterious veil of the Holy of
Holies ; but when at the death of Christ the veil of the
temple was rent in twain, it ■was declared that a new and
living way of access was laid open to every true worship-
per. By his death, also, the micUle wall of partition was
AC C
[ 24
ACC
tiioken down, and God became equally accessible to Gen-
tile and to Jew; wlir'reas before, the Gentiles had no
nearer access in the temple worship than to the gate of
the court of Israel. Thus the grace and privileges of
the Gospel are alike bestowed on true believers of all na-
tions.
The apostle Paul, in one short but comprehensive verse,
not only explains this most fully ; but at the same time
shows how, in the economy of redemption, each glorious
person of the Godhead executes a harmonious part in this
most sweet and gracious transaction, Eph. 2: 18. For
TiiKOUGH HIM, (the Sou of God) WE (Jewish and Gentile
believers) both have access, by one Spirit, unto the Fa-
ther. Here we see, in the clearest manner, how fun-
damental to the Christian faith, is the view which it re-
veals to us of the sacred Trinity ; since it is only by the
conduct of the Holy Spirit, through the mediation of the
Son, that we are enabled to approach the Father, seated
on the tlirone of grace. And it behooves us further to re-
mark the blessedness of this access to God. For we are
not simply introduced by Christ, but beheld and accepted
also in Christ. He is our peace: the author both of oiir
access and acceptance : for to the praise of the glory of his
grace, God hath made us ''accepted in the Belo^id."
Eph. 1: 6. 1 Pet. 3: 18. And those words of our Lord
cannot be too well remembered, John 11: 6. "I am the
■way, the truth, and the life ; no man cometh unto the
Father EUT BY ME." — Wataon ; Han-her ; JVatts^s Sermons.
ACCHO, a seaport of Palestine ; (Josh. 19: 23. Judg.
1: 31.) called afterwards Ptolemais, (Acts 21: 7.) from the
first of the Ptolemies, who enlarged and beautified it. Its
site enjoys, says Dr. Wells, all possible advantage by sea
and land. It is situated on the coast of the Mediterranean
sea, thirty miles south of Tyre, on the north angle of a
bay to which it gives its name, and which extends in a
semicircle of three leagues, as far as the point of mount
Carmel. The town was originally surrounded by triple
walls, and a fosse, or ditch cut of the rock, from which, at
present, it is a mile distant. On the north and east, was
a spacious and fertile plain. On the south and west sides
it was washed by the sea ; and Pococke thinks that the
river Belus, which (lows from Carmel into the Mediterra-
nean, was brought through the fosse, which ran along
the ramparts on the north ; thus making the city an
island.
In the first partition of the Holy Land under Joshua,
Accho belonged to the tribe of Ashur ; but it proved to be
one of the places out of which the Israelites could not drive
the primitive inhabitants. Accho, and all beyond it north-
wards, was considered as the heathen land of the Jews.
When Syria was subjected by the Romans, it was made a
colony by the emperor Claudius.
Mr. Taylor has collected several medals of Accho, or
Ptolemais. Those bearing its Phenician name. Ok or
Akko, have dates, of the era of Alexander ; whence it
may be inferred that it received favors from that prince,
probably at the time he was detained in Syria by the siege
.of Tyre. From others it appears, that the city assumes
the privilege of asylum and of sanctity, and that it possess-
ed a temple of Diana. Establishments for the purposes
of commerce, seem also to have been formed here by
merchants from Antioch ; not unlike the English factories
in Smyrna, and other cities of the east, at the present.
There was ako a bath of Venus here, of great antiquity.
Such was Ptolemais in the days of the apostles. Chris-
tianity was planted here at an early period, and here
Saint Paul visited the saints in his wav to Jerusalem.
Acts 21: 7.
This city, now called Acre, which, from the convenience
of its port, is one of the most considerable on the Syrian
coast, was during almost two centuries (A. D. 1000, to
A. D. 12y0,) the principal theatre of the holy wars, and
the frequent scene of the perfidies and treacheries of the
crusaders. By them it was named Acre, or St. John of
Acre, from a magnificent church which was built within its
walls, and dedicated to St. John. It was the la.st fortified
place wrested from them by the Turks ; who, exasperated
by the length of the siege, wreaked a dreadful vengeance
in its desolation and ruin.
From this fatal overthrow it has never, under the go-
vernment of the Turks, been able fully to recover ; though
since the time of its memorable siege by Buonaparte, in
1799, It has been considerably improved and strengthened,
and may now be considered the strongest place in Pales-
tine. Vast ruins of churches, palaces, monasteries, forts,.
&c., may be seen extending more than half a mile in
length ; in all which, says Dr. Wells, you may discern
such marks of strength, as if every building in the city
had been contrived for war and defence.
Mr. Buckingham, who visited Acre in 1816, says, " Of
the Canaanilish ruins, it would perhaps be thought idle to
seek for remains : yet some presented themselves to my
observation, so peculiar in form and materials, and of such
antiquity, as to leave no doubt in my own mind, of their
being the fragments of buildings constructed in the earli-
est ages.
"Of the splendor of Ptolemais no perfect monument re-
mains, but throughout the town are seen shafts of red and
gray granite, and marble pillars. The Saracenic remains
are only to be partially traced in the inner walls of the
town ; which have themselves been so broken down and
repaired as to leave little visible of the original work ; and
all the mosques, fountains, bazaars, and other public build-
ings, are in a style rather Turk'sh than Arabic, excepting
only an old, but regular and well built khan, or caravan-
sera, which might, perhaps, be attributed to the Saracen
age. The Christian ruins are altogether gone, scarcely
leaving a trace of the spot on which they stood.
Acre now contains about ten thousand inhabitants;
about three thousand of whom are Turks, and the remain-
der chiefly Catholics. — Calmet ; Wells; Watson.
ACCLAMATIONS, ecclesiastical, were shouts of joy
which the people expressed by way of approbation of
their preachers. It hardly seems credible to us that prac-
tices of this kind should ever have found their way into
the church, where all ought to be reverence and solemni-
ty. Yet so it was in the fourth century. The people
were not only permitted, but sometimes even exhorted, by
the preacher himself, to approve his talents by clapping of
hands, and loud acclamations of praise. The usi:al
words they made use of were, " Orthodox," " Third apos-
tle," &c. These acclamations being carried to excess,
and often misplaced, were frequently prohibited by the
ancient doctors, and at length abrogated. Even as late,
however, as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, we
find practices that were not very decorous ; such as loud
humming, frequent groaning, strange gestures of the
body, 6zc. See articles Dancers, Shakers. — Buck.
ACCOMMODATION. A technical term in theology,
used in relation to several different subjects.
1. Accommodation to Popuxar Prejudices. A theory
adopted by certain modern writers, and appUed to the in-
terpretation of the New Testament. It supposes (what
has never been proved) that our Lord in his teaching con-
nived at many false notions, prevalent among the Jews,
and derived by them originally from intercourse with the
heathen, without designing to sanction them by his own
infallible authority. Among these false notions some
reckon the existence and influence of good and evil angels,
demoniacal possession, &c., while others include in the
same class of popular prejudices, the immortality of the
soul, its separate existence in the unseen world, a future
state of retribution, &c. It is sufficient to say of this
theorj', by whomsoever advanced, and by whatsoever
show of learning imposed upon the uninformed, 1. That
it is unproved. 2. That its application is perfectly unset-
tled and arbitrary, and therefore it can determine nothing ;
besides being liable to the worst abuses. 3. That those
who adopt it, in the use of it contradict one another. 4.
That could it be proved, it would ruin the character of
our Lord, as a safe and infallible guide to truth ; since, if
he taught any thing clearly, he taught clearly the doc-
trines which are produced as examples of mere accommcv
dation. And 5. That this theory is at total variance with _
every thing recorded of our Lord's freedom of speech,
sincerity, and fidelity. So far was he indeed from accom-
modating his sentiments to the errors of his age, that he
is distinguished not only, as Dr. Paley remarks, by a per-
fect freedom from popular errors himself, unparalleled by
any other teacher of any nation and age ; but by the
ACC
[25]
ACC
Qiishrinking and martyr courage -nath ■n-hicli he perpetu-
ally confronts and censures them. Hence, on one occa-
sion, when informed that his exposure of a popular error
had given offence to the leading sect among his country-
men, he unfolded the great maxim of his ministry, in these
decisive words, " Every plant which my heavenly Father
hath not planted, shall be rooted up." Matt. 15: 13.
2. Accommodation of Phrases. A species of sophism,
in which there is an artful employment of Scripture terms
and phraseologj', in a sense very different from that which
they usually have in the Scriptures, or in the minds of
men, in order to give sanction and currency to the indi-
vidual opinions of the writer. It seems to be this practice
which St. Paul in 2 Cor. 2: 17. stigmatizes as corrupting
or adulterating the Word of God ; a practice which violates
the fundamental laws of sound interpretation ; and by
evaporating the vital truths and spirit of the divine oracles,
and substituting human theories in its stead, tends direct-
ly to subvert and ruin the souls of men. The most per-
nicious errors have been made in this way to glide into
treacherous conjunction with Christianity; retaining their
own quality under the sanction of its name, and reducing
it to surrender every thing distinctive of it, but that dis-
honored name. An intimate acquaintance with every
part of the sacred volume mil, however, generally ena-
ble the humble and pure hearted believer to detect the
fundamental fallacies which such writers would impose
upon the world, for the faith once delivered to the saints.
The writings of Dr. Taylor, of Norwich, (England.) es-
pecially his " Key to the Apostolic Writings," are shown
by Dr. Magee to be full of this subtle species of sophism,
by which the learned author perhaps deceived himself, as
much as he has his numerous and misguided followers.
For a thoroughly learned and masterly exposure of this
seductive school, 'see Magee' s Discourses and Dissertatio7is
on Atonement and Sacrifice.
3. Accommodation of Scripture, the application of
certain passages, not according to their literal meaning,
but to something analogous by way of illustration . Preach-
ers who are fond of doing this, in the choice of texts, are
religiously bound to state clearly, in the first place, the
literal sense of the passage ; lest they fall under the con-
demnation of " handling the word of God deceitfully,"
and train their hearers to habits of, arbitrary and fanciful
interpretation.
'■.We may observe, however," says the profound Foster,
'•■ that it seems to the honor of religion, that so many things
can be accommodated to its illustration, -ndthout any re-
course to that perverted ingenuity which fancifully des-
cries or invents resemblances. It is an evident and re-
markable fact, that there is a certain principle of corres-
pondence to religion, throughout the economy of the
world. Things bearing an apparent analogy to its truths,
sometimes more prominently, sometimes more abstrusely,
present themselves on all sides, to a thoughtful mind. He
that made all things for himself, appears to have drilled
that they should be a great system of emblems, reflecting
or shadowing that system of principles, which is the true
theory concerning Him, and our relations to Him. So
that religion, standing up in grand parallel to an infinity
of things, receives their testimony and homage, and
speaks with a voice which is echoed by the creation."
ACCORD ; the consent of different parts to one re-
sult. The word is borrowed from music, and literally de-
notes the tuning together of the strings of an instrument,
to produce a " concord of sweet sounds." Thus, when
all the desires and emotions of the soul harmonize in one
purpose, without foreign inducements, a man is said to
act of his own accord. 2 Cor. 8: 17. Whatever moves
without the application of external or visible force, is
hence said to move of its own accord. Acts 12: 10. The
Chris' ian church at Jerusalem is said to have been "of
one accord," that is, the different members, amidst all the
variety of age, sex, endowments, ttc, lVc, were actuated
by the same spirit, and brought into a most perfect and
delightful harmony of judgment, views, aims, and affec-
tions. Acts 1: 14. 2: 46. "5: l2.
ACJCOUNTABILITY ; the obligation under which every
man lives of giving an accotmt of himself to God. in order
to future retribution. Rom. 14: 12. 2 Cor. 5: 10. The
4
wisdom of God in this constitution of things, may be un
derstood by a very little reflection. There manifestly
wants some husbanding and equalizing power, to make
the faculties of man turn to the most account. Powers
are slumbering for want of a call, instruments rusting for
want of an occupation, and energies of every kind are
lavished upon idle or evd doing, that should be occupied
in doing good. A full conviction of accountability to
God, firmly seated in the soul, would change the aspect of
the world. See REspoNSiBrLiTv.
ACCUSATION ; the posture used at table, by the an-
cients. The old Romans sat at meat as we do, till the
Grecian luxury and softness had corrupted them. The
same custom of lying upon couches at their entertain-
ments, prevailed among the Jews, also, in our Savior's
time ; for having been lately conquered by Pompey, they
conformed in this, and many other respects, to the exam-
ple of their masters. The manner of lying at meat
among the Romans, Greeks and more modem Jews, was the
same in all respects. The table was placed in the middle
of the room, around which stood three couches, covered
with cloth or tapestry, according to the quality of the
master of the house , upon these they lay, inelming the
superior part of their bodies upon their left arms, tlie
lower part being stretched out at full length, or a little
bent. Their heads were supported and raised with pillows.
The first man lay at the head of the couch ; the next man
lay with his head toward the feet of the other, from which he
was defended by the bolster that supported his o-rni back,
commonly reaching over to the middle of the first man,
and the rest after the same manner. The most honorable
place was the middle couch — and the middle of that. Fa-
vorites commonly lay in the bosom of their friends ; that
is, they were placed next below them : see John 13: 23.
where St. John is said to have lain in our Savior's bosom.
The ancient Greeks sat at the table ; for Homer observes,
that when Ulysses arrived at the palace of Alcinous, the
king dispatched his son Laodama, to seat Ulysses in a
magnificent chair. The Egyptians sat at table anciently,
as well as the Romans, till tosards the end of the Puiuc
war, when they began to recline at table. — Watson's Bibl.
and Theo. Dictionary.
ACCURSED ; the word in Hebrew is Cherem, in Greek
Anathema, and always denotes, in Scripture, something
devoted ; but generally, things devoted to destruction.
Among the ancient Hebrews, every thing that was idola-
trous, was a Cherem, that is, it was " devoted to destruc-
tion." Not only were idols themselves an abomination to
the Lord, but whatever had been employed in idolatrous
worship, became so detestable to the Di^-ine Majesty, that
he would not have it converted to any ordinar)' or com-
mon use ; even the silver and gold which had belonged to
idols, the Jews were not permitted to bring into their
houses, or convert to any private purpose. It was to be
regarded as a cursed thing. Dent. 9: 26. which no person
might meddle with, ch. 13: 17. if he did, he himself be-
came a cursed tiling, that is, he became devoted to destruc-
tion. This was exemplified in the case of -Achan, who
took a wedge of gold, and a Babylonish garment, to his
own private use, when it had been made accur,<ed (che-
rem) by express divine command ; on which account he
was stoned to death. Compare Josh. 6: 17, IS. -irith ch.
ACE
[26]
ACH
7: 21 — 20. The cities of kiuf; Arad, the seven nations of
Canaan, and the sacrilices of idols, were accursed. Num.
21: 2, 3. Ueut. 7: 2, 26. Exod. 22: 19. This sufficiently
explains the general acceptation of the term ; there is,
however, an exception to it, which must be noticed. The
Hebrew word cherem, is sometimes used to denote any
sacred gift, wliich was devoted to God or to holy purposes,
as in Levit. 27: 28. "No devoted thing that a man shall
devote to the Lord, of all tliat he hath, both of man and
beast, and of the field of his possession, shall be sold, or
redeemed; every devoted thing {cherem) is most holy
unto the Lord." Again, we find that although the city
of Jericho was a cherem, (devoted to destruction,) Josh.
r>: 17. yet the metals in it were a cherem, that is, sacred
t: the Lord, and set apart to holy purposes. Let it be
leniembered, however, that this use of the word is very
rare, and forms an exception to its general signification.
It has been considered very difficult to decide in what
sense Paul uses this term, in Rom. 9: 3. where he says,
according to our version, I could " wish that m3'self were
accursed from Christ." A more exact version of the ori-
ginal will perhaps remove this difficulty. The verb
euchovien, rendered " I could wish," is in the indicative, im-
perfect tense, and is used. Acts 27: 29. where it is proper-
ly translated, " and wished for day." The pronoun autos,
rendered myself, is in the nominative case, and is not
governed by euchomen, as it must be, according to the pre-
sent translation. The whole grammatical construction,
therefore, requires that the passage should be translated,
" For I myself did wish a curse from Christ." We must
regard him, therefore, as expressing, not the present pur-
pose or wish of his mind, but what it formerly was, while
he was a mad and furious persecutor of Christ in his
members. Upon this latter principle, the words will run
thus : " I have great heaviness and continual sorrow in my
heart, on account of my brethren, my Irinsmen according
to the flesh, (for I mj'self once imprecated a curse from
Christ,") that is, I myself was formerly actuated by the same
spirit of opposition to Christ, that now actuates theYn ; and
therefore I know how to pity their blindness, ignorance,
and emnity towards the Savior. Possibly he might refer
to that dreadful imprecation of our Lord's murderers,
" His blood be upon us and on our chUdren," Matt. 27:
25. It would appear from the above view, that we are to
understand the language of the apostle. Gal. 1: 8, 9. as a
solemn form of malediction pronounced with apostolical
authoritj', and not merely a sentence of excommunication
after the manner of the Jews. " But, though we or an
angel from heaven preach any other Gospel than that
which we have preached unto you, let him be accursed."
And how are our conceptions of the awful criminality of
perverting the Gospel heightened by the apostle's repeti-
tion of this sentence in the next verse. " As we said be-
fore, so say I now again, if any man preach any other
Gospel unto you than that ye have received, let him be
accursed." See Amathema IVIaranatha ; Curse.
ACCUSE ; to charge with a crime, Dan. 3: 8. in a
formal or soleirm manner. The word lilerally signifies
lo bring to trial. An accusation is made for the sake of
ascertaining the fact, or bringing to punishment. Luke
19: 8. 1 Tim. 5: 19. ' Men's thoughts mcuse them when
their conscience charges their sins on them, and fills them
with pain, shame, and fear, on account thereof. Rom. 2:
15. Moses accused the Jews in Christ's time; his law
pointed out and condemned them for their transgressions,
andfortheirunbelief in the promised Blessiah. John 5: 45.
ACCUSER OF THE BRETHREN ; a title given to
Satan, in Rev. 12: 10. because he without ceasing, in
every age, accuses the saints of manifold crimes towards
God, mankind, and their own consciences.
ACELDAjMA ; a piece of ground said to have Iain on
the south of Jerasalem, just north of the rivulet Shiloah.
It is said to have been the same with the fuller's field,
•where they whitened their cloth. Isa. 7: 3. It is certain
it was the potter's field, whence they digged their materials.
Its sod being quite exhausted by them, it was of very
small value. When Judas brought back the thirtj' pieces
of silver, which he had gotten for betraying his master,
the high priest and rulers pretended that it was not law-
ful to cast it into the sacred treasury, as it was the price
of blood, and purchased with it this field, to bury strangers
in ; and so it came to be called Aceldama, or Hokeldama,
the field of blood. Zech. 11: 12, 13. Matt. 27: 8. Acts
1: 18. Travellers assure us that it is now covered with
an arched roof, and will consume a corpse in two or three
days. Maundrell, however, says that this grave does not
make that quick dispatch with the corpses committed to it,
which is commonly reported. The Armenians have the
control of the burying-place, and also of a magnificent
convent on Mount Zion.
ACEPHALl ; such bishops as were exempt from the
discipline and jurisdiction of their ordinary bishop or pa-
triarch. It was also the denomination of certain sects ;
1. of those who, in the affair of the council of Ephesus,
refused to follow either St. Cyril or John of Antioch ; 2.
of certain heretics in the fifth century, who at first follow-
ed Peter Mongus, but afterwards abandoned him, upon
his subscribing to the council of Chalcedon, they them
selves adhering to the Eutychian heresy; and, 3. of the
' followers of Severus of Antioch, and of all, in general, who
held out against the council of Chalcedon. — Buck.
ACEPSIMUS ; a Christian martyr of some eminence in
Persia, who suffered death for refusing to worship the sun,
in the beginning of the fourth century, under the reign of
the emperor Sapores. — Fox.
ACHAIA ; a province of ancient Greece, now called
Peloponnesus, of which Corinth was the capital. Paul not
only preached the Gospel in the latter city, where he col-
lected a numerous Christian church ; but, during the
eighteen months that he was stationed there, he made ex-
cursions throughout the province, and converted many to
the faith of Christ. Comp. Acts 18: 1. 9—11. In writ-
ing his second epistle to the Corinthian church, he in-
cludes " the saxais in all Achaia," among those to whom
he addressed it, 2 Cor. 1: 1. and ch. 11: 10. "It is worthy
of remark," says Calmet, "that Luke, Acts 18: 12. calls
Gallio the deputy, that is, the proconsul, of Acbaia, which
indeed was the proper title for the chief magistrate there,
at the time he wi-ote ; but it had not long been so, nor
did it long continue to be the case. The propriety of the
application, however, confirms, in no small degree, the au-
thenticity of his naiTative." Achaia, taken in a larger
sense, comprehended the whole region of Greece, or Hellas,
now called iiijffrfia. See Greece.
ACHAN ; the son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, who
purloined a costly Babylonish garment, an ingot of gold,
and two hundred shekels of silver, from among the spoils of
Jericho, against the express injiinctiou of God, who had
accursed, devoted to utter destruction, the city and all that
it contained. Josh. 6: 17. On being taken by lot, he was
condemned to be stoned to death. The whole history is
recorded. Josh. 7. and is a perpetual warning against the
spirit of covctousness. It would appear that Achan's
family were also stoned ; for they were led out with him,
and all his property, " And all Israel stoned him with
stones, and burned them with fire, after they had stoned
them vA\h stones." Some of the critics have made efforts
to confine the stoning to Achan, and the burning to his
goods ; but not without violence to the text. It is proba-
ble, therefore, that his family were privy to the theft,
seeing he hid the accursed things which he had stolen, in
the earth, in his tent. By concealment, they therefore
became partakers of his crime, and so the sentence was
justified. A. M. 2553. B.C. H5l.— Calmet; Taylor;
Watson; Jones.
ACHMETHA. See Eceatana.
ACHOR, valley of, between Jericho and Ai, so called
from the trouble brought upon the Israelites by the sin of
Achan ; Achor, in the Hebrew, denoting trouble.
ACHSAH ; the daughter of Caleb. Josh. 15.
ACHSHAPH ; the same as Achzib, Josh. 12: 20. ch.
19: 25.
ACHISH ; king of Gath, the protector of David. 1 Sam.
21: 19.
ACHZIB ; a city on the coast of the Mediterranean, in
the tribe of Asher, and one of the cities out of which that
tribe did not expel the inhabitants, Judg. 1: 31. It was
called Ecdippa by the Greeks, and is at present termed
Zib. It is situated about ten miles north of Accho, in
Plotemais. Mr. Buckingham, who passed by this place
ACT
[ 27
ACT
says that it is small, and situated on a hill near the sea ;
having a few palm trees showing themselves above its
dwellings.
ACKNOWLEDGE ; to own, or confess. Gen. 38: 26.
To observe, lake notice of. Isa. 33: 13. To esteem and
respect. Isa. 61: 9. 1 Cor. 16: 18. To approve of. 2
Cor. 1: 13. Philem. 6. To recognise, worship, profess, and
own as a God. Dan. 11: 39. IFe acknorvledge the Lordin
nil our ivat/s, when in every matter we request and wait
for his direction and assistance ; when we observe what
direction or encouragement his word and providence afford
us in our affairs, temporal or spiritual. Prov. 3: b. " I
call it atheism by establishment," says Burke, " when
any state, as such, shall not acknowledge the existence of
God, as the moral governor of the world." — Craibe.
ACQUAINT ; to get a familiar knowledge and intimacy.
Ps. 139: 3. To acquaint one's self with, or accustovi to
God, is by repeated endeavors to get spiritual knowledge
of, and intimacy with him. Job 22: 20. — Brurvn.
ACOE.^IETjE, or Acometi ; an order of monks at Con-
stantinople, in the fifth century, wliom the writers of that
and the following ages called Alaimetai, tliat is. Watchers,
because they performed divine service day and night
witliout intermission. They divided themselves into
three classes, who alternately succeeded one another, so
that they kept up a perpetual course of worship. This
practice they founded upon tliat passage — " pray without
ceasing," 1 Thess. 5: 17. — Bitck.
ACOLYTHI, or Acoldthi ; young people who, in the
primitive times, aspired to the ministry, and for that pur-
pose continually attended the bishop. In the Romish
church, Acolythi were of longer continuance ; but their
functions were different from those of their first institu-
tion. Their business was to light the tapers, carry the
candlesticks and the incense pot, and prepare the wine
and water. At Rome there wei'e three kinds; 1. those
who waited on the pope ; 2. those who served in the
churches ; 3. and others, who, together with the deacons,
officiated in other parts of the city. — Buck.
ACRA, a citadel. King Antiochus budt a citadel at
Jerusalem, north of the temple, on an eminence, which
commanded the holy place ; and for that reason was called
Acra. Josephus says that this eminence was semicircu-
lar, and that Simon Maccabeus, haiing expelled the
Syrians, who had seized Acra, demolished it, and spent
three years in levelling the mountain on which it stood ;
that no situation in future should command the temple.
On mount Acra were afterwards built the palace of Hele-
na ; Agrippa's palace, the place where the public records
were lodged ; and that where the magistrates of Jerusalem
assembled.
ACRABATENE ; a district of Judea, extending between
Shechem (now Napolose) and Jericho, incHning east. It
was about twelve miles in length. The Acrabatene had
its name from a place called Alorabbim, about nine miles
from Shechem, eastward. This was also the name of
another district of Judea, on the frontier of Idumea, to-
wards the northern extremity of the Dead Sea.
ACRE. The English acre is four thousand eight htm-
dred and forty square yards ; the Scotch, six thousand
one hundred and fifty and two fifths ; the Roman, three
thousand two hundred ; and the Egyptian aroura, three
thousand six himdred and ninet3'^-eight and seven eighths ;
but the Hebrew tzemed, appears to mean what one plough
tilled at one time. Ten acres of vineyard yielding one
bnth, and the teed of a homer an cphah, import excessive
barrenness ; that the best ground should scarce produce
the tenth part of the seed. Isa. 5: 10. — Brown.
ACROSTIC. See Poetkt of the Hebrews.
ACT OF FAITH ; {Auto da Fe,) in the Romish church,
is a solemn day held by the Inquisition for the punishment
of heretics, and the absolution of the innocent accused.
They usually contrive the Auto to fall on some great festi-
Yal, that the execution may pass with the more awe ; and it
is always on a Sunday. The A uto da Fe may be called the
last act of the inquisitorial tragedy : it is a kind of jail-
delivery, appointed as often as a competent number of
prisoners in the inquisition are convicted of heresy, either
by their own voluntary or extorted confession, or on the
evidence of certain witnesses. The process is this: — In
the morning they are brought into a great hall, where
they have certain habits put on, which they are to wear m
the procession, and by which they know their doom. The
procession is led up by Dominican friars, after which come
the penitents, being all in black coats without sleeves, and
barefooted, with a wax candle in their hands. These are
followed by the penitents who have narrowly escaped
being burnt, who, over their black coats have flames
painted, with their points turned downwards. Next come
the negative and relapsed, who are to be burnt, having
flames on their habits pointing upwards. After these
come such as profess doctrines contrary to the faith of
Rome, who, besides flames pointing upwards, have their
picture painted on their breasts, with dogs, serpents, and
devils, all open-mouthed, about it. Each prisoner is at-
tended with a familiar of the Inquisition ; and those to be
burnt have also a Jesuit on each hand, who are continual
ly preaching to them to abjure. After prisoners, comes
a troop of familiars on horseback ; and after them the
inquisitors, and other officers of the court, on mules : !ast
of all, the inquisitor-general on a white horse, led by twe
men with black hats and green hatbands. A scaflbld is
erected big enough for two or three thousand people ; at
one end of which are the prisoners, at the other the in-
quisitors. After a sermon, made up of encomiums of the
inquisition, and invectives against heretics, a priest ascends
a desk near the scaflbld, and, having taken the abjuration
of the penitents, recites the final sentence -of those who
are to be put to death, and delivers them to the secular
arm, earnestly beseeching at the same time the secular
power 7iot to touch their blood, or put their lives in danger! .'.'
The prisoners being thus in the hands of the civil magis-
trate, are presently loaded with chains, and carried first
to the secular jail, and from thence, in an hour or two,
brought before the civil judge ; who, after asking in what
religion they intend to die, pronounces sentence on such
as declare they die in the communion of the church of
Rome, that they shall be first strangled, and then burnt to
a^hes ; or such as die in any other faith, that they be
burnt alive. Both are immediately carried to the Ribera,
tie place of execution, where there are as many stakes
set up as there are prisoners to be burnt, with a quantity
of dry furze about them. The stakes of the professed,
that is, such as persist in the heresy, are about four yards
high, having a small board towards the top for the prison-
ers to be seated on. The negative and relapsed being
first strangled and burnt, the professed mount their stakes
by a ladder, and the Jesuits, after several repeated exhor-
tations to be reconciled to the church, part with them ;
telling them that they leave them to the de\il, who is
standing at their elbow, to receive their souls, and carry
them with him to the flames of hell. On this a great
shout is raised ; and the cry is, " Let the dogs' beards be
made !" which is done by thrusting flaming furzes fasten-
ed to long poles against their faces, till their faces are
burnt to a coal, which is accompanied with the loudest
acclamations of joy. At last, fire is set to the furze at
the bottom of the stake, over wliich the professed are
chained so high, that the top of the flame seldom reaches
higher than the seat they sit on ; so that they rather seem
roasted than burnt. There cannot be a more lamentable
spectacle ; the sufferers continually cry out, while they
are able, " Pity, for the love of God !" Yet it is beheld,
by all sexes and ages, with transports of joy and satisfac
tion. 0 merciful God ! is this the benign, humane religion
thou hast given to men ? Surely not. If such were thf
genius of Christianity, then it would be no honor to be a
Christian. Let us, however, rejoice that the time is
coming, when the demon of persecution shall be banished
out of this our world, and the true spiiit of benevolencf
and candor pervade the universe ; when none shall hur'
or destroy, but the earth be filled ^\ith the knowledge of
the Lord, as the waters cover the sea ! See iNQmsiTioN.
ACTION FOR THE PULPIT. See Declamation :
Eloqcence of the Pulpit.
ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. This book in the very
beginning, professes itself to be a continuation of the
Gospel of St. Luke ; and its style bespeaks it to be written
by the same person. The external evidence is also very
satisfactory ; for besides allusions in earlier authors, ami
ACT
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ADA
particularly in Clement of Rome,' Polycarp, and Justin
Martyr, the Acts of the Apostles are not only quoted by
IreUEeus, as written by Luke the evangelist, but there are
few things recorded in this book which are not mentioned
by that ancient father. This strong testimony in favor
of the genuineness of the Acts of the Apostles, is sup-
ported by Clement of Alexandria, TertuUian, Jerome,
Eusebius, Theodore, and most of the later fathers. It
may be added, that the name of St. Luke is prefixed to
this book in several ancient Greek manuscripts of the New
Testament, and also in the old Syriac version.
2 This is the only inspired work which gives us any
histori'zal account of the progress of Christianity after our
Savior's ascension. It comprehends a period of about
thirty years, but it by no means contains a general history
of tlie church dui'ing that time. The principal facts re-
corded in it are, the choice of Blatthias to be an apostle in
the room of the traitor Judas ; the descent of the Holy
Ghost on the day of pentecost ; the preaching, miracles,
and sufferings of the apostles at Jerusalem; the death of
Stephen, the first martyr ; the persecution and dispersion
of the Christians ; the preaching of the Gospel in different
parts of Palestine, especially in Samaria ; the conversion
of St. Paul ; the call of Cornelius, the first Gentile
convert; the persecution of the Christians by Herod
Agrippa; the mission of Paul and Barnabas to the
Gentiles, by the express command of the Holy Ghost ; the
decree made at Jerusalem, declaring that circumcision
and a conformity to other Jewish rites and ceremonies,
were not necessary in Gentile converts ; and the latter
part of the book is confined to the history of St. Paul,
of whom St. Luke was the constant companion for several
years.
3. As this account of St. Paul is not continued beyond
his two years' imprisonment at Rome, it is probable that
this book was -BTitten soon after his release, which hap-
pened in the year 63 ; we may therefore consider the Acts
of the Apostles as written about the yeai' 64.
4. The place of its publication is more doubtful. The
probahiUty appears to be in favor of Greece, though some
contend for Alexandria in Egypt. This latter opinion
rests upon the subscriptions at the end of some Greek
manuscripts, and of the copies of the Syriac version ;
but the best critics think, that these subscriptions, which
are also affixed to other books of the New Testament,
deserve but little weight, and in this case they are not
supported by any ancient authority.
5. It Eiust have been of the utmost importance in the
early times of the Gospel, and certainly not of less impor-
tance to every subsequent age, to have an authentic
account of the promised descent of the Holy Ghost, and
of the success which attended the first preachers of the
Gospel, both among the Jews and Gentiles. These great
events completed the evidence of the divine mission of
Christ, estaijiished the truth of the religion which he
taught, and pointed out in the clearest manner the com-
prehensive nature of the redemption which he purchased
by his death.
fficumenius calls the Acts, the " Gospel of the Holy
Ghost ;" and St. Chrysostom, the " Gospel of our Savior's
resurrection," or the Gospel of Jesus Christ risen from the
dead. Here, in the lives and preaching of the apostles,
we have the most miraculous instances of the power of
the Holy Ghost ; and in the accoimt of those who were
the first believers, we have received the most excellent
pattern of the true Christian life. — Watson.
ACTS OF PILATE ; a relation sent by Pilate to the
emperor Tiberius, concerning Jesus Christ, his death,
resurrection, ascension, and the crimes of which he was
con\'icted before him. It was a custom among the Ro-
mans, that the proconsuls and governors of provinces
should draw up acts or memoii-s of Avhat happened in the
course of their government, and send them to the emperor
and senate. The genuine acts of Pilate were sent by him
to Tiberius, who reported them to the senate ; but they
■were rejected by that assembly, because not immediately
addressed to them ; as it is testified by TertuUian, in his
Apol. cap. 5, and 20, 21. The heretics forged acts in
imitation of them ; but both the genuine and the spurious
are now lost.
AD AD RIMNON, or Hadad Rimnon ; a city in the
valley of Jezreel, where the fatal battle between Josiah,
king of Judah, and Pharaoh Necho, king of Eg)'pt, (2
Kings 23: 29. Zech. 12: 11.) was fought. Adad Rimnon
%vas afterwards called Maximianopolis, in honor of the
emperor Maximinian. It is seventeen miles from Cssarea,
in Palestine, and ten miles from Jezreel.
ADALBERT; bishop of Prague, a martyr of the tenth
centurJ^ He was a native of Bohemia. His parents
were of high rank and great wealth, but sincere piety.
From the early exhibition of talent given by Adalbert, his
parents conceived the hope that he might become an orna- .
ment to his family, and determined to do all in their
power, by giving him the advantages of education. For
this purpose they sent him to Magdeburg, to the arch-
bishop of that city, who completed his education, and
confirmed him in piety and virtue. At the death of the
archbishop, he returned to his own country, and entered
himself among the clergy of Prague. The bishop of
Prague died soon after, and Adalbert, though very young,
had gained such reputation for piety and learning, that he
was elected to fill the vacant see. He was inducted into
this office, in 983, and received at Prague with all possible
demonstrations of joy. He divided the revenue of his
see into four parts. The first was employed in the fabric
and oiTiaments of the church ; the second, in the main-
tenance of the clergy; the third, in relieving the poorj
and the fourth, in supporting his own family, which was
always made to cons^t of tM'elve poor persons. He-was
very faithful in the performance of his duty ; but there
were some things customary among the people, which
gave him great uneasiness, but which he could not reme-
dy ; he therefore detennined to leave them and spend the
remainder of his days in a monastery. In this, however,
he was disappointed, for after being absent five years, he
was ordered by the pope to return to Prague, but had
permission to leave the people if they proved as incorrigi-
ble as before. The inhabitants of Prague received him
with great joy, and promised rcfonnation ; but they soon
forgot those promises, and returned to their vices, which
obliged him again to leave them. The archbishop of
Mentz sent another deputation to Rome, to request of the
pope that he might again be ordered back to his diocese.
The Bohemians, however, had now began to look upon
him as the cause of their faults, and threatened him with
death upon his arrival. They actually murdered several
of his friends. Adalbert hearing of these things, thought
it pradent, before going there, to find how he should be
received ; but all the answer he could get was, " that they
were sinners, hardened in iniquity ; and Adalbert a saint,
and consequently not fit to live among them." He now
felt himself discharged from all obligation to them, anii
turned his attention to the conversion of the infidels. For
this purpose he went to Dantzic, where he converted and
baptized many ; but this enraged the pagan priests, who
killed him with darts, the 23d of April, 997. — Foz.
ADA5I ; the name of the first man, the progenitor of
the human race. It is derived from Adamah, which, in
Hebrew and in all the oriental languages, originally sig-
nifies vegetable earth, or mould ; and there seems to be
an allusion to this derivation, in 1 Cor. 15: 47 — 49. where,
in relation to the two great heads of the human race, the
natural and the supernatural, the apostle says, " The first
man is of the earth, earthy ; the second man is the Lord
from heaven."
The history of Adam, especially to us his descendants,
is full of intense, and, from incidental circumstances,
melancholy interest. It is given ■with great simplicity in
the first four chapters of Genesis. In reading them, it is
ot' the utmost importance to remember that we are read-
ing a histor)', not an aUegory, — an outline of events, not
an exposition. The veil of time is removed by the
spirit of revelation, and the past appears just as it once
appeared ; but the vision is distant, and therefore dim.
AVe see the surface of the scene, not the interior, the
prominent points, not all the particulars. No explana-
tions are offered, though our curiosity is often ready to
ask them : facts of the most interesting character, and
deepest import, are stated without the slightest coloring
"<" emotion J and we are left to judge of causes from their
ADA
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effects, of principles from actions, just as we judge of the
qualities of a soil from the aspect of its productions. Many
subsequent allusions of the inspired writers, however,
serve to throw additional light upon the history ; and give
greater defiuiteness and certainty to our conclusions, while
they operate as a check upon the tendency to be wise
above what is written.
In reviewing the concise history of Adam, several things
appear worthy of particular remark.
1. The time at which he was created, is strongly ex-
pressive of the importance of his character. It has been
pertinently remarked concerning the Dirine Providence in
the creation of the world, (which indeed is true sf every
human plan, concerted \rith wisdom and foresight,) that
what was first in intention, was last in execution. Man,
for whom all other things were made, was hunself made
last of all. In the Mosaic narrative, the only rational
account that was ever given of the origin' of things, we
are taught to follow the heavenly Artist, step by step, first
in the production of the inanimate elements, next of vege-
tables, and then of animal life, till we come to the master-
piece of the creation, man endowed with reason and
intellect. The house being built, its inhabitant appeared,
the feast being set forth, the guest was introduced ; the
theatre being decorated, and lighted up, the spectator was
admitted to behold the splendid and magnificent scenery
in the heavens above and the earth beneath ; to view the
bodies around him, moving in perfect order and harmony,
and every creature performing the part allotted it in the
universal drama; that seeing he might understand, and,
understanding, adore its Supreme Author and Direc-
tor.
2.' The manner in which the creation of Adam is nar-
rated, indicates something peculiar and eminent in the
being to be formed. Not that it could be a matter of more
difficulty to Omnipotence to create man, than any thing
besides ; but principally, it is probable, because he was to
be the lord of the whole, and therefore himself accounta-
ble to the original proprietor ; and was to be the subject
of another species of government, a moral administra-
tion ; and to be constituted an image of the intellectual
and moral perfections, and of the immortality of the
common Maker. Every thing, therefore, as to man's
creation, is given in a solemn and deliberative form, and
contains, also, an intimation of a Trinity of Persons in the
Godhead, all equally possessed of creative power, and
therefore Divine ; to each of whom, man was to stand in
relations the most sacred and intimate: — " AndGodsaid,
Let IIS make man in our image, after our likeness ; and let
them have dominion," (kc.
3. It may be next inquired, in what that image of God,
in which man was made, consists.
It is manifest from the history of man, that human
nature has two essential constituent parts, the body,
formed out of pre-existent matter, the earth ; and a LmNu
somj, breathed into the body by an inspiration from God.
" And the Lord God formed man out of the dust of the
ground, and breathed into his nostrils (or face) the breath
of bfe, (lives,) and man became a living soul." Whatever
was thus imparted to the body of man, already "formed,"
and perfectly finished in all its parts, was the only cause
of life ; and the whole tenor of Scripture shows that this
was the rational spirit itself, which, by a law of its Crea-
tor, was incapable of death, even after the body had fallen
under that penalty.
The "image" or likeness of God, in which man was
made, has by some been assigned to the body ; by others,
to the soul. It has, also, been placed, in the circumstance
of his having " dominion" over the other creatures. As to
the body, it is not necessary to prove that in no sense can
it bear the image of God ; that is, be li/,e God. An up-
right form has no more likeness to God, than a prone or
reptile one ; God is incorporeal, and cannot be the arche-
type of any thing material.
Equally unfounded is the notion that the image of God
m man, consisted in the " dominion" which was granted
to him over this lower world. Limited dominion may, it
IS true, be an image of large and absolute dominion ;
but man is not said to have been made in the image of
God's dominion, which is an accident merely, for, before
creatures existed, God himself could have no dominion : —
he was made in the image and likeness of God himself.
Still further, it is evident that man, according to the
history, was made in the image of God, in order to his
having dominion, as the Hebrew particle imports ; and,
therefore, his dominion was consequent upon his forma-
tion in the "image" and "likeness" of God, and cotildnot
be that image itself.
The notion that the original resemblance of man to
God must be placed in some one essential quality, is not
consistent with holy Writ, from which alone we can de-
rive our information on this subject. We shall, it is true,
find that the Bible partly places it in what is essential to
human nature ; but that it should comprehend nothing
else, or consist in one quality only, has no proof or rea-
son ; and we are, in fact, taught that it comprises also
what is so far from being essential, that it may be both lost
and regained. When God is called " the Father of spirits,"
a likeness is suggested between man and God, in the
spiritualilij of their nature. This is also implied in the
striking argument of St. Paul with the Athenians : " For-
asmuch as we are the offspring of God, we ought not to
think that the Godhead is like unto gold, or silver, or stone,
graven by art and mtn's device ;" plainly referring to the
idolatrous statues by which God was represented among
the heathen. If likeness to God in man consisted in
bodily shape, this would not then be an argument against
human representations of the Deity ; but it imports, as
Howe well expresses it, that "we are to understand that
our resemblance to him, as we are his offspring, lies in
some higher, more noble, and more excellent thing, of
which there can be no figure ; as who can tell how to give
the figure or image of a thought, or of the mind or think-
ing power?" In spiritual itij, and consequently immateri-
ality, this image of God in man, then, in the first instance,
consists. Nor is it any valid objection to say, that imma-
teriality is not peculiar to the soul of man ; that we have .
reason to believe that the inferior animals are actuated by
an immaterial principle. This is as certain as analogy
can make it : but though we allow a spiritual principle to
animals, its kind is obviously inferior ; for that spirit which
is incapable of induction and moral knowledge, must be
of an inferior order to the spirit which possesses these
capabilities ; and this is tlje kind of spirit which is peculiar
to man.
The sentiment expressed in Wisdom 2: 23. is an evi-
dence that, in the opinion of the ancient Jews, the image
of God in man comprised immortality also. " For God
created man to be immortal, and made hun to be an image
of his own eternity ;" and though other creatures were
made capable of immortality, and at least the material
human frame, whatever we may think of the case of
animals, would have escaped death, had not sin entered
the world ; yet, Tvithout admitting the absurdity of the
" natural immortality" of the human soul, that surely
must have been constituted immortal, in a high and pecu-
liar sense, which has ever retained its prerogative of
continued duration, amidst the universal death, not only
of animals, but of the bodies of all human beings. There
appears, also, a manifest allusion to man's immort.''.lity,
as being included in the image of God, in the reason which
is given in Genesis, for the law which inflicts death on
murderers : " Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall
his blood be shed : for in the image of Gorfmadehe man."
The essence of the crime of homicide is not confined
here, to the putting to death the mere animal part of man ;
and it must, therefore, lie in the pecuUar value of life to
an immortal being, accountable in another state for the
actions done in this, and whose life ought to be specially
guarded for this very reason, that death introduces him
into changeless and eternal relations, which were not to
be left to the mercy of human passions.
To these we arc to add the intellectual poivers, and we
have what divines, in perfect accordance with the Scrip-
tures, have called, " the k.^tukal image of God in his
creatures," which is essential and ineflacable. Blan was
made capable of knowledge, and he was endowed with
liberty of 7vill. This natural image of God was the foun-
dation of that MOHAL image, by which also man was
distinguished. Unless he had been a spiritual, knowing,
ADA
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ADA
and willing being, he would have been wholly incapable of
moral qualities.
To discover wherein such image and likeness consisted,
we can adopt no safer course than to inquire, wherein the
Scriptures fix that divine image and likeness, in which
man is created anew, through the redemption which came
by Christ Jesus. The image restored, was the image lost;
. and the image lost, was that in which Adam was created.
The expressions used by the apostle Paul, clearly point
out to us this method of proceeding. Hence we read of
" the new man, which after God is created ;" and also of
man "being renewed after the image of him that created
him." Ephes. 4: 24. Col. 3: 10. This application of
the term created, refers us to man's first creation, and
leads us to fonn a parallel between that and his renova-
tion, or new creation, by which he, in a measure, re-obtains
those excellencies, of which Adam was possessed before
the fall. And these are summed up in " knowledge, in
righteousness, and in true holiness." The divine image,
then, is to be found in the mind, that is, in the under-
standing, the will, and the affections. In Adam's under-
standing there was no error ; nor was there any obliquity
in his will. His knowledge was according to truth, and
all the afiections of his soul moved in the pursuit and
practice of it.
Man, therefore, in his original state, was sinless, both in
act and in principle. Hence it is said that " God made
man upright." That this signifies moral rectitude, can-
not be doubled ; but the import of the word is very exten-
sive. It expresses, by an easy figure, the exactness of
truth, justice, and obedience. Such, then, was the condi-
tion of primitive man ; there was no obUquity in his
moral principles, his mind, or afiections ; none in his
conduct. He was perfectly sincere and exactly just, ren-
dering from the heart all that was due to God and the
creature. Tried by the exactest flummet, he was tiprigkt ;
by the most perfect rule, the law of God, he was faultless.
The soul of the first man was also possessed of spiritual
enjoyment. By this is intended, that enjoyment which
springs from ajfectians, harmonizing with the conscience, and
with each other. In such a soul, every affection is delight-
fitl ; and all its views, purposes, and pursuits are just, be-
nevolent, and lovely. Love, the controULng aflection, how-
ever varied may be its exercises, is only a succes.sion of
varied pleasure. Its two great constituents are, delight in
the objects beloved, and a desire to do them good. The more
excellent, dignified, and enduring the objects are, the more
noble, pure, and rapturous is the enjoyment which it
derives from them. Love to God, therefore, to transceii-
dently the greatest and most excellent of all objects, is
capable of "becoming in itself, and in its consequences,
higher enjoyment than any other. At the same time,
every other aflection is, in such a mind, perfectly accor-
dant with the commanding one. Other objects are all
duly loved, and every exercise of the heart is attended by
the delightful sense of rectitude. This is, indeed, the
proper life of man. And thus the happiness which dwells
in the blessed God, was reflected upon man,and formed a
trait of that divine likeness in which he was created.
A modern writer, Mr. H. Ballon, in his " Treatise on
Atonement," has advanced a diflTerent theory respecting
the image of God, in which man was created, and made it
the foundation of his scheme of universal salvation . Because
Christ is in the New Testament called emphatically "the im-
age of the invisible God," Mr. Ballou contends that this is
the meaning of the phrase in the first chapter of Genesis.
Hence he derives the conclusion, that all mankind are in
Christ, because, according to his theory, Adam was created
in Christ. The reader will easily see that this theory is
foimded on a gross misconception of the language of
Moses ; and is in absolute opposition to all those passages
which speak of men in an unconverted state, as " without
Christ," (Ephes. 2: 12. Kom. 16: 7. 8: 9.) and of being
" in Christ," as the distinguishing characteristic of real
Christians, (Rom. 8r 1. 12: 5. 1 Cor. 15: 18. 2 Cor. 12:
2. 1 Thess. 4: 16.) especially to the decisive declaration
of St. Paul, 2 Cor. 5: 17. " If any man be in Christ, he is
a new creature." After such a specimen of Mr. Ballou's
skill in interpretation as the above, judicious minds will
appreciate, at their just value, his claims to guide his
fellow-men to the correct knowledge of the "Word of God
But (to use the cutting language of the apostle, 1 Cor.
14: 38.)if an;/ man be ignorant, let him be ignorant.
4. In the complex constitution of Adam, the soul, bear-
ing as it did the divine image, was united to a far inferior
element, the body. Yet, even in this, whether we consider
its materials, or its organization, we find much which
merits attention, much which marks the superiority of
man over the other animal races around him. The
human body was not made of the celestial elements, light
and air ; but of the more gross terrestrial matter, as being
designed to receive and communicate notices of terrestrial
objects, through the medium of organs similar to them.
"The Lord God formed man out of the dust of the ground ;"
he moulded or modelled him as a potter does the clay
tmder his hand ; we see the work, as it were, upon the
wheel, gradually rising and growing under the hands of
the divine Artificer ; and at length producing, from the
dust of the ground, a frame superior in rank and dignity
to the heavens and all their host. They whose profession
has led them to examine the structure of this astonishing
piece of mechanism, contemplate the works of the Lord,
and his wonders in the formation of the human body. An
examination of its parts, and the admirable slrill with
which they are disposed, brought Galen upon his knees in
adoration of the wisdom "with which the whole is con-
trived, and incited him to challenge any one, upon a hxm-
dred years' study, to show how the least fibre or particle,
could be more commodiously placed, either for use or
beauty. And while the world shall last, genius and dili-
gence vnll be producing fresh proofs that we are " fearful-
ly and wonderfully made ;" that ' marvellous are the
works;' and, above all, this capital work of the Almighty,
demonstrating that the hand which made it must indeed
be divine. See Physiology.
Adam diflered from all his descendants in this particu-
lar, that he was not to attain the maturity of his intellectual
powers, by a gradual process from infancy, but came into
being in full stature and vigor of mind, as well as body.
He found creation, likewise, in its prime ; it was morning
with man and the world. How long he was allowed to
make his observations upon the diflferent objects with
which he found himself surrounded, we are not told ; but
it should seem, either that sufficient time was allowed him
for that purpose, or that he was enabled, in some extraor-
dinary manner, to pervade their nature, and discover
their properties. For we are informed, that God brought
the creatures to him, that he might impose upon them
suitable names. The use of names is to express the na-
ture of the things named ; but in the knowledge of those
natures, at the beginning, God, who made them, must
have been man's instructer. "Without such an instructer,
indeed, it is not likely that man could ever have formed a
language at all, since it is a task that requires much
thought, and the great masters of reason seem to be
agreed, that -Rithout language we are incapable of think-
ing to any purpose. However this may be, from the
original imposition of names, by our first parent, we may
infer that his knowledge of natural objects must have
been very eminent and extensive ; nothing inferior, we
may suppose, to that of Solomon, who " spake of
trees from the cedar to the hyssop, and of beasts, and
fowls, and creeping things, and fishes." It is, therefore,
probable, that Plato asserted no more than the truth,
Avhen, according to the traditions he had gleaned up in
Egypt and the east, he affirmed that the first man weis, of
all men, " the greatest philosopher."
But Adam was made for nobler ends than merely to rule
over the creatures of the lower, world. He was formed
for the contemplation of God here, and for the enjoyment
of him hereafter. We cannot, therefore, suppose that his
knowledge would terminate on earth, though it took its
rise there. Like the patriarch's ladder, its foot was on
earth, but its top reached to heaven. His mind ascended
from the creatures to the Creator, and descended from the
Creator to the creatures. It was the golden chain which
connected matter and spirit, preserving a communication
between two worlds.
To point out to us the munificence of heaven towards
his favorite creature, it is said, " The Lord God olanted a
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garden eastward in Eden, and there he placed the man whom
he had formed." Gen. 2: 8. When we think of paradise,
we think of it as the seat of delight. Its very name, Eden,
which signifies pleasure, authorizes us so to do. The
garden of Eden had, doubtless, all the perfection it could
receive from the hands of him, who ordained it to be the
residence of the noblest of his works. We may reasona-
bly presume it to have been the earth in miniature; and
to have contained specimens of all natural productions,
as they appeared without blemish, in an unfallen world ;
disposed, too, in admirable order for the purposes intend-
ed. And it may be observ'ed, that when, in after-times,
the penmen of the Scriptures have occasion to describe
any remarkable degree of fertility and beautj', of gran-
deur and magnificence, they take their similitudes from
the garden of Eden. Gen. 13: 10. Joel 2: 3. Ezek.
28: 12.
To complete the happiness of man, God created him with
a social nature ; and this not only for the multiplication of
his species, but also for the interchange of those amiable
affections, and those offices of kindness, which arise
from the parental and filial relations, as well as from
the inherent diversity of character in the sexes. In
the emphatical language of the Scriptures, they were
made for each other; and were designed to furnish,
mutually, a social and superior happiness, of which soU-
tude is incapable. A more delicate and beautiful form
was imited in the woman, to a mind, possessing gentler
and lovelier affections, a more refined taste, and more
elegant sentiments. In the man. a firmer and stronger
frame was joined to a mind more robust, more patient of
toil, and more equal to difficulties. In each, the other was
intended to find that which was wanting in itself ; and
to approve, love, and admire, both qualities and actions,
of which itself was imperfectly capable ; while in their
reciprocations of tenderness, and good-will, each beheld
every blessing mightily enhanced, and intensely endeared.
From the circumstances related by Moses, concerning
the placing of Adam in the garden of Eden ; from his
causing the creatures to come before him ; from his
bringing Eve to him ; and from his communicating to him
a law which he was strictly to observe, we maj^ judge of
the familiar intercourse to which the blessed God conde-
scendingly admitted him. He conversed with him, pro-
bably, under some \isible appearance, as he afterwards
did with Moses, " as a man converseth \\ith his friend ;"
no doubt, instructing him, as far as was necessary, in the
knowledge of his Maker, of his own immortal spirit and de-
stiny, of the temptations he had to encounter, of the conse-
quences to which disobedience would subject him, and
probably of those invisible glories, a participation of
which was to be the reward of his obedience.
5. The trial of Adam, by a special prohibition, it has
been justly remarked, was siirgularly adapted to the end
proposed. To conform to his Creator's vAW, he must be
trained to habits of implicit obedience ; satisfied in ab-
staining from a thing, on the mere ground of its being
forbidden of God, though he were unable to perceive the
reason of his being required so to do. It was, in reality,
that he might continue in the sweet spirit of a child of God,
that should have no wi\i of his own ! and this is still the
spirit of true religion.
In considering the trial, temptation, and fall of
Adam, the greatest difficulty is, to divest ourselves of
ideas received from the present state of things. We can-
not sufficiently dismiss from our minds, that kiwwledge,
(rather that subtiUy.) which we have acquired by experi-
ence. We should, nevertheless, remember, that however
Adam might be a man in capacity of understanding, yet,
in experience, he coidd be but a child. He had no cause to
distrjjt any, except what he found in the warning voice
of his Heavenly Father. Had he still relied on that warn-
ing voice, he could not have been deceived by an artful
combination of apjiearances ; by fraud and guile, exerted
against it. The same remark is true, also, of Eve. The
subtilty of the tempter beguiled her away from her confi-
dence in her Heavenly Father ; and re\yin<; on her own
judgment, instead of His Word, she fell. Adam, indeed,
the apostle assures us, "mas not deceived:' 1 Tim. 2: 14.
Against his better knowledge, he yielded to his social affections.
The sin of both was voluntary, and therefore inexciLsablc
It was nothing less than "preferring the creature to
THE Creator, who is blessed forevermore ." Rorn. 1: 25.
This, this is the bitter root of all the evil in creation ! Because,
as was man's situation, such was the test given to him. It
was not an active, but a passive duty ; not something to be
done, but something to be forborne ; a negative trial. Nor
did it originally regard the mind, but the appetite ; nor was
that appetite without fit, yea, much fitter supply, in abun-
dance all around it. Ungrateful distrust of God, unwar-
rantable presumption, unrestrained desire, liberty extended
into licentiousness, were the first principles of human
transgression. And observe, they neglected prayer !
The aggravating circumstances of the offence may well
be adduced from the tremendous consequences which
followed. Gen. 3: 22—24. Rom. 5: 12—21.
6. It has been remarked by commentators, that the
threatening denounced on the serpent, docs not so much
respect the person of the grand adversaiy of God and
man, as it does his cause and kingdom in this world. He
will be personally punished at the appointed time ; but
this respects the manifestation of the Son of God, to destroy
his works. It contains an intimation that Satan's cause
shall be ruined, and that its ruin shall be accomplished
by one in human nature ; by the Seed of the Woman ;
which must have been not a little mortifying to his pride.
And more especially will this latter appear to be the case,
if we consider, what the Scriptures strongly intimate, that
his own fall was the effect of envy, at the rejoicings of
eternal wisdom over man, when first made known in
heaven, and that his present attempt to ruin the human
race, was an act of revenge. John 8: 44. 1 John 3: 8 — 12.
The breaking of a beautiful vase, may afford some
idea of Adam after his sin. The integrity of his mind
was violated ; the first compliance ■ndth sin opened the
way to future compliances ; grosser temptations might
now expect success ; and thus spotless purity becoming
impure, perfect uprightness becoming warped, lost that
integrity which had been its glor)'. Hereby, Adam relin-
quished that distinction, which had fitted him for immedi-
ate communion mth supreme holiness, and was reduced
to the necessity of soliciting such communion, mediatel}',
not immediately; by another, not by himself; in pros-
pect, not instant ; in hope, not in possession ; in time
future, not in time present ; in another world, not in this.
It is worthy of notice, how precisely the principles
which infatuated Adam, have ever governed his posterity ;
how suitable to the general character of the human race,
was the nature of that temptation, by which their fatherfeU!
Who is not self-convicted of lust and pride ? Surely when
Adam in after-ages was giving advice to his descendants ;
when his sacred hands, stained 'with the blood of the vic-
tim recently offered to Jehovah, were extended in benedic-
tion over his worshipping family, he would say, "My
sons, behold in me the sad example of disobedience to re-
straint ; had I constantly honored that simple prohibition,
I had been happy : how many restraints, now necessary
for human welfare, had never been known ! Now is man
restrained from this — because to this he is prone ; and
from that — because that seems good to him ; but, under
seeming good, lurks real evil. Such was the character
of my temptation! It offered pleasure, but I found :t
anguish; it allured the sense, but the sense was deprave;
by it ; before I sinned, I was serene, delighted, happy ;
afterwards, I was gloomy, turbulent, miserable. 'ftTiere-
fore ? Because I violated the di\ine restraint ; because,
having abundance, I craved superfluity ; because, being a
man, I must needs wish to be as God ; because, kncAving
only good, I would know evil also, — ' good lost, and evil
got !' "
It is presumable that only, or chiefly, in the garden
of Paradise, were the prime fruits and herbage in perfec-
tion. The land around the garden might be much less
finished, and only fertile to a certain degree. To pro-
mote its fertility, by cultivation, became the object of
Adam's labor ; so that in the sweat of his brow, he him-
self did eat bread. But the sentence passed on our first
parents, doubtless, regarded them as the representatives,
the very concentration of their posterity, the whole human
race ; and attaching to themselves, it seems, prophetically
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also, to suggest the condition of the sexes in future ages.
" The female sex, which has been the means of bringing
death into the world, shall also be the means of bringing
life — posterity — to compensate the ravages of death ; —
and, to remind the sex of its original transgression, that
which shall be its greatest honor and happiness, shall be
accompanied by no slight inconveniences. But the male
sex shall be under the necessity of laboring for the sup-
port, not of itself only, but of the female and her family :
so that if a man could, vnlh little exertion, provide for
himself, he should be stimulated to far greater exertions,
to toil, to sweat, for the advantage and support of those
to whom he has been the means of giving life."
Death, the wages of sin, doses the senteme passed on man-
kind ; and the dread privation it involves, is common to
Adam, and to all his descendants.
" The poison in your blood, though slow, is sure ;
though latent, yet it will operate in time. I do not think
proper to exert my Almighty power in curing this malady
directly ; I shall remedy its effects another way ; I leave
you uncertain of n-hen you may die ; every day brings you
nearer to the period at which jou must die : be this anxious
suspense the commencement of your punishment ; it is
one of the bitternesses of death. But this is not all.
Paradise, the tree of life, your happy immortahty, all is for-
feited ! Having sinned, i/ou have come short of the glory of
God ; the hope of which, nothing but mercy can restore.
(Comp. Rom. 3: 23. with Rom. 5: 1, 2.) The privation of
all your primitive and prospective felicity — not of immortal
existence, but of all that makes immortal existence happy
and desirable — this is the full import of your sentence —
DEATH !" But see how the mercy of God mitigates the conse-
quences announced in this whole sentence ! It inflicts pain
on the woman, but that pain is connected with the dearest
comforts, and with the great Restorer of the human race !
it assigns labor to the man, but then that labor is to
support himself, and others dearer to him than himself,
repetitions of himself! it denounces deatli, but death in-
definitely postponed, and to the believer the path to life ! It
may be well to remark, that the Hebrew expression, in the
day, which is used in the threatening announced to man,
is of a rather loose and general signification ; much like
our English expressions, when speaking of time, long
past, or long to come, as " the people of that day," mean-
ing of that time, with great latitude. There is another
phrase wliich expresses a fixed or instant day, but that is
not used here.
7. Our lirst parents were divinely clothed with skins :
no doubt ONE skin sekved them both, for the word
is in the singular form. They had endeavored to cover
themselves with fig leaves ; but the intertwining, the
plaiting of leaves, of boughs or branches, recalled no
image of death ; it shed no blood ; it expressed nothing
that included the idea of restitution or atonement, and
therefore it was rejected. The skin of an animal, however,
was not to be procured, without first taking away the life
of the animal ; and the life of the animal could not be
taken away, without reminding Adam of the penalty
threatened — death! A\'Tiat a subject does this offer to the
imagination ! What a scope might it not here take ! How
would Adam tremble, when he first selected the creature
'.o be slain ; when he led it towards the place appointed
for its death ; with what heavy reluctance, what hesita-
tion, would he bind it, wreath around it the confining
twigs, and then proceed to slaughter it ! What would be his
reflections when its blood streamed, when its limbs quiver-
ed, and at length, when they ceased to quiver! Its last
gasp would thrill through his soul, and give him to feel,
by sympathy, what death was. How would the peniten-
tial tears stream from his eyes, to think that to this he
must eventually submit ; that to this he had subjected his
descendants to the very latest posterity I What, then,
could be the import of sacrifice, but a memorial, a repre-
sentation of death — deserved by the principal, but transfer-
red, for merciful purposes, to a substitute ! See Eden ;
Death; Language; Fall of Man ; Sackifice.
8. The Rabbinical and JIahometan traditions and fables,
respecting the first man, are as absurd as they are nume-
rous. Some of them, indeed, are monstrous, unless we
suppose them to be allegories, in the exaggerated style of
the orientals. Some say that he was nine hundred cubits
high ; whilst others, not satisfied with this, affinn that his
head touched the heavens. The Jews think that he
wrote the ninety-first Psalm, invented the Hebrew letters,
and composed several treatises ; the Arabians, that he
preserved twenty books which fell from heaven ; and
the Mussulmen, that he himself wrote ten volumes.
9. That Adam is a type of Christ, is plainly affirmed by
St. Paul, who calls liim " the figure of him, who was to
come." Hence our Lord is sometimes called, not inaptly, the
second Adam. 1 Cor. 15: 45 — 49. This relation stands some-
times in SIMILITUDE, sometimes in contkast. Adam was
formed immediately by God, as was the humanity of
Christ. In each, the nature was spotless, and richly en-
dowed with knowledge and true holiness. Both are seen
invested with dominion over the earth and all its creatures ;
and this may explain the eighth Psalm, where David
seems to make the sovereignty of the first man over the
whole earth, in its pristine glory, the prophetic symbol of
the dominion of Christ over the world restored. Beyond
these particulars, fancy must not carry us ; and the typi-
cal contrast must also be limited to that which is stated
in Scripture, or supported by its allusions. Adam and
Christ were each a public representative, a federal head, to
all in connection with them ; but the connection in the first
case, is that of nature, in the last, it is of grace, through
faith. 1 Cor. 1: 30. The one was the fountain of sin and
death, the other of righteousness and life, Rom. 5: 12 — 19.
The first man communicated a living soul to all his pos-
terity ; the other imparts to his, that quickening Spirit,
which restores them now to newness of life, and will raise
them up at the last day. Rom. 8: 1—11. 1 Cor. 15: 22. By
the communication of his fatally injured nature, death
reigned, even over those who had not sinned after the
similitude of Adam's transgression ; and through the
righteousness of the second Adam, and the communica-
tion of a new and divine nature, by the Holy Spirit, whom
He sends forth, grace shall much more abound, and reign
in Christ's true followers unto eternal life; Rom. 5: 19^
21. — Cahnet ; Jones; Watson; Diright's Theology, vol. i.
Sermons, xxvi. to xxxiv. See Defkavitt of BIan.
ADAMAH. See Admah.
ADAMANT ; a stone of impenetrable hardness. Some-
times this name is given to the diamond ; and so it is
rendered, Jer. 17: 1. But the Hebrew word, rather means
a very hard kind of stone, probably the smiris, which was
also used for cutting, engraving, and polishing other hard
stones and crystals. The word occurs, also, Ezek. 3: 9.
and Zech. 7: 12. In the former place, the Lord says to
the prophet, " I have made thy forehead as an adamant,
firmer than a rock ;" that is, endued thee with undaunted
courage. In the latter, the hearts of wicked men are
declared to be as adamant ; neither broken by the threateu-
ings and judgment of God, nor penetrated by his pro-
mises, invitations, and mercies. See Diamond.
ADAMITES; a sect that sprang up in the second
century. Epiphanius tells us, that they were called Adam-
ites, from their pretending to be re-established in the state
of innocencej such as Adam's was at the moment of his
creation, whence they ought to imitate him in going naked.
They detested marriage ; maintaining that the conjugal
union would never have taken place upon earth, had sin
been unknown. This obscure and ridiculous sect did not
last long. It was, however, revived with additional ab-
surdities in the twelfth century. About the beginning of
the fifteenth century, these errors spread in Germany and
Bohemia : it found also some partisans in Poland, Hol-
land, and England. They assembled in the night; and,
it is said, one of the fundamental maxims of their society
was contained in the follcmdng verse :
But Lardner doubts their existence in ancient, and
Beausobre in modern times.
ADAIR, (James;) a trader with the Indians of the
southern states, who, in 1775, published a ''History of
the American Indians," in which he points out various
customs of the Indians, having a striking resemblance to
those of the Jews. His arguments to prove them descend-
ed from the Jews, are founded on their division into the
A.D A
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iribes -, llieiv woi'ship of Jehovah ; iheir festivals, fasts,
and-religious riles ; their daily sacrifice ; their prophets
and high priests ; their cities of refu{<e ; their marriages
and divorces; their burial of the dead, and mourning for
them ; their language, and choice of names adapted to
circumstances; their mannerof reckoning time ; and vari-
ous other particulars. Some distrust, says president Allen,
seems to have fallen upon his statements, although he
himself says, that his account is " neither disfigured by
fable nor prejudice." Dr. Boudinot, in his "Star in the
West," has adopted the opinions of Adair. — illeti's Biog.
Diet.
ADAMS, (Eliphalet ;) an eminent minister of New
London, Connecticut, was graduated at Harvard college,
in 169-1. Ordained, Februarj', 1709, and died April,
1753. Dr. Chauncey speaks of him as a great Hebrician.
His publications were cbuefly sennons. — Allen.
ADABIS, (John ;} a poet and preacher of the Gospel, was
the only son of Hon. John Adams, of Nova Scotia, and
was graduated at Harvard college, in 1721. He died at
Cambridge, in 1740. He was much distinguished for his
learning, genius, and piet)'. He was master of nine lan-
guages. A small volume of his poems was published at
Boston, in ll.i5.— Allen.
ADAMS, (Matthew ;) a distinguished writer of Boston.
He was a mechanic, but devoted much time to literatiu-e,
and possessed a handsome hbrary, for access to which,
Dr. Franklin acknowledges his obligation. He died poor,
in 1753, but with a reputation of more worth than an estate.
Rev. John Adams, minister of Durham, New Hamp-
shire, from 1748 to 1778, was his son. — Allen.
ADAMS, (Z.AECiEL ;) was born in Quincy, 1739. He
was graduated at Harvard college, 1759, ordained, 1764,
and died, 1801. He was an eminent preacher, and pub-
lished several sermons. — Allen.
ADAMS, (Samuel ;) governor of Massachusetts, and a
most distinguished patriot of the American revolution,
was born in Boston, September 27, 1722, and graduated
at Harvard college, 1740. Early distinguished by his
talents as a writer, his first eflorts are monuments of his
filial piety. At this early period, also, he laid the founda-
tion of public confidence and esteem, which he retained
through life. He was at first a pulilic collector in the
town of Boston. In 1774, he was elected a member of
the general congress, in which station, for several years,
he rendered the most important services to his country.
The act of ihe British government, dated June 12, 1775,
wliich proscribed only Samuel Adams and John Hancock, is
sufficient evidence of what Americans owe to the denounc-
ed patriot.
In 1776, he united with J. Adams, Hancock, FrankUn,
Jefferson, and a host of worthies, in declaring the United
States no longer an appendage to a monarchy, but fkee
AND INDErENDENT.
'Wlien the constitution of Massachusetts was adopted,
he was elected president of the senate. A disturbance
rising in the western counties, he was sent to quiet it,
and succeeded. He was a member of the convention for
examining the constitution of the United States, and had
the happiness of seeing it altered in several points, to his
views and wishes, in its present excellent form.
In 1789, he was chosen lieutenant-governor, and was in
this office till 1794, when he was elected governor, as suc-
cessor to BIr. Hancock. In 1797, he resigned, from age
and infirmity, and retired from public fife. He died,
October 2, 1603, in the 82d year of his age.
To a majestic countenance, and dignified manners, Mr.
Adams added a suavity of temper, which conciliated uni-
versal affection ; to an unconquerable love of liberty, an
integrity, firmness, and decision, which commanded, even
from his political opponents, reverence and esteem.
Though somewhat reserved among strangers, at home and
among his friends, he could readily relax in the ))leasures
of cheerful conversation, chaste wit, and apposite anec-
dote, from the severer studies and cares of public life.
Relative duties he faithfully disciiarged. His house
was the seat of domestic peace, regularity, and method.
He was poor. While occupied abroad in the most im-
portant and responsible duties, the partner of his cares
t.upporled the family at home, by her industry. Though his
resources were very small, yet, such were the economy
and dignity of his house, that those who visited him,
found nothing mean, or unbecoming his station.
He was a sage and a patriot. The independence of the
United States of America is, perhaps, to be attributed as
much to his exertions as to those of any one man. His
contemporary, John Adams, the second president of the
United States, thus speaks of him: "The talents and vir-
tues of that great man were of the most exalted, though
not of the most showy kind. His love of his coivitry, hie
exertions in her service, through a long course of years,
through the administrations of the governors Shirley,
Pownall, Barnard, Hutchinson, and Gage, under the royal
government, and through the whole ofjhe subsequent
revolution, and always in support of the same principles;
his inflexible integrity, his disinterestedness, his invariable
resolution, his sagacity, his patience, perseverance, and
pure public virtue, were not exceeded by any man in
America. A collection of his writings would be as curi-
ous as voluminous It would throw light upon Ameri-
can history for fifty years. In it would be found speci-
mens of a ner\'ous simplicity of reasoning and eloquence,
that have never been rivalled in America."
Above all, Mr. Adams was a Chrisliat. Christianity
was the living spring and law of his virtues, and stamped
the character of the saint on the sage and the patriot. It
is this fact which gives him a place in the present work,
among the glorious band who have been public benefac-
tors of their race on Christian principles. His mind was
early imbued with piety, as well as cultivated by science.
He early approached the table of the Lord, and the purity
of his life witnessed the sincerity of his profession. The
Sabbath found him constantly among the worshippers in
th.e house of God, and the retirement of his family
circle was hallowed by the steady flame of his morning
and evening devotions. His religious sentiments were
strictly Calvinistic. The discipline and order of the Con-
gregational churches had his cordial approbation. The
last production of his powerful pen, was a letter to
Thomas Paine, in defence of that glorious Gospel in the
faith of which he lived, and in the enjoyment of whose
bles.sed hopes he died. — Allen's Biog. Diet. ; Elliofsdo.;
Encij. Amer.
ADAMS, (John, LL. D. ;) president of the United
States, was born at Braintree, Massachusetts, October 30,
1733. His father was a deacon of the church in that
town, a farmer and araechanic. Mr. Adams, while a mem-
ber of Harvard college, where he was graduated, in 1755,
was distinguished for diligence in his studies, boldness of
thought, and intellectual power. His subsequent life is
too well known to need to be repeated here.
In April, 1756, when deliberating about the choice of a
profession, some friends advised him to study theolog)- ;
but he ))referred the profession of law, on grounds which
strildngly develop the character of his mind. The sub-
stance of them is, that he was more ambitious of being an
eminent, honorable lawj'er, than (as he expressed it,) of
" heading the whole army of orthodox preachers." No one
can question, that, in this respect, he gained the object of
his ambition. Providence even exceeded the measure of
his desires, by enabling him to serve his country for a long
series of years in the most conspicuous and able manner.
His name will be transmitted to future generations among
the very first patriots and sages of this or any other land.
Bluch as it is to be lamented that his mind was so early
disposed to regard the evangelical principles venerated by
Samuel Adams, with contempt ; and to follow Ihespecula-
tions of Dr. S. Clarke, Emlyn, i.V;o., as he confessedly did,
through a long life filled with public labors; no one can
doubt his sincere belief of the divine origination of
Chrislianlty. For this reason it seems not improper
to enroll his name among those eminently gi'eat and use-
ful men. who from ari-; to age have added the weight of
their judgment to thelruth of the Gospel.
'■ Perhaps, (it has been well observed,) the religious
sentiments of most men bfcoiiu settled at an early period
of their lives. If, therelbre, the cherished views of
Christianity have any relation to practice, and to one's
destiny hereafter, with what sobriety, candor, and dili-
gence, and with what earnestness of prayer, for light and
ADA
r 34 J
ADA
guiJajice from above, ought every young man to investi-
gate revealed Irutli." Here, as in all other departments
of real Icnowledge, " there is no royal road to learning."
JVIinds of the gi-eatest energy come under the same fixed
law — " Except a man receive the kingdom of Heaven as a little
child, he shall in no wise enter therein." Mr. Adams died,
July 4, 182(5, aged 90 years.
ADAMS, (Miss Hannah;) author of the celebrated
Dictionary of Religions ; was born Ln Medfield, Massa-
chusetts, 175.5. From infancy she had a veiy slender
constitution, and was thereby prevented from acquiring
even the little education that was then to be had at a
country school. Possessing a great thirst for knowledge,
she found means to gratify her taste by extensive read-
ing, though not of the most solid kind. Her natural
sensibility was extreme, and it was early aggi'avated by
the influence of poetry and novels. In her tenth year she
lost her excellent mother, and soon after a favorite aunt.
These events made a deep impression on her sensitive
mind. Her father's failure in business a few years later,
conspired with the deep melancholy of her feelings to
prevent her from entering into general society. Hence
arose a timidity and awlm'ardness of manners which was
never wholly removed. Through the kindness of some
literary gentlemen, who boarded awhile at her father's,
she became acquainted with the Latin and Greek lan-
guages, with geogi-aphy and logic ; and ptu-sned these '
studies with snch ardor and sntcess, that she not long
after actually fitted three young men for college. One
of these young men was the Rev. Pitt Clark, of Norton.
The incident which gave occasion to her dictionary, is
thus related by herself. " While I was engaged in learn-
ing Latin and Greek, one of the gentlemen who taught
me, had by him a small manuscript, from Broughton's
Dictionary, giving an account of Arminians, Calvinists,
and several other denominations which were most com-
mon. This awakened my curiosity, and I assiduously
engaged myself in penising all the books I could obtain,
which gave an account of the various sentiments describ-
ed. I soon became disgusted with the want of candor in
the authors I consulted, in giving the most unfavorable
descriptions of the denominations tliey disKked, and apply-
ing to them the names of heretics, fanatics, enthusiasts, &c.
■ I therefore formed a plan for myself, made a blank book,
and wrote niles for transcribing, and adding to my com-
pilation. But as I was' stimulated to proceed, only by
curiosity, and never had an idea of deriving any profit
from it, the compilation went on but slowly ; though I
was pressed by necessity to make every exertion in my
power for my immediate support."
The first edition of this work was publishetl under the
name of a "View of all Rehgions." This was in 1784,
when she was twenty-nine years of age. It was in part
transcribed for the press by her oldest sister Elizabeth,
whom she calls her "friend, counsellor, and guide." This
beloved and pious sister, not long after, sunk into the
grave, in a state of mind indicative of the ripeness of her
Christian character; constantly expressing her "entire
stibmission to the divine will, and laying all her burdens
at the foot of the Cross." Her death involved Miss
Adams in the deepest affliction. To use her ovm lan-
" Dearer than life, or aught beneath the skies,
Tlic bright ideas and romantic schemes
Of perfect love and friendsliip, £incy ^xtints,
In her were realized.
"To describe the excess of my grief would be altogether
impossible. Every thing appeared gloomy in my situa-
tion. My health was feeble ; I was entirely destitute of
property ; my father's circumstances were very low ; and
I had no other relation or friend, from whom I might ex-
pect to derive assistance. But notwithstanding all the
difficulties in my situation, I determined to use every
exertion to help myself; considering that if I was un-
successful in attempting to extricate myself from poverty,
my efforts would awaken the activity of my mind, aiid
preserve me from sinking under the weight of affliction I
sustained in losing the best of sisters. It was, perhaps, a
happy circumstance, that necessity stimulated me to
exertion, in lliis most gloomy period of mv existence."
Those who knew her, might indeed wonder that any
motive could at any time induce her to publish a book.
Her humility, her diffidence, her want of early advan-
tages, her total ignorance of business, were obstacles that
appeared insnrmoimlable. She tried vaiiou.i other methods
to earn a subsistence, such as spinning, weaving, making
lace, and braiding straw ; but in vain. " It was despera-
tion, therefore, and not vanity," said she, "that induced
me to publish." Four editions of her " View of Religions,"
were published in her lifetime in this country ; besides
an English edition, with improvements, by the excellent
Andrew Fuller. These improvements she adopted in her
fourth edition ; changing the title, and adding much from
other sources to the value of the work.
Her next work was the " History of New England."
The difficulties she encountered in compiling this worfe
may be estimated by the fact, that at the time " there was
not any history of New England extant, except Mather's
Magnalia, and Neale's History ; and these extended only
to an early period in the annals of our country. If there
had been oftly one work which reached to the acceptance
of the Federal Constitution, my task had been far less
laborious." In executing it, she so injured her eyes as to
be threatened with the total loss of sight; but by applying
laudanum and sea water several times a day for two
years, she recovered so far as to resume her studies ; and
by the assistance of an amanuensis, the histor)' was got
ready for publication, in 179U. About this time she
found essential assistance in a pecuniary way from the
kind attention of the Rev. Dr. Freeman in making the
contract with the publishers of her work.
Soon after she published a concise " View of the Chris-
tian Religion," selected from the writings of emineni
la3Tnen ; a work which deserves to be better known.
Necessity still urging her to write, she, in 1810, entered
upon the compilation of her well known " History of the
Jews," at Dedham. Here her eyes again failing, she
came to Boston for relief; when several benevolent gen-
tlemen united in rewarding and animating her eflbrts, by
settling upon her an annuity for life. She now had a
home in Boston, with new literar)' advantages, and nu-
merous literary friends ; among whom, the most distin-
guished was the Rev. J. S. Buclnninster. AVithout the
assistance of his large and valuable library, she says she
should never have been able to finish the work. It
was published in 1812, a few months only before his death.
After this. Miss Adams continued to reside in Boston
tmtil her death, which took place, on a visit to Brookline,
November 15, 1831, at the age of 76.
An, intimate friend gives the following interesting sketch
of her character. " To an almost childlike simplicity
and singleness of heart, she united a clear and just con-
ception of character; to a deep and affecting humility, a
dignity and elevation of thought, that commanded the
respect and veneration of those around her. Amidst
many infirmities, she retained the freshness and entho-
siasm of youth. Her love of nature was exhausttess. It
was her delight to gather around her images of natural
and moral beauty. In many respects her mind seemed so
truly constituted for enjoyment, that to those who knew
her but slightly, she might have appeared to be exempted
from that mental discipline, which is gradually leading
the pilgrim on to the land of promise. But her friends
knew otherwise. They knew how keen was her religious
sensibility, how tremblingly alive her conscience, how
high her standard of excellence, how great her timidity
and self-distrust; and they felt that this was not her
haven of rest. Though her faith was fervent and devout,
it partook of the constitution of her sensitive mind, rather
than gave the tone to it. Yet, amidst moments of doubt
and despondency, a passage from Scripture, or a judicious
observation, would disperse the clouds that gathered
round her, and the brightest sunshine would diffuse itself
over her mind and countenance. Many in whom she
delighted, had passed away. To those she has gone, and
to the Father and Savior whom she loved."
Her life is in many respects full of instruction. Among
those who have struggled against peculiar difllcuUies in
the pursuit of knowledge, she deserves a high rank. She
became a literarv woman. When literature in our country
ADD
[35]
ADO
was a rare accomplishment. Her name will hereafter
live with those of Mrs. Barbauld and Hannah More ;
had she enjoyed their advantages, she possibly might
have rivalled even them.
Besides the works already mentioned, Miss Adams pub-
lished an Abridgment of her History of New-England,
and Letters on the Gtospels. — Memoir of Miss Hannah
Adams.
ADAN ; the twelfth month of the sacred, and the sLxth
of the civil, year among the Hebrews. It contains but
twenty-nine days, and answers to our Februarj', and some-
times enters into March, according to the course of the
inoon, by which they regulated their seasons. As the lu-
nar year which the Jews follow in their calculations, is
shorter than the solar year by eleven days, which after
three years make about a month, they then insert a thir-
teenth month, which they call Ve-Adan, or a sacred Adan,
to which they assign twenty-nine days.
ADD; Gal. 2: 6. TItcy added nothing tome: they gave
me no new inlormation or authority which I had not be-
Ibre. To be. added to the Lord and to the church, is to be
lonverted and united to the Lord Jesus and his church as
:iew members of his mystical body, both vitally and visiibj.
Arts?: 14. 11: 24. 2: 41, 47.
In 2 Peter 1 : 5 — 11. this word occurs twice, in a sense
far more significant than is usually apprehended. " The
precise value of the principal terms employed in this re-
markable passage it is important to understand ; our Eng-
lish version is here less happy and e.xact than usual."
The original word (cpichoregesate) is a compound, which
conveys the sense of bringing into combination and corres-
pondence the several virtues enumerated, in order to make
up the full and harmonious choir of Christian graces. It
is an allusion to the chorus of the Grecian theatre. The
spirit, beauty, and force of the original, no single word in
our language can convey. It is not merely the adding of
one virtue to another as so many unconnected items, or as so
many new strangers added to a crowd, where nothing de-
pends upon the number or adjustment ; but everj' part in
the apostle's enumeration of virtues bears an inseparable
relation to any other part, and also to the whole, and the
entire effect depends upon their due combination.
It were surely a rude style of exposition, it has been well
remarked, to regard the catalogue of -virtues now before
us, as merely a vague and fortuitous series of moral quali-
ties, each of which, thoitgh singly important, is not specifi-
cally linked to its neighbor, and does not derive any deli-
nite significance from its location in the list. To convey
the full sense of the apostolic language, it is necessary to
resort to a paraphrase, beginning with the third verse.
" Divinely endowed (says the apostle to all Christian be-
lievers) with whatever is important to the life of piety ;
enriched also with those inestimable promises which insure
to us a participation of the Divine Nature in its holiness
and happiness, a participation flowing trora an intimate
knowledge of Him who has called us to so high a glory ;
and having by the same means gained a freedom from the
defilement and weakness of worldly passions, apply all
your diligence, my brethren, to this point — the filing up of
the defects yet remaining in your Christian cliaracter. For this
purpose, gather into one harmonious choir the whole train
of holy graces of which faith naturally and properly takes
the lead ; and give to each its due place in your soul, as in
the temple of the living God, consecrated to his glory and
filled with his praise. Let your faith in his inestimable
promises, (that it be not pusillanimous,) be always associat-
ed with {arete) enekgy in his sekvice ; let your energy be
duly informed by [gnosis) knowledge of evangelical
PRiNcirLEs ; and let your knowledge be (not abused to li-
centiousness, but) united with (engkratia) the control of
EVERY BODILY APPETITE. This finu sclf-control will pre-
pare you to suffer whatever God may please to appoint,
with (eupoimone) the patience of humihty, meekness and
submission. Hence to your patience, (that it be not fanati-
cal, stoical, nor brutal,) youmust add (evsebia) piety, or the
reverential and filial observance of all the means of grace
and offices of devotion. Yet remember that your piety is
to be. (not tmsocial, ascetic or anchoretic, but) fraught with
(Philadelphia) brotherly affection ; and lastly, that your
affection towards your fellow Christians is to be (not secta-
rian and exclusive, but) ever connectcil with (agnjie) cnARi-
ty, the divine and expansive principle of universal love.
1 Cor. 13. For if these virtues be thus united in you,
(fleonazonta) filling and overflowing your souU as s' reams
from a fresh and copious fountain, they will render you
neither inactive nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our
Lord Jesus Christ. For he in whom these things are
wanting is blind, closing his eyes, and has forgotten his
having received purification from his former sins. For
this reason therefore, brethren, I exhort you the rather to
use diligence to make your calling and election sure, that
is, past all doubt and danger; for if ye do these things I
have recommended, if ye apply yourselves assiduously to
the means of perfecting your Christian character, 3-011 will
never err from the path to heaven ; for so shall be furnish-
ed you richly, by the glorious choir of saints and angels, in
full harmony, an entrance into the eternal kingdom of oar
Lord and Savior Jesus Chri.st."
Almost every excellence in the science of morals, says a
late eloquent writer, has been attained by sages — except
completeness and consistency : the completeness and con-
sistency of its morality is the peculiar praise of the ethics
which the Bible has taught. Every one who is conversant
with history will readily call to mind abundant illustrations
of our meaning. The ancient world often enongh display-
ed (and in some instances which justly demand admiration)
a stern subjugation of the animal appetites ; or an arrogant
fortitude ; or a proud public virtue ; or an ambitious pat-
riotism ; or a bland and gay, but dissolute humanity, and
a voluptuous elegance. Or after that Christianity had ex-
ploded the philosophic and polytheistic virtues, and had im-
parted the power and solemnity of the future life to ethics,
mankind were called upon to admire a new order of ex-
travagance in morals, while saints and anchorets, instead
of heroes and statesmen, ran the course of glory. Mean-
while, the eompleteness and consistency of tnie virtue, as
taught by the apostles, was wholly lost sight of.
Our own times, though it be after a new model, have
shown as notable examples of the brilliancy and \ngorthat
may belong to partial systems of piety and morals ; and
we have now as great need as ever to resort to the source
— the only source of a consistent morality.
The absolute symmetry, the exact counterpoise of parts,
in the apostolic ethics, sometimes conspicuous and some-
times occult, is eminently exhibited in the epistles of Peter
And he moreover shows himself, especially in the passage
above illustrated, to be master of that rnACTicAL nAP.MO.VY
of principles, which, on difficult occasions and under pe-
culiar excitements, adheres to the nice line of moderation,
humility, and firmness. Nothing so great had been seen
in the world before Christ imparted to his disciples the ele- '
ments of true magnanimity. We venture to affirm that
the passage is fraught, at once, wilh philosophical justness
of classification, and with prophetic truth. — Saturday Eve-
ning ; Bronvi's Dirt.
Adder. The adder was laiown to the ancient He-
brews under various names. It is the opinion of some in-
terpreters, that the word Shachal, which in some parts of
Scripture denotes a lion, in others means an adder, or some
kind of serpent. Thus, in the ninety-first Psalm, they
render it the basilisk, '' Thou shall tread upon the adder
and the basilisk, the yoimg lion and the dragon thou shalt
trample under foot." Verse 13. Inileed,all the ancient ex-
positors agree, that some species of serpent is meant ; and
as the term Shachal, when applied to beasts, denotes a
black lion ; so, in the present application, it Is thought to
mean the black adder.
The wonderful effect which music produces on the ser-
pent tribes, is confirmed by the testimony of several re-
spectable moderns. Adders swell at the sound of a flute,
raising themselves up on the one half of their body, turn-
ing themselves round, beating proper time, and following
the instrument. Their head, naturally round and like an
eel, becomes broad and flat like a f^an. The tame ser-
pents, many of wliich the Orientals keep in their houses,
are known to leave their holes in hot weather, at the sound
of a musical instrument, and to run upon the performer.
Dr. Shaw had an opportunity of seeing a number of ser-
pents keep exact time with the dervishes in their circula-
tory dances, running ovei' their heads and arms, turning
ADD
f 36 j
ADO
when they tui'ued, and stopping when they stopped. The
rattlesnake acknowledfjes the power of music as much as
any of his family ; of which the following instance is a de-
cisive proof. "VVhen Chateaubriand was in Canada, a
snake of this species entered their encampment ; a young
Canadian, one of the party, who could play on the flute,
to divert his associates, advanced against the serpent with
)iis new species of weapon. " On the approach of his ene-
my, the haughty reptile curled himself into a spiral line,
flattened his head, inflated his cheeks, contracted his lips,
displayed his envenomed fangs, and his bloody throat; his
double tongue glowed lilie two flames of fire ; his eyes were
burning coals ; his body, swoln with rage, rose and fell hke
the bellows of a forge ; his dilated skin assuined a dull
and scaly appearance ; and his tail, which pounded the de-
nunciation of death, vibrated with so great rajsdity as to
reseinble a hght vapor. The Canadian now began to play
upon his flute ; the serpent started with surpri.se, and drew
back his head. In proportion as he was struck with the
magic effect, his eyes lost their fierceness, the oscillations
of his tail became slower, and the sound which it emitted
became weaker, and gradually died away. Less perpen-
dicular upon their spiral line, the rings of the fascinated
serpent were by degrees expanded, and sunk one after an-
other upon the grotmd, in concentric circles. The shades
of azure, green, white, and gold, recovered their brilliancy
on his quivering skin, and slightly turning his head, he re-
mained motionless, in the attitude of attention and plea-
sure. At this moment, the Canadian advanced a few steps,
producing with his flute sweet and simple notes. The rep-
tile, inclining liis variegated neck, opened a passage with
his head through the high grass, and began to creep after
the musician, s-topping when he stopped, and beginning to
follow him again, as soon as he moved forward." In this
manner he was led out of the camp, attended by a great
number of spectators, both savages and Europeans, who
could scarcely believe their eyes, when they beheld this
wonderful effect of harmony. The assembly unanimously
decreed, that the serpent which had so highly entertait>ed
them, should be permitted to escape.
But on some serpents, these charms seem to have no
power ; and it appears from Scripture, that the adder some-
limes takes precautions to prevent the fascination which
he sees preparing for him ; for the deaf adder shutteth her
car, and will not hear the voice of the most skilful charmer.
Psalm 59 : 5, 6. The same allusion is involved in the
words of Solomon : " Surely the serpent will bite, without
enchantment ; and ababbleris no better." Eccl. 10: 11. The
threatening of the prophet Jeremiah proceeds upon the
satne fact ; " I will send serpents (cockatrices) among you,
wliich will not be charmed, and they shall bite you." Jer.
R : 17. In all these quotations, the sacred writers, while
I hey take it for granted that many serpents are disarmed
liy cliarming, plainly admit that the powers of the charmer
are in vain e.-certed upon others. To account for this ex-
ception it has been alleged, that in some serpents the sense
of hearing is very imperfect, while the power of vision is
exceedingly acute ; but the most inteUigent natural histo-
rians maintain, that the reverse is true. The sense of
hearing is much more acute tlian the sense of vision. Un-
able to resist the force of truth, others maintain, that the
adder is deaf not by nature, but 1>y design ; for the Psalm-
ist says, she shutteth her ear, and Avill not hear the voice
of the charmer. But tlie phrase, perhaps, means no more
Ihau this, that some adders are of a temper so stubborn, that
the various arts of the charmer make no impression ; they
are like creatures destitute of hearing, or whose ears are so
completely obstructed, that no sounds can enter. The
same phrase is used in other parts of Scripture, to signify
a hard and obdurate heart : " Whoso stoppeth his ears at
the cry of the poor, he also shall cry hunself, but shall not
be heard." Prov. 21 : 13. It is used in the same sense of
the righteous, by the prophet : " That stoppeth his ears
from the hearing of blood, and shutteth his eyes from
seeing evil." Isaiah 33 : 15. He femains as unmoved
hy the cruel and sanguinary counsels of the -wicked, as if
lie had stopped his ears. — Cahnet ; Harris ; Abbot.
ADDINGTOM, (Isaac :) secretary of Massachusetts,
was born in 11)15, and died in Boston in 1715, aged 70.
He sustained a high character (says president Allen) for
talents, leaniing, integrity, and diligence in the public ser-
vice. He was secretary more than twenty years, and for
many years a magistrate and member of council elected
by the people. He was also useful as a physician and sur-
geon. Mr. Addington was a Christian, and adorned his
profession by singular meekness, humility, and disinte-
rested kindness. In his family he was a daily worshipper
of God. Religion shed its peace on his heart as he went
down to the dead. — AUen^s Biog. Diet.
ADDISON, (JosEFu ;) so highly celebrated in English
literature, was the son of Dr. Launcelot Addison, dean of
Litchfield. He was born May 1, lti72, at his father's rec-
tory, Mdston, Wilts. After receiving the rudiments of his
education at home, at Salisbury, and at Litchfield, be was
removed to the Charter Plouse, then under the direction of
Dr. Ellis, where he contracted his first intimacy witt Mr.
afterwards Sir Richard Steele. At the age of fifteen, he
was entered of Queen's college, Oxford, where he soon be-
came distinguished for the ardor with which he cultivated
classical literature, and for his skill in Latin poetry. He
early began to distinguish himself as an author ; and in
1695, he addressed a complimentary poem on one of the
campaigns of king Wilham to tlie lord keeper Somers,
who procured him a pension from the crown of 300Z. per
annum, to enable him to travel. In 1701, he WTOte his
epistolary poem from Italy, addressed to lord Halifax,
which is esteemed by many, the most finished and elegant
of his poetical productions. On his retttrn home, he pitb-
lished his travels, which he deilicatcd to lord Somers,
The death of king William deprived Mr. Adtlison of the
benefit of a small appointment, as a confidential resident
about the person of prince Engei>e, then commanding the
armies of the emperor of Gennany in Italy, and also of
his pension : so that on his return to England he found alt
his patrons displaced, and himself in a state approaching
to indigence. This depression, however, was happily not
lasting : for lord Godolphin, applying to lord HaUfax, to
recommend him a poet capable of celebrating the recent
splendid victory of the duke of Marlborough at Blenheim,
the latter named Mr. Addison, who produced his celebrated
poem, " The Campaign," for which he was rew^niedwith
the place of commissioner of appeals, in which he suc-
ceeded Mr. Locke. In 1705, he attended lord Hahfax in
his mission to Hanover ; and, in the year following, was
made under secretary of state. These employments,
however, did not engross him from the pursuits of litera-
ture. He assisted Steele in the Tatler, Spectator, and
Guardian, in the course of which appeared the seiies of
papers afterwards collected, and subsequently often re-
printed, under the title of "Addison's Evidences of the
Christian ReKgion." In his latter years he projected a
paraphrastical version of the Psalms of David, of which
he gave a beautiful specimen in his metrical translation of
Psalm 23. — ^" The Lord my portion shall prepare," &c.
Bui a long and painful illness prevented the completion of
this pious design : and it is the more to be regretted, as
the few compositions of this kind which he has left us ex-
hibit proofs of his piety, and his competency for the under-
taking. Mr. Addison died at Holland House, Kensington,
on the 17th of June, 1719, in the forty-ninth year of his
age. His complaint appears to have been that of asthma,
aggravated by dropsy. During his lingering decay, he
sent for a young nobleman of very irregular life and of
loose opinions, to attend him ; anci when the latter, with
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great tenderness, requested to receive his last injunctions,
Mr. Addison told him, " I have sent for you that you may
see how a Christian can die." What effect this impressive
scene had upon the young nobleman's behavior is not
known ; but he himself died in a short time. — Jones's Rd.
Bios-; Bios. Brit.
ADESSENAKIANS ; abranch of the Sacramentarians ;
so called from the Latin Adesse, to be present, because
they believed the presence of Christ's body in the Eucha-
rist, though in a manner different from the Romanists.
ADIAPHORISTS ; a name given in the sixteenth cen-
tury to the moderate Lutherans who adhered to the senti-
ments ol Melancthon ; and afterwards to those who sub-
scribed the interim of Charles V. [See Interim.] The
word is of Greek origin (adiaphoros) and signifies indiffe-
rence or lukewarmness.
ADJURE ; to bind by oath, as under the penalty of a
fearful curse. Josh. 6 : 2b. Mark 5 : 7. — 2. To charge so-
lemnly, as by the authority, and under pain of the displea-
sure of God. Matt. 2(d: 63. Acts 19 : 13. St. Paul uses
this word in 1 Thess. 5 : 27. / adjure you by the Lord that
this epistle be read unto all the holy brethren. What an idea
docs this solemn adjuration give us of the importance of
the knowledge of the Scriptures ! See Oath ; Swearing.
ADMAH ; the most easterly of the five cities of the
plain, destroyed by fire from heaven, and aftenvards over-
■whelmed by the waters of the Dead Sea. Gen. 19; 24.
There is some probability that Admah was not entirely
sunk under the waters ; or, more probably, the inhabitants
of the country built a city of the same name on the eastern
shore of the Dead Sea, for Isaiah, 15. according to the
Seventy, says, " God will destroy the Moabites, the city of
Ar, and the remnant of Adama." Gen. 14 : 2. Deut. 29 :
23. To be made as Admah, and set as Zeboim, Hos. 11 :
8. is to be made a distinguished monument of the fearful
vengeance of God. — Cal?net.
ADMINISTER ; to manage and give out as stewards.
2 Cor. 8 : 19.
ADMINISTRATION ; a public office and the execution
thereof. 1 Cor. 12 : 5.
ADMIRATION ; is that passion of the mind which is ex-
cited by the discovery of any gi-eat excellence in an object.
It has, by some writers, been used as synonymous with
surprise and wonder ; but it is evident they are not the
same. Surprise refers to somelhuig unexpected ; wonder,
to something great or strange ; but admiration includes the
idea of a high esteem or respect. Thus we say, we ad-
mire a man's excellencies ; but we do not say that we are
surprised at them. We wonder at an extraordinarj"^ object
or event, but we do not always admire it. — Buck.
ADMONITION ; instruction, warning, reproof 1 Thess.
5 : 14. The admonition of the Lord, is warning, instruc-
tion, and reproof, given in the Lord's name, from his word,
in a way becoming his perfections, and intended for his
honor. Eph. 6 : 4. Heretics are to be rejected or cast
out of the church, af\er a first and second admonition, that
is, solemn warning and reproof Tit. 3 : 10. Admonition
was a part of the discipline much used in the Ejgcient
church : it was the first act or step towards th-j recove-
ry or expulsion of delinquents. In case of private of-
fences, it was performed according to the evangelical rule,
■privately ; in case of public offence, openly before the
church. If either of these sufficed for the recovery of the
fallen person, all farther proceedings in a way of censure,
ceased ; if they did not, recourse was then had to excommu-
nication. Tit! 3: 10. 1 Thess. 5: 14. Eph. 3: 4. Matt.
3: l^.—Buck; Brown.
ADONAI ; one of the names of the Supreme Being in
the Scriptures. The proper meaning of the word is "my
Lords" in the plural number ; as Adoni is my Lord, in the
singular. The Jews, who, either out of respect or super-
stition, do not pronounce the name of Jehovah, read Admiai
in the room of it, as often as they meet with Jehovah in
the Hebrew text. But the ancient Jews were not so scru-
pulous ; nor is there any law which forbids them to pro-
nounce the name of God. — Buck.
ADONIBEZEK -, a powerful and cruel king of the city
Bezek, seventeen miles east from Napolosi. Judg. 1 : 7.
Cruelties similar to those recorded of Adonibezek are by
no means uncommon in the wars of the East. Undoubt-
edly war is shocking at all times, but it cannot be denif/l
that the influence of Christianity has abated its horrors.
To see its true picture, it should be examined in the East ;
and there as practised by 5Uis,sulmen heroes. — Calmet.
ADONIJAH ; the foiuth sou of David and Haggith. His
history is found 1 Kings, chap. 1 : 2.
ADONIS ; tlic text of the Vulgate in Ezek. 8: 11. says,
that the prophet saw women sitting in the temple, and
weeping for Adonis ; but according to the reading of the
Hebrew text, they are said to weep for Tammuz, the hid-
dcji one.
Fabulous histoiy gives the following account of Adonis ;
he was a beautifid young shepherd, the son of Cymras,
king of Cyprus, by his own daughter Myrrha. The god-
dess Venus fell in love with this youth, and frequently met
him on mount Libanus. Blars, who envied this rival,
transformed himself into a wild boar, and as Adonis was
hunting, struck him in the groin and killed him. Venus
lamented the death of Adonis in an inconsolable manner.
The eastern people, in imitation of her mourning, generally
estabUshed some solemn days for the bewailing of Adonis.
After his death Venus went to the shades, and obtained
from Proserj^ina, that Adonis might be with her six months
in the year, and continue the other six in the infernal re-
gions. Upon this were founded those public rejoicings,
which succeeded the lamentations of his death. Some say
thai Adonis was a native of Syria ; some, of Cyprus ; ami
others, of Egypt.
Among the Egyptians Adonis was adored under the
name of Osiris, the husband of Isis. Cut lie was some-
times called by the name of Ammuz, or Tammuz, the con-
cealed, probably to denote his death or burial. The He-
brews, in derision, sometimes call him the dead, Psalm
106 : 28. Lev. 19 : 28. because they wept for him, and
represented him as dead in his coffin ; and at other limes
they denominate him the image of jealousy, Ezek. 8 : 3, 5.
because he was the object of the jealousy of Mars. The
Syrians, Phoenicians, and Cyprians, called him Adonis ;
and Calmet ij of opinion th.at the Ammonites and Moabites
designated him by the name of Baal-peor.
The manner in which they celebrated the festival of this
false deity was as follows : they represented him as lying
dead in his coffin, wept for him, bemoaned themselves, and
sought for him ^I'ith great eagerness and inquietude.
After this they pretended that they had found him again, and
that he was still living. At this g9od news they exhibited
marks of the most extravagant joy, and were guilty of a
thousand bad practices, to convince Venus how much they
congratulated her on the return and revival of her favorite,
as they had before condoled with her on his death. The
Hebrew women, of whom the prophet Ezeldel speaks, cele-
brated the feasts of Tammuz, or Adonis in Jenisalera ; and
God showed the prophet the women weeping for this infa-
mous god, even in his tempre,^Ca?m('/ ,■ iVatson.
ADONISTS ; a party among divines and crifits, who
maintain tha t the Hebrew points ordinanly annexed to the
consonants of the word Jehovah, are not the natural points
belonging to that word, nor express the true pronunciation
of it; but arc the vowel points belonging to the words
Adoiiai and Elohim, applied to the consonants of the ineffa-
ble name Jehovah, to warn the readers, that instead of the
word Jehovah, which the Jews were forbid to pronoimee,
and the true pronunciation of which had long been un
known to them, they are always to read Adonai. They
are opposed to Jehovists, of whom the principal are Drusius,
Capelhis, Buxtorf, Alting, and Reland.— iSi/d-.
ADONIZEDEK ; long of Zedek or Jcriusalem ; for this
city is believed to have been called by four different names,
Salem, Jerusalem, Jebus, and Zedek. For his liistory, sec
Josh. 10. A. M. 2554.
ADOPTION. The nature of adoption may be explain-
ed in the following manner. A child is, in this act, tiken
by a man from a family not his own ; introduced into hi.-!
own family ; regarded as his own child, and entitled to all
the privileges and blfcsings belonging to the relation. T«
adopt chiklren in this manner has, it is well known, been a
custom generally prevailing inaU nations. Thus children
were adopted among the Eg)-ptians, Jews, Romans, and
other ancient nations ; and the same custom exists in the
Christian nations of Europe, in our own counlr)', among
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the American aborigines, and, so far as my knowledge ex-
tends, throughout theworld. Of thesarae general nature is
that transaction in the divine economy, by which mankind
become the children of God. It is easy to conceive the pro-
priety of the term as used by the apostle in reference to this
act, though it must be confessed there is some difference be-
tween civil and spiritual adoption. Civil adoption was al-
lowed of and provided for the relief and comfort of those who
had no children ; but in spiritual adoption this reason does
not appear. The Almighty was under no obligation to do
this ; for he had innumerable spirits whom he had created,
besides his own Son, who had all the perfections of the di-
vine nature, who was the object of his delight, and who is
styled the heir of all things. Heb. 1 : 3. When men adopt,
it is on account of some excellency in the persons who are
adopted ; thus Pharaoh's daughter adopted Moses because
!-'. was exceeding fair, Acts 7 : 20, 21 ; and Mordecai
adopted Esther because she was his uncle's daughter, and
exceeding fair. Est. 2:7; but man has nothing in him
that merits this divine act, Ezek. 16 : 5. In civil adop-
tion, though the name of a son be given, the nature of a
son may not : this relation may not necessarily be attended
with any change of disposition or temper. But in spiritual
adoption we are made partakers of the divine nature, and
a temper or disposition given us becoming the relationship
we beat, Jer. 3 : 19.
Much has been said as to the time of adoption. Some
place it before regeneration, because it is supposed that we
must be in the family before we can be partakers of the
blessings of it. But it is difficult to conceive of one before
the other ; for although adoption may seem to precede re-
generation in order of nature, yet not of time ; they may
be distinguished, but cannot be separated. " As many as
received him, to them gave he power to become the sons
of God, even to them that believe on his name ;" John 1 :
12. There is no adoption, says the great Charnock, with-
out regeneration. " Adoption," says the same author, " is
not a mere relation : the pri%'ilege and the image of the
sons of God go together. A state of adoption is never
without a separation from defilement." 2 Cor. f> : 17, 18.
The new name in adoption is never given till the ne-.v
creature be formed. " As many as are led by the spirit of
God, they are the sons of God." Rom. 8 : 14. Yet these
are to be distinguished. Regeneration, as a pJiT/skal act,
gives us a likeness to God in our nature ; adoption, as a
legal act, gives us a right to an inheritance. Regeneration
makes us formally his sons, by conveying a principle, 1
Pet. 1 : 23 ; adoption makes us relatwebj his sons, by con-
veying a power, John 1 : 12. By the one we are instated
in the divine affection ; by the other we are partakers of
the divine nature."
The privileges of adoption are every way great and exten-
sive. 1. It implies great honor. They have God's name
put upon them, and are described as " his people, called by
his name." 2 Chron. 7 : 24. Eph. 3: 1.5. They are no
longer slaves to sin and the world ; but, emancipated from
its dreadful bondage, are raised to dignity and honor.
Gal. 4 : 7. 1 John 3:1. 2. — 2. Inexhaustible provision
and riches. They inherit all things. Rev. 21 : 7. All
the blessings of a teinporal kind that are for their good
shall be given them. Psalm 84: 11. All the blessings
of grace are treasured up in Jesus Christ for them. Eph.
1 : 3. All the blessings of glory shall be enjoyed by \\em.
Col. 1 : 27. " All things are yours," .says the apostle,
" whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas, or the world, or
life, or death, or things present or things to come, all are
yours." 1 Cor. 3 : 22. — 3. Divine protection. " In the fear
of the Lord is strong confidence, and his children shall
have a place of refuge." Prov. 14 : 2li. As the master of
a family is engaged to defend and secure all under his
roof, and committed to his care, so Jesus Christ is engaged
to protect and defend his people. •' They shall dwell in a
peaceable habitation, and in sure dwellings and quiet
resting places." Isa. 32 : 18. Heb. 1 : 14. — 4. XJnspeaka-
He felicity. They enjoy the most Ihtimate communion
with the Father, and with his Son Jesus Christ. They
have access to his throne at all times, and under all cir-
cumstances. They see di\qne wisdom regtilating every
affair, and rendering every thing subservient to their good.
Heb. 12: (5 — 11. The law.s, the liberties, the privileges,
the relations, the provisions, and the security of this family,
are all sources of happiness ; but especially the presence,
the approbation, and the goodness of God, as the governor
thereof, afford joy unspeakable and full of glory. 1 Pet. 1 :
8. Prov. 3: 17. Heb. 4: Ifi.— 5. Eternal glory. In
some cases, civil adoption might be made null and void,
as among the Romans, when against the right of the pon-
tifex, and without the decree of the college ; b\it spiritual
adoption, as it is divine as to its origin, so it is perpetual
as to its duration. "The Son abideth in the house for
ever." John 8: 3.5. " The inheritance of the saints is
incorruptible, undefiled, and never fadeth away." 1 Pet.
1:4. " Now are we the sons of God, and it doth not yet
appear what we shall be: but we know that when he shall |
appear, we shall be like him, for we shall see him as he is." J
I John 3:2. In the present state we are as children at
school ; but in heaven we shall be as children at home,
where we shall always behold the face of our heavenly
Father, for ever celebrating his praises, admiring his per-
fections, and enjoying his presence. " So shall we be ever
with the Lord." 1 Thess. 4 : 17.
The evidences of adoption are, 1 . Eeminciation of all former
dependencies. When a child is adopted, he relinquishes the
object of his past confidence, and submits himself to the
will and pleasure of the adopter ; so they who are
brought into the family of God will evidence it by giving
up every other object, so far as it interferes with the will
and glory of their heavenly Father. " Ephraira shall say,
what have I to do any more with idols ?" Hos. 14 : 8.
" Other lords have had dominion over us ; but by thee
onlv will we make mention of thy name." Isa. 26 : 13.
Matt. 13 : 45, 4(i. Phil. 3 : 8.-2. Affection. This may
not always apply to civil adoption, but it always does to
spiritual. The children of God feel a regard for him
above every other object. His own excellency, his un-
speakable goodness to them, his promises of future bles-
sings, are all grounds of the strongest love. " Whom
have I in heaven but thee ? and there is none upon earth
that I desire besides thee." Psalm 73 : 25. '• Thou art
my portion, saith my soul, therefore will I hope in thee."
Lam. 3: 24. Luke 7: 47. Psalm 18: 1. — 3. Access to
God n-ith a holy boldness. They who are children by adop-
tion are supposed to have the same liberty of access as
those who are children by nature ; so those who are par-
takers of the blessings of spiritual adoption will prove it
by a reverential, yet familiar address to the Father of
spirits : they will confess their linworthiness, acknowledge
their dependence, and implore the mercj' and favor of
God. '• Because ye are sons, God hath sent forth the
Spirit of his Son into your hearts, crying Abba, Father."
Gal. 4:6. " Through Jesus Christ we have access by
one Spirit unto the Father." Eph. 2 : 18. Having such
a privilege, " they come boldly to the throne of grace, that
they may obtain mercy and find grace to help in time of
need." Heb. 4 : I). — 4. Obedience. Those who are adopt-
ed into a family must obey the laws of that family ; so be-
lievers prove themselves adopted, by their obedience to the
word and ordinances of God. " Ye are my friends, if ye
do what,':oever I command you." John 15 : 14. " Whoso
keepeth his word, in him verily is the love of God perfect-
ed: hereby know we that we are in him. He that saith
he abideth in him, ought himself also to walk even as he
walked." 1 John 2: 4, 5. — 5. Patient yet joyful expecta-
tion of the inheritance. In civil adoption, indeed, an in-
heritance is not always certain ; but in spiritual adoption it
is. " To them, who, by patient continuance in well doing,
seek for glory, and honor, and immortality, eternal life."
Rom. 2:7. " We look not at the things which are seen,
but at the things which are not seen ; for the things which
are seen are temporal, but the things which are not seen
are eternal." 2 Cor. 4: 18. Rom. 6: 23. Heb. 11:
26, 27. From the consideration of the whole of this doc-
trine, we may learn that adoption is an act of free grace
through Jesus Christ. Eph. 1 : 5, Applied to believers
by the Holy Spirit. Gal. 4: 6. Rom. 8: 13, 16. A
blessing of the greatest importance. 1 John 3 : 1. and
lay us under an inviolable obligation of submission, Heb.
12: 9. imitati/in, Eph. 5: 1. and deprndiiire, Matt. 6: 32.
See Divight's Theology, vol. iii. ; Buck's Theo. Die. ; Jones's
Bib. Cyc; Ridgley'sand Gill's Body of Divinity, art. Adoption;
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Charnock's T-Vor&>,vol.ii.p.32 — 72; FlaveVs JKoris, vol. ii. p.
601 ; Brown's Si/stcm of Nat. and Sev. Eeligion, p. 442 ;
Witsii Econ. Fail. p. 165.
ADOPTIONISTS, or Adoptioni ; the followers of Felix
and Elipardas, two bishops, in Spain, who, towards the
close of the eighth century, are said to have maintained
that Jesus Christ, in his human nature, was not the natu-
ral, but adopted Son of God. This notion, which seems to
contradict Luke 1 : 35. and to lean to Unitarianism, was
immediately condemned as heresy. — Buck, Bell's, Wan-
derings of the Intellect.
ADORAM ; the officer, who, under the government of
David, was receiver-general of the tribute money. 2 Sam.
20 : 24. A person of the same name is also mentioned as
sustaining the same office under the reign of Rehoboam.
1 Kings 12 : 18. When Rehoboam, by his imprudent con-
duct, had exasperated the ten tribes against him, and pro-
voked them to separate from the house of David, he sent
Adoram to exert his eflbrts in trying to appease them. It
does not seem very certain whether his object was to re-
duce the people by gentle or by harsh methods ; or
whether he designed to make some concessions by putting
Adoram into their hands, who, by his vexatious exactions,
had probably been the principal cause of their dissatisfac-
tion ; but, however that may be, the people, who had been ex-
tremely irritated, fell upon Adoram and stoned him to death.
ADORATION ; an act of worship, strictly due to God
alone, but perfonned to other objects also, whether idols
or men. The forms, times, objects, and places of adora-
tion, are different in different countries, according to their
prevailing religious customs. The origin of this practice
is to be fotmd in the universal and just opinion, that the
sentiments of the heart ought to be expressed by articulate
language and external actions. The term, being derived
from the Latin ad and orare, signifies, to apply the hand
to the mouth, i. e. to kiss the hand, and there is a very
striking allusion to it in the book of Job, chap. 31 : 26 —
28. " If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon
walking in brightness, and my heart hath been secretly en-
ticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand, tliis also were
an iniquity to be punished by the judge, for I should have
denied the God that is above." To understand the mean-
ing of this passage, we must consider that, in the times of
Job, it was the practice of the Persians to worship the sun
and moon ; and some learned writers understand those
heavenly luminaries to be intended by the terms Adram-
melech and Anammelech, in 2 Kings 17 : 31. the former
referring to the sun and the latter to the moon ; the first
signifying " the magnificent king," and the second " the
gentle king." As all idolatry consists in transferring that
worship to the creature which is due only to the adorable
Creator, so it was not merely prohibited by the Jewish
law, but also made a capital ofl'ence to be punished with
death. Deut. 13 : 6 — 11. To this Job refers ; and his
argument is, that if at any time when he had been con-
templating the two great lights of heaven, his heart had
been enticed to transfer to them that adoration which was
due to their great Creator, he should have been guilty of
idolatry, have denied the God that is above, and would
have deserved to be put to death as a criminal.
The following account of this mode of adoration in In-
dia, may serve as a further illustration. " At Sural is
seen a great and fair tree, which is held in great veneration.
On high there hangs a bell, which tliose that come to
make their foolish devotions, first of all ring out, as if
thereby to call the idol to hear them ; then they fall to
their adoration, which is commonly to extend both hands
downwards, as much as possible^ being joined together in
a praying posture ; which lifting up again, by little and
little, they bring to their mouths as if to kiss them ; and
lastly, extend them so joined together, as high as they can
over their heads, which gesticulation is used only to idols
and sacred things. This ceremony being performed, some
make their prayers standing ; others prostrate themselves
with their whole bodies grovelling on the earth, and then
rise again ; others only touch the ground with their head
and forehead, and perform similar acts of humility." — De
La Valle's Travels in India, p. 20.
In the east it is still considered as a mark of the highest
respect, to take off the shoes, and approach barefooted to
perform adorations. See Exod. 3 : 5. and Josh. 5 : J3.
The Egyptians were particularly attentive to this practice ;
and the Mahometans observe it whenever they enter their
mosques. When Mr. Wilkins wished to enter the inner
hall of the college of Seeks at Patna, he was told that it
was a place of worship, open to him and to all men ; but
that it was necessary for him to take off his shoes, {Asiatic
Researches, vol. i. p. 289.) and Ives, in his Travels, p. 75,
says, that " at the doors of an Indian Pagoda, are seen as
many slippers and sandals as there are hats hanging up
in our churches."
The Romans, when practising adoration, having their
heads covered, applied their hand to their hps, with the
forefinger resting on the thumb, which was erect, and thus
bowing the head, turned themselves from left to right.
Sometimes standing w-as the attitude of adoration ; some-
times the body was inclined forward, and the eyes fixed on
the ground ; kneeling was also a common practice, and
frequently complete prostration. Sitting with the under
parts of the thighs resting on the heels, seems to have
been customary among the Egyptians ; almost all the
figures of worshippers discovered in their sacred buildings
being represented in this posture.
The Persians, when performing their acts of adoration,
always turned their faces towards the sun, or to the east,
and among them the practice of kissing the hand is said
to have originated. It was at first done as a token of re-
spect and submission to their monarchs and great men,
and was easily and naturally transferred to idolatrous
worship. Among them the homage paid to their kings
was very extravagant. Cyrus introduced the custom,
when adoring their prince, of bending the knee before
him ; falling on the face at his feet ; striking the earth
with the forehead : and even kissing the ground. The
kings of Persia indeed, never admitted any one into their
presence, gave audience, or conferred favors without ex-
acting this ceremony ; and the history of Haman and
Mordecai, in the Book of Esther, shows that similar reve-
rence was paid to the favorites of princes. The Roman
emperors borrowed this extravagant and impious homage
from the kings of Persia ; and the popes from the empe-
rors. The common practice among their abject flatterers,
was to express their adoration by bowing or kneeling at
their feet, laying hold of their purple robe, then presently
withdrawing the hand and applying it to the lips ; though
this was an honor to which none were admitted but per-
sons of rank and dignity. The usual mode of adoration
consisted in falling on the ground and kissing the feet of
the emperor. This humiliating reverence was exacted
from all that entered the royal presence, from the princes
invested with the diadem and purple, and from the ambas-
sadors who represented their independent sovereigns.
(Gibbon's Roman History, vol. x. p. 124.) Even in the pre-
sent day, when any one pays his respects to the king of
Sumatra, he first takes off his shoes and stockings, and
leaves them at the door.
The Jewish forms of adoration were various : standing,
bowing, kneeling, prostration, and" Idssing the hand.
Hence in their language kissing is properly used for adora-
tion. 1 Kings 19 : 18. Hosea 13 : 2. Job 31 : 27. This
illustrates that important passage in Psalm 2 : 12. "Kiss
the Son, (that is, pay him homage and worship,) lest he be
angry and ye perish from the way, when his wrath is
kindled but a little."
The first Christians generally kneeled down in private ;
but stood during public worship on the Lord's day. It
was evidently the practice also, both among Jews and
Christians, in offering up their prayers and supplications,
to lift up their hands and spread them forth towards
heaven. To this Isaiah alludes, chap. 1 : 15. and Paul
enjoins it upon Christians, 1 Tim. 2 : 8. But wiiatever
may be the external forms of worship, nothing can be
plainer from the Scriptures than that God has peculiar re-
spect to the state of the heart. Hence the complaint of
old, " This people draw near unto me with their lips,
while their hearts are far from me." " I will be sanctified
in them that come nigh me." For '> God is greatly to be
feared in the assembly of the saints, and to be had in reve-
rence of all them that are about him."
If we examine the short notices wiiich tlie Scriptures
A DR
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ADD
give us of (lie worship of the heavenly state, we may
at least learn from them this important truth, that the holi-
est beings, though honored wilh a residence in the imme-
diate presence of the blessed God, where they are permit-
led to sunound his throne, and to contemplate his glories
without a veil, are, at the same time, filled with the most
profound adoration of his glorious Majesty. " I saw Je-
hovah sitting upon a throne,'' says the prophet, •' high and
lifted up, and his train filled the temple. Above it stood
the seraphim : each one had six wings ; with twain he
covered his face, and with twain he covered his feet,
and with twain he did fly. And one cried to another,
and said. Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God of hosts ;
the whole earth is full of his glory." Isa. 6 : 1 — 3.
" I beheld." says the writer of the Apocalypse, " and lo, a
great multitude which no man could number of all na-
tions, and Irindreds, and people, and tongues, stood before
the throne, and before the Lamb, clothed with white robes,
and pabns in their hands, and cried with a loud voice,
suyii r, Salvation to our God \\hich sitleth upon the
throne, and unto the Lamb," And all the angels stood
round about the throne, and about the elders and the four
living creatures, and fell before the throne on their faces,
and worshipped God, saying, " Amen ; Blessing, and
glory, and wisdom, and thanksgiving, and honor, and
power, and m.ight, be unto our God for ever and ever.
Amen." Rev. 7: 9 — 12.— Watsmi; Jones.
ADORN; to deck, to make beautiful. 1 Tim. 2: 9.
Holiness of heart and life is the appropriate adorning of
Christian females. Much care, pains, and attention to the
glass of God's word are necessary in attaining it ; and it
renders our nature and character truly amiable and glori-
ous. 1 Pet. 3 : 4, 5. 1 Tim. 4 : 9, 10. By a holy con-
versation we adorn the doctrine of God ; practically show to
the world the purity, power, glory, and usefulness of his
truths, laws, promises, threatenings. Tit. 2 : 10. The
church is adorned when her ordinances are pure and effi-
cacious ; her officers faithful and zealous ; her members
clothed with the unputed righteousness of Christ and his
sanctifying grace. Isa. 61 : 10. Rev. 21 : 2.
ADRA. See Arad.
ADRAMMELECH ; mighli/ king, son of Sennacherib,
king of Assyria. This monarch returning to Nineveh,
after the unhappy expedition which he had made into
Judea against king Hczelciah, was put to death by his two
sons Adrammelech and Sharezar, while worshipping in
the temple of his god Nisroch. 2 Kings 19: 37. and Isa.
37: 38. It is not said what induced these princes to com-
mit this parricide ; but having accomplished it, they fled
for safety to the mountains of Armenia, and their brother
Esarhaddon succeeded to the throne.
ADRAMMELEcn wa.s also the name of an idol worship-
ped by the inhabitants of Sepharvaim, who settled in the
country of Samaria, in the room of those Israelites who
were carried beyond the Euphrates. 2 Kings 17: 31. See
Anamelecii. — Cahi'f/.
ADRAMYTTIUM ; a maritime town of Mysia, in Asia
Minor, opposite the island of Lesbos. In a vessel belong-
ing to this port, Paul embarked at Cteiarea, on his first
voyage to Rome, intending, says the historian, " to sail
by the coasts of Asia." The town was situated at the
foot of Mount Ida, and was founded by a colony of
Athenians. It had formerly a dock and harbor, and was
Dotei for both its trade and shipping, but is now a wretch-
ed \allage, inhabited by only a few fishermen. It gave
name to the Sinus Adrami/ttenus, or bay of Adramyttium,
which is an ai-m of the jEgean sea. Acts 27: 2.
ADRIA ; the name given by Luke to the Adriatic sea,
or, as it is now called, "the Gulf of Venice," in which
Paul and his companions, in their voyage to Italy, were
so severely driven up and down during fourteen days and
nights. Acts 27: 27. It is an ann of the Mediterranean,
about two hundred miles long, and fifty broad, stretching
along the east of Italy, on one side, and the west of Dal-
matia, Sclavonia, and Turkey, on the other. The domi-
nion of it now belongs to the Venetians ; and the sea
extends from south-east to north-west, between twelve
and nineteen degrees of east longitude, and between forty
and forty-five of north latitude. — Jones.
ADRIEL ; the son of Barzillai, married Merah, the
daughter of Saul, who had previously been promisee to
David. 1 Sam. 18: 19. Adriel had five sons by her, who
were delivered up to the Gibeonites to be put to death
before the Lord, in revenge for the cruelty which their
grandfather Saul had exercised against the Gibeonites. It
would seem from 2 Sam. 21: 8. that Michal, "who had no
child to the day of her death," ch. 4: 23. had adopted the
five sons of her sister Merab, whom she is said to have
"brought up for Adi'iel, the son of Barzillai, the Meho-
lathite." — Jones.
ADULLAM ; a city belonging to the tribe of Judah,
situated in the southern territories of this tribe. Josh. 15:
35. It is said to have been a beautiful city, and surnam-
ed the glory of Israel. Micah 1: 15. Rehoboam streng:th-
ened it with fortifications. 2 Chron. 11: 7, 8. Eusebius
says, that it was a large towai in his time, and describes
it as being situated ten miles eastward of Eleutheropolis.
It was a royal city in the days of Joshua, who put the
king of it to death. Josh. 12: 15. It was in a cave near
to this city that David concealed himself from the rage of
Saul : " and when his brethren and all his father's house,
heard that he had escaped to the cave of Adullam, they
went down thither to him." 1 Sam. 22. 1. — Jones.
ADULTERY; a violation of conjugal faith, by crimi-
nal intercourse with any person, whether married or
single. When God at the beginning, to complete the
work of his creation, had, as it were, put the finishing
touch to the whole by the formation of Adam, to perfect
his happiness, and that nothing might be wanting to con-
summate his bliss, we are told that Jehovah said, " It is not
good that man should be alone ; I will make him an help-
meet for him." In consequence of this, Eve was created,
and when the Lord brought her unto him, Adam said,
"This is now bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh ;
therefore, shall a man leave his father and his mother,
and cleave unto his wife, and they shall be one flesh."
Gen. 2. 16 — 24. These words lead us to the original in-
stitution of marriage, and show it to have been of divine
appointment, intended for the happiness of the human
race. It may also be remarked that the sameness of
proportion between the numbers of each sex, which has
obtained in every age of the world, while it fiu'nishes a
convincing argument against the practice of polygamy,
carries with it a strong intimation, independent of the
positive testimony of revelation, that a promiscuous in-
tercourse between the sexes is both unnatural, and contra-
ly to the will of God. Accordingly we find the practice of
adultery condemned in the divine word, in the most pointed
manner. It is one of the ten precepts of the law which
the Most High gave to the children of Israel at Mount
Sinai. " Thou shall not commit adultery ;" and the crime,
when it took place with a married woman, was punished
with the death of both the parties that were detected in the
commission of it. Lev. 20 : 10. In the New Testament
■nTitings, adultery is always ranked among the works of
flesh, or of corrupt nature; and while "marriage" is
expressly said to be " honorable in all, and the marriage-
bed undefiled," it is added, " whoremongers and adulter-
ers God will judge," that is, he will condemn them in the
judgment. Heb. 13 : 4. Hence it is enumerated among
those vices, which, if persevered in, will exclude from the
kingdom of heaven. Gal. 6 : 19—21. Eph. 5 : 3—6. Col.
3 : 5, 6. The heinousness of the sin consists not only in
its being contrary to the divine law, but also in its coun-
teracting the will of God in the institution of inarriage
and fraught with the most baneful consequences to our
neighbor. " To avoid fornication, therefore, let every man
have his own wife, and every woman her own husbind."
It is an alarming view which Christ gives us with regard
to the extent of the divine law in reference to this sin,
when he describes it as comprehending every species of
unchastity, and even the very emotions of the heart :
" Whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her, hath
committed adultery with her already in his heart." Matt.
5 : 28. and ch. 15 : 19.
ADtjLTEr.T is frequently charged upon the Israelites in
their national capacity ; and is then to be considered as
used figuratively by the prophets. Isaiah terms them —
"the seed of the adulterer and the whore." Ch. 57: 3.
Jeremiah complains of them, that " they were all adal-
ADIT
[41 1
ADU
lerere." 9 : 2. Hosea uses similar language, chap. 7 : 4.
aiid Christ repeatedly calls them, " ar. adulterous genera-
tion." Matt. 12 : 39. and 16 : 4. Mark 8 : 38. To per-
ceive the import of this, we must take into consideration
that, as a nation, they had entered into covenant with
God ; that those covenant engagements are alluded to
under the metaphor of a marriage contract ; and hence
their violation of the covenant is charged home upon them
as the sin of adultery. Thus Isaiah speaks of the Jewish
church, of which all the natural descendants of Abraham
were members, as "the married wife." Isaiah 54: 1.
And Jeremiah exhorting them to repentance, says, " Turn,
O backsliding children, saith the Lord ; for I am married
unto you." Ch. 3 : 14. Hence their backslidings from the
worship of the true God, and reverting to idolatry, to
which they were remarkably prone about the period of the
Babylonish captivity, is reprobated by the prophets under
the strong figurative expressions of adulter}' and whore-
dom. " Through the lightness of her whoredom she
defiled the land, and coimuitted adultery with stones and
stocks." Jer. 3 : 9. Thus, also, the prophet Ezekiel re-
proaches them — " Thou hast forgotten me, saith the Lord
God, and cast me behind thy back ; therefore, bear thou
also thy lewdness and thy whoredoms." — " They have
committed adultery, — -n-ith their idols have they committed
adultery." Ch. 23: 35 — 37. Hence God compares himself
to a husband jealous of his honor ; and their adoption of
vile opinions and practices is in his eye the worst kind of
prostitution. It is, says Calmet, an argument ad hominem,
not merely to the Jews, but to human nature at large,
against the flagitious nqckedness of forsaking God for the
sake of any other object which would rival him in our
affections. 2 James 3: 4. 1 Cor. 10: 2i, 22. It is
necessary to keep in view these principles, in order to
enter properly into the meaning of the prophetic writings.
See further on this subject under the article Makriage.
One of the most singular institutions that is to be found
in all the Mosaic economy, is the law which was given to
the Hebrews for the trial of a wife whose husband was
jealous of her having an adulterous connection with
another man. It is contained in Numbers 5: 1! — 3L to
which the reader must be referred for the particulars. It
consisted in obliging the suspected wife, either to make a
public avowal of her guilt before the whole Sanhedrim and
assembled congregation, in which case she was repudiated
and might go where she pleased ; or if she persisted in
affirming her innocence, compelling her to drink waters
which were rendered metaphorically bitter by the infusion
of the divine curse on adultery ; which waters, iy divine
interposition, had the extraordinary effect of greatly im-
proving her health, beauty, and fruitfulness in case of her
mnocence, while, on the contrary, if guilty, she immedi-
ately grew pale, her eyes started out of her head, her
thighs putrified, and she immediately died under the most
shocking circumstances that are conceivable ! This was
called — " The Law of Jealousies," ver. 29. and hereby
Jehovah strikingly manifested that he was privy to their
most secret sins, — that he was the preserver of conjugal
faith and chastity, as well as the protector of innocence.
On this law of Moses, MichaeUs has the following re-
mai ks : — '■ This oath was, perhaps, a reUc of some more
severe and barbarous consuetudinary laws, whose rigor
Moses mitigated ; as he did in many other cases, when an
established usage could not be conveniently abolished
altogether. Among ourselves, in barbarous times, the
ordeal, or trial by fije, was, notwithstanding the purity of
our married people, Ln common use ; and this, in point of
equity, was much the same in effect, as if the husband
had had the right to insist on his wife submitting to the
hazardous trial of her purity, by drinking a poisoned po-
tion ; which, according to an ancient superstition, could
never hurt her if she was innocent. And, iu fact, such
right is not altogether unexampled ; for, according to
Oldendoi-p's History of the Blission of the Evangelical
Brethren, in the Caribbee Islands, it is actually in use
among some of the savage nations in the interior parts of
West Africa.
" NoW; when in place of a poisoned potion like this,
which ver)' few husbands can be very willing to have
administered to their wives, wa see, as among the He-
6
brews, an imprecation-drink, whose avenger God himself
promises to become, we cannot but be struck with the
contrast of wisdom and clemency which such a contrivance
manifests. In the one case, (and herein consists their
great distinction,) innocence can only be preserved by a
miracle ; while on the other, guilt only is revealed and
punished by the hand of God himself.
" By one of the clauses of the oath of purgation, (and
had not the legislator been perfectly assured of his divine
mission, the insertion of any such clause would have been
a very bold step indeed,) a visible and corporal punish-
ment was specified, which the person swearing impre-
cated on herself, and which God himself was understood
as engaging to execute. To have given so accurate a
definition of the punishment God meant to inflict, and still
more, one that consisted of such a sore disease, would have
been a step of incomprehensible boldness in a legislator
who pretended to have a divine mission, if he was not,
with the most assured conviction, conscious of its reality.
" Seldom, however, very seldom, was it likely that
Providence would have an opportunity of inflicting the
punishment in question. For the oath was so regulated,
that a woman of the utmost effrontery cordd scarcely have
taken it without changing color to such a degree as to
betray herself.
" In the first place, it was not administered to the wo-
man in her own house, but she was under the necessity
of going to that place of the land where God in a special
maimer had his abode, and take it there. Now, the solem-
nity of the place, unfamiliarized to her by daily business
or resort, would have a great effect upon her mind. In
the next place, there was offered unlo God what was termed
an execration-offering, not in order to propitiate his mercy,
but to invoke his vengeance on the guilty. Here the pro-
cess was extremely slow, which gave her more time for
reflection than to a guilty person could be acceptable, and
that, too, amidst a multitude of unusual ceremonies. For
the priest conducted her to the front of the sanctuar>', and
took holy water, that is, water out of the priest's laver,
which stood before it, together with some earth off its
floor, which was likewise deemed holy ; and having put
the earth in the water, he then proceeded to uncover the
woman's head, that her face might be seen, and every
change in her countenance during the administration of
the oath accurately observed : and this was a circum-
stance which, in the east, where the women are always
veiled, must have had a great effect ; because a woman
accustomed to wear a veil, could on so extraordinary an
occasion, have had far less command of her eyes and her
countenance than an European adulteress, who is gene-
rally a perfect mistress in all the arts of dissimulation,
would display. To render the scene still more awful, the
tresses of her hair were loosened, and then the execration-
offering was put into her hand, while the priest held in his
the i'nprecation-water. This is commonly tenned the
bitter water ; but we must not understand this, as if the
water had really been bitter ; for how could it have been
so ? The earth of the floor of the tabernacle could not
make it bitter. Among the Hebrews and other oriental
nations, the word bitter was rather used for curse : and,
strictly speaking, the phrase does not mean bitttr n-attr, but
the water of bitternesses, that is of curses. The priest now
pronounced the oath, which was in aU points so framed
that it could excite no terrors in the breast of ai:. innocent
woman ; for it expressly consisted in this, that the impre-
cation-water could not harm her if she was innocent. It
would seem as if the priest here made a stop, and again
left the woman some time to consider whether she would
proceed with the oath. This I infer from the circum-
stance of his speech not being directly continued in verse
21, which is rather the repetition of what goes before ;
and from the detail proceeding anew in the words of the
historian. Then shall the priest pronounce the rest of the oath
and the curses to the woman ; and proceed thus. — After this
stop he pronounced the curses, and the woman was
obbged to declare her acquiescence in them by a repeated
Amen. Nor was the solemn scene yet altogether at an
end ; but rather, as it were, commenced anew. For the
priest had yet to wiite the curses in a book, which I sup-
pose he did at great deliberation ; having duie so, he
ADU
[42]
ADU
washed tliem oul again in the very imprecation-water,
which the woman liad now to drink ; and this water being
now presented to her, she was obliged to drink it, with this
warning and assurance, in the name of God, that if she
was guilty, it would prove within her an absolute curse.
Now, what must have been her feelings, while drinking,
if not conscious of purity. In my opinion she must have
conceived that she already felt an alteration in the state
of her body, and the germ, as it were, of the disease
springing up within her. Conscience and imagination
would conspire together, and render it almost impossible
for her to drink it out. Finally, the execration-offering
wt:3 taken out of her hand, and burnt upon the altar. I.
cannot but think that, under the sanction of such a purga-
torium, perjury must have been a very rare occurrence
indeed. If it happened but once in an age, God had bound
himself to punish it ; and if this took place but once, (if
but one woman who had taken the oath was attacked with
that sore disease which it threatened,) it was quite enough
to serve as a determent to all others for at least one gene-
ration."
This procedure had also the effect of keeping in mind,
among the Jews, God's high displeasure against this viola-
tion of his law ; and though some lax moralists have been
found, in modern times, to palliate i(, yet the Christian
will always remember the solemn denunciations of the
New Testament against a crime so aggravated, whether
considered in its effects upon the domestic relations, upon
the moral character of the guilty parties, or upon socie-
ty at large. — " Whoremongers and adulterers God will
judge."— Heb. 13: 14.
It is evident, observes Paley, that, on the part of the man
who solicits the chastity of a married woman, it certainly
includes the crime of seduction, and is attended with mis-
chief still more extensive and complicated : it creates a
new sufferer, the injured husband, upon whose affection
is inflicted a wound the most painful and incurable that
hiunan nature knows. The infidelity of the n'oman is
aggravated by cruelty to her children, who are generally
involved in their parents' shame, and always made un-
happy by their quarrel. The marriage vow is witnessed
before God, and accompanied with circumstances of solem-
nity and religion, which approach to the nature of an oath.
The married offender, therefore, incurs a crime little short
of perjury, and the seduction of a married woman is little
less than the subornation of perjury. But the strongest
apology for adultery is, the prior transgression of the other
party ; and so far, indeed, as the bad effects of adultery
are anticipated by the conduct of the husband or wife who
offends fii^t, the guilt of the second offender is extenuated.
But this can never amount to a justification, unless it
could be shown that the obligation of the marriage vow
depends upon the condition of reciprocal fidelity ; a con-
struction which appears founded neither in expediency, nor
in the terms of the vow, nor in the design of the legislature,
which prescribed the marriage rite. To consider the
offence upon the footing of provocation, therefore, can by
no means vindicate retaliation. " Thou shalt not commit
adultery," it must be ever remembered, was an interdict
delivered by God himself. This crime has been punished
in almost all ages and nations. By the Jewish law it was
punished with death in both parties, where either the wo-
man was married, or both. Among the Egyptians, adul-
tery in the man was punished by a thousand lashes with
rods, and in the woman by the loss of her nose. The
Greeks put out the eyes of the adulterers. Among the
Romans, it was punished by banishment, cutting off the
cars, noses, and by sewing the adulterers in sacks, and
throwing them into the sea, scourging, burning, ice. In
Spain and Poland they were almost as severe. The Sax-
ons formerly burnt the adulteress, and over her ashes
erected a gibbet, whereon the adulterer was hanged.
King Edmund, in his kingdom, ordered adultery to be
punished in the same manner as homicide. Canute or-
dered the man to be banished, and the woman to have her
nose and ears cut off. Modern ptmishments, in different
nations, do not seem to be so severe. In Britain it is reck-
ined a spiritual offence, and is cognizable by the spiritual
jnurts. where it is punishable by fine and penance. — See
I'aky's Moral and Political Philosophy.
In John 8 : 3. we read that the Jews having surprised a
woman in adultery, brought her to our Savior, and asked
him what they should do with her : Moses having ordered
women guilty of this crime to be stoned. This they said,
tempting him, to find accusation against him. From our
Lord's manner of treating their application, and its results,
Calmet and others have supposed that the woman's accus-
ers were themselves guilty of the crime which they alleged
against her ; and as it was not just to receive the accusa-
tions of those who are guilty of the evil of which they
accuse others, our Lord dismissed them with the most ob-
vious propriety. But, as Mr. Taylor suggests, it seems
-enough to suppose,, that the consciences of these witnesses
accused them of such crimes as restrained their hands
from punishing the adulteress, who, perhaps, was guilty,
in this instance, of a less enormous sin than they were
conscious of, though of another kind. He also suggests
that their malevolent design to entrap our Lord, was ap-
pealed to by him, and was no slight cause of their confu-
sion, if they wished to found a charge which might affect
his life. Their intended murder was worse than the wo-
man's adultery ; especially if, as there is room to believe,
the woman had suffered some violence. But the whole
transaction may be viewed in another light. The law
was, that both the culprits should be brought before the
council, where, if condemned, the -n'h/ile audience, codncii,
INCLUDED, were to stone them. By bringing this woman
only to Jesus, the Jews were guilty, 1. of partiality, as
they ought to have brought the adulterer also ; 2. they
desired Jesus to take on himself the office of the council,
which would have been assuming political power, and
would have endangered his life. This plot he retorts on.
themselves, by saying, " Do you, on your avni proposals,
assume that conduct which you well know the council
would pursue in such a case ; consider the prisoner as
ipso facto condemned by the circumstances in which she
was apprehended, therefore do you cast stones at her, as
the council would cast stones at a person so condemned."
This they declined, being aware of its tendency, and
shrunk from that action to which they had urged Jesus.
To this his words seem more particularly to allude, " Let
him who is without sin, not moral gudt merely, but politi-
cal offence — he who can be innocent in assuming that pow-
er of life and death, which is legally lodged elsewhere, let
him act the judge, and stone her." And so, speaking to
the woman, " has nobody offcially condemned thee — execut-
ed the condemnation of the law on thee, by stoning thee ? —
Neither do I officially condemn thee ; — I do not execute
condemnation on thee by stoning thee : Remember the
narrow escape thou hast now experienced ; Go and sin no
more."
The genuineness of this narrative has been much disputed,
in consequence of its having been omitted in many ancient
MSS., and being much varied in its position, in others.
The arguments in its favor, however, are generally admit-
ted to preponderate. It is found in the greater part of the
MSS. extant, of all the recensions or families ; and Tatian
and Ammonius (A. D. 172, and 220) inserted it in their
harmonies. The author of the Apostolical Constitutions,
(lib. 2. cap. 24.) and the Synopsis ascribed to Athanasius,
have it. Jerome, Justin, Ambrose, and the Latin fathers
received it, though they were not unacquainted with the
differences among the Greek copies. Justin conjectures,
that some Christian of weak judgment expimged it, lest
our Savior should be thought to authorize the crime of
adultery, by forgiving it so easily. Many Syriac manu-
scripts, of good antiquity, read it ; and it is found in all
printed copies, Greek and Latin. Griesbach prints the
passage between [ ] as dubious ; yet on the whole admits
It.
But admitting its truth, there is scarcely any of the
Savior's miracles that sets forth in a more striking man-
ner his divine authority over the consciences of men, m
flashing conviction upon their guilty minds, and compe.-
ling them to speak out to their own confusion. And, m
this view, it may serve to show us what will be the real
state of things in the great day of awful retribution, when
the books shall be opened and every man's sins set in
array against him. — Calmet ; Watson ; Jones.
ADUMMIM ; a city and mountain near Jericho, and
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[43 J
ADV
in the lol of the tribe of Benjamin. It was situated in the
way from Jerusalem to Jericlio, and is said to have been
greatly infested with robbers. Hence, Christ is supposed
to have taken it for the scene of the parable of the good
Samaritan, who so humanely relieved the man that fell
among thieves.
ADVANTAGE ; 1. Profit, gain. Job 35 : 3.-2. A fair
opportunity to excel, or prevail over another ; a privilege,
or pre-eminence of privileges, in a good sense. Rom. 3 :
1. — 3. Actual prevalence or superiority, in a bad sense.
2 Cor. 2: 11.
ADVERSARY; (in the Hebrew Satan, in the Greek
Antidikos,) one who carries on a controversy with another
under the color of justice; and usually with the forms
and processes of law. Luke 18 : 3. Matt. 5 : 25. The
tise of the term both in the Old and New Testament shows
thai it differs from enemy in this, that it imports (whether
truly or not) a claim of right to oppose. Hence the appel-
lation is with equal propriety given, as we have seen, to
men, 1 Sam. 29 : 4— to God, Exod. 23 : 22— to a good
angel, Num. 22 ; 22— and to the evil spirit, Job 1 :* 6. It
IS more commonly used absolutely for the latter, " that old
serpent, which is the Devil and Satan." Rev. 20 : 2. Ps.
109 : 6. Zech. 3:1. 1 Pet. 5 : 8. From an Adversary
so powerful, sagacious, experienced, artful, indefatigable,
and withal so malicious ; from an Adveksaky equally
skilled in the wiles which lead to presumption, and that
afterwards plunge into despair ; from an Adversary who
assaulted even the Son of God himself; what have we
not to fear ! Especially when we consider that, although
not hjciself omnipresent, yet his servants, emissaries, and
agents are at all times, on every side of us ; acting in his
name, upon his sehemes, and in the same spirit as him-
self. Matt. 25 : 41. 2 Cor. 11 : 13—15. 2 : 11. Ephes.
6 : 10 — 16. Faith in the crucified Savior is the only im-
pregnable shield against his assaults. ^V^lom resist, says
the apostle, steadfast i/i the faith ; /mowing that the same
afflictions are accomplished in your brethren that are in the
rvorld. But the God of all grace n'ho hath called its unto his
eternal glory by Christ Jesus, ajter that ye have suffered arvhile,
make you perfect, establish, strengthen, settle you. To him be
glory and dominion forever and ever. Amen. 1 Pet. 5 :
8—11.
ADVERSITY ; the opposite of prosperity. Ecc. 7 : 14.
It is that state in which the train of providential circum-
stances is contrary to our wishes. Gen. 42 : 36. The
duties of this trying state are Fortitude. Prov. 24 : 10.
Consideration. Ec. 7: 14. Devout acknowledgment. Prov.
3: 6. Prayer. James 5: 13. Submission. 1 Sam. 3: 18.
Faith in the promises, perfections, and providential go-
vernment of God. Rom. 8 : 28. — See Affliction.
ADVOCATE ; (parakletos, a patron,) one who pleads the
cause of another. It is a title appropriated to our Lord
Jesus Christ, as the exclusive Mediator between God and
man. It designates one important branch of his high
priestly office — a branch most essential to our daily com-
fort, as well as to our peace ■nith God. As a deep im-
piession of the divine majesty and purity, (1 John 1 :
5 — 10.) is essential to guard us against sin ; so, under the
awful consciousness of having sinned against that purity
and majesty, and all the affecting manifestations oT infi-
nite love in the Gospel, nothing short of a lively recollec-
tion and reliance upon the tender and efficacious interces-
sion of our holy Redeemer, could save us from despair.
Hence I he exquisite propriety and beauty of the words of
the apostle. (1 John 2 : 1.) 3Iy little children, these things
rvrite I unto yon, that ye sin not. But if any one sin, ve have
an advocate with the Father, .Jesus Christ the righteous : and
he is the propitiation for our sins ; and not for ours only, but
also for the sins of the whole n-orld. And hereby tie do know
that WE KNOW niM, (that is, that our reliance upon him is
sincere and successful,) if n-e keep his commandments.
The understanding of this point is so vital, both to our
peace of conscience and purity of character, that we must
be pardoned for dwelling more particularly upon it ; es-
pecially as it reveals one of the sweetest features in the
character of our Lord, and one that comes home with all
the warmth of the most endearing tenderness to our
hearts.
That our poor nature universally stands in ne»d of an
Advocate before the tribunal of divine justice, it is un-
necessary to insist upon ; since " all have sinned, and
come short of the glory of God." Rom. 3: 23. But
where shall that Advocate be found ? He who undertakes
to plead the cause of the sinner, must himself be sinless.
He must not only possess sufficient ability for the office
of a special pleader ; but he must know every person and
every case, with all the disadvantages of all the causes
for which he undertakes. He must thoroughly understand
the law and the government under which he pleads ; and
be equally solicitous to uphold the claims of righteousness
as to secure the safety of the client, who has resorted to
him for protection. He must know the true ground on
which to rest his plea with the certainty of success.
Neither is it sufficient that he possess all these qualifications,
and more than these, unless that he be lawfully constituted
to the office. It is not enough, in our common courts of
justice, between man and man, that many an able and
feeling heart could stand up for poor guilty criminals, and
plead their cause. He that advocates for them, must have
a legal call to the office, and be sworn into it according to
the laws of the court. How delightful is it to see that all
these qualifications meet and centre in the person of our
Lord Jesus Christ, and invest him with all their soft and
attractive splendors.
The Redeemer's claim to this office is founded on the
express call of Jehovah. We are told by God the Holy
Ghost, (Heb. 5 : 5, 6.) that " Christ glorified not himself
to be made an High Priest ; but was called of God, as
was Aaron." And he was not only called to the office,
but sworn into it with the solemnity of an oath, — " The
Lord sware and will not repent ; thou art a priest forever,
after the order of Melchisedek." Christian ! let this be
kept in perpetual remembrance. Yovu' Jesus, your Advo-
cate with the Father, is your sworn Advocate. And as ia
consequence of sin, God our Father is of necessity the
legal adversary of every sinner, (Luke 12 : 58, 59.) .so for
every believer Christ is the legal advocate, fully and law-
fully appointed to this office by the Father himself. Well
might he say when about to ascend to Heaven, "^Let not
your heart be troubled ; ye believe in God, believe also in
me." John 14 : 1.
Nor is this all. Christ is our Advocate by virtue of his
being the propitiation for our sins. Not only the infinite
dignity of his person, and the infinite merit of his pro-
pitiation, give him this claim, but also he is the very " pro-
pitiation" which God himself " hath set forth, through faith
in his blood." ConsuU Job 33: 24. Isaiah 42: 21.
Matt. 17: 5. Rom. 3 : 25. Here then is laid the founda
tion of his great argument on our behalf. It is not that
we, according to the law of God, are not found guilty : the
reverse of this is the admitted fact. (Rom. 3 : 19. Isa.
53 : 12.) But may he not plead for his own rights, and
those of his people in him ? Blay he not plead the abso-
lute promise of the covenant of redemption, that if he
should make his soul an oflTering for sin, he should see
of the travail of his soul, and be satisfied > Isai. 53 : 10,
11. And can he rest satisfied till he hath brought all his
redeemed people around him in glory? "We know from
his own words (John 17 : 24.) that he cannot. Not will
he rest till all the ends of his incarnation, as far as they
relate to this world, are accomplished ; although the url
versal establishment of his kingdom, (Ps. 2 : 8 — 12.) ia
volves the overthrow of the empire of Satan, and the
destruction of his o'mi and his people's enemies. Isa.
63: 4. 1 John 3: 8. Isa. 42: 4.
Time would fail to describe here, what the Scriptures
largely set forth, the various qualifications of our Lord,
his ability, his readiness, his grace, and a thousand en-
dearing things beside, which render him so peculiarly
suited to the office. Indeed, indeed, it is most blessed to
behold him in this endeared character ! All he undertakes
is free, altoget'ner free, "^rithout money and without
price." No case, however desperate, he refuseth ; and
none that he undertakes can fail. Other advocates may,
and indeed must, often disappoint the expectations placed
in them ; Jesus never. — And then the gracious manner
in which he canies on the cause intrusted to his hands,
is most blessed to think upon ; for he makes eveiy case
which he takes up his own. He enters into all their con-
ALL I
[44]
AFA
cerns ; gives them lu see liow mucli be sj'mpalliizes with
them in all their exercises ; ami supports their souls with
the abiding assurance of his everlasting attention. Not
all the hallelujahs of heaven can make him for a nMmeut
intermit his regard to the persons or the causes of his re-
deemed on earth. Their wants, their sorrows, their de.
sires are all numbered before him. For it is not their
deservings, but his love ; not what they have done, or can
do for themselves ; but what they need, and what he can
do for them, which regulates the bestowment of his grace.
If ihey " have not," then, it is "because they ask mit," or ask
not in away which will promote their highest good. What
they are, and what they merit, comes not into the account.
That they are his ; that he has purchased their redemp-
tion, and received them as the gift of the Father, (John
G : 37—40. 10 : 27—30. 17 : 2—26.) these are the mo-
tives that operate in the heart of Christ. Not vain then
is the apostle's triumphant challenge. Kom. 8 : 33 — 39.
Seeing we have such an advocate, " Who .shall lay any
thing to the charge of God's elect ?" Oh, were his power-
ful lEcommendations known to sinners through faith, not
a soul earnest for its everlasting welfare could hesitate a
moment to commit all its concerns into the hands of an
advocate so wise, so tender, and successful.
Sinners in Zion ! here bring all your causes. Corneal
once to Jesus, and put your trust in him. Blessed are such
as do this. He is waiting to be gracious. He can and
will save even to the uttermost all that come to God by
him, seeing he ever liveth to make intercession for them,
(Heb. 7 : 25.) and be their glorious, gracious, lawful and
successful Advocate, Friend and Forerunner, in the heavens
to which he has ascended.
ADYTUM ; a Greek word, signifying inaccessible, by
which is understood the most retired and secret place of
the heathen temples, into which none but the priests were
allowed to enter. The adytum of the Greeks and Romans
answered to the Holy of Holies of the Jews, and was
the place from whence oracles were delivered.
^LIA CAPITOLINA ; the name given to Jerusalem,
when the emperor Adrian, (whose family name was
iElitis,) about A. D. 134, settled a Roman colony there,
and banished the Jews, prohibiting their return upon pain
of death. We are assured, that Tinnius Rufus, or, as the
Rabbins call him, Turannus, or Turnus Rufus, ploughed
up the spot of ground on which the temple had stood.
There are medals of Adrian extant, struck upon this oc-
casion; on the reverse of which Judea is represented as a
woman, holding two naked children by her, and sacrificing
upon an altar. On another medal, we see Judea kneeling,
submitting to the emperor, and three children begging
mercy of him. Jerome states, that in his time the Jews
bought from the Roman soldiers permission to look
on Jerusalem, and to shed tears over it. (Faulin. ad.
Sever. Ep. 11.) Old men and women, loaded with rags,
were seen to go weeping up the mount of Olives,
(see Mark 13: 3.) to lament from thence the ruin of the
temple.
The city was consecrated by Adrian to Jupiter Capito-
linus, after whom it was named Capitolina, and a temple
was built to him on the spot where Jesus rose from the
dead. A statue of Venus was also set up at Calvary, a
marble hog was placed on the gate leading toward Beth-
lejiem, and at this place a grove was planted in honor of
Adonis, to whom was dedicated the cave in which oiu-
Lord was supposed to have been born. Notwithstanding
these degradations, however, the places consecrated by the
birth, death, and resurrection of Jesus, continued to be
held in repute, and were, in fact, identified by the very
means employed to destroy their locality and put out their
remembrance. See Calvaky, and Sepulchre of Christ.
It appears that Adrian's order for expelling the Jews
from Jerusalem did not extend to the Christians. These
remained in the city, and the church which had been pre-
viously composed chiefly of converted Jews, who had con-
nected many of the legal ceremonies with the Christian
worship, was now formed exclusively of Gentile converts,
who abolished the Jewish observances.
From this period the name JElia became so common,
that Jerusalem was preserved only among the Jews, and
b'itter informed Christians. In the time of Constanline,
however, it resumed its ancient name, which it has rclatned
to the present day. — Calniet.
iEONS, (aimies, ages or eternities;) immortal beings, or
virtues. — See Basilidians.
M&A ; a series of years, commencing from a certain
point of time called an epocha ; thus we say, the Christian
sera ; that is, the number of years elapsed since the birth
of Christ. The generality of authors use the terms a;ra
and epocha in a synonymous sense ; that is, for the point
of time from which any computation begins.
The ancient Jews made use of several seras in their
computation ; sometimes they reckoned from the deluge,
sometimes from the division of tongues ; sometimes from
their departure out of Egypt ; and at other times from the
building of the temple ; and sometimes from the restora-
tion after the Babylonish captivity : but their vulgar aera
M'as from the creation of the world, which falls in with
the year of the Julian period 953 ; and consequently they
supposed the world created 294 years sooner than accord-
ing to our computation. But when the Jews became sub-
ject to the Syro-Macedonian kings, they were obliged to
make use of the sera of the Seleucidae in alt their contracts, '
which from thence was called the cera of contracts, This
sera begins with the year of the world 3692, of the Julian
period 4002, and before Christ 312. The sera in general
use among the Christians is that from the birth of Jesus
Christ, concerning the true time of wliich chronologers
differ ; some place it two years, others four, and again
others five, before the vulgar sera, which is fixed for the
year of the world 4004: but archbishop Usher, and after
him the generality of modem chronologers, place it in the
j'ear of the world 4000.
The ancient heathens used several a;ras: 1. The aera
of the first Olympiad is placed in the year of the world
3228, and before the vulgar a;ra of Jesus Christ 776. 2.
The taking of Troy by the Greeks, in the year of the
world 2820, and before Jesus Christ 1884. 3. The voyage
undertaken for the purpose of bringing away the golden
fleece, in the year of the world 2760. 4. The foundation
of Rome, in 2856. 5. The asra of Nabonassor, in 3257.
6. The sera of Alexander the Great, or his last victory over
Darius, in 3674, and before Jesus Christ 330. — Watson.
AERIANS ; a sect which arose about the middle of the
fourth century, being the followers of Aerius, (who must be
distinguished from Arius and Aetius,) a monk and a pres-
byter of Sebastia, in Pontus. He is charged with being
an Arian, or Semi-Arian ; but the heaviest accusation
against him is an attempt to reform the church ; and, by
rejecting prayers for the dead, with certain fasts and festi-
vals then snperstitiously observed, to reduce Christianity
as nearly as possible " to its primitive simplicity ; a pur-
pose, indeed, laudable and noble," says Dr. jlosheim,
"when considered in itself; though the principles from
whence it springs, and the means by which it is executed,
are sometimes, in many respects, worthy of censure, and
may have been so in the case of this reformer." This
gentle rebuke probably refers to a report that the zeal of
Aerius originated in his being disappointed of the bishop-
ric of Sebastia, (conferred on Eustathius,) which led him
to affirm that the Scriptures make no distinction between
a presbyter and a bishop, which he founded chiefly on
1 Tim. 4 : 14. Hence he is considered by many, as the
father of the modern Presbyterians. — " For this opinion,
chief y," says Dr. Turner, " he is ranked among the here-
tics, by Epiphanius, his contemporar)', who calls it a no-
tion full of folly and madness. His followers were driven
from the churches, and out of all the towns and villages,
and were obliged to assemble in the woods, caverns, and
open defiles." — Williams.
AETIANS ; another branch (as it is said) of Arians,
so called from Aetius, bishop of Antioch, who is also
charged -n-ith maintaining " faith without works," as "suf-
ficient to salvation," or -rather justification ; and with
maintaining " that sin is not imputed to beUevers." It is
added, that he taught that God had revealed to him things
which he had " concealed from the apostles ;" which per-
haps, is only a misrepresentation of what he taught on the
doctrine of divine influences.
AFAR; joined ivith off, signifies, 1. The distance be-
tween two places. Gen. 37 : 18. — 2. To be estranged from
AFF
[45 J
AFF
God. Ps, 38: 11.— 3. Absent from God. Vs. 10: 1.— 4.
tfngodly, not only out of the visible church, but alienated
from God. Eph. 2: 17.
AFFECTIONS. With many, says Buckminster, there
is, perhaps, too much of a disposition to reduce Christian-
ity 10 a barren system of rational truths. They are apt
to make it a mere collection of specific statutes, like a civil
or criminal code, in which the precise amount of obliga-
tion, and limit of transgression may be clearly ascertained.
Men of inquisitive and speculative minds are in peculiar
danger of preferring the exercise of the understanding to
that of the heart, and thus of rendering the light of re-
ligion little more than a cold coruscation, which imparts
no wannth to the region of the affections. But, (he
adds,) when we consider how important a part of our
cunsiitulion the affections are, and how mtich they do in
ulti)nately determining the character of the man, you
cannot suppose that religion is the only subject, from which
the exercise of them is to be excluded. When we con-
.siiler, too, the infinite sublimity of religious truths, the
influence they have on human happiness here, and on
man's expectations for eternity, surely it cannot be, that
he, who is impassioned on every other subject, may be al-
ways lukewarm on this ; that the aifections, which glow
in every other sphere, must lose all their warmth, as soon
ais they touch the region of theology. If it were enough
merely to believe, we might believe as well in a malevo-
lent, as in a gracious being. If it were enough to know
the sanctions, and admit the obligations of a law, the char-
acter of the lawgiver would be of no consideration. If it
were enough to keep the commandments according to the
barren letter of the moral code, surely the first command-
ment would have been more than superfluous — Thou shalt
love the Lord thy God, mth all thy heart, soul, mind, and
strength. But it is not sufficient that the affections be
merely admitted into religion. If they are allowed to enter
it at all, they must enter it largely. If God is to be loved,
he is to be loved supremely. If Jesus, though absent and
invisible, is yet our Savior and friend, he demands an at-
tachment, on our part, stronger than death, which many
waters cannot quench, nor floods drown. If the soul is
worth any thing, it is inestimable ; you cannot love it too
dearly. If the interest of any reaches beyond this earthly
scene, it spreads throughout eternal duration. It should,
move our feelings, as well as our thoughts. There cannot
be awakened too deep a sensibility for the immortal wel-
fare of a being, who is susceptible of innumerable grada-
tions of bliss and wretchedness.
Let it be admitted that the Scriptufes are written in the
language of orientals, and abound in phrases and expres-
sions of such passionate hyperbole, as seem, to the colder
and more chastised imaginations of the western world,
like the language of exaggerated feeling. But, with all
this allowance, and it is great, they rannot be made to
describe a religion which exists cr.ly m the head. There
is not a worthy passion, which silently pervades, or tu-
multuously agitates the breast of man, that has not been
enlisted in the cause of God, and encouraged in the Scrip-
tures. Hope, the most animated of the afleclions, is, in
our religion, the ruling spring of inefl"able happiness.
" Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Chri.st,
who, according to his abundant mercy, has begotten us
again into a lively hope, by the resurrection of Jesus from
the dead." The most impatient desires of religious im-
provement are represented, as a part of the Christian cha-
racter : " Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst after
righteousness." " Let him that is athirst come, and I will
give unto him the waters of life freely." Joy enters largely
into the Christian temper, " For the fruit of the Spirit is
love and joy." Sorrow, deep, piercing, and humiliating,
is not excluded. " Blessed are they that mourn, for they
shall be comforted ;" and '• The sacrifices of God are a
broken spirit." Gratitude is a vital principle of religious
obedience ; and compassion is a sentiment so essential to
religion, that it has even given a name to the righteous ;
and a merciful is equivalent to a good man. " I -ndll have
mercy and not sacrifice," was the passage so dear to our
compassionate Savior. Zeal, too, is not to be rejected for
lis abuses, if Christ, when he gat i himself for us, in-
tended, not only to redeem us from iniquity, but " to pu-
rify unto himself a peculiar people, zealous of good works."
To these Christian affections need not be added the com-
prehensive one of love, for it is not only represented as
the source, attendant, and result of true religion, but it is,
in numerous passages, commended as the substance and
epitome of duty, the fulfilling of the law, the end of the
commandment. From this enumeration we may under-
stand, that religion is not a bare comprehension of truths,
not the knowledge and remembrance of facts, not the con-
fession of a faith, or the obseiwation of duties formally
defined ; but it is a celestial spirit, which mingles with
and informs all our duties, in secret and in public, which
agitates the mass of our intellectual and moral faculties,
wliich discovers itself in fears and hopes, joys and sor-
rows, gratitude and humiliation, earnestness and a_l-
hallowed love.
And why is it that in religion alone, things spiritual anu
invisible are to have no command over the affections ? Is
not this theory perpetually disproved by every observation
of man's ruling passions ? The metaphysician becomes
extravagantly fond of his obscure and lofty speculation.s.
The mathematician is in raptures with the beauty of a
theorem, of which the world sees nothing but the lines
and angles. The artist glows with imaginations of
ideal beauty. The man of taste has his fancies and his
fondnesses, and discerns and loves a thousand inexpressi-
ble delicacies, impalpable to ordinary minds. And has
religion nothing to elevate the soul, nothing to absorb the
thoughts, to summon the passions, to make men feel?
Because God cannot be seen, shall he be, therefore, ex-
cluded from our afTections ? The single circumstance,
that God is not the object of any one of our senses, is
abundantly compensated by the consideration, that he is
never absent from us ; that he compasseth continually our
path and our lying down, and that we cannot remove a
step from the sphere of his presence ; that every sigh
which escapes us reaches his ear, and not an affectionate
movement springs up in our hearts, to -n-hich he is not
intuitively attentive. The faintest glow of gratitude,
which lights up the countenance, shines before his eyes ;
and the least cloud of godly sorrow, which passes over
the brow, scuds its shade to the throne of God, encom-
passed as it is with " undiminished brightness."
That man may well be suspected, who takes an active
interest in every event that transpires, is busy in every
project that is ever undertaken, but in religion only is idle,
inattentive, and incredidous. Such a man is not to plead,
that his feelings are not easily excited, or that his constitu-
tional temperament is lukewarm ; and one would think,
that, if he were dead to every other sentiment, the im-
mense interest, which he himself has at stake in eternity,
and the still greater interest of a whole world of living
souls, to whom religion is all important, would rouse every
latent spark of passion in his breast, and suffer him not to
rest in the cause of God, till the aflections themselves were
quenched in the flood of death.
The causes that modify the exercise of the affections in
diflTerent minds, are extremely numerous, and some of them
we proceed to consider, (l.) The external exhibition of a
man's religious feelings depends much on his original tem-
petament. (2.) The religious affections are also con:-idera-
bly modified by the diflercnce of the doctrines embraced.
(3.) The aflections, also, are modified by the metaphysical
direction of religious inquiries.
But there are pursuits of life, and habits of mind, which
repress, and others, which utterly destroy the reUgious af-
fections ; which freeze the current of the soul's best feel-
ings, and leave us but a name to live, while we are dead.
Among these last must be reckoned worldly and avariciouis
pursuits. "If any man love the world, the love of the
Father is not in him."
Another destroyer of the religious affections, is the love
of pleasure. There are two classes of men that are go-
verned b}' the love of pleasure ; the gay and fickle, who are
ever lost in the rapid succession of amusements ; and the
sensual, who are forever plunged in gross and criminal
enjoyments. But the love of pleasure and the love ofrJo"!
are irreconcilable. They are at continual war; an ! ' ■>'
never can divide the empire of the same breast. "Si. .'■■■A
liveth in pleasure is dead while she liveth.'' — 1 Ti:". 5: .'i.
A F F
[4G]
.A F F
2. In Rooi. 8: 5. the apostle divides all mailkind mto
two great classes, canal and spiritual : " They that are
after the flesh, do mind the things of the flesh ; but they
that are after the spirit, the things of the spirit." Franck,
in his Guide to the reading and study of the Scriptures,
lays do\ra the following characteristics.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPIRITUAI, AFFECTIONS.
1. A spiritual affection has for its source, the Holy
Spirit, and is the fruit of His influence.
2. A spiritual affection tends to a holy end.
3. A spiritual affection is engaged on objects that are
divine, eternal, spiritual, and invisible.
4. A spiritual affection, when engaged on sensible ob-
jects, is not employed on them as such ; but only so far as
ihey have relation to those which are unseen.
5. A spiritual affection is grounded on faith and love.
A/hen these do not operate, affections cease to be spiritual.
6. A spiritual affection influences the subject of it, to
seek, not himself nor his personal convenience, as such, but
God and His glory.
7. A spiritual, overcomes a carnal affection, though the
latter be otherwise very violent.
8. A spiritual affection is always coimected with humili-
ty. The instant the mind is elated, affections become
carnal.
9. A spiritual affection excites no perturbation in the
mind, nor does it leave behind it any bitterness. It rather
assists in the regulation of the soul, receiving every dispen-
sation with complacency, and acquiescing in God with
joy.
10. A spiritual affection tends to the amelioration of na-
ture, the increase of grace, and the edification of manltind ;
having no object but the glory of God.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CARNAL AFFECTIONS.
1. A carnal affection, as it is opposed to those which are
spiritual, so, it has nature for its source, and is destitute of
grace.
2. A carnal affection has, for its end, the temporal pre-
servation and amendment of nature, or, it refers all things
to pleasure ; and, particularly, seelcs such pleasure not i n
mental peace, but personal convenience ; and this, often
under a pretext of duty.
3. A carnal affection is engaged on objects that are
corporal, local, temporal, ^nd sensitive.
4. A carnal affection, if engaged upon spiritual objects,
does not dwell on them as such ; neither with righteous
views, nor in a consistent manner ; but only so far as they
have relation to private gratification or convenience.
5. A carnal affection receives its existence and support
from perverse self-love.
6. A carnal affection gives the preference to things
naturally pleasing, though others may approximate more
nearly to real excellence.
7. A carnal affection gradually disturbs the mind when
it is at all indulged, rei^ering it incapable of investigating
truth, or of performijig righteous actions ; and it leaves a
degree of bitterness in the mind, proportioned to the
strength of the affection. Cicero justly used to term them
'' the perturbations of the mind."
S. A carnal affection has always a degree of pride in it,
though it is often very subtle. As long as this has place
in the mind, carnal affections are not put off.
9. A carnal affection often induces a visible change of
fte body.
Although the carnal affections are, by these characteris-
tics, separated from the spiritual affections, we are not
thence to conclude, that they are so separated in the heart
of a renewed person, as that the former never min-
gles with the latter. On the contraiy, the believer's daily
strife is to be more and more delivered from the sinful af-
fections of carnal nature. It is according to the reigning
affection, that a man is denominated carnal or spiritual.
It were impious to ascribe any mixture of good and bad
affections to the Holy Spirit ; though we cannot deny that
sacred affections show themselves in a sanctified nature,
oy external and natural indications. ,
' 3. That an acquaintance with the doctrine of the affec-
tioas, is an essential reqiiisite in the exposition of the Scrip-
tures, may be (iroved IVc.ni reason: for (1.) the affections
of love, hatred, desire, hope, fear, joy, sorrow, &c. are fre-
quently to be met with in holy writ. It is evident, there-
fore, that were we ignorant of these affections, we should
be inadequate to the exposition of no inconsiderable part
of the sacred writings. (2.) AVhen no affections are ex-
pressed, we must necessarily consider them implied ; and
that every sentence is of their dictation. (3.) Without a
knowledge of these emotions, who can inspect the abyss of
the human heart, and the depth of those feehngs by which
it is agitated ? And without forming correct ideas of the
affections which it is proposed to imitate, how shall man,
who is farnff/, "put them on?" (4.) The nature of dis-
course confirms the position. The words of Christ in
Matt. 12 : 34, 35. decidedly evidence, that, unless some
affection influenced the heart, language would not be ut-
tered ; so that a man's words are, in fact, the index of his
feelings or affections.
Since then the affections are so intimately connected
■nnth all language, none will suppose that they are ba-
nished from the \miings of the inspired penmen : and, be-
cause they are closely united with the language of inspira-
tion, it follows that the sacred records cannot be adequately
expounded, by those -n'ho are satisfied with the mere shell,
and contemn the precious kernel of Scripture; who watch
the hps, but neve; enter into the feelings of the inspired
penmen.
It forms no soUd objection to our view of the subject,
that many commentators neglect this point of exposition,
and pass it over in silence. This consideration is abun-
dantly overruled, by opposing to it the high authorities that
have advocated the study of the affections. Luther, for
example, says, " Whoever adopts it, will, I am satisfied,
learn more himself, than he can gather from all commen-
taries united." " An expositor should, as it were, invest
himself mth the author's mind, in order that he may in-
terpret him as another self." It might be added, that
those persons are usually but indifferent examiners of the
Scriptures, who, in searching into their meaning, depend,
partially, or entirely, on authority. It evidences, as Ber-
nard has observed, that they do not read the Word in the
Spirit, under whose influence it wae written.
Besides, a consequence deduced from the ignorance or
negligence of commentators, can avail nothing against the
doctrine. It is, indeed, to be lamented, that very few are
solicitous to ascertain the spiritual meaning of the sacred
■mitings; but are anxious rather to be diffuse on critical,
controverted, and difficnlt points, where there is a wider field
for the range of natural intellect. This inattention to the
affections is a main reason, why some commentaries are
so meagre and unsatisfactory to spiritual readers, who, with ^
a view to personal edification, search after the mind of the
Spirit, and the revelation of the divine image. A com-
ment, written without adverting to the affections, is so only
in name and form. — Buckminster's Sermons, vol. i. Ser. 15 ;
franck's Guide ; Wilherforce' s Vierv. cap. 3 ; McLaurin's
Essatjs ; Edwards on the Affections ; Watts's Use and Abuse
of thf. Passions ; Pike and Haymard's Cases of Conscience ;
Spring's Essays on the Christian Character.
AFFINITY. There are several degrees of affinity,
wherein marriage was prohibited by the law of Moses :
thus the son could not marry his mother, nor his father's
wife. Lev. 17 : 7, &c. The brother could not marry his
sister, whether she were .so by the father only, or only by
the mother, and much less if .she were his sister both by
the same father and mother. The grandfather could not
mari-y his granddaughter, either by his son or slaughter.
No one could maiTy the daughter of his father's wife ; nor
the sister of his father or mother ; nor the uncle, his niece ;
nor the atmt, her nephew ; nor the nephew, the wife of his
imcle by the father's side. The father-in-law could not
marry his daughter-indaw ; nor the brother, the -wife of
his brother, while Uving ; nor even after the death of his
brother, if he left children. If he left no children, the sur-
viving brother was to raise up children to his deceased
brother by marrying his widow. It was forbidden to marry
the mother and the daughter at one time, or the daughter
of the mother's son, or the daughter of her daughter, or
two sisters, together. Similar regulations are adopted in
the laws of this country.
AFR
[47 J
AG A
It is true the patriarchs, before the law, married their
sisters, as Abraham married Sarah, who was his father's
daughter by another mother ; and two sisters together,
as Jacob married Rachel and Leah ; and their own sisters,
both by ftther and mother, as Seth and Cain. But these
cases are not to be proposed as examples ; because in
some they were authorized by necessity ; others, by cus-
tom ; and the law as yet was not in being. If some other
examples may be found, either before or since the law, the
Scripture expressly disapproves of them ; as Reuben's in-
cest with Bilhah, his father's concubine ; and the action
of Amnon with his sister Tamar; and that of Herod An-
tipas, who married Herodias, his sister-in-law, his brother
Philip's wife, while her husband was yet living ; and that
which St. Paul reproves and punishes among the Corinthi-
ans. 1 Cor. 5:1.
AFFLICTION ; that which causes a sensation of pain.
Calamity or distress of any kind. The afflictions of the
saints are represented in the Scriptures, as appoinlal, 1
Thess. 3 : 3. Job 5 : 6, 7. nutiierous, Ps. 34 : 19. tran-
sient, 2 Cor. 4 : 17. Heb. 10 : 37. and v.hen sanctified,
beneficial, 1 Pet. 1 : 6. Ps. 1 19 : 67,71. They wean from
the world; work submission ; produce humility ; excite to
diligence ; stir up to prayer ; and conform us to the divine
image. To bear them with patience, we should consider
our own unworthiness ; the design of God in sending
them ; the promises of support under them ; and the real
good they are productive of. The afflictions of a good
man, says an elegant writer, never befel without a cause,
nor are sent but upon a proper errand. These storms are
never allowed to rise, but in order to dispel some noxious
vapors, and restore salubrity to the moral atmosphere.
Who that for the first time beheld the earth in the midst
of winter, bound up with frost, or drenched with floods of
rain, or covered with snow, would have imagined that na-
ture, in this dreary and torpid state, was working towards
its own renovation in the spring ? Yet we by experience
know that those vicissitudes of winter are necessary for
fertilizing the earth : and that, under wintry rains and
snows, lie concealed the seeds of those roses that are to
blossom in the spring ; of those traits that are to ripen in
the summer ; and of the corn and wine which are in har-
vest to make glad the heart of man. It would be more
agreeable to us to be always entertained with a fair and
clear atmosphere, with cloudless skies, and perpetual sun-
shine ; yet in such climates as we have most knowledge
of, the earth, were it always to remain in such a state,
■would refuse to yield its fruits ; and, in the midst of our
imagined scenes of beauty, the starved inhabitants would
perish for want of food. Let us, therefore, quietly submit
to Providence. Let us conceive this life to be the winter
of our existence. Now the rains must fall, and the winds
must roar around us ; but, sheltering ourselves under him
who is the " covert from the tempest," let us wait with pa-
tience till the storms of life shall terminate in an everlast-
ing calm. — Blair's Ser. vol. v. ser. 5 ; Vincent, Case, and Ad-
dinglon, on Affliction ; XVillison's Afflicted Man's Companion.
AFGHANS ; a people of Asia, inhabiting the province
of (Jabeel, (or Cabeelistan ;) and owe their introduction
into this work to the opinion of sir William Jones, who
considers them as a remnant of the ten tribes of Israel.
Iii. recommending an mquiry into the history and litera-
ture of this people, he says, we learn from Esdras that the
ten tribes, after a wandering journey, came to a country
called Arsareth, where we may suppose they settled.
Now the best Persian historians affirm that the Afghans
are descended from the Jews, and tjiey have among them-
selves traditions of the same import. It is even asserted that
their families are distinguished by the names of Jewish
tribes ; though since their conversion to Islamism they
have studiously concealed their origin. The language
they use has a manifest resemblance to the Chaldaic ; and
a considerable district under their dominion is called Ha-
zareth, which might easily have been changed from Arsa-
reth.— Williams's Diet, of All Religions.
AFRICA, (Libya ;) one of the four principal divisions
of the globe, and the third in magnitude.
Afnca is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean
sea ; on the east by the Indian ocean, the Red sea, and
part of Asia : on the south by the Southern ocean ; and on
the west by the North Atlantic. Its general form is trian-
gular, the northern part being the base, and the soul hern
extremity the vertex. Its length may be reckoned about
seventy degrees of latitude, or four thousand nine hundred
and ninety miles ; and its greatest breadth some.hing more
than four thousand and ninety miles.
Africa was peopled principally by Ham, or his descen-
dants ; hence it is called the " laud of Ham," in several of
the Psalms. Mizraiin peopled Egypt, (Gen. 10 : (i, 13,
11.) and the Fathrusim, the Naphtuhim, the Casluhim,
and the Ludim, peopled other parts ; lut the situations
they occupied are not now known distinctly. Neverthe-
less, we may place Lehabim in Libya, and Phut between
Numidia and Libya, along the Mediterranean sea. II is
thought that many of the Canaanites, when expellerl by
Joshua, relired into Africa, and the Mahometans believe
that the Amalekites, who dwelt in ancient times in the
neighborhood of Mecca, were forced from thence by the
kings descended from Zioram. — See Canaanites.
The Gospel is thought to have been carried to Africa liy
the eunuch of Candace, whom Philip baptized ; and jiro-
bably also by some of those who, from different pans of it,
attended the feast of pentecost. Acts 2 : 10. In after-
times very flourishing churches were situated on various
points of the Mediterranean shore of Africa ; but, at pre-
sent, Mahometaniain or idolatry involves almost the
whole continent, as has been the case ever since its con-
quest by the Saracens. See Missionary department of this
work. — Calmet.
AGABUS ; a prophet of the primitive church, and one of
the seventy disciples of our Savior. Acts 11 : 28. Acts 21:
10. The Greeks say that he suffered martyrdom at Antioch.
AG AG. This seems to have been a common name of
the princes of Amalek, one of whom was very powerful as
early as the time of Moses. Num. 24 : 7. On account of
the cruelties exercised by this king and his army against
the Israelites, as they returned from Egj'pt, a bloody and
long contested battle took place between Joshua and the
Amalekites, in which the former was victorious. Exod.
17 : 8 — 13. At the same time, God protested with an oath
to destroy Amalek. Verses 14 — Ui. Deut. 25: 17 — 19.
A. M. 2513. About four hundred years after this, the Lord
remembered the cruel treatment of his people, and his own
oath ; and he commanded Saul, by the mouth of Samuel,
to destroy the Amalekites. Saul mustered his army', and
found it two hundred thousand strong.- 1 Sam. 15 : 1, ice.
Having entered into their ceuntr)', he cut in pieces all he
could meet with from Havilah to Shur. Agag their king,
and the best of tlieir cattle, were however spared, an act
of disobedience on the part of Saul, probably dictated by
covetousness. But Agag did not long enjoy this reprieve ;
for Samuel no sooner heard that he was alive, than he
sent for him ; and, notwithstanding his insinuating ad-
dress, and the vain hopes ^^^th which he flattered himself
that the bitterness of death was past, he caused him to he
hewed to pieces in Gilgal before the Lord, saying, " As, {in
the same identical mode as,) thy sword hath made women
childless, so shall thy mother be childless among women."
This savage chieftain had hewed many prisonei's to death ;
and, therefore, by command of the Judge of the whole
earth, he was visited -with the same punishment which he
had inflicted upon others. — Calmet.
AGAP^, or THE FEAST OF LovE ; from the Greek word
agape, love, was a religious festival practised among the first
Christians, with a view of cultivating mutual affection and
friendly intercourse among each other. It was early iiiiro-
duced into the church, and, as some think, is referred to in
Acts 2: 46. Jude, verse 12. 2 Pet. 2: 13. It consisted of an
entertainment prepared by the richer members, to which
the poor were invited, and was commonly held in the
place of worship when the worship of the Lord's day was
over. There they testified their love by mutual acts of
kindness, by partaking of the same fare, and by liberally
supplying the necessities of their indigent brethren. From
what Pliny in his epistle to the emperor Trajan says, con-
cerning the meetings of the Christians in his day, it would
appear that the feast of charity was generally attended to
in the evening of the Lord's day, at least in those churches
that were in Bithyuia, the seat of his jurisdiction. " Their
practice is." says he, ''to meet before day and sing a
AG A
[48 J
AG A
hymn to Christ, and to bind themselves by a solemn oath,
or sacrament, to do no w'ickedness : these things performed,
they separate and meet again to partake of a common and
innocent meal." But the most particular account that we
have of th-^se Agapa, is that given us by Tertullian, in his
Apology for the Christians, chap. 39 : " We Chnstians,"
says he, " look upon ourselves as one body, actuated, as
it were, by one soul ; and being thus incorporated by love,
we can never dispute what we are to bestow upon our own
members. And is it any great wonder that such charita-
ble brethren as enjoy all things in common, should have
such frequent love-feasts ? It is for this you traduce us,
and reflect upon our httle frugal suppers, not only as infa-
mously wicked, but as exceedingly scandalous. The na-
ture of this supper you may understand by its name, for it
is the Greek word for love. "VVe Christians think we can
n»;ver be too expensive, because we consider all to be gain
that is laid out in doing good. When therefore we are at
the charge of an entertainment, it is to refresh the bowels
of the needy. We feed the hungry, because we know
God takes a peculiar delight in seeing us do it. If there-
fore we feast only with such excellent and nobie designs,
I leave you from thence to guess at the rest of our disci-
pline in matters of pure reUgion. Nothing earthly, noth-
ing impure, has any admittance here. Our souls ascend
in prayer to God before we sit down to meat. We eat
only what .suffices nature, and drink no more than is
strictly becoming chaste and regular persons. We sup
li'.ce servants who know that we may awake in the night
to the service of our Master ; and we discourse as those
who recollect that God hears them. When supper is
ended, every one is invited forth to sing praises to God,
and by this you may judge of the measure of drinking at a
Christian feast. As we begin, so we conclude all with
prayer, and depart wth the same degree of temperance
and modesty with which we came ; as men who have not
so properly been drinking as imbibing religion."
Christians, in the present day, are much divided in their
judgment regarding the Agapa ; and different parties ap-
pear to have run into different extremes upon tlie subject.
By some they are exalted to the rank of apostolic institu-
tions, and classed Vv'ith those ordinances of divine worship,
which were delivered by the apostles of Christ to be stated-
ly obsei-ved by the churches on every Lord's day. But it
is not easy to make out this point without taking undue
liberties with the word of God.
But if those err, on the one hand, who identify the
primitive Agapa, with the stated ordinances of public wor-
ship, it is scarcely less censurable to discard them wholly,
as is too much the case with multitudes of Christiaus in
the present day, and to consider them as matters alto-
gether undeserving of their regard. It is demonstrable
from the passages already adduced from the writings of
Pliny and Tertullian, that they were observed at a very
early period of the Christian church, and that they were
continued -io long as the Christian profession was preserv-
ed in its original purity. But when, through the general
corrupiion of morals, and the prevailing laxity of disci-
plinL!, the abuse of these feasts became notorious ; and
even the heathens took occasion from them to tax the
Christians with impurity, they were laid aside ; and in the
year 397, the council of Carthage ordained that they should
not be held in churches except in cases of particttlar
necessity. But since the abuse of a thing can never be
fairly quoted as an argument against the thing itself, it
1 lerits the consideration of Christians of the present day,
whether the revival of this ancient practice might not pos-
sibly be rendered, under proper regulations, productive of
beneficial residts, and made subservient to a restoration of
that "fervent love of the brethren," which so eminently
distinguished the first churches of the saints. 1 Thess. 1 :
9. 1 Pet. 1 : 22. Jer. 6 : \6.—Edmb. Etiaj. article
AoAP^. Fleun/s Eccles. Hist. torn. 1 : 54. and Hallett's
Notes oil Scripture Texts ; Jones's Bib. Cyc.
AGAPE, Chione, and Ikene ; three sisters who suffered
martyrdom in the beginning of the fourth century, at
Thessalonica. It was during the persecution under Dio-
clesian, A. D. 304, that these heroic Christian females sub-
mitted to be buried alive, rather than give up the Scrip-
tures and sacrifice to idols in violation of their love to God
and Christ, " who commanded us," said they, " to love
him to the last." — Fox.
AGAPETjE ; a name given to certain virgins and
widows, who in the ancient church associated themselves
with and attended on ecclesiastics out of a motive of piety
and charity. — See Deaconesses.
AGAPETUS ; a Christian youth of Pra;neste, in Italy,
who, in the persecution under Severus, in the third century,
though but fifteen years of age, suffered the most excru-
ciating torments for his decided adherence to Christianity.
He was first severely scourged ; then hung up by the feet ;
then scalded with boiUng water ; afterwards worried by
wUd beasts ; and at last beheaded. The officer who di-
rected his execution, while it was performing, fell suddenly
from his judicial seat, crying out that his bowels burnt
him, and expired ; '' feeling miraculously in this world,"
says Fox, " a foretaste of the punishment due to such cru-
elty ; while the youthful martyr patiently suffered in hope
of a glorious resurrection."
AGARENIANS, or Haoakenians ; a name applied by
Stockman and others to some persons, who, in the seventh
century, apostatized from Christianity to Mahometanism,
the religion of the Arabians, who are descended from Is-
mael, the son of Agar. — Bell's Wanderings, p. 105.
AGATE, (shebo;) Exod. 29: 19. 29: 12. In the Sep-
tuagint and Vulgate, achates. A precious stone, semi-pel-
lucid. Its variegations are sometimes most beautifully
disposed, representing plants, trees, rivers, clouds, &c.
Its Hebrew name is, perhaps, derived from the country
whence the Jews imported it ; for the merchants of Sheba
brought to the market of Tyre all kinds of precious stones.
Ezek.27: 22. The agate was the second stone in the third row
of the pectoral of the high priest. Exod. 28: 19.and39:12.
AGATHA ; a distinguished Christian martyr of the third
century. She was a Sicilian lady, of surpassing beauty,
accomplishments, and piety. Quintian, the pagan gover-
nor of Sicily, captivated with her charms, and incensed
by her rejection of his illicit overtures, wreaked upon this
innocent and accomplished woman a revenge, at the bare
recital of which humanity shudders. By his order, she
was first scourged with rods ; then burnt with red-hot
irons, and cruelly torn with sharp hooks ; after which she
was laid upon a bed of live coals mingled with glass.
After enduring inconceivable agonies with a sweet forti-
tude, derived from her holy faith, the lovely victim was
removed to her prison, and there expired, February 5,
A. D. 231; her released spirit doubtless triumphantly
mingling with the great multitude before the throne, who
came out of great tribulation ; having washed their robes,
and made them white in the blood of the Lamb. Rev.
7: 9—n.—Fox.
AGATHO ; a Christian of Greece, who, in company
with three Christian females, Cassia, Philippa, and Eu-
tychia, suffered martyrdom in the fourth century, under
Dioclesian . — Fox.
AGATHUS, (Vetius ;) a young man of Lyons, in
France, who, during the persecution vmder Antoninus
Pius, having one day boldly pleaded the Christian cause,
was asked if he was a Christian? The confession of
Christ at such a time was costly. Matt. 10: 28 — 39. Having
answered in the affirmative, he was condemned to death,
and received the crown of martyrdom accordingly. Many,
animated by this young man's intrepidity, boldly owned
their faith, and suffered in like manner for their attach-
ment to the Savior. — Fox.
AGE ; duration. It sometimes signifies an indefinite
period; at others it is ujed for, 1. a generation of the hu-
man race, or thirty years ; 2. as the Latin saculum, a hun-
dred years; 3. maturity of life, John 9: 21. ; 4. the latter
end of life, Job 11: 17. — See Chhonology.
The whole duration of the life of man is divided into
four ages, viz. 1. Infancy ; extending from the first to the
fourteenth year. 2. Youth, adolescence, or the age of
puberty; commencing at fourteen, and terminating at
about twenty-five. 3. Manhood, or the virile age ; con-
cluding at fifty : and the last ending at the close of life.
Some, however, divide the first period into infancy and
childhood ; and the last like-ndse into two stages, calling
that which succeeds the age of seventy-five, decrepit old
age. — Waism.
AGR
[49 1
AGR
AGENDA ; among divines and philosophers, signifies
Ihe duties which a man lies under an obligation to per-
form ; thus we meet with the agenda of a Christian, or the
duties he ought to perform, in opposition to the rredcnda,
or the things he is to believe. It is also applied to the
service or ollice of the church, and to church books com-
piled by public authority, prescribing the order to be ob-
served ; and amounts to the same as ritujal, formulary,
directory, missal, 4:c. — Buck.
AGENT; that which acts; opposed in philosophy to
patient, or that which is acted upon.
jiGENTS, (moral;)— See Moral Agency.
AGNUS DEI, {the Lamb of God ;) a name impiously
applied to certain consecrated cakes of while wax, cn-
stiimped with the figure of a lamb bearing a flag, which
are borne 'n the processions of the church of Rome, or
■«-orn about the neck as amulets, and supposed to possess
great virtues ; they are at least very profitable to the
clergy, and form a considerable source of income. This
custom appears to have been borrowed from the heathen
in the seventh or eighth century, and distinguished the nu-
merous converts made by the sign of the cross in bap-
tism.— Claude's Defence of the Refonnation ; Robinson's
Dictionayy.
AGONISTICI, (combatants .;) a name given to certain
Donatist preachers, wlio used to attend the public mar-
kets, fairs, &c. to promulgate their principles ; or rather,
probably, the general principles of pure Christianity. (See
Donatisls.) They were a kind of itinerant polemics, or mis-
sionaries ; and are sometimes called circuitores, circelliones,
(Sec. ; and, at Rome, Montenses, probably from their preach-
ing on the hiUs in the open air. — Enajclopedia Brilannica.
AGONY, (agonia.) This term, expressive of the strong-
est internal conflict of emotions, is used by the evangelist
Luke to describe our Lord's sufferings in the garden of
Gethseraane. Crabbe, with his usual accuracy and pre-
cision, defines this word " a severe straggle with pain and
suflTering. Anguish," he says, " arises from the reflection
on evil that is past ; agony springs from witnessing that
which is immediate, or before the eye. Anguish and
agony are species of distress of the severer kind, which
spring altogether from the maturity of reflection, and the
full consciousness of evil. Anguish is pain arising from
severe pressure ; agony the pain arising from an intense
struggle." The shade of difference is illustrated thus :
" Parents suffer the deepest anguish, when a child disap-
points their dearest hopes, by running a career of vice,
and finishing its wicked course by an untimely and some-
times ignominious end ; but not unfrequently they are
doomed to suffer the agony of seeing a child encircled in
flames from which he cannot be snatched, or sinking into
a watery grave, from which he caimot be rescued."
Let the reader pause and reflect. What was the ago-
nizing spectacle before the Savior's eye in Gethsemane ?
"What was that agonizing spectacle, at the sight of which,
as it opened upon his view, " he began to be sore amazed
and very heavy, and said, ' My soul is exceeding sorrow-
ful, even imto death ?' " What was that sight of horror,
whose appalling impression roused every faculty and feel-
ing in prayer, " with strong crying and tears ;" wTung
every fibre of his frame with agony, and bathed his whole
body in a bloody sweat ? Was it merely a death of mar-
tyrdom ? It were little less than blasphemy to affirm it.
No : we are told what it was, in those affecting words of
the apostle, (1 Cor. 15: 3.) " Christ died /or our sins."
AGONYCLIT^, (not bending Ihe knee;) a sect of
Christians in the seventh century, who prayed always
standing, as thinking it unlawful to kneel.
AGRICULTURE .' When God placed Adam in paradise,
he instructed him ■' to dress and keep it ;" to work and
labor the ground, let in the influences of heaven, prune
the trees, cherish the plants, preserve the fruits from the
beasts of the field, and the fowls of heaven, which had
access to the garden ; and to keep all his abode, and the
domain around it, in good order. This was the first
employment of man, which, by the wise and benevolent
arrangements of his Maker, was to cheer and accelerate
the hours of innocence and peace. After his expulsion
from the garden on account of his transgressions, the
command which he had received at his formation, to cul-
7
tivate the ground, was renewed ; and the curse under
which it was laid, rendered his exertions more necessary
than before. This may be one reason that Adam initiated
his eldest son in the art of cultivating the soil, which now
refused to produce the necessaries of life in sufficient
abundance and perfection, without the skill and industry
of man ; while he devoted Abel, his younger soil, to the
easier and more simple occupation of a shepherd.
In the first ages of the world, men were chiefly em-
ployed in digging and throwing up the earth, by mean:;
of rude and inconvenient implements ; but Noah made
important advances in the art of husbandry, and found
out fitter instruments of cultivation than were known be
fore his time. This patriarch, the second father of oui
family, is called a man of the ground — in our translation
a husbandman, because of his improvement in agriculture,
and his inventions for subduing and fertilizing the soil.
In consequence of the divine malediction, useless or ob-
noxious plants gained the ascendancy, and obstructed the
growth of esculent vegetables. These obstructions were
to be removed, which required great pains and labor ; and
the sterility of the ground was to be corrected, and its
productive energy excited and improved, by the operations
of the plough.
The surface of the ground was probably divided into
fields, and recurred to individual proprietors long before
the flood. By that dreadful catastrophe, the whole earth
reverted to its natural, undivided, unappropriated state ;
but how long it continued in common we have no means
of ascertaining. In the days of Abraham, who lived at
no great distance of time firom the flood, the lands of Ca-
naan had become in some degree the exclusive property
of the nation by whom they were occupied ; and been
even subdivided into small fields, and claimed as the legal
inheritance of private individuals, except the pastures
which appear to have remained in common through many
preceding ages. The patriarch bought a field from Ephron
the Hittite. for a possession of a burying-place ; and the
transaction shows, that the propei-ty was perfectly well-
defined ; that Ephron had the same absolute right to it,
as any landed proprietor of our times has to his estate.
And upon the purchase-money b^ing paid, the sacred his-
torian says, " The field of Ephron, which was in Machpe-
lah, which was before Mamre, the field and the cave which
was therein ; and all the trees that were in the field, that
were in all the borders xound about, were made sure unto
Abraham for a possession, in the presence of the children
of Heth, before all that went in at the gate of his city."
The minute division of landed property in Egj'pt, is at-
tested by the same infallible authority ; for, under the ad-
ministration of Joseph, the people of that country were
compelled by the famine to sell " every man his field ;"
and " Joseph bought all the land of Egypt for Pharaoh."
When the sons of Israel had conquered the land of pro-
mise, it was, by the divine command, surveyed and divided
by lot, first among the twelve tribes ; and then the portion
of each tribe w^as laid out in separate inheritances, accord-
ing to the number of the families composing the tribe ;
and thus every man in the nation had his field, which he
was directed to cultivate for the support of himself and
his family. To prevent mistake and litigation, these fields
were marked off by stones set up on the limits, which
could not be removed without incurring the wrath of
heaven. The divine command in relation to this matter,
runs in these terms : " Thou shalt not remove thy neigh-
bor's landmark, which they of old time have set in thins
inheritance, which thou shalt inherit in the law which tha
Lord thy God giveth thee to possess." In Persia, land-
marks are still used : in the journey from Arzroum to
Amasia, Morier found the boundaries of each man's pos-
sessions, here and there, marked by large stones. Land-
marks were used in Greece long before the age of Homer;
for when Jlinerva fought with Mars, she seized, with her
powerful hand, a piece of rock, lying in the plain, black,
rugged and large, which ancient men had placed to mark
the boundary of the field.
Their inheritances were again divided into parts, which
the Hebrews distinguished by measure into acres. The dis-
tribution of a field^into acres, is ascertained by a passage
in the first boo • of Samuel- which is couched i;i these
AGR
L 50
AGU
li'rms : "And that first slaughter which Jonathan and his
•armor-bearer made, was about twenty men, within as it
were a half acre of land, which a yoke of oxen might
plough."
The land of promise was distinguished by extraordinary
fiuitfulness : Jehovah was pleased, in a special manner,
to bless the springing of the earth, and to crown the year
with his goodness ; yet this peculiar favor did not super-
sede the vigilance and activity of the husbandman. The
prophet Isaiah intimates, that his countrjTnen began their
operations in the field by erecting fences, and gathering
out the stones, and clearing away other incumbrances :
" My well-beloved has a vineyard in a very fruitful hill ;
and he fenced it and gathered out the stones thereof."
Thorns or other useless plants were either dug up by the
roots, or consumed by fire. " For thus saith the Lord, to
the men of Judah and Jerusalem, break up your fallow-
ground, and sow not among thorns." Rich as the soil of
Palestine certainly is, it refused at no time the aid of
manure, which travellers and historians tell us is the case
in some countries. This fact we discover in several parts
of Scripture, but particularly in the parable of the barren
fig-tree : " Let it alone this year also, till I shall dig about
it, and dung it ; and if it bear fruit, well ; and if not, then
shall we cut it down." Thus we find the Jewish farmer,
however highly favored, was obhged to follow the rule
which Virgil prescribed to his countrymen, to saturate the
parched soil with rich dung, and scatter sordid ashes upon
the exhausted lands. Geor. lib. 1, 1. 79. Not satisfied
with cultivating the rich plains and fertile valleys of his
native land, he reduced the barren rocks and rugged moun-
tains imder his dominion, and compelled them to minister
to his necessities. For this purpose he covered them with
earth, or, where this was impracticable, he constructed
walls of loose stones in parallel rows along their sides, to
support the mould, and prevent it from being washed down
by the rains. On these circular plots of excellent soil,
which gradually rose one above another, from the base to
the very summits of the mountains, he raised abundant
crops of corn and other excellent vegetables ; or where
the declivity was too rocky, he planted the vine and the
olive, which delight in such situations, and which rewarded
his toil with the most picturesque scenery, and the richest
products. Thus the places where only the wild goat wan-
dered and the eagle screamed, which appeared to be
doomed to perpetual nakedness and sterihty, were con-
verted by the bold and persevering industry of the Syrian
husbandman into cornfields and gardens, vineyards and
olive plantations, the manifest traces of which, in all the
mountains of Palestine, remain to this day. The inhabi-
tants of that " good land," literally sung from the top of
the rock, when it flowed with the blood of the grape, and
poured them out " rivers of oil." — Faxtoit, vol. ii.
AGRIPPA ; surnamed Herod, the son of Aristobulus
and Mariarane, and grandson of Herod the Great, was
born A. M. 3997, three years before the birth of our Sa-
vior, and seven years before the vulgar era. After the
death of his father Aristobulus, Josephus informs us that
Herod, his grandfather, took care of his education, and
sent him to Rome to make his court to Tiberius. Agrip-
pa, having a great inclination for Cains, the son of Ger-
manicus, and grandson of Antonia, chose to attach himself
to this prince, as if he had some prophetic views of the
future elevation of Cains, who at that time was beloved
by all the world. Thf \eat assiduity and agreeable be-
havior of Agrippa so . ^ won upon this prince, that he
was unable to live without him. Cains being killed in the
beginning of the year A. D. 41, Agrippa, who was then
at Rome, contributed much by his advice to maintain
Claudius in possession of the imperial dignity, to which
he had been advanced by the army. The emperor, as an
acknowledgment for his kind offices, gave him all Judea,
and the kingdom of Chalcis, which had been possessed by
Herod his brother. Thus Agrippa became of a sudden
one of the greatest princes of the east, and was possessed
of as much, if not more territory, than had been held by
Herod the Great, his grandfather. He returned to Judea,
and governed it to the great satisfaction of the Jews. But
•he desire of pleasing them, and a mistaken zeal for their
religion, induced him to put to death the apostle James,
and to cast Peter Into prison ■nnth the same design ; and,
but for a miraculous interposition, which, however, pro-
duced no effect upon the mind of the tyrant, his hands
would have been imbrued in the blood of two apostles, the
memory whereof is preserved in Scripture. At Cassarea,
he had games performed in honor of Claudius. Here
the inhabitants of Tyre and Sidon ^^^ited on him to sue
for peace. Agrippa being come early in the morning into
the theatre, with a design to give them audience, seated
himself on his throne, dressed in a robe of silver tissue,
worked in the most admirable manner. The rising sim
darted his golden beams thereon, and gave it such a lustre
as dazzled the eyes of the spectators ; and when the king
began his speech to the Tyrians and Sidonians, the para-
sites around him began to say, it v>'as " the voice of a god,
and not of a man." Instead of rejecting these impious
flatteries, Agrippa received them with an air of compla-
cency ; and the angel of the Lord smote him, because he
did not give God the glory. Being, therefore, carried home
to his palace, he died, at the end of five days, racked with
tormenting pains in his bowels, and devoured with worms.
Such was the death of Herod Agrippa, A. D. 44, after a
reign of seven years. He left a son of the same name,
and three daughters — Bernice, who was married to her
uncle Herod, her father's brother ; Mariamne, betrothed
to Julius Archelaus ; and Drusilla, promised to Epiphanius,
the son of Archelaus, the son of Comagena. — Watson.
AGRIPPA ; son of the former Agrippa, was at Rome
with the emperor Claudius when his father died. The
emperor, we are told by Josephus, was inclined to give
him all the dominions that had been possessed by his
father, but was dissuaded from it, Agrippa being only
seventeen years of age ; and he kept him therefore at his
court four years.
Three years after this, Herod, king of Chalcis, and uncle
to young Agrippa, dying, the emperor gave his dominions
to this prince, who, notwithstanding, did not go into Judea
till four years after, A. D. 53 ; when, Claudius taking from
him the kingdom of Chalcis, gave him the provinces of
Gaulonitis, Trachonitis, Batanaea, Paneas, and Abilene,
which formerly had been in the possession of Lysanias.
After the death of Claudius, his successor, Nero, who had
a great affection for Agrippa, to his other domiruons added
Julias in Perrea, and that part of Gahlee to which Ta-
richa^a and Tiberias belonged. Festus, governor of Judea,
coming to his government, A. D. 60, king Agrippa and
Bernice, his sister, went as far as Caesarea to salute him ;
and as they continued there for some time, Festus talked
with the king concerning the affair of St. Paul, who had
been seized in the temple about two years before, and
within a few days previous to his visit had appealed to
the emperor. Agrippa •wishing to hear Paul, that apostle
delivered that noble address in his presence which is re-
corded. Acts 26, and which drew from the astonished
monarch that memorable exclamation, " Almost thou per-
suadest me to be a Christian."
After the destruction of Jerusalem, in which he took
part with the Romans, Agrippa retired with Bernice to
Rome, where he died A. D. 90, aged seventy years. The
suspicion of habitual incest rests as a deep shade upon his
character ; which, if it be well grounded, may show, among
other reasons, why he was not " altogether" persuaded to
be " a Christian." — Watson ; Calmet.
AGUE ; a periodical disease of the fever kind, consist-
ing of a cold shivering fit, succeeded by a hot one. It is
occasioned by want of perspiration, and is said to be most
obstinate in the harvest season. A burning ague is one of
the most terrible kind. Lev. 26: 16.
AGUR ; the name of the writer of a collection of pro-
verbs, which have been added to those of Solomon, and are
now contained in the thirtieth chapter of that book. He
is called the son of Jakeh, and is said to have addressed
them originally to Ithiel and to Ucal ; but it is a remarka-
ble circumstance, that, of the four persons whose names
are introduced on this occasion, we find not the slightest
mention in any other part of the inspired writings ; and
it would be triflingwith the reader's patience to lay before
him the reveries of the Jewish Rabbins respecting them,
which indeed are remarkable for nothing so much as their
extravagance and absurdity. Let us respect the silence of
AHA
[51 ]
AIC
revtlatim. What shoald hinder us from supposing that
though we are unable to give any particular account of
Agur, and his father Jakeh ; of Ithiel and Ucal ; they
vere, nevertheless, persons -nell known in their day and
generation ; that Agxir was a prophet or seer, who was in-
spired to deliver certain parables or important sayings for
the use of the church of God, — that he addressed them to
two of his particular friends or perhaps pupils, and that
their importance induced the Hebrews to attach them, by
way of appendix, to the Proverbs of Solomon ? Frov. 30.
AGYNIANS, or Aginiani ; a small sect about the end
of the seventh century. They condemned the use of cer-
tain meats, and marriage, whence their name.
AHAB ; the son and successor of Oniri. He began his
reign over Israel, A. M. 3086, and reigned twenty-two
years. In impiety he far exceeded all the kings of Israel.
He married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of
Zidon, who introduced the whole abominations and idols
of her country, Baal and Ashtaroih. 1 Kings 17, &c.
2. Ahab the son of Kolaiah, and Zedekiah the son of
IMaaseiah, were two false prophets, who, about A. M.
3401"), seduced the Jewish captives at Babylon -nith hopes
of a speedy deliverance, and stirred them up against Jere-
miah. The Lord threatened them with a pubUc and
ignominious death, before such as they had deceived ; and
that their names should become a curse ; men wishing
that their foes might be made hke Ahab and Zedekiah,
whom Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon roasted in the
fire. Jer. 29 : 21, 22.— Watson.
AHASUERUS ; was the king of Persia, who advanced
Esther to be queen, and at her request delivered the Jews
from the destruction plotted for them by Haman. Arch-
bishop Usher is of opinion that this Ahasuerus was Darius
Hystaspes ; and that Atossa was the Vashti, and Artys-
tona the Esther, of the Scriptures. But, according to
Herodotus, the latter was the daughter of Cyrus, and
therefore could not be Esther; and the former had four
sons by Darius, besides daughters, bom to him after he
was king ; and therefore she could not be the queen
Vashti, divorced from her husband in the third year of his
reign, nor he the Ahasuerus who divorced her. Besides,
Atossa retained her influence over Darius to his death,
and obtained the succession of the crown for his son,
Xerxes ; whereas Vashti was removed from the presence
of Ahasuerus by an irrevocable decree. Esther 1: 19.
Joseph Scaliger maintains that Xerxes was the Ahasue-
rus. and Hamestris his queen, the Esther, of Scripture.
The opinion is founded on the similitude of names, but
contradicted by the dissimditude of the characters of
Hamestris and Esther. Besides, Herodotus says, that
Xerxes had a son by Hamestris that was marriageable in
the seventh year of his reign ; and therefore she could not
be Esther. The Ahasuerus of Scripture, according to Dr.
Prideaux, was Artaxerxes Longimanus. Josephus posi-
tively says that this was the person. The Septuagint,
through the whole hook of Esther, uses Artaxerxes for the
Hebrew Ahasuerus wherever the appellation occurs ; and
the apocryphal additions to that book every where call the
husband of Esther Artaxerxes ; and he could be no other
than Artaxerxes Longimanus. The extraordinary favor
shown lO the Jews by this king, first in sending Ezra, and
afterwards Nehemiah, to relieve this people, and restore
Ihem to their ancient prosperity, affords strong presumptive
evidence that they had near his person and high in his re-
gard such an advocate as Esther. Ahasuerus is also a
name given in Scripture, Ezra 4: 6. to Cambyses, the son
"f Cvrus; and to Astyages, king of the Medes. Dan.
9: 1."
AHAVA ; the name of a river of Babylonia, or rather
of Assyria, where Ezra assembled those captives whom
he afterwards brought into Judea. Ezra 8: 15. The river
Ahava is thought to be that which ran along the Adabene,
where a river Dia^'a, or Adiava, is mentioned, and on
which Ptolemy places the city Abane or Aavane. This is
probably the country called Ava, whence the kings of
Assyria translated the people called Avites into Palestine,
and where they settled some of the captive Israehtes.
2 Kings 17: 24. 18; 34. 19: 13. 17: 31. Ezra, intending to
collect as many Israelites as he could, who might return
to Judea, halted in the country of Ava, or Aahava, whence
he sent agents into the Caspian mountains, to invite such
Jews as were willing to join him. Ezra 8: 16. The histo-
ry of Izates, king of the Adiabenians, and of his mother
Helena, who became converts to Judaism some years after
the death of Jesus Christ, sufficiently proves that there
were many Jews still settled in that country. — WaUon.
AHAZ ; succeeded his father Jolham, as king of Israel,
at the age of twenty years, reigned till the year before
Christ, 726, and addicted himself to the practice of idola-
try. After the customs of the heathen, he made his chil-
dren to pass through fire ; he shut up the temple, and
destroyed its vessels. He became tributary to Tiglath-
pileser, whose assistance he supplicated against the kings
of Syria and Israel. Such was his impiety, that he was
not allowed burial in the sepulchres of the kings of Israel.
2 Kings 16: 2 Chron. 2?,.— Watson.
AHAZIAH ; the son of Ahab, king of Israel. Ahaziah
reigned two years, partly alone, and partly with his father
Ahab, who appointed him his associate in the kingdom a
year before his death. Ahaziah imitated his father's im
pieties. 1 Kings 22: 52, &c. 2 Kings 1: 1 — \1 .— Watson.
2. Ahaziah ; king of Judah, the son of Jehoram and
Athaliah. He succeeded his father in the kingdom of
Judah, A. M. 3119 ; being in the twenty-second year of
his age. 2 Kings 8: 26, &;c. ; and he reigned one year only
in Jerusalem. He walked in the ways of Ahab's house,
to which he was related, his mother being of that family.
2 Kings 9. — Watson.
AHIJAH ; the prophet of the Lord, who dwelt in Shi-
loh. He is thought to be the person who spoke twice to
Solomon from God, once while he was building the tem-
ple. 1 Kings 6: 11. at which time he promised him the
divine protection: and again, 1 Kings 11: 11. after his
falling into his irregularities, with great threatenings and
reproaches. Ahijah was one of those who wrote the his-
tory or annals of this prince, 2 Chron. 9: 29. The same
prophet declared to Jeroboam, that he would usurp the
kingdom, 1 Kings 9: 29, &c., and, about the end of Jero-
boam's reign, he also predicted the death of Abijah, the
only pious son of that prince, as is recorded 1 Kings 14:
2, ic. Ahijah, in all probability, did not long survive the
delivery of this last prophecy ; but we are not informed
of the time and manner of his death. — Watson.
AHIMAAZ ; the son of Zadok, the high priest. Ahi-
maaz succeeded liis father under the reign of Solomon.
He performed a very important piece of service for David
durmg the war with Absalom. He was succeeded in the
priesthood by his son Azariah. — Jones.
AHITHOPHEL ; a celebrated character in Scripture.
He was at one time David's most intimate friend and
counsellor ; but afterwards became his most inveterate
enemy : for, after Absalom had succeeded in exciting a
general disaffection to his father's government, Ahithophel
instantlj' joined him, and became the most active of all
the conspirators. David A\as more alarmed by the de-
fection of this experienced politician, than bjf all the
thousands who crowded round the standard of rebellion ;
and he earnestly pra3'ed, that the Lord might turn his
counsel into foolishness. It was not without reason that
David was thus alarmed ; for we find Ahithophel instantly
recommending the most prompt and effectual measures to
destroy the power and authority of his former friend. —
Jones.
AHOLIBAH AND AHOLAH ; are two fictitious names
adopted by the prophet Ezekiel, to denote the two king-
doms of Judah and Samaria. They are represented as
two sisters of Eg)'ptian extraction, Aholah being put for
Samaria, and Aholibah for Jerusalem, the first importing
a tent, and the second iny teat is in her. As both those
kingdoms prostituted themselves to the Egj'ptians and
Assyrians, by imitating their idolatrous practices, the
Lord abandoned them to those very people for whom they
had shown so passionate and so impure an affection.
They were by them carried into captivity, and subjected
to the severest sen'itude. Ezekiel 33: 4. — Cnlmet's Diet.
AI ; called by the LXX. Agai, by Josephus Aina, and
by others Ajah, a town of Palestine, situate west of Bethel,
and at a small distance north-west of Jericho. The three
thousand men, first sent by Joshua to reduce this city,
were repulsed, on account oif the sin of Achan, who had
AIN
[52]
AIO
violated the anathema pronounced against Jericho, by ap-
propriating a part of the spoil. After the expiation of this
oITence, the whole army of Israel marched against Ai,
with orders to treat tlial city as Jericho had been treated,
with this diflerence, that the plunder was to be given to
the army. Joshua, having appointed an ambush of thirty
thousand men, marched against the city, and, by a feigned
retreat, drew out the king of Ai with his troops ; and
upon a signal given by elevating his shield on the top of
a pike, the men in ambush entered the city and set fire to
it. Thus the soldiers of Ai, placed between two divisions
of Joshua's army, were all destroyed ; the king alone be-
ing preserved for a more ignominious death on a gibbet,
where he hung till sunset. The spoil of the place was
afterwards divided among the Israelites. The men ap-
pointed for ambush, arc, in one place, said to be thirty
thousand, and in another five thousand. For reconciling
this apparent contradiction, most commentators have gene-
rally supposed, that there were two bodies placed in am-
buscade between Bethel and Ai, one of twenty-five thou-
sand and the other of five thousand men ; the latter being
probably a detachment from the thirty thousand first sent,
and ordered to lie as near to the city as possible. Masius
allows only five thousand men for the ambuscade, and
twenty-five thousand for the attack. Josh. 8. — Watsm.
AICHMALOTARCH ; signifies the prince of the captivi-
ty, or chief of the captives. The Jews pretend that this was
the title of him who had the government of their people
during the captivity of Babylon ; and they believe these
princes or governors to have been constantly of the tribe
of Judah, and family of David. But they give no satisfac-
tory proof of the real existence of these Aichmalotarchs.
There was no prince of the captivity before the end of the
second century, from which period the office continued till
the eleventh century. The princes of the captivity resided
at Babylon, where they were installed with great cere-
mony, held courts of justice, &c., and were set over the
eastern Jews, or those settled in Babylon, Chaldea, Assyria,
and Persia. — Watson.
AiJALON, or Ajalon, the citij of oais ; a city of the Ca-
naanites ; the valley adjoining to which is memorable in
sacred history from the miracle of Joshua, in arresting the
course of the sun and moon, that the Israelites might have
sufficient fight to pursue their enemies. Joshua 10: 12, 13.
Aijalon was afterwards a Levitical city, and belonged to
the tribe of Dan ; who did not, however, drive out the
Amorite inhabitants. Judges 1: 35.
AIJELETH ; a Hind. The twenty-second Psalm is en-
titled Aijekth Shahar, which is translated in the margin
the hind of the morning : now the morning which this Psalm
celebrates is the vumiing of the resurrection. The hind of
the morning is perhaps one of the most striking characte-
ristics of the resurrection of the dead that language can
furnish. — Brown.
AINSWORTH, (Henkt, D. D. ;) a celebrated noncm-
formist divine of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
but both the time and place of his birth are unknown.
In the year 1590, he greatly distinguished himself among
a sect of dissenters called Bron-nists ; and in early life
gained great reputation by his knowledge of the learned
languages, and particularly of Hebrew. The Brownists
having fallen into great discredit in England, Ainsworth
was involved in their dilficulties atid troubles ; and at
length he was compelled to quit his native land, and retire
into Holland. In conjunction with Johnson, he erected a
church at Amsterdam ; and published a confession of
faith of the Brownists, in the year 1602, which caused
much contention, and a division between him and Mr.
Johnson was the result ; the latter removing to Embden
with half the congregation, and Ainsworth remaining
at Amsterdam ; but Johnson soon after died, and his con-
gregation was dissolved. Ainsworth also left his people
for a short time, and went to Ireland, but returned to
Amsterdam, and continued there till the time of his death.
Nothing could persuade him, however, to return home ;
and he died, as he Uved, in exile. This circumstance was
at that time verj' prejudicial to the Protestant cause, in
general, and especially to the Puritans j and it has ever
been a matter of regret, that through a too rigorous ad-
ministration, the church excluded this great and able man
from the public exercise of his ministry iu his natlvs
country. Very few authors are more quoted than Ains-
worth, by the literati of all countries ; and not only at a
considerable distance of time but by all sects and parties.
To them the celebrated Bishop Hall paid much atten-
tion.
Ainsworth was a man of profound learning, well versed
in the Scriptures, and deeply read in the works of the
Rabbins. He published several treatises, many of which
excited great interest ; particularly that entitled, " A
counter Poison against Bernard and Crashaw." Ainsworth
is much celebrated for his " Annotations on several Books
of the Bible." These were printed at various times and
in many sizes. In those on the five Books of Moses,
Psalms, and the Canticles, the Hebrew words are com-
pared wth and explained by the ancient Greek and
Chaldee versions, and other records and monuments of
the Hebrew.
Mr. Ainsworth's death was sudden ; and suspicion of
his having been poisoned was raised by his having found
a diamond, of great value, belonging to a Jew, and his
refusing to return it to him till he had confessed with some
of the Rabbins on the prophecies of the Old Testament,
relating to the Messiah, which was promised ; but the
Jew not having sufiicient interest to obtain one, it is
thought he was the instrument of his death. Mr. Ains-
worth was a great, a learned, and a pious man ; and his
name will be justly handed down to posterity, as worthy
not only of praise but imitation. In addition to the works
referred to in this life, he was the author of " A Treatise on
the Communion of Saints ;*' "A Treatise on the Fellowship
that the Faithful have with God, his angels, and one with
another in this present life :" and " An Arrow against Ido-
latry."— Jones's Christian Biography ; NeaVs History of the
Puritans : Heylin's History of the Presbyterians ; Wendlcri
Di.ss. de Lib. Ear. sect. 23, ; Vogt. Catalogues, Historius Crit-
icus Librorwm Pariorum ; Light's Treatise of Religion and
Learning ; Calamy's Life of Baxter ; and Memoirs of Ains-
worth.
AION AND AIONIOS. These important Greek words,
in consequence of recent discussions, have become so far
natm'alized iir our language as to claim notice here. In
1826, Mr. Balfour of Charlestown, (Mass.) in a work en-
titled, " An Inquiry, &c." endeavored to prove that these
words in the usage of Scripture do not denote urdimited or
endless existence, but the reverse. Aion he regards as
equivalent to age ; and aidnios, which is the adjective
formed from aibn, as equivalent to age-lasting, or lasting
for a considerable but temporary period. Two years after,
Mr. Goodwin, of Sandwich, (Mass.) in an article publish-
ed in a periodical of high reputation, (the Christian Ei
aminer,) advanced a new theory ; that aion in scriptural
as well as in classical usage, bears no reference whatever
to time or duration, but simply conveys the idea of spiritu-
ality. Hence he proposes to render aidnios by the term
spiritual ; regarding it as equivalent to the Greek pneu-
matikos. Both these writers agree, however, in one point,
that of setting aside the signification of eternity from the
words in question, especially in relation to future punish-
ment.
In 1829, professor Stuart, of Andover, published an " Ex-
egetical Essay," in " the Spirit of the Pilgrims," in which
he professes to settle the true sense of these terms on the
principles of strict philological interpretation. This Essay,
which completely subverts the positions of Mr. Balfour and
Mr. Goodwin, of course called forth animadversions ; and
the public discussion was kept up by further investiga-
tions, letters, replies, and rejoinders, until 1833 ; since
which time nothing new has appeared. The result of this
discussion has been undoubtedly salutary ; as the public
are now in possession of far better means of forming an
accurate judgment of the meaning of these important
words than at any former period. It is not improbable
that some have been stumbled by the speculations which
aim to expunge from the Bible all intimations of a future
and final state of retribution ; but the conscientious inqui-
rers after truth will now, we trust, be satisfied that no efforts
of theological audacity, or learned ingenuity, can avail
to obscure the revelation of that solemn truth, or to make
it appear that the retribution which awaits the wicked, is
AIO
[63]
A 10
«ot equal in duration to that which awaits the right-
eous.
Mr. Balfour has carried the argument for the limitation
of these words, as far as it can ever be carried, and has
shown himself an acute and pains-taliing investigator.
His errors, (and they are fundamental ones,) seem to re-
stilt not so much from want of honesty of purpose, as
from want of learning and skill in the philosophy of lan-
guage, falling in with some unfortunate bias against
orthodoxy. This state of mind, worliiiig on undigested
materials, naturally led to doubt ; doubt passed rapidly
into disbelief; and disbehef into iionest and determined
opposition ; in which the apparent contempt of his writ-
ings by the orthodox has unhappily confirmed him. Mr.
Goodwin witli much superior learning, urbanity, and lite-
rary taste, has thro\ra strong light on the etymology and
classical usage of aion, though in his translations he has
sometimes " darkened counsel by words without know-
ledge." He has probably done all that ever will be done to
sustain the meaning of simple spirituality. But as re-
lates to Old or New Testament usage, his effort must be
pronounced a total failure ; the reference to duration in
all cases being uniform and unequivocal. Professor Stu-
art's little work is not without faults, some of which have
been roughly handled by Mr. Balfour in his Letters to
Mr. Stuart ; but on the whole, it may be safely said to be
one of the most able and satisfactory specimens of philo-
logical investigation, comprehension, and discriminating
classification ever presented to the world. The reader, to
do justice to the subject, should go through the discussion
in the order in which it occiu'red. From an impartial col-
lation of the evidence furnished by each of these three
able writers, he can hardly fail of gaining a correct and
comprehensive knowledge of the detenninate sense of this
fundamental word ; whose frequent recurrence in the sa-
cred writings in the most important connections, makes
it worthy of the most serious and profound investigation.
The following is here set down as the result of such an
investigation by the compiler of this work. It will be seen
that he differs somewhat, though seldom, from the results
of professor Stuart.
Aion is a derivative from aej, always, and on the present
particle of the verb eimi, to be. Its primary and proper
signification, therefore, is always-being, or, which is the
same thing, everlasting. It may be defined strictly, dura-
tion without interruption and nithout end. Lennep, in his
'■ Etymologium Lingua; Grccae," says, "it is a noun of
that kind, which in its own nature denotes collection and
multitude of things, as appears from the termination on."
Phavorinus also calls it " the comprehension of many
times and periods ;" a definition which Saurin might have
had in his eye when he speaks of the " absorbing periods
of eternity." Nothing therefore can be more glaringly
imsound than the statement of fllr. Goodwin, that "this
word expresses the existence or eeins alone ;" a defini-
tion which gives us the force of but one half the com-
pound ; the on, but not the aei. And yet he himself says
in another place, with singular inconsistency, "Aei on is a
form of speech which is used at times, and indeed not un-
frequently, by ancient Greek writers, to signify eternal ;"
and quotes Phavorinus as saying, " Aion is formed from
ad and on, in the same manner as aeikizien plainly is from
dieliizien." When, therefore, after again quoting Phavori-
luis as saying in his definition after the Etymological
Magnum, " Aion is also the eternal and endless as it is re-
garded by the theologian," we find Sir. Goodwin adding,
'• Here I strongly suspect is the true secret brought to light
of the origin of the sense of eternity in aim : the theolo-
gian first thought he perceived it, or else he placed it
there ; the theologian keeps it there now ; and the theolo-
gian will probably retain it there longer than any one
el^e ;" we are almost equally shocked at the palpable mis-
>epresentation of facts, and the wanton violation of Chris-
tian charity. '■ For," to use his own language, " it is a word
on whose true meaning a doctrine of religion depends,
embracing one of the most important principles of the
Divine administration ; the most momentous interests of
the soul ; and the entire character of the Christian reli-
gion, it is one of those cases in which a city that is set on
a hill cannot be hid. And the trumpet of a watchmaUj on
an elevated watch-tower in Zion, ought to utter a full,
clear, and certain sound ; the distinct echoes of which he
will be listening for iu the depths of the spirit, and will be
glad to be hearing, in every region and every ]ieriod,
through all eternity." With these last sentimeius we <lo
most cordially coincide, and shall endeavor to be governed
by them in practice.
We have already seen that the primary and prcjjer sig-
nification of aion is, that which always exists. But in this
word, as in all others, usage always modifies the original
meaning. Hence it is of the utmost consequence to un-
derstand liow far the ineaning oi aion was affected among
the Greeks by usage ; and more especially how it was
understood at the time the Old Testament was first trans-
lated into Greek. That version called the Septuagint,
which was in common use among the Jews in the time of
our Lord, it is well known was made from the original
Hebrew, about 300 years before Christ. The Hebrew
word ouhn, or olim, wliich occurs three hundred and eight
times, is, with the exception of about twenty instances, in-
variably translated by the word aim, in some one of its
various forms. Hence the two words were evidently re-
garded by the learned translators as equivalent in signifi-
cation, or at least more nearly so than any other. If,
therefore, we can ascertain how aim was then understood
among the Greeks, we shall be able to ascertain what
sense the translators attached to the Hebrew oulm. Hap-
pily, we have one of the best of witnesses to the usage of
aim, at that time, and by the earlier Greek writers, in
Aristotle, the illustrious preceptor of Alexander the Great.
In his treatise De Calu, in describing the highest heaven
as the residence of the gods, he says, " It therefore is evi-
dent that there is neither place, nor vacuum, nor time
beyond. Wherefore the things there, are not by nature
adapted to exist in place ; nor does time make them grow
old ; neither under the highest [heaven] is there any
change of any one of these things, they being placed be-
5'ond it ; but unchangeable and passionless, having the
best, even the self-sufficient life, they continue through
all (aibna) eternity. For indeed the -word itself, according
to the ancients, divinely expressed this. For the period
which comprehends the time of every one's life, beyond
which according to nature nothing exists, is called his (aim)
eternity. And for the same reason also, the period of the
whole heaven, even the infinite time of all things, and the
period comprehending that infinity, is (aion) eternity ; de-
riving its name from (aei einai) alnays being, immortal and
divine. Whence also it is applied to other things, to some
indeed (airibesteron) accurately, but to others (amauroteron)
in the lax signification of (to einai te iai zhi) being and even
life."— Aristotle, De Cmlo, Lib. 1. Cap. 9.
Nothing can be more explicit or satisfactory than this
testimony, as to the origin and usage o( aion; and a more
competent witness never lived than Aristotle. Such, then,
we may say with certainty, was the meaning attached to
this word, at the very time the Septuagint translation of
the Old Testament was made. AVhen used in the sense
of eternity, it was used accurately ; when used in a modi-
fied sense, it was used figiu'atively, or improperly. In exact
accordance with this representation, we find Taylor, in his
Hebrew Concordance, gives to loulm, (eis aiona,) in one
hundred and seventy-five instances, the sense of forever ;
and Gesenius, in the last edition of his celebrated Lexicon,
assigns, as its primary and proper signification, the sense of
(ewighcit,) eternity. Indeed, this prince of Hebrew lexi-
cographers gives it no other definition ; only remarking,
that it is often with the Hebrews, as with us, in common
speech, used inaccurately. The same signification, of course,
belongs to m'5« in the Septuagint. And in this sense o/
vnlimitcd duration must it always be taken, unless some-
thing appears in the subject or connection in which it oc-
curs, to limit its signification ; that is, to show that it is
used figuratively, and not in its proper acceptation . Now,
in all the cases relied upon by Mr. ]3alfour and others, to
disprove its endless signification, it is clear that something
of this extraneous evidence exists, to modify the meaning
of the word. But this evidence by no means disproves its
endless signification, when properly employed. It only
proves that, in certain cases, the word is used hyperboU-
cally. And this is no more than is true of all words, even
AlO
[ 54
ALB
those of the best established meaning.* A little care and
candor will suffice to prevent any mistake from such an
occasional use of the word. It is only the caviller that is
caught in the snare of his own skepticism, or in the par-
tiality of his prejudiced investigation ; and held, perhaps,
in the pride of his self-consistency, and of his publicly
committed character. 2 Tim. 2: 23—26. But God has
said, " Ihe meek will he guide in judgment ; the meek will he
teach his way.'" Ps. 25: 9.
To the established meaning of unlimited duration be-
longing to aion, it has been objected, 1. That the Grc -k
term will admit of a plural, which the English word eter-
nity will not. But it might as well be contended, that
forever cannot properly mean unlimited duration, because
another ever may be added to it, as that aion must neces-
sarily mean a limited duration on account of its admitting
a plural form of expression. The truth is, such expressions
are merely intennve$, as every scholar skilled in the use of
language must know, and as every man of plain common
sense, unbiassed by a peculiar theological system, at once
perceives and feels. See 1 Tim. 1: 17.
2. But it has been said, that aim admits the pronouns
tliis and that before it, which the English words eternity
and forever do not. See Luke 20: 35. In this case, how-
ever, and others of a parallel description, the admission
•>i the pronoun is owing to a peculiar usage of the term
lion in the sense oi world ; and it designates, not, as some
have absurdly rendered it, the Mosaic age in distinction
from that of the Blessiah ; but the entire present state of
ixistence in distinction from the future, which is to follow
resurrection of the dead." The whole context fixes this
meaning beyond the possibility of mistake.
3. The advocates of a limited meaning to this and its
kindred \\'ords, adopt a rule of interpretation to this effect,
■' That where a word is used in relation to different things,
the subject itself must deteirnine the meaning of the word."
But this rule, as it here stands, and as used by them, in-
volves a gross sophism. It supposes that words have no
proper meaning of their own, and that they are to stand
for nothing in the decision of any question ; but are to
mean any thing that the subject to which they relate can
be proved to mean rvithout them. The sound rule of inter-
pretation in all such cases is, " That the subject— jnc/wrf/;;?
the connection, or scope of the passage — must commonly de-
termine whether a word should be taken in a literal or
figurative sense." This rule allows every word to have a
proper meaning of its own, only modified by the connection
in which it is introduced ; while the other rule reduces
words to mere ciphers, and, if adopted universally, would
annihilate language, as the vehicle of communicating
ideas. From the nature of things, it may be safely
affirmed, that endless punishment can be neither proved on
the one hand, nor disproved on the other. The subject in-
volves the adjustment of relations too complicated and
vast for human decision. Every truly reasonable man,
believing in Divine Revelation, will therefore yield all his
speculations on this awful subject, to the authoritative an-
nouncements which come to us all from the throne of God.
"Without seeking to evade the proper meaning of the lan-
guage m which these dirine discoveries are made known,
he will, amid a world of conflicting opinions, cleave stead-
fastly " to the law and the testimony," saying, with the
greatest of apostles, " Let God be true, and evekv ni.iN .i
LIAR." Rom. 3: 4. He will imitate the example of Noah,
who " being warned of God of things not seen as yet, moved
with fear, prepared an ark for the saving of his house ;
by which he condemned the world and became heir of the
righteousness which is by faith." Heb. 11:7.
4. But the evidence ou this subject is attempted to be
discredited, by alleging the few instances in which aion
and its kindred tenns are used in the Scriptures in relation
to future punishment. It should be remembered, however,
that these terms are employed in Scripture in relation to
at least twenty different subjects ; so that, to be applied in
numerous instances to this one in particular, is by no means
to be expected. Besides, other phrases equally expressive
• Take, for example, llie word endless, in our language. No word
has a more determinate meaning. Yet it is equally liable, wittl llie
Greek aion, to the charge of ambiguity. For how often do we read of
endless talksrs,' ' endless disputes,' &c.
of the same thing, are often employed. And even if there
were no other terms than these, and these were used but
five or six times, surely five or six solemn repetitions of
such a truth, from the mouth of God, ought to be enough
to fix it in our hearts. " For the things that are seen
are (proskaira) temporal ; but the things that are not
SEEN ARE (aionia) eternal." 2 Cor. 4: 18. — Fuller's Let-
ters to Mr. Vidler ; Balfour's Second Inquiry, and Letters
to Professor Stuart ; Christian Examiner ; Stuart's Exegetical
Essays.
AIR ; that thin, fluid, elastic, transparent, ponderous,
compressible body which surrounds the terraqueous globe
to a considerable height. In Scripture it is sometimes used
ioT heaven; as " the birds of the air;" " the birds of heaven."
To " beat the air," and •' to speak to the air," 1 Cor. 9:
26. signify to fatigue ourselves in vain, and to speak
to no purpose. "The prince of the power of the air"
is the head and chief of the evil spirits, with which
both Jews and heathens thought the arr was filled. — See
Adversary ; Beelzebub ; Heaven.
ALABASTER ; the name of a genus of fossils nearly
allied to marble. It is a bright, elegant stone, sometimes
of a snowy whiteness. It may be cut freely, and is capa-
ble of a fine polish ; and, being of a soft nature, it is
v.TOUght into any form or figure with ease. Vases or
cruises were anciently made of it, wherein to preserve
odoriferous liquors and ointments. Pliny and others rep-
resent it as peculiarly proper for this purpose ; and the
druggists in Egypt have, at this day, vessels made of it,
in which they keep their medicines and perfumes.
In Blatthew 26: 6, 7. we read that Jesus being at table
in Bethany, in the house of Simon the leper, a woman
came thither and poured an alabaster box of ointment on
his head. St. Mark adds, " She brake the box," which
merely refers to the seal upon the vase which closed it,
and kept the perfume from evaporating. This had never
been removed, but was on this occasion broken, that is,
first opened. — JVaison.
ALAMOTH ; the title of the forty-sixth Psahn. The
Septuaginl translates this " the song of hidden things," be-
cause, says Ainsworth, this song declares the secret pur-
poses of God to liis church.
ALARM ; a broken quivering sound of the Hebrews'
silver trumpets. It warned them to take their journey in
the wilderness, and to attack their enemies in battle.
Num. 10: 4 — 9. (2.) A noise or bustle, importing the near
approach of danger and war. Joel 2: 1.
ALASCANI ; the followers of John Alasco, a Polish
Catholic bishop, uncle to the king of Poland ; but who,
embracing the principles of the Reformation, came to
England in the reign of Edward VI. and was numbered
among our reformers, and was much esteemed by them,
though he differed from them, it is said, in applying the
words, " This is my body," to both the elements. He was
superintendent of the first Dutch church in Austin Friars,
vnth four assistant ministers. He died in 1560, and his
peculiar opinions probably died with him. — Ency. Perth ;
Robinson's Diet.
ALBAN ; an English martyr of the third century, was
originally a pagan, but his humanity led him in time of
severe persecution to conceal a Christian minister, by
whose means he was converted. — Fox.
ALBANENSES and ALBANOIS ; petty sects of the
eighth century, probably the remains of the Gnostics and
the Manichocans, which see.
ALBATI ; hermits of the end of the fourteenth century,
who wore long white garments ; whence their name. —
Brou^hton.
ALBERT, (Jane D' ;) queen of Navarre. This illus-
trious M-oman, the daughter of Albert II. king of Na-
varre, and Margaret de Valois, and the mother of Henry
IV., was a pious Protestant. At twenty years of age, she
was married to Anthony de Bourbon, duke de Vendome,
by whom she had three sons. On the death of Albert II.
in 1555, she became queen of Navarre ; and, in unison
with her husband, showed all the countenance the spirit
of the times would permit, to the Reformed religion, which
then began to gain ground. Some time after this, her
zeal sufl"ered a temporary relaxation, but upon the death
of her husband, 1652, her faith and news became decided
ALB
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ALC
and understood. She provided for the safety of her king-
dom, put her son under the care of a Huguenot professor,
and adopted the most vigorous means to preserve her au-
thority against the insurrections of her Catholic subjects,
aud the menaces of the court of Rome, before which, in
1653, she was in vain cited to appear.
She declared herself, in 156t5, the protectress of the Pro-
testants, and went to Rochelle, where she devoted her son
to the defence of the reformed religion, and caused medals
to be struck with these words, a safe peace, a complete vie-
tory, a glurious death ! She did every thing in her power
for the advancement of the cause of religious liberty ; and
used to say, that liberty of conscience ousht to be preferred be-
fore honors, dignities, and life itself ! She caused the New
Testament, the Catechism, and the Liturgy of Geneva, to
be translated and printed at Rochelle. She abolished
popery, and established protestantism in her own domi-
nions. In her leisure hours, she expressed her zeal by
working tapestries with her own hands, in which she rep-
resented the monuments of that religious liberty she sought
to establish. One suit consisted of twelve pieces .- oneach
was represented some Scripture historj' of deliverance ; Is-
rael's coming out of Egypt ; Joseph's release from prison,
or something of the like kind. On the top of each were
these words. Where the spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty !
and, in the corners, broken chains, fetters, and gibbets.
They were worked in fashionable patterns ; and dexterously
directed the needles of the ladies to help fonvard the re-
formation. Brave and eloquent, Jane neglected nothing
that heroism or prudence could dictate. Her jewels were
mortgaged without reluctance, for the support of her
troops : and a peace, very advantageous to the Protestants,
was concluded in 1570.
She died in Paris, June 10th, 1572, at the age of forty-
four, thus escaping the horrors of the massacre of Saint
Bartholomew, which proved fatal to many of her friends.
She was at first thought to have been poisoned ; but on
opening her body nothing was found to corroborate the
suspicion.
During her sickness, she said, " I take all this as sent
from the hand of God, my most merciful Father ; nor
have I during this extremity been afraid to die, much less
have I murmured against God for inflicting this chastise-
ment upon me, knowing that whatsoever he doth, he so
ordereth it, as that in the end it shall turn to my everlast-
ing good." Again she said, "that as to what concerned
herself, her life was not dear unto her, since as long as
she lived in this frail flesh, she was still prone and apt to
sin against God, only she said she had a concern for the
children God had given her, as they would, if she were
now to die, be deprived of her in their earlier years ;" yet,
said she, " I doubt not though he should see fit to take me
fi-om them, but that he himself would be a Father to them,
and a Protector over them, as I have ever experienced
him to be to me, in my greatest afflictions, and therefore
I commit them wholly to his government and fatherly
care." She declared to her minister, " that death was not
terrible to her, because it was the way to pass to her eter-
nal rest." He afterwards proposed to her the following
questions : " Do you verily believe that Jesus Christ came
into the world to save you ? and do you expect the full for-
giveness of your sins by the shedding of his blood for
you !" "Yes," replied she, " I do, believing that he is
my ouly Savior and Mediator, and I look for salvation
from none other, knowing that he hath made abundant
satisfaction for the sins of his people, and therefore I am
assured that God, for his sake, according to the gracious
promise in him, will have mercy upon me." Beingasked,
''if it should please God by this sickness to call her to
himself whether she were willing:" she answered, " with
all ray heart ; much more willing than to linger here be-
low in this world, where I see nothing but vanity."
When she saw the ladies and gentlemen with her,
weeping about her bed, she blamed them for it, saying,
" 1 pray you do not weep for me, since God doth by this
sickness call me hence to the enjoyment of a better life, and I
am now entering the desired haven, towards which this
frail vessel of mine has been so long steering."
During all the time of her sickness, she ceased not such
edifying and comfortable discourses ; sometimes inter-
mixing them with most affectionate aspirations to God as
a testimony of the hope and desire she had of enjoving
him ; often uttering these words, " 0 my God ! in thy due
time deliver me from this body of death, and from the
miseries of the present lif'. that I may no more oflTend
thee, and that I may attain to that felicity, which thou, j
thy word, hast promised to bestow upon me." Neither
did she manifest her pious aflection by words only, but by
her serene and cheerful countenance, as far as the decrease
of her strength would allow, thereby giving a full evi-
dence to all who beheld her, that ntj apprehensions of
death could unhinge the steadfastne.ss of her faith.
This princess left many writings, both in prose and
verse. The greatness of her mmd and talents have been
acknowledged even by her enemies ; and the Protestant
religion has seldom had so firm and conscientious a friend.
The character and fate of her son is well known. She
left, Ukewise, a daughter, who inherited her mother's
heart and talents, aud continued faithful to the reUgion in
which she had been instructed.
Jane d' Albert desired to be buried, without pomp, in
the tomb of her father. — Betham's Biography.
ALBERT, (the great ;) one of the scholastic divines,
so called on account of his extraordinary acquirements.
He was born 1194, died 1280. Most of his life was spent
in Germany, where he was provincial of the order of Do-
minicans. He endeavored, in his theological w'ritings, to
unite the devotion of the Mystics with the logic and ethics
of Aristotle. — Mosheirn.
ALBERT, (FiEKRE Antonie ;) rector of the French
Protestant Episcopal Church, in New York, was the de-
scendant of a highly respectable family in Lausanne,
Switzerland. Being invited to receive the charge of the
church in the city of New York, which was founded by
the persecuted Huguenots, after the revocation of the edict
of Nantes, he commenced his labors July 26, 1797, and
died July 12, 1806, in the forty-first year of his age. He
was an accomplished gentleiiMU, an erudite scholar, a
profound theologian, and a most eloquent preacher. A
stranger of unobtrusive manners, and invincible modesty,
he led a very retired life. His worth, however, could not
be concealed. He was esteemed and beloved by all his
acquaintance. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALBIGENSES; a body of reformers about Toulouse
and the Albigeois in Languedoc, who sprang up in the
twelfth centur}', and distinguished themselves by their
opposition to the church of Rome. They were charged
with many errors by the monks of those days ; but from
these charges they are generally acquitted by the Protes-.
tants, who consider them only as inventions of the
Romish church to blacken their character. The Albi-
genses grew so formidable, that the Catholics agreed upon
a holy league or crusade against them. Pope Innocent III.
desirous to put a stop to their progress, stirred up the great
men of the kingdom to make war upon them. After suf-
fering from their persecutors, they dwindled by little and
little, tUl the time of the reformation ; when such of them
as were left, fell in with the Vaudois, and conformed to
the doctrine of Zuinglius, and the disciples of Geneva.
The Albigenses have been frequently confounded with the
Waldenses; from whom it is said they differ in many
respects, both as being later far in point of time, as
having their origin in a different country, and as being
charged with divers heresies, particularly Manicheism,
from which the Waldenses were exempt. — See Waldenses.
ALCUIN, OR ALBINUS, (Flaccus ;) an EngUshman,
renowned id his age for learning. The confidante, in-
structer, and adviser of Charlemagne. He was born in
York, or, according to some, near London, 732 ; educated
under the care of the venerable Bede and bishop Egbert:
and was made abbot of Canterbury. Being in 782, at
the French court, he exerted himself for the promotion
of the sciences. Most of the schools of France were
either founded or improved by him. He understood the
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. He died 804. He left be-
sides many theological writings, several elementary works,
in the branches of philosophy, rhetoric, and philolog)' ;
also poems, and a large number of letters, the style of
which, however, is not pleasing, and plainly betrays the
uncultivated character of the age ; ueverlheless, he is ac-
ALE
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knowledged as the most learned and polished man of his
time.
ALDEN, {^JoHN ;) a magistrate of Plymouth colony, was
one of the hrst company, which settled New England.
He arrived in 1C20, and his life was prolonged till Sep-
tember 12, 1687, when he died, aged about eighty-nine
years. He was a very worthy and useful man, of great
humihty, and eminent piety. He was an assistant in the
administration of every governor for sixty-seven years.
A professed disciple of Jesus Christ, he lived in accor-
dance with his profession. In his last illness he was patient
and resigned, fully believing that God, who had imparted
to him the love of excellence, would perfect the work which
he had began, and would render him completely holy in
heaven. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALE WORTH, (John ;) an English martyr, who died in
prison, on account of his rehgion, diu-ing the reign of
queen .Mary, about the year 15.58.
ALEPH ; the name of the first letter of the Hebrew al-
phabet, from which the Alpha of the Syrian and Greeks
was formed. The word expresses a leading number, and
sometimes signifies Prince or Chief. — See A.
ALEXANDER, (the Gre.it;) son and successor of
Philip, king of Macedon, is denoted in the prophecies of
Dardel by a leopard with four wings, signifying his great
strength, and the unusual rapidity of his conquests, Dan.
7. 6. ; and by a one-horned he-goat running over the
earth so swiftly as not to touch it, attacking a ram with
two horns, overthrowing him, and trampling him under
foot, without any being able to resctie him, Dan. 8:4 — 7.
The he-goat prefigured Alexander ; the ram, Darius Co-
domanus, the last of the Persian kings. In the statue
beheld by Nebuchadnezzar in his dream, Dan. 2 ; 39. the
belly of brass was the emblem of Alexander. He was
appointed by God to destroy the Persian empire, and to
substitute in its room the Grecian monarchy.
Alexander succeeded his father Philip, A. M. 3668, and
B. C. 336. He was chosen, by the Greelis, general of their
troops against the Persians, and entered Asia at the head
of thirty-four thousand men, A. M. 3670. In one cam-
paign he subdued almost all Asia Blinor ; and afterwards
defeated, in the narrow passes which led from Syria to
Cilicia, the army of Darius, which consisted of four hun-
dred tliousand foot, and one hundred thousand horse.
Darius fled, and left in the hands of the conqueror, his
camp, baggage, children, wife, and mother.
After subduing Syria, Alexander came to Tyre ; and
the Tyrians refusing him entrance into their city, he be-
sieged it. At the same time he wrote to Jaddus, high
priest of the Jews, that he expected to be acknowledged
by lum, and to receive from him the same submission
which had hitherto been paid to the king of Persia. Jad-
dus refusing to comply, under the plea of having sworn
fidelity to Darius, Alexander resolved to march against Je-
rusalem, when he had reduced Tyre. After a long siege,
I'iiis city was taken and sacked ; and Alexander entered
Valestine, A. M. 3672, and subjected it to his obedience.
As he was marching against Jerusalem, the Jews became
greatly alarmed, and had recourse to prayers and sacrifices.
The Lord, in a dream, commanded Jaddus to open the
gates to the conqueror, and, at the head of his people,
dressed in his pontifical ornaments, and attended by the
priests in their robes, to advance and meet the Macedonian
iring. Jaddus obeyed ; and Alexander perceiving this
company approaching, hastened towards the high priest,
whom he saluted. He then adored God, whose name was
engraven on a thin plate of gold, worn by tli# high priest
upon his forehead. The kings of Syria who accompanied
him, and the great officers about Alexander, could not
comprehend the meaning of his conduct. Parmenio alone
ventured to ask him why he adored the Jewish high
priest ; Alexander replied, that he paid this respect to
(iod, and not to the high priest. "For," added he, "whilst
I was yet in Macedonia, I saw the God of the Jews, who
appeared to me in the same form and dress as the high
priest at present, and who encouraged me, and command-
ed me to march boldly into Asia, promising that he would
be my guide, and give me the empire of the Persians. As
soon, therefore, as I perceived this habit, I recollected the
vision, and understood that my undertaking was favored by
God, and that under his protection I might expect prosperi-
ty." Having said this, Alexander accompanied Jaddus to
Jerusalem, where he offered sacrifices in the temple ac-
cording to the directions of the high priest. Jaddus is
said to have showed him the prophecies of Daniel, in which
the destruction of the Persian empire by Alexander is de-
clared. The king was therefore confirmed in his opinion,
that God had chosen him to execute this great work. At
his departure, Alexander bade the Jews ask of him what
they would. The high priest desired only the liberty of
living under his government according to their own laws,
and an exemption from tribute every seventh year, be-
cause in that year the Jews neither tilled their grounds,
nor reaped their fruits. With this request Alexander
readily complied.
Having left Jerusalem, Alexander visited other cities
of Palestine, and was every where received with great tes-
timonies of friendship and submission. The Samaritans
who dwelt at Sichem, and were apostates from the Jewish
religion, observing how kindly Alexander had treated the
Jews, resolved to say that they also were by religion Jews.
For it was their practice, when they saw the affairs of
the Jews in a prosperous slate, to boast that they were de-
scended from Manasseh and Ephraira ; but when they
thought it their interest to say the contrary, they failed not
to affirm, and even to swear, that they were not related to
the Jews. They came, therefore, with many demonstrations
of joy, to meet Alexander, as far almost as the territories
of Jerusalem. Alexander commended their zeal ; and the
Sichemites entreated him to visit their temple and city.
Alexander promised this at his return ; but as they peti-
tioned him for the same privileges as the Jews, he asked
them if they were Jews. They replied, they were He-
brews, and were called by the Fhcenicians, Sichemites.
Alexander said that he had granted this exemption only to
the Jews, but that at his return he would inquire into the
affair, and do them justice.
This prince having conquered Egypt, and regulated it,
gave orders for the building of the city of Alexandria, and
departed thence, about spring, in pursuit of Darius. Pass-
ing through Palestine, he was informed that the Samari-
tans, in a general insurrection, had killed Andromachus,
governor of Syria and Palestine, who had come to Sam::-
ria to regulate some affairs. This action greatly iucinsed
Alexander, who loved Andromachus. He therefore com-
manded all those who were concerned in his murder to be
put to death, and the rest to be banished from Samaria ;
and settled a colony of Macedonians in their room. What
remained of their lands he gave to the Jews, and exempt-
ed them from the payment of tribute. The Samaritans
w-ho escaped this calamity, retired to Sichem, at the foot
of mount Gerizim, which afterwards became their capital.
Lest the eight thousand men of this nation, who were in
the service of Alexander, and had accompanied him since
the siege of Tyre, if permitted to return to their own
country, should renew the spirit of rebellion, he sent them
into Thebais, the most remote southern province of Egypt,
where he assigned them lands.
Alexander after defeating Darius in a pitched battle, and
subduing all Asia and the Indies with incredible rapidity,
gave himself up to intemperance. Having drunk to ex-
cess, he fell sick and died, after he had obliged " all the
world to be quiet before him." 1 Mace. 1: 3. Being sensi-
ble that his end was near, he sent for the grandees of his
court, and declared that "he gave the empire to the most
deserving." Some affirm that he regulated the succession
by a will. The author of the First Book of Maccabees
says, that he divided his kingdom among his generals
while he was living. 1 Mace. 1: 7. This he might do; or
he might express his foresight of what actually took place
after his death. It is certain, that a partition was made
of Alexander's dominions among the four principal officers
of his army, and that the empire which he founded in
Asia subsisted for many ages. Alexander died, A. M.
3684, and B. C. 323, in the thirtj'-third year of his age,
and the twelfth of his reign. The above particulars of
Alexander are here introduced because, from his inveisiou
of Palestine, the intercourse of the Jews with the Greeks
became intimate, and influenced many events of their
subsequent history.
ALE
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On llie account above given of the interview between
Alexander and llie Jewisli high priest, by Joscphus, many
doubts have been cast by critics. But the sudden change
of his feelings towards them, and the favor with which
the nation was treated by him, render the story not impro-
bable.— WaisM.
ALEXANDER ; a martyr of the second century. — See
Efipodil's.
ALEXANDER; a mart)T who suffered at Alexandria
for acknowledging himself a Christian. After many tor-
ments he was burnt, A. D. 219.
ALEXANDER; a martyr of the third century, who
with sei'eral others was devoured by tigers, A. D. 257.
ALEXANDER, (Caleb, D. D. ;) a native of Northfield,
Mass., and a graduate of Yale college in 1777, was or-
dained at New IMarlborough, Mass. in 1781. He died at
Onondaga, state of New York, in 1828. He published an
Essay on the Deity of Jesus Christ, Tvith Strictures on Em-
lyn, 17yi ; a Latin Grammar, 1791; an English Gram-
mar, and Gram. Elements. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALEXANDRIA ; a martyr of the fourth century, one of
seven Christian women who suffered death at Ancyra in
Dalmatia for refusing to worship idols. — See Tecusa.
ALEXANDRIA ; a famous city of Egj'pt, and long the
grand seat of commerce and of wealth. It was founded
or enlarged, about lliree hundred and thirty-three years
before Christ, and is now- the only remaining monument
of the widely extended conquests of that great and renown-
ed warrior after whom it was named. The long and se-
vere check which he met with before the city of Tyre, in
the career of his victories, would, no doubt, convince him
of the vast resources of a maritime power, and of the
immense importance of commerce ; and it was this which
is supposed to have induced him, after the subjection of
Eg5'pt, to avail himself of the favorable commercial situ-
ation of that countr)', and to lay the foundation of that
city, which from its vicinity to the Mediterranean sea, and
the Arabian gulf, has, amidst all the successive revolu-
tions of Egj-pt, from the time of the Ptolemies till the dis-
covery of the naWgation by the cape of Good Hope, com-
manded the trade of both the east and the west. From
that period, however, which begins a new era in the histo-
ry of commerce, the trade of India has flowed in other
charmels ; and the streams of its former wealth being
dried up, Alexandria has gradually decayed, and is now
deserving of notice only on account of its past greatness
and celebrity. Alexander himself drew the plan of the
new city ; and as there were no instruments at hand
proper for the purpose, he traced out the course of the
walls, by scattering meal along the ground ; a circum-
stance which his soothsayer interpreted as a presage of
future abundance. The execution of the plan was in-
trusted to Denocrates, the celebrated architect, who rebuilt
the temple of Diana at Ephesus, whilst Alexander ad-
vanced to survey the wonders of Upper Eg5'pt. Upon his
return, about a year afterwards, the city was nearly
finished j and having peopled it with inhabitants from the
neighboring towns, he pursued the course of his conquests.
Ancient Alexandria stood about twelve miles from the
Canopic branch of the Nile, with which it was united by
a canal. The lake JMareotis bathed its walls on the south,
and the Blediterranean on the north. It was divided into
straight parallel streets, cutting one another at right an-
gles. One great street, two thousand feet wide, ran
through the whole length of the city, beginning at the
gate of the sea, and terminating at the gate of Cano-
pus. It was intersected by another of the same breadth,
which formed a square at their junction half a league in
circumference. From the centre of this great place, the two
gates were to be seen at once, and vessels arriving under
full sail from both the north and the south. In these two
principal streets, the noblest in the universe, stood their
most magnificent palaces, temples, and public buildings,
in which the eye was never tired with admiring the mar-
ble, the porphyr)', and the obelisks, which were destined
at some future day to embellish the metropolis of the
world. The chief glory of Alexandria was its harbor.
It was a deep and secure bay in the Mediterranean, form-
ed by the shore on the one side, and the island of Pharos
on the other, and where numerous Heels might lie in com-
plete safety. Willmut the walls of Alexandria, and
stretching along the shores of the Mediterranean, near to
the promontory of Lectreos, was situated the palace and
gardens of the Ptolemies. They contained within their
inclosure the museum, an asylum for learned men, groves
and buildings worthy of royal majesty, and a temple where
the body of Alexander was deposited in a golden coffin.
It were endless to enumerate the many palaces, temples,
theatres, and other buildings with which Alexandria and
its suburbs were adorned.
Alexandria owed much of its glory to the Ptolemies.
Ptolemy Soter, the first of that line of kings, and one of
the captains of Alexander, who, on the death of his mas-
ter, seized on his Eg\'ptian dominions, fixed the royal
residence in this city, about three hundred and four years
before Christ. This prince instituted the academy called
the jNIuseum, in which a society of learned men devoted
themselves to the study of the sciences. He likewise
founded for their use the Alexandrian library, which was
afterwards so prodigiously increased, and one of the great-
est ornaments of this celebrated city. It is said to have
amounted to no less than seven hundred thousand vo-
lumes, before its destruction. With these advantages, and
under the continued patronage of its sovereigns, Alexan-
dria soon became one of the most distinguished seats of
learning and philosophy, and preserved its celebrity till it
was plundered of all its literary treasures by the barba-
rous hands Of the Saracens. Ptolemy Philadel|ihus, the
son of Soter, completed the tower of Pharos, which his
father had already begun. This was the famous light-
house which was built on the island of that name, for the
direction of the innumerable vessels which entered the
harbor, and was reckoned amongst the wonder-- of the
world.
Alexandria continued for nearly three hundred years in
the possession of the Ptolemies ; but at the death of Cleo-
patra, it passed into the power of the Romans, and was
the theatre of several memorable events in the history of
that people. It sometimes might receive a favor at the
hands of its masters ; but it as frequently obtained its full
share of all the calamities which the tyranny, the cruelty,
or weakness of the Roman emperors inflicted on the rest
of the empire.
The first inhabitants of Alexandria were Egyptians and
Greeks, to whom must be added numerous colonies of
Jews, transplanted thither B. C. 33(3, 320, and 312, to in-
crease the population, who, becoming familiar with the
Greek language and learning, were called Helle.nists.
It was they who made the well-known translation of the
Old Testament under the name of the Septuagiut. (See
Septuagint.)
The modern Alexandria does not occupy the site of the
ancient city, of which only the ruins remain. The town
has now two citadels and harliors, and its commerce is
improving ; but the population, which formerly amounted
to three hundred thousand, is now reduced to ihirteen thou-
sand. It is the seat of a Christian patriarch, but under a
Mohammedan power. The history of its conquest and
consequent decay, according to the best historians, is as
follows :
A. D. 638, the Saracens invaded Egypt, and the follow-
ing year Amrou, their general, commenced the siege of
Alexandria, which was perhaps the most arduous enter-
prise in the annals of his conquests. After a vigorous re-
sistance of about fourteen months, the Saracens, however,
prevailed, and the standard of Slahomel was planted on
the walls of the capital of Egypt. It was at this lime that
the Alexandrian library met with its memorable fate ;
although this fact, has been recently controverted in the
Encyclopaedia Americana, we know not on what authority.
(See Alexandrian Lieraky.)
Under the Roman and Greek emperors, as well as un-
der the Ptolemies, for nearly a space of one thousand
years. Alexandria continued to maintain its reputation for
power and wealth, and likewise for literature and science:
but from the period when it car.ie under the dominion of
the Saracens, all its glories have declined, till it has gradu-
ally arrived at ils present degradation. When commerce
revived in the thirteenth century, it naturally loiiked out
for ils former well-known channel ; and the condition of
ALE
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Alexandria began again for a short time to briglilen ; but
the discovery of the cape of Good Hope, which happened
about that time, soon crushed its returning prosperity, and
forever diverted the sources of its wealth into a different
course.
The present state of this city presents a scene of mag-
nificent ruin and desolation. For the space of two leagues,
nothing is to be seen but the remains of pilasters, of capi-
tals, and of obelisks, and whole mountains of shattered
monuments of ancient art, heaped upon one another to a
greater height than that of the liouses. The famous tow-
er of Pharos has been long since demolished, and a square
castle, without taste, ornament, or strength, erected in its
•stead. The lake Mareotis, through the carelessness of the
Turks in preserving the canals which conveyed the waters
of the Nile, no longer exists ; but its place is now occupied
by the sands of Lybia. — Ediii. Ency. article Alexandria.
But it is the ecclesiastical history of Alexandria, in
which the biblical student is chiefly interested ; and there-
fore it may be proper to follow up the preceding account
with a few of the more important particulars of that kind
which are upon record.
When Alexander the Great had finished this renowned
city, he gave considerable encouragement to the Jews to
settle in it ; and to induce them so to do, he endowed it
with peculiar privileges and immunities, allowed them the
free exercise of their religion, and admitted them to a
share of the same franchises and liberties which he grant-
ed to his own Macedonian subjects. Not long after the
death of that ambitious and enterprising monarch, Ptolemy,
king of Egypt, invaded Judea, laid siege to Jerusalem, of
which he took possession about three hundred and twenty
years before Christ, and carried an hundred thousand of
the Jews captive into Egypt; to whom he confirmed all
the immunities and privileges which had been formerly
granted to their brethren by Alexander tlie Great, and
spared no encouragement to allure others to settle in
Egypt. The consequence of this was, that multitudes of
them were continually flocking thither from Judea and Sa-
maria, preferring rather to live under so generous and
friendly a prince in a foreign country, than to be subject
to the incessant changes of government which were occa-
sioned by so many contending tyrants in their own. Ac-
cordingly the city of Alexandria was in a great measure
peopled by Jews, and it is chiefly this circumstance which
comiects its history with the elucidation of the Scriptures.
Hence we read. Acts 2 : 10. that among those who came
up to Jerusalem to keep the feast of pentecost, there were
Jews, devout men, from Egypt and the parts of Libya
about Cyrene, in which Alexandria was situated. Of this
city, ApoUos, the companion of Paul, was a native, Acts
18: 24. ; and of the Jews that disputed with Stephen and
put him to death, many were Alexandrians, who, it seems,
had a synagogite at that time in Jerusalem. Acts (5: 9.
But to form an estimate of the number of Jews that sta-
tedly resided at Alexandria, it may be sufficient to mention
that about the year of Christ b7, while the quarrel was
going on between that people and the Romans, which
ended in the destruction of Jerusalem and its temple, the
subversion of their ecclesiastical polity and their ruin as a
nation, fifty thousand of them were put to death at one
t.me in the city of Alexandria! It is said that at the time
litis terrible event took place, there were not less than a
million of Jews dispersed throughout the whole province
of Egypt, in which they had a vast number of synagogues,
and oratories which were either demolished or consumed
by fire, for refusing to set up the statues of the Roman
emperor. Gains Caligula. See Anr. Univ. Hist. Appen-
dix to vol. xiv. octavo edition.
Christianity was planted in Alexandria at a very early
period ; and it is very probable that it was first caiTied there
by some of the Jews who were converted by the preach-
ing of Peter on the day of Pentecost, Acts 2. ; for nothing
can be more natural than to suppose, that those who had
themselves been blessed with the knowledge of the Savior,
should carry the glad tidings with them to their own
homes and make known the way of salvation to others.
For several ages the light of the glorious Gospel shone
conspicuously in this great city, which gave birth to many
•minent men, particularly to Clemens, to Origen. and oth-
ers. Tliis city is also famous for having given rise to the
Arian controversy, respecting the doctrine of Christ's
Sonship i a subject, however, upon which it is neither
proper nor necessary here to enter. See Jones' Hist, of
the Christian Churdh ; vol. i. p. 314, &c.
ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY. This celebrated collection
of books was first founded by Ptolemy Soter, for the use
of the academy, or society of learned men, which he had
founded at Alexandria. Besides the books which he pro-
cured, his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, added many more,
and left in this library at his death a hundred thousand
volumes ; and the succeeding princes of tliis race enlarged
it still more, till at length the books lodged in it amounted
to the niunber of seven hundred thousand volumes. The
method by which they are said to have collected these
books was this : they seized all the books that were brought
by the Greeks or other foreigners into Egypt, and seitt
them to the academy, oi museum, where they were tran-
scribed by persons employed for that purpose. The tran-
scripts were then delivered to the proprietors, and the origi-
nals laid up in the library. Ptolemy Euergetes, for in-
stance, borrowed of the Athenians the works of Sophocles,
Euripides, and jEschylus, and only returned them the
copies, which he caused to be transcribed in as beautiful
a manner as possible ; the originals he retained for his
own library, presentmg the Athenians with fifteen talents
for the exchange, that is, with three thousand pounds ster-
ling and upwards. As the museum was at first in the
quarter of the city called Bruchion, the library was placed
there ; but when the number of books amounted to four
hundred thousand volumes, another library, within the
Serapeum, was erected by way of supplement to it, and,
on that account, called the daughter of the former. The
books lodged in this increased to the number of three
hundred thousand volumes ; and these two made up the
number of seven hundred thousand volumes, of which the
royal libraries of the Ptolemies were said to consist. In
the war which Julius Cassar waged with the inhabitants
of Alexandria, the library of Bruchion was accidentally,
but unfortunately, burnt. But the library in Serapeum
still remained, and there Cleopatra deposited the two hun-
dred thousand volumes of the Pergamean library with
which she was presented by Mark Antony. These, and
others added to them from time to time, rendered the new
library more numerous and considerable than the former ;
and though it was plundered more than once during the
revolutions which happened in the Roman empire, yet it
was as frequently supplied with the same number of books,
and continued, for many ages, to be of great fame and
use, till it was burnt by the Saracens, A. D. 042. Abul-
pharagius, in his history of the tenth dynasty, gives the
following account of this catastrophe : John Philoponus,
surnamed the Grammarian, a famous Peripatetic philoso-
pher, being at Alexandria when the city was taken by the
Saracens, was admitted to familiar intercourse with Am-
rou, the Arabian general, and presumed to solicit a gift,
inestimable in his opinion, but contemptible in that of the
barbarians ; and this was the royal library. Amrou was
inclined to gratify his wish, but his rigid integrity scru-
pled to alienate the least object without the consent of the
caliph. He accordingly wrote to Omar, whose well known
answer was dictated by the ignorance of a fanatic : " If
these writings of the Greeks agree with the Koran or book
of God, they are useless, and need not be preserved ; if
they disagree, they are pernicious, and ought to be de-
stroyed." The sentence of destruction was executed wilh
blind obedience : the volumes of paper or parchment were
distributed to the four thousand baths of the city ; and
such was their number, that six months were barely Suf-
ficient for the consumption of this precious fuel. — IVatsoti.
ALEXANDRIAN SIANUSCRIPT ; a famous copy of
the Scriptures, in four volumes quarto. It contains the
whole Bible in Greek, including the Old and New Testa-
ment, with the Apocrypha, and some smaller pieces, but
not quite complete. It is preserved in the British muse-
um : it was sent as a present to king Charles I. from Cy-
rillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, by Sir Thomas
Rowe, ambassador from England to the Grand Seignior,
about the year 1628. Cyrillus brought it with him from
Alexandria, where probably it was written. In a schedule
ALF
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ALK
UMiexed to it, he gives this account: — That it was written,
as tradition informed them, by Thecla, a noble Egyptian
lady, about thirteen hundred years ago, not long after the
council of Nice. But this high antiquity, and the authority
of the tradition to which the patriarch refers, have been dis-
puted ; nor are the most accurate biblical -ivriters agreed
about its age. Grabe thinks that it might have been written
before the end of the fourth century ; others are of opinion
that it was not written till near the end of the fifth century,
or somewhat later. See Mr. Buheer and Dr. Woide's edition.
ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. No sooner had Alexan-
Her bwilt a city, and called it after his own name, than he
endeavored to make it the seat of philosophy and the arts ;
and here were collected the most considerable professors
from Greece, Egypt, and the East ; and the mixture of
She difl'erent systems introduced a confusion of opinions,
which not only affected materially the state of the heathen
world, but even of the Christian, and produced most of
the heresies which disfigured, and tormented the church
!u its first ages, particularly those cf the Gnostics and
Manichaeaas.
But the chief manufacturer of these absurdities was
Ammonius Saccas, the founder of the new Platonics in the
second century, whose followers were sometimes called Am-
monium. " To this philosophy (says Dr. Mosheim) we may
trace, as to their source, a multitude of vain and foolish
ceremonies, proper only to cast a ved over truth, and to
nourish superstition ; and which are, for the most part, re-
ligiously observed by many, even in the times in which
we live. It would be endless to enumerate all the perni-
cious consequences that may be justly attributed to tliis
new philosophy ; or rather, to this monstrous attempt to
reconcile falsehood with truth, and light with darkness.
Some of its most fatal effects were — its alienating the
minds of many, in the following ages, from the Christian
reUgion ; and its substituting, in the place of the pure and
sublime simplicity of the Gospel, an unseemly mixture of
Flatonism and Christianity." — Mosheim, vol. i. p. 169 — i7tj.
ALEXANDRIAN VERSION. See Bible.
ALEXIANS ; in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries,
brothers andsisters of St. Alexius, commonly called Cdlites,
which see.
ALFORD, {JoKN :) founder of the professorship of
natural religion, moral philosophy, and civil polity, in
Harvard college, died at Charlestown, Sept. 29, 1701, aged
75. He had been a member of the council. His execu-
tors determined the particular objects to which his bequest
t for charitable uses should be applied, and divided it equally
between Harvard college, Princeton college, and the Society
for the propagation of the Gospel among the Indians. To
the latter, ten thousand six hundred and seventy-five dol-
lars were paid in 1787. Levi Frisbie was the fijst Alford
professor. — Allen's B. Diet.
ALFRED, justly denominated the Great ; the young-
est .son of Ethelwolf, was born at Wantage, in Berkshire,
in 819, and succeeded to the EngUsh throne in 871, on the
death of Eihelred, the last survivor of his brother. From
Ins accession to the year 877, he was engaged in almost
continual contests with the Danes, who at last compelled
)nm to abandon the throne, and conceal himself in dis-
guise in the cottage of one of his herdsmen. It was while
lie was thus concealed, that he was harshly reproved by
liis hostess, for having allowed some cakes to be burned,
the baking of which she had directed him lo watch. He
next retired with a few followers lo the isle of Athelney.
In this situation he fonned the design of freeing his conn-
try. He ordered his subjects to hold themselves in readi-
ness against the enemy, gave the intelligeme of his re-
treat, and informed himself of the condition of the Danes.
He went disguised as a harper,inlo the camp of king Guthurn,
and, having ascertained that the Danes felt themselves
secure, hastened back to his troops, led them against the
enemy, and gained such a decided victory, that the Danes
begged for peace. Those who were already in the coun-
try he altowed to remain there, on the condition that they
and their king should embrace Christianity. During a
part of the remainder of his reign, he had to contend
against repeated invasions, hut was uniformly successful
in rejieUing them. By sea or land he fought ro less than
fifty-six battles. As soon as he resumed his authority he
began to cultivate the arts of peace. He reformed the laws ;
established trial by jury ; divided the country int j shires
and hundreds ; encouraged commerce and maritime dis-
covery ; invited learned men from all quarters ; endowed
seminaiies ; restored, if not founded, the university of Ox-
ford ; and gave lustre to literature in the eyes of the people,
by himself composing and translating numerous works, on
a variety of subjects. Scotus and Grimbald, from abroad ;
Asserius, Wenfred, Plegmund, Dunwuf, Wulfsig, and the
abbot of St. Neot's, deserve the first rank among the lite-
rati who adorned the age of Alfred. He himself acquired an
immortal name by the admirable progress he made in all
kinds of elegant and useful knowledge. Among his other
pious and learned labors, he translated into English
Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Boetius De Consolalione,
and the Book of Psalms, He died A. D. 900.
The history of Alfred, says the Encyclopedia Americana,
considering the times in which he lived, presents one of
the most perfect examples on record of the able and pat-
riotic monarch united with the virtuous man.
'• If the soul of Alfred," says Foster, " could return to
the earth !" — " Were Alfred," says Mr. Douglas in his Ad-
v/inccment of Society, " restored to life, (as it was believed
of the just that they should again tread the earth in the
latter days, and enjoy the fruits of that which in ili^ir first
life they planted in equity and righteousness,) that peerless
king could, at this moment, with a touch set the social ma-
chine in movement."
ALGUM. See Almug.
ALGERIUS. In the year 1555, Algerius, a student in
the university of Padua, and a man of great learning, having
embraced the reformed religion, did all he could to convert
others. For these proceedings he was accused of heresy
to the po))e, and being apprehended, was coramiitcd to
prison at Venice, when behig allowed the use of pen, ink,
and paiier, he wrote to his converts at Padua the following
celebrated epistle : —
Dear FurENDs — I cannot omit this opportunity of letting
you know the sincere pleasure I feel in my confinement ;
to suffer for Christ is delectable indeed ; to undergo a little
transitory pain in this world, for his sake, is cheaply purchas-
ing a reversion of eternal glory, in a life that is everlasting.
Here I have found honey in the entrails of a lion ; a para-
dise in a prison ; tranquillity in the house of sonxjw ; when
others weep, I rejoice ; when others tremble and faint, I
find strength and courage. The Almighty alone confers
these favors upon me ; be his the glory and the praise.
How difTerent do I find myself from what I was before.
I embraced the truth in its purity ; I was then dark,
doubtful, and in dread ; I ain now enlightened, certain, and
full of joy. He that was far from me is present with me ;
he comforts my spirit, heals my griefs, strengthens my
mind, refreshes my heart, and fortifies my soul. Learn,
therefore, how merciful and amiable the Lord is, who sup-
ports his servants under temptation, expels their sorrows,
lightens their afflictions, and even visits them ^^ith his
glorious presence, in the gloom of a dungeon.
Your sincere friend, Algeriiis,
The pope being informed of Algerius's great learning,
and surprising natural abilities, thought it would be of
infinite importance to the church of Rome, if he could
induce him to forsake the Protestant cause. But finding
all his endeavors ineffectual, he ordered him to be burnt,
which .sentence was exemted accorilinslv. — Fox.
ALKORAN. See Kokax.
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ALL;— 1. Every creature. Prov. 16; 4. Ps. 119: 91.
or every part. Song 4: 7. — 2. Eveiy man. 2 Cor. 5: 10. —
3. Plentifnl, perfect. Rom. 15: 13. 1 Cor. 13: 2.-4. Men
of all nations, ranks, and degrees. 1 Tim. 2: 4. — Tit.
2: 11.— 5. Many, or the greatest part. Matt. 3: 5.
Phil. 2: 21. Thus it is said. All the cntth of the land of
Egypt died ; the hail brake, every tree of the field. Exod.
9: tj, 9. All the people brake off the gold ear-rings which
were in their ears. Exod. 32: 3. All the beasts of the
tiatioiis lodged in the lintels of Nineveh. Zeph. 2: 14.
The fame of David went forth into all lands. 1 Chron.
14: 17. All Judea, and all the region round aboitt Jordan,
went out to John and were baptized of him. All men
held John as a prophet. The apostles were hated of aij,
men. Matt. 3: 5, &. 21: 20. 10: 32. All 7nen came to
Jesus. John 3: 21). Then were at Jerusalem, Jews of
EVERY nation under heaven. Acts 2: 5. See Wohld. How
evident then the folly of such as found their universal re-
demption on this word, that must be so often restricted ! and
which is frequently limited by the context, by the nature
of the thing spoken of, or by the objects of it ! Thus ser-
vants are required to please their masters well in all
things. Tit. 2: 9. ; and the Lord is said to uphold all that
fall, and raise np all that are barred dmvn. Ps. 145: 14.
The ALL men of Asia that tmTied- away from Paul, denote
a great many professed Christians there. 2 Tim. 1: 15.
As the ultimate design of Christianity is the conversion
of the world, and as this will be its actual effect during
the glorious ages of the millennium, Dan. 2. Rev. 11: 15.
20: 1 — 6. it is no wonder that the sacred writers delight in
the use of the most comprehensive and magnificent ex-
pressions when speaking of the influence of the Gospel on
mankind. Hence those who are chosen to salvation may
without impropriety be catted all, or every man ; all the
ENDS of the earth ; all the world ; because they spring
from aH nations, Jews and Gentiles ,- dwell in all places ;
are of ever)' rank and condition ; and are the substance
of the earth ; for whose behalf it is chiefly preserved and
favored. Rom. 11: 32. Heb. 2: 9. Ps. 22: 27. 1 John 2: 2.
ALL DENOMINATIONS ; May 28, 1821, the society
of freemasons of the United States, ■nith the grand mas-
ter at their head, founded a new church at Cherokee hill,
eight miles from Savannah, Georgia, for all denominations,
" expressive of the universal love of the great architect
to all his creatures." See Gospel Advocate, (Boston,) June,
lS-2\. — WiUiani.s.
AJ-4LEGORY ; a figurative mode of speech or composi-
tion, which consists in selecting something analogous to a
subject, instead of the subject itself; and describing at
length the particulars belonging to the former, in such a
manner as to illustrate what we mean to enforce respect-
ing tlie latter. It may be compared to an emblematical
painting, in which we are left to discover the intention of
the artist by our own meditation ; with this difference,
that in the one, colors and forms are employed, in the other,
words only. Both exercise the judginent, as well as the
imagination, by pointing out some striking relation be-
tween objects which may nevertheless be very diflerent in
many respects ; but wliich agree so well in the circum-
stances brought before us, that though the representative
object is alone placed in our view, the resemblance leads
us at once to apply all the particulars to the subject repre-
sented. Our ingenuity is thus exercised in a pleasing
manner, and we are at the same time instructed and in-
formed.
An allegorj', a metaphor, and a parable, are nearly alli-
ed ; and we find each of them occasionally adopted by
the inspired writers in conveying their instructions to us.
The masters of rhetoric, indeed, seem at a loss to discrimi-
nate between the allegory and the parable ; if there be any
difi'erence, it must be this, that in any allegory, the spealter
or writer makes use of a real history to convey Ids instnic-
tions, but in a parable he often has recourse to a feigned or
supposed one. It may, however, be remarked, that an
allegory is made up of a chain or continuation of meta-
phors ; and differs from a single trope, as a cluster on the
vine does from only one or two grapes. In the eightieth
Psalm is one of the most beautiful and perfect examples
of the allegory that is to be found in any langu;ige. Here
the real history of the Old Testament church is obviously
made use of by the Psalmist, as an allegory. Thus also
the apostle makes use of ttie history of Hagar and Ish-
mael on the one hand, and that of Sarah and Isaac on
the other, to illustrate the subject of the two covenants.
Gal. 4: 24 — 30. Hagar is there taken to represent the
covenant which the Lord entered into with the children
of Israel at Mount Sinai, when they were made the visi-
ble church of God, put in bondage to the law, and were,
by its curse, excliKled from the inheiitance of heaven, if
they bad no other relaticm to Abraham than that of mere
natural descent. Antl in confirmation of the allegorical
meaning of the facts recorded by Moses, the apostle goes
on further to obser\'e, that, as Ishmael who was begotten
according to the flesh, persecuted Isaac, who was begotten
according to the Spirit, so the Jews, the natural seed of
Abraham, persecrttetl Abraham's spiritual seed, the be-
lieving Jen-s and Gentiles. Thus, as in the circumstances
of his birth and condition, as also in his character and in
his actions, Istimaet was fi fit type of the unbelieving
Jews, Abraham's nainra! .seed.
But with regard to Sarah and Isaac, he places them ira
direct contrast to the bond- woman aird her son . For Sarah
is taken to repre.settt the new covenant, which God hath
made, not with the fleshly seed of Abraltain, bnt with be-
lievers of all nations, of whom she is figuratively termed
the mother. Sarah conceived her son Isaac snpematu-
rally, and so became a type of that covenant under which
men are regarded, by the power of God accompanying his
word, and so become the children of " Jerusalem which is
above," and which is free from both the bondage and the
curse of the law. And as Isaac was the child of promise,
so he is taken to represent that innumerable company of
regenerated believers, who were promised to the Redeemer
by (he Father, as the reward of his atonirsg sorrows.
Isa. 53: 10— 12.— jOTie/s Bib. Cijr. \
ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION. See Intek-
PRETATIOX.
ALLELUIA, or Hallelu-jah, praise the Lrrrd ; or praise
to the Lord. This word occurs at the beginning, or at the
end, of many Psatos. Alleluia was sung on solemn days
of rejoicing. St. John, in the Beveiation, 19: 1, 3, 4, 6,
says, " I heard a great voice of much people in heaven,
who cried. Alleluia ; and the four living creatures fell
down, and worshipped God, saying, AllelHia." This ex-
pression of joy ami praise was transfeired from the syna-
gogue to the cimrch. At the funeral of Fabiola, "severa!
Psalms were sung with loud alleluias," says Jerome, in
Bpitaphio Paula:. The monks of Palestine were awaked •
at their midnight watchings, with the singing of alTehtias.
It is still occasionally nsed in devotional psahnody. —
Watson.
ALLEIN, (JosEPii ;) author of "the Alarm;" a non»
conformist divine, was born at Devizes, in "Wiltshire, in the
year 1623. At a very early age, his great piety and 10%"^
of learning displayed themselves ; and he earnestly re-
quested his father, Mr. Tobias Allein, to ettueate him
for the important work of the Christian ministry ; to
which he afterwards devoted his life, his mental talents,
and his worldly property. In his classical attainments, he-
made great progress, and at a very early age manifested
so ardent a spirit to promote the glory of Christ and the
salvation of souls, that whatever he considered to be con-
ducive to those ends, he prosecuted with great vigor. At
the age of sixteen he was sent to Lincoln college, Oxford ;
and in 1651, was removed to Corpus Christi college, a
Wiltshire scholarship being then vacant. There he was
diligent in prosecuting his studies, consistent in his con-
duct, and affable towards his fellow students. He was
near attaining a fellowship, but did not urge it, in order
that he might embrace the honorable office of chaplain,
being pleased ^vith so favorable an opportunity of exercis-
ing his gift in prayer, an employment in which he pecu-
liarly excelled. In 1653 he was admitted bachelor of
arts, and soon after married an amiable and pious lady.
His income being small, he determined on becoming a
tutor, and very soon had a great number of pupils, some
of whom became graduates of divinity placed under his
care ; and who, in after-life, repaid him for his anxiety,
hy their gratitude, affection, and usefulness. He was as-
sisted in increasing his income by Mrs. AUem, who kepi
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a larfies' boarding school, in which also Mr. AUein took
great interest. In his work as a minister of the Gospel,
he was very assiduous and laborious ; and he was con-
stantly employed, when out of the pulpit, in assisting his
brethren, or in supplying destitute congregations. In
1655 he became co-pastor with the Rev. George Newton,
at Taunton ; was eminently useful, and employed those
means which he thought would best promote the glory of
God. When the unwise and persecuting act of uniformi-
ty was passed, he was ejected ; and on the 26th of May,
1663, was committed to Ilchester gaol ; where after being
treated with great indignity, together with seven ministers
and fifty quakers, he was indicted at the assizes for
preaching on the 17th of May, of which he was found
guilty, and sentenced to pay one hundred marks, and not
to be released till they were paid. He declared in court,
"that whatsoever he was charged with, he was guilty of
nothing hut doing his duty." He however continued in
prison a whole year, and during that trying period improv-
ed his time to the greatest advantage, both of himself
and his fellow prisoners. After his release he was even
more zealous in propagating the Gospel, till his exertions
brought on an illness, which disabled him from continuing
to perform such duties. In 1665, he was again appre-
hended, while at prayer, and, mth some of his friends,
was committed to prison for sixty days. Such confine-
ment increased his disorder, and he rapidly became worse,
tUl in the month of November, 1668, he was released
from his sufferings at the premature age of 35. Mr. AUein
was a man of unaffected and fervent piety, of an amiable
temper, and courteous conversation ; his intellects were
solid and good, and his affections lively ; and he died as
he lived, universally respected and beloved. His works
are not numerous, but they are useful and pious. See
Memoirs of Allein. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
ALLEN, (William ;) a Protestant martyr, in the reign
of queen Mary. He was burnt at Walsingham, Septem-
ber, 1555, for refusing to follow the cross in procession.
He had declared such constancy at his martyrdom, and had
met credit with the justices, by reason of his well tried
character among them, that he was suffered to go un-
tied to his suffering, and then being fastened with a chain,
stood quietly without shrinking till he died. — Fox.
ALLEN, (John;) first minister of Dedham, Massa-
chusetts, was horn in England in 1596, and was driven
from his native land during the persecution of the Puri-
tans. He had been for a number of years a faithful
preacher of the Gospel. Soon after he arrived in New-
England, he was settled pastor of the church at Dedham,
April 24, 1639. Here he continued till his death, August
26, 1671, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. He was a
man of great meekTiess and humility, and of considerable
distinction in his day. He published a defence of the nine
positions, in which, with Mr. Shepard of Cambridge, he
disowns the points of church discipline ; and a defence of
the synod of 1662, against Mr. Chauncy, under the title
of Animadversions upon the Antisynodalia, 4to. 1664.
This work is preserved in the New England libraiy.
The two last sermons, which he preached, were printed
after his death. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALLEN, (Thomas ;) minister of Charlestown, Blassa-
chusetts, was born at Norwich in England, in 1608, and
was educated at Cambridge. He was afterwards minister
of St. Edmond's in Norwich, but was silenced by bishop
Wren, about the year 1636, for refusing to read the Book
of Sports, and conform to other impositions. In 1638 he
fled to New England, and was the same year installed in
Charlestown, where he was a faithful preacher of the
Gospel till about 1651, when he returned to Norwich, and
continued the exercise of his ministry till 1662. He af-
terwards preached to his church on all occasions, that of-
fered, till his death, September 21, 1673, aged 65. He
was a verj' pious man, greatly beloved, and an able,
practical preacher.
He published an Invitation to Thirsty Sinners to come
1i> their Savior ; the Way of the Spirit in bringing Souls to
Christ ; the Glory of Christ set forth, with the Necessity of
Faith, in several sermons ; a Chain of Scripture Chrono-
logy, from the Creation till the Death of Christ, in seven
periods. This was printed in 1658, and was regarded as
a very u,scful and learned work. Il is p-cserveil in the
New-England library, established by Mr. Prince, by whom
the authors quoted in the book arc written in the begin-
ning of it in his own hand. Mr. A. wrote alio with Mr.
Shepard in 1645, a preface to a Treatise on Liturgies, iVr.
composed by the latter. He contends, that only visible
saints and believers should be received to communion. —
Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALLEN, (James;) minister in Boston, came to thi.s
country in 1662, recommended by i\Ir. Goodwin. He had
been a fellow of New College, Oxford. He was at this
time a young man, and possessed considerable talents.
He was ordained teacher of the first church, December 9,
1668, as colleague with Mr. Davenjwrt, who was at the
same time ordained pastor. Mr. Allen died September
22, 1710, aged .seventy-eight years. He published Health-
ful Diet, a sermon ; New-England's clioicrst Blessings, an
election sermon, 1()79 ; Serious Advice to Delivered Ones ,
Man's Self-reQection, a Bteans to further bis Recovery
from his Apostasy from God ; two practical discourses.—
Allen's B. Diet.
ALLEN, (James ;) first minister of Brookline, Massa-
chusetts, was a native of Roxbury, and was graduated at
Harvard college in 1710. He was ord.-iined November 5,
1718, and after a ministry of twentj'-cight years, died of a
lingering con.sumplion February 18, 1747, in the fifty-sixth
year of his age, with the reputation of a pious and judi-
cious divine. In his last hours he had a hope, which he
would not part with, as he said, for a thousand worlds.
He published a Thanksgiving Sennon, 1722 ; a Discourse
on Providence, 1727 ; the Doctrine of Merit exploded, and
Humility recommended, 1727 ; a Fast Sermon occasioned
by the Earthquake, 1727 ; a Sermon to a Society of Yoimg
Blen, 1731 ; a Sermon on the Death of S. Aspinwall, 1733 ;
an Election Sermon, 1744. — Allen's B. Diet.
ALLEN, (Hets-ry ;) a preacher in Nova Scotia, was
born at Newport, R. I., June 14, 1748, and began to pro-
pagate his singular sentiments about the year 1778. He
was a man of good capacitj'. but of warm imagination and
uncultivated mind. He died at the house of Rev. Dr.
McClure, New Hampton, New-Hampshire, February 2
1784. Since his death his party has much decUned.
He published a volume of hymns, and several treatises
and sermons. — Allen's B. Did. See Allenites.
ALLEN, (Moses;) was born in Northampton, Massa-
chusetts, September 14, 1748. He was educated at the
college in New- Jersey, where he was graduated in 1772.
He was ordained at Christ's Church parish, about twenty
miles from Charieston, S. C, March 26. 1775. In 1777
he removed to Blidway, Georgia. The British army from
Florida, under General Prevost, dispersed his society in
1778, and burned the meeting-house, almost every dwelling
house, and the crops of rice then in stacks. In December
he was taken prisoner by the British, and treated with
great severity. Seeing no prospect of release from the
prison-ship where he was confined, he determined to at-
tempt the recovery of his liberty by jumping overboai-d
and swimming to an adjacent point ; but he was drowned
in the attempt February 8, 1779, in the thirty-first year of
his age. Mr. Allen was admired by the friends of inde-
pendence for his popular talents, his courage, and his
many virtues. The enemies of independence could ac-
cuse him of nothing more, than a vigorous exertion of all
his powers in defending the rights of his injured country.
He was an eminently pious man, — Allen's B. Di'-t.
ALLEN, (Thomas;) brother of the preceding, and first
minister of Pittsfield, Mass. ; was born January 7, 1743,
at Northampton. He was educated at Harvard college,
where he was graduated in 1762, being ranked among the
best classical scholars of the day. After studying theolo-
gy under the direction of I\lr, Hooker of Northampton,
Mr. Allen was ordained April 18. 1764. During a minis-
try of forty-six years he was unwearied in dispensing the
glorious Gospel. Besides his stated labors on the Sabbath,
he frequently delivered lectures, and in the course of hi.s
life preached six or seven hundred funeral sermons.
He was very charitable to the poor, and his house was
the seat of hospitality, Tow.ards other denominations of
Christians, though strict in his own principles, lie was yet
exemplMily candid. At the commencement of the revo-
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iution, like most of his brethren, he engaged warmly in
th" support of the rights and independence of his country.
Twice lie went out with the army as a volunteer chaplain
for a short time.
In Mr. Allen the strength of those affections which con-
stitute the charm of domestic and social life, was remarka-
ble ; giving indeed peculiar poignancy to the arrows of
affliction, but also swelling in a high degree the amount
'•f good found in the pilgrimage of earth.
His health had been gradually declining for several
years before his death, and more than once he was brought
to the brink of the grave. For several months he was un-
able to preach. He was fully aware of his approaching
dissolution, and the prospect 61 eternity brightened as he
drew near the close of his life. Those precious promises,
■which vnlh peculiar tenderness he had often announced to
the rich and the dying, were now his support. The all-
sufficient Savior was his only hope ; and he rested on him
with perfect confidence. He was desirous of departing,
and was chiefly anxious lest he should btt impatient.
Knowing his dependence upon God, he continually be-
sought tr.o-^e, who were about his bed, to pray for liim.
He took an affecting leave of his family, repeating his
pious counsels, and bestowing upon each one his valedic-
tory blessing. When he was reminded by a friend of his
great labors in the ministry, he disclaimed all merit for
what he had done, though he expressed his belief, that he
had plainly and faithfully preached the Gospel. He for-
gave and prayed for his enemies. AVhen one of his chil-
dren, a day or two before his death, pressed him to take
some nourishment, or it would be impossible for him to
live ; he replied, " Live ! I am going to live forever !" He
frequently exclaimed, " Come, Lord Jesus ; come quickly."
In the morning of the Lord's day, February 11, 1810, he
fell asleep in Jesus in the sixty -eighth year of his age, and
the forty-seventh of his ministry.
He published several sermons ; and some letters of his,
on 'he sickness and death of his daughter, were published
in the Edinburg Missionary Magazine. — Allen's B. Diet.
ALLEN, (Solomon ;) a useful minister of the Gospel,
brother of the preceding, was born at Northampton, Feb-
ruary 23, 1751. He with four of his brothers entered the
army in the revolutionary war. Mr. Allen, in the course
of the war, rose to the rank of major, and bore an honora-
ble part in those trying scenes. After the war he was a
conspicuous officer in quelling the insurrection of Shays.
At the age of forty his soul was conquered by the power
of the Gospel, which till then he had resisted ; in a few
years afterwards he was chosen deacon of the church at
Northampton. As his personal piety increased, he became
anxious to preach the Gospel. I3ut at the age of fifty, with
no advantages of education, there were formidable obsta-
cles in his way. The ministers around him suggested
discouragements, as he could hardly acquire the necessa-
ry quaUfications. But his pious zeal was irrepressible.
There were various branches of learning, which he could
not hope to gain ; but, " one thing he could do, — he could
bring all the force of a naturally robust intellect to the
work of searching the Scriptures. This he did, and while
iri this way he enriched his understanding from their
abundant treasures, his faith was strengthened, his hope
brightened, and all the Christian graces were refreshed
fr:m that " foimtain of living waters." He read also Howe's
and Baxter's works, and from these sources drew his theo-
Jcgy. He wrote out a few sermons, and thus commenced
the labor of preaching, at first in a few small towns in
Hampshire county, but for the last years of his Ufe in the
western part of the state of New-York. He rejoiced in
fatigues and privations in the service of his beloved Mas-
ter. Sometimes in his journies he reposed himself with
nothing but a blanket to protect him from the inclemency
of the weather. But though poor, he was the means of
enriching many ^vith the inestimable riches of religion.
Four churches were established by him, and he numbered
about two hundred souls, as by his preaching reclaimed
from perdition. Though poor himself, there were those
connected with him, who were rich, and by whose liberali-
ty he was enabled to accomplish his benevolent purposes.
From such sources he expended about a thousand dollars
in books and clothing for the people in the wilderness,
while at the same time he toiled incessantly in teaching
them the way to heaven. Such an example of disinte-
restedness drew from an enemy of the Gospel the follow-
ing remark ; — '• This is a thing I cannot get along with :
this old gentleman, who can be as rich as he pleases,
comes here and does all these things for nothing ; there
must be something in his religion."
In the autumn of 1820, after having been nearly twenty
years a preacher in the new settlements of the west, his
declining health induced him to bid adieu to his people, in
order to visit once more his children and friends. His
parting with his church at Brighton was like the parting
of Paul with the elders of the church of Ephesus. Many
of the members of the church accompanied him to the
boat, and tears were shed and prayers offered on the shore
of lake Ontario, as on the seacoast of Asia Minor. Even
the passengers in the boat could not refrain from weeping
at the solemnity and tenderness of the scene. The attach-
men of children to Mr. Allen was indeed remarkable.
Wherever he went, children, while they venerated "lis
white locks, would cling around his knees to listen tc his
interesting anecdotes, his warnings, and instructions.
At Pittsfield, where some of his relations lived, and
where his brother had been the minister, Mr. Allen went
through the streets, and entering each house, read a chap-
ter in the Bible, exhorting all the members of the family
to Serve God ; and praying fervently for their salvation.
In like manner he visited other towns. He felt that the
time was short, and he was constrained to do all the good
in his power. With his white locks and the strong, im-
pressive tones of his voice, and having a known charac-
ter for sanctity, all were awed at the presence of the man
of God. He went about with the holy zeal and authority
of an apostle. In prayer Mr. Allen displayed a sublimity
and pathos, which good judges have considered as une-
qualled by any ministers whom they have known. It was
the energy of true faith and strong feeling. In Novem-
ber he arrived at New-York, and there, after a few weekgj
he expired in the arms of his children, January 28, 1821,
aged seventy years.
As he went down to the grave he enjoyed an unbroken
serenity of soul, and rejoiced and exulted in the assured
hope of eternal life in the presence of his Redeemer in
heaven. Some of his last memorable sayings have been
presented by Eev. Mr. Danforth in his .sketch of his last
hours. If there are any worldly-minded ministers, who
neglect the sheep and lambs of" the flock, — any who re-
pose themselves in learned indolence, — any who are not
bold to reprove and diligent to instruct, — any who are not
burning with holy zeal, nor strong in faith, nor fervent and
mighty in prayer ; — to them the ministry and faithfulness
of BIr. Allen inight show to what an height of excellence
and honor they might reach, did they but possess his
spirit.
Blr. Allen pubhshed no writings to keep alive his name
upon the earth ; but he has a record on high ; and his bene-
volent, pious, zealous toils, hax-e doubtless gained for hira
that honor, which cometh from God, and which will be
green and flourishing, when the honors of science and of
heroic exploits, and all the honors of earth shall wither
away. In his life there is presented to the world a memo-
rable example of the power in doing good, which may be
wielded by one mind, even under the most unfavorable
circumstances, when its energies are wholly controlled by
a spirit of piety. Though found in deep poverty, such a
pious zeal may mould the characters of those, who by their
industry and enterprise acquire great wealth ; and thus
may be the remote cause of all their extensive charities.—
Allen'!: B. Diet.
ALLEN, (Solomon M. ;) professor of languages in
Middlebury college, Vermont, was the son of Rev. T. Al-
len, of Pittsfield, and was born February 18, 1789. His
father destined him to be a farmer, as he was athletic and
fond of active life ; but after he became pious, his friends
being desirous that he should receive a collegiate educa-
tion, he commenced the study of Latin at the age of
twenty. In 1813 he graduated at Middlebury with a high
reputation as a scholar. During a year spent at Andover,
besides attending to the customary studies, he read a part
of the New Testament ir **■» Syriac language. After offl-
ALL
ciating foi two years as a tutor, lie was chosen in 1S16
professor of the aacient languages, having arisen to this
honor in seven years after commencing the study of
Latm. He lived to accomplish but little, but long enough
to show what the energy of pious zeal is capable of ac-
complishing. Respected and beloved by all his associ-
ates and acquaintances, his sudden and awful death over-
whelmed them with sorrow. Being induced, on account
of a defect in the chimney, to go imprudently upon the
roof of the college building, he fell from it September 23,
1817, and in consequence died the same evening, aged
38 years. In his last hours his numerous friends crowded
around him, "watching with trembling anxiety the flight
of his immortal soul to the kindred spirits of a belter
world." Under the extreme anguish of his dying mo-
ments, he exclaimed : — " The Lord reigneth, let the earth
rejoice ! — O Father, thy will be done. So seemeth it good
in thy sight, O Lord." — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALLEN, (Richard ;) first bishop of the African Metho-
dist Episcopal church, died at Philadelphia, March 26,
1831, aged 71. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALLEN, (Benjamin ;) rector of St. Paul's church, Phi-
ladelphia, died at sea, in the brig Edward, on liis return
fiom Europe, January 27, 1829. He had been the editor
of the Christian Magazine, and was a disinterested, zea-
lous servant of God. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALLENITES, the disciples of Henry Allen, of Nova
Scotia, who began to propagate his doctrines in that coun-
try about the year 1778, and died in 1783, during which
interval he made many proselytes, and at his death left a
considerable party behind him, though now much declin-
ed. He published several treatises and sermons, in which
he declares, that the souls of all the human race are ema-
nations, or rather parts of the one great Spirit ; that they
were all present in Eden, and were actually in the first
transgression. He supposes that our first parents in inno-
cency were pure spirits, and that the material world was
not then made ; but that in consequence of the fall, that
mankind might not sink into utter destruction, this world
was produced, and men clothed with material bodies ; and
that all the human race -n-ill, in their turn, be invested
Nvith such bodies, and in them enjoy a state of probation
for immortal happiness. — H. Adams's Diet., from a MS.
eommunieated by a clergyman of Nova Scotia, 1783.
ALLISON, (Francis, D. D. ;) assistant minister of the
first Presbyterian church in Philadelphia, was born in
Ireland in 1705. After an early classical education at an
academy, he completed his studies at the university of
Glasgow. He came to this country in 1735, and was
soon appointed pastor of a Presbyterian church at New
London in Chester county, Pennsylvania. Here, about the
year 1741, his solicitude for the interests of the Redeemer's
kingdom, and his desire of engaging young men in the
work of the ministry, and of promoting public happiness
by the diffusion of religious liberty and learning, induced
him to open a public school. There was at this time
scarcely a particle of learning in the middle states, and he
generally instnicted all that came to him, without fee or
reward. — About the year 1747 he was invited to take the
charge of an academy in Philadelphia ; in 1755 he was
elected vice provost of the college, which had just been
established, and professor of moral philosophy. He was
also minister in the first Presbyterian church. In the dis-
charge of the laborious duties, which devolved upon him,
he continued till his death, November 28, 1777, aged 72.
Besides an unusually accurate and profound acquain-
t!\nce with the Latin and Greek classics, he was well in-
formed in moral philosophy, history, and general litera-
ture. To his zeal for the diffusion of knowledge, Pennsyl-
vania owes much of that taste for solid learning and clas-
sical literature, for which many of her principal charac-
ters have been so distinguished. The private virtues of
Dr. Allison conciliated the esteem of all that knew him,
and his public usefulness has erected a lasting monument
to his praise. For more than forty years he supported the
ministerial character with dignity and reputation. In his
public services he was plain, practical, and argumenta-
tive ; wai-m, animated and pathetic. He was gi"eatly
honored by the gracious Redeemer in being made instru-
mental, as II is believed, in the salvation of many, who
[63] ALL
heard him. He was frank and ingenuous in his natural
temper ; warm and zealous in his friendships ; catholic
in his sentiments ; a friend to civil and religious hberty.
His benevolence led him to spare no pains nor trouble in
assisting the poor and distressed by his advice and influ-
ence, or by his own private liberality. It was he who
planned, and was the means of establishing the M'idows'
Fund, which was remarkably useful. He often expressed
his hopes in the mercy of God unto eternal life, and but a
few days before his death said to Dr. Ewing, that he ha.l
no doubt, but that, according to the Gospel covenant, he
should obtain the pardon of his sins through the great
Redeemer of mankind, and enjoy an eternity of rest and
glory in the presence of God.
He pubUshed a sermon, delivered before the synods of
New-York and Pennsylvania, May 24, 1758, entitled.
Peace and Unity Recommended. — Assembly's Miss. Mag. i.
457—361 ; Miller's Retr. ii. 342 ; Holmes's Life of Stiles,
<)8, 99.— Allen's Biog. Diet.
ALLIX, (Peter, D. D. ;) a very learned and eminent Pro-
testant divine, born in France, at Alencon, in 1641, where
he received a liberal education. In process of time he be-
came minister of the reformed church at Rouen, where he
soon began to distinguish himself as an author, by pub-
lishing some ver)' learned and curious pieces, by which
he acquired great reputation. It was owing to this that
he was called from Rouen to Charenton, which was the
principal church that the reformed had in France. This
was a high honor conferred upon him ; and being now in
the zenith of his preferment, and finding himself in a con-
dition for rendering great services to the church, he appli-
ed himself to the task with all possible zeal, defemUng the
Protestant doctrine against the artful attempts of the
bishop of Sleaux, who was then laboring to overthrow the
reformed religion. On the revocation of the edict of
Nantes, Mr. Allix found himself compelled to quit in 1685,
on which he retired into England, where he met with a
most favorable reception, on account of his extensive
learning, and, more especially, his singular knowledge in
ecclesiastical history, for which he was particularly es-
teemed. On his arrival in that country, he applied very
closely to learning the English language, which he attain-
ed to a surprising degree of perfection, as is manifest from
the various publications which issued from his pen.
Among these may be particularly specified his " Reflec-
tions on the Books of the Holy Scriptures, designed to
establish the truth of the Christian Religion," "Remarks
on the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of
Piedmont," " Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of
the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses." In these last
treatises, he vindicates the Waldenses and Albigenses
from the foul aspersions of Bossuet, the bishop of Bleaux,
and with great force retorts on him his own arguments,
by showing, that a constant and vigorous opposition to the
Church of Rome, founded not only on a disavowal of her
authority, but also from an opposition to her corruptions
in doctrine, discipline, and practice, is far from proving
eitlier heresy or schism in her opponents. In the course
of his " Remarks," he is led into an examination of vari-
ous important questions, and with freedom, learning, and
impartiality, he traces the progress of the sentiments of
the Albigenses into Spain, as well as their connection with
the opinions of Wickliffe in England.
But the book which obtained him the highest credit
was, " The Judgment of the Ancient Jewish Church, against
the Unitarians, in the Controversy upon the Holy Trinity,
and the Divinity of our blessed Savior." This was a
great undertaking, requiring an extensive knowledge of
Greek and Hebrew hterature, which all must allow Dr.
Allix to have exhibited, and that he managed the whole
controversy with equal perspicuity and erudition. He
enjoyed an uncommon share of health and spirits, as ap-
pears by his later writings, in which there is not only all
the erudition, but all the quickness and vivacity which ap-
peared in his earliest pieces. He was consulted by the
greatest men of his age on the deepest and most intricate
parts of learning, and was acknowledged to be a genius
of the first order, by those whom the world have esteemed
not only the most capable, but also the most unbiassed
critics. Dr Allix continued his application to the last,
A L M f G4
mill iticd ill London, in the 76lh year of his age, on the
2 1st of February, ]717; Icavingbehind liim the reputation
of a man, assiduous in the discharge of all the offices of
public and private life, and every way as amiable for his
virtues and social qualities, as he was venerable for his
uprightness and integrity, and famous for his various and
profound learning. — Jones's Bin^. Diet.
ALL MANNER OF CONVERSATION; a phrase
which occurs in 1 Peter 1: 15. The Greek word anastro-
phc, conversation, which 0(-curs frequently in the New
Testament, has a much more extensive meaning than now
belongs to the word conversation. It embraces not only
colloquial intercourse, but the whole circle of habits and
behavior. It corresponds most nearly to the English term
condu«t. The whole phrase here referred to, may be ren-
dered, " Be ye holy in every turn, or, as we now say, in
eiiiy tfalk of life."
ALL-SUFFICIENCY OF GOD ; that power or attri-
bute of his nature, whereby he is able to communicate as
much blessedness lo his creatures as he is pleased to make
them capable of receiving. As his self-sufficiency is that
whereby he has enough in himself to denominate him
completely blessed, as a God of infinite perfection ; so his
all-sufficiency is that by which he hath enough in himself
lo satisfy the most enlarged desires of his creatures, and to
make them completely blessed. We practically deny this
perfection, when we are discontented with our present
condition, and desire more than God has allotted for us.
Gen. 3: 5. Prov. 19: 3. — 2. When >ve seek blessings of
what kind soever in an indirect way, as though God were
not able to bestow Ihem upon us in his own way, or in the
use of lawful means. Gen. 27: 35. — 3. "When we use un-
lawful means to escape imminent dangers. 1 Sam. 21: 13.
Gen. 20 and 26. — 4. When we distrust his providence,
though we have had large experience of his appearing for us
in various instances. 1 Sam. 27: 1 . Psalms 78: 19. 2 Chron.
16: 8. 2 Chron. M: 9, 13 Josh. 7: 7,9.-5. When we
doubt of the tmth or certain accomplishment of the pro-
mises. Gen. 18: 12. Psalms 77: 74. Isa. 49: 14.— 6. When
we decline great services, though called to them by God,
imder a pretence of om- unfitness for them, Jer. 1: 6, 8.
The consideration of this doctrine should lead us, 1. To
seek happiness in God alone, and not in human things,
Jer. 2: 13. — 2. To commit all our wants and trials to
him. 1 Sam. 30: 6. Heb. 11: 19. 2 Cor. 12: 8, 9.-3. To
be courageous in the midst of danger and opposition.
Psalms, 27: 1. — 4. To be satisfied with his dispensations.
Rom. 8: 28. — 5. To persevere in the path of duty, how-
ever difficult. Gen. 17: 1. — Buck's Theol. Diet. ; Eidgley's
Body of Div. ques. 17. ; Saurin's Ser. ser. 5. vol. i. ; Bar-
row's Works, vol. ii. ser. 11. ; Dnight's Theology, vol. i. ser.
7, and 25. — See Almighty.
ALLUSH OR ALUSH ; Numb. 33: 13, 14. ; a place situ-
ated in the desert of Sin, between Elim and Mount Sinai.
The stations where the Israelites rested, are supposed to
have been in the great valley El Sheikk and Feiran.
Feiran is a continuation of the valley El Sheikk, says
Burckhardt, and was considered the first valley on the
whole Arabian peninsula. From the upper extremity, a
row of gardens and date plantations extends downwards
{tc four miles. In almost every garden is a well, by
mean? of which the gardens are irrigated the whole year
round. This is the valley described by Niebuhr under
the name of Faran, through which the Israelites, doubt-
.ess, passed on their way to Sinai after leaving the desert
of Sin ; but which they probably did not pass through on
their way from Sinai to Kadesh, as some have ventured
to suppose. Here they could not want for water ; nor did
they murmur on this account until they came to Rephi-
dim, which was most probably higher up among the
mountains, and near the western base of Sinai itself. In-
deed, monkish tradition pretends to assign the site of Rep-
hidim, and to show the rock from which the waters gush-
ed, in the narrow valley El Ledja, but the nature of the
ground hardly admits the possibility of its being the true
site. — Robinson's Bib. Repository.
ALMAH ; a Hebrew word signifying properly a virgin,
a young woman unacquainted with man. In this sense
it occurs in the famous passage of Isaiah, 7: 14 — " Behold
a virgin shall conceive and bear a son." The Hebrew
A LM
has no term that more properly signifies a virgin than
almah. St. Jerome, in his commentary on this passage,
observes, that the prophet declined using the word bethaul
which signifies any young woman, or young person, but
employed the term almah, which denotes a virgin
never seen by man. This is the import of the word
almah, which is derived from a root which signifies to con-
ceal. It is very well known, that young women in the
east do not appear in public, but are shut up in their
houses, and their mothers' apartments, like nuns. The
Chaldee paraphrast and the Septuagint translate almah " a
virgin ;" and Akiba, the famous rabbin, w^ho was a great
enemy to Christ and Christians, and lived in the second
century, understands it in the same manner. The apos-
tles and evangelists, and the Jews of our Savior's time,
explained it in the same sense, and expected a Messiah
born of a virgin.
The Jews, that they may obscure this plain text, and
weaken the proof of the truth of the Christian religion,
pretend that the Hebrew word signifies a young woman,
and not a virgin. But this corrupt translation is easily
confuted. 1. Because this word constantly denotes a vir-
gin in all other passages of Scripture in which it is used.
2. From the intent of the passage, which was to confirm
their faith by a strange and wonderful sign. It surely
could be no wonder, that a young woman should conceive
a child ; but it was a very extraordinary circumstance,
that a virgin should conceive and bear a son. — Jones.
ALMERICIANS ; the followers of Almeric, (or Amau-
ri,) professor of logic and theolog}' at Paris, in the thirteenth
century, who was burnt to death for his opinions, with
several of his followers. He opposed the worship of
saints and images : and his enemies charged him with
maintaining, that as the reign of the Father continued
during the Old Testament dispensation, and that of the
Son from the Christian era, so in his time the reign of the
Holy Spirit commenced, in which the sacraments and all
external worship were to be abolished. Dr. Mosheim, and
many other learned men, consider Almeric as a Pantheist,
maintaining that the universe was God — that
"All are but parts of one stupendous whole,"
and must all return to the source from whence they were
derived. Fox, however, has placed him among the mar-
tyrs to evangelical truth. Dr. Maclaine, also, in his notes
to Mosheim, has vindicated Almeric from the charges
of his enemies, and sustained the judgment of Fox. —
Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. vol. iii. p. 287 ; Fleury's Ecc. Hist.
lib. 76. sect. 59 ; Fox's Book of Martyrs, p. 133.
ALMIGHTY; apeculiar title of the Deity. Gen. 17: 1.
The Hebrew name, Shaddai, signifies also all-sufficient, or
all-bountiful. See Gen. 28: 3. 35: 11. 43: 14. 49: 25.
Of the omnipotence of God, we have a most ample reve-
lation in the Scriptures, expressed in the most sublime
language. From the annunciation, by Moses, of a divine
existence, who was " in the beginning," before all things,
the very first step is to the display of his almighty power
in the creation out of nothing, and the immediate arrange-
ment, in order and perfection, of the "heavens and the earth;"
by which is meant, not this globe only mth its atmos-
phere, or even with its own celestial system, but the uni-
verse itself; for "A« made the stars also." We are thus at
once placed in the presence of an agent of unbounded
power ; for we must all feel that a being which could cre-
ate such a world as this, must, beyond all comparison,
possess a power greater than any which we experience in
ourselves, than any which we observe in other visible
agents, and lo which we are not authorized, by our obser-
vation or knowledge, to assign any limits of space or dura-
tion.
2. That the sacred writers should so frequently dwell
upon the omnipotence of God, has important reasons, which
arise out of the very design of the revelation which they
were the means of communicating to mankind. Men
were lo be reminded of their obligations to obedience ; and
God is therefore constantly exhibited as the Creator, the
Preserver, and Lord of all things. His solemn worship
and fear were to be enjoined upon them ; and, by the
manifestation of his works, the veil was withdrawn from
his glory and majesty. Idolatry was to be checked and
ALM
[65]
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reproved, and the true God was therefore placed in con-
trast with the limited and powerless gods of the heathen :
" Among the gods of the nations, is there no god like tmto
thee; neither are there any works like thy works." Fi-
nally, he is exhibited as the object of rrasno creatures con-
stantly reminded by experience of their own infirmity and
dependence ; and to them it is essential to know, that his
power is absolute, unlimited, and irresistible, and that, in
a word, he is " mighty to save."
3. In a revelation which was thus designed to awe and
control the wicked, and to afford strength of mind and
consolation to good men under all circumstances, the om-
nipotence of God is therefore placed in a great variety of
impressive views, and connected with the most strildng
illustrations.
It is declared by the fact of creotimi, the creation of be-
ings out of iwthing ; which itself, though it had been con-
fined to a single object, however minute, exceeds finite
comprehension, and overwhelms the faculties. This with
God required no effort : " He spake and it was done, he
commanded and it stood -fast." The vast-ness and variety
of his works enlarge the conception : " The heavens de-
clare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his
handy work." " He spreadeth out the heavens, and
treadeth upon the waves of the sea ; he maketh Arcturus,
Orion, and Pleiades, and the chambers of the south ; he
doeth great things, past finding out, yea, and wonders
without number. He siretcheth out the north over the
empty place, and hangeth the earth upon nothing. He
bindeth up the waters in the thick clouds, and the cloud is
not rent under them ; he hath compassed the waters with
bounds until the day and night come to an end." The
ease with which he sustains, orders, and controls the most
powerful and tmnily of the elements, arrays his omnipo-
tence with an aspect of ineffable dignity and majesty :
" By him all things consist." " He brake up for the sea a
decreed place, and set bars and doors, and said. Hitherto
shalt thou come and no further, and here shall thy proud
waves be stayed." " He looketh to the end of the earth,
and seeth under the whole heaven, to make the weight
for the winds, to weigh the waters by measure, to make a
decree for the rain, and a way for the lightning of the
thunder." " Who hath measured the waters in the hol-
low of his hand, meted heaven with a span, comprehend-
ed the dust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the
mountains in scales, and the hills in a balance." The
descriptions of the divine power are often terrible : '• The
pillars of heaven tremble, and are astonished at his re-
proof ; he diWdelh the sea by his power." " He removeth
the mountains, and they know it not ; he overturneth
them in bis anger ; he shaketh the earth out of her place,
and the pillars thereof tremble ; he commandeth the sun
and it riseth not, and sealeth up the stars." The same
absolute subjection of creatures to his dominion is seen
among the intelligent inhabitants of the material universe ;
and angels, mortals the most exalted, and evil spirits, are
swayed with as much ease as the most passive elements :
" He maketh his angels spirits, and his ministers a flame
of fire." They veil their faces before his throne, and ac-
knowledge themselves his sen'ants : ■' It is he that sitteth
upon the circle of the earth, and the inhabitants thereof
are as grasshoppers," " as the dust of the balance, less
than nothing and vanity." " He bringeth princes to noth-
ing." " He setteth up one and putteth down another ;"
" for the kingdom is the Lord's, and he is governor
among the nations." " The angels that siniied he cast
down to hell, and delivered them into chains of darkness,
to be reserved unto judgment." The closing scenes of
this world complete these transcendent conceptions of the
majesty and power of God. The dead of all ages rise
from their graves at his voice : and the sea gives up the
dead which are in it. Before his face heaven and earth
flee away ; the stars fall from heaven, and the powers of
heaven are shaken. The dead, small and great, stand
before God, and are divided as a shepherd divideth the
sheep from the goats. The -n-icked go away into everlast-
mg punishment, but the righteous into life eternal.
4. Of these amsizing %'iews of the omnipotence of God,
spread through almost every page of the Scriptures, the
power lies in their truth. They are not eastern exaggera-
9
tions, mistaken for sublimity. Every thing in nature an-
swers to them, and renews from age to age the energy of
the impression which they cannot but make on the reflect-
ing mind. The order of the astral revolutions indicates
the constant presence of an invisible but incomprehensible
power. The seas hurl the weight of their billows upon
the rising shores, but every where find a " bmmd fixed by a
perpetual decree." The tides reach their height ; if they
flowed on for a few hours, the earth would change places
with the bed of the sea ; but, under an invisible control,
they become refluent. The expression, " He toucheth the
mountains and they smoke," is not merely imaginary : —
every volcano is a testimony of its truth ; and earthquakes
proclaim, that, before him, " the pillars of the world trem-
ble." Men collected into armies, or populous nations,
give us vast ideas of human power ; but let an army
be placed amidst the sand-storms and burning winds of
the desert, as in the east ; or, before " Ins frost," as in our
own day in Russia, where one of the mightiest anna-
ments was seen retreating before, or perishing under, an
unexpected visitation of snow and storm ; or let the utter-
ly helpless state of a populous country which has been
visited by famine, or by a resistless pestilential disease,
be reflected upon ; and we feel that it is scarcely a figure
of speech to say, that " all nations before him are less than
nothing and vaniti/J^
5. Nor, in reviewing this doctrine of Scripture, ought
the great practical uses made of the omnipotence of God,
by the sacred writers, to be overlooked. By them nothing
is said for the mere display of knowledge, as in heathen
writers ; and we have no speculations without a subservi-
ent moral. To excite and keep alive in man the fear and
worship of God, and to bring him to a felicitous confidence
in that almighty power which pervades and controls all
things, are the noble ends of those ample displays of the
omnipotence of God, which roll through the sacred volume
with a sublimity that inspiration only could supply. " De-
clare his glory among the heathen, his marvellous works
among all nations ; for great is the Lord, and greatly to
be praised. — Glory and honor are in his presence, and
strength and gladness in his place. — Give unto the Lord,
ye kindreds of the people, give unto the Lord glory and
strength ; give unto the Lord the glory due unto his
name. — The Lord is my light and my salvation ; whom
shall I fear ? — The Lord is the strength of my life ; of
whom shall I be afraid? — If God be for us, who then can
be against us ? — Our help stsmdeth in the name of the
Lord, who made heaven and earth. — What time I am
afraid, I will trust in thee." — Thus, as one observes, "our
natural fears, of which we must have many, remit us to
God, and remind us, since we know what God is, to lay
hold on his almightj' power."
6. Ample, however, as are these views of the power of
God, the subject is not exhausted. As, when the Scriptures
speak of the eternity of God, they declare it so as to give
us a mere glimpse of that fearful peculiarity of the divine
nature, that God is the fountain of being to himself, and
that he is eternal, because he is the " I aji :" so we are
taught not to measvtre God's omnipotence by the actual
displa3's of it which we see around us. These are the
manifestations of the fact, but not the measure of the attri-
bute ; and should we resort to the discoveries of modern
philosophy, which, by the help of instruments, has so
greatly enlarged the known boundaries of the visible uni-
verse, and add to the stars which are visible to the naked
eye, those new exhibitions of the divine power in the ne-
bulous appearances of the heavens which are resolvable
into m>Tiads of distinct celestial luminaries, whose im-
mense distances commingle their light before it reaches
our eyes ; we thus almost infinitely expand the circle of
created existence, and enter upon a fonnerly unknown
and overwhelming range of di\'rne operation. But still
we are only reminded, that his power is truly almightt/ and
measureless — " Lo, all these are parts of his ways ; but how
little a portion is known of him, and the thunder of his
power who can understand?" It is a mighty conception
that we form of a power from which all other power is de-
rived, and to which it is subordinate ; which nothinc' cr.n
oppose J which can beat do-mi and annihilate all other
power whatever ; which operates in the most perfect ma,i-
ALM
[66 1
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ner, at once, in an instant, with the utmost ease ; but the
Scriptures lead us to the contemplation of greater and
even unfathomable depths. The omnipotence of God is
inconceivable and boundless. It arises from the infinite
perfection of God, that his power can never be actually
exhausted ; and, in every imaginable instant in eternity,
that inexhaustible power of God can, if it please him, be
adding either more creatures to those in existence, or
greater perfection to them ; since " it belongs to self-exist-
ent Being, to be always full and communicative, and, to
the communicated contingent being, to be ever empty and
craving."
7. One limitation of the divine power it is true we can
conceive, but it detracts nothing from its perfection. Where
things in themselves imply a contradiction, as that a body
may be extended and not extended, in a certain place and
not in it, at the same lime ; such things cannot be done by
God, because contradictions are impossible in their own
nattire. Ntir is it any derogation from the divine power to
say, they cannot be done ; for as the object of the under-
standing, of the eye, and the ear, is that which is intelli-
gible, visible, and audible ; so the object of power must
•be that which is possible ; and as it is no prejudice to the
most perfect understanding, or sight, or hearing, that it
dees not understand what is not intelligible, or see what is
not visible, or hear what is not audible; so neither is it
any diminution to the most perfect power, that it does not
do what is not possible. In like manner, God cannot do
any thing that is repugnant to his other perfections : he
cannot lie, nor deceive, nor deny himself; for this
would be injurious to his truth. He cannot love sin, nor
punish innocence ; for this would destroy his holiness and
goodness : and therefore to ascribe a power to him that is
inconsistent with the rectitude of his nature, is not to
magnify but debase him ; for all unrighteousness is weak-
ness, a defection from right reason, a deviation from the
perfect rule of action, and arises from a want of goodness
and power. In a word, since all the attributes of God are
essentially the same, a power in him which tends to de-
stroy any other attribute of the divine nature, must be a
power destructive of itself. "Well, therefore, may we con-
clude him absolutely omnipotent, who, by being able to
effect all things consistent with his perfections, showeth in-
finite ability, and by not being able to do any thing repug-
nant to the same perfections, demonstrates himself stibject
to no infirmity.
8. Nothing certainly in the finest writings of antiquity,
■were all their best thoughts collected as to the majesty arid
power of God, can bear any comparison with the views
thus presented to us by divine revelation . Were we to
forget, for a moment, what is the fact, that their no-
blest notions stand connected with fancies and vain
speculations which deprive them of their force, still their
thoughts never rise so high ; the current is broken, the
round of lofty conception is not completed, and, uncon-
nected as their views of divine power were with the eter-
nal destiny of man, and the very reason of creation, we
never hear in them, as in the Scriptures, "the thumder
of his power." — Watson ; Dwiglit's Theology, Ser. vii.
ALMOND TREE ; a tree resembling the peach tree in its
1 'aves and blossoms, but the fruit is longer and more com-
pressed, the outer green coat is thinner and drier when
ripe, and the shell of the stone is not so rugged. This
stone, or nut, contains a kernel, which is the only esculent
part. The whole arrives at maturity in September, when
the outer tough cover spUts open and discharges the nut.
From the circumstance of its blossoming the earliest of
any of the trees, beginning as soon as the rigor of winter
is past, and before it is in leaf, it has its Hebrew name
shakad, which comes from a verb signif3ing to make haste,
to he in a hurry, or to awake early. To the forwardness of
the almond tree there seems to be a reference in Jeremiah :
" The word of the Lord cjme unto me, saying, Jeremiah,
what seest thou ? And I said, I see a rod of an almond
tree. Then said the Lord unto me. Thou hast well seen :
for I will hasten my word to perform it ;" or, rather, "I
am hastening, or watching over my word to fulfil it."
Jer. i. 11, 12. In this manner it is rendered by the Se-
venty ; and by the Vulgate, Vigilabo ego super verbum jneum.
This is the first vision with which the prophet was ho-
nored ; and his attention is roused by a very significant
emblem of that severe correction with which the Most
High was hastening to visit his people for their iniquity ;
and from the species of tree to which tlie rod belonged, he
is warned of its near approach. The idea which the ap-
pearance of the almond rod suggested to his mind, is con-
firmed by tlie exposition of God himself : " I am watching
over, or on account of, my word to fulfil it ;" and this
double moile of instruction, first by emblem, and then by
exposition, was certainly intended to make a deeper im-
pression on the mind both of Jeremiah and of the people
to whom he was sent.
It is probable that the rods which the princes of Israel
bore, were scions of the almond tree, at once the ensign
of their office, and the emblem of their vigilance. Such,
we know, from the testimony of Scripture, was the rod of
Aaron ; which renders it exceedingly probable, that the
rods of the other chiefs were from the same tree.
The hoary head is beautifully compared by Solomon to
the almond tree, covered in the earliest days of spring
with its snow-white flowers, before a single leaf has buil-
ded : " The almond tree shall flourish, and the grasshopper
shall be a burden, and desire shall fail." Eccl. 12; 5. Man
has existed in this world but a few days, when old age
begins to appear, sheds its snows upon his head, prema-
turely nips his hopes, darkens his earthly prospects, and
hurries him into the grave. — Watson.
ALMONER; one who is employed in the distribution
of charities. This seems to have been an important
branch of the office of deacons in the Christian church.
Acts 6. We find Barnabas and Paul however employed
in a similar service. Acts 11: 29—36. Gal. 2: 10. 2 Cor.
8: 4. It is an office of the faithful execution of which, while
it demands much discretion, and in some circumstances
great self-denial, is yet peculiarly acceptable to God, ho-
norable and delightful. The Scriptures frequently enjoin
and encourage labors of this sort. Ps. 41: 1. Matt. 19:
21. 25:31 — 16. Acts 20: 33— 35. Rom. 12: 13. James 1 :
27. 1 Pet. 4: 10. 3 John 5.
ALMOST ; in a great measure ; next to entirely ; the
opposite of flftoijf^ftcc. Acts 26: 28. One is almost persuad-
ed to he a Christian, when his knowledge of the Gospel, evi-
dence of its truth, conviction of its importance, and ad-
miration of its pure and elevated character, are such as
only to be resisted and overborne by worldly desires and
considerations, carried to a criminal excess. Such was
the case of Agrippa. (See Agkipfa, 2.) The reply of
Paul is the most perfect and beautiful thing of the kmd
that ever was conceived. It is a master-piece to be studied
by the human race.
It will be well for all (and there are vast multitudes) in
the critical circumstances of Agrippa, to remember the
suggestion of the poet,
TIiou yet may'st find — loo late — and to Illy ^os*. —
That to be almost saved, is ichotly to he lost .'
ALMS ; what is given gratuitously for the rehef of the
poor, and in repairing the churches. That alms-giving is
a duty, is every way evident from the variety of passages
which enjoin it in the Sacred Scriptures. It is observable,
however, what a number of excuses are made by those
who are not found in the exercise of the duty : 1. That
they have nothing to spare ; 2. That charity begins at
home ; 3. That charity does not consist in gLvir-s money,
but in benevolence, love to all mankind, 6cc. ; 4. That giv-
ing to the poor is not mentioned in St. Paul's description
of charity, 1 Cor. 13: 5 ; 5. That they pay the poor rates ;
6. That they employ many poor persons ; 7. That the
poor do not suffer so much as we imagine ; 8. That these
people, give them what you %vill, will never be thankful ;
9. That we are liable to be imposed upon ; 10. That they
should apply to their parishes ; 11. That giving money
encourages idleness ; 12. That we have too many objects
of charity at home. O the love of money, how fruitful is
it in apologies for a contracted, mercenary spirit ! In giving
of alms, however, the following rides should be observed :
1. That they should be given with justice ; only our
own, to which we have a just right, should be given.—
2. With cheerfulness. Deut. 15: 10. 2 Cor. 9: 7.-3. With
simplicity and sincerity. Rom. 12. Matt. 6: 3. — 4. AVith com-
passion and affection. Isa. 58: 10. 1 John 3: 17. — 5. Seasona-
i
ALO
[67
ALP
My. Gal. 6: 10. Prov. 4: 27.-6. Bountifvlly . Deut. 18: 11.
1 Tim. 6: 18. — 7. Prudentli/, according to every one's
need. 1 Tim. 5; 8. Acts 4: 35. See Dr. Barrow's admira-
ble Sermon on Bountij to the Poor, which took up three hours
and a half in preaching ; Saurin's Ser. vol. iv. Eng. Trans.
ser. 9. Foley's Mor. Phil. ch. 5. vol. i. (See Almonek.) —
Slide's Theol. Diet.
ALMUG TREE ; a certain kind of wood mentioned 1
Kings 10: 11. 2 Chron. 2: 8. 9: 10, 11. Jerome and the
Vulgate render it ligna thyina, and the Septuagint, wrought
n-ood.* Several critics understand it to mean gummy mood ;
but a wood abounding in resin i;iust be very unfit for the
uses to which this is said to be applied. Celsus queries if
it be not the sandal ; but Michaelis thinks the particular
.species of wood to be wholly unknown to us. Dr. Shaw
supposes that the alraug tree was the cypress ; and he ob-
serves that the wood of this tree is still used in Italy and
other places for vioUns, harpsichords, and other stringed
instruments. — Watson.
ALOES, nloa ; an extensive tribe of plants, the princi-
pal species amounting to nine in number : they differ
much in size. A very bitter gum is extracted from it, used
for medicinal purposes, and anciently for embalming dead
bodies. Nicoderaus is said, John 19: 39. to have brought
one hundred pounds weight of myrrh and aloes to embalm
the body of Jesus. The quantity has been exclaimed
against by certain Jews, as being enough for fil'ty bodies.
But instead of hekaton, it might originally have been writ-
ten dekaton, ten pounds weight. However, at the funeral
of Herod there were five hundred spice-bearers ; and at
that of K. Gamaliel, eighty pounds of opobalsamum were
used.
The wood which God showed Moses, thai with it he
might sweeten the waters of Marah, is called alvah. E.xod.
15: 25. The word has some relation to aloe ; and some
interpreters are of opinion that Moses used a bitter sort of
wood, that so the power of God might be the more re-
markable. Mr. Bruce mentions a town, or large village,
by the name of Elvah. It is thickly planted with trees ;
is the oasis parva of the ancients ; and the last inhabited
place to the west that is under the jurisdiction of Egypt.
He also observes that the Arabs call a shrub or tree, not
unlike our hawthorn, either in wood or flower, by the name
of elvah. " It was this," say they, *' with which Moses
sweetened the waters of INIarah; and with this, too, did
Kalib Ibn el Walid sweeten those of Elvah, once bitter,
and give the place the name of this circumstance." It
may be that God directed Moses to the very wood proper
for the purpose. M. Niebuhr, when in these parts, inquir-
ed after wood capable of this effect, but could gain no in-
formatioH of any such. It wiU not, however, from hence
follow that Moses really used a bitter wood ; but, as Pro-
vidence usually works by the proper and fit means to ac-
complish its ends, it seems likely that the wood he made
use of was, in some degree at least, corrective of that
quality which. abounded in the water, and so rendered it
potable. This seems to have been the opinion of the au-
thor of Ecclesiaslicus, 38: 5. That other water, also, re-
quires some correction, and that such a correction is ap-
Ijlied to it, appears from the custom in Egypt in respect to
that of the IVile, which, though somewhat muddy, is ren-
dered pure and salutary by being put into jars, the inside
of which is rubbed with a paste made of bitter almonds.
The first discoverers of the Floridas are said to have cor-
rected the stagnant and fetid water they found there, by
infusing in it branches of sassafras ; and it is understood
that the first inducements of the Chinese to the general use
of tea, was to correct the water of their ponds and rivers.
The Lign-Aloe, or agallochum. Numb. 24: 6. Ps. 45:
9. andCantic. 4: 14. is a .small tree about eight or ten feet
high. That the flower of this plant yielded a fragrance,
is assured to us in the following extract from Swinburne's
Travels, Letter xii. " This morning, like many of the
foregoing ones, was delicious. The sun rose gloriously
out of the sea, and all the air around was perfumed with
the effluvia of the aloe, as its rays sucked up the dew
from the leaves." This extremely bitter plant contains
• Josephus says it was a ptculiarly beautiful species of pine. The
Rajbins call it coral ; perhaps from the texture and color of the wood
reseinbUiig that article.
under the bark three sorts of wood. The first is black,
solid, and weighty ; the second is of a tawny color, of a
light spongy texture, very porous, and filled with a resin
extremely fragrant and agreeable ; the third kind of wood,
which is the heart, has a strong aromatic odor, and is
esteemed in the East more precious than gold itself. It is
used for perfuming habits and apartments, and is admi-
nistered as a cordial in fainting and epileptic fits. These
pieces, called calunbac, are carefully preserved in pewter
boxes, to prevent their drying. When they are used, they
are ground upon a marble with such hquids as are best
suited to the purpose for which they are intended. Tliis
wood, mentioned Cantic. 4: 14. in conjunction with several
other odoriferous plants there referred to, was in high es-
teem among the Hebrews for its exquisite exhalations.
The scented aloe, and each shrub that showers
Gum from its veins, and odors from its flowers.
Thus the son of Sirach, Ecclesiaslicus 24; 15. " I gave a
sweet smell like the cinnamon and aspalathus. I yielcK'l
a pleasant odor like the best myrrh ; like galbanum aiil
onyx, and fragrant storax, and like the fume of frankin-
cense in the tabernacle." It may not be amiss to observe
that the Persian translator renders ahalim, sandal-wooi! ;
and the same was the opinion of a certain Jew in Arabia
who was consulted by Niebuhr. — Watson.
ALOGIANS, (from a neg. and logos ,-) persons who, ac-
cording to Epiphanius, rejected the (jospel of John and
the Revelation, which speak of Christ as the Logos, and
ascribed them to Cerinlhus. Dr. Lardner, however, is
confident, that (though there miglit be individuals) there
never was a sect which received the other books of the
New Testament, and rejected these ; nor are they men-
tioned by any writers pretending to be contemporary. He
thinks this heresy was invented during the Mlllenarian
controversy. Some Millenarians ascribed the Apocalypse
to Cerinthus. Some of the orthodox said, they might as
well ascribe the Gospel to Cerinthus — others said they did
so ; and thus was hatched the mendacium theologicum — the
theological falsehood. Others, however, tell us, that the
sect was founded by Artemon, in the second century, and
supported by Beryllus. — Lardner s Heretics, 446 ; Turner's
Hist. p. 73. — Williams.
ALPHA; the first letter of the Greek alphabet. Omega
being the last letter. Hence the lofty title which our Lord
appropriates to himself, (Rev. 1: 8. 21: 6.22: 13.) as signi-
ficant of his eternity and perfection. (See A., and Aleph.)
ALPHAGE ; archbishop of Canterbuiy, an illustrious
English martyr of the eleventh century. He was de-
scended from a noble family, and his parents, who were
worthy Christians, and had given him an excellent educa-
tion, had the happiness to see hira become both the admir-
ed scholar and the devout Christian. He was distinguish-
ed for purity, humility, prudence, and piety. He strove to
make the arts useful to the purposes of life, and to render
philosophy subservient to the cause of religion. But being
in some degree infected with the mistaken views of the
age, he renounced his fortune and his home, and took the
habit in the monastery of the Benedictines, that there he
might at his leisure contemplate those divine perfections
which he loved. Not satisfied however with this retire-
ment, he afterwards shut himself up in a lonely cell at
Bath. Here he remained, until the see of Winchester
being vacated by the death of Ethelwold, and a dispute
arising about a successor, Dunstan, archbishop of Can-
terburj', as primate of all England, was obliged to inter-
pose ; and, much to the satisfaction of all concerned, call-
ed Alphage to the vacant bishopric. The conduct of
Alphage justified the hopes that were formed of him. Un
der his care piety flourished, unity was restored, and the
church of Winchester recovered its lustre in such a man
ner as made the bishop the admiration of the whole king
dom. In 1006 he was elevated to the vacant see of Can-
terbury, according to the dying prayer of Dunstan, eigh-
teen years before, that Alphage might be his successor.
Afier he had governed this metropolitan see forty years
with growing reputation and success, the Danes made an
incursion into England ; and while Alphage, now vene-
rable with years, animated with holy courage was employ-
ed in assisting and encouraging his people, Canterbury
was taken by storm. The venerable prelate ofl'ered his
ALT
[68 J
ALT
own bosom to the swords of the furious enemy ; beseech-
ing them to make him the sacrifice, and to spare his peo-
ple. But in vain. He was compelled to witness the hor-
rible massacre even to decimation, of his people, every tenth
person only being left aUve ; while he himself bound, in-
sulted, and abused, was thrown into a gloomy dungeon.
After several months' close confinement, the barbarous
Danes put him to severe torment to oblige him to discover
the treasure of his church ; assuring him, if he would dis-
cover it, of his restoration to life and liberty. But Alphage,
regarding the treasure of the church as sacred to the poor,
remained inflexible, and only exhorted his enemies to for-
sake their idolatry and embrace the Gospel. The incensed
soldiers dragged him out of the camp in a transport of
rage, and began to beat him without mercy ; a treatment
which the meek prelate endured patiently, at the same
lime praying for his persecutors ; until one soldier, who
had been converted and baptized by him into the Chris-
tian faith, knowing that his death was determined on, and
fired with indignant horror at the sight of his protracted
i/iiflerings, with a blow from his sword put the finishing
stroke to his martyrdom. This transaction happened
April 19, A. D. 1012, on the very spot where the church
at Greenwich, dedicated to him, now stands. — Fox.
ALSTEDIUS, (John Henry, S. T. D. ;) a German
divine, was born in 1558, at Hesborn, in Nassau, was pro-
fessor of philosophy and theology in his native town, and
subsequently at Weissemberg, in Transylvania. He died
at the latter place in 1638. Among his numerous works
may be mentioned, a treatise on the Millenium ; an Ency-
clopedia ; and a Biblical Encyclopedia, in which he at-
tempts to prove, that the principles and materials of all
the arts and sciences should be sought for in the Scriptures.
Alstedius was such an indefatigable writer, that his name
was anagrammatized into seditliras (activity,) by some of
the word distorters of that age. — Davenport.
ALTAR ; the place on which sacrifices were offered.
Sacrifices are nearly as ancient as worship ; and altars
are of nearly equal antiquity. Scripture speaks of altars,
erected by the patriarchs, without describing their form,
IT the materials of which they were composed. The altar
which Jacob set i\p at Bethel, was the stone which had
served him for a pillow ; and Gideon sacrificed on the
rock before his house. The first altars which God com-
manded Moses to raise, were of earth or rough stones :
and the Lord declared, that if iron were used in construct-
ing them, they would become impure. Exod. 20: 24, 25.
The altar which Moses enjoined Joshua to build on mount
Ebal, was to be of unpolished stones, ('Deut. 27: 5. Josh.
8. 31.) and it is veiy probable, that such were those built
by Samuel, Saul, and David. The altar which Solomon
erected in the temple, was of brass, but filled, it is believ-
ed, with rough stones. 2 Chron. 4: 1, 2, 3. That built at
Jerusalem, by Zerubbabel, after the return from Babylon,
was of rough stones, as was that of the Maccabees. Jo-
sephus says, that the altar which was in his time in the
temple, was of rough stones, fifteen cubits high, forty
long, and forty wide. In the patriarchal times, altars
were generally built near a grove of trees ; and as idolatry
prevailed in the world, and men, forsaking the worship of
the true God, multiplied their deities in profusion, it be-
came an universal practice among the heathen to erect
their altars in such places as were calculated to inspire
with religious dread, the mind of the deluded worshippers ;
particularly in groves, woods, and mountains. Judges 6:
23. and 2 Kings 21: 3. But when the abuses which this
custom gave rise to, became flagrant, and impure and
lascivious rites were founded upon it, the Jews were ex-
pressly forbidden to plant groves, or so much as a single
tree near the altar of Jehovah. Deut. 16: 21. The divine
precept in relation to altars, as delivered by Moses to the
Jews, is in Exod. 20: 24.
Among the ancient Egj^ptian pictures that have been
discovered at Herculaneum, are two of a very curious de-
scription, representing sacred ceremonies of the Egyp-
tians, probably in honor of Isis. Upon these subjects Mr.
Taylor has bestowed a good deal of labor, and the result
throws some light upon more than one obscure passage
<rf Scripture, particulariy Prov. 26: 21. Ps. 84: 3. 118: 27.
Among the Romans, altars were of two kinds, the higher
and the lower ; the higher were intended for the celestial
gods, and were called altaria, from alius : the lower were
for the terrestrial and infernal gods, and were called ara:.
Those dedicated to the heavenly gods were raised a great
height above the surface of the earth : those of the terres-
trial gods were almost even with the surface ; and those
for the infernal deities were only holes dug in the ground,
called SerobicaK.
Before temples were in use, the altars were placed in
the groves, highways, or on the tops of mountains, inscrib-
ed with the names, ensigns, or characters of the respective
gods to whom they belonged. The great temples at Rome
generally contained three altars ; the first in the sanctuary,
at the foot of the statue, for incense and libations ; the
second before the gate of the temple, for the sacrifice of
victims ; and the third was a portable one for the offerings
and sacred vestments or vessels to lie upon. The an-
cients used to swear upon the altars upon solemn occa-
sions, such as confirming alliances, treaties of peace, &c.
They were also places of refuge, and served as an asylum
and sanctuary to all who fled to them, whatever their
crimes were.
The principal altars of the Jews, were that of burnt-
offering and that of incense. The former, the altak or
BUKNT-oFFERiNG, which Moses Commanded to be built for
the use of the tabernacle in the wilderness, was a kind of
chest or coffer of shittira-wood, covered with plates of
brass. It was two yards and a half square,' and a yard
and a half high. Exod. 27: 1 — 3. Moses placed it to the
east, before the entrance of the tabernacle, in the open air ;
that the fire, which first descended upon it from heaven.
Lev. 9: 24. and which, therefore, was considered to be
sacred, and kept perpetually burning upon it, might no4
soil the inside of the tabernacle. At each of the foul
corners of this altar, there was a spire, resembling a horn,
wrought out of the same piece of wood as the altar itself,
and covered with brass. Within the altar was a grate of
brass, on which the fire was made, and through the grating
the ashes fell in proportion as they increased upon the
altar, and were received below in a pan which was placed
under it. At tlie foiu' comers of tliis grate were four
^^^^^^^'i^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
i|i[ll!iiiilli'
THE BRAZEN ALTAR FOR BURNT OFFERINGS.-Exod. xxvii. 1- 8 : Levit. 1. 1-9.
THE ARK AND MEDCY SEAT.-Exod. MV. 10-22
ALT
f 69 ]
ALT
rings fastened to four chains, which kept it suspended from
the four horns of the altar. This altar was portable, and
was carried on llie shoulders of the priests by staves of
sliittim-wQod covered with brass, and made to pass through
rings which were affixed to the sides of the altar. When
Solomon built the temple in Jerusalem, the altar which he
caused to be erected was of much larger dimensions ; it
was twenty cubits long, twenty wide, and ten in height.
2 Chron. 4: 1 — 3. It was covered with thick plates of
brass, and tilled with rough stones, having on the east side
an easy ascent leading up to it.
After the return of the Jews from the Babylonish cap-
tivity, and the building of the second temple by Zerubba-
bel, their altars differed a little from those in use before
the captivity. Trideaux remarks, that from this time the
altar of burnt-olTerings was a large pile built all of un-
hewn stones, thirty -two cubits square at the bottom, and
twenty-four at the top : the ascent was by a gentle rising,
thirty-two cubits in length and sixteen in breadth.
The altar of incense, was a small table of shittim-
wood, covered with plates of pure gold, one cubit square
and two high. Exod.30. 1 — 10. At each of the four comers
of it there was a horn ; around it was a small border, and
over it a oroix-n of gold. E verj- morning and evening, the
officiating priest offered incense of a particular composi-
tion upon the altar, to perform which he entered with the
smolving censer filled with fire from the burnt-ofiTcrings,
into the sanctuary or holy place, in which this altar was
placed facing the table of shew-bread. "WTien the priest
had placed the censer on it, he retired out of the sanctuarj-.
This altar was also to be sprinkled -n-ith the blood of the
sacrifices that were offered for the sins of ignorance com-
mitted either by priests or people. Exod. 30: 10. Lev. 4:
3—7.
Ar.TAR, is employed by a figure of speech, for the sacrifice
or offering itself. " Whoso therefore shall swear by the altar,
sweareth by it, and by all things thereon." Matt. 23: 20.
Hence, in a typical sense, it occasionally signifies Christ,
the sacrifice of atonement, " the Lamb of God, which tak-
eth away the sin of the world." " We have an altar where-
of they have no right to eat which serve the tabernacle.
.For the bodies of those beasts whose blood is brought
into the sanctuaiy by the high priest, for sin, are burn-
ed without the camp. AVherefore Jesus also, that he
might sanctify the people with his own blood, suffered
without the gate. Let us go forth therefore unto him
without the camp, bearing his reproach. For here have
we no continuing city, but we seek one to come. By him
therefore let us offer the sacrifice of praise to God con-
tinually, that is, the fruit of our lips, giving thanks to his
name." Heb. 13: 10 — 15. There were two altars employ-
ed in the service of the Jewish temple ; one, without, the
altar of burnt-offering, upon which the offerings of atone-
ment were made for the people ; the other, within the tem-
ple, upon which the incense was offered. In both of these,
the typical signification is the same, for it is through
Christ cmcified alone — himself the altar — himself the sa-
crifice— that we can approach to the Father; and it is
through him only that we can plead his merits, and offer
up praises and thanksgi\'ing before God. " And another
angel came and stood at the altar, having a golden censer ;
and there was given unto him much incense, that he should
jffer it with the prayers of all saints upon the golden altar
which was before the throne." Rev. S: 3. And as in the
temple worship, the sacrifice of atonement must first be
made before the incense could be offered, so likewise in
the services of God's spiritual temple, the atoning influ-
ence of Christ's sacrifice must be received inio the heart
by faith before any oflferings of the believer can be accep-
table to him. In a bad sense, tlie type applies to idol sa-
crifices, and the mediatorial object of idol worship. "Be-
hold Israel after the flesh : are not they which eat of the
sacrifices partakers of the altar ? What say I then, that
the idol is any thing, or that which is offered in sacrifice
to idols, is any thing ? But I say that the things that the
Gentiles sacrifice, they sacrifice to devils and not to God :
and I would not that ye should have fellowship with devils
Ye cannot drink the cup of the Lord and the cup of
devils ; ye cannot be partakers of the Lord's table, and cf
the t^ble of devils." 1 Cor. 10; 18—21.
The first Christians acknowledged no tempA: i/iade with
hands, no material altar, no mortal priest, no ca.Tal .sacri-
fice ; they considered that an end was put to all these
things by the death of Christ ; and to have continued the
use of them would have been to deny, by their actions,
what, in words, they professed to believe ; — that God had
now fulfilled the mercy promised uuto their fathers by the
prophets ; that he had visited and redeemed his people ;
that Messiah had been cut off for the sins of others ; and
that he had, by his death, '-finished transgression, made
an end of sin-offenngs, made reconciliation for iniquit)',
and brought in everlasting righteousness." Ps. 40: 6 — 8.
Isa. 53: 4—12. Dan. 9: 24. 25. S'we the days of the
apostles, indeed, the use of altars has been resumed in
places professedly appropriated to the puqxjses of Chris-
tian worship ; but this did not take place until Christianity
became corrupted from its original simplicity, and men,
forsaking the form of sound words, began" to mingle their
own inventions with the doctrjiies and precepts of the
apostles. When their minds once became darkened as to
the nature and import of the memorial of the Lord's
death, and they began to consider it in the light of a sa-
crifice, the necessity of altars on which to offer them, as
well as that of officiating priests, followed of necessary
consequence ; and hence the revival of these shadows in
all national churches. But these things belong to the cor-
ruptions of Christianitj', and are easily understood by such
as have " an ear to hear what the Spirit saith unto the
churches." (See the article Antichrist.) — Calmct ; Wat-
son ; Sherwood ; Jones.
ALTAR AT Athens, inscribed " to the unhtowit God."
Acts 17: 22, 23. The following is Dr. Doddridge's note on
the passage : — " The express testimony of Lucian suffi-
ciently proves that there was such an inscription at
Athens ; and shows how unnecessarj' as well as unwar-
rantable it was in Jerome to suppose, that the apostle,
to serve his o-mi purpose, gives this turn to an inscription,
which bore on its front a plurality of deities. TiVTience
this important phenomenon arose, or to what it particu-
larly referred, it is more difficult to saj^ Witsius, vrith
Heinsius, understands it of Jehovah, whose name, not be-
ing pronounced by the Jews themselves, might give occ.i-
sion to this appellation ; and to this sense Sir. Biscce in-
clines. Dr. Wellwood supposes that Socrates leared this
altar, to express his devotion to the one uving md true
God, of whom the Atlienians had no notion; and whose
incomprehensible being he insinuated, by this inscription,
to be far beyond the reach of their understanding, or his
own. And in this I should joyfully acquiesce, could 1
find one ancient testimony in confirmation of the fact.
As it is, to omit other conjectures, I must give the prefe-
rence to that which Beza and Dr. Hammond have mention-
ed, and which Mr. Hallet has labored at large to confiiTU
and illustrate ; though I think none of these learned wri-
ters has set it in its most natural and advantageous light.
Diogenes Laertius, in his life of Epimenides, assures us,
that in the time of that philosopher (about six hundred
years before Christ) there was a terrible pestilence at
Athens ; in order to avert which, ^hen none of the deities to
whom they sacrificed appeared able or willing to help them,
Epimenides advised them to bring some sheep to the Areo-
pagus, and letting them loose from thence, to follow them
i
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till they lay down, and then to sacrifice them to the god
neir whose temple or altar they then were. Now it seems
prohable, that Athens, not being then so full of these monu-
ments of superstition as aftenvards, these sheep lay down
in places where none of them were near ; and so occa-
sioned the rearing w'lat the historians call anonynwus altars,
or altars, each of which had the inscription, to the ■un-
known God ; meaning, thereby, the deity who had sent the
plague, whoever he were ; one of which altars, at least,
however it might have been repaired, remained till Paul's
time, and long after. Now, as the God whom Paul preach-
ed as Lord of all, was indeed the Deity who sent and re-
moved this pestilence, the apostle might, with great pro-
priety, tell the Athenians, he declared to them him whom,
without knowing him, they worshipped ; as I think the
concluding words of the twenty-third verse may most fairly
be rendered."
Dr. Lardner has an article on this subject, which may
be consulted with advantage ; it is in the quarto edition,
vol. iv. p. 174. — Calmel ; Taylor.
ALTING, (Henry, D. D. ;) professor of theology at
Heidelberg and at Groningen, was born 1583 at Embden,
of a very ancient and honorable family. His parents were
both pious. He made such proficiency in his studies un-
der the famous Piscator and others, that, at the age of
twenty-two, he was allowed to teach philosophy and di-
vinity. In 1605 he was chosen preceptor to the three
young counts of Nassau, Solmes, and Issenberg, together
with the electoral Prince Palatine. In 1612, being appoint-
ed to attend the young elector into England, he there be-
came acquainted with archbishop Abbot, Dr. King and Dr.
Hackwell, and was introduced also to King James.
The marriage between the elector and the princess of
England, having been solemnized at London, Feb. 1613,
Alting returned home, and in the following August was
chosen professor of theology at Heidelberg. In 1618, he
obtained the second professorship for Scultetus.
Being sent with two other deputies to the synod of
Dort, he greatly distingaiished himself there by his learn-
ing. In 1622, count Tilli took Heidelberg by storm, and
allowed his soldiers to commit all manner of devastations.
Alting had an almost miraculous escape ; for being met
by a soldier, he was stopped by him in this manner : ■' I
have killed with these hands ten men to-day ; and doctor
Alting should make the eleventh, if I could find him : who
are you?" The doctor replied, "a schoolmaster at tli'' rxiUe-
gium sapienticE." The soldier did not understand this, and
so let him escape. In 1623, the king of Bohemia employ-
ed him at the Hague to instruct his eldest son ; and would
not consent to his becoming minister of Embden, or pro-
fessor at the university of Francker, situations which
were offered him. In 1627, however, he gave him leave
to accept of a professorship of theology at Groningen ;
where, though repeatedly called to other place.s, he con-
tinued until his death.
In 1639, he lost his eldest daughter, and in 1643, his
wife ; domestic afflictions which gave severe shocks to his
health. In his last sickness, being visited by the excellent
Dr. Maresius, Alting congratulated him as his designed
successor ; adding, " It much rejoices me that I shall leave
t.^ ".he church and university, one who is studious of peace,
orthodox in judgment, and averse to novelties."
The day before his death, he sang the 130th Psalm with
a great sense of God's presence and love, and passed the
rest of his time in meditation and prayer. In the evening
he blessed his children ; and the next morning, finding
within himself that his departure was at hand, he told
those about him that before sunset he should depart, and
be -nilh the Lord. Grounding his faith on the blood and
righteousness of Jesus Christ, with the promises of his
Gospel ; strengthened and comforted by the gracious in-
fluence of the Holy Ghost, he waited for death without
fear; bade the namerous circle of learned and pious rela-
tives and friends around him farewell ; and expressed his
readiness and desire to be dissolved, and to be with his
Master in Heaven. Thus peacefully did this good man
depart, Aug. 25, 1644.
He was, says Middleton, a man of great worth, distin-
guished alike for his learning, diligence, public spirit, and
benevolence to mankind. Among other important com-
missions in which he was employed, one was the revisal
of the New Dutch translation of the Bible at Leyden ; and
another to be sole general inspector of the county of
Steinfurt, to set in order the churches, which had been
threatened with an invasion of Socinianism. Alting,
though attached to orthodoxy, was no quarrelsome divine,
and wasted no time on insignificant matters ; though
zealous for ancient doctrine, he was an enemy to the
subtilties of the schools ; and though not fond of novelty,
adhered closely to the instructions of the word of God.
His works, with the exception of his Theologia Historica,
1664, were published together in three volumes, with the
title, Scripta Thcologica Heidelbergensia. — Middleton.
ALWAYS; continually. Dent. 5 : 29. ; habitually. Acts
10 : 2. ; through life, 2 Sam. 5 : 10. ; to the end of this
world, Mark 14 : 7. ; forever. Job 7 : 16. In Mat. 28 : 20.
the hteral rendering is " And mark, I am with you all
the days, until the conclusion of the world."
ABI : I AM THAT I AM ; One of the distinguishing
names and characters of Jehovah. (Exod. 3 : 14.) This
solemn name demands our greater reverence and venera-
tion, because it is the very name by which the Lord was
pleased to reveal himself to Moses at the bush. The very
expression carries with it its own explanation ; that is, as
far as creatures, such as we are, can enter into an appre-
hension of the meaning When Jehovah sailh, I AM
THAT I AM, it is setting forth a right and power of exis-
tence, exclusive of every other. Of all others, some have
been, some now are, and others may be ; all are what they
are from Him, and by his appointment. But He that is I
AM, is, and must be, always and eternally the same.
His is a self-existence, underived, independent, subject to
no change, and impossible to be any other ; " the same yes-
terday, and to-day, and forever." Heb. 13: 8. Kev. 1; 8.
And what tends yet more to endear it to the heart of his
people is, that the glorious name becomes the security of
all his promises. I AM, gives certainty to all he hath
said, and becomes a most sure security for the fulfilment
of all that he hath promised. Oh ! for grace to bend
with the lowest humbleness to the dust, in token of our
nothingness before this great and almighty I AM. And
no less to rest in holy faith and hope, in the most perfect
confidence, that he will perform all his promises. — (See Je-
hovah.)
AMALEKITES ; a people whose country adjoined the
southern border of the land of Canaan, in the north-west-
ern part of Arabia Petraea. They are generally supposed
to have been the descendants of Amalek, the son of Eli-
phaz, and grandson of Esau. But Moses speaks of the
Amalekites long before this Amalek was born ; namely, in
the days of Abraham, when Chedorlaomer, king of Elam,
devastated their country, Gen. 14 : 7. ; from which it may
be inferred that there was some other and more ancient
Amalek, from whom this people sprang. The Arabians
have a tradition that this Amalek was a son of Ham ; and
when we consider that so early as the march from Egypt, the
Amalekites were a people powerful enough to attack the
Israelites, it is far more probable that they should derive
their ancestry from Ham, than from the then recent stock of
the grandson of Esau. It may also be said that the charac-
ter and ^a*.e of this people were more consonant with the
deaUngf' cf Providence towards the families of the former.
This more early origin of the Amalekites will likewise ex-
plain why Balaam called thum the " first of the nations."
They are s'lpposed by sc me to have been a party or
tribe of the shepherds whn invaued Egypt, and kept it in
subjection for two hundred j jars. This will agree with
the Arabian tradition as to their descent. It also agrees
with their pastoral and martial habits, as well as with their
geographical position ; which was j.e'-haps made choice of
on their retiring from Egypt, adjolimg that of their coun-
trymen the Philistines, whose histoi'.' is very similar. It
also furnishes a motive for their ho'iiUiy to the Tev/s, and
their treacherous attempt to- destroy t'^em in the desert.
The ground of this hostiUty has been \er,' generally, sup-
posed to have been founded in the remembrance of Jacob's
depriving their progenitor of his birthright. But we do
not find that the Edomites, who had this ground for a ha-
tred to the Jews, made any attempt to molest them, nor
that Moses ever reproaches the Amalekites for attacking
AM A
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the Israelites as their brethren ; nor do we ever find in
Scripture that the Amalekites joined with the Edomites, but
always with tlir Ciinaanites and the Philistines. These con-
siderations would be sufficient, had we no other reasons,
for believing; them not to be of the stock of Esau. They
may, however, be deduced from a higher origin ; and
viewing them as Cuthite shepherds and warriors, we have
an adequate e.tplanation both of their imperious and war-
like character, and of the motive of their hostility to the
Jews in particular. If expelled with the rest of their race
from Egypt, they could not but recollect the fatal over-
throw at the Red sea ; and if not participators in th.il
catastrophe, still, as members of the same family, they
must bear this event in remembrance \vith bitter feelings
of revenge. But an additional motive is not wanting for
this hostility, especially for its first act. The Amalekites
probably knew that the Israelites were advancing to take
possession of the land of Canaan, and resolved to frustrate
the purposes of God in this respect. Hence they did not
wait for their near approach to that country, but came
down from, their settlements, on its southern borders, to
attack them unawares at Rephidim. Be this as it may,
the Amalekites came on the Israelites, when encamped at
that place, little expecting such an assault. Moses com-
manded Joshua, with a chosen band, to attack the Amale-
kites ; while hej with Aaron and Hur, went up the moun-
tain Horeb. During the engagement, IMoses held up his
hands to heaven ; and so long as they were maintained in
this attitude, the Israelites prevailed, but when through
weariness they fell, the Amalekites prevailed. Aaron and
Hur, seeing this, held up his hands till the latter were en-
tirely defeated \rith great slaughter. Exod. 17.
The Amalekites were indeed the earliest and the most bit-
ter enemies the Jews had to encounter. They attacked them
in the desert ; and sought every opportunity afterwards of
molesting them. Under the Judges, the Amalekites, in
conjunction with the Midianites, invaded the land of Is-
rael; when they were defeated by Gideon. Judges 6: 7.
But God, for their first act of treachery, had declared that
he would " utterly put out the remembrance of Amalek
from under heaven ;" a denunciation which was not long
after accomplished. Saul destroyed their entii-e army,
with the exception of A gag their Idng ; for spaiing whom,
and permitting the IsraeUtes to take the spoil of their foes,
he incurred the displeasure of the Lord, who took the scep-
tre from him. Agag was immediately afterwards hewn
in pieces by Samuel. 1 Sara. 15. It is remarkable that
most authors make Saul's pursuit of the Amalekites to
commence from the lower Euphrates, instead of from the
southern border of the land of Canaan. (See Havilah.)
David, a few years after, defeated another of their armies ;
of whom only four hundred men escajied on camels, 1
Sam. 30. after which event, the Amalekites appear to
have been obliterated as a nation. — Watson.
AJIANA ; a mountain, mentioned in Cant. 4 : 8. and
by some supposed lobe mount Amanus, in Cilicia. Jerome
and the Rabbins describe the land of Israel as extending
northward to this mountain ; and it is known that Solo-
mon's dominion did extend so far. Mount Ainanus, with
its connections, separates Syria and Cilicia, and reaches
fiom (he Mediterranean to the Euphrates.
AMARIAH ; eldest son of Bleraioth, and father of the
nigh priest Ahitub, was high priest in the time of the
.'auges, but we are not able to fix the years of his pontifi-
cate. His name occurs, 1 Chron. 6: 7, 11. and if he ac-
tually did exercise this office, he should be placed, as we
think, before Eli, who was succeeded by Ahitub, who, in
the Chronicles, is put after Amariah, ver. 7.
AMASA ; son of Jether and Abigail, David's sister.
Absalom, during his rebellion against David, placed his
cousin, Amasa, at the head of his troops, (2 Sara. 17 : 25.)
but Jie was defeated by Joab, A. M. 2981. After the ex-
tinction of Absalom's party, David, from dislike to Joab,
who had killed Absalom, offered Amasa his pardon, and the
command of the army, in room of Joab, whose insolence
rendered him insupportable. 2 Sam. 19: 13. On the re-
volt of Sheba, son of Bichri, David ordered Amasa to
assemble all Judah against Sheba ; but Amasa delaying,
David directed Abishai to pursue Sheba, with what soldiers
he then had about his person. Joab, with bis people, ac-
companied him ; and when they had reached the pteat
stone in Gibeon, Amasa joined them with his forces. Joab's
jealousy being excited, he formed the d»"ardly and cruel
purpose of assassinating his rival — " Inen said Joab to
Amasa, Art thou in health, my brother ? and took him by
the beard with the right hand to kiss him ;" but at Lhe
same time smote him with the sword. Such was the end
of Amasa, David's nephew. Ch. 20 ; 4—10. A. M. 2982.
AMASAl ; a Levite, who joined David with thirty gal-
lant men, while in the desert, flying from Saul. Davd
went to meet them, and said, " If ye be come peaceably
to help me, mine heart shall be knit unto you: but if ye
be come to betray me to mine enemies, seeing there is no
TiTong in mine hands, the God of our fathers look thereon,
and rebuke it." Then said Amasai, " Thine are we, David,
and on thy side, thou son of Jesse : peace be unto thee,
and peace be to thine helpers." David, therefore, received
them; and gave them a command in his troops. 1 Chron.
12: 18.— Ca/mrf.
AMAZEMENT ; aterm sometimes employed to express
our wonder ; but it is rather to be considered as a mixture
of astonishment and terror. It is manifestly borrow-
ed from the extensive and complicated intricacies of a
labyrinth, in which there are endless mazes without the
discovery of a clue. Hence an idea is conveyed of more
than simple wonder ; the mind is lost in wonder. (See
WONDEK.)
ABIAZIAH ; son of Joash, eighth king of Judah, (2
Chron. 24 : 27.) succeeded his falher, A. M. 3165. He
was twenty-five years of age when he began to reign,
and reigned twenty-nine years at Jerusalem. He did
good in the sight of the Lord, but not with a perfect heart.
When settled in his kingdom, he put to death the murderers
of his father, but not their children ; because it is written
in the law, " The fathers shall not be put to death for the
children, neither shall the children he put to death for the
fathers; every man shall be put to death for his own sin."
Deut. 24:16. 2 Chron. 25: 1,2,3.
Amaziah reigned twenty-nine years at Jerusalem ; but
as he returned not to the Lord with all his heart, he was
punished by a conspiracy formed against him at Jerusa-
lem. He endeavored to escape to Lachish ; but was as-
sassinated, and brought back on horses, and buried with
his ancestors, in the city of David, A. M. 3194.
AMBASSADOR. The ministers of the Gospel are
called ambassadors, because they are appointed by God to
declare his will to men, and to promote a spiritual alliance
with him. 2 Cor. 5 : 20.
AMBITION ; the love of honor, a desire of excelling,
or at least of being thought to excel, our neighbors in any
thing. It is generally used in a bad sense for an immode-
rate or illegal pursuit of power or honor. (See Pkaise.)
Paul uses it in a good sense. 2 Cor. 5 : 9.
AMEDIANS ; a congregation of religious in Italy ; so
called from their professing themselves amantes Deum,
" lovers of God ;" or rather amati Deo, " beloved of God."
They wore a gray habit and wooden shoes, had no breeches,
and girt themselves with a cord. They had twenty-eight
convents, and were united by pope Pius V. partly with
the Bistercian order, and partly with that of the Socolanti,
or wooden shoe wearers. — Buck.
AMELIA, (the princess ;) the eminenllv pious daughter
of his majesty George the third : born 1783, and died 1810.
aged 27 years. She was most tenderly beloved by her
father, whose last illness is supposed to have been accele-
rated, if not brought on by her death. A beautiful pic-
ture of the venerable monarch and his daughter is given
by a gentleman who was in the habit of close and official
attendance on the princess Amelia during her last days.
Being asked what was the nature of the interviews and
conversations between her and his majesty, he replied,
" they are of the most interesting kind." "Are they of a
religioustendency ?" "Decidedly so." rcphed the gentleman;
"and the reUgion is exactly of that sort which you, as a seri-
ous Christian, would approve. His majesty speaks to his
daughter, of the only hope of a sinner being in the blood
and righteousness of Jesus Christ. He examines her as
to the integrity and strength of that hope in her own soul.
The princess listens with calmness and debght to the con-
versation of her venerable parent, and replies to his ques-
AllE
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AME
tions in a very affectionate and serious manner. If you
were present at one of these interviews, you would
acknowledge with joy that the Gospel is preached in a
palace, and that under highly affecting circumstances.
"Nothing," added he, " can be more striking tlian the sight
of the king, aged and nearly blind, bending o\"er the couch
on which the princess Hes, and speaking to her about sal-
vation through Christ, as a matter far more interesting to
both than the highest privileges and most magnificent
pomp of royalty." — Clissord.
AMEN ; a Hebrew word, which, when prefixed to an
assertion, signifies asstire.dly, certainly, or emphatically, so
it is ; but when it concludes a prayer, so be it, or so let it
be, is its manifest import. In the former ctise, it is asser-
tive, or assures of a truth or a fact ; and is an asseveration,
and is properly translated indeed. John .3 : 3. In the latter
case it is petitionary, and, as it were, epitomises all the re-
quests with which it stands connected. Numb. 5 : 22. Rev.
22 : 20. This emphatical term was not used among the
Hebrews by detached individuals only, but on certain
occasions, by an assembly at large. Deut. 27 : 14, 20. It
was adopted, also, in the public worship of the primitive
churches, as appears by that passage, 1 Cor. 14 : 16. and
was continued among the Christians in following
times ; yea, such was the extreme into which many run,
that Jerome informs us, in his time, that, at the conclusion
of every public prayer, the united amen of the people
sounded like the/aW of water, or the noise of thunder. Nor
is the practice of some professors in our own time to be
commended, who with a low though audible voice, add
their amen to almost every sentence, as it proceeds from
the lips of him who is praying. As this has a tendency to
interrupt the devotion of those that are near them, and
may disconcert the thoughts of him w'ho leads the worship,
it would be better omitted, and a mental amen is sufficient.
The term, as used at the end of our prayers, suggests that
we should pray with understanding, faith, fervor, and
expectation. — (See Mr. Booth's Amen to Social Prayer.)
Amen is applied as a title to our Lord. Rev. 3 : 14. Is
a kind of fondness for this term peculiar to John? he re-
collecting, with much pleasure, after many years' interval,
his Divine Master's manner of using it. — Bitck.
ABIES, (WiLLiiji, D. D.;) an English divine, celebrated
for his learning and able controversial writings. He was
born 1571), in Norfolk, being the descendant of an ancient
family; and educated at Christ church college, Cambridge,
under the famous Mr. William Perkins ; by whom, proba-
bly, he was brought to the knowledge of the truth, as it is
in Jesus. He seems ever after to have been zealous in the
maintenance of the truth, and vehement against every
species of sin. He was also an uncompromising antago-
nist against the corruptions and idolatiiesof the church of
Rome.
In 1610, a sermon of his at St. Mary's in the Universi-
ty, gave great offence ; because in it he condemned all
playing at cards and dice ; affirming, aiuong other things,
" that as God invented the one-aud-twenty letters whereof
he made the Bible, the devil found out the one-and-trventy
spots on the die." To prevent expulsion, he forsook the
college. Soon after, he was chosen by the stales of Fries-
land, professor of their university. In 1613, his dispute
with Grcvinchovius, minister at Rotterdam, appeared in
ptint. In 1618, he was at the synod of Dort, and inform-
ed the ambassador of king James, from time to time, of
the debates of the assembly.
In 1623, after having filled the professor's chair at Fra-
neker twelve years, he resigned his profe.ssorship, and
accepted the charge of the English congregation at Rot-
terdam. He was induced to this change chiefly in hope
of gaining relief from the asthma, with which he was
afflicted. But his constitution was so shattered, that the air
of Holland did him no service. He determined, therefore,
upon an emigration to New England ; but a return of his
complaint in the beginning of tlie next winter put an end
to this expectation ; for he died at Rotterdam, Nov. 1 4,
1633, aged 57 years. It so happened that the last of his
works was published about the same time ; the editor of
which quaintly remarks, "that with the coming forth of
this book into the light, the learned and famous author. Dr.
Ames, left the light, or rather the darkness, of this world."
Dr. Ames, (to use the words of Mr. Leigh,) was a ju-
dicious and solid divine, a strict Calvinist in doctrine, and
an Independent in discipline. The fame of his writings,
it is affirmed, was in all Europe ; and while he filled the
chair of theological professor at Franeker, his celebrity
drew many students from Hungary, Poland, Prussia, and
Flanders ; who would not have staid there but for their
attachment to him.
His works are, 1. Sermons preached at St. Mary's, Cam-
bridge : 2. Puritanismus Anglicanus, 8vo. 1610. In Eng-
lish, 4to, at London, 1641 ; 3. Disputatio Scholastica inter Nic.
Grevinchovium, at Gul. Amesium, ^-c. Svo. Amsterdam,
1613, concerning Arminus's opinions of Election, &c. 4.
Disputatio inler Amesium at Ntc. Grevinchovium, (J-c. Rotter-
dam, Svo. 1615, 1617, 1633, about Reconciliation, by the
death of Christ. 5. Coronis ad collationem Hagiensem, 12mo.
Ludg. Bat. 1618, 1628, 1630: confuting the Answers
given by the Arminians to the Dutch Pastors. 6. Medul-
la Theologica, 12mo. Franeker, 1623, 1627, 1628, 1634,
1641 ; also in English. 7. Ezplicatio utrmsque Epistolce
S. Petri, 12mo. Amsterdam, 1625, 1635; also in English,
4to. London. 8. De Incarnatione Vcrbi, Svo. Franeker,
1826, against the Socinians. 9. Bellarminus enervatus, Svo.
Amsterdam, 1627,1628, Oxon. 1629, London, 1633, &c.,an
excellent treatise against Popery. 10. De Conscientia, d^c.
12mo. Am. 1630, 1631, 1643, also m English 1643. 11.
Antisynodalia, cj-c. 12. Demonslratio Logica verce, <J-c.
13. Disputatio T'/ieo?o^(c«, against Metaphysics. 14. Tech-
nomelria. 15. Reply to Bp. Morton. 16. A Fresh Suit
against Human Ceremonies, &c. 17. A first and second
Manuduction. 18. Rescriptio, cf-c. 19. Christiana cate-
cliiseos, seiographia. 20. Lectiones in Omnes Psahnos Davidis,
besides prefaces and miscellaneous pieces. His Latin
works were reprinted at Amsterdam in 1658, in five vo-
lumes, with a preface by Matthias Nethenus. — Middleton.
AMES, (FisHEK, LL. D. ;) a distmguished statesman,
and an eloquent orator, was born at Dedhain, April 9,
1758. His father was a physician. He was graduated
at Harvard college in 1774, and after a few years com
menced the study of the law in Boston. He began the
practice of his profession in his native village ; but his
expansive mind could not be confined to the investigation
of the law. Rising into life about the period of the Ame-
rican revolution, and taking a most affectionate interest in
tlie concerns of his country, he felt himself strongly at-
tracted to politics. His researches into the science of
government were extensive and profound, and he began
to be known by political discussions, published in the
newspapers. A theatre soon presented lor the display of
his extraordinary talents. He was elected a member of
the convention of his native state, which considered and
ratified the federal constitution ; and his speeches in this
convention were indications of his future eminence. The
splendor of his talents burst forth at once upon his coun-
try.
When the general government of the United States
commenced its operations in 1789, he appeared in the na-
tional legislature as the first representative of his district,
and for eight successive years he took a distinguished part
in the national councils. He was a principal speaker in
the debates on every important question. Towards the
close of this period his health began to fail, but his indis-
position could not prevent him from engaging in the dis-
cussion, relating to the appropriations, necessary for car-
rying into effect the British treaty. Such was the effect
of his speech of April 28, 1796, that one of the members
of the legislature, who was opposed to Blr. Ames, rose
and objected to taking a vote at that lime, as they had
been carried away by the impulse of oratory. Al'ter his
return to his family, frail in health and fond of retirement,
he remained a private citizen. For a few years, however,
he was persuaded to become a member of the council.
But though he continued chiefly in retirement, he operated
far around him by his writings in the public papers. A
few years before his death he was chosen president of
Harvard coUege, but the infirm state of his health induced
him to decline the appointment. He died on the morning
of July 4, 1808. He left seven children : his only daugh-
ter died in 1829.
Mr. Ames possessed a mind of a great and extraordi-
AME
[73]
AMM
nary character. He reasoned, but he did not reason in the
form of logic. By striking allusions more than by regu-
lar deductions, he compelled £issent. The richness of his
fancy, the fertility of his invention, and the abundance of
his thoughts were as remarkable as the justness and
strength of his understanding. His political character
may be kno\ra from his writings, and speeches, and mea-
sures. He was not only a man of distinguished talents,
whose public career was splendid, but he was amiable in
private life, and endeared to his acquaintance. To a few
friends he unveiled himself without reserve. They found
him modest and unassuming, untainted with ambition,
simple in manners, correct in morals, and a model of eve-
ry social and personal virtue. The charms of his conver-
sation were unequalled.
He entertained a firm belief in Christianity, and his
belief was foimded upon a thorough investigation of the
subject. He read most of the best -mitings in defence of
the Christian religion, but he was satisfied by a view
rather of its internal than its external evidences. He
thought it impossible, that any man of a fair mind could
read the Old Testament and meditate on its contents, with-
out a conviction of its truth and inspiration. The sub-
lime and correct ideas, which the Jewish Scriptures con-
vey of God, connected with the fact thai all other nations,
many of whom were superior to the Jews in civilization
and general improvement, remained in darkness and er-
I'or on this great subject, formed in his view a conclusive
argument. After reading the book of Deuteronomy he
expressed his astonishment, that any man, versed in anti-
quities, could have the hardihood to say, that it was the
production of human ingenuity. Marks of divinity, he
said, were stamped upon it. His views of the doctrines
of religion were generally Calvinistic. An enemy to me-
taphysical and controversial theologj', he disliked the use
of technical and sectarian phrases. The term trinity
however he frequently used with reverence, and in a
manner, wliich implied his belief of the doctrine. His
persuasion of the divinity of Christ he often declared, and
his belief of this truth seems to have resuUed from a par-
ticular investigation of the subject, for he remarked to a
friend, that he once read the evangelists with the sole pur-
pose of learning what Christ had said of liimself
He was an admirer of the common translation of the
Bible. He said it was a specimen of pure English ; and
though he acknowledged, that a few phrases had grown
obsolete, and that a few passages might be obscurely
translated, yet he should consider the adoption of any new
translation as an incalculable evil. He lamented the pre-
vailing disuse of the Bible in our schools. He thought,
that children should early be made acquainted with the
important truths which it contains, and he considered it
as a principal instrument of making them acquainted with
their own language in its purity. He said, " I Avill hazard
the assertion, that no man ever did or ever will become
truly eloquent, withoitt being a constant reader of the
Bible, and an admirer of the purity and sublimity of its
language."
Mr. Ames made a public profession of religion in the
first congregational church in Dedham. With this church
he regularly communed, till precluded by indisposition
from attending public worship. His practice correspond-
ed with his profession. His life was regular and irre-
proachable. Few, who have been placed in similar cir-
cumstances, have been less contaminated by intercourse
with the world. It is doubted, whether any one ever
heard him utter an expression, calculated to excite an im-
pious or impure idea. The most scrutinizing eye disco-
vered in him no disguise or hypocrisy. His views of
himself, however, were humble and abased. He was often
observed to shed tears, while speaking of his closet devo-
tions and experiences. He lamented the coldness of his
heart and the wanderings of his thoughts, while addressing
his Maker, or meditating on the precious truths which he
had revealed. In his last sickness, when near his end,
and when he had just expressed his behef of his approach-
ing dissolution, he exhibited submission to the divine will
and the hope of the divine favor. " I have peace of mind,'-
said he. " It may arise from stupidity ; but I think it is
founded on a belief of the Gospel." At the same time he
10
disclaimed every idea of meriting salvation. " My hope,'
said he, " is in the mercy of God, through Jesus Christ."
Mr. Ames's speech in relation to the British treaty,
which was delivered April 28, 1796, is a fine specimen of
eloquence. He pubhshed an oration on the death of
"Washington in 1800, and he wTote much for the newspa-
pers. His political writings were published in 1809, in
one volume, 8vo. with a notice of his life and character
by president Kirkland. — Allen's Biog. Diet.; Pa/wplist,
July, 1800 ; Dexter's Fun. Eulogy ; Marshall's Washington,
vi. 203 ; Ames's Works.
AMIANTHUS ; an adjective derived from this word is
used in 1 Pet. 1: 3, 4. The Amianthus is a greenish or
silvery white mineral, of fibrous texture, which is gene-
rally known under the name of Asbestos ; a term derived
from the Greek, and signifying "unquenchable," "inde-
structible by fire."
This mineral, and particularly a sUky variety of it, in
long slender filaments, was well known to the ancients,
who made it into an incombustible kind of cloth, in which
they burned the bodies of their dead, and by which means
they were enabled to collect and preserve the ashes with-
out mixture. This cloth was ptirchased by the Romans
at an enormous expense. Pliny states that he had seen
table-cloths, towels, and napkins of amianthus taken from
the table at a great feast, thrown into the fire, and burned
before the company ; and by this operation rendered
cleaner than if they had been washed.
From its peculiar property of not being destroyed by
fire, the term amianthus is figuratively used for iynperisha-
ble, indestructible. Thus in Pet. 1: 3, 4. we read, " Blessed
be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, who, ac-
cording to his great mercy, hath begotten us again unto a
lively hope, by the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the
dead ; to an inheritance incorruptible, and undefiled, and
that fadeth not away." This blessed inheritance is called
aphtharton, incorruptible, because it will not, like the earthly
Canaan, be corrupted with the sins of its inhabitants,
(Lev. 18: 28.) for into the heavenly country entereth noth-
ing that defileth. Rev. 21: 7. It is declared to be amian-
thon, indestructible, because it shall neither be destroyed
by the waters of a flood as the earth has been, nor by fire,
as in the end this world will be ; and it is to be amaranton,
vnfading, because its joys -nnll not wither, but remain fresh
through all eternity.
AMM AH ; a hill opposite to Giah, not far from Gibeon,
where Asahel was slain by Abner. 2 Sam. 2: 24.
AMMANAH ; in the Jewish writers, is the same as
mount Hor ; a mount in the northern boundary of the
land. In the Jerusalem Targum, mount Hor is called
mount Manus ; Jonathan writes it Umanis. Inwards
from Ammanah was within the land, beyond Ammauah
was without the land, according to the opinions of the
Talmudists. — Calmet .
AMMI ; that is, my people ; and RUHAMAH, or per-
haps, more properly Rachamah, having obtained mercy.
See Hos. 2: 1. This name being given to the ten tribes
after their rejection, imports that in the latter days, or Mil-
lenium, God shall redeem them from their miserj' and
bondage, and bring them into special covenant relation
with himself.
Let the reader observe that the Lord commands the
prophet to call by this name the brethren and sisters of
the church. " Say ye to your brethren Ammi, and to your
sisters Ruhamah ; plead with your mother, plead."
Though put away by reason of her gross infidelity, yet
the provision made for her recovery in Christ is such that
she shall return to her rightful Lord. " For this reason
(saith the Lord) plead with your mother, plead ;" work
upon her maternal feelings ; give her to see, that though
by adulteries .she is by law justly liable to be divorced
forever, yet the right and interest of her (first) husband
hath never been lost. He claims her as his own. Return
again unto me, saith the Lord.
If the reader be led to consider the subject in this point
of view, the expressions of Ammi and Ruhamah, with
all the doctrines connected \nth both, become interesting
and tender beyond all imagination. — Haiekcr.
I. AMMON, or No-Ammon, or Ammon-No; a city of
Egj'pt. The prophets describe No-Ammon as being situ
AMM
[74]
AMM
aled among the rivers ; as having the waters surrounding
it ; having the sea as its rampart ; and as being extreme-
ly populous. This description has induced Calmet, and
the majority of interpreters, to consider No-Ammon as
having been the same with DiospoUs, or the city of Jupiter
in Lower Egypt. The ruin of this city, so distinctly fore-
told by the prophets, occurred under Esarhaddon and
Nebuchadnezzar ; though its ruin may not be said to have
been completed till the time of Sennacherib. (See Nofh,
for a more full description.)
IT. AMMON, or Ha.mhon, or H.\maun, or Jltfitek Ah-
MON; a celebrated god of the Egyptians, was probably a
deification of Ham, whose posterity peopled Africa, and
who was the father of Mizraim, the founder of the Egyp-
tian polity and power. Ammon had a famous temple in
Africa, where he was adored under tlie symbohc figure of
a ram. It was situated in a delicious spot, (the Oasis,) in
the midst of a frightful desert, where was an oracle of
great fame, which Alexander the Great consulted, at the
risk of his life.
It has been thought that Ammon is an Egyptian com-
pound. Ham-on ; i. e. Ham, the sun ; On being the Egyp-
tian name for that luminary, afterwards idolatrously re-
ferred to Ham ; and in Josh. 7: 2. we find a temple dedi-
cated to On or Aun ; " Beth-Aven," in our translation.
(See Ham, Noah, Thebes, Ark.) Scripture says nothing
of this false deity, in particular ; but speaks of Ham, and
of the city of Ammon, or No-Ammon, which was princi-
pally devoted to him, and which was very distant from
the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, in the desert, just mentioned.
Ammon, the god of the Egyptians, was, as already re-
marked, the Jupiter of the Greeks, for which reason, the
latter call that city Diospohs, or the city of Jupiter, which
is the former name, according to Calmet, No-Ammon, the
rest or habitation of Ammon. (But see Nofh.) In after
ages, the Egyptian and Greek names were united, and
the deity was called Jupiter-Hammon.
III. ABIMON, or Ben-Ammi ; son of Lot, by his 5'ounger
daughter. Gen. 19: 34, 38. His abode was east of the
Dead sea and Jordan, in the mountains of Gilead, and he
was the father of the Ammonites, a famous people, always
at enmity with Israel. The name Ben-Ammi has usually
been interpreted " the son of my people ;" but this, as Mr.
Taylor remarks, is impossible ; Ben-Ammi might be their
father, but not their so«. But if we take aum or aun in
the sense of generator, source of life, then this name is
extremely applicable, importing ancestor or " grandfather's
son ;" which aptly describes the descent of this child from
his father, yet his grandfather, who should have been one
degree further removed in blood. — Calmet.
AMMONIANS. (See Ammonhjs Sacchus ; New Pla-
TONISTS )
AMMONITES ; the descendants of Ammon, the son
of Lot. They took possession of the country called by
their name, after having driven out the Zamzummims,
who were its ancient inhabitants. The precise period at
Avhich this expulsion took place, is not ascertained. The
Ammonites had kings, and were uncircumcised, Jer. 9: 25,
26. and seem to have been prmcipally addicted to hus-
bandry They, as well as the Moabites, were among
the nations whose peace or prosperity the Israelites were
forbidden to disturb. Deut. 2: 19, &c. However, neither
the one nor the other were to he admitted into the congre-
gation to the tenth generation, because they did not come
out to relieve them in the wilderness, and were implicated
in hiring Balaam to curse them. Their chief and peculiar
deity is, in Scripture, called Moloch. Chemosh was also a
god of the Ammonites.
The country anciently peopled by the Ammonites is
situated to the east of Palestine, and is now possessed
partly by the Arabs and by the Turks. It is naturally
one of the most fertile provinces of Syria, and it was for
many ages one of the most populous. The Ammonites
often invaded the land of Israel, and at one period, united
with the Moabites, they retained possession of a great part
of it, and grievously oppressed the Israelites for the space
of eighteen years. Jephthah repulsed them, and took twen-
ty of their cities , but they continued afterward to harass
the borders of Israel — and their capital was besieged by
the forces of David, and their country rendered tributary.
They regained and long maintained their independence,
till Jotham, king of Judah, subdued them, and exacted
from them an annual tribute of a hundred talents, and
thirty thousand quarters of wheat and barley : yet they
soon contested again with their ancient enemies, and ex-
ulted in the miseries that befel them when Nebuchadnezzar
took Jerusalem and carried its inhabitants into captivity.
In after-times, though successively oppressed by the Chal-
deans, (when some of the earliest prophecies respecting it
were fulfilled,) and by the Egyptians and Syrians, Am-
mon was a highly productive and populous country, when
the Romans became masters of all the provinces of
Syria, and several of the allied cities which gave name to
the celebrated Decapolis were included within its boun-
daries.
Even when first invaded by the Saracens, this country,
including Moab, was enriched by the various benefits of
trade, covered with a line of forts, and possessed some
strong and populous cities. Volney bears witness, " that
in the immense plains of the Hauran, ruins are continually
to be met with, and that what is said of its actual fertility
perfectly corresponds with the idea given of it in the He-
brew writings." The fact of its natural fertility is corro-
borated by every traveller who has visited it. And '•' it is
evident," says ISurckhardt, "that the whole country must
have been extremely well cultivated, in order to have af-
forded subsistence to the inhabitants of .so many towns,"
as are now Wsible only in their ruins. While the fruitful-
ness of the land of Ammon, and the high degree of pros-
perity and power in which it subsisted, long prior and
long subsequent to the date of the predictions, are thus in-
disputably established by historical evidence and by exist-
ing proofs, the researches of recent travellers (who were
actuated by the mere desire of exploring these regions and
obtaining geographical information) have made known its
present aspect ; and testimony the most clear, unexcep-
tionable, and conclusive, been borne to the state of dire
desolation to which it is and has long been reduced.
It was prophesied concerning Ammon, " Son of man,
set thy face against the Ammonites, and prophesy against
them. I will make Kabbah of the Ammonites a stable
for camels and a couching place for flocks. Behold,
I will stretch out my hand upon thee, and deliver thee for
a spoil to the heathen ; I will cut thee off from the people,
and cause thee to perish out of the countries ; I will destroy
thee. The Ammonites shall not be remembered among
the nations. Rabbah," (the chief city) "of the Ammo-
nites, shall be a desolate heap. Ammon shall be a perpe-
tual desolation." Ezek. 25: 2, 5, 7, 10. 21: 32. Jer. 49:
2. Zeph. 2: 9.
Amnion was to be delivered to be a spoil to the heathen — to
be destroyed, and to be a perpetual desolation. " All this
country, formerly so populous and flourishing, is now
changed into a vast desert." (Seetzen's Travels.) Ruins
are seen in every direction. The country is divided be-
tween the Turks and the Arabs, but chiefly possessed by
the latter. The extortions of the one, and the depreda-
tions of the other, keep it in " perpetual desolation," and
make it " a spoil to the heathen." " Ihe far greater part
of the country is uninhabited, being abandoned to the
wandering Arabs, and the towns and villages are in a
state of total ruin." (Ibid.) "At every step are to be
found the vestiges of ancient cities, the remains of many
temples, public edifices, and Greek churches." (Burci-
hardt's Travels.) The cities are left desolate. " Many of
the ruins present no objects of any interest. They consist
of a few walls of dwelling-houses, heaps of stones, the
foundations of some public edifices, and a few cisterns
filled up ; there is nothing entire, though it appears that
the mode of building was very solid, all the remains being
formed of large stones. In the vicinity of Ammon there
is a fertile plain interspersed with low hills, which for the
greater part are covered with ruins." (Burckhardt's Travels
in Si/ria.) While the country is thus despoiled and deso-
late, there are valleys and tracts throughout it, which " are
covered with a fine coat of verdant pasture, and are places
of resort to the Bedouins, where they pasture their camels
and their sheep." (Buckingham's Travels in Palestine.)
" The whole way we traversed," says Seetzen, " we saw
villages in ruins, and met numbers of Arabs with their
AMM
[75 ]
A MO
camels," &c. Mr. Buckingham describes a building
among the niins of Amnion, "the masonry of which was
evidently constructed of materials gathered from the ruins
of other and older buildings on the spot. On entering it
at the south end," he adds, " we came to an open square
court, with arched recesses on each side, the sides nearly
facing the cardinal points. The recesses in the northern
and southern wall were originally open passages, and had
arched door-ways facing each other ; but the first of these
was found wholly closed up, and the last was partially
filled up, leaving only a narrow passage, just sufficient for
the entrance of one man and of the goats, which the Arab
keepers drive in here occasionally for shelter during the
night." He relates that he lay down among " flocks of
sheep and goats," close beside the niins of Ammon ; and
particularly remarks that, during the night, he " was al-
most entirely prevented from sleeping by the bleating of
flocks." So literally true is it, although Seetzen, and
Burckhardt, and Bucldngham, who relate the facts, make
no reference or allusion whatever to any of the prophecies,
and travelled for a different object than the elucidation of
the Scriptures, — that " the chief city of the Ammonites is
a stable for camels, and a couching-place for flocks."
" The Ammonites shall not be remembered among the na-
tions." While the Jews, who were long their hereditary
enemies, continue as distinct a people as ever, though dis-
persed among all nations, no trace of the Ammonites re-
mains ; none are now designated by their name, nor do
any claim descent from them. They did exist, however,
long after the time when the eventual annihilation of their
race was foretold ; for they retained their name, and con-
tinued a great multitude until the second century of the
Christian era. (Justin Martyr.) " Yet they are cut off
from the people. Ammon has perished out of the coun-
tries ; it is destroyed.'' No people is attached to its soil ;
none regard it as their country and adopt its name : " And
the Ammonites are not remembered among the nations."
"Kabbah," (Rabbah Ammon, the chief city of Amnion,)
"shall be a desolate heap." Situated, as it was, on each
side of the borders of a plentiful stream, encircled by a
fruitful region, strong by nature and fortified by art, noth-
ing could have justified the suspicion, or warranted the
conjecture in the mind of an uninspired mortal, that the
royal city of Ammon, whatever disasters might possibly
befal it in the fate of war or change of masters, would ever
undergo so total a transmutation as to become a desolate
heap. But although, in addition to such tokens of its con-
tinuance as a city, more than a thousand years had given
uninterrupted experience of its stability, ere the prophets
of Israel denounced its fate ; yet a period of equal length
has now marked it out, as it exists to this day, a desolate
heap, a perpetual or permanent desolation. Its ancient
name is still preserved by the Arabs, and its site is now
" covered with the ruins of private buildings — nothing of
them remaining, except the foundations and some of the
door-posts. The buildings, exposed to the atmosphere, are
all in decay," (Bvrckhardt's Travels in S'jria,} so that they
may be said literally to form a desolate heap. The public
edifices, which once strengthened or adorned the city, after
a long resistance to decay, are now also desolate ; and the
remains of the most entire among them, subjected as they
are to the abuse and spoliation of the wild Arabs, can be
adapted to no better object than " a stable for camels."
Yet these broken walls and ruined palaces, says Mr.
Keith, which attest the ancient splendor of Ammon, can
now be made subservient, by means of a single act of re-
flection, to a far nobler purpose than the most magnificent
edifices on earth can be, when they are contemplated as
monuments on which the historic and prophetic truth of
Scripture is blended in one bright inscription. — Keith on
the Evidence of Prophery ; Watson.
AMMONIUS SACCAS ; a Christian philosopher of
Alexandria, lived towards the end of the second century.
He is considered as the founder of the mystic philosophy,
known as the Alexandrian, or neo-platonic. Plotinus,
Longinus, and Origen, were among his pupils. His sys-
tem was, in fact, a crude mass of heterogeneous opinions,
borrowed from various scbo Is. He is said by some to
have apostatized: from Christianity, but this is denied by
others. — Davenport.
AJIORITES ; a people descended from Araorrhseus, the
fourth son of Canaan. They first peopled the mountains
west of the Dead sea, but afterwards extended their limits,
and took possession of the finest provinces of Bloab and
Ammon, on the east, between the brooks Jabbok and Ar-
non. Josh. 5 : 1. Numb. 13 : 29. 21 : 29. Moses tofjk
this country from their king, Sihon, (A. M. 2553,) who
refused the Israelites a pas.sage, on their way out of Egypt,
and attacked them with all his force. The lands which
the Amorites possessed on this side Jordan, were given to
the tribe of Judah, and those beyond the Jordan to the
tribes of Reuben and Gad. Amos (ch. 2 : 9.) speaks of
their gigantic stature and valor, and compares their height
to the cedar, their strength to the oak. The name Amorite
is often taken in Scripture for Canaanite in general. "We
must distinguish three people of this name : 1. In mount
Lebanon, east of Phoenicia. — 2. Another people in
mount Gilead, between the rivers Jabbok and Arnon.
— 3. A third people, who inhabited the moimtain of Pa-
ran, between Sinai and Kadesh Barnea. Gen. 15: 16, 21.
AMORY, (Tho-m.is, D. D. ;) a celebrated disseiitirig
minister of the eighteenth centiir)', was born at Taunton,
Somersetshire, Jan. 28, 1701. In 1717, he was placed un-
der the academical instruction of Mr. S. James, and Mr.
H. Grove, who, during the reign of queen Anne, had been
joint tutors at Taunton, at an academy for bringing up
young men to the work of the ministry. Under their in-
struction Mr. Amory went through the usual preparatoi7
studies and attainments ; and in 1722 was approved of as a
candidate for the Christian ministry. Though but twent}--
one years of age, he was serious and devout ; and spent
much time in reading the Bible and in private prayer. In
1730 he was ordained, at Paul's meeting in Taunton, to
the pastoral oflice ; and from that time co-operated with
BIr. Batser, his joint pastor, in the performance of the im-
portant duties which belong peculiarly to that sacred office.
On the death of Mr. Grove, in 1738, Mr. Amory was
unanimously appointed chief tutor in the academy at
Taunton, and conducted the business of that institution
with the same ability, and enlarged and liberal views, as
his predecessor. In 1740, he was married to a pious and
intelligent daughter of Mr. Baker, a dissenting minister in
Southwark, who survived Mr. Amory, to whom he was
much attached, and with whom he lived in affection and
hannony. Five children were the fruit of their marriage,
four of whom survived their father. At Taunton he was
greatly esteemed, not only by his own congregation and
sect, but by all the neighboring congregations and minis-
ters, as well of the Independent and Baptist denomina-
tions, as of the Church of England. With the celebrated,
pious, intelligent, and useful Mrs. Rowe, he was very inti-
mate. Though thus beloved and happy at Taunton, and
in the neighborhood, Blr. Amor)' was induced to quit his
situation, and in October, 1759, removed to London, to be
afternoon preacher to the society in the Old Jewry, belong-
ing to Dr. S. Chandler. To be useful was his object.
The salvation of the human race occupied all his thoughts ;
and ■n'hen he removed to the vast metropolis, it was only
in order that such objects might be more extensively pro-
moted. In London he was not, however, so popular.
" His delivery was clear and distinct, and his discourses
were excellent ; but his voice was not powerful enough to
rouse the bulk of mankind, who are struck with noise and
parade ; and his sermons, though practical and affecting
to the attentive hearer, were rather too close, judicious^
and philosophical for the common run of congregations."
To bigotry and intolerance he was a sworn foe ; and he
took for his motto the precept of Christ— "Judge not, thai
ye be not judged." Tc intelligent and rational dissenters
his preaching was, however, peculiarly acceptable ; and
on him was bestowed every mark of distinction, which
could be paid to the most eminent Presbyterian divine
When the dissenting ministers, in 1772, formed a design
of endeavoring to procure an enlargement of the Tolera
tion Act, Dr. Amory was one of the committee appointed
for that purpose. After a long and useful life, he died on
the 24th of June, 1774, aged seventy-three years. The
character of Dr. Amory was pre-eminently excellent ; his
piety was wise, yet fervent. It was an habitual, operative
principle — it influenced all his actions and opinions — it
AMP
[ V6]
ANA
induced him to perform all the duties of life with single-
ness of heart, pleasing God — it was manifested by his con-
versation and conduct — by his general benevolence and
humanity — by his affability and generosity, patience, self-
denial, and love to the whole human race. His sermons
were close, accurate, solid, and affectionate. His learn-
ing was very considerable. He was a sound theologian,
a good biblical critic, and an excellent scholar and philoso-
pher. His works, which are principally theological, con-
sist of Sermons ; A Letter to a Friend on the Perplexities
to which Christians are exposed, and on the means of
solving them ; A Dialogue on Devotion ; and Forms of
Devotion for the Closet. In addition to such works, he
wrote the Life, and edited the Writings, of the Rev. Blr.
Grove ; — also edited the Sermons of Grove, and Grove's
System of Moral Philosophy ; he wrote the Life, and
edited the Writings, of Dr. George Benson ; and edited the
Posthumous Sermons of Dr. Chandler. — Jones's Cli.r. Biog.
AMOS ; the fourth of the minor prophets, belonged
to the little town of Tekoah, in Judah. There is no proof,
however, that he was a native of this place, except his re-
tirement there, when driven from Bethel. It is probable
that he was born in the territories of Israel, to which his
mission was principally directed. He prophesied in
Bethel, where the golden calves were erected, under Jero-
boam II. about A. JI. 3215 ; and Amaziah, high priest of
Bethel, accused him before the king, as conspiring against
him. Amos answered Amaziah, " I was no prophet, nei-
ther was I a prophet's son ; but I was a herdman, and a
dresser of sycamore fruit ; and the Lord took me as I fol-
lowed the flock, and the Lord said unto me, Go, prophesy
unto my people Israel." Amos 7: 10, to end. (See Syca-
more.) He then retired into the kingdom of Judah, and
dwelt in Tekoah, where he continued to prophesy. Amos
complains in many places of the violence offered to him,
to oblige him to silence ; and bitterly exclaims against the
crying sins of the Israelites, such as idolatry, oppression,
wantonness, and obstinacy. Nor does he spare the sins
of Judah, such as their carnal security, sensuality, and
injustice. He utters frequent threatenings against them
both, and predicts their ruin. It is observable in this
prophecy, that, as it begins with denunciations of judg-
ment and destruction against the Syrians, Philistines,
Tyrians, and other enemies of the Jews, so it concludes
with comfortable promises of the restoration of the taber-
nacle of David, and the establishment of the kingdom of
Christ. Amos was called to the prophetic office in the
lime of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam, the son of
Joash, king of Israel.
Some ^Titers, in adverting to the condition of Amos, have,
with a minute afiectation of criticism, pretended to discover
a certain rudeness and \ailgarity in his style ; and even Je-
rome is of opinion that he is deficient in magnificence and
sublimity. He applies to him the words St. Paul speaks of
himself, that he was rude in speech, though not in know-
ledge ; " and his authority," says bishop Lowth, " has in-
fluenced many commentators to represent him as entirely
rude, and void of elegance ; whereas, it requires but little
attention to be convinced that he is not a whit behind the
very chiefest of the prophets ;" equal to the greatest in
loftiness of sentiment, and scarcely inferior to any in the
splendor of his diction, and in the elegance of his compo-
sition. Mr. Locke has observed, that his comparisons
are chiefly drawn from lions, and other animals, because
ne lived among, and was conversant with, such objects.
But, indeed, the finest images and allusions, which adorn
the poetical parts of Scripture, in general are drawn from
scenes of natitre, and from the grand objects that range in
her walks ; and true genius ever delights in considering
these as the real sources of beauty and magnificence.
Tlje whole book of Amos is animated with a fine and
masculine eloquence. — fVatson.
AMPHIFOLIS ; a city between Macedonia and Thrace,
but dependent on Macedonia. Paul and Silas, being de-
livered out of prison, left Philippi, and going to Thessa-
lonica, passed through Amphipolis. Acts 17: 1. It was
also called Chrysopolis, or Christopohs. In the division
of Macedonia, by Pautus Emilius, it was made the chief
city of the first region of Macedonia, and a metropolis. —
Calmet.
AMSDORFIANS ; a sect, in the sixteenth century, who
took their name from Amsdorf, their leader. They main-
tained that good works were not only unprofitable, but
were obstacles to salvation. — Buck.
AMULET ; a charm, or supposed preservative against
diseases, witchcraft, or any other mischief. They were
very frequent amongst the Jews, the Greeks, an^ the Ro-
mans, and were made of stone, metal, animal substances,
or, in short, any thing which a weak imagination suggest-
ed. The Jews were very superstitious in the use of amu-
lets, but the Mishna forbids them, unless received from
some person, of whose cures at least three instances could
be produced. The phylacteries worn by the Pharisees
and others of the Jewish nation, were a sort of amulets.
Amulets, amongst the Greeks, were called phylakteriaf
periapta, apotohsnuta, perimnmata, drebin, and exkolpia.
The Latins called them amukta, appensa, pentaada, (J-c.
Remains of this superstition continue among ignorant
people even in this country, which ought to be strongly
discountenanced as weak or wicked. The word amulet is
probably derived from amula, a small vessel with lustral
water in it, anciently carried in the pocket for the sake of
purification and expiation. — Watson.
AMYRALD, OR AMYRAUT, (Moses, S. T. D. ;) a
French Protestant divine, horn at Bourgeuil, in 1596, wasf
educated for the civil law, but preferrecl theology, and be-
came professor of divinity at Samnur. In that profession
he acquired the highest reputation. Such was his influ-
ence, that he succeeded in introducing the doctrine of
Arminius into the French reformed churches, to the great
displeasure of the zealous Calvinists. Being a friend to
the doctrine of passive obedience, he was looked on with
a favorable eye by Richelieu and Mazarine. Amyraut
was a man of moderation and candor, and had the good
fortune to be esteemed by men of all sects. His theologi-
cal works are numerous. He died in 1664. — Davenport.
AMYRALDISM ; a name given by some writers to the
doctrine of universal grace, as explained and asserted by
Amyraldus, or Moses Amyrault, and others, his followers,
among the reformed in France, towards the middle of the
seventeenth century. Tliis doctrine principally consisted
of the following particulars, viz: that God desires the hap-
piness of all men, and none are excluded by a divine de-
cree ; that none can obtain salvation without faith in
Christ ; that God refuses to none the power of believing,
though he does not grant to all his assistance, that they
luay improve this power to saving purposes ; and that
they may perish through their own fault. Those who em-
braced this doctrine were called Universahsts ; though it
is evident they rendered grace universal in words, but in
reality restricted ; at least in its highest exercises and ef-
fectual operation. (See Camebonites.)
ANABAPTISTS ; those who maintain that baptism
ought always to be performed by immersion. The word
is compounded of ana, "new," and baptistes, "a Baptist,"
signifying that those who have been baptized in their
infancy, ought to be baptized anerc. It is a word which
has been indiscriminately applied to Christians of very
different principles and practices. The English and
Dutch Baptists do not consider the word as at all applica-
ble to their sect ; because those persons whom they baptize
they consider as never having been baptized before,
although they have undergone what they term the cere-
mony of sprinkling in their infancy.
The Anabaptists of Germany, besides their notions con-
cerning baptism, depended much upon certain ideas
which they entertained concerning a perfect church estab-
lishment, pure in its members, and free from the institu-
tions of human policy. The most prudent part of them
considered it possible, by human industry and vigilance to
purify the church ; and seeing the attempts of Luther to
be successful, they hoped that the period was arrived in
which the church was to be restored to this purity. Others,
not satisfied \vith Luther's plan of reformation, undertook
a more perfect plan, or, more properly, a visionary enter-
prise„to found a new church entirely spiritual and divine.
This sect was soon joined by great numbers, whose
characters and capacities were very different. Their
progress was rapid ; for, in a very short space of time,
their discourses, visions, and predictions, excited gi-eat
ANA
[77 I
ANA
eommodons in a great part of Eaiope. Tlie most perni-
cious faction of all those which composed this motley
mullitude, was that which pretended that the founders of
this 7iem and ferfect church were under a divine impulse,
and were armed against all opposition by the power of
working miracles. It was this faction that, in the year
1521, began their fanatical work under the guidance of
Munzer, Stubner, Slorck, itc. These men taught, that
among Christians, who had the precepts of the Gospel to
direct, and the Spirit of God to guide them, the office of
magistracy was not only unnecessary, but an unlawful
encroachment on their spiritual liberty ; that the distinc-
tions occasioned by birth, rank, or wealth, should be
abolished ; that all Christians, throwing their possessions
into one stock, should live together in that state of equality
which becomes members of the same family ; that as
neither the laws of nature, nor the precepts of the New
Testaments, had prohibited polygamy, they should use the
E.ime liberty as the patriarchs did in this respect.
They employed, at first, the various arts of persuasion,
in order to propagate their doctrines ; and related a num-
ber of visions and revelations, with which they pretended
to have been favored from above ; but, when they found
that this would not avail, and that the ministry of Luther
and other reformers was detrimental to their cause, they
tlien madly attempted to propagate their sentiments by
force of arms. Munzer and his associates, in the year
1525, put themselves at the head of a numerous army,
and declared war against all laws, governments, and
magistrates of every kind, under the chimerical pretext
that Christ himself was now to take the reins of all
government into his hands : but this sediticiis crowd was
routed and dispersed' by the elector of Saxony and other
princes, and Munzer, their leader, put to death.
Many of his followers, however, survived and propagat-
ed their opinions through Germany, Switzerland, and
Holland. In 1533, a party of them settled at Munster, un-
der two leaders of the names of Matthias and Bockholdt.
Having made themselves masters of the city, they depos-
ed the magistrates, confiscated the estates of such as had
escaped, and deposited the wealth in a public treasury for
common use. They made preparations for the defence of
the city ; invited the Anabaptists in the Low Countries to
assemble at Munster, which they called Mount Sion, that
from thence they might reduce all the nations of the earth
under their dominion. Matthias was soon cut off by the
bishop of Munster's army, and was succeeded by ISock-
holdt, who was proclaimed by a special designation of
heaven, as the pretended king of Sion, and invested with
legislative powers like those of Moses. The city of Mun-
ster, however, was taken, after a long seige, and Bockholdt
punished with death.
It must be acknowledged that the trae rise of the insur-
rections of this period ought not to be attributed to reli-
gious opinions. The first insurgents groaned under severe
oppressions and took up arms in defence of their civil
liberties ; and of these commotions the Anabaptists seem
rather to have availed themselves, than to have been the
prime movers. That a great part were Anabaptists, seems
indisputable ; at the same time it appears from history, that
a great part also were Roman Catholics, and still a greater
part of those who had scarcely any religious principles at
all. Indeed, when we read of the vast numbers that were
concerned in these insurrections, of whom it is reported
that one hundred thousand fell by the sword, it appears rea-
sonable to conclude that they were not all Anabaptists.
(See Soiertson's History of Charles V. Enc. Brit. vol. i. p.
644 ; and articles Baptists and Mennonites.)
" The following," says Benedict, " seems the only satis-
factory solution of this mysterious affair. All parties
are anxious to clear themselves of the reproach of an un-
successful and unpopular enterprise. Such a one was
that of the German peasants. The Catholic historians of
the times excuse all their brethren, who were concerned
in it, and lay the whole blame at the door of Luther and
the reformation. The Lutheran historians, from whom
the English took their accounts, endeavored to clear them-
selves, by accusing the Anabaptists of being the prime
movers and principal promoters of the insurrection. The
papists were doubtless very unfair and erroneous, in
charging the reformation with being the direct cause of
the troubles, wars, and commotions, of which it was cer-
tainly no more than the indirect and innocent occasion ;
but they were not mistaken when they charged the Lu-
therans with being deeply engaged in the rustic war.
The Lutherans have conceded that some of their party
perverted and misconstrued the reformer's doctrine of
Christian liberty, and flocked to the standard of the rebels.
But the papists are not content with these concessions,
they have constantly laid the ivhoh mischief of this intes-
Ime dissension at the door of Luther and his disciples ;
' This,' say they, ' is the fruit of the new doctrine ! This
is the fruit of Luther's gospel !'
'■ It is certain that the disturbances in the very city of Mun-
ster were began by a Pedobaptist minister of the Lutheran
persuasion, whose name was Bernard Rotman, or Rcth-
man ; that he was assisted in his endeavors by other minis-
ters of the same persuasion ; and that they began to stir up
tumults, that is, teach revolutionary principles, a year be-
fore the Anabaptist ringleaders, as they are called, nsiled
the place. These things the papists knew, and they failed
not to improve them to their own advantage. They uni-
formly insisted that Luther's doctrine led to rebellion, that
his disciples were the prime movers of the insurrections,
and they also asserted that a hundred and thirty thousand
Lutherans perished in the rustic war.
" Such were the aspersions cast upon the Lutheran
party by the papists. And though many Catholics were
engaged in the war, yet the Lutherans knew it woitld be
unavailing to retort upon them ; for whatever resistance
the oppressed Catholics had sho\%'n, the Catholic doctrine
did not lead to it, for that taught nothing but blind and
dumb submission to every law of their superiors, whether
civil or religious. But as the Anabaptists were the advo-
cates for liberty, and as many of them had taken a part
in the war which they hoped would set them free, the Lu-
therans found it easy to cast all the blame upon them.
And they, having no one to tell their story as it was, nor
put in any plea for them, which could be heard, the Mun-
ster aflfair, as it was first related by the Lutheran histo-
rians, has been transmitted from one generation to another,
without any correction or amendment ; it has been tran-
scribed by a thousand Pedobaptist pens, as a salutary
memento for the seditious dippers ; it is the dernier resort
of every slanderous declaimer against them ; it is the
great gun, the ultima ratio of every disputant, which they
keep in reseiwe against the time of need .
" But why all this din about Munster and the war of the
peasants, since every body knows, who knows any thing
of the matter, that it was not a quarrel about baptism,
but about the feudal system ; that it was not for water,
but in opposition to the horrid oppressior4 of the princes,
that the German peasants rose? Why are not the Inde-
pendents and the Congregationalists, their offspring, visit-
ed from age to age with the deeds of a few of their zea-
lous predecessors, and of the promiscuous multitude, who
attached themselves to their cause, and bore their name ?
They were accused by their enemies of every thing horrid
and flagitious. ' The most eminent English writers,'
says Mosheim, ' not only among the patrons of Episco-
pacy, but even among those very Presbyterians with
whom they are now united, have thrown out against them
the bitterest accusations, and the severest invectives the
imagination could suggest. They have not only been
represented as delirious, mad, fanatical, illiterate, factious,
and ignorant both of natural and revealed reUgion, but
also as abandoned to aU kinds of wickedness and sedition,
and as the only authors of the odious parricide committed
on the person of Charles I. Rapin represents the Inde-
pendents under such horrid colors, that were his portrait
just, they could not deserve to enjoy the light of the sun,
or breathe the free air of Britain, much less to be treated
with indulgence and esteem by those who have the cause
of virtue at heart.'
" But Mosheim could discover the tongue of slander in
these representations ; he could apologise for the Inde-
pendents so far, that Dr. Maclaine has thought it necessary
to give him a check. He could, in giving their history,
adopt ' the ■nnse and prudent maxim, not to judge of the
spirit and principles of a sect, from the actions or expres-
sions of a handful of its members, but from the manners,
customs, opinions, and behavior of the generality of those
ANA
[78]
ANA
who compose it,' &c. But no such things could be
thought of, in treating of the German Anabaptists. Why
this partiality, in cases so exactly alike ? The answer is
plain, the Independents held to infant baptism, which the
Anabaptists rejected.
" The respectable body of Presbyterians have, at different
times, been loaded with the foulest aspersions. Millot, in
speaking of the parliament army, says, ' it breathed only
■ the fervor of Presbyterianism, and the rage of battle ; and
knew no pleasures but •prayer and military duty.' We for-
bear to select examples of the land, and these we have
related with no other view, than to show the reader the im-
propriety of judging of the character of a sect or party,
from the accounts of its adversaries.
" The American war terminated in a glorious manner,
and all who were concerned in it were loaded with ap-
plauses, and hailed as the deliverers of their country. But
the grievances of the American people were trifling, com-
pared with those of the Gennan peasants. But suppose
the fortune of war had turned against the struggling
Americans, how different would have been their fate !
What, in such a case, would have been said of those Bap-
tists, who enhsted under the revolutionary standard, whose
eulogium was pronounced by the immortal Washington ?
What character would have been given of those ministers,
who promoted the war, by every means in their power,
who became chaplains in the annies, and dwelt in the
camp of the warriors ? — Backus, Gano, Stillman, Man-
ning, Smith, Rogers, and others, instead of being the sub-
jects of eulogium for the part they took in the war, would
have been loaded with infamy, and branded with the
infamous names of rebels, fanatics, and the ringleaders
of a seditious multitude. They would have been the
Muncers, Stubners, Storks, Bockholds, Phiffers, and Knip-
perdolings of America."
It is but justice to observe, also, that the Baptists in
Holland, England, and the United States, are to be con-
sidered as entirely distinct from those seditious and fanati-
cal individuals above-mentioned : as they profess an equal
aversion to all principles of rebellion on the one hand,
and of enthusiasm on the other. — Buck's Theol. Diet. ;
MUner' s Church History ; Hobinson's Eccl. Researches ; En-
cyclopedia Americana ; Benedict's History of the Baptists.
ANACHORETS. (See Axchorets.)
ANAGOGICAL, signifies mysterious, transporting;
and is used to express whatever elevates the mind, not
only to the knowledge of divine things, but of divine
things in the next life. The word is seldom used, but
with regard to the difierent senses of Scripture. The ana-
logical sense is, when the sacred text is explained with re-
gard to eternal life, the point which Christians should have
in view ; for example, the rest of the Sabbath, in the ana-
gogical sense, signifies the repose of everlasting happiness.
ANAH ; son of Zibeon, the Hivite, and father of Aho-
libamah, Esau's wife. Gen. 36: 24. While feeding asses
in the desert, he discovered "springs of warm water," not
jnuhs, as the English translators and several others under-
stand the Hebrew jamim. Scripture never calls mules
jamim, nor are such creatures hinted at till after the time
of Pavid. And Robinson remarks that five or six miles
south-east of the Dead Sea, and consequently in the neigh-
borhood of Mount Seir, is a place celebrated among the
Greeks and Romans for its warm baths.
ANAK ; Anakim, famous giants in Palestine. Anak,
father of the Anakim, was son of Arba, who gave name
to Kirjath-Arba, or Hebron. He had three sons, Sheshai,
Ahiman, and Talmai, whose descendants were terrible
for their fierceness and stature. The Hebrew spies re-
ported, that, in comparison to those monstrous men, they
themselves were but grasshoppers. Some have thought,
that the name Phoenician, given to the Canaanites, and
particularly to the Sidonians, was originally from Bene-
Anak, sons of Anak. Caleb, assisted by the tribe of Ju-
dah, took Kirjath-Arba. and destroyed the Anakim. Josh.
15: 14. Judges 1: 20. A. M. 2559. (See Giant.)
ANALOGY ; the science which, standing on the con-
fines of what is known, points out the direction in which
truth probably lies, in the region that is unknown. The
laws of this science rest upon the two following self-evi-
dent principles : First, A part of any system which is the
work of an intelligent agent, is similar, so far as the prin-
ciples it involves are concerned, to the whole of that sys-
tem. And, secondly. The work of an intelligent and moral
being must bear, in all its lineaments, the traces of the
character of its Author. And, hence, he will use analogy
the most skilfully, who is most thoroughly imbued with
the spirit of the system, and, at the same time, most deep-
ly penetrated with a conviction of the attributes of the
First Cause of all things. — Wayland on the Philosophy of
Analogy.
ANALOGY OF FAITH; the correspondence of the
several parts of Divine Revelation in one consistent whole.
Rom. 12: 6. This is considered as furnishing a grand
rule for understanding the true sense of Scripture. For,
it is evident that the Almighty doth not act without a de-
sign in the system of Christianity any more than he does
in the works of nature. Now this design must be uni-
form ; for as in the system of the universe every part is pro-
portioned to the whole, and made subservient to it, so in
the system of the Gospel all the various truths, doctrines,
declarations, precepts, and promises, must correspond ■nith,
and tend to, the end designed. For instance, supposing the
glory of God in the salvation of man by free grace, in a way
of righteousness and holiness, be the grand design : then what-
ever doctrine, assertion, or hypothesis, agree not with this,
it is to be considered as false. — Great care, ho>vever, must
be taken in making use of this method, that the inquirer
previously understand the whole scheme, and that he har-
bor not a predilection only for a part ; without attention to
this we shall he liable to error. If we come to the Scrip-
tures with any preconceived opinions, and are more de-
sirous to put that sense upon the text which quadrates
with our sentiments rather than the truth, it becomes then
the analogy of our faith, rather than that of the whole
system. This was the source of the error of the Jews, in
our Savior's time. They searched the Scriptures; but.
such were their favorite opinions, that they could not, or
would not, discover that the sacred volume testified of
Christ. And the reason was evident, for their great rule
of interpretation was, what they might call the analogy of
faith ; i. e. the system of the Pharisean scribes, the doc-
trine then in vogue, and in the profound veneration of
which they had been educated. Perhaps there is hardly
any sect but what has more or less been guilty in this respect.
This analogy, however, may he. of use to the serious
and candid inquirer ; for as some texts may seem to con-
tradict each other, and difficulties present themselves, by
keeping the analogy of faith in view, he will the more
easily resolve those difficulties, and collect the true sense
of the sacred oracles. What "the aphorisms of Hippo-
crates are to a physician, the axioms in geometry to a
mathematician, the adjudged cases in law to a counsellor,
or the maxims of war to a general, such is the analogy
of faith to a Christian." Of the analogy of religion to
THE constitution AND COURSE OF NATURE, wc iftust refer
our readers to bishop Butler's excellent treatise on that
subject. — Buck ; Wayland^s Discourses; Campbell's Lectures
on Systematic Theology ; Douglas on the Truths of Religion ,
Shuttleworth on the Consistency of Revelation.
ANALYSIS OF THEOLOGY', The whole range of
theological science may be conveniently divided into four
parts. Indeed, theology itself, in accordance with this divi-
sion, has received a fourfold appellation, viz. exegetical,
systematical, historical, and pastoral theology. The object
of this article is merely to give an analytical view of what
is comprehended under each of these departments, re-
serving all fiu'ther explanations for a future article on
theological education.
I. EXEGETICAL THEOLOGY.
This department comprehends
I. Biblical Introduction : which treats of the age, origin,
contents, and character of the sacred writings. ■
II. Biblical Criticism ; distinguished into
1. The Verbal Criticism, which relates to the integrity
of the original text.
2. The Higher Criticism, which examines the authenti-
city of the several books.
in. Biblical Interpretation, or Hermeneutics.
IV. Biblical Exposition, or Exegesis.
n. SYSTEMATIC THEOLOGY.
This department comprehends
ANA
[79]
ANA
I. Theoretical Theology, or Dogmatics; distinguished
into
1. Biblical; which draws its system exclusively from
the Scriptures.
2. Ecclesiastical ; which exhibits systematically the doc-
trines of a chuich.
3. Polemic ; which undertakes to refute false exhibitions
on the spot.
4. Apologetic ; which is the defence and confirmation
of Christianity in general.
II. Practical Theology, or Christian Ethics ; which sys-
tematically applies the Christian rules of duty to
1. The Internal Affections and Motives.
2. The Visible Actions of Mankind.
III. Didactic Theology. This further distinction arises
from the Tnode in which Systematic Theology is taught ;
which may be
1. Scientific; which puts in requisition all the aids of
learning.
2. Popular ; which leaves out of view all that cannot
be apprehended without learned attainments.
III. HISTORICAL THEOLOGY.
This department comprehends
I. The General History of Religion among Mankind.
II. The History of the Christian Religion, or Church
History.
III. History of Doctrines, (including Patristics, or the
Writings of the Fathers.)
IV. History of Creeds and Denominations.
V. Antiquities, Jewish and Christian, or Archa:ology.
VI. Theological Literature, or Bibliography.
rv. PASTORAL THEOLOGY.'
This department comprehends
I. Sacred Rhetoric ; which is divided into
1. Homiletics, or the Preparation for the Pulpit.
2. Catechetics, or the Instruction of the Young.
II. Pastoral Duties ; including
1. Official Character and Habits.
2. Fonns of Worship, and Devotion.
III. Ecclesiastical Discipline, or Law ; which is
1. General, or common to all Christian denominations.
2. Special, or belonging peculiarly to his own.
The sciences above enumerated complete the circle of
theological learning. (See Theological Education.)
ANAMIM ; second son of Mizraim. (Gen. 10: 13.) He
peopled the Mareotis, if we may rely on the paraphrast
Jonathan, son of Uzziel ; but rather, the PentapoUs of
Cyrene, according to the paraphrast of Jerusalem. Bo-
chart was of opinion, that these Anamim dwelt in the
countries around the temple of Jupiter Amnion, and in
the Nasamonitis. We believe the Anamians and Gara-
mantes to be descended from Anamim. The Hebrew
Ger, or Gar, signifies a passenger or traveller. The name
of Gar-amantes may be derived from Ger-amanim : their
capital is called Garamaaia, in Solinus. — Calmet.
ANAMMELECH. It is said (2 Kings 17: 31.) that
the inhabitants of Scpharvaim, sent from beyond the Eu-
phrates into Samaria, burned their children in honor of
Anammelech and Adrammelech. Mr. Taylor has sug-
gested that Adrammelech signified the sun, or splendid
king, and Anammelech the moon, or gentle king ; but this
name, he further remarks, may be compo.sed of onan, a
3J>i!.i, and melek, a king. " The Iring of clouds," is no less
a proper poetical epithet for the moon, than " region of
night," as one of our own poets calls that planet. Per-
haps, the distinguishing symbol of this idol was a cloud
of gold, or some other splendid material, annexed to its
statue. (See Adrammelech, and Baal.)
I. ANANIAS ; a professed Christian of the city of Je-
rusalem, who, in concert with his wife, Sapphira, sold an
estate, and secreting part of the purchase-money, carried
the remainder to the apostles, as the whole price of his in-
heritance. Acts 5: 1.
A number of conjectures have been formed as to the
reasons which induced the ^oly Spirit so visibly and
suddenly to punish the falsehood of Ananias and Sap-
phira. Mr. Taylor thinks they might possibly be as fol-
lows : — 1. In the infancy of the church, to give a solemn
notoriety and a self-evident sanction to the doctrine intro-
duced ; not merely by miracles of advantage, (as heaUng.)
but by miracles of punishment. — 2. To deter those who
through worldly motives of gain, or wim d design to par-
ticipate in the profits of the goods sold, might join thi-
Christian church. — 3. To deter spies, and false breth'-"!),
who could not but be aware of the danger of detection,
in all cases, after this event. If Ananias only had died,
he remarks, it might have seemed a mere sudden death,
produced, by a natural cause. By this awful event, the
Gospel was in some degree assimilated to the law. Directly
after the injunction of the Sabbath was given, the Sab-
bath-breaker was ordered to be stoned; (Numb. 15: 35,
36.) so after the consecration of the holy altar, the sons of
Aaron, nvho offered profane fire in their censers, were de-
stroyed. Lev. 10: 1, 2. The same thing occurred in the
case of Achan, (Josh. 7.) and in other instances.
It is evident, that in this and similar events, there must
have been a conviction produced in the minds of specta-
tors, that some extraordinary power was exerted. Had it
been thought that Peter himself slew Ananias, he had, no
doubt, been rendered amenable to the laws as a murderer.
But, if it was evident that the apostle only forewarned him
that he should die, then (as no man has power to kill another
by his word only) it must have been equally evident that
the power which attended the word of Peter, did not pro-
ceed from himself, but from God, who, only, has the keys
of life and death. So, in hke manner, the power which
opened the earth to swallow down Korah, was not from
Moses, personally, but from him in whose name he spake ;
(Numb. 16: 24.) though the people afterwards stupidly
accused him of having killed the people of the Lord.
II. ANANIAS; a disciple of Christ, at Damascus,
■whom the Lord directed to visit Paul, then recently con-
verted and arrived at Damascus. Acts 9: 10. The modem
Greeks maintain, that he was one of the seventy disciples ,
bishop of Damascus ; a martyr ; and buried in that city
There is a very fine church where he was interred ; and
the Turks, who have made a mosque of it, preserve a
great respect for his monument.
III. ANANIAS ; son of Nebedaeus, and high priest of
the Jews, succeeded Joseph, son of Camith, A. D. 47. He
was sent by Quadratus, governor of Syria, to Rome, to
answer for his conduct to the emperor Claudius ; but he
justified himself, was acquitted, and returned. In the
meantime, Jonathan had been appointed high priest in his
place. But he being soon after murdered, Ananias ap-
pears to have assumed the functions from which he had
been deposed, before a successor was appointed by Agrip-
pa. It was at this point of time that Paul was brought
before him. Acts 23: 1. Paul commenced his defence,
but Ananias immediately commanded those who were
near him to strike him on the face. To this injury and
insult the apostle replied, " God is about to smite thee,
thou whited wall; for thou siltest to judge me according
to the law, but commandest me to be smitten contrary to
the law." Being rebuked for thus addressing himself to
the high priest, the apostle excused himself by alleging,
very properly,, that he was ignorant of his office. (See
Paul.)
The assembly being divided in opinion, the tribune or-
dered Paul to Caesarea, and thither Ananias, and other
Jews, went to accuse him before Felix. (Acts 24.) Ana-
nias was considered the first man of the nation in point
of riches, friends and fortune. Yet was the prediction of
the apostle fulfilled, for he was slain by a seditious faction,
at the head of which was his own son, at the commence-
ment of the Jewish wars. Some writers, not distinguish-
ing what Josephus relates of Ananias, when high priest,
from what relates of him after his deposition, have made
two persons of the same individual.
AN ANUS ; son of Seth, and high priest of the Jews ;
called Annas. Luke 3: 2. John IS: 13. He succeeded
Joazar, son of Simon, and enjoyed the high priesthood
eleven years, when he was deposed, and succeeded by
Ishmael, son of Phabi. After his deposition, however, he
retained the title of high priest, and had a great share in
the management of public aiiairs. He is called high
priest, in conjunction with Caiaphas, his son-in-law, when
John the Baptist entered on the exercise of his mission^
ANA
[80]
AND
ihough at that time he did not, strictly speaking, possess
that character. Luke 3: 2. Our Savior was carried before
Annas, directly after his seizure in the garden of Olives.
ANASTASIA ; a martyr of the fourth century. She
was descended from an illustrious Roman family. Her
mother Flavia was a Christian, and dying while her daugh-
ter was an infant, she bequeathed her to the care of Chry-
sogonus, a worthy Christian of Aquilia, with a strict in-
junction to instruct her in the principles of Christianity.
This Chrysogonus punctually performed, though it cost
him his hfe. But the father of the young lady, being a
Pagan, gave her in marriage to a man of his own faith
named Publius : who though of good family, was of bad
morals, and, after spending both his own and his wife's
patrimony, had the baseness to inform against her as a
Christian. Her husband dying soon after, Anastasia was
released ; but in consequence of her many charitable offices
to distressed Christians, she was again apprehended, and de-
livered up to Florus, governor of Illyricum. By his com-
mand she was put to the torture ; but her constancy in
the Christian faith remaining unshaken, Florus ordered
her to be burnt to death ; which sentence was executed
December25, A. D. 304, about one month after the martyr-
dom of Chrysogonus her instructer. AVhat a meeting must
the mother, the daughter, and the instructer, have had in
heaven ! — Fox.
ANATHEMA ; from wiatithemi, signifies — something
set apart, separated, devoted. It is understood principally
to denote the absolute, irrevocable, and entire separation
of a person from the communion of the faithful, or from
the number of the living, or from the privileges of society ;
or the devoting of any man, animal, cit)', or thing, to be
extirpated, destroyed, consumed, and, as it were, annihi-
lated. The Hebrew chaem, signifies properly to destroy, ex-
terminate, devote. The word cherem, or mialhema, is some-
times taken for that which is irrevocably consecrated, vowed,
or offered to the Lord, so that it may no longer be employ-
ed in, or returned to, common uses. Lev. 27: 28, 29. " No
(hooted thing (absolutely separated) that a man shall devote
(absolutely separate) to the Lord, of man, beast, or field,
shall be sold or redeemed." In the old Greek writers,
anathema is used for a person, who, on some occasion, de-
voted himself for the good of his country ; or as an expia-
tory sacrifice to the infernal gods. Here the reader will
recollect Codrus and Curtius.
Some particular persons devoted themselves, if they did
not accomplish some specific purpo.5e. In Acts 23: 12, 13.
it is said that above forty persons bound themselves with
an oath, that they would neither eat nor drink till they had
killed Paul. The Essenians were engaged by oath to ob-
serve llie statutes of their sect ; and those who incurred
the guilt of excommunication, were driven from their as-
semblies, and generally stai-ved to death, being obliged to
feed on grass like beasts, not daring to receive food which
might be offered them, because they were bound by the
vows they had made, not to eat any. — Cnhtict.
ANATHEMA MARANATHA.' We meet with this
form of expression but once in Scripture, (1 Cor. 16: 22.)
where the apostle Paul, in reference to the' faction which
had sprung up in the church, and betrayed a great disre-
gard to the authority of Christ, says, '■' If any man love not
the Lord Jesus Christ, let him he Anathema Maranatha." To
give additional force and solemnity, he appears to have
written it with his own hand. Why these two words were
not translated is not obvious. Anathema signifies Accurs-
eil, that is to say, condemned and devoted to utter destruc-
tion. Maranatha signifies The Lord c.ometh. They are the
words with which the Jews began their greater excommuni-
cation ; whereby they not only excluded sinners from their
society, but delivered them to the divine curse, (Hebrew
rherem.) including both misery in this life, and perdition
ill that which is to come. They used this form, because
Enoch's prophecy of the second coming of Christ to judge
the world, and punish the w'icked, began with these words ;
as we learn from Jude, who quotes the first sentence of
that prophecy. Ver. 14. When the apostle, therefore, uses
this form of solemn malediction, it is equivalent to saying
of the sinner who loves not the Saviour, " It exceeds my
power to express what ought to be the consequence of
your crime. I therefore leave you to the Lord when He
comes, to judge the quick and the dead." — Calmet ; Jones;
Haivker ; Watson. Also, Machns;ht's note on 1 Cor. 16: 22.
ANATHOTH; a city of Benjamin, (Josh. 21: 18.)
about three miles from Jerusalem, according to Eusebius
and Jerome, or twenty furlongs, according to Josephus,
where the prophet Jeremiah was born. It was given to
the Levites of Kohath's family, and was a city of refuge.
John 21: 18.
ANCHOR OF THE SOUL ; so Christ our hope and
forerunner in the heavens is called. Heb. 6: 18, 19. (See
Ship.)
ANCIENT OF DAYS. God is so called, because he
existed from all eternity. Dan. 7: 9. The Lord's ancients,
before whom he will reign gloriously, are his ancient peo-
ple of Judah and Israel, whom, in the glorious millennium,
he will convert to the Christian faith, and rule over as a
glorious church. Isa. 24: 23. Three times in the prophecy
of Daniel, and in the same chapter, we find the Lord dis-
tinguished by this name, and in no other part of Scripture.
Dan. 7: 9, 13, 22.
AND ; a conjunction generally signifying addition, but
occasionally only emphasis. For the sake of some, it may
not be unimportant to remark, that in the English version
of the Scripture, the word and sometimes occurs, where
the proper translation would be even. Thus we read,
" God and the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ," where it
should be " God, even the Father, &c." Several other psts-
sages will be clearer if this observation is remembered.
ANDREAS, (James, D. D. ;) a famous Lutheran di-
vine of the sixteenth century, was born at Waibling, in the
Dutchy of Wirtemberg, Slarch 25, 1528. His parents
were poor, hut such were the marks of promising genius
in this son, that several persons of distinction united in
giving him a liberal education. In 1545, he became mas-
ter of arts at Tubingen, and in 1553, took his degree of
D. D. and was appointed pastor of Gopping and superin-
tendent of the neighboring churches. In 1557, he was
one of the secretaries at the conference of Worms. In
1559, he was sent to Augsburg, and in 1561 to Paris as
one of tlie commissioners. On his return from the latter,
he was appointed chancellor and rector of the university
of Tubingen. From 151)5 to 15S9, he was continually
employed by various princes in efforts to settle differences
of faith, and to reform the churches. He labored much
and strove long, in person and by his pen, to promote
concord; but he fared much as people do who interpose-
between combatants — getting blows from both sides, and
thanks from neither. Happily the reward of the peace-
maker is not from men, but from God. Blatt. 5: 9.
When he found death drawing near, this excellent man
declared his constancy in the faith which he had preached
and published for forty-four years. "When his physician
inquired how he found himself, he answered, " Eij nothing
separated from mij God." Soon afterwards, hearing the-
clock strike, he asked what hour it was ; and upon being
told it was six, he added, " my hour shall soon draw near ''
At length, after many edifying and grateful expressions,
he breathed out his soul in the words, " Into thy hands, O
Lord, I commend my spirit," and fell asleep, January 7, 1590,
in the seventy-second year of his age. Nine only out of
eighteen children by his excellent wife, survived him.
" He was (says Melchior Adam) an excellent preacher.
He had an easy manner of instructing the people ; and
delivered the most obscure points in such a perspicuous
style, that they were understood by the generality of his
audience. AVhen he exhorted them to the reformation of
their lives, or remonstrated against sin, he made use
of great energy of language and elevation of voice, be-
ing extremely well qualified, both by nature and art, for
moving the passions ; and when there was occasion for it,
his eloquence was forcible like thunder, and he spoke with
such vehemence, that he would sweat all over his body,
even in the midst of winter. In executing the several
branches of his duty, he spared no labor, and was deterred
by no fatigue. He was perpetually engaged in composing
some works or other, or in writing letters upon various
subjects to persons of all ranks who consulted him ; these
things he dispatched with admirable quickness and sue
cess. There was hardly a day passed but he gave advice
to several persons ; being always ready to gratify those
AND
[81
AN a
who soHcued his assistance. He was in great favor with
some princes and men of the liighest rank, his conversa-
tion being very agreeable and sometimes facetious. It
gave him extreme sorrow to hear that any person had
abandoned the religion he professed ; for his zeal for re-
ligion was warm."
Siich was the character reared from the depths of indi-
gence by the hand of charity. What a reward to the gene-
rous friends who drew him from the obscurity of a car-
penter's shop, and fostered his rising genius ! — Dr. An-
dreas wrote a great number of books, the most remarkable
of which are his book " On Concord," and some treatises
on the " Ubiquity of Christ." — Middleton.
ANDREW, the apostle, was a native of Bethsaida,
and brother of Peter. He was first a disciple of John the
Baptist, whom he left, to follow our Savior, after the testi-
mony of John. John 1: 40. Andrew introduced his brother
Simon, and after accompanying our Savior at the marriage
in Cana, they returned to their ordinary occupation, not
■expecting, perhaps, to be further employed in his service.
Some months after, Jesus met them while fishing, and
called them to a regular attendance on his person and
ministry, promising to make them fishers of men. Matt.
4: 19. John 6: 1. Some of the ancients are of opinion,
that Andrew preached in Scythia ; others, that he preach-
ed in Greece ; others, in Epirus, Achaia, or Argos. The
modern Greeks make him founder of the church of By-
zantium, or Constantinople, which the ancients knew
nothing of. The Acts of his Martyrdom, which are of
considerable antiquity, though critics do not allow them
to be authentic, aihrm that he suffered martyrdom at Pa-
tras, in Achaia, being sentenced to be executed on a cross
by Egasus, proconsul of that province. — Calmet.
ANDREWS, (Bp. Lancelot, D.D. ;) an eminent Eng-
lish divine, was born in Loudon 1565, and educated at
Cambridge. While residing there, it was his custom to
come up to London once a year, about Easter, to visit his
father and mother, with whom he usually staid a month ;
during which time, with the assistance of a master, he ap-
plied himself to the attaining some language, or art. to
which he was before a stranger ; and by this means, m a
few years, he had laid the foundation of all the arts and
sciences, and acquired a competent skill in most of the
modem languages. While a fellow at the university, he
became so celebrated as a theologian, casuist and preacher,
that he attracted the patronage of the earl of Hunting-
don, and of sir Francis Walsingham ; and in no long
time rose to be master of Pembroke Hall, (his own col-
lege,) chaplain to queen Elizabeth, and dean of Westmin-
ster. He might have had a bishopric from Elizabeth, if he
would have submitted to the spoliation of its revenues.
Under her successor, James I. he attained that dignity ;
being by him preferred to all others as a preacher,
and chosen to vindicate his sovereignty, against Bellar-
mine. Andrews was successively raised to the sees of
Chichester, Ely, and Winchester ; besides being appoint-
ed lord almoner, and a privy counsellor of England and
Scotland ; which trusts he discharged with singular fide-
lity. The following anecdote of him, about this time, is
recorded by Waller. Neale, bishop of Durham, and An-
drews, were standing together behind the king's chair at
dinner, when James suddenly turned to them, and said.
My lords, cannot 1 take my subjects' money when I want
it, -w-ithout all this formality in parliament? Bishop Neale
readily answered, God forbid, sir, but jou. should ; you are
the breath of our nostrils. The Idng turned to the bishop
of Winchester, Well my lord, and what say you ? Sir. re-
plied Andrews, I have no skill to judge of parliamentary
cases. The king answered, no put-offs, my lord ; answer
me immediately. " Then sir, said he, / Ihink it lawful for
you to take my brother Neale's money, for he offers it."
King James had such a veneration foi this excellent
prelate, that in his presence he refrained from all levity.
And he was in no less reputation and esteem with Charles
I. His life was a life of prayer. A great part of five
hours every day was spent in the exercises of devotion.
And in his last sickness, he continued while awake to pray
audibly till his strength failed ; and then by lifting his
hands and eyes shewed that he still prayed ; and when
both voice and hands and eyes failed in their office, his
U
countenance showed that he still prayed and praised God.
in his heart. September 25, 162(3, it pleased God to receive
him to himself; he being then in his seventy-first year. A
monument of marble and alabaster was erected to his me-
mory; and Slilton thought him worthy of a Latin Elegy,
which will be found among the works of the great poet.
Bishop Andrews was charitable and munificent. He
was a patron of learning. His own admirable knowledge
in the learned tongues, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldec,
Syriac, Arabic, besides modern languages to the number
of fifteen, was such and so rare, that he may well be
ranked among the first linguists in Christendom. The
style of his works is however deformed by the bad taste
and pedantry of the age. — He published much ; but his most
celebrated productions are his Tortura Torti, against Bel-
larmine, and his Manual of Private Devotions and Medi-
tations for every day in the week. He had a share in the
translation of the Pentateuch ; and the authorized version
of the historical books, from Joshua to the first book of
Chronicles, was executed by him exclusively, " in which
being dead he yet speaketh."— Middleton ; Davenport.
ANDEONA ; a term used for that pait in churches
which was destined for the men. Anciently it was the
custom for the men and women to have separate apart-
ments in places of worship, where they performed their
devotions asunder, which method is still religiously ob-
served in the Greek church.
ANDRUS, (Joseph R. ;) agent of the Colonization So-
ciety, was graduated at Middlebury college in 1812, and
after studying theology at New Haven and Andover, and also
under bishop Griswold at Bristol, R. I., received episcopal
ordination. It had been for years his purpose to devote
himself to the welfare of the degraded and oppressed race
of Africans. Being appointed agent of the Colonization
Society, he sailed early in 1821, and proceeded with his
associate, C. Bacon, in April, from Sierra Leone to the
Bassa country, to negotiate with king Ber for a place of
settlement. It was well for the proposed colony, that the
attempt was unsuccessful, for a more heakhl'ul and eligi-
ble territory was afterwards purchased by Dr. Ayres at
Montserado. BIr. Andrus died at Sierra Leone, and was
buried July 2tl, 1821. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
ANGEL ; a spiritual, intelligent substance, the first in
rank and dignity among created beings. The word angel,
is not properly a denomination of nature, but of office ;
denoting as much as nuncius, messenger, a person employ-
ed to carry one's orders, or declare his will. Thus it is
St. Paul represents angels. Heb. 1: 14. where he calls
Ihem "ministering spirits ;" and yet custom has prevailed
so much, that angel is now commonly taken for the de-
nomination of a particular order of spiritual beings, of
great understanding and power, superior to the souls or
spirits of men. Some of these are spoken of in Scripture
in such a manner, as plainly to signify that they are real
beings of a spiritual nature, of high power, perfection,
dignity, and happiness. Others of them are distinguished
as not having kept their first station. Jude 6. These are
represented as evil spirits, enemies of God, and intent on
mischief. The devil as the head of them, and they as
his angels, are represented as the rulers of the darlaiess
of this world, or spiritual wickedness, or wicked spirits.
Eph. 6: 12; which may not be unfitly rendered, "the
spiritual managers of opposition to the kingdom of God."
The existence of angels is supposed in all religions,
though it is incapable of being proved a j)™W. Indeed,
the ancient Sadducees are rejiresented as denying all
spirits ; and yet the Samaritans and Caraites, who are re-
puted Sadducees, openly allowed them : -n-itness Abusaid,
the author of an Arabic version of the Pent-iteuch ; and
Aaron, a Caraite Jew, in his comment on th j Pentateuch ;
both extant in manuscript in the king of France's library.
In the Alcoran we find frequent mention of angels. The
Mussiilmen believe them of different orders or degrees,
and to be destined for different employments both in hea
ven and on earth. They attribute exceedingly great power
to the angel Gabriel, as that he is able to descend in the
space of an hour from heaven to earth ; to overturn a
mountain with a single feather of his wing, &c. The
angel Asrael, they suppose is appointed to lake the soulv
of such as die ; and another angel, named Esraphil, they
ANG
[82 ]
ANG
ttll u?, stands with a trumpet ready in his mouth to pro-
claim the day of judgment.
The heathen philosophers and poets were also agreed as
to the existence of intelligent beings, superior to man ; as
is shown by St. Cyprian in his treatise of the vanity of
idols ; from the testimonies of Plato, Socrates, Trismegis-
tus, dec. They were acknowledged under different appel-
lations ; the Greeks calling them demons, and the Ro-
mans genii, or lares. Epicurus seems to have been the
only one among the old philosophers who absolutely re-
jected them.
2. Authors are not so unanimous about the nature, as
about the existence, of angels. Though it be now a uni-
versal opinion that angels are of a spiritual and incorporeal
nature, yet some of the fathers, misled by a passage in Gen.
6: 2. where it is said, " The sons of God saw the daugh-
ters of men that they were fair, and they took them wives
of all which they chose," imagined them to be corporeal,
and capable of sensual pleasures. But, without noticing
all the wild reveries which have been propagated by bold
or ignorant persons, let it suffice to observe, that by " the
sons of God" we are evidently to understand the descen-
dants of Seth, who, for the great piety wherein they con-
■ inued for some time, were so called ; and that " the daugh-
ters of men" were the progeny of T^qcked Cain.
The fathers who believed angels had bodies, were Cle-
mens Aiexandrinus, Origen, Ca?Sarius, TertuUian, and
several others. Athanasius, St. Basil, St. Gregory Ni-
cene, St. Cyril, St. Chrysostom, dec, held them to be
mere spirits. It has been the more current opinion,
especially in later times, that they are substances en-
tirely spiritual, who can, at any time, assume bodies,
and appear in human or other shapes. Ecclesiastical
writers make an hierarchy of nine orders of angels.
Others have distributed angels into nine orders, according
to the names by which they are called in Scripture, and
reduced these orders into three hierarchies ; to the first
of which belong seraphim, cherubim, and thrones; to the
second, dominions, virtues, and powers ; and to the third,
principalities, archangels, and angels. The Jews reckon
four orders or companies of angels, each headed by an
archangel ; tlie first order being that of Michael ; the se-
cond, of Gabriel ; the third, of Uriel ; and the fourth, of
Raphael. Following the scripture account, we shall find
mention made of different orders of these superior beings ;
for such a distinction of order seems intimated in the
names given to different classes. Thus we have thrones,
dominimis, principalities, or princedoms, powers, authorities,
living ones, chernbim, and seraphim. That some of these titles
may indicate the same class of angels, is probable ; but
that they all should be but different appellations of one
common and equal order, is improbable. We learn also
from Scripture, that they dwell in the immediate presence
of God ; that they " excel in strength ;" that they are im-
mortal ; and that they are the agents through which God
very often accomplishes his special purposes of judgment
and mercy. Nothing is more frequent in Scripture than
the missions and appearances of good and bad angels,
whom God employed to declare his will ; to correct, teach,
reprove, and comfort. God gave the law to Moses, and
appeared to the old patriarchs, by the mediation of angels,
■who represented him, and spoke in his name. Acts 7: 30,
35. Gal. 3: 19. Heb. 13: 2.
3. Though the Jews, in general, believed the existence
of angels, there was a sect among them, the Saddu-
cees, who denied the existence of all spirits whatever, God
only excepted. Acts 23: 8. Before the Babylonish capti-
vity, the Hebrews seem not to have known the names of
any angel. The Talmudists say they brought the names
of angels from Babylon. Tobit, who is thought to have
resided in Nineveh some time before the captivity, men-
tions the angel Raphael, Tob. 3: 17. 11: 2—7. and
Daniel, who lived at Babylon, some time after Tobit, has
taught us the names of Michael and Gabriel. Dan. 8: 16.
9: 21. 10: 21. In the New Testament, we find only the
two latter mentioned by name. Luke 1: 19. Rev. 12: 7.
2. There are various opinions as to the time when the an-
gels were created. Some think this took place when our
heavens and the e;irth were made. For this opinion, how-
ever, there is no just foundation in the Mosaic account.
Others tliink that angels existed long before the formatioti
of our solar system ; and Scripture seems to favor this
opinion. Job 28: 4 — 7. where God says, " Where wast thou
when I laid the foundations of the earth ? — and all the
sons of God shouted for joy."
5. The exact nitmber of angels is nowhere mentioned in
Scripture ; but it is always represented as very great ; Dan.
7: 10. says of the Ancient of Days, " A fiery stream issued
and came forth from before him ; thousand thousands min-
istered unto him, and ten thousand times ten thousand stood
before him." Jesus Christ says, that his heavenly Father
could have given him more than twelve legions of angels,
that is, more than seventy-two thousand. Matt. 26: 53.
and the Psalmist declares, that the chariots of God are
twenty thousand, even thousands of angels. 68: 17. These
are all intended not to express any exact number, but in-
definitely a very large one. (See also Heb. 12: 22.)
6. As to their character, though all the angels were
created alike good, yet Jude informs us, verse 6. that some
of them " kept not their first estate, but left their own
habitation," and these God hath " reserved in everlasting
chains under darkness, unto the judgment of the great
day." Speculations on the cause and occasion of their
fall are all vain and trifling. Milton is to be read on this
subject as on others, not as a divine, but as a poet. All
we know is, that they are not in their first " estate," or in
their original place ; that this was their own fault, for
" they left their own habitation ;" that they are in chains,
yet with Uberty to tempt ; and that they are reserved to
the general judgment. (See Devils.)
7. On the question of guardian angels. Bishop Horsley
observes : " That the holy angels are often employed by
God in his government of this sublunary world, is indeed
to be clearly proved by holy writ. That they have power
over the matter of the universe, analogous to the powers
over it which men possess, greater in extent, but still limit-
ed, is a thing which might reasonably be supposed, if it
were not declared. But it seems to be confirmed by many
passages of holy writ ; from which it seems also evident
that they are occasionally, for certain specific purposes,
commissioned to exercise those powers to a prescribed ex-
tent. That the evil angels possessed before their fall the
like powers, which they are still occasionally permitted to
exercise for the punishanent of wicked nations, seems also
evident. That they have a power over the human sensory,
which they are occasionally permitted to exercise, and by
means of which they may inflict diseases, suggest evil
thoughts, and be the instruments of temptations, must
also be admitted. But all this amounts not to any thing
of a discretional authority placed in the hands of tutelar
angels, or to an authority to advise the Lord God with re-
spect to the measures of his government. Confidently I
deny that a single text is to be found in holy writ, which,
rightly understood, gives the least countenance to the
abominable doctrine of such a participation of the holy
angels in God's government of the world. In what man-
ner then, it may be asked, are the holy angels made at all
subservient to the purposes of God's government ? This
question is answered by St. Paul in his Epistle to the He-
brews, m the last verse of the fii-st chapter ; and this is
the only passage in the whole Bible, in wldch we have any
thing explicit upon the office and employment of angels:
' Are they not all,' saith he, ' ministering spirits, sent
forth to minister for them that shall be heirs of salvation V
They are all, however high in rank and order, nothing
more than ' ministering spirits,' or, hterally, ' serving
spirits ;' not invested with authority of their own, but
' sent forth,' occasionally sent forth, to do such service as
may be required of them, ' for them that shall be heirs of
salvation.'" (See Matt. 18: 10. 1 Cor. 11: 10. Eccl. 5: 6.)
— Buck; Watson; Calmet ; Jones; Works of R. Hall, vo\.
iii. But no writer on the subject of angels has equalled
Dwight. (See his Theology, Ser. xviii. six.)
ANGELS OF THE CHURCHES. This title is some
disputed. Dr. Prideaux observes, that the minister of the
synagogue, who officiated in offering the public prayers,
being the mouth of the congregation, delegated by them, as
their representative, messenger, or angel, to address God in
prayer for them, was in Hebrew called sheliack-zibbor, that
is, the angel of the church ; and that from hence the chief
ANG
[83]
ANG
ministers of the seven churches of Asia are in the Eevela-
lion, by a name borrowed from the sjrpagogue, called
angels of those churches. — Jones.
ANGEL OF THE LORD,or the Angel Jehovah; a title,
as is supposed, of Christ in his appearances to the patriarchs
and others in the Old Testament. For example, when the
angel of the Lord found Hagar in the wilderness, " she
called the name of Jehovah that spake to her. Thou God
SEEST ME." The angd of the Lord, appeared to Moses in a
flame of fire ; but this same angel " called to him out of
the bush, and said, I am the God of thy fathers, the God
of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob ; and
Moses hid his face, for he was afraid to look upon God."
To omit many other passages, St. Stephen, in alluding to
the history of Moses, in his speech before the council,
says, " There appeared to Moses in the wilderness of
Mount Sinai, an angd of the Lord in a flame of fire,"
showing that the phraseology was in use among the Jews
in his day, and that tliis angel and Jehovah were regarded
as the same being; for he adds, "Moses was in the
church in the wilderness with the angd which spoke unto
him in mount Sinai." There is one part of the history
of the Jews in the wilderness, which so fully shows that
they distinguished this angel of Jehovah from all created
angels, as to deserve particular attention. In Exod. 23:
20. God makes this promise to Moses and the Israelites:
" Behold, I send an angel before thee to keep thee in the
way, and to bring thee into the place which I have pre-
pared. Beware of him, and obey his voice ; provoke him
not ; for he will not pardon your transgressions, for my
name is in him." Of this angel let it be observed, that
he is here represented as the guide and protector of the
Israelites ; to Him they were to owe their conquests and
their settlement in the promised laud, which are in other
places often attributed to the immediate agency of God ;
that they are cautioned to " beware of him," to reverence
and stand in dread of him ; that the pardoning of trans-
gressions belongs to him ; finally, " that the name of God
was in him." This name must be understood of God's
owTi peculiar name, Jehovah, t am, which he assumed as
his distinctive appellation at his first appearing to Moses ;
and as the names of God are indicative of his nature, he
who had a right to bear the peculiar name of God. must also
have his essence. This view is put beyond all- doubt by
the fact, that Moses and the Jews so understood the mat-
ter ; for afterwards, when their sins had provoked God to
threaten not to go up with them himself, but to commit
them to " an angel who should drive out the Canaanite,"
&c., the people mourned over this as a great calamity, and
Moses betook himself to special intercession, and rested
not until he obtained the repeal of the threat, and the re-
newed promise, " My presence shall go with thee, and I
will give thee rest." Nothing, therefore, can be more
clear than that Moses and the Israelites considered the
promise of the angel, in whom was " the name of God,"
as a promise that God himself would go with them. AVith
this uncreated angel, this frcsenee of the Lord, they were
satisfied, but not with " an angel" indefinitely, who was by
nature of that order of beings usually so called, and there-
fore a created being ; for at the news of God's determination
not to go up with them, Moses hastens to the tabernacle to
make his intercessions, and refuses an inferior conductor :—
" If thy presence go not with me, carry us not up hence."
The Jews held this Word, or Angel of the Lord, to be
the future Messiah, as appears from the writings of their
older Rabbins. So that he appears as the Jehovah of all
the three dispensations, and yet is invariably describ-
ed as a separate person from the unseen Jehovah, who
sends him. He was then the Word to be made flesh, and
to dwell for a time among us, to open the way to God by
his sacrifice, and to rescue the race, whose nature he
should assume, from sin and death. This he has now ac-
tually effected ; and the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian
religions are thus founded upon the same great princi-
ples,— the fall and misery of mankind, and their delive-
rance by a Divine Redeemer. — Watson.
ANGELICS ; an ancient sect, supposed by some to have
got this appellation from their excessive veneration of
angels ; and by others from maintaining that the world was
created by angels. — Buck.
ANGELITES ; a sect in the reign of ihe emperor Ana-
slasius, about the year 4'J'l ; so called from Angelium, a
place in the city of Alexandria, where they held their first
meetings. They were called likewise Severites, from Se-
verus, who was the head of their sect ; as also Theodosiaiis,
from one Theodosius, whom they made pope at Alexan-
dria. They held that the persons of the trinity are noi
the same ; that none of them exists of himself, and of his
own nature ; but that there is a common God or Deity ex-
isting in them all, and that each is God by a participation
of this Deity. — Buck.
ANGELO BUONARATTI, (Michael;) one of the
most distinguished names in the history of modern art,
eminent alike in painting, sculpture, and architecture, and
withal no mean poet, w;is born at Caprese or Chiusi, Italy,
in 1471 ; and died in 15ti3, aged 89.
He was one of those favorites of nature, who :u3mtinc
in their single persons the excellencies of many highly
gifted men. In his sixteenth )'ear, his talents began to
develop themselves to the admiration of all. The senate
hall, and the Laurentian libraiT at Florence ; the Sistine
and Pauline chapels, together with the new sacristy and
St. Peter's church at Rome, contain everlasting monu-
ments of his wonderful genius. His Last Judgment, in the
Sistine chapel, is his master-piece in painting. It was
unwillingly undertaken by him when sixty years old.
But naturally inclined as he was to deep and earnest
thought ; preferring the sublime conceptions of Dante to
all other poetry ; having by a constant study of anatomy
investigated the most secret mechanism of the muscles,
and conscious of his own power ; he endeavored in this
work to strike out a new path, and to surpass his prede-
cessors, particularly Luca Signoretti, by a display of ter-
rible power. Perhaps, also, he had a higher nnd holier
aim than critics have assigned him ; an aim more worthy
of a Christian. The picture is grand, nay gigantic, Hke
the mind which created it. It represents Christ in the act
of judging, or rather at the moment of condemning. Mar-
tyrs are seen, who show to the Judge of the living and
dead the insti'uments of their torture ; souls ascend to the
choirs of angels hovering above ; the condemned strive in
vain to break loose from the grasp of the devils ; there
the evil spirits burst into shouts of triumph at the sight
of their prey ; the lost who are dragged down endeavor to
cling to the good, who remain in Christ's kingdom ; the
gulf of eternal damnation is seen opening ; Jesus Christ
is seen surrounded by the apostles, who place a crown on
his head, and by a multitude of saints, while angels above
carry in triumph the symbols of his passion ; and lower
down another company of angels sound the trumpets in-
tended to awaken the dead from their tombs, and call th"m
to judgment. With these scenes of fear and despair, of
judgment and heavenly beatitude, the wall of the chapel,
which is of great height and breadth, is filled; and every
thing is executed with the lofty spirit of a master.
Yet this prince of artists was a humble and alTectionate
Christian. Every virtue seemed imited in his character.
His soul was elevated above human glory. He was beloved
and sought after by the great ; but he shunned them. And
the last words he uttered on earth were a charge to his
attendants, " In your passage through this i ife, remfm-
BER THE SUFFERINGS OF Jesus !" — CUssold ; DaMnport ;
Lnaj. Amer.
ANGER ; a painful passion of the mind, arising from
the actual, or supposed reception of an injur)', with a pie-
sent purpose of punishment. All anger is by no means sin-
ful ; it was designed by the Author of our nature for self-de-
fence : nor is it altogether a selfish passion, since it is
excited by injuries offered to others as well as ourselves,
and sometimes prompts us to reclaim offenders from sin
and danger. Eph. 4: 26. But it becomes sinful when con-
ceived upon trivial occasions or inadequate provoca-
tions ; when it breaks forth into outrageous actions ; vents
itself in reviling language, or is concealed in our thoughts
to the degree of hatred. To suppress this passion, the
following reflections of archdeacon Paley, may not be un-
suitable : " We should consider the possibihty of mistaking
the motives from which the conduct that ofiends us pro-
ceeded ; how often our offences have been the effect ot in-
advertency, when they were construed into indications ol
ANI
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malice ; the inducement which prompted our adversary
to act as he did, and how powerfully the same inducement
has, at one time or other, operated upon ourselves ; that
he is suffering, perhaps under a contrition, which he is
ashamed, or wants opportunity to confess ; and how ungene-
rous it is to triumph, by coldness or insult, over a spirit
already humbled in secret ; that the returns of kindness
are sweet, and that there is neither honor, nor virtue, nor
use in resisting them ; for some persons think themselves
bound to cherish and keep aUve their indignation, when
they find it dying away of itself. We may remember that
others have their passions, their prejudices, their favorite
aims, their fears, their cautions, their interests, their sud-
den impulses, their varieties of apprehension, as well as
we ; we may recollect what hath passed in our own
minds, when we have got on the wrong side of a quar-
rel, and imagine the same to be passing in our adver-
sary's mind now : when we became sensible of our mis-
behavior, what palliations we perceived in it, and expected
others to perceive : how we were affected by the kindness,
and felt the superiority of a generous reception, and ready
forgiveness ; how persecution revived our spirits with our
enmity, and seemed to justify the conduct in oturselves,
which we before blamed. Add to this the indecency
of extravagant anger ; how it renders us, while it lasts,
the scorn and sport of all about us, of which it leaves us,
when it ceases, sensible and ashamed ; the inconveniences
and irretrievaljle misconduct into which our irrascibility
has sometimes betrayed us ; the friendships it has lost us ;
the distresses and embarrassments in which we have been
involved by it ; and the repentance which, on one account
or other, it always costs us. But the reflection calculated,
above all others, to allay that haughtiness of temper which
is ever finding out provocations, and which renders anger
so impetuous, is that wliich the Gospel proposes ; namely,
that we ourselves are, or shortly shall be, supplicants for
mercy and pardon at the judgment-seat of God. Imagine
our secret sins all disclosed and brought to light ; imagine
us thus humbled and exposed ; trembling under the hand
of God ; casting ourselves on his compassion ; crying out
for mercy ; imagine such a creature to talk of satisfaction
and revenge ; refusing to be entreated, disdaining to for-
give ; extreme to mark and to resent what is done amiss ;
imagine, I say, this, and you can hardly feign to yourself
an instance of more impious and unnatural arrogance." —
Palcy's Mur. Phil. ch. 7. vol. i. ; Fmvcefs excellent treatise
on Anger: Seed's Posth. Serm. 11. — Buck.
ANGER OF GOD. (See Wkath.)
ANGLO-CALVINISTS ; a name given by some wri-
ters to the members of the Church of England agreeing
with the other Calvinists in most points, excepting church
government . — Btic!:.
ANIMAL; an organized and living body, endowed
with sensation. Minerals are said to grow or increase,
plants to grow and live, and animals alone to have sensa-
tion. The Hebrews distinguished animals into pure and
impure, clean and unclean ; or those which might be eaten
and offered, and those whose use was prohibited. The
sacrifices which they offered, were, 1. Of the beeve kind;
a cow, bull, or calf. The ox could not be offered, because
it was mutilated ; and when it was said oxen were sacri-
ficed, we are to understand bulls. Levit. 22: 18, 19. Calmet
thinks, that the mutilation of animals was neither permit-
ted, nor used, among the Israelites. — 2. Of the goat kind ;
a he-goat, a she-goat, or kid. Levit. 22: 21. — 3. Of the
sheep kind ; a ewe, ram, or lamb. When it is said sheep
are offered, rams are chiefly meant, especially in burnt-
offerings and sacrifices for sin ; for as to peace-offerings,
or sacrifices of pure devotion, a female might be some-
times offered, provided it was pure, and without blemish.
Levit. 3: 1.
Besides these three sorts of animals used in sacrifices,
many others might be eaten, wild or tame ; as the stag,
the roe-buck, and in general all that have cloven feet, or
that chew the cud. Levit. 9: 2, 3, &c. All that have
not cloven hoofs, and do not chew the cud, were esteemed
impure, and could neither be offered nor eaten. The fat
of all sorts of animals sacrificed was forbidden to be eaten.
The blood of all kinds of animals generally, and in all
cases, was prohibited on pain of death. Levit. 3: 17. 7:
23 — 27. Neither did the Israelites eat animals which had
been taken and touched by a devouring or impure beast,
as a dog, a wolf, a boar, &c. Exod. 22: 3. ; nor of any
animal that died of itself. Whoever touched its carcase
was impure until the evening ; and till that time, and be-
fore he had washed his clothes, he did not return to the
company of other Jews. Levit. 9: 39, 40. 17; 15. 22: 8,
Fish that had neither fins nor scales were unclean. Levit,
11: 10. Birds which walk on the ground with four feet, as
bats, and flies that have many feet, were impure. The
law, however, excepts locusts, which have their hind feet
higher than those before, and rather leap than walk.
These were clean, and might be eaten, Levit. 11: 21, 22-
as they still are in Palestine. — The distinction betweerv
clean and ur>clean animals has been variously accounted
for. Some have thought it symbolical, intended to teach
the avoidance of those evil qualities for which the unclean
animals were remarkable ; others, that, in order that the
Hebrew's might be preserved from idolatry, they were
commanded to kill and eat many animals which were sa-
cred among the Egyptians, and were taught to look with
abhorrence upon others which they reverenced. Others
have found a reason in the unwholesomeness of the flesh
of the creatures pronounced by the law to be unclean, sw
that they resolve the whole into a sanative regulation. But
it is not to be forgotten that this division of animals into
clean and unclean, existed both before the law of Moses,
and even prior to the flood. The foundation of it was
therefore clearly sacrificial ; for before the deluge it could
not have reference to health, since animal food was not;
allowed to man prior lo the deluge ; and as no other
ground for the distinction appears, except that of sacrifice^
it mttst therefore have had reference to the selection of^
victims to be solemnly offered to God, as a part of wor-
ship, and as the means of drawing near to him by expia-
tory rites for the forgiveness of sins. Some, it is true,
have regarded this distinction of clean and unclean beasts
as used by Bloses by way of proTepsis, or anticipation, — a
notion which, if it could not be refuted by the context,
would be perfectly arbitrary. Not only are the beasts,
which Noah was to receive, spoken of as clean and un-
clean ; but it will be noticed, that, in tlie command to take
them into the ark, a difference is made in the number to he-
preserved, — the dea}% being to be received by sevens, and
the unclean by inw of a kind. This shows that this dis-
tinction among beasts had been established in the time of
Noah ; and thus the assumption of a prolepsis is refuted..
The critical attempts which have been made to show that
animals were allowed to man for food, previous to the'
flood, have wholly failed.
A second argument is furnished by the prohibition of
blood for food, after animals had been granted to man for
his sustenance along with the " herb of the field." This
prohibition is repeated by Moses to the Israelites, with
this explanation : — " I have given it upon the altar to
make an atonement for your souls." From this it has in-
deed been argued, that the doctrine of the atoning power
of blood was new, and was then, for the first time, an-
nounced by Moses, or the same reason for the prohibition
would have been given to Noah. To this we may reply,
1. That unless the same be supposed as the ground of the
prohibition of blood to Noah, as that given by Moses to
the Jews, no reason at all can be conceived for this re-
straint being put upon the appetite of mankind from Noah
to Moses. — 2. That it is a mistake to suppose, that the de-
claration of Moses to the Jews, that God had " given them
the blood for an atonement," is an additional reason for the
interdict, not to be found in the original prohibition to
Noah. The whole passage in Levit. 17. is, "And thou
shalt say to them. Whatsoever man there be of the house
of Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among you, that
eateth any manner of blood, I will even set my face
against that soul that eateth blood, and I will cut him off
from among his people : foe the life of the flesh is in the
blood ; and I have given it upon the altar, to make atone-
ment for your souls : For it is the m ood (or life) that
maketh atonement for the soul." Tne great reason, then,
of the prohibition of blood is, that it is the life ; and what
follows respecting atonement is exegetical of this reason ;
the life is the blood, and the blood of life is given as an
ANI
[ 85]
ANN
atonement. Now, by turning to the original prohibition
in Genesis, we find tliat precisely the same reason is
given : " But the flesh with the blood, which is the life
thereof, shall ye not eat." The reason then, being the
same, the question is, whether the exegesis added by Mo-
ses must not necessarily be understood in the general
reason given for the restraint to Noah. Blood is prohibited
for this cause, that it is the life ; and Moses adds, that it
is " the blood," or life, " which makes atonement." Let
any one attempt to discover any cause for the prohibition
of blood to Noah, in the mere circumstance that it is " the
life," and he will find it impossible. It is no reason at
all, moral or instituted, except that as it was life substitut-
ed for life, the life of the animal in sacrifice for the life of
man, and that it had a sacred appropriation. The man-
ner, too, in which Moses introduces the subject is indica-
tive that, although he was renewing a prohibition, he was
not publishing a "new doctrine ;" he does not teach his
people that God had then given, or appointed, blood to
make atonement ; but he prohibits them from eating it,
because he had made this appointment without reference
to time, and as a subject with which they were familiar.
Because the blood was the life, it was sprinkled upon, and
poured out at, the altar : and we have in the sacrifice of
the paschal lamb, and the sprinkling of its blood, a suffi-
cient proof^ that before the giving of the law, not only was
blood not eaten, but was appropriated to a sacred sacrifi-
cial purpose. Nor was this confined to the Jews ; it was
customary with the Komans and Greeks, who, in like man-
ner, poured out and sprinkled the blood of victims at their
altars, a rite derived, probablj', from the Eg}'ptians, as
they derived it, not from Moses, but from the sons of Noah.
The notion, indeed, that the blood of the victims was pe-
culiarly sacred to the gods, is impressed upon all ancient
pagan mythology.
If, therefore, the distinction of animals into clean and
tmclean existed before the flood, and was founded upon
the practice of animal sacrifice, we have not only a proof
of the antiquity of that practice, but that it was of divine
institution and appointment, since Almighty God gave
laws for its right and acceptable performance. Still fur-
ther, if animal sacrifice was of divine appointment, it
must be concluded to be typical only, and designed to teach
the great doctrine of moral atonement, and to direct faith
to the only true Sacrifice which could take away the sins
of men; — "the Lamb slain from the foundation of the
world," — the victim " without spot," who suffered the just
for the unjust, that he might bring us to God. (See Sa-
crifices.)— Watsoii.
ANIMAL FEELING; a term used (of late) by theo-
logical writers to describe that sort of religious excitement
which may be produced through sympathy and the imagi-
nation, or merely physical causes in some way associated
with religion, while neither the reason, the conscience, or
the heart, are brought into their proper action. The term
is derived from the fact, that affections of this kind have
their source and seat, not in the mind strictly speaking,
but in the animal frame ; and are liable to be mistaken
for the genuine affections of piety, while in truth they
may and do exist, often in the highest degree, where the
subject of them exhibits incontestible evidence of being
still unrenewed in the spirit of his mind.
Many, even of the truly pious, it is to be feared, judge
of their spiritual state, under the mistaken supposition,
that the force of the religious affections is to be mainly es-
timated by the physical thermometer — by the degree of mere
animal fervor — by ardors, and transports, and raptures,
of which, from constitutional temperament, a person may
be easily susceptible ; or into which, daily experience
must convince us, that people of strong conceptions, and
■n'arm passions, may work themselves, without much dif-
ficulty, where their hearts are by no means truly or deep-
ly interested. Ever)' tolerable actor can attest the truth
of this remark. These high degrees of the passions, bad
men may experience ; good men may want. They may
be the natural operalions of either a genuine or a ficti-
tious piety ; and therefore cannot be the trtte standard by
which to determine either the nature or the strength of the
religious affections.
To ascertain the true nature of our feelings, we must
examine, 1. IVliethcr they are grounded in evangelical know-
ledge. Animal feelings are ignorant, erroneous, or vague ;
but evangelical affections have their root in strong and
just conceptions of the supreme excellence of their object ;
and lead us to count all things loss, in comparison with
the knowledge of Christ, and an interest in his great salva-
tion.— 2. Whether they are permanent, or habitual. Animal
feelings are but occasional visitants ; evangelical affcdc
tions are the abiding inmates of the soul. — 3. Wiiether
they are of holy tendency. Animal feelings often coincide
with some vicious passion or propensity ; but evangelical
affections are irreconcilably opposed to every sin. — 1.
Whether they exert a conscientious control over the whole man.
Animal feelings generally disturb the intellect, and often
overpower and exhaust tlie frame by their violence ; but
evangelical afiections, when most intense, regulate the ap-
petites, and moderate all the inferior desires, which are
culpable only in their excess ; thus striving to reign se-
renely in the bosom, mth a settled, undisputed predomi-
nance.— Above all, 5. Whether they are practical in their
influence. Animal feelings end in the mere terror, or lux-
ury, of the excitement ; but evangelical affections prompt
to the active discharge of the duties of life ; the personal,
domestic, and relative, the professional, and social, and
civil duties. — Here the widencss of their range, and the
universality of their influence, will generally serve to dis-
tinguish the evangelical feelings from those which are
merely animal. From the daily incidents tif conjugal and
domestic life, we learn that a heat of affection, occasion-
ally vehement, but superficial and transitory, may consist
too well with a course of conduct, exhibiting incontestible
proofs of neglect and nnlrindness. Bm ir a man love me,
says Christ, he will keep mv sayixos. John 14: 23.
"Without suffering ourselves, therefore, to derive too much
complacency from transient fervors oWevotion, we should
carefully and frequently prove ourselves by this unequivo-
cal test, given us by our Savior and Judge ; impartially
examining our daily conduct ; and often comparing our
ACTUAL with our POSSIBLE serviccs ; the fair amount of our
exertions, with our natural or acquired means, and multi-
plied opportunities of usefulness among men. — Wtlher-
force^s View; Natural History of Enthusiasm ; Maclaurin^s
Essays ; Spring's Essays ; Edwards cm the Affections.
ANISE ; an annual umbelliferous plant, the seeds of
which have an aromatic smell, a pleasant, warm taste,
and a carminative quality. But by anithon. Matt. 23: 23.
the dill is meant. Our translators seem to have been first
misled by a resemblance of the sound. No other versions
have fallen into the mistake. The Greek of anise is arti-
son ; but o( dill, anithon.
ANNA ; the daughter of PhanucI, a prophetess and
widow, of the tribe of Asher. Luke 2: 36, 37. She was
married early, and had lived onl)- seven years with her
husband. Being then disengaged from the ties of mar-
riage, she thought only of pleasing the Lord ; and continu-
ed without ceasing in the temple, serring Gcxl night and
day, with fasting and prayer, as the evangelist expresses
it. However, her serving God at the temple, night and
day, says Dr. Prideaux, is to be understood no otherwise
than that she constantly attended the morning and eve-
ning sacrifice at the temple ; and then with great devo-
tion offered up her prayers to God ; the time of morning
and evening sacrifice being the most solemn time of prayer
among the Jews, and the temple the most solemn place
for this devotion. Anna was fourscore years of age when
the holy virgin came to present Jesus in the temple ; and,
entering accidentally, while Simeon was pronouncing his
thanksgiving, she likewise began to praise God, and to
speak of the Messiah to all those who Ai'aited for redemp-
tion in Jerasalem. We know nothing more either of the
life or death of this holy woman. — Watson.
ANNAS, or ANANUS, as .losephus calls him, wa> the
son of Seth, and high priest of ihe Jews. He succeeded
Joazar, the sou of Simon, enjoyed the high priesl'-ood
eleven years, and was succeeded by Ishmael, thes.-.> o(
Phabi. After he was deposed, he still presen-ed the title
of high priest, and had a great share in the raanag>-'"'ient
of public affairs. He is called high priest in conjui.- lion
with Caiaphas, when John the Baptist entered upi-i the
exercise of his mission ; though Calmet thinks that at 'Jjal
ANO
L8C]
ANS
time he did not, strictly speaking, possess or officiate in
that character. Lzke 3: 2. On the contrary, Macknight
and some others are of opinion, that at this time Caiaphas
was only the deputy of Annas. He was father-in-law to
Caiaphas ; and Jesus Christ was carried before him, di-
rectly after his seizure in the garden of Olives. John 18:
13. Josephus remarks, that Armas was considered as one
of the happiest men of his nation, for five of his sons were
high priests, and he himself possessed that great dignity
many years. This was an instance of good fortune,
■which, till that time, had happened to no person. —
Watson.
ANNIHILATION ; the act of reducing any created
being into nothing. The sentiments of mankind have dif-
fered widely as to the possibility and impossibility of anni-
hilation. According to some, nothing is so difficult : it
requires the infinite power of God to effect it : according
to others, nothing so easy. Existence, say they, is a state
of violence ; all things are continually endeavoring to re-
turn to their primitive nothing : it requires no power at
all; it will do itself : nay, more, it requires an infinite
power to prevent it. With respect to human beings, it
appears probable from reason, but it is confirmed by Scrip-
tui'e, that thev will not be annihilated, but exist in a fu-
ture state. Matt. 10: 28. Eccl. 12: 7. John 5: 24. 1
Thess. 5: 10. Matt. 25: 34, 41. Luke 16: 22, 28. 20:
37, 38. 1 Cor. 15: (See p. 158, &c. vol. i. Massilon's Ser.
Eng. Trans. ; No. 129, Guardian ; Blair's Ser. vol. i. p.
461 ; and articles Destructionists, Resurrection, Soul.)
—Buck.
ANNUNCIATION ; the tidings brought by the angel
Gabriel to the virgin Mary, of the incarnation of Christ.
It is also used to denote a festival kept by the church, on
the 25th of March, in commemoration of these tidings. —
Buck. (See Mira(*ii.ous Conception.)
ANOINTING, or UNCTION, was a ceremony in fre-
quent use among the Hebrews. They anointed and per-
fumed, from principles of health and cleanness, as well as
religion. They anointed the hair, head, and beard. Psalm
133: 2. At their feasts and rejoicings, they anointed the
whole body ; but sometimes only the head or the feet.
John 12: 3. Luke 7: 37. Malt. 6: 17. The anointing
of dead bodies was also practised, to preserve them from
corruption. Mark 14: 8. 16: 1. Luke 23: 56. They
anointed kings and high priests at their inauguration,
(Exod. 29: 29. Lev. 4: 3. Judg. 9: 8. 1 Sam. 9: 16.
1 Kings 19: 15, 16.) as also the sacred vessels of the taber-
nacle and temple. Exod. 30: 26, &c.
Anointing, in general, was emblematical of a particular
sanctification ; a designation to the service of God, to a
holy and sacred use. God prescribed to Moses the man-
ner of making the oil, or the perfumed ointment, with
which the priests and the vessels of the tabernacle were
to be anointed. It was composed of the most exquisite
perfumes and balsams, and was prohibited for all other
uses. Ezekiel upbraids his people with having made a
like perfume for their own use. Chap. 23: 41.
Under the law, persons and things set apart for sacred
purposes, were anointed with the holy oil ; which appears
to have been a typical representation of the communica-
tion of the Holy Ghost to Christ and to his church. See
E.tod. 28: 29. Hence the Holy Spirit is called an unction
or anointing, 1 .Tohn 2: 20, 27. and our Lord is called the
" Messiah," or " Anointed One," to denote his being call-
ed to the offices of mediator, prophet, priest, ami king, to
all of which he was consecrated in our nature by the
anointing of the Holy Ghost. Matt. 3: 16, 17.
When we hear of the anointing of the Jewish kings, we
are to understand by it the same as theu- inauguration ;
inasmuch as anointing was the principal ceremony on
such an occasion. 2 Sam. 2: 4. 5: 3. As far as we are
informed, however, unction, as a sign of investiture with
the royal authority, was bestowed only upon Saul and
David, and subsequently upon Solomon and Joash, who
ascended the throne under such circumstances, that there
was danger of their right to the succession being forcibly
disputed. 1 Sam. 10: 24. 2 Sam. 2: 4. 5: 1—3. 1
Chron. 11: 1, 2. 2 Kings 11: 12—20. 2Chron.23: 1—21.
The ceremony of regal anointing needed not to be repeat-
ed in every instance of succession to the throne, because
the unction which the first one who held the sceptre itl
any particular line of princes had received, was supposed to
suffice for the succeeding incumbents in the same descent.
In the kingdom of Israel, those who were inducted into
the royal office, appear to have been inaugurated with
some additional ceremonies. 2 Kings 9: 13. The private
anointings which we learn to have been performed by the
prophets, (2 Kings 9: 3. comp. 1 Sam. 10: 1. 16: 1—13.)
were only prophetic symbols, or intimations that the per-
sons who were thus anointed, should eventually receive
the kingdom.
The holy anointing oil, which was made by Moses,
(Exod. 30: 22 — 33.) for the maintaining and consecrating
of the king, the high priest, and all the sacred vessels
made use of in the house of God, was one of those things,
as Dr. Prideaux observes, which was wanting in the se-
cond temple. The oil, made and consecrated for this use,
was commanded to lie kept by the children of Israel,
throughout their generations, and therefore it was laid up
in the most holy place of the tabernacle, and the first tem-
ple.— Calmet ; Watson.
ANOM(EANS ; the name by which the pure Arians
were called in the fourth centurT,r, in contradistinction to
the Semi-Arians. The word is formed from the Greek
anomnios, different. (See Arians and Semi-Arians.) — Buck.
ANOTHER GOSPEL ; a phrase used on seveial oc-
casions by St. Paul, to express, in the strongest manner,
the ruinous character of those legal perversions, which
the Judaizing teachers introduced. Gal. 1: 7. 2 Cor. 11:
14. He assures them that a scheme which tended to
transfer their reliance for salvation, from Christ to them-
selves, or any other object, however much, in other infe-
rior points, it might resemble the Gospel of Christ, and
shelter itself under his name and authority, was, in reali-
ty, not the same as the Gospel of Christ ; and that, instead
of saving, it would, in fact, subvert their souls. Acts 15:
24. Hence, he gave place to them by subjection, no, not
for an hour. Gal. 2:5. Hence, even Peter, by his appa-
rent compromise, drew upon himself public and solemn
reproof Gal. 2: 11. And hence, the reiterated, fearful
warning and malediction of the apostle, against such as
introduce into Christianity an element which corrupts it.
Gal. 1: 6 — 9. But though ?re, or an angel from heaven,
preach any other Gospel than that which we have preached un-
to you, let him he accursed.
ANSARIANS, or Ensarians ; the inhabitants of a
chain of mountains in Syria, whose religion is a compound
of paganism and Mahometanism, which they were taught
by an old man, who inhabited the village of Nasar, near
Koufa ; who, by his austerities, passed for a saint and a
prophet, for which his only qualifications were a life of
outward austerity, and a high degree of enthusiasm — if
he were not rather an impostor. He made many disci-
ples, and their descendants partly worship the sun, or
other material objects ; and partly following no rule but
their own wild imaginations and depraved passions. (See
Assassins.) — Enc. Perth ; Williams.
ANSWER ; beside the common usage of this word,
in the sense of a reply, it has other significations. Moses,
having composed a thanksgiving, after the passage of the
Red Sea, Miriam, it is said, answered, " Sing ye to the
Lord," Ice, — meaning, that Moses, with the men on one
side, and Miriam, with the women, on ;he other side, sung
the same song, as it were, in two choruses, or divisions ;
of which one oaOT'crci the other. Numb. 21 : 17. "Then
Israel sang this song. Spring up, 0 well, answer unto it ;"
that is, sing responsively, one side (or choir) singing first,
and then the other. 1 Sam. 29 : 5. " Is not this David, of
whom they sung one to another in dances, saying, Saul
hath slain his thousands, and David his ten thousands ?"
They sung this song to his honor in distinct choruses.
This word is taken likewise for, to accuse or to defend
any one, judicially. Gen. 30: 33. "My righteousness
shall answer for me ;" it shall be my advocate before thee.
Deut. 31: 21. "The song which thou shalt compose and
teach them, shall testify (answer) against them as a wit-
ness." Isaiah says, " The show of their countenance will
testify (answer; against them ;" their impudence will be
like a witness and an accuser. Hosea 5: 5. "The pride
of Israel doth testify (answer) to his face."
ANT
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ANT
To aiisiver, is likewise taken in a bad sense ; as when it
is said tliat a son answers his father insolently, or a servant
liis master. Rum. 'J: 20. " Who art thou that repliest
against God ?" that is, to contest or debate with him. John
18:22. "Answerest thou the high priest so?" St. Paul
declares that he '• had in himself the answer (or sentence)
cf death ;" 2 Cor. i: 9. like a man who has had notice of
condemnation, he had a certain assurance of dying.
To answer, is also used in Scripture for the commence-
ment of a discourse, when no reply to any question or ob-
jection is intended. This mode of speaking is often used
by the evangelists, " And Jesus answered and said." It is
a Hebrew idiom. — Watson.
ANSWER OF A GOOD CONSCIENCE ; a phrase
which occurs in 1 Pet. 3: 21. The meaning of it, as well
as of the whole verse in which it is found, has been long
and often drawn into dispute, in the course of the baptis-
kA controversy, for the last three hundred years. The
following is an accurate translation of the verse : " A form
corresponding to which [atititypos, to the ark of Noah, in
which few, Aiat is, eight souls, were perfectly saved, through
the water which surrounded them,] doth now also save us,
baptism, (not the pouting off of the defilement of the flesh, but
the consulting of God's will by a good conscience,) through the
resurrection of Jesus Christ." It is submitted, with diffi-
dence, whether the sense be not this : " Baptism, though
lU itself a visible outward form, like Noah's ark, not able
by any intrinsic efficacy, to purify us from our sins ; yet,
as an act of conscientious and obedient faith like his, tak-
ing refuge in the appointed means of salvation, (Rom. 4:
23, 25.) is equcdly effectual to our deUverance from that
■rn-ath, which is to come upon the world of the ungodly."
Heb. 15: 7. 2 Pet. 2: 5. Rom. 5: 9, 10. 10: 8—13.
Acts 22: 16.
ANT, gemleh ; in the Turkish and Arabic, neml, Prov.
6: 6. 30: 25. It is a little insect, famous from all anti-
quity for its social habits, its economy, unwearied indus-
try, and prudent foresight. It has afforded a pattern of
commendable frugality to the profuse, and of unceasing
diligence to the slothful. Solomon calls the ants "exceed-
ing wise ; for though a race not strong, yet they prepare
their meat in the summer." He therefore sends the slug-
gard to these httle creatures, to learn wisdom, foresight,
care, and diligence.
"Go to the ant; learn of its ways, be wise :
It early heaps ita stores, leat want surprise.
Stilled in the various year, the prescient sage
Beholds the summer chilled in winter's rage.
Survey its arts ; in each partitioned cell
Economy and plenty dei^n to dwell."
That the ant hoarded up grains of corn against winter
for its sustenance, was very generally believed by the an-
cients, though modern naturalists seem to question the
fact. Thus Horace says,
" Sicut
Parvida (ruim exemplo est) magni/ormica laboris
Ore trahit gu.odcunque potest, atgue addit acervo
Qu&n struir, hand ignara ac non incauta futuri ;
Q.u(E simul inversum contristat aqitartus mnium
Non usquam prorepit, et itlis utitur ante
QucEsilis sapietis."
Sat. I. 1. i. V. 33.
" For thus tl^e little ant (to human lore
No mean example) forms her frugal store,
*3ath_ered with mighty toil on every aide,
Nor ignorant nor careless to provide
For future want ; yet, when the stars appear
That darkly sadden the declining year,
No more she comes abroad, but wisely lives
On the fair stores industrious summer gives."
explored, it would be rash to affirm that no anis have
magazines of provisions ; for, although, during the cold
of our winters in this country, they remain in a state of
torpidity, and have no need of food, yet in warmer regions,
during the rainy seasons, when they are probably confined
to their nests, a store of provisions may be necessar}' for
them. Even in northern climates, against wet seasons,
they may provide in this way for their sustenance and
that of the young brood, which, as Mr. Smeatham ob-
serves, are very voracious, and cannot bear to be long de-
prived of their food ; else why do ants carry worms, livmg
insects, and many other such things, into their nests ?
Solomon's lesson to the sluggard has been generally ad-
duced as a strong confirmation of the ancient opinion : it
can, however, only relate to the species of a warm ch
mate, the habits of which are probably different from those
of a cold one ; so that liis words, as commonly interpreted,
may be perfectly correct and consistent with nature, and
yet be not at all applicable to the species that are indige
nous to Europe."
The ant, according to the royal preacher, is one of those
things which are little upon the earth, but exceeding wise.
The superior wisdom of the ant has been recognised by
many writers. Horace, in the passage from which the
preceding quotation is taken, praises its sagacity ; Vir-
gil celebrates its foresight, in providing for the wants
and infirmities of old age, while it is young and vigor
ous : — ■
atque inopi jnetuens formica senectcs.
And we learn from the Hesiod, that among the earlies!
Greeks it was called Idris, that is, wise, because it fore-
saw the coming storm, and the inauspicious day, and col-
lected her store. Cicero believed that the ant is not only
furnished with senses, but also with mind, reason, and
memory : — //; formica non modo sensus sed etiam mens, ratio,
memoria. The union of so many noble qualities in so
small a corpuscle, is indeed one of the most remarkable
phenomena in the works of nature. — Watson.
ANTEDILUVIANS ; a general name for all mankind
who lived before the flood, including the whole himian
race, from the creation to the deluge. For the history of
the antediluvians, see Book of Genesis ; Winston's Jose-
phus ; Cockium's Treatise on the Deluge ; and article De-
LUOE. — Buck.
The learned Bochart, in his Hierozoicon, has displayed
nis vast reading on this subject, and has cited passages
from Pliny, Lucian, iElian, Zoroaster, Origen, Basil, and
Epiphanius, the Jewish rabbins and Arabian naturalists,
all concurring in opinion that ants cut off the heads of
grain, to prevent their germinating ; and it is observable
that the Hebrew name of the insect is derived from the
verb gemel, which signifies to cut off, and is used for cut-
tmg off ears of com. Job 24: 24.
The following remarks are from " the Introduction to
Entoinolog)'," by Kirby and Spence :—
" Till the manners of exotic ants are more accurately
ANTELOPE. This animal is not mentioned in our
translation of the Bible : but it is generally agi'eed, that
the zebi, which our translators take for the roe, is the ga-
zelle, or antelope. The former animal is extremelv rare
in Palestine, and the adjoining countries ; while the lat-
ter is common in every part of the Levant. Add to this,
that the zebi was allowed to the Hebrews, as an article of
food, (Deut. 12: 5, &c.) and scarcely a doubt can remain
on the subject.
The name of this animal, which is from a verb signify-
ing to assemble, or collect together, is very characteristic of
the gregarious character of the antelope, which live to-
gether in large troops, to the number sometimes of two or
three thousand. The Septuagint, or Greek version of the
Bible, uniformly translates the Hebrew word be/iuty ; and
it is so translated, 2 Sam. 1: 19. Isaiah 4: 2. Ezek. 7:
20, &c.
ANT
[89]
ANT
The gazelle forms a connecting species between the
goat and the deer kinds ; somewhat resembling the former
internally, and the latter externally, except its homs,
which are annulated, or ringed round, with longitudinal
depressions running from the bottom to the point. Of all
animals in the world, the gazelle is said to have the most
beautiful eye.
From Dr. Russell we learn, that the inhabitants of Syria
distinguish between the antelope of the mountain, and
that of the plain. The former is the most beautifully
formed, and it bounds with surprising agility ; the latter
is of a much lighter color, and is neither so strong nor so
active. Both, however, are so fleet, that the greyhounds,
though reckoned excellent, cannot come up M'ith them,
without the aid of the falcon, except in soft, deep ground.
It is to the former species of this animal, apparently, that
the sacred writers allude, since they distinctly notice their
fleetnes; upon the mountains. 1 Chron. 12: 8. Cant. 2: 8,
9, 17. 3: 14.
The usual method of taking the antelope is by hunting
ic with the falcon, or the ounce ; btit it is sometimes taken
by the following expedient. A tame antelope, bred up for
the purpose, is taught to join those of its kind wherever it
perceives them. When the hunter, therefore, discovers a
herd of these together, he fixes a noose round the horns
of the tame animal, in such a manner, that if the rest but
touch it, they are entangled ; and thus prepared, he sends
his antelope among the rest. The tame animal no sooner
approaches, but the males of the herd instantly sally forth
to oppose him ; and in butting with their horns, are caught
in the noose. Finding itself taken in the snare, terror
lends it additional strength and activity, and it makes the
most vigorous exertions to disentangle itself, and escape
before the hunter can come up with it. Its effort under
these circumstances is proposed for imitation to the per-
son who had rashly become surety for his neighbor :
" Deliver thyself as an antelope from the hand of the
hunter, and as a bird from the hand of the fowler," Prov.
6: 5. That is, " Thou hast imprudently placed thyself in
perilous circumstances, suffer no delay in making an ef-
fort for thy release."
There seems to be something so highly figurative in the
exclamation of the bride, (Cant. 1: 7.) "Tell me, O thou
whom my soul loveth, where thou feedest," Sec. that it
has never occurred to critics, that the speaker, assuming
the metaphorical character of a gazelle, or antelope, in-
quires for the resting place of the flock, wherein she, also,
might rest. They have usually supposed that she makes
this inquiry in the character of a shepherdess, meaning to
accompany her shepherd, and to associate with him at the
noontime of day, when he would be reposing.^ Abbott's
Script. Nat. History.
ANTEROS ; a Grecian, bishop of Rome, who suffered
martyrdom in the third century, for collecting the acts of
the martyrs, after holding his office only forty days. His
death happened, A. D. 2.3.5.
ANTHEM ; a church song, performed in cathedral ser-
vice, by choristers who sung alternately. It was used to
denote both psalms and hyirjns, when performed in this
manner ; but, at present, anthem is used in a more con-
fined sense, being apphed to certain passages, usually
taken out of the Scriptures, and adapted to a particular
solemnity. Anthems were first introduced in the reformed
service of the EngUsh church, in the beginning of the
reign of queen Elizabeth. — BiKk.
ANTHONY, (Susanna ;) an eminently pious female,
of Newport, Rhode Island, was bora in 1726, and died June
23, 1791, aged sixty-four years. Her parents were Quakers,
Dr, Hopkins published the memoirs of her life, consisting
chiefly of extracts from her uTitings, of which there was
a second edition in 1810. She devoted herself chiefly to
prayer. — Allen.
ANTHROPOMORPHITES ; a sect of ancient heretics,
who were so denominated from two Greek words, anthro-
pos, man, and nwrpha, shape. They understood every
thing spoken in Scripture in a Uteral sense, and particu-
larly that passage in Genesis, in which it is said, " God
made man after his own image." Hence they maintained,
that God had a human shape. — Watson.
ANTHEOPOP \THy ; a metaphor, by which things
belonging to creatures, and especially to man, are ascrib-
ed to God. Instances of this abound in the Scriptures, by
which they adapt themselves to human modes of speak-
ing, and to the limited capacities of men. These anthro-
popathies we must however interpret in a manner suitable
to the majesty of the divine nature. Thus, when the
members of a human body are ascribed to God, we must
imderstand by them those perfections of which such mem-
bers in us are the instruments. The eye, for instance,
represents God's knowledge and watchful care ; the arm,
his power and strength ; the ears, the regard he pays to
prayer, and to the cry of oppression and misery, &c.
Farther, when human affections are attributed to God, we
must so interpret them, as to imply no imperfection, such
as perturbed feeling in him . When God is said to repent,
the antecedent, by a frequent figure of speech, is put for
the consequent ; and, in this case, we are to understand
an altered mode of proceeding on the part of God, which
in man is the effect of repenting. — Watson.
ANTI-BAPTISTS. It is well known that the society
of Friends have, from the beginning, rejected water bap-
tism, as long since superseded by the baptism of the Holy
Spirit — the " one baptism" of Christ, which they alone ad-
mit. That Christian baptism is not an external rite, they
argue from 1 Pet, 3: 21, and other passages, which speak
of baptism as a moral and spiritual rite. These, however,
are not the persons here chiefly intended by Anti-baptists.
An ingenious writer, under the signature of Agnostos, has
lately argued much at length, and with considerable force,
that baptism is a proselyting ordinance, and to be applied
only to converts from other religions to Christianity, and
is not, therefore, applicable to their descendants, whether
infant or adult. This he infers from the words of the
commission — " Teach (or disciple) all nations, baptizing
them ;" — from the practice of the apostles and first Chris-
tians, who (so far as appears) baptized none but converts
from Judaism or heathenism, and their families ; — from
baptizing not forming any part of the pastoral office, but
being peculiar to apostles or evangelists ; and from the
facilities which his hypothesis affords to Christian union,
as removing the great barrier between Pedobaptists and
Anti-pedobaptists, From another writer, under the signa-
ture of Vindex, we learn that there are in Ireland several
societies of Anti-baptists, which seem not unUkely to form
a considerable denomination.
This view of baptism, however, admits of, and even re-
quires, its perpetuity, so long as there are Jews, pagans, or
infidels, to be baptized ; but transfers the work rather to
missionaries than settled ministers. At the same time,
the admission of penitent Atheists, or even Deists, into the
Christian church, appears to make them as properly the
subjects of the ordinance as Jews or pagans ; and leaves
open the question as to the mode of administration, and
the qualification of infants to receive it, — Barclay's Apol.
prop. 12 ; Emlyn on Baptism ; Thoughts on Baptism, by
Agnostos, (1819 ;) Vindex's Letter to a member of the Churdi
meeting in Stafford-street, Dublin ; Williams.
ANTI-BURGHERS ; a numerous and respectable body
of dissenters from the church of Scotland, who differ from
the established church chiefly in matters of church govern-
ment ; and who differ, also, from the Burgher seceders,
with whom they were originally united, chiefly, if not
solely, respecting the lawfulness of taking the Burgess
oath, (For an account of their origin and principles, see
Seceders.) — Buck.
ANTICHRIST, This is a very important subject.
The word is derived from the Greek Antichristos, and, ac-
cording to bishop Hurd, signifies " a person of power,
actuated with a spirit opposite to that of Christ," For, to
adopt the illustration of the same learned writer, " as the
word Christ is frequently used in the apostolic writings,
for the doctrine of Christ, in which sense we are said to
' put on Christ,' to ' grow in Christ,' or to ' learn Christ ;'
so Antichrist, in the abstract, may be taken for a doc-
trine subversive of the Christian ; and when applied to a
particular man, or body of men, it denotes one who sets
himself against the spirit of that doctrine," Introduction
to the Study of the Prophecies, Serm, vii. In this general
sense, every person who is hostile to the authority of
Christ, as Lord or Head of the church, and to the spirit of
ANT
[89 J
ANT
bis religion, may be called Antichrist ; and the term occurs
as Ihur; used by the apostle John, when, referring to cer-
tain false teachers, who corrupted the truth from its sini-
]ilicity, he says, " even now are there many antichrists."
1 John 2: 18. and ch. 4: 3. But the name is generally
employed to denominate a great power, that was to arise
at a period subsequent to the days of the apostles, and
which, in an extraordinary degree, was to corrupt the
doctrine, blaspheme the name, and persecute the followers
of Christ. 2 Thess. 2: 3—10. 1 Tim. 4: 1—4. and 2
Tim. 3: 1—5.
No one subject has probably given rise to a greater di-
versity of opinion, than the question, "Who is Anti-
christ?" And the reader, whose curiosity may prompt
him to examine it, may be gratified by turning to the arti-
cle " Antichrist," in the Edinburg Encyclopedia, M'here
he will find no fewer tlian FonuTEEN different theories ad-
duced in answer to that question; nor would it be any
difficult task to extend the list to at least an equal num-
ber ! This remark, however, must not be understood as
intended to insinuate that the question, " who or what is
Antichrist?" is incapable of a satisfactory solution ; for
that would be to impeach divine revelation, which has
pronounced " a blessing on him that readeth, and on those
that hear the words of the prophecy," concerning Anti-
christ, " and that keep the things that are written therein."
Kev. 1: 3. Besides, the great variety of the opinions that
have been broached on this point, is easily accounted for,
by considering that those who have propagated them,
have, with scarcely an exception to the contrary, all been
the advocates of national establishments of religion ; and
thus, setting out from an erroneoits principle, common to
each, they have wandered in endless perplexity, contra-
dicting and confuting oTie another ! Truth is one, and al-
ways consistent with itself, but the mazes of error are in-
finite.
It must be obvious to any attentive reader of the apos-
tolic writings, that Antichrist is therein described under
the terms, " the man of sin," "that wicked one," "the
son of perdition." 2 Thess. 2: 3, 4, 8. These phrases,
in which the antichristian apostasy is personified, are bor-
rowed from the language in which the apostles describe
the true church cf God as " one new man," and " a per-
fect man," made up of Jews and Gentiles ;_ sometimes
also called " the body of Christ," of which every real be-
liever is a member, a body which is always represented
as holy, being sanctified by bis blood, and dedicated to
his service. " Eph. 2: 15. Ch. 1: 22, 23. Ch. 4: 13. 1
Pet. 2. Again, as the true church is spoken of in Scrip-
lure, under the appellation of " the bride," " the Lamb's
wife," and is said to be " presented to him a glorious
church, not having spot, or \vrinkle, or any such thing,"
so is this antichristian power represented by " a woman,"
and distinguished from the true church by her lewdness
and impirrity ; as " a great whore," and " the mother of
harlots," having daughters who imitate her wicked exam-
ple. Rev. 17: 1, 4, 6. and ch. 18: 7, 9. Sometimes Anti-
christ is spoken of as " the mystery of iniquity," and in
that view it is the proper contrast of " the mystery of god-
liness," or the mystery of the faith held in a pure con-
science, even as the mystery of iniquity is the mystery of
departing from the faith under a profession of it. Fur-
ther, as ancient Babylon was the enemy of God's people
Israel, so she was a type of the false or apostate church,
which is particularly held up to us under that figure in
the book of Revelation, ch. 17. and 18. Lastly, the true
church of God is his kingdom, of which the Son of David
is Lord, and who " sits upon his throne, and in his king-
dom, having the government of it upon his shoulders, to
order it, and to establish it with judgment and with jus-
tice, from henceforth, even forever." Is. 9: 7, 8. So An-
tichrist is described as " the son of perdition, who oppo-
seth [himself to Christ,] and exalteth himself above all
that is called God, or that is worshipped ; so that he, as
God, silteth in the temple of God, shewing himself that he
is God." 2 Thess. 2: 4. These few hints may serve to
show the general contrast which the inspired writers have
drawn between Christ and Antichrist, or between the true
and the false church ; the bride, the Lamb's wife, and the
great whore, the mother of harlots ; but the subject may
12
receive a more ample illustration, by considering the ge-
nius or spirit of the doctrine of Christ, with the nature of
his kingdom ; and glancing at some of the leading cor-
ruptions of both, which have appeared under the Christian
name. For, as bishop Ilurd lias justly remarked, in the
words quoted from him at the outset of this article, it
must ever be kept in view, that Antichrist denotes a person,
power, or l/odij of men, rvhidi sets itself against the spirit of
the doctrine of Christ.
The papists imagine tliey vicv, in the prophetical pic-
ture of Antichrist, imperial Rome, elated by her victories,
exulting in her sensuality and her spoils, polluted by ido-
latry, persecuting the people of God, and finally falling
like the first Babylon ; whilst a new and holy city, repre-
sented by their own commun m, filled with the spotless
votaries of the Chiistian faith rises out of its ruins, and
the victory of the cross is completed over the temples of
paganism. This scheme has had its able advocates, at
the head of whom may be placed Bossuet, bishop of
Meaux, Grotius, and Hammond. But in order to esta-
blish the resemblance, they violate the order of time, dis-
regard the opinions of the primitive Christians, and over-
look the appropriate descriptions of the apostles. After
the point had been maturely debated at the council of
Gap, held in 1603, a resolution was taken thereupon to
insert an article in the confession of faith, whereby the
pope is formally declared to be Antichrist. Pope Clement
VIII. was stung with this decision ; and even king Henry
IV. of France, was not a little mortified, to be thus declar-
ed, as he said, an imp of Antichrist.
With respect to the commonly received opinion, that
the church of Rome is Antichrist, Mede and Newton,.
Daubuz and Clarke, I.,owman and Hard, Jurieu, Vitringa,
and many other members of the Protestant churches, who
have written upon the subject, concur in maintaining, that
the prophecies of Daniel, St. Paul, and St. John, point di-
rectly to this church. This was likewise the opinion of
the first refonners ; and it was the prevalent opinion of
Christians, in the earliest ages, that Antichrist would ap-
pear soon after the fall of the Roman empire. Gregory
the great, in the sixth century, applied the prophecies con-
cerning the beast, in the Revelation, the man of sin, and
the apostasy from the faith, mentioned by St. Paul, to him
who should presume to claim the title of universal priest,
or universal bishop, in the Christian church ; and yet liis
immediate successor, Boniface III. received from the ty-
rant Phocas, the precise title which Gregory had thus cen-
sured. At the synod of Rheims, held in the tenth century,
Arnulphus, bishop of Orleans, appealed to the whole
council, whether the bishop of Rome was not the Anti-
clirist of St. Paul, " sitting in the temple of God," and
perfectly corresponding with the description of him given
by St. Paul. In the eleventh century, all the characters
of Antichrist seemed to be so luiited in the person of pope
Hildebrand, who took the name of Gregory VII. that Jo-
hannes Aventinus, a Romish historian, speaks of it as a
subject in which the generality of fair, candid, and ingenu-
ous writers agreed, that at that time was the reign of An-
tichrist. And the Albigenses and Waldenses, who may
be called the Protestants of the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, expressly asserted, in their declarations of faith,
that the church of Rome was the whore of Babylon.
Among the writings of the ancient Waldenses, those
noble witnesses of the truth, during the dark ages, one
of an extremely interesting character, is a Treatise con-
cerning Antichrist, Purgatorj', Invocation of Saints, and
the Sacraments, bearing date A. D. 1120, and attributcil,
not without probability, to the pen of the celebrated Peter
de Bruys. It thus describes Antichrist :
" Antichrist is not any particular person, ordained to any
degree, or office, or ministry ; but it is a system of false-
hood, adorning itself with a show of beauty and piety, yet
(as by the names and offices of the Scriptures, and the sa-
craments, and various other things, may appear) very un-
suitable to the church of Christ. The system of iniquity
thus completed, with its ministers, great and small, sup-
ported by those who are induced to follow it with an evil
heart, and blindfold — this is the congregation, which, ta-
ken together, comprises what is called Antichrist, or Baby-
lon, the fourth beast, the whore, the man of sin, the son
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of perdition. His ministers are called false prophets,
lying teachers, the ministers of darkness, the spirit of
error, the apocalyptic whore, the mother of harlots, clouds
without water, trees without leaves, twice dead, plucked
up by the roots, wandering stars, Balaamites, and Egyp-
tians.
" He is termed Antichrist, because, being disguised imder
the names of Christ and his church and faithful mem-
bers, he opposes the salvation which Christ wrought out,
and which is truly administered in his church — and of
which salvation believers participate by faith, hope, and
cha,rity. Thus he opposes the truth by the wisdom of this
world, by false religion, by counterfeit holiness, by eccle-
siastical power, by secular tyranny, and by the riches,
honors, dignities, with the • 'leasurcs and delicacies of this
world. It should therefo; 3 be carefully observed, that
Antichrist could not come, without a concurrence of all
these things, making up a system of hypocrisy and false-
hood. These must be, the wise of this world, the religious
orders, the pharisees, ministers, and doctors ; the secular
power, with the people of the world, all mingled together.
For although Antichrist was conceived in the times of the
apostles, he was then in his infancy, imperfect and un-
formed, rude, unshapen, and wanting utterance. He then
wanted those hypocritical ministers, and htiman ordinan-
ces, and the outward show of religious orders, which he
afterwards obtained. As he was destitute of riches and
other endowments, necessary to allure to himself ministers
for his service, and to enable him to multiply, defend, and
protect his adherents, so he also wanted the secular power
to force others to forsake the truth, and embrace false-
hood. But growing up in his members, that is, in his
blind and dissembling ministers, and in worldly subjects,
he at length arrived at full maturity, when men, whose
hearts were set upon the world, bhnd in the faith, multi-
plied in the church, and by the union of church and state,
got the power of both into their hands.
" Christ never had an enemy like this ; so able to pervert
the way of truth into falsehood, insomuch that the true
church, with her children, is trodden under foot. The
worship that belongs alone to God, he transfers to Anti-
christ himself — to the creature, male and female, deceased
— to images, carcasses, and relics. The sacrament of the
eucharist is converted into an object of adoration, and the
worshipping of God alone is prohibited. He robs the Sa-
vior of his merits, and the sufficiency of his grace in justi-
fication, regeneration, remission of sins, sanctification,
establishment in the faith, and spiritual nourishment ;
ascribing all these things to his own authority, to a form
of words, to his own works, to the intercession of saints,
and to the fire of purgatory. He seduces the people from
Christ, drawing off their minds from seeking those bless-
ings in him, by a lively faith in God, in Jesus Christ, and
in the Holy Spirit, and teaching his followers to expect
them by the will and pleasure and works of Antichrist.
" He teaches to baptize children into the faith, and attri-
butes to this the work of regeneration ; thus confounding
ihe work of the Holy Spirit in regeneration, with the ex-
.ernal rite of baptism, and on this foundation bestows or-
ders, and, indeed, grounds all his Christianity. He places
all religion and holiness in going to mass, and has
mingled together all descriptions of ceremonies, Jewish,
heathen, and Christian — and by means thereof, the people
are deprived of spiritual food, seduced from the true reli-
gion, and the commandments of God, and established in
vain and presumptuous hopes. All his works are done to
be seen of men, that he may glut himself with insatiable
avarice ; and hence every thing is set to sale. He allows
of open sins, without ecclesiastical censure, and even the
impenitent are not excommunicated. He does not govern,
nor does he maintain his unity by the Holy Spirit, but by
means of the secular power, making use of the same to
effect spiritual matters. He hates, and persecutes, and
searches after, and plunders, and destroys, the members
of Christ. These are some of the principal of the works
of Antichrist against the truth, but the whole are past
numbering or recording.
" On the other hand, he makes use of an outward confes-
sion of faith ; and therein is verified the saying of the
apostle — ' They profess in words that they know God, but
in works they deny him.' He covers his iniquity, by
pleading the length of his duration, or succession of time,
and the multitudes of his followers — concerning whom it
is said in the Revelation, that ' power is given him over
every tribe, language, and nation, and all that dwell on
the earth shall worship him.' He covers his iniquity, by
pleading the spiritual authority of the apostles, though the
apostle expressly says, ' "We can do nothing against the
truth' — and 'there is no power given us for destruction.'
He boasts of numerous miracles, even as the apostle fore-
told— ' Whose coming is after the working of Satan, with
all miracles and signs, and lying wonders, and with all
deceivableness of unrighteousness.' He has an outward
show of holiness, consisting in prayers, fastings, watch-
ings, and alms-deeds, of which the apostle testified, when
he said, ' Having a form of godUness, but denying the
power thereof.'
" Thus it is that Antichrist covers his lying wickedness,
as with a cloak, or garment, that he may not be rejected,
as a pagan or infidel, and under which disguise he can go
on, practising his villanies boldly, and hke a harlot. But
it is plain, both from the Old and New Testaments, that a
Christian stands bound, by express command, to separate
himself from Antichrist. Isa. .53: 11, 12. Jer. 1: 8. Num.
16: 21. Lev. 20: 24—27. Ex. 34: 12—15. Lev. 15: 31.
Ezek. 2. Veal. 20. Now it is manifest from the New
Testament, (John 12.) that the Lord is come, and hath
suffered death, that he might gather together in one the
children of God ; and it is on account of this unity in the
truth, and their separation from others, that it is said in
Matt. 10. ' I am come to separate a man from his father,
and to set the daughter against her mother, and the
daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law, and those of a
man's own household shall be his enemies.' Christ hath
enjoined this separation upon his disciples, when he said,
' Whosoever doth not forsake father and mother, &c.
cannot be my disciple.' And again, 'Beware of false
prophets, which come unto 5'ou in sheep's clothing.' Again,
' Beware of the leaven of the Pharisees — and take heed
lest any man seduce you, for many shall come in my
name, and seduce many.' And in the book of the Reve-
lation, he warns by his o^vn voice, and charges his people
to go out of Babylon, saying, ' Come out of her, my peo-
ple, and be not partakers of her sins, that ye receive not
of her plagues ; for her sins are come up unto heaven, and
the Lord remembereth her iniquity.' The apostle says
the same : ' Have no fellowship with unbelievers, for what
communion hath righteousness with iniquity, or what
agreement hath light with darkness, or what concord hath
Christ with the devil, or what part hath a believer with an
infidel, or the temple of God with idols? Wherefore,
come out from among them, and be ye separate, and
touch no unclean thing, and I will receive you, and be a
Father unto you, and ye shall be my sons and daughters,
saith the Lord Almighty.'
" From what has been said, we may learn wherein con-
sist the perverseness and wickedness of Antichrist, and
that God commands his people to separate from him, and
to join themselves to the holy city Jerusalem. And since
it hath pleased God to make known these things to us by
his servants, believing it to be his revealed ivill, accord-
ing to the Holy Scriptures, and admonished thereto by the
command of the Lord, we do, both inwardly and outward-
ly, depart from Antichrist. We hold communion and
maintain unity, one with another, freely and uprightly,
having no other object to propose herein, but purely and
singly to please the Lord, and seek the salvation of our
own souls. Thus, as the Lord is pleased to enable us,
and so far as our imderstandings are instructed into the
path of duty, we attach ourselves to the truth of Christ,
and to his church, how mean soever she may appear in
the eyes of men. We, therefore, have thought it good to
make this declaration of our reasons for departing from
Antichrist, as well as to make known what kind of fellow-
ship we have, to the end that, if the Lord be pleased to im-
part the knowledge of the same truth to others, those that
receive it may love it together with us. It is our desire,
also, that if, peradventure, others are not sufficiently en-
lightened, they may receive assistance from this service,
the Lord succeeding it by his blessing. On the other
ANT
[01 ]
ANT
hand, If any have received more abundantly from him,
and in a higher measure, we desire with all humiUty to
be taught, and instructed better, that so we may rectify
whatever is amiss."
The treatise then proceeds to sketch, and succinctly to
confute, the numerous abominations of popery, and to
show how they all tend to subvert the failli of Christ, and
to destroy the souls of men ; but my limits will only allow
of a very abridged view of those masterly statements.
" Be it known," say they, " to all in general, and to every
one in particular, that tliese are the reasons of our separation,
viz. It is for the truth's sake which we believe — for the
knowledge which we have of the only true God, and the
unity of the divine essence in three persons, a knowledge
which flesh and blood cannot Communicate — it is for the
worship due to that only true God — for the love we owe him
above all things — for the sanctification and honor which are
due to him supremely , and above every name — for the live-
ly hopes which we have of God through Christ — for rege-
neration and renewing of our minds by faith, hope, and
charily — for the worthiness of Jesus Christ, with the all-
sufficiency of his grace and righteousness — for the com-
munion of saints — the remission of sins — a holy conver-
sation— for the sake of a faithful adherence to all the com-,
mands in the faith of Christ — for true repentance — for
final perseverance, and everlasting life."
In the book of Daniel, it is foretold that the anti-christian
power should exercise dominion until a time and times,
and the dividuigsof time. Dan. 7: 25. This expression is.
generally admitted to denote twelve hundred and sixty
years. If the rise of Antichrist be not reckoned till he was
possessed of secular authority, his fall will happen when
this power shall be taken away. If his rise began according
to Mede in 456, he must have fallen in 1716 , if in 606, it
must be in 1866 ; if in 755, in 2015. If however we use
prophetical years, consisting of 360 days, and date the rise
of Antichrist in the year 755, his fall will happen A.D. 2000.
But 755 is too late a period, from which to begin the reck-
oning. Mr. Keith has made it appear certain, that the su-
premacy of the pope was aimplete as early as the year 533,
the year that the Institutes of Justinian were published.
And it is a remarkable fact, that the dominion of the pa-
pacy, in that very kingdom which had been its chief stay
for ages, was destroyed and disannulled by an act of the
French assembly in the year 1793, just twelve hundred
and sixty years from its estabUshment. Every thing now
in the state of the world betokens'a speedy overthrow of
the Mahometan and Papal powers, both of which have
been already greally weakened.
An important question however, says Mr. Jones, still
remains for inquiiy, " Is Antichrist confined to the church
of Rome ?" The answer is readily returned in the affirma-
tive by Protestants in general ; and happy had it been for
the world were that the ease. But although we are fully
warranted to consider that church as " the mother of har-
lots," the truth is, that, by whatever arguments we succeed
in fixing that odious charge upon her, we shall, by parity
of reasoning, be obliged to allow all other national churches
to be her unchaste daughters; and for this plain reason
among others, because, in their very constitution and
tendency, they are hostile to the nature of the kingdom of
Christ.
All national establishments of Christianity must, in their
very nature, be antichristian ; because they are opposed
to the spirit of the doctrines of Christ, and to the nature
of his kingdom, which he himself has declared to be not of
this world. To illustrate a little this point, we may select
for an example " the Church of England," as it is gene-
rally called, and compare its constitution with that of the
church or kingdom of Christ.
In the latter, Christ himself is king, and he alone is ac-
knowledged as sovereign of the consciences of his sub-
jects. But the sovereign of the nation is the avowed head
of the Church of England, not in name only, but in power.
It is established by human laws, and is wholly a creature
of the state, and regulated by a code of laws confirmed
by the state ; for, as Dr. Brun has expressly said, " the
ecclesiastical law of England is compounded of these four
main ingredients, the civil law, the canon law, the com-
mon law, and the statute law." Its chief officers are ap-
pointed by the crown, and are such as have not even a
name in the sacred records ; and as the civil magistrate
has authority in the church, so have many of those in
the state. The church and state are not only allied, but
have an essential dependence on each other. Even the
doctrines professed, and the worship performed in the na-
tional church, are all secularized. Its creeds and forms
of prayer, its rubrics and various rites, are adopted and
used under the sanction of civil authority. Its hturgy,
therefore, may be justly considered as an act of parha-
ment respecting religious affairs. Add to this, that no-
thing could be more absurd than to attempt to enforce the
peculiar laws of the kingdom of Christ, in any national
church. For instance, Jesus hath delivered the following
as a standing law in his Icingdom : " If thy brother Ires-
pass against thee, go and tell him his fault between
thee and him alone : if he hear thee, thou hast gained thy
brother. But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee
one or two more, that in the mouth of two or three wit-
nesses, every word may be established. And if he neglect
to hear them, tell it unto the church : but if he neglect to
hear the church, let him be unto thee as an heathen man
and a publican." Matt. 18; 15. The utter impracticabiUty
of following out this rule of Christian duty, in any national
church, must instantly strike every reflecting mind, and
is alone sufficient to evince, that that cannot be the king-
dom of Christ, in which his own laws cannot be executed,
and the subjects of which may live in opposition to thenx
without control. Indeed, if we examine attentively the
laws of Christ's kingdom, as they are found in the New
Testament, we must plainly perceive, that such of them as
are enforced by no authority but his, are not only entirely
disregarded in national churches, but are so contrary in
their very nature to the course of this world, that no na-
tional establishment of religion cotdd possibly exist that
acted upon them. The following are a specimen. " The
kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over them ; but
with you it shall not be so." " Lay not up for yourselves
treasures on earth, where moth and rust corrupt ; but lay
up for yourselves treasures in heaven." '" I say-unto you,
that ye resist not evil : but if any man smite thee on thy
right cheek, turn to him the other also." " Love your
enemies ; bless them that curse you, do good to them thaC
hate you, and pray for them that despitefuUy use and that
persecute you." " They that take the sword shall perish
with the sword." These precepts of Christ, sufficiently
show the genius and spirit of his religion : and while they
prove that the latter was never designed by him to be the
established religion of any country, and indeed the impos-
sibility of its ever being applied to such a pui^pose without
being essentially corrupted, they afford a clear demonstra-
tion that all national establishments of it must be anti-
christian. Matt. 5: 6.
Yet it must not be inferred from this, that none of
Christ's disciples are to be found iir societies whose con-
stitution is antichristian ; for the reverse of that, is infe-
rable from the tenor of Scripture. The WTiter of the
Book of the Eevelation tells us, he heard a voice from
heaven, saying, " Come out of her, my peoplf, that ye be
not partakers of her sins, and that ye receive not of her
plagues," Rev. 18: 1 — 1. an address which obviously
could have no meaning, if none of Christ's people were
in her. But if such persons are to be found in the
" mother of harlots," with much less hesitation may it b»
infen'ed that they are connected n-ith her unchaste daugh-
ters, those national churches which are founded upon,
what are called Protestant principles. These last, equally
with the former, are opposed to the spirit of the doctrine,
and to the nature of the kingdom of Christ, which was
never intended to draw a form of godUness over whole
nations that are destitute of its saving power and influ-
ence ; but to gather out of them his elect, and constitute
them a people for his praise. Acts 15: 14. 1 Pet. 2: 9, 10.
Such national churches, therefore, though they may be
purged, them.selves, from many of the grosser evds of the
Romish church, yet, being constituted upon similar princi-
ples, principles that are diametrically opposite to the na-
ture of the kingdom of Christ, can only be allow-ed to differ
from her. as a grain of arsenic diflers from an ounce. (See
Cntmcn Histoky ; Katiokal Chuecues.) — Jones; Walson ;
ANT [ 92 ]
Keith on the Evidence of Prophecy ; Keith on the Signs of
the Times : Jones's History of the Church.
ANTI-CALVINISTS ; those who reject the system of
that great reformer, which is generally called Calvinism,
and embrace its opposite, Arminianism , both which see. —
Wininms.
ANTIDORON ; a name given by the Greeks to the
consecrated bread ; out of which the middle part, marked
with the cross, wherein the consecration resides, being
taken away by the priest, the remainder is distributed after
mass to the poor. — Bvch.
ANTI-LIBANUS ; the Greeks give this name to that
chain of mountains east of Libanus, which, properly speak-
ing, forms, together with Libanus, but one ridge of moun-
tains, extending from north to south, and afterwards from
south to north, in the shape almost of a horse-shoe, for the
space of about fourscore leagues. The western part of
these mountains was called Libanus ; the eastern was
called Anli-Libanus ; the former reached along the Medi-
terranean, from Sidon, almost to Arada, orSymira. The
Hebrew text never nrentions Anti-Libanus ; but uses the
general name of Libanus ; and the coins struck at Lao-
dicea and Hierapolis, have the inscription, "cities of
Libanus," though they belong rather to Anti-Libanus.
The Septuagint, on the contrary, puts Anti-Libanus often
instead of Libanus. The valley which separates Li-
banus from Anti-Libanus is very fruitful ; it was, for-
merly, on the side of Syria, inclosed with a wall, whereof
there are now no traces. Strabo says, that the name
of Ccelo-Syria, or "the hollow Syria," belongs princi-
pally to the valley between Libanus and Anti-Libanus. (See
Lebanon.) — Calmet.
ANTtMONIANS ; persons in the fourth century, who
denied the perpetual virginity of our Lord's mother, be-
lieving that she had afterwards children by Jcseph — the
brethren of our Lord. — Mosheim, vol. i. p. 432.
ANTINOMIANS ; these derive their name from two
Greek words, signifying against lam ; their favorite tenet
being, that the law is not a rule of life to believers under
the Gospel. The appellation is also generally given to
those who carry the doctrine of justification by faith
without works to such an extreme, as to separate practical
holiness from true believing, and injure, if not wholly de-
stroy, every obligation to moral obedience.
Antinomianism may be traced to the period of the Re-
formation. Its founder was John Agricola, at first a dis-
ciple of Luther, but afterwards an opponent both to him
and Melancthon. While Luther was eagerly employed
in censuring and refuting the popish doctors, who mixed
the law and the Gospel together, and represented eternal
life as the fruit of legal obedience, John Agricola went
into another extreme, and took occasion to advance senti-
ments which Luther deemed Antinomian. He is said to
have taught, that the law ought not to be proposed as a
rule of life, nor used in the church as a means of instruc-
tion ; and, of course, that repentance is not to be preached
from the decalogue, but from the Gospel only ; that the
Gospel alone is to be inculcated and explained, and that
good works do not promote our salvation, nor evil works
hinder it.
In the seventeenth century, some of his followers in
England are said to have expressly maintained, that as
the elect cannot fall from grace, nor forfeit the divine
favor ; so neither are the evil actions they commit really
sinful, or to be considered as violations of the divine law;
and that, consequently, they have no occasion to confess
their sins, or to seek renewed forgiveness. The Antino-
mian does things wrong in themselves, but they are not
wrong when he does them, because he is a believer ; so
that were he to steal, the crime commonly called theft,
would in him lose all its criminality, and cease to be a
breach of the eighth commandment.
It does not appear that any set of professed Christians
ever called themselves Antiiiomians : it is rather a term of
reproach, which one party has too freely applied to ano-
ther, and which therefore requires to be received with cau-
tion. The unguarded expressions which some persons
have used, the bolil positions they have advanced, and the
construction to which their language is liable, have led
others to charge them with Antinomian principles, when
ANT
in reality they meant not so. As when they have spoken
lightly of good works, or asserted that believers have
nothing to do with the law of God, without fully explain-
ing what they mean ; when they assert that God is not
angiy with his people for their sins, nor in any sense pu-
nishes them on that account, without at all distinguishing
between fatherly correction and vindictive wrath ; — these
and similar expressions, whatever be the private senti-
ments of those who advance them, have a direct tendency
to injure the minds and morals of mankind, though it be
'under a pretence of enhancing the riches and freeness of
divine grace.
Properly speaking, those only are Anlinomians who are
avowedly hostile to the law of God ; who neither preach
nor profess to embrace it, but term those legalists who do.
With them, preaching the law is an abomination ; and
they will have nothing to do with it, except to vilify and
condemn. Others of a similar description, but who are
not aware of the tendency of tlieir own statements, have
embraced a system, which, by perverting the doctrine of
divine decrees and efficacious grace, sets aside all moral
obligation, and destroys the accountability of man. Jus-
tification by such a species of faith as is not necessarily
productive of good works, and righteousness imputed to
it, are the doctrines by which this class of professors are
distinguished. — Jones's Diet, of Eelig. Opin.; Neal's History
of the Puritans, vol. vii. ; Hornbcck's Sum. Controv. 800 ;
Bellamy's Dialogues, Letters and Essays ; Mosheim' s Church
History, vol. v. ; Works of A. Fuller ; Works of B. Hall.
ANTIOCH ; a city of Syria, situated on both sides of
the river Orontes, about twenty miles from the place
where it discharges itself into the Mediterranean. There
were formerly many cities which bore that name ; but this
was the metropolis of Syria, and indeed of all the East.
It was built three hundred years before Christ, by Seleu-
cus Nicanor, and named in honor of his father Antiochus.
Seleucus built in the same country the city of Seleucia,
named from himself ; Apamea, from his "wife Apama ; Lao-
dicea, from his mother Laodice ; and these three, together
with Antioch, gave to that quarter of Syria the name of
Tetrapolis, or the comitry of the four cities. The same
name was afterivards given by Strabo to Antioch itself, be-
cause it consisted of four distinct divisions, built at diffe-
rent times, each surrounded with its own wall, but all
inclosed by one comiuon line of defence. By nature and
art, says Dr. Wells, it was fortified even to admiration. It
became the seat of empire of the Seleucidte, or Syrian
kings of the Macedonian race, and afterwards of the Ro-
man governors of the eastern provinces ; being very cen-
trally and commodiously situated, midway between Con-
stantinople and Alexandria, about seven hundred mUes
from each, in thirt)'-seven degrees, seventeen minutes
north latitude, and thirty-six degrees, forty-five minutes
east longitude. Indeed, for situation, magnitude, popu-
lousness, and various other advantages, it ranked as the
third city of the Roman empire, being inferior only to
Rome and Alexandria. The city was almost square ; it
had many gates ; its circumference exceeded twelve miles,
and its population was not less than half a million of
souls. The fertility of its soil ; the richness of its local
scenery ; the beauty of its fountains ; the magnificence
of its temples ; the sumptuousne.ss of its palaces ; the ex-
tent of its commerce ; and the learning, genius, and taste of
its inhabitants, were celebrated throughout the world, and
it was considered an honor to be one of its citizens. Hence
Cicero, in his oration for the poet Arcbias, who was a na-
tive o{ Antioch, introduces this fact in favor of his client,
and commends the place of his birth as " a noble city,
abounding in eminent men." And there are slill extant,
medals of this city, which show that it was honored as a;
Roman colony, a metropolis and an asylum ; and that it
was also Autonomos, or (as this Greek word signifies) go-
verned by its ovm laws.
The greater part of the inhabitants were Greeks and
Syrians ; but Josephus says that many Jews also settled in
it. The Irings of Syria allowed the Jews the freedom of
Antioch equally with the Greeks, so that their numbers
increased exceedingly, and they were always bringing
over a great many of the Greeks to their religious, worship.
About one hundred and forty-five years before Christ,
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the inhabitants of Antioch were so exasperated by the li-
centious and tyrannical conduct of their sovereign Deme-
trius Nicator, that he applied to Jonathan, one of the
Maccabees, for three thousand men, to keep his subjects
in awe, and to cojupel them to deliver up their arms. This
violent measure caused a general insurrection in the city.
The citizens ran to arms, and, to the number of one hun-
dred and twenty thousand, surrounded the place of their
prince. All the Jews in Antiocli hastened to his relief,
dispersed the insurgents with fire and sword, and compell-
ed the rest to submit and sue for pardon. Upon the re-
duction of Syria by the Romans, Antioch fell under their
dominion. It^vas besieged by the Parthians after the de-
feat of Crassus, about fifty years before Christ ; and it
was one of the cities which declared for Caesar against
Pompey.
Antioch was sometimes called Antiochia Epidaphne, and
Antiochia apid Daphiiem, to distinguish it from other cities
(if the same name. It derived its appellation from its
neighborhood to Daphne, a village mentioned in the his-
tory of the Maccabees, (2 Mac. 4. 33.) which stood about
five miles from Antioch, and was accounted one of the
suburbs of the city. Here Seleucus had planted an im-
mense grove of laurels and cypresses, more than three
miles in extent, in the centre of which was a temple dedi-
cated to Apollo and Diana ; the whole being consecrated
as an asylum or sanctuary. To this place the inhabitants
of Antioch were accustomed to resort for amusement, as
the Romans did to Bale, and the Alexandrians toCanopus ;
but in process of time it was so much frequented by the
votaries of Venus and Bacchus, rather than of Apollo
and Diana, that it was avoided as infamous, by all who
had any regard for their reputation. Here the worship,
as among other idolatrous people in the awful recesses of
caves and groves, was, alas ! worthy of its object.^ Surround-
ed by every thing that could minister to the senses, the ju-
venile devotee wanted not the countenance of a libertine
god to abandon himself to voluptuousness. Even those
of riper years and graver morals could not, with safety,
breathe the atmosphere of a place, where pleasure, assum-
ing the character of religion, roused the dormant passions,
and subdued the firmness of virtuous resolution. Hence
Tlaphnkis mmibvs vivere, " to five after the manner of
Daphne," became a proverbial expression to denote tlie
most dissolute course of life. It was, indeed, the general
characteristic of the mhabitants of Antioch, in almost every
period of their history, to live after this manner ; and to
this their voluptuous disposition, may be ascribed many
of the calamities which befel this celebrated city, if not
indeed its final catastrophe.
Such was Antioch in the time of the apostles. Yet in
this most unpromising soil did Christianity take root. It
has been already remarked, that the inhabitants were
chiefly Greeks. To these, in particular, it appears from
Acts 11; 20. certain Cypriot and Cyrenian converts, who
had fled from the persecution which followed the death of
Stephen, addressed themselves, " preaching the Lord Je-
.sns." The humble and faithful labors of these persecuted
men, were signally blessed in this idolatrous city ; "and
the hand of the Lord was with them : and a great num-
ber believed and turned unto the Lord." Mr. Jones is of
opinion, however, that the Gospel had been previously in-
troduced into this city, by the Jewish converts soon after
the day of Pentecost. Should this opinion be admitted,
(and it is not improbable,) this season must be regardecl
as a very great and glorious revival at Antioch ; and
hence arose one of the most illustrious of all the primitive
Christian churches. When the apostles at Jerusalem were
informed of the success of the Gospel in this populous
capital of Syria, they sent Barnabas to aid the infant
church. His coming was attended with the happiest re-
sults ; and so fast did the field expand, and the harvest
ripen, that he was soon forced to solicit the assistance of
Paul, who was then residing among his friends at Tarsus.
By means of their joint labors the church was greatly en-
larged, and this place became their future residence, the
centre and rallying point of all their subsequent ministe-
rial and missionary exertions. Here they were also join-
ed by Peter ; who, on one memorable occasion, for his un-
rea-sonable concessions to the Jews, respecting the obser-
vance of the ceremonial law, and consequent dissimulation,
was firmly and publicly reproved by Paul, as pulling to
hazard the very substance of the glorious Gospel. Acts
15: 22—35. Gal. 2: 11—14.
Antioch was the birth-place of St. Luke; and also of
Theophihis, to whom his two books of the evangelical
history were addressed. In this city, also, the name of
Christians was first given, and as the original word indi-
cates, by divine authority, to the followers of Christ ; who
before this were commonly styled Nazamies, as being the
followers of Jesus of Nazareth, a name by which the Jews
in scorn call them to this day, with the same intent that
the Gentiles of old were wont to call them Galileans. In
the rehef sent by this church to their suffering brethren in
Judea, during the famine foretold by Agabus, which occur-
red in the fourth or fifth year of Claudius, (as mentioned
by Josephus, Eusebius and others,) we see the generous
overflowings of their Christian charity. Acts 11: 27 — 30.
And we have the testimony of Chrysostom, both of the
vast increase of this illustiious church in the fourth cen-
tury, and of the spirit of charity which then continued to
actuate it. It consisted, at this time, of not less than a hun-
dred thousand communicants, three thousand of whom mere
supported out of the donations of their brethren.
It is painful to trace the progress of declension in such
a church as this, — a church whose infancy was watched
over by such a brilliant galaxy of eminent and inspired
teachers, (Acts 13: 1.) — whose maturity was adorned by
the character and writings of the most distinguished of
the early martyrs, Ignatius, for many years its venerable
pastor — and which flourished for three centuries with in-
creasing vigor, under the fires of persecution ; yet from
the age of Chrj'sostom, that is, from the close of the fourth
century, must we date its decline and fall. It continued
indeed outwardly prosperous ; but superstition, secular
ambition, and the pride of life ; pomp and formality in
the service of God, in the place of humihty and sincere
devotion ; the decay of charity, and the growth of faction ;
showed that real religion was fast disappearing ; and that
the foundations were already laid of that great apostasy,
which, in two centuries from this time, overspread the
whole Christian world ; led to the almost entire extinction
of the church of the East ; and still holds dominion over
the fairest portion of the West.
Antioch, under its modern name of Antaka, is now but
little Imown to the western nations. It occupies, or rather
did till lately occupy, a remote corner of the ancient in-
closure of its walls. Its splendid buildings were reduced
to hovels ; and its population of half a million, to ten
thousand wretched beings, living in the usual debasement
and insecurity of Turkish subjects. Such was nearly its
condition when visited by Pocock about the year 1738, and
again by Kinnico, in 1813. But its ancient subterranean
enemy, ^vhich, since its destruction in 587, never long to-
gether withheld its tremendous assaults, has again tri-
umphed over it. The earthquake of the 13th of August,
1822, laid it once more in ruins. The Jewish missionary,
Wolfe, who was pre.5pnt at the awful scene, transmitted to
his friends a most vivid description of this closing catastro-
phe. Every thing relating to Antioch is now past. — Cal-
met ; Wells ; Jones ; H'atson.
ANTIOCH, of Pisidia ; besides the S}Tian capital, there
was another Antioch, visited b)'' St. Paul when in As a,
and called, for the sake of distinction, AntioeJiia ad Fisidiam,
as belonging to that province, of which it was the capital.
Here Paul and Barnabas preached ; but the Jews, jealous,
as usual, of the reception of the Gospel by the Gentiles,
raised a sedition against them, and obliged them to leave
the city. Acts 13: 14. to the end. There were several other
cities of the same name, sixteen in number, in Syria and
Asia Minor, built by the Seleucidce, the successors of
Alexander in these countries ; but the above two are the
only ones which it is necessary to describe as occurring in
Scripture. — Watson.
ANTIOCHUS ; there were many kmgs of this name in
Syria, much celebrated in the Greek, Roman, and Jewish
histories, after the time of Seleucus Nicanor, the fiither
of Antiochus Soter, and reckoned the first king of Syria,
after Alexander the Great.
I. ANTIOCHUS SOTER, was the son of Seleucus Nica-
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nor, and obtained the surname of Soter, or Savior, from
having hindered tlie invasion of Asia by the Gauls. Some
say it was on the following occasion : the Galatians hav-
ing marched to attack the Jews in Babylon, whose army
consisted only of eight thousand men, reinforced with four
thousand Macedonians, the Jews defended themselves with
so much bravery, that they killed one hundred and twenty
thousand m.en. 2 ]Mac. 8: 20. It was perhaps, too, on this
occasion, that Antiochus Soter made the Jews of Asia free
of the cities belonging to the Gentiles, and permitted them
to live according to their own laws.
II. ANTIOCHUS THEOS, or, the God ; was the son
and successor of Antiochus Soter. He married Berenice,
daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. Lao-
dice, his first wife, seeing herself despised, poisoned Antio-
chus, Berenice, and their son, who was intended to succeed
in the kingdom. After this, Laodice procured Seleucus
Callinicus, her son by Antiochus, to be acknowledged king
cf Syria. These events were foretold by Daniel ; " And
in the end of years," the king of Egypt, or of the south,
and the king of Syria, or of the north, "shall join them-
selves together ; for the king's daughter of the south shall
come to the king of the north to make an agreement : but
she shall not retain the power of the arm ; neither shall
he stand, nor his arm : but she shall be given up, and they
that brought her, and he that begat her, and he that
strengthened her in these times." Dan. 9: 6.
III. ANTIOCHUS THE GREAT ; was the son of Se-
leucus Callinicus, and brother to Seleucus Ceraunus,^wbom
he succeeded in the year of the world 3781, and before
Jesus Christ 223. He made war against Ptolemy Philo-
pator, king of Egj^pt, but was defeated near Eaphia. 3
Mac. 1. Thirteen years after, Ptolemy Philopator, being
dead, Antiochus resolved to become master of Egypt. He
immediately seized Coelo-Syria, Phenicia, and Judea ; but
Scopas, general of the Egj^ptian arniy, entered Judea
while Antiochus was occupied by the war against Attains,
and retook those places. However, he soon lost them
again to Antiochus. .On this occasion happened what
Josephus relates of this prince's journey to Jerusalem.
After a victory w'hich he had obtained over Scopas, near
the springs of Jordan, he became master of the strong
palaces in Coslo-Syria and Samaria ; and the Jews sub-
mitted freely to him, received him into their city, and fur-
nished his army plentifully with provisions. In reward
for their affection, Antiochus granted them, according to
Josephus, twenty thousand pieces of silver, to purchase
beasts for sacrifice, one thousand four hundred and sixty
measures of meal, and three hundred and seventy-five
measures of salt, to be offered with the sacrifices, and tim-
ber to rebuild the porches of the Lord's house. He ex-
empted the senators, scribes, and singing men of the tem-
ple, from the capitation tax ; and he permitted the Jews
to live according to their own laws in every part of his
dominions. He also remitted the third part of their tri-
bute, to indemnify them for their losses in the war ; he
forbade the heathens to enter the temple without being
purified, and to bring into the city the flesh of mules,
asses, and horses to sell, under a severe penalty.
In the year of the world 3815, Antiochus was overcome
by the Romans, and obliged to cede all his possessions
beyond Mount Taurus, to give twenty hostages, among
whom was his own son Antiochus, afterwards sumamed
Epiphanes, and \o pay a tribute of twelve thousand Eu-
boic talents, each fourteen Roman pounds in weight. To
defray these charges, he resolved to seize the treasures of
the temple of Belus, at Elymais ; but the people of that
country, informed of his design, surprised and destroyed
him, with all his army, in the year of the world 3817,
and before Jesus Christ 187. 'He left two sons, Seleucus
Philopator, and Antiochus Epiphanes, who succeeded him.
IV. ANTIOCHUS EPIPHVNES; the son of Antiochus
the Great, having continued an hostage at Rome fourteen
years, his brother Seleucus resolved to procure his return
to Syria, and sent his own son Demetrius to Rome in the
place of Antiochus. Whilst Antiochus was on his jour-
ney to Syria, Seleucus died, in the year of the world 3829.
When therefore Antiochus landed, the people received
him as some propitious deity come to assume the govern-
ment, and to oppose the enterprises of Ptolemy, king of
Egypt, who threatened to inv.ade Syria. For this reason,
Antiochus obtained the surname of Epiphanes, the illus-
trious, or of one appearing like a god.
Antiochus quickly turned his attention to the possession
of Egypt, which was then enjoyed by Ptolemy Philometor,
his nephew, son to his sister Cleopatra, whom Antiochus
the Great had married to Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of
Egypt. He sent Appollonius, one of his officers into
Egypt, apparently to honor Ptolemy's coronation, but in
reality to obtain information whether the great men of
the kingdom were inclined to place the government of
Egj'pt in his hands during the minority of the king his
nephew. 2 Mac. 4: 21, fcc. Appollonius, however found
them not disposed to favor his master ; and this obliged
Antiochus to make war against Philometor. He came to
Jerusalem in 3831, and was received there by Jason, lo
whom he had sold the high priesthood. He designed :o
attack Egypt, but returned without effecting any thing
The ambition of those Jews who sought the high priest-
hood, and bought it of Antiochus, was the beginning of
those calamities which overwhelmed their nation u.nder
this prince. Jason procured himself to be constituted in
this dignity, in the stead of Onias III. ; but, Menelaus
oflering a greater price, Jasori was deprived, and Menelaus
appointed in his place. The usurpers of the high priest-
hood, to gratify the Syrians, assumed the manners of the
Greeks, their games and exercises, and neglected the wor-
ship of the Lord, and the temple service.
War broke out between Antiochus Epiphanes and
Ptolemy Philometor. Antiochus entered Egypt in the
year of the world 3833, and reduced almost the whole of
it to his obedience. 2 Mac. 5; 3 — 5. The next year he
returned ; and whilst he was engaged in the siege of
Alexandria, a false report was spread of his death. The
inhabitants of Jerusalem testifying their joy at this news,
Antiochus, when returning from Egypt, entered this city
by force, treated the Jews as rebels, and commanded his
troops to slay all they met. Eighty thousand were killed,
made captives, or sold on this occasion. Antiochus, con-
ducted by the corrupt high priest Menelaus, entered into
the holy of holies, whence he took and carried off the
most precious vessels of that holy place, to the value of
one thousand eight hundred talents. In the year 3835,
Antiochus made a third expedition against Egypt, which
he entirely subdued. The year following, he sent Appol-
lonius into Judea, with an array of twenty-two thousand
men, and commanded him to kill all the Jews who were
of full age, to sell the women and young men. 2 Mac.
5: 24, 25. These orders were too punctually executed.
It was on this occasion that Judas Maccabseus retired into
the wilderness with his father and his brethren. 2 Mac. 5:
29. These misfortunes were only preludes of what they
were to suffer ; for Antiochus, apprehending that the Jews
would never be constant in their obedience to him, unless
he obliged them to change their religion, and to embrace
that of the Greeks, issued an edict, enjoining them to con-
form to the laws of other nations, and forbidding their
usual sacrifices in the temple, their festivals, and their
Sabbath. The statue of Jupiter Olympus was placed upon
the altar of the temple, and thus the abomination of deso-
lation was seen in the temple of God. Many corrupt Jews
complied with these orders ; but others resisted them.
Mattathias and his sons retired to the mountains. Old
Eleazar, and the seven brethren, suffered death with great
courage at Antioch. 2 Mac. 7. Mattathias being dead,
Judas Maccaba-us headed those Jews who continued faith-
ful, and opposed with success the generals whom king
Antiochus sent, into Judea. The king, informed of the
valor and resistance of Judas, sent new forces ; and, find-
ing his treasures exhausted, he resolved to go into Persia
to levy tributes, and to collect large sums which he had
agreed to pay to the Romans. 1 Mac. 3: 5 — 31. 2 Mac. 9:
1, &c. 1 Mac. 0: 1, &c. Knowing that very great riches
were lodged in the temple of Elymais, he determined to
carry it off; but the inhabitants of the country made so
vigorous a resistance, that he was forced to retreat towards
Babylonia. When he was come to Ecbatana, he was in-
formed of the defeat of Nicanor and Timotheus, and that
Judas Maccabjeus had retaken the temple of Jerusalem,
and restored the worshi]^ of the Lord, and the usual sa
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crifices. On receiving this intelligence, the Icing was
transported with indignation ; and threatening to make
Jerusalem a grave for the Jews, commanded the driver of
his chariot to urge the horses forward, and to hasten his
journey. However, divine vengeance soop overtook him :
he fell from his chariot and bruised allhis limbs. He
was also tormented with such pains in his bowels, as
allowed him no rest ; and his disease was aggravated by
grief and vexation. In this condition he wrote to the
Jews very humbly, promised them many things, and en-
gaged even to turn Jew, if God would restore him to
health. Ho earnestly recommended to them his son Antio-
chus, who was to succeed him, and entreated them to
favor the young prince, and to continue faithful to him.
He died, overwhelmed with pain and grief, in the moun-
tains of Paratacene, in the little town of Tabes, in the
year of the world 3810, and before Jesus Christ 164.
V. ANTIOCHUS EUPATOR ; son of Antiochus Epl-
j-'hanes, was only nine years old when his father died and
l'?ri him the kingdom of Syria. Lysias, who governed the
IvLngdom in the name of ihe young prince, led against Judea
an army of one hundred thousand foot, twenty thousand
horse, and thirty elephants. 1 Mac. 6. 2 Mac. 13. He
besieged and took the fortress of Bethsura, and thence
marched against Jerusalem. The city was ready to fad
into his hands, when Lysias received the news that Philip,
whom Antiochus Epiphanes had intrusted with the re-
gency of the kingdom, had come to Antioch to take the
government, according to the disposition of the late king.
He therefore proposed an accommodation with the Jews,
that he might return speedily to Antioch and oppose
Philip. After concluding a peace, he immediately return-
ed into Syria, with the young king and his army.
In the mean time, iJemetrius Soter, son of Seleucus
Pliilopator, and nephew to Antiochus Epiphanes, to whom
by right the kingdom belonged, having escaped from
Rome, came into Syria. Finding the people disposed for
revolt, Demetrius headed an army, and marched directly
to Antioch, against Antiochus and Lysias. However,
tlie inhabitants did not wait till he besieged the city ; but
opened the gates, and delivered to him Lysias and tlic
j'oung king Antiochus Eupator, whom Demetrius caused
to be put to death, without suffering them to appear in his
presence. Antiochus Eupator reigned only two years,
and died in the year of the world 3842, and before Jesus
Christ 162.
VI. ANTIOCHUS THEOS, or the Divine ; the sou of
Alexander Balas, Iring of Syria, was brought up by the
Arabian prince Elmachuel, or, as he is called in the Greek,
Simalcue. 1 Mace. 9: 35,40, &c. Demetrius Nicanor, king
of Syria, having rendered himself odious to his troops, one
Diodotus, otherwise called Tryphon, came to Zabdiel, a
long in Arabia, and desired him to intrust him with young
Antiochus, whom he promised to place on the thi'one of
Syria, which was then possessed by Demetrius Nicanor.
After some hesitation, Zabdiel complied with the request ;
and Tryphon carried Antiochus into Syria, and put the
crown on his head. The troops dismissed by Deme-
t;ius, came and joined Trj'phon, who, ha^dng formed a
powerful army, defeated Demetrius, and forced him to re-
treat to Seleucia. Tryphon seized his elephants, and ren-
dered himself master of Antioch, in the year of the world
3S5S(, and before Jesus Christ 145. Antiochus Theos, to
strengthen himself in his new acquisition, sent letters to
.Tonathan Maccabaeus, high priest and prince of the Jews,
confirming him in the high priesthood, and granting him
four toparchies, or four considerable places, in Judea.
He also received Jonathan into the number of his friends,
sent him vessels of gold, permitted him to use a gold cup,
to wear purple, a golden buckle ; and he gave his brother,
Simon Maccabaeus, the command of all his troops on the
coast of the Mediterranean, from Tyre to Egypt. Jona-
than, engaged by so many favors, declared resolutely for
Antiochus, or rather for Tryphon, who reigned under the
name of this young prince ; and, on several occasions, he
attacked the generals of Demetrius, who still possessed
many places beyond Jordan and in Galilee. 1 Mace. 11:
63, &c. 12: 24 — 34. Tryphon, seeing young Antiochus
in jie.aceable possession of the kingdom of Syria, resolved
to usurp his crown. He thought it necessary, in the first
place, to secure Jonathan Maccabceus, who was one of
the most powerful supporters of Antiochus's throne. He
came, therefore, Avitli troops into Judea, invited Jonath"n
to Ptolemais, and there, on frivolous pretences, made hmi
prisoner. However, Simon, Jonathan's brother, headed
the troops of Judea, and opposed Tryphon, who infnd-
ed to take Jerusalem. Tryphon, being disappointed, put
Jonathan to death at Bassa or Bascama, and returned into
Syria, where, without delay, he executed his design of
kiUing Antiochus. He corrupted the royal physicians,
who, having published that Antiochus was tormented with
the stone, murdered him, by cutting him without any ne-
cessity. Thus Tiyphon was left master of Syria, in tlie
year of the world 3!-!61, and before Jesus Christ 143.
VII. ANTIOCHUS SIDETES, or Soter the Savior, or
Eusebes the pious ; was the son of Demetrius Soter, and
brother to Demetrius Nicanor. Tr)'phon, the usurper of the
kingdom of Syria, having rendered himself odious to his
troops, they deserted him, and offered their seiwices to Cleo-
jiatra, the wife of Demetrius Nicanor. She lived in the city
of Seleucia, shut up with her children, wliile her husband
Demetrius was a prisoner in Pei'sia, where he had married
Rodeguna, the daughter of Arsaces Icing of Persia. Cleo-
patra, therefore, sent to Antiochus Sidetes, her brother-in-
law, and offered him the crown of Syria, if he would marry
her ; to which Antiochus consented. This prince was then
at Cnidus, where his father, Demetrius Soter, had placed
him with one of his friends. He came into Syria, and wrote
to Simon Maccabaeus, to engage him against Tryphon. 1
Mace. 15: 1, 2, 3, &c. He confirmed the privileges -ivhich
the kings of Syria had gi'anted to Simon, permitted him
to coin money with his own stamp, declared Jerusalem
and the temple exempt from royal jurisdiction, and promised
other favors as soon as he should obtain peaceable posses-
sion of the kingdom which had belongeilo his ancestors.
Antiochus Sidetes having married his sister-in-law, Cleo-
patra, in the year of the world 3Sii.5, the troops of Tryphon
resorted to him in crov, ils. Tryphon, thus abandoned, re-
tired to Dora, in Phceaicia, whither Antiochus piusued
with an army of one hundred and twenty thousand foot,
eight hundred horse, and a powerful fleet. Simon Macca-
bfeus sent Antiochus two thousand chosen men ; but the
latter refused them and revoked all his promises. He also
sent Athenobius to Jerusalem, to oblige Simon to restore
to him Gazara and Joppa, with the citadel of Jerusalem ;
and to demand of him five hundred talents more, as repa-
ration for the injuries the king had suffered, and as tribute
for his own cities. At the same time he threatened to
make war upon him, if he did not comply. Simon show-
ed Athenobius all the lustre of his wealth and power, told
him he had in his possession no place which belonged to
Antiochus, and said that the cities of Gazara and Joppa had
greatly injured his people, and he would give the king for
the property of them one hundred talents. Athenobius re-
turned \nth great indignation to Antiochus, who was ex-
tremely offended at Simon's answer. In the mean time,
Tryphon having escaped privately from Dora, embarked
in a vessel and fled. Antiochus pursued him, and sent
Cendebeus with troops into the maritime parts of Palc.';-
tine, and commanded him to rebuild Cedron, and fight the
Jews. John Hircanus, son of Simon Maceabceus, was then
at Gaza, and gave notice to his father of the coming of
Cendebeus. Simon furnished his sons, John Hircanus and
Judas with troops, and sent them against Cendebeus, whom
they routed in the plain, and pursued to Azotus.
Antiochus followed Tryphon, till he forced him to kill
himself in the year of the world 3S69. After this, Antio-
chus thought only of reducing to his obedience those cities
which, in the beginning of his father's reign, had shaken
ofl' theu: subjection. Simon Maccabseus, prince and high
priest of the Jews, being treacherously murdered by
Ptolemy, his son-in-law, in the castle of Docus, near Jeri-
cho, the murderer immediately sent to Antiochus Sidetes
to demand troops, that he might recover for him the coun-
try and cities of the Jews. Antiochus came in person
with an army, and besieged Jerusalem, which was bravely
defended by John Hircanus. The siege was long pro-
tracted ; and the king divided his army into seven parts,
and guarded all the avenues of the city. It being the
time for celebrating the feast of the tabernacles, the Jews
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desired of Antiochus a truce for seven days. The king
no! only granted this request, but sent them bulls with
gilded horns, and vessels of gold and sUver filled with
incense to be oflered in the temple. He also ordered such
provisions as they wanted, to be given to the Jewish sol-
diers. This courtesy of the king so won the hearts of the
.Tews, that they sent ambassadors to treat of peace, and to
desire that they might live according to their own laws.
Antiochus required that they should surrender their arms,
demolish the city walls, pay tribute for Joppa and the other
cities they possessed out of Judea, and receive a garrison
into Jerusalem. To these conditions, except the last, the
Jews consented ; for they could not be induced to se« an
army of strangers in their capital, and chose rather to give
hostages and five hundred talents of silver. The king en-
tered the city, beat down the breastwork above the walls,
and returned to Syria, in the year of the world 3870, and
before Jesus Christ 134. Three years after, Antiochus
inarched against the Persians, or Parthians, and demand-
ed the liberty of his brother Demetrius Nicanor, who had
been made prisoner long before by Arsaces, and was de-
tained for the purpose of "being employed in exciting a war
ag.ainst Antiochus. This war, therefore, Antiochus thought
proper to prevent. With an army of eighty thousand,
or, as Orosius says, of one hundred thousand men, he
marched towards Persia, and no sooner appeared on the
frontiers of that country, than several eastern princes, de-
testing the pride and avarice of the Persians, came and
surrendered. Antiochus defeated his enemies in three
engagements, and took Babylon. He was accompanied
in these expeditions by John Hircanus, high priest of the
Jews, who, it is supposed,. obtained the surname of Hirca-
nus from some gallant action which he performed.
As the army of AntiQchus was too numerous to continue
assembled in any .one place, he was obliged to divide it,
to put it into'^ymter quarters. These troops behaved with
so much iiiioi iice, that they alienated the minds of all
men. The eitksin which they were, privately surrender-
ed to the Persifi.ris ; and all resolved to attack, in one day,
the garrison- they contained, that the troops being sepa-
rated might not assist each other. Antiochus at Babylon
obtained intelligence of this design, and, with the few sol-
diers about him, endeavored to succor his people. He
was attacked in the way by Phrates, Iring of Persia, whom
he fought -nith great bravery ; but being at length desert-
ed by his own forces, according to the generality of histo-
rians, he was overpowered and killed by the Persians or
Parthians. Appian, however, says that he kUled himself,
and iElian, that he threw himself headlong from a preci-
pice. This event took place in the year of the world
3874, and before Jesus Christ 130. After the death of Si-
detes, Demetrius Nicanor, or Nicetor, reascended the throne
of Syria. — Watson.
ANTIPAS, Antipas Herod, or Herod Antipas ; was the
son of Herod the Great, and Cleopatra of Jerusalem. Herod
1 ..e Great, in his first will, declared him his successor in the
Snngdom; but he afterwards named his son Archelaus
king of Judea, and gave to Antipas only the title of te-
irarch of Galilee and Pera^a. Archelaus going to Rome,
to persuade the emperor to confirm his father's will, Anti-
pas also went thither. The emperor bestowed on Arche-
laus one moiety of iwhat had been assigned him by Herod,
with the quaUty of ethnarch, and promised to grant him
the title of king when he had shown himself deserving of
it by his virtues. To Antipas Augustus gave Galilee and
Peraea ; and to Philip, Herod's other son, the Batana;a,
Trachonitis, and Auranitis, with some other places.
Antipas, returning to Judea, took great pains in adorn-
ing and fortifying the principal places in his dominions.
He married the daughter of Aretas, king of Arabia, whom
he divorced about A. D. 33, that he might marry his sister-
in-law, Herodias, the wife of his brother Philip, who was
still living. John the Baptist, exclaiming against this in-
cest, was "seized by order of Antipas, and imprisoned in
the castle of Machairus. Josephus says, that Antipas
caused John to be taken, because he drew too great a con-
course after him ; and Antipas was afraid he should use
his influence over the people to induce them to revolt. But
Josephus has reported the pretence for the true cause.
The evangeUsts, who were better informed than Josephus,
as being eye-witnesses of what passed, and particularly
acquainted with John and his disciples, assure us, that the
true reason of imprisoning John was the aversion of He-
rod and Herodias against him, on account of his liberty
in censuring their scandalous marriage. Matt. 14: 3, 4.
Mark 6: 14, 17, 18. Luke 3: 19, 20. When the king was
celebrating his birthday, with the principal persons of his
court, the daughter of Herodias danced before them, and
pleased him so well, that he swore to give her whatever
she would ask. She consulted her mother, who advised
her to ask the head of John the Bapdst. Returning,
therefore, to the hall, she addressed herself to the king,
and said, " Give me here John the Baptist's head in a char-
ger." The king was aflJicted at this request ; but in con-
sideration of his oath, and of the persons at table with
him, he sent one of his guards, who beheaded John in
prison. The head was brought in, and given to the young
woman, who dehvered it to her mother. Matt. 14: 5, 6, etc.
Aretas, king of Arabia, to revenge the affront which He-
rod had offered to his daughter, declared war against him,
and vanquished him in a very obstinate contest. Jose- '
phus tells us, that the Jews attributed the defeat of Herod
to the death of John the Baptist. In the year of the
Christian era 39, Herodias, being jealous of the prosperity
of her brother Agrippa, who, from a private person, had
become king of Judea, persuaded her husband, Herod
Antipas, to visit Rome, and desire the same dignity of
the emperor Caius. She resolved to accompany him, and
hoped that her presence and appearance would contribute
to procure the emperor's favor. However, Agrippa ob-
taining intelligence of this design, wrote to the emperor,
and accused Antipas. The messenger, of Agrippa arrived
at Baia?, where the emperor was, at the very time when He-
rod received his first audience. Caius, on the delivery of
Agrippa's letters, read them with gi-eat earnestness. In
these letters, Agrippa accused Antipas of having been a
party in Sejanus's conspiracy against Tiberius, and said
that he still carried on a correspondence with Artabanus,
king of Parthia, against the Romans. As a proof of this,
he affirmed that Antipas had in his arsenals arms for se-
venty thousand men. Caius being angry, demanded hastily
of Antipas, if it were true that he had such a quantity of
arms. The king not daring to deny it, was instantly ba-
nished to Lyons in Gaul. The emperor oflered to forgive
Herodias, in consideration of her brother Agrippa ; but
she chose rather to follow her husband, and to share his
fortune in banishment. This is that Antipas, who, being
at Jerusalem at the time of our Savior's passion, ridicided
Jesus whom Pilate had sent to him, dressed him in worn-
out royalty, and sent him back to Pilate as a mock king,
whose ambition gave him no umbrage. Luke 23: '''---ll.
The year of the death of Antipas is unknown ; but it is
certain that he, as well as Herodias, died in exile. Jose-
phus says, that he died in Spain, whither Caius, on his
coming into Gaul the first year of his banishment, might
order him to be sent.
II. ANTIPAS ; the faithful martyr or witness mention-
ed in the book of Revelation, 2: 13. He is said to have
been one of our Savior's first disciples, and to have suffer-
ed martyrdom at Pergamus, of which he was bishop. His
acts relate that he was burnt in a brazen bull. Though
ancient ecclesiastical history furnishes no account of this
Antipas, yet it is certain, that according to all the rules of
language, what is said concerning him by St. John must
be understood literally, and not mystically, as some inter-
preters have done. — iValson.
ANTIPATRIS ; a town in Palestine, anciently called
Caphar-Saba, according to Josephus ; but named Antipa-
tris by Herod the Great, in honor of his father Antipater.
It was situated in a pleasant valley, near the mountains,
in the way from Jerusalem to Csesarea. Josephus places
it at about the distance of seventeen mUes from Joppa.
To this place St. Paul was brought in his way to the go-
vernor of Judea at Coesarea. Acts 23: 31.
ANTIPATHY ; hatred, aversion, repugnancy. Hatred
is entertained against persons, aversion and antipathy
against persons or things, and repugnancy against actions
alone. Hatred is more voluntary than aversion, antipathy,
or repugnancy : these last have greater affinity wdth the
animal constitution. The causes of antipathy are less
ANT
[97]
AP A
known Ihan those of aversion. Eepugiumaj is less perma-
nent than either the one or the other. We hate a vicious
character ; we feel an aversion to its exertions. We are
alTerted with antipathy for certain persons nt first sight;
there are some aS'airs which we transact willi repugiuiiicy.
Hatred calumniates, aversion keeps us at a distance from
certain persons. Aittipathy makes us detest tliem ; repug-
nancy hinders us from imitating them. — Buck.
ANTI-PEDOBAPTISTS ; a denomination given to those
who object to the baptism of infants. The word is deriv-
ed from and, against, pais, paidos, a child, and baptizo, I
l/aptize. (See Baptism.)
ANTIQUITIES ; a term implying all testimonies or au-
thentic accounts that have come down to us of ancient na-
tions. As the study of antiquity may be useful both to
the inquiring Christian, as well as to those who are em-
ployed in, or are candidates for, the Gospel ministry, we
shall here subjoin a list of those which are esteemed the
most valuable. — Fabricii Bibliographia Antiquaria ; Spen-
cer de Legibus Heb. Ritualihis ; Godrvyn's Moses and Aaron ;
Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church ; Jenning's
Jewish Antiquities ; Potter's and Hanvood's Greek, and Ken-
net's and Adams's Roman Antiquities ; Preface to the Prus-
sian Testament, published by V Enfant and Beansobre ; Pri-
deanx and Shuckford's Connections ; Jones's Asiatic Researches ;
3Iaurice's Indian Antiquities ; and John's Archcrology.
ANTI-SABBATARIANS; those who reject both the
Jewish and the Christian Sabbaths. They argue — 1. That
the Jewish Sabbath was only of ceremonial, and not of
moral obligation; being a type of that " rest which re-
maiueth for the people of God." — 2. That neither Christ
nor his apostles enjoined the observation of another Sab-
bath ; — but, 3. On the contrary, the apostles cautioned
Christians against the " observance of days and times,"
as of a dangerous and superstitious tendency.
Directly opposed to these are Sabbatarians, who adhere
rigidly to the original institution: when we have stated
their reasonings under the latter denomination, we may
endeavor to ascertain the Scripture doctrine on this impor-
tant subject. — ^Viniams.
ANTI-SUPERNATURALISTS; a term applied by Dr.
J. P. Smith, to those who endeavor to subtract from the
character of Chris'., and of Christianity, every thing mira-
culous and supernatural. (See Index to his '■ Scripture
Testimonies to Messiah.")
ANTITACT^E ; a party of Gnostics, in the second cen-
tury, who are said to have observed the diidne precepts by
" the rale of reverse ;" a charge which might, perhaps, with
equal reason, be alleged against some modern Christians,
so called, who seem to read all the divine proliibitions as
the seventh command was once printed — "Thou shalt
commit adultery;" " Thou shalt kill ;" "Thou slmlt steal;"
&c. Other ecclesiastical ^Titers, however, explain the
terms somewhat differently, as believing two first princi-
ples, a good and evil God, and placing them, ontitactcc,\a
opposition — as it were, in battle array. — Turner's Hist. p.
61. — miHoms.
ANTITHETIC-PARALLEL; an important rule of
Biblical interpretation. (See Poetut of the Hebhews.)
ANTI-TALMUDISTS ; the word applies generally to
all, wnether Jews or Christians, who reject and oppose the
Talmud, as the Caraites, (Sec, which see ; but it applies
particularly to a small society of Jews, founded 1750, in
Podolia, (Polish Russia,) whose profession of faith was
almost Christian ; who admitted that the Messiah was
no longer to be expected ; and that " it is possible that God
became incarnate to expiate human sins," and at length
acknowledged Jesus for the Messiah, Emd desired baptism.
Whether they received it, our authority does not say ; but
they were protected by the king of Poland. — Gregoire's
Hist. 2: 310—12. ; Han. Adams's Hist, of the Jews, pp.
527—8.
ANTI-TRINITARIANS ; all who deny the doctrine of
the Trinity, and who call themselves Zhiitariaus, as admit-
ting of only one person in the Deity. These may be conve-
niently considered under four classes :^1. SaicUians, who
maintain the Father, Son, and Spirit to be one in person
as well as in essence. — 2. Arians, who believe the person
of Jesus to be in a sense divine, but not of the same essence
with the Almighty Father. — 3. Socinians, who consider
'13
our Lord to be only man ; but still, considering the liigh
honors to which he is advanced, as entitled to a dr-^vfo lA'
divine worship. And 4. Humanitarians, who contend, that
the Lord Jesus is a man only " like ourselves, fallible and
peccable," and entitled to no higher honor than that of a
good man, a moral philosopher, and a prophet. Such
were the sentiments of Dr. Priestley, and such are those
of most Anti-trinitarians of the present day. (See the four
principal denominations here named.) — Williams.
ANTITYPE ; that which answers to a type or figure.
A type is a model, mould, or pattern ; that which is form-
ed according to it is an antitype. (See Type.)
The word antitype occurs twice in the New Testament,
viz. in the Epistle to the Hebrews, chap. 94 v. 24. and in
the first Epistle of St. Peter, chap. 3: v. 21. where its genuine
import has been much controverted. (See Answer of a
GOOD conscience.) The former says, that " Christ is not
entered into the holy places made with hands, which are
antitupa, the figures or antitypes of the true — now to ap-
pear in the presence of God." Now tupos signifies the pat-
tern by which another thing is made ; and as Moses was
obliged to make the tabernacle, and all things in it, accord-
ing to the pattern shown him in the mount, the tabernacle
so formed was the antitype of what was shown to Bloses :
any thing, therefore, formed according to a model or pat-
tern, is an antitype — Buck.
ANTI-UNIVERSALISTS. (See Universalists.)
ANTONIA ; one of the towers of Jerusalem, called by
Herod after M. Antony. The Romans generally kept a
garrison in this tower ; and from thence it was that the
tribune ran with his soldiere to rescue St. Paul oat of the
hands of the Jews, wlio had seized him in the temple, and
designed to have murdered him. Acts 21: 31, 32.
ANTOSIANDRIANS; a sect of rigidj:>utherans who
opposed the doctrine of Osiander relating to justification.
These are otherwise denominated Osiandrornastiges. The
Antosiandrians deny that man is made just, with that jus-
tice wherewith God himself is just ; that is, they assert
that he is not made essentially but only iraputatively just ;
or that he is not really made just, but only pronoimced
so. — Buck.
ANXIETY; intense solicitude, the extreme of care. (See
Care.) Solicitude and anxiety as habits of the mind in re-
lation to worldlj' things, and especially to providential
events, yet future, are irreconcilable with the faith of a
Christian, which requires him to cast all his burdens on
the Lord. The charge of our Savior, Matt. 6: 25—34.
literally rendered is. Be not anxious about your life ; in-
dulge no aiixiety respecting the morrow, for sufficient unt&
the day is the evil thereof.
I. APAMEA ; a city of Syria, on the Orontes, built, as
is believed, by Scleucus I. king of Syria ; or by his son,
Antiochus Soter, in honor of queen Apamea, wife of Se-
leucus, and mother of Antiochus. It was probably the
same with Shepham, a city of Syria. Numb. 34: 10, 11.
— Cnlinet.
II. APAMEA; a cityof Phrygia, on the river Marsyas,
near which, as some have been of opinion, Noah's ark
rested ; whence the city took the surname of (Kibotos)
Ark. On a medal, struck in honor of Adrian, is the figure
of a man, representing the river IMarsyas, -n-ith this in-
scription— A medal of the Apameans ; — the Ark and the ri-
ver Marsyas. That this was one of the commemorative
notices of the ark, and of the deluge, there is little doubt ;
but only in the sense, that traditionary shrines, or memo-
rials of the ark, were here very ancient ; and that, jour-
neying direct from Shinar, Babylon, or adjacent places,
here one of the arks, commemorative of the original ark,
rested and settled. That is, here the Arkite worship was
commenced, before it spread over the neighboring country.
In reference to the medal, we may add, that Strabo af-
firms the ancient name of Apamea, to have been Kibotos:
by which name the ark (probably of Noah) was under-
stood, Kibotos is, apparently, not a Greek term : it might
be the name of the temple, in which commemoration was
made of the ark, and of the preser\'ation of man by it.
There are several medals of Apamea extant, on which are
represented the ark, with a man in it, receiving the dove,
which is flying to him ; and part of their inscription is the
word NOE, As they are from different dies, yet all refer-
APH [ $
. ring to Apamea, it seems that their authors had a know-
ledge cf the tradition of commemoration respecting the
ark, preserved in this city. (See Ark.) Many more
such commemorations of an event, so greatly affecting
mankind, were no doubt maintained for many ages,
though we are now under great difficulties in tracing them.
In fact, many cities boasted of these memorials, and re-
ferred to them, as proofs of their antiquity. (SeeARA-
EAT.) — Cnhnet.
■ APATHY, among the ancient philosophers, implied an
utter privation of passion, and an insensibihty of pain.
The word is compounded of a, priv. and pathos, affection.
The stoics atfected an entire apathy ; they considered it
as the highest wisdom, to enjoy perfect calmness, or tran-
quillity of mind, incapable of being ruffled by either plea-
sure or pain. In the first ages of the church, the Chris-
tians adopted the term apathij, to express a contempt of all
earthly concern's ; a state of mortification, such as the
Gospel prescribes. Clemens Ale.xandrinus, in particular,
brought it exceedingly in vogue, thinking thereby to draw
such philosophers to Christianity, who aspired after such
a sublime pitcR of virtue. — Buck.
APE ; cepkus, 1 Kings 10: 22. 2 Chron. 9: 21. This
animal seems to be the same mth the ceph of the Ethio-
pians, of Which Pliny speaks, 1. viii. c. 19: " At the games
given by Pompey the Great," says he, " were shown cephs,
brought from Ethiopia, which had their fore feet like a
human liand, their hind legs and feet, also, resembled
those of a man." The Scripture says, that the fleet of
Solomon brought apes, or rather monkeys, kc. from
Ophir. The learned are not agreed respecting the situa-
tion of that country ; but Major Wilford says, that the
ancient name of the river Landi sindh, in India, was Co-
phis. May it not have been so called, from the cephim in-
habiting its banks?
We now distinguish this tribe of creatures into, 1. Mon-
Izeys, those -with long tails ; 2. Apes, those with short tails ;
3. Baboo7is, those without tails. The ancient Egyptians
are said to have worshipped apes ; it is certam that they
are still adored in many places in India. MalTeus de-
scribes a magnificent temple dedicated to the ape, with a
portico for receiving the victims sacrificed, supported by
seven hundred columns.
" With glillerina; gold and sparkling gems Ihey shine,
Bui apes and monkeys are llie gods wilhin."
Figures of apes are also made and reverenced as idols, of
which we have several in Moore's " Hindoo Pantheon ;"
also,in the avatars, given in Maurice's '• History of India,"
&c. In some parts of the country, the apes" are held
sacred, though not resident in temples ; and incautious
English gentlemen, by attempting to shoot these apes,
(rather, perhaps, luonkeys,) have been exposed, not only
to all manner of insults and vexations from tlie inhabi-
tants of the villages, cSrc. adjacent, but have even been in
danger of their lives. — Watson.
APPELLEANS. (See Marcionites.)
APHEK ; the name of several cities mentioned in
Scripture, but none of them of sufiicient note to require
particular mention. See 1 Sam. 4: 1, 2, &;c. 1 Sam. 29:
1. Josh. 19: 30. and 13: 4. 1 Kings 20: 26, ice.— Jones.
APHTHAKTODOCITES; a small sect in the sixth
century, who held, (as their name implies,) that the body
of .testis Clirist was incormptible, and not subject to death.
3 J A P 0
They were a branch of the Eutychians. — Swughton, vol -
i. p. 58. — Williams.
APIS ; a symbolical deity, worshipped by the Eg3rp-
tians. It was an ox, having certain exterior marks, in
■^hich animal the soul of the great Osiris v.-as supposed
to subsist. The ox was probably made the symbol of
Osiris, because he presided over agriculture. — Watson.
APOCALYPSE, signifies revelation. It is, however,
particularly applied to the Revelation which St. John had
in the isle of Patmos, whither he had been banished.
The testimonies in favor of the book of the Revelation be-
ing a genuine work of St. John the evangelist, are vfery
full and satisfactory. Andrew, bishop of Caesarea, in
Cappadocia, in the fifth century, assiu-es us that Papias
acknowledged the Revelation to be inspired. But the ear-
liest author now extant, who mentions this book, is Justin
Martyr, who lived about sixty years after il was written
and he ascribes it to St. John. So doe? Irseneus, whose
evidence is alone sufiicient upon thi"^ point ; for he was
the disciple of Polycarp, who was tlie disciple of John
himself; and he expressly tells us, that he had the expla-
nation of a certain passage in ihis book from those who
had conversed with St. John, the autlior. These two fa-
thers are followed by Clement of Alexandria, Theophilus
of Antioch, TertuUian, Origen, Cyprian, Lactantius, Je-
rome, Athanasius, and many other ecclesiastical writers,
all of whom concur in considering ll;e apostle John as the
author of the Revelation. Some few persons, however,
doubted the genuineness of Ihis book, in the third and
fourth centuries ; but since that time, it has been very
generally acknowledged lo be canonical ; and, indeed, as
Mr. Lowman observes "hardly any one book has receiv-
ed more early, more authentic, and more satisfactory at-
testations." The omission of this book, in some of the
early catalogues of the Scriptures, was probably not owing
to any suspicion concerning its authenticity or genuine-
ness, but because its obscurity and mysteriousness were
thought to render it less fit to be read publicly and gene-
rally. It is called the Revelation of John the Divine ; and
this appellation was first given to St. John by Eusebius,
not to distinguish him from any other person of the same
name, but as an honorable title, intimating that to hira
was more fully revealed the system of divine counsels
than to any other prophet of the Christian dispensation.
St. John was banished to Patmos, in the latter part of
the reign of Domitian, and he returned to Ephesus imme-
diately after the death of that emperor, which happened
in the year 96 ; and, as the apostle states that these,
visions appeared to him while he was in that island, we
may consider this book as written in the year 95 or 96.
In the first chapter, St. John asserts the divine authori-
ty of the predictions which he is about to deliver ; ad-
dresses hiiuself to the churches of the Proconsular Asia ;
and describes the first vision, in which he is commanded
to write the things then revealed to him. The second and
third chapters contain seven epistles, to the seven churches
in Asia ; namely, of Ephesus, Smyriia, Pergamus, Thya-
tira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea, which relate
chiefly to their then respective circumstances and situa-
tion. At the fourth chapter, the prophetic visions begin,
and reach to the end of the book. They contain a predic-_
tion of all the most remarkable revolutions and events in
the Christian church, from the time of the apostle to the
final consummation of all things. An attempt to explain
these prophecies does not fall within the design of this
work ; and, therefore, those who are disposed to study
this sublime and mysterious book, are referred to Mede,
Daubnitz, Sir Isaac Newton, Lowman, bishop Newton,
bishop Kurd, and many other excellent commentators.
These learned men agree, in their general principles, con-
cerning the interpretation of this book, although they dif-
fer in some particular points ; and it is not to be expected,
that there should be a perfect coincidence of opinion, in
the explanation of those predictions, which relate to still
future times ; for, as the incomparable Sir Isaac Newton
observes, " God gave these, and the prophecies of the Old
Testament, not to gratify men's curiosity, by enabling
them to foreknow things, but that after they were fulfilled,
they might be interpreted by the event, and his own pre-
scier.ce» not that of the interpreters, be then manifested
APO
[ 99]
APO
, thereby lo the world." " To explain this book perfectly,"
says bishop Newton, " is not the work of one man, or of
one age ; but probably it never will be clearly iinJerstood,
till it is all fulfilled." It is graciously designed, that the
gradual accomplishment of these predictions should af-
ford, in every succeeding period of time, additional testi-
mony 10 the divine origin of our holy religion.
The views of Eichhorn, Hug, and other German writers,
as presented in Prof. Robinson's American edition of Cal-
met, and apparently approved by him, are at utter vari-
ance, not only with those of the distinguished writers
mentioned above, but with all internal evidence and pro-
bability. All the prophecies relative to the great apostasy
in the church itself; the rise of Antichrist, and his reign
of twelve hundred and sixty years, during which the true
church is driven for refuge into the wilderness ; the over-
throw of Babylon being immediately followed by the
millennium, and the millennium by the final judgment,
and the final judgment by the new heavens and earth,
and the state of retribution, which endure forever; af-
ford a series of proofs, fatal to the German hypothe-
sis of interpretation. It is deeply to be regretted, that
Prof. Robinson has so rashly committed himself, and put
the sanction of his valuable name to so wild a theory.
Perhaps Mr. Keith, in his " Signs of the Times," pub-
lished in 1831, has thrown more true light on the series
of prophetic symbols in this book, than any writer who
has preceded him. See, also, Fuller's Expositor!/ Lectures
on the Apocalypse.
APOCARITES ; a small sect in the third century,
spiling from the Blanichaeans, who held that the soul of
man was of the essence of God. (See MANicH.fiANS.)—
Willioms.
APOCRYPHA ; books not admitted into the sacred
canon, being either spurious, or at least not acknowledged
to be divine. The word apocrj'pha is of Greek origin, and is
either derived from the words apo tes kruptes, because the
books in question were removed /rom the crypt, chest, ark,
or other receptacle in which the sacred books were depo-
sited, whose authority was never doubted, or, more proba-
bl)', from the verb apokrupto, to hide or cmireal, because
they were concealed from the generality of readers, their
authority not being recognised by the church, and because
th;y are books which are destitute of proper testimonials,
their original being obscure, their authors unknow n, and
their character either heretical or suspected. The advo-
cates of the church of Rome, indeed, affirm that some of
these books are divinely inspired ; but it is easy to ac-
count for this : the apocr)'phal writings serve to counte-
nance some of the cornipt practices of that church. The
Protestant churches not only account tliose books to be
apocr)'phal, and merely human compositions, which are
esteemed such by the church of Rome, as the Prayer of
Manasseh, the third and fourth books of Esdras, the ad-
dition at the end of Job, and the hundred and fifty-first
Psalm ; but also the books of Tohit, Judith, the additions
to the book of J2sther, "Wisdom, Ecclcsiasticus, Baruch
the Prophet, with the Epistle of Jeremiah, the Song of the
Tlrree Children, the Story of Susanna, the Story of Bel
and the Dragon, and the first and second books of Macca-
bees. The books here enumerated are unanimously re-
jected by Protestants, for the following reasons : —
1. They possess no authority whatever, either external
or internal, to procure their admission into the sacred
canon. None of them are extant in Hebrew ; all of thera
are in the Greek language, c.\ce(n the fourth book of Es-
dras, which is only extant in Latin. They were wrilten,
for the most part, by Alexandrian Jews, subsequently to
the cessation of the prophetic Spirit, though -before the
proinulgation of the Gospel. Not one of the writers, in
direct terms, advances a claim to inspiration -, nor were
they ever received into the sacred canon bv the Jewish
church, and therefore they were not sanctioned by our
Savior. No part of the apocrypha is quoted, or even al-
luded to, -by him, or by any of his apostles; and both
Philo and Josephus, who flourished in the first century of
the Christian era, are totally silent concerning them.
2. The apocryphal books were not admitted into the
canon of Scripture, during the first four centuries of the
Christian church. They are not mentioned in the cata-
logue of inspired writings, made Ijy Melilo, bishop of Sar-
dis, who flourished in the second century, nor in those of
Origen, in the third century, of Athanasius, Hilary, Cyril
of Jerusalem, Epiphanius, Gregory Nazianzen, Amphilo-
chius, Jerome, Rufinus, and others, of the fourth centurj' ;
nor'in the catalogue of canonical books recognised by the
council of Laodicea, held in the same centurj-, whose
canons were received by the Catholic church ; so that, as
bishop Btirnet well observes, we have the concurring
sen.se of the whole church of God in this matter. To this
decisive eviilence against the canonical authority of the
apocryphal books, we may add, that they were never read
in the Christian church, until the fourth century ; when,
as Jerome informs us, they were read '• for example of
life and instruction of manners ; but were not applied tn
establish any doctrine." And contemporary writers .state,
that, although they were not approved as canonical or ic-
spired writings, yet some of them, particularly Jud.'th,
Wisdom, and Eeclesiasticns, were allowed to be perused
by catechumens. As a proof that they were not regarded
as canonical in the fifth century, Augustine relates, that
when the book of Wisdom, and other writings of the same
class, were publicly read in the church, they were given
to the readers, or inferior ecclesiastical officers, who read
them in a lower place than those which were universally
acknowledged lo be canonical, which were read by the
bishops and presbyters, in a more eminent and conspicu-
ous manner.. To conclude; notwithstanding the venera-
tion in which these books were held by the Romish
church, it is evident that the same authority was never
ascribed to them, as to the Old and New Testament, until
the last council of Trent, at its fourth session, presumed
to place them all, (except the Prayer of Manasseh. and
the third and fourth books of Esdras.) in the same rank
with the inspired writings of Moses and the prophets. —
Watson.
APOCRYPHAL NEW TESTAMENT. A book has
been lately published, called " The Apocryphal New
Testament," the greater part of which consists of Wake's
Epistles of the Fathers, some of which Sire curious ; arid
the first Epistle of Clement, which is truly valuable, but
has no claim to inspiration. The greater part of the
work not in Wake is, however, only collected together
vnder this name, with an obvious, though abortive, design
to bring the genuine Scriptures into contempt. — Home's
( T. K.) Iittroil action to the Critical Study of the Scriptures,
third ed. vol. iii. p. 687, ad finem ; nilUams.
APOLLINARIANS, or Apollinarists, or, as they are
called by Epiphanius, DimarilOD ; a sect who derived their
principal name from ApoUinaris, bishop of Laodicea, in
the fourth century. ApoUinaris strenuously defended the
divinity of Christ against the Arians ; but, by indulging
too freely in philosophical distinctions and subtleties, he
denied, in some measure, his humanity. He maintained
that the body which Christ assumed, was endowed with
a sensitive, and not a rational, soul ; and that the diviuc
nature performed the functions of reason, and sujiplied the
place of the intellectual principle in man. Hence it seem-
ed to ibllow, that the divine nature in Christ was blended
with the human, and suflered with it the pains of cruri-
fixiou and death. ApoUinaris and his followers have been
charged with other errors, by certain ancient writers ; but
it is not easy to determine how far their charge is worthy
of credit. The doctrine of ApoUinaris was first condemn-
ed by a council at Alexandria, in 3(i2, and afterwards, in
a mor^ formal manner, by a council at Rome, in 375, and
by another council in 378, which deposed -ApoUinaris from
his bishopric. In short, it was attacked at the same time
by the laws of the emperors, the decrees of councils, and
the writings of the learnetl, and sunk, by degrees, under
their uniled force. — Watson.
APOLLONIUS ; a inartjT of the second century. He
was a Roman senator, and was at once skilled in all the
polite literatiu-e of those times, and in all the purest pre-
cepts taught by our blessed Redeemer. He was indeed
an accomplished gentleman and a sincere Christian.
Tliis man, being accused as a Christian, and refusing to
recant his opinions, was condemned to t« beheadedj
w-hich sentertoe was executed on the 18th of April, 186.
— Fox.
APO
flOO 1
APO
APOL.LOS, was a Jew ol' Alexandria, who came tu
Ephesus in the year of our Lord 54, during the absence
of St. Paul, who had gone to Jerusalem. Acts 18: 24.
He was an eloquent man, and mighty in the Scriptures ;
but he knew only of the baptism of John, and was not
fully informed of the higher branches of Gospel doctrine.
However, he acknowledged that Jesus Christ was the
Messiah, and declared himself openly as his disciple. At
Ephesus, therefore, he began to speak boldly in the syna-
gogue, and demonstrated by the Scriptures that Jesus was
the Christ. Aquila and Friscilla, having heard him there,
took him with them, and instructed him more fully in the
ways of God. Some time after, he was inclined to go into
Achaia, and the brethren wrote to the disciples there, de-
siring them to receive him. He was very useful at Co-
rinth, where he watered what St. Paul had planted. 1
Cor. 3: 6. It has been supposed, that the great admira-
tion of his disciples for him, tended to produce a schism.
Some said, " I am of Paul ;" some, " I am of ApoUos ;"
and others, " I am of Cephas." But this division, which
St. Paul mentions and reproves, in his first Epistle to the
Corinthians, did not prevent Paul and ApoUos, personally,
from being closely united in the bonds of Christian charity
and affection. ApoUos, hearing that the apostle was at
Ephesus, went to meet him, and was there when St. Paul
wrote the first Epistle to the Corinthians ; in which he ob-
serves, thai he had earnestly entreated ApoUos to return
to Corinth : but, though he had not prevailed with him,
Apollos gave him room to hope that he would visit that
city, at a favorable opportunity. Some have supposed,
that the apostle names Apollos and Cephas, not as the
real persons in \(-hose name parties had been formed in
Corinth, but that, in-order to avoid provoking a temper
which he wished !o subside, he transfers, "by a figure,"
to Apollos and himself, what was really meant of other
parlies, whom, from prudence, he declines to mention.
However this might be, the reluctance of Apollos to return
to Corinth seems to countenance the general opinion. St.
Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the di-
■vision which had happened on Ms account at Corinth, that
he retired into Crete with Zeno, a doctor of the law ; but
that the evil having been coiTected by the letter of St. Paul
to tlie Corinthians, Apollos returned to that city, of which
he afterwards became bishop. The Greeks say that he
was bishop of Duras ; some, that he was bishop of Iconi-
um, in Phrs'gia ; and others, of Ca^sarea. — Walson.
APOLLYON. (See Abaddon.)
APOLOGIES, in ecclesiastical histoiT, were defences
(so the Greek word means) of Christianity, presented to
heathen emperors, by the Christian fathers, who were
therefore called Apologists. The first was presented to
the emperor Adrian, by Quadratus, A.D. 126, a fragment
of which is preserved by Eusebius ; but another, present-
ed soon after to the same, hy Aristides, a converted Athe-
nian philosopher, is totally lost. Justin Martyr wrote two
apologies ; the latter (to the Roman senate) is imperfect
at the beginning; but the former, addressed to Antoninus
Pius, is preservi'd entire, and was published in English,
in 1709, by the Rev. W. Reeves, together with one by
TerluUian, the Octavius (a dialogue) of Minucius Felix,
and the Commentary of Vincentius Lirinensis, with notes
and preliminai-y dissertations to each, in two volumes, oc-
tavo. The Apologies are curious and valuable remains
of antiquity, as showing what were the objections of the
heathens, and the manner in which they were rebutted by
the early Christians. — Watson.
APOSTASY ; a forsaking or renouncing our religion,
either by an open declaration in words, or a virtual decla-
ration of it by our actions. The primitive Christian
church distinguished several kinds of apostasy ; the first,
of those who went entirely from Christianitv to Judaism ;
Ihe second, of those who complied so far with the Jews, as
to communicate with them in many of their unlawful
practices, without making a formal profession of their re-
ligion ; thirdly, of those who mingled Judaism and Chris-
tianity together ; and, fourthly, of those who voluntarily
relapsed into paganism. Apostasy may be farther con-
sidered as, 1. Original, in which we have all participated.
Rom. 3: 23. 2. National, when a kingdom relinquishes
the profession of Christianity. 3. Personal, when an indi-
vidual backslides from God. Heb. 10: 38. 'I . Final, when
men are given up to judicial hardness of heart, as Judas
The warnings of our Lord against apostasy are frequent
and, beyond conception, fearful. Matt. 10: 28 — 3P. It is
hard to tell whether they were most needed in times of
sanguinary persecution, or now, in times of seductive
peace. (See Backsliding.) — Bvc/c.
APOSTLE ; a word derived from the Greek apostello,
to delegate, to send forth one as an agent, clothed with
authority to act for another. Heb. 3: 1. The term apos-
tle implies, 1. Selection. Acts 1: 24. 9: 15. 2. Commis-
sion. 2 Cor. 4: 7. 1 Tliess. 2: 4. 3. Qualification. 2
Cor. 12: 12. 4. Mission. Acts26: 17, 18. 5. Responsi-
bUity. 1 Cor. 4: 1 — 5. 9: 26, 27. 6. Recompense of
fidelity. 2 Tim. 4: 7, 8. Hence we may understand why
the Epistles of Paul open with the announcement of his
apostolical authority. Though sometimes in the New
Testament applied to others, and then rendered " messen-
ger," yet the first select ministers of Christ were, by way
of eminence, termed apostles, in distinction from evange-
lists, pastors, and teachers. There were several things
essential to their office, such as,
1. That they should have seen the Lord, and been eye
and ear witnesses of what they testified to the world.
John 15: 27. This is laid down as an essential requisite,
in the choice of one that was to succeed Judas. Acts 1:
21, 22. All of them could say, " that which we have seen
and heard, declare we unto you." 1 John 1: 3. The
case of Paul is no exception to this ; for, referring to those
that saw Christ after his resurrection, he says, " And, last
of all, he was seen of me." 1 Cor. 15: 8. And he men-
tions this upon another occasion, as one of his apostolic
qualifications. " Am I not an apostle ? Have I not seen
the Lord?" 1 Cor. 9: 1. So that his seeing that Just
One, and hearing the voice of his mouth, was necessary
to his being a witness of what he thus saw and heard
Acts 22: 14, pj.
2. They must have been immediately called and chosen
to that office by Christ himself. This was the case with
ever}' one of them, Matthias not excepted ; Luke 6: 13.
Gal. 1: 1. for, as he had been previously chosen a disciple
of Christ, so the Lord, by determining the lot, declared bis
choice, and immediately called him to the office of an
apostle. Acts 1: 24—26.
3. Infallible inspiration was also necessary to qualify
persons for that oflice. John 16: 13. They had not onl}
to explain the true sense and spiiit of the Old Testament,
but also to give forth the New Testament revelation to
the world, which was to be the unalterable standard of
faith and practice in all succeeding generations. Luke
24: 27. Acts 26: 22, 23. and ch. 28: 23. 1 Pet. 1: 25. It
was therefore necessary that they should be secured
against all mistakes, by the unerring dictates of the Spirit
of truth. Accordingly Christ both promised, and actually
bestowed upon them, the Holy Spirit, to teach them aU
things ; to bring all things to their remembrance, whatso-
ever he had said unto them ; to guide them into all truth,
and to show them things to come. John 16: 13, 26. Their
doctrine must also be received, not as the word of man,
but, as it truly is, the Word of God, 1 Thess. 2: 13 and
as that by wMch we are to distinguish the spirit of truth
from the spirit of error. 1 John 4: 6.
4. The power of working miracles was an important
apostolical qualification : such as speaking different lan-
guages, curing the lame, healing the sick, raising the
dead, discerning of spirits, and conferring these gifts on
others. Mark 16: 20. Acts 2: 43. 1 Cor. 12: 8— 11.
These were credentials of their apostolic mission, 2 Cor.
12: 11. by means of which they confirmed their doctrine,
at its first publication, gaining credit to it as a revelation
from God, who thereby bare witness to them. Heb. 2: 4.
5. To the apostles only belonged the high prerogative
of conferring upon others spiritual gifts and miraculous
powers. Acts 8. And to all these qualifications must be
added,
6. The universality of their mission. Their charge
was not, like that of ordinary pastors, restricted to any
particular church ; but, being the oracles of God to men,
they had the care of all the churches. 2 Cor. 11: 28.
They had authority to settle their faith and order, as eX'
APO
[ 101 1
APP
fimples to all succeeding churches, to determine all conlro-
versies, Acts 16: 4. and to exercise the rod of discipline
on all ofTenders, whether pastors or flock. 1 Cor. 5: 3—6.
2 Cor. 10: 8. and ch. 13: 10. See M'Lcaris lUiistralion of
Chrhfs Commission to his Apostles, p. 8 — 11.
St. Paul is frequently called the apostle, by way of emi-
nence ; and the apostle of the gentiles, because his ministry
was chiefly employed for the conversion of the gentiles, as
that of St. Peter was for Jews, who is therefore styled the
apostle of the circumcision.
The apostles having continued at Jerusalem twelve
years after the ascension of Christ, as tradition reports,
according to his command determined to disperse them-
selves in different parts of the world. But what were the
particular provinces assigned to each, does not certainly
appear from agy authentic history. Socrates says, that
Thomas took Parthia for his lot ; Matthew, Ethiopia ; and
Bartholomew, India. Eusebius gives the following ac-
count : " Thomas, as we learn hy tradition, had Parthia
for his lot ; Andrew, Scythia ; John, Asia, who having
lived there a long time, died at Ephesus. Peter, as it
seems, preached to the dispersed Jews in Pontus and Ga-
latia, IBithynia, Cappadocia, and Asia ; at length, coming
to Rome, he was crucified with his head downward, as he
had desired. What need I to speak of St. Paul, who fully
preached the Gospel of Christ, from Jerusalem to lUyri-
cum, and at last died a martyr at Rome, in the time of
Nero?" From this passage we may conclude, that at the
beginning of the fourth century, there were not any cer-
tain and well attested accounts of the places, out of Judea,
in which several of the apostles of Christ preached ; for if
there had, Eusebius must have been acquainted with them.
The stories that are told concerning their arrival and
exploits among the Gauls, the English, the Spaniards,
the Germans, the Americans, the Chinese, the Indians,
and the Russians, are too romantic in their nature, and of
too recent a date, to be received by an impartial inquirer
after truth. These fables were, for the most part, forged
after the time of Charlemagne, when most of the Christian
churches contended about the antiquity of their origin,
with as much vehemence as the Arcadians, Egyptians,
and Greeks, disputed formerly about their seniority and
precedence.
It appears, however, that all of the apostles did not die
liy martyrdom. Heraclion, cited by Clemens Ale.xandri-
nus, reckons among the apostles who did not suffer mar-
tyrdom, Matthew, Thomas, Philip, and Levi, probably
meaning Lebbeus.
To the apostles belonged the peculiar and exclusive pre-
rogative of writing doctrinal and preceptive books of au-
I'lority in the Christian church ; and it sufficiently appears
that no epistles, or other doctrinal writings, of any person
who was of a rank below that of an apostle, were received
by Christians, as a part of their rule of faith. With re-
spect to the wiitings of Mark and Luke, they are reclconed
historical, not doctrinal or dogmatical ; and Augustine
says, that Mark and Luke wrote at a time when their
writings might be approved not only by the church, but
hy apostles still living. — JViUiams ; Watson; Jones.
APOSTLES' CREED. (See Creed.)
APOSTOLIC ; apostolical ; something that relates to
the apostles, or descends from them. Thus we say, the
apostolic age, apostolic doctrine, apostolic character, consti-
tutions, traditions, kc. — Buck.
APOSTOLIC CHURCH, in the primilive church, was
an appellation given to all such churches as were founded
by the apostles ; and even to the bishops of those churches,
as being the reputed successors of the apostles. These
were confined to four, viz. Rome, Alexandria, Antioch,
and Jerusalem. In after times, the other churches as-
stuned the same quality, on account, piincipally, of the
conformity of their doctrine with that of the churches
which were apostolical by foimdation, and because all
bishops held themselves successors of the apostles, or act-
ed in their dioceses with the authority of apostles.
The first time the term apostolical is attributed to bish-
ops, as such, is iu a letter of Clovis to the council of Or-
leans, held in 511, though that king does not there ex-
pressly denominate them apostolical, but (apostnlica sede
dignissimi) highly worthy of the apostolical see. In 581.
Ountram calls the bishops met at the council of Macon,
apostolical pontiffs, apostolici pontifices.
In progress of time, the bi.shop of Rome, growing in
power above the rest, and the three patriarchates, of Al-
exandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, falling into the hands
of the Saracens, the title apostolical was restrained to thf
pope and his church alone; though some of the popes
and St. Gregory the Great, not contented to hold the title
by this tenure, began, at length, to insist that it belonged
to them by another and peculiar right, as being the suc-
cessors of St. Peter. The country of Rheims, in lOUi,
dei;lared that the pope was the sole apostolical primate of
the universal church. And hence a great number of apos-
tolicals ; apostolical see, apostolical nuncio, apostolical nota-
ry, apostolical brief, apostolical chamber, apostolical vicar,
&c. The only really apostolic church is that, (be it found
where it may,) which accords throughout with the divine
model prescribed in the New Testament. — Buck.
APOSTOLICAL CONSTITUTIONS ; a coUection of
regulations, attributed to the apostles, and supposed to
have been collected by St. Clement, whose name they
likewise bear. It is the general opinion, however, that
they are spurious, and that St. Clement had no hand in
them. They appeared first in the fourth century, but
have been much changed and cornipled since. There
are so many things in them different from, and even con-
trary to, the genius and design of the New Testament wri-
ters, that no wise man would believe, without the mostcon-
lancing and irresistible proof, that both could come from
the same hand. — Grabe's Answer to Wliiston ; Sauriii's Her.
vol. ii. p. 185; Larclner's Creel, vol. iii. p. 11. ch. ult. ;
Doddridge's Led. lect. 119. — Buck.
APOSTOLIC FATHERS ; an appellation usually
given to the Christian writers of the first century, Barna-
bas, Hermas, Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Of these
writers, Cotelerius, and after him Le Clerc, have published
a collection, in Iwo volumes, accompanied both with llieir
own annotations, and the remarks of other learned men.
See also the genuine epistles of the apostolic fathers, by
archbishop Wake, and in the Apocryphal New Testament.
— Buck.
APOSTOLICS; this name has been given to different
persons and sects, who have attempted, or, at least, pro
fessed, to imitate the zeal of the apostles. — Williams.
APOSTOOLIANS ; a small party of Mennonites, the
followers of one of their ministers, Samuel Apostool, of Am-
sterdam, iu the seventeenth century. They appear to
have been Calvinists and Millenarians in sentiment, and
strict in their terms of communion. (See Gale.vists and
Mennonites.) — Moshdmh Bed. Hist. vol. v. pp. -HKi — 7.
— 'nniliams.
APOTACTICS, or Afotactitje ; the first and purest sect
of the Apostolics, who stand charged with no heresy, but
with imitating the manners of the first age in austerity,
and particularly, in renouncing all worldly professions,
and having all things in common. They were of the
second century, and chiefly in Cilicia and Pamphylia. —
Encij. Britannica.
APPAREL. (See Habit, Raiment, Adokning.)
APPEAL ; a legal term, denoting a request for the
transfer of a cause from one judge to another, or from an
inferior to a superior tribunal. The Sempronian law se-
cured this privilege to the Roman citizens, that they could
not be capitally convicted, but by the suffrage of the peo-
ple ; and in whatever provinces they happened to reside,
if the governor showed a disposition to condemn them to
death, to scourge, or deprive them of their property, they
had liberty to appeal from his jurisdiction, to the judgment
of the people. This law, which was enacted under the
republican form of government, continued in force under
the emperors ; so that if any freeman of Rome thought
himself ill used and aggrieved by the presidents, in any
of the provinces, he could, by appeal, remove his cause to
RomCr to the determination of the emperor. A number
of persons, we are told, were delegated by Augustus, all
of consular rank, to receive the appeals of the people in
the provinces. Thus Paul, (Acts 25: 11, 12.) when he
found that Festus was too much inclined to favor the pre-
judiced populace of Judea, to do full justice to his cause,
or deliver him from the lawless fury of his enemies, stood
APP
[ 102
APP
npon his rights as a Roman citizen, and said, I appeal un-
to CcBsar. So, if at any time unjustly condemned on
earth, it is consoling to reflect that we can appeal with
confidence of redress, to the judgment scat of Christ.
Rom. U: 10. 1 Cor. 4: 3—5. 2 Thess. 1: 6— 10. But
if condemned there, by Eternal Justice, where can we ap-
peal ? 1 Pet. 4: 18.
APPETITES ; properly, those keen sensations of liodi-
Jy want, which, without reference to any specific obiect,
arise from the constitution of our nature, au'l pnjmpt
mankind, by some means, to seek supply or re'l^t. There
is a material difference between the appetites and the pa.s-
sions. The passions have no existence, lili a proper obr
ject is presented ; whereas, the appetites exist firsi. and
then are directed to an object. A passion comes after its
c^"' ' ; an appetite goes before it, as is obvious in the ap-
retites of hunger, thirst, and the like. A man has an
appetite for food in general; he has a passion ioi sovas
particular kind of food.
Though the appetites, properly speaking, belong to the
body, yet the word is someiimes, by a beautiful analogy,
transferred from the aniinal inclinations and impulses, to
the affections of the nimd. But, in such cases, it always
denotes some strong general atl'ection. Thus we speak
of an appetite for knowleilge, for fame, for conquest, for
riches ; these being general objects, comprehending many
particulars. Bui when we speak of an attachment to a
particular bc-olc, friend, and so on, we call it a passion.
But we rarely apply either of these tenns, except to very
urgent and impatient desires. It is to desires of this
strong, inepressilile, and even painful character, that our
Savior refers in that beautiful passage, " Blessed are they
which do hunger and thirst after righteousness ; for they
shaU be filled." Matt. 5: 6. See also many other places,
as John 4; 14. 7: 37. Rev. 22: 17.
Our appetites and passions were given us for our pre-
servation, protection, and improvement ; and also for the
Continuance of the human race. Giving scope to them
for these purposes only, is free from guilt. But all ex-
cess, as well as all perversion of them from these objects,
is evidently sinful, and that according to the degree in
which it is indulged. Therefore, says the apostle, "I
iceep under my body, and bring it into subjection," &c.
1 Cor. 9: 21.— Lord Kaimes ; Oliver.
APPII FORUM ; a place about fifty miles from Rome,
near the modern town of Piperno, on the road to Naples.
It probably had its name from the statue of Appius Clau-
ilius, a Roman consul, who paved the famous way from
Rome to Capua, and whose statue was set up here. To
this place some Christians from Rome came to meet St.
Paul. Acts 28: 15. — Watson.
APPLETON, (N.\THANiEL, D. D. ;) minister of Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, was born at Ipswich, December 9,
1693. He was graduated at Harvard college, in 1712.
After completing his education, an opportunity presented of
entering into commercial business, on very advantageous
terms, with an uncle in Boston, who was an opulent mer-
chant ; but he resolved to forego every worldly advantage,
that he might promote the interest of the Redeemer's
kingdom. Soon after he began to preach, he was invited
tv succeed Mr. Brattle in the ministry at Cambridge, and
vi-as ordained October 9, 1717. After a ministry of more
'.han sixty-six years, he died February 9, 1784, in the
cinety-first year of his age. This country can furnish
few instances of more useful talents, and more exemplary
piety, exhibited for so long a time, and with such great
success. During his ministry, seven hundred and eighty-
four persons were admitted members of the church.
In controversial and difficult cases, he was often applied
to for advice at ecclesiastical councils. Impartial yet pa-
cific, firm yet conciliatory, he was peculiarly qualified for
a counsellor, and in that character he materially contri-
buted to the unity, the peace, and order of the churches.
With the wisdom of the serpent, he happily united the in-
nocence of the dove. In his religious principles, he was
a Calvinist, as were all his predecessors in the ministry,
Hooker, Stone, Shepard, Mitchel, Oakes, Gookin, and
Brattle. But towards those of different principles, he was
candid and catholic.
His own example enforced the duties which he enjoined
upon others. He was humble, meek, and benevolent
He was ready, ai all times, to relieve the distressed, and
through life he lievoted a tenth part of his whole income
t.i pious anrl 'rharitable uses, He was ever a firm friend
to the civil and rehgions liberties of mankind, -nnd was
happy in living to see the establishment of peace and in-
dependence in -his native land. He deserves honorable
remembrance, for his exertions to send the Gospel to the
Intliaris. Under his many heavy trials, he was submis-
sive and patient. When his infirmities had, in a great
measure, terminated his usefulness, he expressed his de-
sire to depart and be with Christ. He at length calmly
resigned his spirit into the hands of its Redeemer. His
publications consist only of sermons. — Allen's Biog. Diet.
APPLETON, (Jesse, D D. ;) the second president of
Bowdoin college, was born at New Ipswich, in the state
of New Hampshire, November 17, 1772. President Ap-
pleton was graduated at Dartmouth college, in 1792. It
was during his residence at that seminary, that he expe-
rienced deep reUgious impressions; yet of any precise
period, when his heart was regenerated by the Spirit of
God, he was not accustomed to speak. The only safe evi-
dence of piety, he believed, was " the perception in him-
self of those qualities, which the Gospel requires." Hav-
ing spent two years in the instruction of youth, at Dover
and Amherst, he studied theology under Dr. Lathrop, ( f
West Springfield. In February, 1797, he was ordained as
the pastor of a church at Hampton, New Hampshire.
His rehgious sentiments, at this period, were Armini»n.
Much of his time,-during his ten years' residence in that
town, was devoted to systematic, earnest study, Lii conse-
quence of which, his sentiments assumed a new form.
By his faithful, affectionate services, he was very much
endeared to his people. At his suggestion, the Piscataqua
Evangelical Magazine was published, to which he con-
tributed valuable essays, with the signature of Leighton.
Such was his public estimation, that, in 1803, he was one
of the two principal candidates for the professorship of
theology at Harvard college ; but Dr. Ware was elected.
In 1807, he was chosen president of Bowdoin college, in-
to which office he was inducted December 23. After the
toils of ten years in this station, his health became much
impaired, in consequence of a severe cold, in October,
1817. In May, 1819, his illness became more alarming,
his complaints being a cough, hoarseness, and. debility.
A journey proved of no essential benefit. A profuse
hemorrhage, in October, extinguished all hope of recovery.
As the day of his dissolution approached, he remarked,
'• Of this I am sure, that salvation is all of grace. 1
would make no mention of an}' thing, which I have ever
thought, or said, or done ; but only of this, that God so
loved the world, as to give his onhj-begotten Son, that whosoever
delieveth on him, slwuld not perish, but have everlasting life.
The atonement is the only ground of hope." In health,
he was sometimes anxious, in a high degree, in regard to
the college ; but in his sickness he said, in cheerful confi-
dence, " God has taken care of the college, and God rcill take
care of it." Among his last expressions, were heard the
words, " Glory to God in the highest : the whole earth
shall be filled with his glory." 'He died November 12,
1819, at the age of forty-seven, having been pre.sident
nearly twelve years.
In 1820, a volume of his addresses was published, con-
taining his inaugural address and eleven annual ad-
dresses, with a sketch of his character, by Rev. Dr. Nich-
ols, of Portland. In 1S22, his lectures and occasional
sermons were published, in one volume, with a memoir
of his life, by Rev. Benjamin Tappan, of Augusta. The
subjects of these lectures, twenty-seven in number, are
the necessity of revelation, human depravity, the atone-
ment, regeneration, the eternity of future punishment, the
resurrection of the body, and the demoniacs of the New
Testament.
The sermons are on the immortality of the soul, the in-
fluence of religion on the condition of man, the evils of
war and the probability of universal peace, the truth ■ i
Christianity from its moral effects, conscience, and codsc
quences of neglecting the great salvation. — Allen.
APPLE-TREE ; Prov. 23: 11. Cant. 2: 3, 5. 7: 8- 8: .5.
Joel 1: 12. As the best apples of Egypt, though or'linary,
APP
t 103]
AQU
are brought thither by sea from Ehodcs, and by land from
Damascus, we may believe that Judea, an intermediate
country between Egypt and Damascus, has none that are
of any value. Can it be imagined, then, that the apple-
trees of which the prophet Joel speaks, 1: 12., and which
he mentions among Ihc things that gave joy to the inhabi-
tants of Judea, were those th^t we call by that name?
Our translators must surely have been mistaken here,
since the apples which the inhabitants of Judea eat at this
day are of foreign growth, and at the same time but very
indifferent.
There are five places, besides this in Joel, in which the
word occurs ; and from them we learn that it was thought
the noblest of the trees of the wood, and that its fruit was
very sweet or pleasant. Cant. 2: 3. ; of the color of gold,
Prov. 25: 11. ; extremely fragrant. Cant. 7: 8. ; and proper
for those to smell that were ready to faint. Cant. 2: 5. We
may be sure that the taphuach was very early known in
the holy land, as it is mentioned in the book of Joshua as
iiaving given name to a city of Manasseh and one of Ju-
dah. Several interpreters and critics render Levit. 23: 40.
branches nf ftuil, of the beautiful tree; and understand it
of the citron ; and it is known that the Jews still make
use of the fruit of this tree at their yearly feast of tabernacles.
Citron-trees are very noble, being large, their leaves
beautiful, ever continuing on the trees, of an e.xquisite
smell, and aftbrding a most delightful shade. It might
well, therefore, be said, " As the citron-tree is among the
trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the sons."
This is a delicate compliment,- comparing the fine appear-
ance of the prince, amid his escort, to the superior beauty
with which the citron-tree appears among the ordinary
trees of the forest ; and the compliment is heightened by
an allusion to the refreshing shade and the exhilarating
fruit.
The exhilaratingeffectsof the fruit are mentioned Cant.
2: 5., " Comfort me with citrons." Egmont and Heyman
tell us of an Arabian who was in a great measure brought
to himself, when overcome with wine, by the help of citrons
and cofi'ee.
To the manner of sei-ving up these citrons in his court,
Solomon seems to refer, when he says, " A word fitly spo-
ken is like golden citrons in silver baskets :" whether, as
JIaimonides supposes, in baskets wrought with open work,
or in salvers curiously chased, it nothing concerns us to
determine ; the meaning is, that an excellent saying, suita-
bly expressed, is as the most acceptable gift in the fairest
conveyance. So the rabbins say, that the tribute of the
first ripe fruits was carried to the temple in silver baskets.
— Watson.
APPLICATION, is used for the act whereby our Sa-
vior transfers or makes over to us what he had earned or
purchased by his holy life and death. Accordingly it is
by this application of the merits of Christ that we are to
be justified and entitled to grace and glory.
Application is also used for that part of a sermon in
which the preacher brings home or applies the truth of
religion to the consciences of his hearers. (See Sermon.)
—Buclc.
APPREHEND ; in the language of Scripture, this word
is peculiarly significant. Paul the apostle best explains it,
when lie saith, " I follow after, if that I may apprehend
that, for which also I am apprehended of Christ Jesus."
Phil. 3: 12. That is, that by faith, I may be enabled to lay
hold of heavenly glorj', as the Lord by grace hath laid
hold of me, to prepare me for it.
APPROBATION ; a state or disposition of the mind,
wherein we put a value upon, or become pleased with some
person or thing. Moralists are divided on the principle of
approbation, or the motive which determines us to approve
or disapprove. The Epicureans will have it to be only
self-interest ; according to them, that which determines
any zigent to approve his own action, is its apparent ten-
dency to his private happiness ; and even the approbation
of another's action flows from no other cause but an opinion
of its tendency to the happiness of the approver, either
immediately or remotely. Others resolve ajiprobation into
a moral sense, or a principle of benevolence, by which we
are determined to approve eveiy kind affection, either in
ourselves or others, and all publicly useful actions which
we imagine to flow from such affections, without anyreiT
therein to our own private happiness.
But may we not add, that a true Christian's approbation
arises from his perception of the will of God? (See Obli-
gation.)—TJi/ri.
APPROPRIATION ; the annexing a benefice to the
proper and perpetual use of some religions house. It is a
term also often used in the religious world as referring to
that act of the mind by which we apply the blessings of
the Gospel to ourselves. This appropriation is real when
we are enabled to believe in, feel, and obey the tnith ; b;'t
merely nominal and delusive when there are no fruits of righ-
teousness and true holiness. (See Assurance.) — Biifk.
APRIES ; a king of Egypt, called in the sacred wri-
tings Pharaoh Hophrah, Jer. 44: 30. Apries was the son
of Psammis, and grandson of Necho, or Ncchao, who
waged war against Josiah, king of the Jews. He reigned
twenty-five years, and was long considered as one of the
happiest princes in the world ; but having equipped a fleet
for the reduction of the Cyrenians, he lost in this e«pedi-
tion almost the whole of his army. The Egyptians resolv-
ed to make him responsible for this ill succes.s, rebelled,
and pretended that he undertook the war only to get rid of
his subjects, and that he might govern the remainder more
absolutely. Apries deputed Amasis, one of his officers, to
suppress the rebellion, and induce the people to remrn to
their allegiance. But, while Amasis was haranguing
them, one of the multitude placed a diadem about his hel-
met, and proclaimed him king. The rest applauded him ;
and Amasis, having accepted their ofler, continued with
them, and confirmed them in their rebellion. Amasis put
himself at the head of the rebels, and inarched against
Apries, whom he defeated and took prisoner. Amasis
treated him with kindness ; but the people were not satis-
fied tUl they had taken him from Amasis and strangled
him. Such was the end of Apries, according to Herodotus.
Jeremiah threatened this prince with being delivered into
the hands of his enemies, as he had delivered Zedekiah,
king of Judah, into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar, king
of Babylon.
Apries had made a league with Zedekiah, and promised
him assistance. Ezek. 17: 15. Zedekiah, therefore, relying
on his forces, revolted from Nebuchadnezzar, in the year
of the world 3414, and before Jesus Christ 590. Early in
the year following, Nebuchadnezzar marched against Ze-
dekiah ; but as other nations of Syria bad shaken off their
obedience, he first reduced them to their duty, and towards
the end of the year besieged Jerusalem. 2 Kings 25: 5.
2 Chron. 36: 17. Jer. 39: 1.; 52: 4. Zedekiah defend-
ed himself in Jerusalem, long- and obstinately, that he
might give time to Pharaoh Hophrah. or Apries. to come
to his assistance. Apries advanced with a powerful army,
and the king of Babylon raised the siege, and marched to
meet him. But Apries, not daring to hazard a battle against
the Chaldeans, retreated into Egypt, and abandoned Zede-
kiah. Ezekiel reproaches Egjpt severely with Ihi.s base-
ness, and says that it had been a staff of reed to the house
of Israel, and an occasion of falling ; for when they took
hold of it by the hand, it broke and rent all their shoulder.
He therefore prophesies that Egypt should be reduced to a
solitude, and that God woiUd send against it the sword,
which w-ould destroy in it man and beast. Ezek. 29:
This was afterwards accomplished ; first, in the time of
Apries ; and secondly, in the conquest of Egypt by the
Persians. — Watson.
AQUARIANS ; water-drinkers, a branch of the Encra-
tiies, who carried their aversion to wine so far, that they
substituted water in tlie holy communion, though some
refused it only in their woniing communions. It is well
known that the ancient Christians mingled water with
their wine for sacred use, partly, perhaps, from economy,
and partly from sobriety ; but Cyprian gives a mystical
reason — because the wine and water represents Christ and
his people united. (See Entkatites.) — Heckford's Accovnt
of all Hfligions, p. 375 ; Williams.
AQUATICS ; an ancient sect, who, according to Au-
gustine, maintained water to be uncreated and eternal ;
probably adopting the philosophical system of Thales —
that water was the first principle of all things. — Augustine,
cent. ii. cap. 75 ; Stociman's Lexicon; IViiliams.
AR A
L 104]
ARA
AQUILA ; Ibis person was a native of Pontus in Asia
Minor, and was converted by St. Paul, together willi liis
wife Friscilla, to the Christian religion. As Aquila was
by trade a tent-inalzer, Acts 18: 2, 3. as St. Paul was, the
apostle lodged and wrour;ht with him at Corinth. Aquila
came thither, not long before, from Italy, being obliged to
leave Rome upon the edict which the emperor Claudius
had published, banishing the Jews from that city. St.
Paul afterwards quitted Aquila's house, and abode -with
Justus, near the Jewish synagogue at Corinth ; probably,
as Calmet thinks, because Aquda was a converted Jew,
and Justus was a convert from paganism, that in this case
the Gentiles might come and hear him with more hberty.
When the apostle left Corinth, AquUa and Friscilla accom-
panied him as far as Ephesus, where he left them with
that church while he pursued his journey to Jerusalem.
They rendered him great service in that city, so far as to
expose their own Uves to preserve his. They had returned
to Rome when St. Paul wrote his Epistle to the Romans,
1(3: 4. wherein he salutes them with great kindness.
Lastly, they were come back to Ephesus again, when St.
Paul wrote his second Epistle to Timothy, 4: 19. wherein
he desires him to salute them in his name. What became
of them after this time is not known.
AQUINAS, (Thomas ;) a celebrated theologian, to whom
the hyperbolical admiration of the dark ages gave the
v^-N
sounding titles of the angelical doctor, the fifth doctor of
the church, the eagle of divines, and the angel of the
schools. He was descended from the counts of Aquiro, in
Calabria, born in 1224, and educated at the university of
Naples. At the age of seventeen he entered into the Do-
minican order, contrary to the wishes of his mother; and
when only twenty-four, he taught dialectics, philoso-
phy, and theology in the university of Paris, with great
applause. After having lectured on divinity in several
universities, he settled at Naples, the archbishopric of
which city he refused. He died in 1274, and was canon-
ized in 1323. The Roman Catholic Church considers his
writings as of high authority ; and they gave rise to a sect
which bore the name of Thomists. They form seventeen
volumes ; the most celebrated of them is the Summa
Theologize. — Davenjiorl.
AR ; the capital city of the Moabites, situated in the
lulls on the south of the river Arnon. This city was like-
wise called Kabbah, or Rabhath Moab, to distinguish it
from the Ammonite Rabbah. It was afterwards called by
the Greeks Areopolis ; and is at present termed El-Rabba.
(See IMoAB.) — Vi^atsoii.
ARABIA ; a vast country of Asia, extending one thou-
■.and five hundred miles from north to south, and one
thousand two hundred from east to west ; containing a
surface equal to four times that of France. The near
approach of the Euphrates to the Mediterranean consti-
tutes it a peninsula, the largest in the world. It is called
Jezirat-el-Arab by the Arabs ; and by the Persians and
Turks, Arebistan. This is one of the most interesting
countries on the face of the earth. It has, in agreement
with prophecy, never been subdued ; and its inhabitants,
at once pastoral, commercial, and warlike, are the same
Anld, wandering people as the immediate descendants of
their great ancestor Ishmael are represented to have
been.
Arabia, or at least the eastern and northern parts of it,
were first peopled by some of the numerous families of
Cnsh, who appear to have extended themselves, or to have
given their name, as the land of Cush, or Asiatic Ethiopia,
to all the country from the Indus on the east, to the borders
of Egypt on the west, and from Armenia on the north to
Arabia Deserta on the south. By these Cushites, whose
first plantations were on both sides of the Euphrates and
gulf of Persia, and who were the first that traversed the
desert of Arabia, the earliest commercial communications
were established between the east and the west. But of
their Arabian territory, and of the occupation dependent
on it, they were deprived by the sons of Abraham, Ish-
mael and Midian ; by whom they were obliterated in this
country as a distinct race, either by superiority of numbers
after mingling with them, or by obliging them to recede
altogether to their more eastern possessions, or over the
gulf of Arabia into Africa. From this time, that is, about
tive hundred and fifty years after the flood, we read only
of Ishmaelites and IMidianites as the shepherds and car-
riers of the deserts ; who also appear to have been inter-
mingled, and to have shared both the territory and the
traflic, as the traders who bought Joseph are called by
both names, and the same are probably referred toby,
Jeremiah, 23: as " the mingled people that dwell in the
desert." But Ishmael maintained the superiority, and
succeeded in giving his name to the whole people.
Arabia, it is well known, is divided by geographers into
three separate regions, called Arabia Petrtea, Arabia De-
serta, and Arabia Feliic.
The first, or Arabia Petroea. is the north-western division,
and is bounded on the north by Palestine and the Dead
sea, on the east by Arabia Deserta, on the south by Arabia
Felix, and on the west by the Heroopolitan branch of the
Red sea and the isthmus of Suez. The greater part of
this division was more exclusively the possession of the
Blidianites, or land of Midian : where Moses, having
fled from Egypt, married the daughter of Jethro, and
spent forty years keeping the flocks of his father-in-law :
no humiliating occupation in those days, and particularly
in Midian, which was a land of shepherds ; the whole
people having no other way of life than that of rearing
and tending their flocks, or in carrying the goods tlioy
received from the east and south intoPhaniicia and Egypt.
The word flock, used here, must not convey the idea natu
rally entertained in our own countiy of sheep only, but,
together with these, of goats, horned cattle and camels, the
most indispensable of animals to the Midianite. It was a
mixed flock of this kind which was the sole care of Moses,
during a third part of Ids long life ; in which he must have
had abundance of leisure, by night and by day, to reflect
on the unhappy condition of his own people, still enduring
all the rigors of slavery in Egypt. It was a similar flock
also which the daughters of Jethro were watering when
first encountered by Moses ; a trifling event in itself, but
important in the history of the future leader of the Jews;
and showing, at the same time, the simple life of the peo-
ple amongst whom he was newly come, as well as the
scanty supply of water in their country, and the strifes
frequently occasioned in obtaining a share of it. Through
a considerable part of this region, the Israelites wandered
after they had escaped from Egypt ; and in it were situ-
ated the mountains Horcb and Sinai. Besides the tribes
of Jlidian, which gradually became blended with those of
Ishmael, this was the country of the Edomites, the Ama-
lekites, and the Nabathsei, the only tribe of pure Ishma-
elites within its precincts. But all those families have
long since been confounded under the general name of
Arabs. The greater part of this district consists of naked
rocks and sandy and flinty plains ; but it contained also_
some fertile spots, particularly in the peninsula of mount"
Sinai, and through the long range of mount Seir.
The second region, or Arabia Deserta, is bounded on the
north and north-east by the Euphrates, on the east by a
ridge of mountains which separates it from Chaldea, on
the south by Arabia Felix, and on the west by Syria, Judea,
and Arabia Petroea. This was more particularly the coun-
try first of the Cushites, and afterwards of the Ishmaelites ;
as it is still of their descendants, the moder]i Bedouins, who
maintain the same predatory and wandering habits. It
consists almost entirely of one vast and lonesome wilder-
ness, a boundless level of sand, whose dry and burning
surface denies existence to all but the Arab and his camel.
Yet, widely scattered over this dreary waste, some spots
AR A
[ 105 ]
AR A
of comparative fertility are to be found, where, spread
around a feeble spring of brackish water, a stunted ver-
dure, or a few palm trees, fix the principal settlement of a
tribe, and afford stages of refreshment in these otherwise
impnssable deserts. Here, with a few dates, the milk of
his faitliful camel, and perhaps a little corn, brought by
painful journeys from distant regions, or plundered from a
passing caravan, the Arab supports a hard existence, until
the failure of his resources impels him to seek another
oasis, or the scanty herbage furnished on a patch of soil by
transient rains ; or else, which is frequently the case, to
resort, by more distant migration, to the banks of the Eu-
phrates ; or, by hostile inroads on the neighboring coun-
tries, to supply those wants which the recesses of the desert
have denieil. The numbers leading this wandering and
precarious mode of life are incredible. From these deserts,
Zerah drew his army of a million of men ; and the same
deserts, fifteen hundred years after, poured forth the count-
less swarms which, under Mahomet and his successors,
devastated half of the then known world.
The third region, or Arabia Felix, so denominated from
the happier condition of its soil and climate, occupies the
southern part of the Arabian peninsula. It is bounded on
the north by the two other divisions of the country ; on
the south and south-east by the Indian ocean ; on the east
by a part of the same ocean and the Persian gulf; and on
the west hy the Ked sea. This division is subdivided into
the kingdoms or provinces of Yemen, at the southern extre- .
nnty of the peninsula ; Hejaz, on the north of the former, and
towards the Ked sea ; Nejed, in the central region ; and Ha-
dramant and Oman, on the shores of the Indian ocean.
The four latter subdivisions partake of much of the charac-
ter of the other greater divisions of the country, though of a
more varied surface, and with a larger portion capable of
cultivation. But Yemen seems to belong to another country
and climate. It is very monntainous, is well watered with
rains and springs, and is blessed with an abundant pro-
duce in com and fruits, and especially in cofl'ee, of which
vast quantities are exported. In this division were the
ancient cities of Nysa, Musa or Moosa, and Aden. This
is also supposed to have been the country of the queen of
Sheba. In Hejaz are the celebrated cities of Mecca and
Medina.
Arabia Felix is inhabited by a people who claim Joktan
lor their father, and so trace their descent direct from
Shem, instead of Abraham and Ham. They are indeed
a totally different people from those inhabiting the other
quarters, and pride themselves on being the only pure and
unmixed Arabs. Instead of being shepherds and robbers,
they are fixed in towns and cities, and live by agriculture
and commerce, chiefly maritime. Here were the people
who were found by the Greeks of Egypt enjoying an entire
monopoly of the trade with the east, and possessing a high
degree of wealth and consequent refinement. It was here,
in the ports of Sabaea, that the spices, muslins, and precious
stones of India, were for many ages obtained by the
Greek traders of Egypt, before they had acquired skill or
courage sufficient to pass the straits of the Red sea ; which
were long considered by the nations of Europe to be the
produce of Arabia itself. These articles, before the inven-
tion of shipping, or the establishment of a maritime inter-
course, were conveyed across the deserts by the Cushite,
Ishmaelile, and Midianiie carriers. It was the produce
partly of India, and partly of Arabia, which the travelling
merchants, to whom Joseph was sold, were carrying into
Egypt. The balm and myrrh were probably Arabian, as
tliey are still the produce of the same country ; but the
spicery was undoubtedly brought farther from the east.
These circumstances are adverted to, to show how extea-
live was the communication, in which the Arabians form-
ed the principal link ; and that in the earliest ages of which
we have any account, in those of Joseph, of Moses, of
Isaiah, and of Ezekiel, " the mingled people" inhabiting
the vast Arabian deserts, the Cushites, Ishmaelites, and
Midianites, were the chief agents in that commercial in-
tercourse which has, from the most remote period of anti-
quity, subsisted between the extreme east and west. And
although the current of trade is now turned, caravans of
merchants, the descendants of these people, may stiU
be found traversing the same deserts, conveying the
14
same articles, and in the same manner as described by
Moses !
The singular and important fact that Arabia has never
been conquered, has already been cursorily adverted to.
But Mr. Gibbon, unwilling to pass by an opportunity of
cavilling at Revelation, says, " The perpetual independence
of the Arabs has been a theme of praise among strangers
and natives ; and the arts of controversy transform this
singular event into a prophecy and a miracle in favor of
the posterity of Ishmael. Some exceptions, that can neither
be dissembled nor eluded, render this mode of reasoning
as indiscreet as it is superfluous. The kingdom of Yemen
has been successively subdued by the Abyssinians, the
Persians, the sultans of Eg)'pt, and the Turks ; the holy
cities of Mecca and Medina have repeatedly bowed under
a Scythian tyrant ; and the Roman province of Arabia
embraced the peculiar wilderness in which Ishmael and
his sons must have pitched their tents in the face of their
brethren." But this learned 'WTiter has, with a peculiar
infelicity, annulled his own argument ; and we have only
to follow on the above passage, to obtain a complete refu-
tation of the unworthy position with which it begins :
" Yet these exceptions," says Mr. Gibbon, " are temporary
or local ; the body of the nation has escaped the yoke of the
Htost powerful monarchies : the arms of Sesostris and CjTUS,
of Pompey and Trajan, could never achieve the conquest
of Arabia ; the present sovereign of the Turks may exer-
cise a shadow of jurisdiction, but his pride is reduced to
solicit the friendship of a people whom it is dangerous to
provoke, and fruitless to attack. The obvious causes of
their freedom are inscribed on the character and country
of the Arabs. Many ages before Mahomet, their intrepid
valor had been severely felt by their neighbors, in offensive
and defensive war. The patient and active virtues of a
soldier are insensibly nursed in the habits and discipline
of a pastoral life. The care of the sheep and camels is
abandoned to the women of the tribe ; bitt the martial
youth, under the banner of the emir, is ever on horseback
and in the field, to practise the exercise of the bow, the
javelin, and the scimetar. The long memory of their in-
dependence is the firmest pledge of its perpetuity ; and
succeeding generations are animated to prove theu" descent,
and to maintain their inheritance. Their domestic feuds
are suspended on the approach of a common enemy ; and
in their last hostilities against the Turks, the caravan of
Mecca was attacked and pillaged by fourscore thousand
of the confederates. When they advance to battle, the
hope of victory is in the front, in the rear the assurance
of a retreat. Their horses and camels, who in eight or
ten days can perform a march of four or five hundred
miles, disappear before the conqueror ; the secret waters
of the desert elude his search ; and his victorious troops
arc consumed with thirst, hunger, and fatigue, in the pur-
suit of an invisible foe, who scorns his efibrts, o'.d safely
reposes in the heart of the burning solitude. The arras
and deserts of the Bedouins are not only the safeguards
of their own freedom, but the barriers also of the happy
Arabia, whose inhabitants, remote from war, are enervated
by the luxury of the soil and climate. The legions of
Augustus melted away in disease and lassitude ; and it is
only by a naval power that the reduction of Yemen has
been successfully attempted. ^Vhen IMahomet erected liis
holy standard, that kingdom was a province of the Persian
empire ; yet seven princes of the Hon^erites still reigned
in the mountains ; and the vicegerent of Chosroes was
tempted to forget his distant cotuitry and his unfortunate
master."
Yemen was the only Arabian produce which had the
appearance of submitting to a foreign yoke ; but even
here, as Blr. Gibbon himself acknowledges, seven of the
native princes remained unsubdued : and even admitting
its subjugation to have been complete, the perpetual inde-
pendence of the Ishmaelites remains unimpeached. For
this is not their country. Petrea, the capital of the Stony
Arabia, and the principal settlement of the Nabatha'i,
it is true, was long in the hands of the Persians and
Romans ; but this never made them masters of the
country. Hovering troops of Arabs confined the intru-
ders within their walls, and cut off their supplies ; and the
possession of this fortress gave as little reason to the Ro-
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mans to exult as the conquerors of Arabia Petrsea, as that
of Gibraltar does to us to boast of the conquest of Spain.
The Arabian tribes were confounded by the Greeks and
Eomans under the indiscriminate appellation of Saracens ;
a name whose etymology has been variously, but never
satisfactorily, explained. This was their general name
when Mahomet appeared in the beginning of the seventh
century. Their religion at this time was Sabianism, or
the worship of the sun, moon, &c. ; variously transformed
by the different tribes, and intermingled with some Jewish
and Christian maxims and traditions. The tribes them-
selves were generally at variance, from some hereditary
and implacable animosities ; and their only warfare con-
sisted in desultory sldrmishes arising out of these feuds,
and in their predatory excursions, where superiority of
mimbers rendered courage of less value than activity and
vigilance. Yet of such materials Mahomet constructed a
mighty empire ; converted the relapsed Ishmaelites into
good Mussulmen ; united the jarring tribes under one
banner ; supplied what was wanting iir personal courage
by the ardor of religious zeal ; and out of a banditti little
known and little feared beyond their own deserts, raised
an armed multitude which proved the scourge of the
world.
Mahomet was born in the year 569, of the noble tribe
of the Koreish, and descended, according to eastern histo-
rians, in a direct line from Ishmael. His person is repre-
sented as beautiful, his manners engaging, and his elo-
quence powerful ; but he was illiterate, like the rest of his
countrymen, and indebted to a Jewish or Christian scribe
for penning his Koran. Whatever the views of Mahomet
might have been in the earlier part of his life, it was not
till the fortieth year of his age that he avowed his mission
as the apostle of God : when so little credit did he gain
for his pretensions, that in the first three years he could
only number fouileen converts ; and even at the end of
ten years, his labors and his friends were alike confined
within the walls of Mecca, when the designs of his ene-
mies compelled him to fly to Medina, where he was favo-
rably received by a party of the most considerable inhabi-
tants, who had recently imbibed his doctrines at Mecca.
This flight, or Hegira, was made the Mahometan era, from
which time is computed, and corresponds with the 16th of
July, 622, of the Christian era. Mahomet now found
himself sufficiently powerful to throw aside all reserve ;
declared that he was commanded to compel unbelievers by
the sword to receive the faith of one God and his prophet
Mahomet ; and confirming his credulous followers by the
threats of eternal pain on the one hand, and the allure-
ments of a s.nsual paradise on the other, he had, before
his death, whuh happened in the year 632, gained over
the whole of AraL:a to his imposture. His death threw a
temporary gloom over his cause, and the disunion of his
followers threatened its extinction. Any other empire,
placed in the same circumstances, would have crumbled
to pieces ; but the Arabs felt their power ; they reverect
their founder as the chosen prophet of God ; and their ar-
dent temperament, animated by a religious enthusiasm,
g-ave an earnest of future success, and encouraged the
zeal or the aiubition of their leaders. The succession,
after some bloodshed, was settled, and unnumbered hordes
of barbarians were ready to carry into execution the san-
guinary dictates of their prophet, and, with " the Koran,
tnbute, or death," as their motto, to invade the countries
of the infidels. During the whole of the succeeding cen-
tury, their rapid career was unchecked ; the disciplined
armies of the Greeks and Romans were unable to stand
against them ; the Christian churches of Asia and Africa
were annihilated ; and from India to the Atlantic, through
Persia, Arabia, Syria, Palestine, Asia Minor, Egypt, with
the whole of northern Africa, Spain, and part of France,
the impostor was acknowledged. Constantinople was be-
sieged ; Rome itself was plundered ; and nothing less than
the subjection of the whole Christian world was meditated
on the one hand, and tremblingly expected on the other.
All this was wonderful ; but the avenging justice of an
incensed Deity, and the sure word of prophecy, relieve
our astonishment. It was to punish an apostate race, that
the Saracen locusts were let loose upon the earth ; and the
countries which they were permitted to ravage were those
in which the pure light of revelation had been most abus-
ed. The eastern church was sunk in gross idolatry ; vice
and wickedness prevailed in their worst forms ; and those
who still called themselves Christians, trusted more to
images, relics, altars, austerities, and pilgrimages, than to
a crucified Savior.
About a hundred and eighty years from the foundation
of Bagdad, during which period the power of the Sara-
cens had gradually declined, a dreadful re-action took
place in the conquered countries. The Persians on the
east, and the Greeks on the west, were simultaneously
roused from their long thraldom, and, assisted by the
T«rks, who, issuing from the plains of Tartary, now for
the first time made their appearance in the east, extin-
guished the power of the caliphate, and virtually put an
end to the Arabian monarchy in the year 936. A succes-
sion of nominal caliphs continued to the year 1258 : but
the provinces were lost ; their power was confined to the
walls of their capital ; and they were in real subjection to
the Turks and the Persians until the above year, when Mos-
tacem, the last of the Abassides, was dethroned and mur-
dered by Holagou, or Hulaku, the Tartar, the grandson
of Zingis. This event, although it terminated the foreign
dominion of the Arabians, left their native independence
untouched. They were no longer, indeed, the masters of
the finest parts of the three great divisions of the ancient
world : their work was finished ; and returning to the state
in which Mahomet found them three centuries before, with
the exception of the change in their religion, they re-
mained, and still remain, the unconquered rovers of the
desert.
It is not the least singular circumstance in the history
of this extraordinary people, that those who, in the enthu-
siasm of their first successes, were the sworn foes of lite-
rature, should become for several ages its exclusive
patrons. Almansor, the founder of Bagdad, has the merit
of first exciting this spirit, which was encouraged in a still
greater degree by his grandson Almamon. This caliph
employed his agents in Armenia, Syria, Egypt, and at
Constantinople, in collecting the most celebrated works on
Grecian science, and had them translated into the Arabic
language. Philosophy, astronomy, geometry, and medi-
cine were thus introduced and taught ; public schools were
established ; and learning, which had altogether fled from
Europe, found an asylum on the banks of the Tigris.
Nor was this spirit confined to the capital : native works
began to appear ; and by the hands of copyists were mul-
tiplied out of number, for the information of the studious,
or the pride of the wealthy. The i-age for literature ex-
tended to Egypt and to Spain. In the former country, the
Fatimites collected a Ubrary of a hundred thousand manu-
scripts, beautifully transcribed, and very elegantly bound;
and in the latter, the Ommiades formed another of six
hundred thousand volumes ; forty-four of which were em-
ployed in the catalogue. Their capital, Cordova, with the
towns of Malaga, Almeria, and Murcia, produced three
hundred writers ; and seventy public libraries were estab-
lished in the cities of Andalusia. What a change since
the days of Omar, when the splendid library of the Pto-
lemies was wantonly destroyed by the same pecple! A
retribution, though a shght one, was thus made tor their
former devastations ; and many Grecian works, lost in the
original, have been recovered in their Arabic dress. Nei-
ther was this learning confined to mere parade, though
much of it must undoubtedly have been so. Their profi-
ciency in astronomy and geometry is attested by their
astronomical tables, and by the accuracy with which, in
the plain of Chaldea, a degree of the great circle of the
earth was measured. But it was in medicine that, in this
dark age, the Arabians shone most : the works of Hippo-
crates and Galen had been translated and commented
on ; their physicians were sought after by the princes of
Asia and Europe; and the names of Rhazis, Albucasis,
and Avicenna are still revered by the members of the
healing art. So little, indeed, did the physicians of Eu-
rope in that age know of the history of their own science,
that they were astonished, on the revival of learning, to
find ill the ancient Greek authors those systems for which
they thought themselves indebted to the Arabians !
The last remnant of Arabian science was found in
AR A
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Spain ; from whence it was expelled in the beginning
of the seventeenth century, by the intemperate bigots
of that country, who have never had any thing of
their own with which to supply its place. The Ara-
bians are the only people who have preserved their
descent, their independence, their language, and their man-
ners and customs, from the earliest ages to the present
times ; and it is amongst them that we are to looJc for
examples of patriarchal life and manners. A very lively
sketch of this mode of life is given by Sir R. K. Porter, in
Ihe person and tribe of an Arab sheik, whom he encoun-
tered in the neighborhood of the Euphrates. " t had met
this warrior," says Sir R. K.P., "at the house of the Bri-
ish resident at Bagdad, and came, according to his re-
peated wish, to see him in a place more consonant with
ills habits, the tented field : and, as he expressed it, ' at the
head of his children.' As soon as we arrived in sight of
his camp, we were met by crowds of its inhabitants, who,
with a wild anil hurrying delight, led us towards the tent
of their chief. The venerable old man came forth to the
door, attended by his subjects of all sizes and descriptions,
and greeted us with a countenance beaming kindness ;
while his words, which our interpreter explained, were
demonstrative of patriarchal welcome. One of my Hindoo
troopers spoke Arabic ; hence the substance of our succeed-
ing discourse was not lost on each other. Having entered,
I sat down by my host ; and the whole of the persons pre-
sent, to far beyond the boundaries of the tent, (the sides
of which were open.) sealed themselves also, without any
regard to those more civilized ceremonies of subjection,
the crouching of slaves, or the standing of vassalSge.
These persons, in rows beyond rows, appeared just a.s he
had described, the offspring of his house, the descendants
of his fathers, from age to age ; and like brethren, whether
holding the highest or the lowest rank, they seemed to
gather round their common parent. But })erhaps their
.sense of perfect equality in the mind of their chief could
not be more forcibly shown, than in the share they took in
the objects which appeared to interest his feelings ; and as
I looked from the elders or leaders of the people, seated
immediately around him, to the circles beyond circles of
brilliant faces, bending eagerly towards him and his guest,
(all, from the most respectably clad, to those with hardly a
garment covering their active limbs, earnest to evince
some attention to the stranger he bade welcome.) I thought
I had never before seen so complete an assemblage of fine
and animated countenances, both old and young : nor
could I suppose a better specimen of the still existing
state of the true Arab ; nor a more lively picture of the
scene which must have presented itself, ages ago, in the
fields of Haran, when Terah sat in his tent door, surround-
ed by his sons, and his son's sons, and the people born in
his house. The venerable Arabian sheik was also seated
on the ground, with a piece of carpet spread under him ;
and, like his ancient Chaldean ancestor, turned to the one
side and the othc- araciously answering or questioning
the groups around him, v.'itli an interest in them all which
clearly showed the abiding simplicity of his government,
and their obedience. On the smallest computation, such
must, have been the manners of these people for more than
three thousand years ; thus, in all things, verifying the
prediction given of Ishmael at his birth, that he, in his
posterit)"", should 'be a wild man,' and always continue to
l)e so, though ' he shall dwell forever in the presence of
his brethren.' And that an acute and active people, sur-
rounded for ages by polished and luxurious nations, should,
from their earliest to their latest times, be still fotind a
nnld people, divelUng in Ihe presence of all their brethren, (as
we may call these nations.) unsubdued and unchangeable,
is, indeed, a standing miracle ; one of those mysterious
facts which establish the truth of prophecy." But al-
though the manners of the Arabians have remained unal-
tered through so many ages, and will probably so continue,
their religion, as we have seen, has sustained an important
change ; and must again, in the fulness of time, give
place to a faith more worthy of the people.
St. Paul first preached the Gospel in Arabia. Gal. 1: 17.
Christian churches were subsequently founded, and many
of their tribes embraced Christianity prior to the fifth cen-
tury ; most of which appear to have been tinctured ■nith
the Nestorian heresy. At this time, however, it does not
appear that the Arabians had any version of the Scriptures
in their own language, to which some writers attribute the
ease with which they were drawn into the Mahometan
delusion; while the " Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, Abys-
sinians, Copts, and others," who enjoyed that privilege,
were able to resist it. — Watmn.
ARABICI ; early in the third century, a sort of minute
philosophers, from Arabia,_( whence their name,) who con-
ceived that the soul died with the body, and would be
raised with it. Origen being called from Egj'pt to convert
them, publicly argued with such remarkable success,
(having probably no leader able to contend with him,)
that they immediately gave up their peculiar notions, and
returned to the bosom of the church. — Mosheim, vol. i. p.
308; Williams.
ARAD; a city in Arabia Petrjea, situated to the south
of Judah and the land of Canaan. The king of Arad
opposed the progress of the Israelites on their way to the
promised land, defeated them, and took from them a con-
siderable booty. But his country in consequence became
anathematized ; and as soon as they were masters of the
land of Canaan, they destroyed all his cities. Numb. 21:
1 — 3. Arad was afterwards rebuilt, and Eusebius places
it in the neighborhood of Kades, at the distance of twenty
miles from Hebron. The Israelites, in their journey
through the wilderness, having quitted Shapher, came to
Arad, which in our translation is called Haradah, and
from thence to Slakheloth. Numb. 33: 23 — 25. — Jones.
ARAM; the fifth son of Shem, Gen. 10: 22, was the
father of the Syrians, who from him were called Aranias-
ans, or Aramites. There are several countries distin-
guished by this name in Scripture ; as Aram Naharaim, or
Syria of the two rivers, that is, Mesopotamia ; Aram of
Damascus ; Aram of Soba ; Aram of Bethrohob ; Aram
of Maachah ; the meaning of which is, that the cities of
Damascus, Soba, Bethrohob, and Maachah, were situated
in Syria. Homer and Hesiod call those Aramaeans who
are called Syrians by the Greeks of more recent times.
The prophet Amos intimates that the first Aramaeans, or
Assyrians, dwelt in the country of Kir in Iberia ; andthat
the Lord brought them from thence as he did the Hebrews
out of Egypt, ch. 9: 7. ; but when that event happened is
not known. It must be very ancient, since Moses calls
the Syrians and people of Mesopotamia by the name
of Aramites. The Syrians often waged war against the
Hebrews ; but David subdued them and compelled them
to pay him tribute. Solomon preserved over them the
same authority ; but after the secession of the ten tribes,
it does not appear that the Syrians were generally subject
to the kings of Israel, unless perhaps under Jeroboam the
second, who restored the kingdom of Israel to its ancient
boundaries. 2 Kings 14: 25. — Jones.
ARAMjEAN LANGUAGE ; the vernacular tongue of
the Jews of Palestine in the days of our Savior, which
maintained itself along with the Greek, much as the Ger-
man in Pennsylvania, and the Dutch in New York, amidst
the prevailing' English. (See Cjreek of the New Testa-
ment.)
The Shemitish languages, says Professor Robinson, may
be properly reduced to three great branches, viz. 1. The
Aramcean, which originally prevailed in Syria. Babylonia,
and Mesopotamia ; and may therefore be subdivided into
the Syrian or West-Aramaan, and the Chaldee or East-Ara-
maan, called also the Babylonish Aramaean. To this
general branch belong also the dialects of the Samaritans,
Zabrians, and Palmyrenes. 2. The Htbren; with which
the fragments of the Phoenician coincide. 3. The Arabic,
under which also belongs the Ethiopic as a dialect.
The Aramaean introduced and spoken in Palestine has
also been, and is still, often called the Syro-Chaldaic, be-
cause it was probably in some degree a mixture of both
the eastern and western dialects ; or perhaps the distinc-
tion between the two had not yet arisen in the age of Christ
and his apostles.
So long as the Jewish nation maintained its political
independence in Palestine, the Hebrew continued to be Ihe
common language of the countiT ; and so far as we can
judge from the remains of it w"hich are still extant, al-
though not entirely pure, it was vet free from anv impor-
Ar A
[ 108]
ARA
tant changes in those elements and forms by which it was
distinguished from other languages. But at the period
when the Assyrian and Chaldean rulers of Babylon sub-
dued Palestine, everything assumed another shape. The
Jews of Palestine lost, with their political independence,
also the independence of their language, which they had
till then asserted. The Babylonish-Aramtean dialect sup-
planted the Hebrew, and became by degrees in Palestine
the prevailing language of the people, until this in its turn
was in some measure (though not entirely) supplanted by
the Greek. The New Testament and Josephus call it the
Hebrew. Old as this appellation is, however, it has one
important defect, namely, that it is too indefinite, and may
mislead those who are unacquainted with the subject to
confound the ancient Hebrew and the Aramaean, which
took the place of Hebrew after the Babylonish exile. It
will probably be most appropriate to bestov/ on the lan-
guage of Palestine, in order to distinguish it from other
dialects, the simple name of the Palestine-Aramcean, or the
Palestine- Sijriac: for the terms Aramaean and Syriac are
fully identical.
The character and condition of the language called He-
brew, in the age of Christ aud his apostles, can thus be
determined with certainty ; and it is a point of great im-
portance to an interpreter of the New Testament.
1. The proper names of persons which are given in the
New Testament and in Josephus, are mostly Aramaean.
We need only refer to the frequent names compounded
with the Aram^an Bar, {son,) as Bar-Talmai, Bar-Jesu,
Bar-Timei, Bar-Abba, &c. all of which sufficiently betray
their Aramrean origin.
2. The significant surnames, also, which certain persons
bore on account of their moral or corporeal character ; as,
Boanerges, Barabas, Cephas, &c. are Aramcean.
3. The same is also true of most of the significant geo-
graphical names ; among ■\\-hich the most frequent are
those compounded vyith Beth, Caphon, and En ; on which
one only needs to consult the index of Rilandi Palestina. —
Bib. Repos. 1830.
ARARAT ; a mountain of Asia, in Armenia, on which
the ark of Noah rested after the cessation of the deluge.
Concerning the etymologj' of the name. Dr. Bryant ob-
serves that it is a compound of Ar-Arat, and signifies '■' the
mountain of descent."
Ararat seems to be a part of that vast chain of moun-
tains called Caucasus and Taurus ; and upon these moun-
tains, and in the adjacent country, were preserved more
authentic accounts of the ark than in almost any other
part of the world. The region about Ararat, called Ara-
ratia, was esteemed among the ancients as nearly a cen-
tral part of the earth ; and it is certainly as well calculated
as any other for the accommodation of its first inhabitants,
and for the migration of colonies, upon the increase of
mankind. The soil of the country was very fruitful, and
especially of that part where the patriarch made his first
descent. The country also was very high, though it had
fine plains and valleys between the mountains. Such a
country, therefore, must, after the flood, have been the
soonest exsiccated, and, consequently, the soonest habi-
table.
The mountain which has still the name of Ararat, has
retained it through all ages. Tonrnefort has particularly
described it, and from his account it seems to consist
chiefly of free-stone, or calcareous sand-stone. It is a
detached mountain in form of a sugar loaf, in the midst
of a very extensive plain, consisting of two summits ; the
lesser, more sharp and pointed ; the higher, which is that
of the ark, Ues north-west of it, and raises its head far
above the neighboring mountains, and is covered with per-
petual snow. When the air is clear, it does not appear to
be above two leagues from Erivan, and may l)e seen at
the distance of four or five days' journey. Its being visi-
ble at such a distance, however, is ascribed not so much to
its height, as to its lonely situation, in a large plain, and
upon the most elevated part of the country. The ascent
is difficult and fatiguing. Tournefort attempted it ; and,
after a whole day's toil, he was obliged by the snow and
intense cold, to return without accomplishing his design,
though in the middle of summer. On the side of the
mountain thai looks towards Erivan, is a prodigious preci-
pice, very deep, with perpendicular sides, and of a rough,
black appearance, as if tinged with smoke.
The summit of Ararat has never been reached, though
several attempts have been made ; and if the ark rested on
the summit, it is certain that those who have spoken of its
fragments being seen t!iore in different ages, must have
been imposed upon. It is, however, not necessary to sup-
pose that the ark rested upon either of its tops; and that
spot would certainly be chosen which would afford the
greatest facility of descent. Sir Robert Ker Porter is
among the modern travellers who have given us an ac-
coimt of this celebrated mountain : " As the vale opened
beneath us in our descent, my whole attention became ab-
sorbed in the view before me. A vast plain peopled with
countless villages ; the towers and spires of the churches
of Eitch-mai-adzen, arising from amidst them ; the glitter-
ing waters of the Araxes, flowing through the fresh green of
the vale ; and the subordinate range of mountains, skirting
the base of the awful monument of the antediluvian world.
It seemed to stand a stupendous link in the historj' of man,
uniting the two races of men before and after the flood.
But it was not until we had arrived upon the flat plain,
that I beheld Ararat in all its amplitude of grandeur.
From the spot on which I stood, it appeared as if the hugest
mountains of the world had been piled upon each other,
to form this one sublime immensity of earth, and rock,
and snow. The icy peaks of its double heads rose majes-
tically into the clear and cloudless heavens ; the sun blazed
bright upon them ; and the reflection sent forth a dazzling
radiance, equal to other suns. This point of the view united
the utmost grandeur of plain and height. But the feelings
I experienced while looking on the mountain, are hardly
to be described. My eye, not able to rest for any length
of time upon the blinding glory of its summits, wandered
down the apparently interminable sides, till I could no
longer trace their vast lines in the mists of the horizon ;
when an inexpressible impulse, immediately carrying my
eye upwards again, refixed my gaze upon the awful glare
of Ararat ; and this bewildered sensibility of sight being
answered by a similar feeling in the mind, for some mo-
meuts I was lost in a strange suspension of the powers of
thou gilt."
The separate peaks are called Great and Little Ararat,
and the space between them is about seven miles. "These
inaccessible summits," continues Sir R. K. Porter, " have
never been trodden by the foot of man since the days of
Noah, if even then ; for my idea is, that the ark rested in
the space between these heads, and not on the top of either.
Various attempts have been made in different ages to as-
cend these tremendous mountain-pyramids, but in vain :
their form, snows, and glaciers, are insurmountable obsta-
cles : the distance being so great from the commencement
of the icy region to the highest points, cold alone would be
the destruction of any person who should have the hardi-
hood to persevere. On viewing mount Ararat from the
northern side of the plain, its two heads are separated by
a wide cleft, or rather glen, in the body of the mountain.
The rocky side of the greater head runs almost perpendi-
cularly down to the north-east, while the lesser head rises
from the sloping bottom of the cleft, in a perfectly conical
shape. Both heads are covered with snow. The form of
the greater is similar to the less, only broader and rounder
at the top, and shows to the north west a broken and ab-
rupt front, opening, about half way domr, into a stupen-
dous chasm, deep, rocky, and peculiarly black. At that
part of the mountain, the hollow of the chasm receives an
interruption from the projection of minormonntains, which
start from the sides of Ararat like branches from the root
of a tree, and run along, in rmdulating progression, till
lost in the distant vajmrs of the plain." Dr. Shucldbni
argues that the true Ararat lies among the mountains
of the north of India ; but Mr. Faber has answered
his reasoning, and proved, by a comparison of geogra-
phical notices incidentally mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment, that the Ararat of Armenia is the true Ararat. —
Watson.
ARAUNAH, 2 Sam. 24: 16—18, or Ornan, as the
same person is called, 1 Chron. 21: 18., was an inhabitant
of Jerusalem, at or soon after the time that city went by
the name of Jebus, whose threshing floor was situated on
ARC
L 109 J
ARC
mc uut Zion, the same spot oa which the temple of Jeru-
salem was afterwards built.
ARBELA, or Aubaii-el, signifies fine countries, coun-
tries of God ; for which reason, we find many places so
named in Palestine. The city Masai, or Blisheal, was in
the tribe of Asher, near to which were very fine fields, and
a place called Arbela. Josh. 19: 26. Eusebius and Jerome
mention a city of this name, in the great plain, nine miles
from Legio, probably east ; and the former writer men-
tions another belonging to the region of Fella. (See Beth-
ARBEL.)
AKBUTHNOT, (John, Dr. ;) was the son of a Scotch
Episcopal clergyman, and was bom at Arbuthnot, near
Montrose, soon after the restoration. Acquainted with
Pope, Swift, and the other wits of the age, he took a share
in their literary enterprises, and contributed largely to the
works of Slartinus Scriblerus. He died, February, 1735.
Swift gave his character in few words — "He has," said
he, " more wit than all our race, and his humanity is equal
to his wit." Nor is there any thing of the exaggeration
of friendship in this praise. Among his various works,
part of which are medical, may be named his Tables of
Ancient Coins, Weights, and Measures, which is fotmd in
most large English Bibles, at the present time. — Daven-
port.
ABNEY, (Sir Thomas ;) an eminent magistrate of the
city of London, born 1639, died 1722, aged eighty three.
He was a man of distinguished piety. In his last sickness,
the same serenity and peace, the same humility and reli-
gion, which, like a golden thread, ran through his whole
course, was beautifully manifest. On inquiries concerning
his soul, he always e.xprcsscd a good hope through grace
of a happy eternity. He often mentioned Christ, calling
him, "Blessed Redeemer! glorious Redeemer!" with
other like expressions. Sir Thomas was the intimate
friend of Dr. Isaac Walls, who resided many years in his
family, and was the companion of his last moments.
ARCH, (Jon.\ ;) a Cherokee Indian and an interpreter,
died at Brainerd, June 8, 1825, aged twenty-seven. When
taken sick, he was engaged in translating John's Gospel
into Cherokee, using the ingenious alphabet invented by
Mr. Guess. He had been a Christian convert several
years ; o,nd he died in peace, sajing, " God is good, and
will do right ;" and was buried by the side of Dr. Wor-
cester.— Allen.
ARCH ; prefixed to any ecclesiastical office, as arch-
bishop, archdeacon, fcc, implies a superior, having others
under him ; thus, archbishop is a metropolitan bishop,
having suffragan bishops under him. — Brougkton's Diet ;
Willinms.
ARCHANGEL, according to some, means an angel
occupying the eighth rank in the celestial order or hierar-
chy, which consists, according to the apostles, of thrones,
dominions, principalities, and so on. Col. 1: 16. 1 Pet. 3:
22. Eph. 1: 21. The fathers who have interpreted the
words of the apostles, are not agreed on the number and
order of the celestial hierarchy. Origen was of opinion,,
that Paul mentioned part only of the choirs of angels, and
that there were many others of which he said nothing ;
and this notion may be observed in many of the subse-
quent fathers. Others have reckoned up nine choirs of
angels. The author who is commonly cited under the
name of Dionysius the Areopagite, admits but three hie-
rarchies, and three orders of angels in each hierarchy.
In the first are seraphim, cherubim, and thrones ; in the
second, dominions, mights, and powers ; in the third, prin-
cipalities, archangels, and angels. Some of the rabblna
reckon four, others ten, orders, and give the differcni
names according to their degrees of power and Icnowledgc j
but this rests only on the imagination of those who amuse
themselves with speaking very particularly of things of
which they know nothing. These titles of rank are pro-
bably allusions to the customary order in the courts of the
Assyrian, Chaldean, and Persian kings ; hence Michael
the archangel tells Daniel that he is one of the chief prin-
ces in the court of the Almight}'.
It has been remarked by a late eloquent ^mter, in treat-
ing of enthusiasm in devotion, that " the utmost distances
of the material universe are finite ; but the disparity of
nature which separates man from his Maker is infinite ;
nor can the interval be filled up or brought under any pro-
cess of measurement. Nevertheless, in the view of our
feeble conceptions, an apparent measurement, or filfog
up of the infinite void would take place, and so Ihe idea of
immense separation would be painfully enhanced, .f dii-
tinct visioir were obtained of the towering hierarchies of
intelligences, at the basement of which the human system
is founded. Were it indeed permitted to man to gaze up-
ward from step to step, and from range to range, of the
vast edifice of rational existences, and could his eye attain
the summit, and there perceive, at an infinite height beyond
that highest platform of created beings, the lowest step.s
of the Eternal thmne^what liberty of heart woidd after-
wards be left to him in drawing near to the Father of spi-
rits? How, after such a revelation of the upper world,
could the affectionate cheerfulndo of earthly worship
again lake place? Or, how, while contemplating the
measured vastness of the iiUerval between heaven and
earth, could the dwellers thereon come familiarly, as be-
fore, to the throne of prayer, bringing with them the small
requests of their petty interests of the present life? If in-
troduction were had to the society of those beings whose
wisdom has accumulated during ages which time forgets
to number, and who have lived to see, once and again, the
mysteiy of the providence of God complete its cycle,
would not the impression of created superiority oppress the
spirit, and obstruct its access to the Being whose excellen-
cies are absolute and infinite? Or what would be the
feelings of the infirm child of earth, if, when about to
present his supplications, he found himself standing in the
theatre of heaven, and saw, ranged in a circle luider tlie
skies, the congregation of immortals? These spectacles
of greatness, if laid open to perception, would present such
an interminable perspective of glory, and so set out the
immeasurable distance between ourselves and the Sit-
preme Being with a long gradation of splendors, that we
should henceforward feel as if thrust down to an extreme
remoteness from the divine notice ; and it would be hard
or impossible to retain, with any comfortable conviction,
the belief in the nearness of Him who is revealed as ' a
veiy present help in every time of trouble.' But that our
feeble spirits may not thus be overborne, or our faith and
confidence baffled and perplexed, the Most High hides from
our sight the ministries of his court, and dismissing his
train, visits with infinite condescension the lowly abodes of
those who fear Him, and dwells as a father in the homes
of earth."
Bishop Horsley and others of late have contended that
the lenii archangel is a title belonging, to our Lord himself.
But the arguments which they employ in support of this
opinion, though ingenious, are far from being conclusive.
— Calmet ; Wntson ; Nat. Hist, of Enthusiasm.
ARCHBISHOP; the chief or' metropolitan bishop, who
has several suffragans under him. Archbishops were not
known in the east till about the year 320 ; and though
there were some soon after this who had the title, yet that
was only a personal honor, by which the bishops of con-
siderable cities were distinguished. It was not tUl of late
that archbishops became metropolitans, and had suffragans
under them. The ecclesiastical government of England
is divided into two provinces, viz. Canterburj' and York.
The first archbishop of Canterbury was Austin, appointed
by king Ethelbert, on his conversion to Christianity, about
the year 598. His grace of Canterbury is the first peer
of England, and the next to the royal family, having pre-
cedence of all dukes and all great officers of the crown
ARC
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ARE
It is his privilege, by custom, to crown the kings and
queens of the kingdom. The archbishop of York has
precedence of all dukes not of the royal blood, and of all
officers of the state, except the lord high chancellor. The
first archbishop of York was Paulinas, appointed by pope
Gregory about the year 622. — Buck.
ARCHDEACON ; a priest invested with authority of
jurisdiction over the clergy and laity, next to the bishop,
ehher through the whole diocese, or only a part of it.
There are sixty in England, who visit every two years in
three, when they inquire into the reparations and morea'
bles belonging to churches; reform abuses; suspend;
excommunicate ; in some places prove wills ; and mduct
all clerks into benefices within their respective jurisdic-
tions.— Bjirk.
ARCH-FEESBYTER, or Arch-Priest ; a priest estab-
lished in some dioceses with a superiority over the rest.
He was anciently chosen out of the college of presbyters,
at the pleasure of the bishop. The arch-presbyters were
much of the saine natore with the deans in cathedral
churches. — Euck.
ARCHELAUS ; the son of Herod the Great, by Mal-
thace, his fifth wife. Having put to death his sons Alex-
ander, Aristobulus, and Antipater, and disinherited Anti-
pas, whom at first he had declared king, Herod substitut-
ed Archelaus in his room, and gave Antipas the title of
tetrarch only, as has been already related under the article
Antipas. On the decease of his father, Archelaus suc-
ceeded to the kingdom of Judea, and reigned there at the
time that Joseph was returning from Egj'pt with the
young child Jesus and liis mother. Apprehending that
the new king would be as desirous of taking away the
life of his child as his father Herod had been, Joseph was
afraid to proceed ; but being warned of God in a dream, he
turned aside into the parts of Galilee, and dwelt in the
city of Nazareth. Matt. 2: 22. Archelaus seems to have
inherited no inconsiderable portion of the cruel temper of
his father. He governed Judea with so much violence
that the chief of the Samaritans and Jews impeached him
to Augustus, who immediately summoned him to Rome,
to answer for his conduct. Upon his arrival there, the
emperor ordered his accusers to ajipear against him, and
allowed him to defend himself; but his defence was so
little satisfactory to Augustus, that ho banished him to
Vienne, a city of Gaul, where lie continued in exile to the
end of his days. — Jones.
ACCHONTICS ; a branch of the Valentinians, towards
the close of the second century, who supposed the world
to be created {nipo ton nrthnnton) by the higher orders of
angels, arckontes, or archangels ; but the creation of wo-
man they ascribed to evil demons, which seems to indicate
they were woman-haters. They supported their princi-
ples chiefly by pretended revelations of their own. — Tur-
ner's Ilixt. p. 95 ; Williams.
ARCHERS ; such as shoot mth bows, in hunting and
battle. — This method of shooting was almost universal in
ancient times, before the invention of fire arms. Gen. 21:
20. Jer. 51: 3. The archers that sorely grieved Joseph, and
shot at him, were his enemies, particularly his brethren
and mistress, who with arrows of false accusation, bitter
wcids, and murderous attempts, sought to destroy him.
Gen. 49: 23. The archers of God, that encompassed Job,
W'^^e aflTictions, pains, and terrors, sent by God; and
which, like sharp, empoisoned arrows, wounded and vex-
ed his soul. Job If): 13. — Broivn.
ARCHINTMUS ; a citizen of Carthage, a devout Chris-
tian of the fifth century, upon whom all manner of arti-
fices were employed in vain, to make him renounce his
faith. At length, Genseric himself, the Arian king of the
Vandals, undertook to persuade him. Finding his en-
deavors ineflectual, he sentenced him to be beheaded ;
but gave private orders to the executioner, really to per-
form his office only in case the prisoner seemed intimidat-
ed and afraid ; " for then," said he, " the crown of martyr-
dom will be lost to him ; bvU if he seems courageous and
willing to die," continued the king, "forbear the stroke,
for I do not intend that he shall have the honor of being a
Tiarlyr." The executioner, on coming to the place ap-
pointed, finding Archinimus resolved, and happy in the
'hought of dying for the sake of Christ, brought him back
again unhurt. Soon after this, Archinimus was banished,
and never heard of more, though it is conjectured that he
was murdered privately, by order of the king, as he
thought the glory of dying for the faith publicly, too great
a favor. — Fox.
ARCHIPPUS ; one of the pastors of the church at Co-
losse, to whom the apostle Paul, at the close of his Epistle,
gave an important exhortation^ to " take heed to the min-
istry which he had received of the Lord, that he fulfilled
it." Col. 4: 17. — Jones.
ARCTURUS ; the name given to a star of the first
magnitude in the northern hemisphere, towards the pole.
Astronomers place it at some distance from the great
Bear, and between the thighs of Bootes. It rises here
about the twelfth of September, and sets about the twenty-
fourth of May, and has been thought seldom to appear
without bringing a storm. Job adverting to the power of
God, saith, " He raaketh Arcturus, Orion, and the Plei-
ades, vrAh the chambers of the south," ch. 9: 9. ; and
again, " Canst thou guide Arcturus with his sons V ch.
38: 32. (See the article Constellation.)
That the course of the stars influenced the seasons, in
the opinion of the ancients, is well known ; whence Pliny
says, (lib. ii. cap. 39.) " Arcturus seldom rises without
bringing hail and tempests ;" and (lib. xviii. cap. 28.)
" the evils which the heaveus send us are of two kinds ;
that is to say, tempests which produce hail, storms, and
other like things, which is called Vis Major, and which
are caused, as I have often said, by dreadful stars, such
as Arcturus, Orion, and the Kids." The ancients, how-
ever, were mistaken in this notion, for the stars only
marked that time of the year when snch things might
naturally be expected. — Jones; Cabnet.
ARDELY, (John ;) an Enghsh protestant martjT of
the reign of queen Mary, who, in company with John
Simson, Avas cited before bishop Bonner to answer to
seven articles, under the charge of heresy. Their answers
to these articles are recorded at length by Fox, and dis-
play admirable discrimination of judgment, and dignity
of purpose. Bishop Bonner endeavored to persuade them
to recant ; hut his endeavors were vain. To show that
they were not actuated by blind and obstinate fanaticism,
they mildly offered to surrender all their property to the
queen, if they might be pennitted to live under her go-
vernment in the unmolested enjoyment of a good con-
science.. But finding this proposition useless, and that a
cniel death must be experienced if they would not return
to the Romish church, Ardely nobly replied, " If every
hair of mj' head were a man, I would suffer death in the
opinion and faith I now profess." On being further urged
to conform, he answered, " No, God forbid that I should
do so, for then I should lose my soul."
They were accordingly burned to death in one day ;
Simson at Rochford, and Ardely at Railey, on the 30th of
May, 1555.— fox.
AREOPAGUS ; the place, or court, in which the Are^
opagites, the celebrated and supreme judges of Athens,
assembled. It was on an eminence, formerly almost in
the middle of the city ; but nothing remains by which we
can determine its form or construction. This hdl is al-
most entirely a mass of stone ; its upper surface is without
any considerable irregularities, but neither so level, nor so
spacious, as that of the Acropolis, and though of no great
height, not easily accessible, its sides being steep and ab-
rupt. On this hill the Amazons pitched their tents, when
they invaded Attica, in the time of Theseus ; and in after-
times, the Persians under Xerxes began from hence their
attack on the Acropolis.
The learned are not agreed respecting the number of
judges that composed this august court ; for some limit
them to thirty-one, others to fifty-one, and by some they
are extended to five hundred." The truth is, that their
number seems not to have been fixed, but to have been
more or less, in different years. This tribunal originally
consisted of only nine persons, who had alt discharged the
office of archons, had acquitted themselves with honor in
that trust, and after a rigorous examination before the
logistce, had given a satisfactory account of their adminis-
tration. The Areopagites were judges for life ; they
never sat in judgment but in the open air, and that only
ARI
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ARI
in llie night lime, tliat their minds might be less Uable
to distraction from surrounding objects, and less sus-
ceptible of either pity or aversion from extraneous mo-
tives. At first, they took cognizance of criminal causes
only, but in process of time, their jurisdiction became of
great extent.
The Areopagites took cognizance of murders, impieties,
and immoralities : they punished vices of all kinds — idle-
ness included ; they rewarded or assisted the virtuous :
they were peculiarly attentive to blasphemies against the
gods, and to the perforaiance of the sacred mysteries. It
was, therefore, with the greatest propriety, that Paul was
examined before this tribunal. Having preached at
Athens against the plurahty of gods, and declared, that
he came to reveal to the Athenians that God whom they
adored without knowing him, the apostle was carried be-
fore the Areopagites, as the introducer of new deities,
(Acts 17: 19, 22.) where he spoke with so much wisdom,
that he converted Dionyslus, one of the judges, and was
dismissed, without any interference on their part. Our
translation, by giving the import of the word Areopagus
■ — " Mars' hili," has lost the correct representation of the
passage : since Blars' hill might not be a court of justice ;
and beside this, the station of Dionysius, as one of the
Areopagites, is lost on the reader. (See Athens.) — Cal-
iitet ; Jorits.
ARETAS. There were many princes of Arabia of this
name, but the only one mentioned in Scripture is he who
had only a year before gained possession of Damascus
when Paul, who had preached the Gospel there with much
zeal, was persscuted by the Jews residing in the city, A.
D. 38. Acts 9: 23, 24. 2 Cor. 11: 32, 33. Under Nero,
fifteen years after, it appears by the coins that the Romans
were again masters of the city. The coincidence of time
here is worthy of remark. — Calmet.
AKGOB ; the name of a district which lay beyond Jor-
dan, belonging to the half tribe of Manasseh, and in the
country of Bashan. It is extremely fertile, and included
sixty cities, all of which had very high w-alls and strong
gates, independent of numerous villages and hamlets
which were not enclosed. Deut. 3: 4, 14. and 1 Kings 4:
13. But the name was more particularly given to the
metropolis of the country, a city which, a/ccording to Eu-
sebius, lay fifteen miles west of Gerasa. — Jones.
ARIAL of Moab. There are two Arials of Moab men-
tioned in Scriptuje, but they are the same city ; the capi-
tal of IMoab being divided by the liver Arnon into two
towns. (See Ar.) — Calmet.
ARIANS : this ancient, extensive, and important sect
was u questionably so called from Arius, a presbyter of
Alexandria, in the early part of the fourth centur}'. It is
said that he aspired lo episcopal honors ; and after the
death of Achilles, in A. D. 313, felt not a httle cha-
grined that Alexander should be preferred before him.
Whether this circumstance had any influence on his opi-
nions, it is impossible to say ; but one day, when his rival
(Alexander) had been addressing the clergy in favor of
the orthodox doctrine, and maintaining, in strong and
pointed language, " that the Son of God was co-eternal,
co-essential, and co-equal with the Father," Arius consi-
dered this as a species of Sabellianism, and ventured to
Bay, that it was inconsistent and impossible, since the
Father, who begat, must be before the Son, who was be-
gotten : the latter, therefore, could not be absolutely eter-
nal.
Alexander at first admonished Arius, and endeavored
to con\Tnce him of his error, but without effect, except
that he became more bold in contradiction. Some of the
clergy thought their bishop too forbearing, and it is possi-
ble he felt his inferiority of talent ; for Arius was a man
of accomplished learning and commanding eloquence,
venerable in person, and fascinating in address. At
length, Alexander was roused, and attempted to silence
Arius b • his authority ; but this not succeeding, as the
latter was bold and pertinacious, about the year 320, Alex-
ander called a council of his clergy, by whom the refuted
heretic was deposed and excomjnunicated.
Arius now retired into Palestine, where his talents and
address soon made a number of converts ; and among the
re.st, the celebrated Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, and
other bishops and clergy of those parts, who assembled in
council, and received the excommunicated presbyter into
their communion. Eusebius also, having great interest
with Constantia, the sister of Constantiue, and wife of
Licinius, recommended Arius to her protection and patron-
age, through which, and by his own eloquent letters to the
clergy in various parts, his system spread with great ra-
pidity, and to a vast extent.
The emperor Constantine, who had no great skill in
these matters, was grieved to see the Christian church
(but just escaped from the red dragon of persecution) thus
torn by intestine animosity and dissensions ; he therefore
determined to summon a gt'neral council of the clergy,
which met at Nice, in A. D. 323, and contained more than
three hundred bishops. Constantine attended in person,
and strongly recommended peace and unanimity ; and as
an example of moderation and forbearance, when both
parlies presented to him their mutual criminations, he
threw them into the fire without reading.
Athanasius was the chief opponent of the Arians. Both
parlies were wiUing to subscribe to the language of the
Scripture.s, but each insisted on interpreting for them-
selves. The Athanasians attempted to fi.x their sense on
the sacred writers by scholastic terms, to which the Arians
agreed, with various evasive exceptions. " Did the Trinita-
rrans (says Mr. Milner) assert that Christ was God ? — The
Arians allowed it, but in the same sense as holy men and
angels are styled gods in Scripture. Did they affu'm that
he was truly God ? — The others allowed that he was made
so by God. Did they affirm that the Son was naturally of
God? — It W'as granted ; even we, said they, are of God,
'of whom are all things.'" At length the Athanasians
collected a number of texts, which they conceived amount-
ed to full proof of the Son being of one and the same sub-
stance with the Father ; the Arians admitted he was of
Ul;e substance — the difference in Greek being only in a
single letter — the former being humuusios, the latter homoi-
usios.
At length, the former was decreed to be the orthodox
faith, and the Nicene creed was formed as it remains at
this day, so far as concerns the person of the Son of God,
who is said to be "begotten uf his Father before all
worlds ; God of God, Light of Light, very God of very
God, begotten, not made, of one suljstance with the Father,
by whom all things were made," &c. Subsequent ad-
ditions to this creed were made in the fifth and sixth
centuries, with which we are not now concerned. — (Bur-
nett, Art. VIII. Sp. Tomli?ie's Elements, vol. it. p. 218.)
To this creed was subjoined an anathema against all that
say, '■■ There was a time when the Son of God was not ;"
which anathema has been long since dropped, perhaps as
unnecessary, since the damnatory clauses of the Athana-
sian creed have been introduced.
Arius was now excommunicated as a heretic, and ban-
ished to lUyricum, where also he was soon after proscrib-
ed, and obliged to flee farther. Afler three or four years,
however, Arius and his followers were recalled, (for what
reason, or under what circumstances, historians are not
well agreed,) and the emperor insisted on Ms being re-
ceived into the communion of the church of Alexandria.
That church, however, with Athanasius now at their head,
refused to receive him. Upon this, the emperor sent £br
Arius to Constantinople, and insisted upon his being re-
ceived into communion, by Alexander, bishop of that city.
However, on the day before this was to have taken place,
Arius died suddenly from a complaint in his bowels.
Some attributed this to poison ; others to the prayers of
his enemies ; but it is at least possible, that it might pro-
ceed from a natural cause, with which neither prayer nor
poison was connected.
The emperor did not long survive, and Constantius, his
successor, was warmly attached to the Arian cause, as
were all the court party . Successive emperors took diffe-
rent sides, and thus was the peace of the church agitated
for many years, and practical religion sacrificed alternate-
ly to the dogmas or the interests of one party or the other ;
and each was in turn excommunicated, fined, imprisoned,
or banished. Constantius supported Arianisin most tri-
umphantly. Juhan laughed at both parties, but per-
secuted neither. Jovian supported the Nicene doctrine.
ARI
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ARI
Valentinian, and his brother Valens, took contrary sides;
the Ibrmer supporting Athanasianism in the west, and the
latter Arianism in the east ; so that what was orthodoxy
at Rome, was heresy at Constantinople, and vice versa.
At length, the bishop of Rome assumed the power of infal-
libility, and tixed the Athanasian doctrine at Rome, while
the African and eastern churches, which rejected his
authority, supported Arianism, or some of its subdivisions.
The Arians themselves were indeed by no means unani-
mous, but divided into various shades of sentiment, under
their respective leaders ; as, Eusebians, Eudoxians, Aca-
cians, Aetians, &c., most of which will be found in this
work ; but the more general distinction was into Arians
and Semi-Arians ; the former sinking the character of the
Son of God into that of a mere creature, while the latter
admitted every thing but the homousian doctrine, or his
absolute equality with the Father.
After this period, we hear little of Arianism, till it was
revived in the beginning of the last century, by the honest
but eccentric IMr. Whiston, Mr. Enilyn, and Dr. Samuel
Clarke. The latter being what may be called a high, or
Semi-Arian, who came within a shade of orthodoxy ; the
two former, low Arians, reducing the rank of our Savior
to the scale of angelic beings — a creature " made out of
nothing." Since this time, however, both Arians and So-
cinians are supposed to be extinct, or nearly so ; being
sunk into the common appellation of Unitiiriaiis, or rather
Humanitarians, who believe the Savior (as Dr. Priestly ex-
presses it) to be " a man like themselves." The last ad-
vocates of the pure Arian doctrine, of any celebrity, were
Blr. Henry Taylor (under the signature of Ben IMordecai)
and Dr. Richard Price, in his " Sermons on the Christian
Doctrine."
Before we close this article, it may be proper to observe,
that the Arians, though they denied the absolute eternity
of the Son, strongly contended for his pre-existence, as the
Logos, or the Word of God, " by whom the worlds were
made ;" and admitted, more or less explicitly, the sacri-
fice wliich he offered for sin upon the cross. The chief
ground on which they opposed the Nicene doctrine is,
tliat Christ himself speaks of the Father in terms of supe-
riority,— "My Father is greater than I." John 14: 28.
" I come in my Father's name." " I ascend to viij Father
and yotir Father, to »iy God and your God," kc. John
20: 17. To these were added many other passages in the
New Testament, which appeared to ascribe superiority of
rank, of wisdom, and of glory, to the Father. How these
were accounted for by the Athanasians, vnW be stated
under that ariicle. — Williams ; Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. i.
p. 412, and see Milner's Cli. Hist. vol. ii. chaps. 3 and 4 ;
Evans's Sketch, p. 100, ed. 1S21 ; E. Adam's E. W. vol. ii.
p. 123, &c.; Jones's Diet, of Eeligioiis Opinions; Dr. Jor-
tin's Hist, of Arianism.
ARIAS MONTANUS, (Benedict ;) a Spanish orien-
talist, bom in Estremadura, in 1527, died in 1598. In
addition to his thorough knowledge of the oriental and
classical languages, he spoke fluently the German, Fle-
mish, French, and Portuguese. Philip II. of Spain, confid-
ed to him the editing of the Polyglot Bible, which is
known as the Antwerp or royal Bible. Arias was as re-
markable for his modesty and disinterestedness, as for his
learning ; a bishopric was offered him, btit he preferred
the retirement of his hermitage, and his only bed was a
cloak spread upon the bare boards. Among his most
esteemed works, is his treatise on Jewish antiquities.
ARIEL, tlie lion of God, is understood of the city of
Jerusalem, in Isaiah 29: 1, 2, 7. and is thought to mean
" city of heroes."
ARIMATHEA, or Ramah, now called Ramie, or
Ramla ; a pleasant town, beautifully situated on the bor-
ders of a fertile and extensive plain, abounding in gar-
dens, vineyards, olive and date trees. It stands about
thirty miles north-west of Jerusalem, on the high road to
Jafla. At this Rama, which was likewise called Rama-
thaim Zophim, as lying in the district of Zuph or Zoph,
Samuel was born. 1 Samuel 1: This was likewise the
native place of Joseph, called Joseph of Arimathea, who
begged and obtained the body of Jesus from Pilate. Matt.
26: 57. There was another Ramah, about six miles
north of Jerusalem, in a pass which separated the king-
doms of Israel and Judah, which Baasha, king of Israel,
took, and began to fortify ; but he was obliged to relin-
quish it, in consequence of the alliance formed between
Asa, king of Judah, and Benhadad, king of Syria. 1
Kings 15: This is the Ramah supposed to be alluded to
in the lamentation of Rachel for her children. — Watson.
ARISTARCHUS ; spoken of by St. Paul, in his Epistle
to the Colossians, 4: 10., and often mentioned in the Acts
of the Apostles. He was a Macedonian, and a native of
Thessalonica. He accompanied St. Paul to Ephesus, and
there continued with him during the two years of his
abode in that place, sharing with him in all the dangers
and labors of the ministry. Acts-19: 29. 20: 4. 27: 2.
He was near losing his life in a tumult raised by the
Ephesian silversmiths. He left Ephesus with the apostle,
and went with him into Greece. From thence he attend-
ed him into Asia ; from Asia into Judea, and from Judea
to Rome, — Watson.
ARISTOBULUS, of whom Paul speaks, (Rom. 16: 10.)
was, according to the modern Greeks, brother of Barnabas,
and one of the seventy disciples ; was ordained a bishop
by Barnabas, or by Paul, whom he followed in his travels ;
was sent into Britain, where he labored much, made many
converts, and at last died. Mr. Taylor thinks there is
good reason for believing that Aristobulus was a Christian
minister, who was absent in Britain, with part of the fa-
mily of Brennus, the British king, at the time when Paul
saluted his family. The evidence of the Welsh triads he
holds to be clear to this eiTect ; and there seems to be no
cause of suspicion, either of the falsity of the assertion, or
of any interpolation in these documents :' and, certainly,
the Greeks and the Britons are witnesses perfectly inde-
pendent of each other ; so that collusion is out of the
question. If Aristobulus were ordained by Paul, we see
how the Britons might be " disciples of the tent maker,"
as they are called by Theodoret, even if Paul never visit-
ed Britain in person. (See Christianity, History of.) — •
Cahnet.
ARISTOTELIANS ; the disciples of Aristotle, a fa-
mous Grecian philosopher, who flourished nearly five
hundred years before the Christian era. He was the dis-
ciple of Plato, and the preceptor of Alexander the Great,
by whom he was so highly respected, that he hesitated not
to say, that he was under greater obligations to him for
his instructions, than to his own father for his being.
There is no doubt, but that with his philosophical dogmas,
he communicated to his royal pupil many noble senti-
ments ; but, at the same time, he set before him models
of heroism, from his favorite author. Homer, that inspired
his mind with those maxims of ambition, which made
him a scourge and a reproach to humanity.
After he had parted from Alexander, who set out, with
the approbation of his tutor, on the mad exploit of con-
quering the world, Aristotle, inspired also with the like
ambition, opened the Lyceum as a school of philosophy,
in opposition to the Academy, then occupied by Xeno-
crates. The Lyceum was a grove which had been used
for military exercises ; and here he held daily conversa-
tions on philosophy, walking as he discoursed ; from
whence his followers received the name of Peripatetics.
According to the practice of the Greeks and Egyptians,
whose object was not to enlighten the world, but to ad-
vance their own fame, Aristotle had his public and his se-
cret doctrines — the e.roteric and esoteric (or acroamatic)
philosophy. The latter, comprehending his metaphysics
and mystical doctrines, was taught to a few select pupils
of a morning ; in the evening, the Lyceum was open to
all his pupils, who were taught logic, rhetoric, moral and
political philosophy. The one he used to call his morning,
and the other his evening walk. These lectures he con-
tinued for twelve years, during the life of Alexander ;
after which his enemies prevailed, and he was obliged to
leave Athens.
The principles of Aristotle have afforded matter for
much inquiry and considerable dispute, being in all cases
remarkably obscure. In physics, his principal discovery
was a " first matter," destitute of aU the properties of mat-
ter. The honor of this notable discovery is, however,
claimed by the Pythagoreans for their master ; but the
point is now of little moment. He believed in the " eter
ARK
[ 113]
ARK
n.ly of the world,"' i. e. the universe, but denied the eter-
nity of its elements. His notion of a God is that of the
first mover in this system, (the primum mobile,) the "soul
(if the world," to which he allows " intelligence, desire,
;md affection :" yet this mysterious Being, according to
liira, acts not voluntarily, but from necessity ; and hence
the origin of the doctrine of fate. So true is it, that " the
world by wisdom knew not God."
In ethics, he taught that happiness consists in the virtu-
ous exercise of the mind ; and virtue in preserving the
golden mean between extremes. The soul of man he
considered as an emanation from the Deity, but says no-
thing of its immortality. — Enfield's Hist, of Philvs. book ii.
'•hap. 9. ^ 1 ; WilJiams.
ARIUS. (See Arians.)
ARK OF NOAH ; in Hebrew, thebeth. The term the-
he.th used by Moses is different from the common name by
which he describes a coffer ; and is the same that he em-
ploys when speaking of the little wicker basket in which
lie was exposed on the Nile ; whence some have thought
that the ark was of wicker-work. It was a sort of bark,
in shape and appearance much like a chest or trunk.
The ancients inform us, that the Egyptians used on the
Nile, barlis made of bulrushes, which were so light, as to
be carried on their shoulders, when they met with falls of
water, that prevented their passage. Noah's ark was, in
all probability, says Calmet, in form like these Egj'ptian
boats, but ranch larger.
1. Its capadti/ and dimensions. The greatest difficulty
refers, principally, to its size and capacity ; and how Noah
was able to build a vessel sufficient to contain the men
and beasts, with provisions requisite for their support,
during a whole year. To resolve these difficulties, it has
been requisite to inquire very particularly into the mea-
sure of the cubit mentioned by Moses, into the number of
the creatures admitted into the ark, and into the dimen-
sions of this vast building. After the nicest examination
and computation, and taking the dimensions with the
greatest geornetrical exactness, the most learned and ac-
curate calculators, and those most conversant in building
of ships, conclude, that if the ablest mathematicians had
been consulted about proportioning the several apartments
in the ark, they could not have done it with greater cor-
rectness than Moses has done ; and this narration in the
sacred history is so far from furnishing deists with argu-
ments wherewith to weaken the authority of the Holy
Scriptures, that, on the contrary, it supplies good argu-
ments to confirm that authority ; since it seems, in a man-
ner, impossible for a man, in Noah's time, when naviga-
tion was not perfected, by his own wit and invention, to
discover such accuracy and regularity of proportion, as is
remarkable in the dimensions of the ark ; it follows, that
the correctness must be attributed to Divine inspiration,
and a supernatural direction. — Wilkins's Essay t awards a
Beal Character, part ii. cap. 5 ; Saurin, Discours Hislorique,
&e. torn. i. p. 87, 88.
Dr. Hales proves the ark to have been of the burden of
forty-two thousand four hundred and thirteen tons ; and
asks, " Can we doubt of its being sufficient to contain
eight persons, and about two hundred or two hundred and
fifty pair of four-footed animals, (a number to which, ac-
cording to BI. Buffon, all the various distinct species may
be reduced.) together with all the subsistence necessary
for a twelve-month, with the fowls of the air, and such
reptiles and insects as cannot live under water ?" All
these various animals were controlled by the power of
God, whose special agency is supposed in the whole trans-
action, and '• the lion was made to lie down with the kid."
Besides places for the beasts and birds, and their provisions,
Noah might find room on the third story for thirty-six
cabins, occupied by household utensils, instruments of
husbandry, books, gi-ains, and seeds ; for a kitchen, a
hall, four chambers, and a space (jf about forty-eight cu-
bits, in length, to walk in.
UTiether Noah was commanded to bring -ndth liim, into
the ark, a pair of all living creatures, zoologically and
numerically considered, has been doubted. During the
long period between the creation and the flood, animals
must have spread themselves over a great part of the an-
lediUivian earth, and certain animals would, as now, pro-
bably become indigenous to certain climates. The pairs
saved must, therefore, if all the kinds were included, have
travelled from immense distances. But of such marches,
no intimation is given in the history ; and this seems to
render it probable that the animals which Noah was " to
bring with him" into the ark, were the animals, clean and
unclean, of the country in which he dwelt, and which,
from the capacity of the ark, must have been in great va-
riety and number. The terms used, it is true, are univer-
sal ; and it is satisfactory to know, that if taken in the
largest sense, there was ample accommodation in the ark.
Nevertheless, universal terms in Scripture are not always
to be taken mathematically ; and in the vision of Peter, the
phrase, panta ta teirapoda tes ges, — all the four-footed beasts
of the earth, must be understood of varii generis qiiadru-
pedes, as Schleusner paraphrases it. Thus we may easily
account for the exuviae of animals, whose species no
longer exist, which have been discovered in various places.
The number of such extinct species probably has been
greatly overrated by Cuvier : but of the fact, to a con
siderable extent, there can be no doubt. It is also to be
observed, that the presumptive evidence of the truth of the
fact of the preparation of such a vessel, and of the super-
natural circumstances which attended it, is exceedingly
strong. It is, in truth, the only solution of a difliculty
which has no other explanation ; for as a universal deluge
is confirmed By the general history of the wox'ld, and by a
variety of existing facts and monuments, such a structure
as the ark, for the preservation and sustenance of various
animals, seems to have been absolutely necessary ; for as
we can trace up the first imperfect rudiments of the art
of ship-building amongst the Greeks, there could be no
ships before the flood ; and, consequently, no animals
could have been saved. Nay, it is highly improbable that
even men and domestic animals could be saved, not to
mention wild beasts, serpents, fee, though we should ad-
mit that the antediluvians had shipping, unless we should
suppose, also, that they had a divine intimation respecting
the flood, such as Bloses relates ; but this would be to give
up the cause of infidelity.
2. The time of its construction. It is generally under-
stood to have been completed in the 1656th year of the
world, at the time when the deluge commenced ; but how
long Noah was employed in preparing it, is not so appa-
rent. According to the Mahometan writers, it was begun
in the year 1654, which allows only two years for its con-
struction ; according to rabbi Tanchuma, it was begun in
1604, which allows fifty-two years ; according to Berosus,
in 1578, which allows seventy-eight ; according to others,
in 1556, which allows one hundred ; and, according to
most authors, in 1536, which allows one hundred and
twenty. The two last are the most probable suppositions,
and receive some support from the testimony of sacred
Scripture. In favor of the first of these, it is alleged, that
Noah is stated to have been five hundred years old im-
mediately before the ark is mentioned ; and six hundred,
when the deluge took place. -Gen. 5: 32. 7: 6. While
it is urged on the other hand, from 1 Pet. 3: 20. comjiared
with Gen. 0: 3., that the ark appears to have been prepar-
ing during the whole period of the Divine forbearance,
viz. one hundred and twenty years.
3. The place where built. On this point, also, there are
very different opinions. One writer fixes upon the plains
of Sodom, in Palestine ; another upon mount Caucasus,
on the confines of India ; a third, .upon some part of Chi-
na ; and the greater part, upon the territory of Babylon,
in Chaldea. In order to determine this matter, several
considerations have been proposed ; such as, that Noah
cannot be supposed to have removed far from the neigh-
borhood of Eden ; that, as the ark was not fitted for mov-
ing to a great distance, it must have been constructed
near the place where it rested, viz. mount Ararat ; that,
as much timber would be required for so large a vessel,
it must have been built where the particular wood of
which it was made abounded. But all these jwints are
themselves subjects-of dispute ; and it is not fully deter-
mined where Eden and Ararat are situated, or what was
the tree from which the vessel in question was formed.
4. Jts materials. Here the Scripture says expressly,
that the ark was built of gopher wood ; and rovored over
ARK
L 114 J
ARK
W..1I bitumen, or pitch. But. there is an amazing diversity
of opinion as to tlie kind of wood denoted by the term
gopher. By the LXX. it is rendered square timber, i. e.
timber squared by tlie workman, or, according to Voasius,
the timber of those trees which shoot out quadrangular
branches iu the same horizontal line, such as tir, pine,
cedar, &c. ; by Jerome, in the Vulgate, it is rendered
smoothed or plane timber ; by Aben Ezra and Kimchi,
light floating wood ; by others, wood that does not easily
corrupt, such as box and cedar ; by others, pitched wood ;
by others, again, it is even rendered wicker-work, basket-
work ; and it is interpreted by Parkhurst, as probably
nothing more than a general name for such trees as
abound with resinous inilamniable juices, as the cedar, cy-
press, fir, pine, kc. Cedar is the wood which best cor-
responds with the greater number of these different signi-
fications, as it is light and quadrangular in its branches,
•lurable and incorruptible, resinous and inflammable ; as
It is abundant also in Asia, known to have been employed
by the Assyrians and Egyptians in the construction of
ships, and supported by the interpretations of Onkelos and
Jonathan, and most of the old rabbins. Fuller and Bo-
chart, however, maintain it to have been the cypress ; be-
cause its Greek name bears a near resemblance to the
Hebrew of gopher ; because it was considered by the an-
cients as the most durable wood against rot and worms ;
because it abounded in Assyria, where the ark was proba-
bly built ; and because it was well calculated, and was
frequently used, for ship-building, especially by Alexander
the Great, who built a whole fleet from the cypress groves
in the neighborhood of Babylon.
5. Its form. From the description given in the sacred
writings, it appears to have had the figure of an oblong
square, with a flat bottom and sloping roof ; without any
kind of helm, or mast, or oars ; formed to lie upon the
water without rolling, and intended to float rather than to
sail.
Some persons have started difficulties with regard to
the square and oblong figure of the ark ; but they did not
consider that this vessel was not designed for sailing or
rowing, but chiefly for floating on the water a considera-
l.de time. Besides, it may be proved, by instances, that
its form was not less commodious for rowing, than capa-
cious for carrying. George Hornius, in his " Histoiy of
the several Empires," tells us, that in the beginning of
(lie seventeenth century, one Peter Hans, of Home, had
iwo ships built after the model and projxprtions of the ark ;
one was one hundred and twenty feet long, twenty wide,
and twelve deep. These vessels had the same fate with
Noah's, being at first objects of ridicule and raillery ; but
experience demonstrated, that they carried a third part
more than others, though they did not require a larger
crew : they were better sailers, and made their wa)' with
much more swiftness. The only inconvenience found in
them was, that they were fit only for limes of peace, be-
cause they were not proper to carry guns. — (ie Pelhtier,
Dissert, stir I'Arche tie Noe, cap. ii. p. 39, 30.) The pro-
portions of the ark, Mr. Taylor remarks, nearly agree with
those of the human figure, so that it resembled a dead
body laid out for burial : three hundred cubits in length is
six times its breadth, fifty cubits. Now the body of a
man lying on the water, flat on his back, will float with-
lut any exertion, so far as to keep the mouth above water,
ond the nose free for the purpose of breathing. It should
seem, therefore, that similar proportions might suit a ves-
sel whose purpose was floating only : — and we do not
know whether we have not been betrayed into erroneous .
conceptions of the structure of the ark. by supposing it to
pass violently from one place to another, or to be driveit
by storms ; whereas, it is not impossible that it might be
as if at anchor all the time ; and the surges might not
greatly, if at all, exceed those we are now acquainte<l
with.
6. Corroborative testiinomf. Mr. Bryant has collected a
variety of ancient historical relations, which show that
some records concerning the ark had been preserved
among most nations of the world, and in the general sys
tem of gentile mythology. Abydenus, with whom all the
eastern writers concur, informs us that the place of de-
scent from the ark was Armenia, and that its remains
had been preserved for a long time. Plutarch mentions
the Noachic dove, and its being sent out of the ark. Lu-
cian speaks of Deucalion's going forth from the ark, and
raising an altar to God. The priests of Ammonia had a
custom, at particular seasons, of carrying in procession a
boat, in which was an oracular shrine, held in great vene-
ration : and this custom of carrying the deity in an ark or
boat, was in use also among the Egyptians. Bishop Po-
cocke has preserved three specimens of ancient sculpture,
in which this ceremony is displayed. They were very
ancient, and found by him in Upper Egypt. The ship of
Isis referred to the ark, and its name, " Earis," was that
of the mountain corresponding to Ararat in Armenia.
Bryant finds reference to the ark in the temples of the
serpent-worship, called Dracontia ; and also in that of Se-
sostris, fashioned after the model of the ark, in commemo-
ration of which it was built, and consecrated to Osiris at
Theba ; and he conjectures that the city, said to be one of
the most ancient in Egypt, as well as the province, wa^
denominated from it ; Theba being the appellation of the
ark.
In other countries, as well as in Egypt, an ark, or
ship, was introduced in their mysteries, and oflen carried
about in the seasons of their festivals. He finds, also, in
the story of the Argonauts, several particulars that are
thought to refer to the ark of Noah. As many cities, not
in Egypt only and Bceotia, but in Cilicia, Ionia, Attica,
Phthiotis, Cataonia, Syria, and Italy, were called Theba ;
so likewise the city Apamea was denominated Cibotiis,
from kibotos, in memory of the ark, and of the history con-
nected with it. The ark, according to the traditions of
the gentile world, was prophetic ; and was regarded as a
kind of temple, or residence of the deity. It comprehend-
ed all mankind, within the circle of eight persons, who
were thought to be so highly favored of heaven, that they
at last were reputed to be deities. Hence in the ancient
mythology of Egypt, there were precisely eight gods; and
the ark was esteemed an emblem of the system of the
heavens. The principal terms by which the ancients dis-
tinguished the ark were, Theba, Baris, Arguz, Aren,
Arene, Arni, Laiis, Boutas, Bceotus, and Cibotus ; anc.
out of these they formed different personages. (See De-
luge.)
In his investigations, Mr. Taylor takes Dionysius, or the
Indian Bacrhiis, for a personification of the great patriarch
Noah ; and assumes, that the cista mysticn, or sacred alle-
gorical chest, anciently carried in the Dionysiac proces-
sions, commemorated the instrument of preservation, by
means of which a family of mankind had escaped destruc-
tion when involved in the calamities which accompanied
the deluge. It will be recollected, that this thebeth has
been already supposed only to float, hovering about the
place where it was stationed ; to be gradually (and, com-
paratively, slowly) surrounded by the flood, and to be lift-
ed up, for a short time only, on the face of water twenty-
two feet in depth ; and moreover, to be re-settled on its
broad basis, and its projecting supports, by the earliest
diminution of the retiring waves.
In a series of pictures, representing ceremonies in honor
of Bacchus, in the Antiquities of Herculaneum, (vol. ii. p.
135.) appears what may be thought, with some probabi-
lity, the nearest approach in form to the Noachical ark.
A woman is carrying on her shoulder a square box, hav-
ing a projecting roof, and at the end a door. This door
ARK
[ 115
ARK
isadistmguishing circumstance ; for it plainly marks this
receptacle as a house : it cannot be a mere box for ordi-
nary uses, as the difficiilly of putting things in, and taking
them out, through so narrow an aperture, sulficiently de-
monstrates : neither is the angular roof, with its conside-
rable projection, analagous lo the purposes of a mere box ;
moreover, being carried in a commemorative procession,
it is clearly a sacred thebelh-, or trunk, that is, that in which
Diouysius was preserved. It has no pillars to character-
ize it as a votive temple ; neither is the door-way propor-
tioned to the entrance of a temple ; as it rises nearly to
the roof. Moreover, the ark was esteemed a symbol ap-
propriate to Bacchus ; and, in his processions, idols, or
other mysteries referring to that deity, were inclosed in
it. It was the same among the Egyptians. Observe fur-
ther, that the LXX in Genesis translate thehah, " kibotos ;"
in Exodus they retain the original, thebin ; whereas Epi-
phanius, Chrysostom, Theophilus of Antioch, and others,
use the word lamax, the same as among the gentiles de-
scribed the ark of Bacchus. The cista mystica of the Bac-
chic rites, contained the most direct allusion to the great
progenerator of mankind : when it was not the god him-
t.'elf, it was the virile part of him ; but, sometimes, a bas-
,ket of early fruit, or seed corn, was substituted ; implying
that Bacchus was the person who first taught mankincl
husbandry ; and that fertility was his character and es-
sence. Theocritus says, that Pentheus was pulled to
pieces by the female Bacchantes, for prying into the sa-
cred things which they took out of the cista to place on the
altars ; and Catullus says, the rites of the cista were cele-
brated in the utmost secrecy. The heathen always carri-
ed the cista on the shoulder ; and the person who carried
it was called Kistoplwrus, says Suidas. (See Exod. 25:
14. and Uzzah.)
The annexed medal, which is preserved in the cabinet
of the king of France, is too remarkable lo be overlooked ;
and having been particularly scrutinized by the late abbe
Barihelemy, at the desire of the late Dr. Combe, w-as, by
that able antiquary, pronounced authentic. It bears on
one side the head of Severus ; on the other, a history in
two parts ; representing, first, two figures inclosed in an
ark, or chest, sustained by stout posts at the comers, and
■well limbered throughout! On the siile are letters ; on the
top is a dove; in /ro«(, the same two figures which we
see in the ark are represented as come out, and departing
from their late residence. Hovering over them is the
dove, with a sprig in its bill. (Double histories are com-
mon on medals.) The .situation of these figures implies
the situation of the door ; and clearly commemorates an
escape from the dangers of water, by means of a floating
vessel. Whether these particulars can be, without difli-
culty, referred to the history of Deucalion and Pyrrha, as
usually understood, will be strongly doubted by all who
duly contemplate the subject. ^Ioreover, Mr. Bryant in-
forms us, that the letters on the ark are N 0 E, as will be
evident from close inspection of the medal. It is unwise
to depend too strongly on a single evidence ; but it is not
improper to submit, (1.) that the patriarch was known in
•sGrecian antiquity by the name of Noe ; (2.) that it is not
impossible to explain the cause why all the medals, includ-
ing the genuine, purport to be struck at Apamea.
7. Importance of the stihje'-t. It is possible, says I\Ir.
Taylor, whom we are quoting, that the reader may not o>
first perceive the propriety of attaching so great impcr-
tance to the history of Noah's deliverance and its com.
memoration ; and thence he proceeds to justify his not
unlaborious investigations. The outcry of a certain class
of reasoners against Revelation has long been, he observes,
" Bring us facts which all the avould agree ix : facts
ADMITTED, ESTABLISHED, BV UNBIASSED EVIDENCE," (!cC. If,
in answer to this, we adduce proof that the Christian dis-
pensation is from above, we are reminded — " How few of
mankind receive it : Christ's own nation deny the subject
of it ; heathen lands refuse him." If we advert to Moses
— "What! a leader of a pitifid horde of leprous slaves!
at most, a legislator acknowledged by a single nation ! and
that a stupid nation too." To establish the assertion,
therefore, that Deity has condescended to make known his
intentions to man, he invites such persons to investigate
the instance of Noah : — Was the deluge, he Eisks, a real
occurrence ? — All mankind acknowledge it. Wherever
tradition has been maintained, wherever written records
are preserved, wherever commemorative rites have been
instituted, what has been their subject ? The deluge : de-
liverance from destruction by a flood. The savage and
the sage agree in this : North and South, East and West,
relate the danger of their great ancestor from overwhelm-
ing w^aters. — But he was saved : and how ? — By personal
exertion? By long-supported swiinming? By conceal
ment in the highest mountains? No: but by enclosure
in a large floating edifice of his own construction — hi.-!
own construction, for this particular purpose. But this
labor was long ; this was not the work of a day ;
he must have foreknown so a.stonishing an event, a
considei-able time previous to its actual occurrence. —
Whence did he receive this foreknowledge ? Did the
earth inform him, that at twenty, thirty, forty years' dis-
tance, it would disgorge a flood ? — Surely not. Did the
stars announce that they would dissolve the terrestrial at-
mosphere in terrific rains ? — Surely not. Whence, then,
had Noah his forekkowleuge ? Did he begin to build
when the first showers descended ? This was too late.
Had he been accustomed to rains formerly — why think
them now of importance? Had he never seen rain —
what could induce him to provide against it ? Wh)' this
year more than last year; — why last year more than the
year before? These inquiries are direct : we cannot flinch
Irom the fact. Erase it from the Mosaic records ; still :•
is recorded in Greece, in Egypt, in India, and in Britain :
it is registered in the very sacra of the pagan world, ai;il
is annually renewed by commemorative imitation, where
the liberty of opinion is not fettered by prejudices derived
from Hebrew institutions, or by the " .sophisticated" in-
ventions of Christianity. — " Go,' infidel," he adds, " turn
to the right hand, or to the left hand : take your choice
of difliculties : disparage all mankind as fools, as wiUing
dupes to superstitious commemoration, as leagued through-
out the world lo delude themselves in order to impugn
your wisdom, your just-thinking, your love of truth, your
unbiassed integritv ; or allow that this fact, at least this
ONE fact, is established by testimony abundantly sufficient ;
but remember, that if it he established, it implies a com-
munication FROM GOD TO man.— Who could inform
Noah ? Why did not that great patriarch proride against
Fire ?— against Earthquakes ?— against Explosions >—\\' hy
against a Deluge!— why against irafer .'— Away with
subterfuge. Say frankly,
^This was the dictation of
ARK
f 116]
ARM
Deily;' say, 'Ouly HE who made the world could -predict
the time, the means, tlie causes of- this devastation ; only
HE could excite the hope of restoration, or suggest a
method of deliverance.' Use your own language; but
permit a humble believer to adopt language already re-
corded : ' By faith, Noah — being warned of God — of things
never seen as yet — in pious fear — prepared the ark (kibotos)
to the saving of his family — by which he condemned the world.'
— May a similar condemnation never rest on us, who
must at least admit the truth of one text in the Bible — or
stand convicted by the united voice of all mankind, and
by the testimony of the earth, the now shattered, the now
disordered earth itself !" — Calmet ; Watson; Jones.
ARK OF THE COVENANT ; a small chest or coffer,
three feet nine inches in length, two feet three inches in
breadth, and the same in height, in which were contained
the golden pot that had manna, with Aaron's rod, and the
tables of the covenant. Exodl 25: 10—16. Numb. 17:
10. with Heb. 9: 4. It was made of shittim-wood, and
covered with the mercy-seat, which was of solid gold. At
cither end was a cherubim, looking towards each other,
with expanded wings, which, embracing the whole cir-
cumference of the mercy-seat, met in the centre of it.
Exod. 25: 17—22. and ch. 37: 1—9. On this ark, the
Shechinah, or symbol of the Divine presence, rested, both
in the tabernacle and temple, manifesting itself in the
appearance of a cloud, as it were, hovering over it. Lev.
16: 2. And from thence, as often as Jehovah was con-
sulted in behalf of his people, the divine oracles were
given out by an audible voice. Hence it is that God is
said to dwell between the cherubims, upon the mercy-
seat ; because that was the throne of the visible appear-
ance of his glory among them. 2 Kings 19: 15. 1 Chron.
13:6. Ps. 80: 1. And for this reason, the high-priest,
once every year, ou the great day of expiation, appeared
before the mercy-seat, to make atonement for the people.
Heb. 9: 7. On either side of the ark, were two rings of
gold, through which staves overlaid with gold were passed,
and by means of which, as they journeyed through the
■wilderness, it was carried on the shoulders of the Levites.
Exod. 25: 13, 14. "When the Hebrews passed through
Jordan, Joshua commanded the priests who bare the ark
to proceed with it before them, which they did ; and as
soon as their feet touched the brink of the river, its waters
instantly divided, leaving them to pass over on dry ground,
" and the priests that bare the ark of the covenant of the
Lord stood firm on dry ground in the midst of Jordan ;
and all the Israelites passed over on dry ground, until all
the people were passed clean over Jordan." Josh. 3: 14
— 17. After the passage of Jordan, the ark continued for
some time at Gilgal, froiu whence it was removed to Shi-
loh. From this place the Israelites carried it to their
camp, where in an engagement with the PhiUstines it fell
into the hands of the latter, who placed it in the temple
of their idol Dagon, when the latter fell down and was
broken in pieces before it ; and in consequence of detain-
ing it, they were so afflicted with emerods, that they re-
. turned it to the Hebrews. It halted at Bethshemesh, after
this, where the people, for profanely looking into it, incur-
red the Divine displeasure, and fifty thousand of them
wsre struck dead. It was then lodged at Kirjath-jearim,
and afterwards at Nob. Numb. 10: 33—36. 1 Sam. 4:
5: 6: 7: 2 Sam. 6: David determined to convey it from
Kirjath-iearim, after a different manner ; and accordingly
had it placed upon a new cart which was drawn by oxen ;
but the latter causing the ark to shake, Uzzah put forth
his hand to prevent its fall, when the anger of the Lord
was kindled against him. and he was instantly struck
dead for his presumption. This awful judgment filled
David with terror, and caused him to leave it during three
months at the house of Obed-edom ; it was, however, re-
moved from thence to his palace in Jenisalem ; and when
Solomon had built and dedicated the temple, he there fixed
it, in the most holy place. 1 Chron. 15: 25 — 28. 1 Kings
8: 1 — 11. The hundred and thirty-second psalm was
evidently written on one of these occasions, and is easily
understood when thus applied.
It remained in the temple till the times of the last kings
of Judah, who gave themselves up to idolatry, and even
dared to place their idols in the holy temple itself. The
priests, being unable to bear this profanation, look the
ark and carried it from place to place, to preserve it from
the hands of those impious princes. Josiah commanded
them to bring it back to the sanctuary, and it was accord-
ingly replaced. 2 Chron. 35: 3. What became of the
ark at the destruction of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar,
is a dispute among the rabbins. Had it been carried to
Babylon with the other vessels of the temple, it would, in
all probability, have been brought back with them, at the
close of the captivity. But that this was not the case, is
agreed on all hands ; whence it is probable that it was
destroyed with the temple.
The ark of the covenant was, as it were, the centre of
worship to all those of the Hebrew nation who served God
according to the Levitical law ; and not only in the tem-
ple, when they came thither to worship, but every where
else in their dispersions through the whole world ; when-
ever they prayed, they turned their faces towards the
place where the ark stood, and directed all their devotions
that way. Dan. 6: 10. Whence the author of the book
of Cosri justly says, that the ark, with the mercy-seat and
cherubim, were the foundation, root, heart, and marrow
of the whole temple, and all the Levitical worship perform-
ed therein ; and, therefore, had there been nothing else
wanting in the second temple but the ark only, this alone
would have been a sufficient reason for the old men to
have wept when they remembered the first temple in
which it stood ; and for the saying of Haggai, 2: 3., that
the second temple was as nothing, compared with the
first ; so great a share had the ark of the covenant in the
glory of Solomon's temple. However, the defect was
supplied as to the outward form, for in the second temple
there was also an ark of the same dimensions with the
first, and put in the same place ; but it wanted the tables
of the law, Aaron's rod, and the pot of manna ; nor was
there any appearance of the Divine glory over it ; nor any
oracles delivered from it. The only use that was made
of it, was to be a representation of the former on the great
day of expiation, and to be a repository of the holy Scrip-
ttires, that is, of the original copy of that collection of them
made by Ezra after the captivity ; in imitation of which
the Jews, in all their synagogues, have a like ark or coffer,
in which they keep their Scriptures.
For the temple of Solomon a new ark was not made ;
but he constructed cherubim in the most holy place, which
were designed to give additional state to this most sacred
symbol of God's grace and mercy. These cherubim were
fifteen feet high, and were placed at equal distance from
the centre of the ark and from each side of the wall, so
that their wings being expanded, the two wings which
were extended behind touched the wall, and the other two
met over the ark, and so overshadowed it . W^hcn these
magnificent cherubim were finished, the ark was brought
in and placed under their wings. 2 Chron. 5: 7 — 10.
The ark was called the ark of the covenant, because it
was a symbol of the covenant between God and his peo-
ple. It was also named the ark of the testimony, because
the two tables which were deposited in it were witnesses
against every transgression. — Jones ; Watson.
ARM. The whole power and resources of men are
often in Scripture, by an easy image, called their artn ;
because on the exertion of them they depend, and by them
they are qualified for the execution of their purposes. Ps.
10: 15. 38: 17. How forcible and full of beauty, in this
point of view, is that passage, Jer. 17: " Cursed is the
man that trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his arm !"
How just the confidence of Hezekiah against Sennacherib.
2 Chron. 32: 8. " With him is an arm of flesh : but with
us is the Lord our God, to help us, and to fight our bat-
tles !"
It would seem to have been a custom with ancient war-
riors, when hotly engaged in battle, and aiming to strike
an effectual blow, to make bare the arm. So in allusion
to this, when some extraordinary and decisive exertion of
Divine power is adverted to, it is not unusual for the sa-
cred writers to describe it as making bare, revealing, and
stretching out the arm. I'^a. 52: 10. Hence these phrases
always signify some signal act of Jehovah for the destruc-
tion of his enemies, and the deliverance of his people ; or
for the demonstration of his truth among men. Isa. 53: 1.
ARM
I 117 J
A R M
But inasmuch as the power of God is usually exerlcd
in behalf of his church in intimate connection with that
of the church herself, we may hence understand the im-
|X)rt of Isa, 51: y. which is the call of Zion on her God.
" Awake, awake, put on strength, 0 arm of the Lord ;'
which is (bllowed by the call of God upon his people,
" Awake, awake, put on thy strength, O Zion." Isa. 52: 1.
See a similar idea in Fhil. 2: 12, 13. Yet. when in obe-
dient love and humble dependence, we have exerted our-
selves to the utmost, what sweet propriety is there in the
grateful acknowledgment. " Tnoc hast wkocght all ocr
WORKS IX rs." Isa. 26: 12.
ARMAGEDDON ; a place mentioned in the Apoca-
lypse, ch. 11) : lt>, literally signifying the mountain of
Megeddon, or Jlegiddo, a city situated in the great plain
at the foot of mount Carmel. where king Josiah rpceivcd
his mortal wound in the battle with Pharaoh Necho, king
of Egypt. 2 Kings 2.3: 29, 30. It is also the place where
Barak overcame Sisera with his great army. Judges 5:
19. At Armageddon, the three unclean spirits coming
out of the dragon's mouth, are to gather together the kings
of the earth to the battle of the great dav of God Al-
mighty. Rev. J6: 13, 14.
ARMENIA ; a province of Asia, comprising the mod-
em Turcomania, and part of Persia ; ha\-ing Georgia on
the north ; Curdi.stan, which was the ancient Assyria, on
the south ; and Asia Jlinor, now called Natolia, on the
west. This pro^-ince includes the sources of the Tigris
and the Euphrates, the Araxes and Phasis ; and here also
the country of Eden, in which paradise was situated, is
supposed to lie.
Armenia is often confounded with Aramsa, the land of
Aram or Syria; but they are totally different. Armenia,
which is separated from Aram by mount Taurus, was so
denominated from Ar-ilen. the mountainous countr)' of
Meni or Minni, the people of which country are mention-
ed under this name by Jeremiah, when summoning the
nations against Babylon.
The people of this country have in all ages maintained
a great similarity of character, partly commercial and
partly pastoral. They have, in fact, in the northern parts
of the Asiatic continent, been what the Cushites and Ish-
raaelites were in the south, tenders of cattle, living on the
produce of their flocks and herds, and carriers of mer-
chandise between the neighboring nations ; a part living
at home with their flocks, and a part travelling as mer-
chants and dealers into distant coimuies. In the flourish-
ing times of Tyre, the Armenians, according to Ezekiel,
27: 14, brought horses and mules to the markets of that
city ; and, according to Herodotus, they had a considera-
ble trade in wine, which they sent down the Euphrates to
Babylon, &c. At the present day, the Armenians are the
principal traders of the east ; and are to be found in the
capacity of merchants or commercial agents all over
Asia, — a patient, frugal, industrious, and honest people,
whose known character for these virtues has withstood
the tyraimy and extortions of the ^vretched governments
under which they chiefly live.
It cannot be supposed but that the Turks used ever)'
effort to impose on the conquered Armenians the doctrines
of the Koran. More tolerant, indeed, than the Saracens,
liberty of conscience was still not to be purchased of them
but by great sacrifices, which for three centuries the Ar-
menians have patiently endured, and exhibit to the world
an honorable and solitar)' instance of a successful national
opposition of Christianity to Mahometanism.
They are di.stinguisbed by superior cultivation, man-
ners, and honesty, irom the barbarians under whose yoke
they live, and even from the Greeks and Jews. The cause
(says the Encyclopedia Americana) is to be found in their
creed, and in their religious union ; but particularly to the
SiBLE, which is freely distributed among the people by
the clergi,' in translations, that are esteemed valuable in
theological literature. The wTitten language owes its
cultivation to the translation of the Bible, begun in A. D.
411, and finished in oil. With the Biblical literature of
the Armenians, is connected their theological, historical,
and mathematical literature ; which has recently found
many assiduous studenu in Paris. — Jones; Watson; Ency.
AmcT.
ARMENIAN CHI'RCH; a branch, originally, Of the
Greek church, residing in Armenia; but ihey are widely
dispersed over all the countries of the East. They proba-
bly received Christianity in the fourth cenlurj-.
Their whole ecclesiastical eslablishnient is under the.
government of four patriarchs ; the first has his residence
in Echmiadzin, or Egmiathin, near Irivan ; the second at
Sis, in the lesser Armenia ; the third in Georgia ; and the
fourth in Achtamar, (or Altnmar,) on the lake of Van :
but the power of the two last is bounded within their own
dioceses, while the others have more e.xtens've authority,
and the patriarch of Egmiaihin has (or had) under him
eighteen bishops, beside those who are priors of monas-
teries.
The Armenians every where perform divine ccivice in
their own tongue, in which their Uturgy and olfices arc
written, in the dialect of the fourth or fifth centuries
They have the whole Bible translated from the Septuagin.s,
as they say, so early as the time of Chrj'sostom.
The Armenian confession is similar to that of the Jaci>-
bite Christians, both being Mnwjphijsilcs, acknowledging
but one nature in the person of Christ ; but this. ^cco^liGJ;
to 3Ir. Simon, is little more than a dispute about terms,
few of them being able to enter iiito the subtleties of
polemics.
In the year 1661. an Armenian bishop, named UseaB,
visited Europe for the purpose of getting printed the Ar-
menian Bible, and communicated the above particulars tu
Mr. Simon.
They have among them a number of monasteries an 1
convents, in which is maintained a severe discipline ;
marriage is discountenanced, though not absolutely pro-
hibited ; a married priest cannot obtain promotion, and
the higher clergy are not allowed to marry. They wor-
ship in the eastern manner, by prostration ; they are very
superstitious, and their ceremonies much resemble those
of the Greek church. Once in their lives they generally
perform a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ; and in 1819, the
number of Armenian jiilgrims was 1300, nearly as many
as the Greeks. Dr. Buchanan, however, says, •' Of all
the Christians in central Asia, they have preserved them-
selves most free from Mahometan and papal corruptions."
For farther particulars, see Svf.ux Chkistia.vs. — V'..i!:'s
hidian Church History, p. 47 — 70 ; BuchanaiCs Jitsearrha,
p. 242 ; Father Simon's Religions of Eastern Nations, (Lond.
1685) ; Sir P. Rycaiii's Greek and Armenian Churclics ;
and especiallv Smith and Dicighfs Researches.
ARMIES.' (SeeAKjiT.)
AR.MINIANIS3I, strictly speaking, is that system of
religious doctrine which was taught by Arminius, profe.ssor
of divinity in the university of Leyden. (See Akmixics.)
If therefore we would le2im precisely what Arrainianism
is, we must have recourse to those wTitings in which that
divine himself has stated and e.xpoun led his peculiar
tenets.
This, however, will by no means give us an accurate
idea of that which, since his time, has been usually de-
nominated Arminianism. On examination, it will be
found, that in many important particulars, those w-hohave
called themselves Arminians, or have been accounted
such by others, dilTer far more widely from the nominal
head and founder of their sect, than he himself did from
Calvin, and other doctors of Geneva. There are., jidecd,
certain points, with regard to which he has been strictly
and uniformly followed by abnost all his pretended ad-
herents ; but there are others of equal or of greater im-
portance, dogmatically insisted on by them, to which he
unquestionably never gave his sanction, and even appears
to have been decidedly hostile.
It may be proper, says 3Ir. Watson, to mention some
tenets with regard to which Arminianism has been much
misrepresented. If a man hold that goo,l works are
necessary to ju.stification ; if be maintain that faith in-
cludes gooil works in its own nature ; if he reject the doc-
trine of original sin ; if he deny that divine grace is re-
quisite for the whole work of sanctification ; if he speak
of human \irtue as menlorious in the sight of God ; it is
very generaUy concluded, that he is an Armmian. But
the truth is, that a man of such sentiments is properly a
disciple of the Pelagian amd Socinian sch.X'l?. To suc'j
ARM
[118]
ARM
sentiments pure Arminianism is as diametrically opposite
as Calvinism itself. The genuine Arminians admit the
corruption of human nature in its full extent. They ad-
mit that we are justiBed by faith only. They admit that
our justification originates solely in the grace of God.
They admit that the procuring and meritorious cause of
our justification is the righteousness of Christ. Propter
quam, says Arminius, Deut credentibus peccatum condonet,
eosque pro justis reputat non aliter atque si legem perfecte imple-
vissent. They admit in this way that justification implies
not merely forgiveness of sin, but acceptance to everlast-
ing happiness. Junctum habet adoptionem infiios, et colla-
tionem juris in hereditatem vita eterure. They admit, in fine,
that the work of sanctiflcation, from its very commence-
ment to its perfection in glory, is carried on by the opera-
tion of the Holy Spirit, which is the gift of God by Jesus
Christ. So sound, indeed, are the Arminians with respect
to the doctrine of justification, a doctrine so important and
essential in the opinion of Luther, that he scrupled not to
call it articulus ecclesite stantis ml cadentis, that those who
look into the writings of Arminius may be disposed to
suspect him of having even exceeded Calvin in orthodoxy.
It is certain, at least, that he declares his willingness to
subscribe to every thing that Calvin has written on that
leading subject of Christianity, in the third book of his
Institutes j and with this declaration the tenor of his writ-
ings invariably corresponds."
In the next year, after the death of Arminius, that is,
in 1610, his followers and partisans presented a remon-
strance against certain points of Calvinism, from which
they received the name of Remonstrants. (See Gkotius.)
The chief difierences were reduced to the famous five
poTNTs i which are thus stated by Mosheim.
1. "That God has not fixed the future state of man-
kind by an absolute unconditional decree ; but determined
from all eternity to bestow salvation on those whom he
foresaw would persevere unto the end in their faith in
Jesus Christ, and to inflict everlasting punishment on those
who should continue in their unbelief, and resist unto the
end his divine succors." See Ezek. 18: 30—32. Acts 17:
24—30. Matt. 23: 37. Kom. 2: 4, 5. 5: 18. 1 Tim. 2:
1—4. 2 Pet. 1: 10. 3: 9.
2. " That Christ, by his death and sufierings, made an
atonement for the sins of all mankind in general, and of
every individual in particular. That, however, none but
those who believe in him can be partakers of the divine
benefit." See John 2: 2. 3: 16, 17. Heb. 2: 9. Isa. 50:
19,20. 1 Cor. 8:11.
3. " That true faith cannot proceed from the exercise of
our natural faculties and powers, nor from the force and
operation of free-will ; since man, in consequence of his
natural corruption, is incapable either of thinking or
doing any good ; and that therefore it is necessary to his
conversion and salvation, that he be regenerated and re-
newed by the operations of the Holy Ghost, which is the
gift of God through Jesus Christ."
4. " That this divine grace, or energy of the Holy
Ghost, which heals the disorders of a corrupt nature, be-
gins, advances, and brings to perfection, every thing that
can be called good in man ; and that, consequently, all
good works, without exception, are to be attributed to God
alone, and to the operation of his grace ; that, neverthe-
less, this grace is offered to all, and does not force men to
act against their inclinations ; but may be resisted, and
rendered ineffectual, by the perverse will of the impenitent
sinner." Isa. 1: 16. Deut. 10; 16. Eph. 4: 22.
5. " That they who are united to Christ, by faith, are
thereby furnished with abundant strength, and with suc-
cors sufficient to enable them to triumph over the seduc-
tion of Satan, and the allurements of sin and temptation ;
but that the question, ' Whether such may fall from their
faith, and forfeit finally this state of grace,' has not yet
been resolved with sufficient perspicuity ; and must, there-
fore, be yet more carefully examined, by an attentive
study of what the holy Scriptures have declared, in rela-
tion to this important point." Heb. 6: 4 — 6. 2 Pet. 2:
20, 21. Luke 21: 35. 2 Pet. 3: 17.*
* Having prefixed above some observations of Mr. Watson, who is
himself an Arminian, we subjoin some remarks prepared for this worlc
by the Rev. Dr. Alexander, of Princeton Tlieo, Sem.— [£rf. Ency.
It may be allowed here to subjoin two or three remarks
on some of the above propositions, which, as Dr. Mosheim
has stated them, lean too much toward Calvinism for
many modern Arminians conscientiously to subscribe.
On the first article, no remark seems necessary. On the
second, we may observe, that the universality of the death
of Christ, in certain respects, was held by Calvin and
many of the synod of Dort ; by archbishop Usher, bishop
Davenant, and the church of England ; and also many
Calvinists of the present day. — [See Griffin on the Atone-
ment.]
The language of the third article is such as Calvinists
would, perhaps, more generally admit, than many Ar-
minians of the present day. In the " confession, or
declaration, of the Remonstrants," said to be published,
both in Dutch and Latin, soon after the synod of Dort, it
is said, that Adam, " being the stock and root of all man-
kind, involved and entangled, not only himself, but also
all his posterity (who were, as it were, shut up in his loins)
in the same death and misery with himself : so that all
men are, by this one only sin of Adam, deprived of that
primeval happiness, and destitute of that true righteous-
ness, which is necessary for the obtaining of eternal life ;
and, consequently, are now born liable to eternal death.
And this is usually and vulgarly called original sin. Con-
cerning which, notwithstanding, we are to hold that the
most bountiful God, in and by his beloved Son Jesus
Christ, as in and by another and new Adam, hath provided
and prepared a free remedy for all, against that evil, or
malady, which was derived unto us from Adam." pp.
119, 120.
Nothing is here said of the nature oi free-will ; yet it is
certain that the doctrine of a self-determining power in
the will makes an essential part of the present Arminian
scheme.
On the doctrine of the fall, many modern Arminians
talk more like Pelagians, (which see.) Thus Dr. G.
Gregory and others contend, that " mankind are not to-
tally depraved, and that depravity does not come on them
by virtue of Adam's being their public head ; biU that
mortality and natural evil only are the direct consequen-
ces of his sin to posterity.'' — [R. Adam's R. W. vol. ii.
p. 252.]
In the fourth article, the term/orce is evidently improper,
since it is never used by Calvinists (except in a strong
figure of speech, as by our Lord, " Compel them to come
in.") Calvinists own that grace may be, and often is,
long resisted, though finally victorious, as is partly ad-
In these five articles the Arminian theory is not fully developed. The
object was to present the new opinions in the most plausible dress, and
in tiial form which would seem to deviate the least from the public
standards of the Belgic church. But it was alleged by their opponents,
that ll\e real opinions of the Remonstrants were not fully expressed in
these articles ; and that, under the cover of orthodox expressions, great
and dangerous errors lay concealed. And that they were not mistaken
in these views became evident in the conferences which took place be-
tween the leading theologians of both parties, at the Hague, and at other
places ; and more evidently from the Apology for the Arminians, pub-
lished after the meeting of the synod of Dort, by Episcopius, the leader
of the party. In this document they avow and defend the opinions
charged upon them by the Contra- remonstrants, and which have since
been known under the name of Arminianism.
The cardinal point of difference between Calvinists and Arminians is,
whether the reason why one man is saved and another not, is owing to
the "race of God or to the free-will of man. All the other points of dif-
ference may easily be traced up to this one. For although the Armi.
nians acknowledge the necessity of grace, which they make universal,
yet they make the efficacy of that grace to depend on the human will ;
whereas Calvinista maintain, that the grace of God, without violence to
human liberty, is efficacious to subdue the stubborn will, and to render
men cordially willing to be saved from their sins In the way of the gos-
pel. If in this tiiey are right, they cannot but be right in their views
of the doctrines of election, of redemption, and final perseverance.
Whereas, if the Arminian view be correct, the difference in the final
destiny of men is not owing to any purpose to save some and pass by
others, but to the different improvement of the common grace afforded
to all men. And if the final result depends in the first instance upon
the will of man, so it will afterwards ; consequently he who believes
and repents to-day, may become an unbeliever and impenitent man to-
morrow. However Arminians may differ among themselves in other
matters they all agree in this cardinal doctrine of their system. They,
furthermore, all hold that there is no election of grace but what depends
on the foresight of faith and holiness in the creature : that Christ died
equally for all men, and equally intended the salvation of all men ; that
in conversion the effect depends upon the right improvement of the
grace aflbrded ; and that by the exercise of the same freewill by which
the gospel was embraced, the true believer may turn away from God,
and become as bad
e, than before his conversion. And c
ARM
[119]
ARM
mitted in the last article. They further admit that im-
penitent sinners, in like manner as the Jews, " do always
resist the Holy Ghost.''
On the last point, of falling from grace, Arminius him-
self appears by no means dogmatical ; for it is said that
he declared, in his last public conference, but little before
his death, " that he had never opposed the doctrine of the
certain perseverance of the truly believing ; nor thus far
was he willing to oppose them, because those testimonies
of Scripture stood for it, to which he was not as yet able
to answer." — [Scott's Synod of Dort, p. 40.]
His followers, however, soon made up their minds on
this article, and have universally agreed, that true believers
may fall from grace, not only grossly, but even finally.
And Dr. Mosheim says, " It is certain, whatever the Ar-
minians may say to the contrary, that the sentiments of
their most eminent theological writers, after the synod of
Dort, concerning divine grace, and the other doctrines that
are connected with it, approached much nearer to the
opinions of the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians, than to
those of the Lutheran church ;" he should rather have
said, than to those of Luther.— [Ecclesiastical History, vol.
v. p. 446, and Note h.] — Mosheim ; Watson's Bib. and
Theo. Diet. ; Williams ; Prof. Stuart, in the Bib. Repos.
for April, 1831.
ARMINIUS, (James,) the reputed founder of the sect
called Arminians, was born at Onderwater, in Holland, in
1560. Having lost his father when very young, a clergy-
man kindly undertook his education, during the first four
years of his life, till he went to the university at Utrecht.
There he staid till death deprived him of his protector ;
and then he would have been entirely friendless, had not
another gentleman kindly become his patron, and took
him to Marburg, in 1575. In 1582, he was seat to Ge-
neva, to perfect himself in his various studies, and there
he applied himself chiefly to the lectures of the distin-
guished Theodore Beza. Being compelled to retire to
Basil, on account of his privately and publicly inculcating
the philosophical doctrines of Ramus, in opposition to those
of Aristotle, he there soon acquired so great a reputation,
that the faculty of divinity offered him the degree of doc-
tor, when he was but twenty-two years of age ; but this
he modestly refused. He was ordained minister at Am-
sterdam, in 1588. His ministry was much followed, and
he was greatly beloved. Martin Lydius, professor of di-
vinity at Francker, thought him very capable of refuting
the contents of a work, wherein the supralapsarian doc-
trine of absolute decrees had been attacked by Arnold Cor-
cording lo the above view, Ihe whole Arminian system depends on the
doctrine that the will of man must first act and give consent, before
common grace can become efficacious ; so that the first right choice is
not produced by the effectual operation of grace, but precedes it ; it
necessarily follows, that their views of human depravity are ditTerent
from those of Calvinisls ; for while the latter believe that man's death
in sin is so complete that he, until renewed, has no ability of will (see
Inability and Will) to do any thing spiritually good, ihe Arminian
holds, that, under the suasive influence of truth, he may choose to
embrace the gospel, and thus render efficacious that grace which can
only operate by his consent.
The chief dilliculty in the Arminian theory is lo reconcile it with the
language of Scripture, the nature of Christian prayer and thanksgiving,
and with apparent facts. For example, if God had equally intended
the salvation of the whole human race, would he not have equally fur-
nished all men. in all ages, with the gospel and other means of grace ?
Can it be said with truth that sufficient grace has been granted to all
the heathen to bring them to salvation ? And the mere possibility of
the salvation of some of them, if it should be conceded, is not enough.
According to the principles of Arminianism, all men should enjoy equal
advantages ; or at least salvation should not be so improbable and diffi-
cult as it is to a vast majority of the human family. Various plana of
evading this difficulty have been resorted to, none of which are suffi-
cient to render the acknowledged fact consistent with the doctrine of
universal and sufficient grace. The same difficulty is, in part, found
to exist as it relates lo the conversion of many who do enjoy the means
of grace. If conversion be protiuced by moral suasion, which the sin-
ner has the ability to comply with or reject, why is it called regenera
lion, and why is it that often Ihe amiable and moral are not converted,
white Ihe profligate, and even the blaspheming infidel, are made the
subjects of grace ? When we examine particular cases of Christian
experience, we cannot easily avoid the conclusion that grace is sove-
reign and efficacious, and that the stubborn will of man uniformly
resists, until overcome by the sweetly constraining power of God.
Arminianism, although introduced into the reformed churches by
James Arminius, did not originate with him. The very same views,
in substance, were maintained by the Semi-Pelagians, and afterwards by
the Molinists and Jesuits in the Romish church. It is a very remark-
able fact, that the reformers seem to have unanimously agreed in their
opinions respecting the efficacy of grace, and the impotency of the will
in relation lo holy acta. This is evident from all their early creeds and
nelius and Renier Duntetlok, two suhlapsarian Calvinist
ministers of Delft. He accordingly undertook ihe task ;
but on weighing the arguments on both sides, he embraced
the very opinions he was solicited to confute. This has
generally been represented as if he then abandoned Cal-
vinism ; but this is a mistake. Calvin himself was not a
supralapsarian, though Beza was. The chief difference be-
tween Arminius and Calvin is in the mode of explaining the
sovereignty of divine decrees, and the effectual operations
of divine grace ; in both which Arminius himself believed
to the very last ; though his pretended followers have aban-
doned them, under the shelter of his great name. Episco-
pius is more properly the founder of the sect since called
Arminians. In 1603, he was called to the professorship
of divinity in Leyden, and began his lectures with three
elegant orations : the first, on the object of theology ; the
second on the author and end of it ; and the third on the
certainty of it : and then proceeded to the exposition of
the prophet Jonah. In all his lectures he was attended
by a numerous audience, who admired the strength of his
arguments, and were astonished at the great learning he
displayed. This exposed him to the envy of his brethren,
who treated him with harshness and cruelly. Disputes
were at that time kindling into a flame in the university,
and the states of the province were obliged to appoint
conferences between Arminius and his adversaries. Go-
mares was his greatest opponent. These controversies,
his continual labors, and his uneasiness at seeing his repu-
tation blasted by aspersions and slanders, threw him into
a complicated illness, which terminated his life on the 19lh
of October, 1609. Arminius was an energetic minister of
the gospel. His voice was firm, but moderately low ; and
his conversation such as became a Christian. While it was
pious and judicious, it was intermixed with that politeness
of conduct and elegance of manners, which delights the
young, and ensures the approbation and esteem of the aged.
His enemies, indeed, endeavored to represent him in the
most disadvantageous light ; but his memory has been
sufficiently vindicated by men of the greatest distinction
and eminence ; and in spile of all the malevolence and
enmity of his antagonists, his character was in very many
points highly commendable, and deserving of imitation.
— Jones' Chris. Biog.; Watson's Bib. and Theo. Did. But
especially. Prof. Stuart's article on the Life, Times, and
Creed of Arminius, in the Bib. Repos. for April, 1831.
ARMS, MILITARY, and ARMOR. The Hebrews used
in war offensive arms of the same kinds as were employed
by other people of their time, and of the East : swords,
confessions, as welt as from their writings. It is doubtless true, however,
that the followers of Arminius, after his death, deviated much further
from the common doctrines of the Reformation than he did ; but this is
what commonly takes place in all similar cases. The man who first
calls in question received opinions, does not wishlo appear to recede too
far from the creed of the Christian community with which he has been
connected : and all the necessary consequences of his opinions may not
be obvious at first ; but by discussion the system in all its bearings be-
comes more manifest; and a man's disciples are found to be more
ready to extend his principles lo all their legitimate consequences than
he was. And in regard to all errors, it has been remarked that their
tendency is downwards; the adoption of one error commonly pre-
pares the way for another still more erroneous. Thus the leaders of
the Arminian party in Holland approximated much nearer to Unita-
rianism after Ihe synod of Dort than they had done before, and professed
and publicly taught doctrines which, it is believed, Arminius would
have rejected with horror. (See Arminius.)
The decision of the synod of Dort, called to consider and find a reme-
dy for the dissensions and disturbances of the church, was unfavorable
to the doctrine of the Arminians on every one of the points of diffe-
rence ; and, in consequence, Ihey were deposed from all ecclesiastical
offices, and from the mastership of all schools and colleges in the Uni-
ted Provinces. And by the States General of Holland severe laws were
passed against them, by which all who refused submission were con-
demned to banishment, fines, or imprisonment. Such persecution on
account of religious opinion is now, by the common consent of all Pro-
testants, condemned as unjust and tyrannical ; but we should not judge
of the acta of a former age by the liberal sentiments of toleration which
now happily prevail. All the reformers, and most of their immediate
successors, conscientiously believed that heretics ought to be coerced
by the arm of civil power. And it should be remembered, that in many
places, while the Arminians were favored by the civil authorities, they
treated the orthodox with insolence, and exciled disturbances which
the civil magistrate was not always able to suppress.
At present there are multitudes who profess Arminian doctrines, in
whole or in part, and some large Christian denominations who maintain
and propagate the whole system. These, however, differ from each
other in minor points, while they agree in all the leading doctrines
taught by Arminius, and strenuously oppose whatever bears ihe pecu-
liar stamp of Calvinism, which they load with obloquy. For the con-
duct of the svnod of Dort, see the article Dort.
ARM
[ 120
ARM
ilftl'ls, lances, javelins, bows, arrows, and slings. For
defensive arms, they used helmets, cuirasses, bucklers,
armor for the thighs, &c. At particular periods, especially
when under servitude, whole armies of Israelites were
vithoLit jjocd weapons. In the war of Deborah and Ba-
rak against Jabin, there were neither shields nor lances
among forty thousand men. Judg. 5: 8. In the time of
Saul, (1 Sam. 13: 22.) none in Israel, beside Saul and
■Jonathan, was armed with swords and spears ; because
the Philistines, who were then masters of ihe country,
forbade the Hebrews using the trades of armorers and
sword cutlers, and even obliged them to employ Philis-
tines to sharpen their tools of husbandry ; but these being
their masters, would make no arms for them.
The Hebrews do not appear to have had any peculiar
military habit. As the flowing dress which they ordi-
narily Avore would have impeded their movements, they
girt it closel)' around them when preparing for battle, and
loosened it on their return. 2 Sam. 20: 8. 1 Kings 20:
11. They used the same arras as the neighboring nations,
both defensive and offensive ; and these were made either
of iron or of brass, principally of the latter metal. Of the
defensive arms of the Hebrews, the following were the
most remarkable : namely,
1. The helmet, for covering and defending the head.
This was a jiart of the military provision made by Uzziah
for his vast army, (2 Chron. 2('): 11 ;) and long before the
lime of that king, the helmets of Saul and of the Philis-
tine champion were of the same metal. 1 Sam. 17: 38.
This military cap was also worn by the Persians, Ethio-
pians, and Libyans, (Ezek. 38: 5.) and by the troops which
Antiochus sent against Judas Maccaboeus. 1 Mac. 0: 35.
2. The breast-plate, or corslet, was another piece of de-
fensive armor. Goliath, and the soldiers of Antiochus, (1
Sam. 17: 5. 1 IMac. 6: 35.) were accoutred with this de-
fence ; which, in our authorized translation, is variously
rendered huben^eon, coat uf mail, and lirignmliue. 1 Sam.
17: 38. 2 Chron. 26: 14. Isai. 59: 17. Jer. 46: 4. Be-
tween the joints of this harness, as it is termed in 1 Kings
22: 4, the profligate Ahab was mortally wounded by an
arrow, shot at a venture. From these various renderings
of the original word, it should seem that this piece of ar-
mor covered both the back and breast, but principally the
latter. The corslets were inade of various materials :
sometimes they were made of flax or cotton, woven very
thick, or of a kind of woollen felt : others again were
made of iron or brazen scales, or lamina?, laid one over
another, like the scales of a fish ; others were properly
what we call coats of mail ; and others were composed of
two pieces of iron or brass, which protected the back and
breast. All these kinds of corslets are mentioned in the
Scriptures. Goliath's coat of mail, (1 Sam. 17: 5.) was
literally a corslet of scales, that is, composed of numerous
laminaa of brass, crossing each other. It was called by
Virgil, and other Latin writers, squama larka. Similar
corslets were worn by the Persians and other nations.
The breast-plate worn by the unhappy Saul, when he
perished in battle, is supposed to have been of flax, or
cotton, woven very close and thick. 2 Sam. 1: 9, mar-
ginal rendering.
3. The shield defended the whole body during the bat-
tle. It was of various forms, and made of wood, covered
with tough hides, or of brass, and sometimes was overlaid
with gold. 1 Kings 10: 16, 17. 14: 26, 27. Two sorts
are mentioned in the Scriptures ; namely, the tsinnah,
^reat shield or l/ucMer, and the maginnim, or smaller shield.
It was much used by the Jews, Babylonians, Chaldeans,
Assyrians, and Egyptians. David, wdio was a great
warrior, often mentions a shield and buckler in his divine
])oems, to signify that defence and protection of heaven
which he expected and experienced, and in which he re-
posed all his trust ; (Psalm 5: 12.) and when he says,
" God will with favor compass the righteous as with a
shield," he seems to allude to the use of the great shield
tsinnah, (wdiich is the word lie uses,) with w-hich they cov-
ered and defended their whole bodies. King Solomon
caused two different sorts of shields to be made ; namely,
the tsinnah, (which answers to clypais among the Latins,)
such a large shield as the infantry wore, and the magin-
nim, or scuta, which were used hy the horsemen, and were
of a much less size. 2 Chron. 9. 15, 16. The former of
these are translated targets, and are double in weight to
the other. The Philistines came into the field with this,
weapon : so we find their formidable champion was ap-
pointed. 1 Sam. 17: 7. One bearing a shield went be-
fore him, whose proper duty it was to carry this and some
otlier weapons, with which to furnish his master upon
occasion.
The loss of the shield in fight was excessively resented
by the Jewish warriors, as well as lamented by them ; for
it was a signal aggravation of the public mourning, that
" the shield of the mighty was vdely cast away." 2 Sam.
1: 21. David, a man of arms, who composed this beau-
tiful elegy on the death of Saul, felt how disgraceful a
thing it was for soldiers to quit their shields in the field.
These honorable sentimeius were not confined to the
Jews We find them prevailing among most otherancient
nations, who considered it infamous to cast away or lose
their shield. With the Greeks it W'as-a capital crime, and
punished with death. The Lacedsemonian women, it is
well known, in order to excite the courage of their sons,
used to dehver to them their fathers' shields, with this
short address : " This shield thy father alw ays preserved :
do thoti preserve it also, or perish." Alluding perhaps to
these sentiments, St. Paul, when exhorting the Hebrew
Christians to steadfastness in the faith of the gospel, urges
them not to cast away their confidence, which " hath great
recompense of reward." Heb. 10: 35.
4. Another defensive provision in war was the military
girdle, which was for a double purpose : first, in order to
hold the sword, which hung, as it does this day, at the
soldier's girdle or belt : (1 Sam. 17: 39.) secondly, it was
necessary to gird (he clothes and the armor together. To
gird and to arm are synonymous words in Scripture ; for
those who are said to be able to put on armor are, ac-
cording to the Hebrew and the Septuaginl, girt with a
girdle; and hence comes the expression of "girding to
the battle." 1 Kings 20: 11. Isa. 8: 9. 2 Sam. 22: 40.
1 Sam. 18: 4. There is express mention of this mili-
tary girdle, where it is recorded that Jonathan, to assure
David of his entire love and friendship by some visible
pledges, stripped himself not only of his usual garments,
but of his military habiliments, his sword, bow. and gir-
dle, and gave them to David.
5. Boots or greaves were part of the ancient defensive
harness, because it was the custom to cast certain impedi-
ments, (so called, because they entangled the feet,) in the
way before the enemy. The military boot or shoe was
therefore necessary to guard the legs and feet from the
iron stakes placed in the way to gall and wound them ;
and thus we are enabled to account for Goliath's greaves
of brass which were upon his legs.
'The offensive weapons were of two sorts ; namely, such
as were employed when they came to a close engagemeul,
and those with which they annoyed the enemy at a dis-
tance. Of the former description were the sword and the
battle-axe.
1. The sword is the most ancient weapon of offence men-
tioned in the Bible. With it Jacob's sons treacherously
assassinated the Shechemites. Gen. 34: 2. It was worn
on the thigh; (Psalm 45: 4. Exod. 32: 27.) and, it should
seem, on the left thigh ; for it is particularly mentioned
that Ehud put a dagger or short sword under his garments
on his right thigh. Judges 3: 16. There appear to have
been two kinds of swords in use, a larger one with one
edge, which is called in Hebrew the month of the sword,
(Joshua 6: 21.) and a shorter one with two edges, like that
of Ehud. The modern Arabs, it is well known, wear a
sabre on one side, auiacangiar, or dagger, in their girdles.
2. Of the battle-axe we have no description in the sa-
cred volume : it seems to have been a most powerful
weapon in the hands of cavalry, from the allusion made
to it by Jeremiah : " Thou art my battle-axe and weapons
of war ; for with thee will I break in pieces the nations,
and with thee will I destroy kingdoms : and with thee
will I break in pieces the horse and his rider, and -with
thee will I break in pieces the chariot and his rider."
.Ter, 51: 20, 11.
3. The spear and javelin (as the words are vanouslv
rendered in Numb. 25: 7. 1 Sam. 13: 19, and Jer. 46: 4.)
ARM
L 121 ]
ARM
were of different kinds, according to their length or make.
Some of them might be thrown or darted ; (1 Sam. 18:
11.) others were a kind of long swoids, Numb. 25; 8.)
and it appears from 2 Sam. 2: 2:i, that some of them were
pointed at both ends. When armies were encamped, the
spear of the general or commander-in-chief was stuck mto
the ground at his head.
4. Slings are enumerated among the military stores
collected by Uzziah. 2 Chron. 26: 14. In the use of the
sling, David eminently excelled, and he slew Goliath with
a stone from one. The Benjamites were celebrated in
battle because they had attained to great skill and accu-
racy in handling this weapon ; " they could sling stones
to a hair's breadth, and not miss ;" (Judges 20: 16.) and
where it is said that they were left-handed, it should rather
he rendered ambidexters ; for we are told, they could use
"both the right hand and the left ;" (1 Chron. 12: 2.) that
is, they did not constantly use their right hand as others
did, when they shot arrows or slung stones ; but they
were so expert in their military exercises, that they could
perform them with their left hand as well as with their right.
5. Bows and arrows are of great antiquity ; indeed, no
weapon is mentioned so early. Thus Isaac said to Esau,
" Take thy weapons, thy quiver and thy bow ;" Gen. 27: 3.
though, it is true, these are not spoken of as used in war,
but in hunting; and so they are supposed and implied be-
fore this, where it is said of Ishmael, that he became
an archer, he used bows and arrows in shooting of wUd
beasts. Gen. 21: 20. This afterwards became so useful
a weapon, that care was taken to train up the Hebrew
youth to it betimes. When David had, in a solemn man-
ner, lamented the death of king Saul, he gave orders for
teaching the young men the use of the bow, (1 Sam. 1:
18.) that they might be as expert as the PhiUstines, by
whose bows and arrows Saul and his army were slain.
These were part of the military ammunition ; for in those
times bows were used instead of guns, and arrows sup-
phed the place of powder and ball. From the book of
Job, 20: 24. it may be collected, that the military bow was
made of steel, and consequently was very stiff and hard
to bend, on which account they used their foot in bending
their bows ; and therefore, when the prophets speak of
treading the borv, and of bans trodden, they are to be under-
stood of bon-s bent, as our translators rightly render it ; (Jer.
50: 14. Isa. 5: 28. 21; 15.) but the Hebrew word which is
used in these places, signifies to tread upon. This weapon
was thought so necessarj' in war, that it is there called " the
bow of war," or the " battle bow." Zech. 9; 10. 10; 14.
We have in Scripture, not only histories in which armor
and some of its parts are described, but also allusions to
complete suits of armor, and to the pieces which com-
posed them. Without any formal attempt to expose the
errors of critics, whose information on this article might
have been improved by greater accuracy, Mr. Taylor fur-
nishes the following remarks, which may contribute to our
better acquaintance with the subject.
by way of illustrating the armor of the famous champion
Goliath. As it is drawn from the description given of it,
and according to the signification of the words used to
describe each separate part, it may be something like the
oi;iginal. It should be observed, however, (l.)that swords
so long as this are not known in antiquity ; and that had
it been of the length here represented, David would have
found it cumbersome to use afterwards, constantly, as we
learn he did ; (2.) that this figure is composed on the prin-
ciple, that the armor was worn without any other dress ;
which we think may be questioned, and is not easily de-
termined ; (3.) that the forms of Roman or Greek armor
are not decidedly applicable to the Palestine history ;
yet the armor of the people has been studied for this
figure.
This is a soldier in armor ; from the column usually
called of Antoninus, but perhaps more properly referred
This figure, which is from Calmet, is usually offered,
16
to Aurelius. The apostle (Eph. 6; 13, 14.) advises be-
lievers to " take unto themselves the whole armor of God ;"
and he separates this panoply into its parts : " your loins,"
says he, "girt about with truth;" now, this figure has a
very strong composition of cinctures round his waist
(loins) ; and if we suppose them to be of steel, as they
appear to be, the defence they form to his person is verj'
great; such a defence to the mind is truth. Undoubtedly
there were, as we shall see, other kinds of girdles ; but
none that could be more thoroughly defensive than that of
this soldier. Moreover, these cinctures surround the per-
son, and go over the back, also. (1.) So truth defends on
all sides. (2.) The remark that " Paul makes no armor
for the back," is somewhat impaired ; because if this part
of the dress was what he referred to by perizosamemi,
" girded round about," then, its passing round the back,
pretty high up, at lefist, was implied. The apostle pro-
ceeds to advise " having on the breast-plate of righteous-
ness," to defend the vital parts ; as our figure has on a
breast-plate ; and as one below has a covering made in
one piece for the whole upper part of his body. '• Hav-
ing the feet shod with the preparation of the gospel of
peace :" not iron, not steel ; but patient investigation,
calm inquiry, assiduous, laborious, lasting ; if not rather,
with firm footing in the gospel of peace. Whether the
apostle here alludes to the use of leather well pre-
pared, by his '■ preparation of tlie gospel of peace," or
shoes which had spikes in them, which running into the
ground gave a steadfastness to the soldier who wore them,
may come under remark hereal^er. We shall only add,
that Moses seems, at least according to our rendering, to
have some allusion to shoes, either plated or spiked on the
sole, when he says, (Deut. 33: 25.) "Thy shoes shall be
iron and brass ; and as thy days shall thy strength be." — .
'•'Above all, taking the shield of faith ;" not above all in ^
point of value ; but of situation ; over all — before ; as our
soldier holiis his shield; for his protection. Faith maybe
a prime grace, but if raised too high, like a shield over-
elevated, the parts it should defend may become exposed
to the enemy. " Take the helmet of salvation ;" security,
safety. So far our figure applies ; however, it has no
ARM
[ 122 ]
ARM
•word : it had originally a spear, but that weapon has
been destroyed by time. " Praying," says the apostle,
" and watching ;" these are duties of soldiers, especially
of Christian soldiers, but they are not of a nature to be
explained by this figure ; however, we very frequently
meet with them in monuments of antiquity : nothing is
more common than sacrifices, &c. in camps, and the very
first soldiers in the Antonine pillar are sentinels. It may
be remarked, that this soldier has no armor for his legs, or
thighs, or arms : they are merely sheltered by clothing,
but are not defended by armor. We do not find that the
apostle alludes to any pieces of defence for the legs or the
thighs of his Christian warrior.
This is among the most curious statues of antiquity re-
maining, being a portrait of Alexander the Great fighting
critical baseness in Joab's behavior, with which this view
of the events is in perfect coincidence, we ought to ob-
serve, that a sword might fall out of the girdle which con'
tained it ; for so we are told by Herodotus, that the sword
of Cambyses fell out of the girdle, and wounded him in
the thigh, of which wound he died : but if Joab's sword
had fallen out of his girdle, how was it possible it should
escape the notice of Amasa? Such an incident was the
very thing to make him, and all other spectators, observe
more particularly what became of his sword, and how
Joab should dispose of it, after he had picked it off the
ground.
We read of swords having two edges, and of the great
execution expected to be done by them. See Psalm 149;
6. and Frov. 5: 4. That a sword so short as that of this
figure might have two edges, seems probable enough,
while that of Goliath would be both the weaker and the
worse for such a form. The sharp sword issuing out of
the mouth of our Lord, (Rev. 2: 12.) will be noticed else-
where ; we only observe here, that to imagine a long
sword issuing out of the mouth of a person, suggests a
very awlavard image, or idea, to say the least : an idea
which hardly could have its prototj^pe in nature.
The nature of the embarrassments arising from this
history being understood, the reader is requested to ex-
amine the annexed engraving, which represents a combat
between a person on horseback and another on foot : it is
on horseback ; and probably, also, a portrait of his famous
horse Bucephalus. The figure has a girdle round his
waist ; in which it is rather singular ; and close to this
girdle falls the sheath for his sword ; his loins are girt
about with a single piece of armor, buckled at the sides ;
Avhich answers the purposes of a breast-plate, by covering
high up on the thorax : his feet are not only shod, but
ornamented with straps, &c. a considerable way up the
leg. He has neither shield nor helmet ; and Mr. Taylor
remarks, that he has not found a commanding ofiicer — a
general — with a helmet on, neither during his actual en-
gagement in fighting, as this figure is represented, nor
when addressing his soldiers, though that could hardly be
the fact. The form, size, fee. of this sword deserve no-
tice ; it is very diflerent from the ideal sword of Goliath,
in lire first figure above. That girdle* were of several
kinds, we need not doubt ; if we did, the entire difference
between that of this figure, and that of the second above,
would justify the assertion. In that, there is no room for
concealing, or for carrying, any thing -, but we know that
one use of the girdle in the East was, and still is, to carry
various articles. So we read, (2 Sam. 20: 8.) that "Joab's
garment that he had put on, was girded (close) unto him,
and upon it a sword-girdle, (or belt,) that is, a girdle of a
mihtary nature, fit for holding and enveloping a sword :
and in this girdle was a sword in its sheath." — Then our
translation (with others) says, " as he went forth, it fell
out." — But it may be reasonably doubted, whether the
narration is not to this effect : " He [Joab] went forth in a
ceremonious manner to meet Amasa, now commander-in-
chief, in order to seem to do to that officer, whom he con-
sidered as usurping his post, a most conspicuous honor,
or rather homage, but really designing to approach his
person and to slay him, so he went forth, and supplicated,
humbly entreated, as it were ; then, after this homage, he
kissed Amasa's beard, and slew him. This entreaty is the
regular meaning of the word tcp^l. See 1 Kings 8: 28,
29, 33, 35. Gen. 20: 7, 17. Numb. 11: 2. 1 Sam. 1: 10.
2: 25, &c. Notwithstanding that there was much hypo-
from Montfaugon, (Supplement, vol. iii. page 397.) who
thus remarks on it : " The horseman represented on an
Etruscan vase of Cardinal Gualteri, is armed in such a
singular manner, that I thought it necessary to give the
figure here. This horseman is mounted on a naked horse
with only a bridle : though the horse seems to have some-
thing on his neck, which passes between his two ears, but
it is impossible to distinguish what it is." " The armor
also of this horseman is as extraordinary as that of the
Samaritan horseman on Trajan's pillar. His military
habit is VERY close, and fitted to nis body, and covers
HIM EVEN TO HIS WRIST, AND BELOW HIS ANKLES, SO that
his feet remain naked ; which is very extraordinary.
For, I think, both in the ancient and modern cavalry, the
feet were a principal part which they guarded ; excepting
only the Moorish horse, who have for their whole dress only
a short tunic, which reaches to the middle of the thigh ;
and the Numidians, who ride quite naked, upon a naked
horse, except a short cloak which they have fastened to
their neck, and hanging loose behind them in warm
weather, and which they wrap about themselves in cold
weather. Our Etruscan horseman here hath his feet
naked ; but he hath his head well covered with a cap
folded about it, and large slips of stuff hanging down
from it. He wears a collar of round stones. The close
BODIED COAT he wcars, is wrought all over with zigzags
and large points, down to the girdle ; which is broad, and
tied round the middle of his body ; the same flourishing
is continued lower down his habit quite to his ankle, and
all over his arms to his wrist. He brandishes his spear
against his adversary, who is a naked man on foot, who
ARM
[123]
ARM
natli only a helmet on, and holds a large oval shield in
his left hand, and a spear in his right, which he darts at
his enemy, without being frighted at his being so well
equipped. The horseman, besides his spear, hath a sword
fastened to his belt, or breast-girdle. The hilt of his
sword terminates in a bird's head. Behind the man on
foot, is a man well dressed, with his hat (which is like the
modern ones) falling from his head. He is the esquire of
the horseman ; and liokls a spear ready for him, which he
may take if he happens to break his own." This may
assist our inquiries on the subject of the close coat of
Saul's armor. (I.) This being an Etruscan vase, is proba-
bly of pretty deep antiquity ; as vases of the kind were
not manufactured in later ages. (2.) These vases have,
ver)' often, histories depicted on them, referring to east-
ern nations : they have events, deities, fables, tVc. as well
as dresses, derived from Asia; whence the Etruscans
were a colony. We risk little, therefore, in supposing that
our subject is ancient, even advancing towards the time of
king Saul ; and that it is also Asiatic. Our next inquiry is,
What it represents ? — Certainly we may consider the per-
son on horseback as no common cavalier ; he is an officer
at least, probably a general; if not rather a king: in
which case, this is the very common subject of a king van-
quishing an enemy ; a subject which occurs in numerous
instances on gems, medals, &c. as is well known to anti-
quaries. But the peculiarities of his dress are what de-
mand our pre en t attention. (1.) His coat is so close as
to cover his vhole person. (2.) It seems to have marks
which, though they maij be ornaments, yet are analogous
to quihings, and raise that idea strongly. Now supposing,
that under these quillings is a connected chain of iron
rings, extending throughout the whole, it presents a dress
well known in later ages, and, as this example proves, in
times of remote antiquity ; and to which agree the words
used in describing Saul's skebetz, as already noticed.
In order further to justify these conjectures on the na-
ture of the defence afforded by Saul's coat of mail, Mr.
Taylor copied one of the Samaritan horsemen from the
Trajan pillar. This dress, it will be seen, is wholly com-
posed of scales, and fits the wearer ^rith consummate accu-
racy ; even his feet and his hands are covered with scales :
and though his dress is divided into two parts, one for his
body, the other for his legs, yet the whole shows not only
his shape, but also every muscle of his body. This dress
was made of horny substances, such as horses' hoofs,
(Pausanias Attic, cap. 21.) or other materials of equal
toughness and hardness : but scaly coats of mail were
frequently made of iron, and, very commonly, we find
parts of armor of defence imbricated in this manner. On
the whole, these instances appear to justify the principle,
that the shebeiz of Saul should keep its proper import in
the narrative of that king's death, as an embroidered coat,
or coat wrought with oiUl holes — a close coat, fitting tightly
to his person ; and if this close coat held in — detained —
his life, so that he could not die speedily, though dread-
fully wounded, we see the reason of his desiring the
Amalekite to finish him. We see, too, how the arrows of
the Philistines might penetrate some way into his body, yet
not destroy his life immediately ; we see how the Philis-
tines might abuse him, in teaiing this coat from him, and
otherwise ill-treating his person, as a Hebrew, as well as
a Iring, while yet alive, which he feared ; — how they might
distinguish the corpse of Saul by this coat, although his
crown and bracelet were absent when they came to strip
the slain, &c. — It will he recollected that Saul himself
was the tallest man in Israel, and therefore would easily
be distingtiished ; but nothing similar is said of his sons ;
their corpses would probably be known by what the mo-
dern Persians term baziibends ; the " bracelet" of o\ir trans-
lators. " They are," says Mr. Morier, (Second Journey,
p. 173.) " ornaments fastened above theclbows ; composed
of precious stones of great value, and are only worn by the
king AND HIS SONS." In the portrait of the king of Persia,
at the India-House, they form a striking appendage.—
Calmet ; Watson.
ARMY. Few things in history are more surprising
than the great numbers which are recorded as forming
eastern armies ; even the Scripture accounts of the ar-
mies that invaded Judea, or were raised in Judea, often
excite the wonder of their readers. To parallel these
great numbers by those of other armies, is not all that is
acceptable to the inquisitive ; it is requisite also to show
how so small a province as the Holy Land really was,
could furnish such mighty armies of fighting men ; with
the uncertainty of the proportion of these fighting men to
the whole number of the nation ; in respect to which,
many unfounded conjectures have escaped the pens of the
learned. With a view to this, Mr. Taylor has made a not
unsuccessful attempt, by adducing instances of numerous
armies which have been occasionally raised, to show what
mat/ be done by despotic power, or the impulse of miUtary
glory; and also that the composition of Asiatic armies is
such as may render credible those numbers which express
their gross amount ; while no just inference respecting
the entire population of a country can be drawn from the
numbers stated as occasionally composing its armies.
We learn from Xenophon, (Cyrop. lib. iv.) " that most
of the inhabitants of Asia are attended in their military
expeditions by those whom they live with at home." — " The
army brought chariots which they had taken ; — some of
them full of the most considerable women, .... for to
this day all the inhabitants of Asia, in time of war, attend
the service accompanied with what Ihey value most ; and
they say, that they fight the better when the objects most
dear to them are present." We may now, remarks Mr.
Taylor, form a better notion of the policy of Barak, in
stipulating for the presence of the prophetess who judged
Israel with his anny. Judges 4: 6. She was a public
person, was well known to all Israel, and her appearance
would no less stimulate the valor of the troops to " fight
the better for an object most dear to them," than it would
sanction the undertaking determined on and executed
against an oppressor so powerful as Jabin, king of
Canaan.
This notion may be extended somewhat further ; for
Deborah in her triumphant song supposes that Sisera's
mother attributed the delay in his return to the great
number of captives — female captives — taken from the
enemy — " to every man a damsel, or two ;" — families of
the warriors of Israel, taken prisoners in their camp,
equally with seizures made in the villages and towns.
Whether this be correct or not, no striking objection seems
to oppose it — and we are sure that the presence of women
of rank in the camps of the orientals was not uncommon.
Every body is acquainted with the generosity of Alexander
in the tent of Darius, when the royal family of Persia be-
came his captives ; and the story of Panthea is so beauti-
fully told by Xenophon, (Cyrop. lib. v.) that if it be al-
ready familiar to the reader, he cannot he displeased with
its repetition. The generosity of Alexander might emu-
late, but it could not excel, the generosity of Cyrus.
"When we first entered her tent, (that of Panthea,) we
did not know her; for she was sitting on the ground, with
all her w^omen-servants around her, and was dressed in
the same manner as her servants were : hut when we
looked around, being desirous to know which was the mis-
tress, she immediately appeared to excel all the others,
though she was sitting with a veil over her, and looking
down upon the groimd. When we bid her arise, she and
the servants around her rose. Standing in a dejected pos-
ture, her tears fell at her feet," &c. This idea of women
attending soldiers, contributes an illustration to a verse in
that sufliciently obscure efiusion, Psalm 68: 12.
1. Whenever there was an immediate prospect of war,
a levy was made by the genealogists. Deut. 20: 5 — 9. In
the time of the kings, there was a head or ruler of the
persons that made the levy, who kept an account of the
ARM
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ARN
Jiumber of the soldiers, but who is, nevertheless, to be
distinguished from the generalissimo. 2 Chron. 26: 11.
(Compare 2 Sam. 8: 17. 20: 23. 1 Chron. 18: 16.) After
the levy was fully made out, the genealogists gave public
notice, that the following persons might be excused from
military service : (Dent. 20: 5 — 8.) 1. Those who had
built a house, and had not yet inhabited it. 2. Those who
had planted an olive or vine, garden, and had not as yet
tasted the fruit of it ; — an exemption, consequently, which
extended through the first five years after such planting.
3. Those who had bargained for a spouse, but had not cele-
brated the nuptials ; also those who had not as yet lived
with their wife for a year. 4. The faint-hearted, who
would be likely to discourage others, and who, if they had
gone into battle, where, in those early times, every thing
depended on personal prowess, would only have fallen
victims.
2. At the head of each rank or file of fifty, was the
captain of fifty. The other divisions consisted of a hun-
dred, a thousand, and ten thousand men, each one of
which was headed by its appropriate commander. These
divisions ranked in respect to each other according to their
families, and were subject to the authority of the heads
)f those families. 2 Chron 25: 5. 26: 12, 13. The cen-
turions, and chiliarrJis, or captains of thousands, were ad-
milted into the councils of war. 1 Chron. 13: 1 — 3. 1
Sam. 18: 13. The leader of the whole army was denomi-
nated the captain of the host. The genealogists, (in the
English version, officers,') according to a law in Deut. 20:
9, had the right of appointing the persons who were to
act as olhcers in the army ; and they, undoubtedly, made
it a point, in their selections, to choose those who are
called heads of families. The practice of thus selecting
military officers ceased under the kings. Some of them
were then chosen by the king, and in other instances the
office became permanent and hereditary in the heads of
families. Both kings and generals had armor-bearers.
They were chosen from the bravest of the soldiery, and
not only bore the arms of their masters, but were employed
to give his commands to the subordinate captains, and
were present at his side in the hour of peril. 1 Sam. 14:
6. 17; 7. The infantry, the cavalry, and the chariots of
war were so arranged, as to make separate divisions of
an army. Exod. 14: 6, 7. The infantry were divided
likewise into light-armed troops, gedttdim, and into spear-
men. Gen. 49: 19. 1 Sam. 30: 8, 15, 23. 2 Sam. 3: 22.
4: 2. 22: 30. Psalm 18: 30. 2 Kings 5: 2. Hosea 7: 1.
The light-armed infantry were |urnished with a sling and
javelin, with a bow, arrows, and quiver, and also, at least
in latter times, with a buckler. They fought the enemy
at a distance. The spearmen, on the contrarj', who were
armed with spears, swords, and shields, fought hand to
hand. 1 Chron. 12: 24, 34. 2 Chron. 14: 8. 17: 17. The
light-armed troops were commonly taken from the tribes
of Ephraim and Benjamin. 2 Chron. 14: 8. 17: 17. Com-
pare Gen. 49: 27. Psalm 78: 9.
3. The art of laying out an encampment appears to have
been well understood in Egypt, long before the departure
of the Hebrews from that country. It was there that
Moses became acquainted with that mode of encamping,
which, in the second chapter of Numbers, is prescribed to
the Hebrews. In the encampment of the Israelites, it
ap-arTrs that the holy tabernacle occupied the centre. In
-elerence to this circumstance, it may be remarked, that
it is the common practice in the East, for the prince or
leader of a tribe to have his tent pitched in the centre of
the others ; and it ought not to be forgotten, that God,
whose tent or palace was the holy tabernacle, was the
prince, the leader of the Hebrews. The tents nearest to
the tabernacle were those of the Levites, whose business
it was to watch it, in the manner of a pretorian guard.
The family of Gershom pitched to the west, that of Ke-
hath to the south, that of Merari to the north. The priests
occupied a position to the east, opposite to the entrance of
the tabernacle. Numb. 1: 53 ; 3: 21 — 38. At some distance
to the east, were the tribes of Judah, Issachar, and Zebu-
Ion ; on the south were those of Reuben, Simeon, and
Gad ; to the west were Ephraim, Manasseh, and Benja-
min ; to the north, Dan, Asher, and Naphtali. The peo-
jale were thus divided into four bodieSj three tribes to a
division ; each of which divisions had its separate stani
ard, deneh Each of the large famUy associations like-
wise, of which the different tribes were composed, had A
separate standard, termed, in contradistinction from the
other, avet ; and every Hebrew was obliged to number
himself with his particular division, and follow his apprc
priate standard. Of military standards, there were, — 1.
The standard, denominated denel ; one of which pertained
to each of the four general divisions. The four standards
of this name were large, and ornamented with colors ia
white, purple, crimson, and dark blue. The Jewish rab-
bins assert, (founding their statement on Genesis 49: 3, 9,
17, 22., which in this case is very doubtful authority,) that
the first of these standards, namely, that of Judah, bore a
lion ; the second, or that of Reuben, bore a man ; that ot
Ephraim, which was the third, displayed the figure of a
bull ; while that of Dan, which was the fourth, exhibited
the representation of cherubim. They were wrought into
the standards with embroidered work. 2. The standard,
called avet. The ensign of this name belonged to the
saparate classes of families. 3. The standard, called nem.
This standard was not, like the others, borne from place
to place. It appears from Numb. 21: 8, 9. that rt was a
long pole fixed into the earth. A flag was fastened to
its top, which was agitated by the wind, and seen at a great
distance. Jer. 4: 6, 21. 51:2,12,27. Ezek. 27: 7. In
order to render it visible, as far as possible, it was erected
on lofty mountains, and was in this way used as a; signal
to assemble soldiers. It no sooner made its appearance'
on siich an elevated position, than the war-cry was ut-
tered, and the trumpets were blown. Isa. 5: 26. 13: 2,
18: 3. 30: 17. 49: 22. 62: 10—13.
4. Before battle, the various kinds of arms were put into
the best order ; the shields were anointed, and the soldiers
refreshed themselves by taking food, lest they should be-
come weary and faint under the pressure of their labors.
Jer. 46: 3, 4. Isa. 21: 5. The soldiers, more especially the
generals and Icings, except when they wished to remaia
unknown, (1 Kings 22; 30 — 34.) were clothed in splendid!
habiliments, which are denominated the sacred dress. Ps.
HO: 3. It was the duty of the priests, before the com-
mencement of the battle, to exhort the Hebrews to exhibit
that courage which was required by the exigency of the
occasion. The words which they used were as follows : —
" Hear, 0 Israel ; ye approach this day unto battle against
your enemies ; let not your hearts faint ; fear not, and da
not tremble; neither be ye terrified, because of them.
For the Lord your God is he that goeth with you, to fight
for you against your enemies, to save you." Deut. 22: 2,
&c. The last ceremony, previous to an engagement, was
the sounding of the sacred trumpets by the priests.
Numb. 10; 9, 10. 2 Chron. 13; 12—14. 1 Mace. 3: 54.
5. In the reign of David, the Hebrews acquired such skill
in the military art, together with such strength, as gave
them a decided superiority over their competitors on the
field of battle. David increased the standing army, which
Saul had introduced. Solomon introduced cavalry into
the military force of the nation, also chariots. Both cav-
alry and chariots were retained in the subsequent age ; an
age, in which military arms were improved in their con-
struction, the science of fortification made advances, and
large armies were mustered. From this period, till the
time when the Hebrews became subject to the Assyrians
and Chaldeans, but little improvement was made in the
arts of war. The Maccabees, after the return of the He-
brews from the capti^^ty, gave a new existence to the
military art among them. But their descendants were
under the necessity of submitting to the superior power of
the Romans. (See Battle.) — Colmet ; Watson.
ARNAFLD, (Henry,) was born in 1597, and, after
having been entrusted with important missions to Rome
and other Italian courts, was made bishop of Angers in
1649, and thenceforth devoted himself strictly to the per-
formance of his episcopal duties. His piety and charity
were exemplar)', and the only time during nearly half a
century, that he quitted his diocese, ^iis to reconcile the
prince of Tarento with his father. To a friend who told
him he ought to take one day in the week for recreation,
he replied, / rviU readily do so, if you will point out any day
in which 1 am not a bishop. This worthy prelate died iu
ARN
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AR R
1692 deeply lamented by his flock. His Negotiations in
Italy were published, in"l738, in five volumes.
ARNAULD. (Anthony,) brother of Henry, was born
at Paris in 1612 ; studied at the colleges of Calvi, on the
Sorbonne, and took his doctor's degree in 1641. He was
a distinguished Jansenist, and attacked in succession the
Jesuits and the Cahanists, or Protestants. He had also a
contest with Malbranche. He belonged to the celebrated
society of Port Royal, and was an intimate friend of Pas-
cal. His enemies compelled him to leave France, and he
closed his Ufe at Brussels, in the Netherlands, in 1691.
Arnauld was a man of extensive erudition. He was
an indefatigable and excellent writer. His works, which
extend to no less than forty-five quarto volumes, embrace
a great variety of subjects, literary and philosophical, as
well as theological. He was of an impetuous disposition,
though in social life his manners were mild and simple.
His religious sentiments partook of the sublimity of
his geriius. When past seventy years of age, having
requested his friend Nicole to assist him in executing a
new work he had projected, Nicole remonstrated, on the
ground that their advanced age might well allow them to
rest. Rest! exclaimed Arnauld, will you not have all eter-
nity to rest in ? — Ennj. Amer.
ARNDT, (JoHM ;) a Lutheran minister of distinguished
piety, whose work, entitled True Christianity, has been
translated into many languages, and obtained a most ex-
tensive circulation. He was tjorn at Ballenstedt in Anhalt,
in 1555, and died in 1621, at Zelle, after having officiated
in various places, and suffered persecution both from the
Lutherans and the Calvinists. A few hours before his
death, he preached from Ps. 126: 5., " They that sow in
tears shall reap in joy ;" and on arriving at his house, he
spoke of it as his funeral sermon. The influence of his
writings, in fostering a spirit of seriousness in religion, is
perhaps unequalled. — Henderson's Suck.
ARNOBIUS ; about A. D. 300, a teacher of rhetoric at
Sicca Veneria, in Numidia ; and, in 303, became a Chris-
tian. While yet a catechumen, he wrote .seven books,
Adversus Gentes, in which he defended the Christian re-
ligion, and showed the folly and absurdity of heathenism
with great spirit and learning, though his knowledge of
the truth appears to have been somewhat defective.
ARNOLD, (of Brescia ;) a disciple of Ab?lard and
Berengarius, an eminent reformer of the twelfth century.
In 1136, by his bold and lofty spirit, his kno\Tledge of
Christian antiquities, and the vehement eloquence of his
public harangues, he roused Ital)', France and Switzerland
against the abuses of the Roman church and clerg)', and
even converted the pope's legate to his opinions. He was
charged with heresy, and, together with his adherents,
(called Arnoldists,) was excommunicated by Innocent II. ;
but it is probable, says Davenport, his real crime was his
having taught, that the church ought to be divested of its
worldly possessions, and reduced to its primitive simplicity.
Dr. Wall allows that he was condemned, along with Peter
de Bruys, for rejecting infant baptism. In 1144, he ap-
peared at Rome, and there elevated the standard of civil
and clerical reform, with such success, as to gain even
the Roman senate ; and for ten years possessed the chief
power in the " eternal city." Adrian IV. succeeded,
however, in expelling him in 1155, by laying an inter-
dict on the city. The reformer retired to Tuscany, but
was there seized and taken back to Rome, where he
died by the hands of the executioner, the same year ;
being excommimicated, crucified, and burned.
Such was the fate of a man who is universally ac-
knowledged to have been possessed of extraordinary
erudition and eloquence, and of an irreproachable charac-
ter. But the spirit of his doctrine descended through sue.
ceeding ages, and his memory is now both admired and
revered. He is classed by Benedict among the most dis-
tinguished of the ancient Baptists. — DIosheim ,• Nem Edin.
Ency. ; Ency. Amer. ; Davenport ; Jones's History nf the
Christian Church.
ARNOLDISTS ; a denomination in the twelfth century,
which derive their name from Arnold oj" Brescia. Hav-
ing observed the calamities that sprung from the opulence
of the pontiffs and bishops, they maintained publicly, that
the treasures and revenues of popes, bishops, and monas-
teries ought to be solemnly transferred to the rulers of
each state ; and that nothing was to be left to the minis-
ters of the gospel, but a spiritual authority, and a subsist-
ence, drawn from tithes, and from the voluntarj' oblations
of the people. They thus took a noble stand on that fun-
damental principle of our Savior, " My kingdom is not of
this world." The Amoldisis did not differ from the Wal-
denses. (See Waldenses.)
The denomination, Arnoldists, wa.% also conferred on the
followers of one Arnold, of Villeneuve, a physician, in
the fourteenth century. He was eminently skilled in
chemistry, natural philosophy, and literature, which occa-
sioned him to be taken, by the ignorant monks, for a ma-
gician ; and he, in return, it is said, had so bad an opinion
of the monks, that he thought they would " all be damned."
This was his heresy, for which he was burnt by the Inqui-
sition ; happily for him, however, not till after he waa
dead.^TFtV/i'ams; Mosheim's Eccl. Hist.,vo\. iii. p. 162;
Bell's Wanderings, p. 136.
ARNON ; a river frequently mentioned in Scripture,
(Deut. 2: 24, &c.) and which rises in the motmtains of
Gilead or Bloab, and runs by a north-west course into the
eastern part of the Dead sea. It is now called Wady
Mod-jeb, and divides the province of Belka from that of
Kerek, as it formerly divided the kingdom of the Moab
ites and Amorites. — Calmet.
AROER ; a city of Gad, partly situate on a mountain
on the north bank of the Arnon, at the extremity of the
country which the Hebrews possessed eastward of the
Jordan. Numb. 32: 34. Burckhardt says it is now called
Araayr. It seems to have consisted of two parts, the one
on the bank of the river, and the other on an island
formed by it. Hence the phrase, " The city in the midst
of the river." — Reland thinks that there was another city
of this name, near Rabbah of the Ammonites, or Phila-
delphia ; and that this is the Aroer meant. Josh. 13: 25.
Judg. 11: 33. Arotr, in Hebrew, signifies heath; and it
is, therefore, probable that several places were so named.
ARONA ; a district beyond Jordan, along the river Arnon.
ARPAD, or Arphad ; a town in Scripture always
associated with Hamath, the Epiphania of the Greeks,
(2 Kings 18: 34, &c.) and probably the Arphas noticed in
Josephus, as limiting the provinces of Gamalitis, Guala-
nitis, Batanee, and Trachonitis, north-east, (Bel. 1. 3. c. 2.)
and the Raphan or Raphanjea, which Stephens places
near Epiphania. — Calmet.
ARPHAXAD ; son of Shem, and father of Salah ; bora
A. M. 1648, one year after the deluge ; died A. M. 2096,
aged four hundred and thirtv-eight j'ears. Gen. 11: 12, &c.
ARRHABONARII ; a sect who held that the eucharist
is neither the real flesh or blood of Christ, nor yet the sign
of them, but only the pledge or earnest thereof. — Buci.
ARROW. (See Arms.) Divination with arrows was
a inethod of presaging future events, practised by the
ancients. Ezekiel, 21: 21, informs us, that Nebuchad-
nezzar, putting himself at the head of his armies, to march
against Zedekiah, king of the Jews, and against the Idng
of the Ammonites, stood at the parting of two ways, to
mingle his arrows together in a quiver, in order to clivine
from thence which way he should march. Jerome, Theo-
doret, and the modern commentators after them, believe
that this prince took several arrows, and upon each of
them TiTote the name of the king, town, or province which
he was to attack : for example, upon one, Jerusalem ;
upon another, Rabbah, the capital of the Ammonites ; ancl
upon another, Egypt, kc. After having put these into
a quiver, he shook them together, and then drew them
out ; and the arrow which was drawn was thought to de-
clare the will of the gods to attack first that city, province,
or kingdom, with whose name it was inscribed.
The word arrow is often taken figxiratively for light-
ning, and other meteors, (the same as the heathen would
call the thunderbolts of their Jupiter.) but there is a pas-
sage, (Psalm 91: 5.) where it has been thought dubious
whether it should be taken literally, for war, or figurativeli/,
for some natural evil :
Thou sliall tiare no occasion of fear,
From the ciread, by niglit ;
From llie arrow lliat flielti by day ;
From llie pealilence in darlcness walking ;
From the cutting olTwlucli destroys at noonday.
ART
[ 126
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The word rendered pestilence, seems to import a com-
missiened — a spoken-lo— evil, from debir, to speak ; but
Parkhurst derives it from driving, an evil which drives
men to their graves. The former derivation is most usual ;
but both senses may coalesce in this example. The cut-
ting ofl'(KeTeB) is used for pestilence, in Deut. .32: 24. and
Mr. Taylor conceives that the arrow in this passage means
the pestilence also ; and that the following lines are exe-
getical : an idea which is confirmed by two or three pas-
sages, which imply, that the Arabs denote the pestilence,
by an allusion to this flying weapon. The following is
from Busbequius : (Eng. edit.) " I desired to remove to a
less contagious air. ... I received from Solyman, the em-
peror, this message : that the emperor wondered what I
meant, in desiring to remove my habitation. 7s not the
pestilence God's arrow, 7vliich will always hit his mark ? If
God would visit me herewith, how could I avoid it ? Is
not the plague, said he, in my own palace, and yet I do
not think of removing?" We find the same opinion ex-
pressed in Smith's Remarks, iVc. on the Turks : (p. 109.)
" What, say they, is ?wt the plague the dart of Almighty
Godi and can we escape the blow he levels at us ? is not
his hand steady to hit the persons he aims at ? can we run
out of his sight, and beyond his power ?" So Herbert,
(p. 99.) speaking of Curroon, says, " that year his empire
was so wounded with God's arrows of plague, pestilence,
and famine, as this thousand years before was never so
terrible." See Ezek. 5: 15. " When I send upon them
the evil arrmts of famine," &c. — Watson ; Calmet.
ARSENAL. The ancient Hebrews had each man his
own arms, because all went to the wars ; they had no ar-
senals, or magazines of arms, because they had no regu-
lar troops, or soldiers, in constant pay. There were no
arsenals in Israel, till the reigns of David and Solomon.
David made a large collection of arms, and consecrated
them to the Lord, in his tabernacle. The high-priest
Jehoiada took them out of the treasury of the temple, to
arm the people and Levites, on the day of the young king
Joash's elevation to the throne. 2 Chron. 23: 9. Solomon
collected a great quantity of amis in his palace of the
forest of Lebanon, and established well-provided arsenals
in all the cities of .Tudah, which he fortified. 2 Chron.
il: 12. He sometimes enforced tlie conquered and tribu-
tary people to forge arms for him. 1 Kings 10: 25. Uz-
ziah not only furnished his arsenals with spears, helmets,
shields, cuirasses, swords, bows, and shngs, but also with
such machines as were proper for sieges. Hezekiah had
the same precaution ; he made stores of arms of all sorts.
Jonathan and Simon Maccabaeus had arsenals stored with
good arms ; not only such as had been taken from their
enemies, but others which they had purchased, or commis-
sioned to be forged for them. — Calmet.
ARTAXERXES, or Ahasuerus ; a king of Persia, the
husband of Esther, who, in the opinion of the learned
Usher and Calmet, was the Darius of profane writers.
(See AuAsuERDs.)
II. ARTAXERXES LONGIMANUS, is supposed by
Dr. Prideaux to be the Ahasuerus of Esther. He was the
son of Xerxes, and grandson of Darius Hystaspes, and
reigned in Persia from the year of the world 3531 to 3579.
He permitted Ezra, with all those inclined to follow him,
to return into Judea, in the year of the world 3537. Ezra
7: 8. Afterwards, Nehemiah also obtained leave to return,
and to build the walls and gates of Jerusalem, in the year
of the world 3550. Nehem. 1: 11. From this year, chro-
nologers reckon the beginning of Daniel's seventy weeks.
Daniel 11: 29. These are weeks of years, and make four
hundred and ninety years. Dr. Prideaux, who discourses
very copiously, and with great learning, on this prophecy,
maintains that the decree mentioned in it for the restoring
and rebuilding of Jerusalem, cannot be understood of that
granted to Nehemiah, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes ;
but of that granted lo Ezra, by the same Artaxerxes, in
ihe seventh year of his reign. From that time to the
death of Christ, are exactly four hundred and ninety
years, to a month : for in the month Nisan, the decree was
granted to Ezra ; and in the middle of the same month
Nisan, Christ sufliered, just four hundred and ninety years
afterwards.
The easterns think that the surname of Longimanus
was given to Artaxerxes by reason of the extent of his
dominions ; as it is commonly said that princes have long
hands : but the Greeks maintain that this prince had really,
longer hands or arms than usual ; and that, when he stood
upright, he could touch his knees. He is said to have
been the handsomest man of his time. The eastern peo-
ple call him Bahaman, and give him the surname of Ard-
schir-diraz-dest, or the long-handed. He was the son of
Asfendiar, sixth king of the second dynasty of the Per-
sians. After having extinguished the family of Rostam,
which was formidable lo him on account of the great men
who composed it, he carried his arms into the western
provinces, Mesopotamia and Syria, which formed part of
his empire. He took Babylon from Belshazzar, son of
Nebuchadnezzar ; and he put in his place Kiresch, who
by us is called Cyrus. Some Persian historians assert,
that the mother of Artaxerxes was a Jewess, of the tribe
of Benjamin, and family of Saul ; and that the most be-
loved of his wives was of the tribe of Judah, and race of
Solomon, by Rehoboam, king of Judah. If this be true,
we need not wonder tliat he should recommend to Cyrus
to favor the Jewish nation. This Cyrus performed, by
sending back the people into their own country, and per-
mitting them to rebuild their temple. But the truth of
this story is doubtful ; and were it true, the interference
of the special providence of God must still be acknowledged.
Artaxerxes reigned forty-seven years, and died in the year
of the world, 3579, and before Jesus Christ, 425. — Watson,
ARTAXERXES ; a name given by Ezra to the Magus,
called, by Justin, Oropastes ; by Herodotus, Smerdis ;
by jEschylus, Jlardus ; and by Ctesias, Sphendadates.
After the death of Cambyses, he usurped the government
of Persia, pretending to be Smerdis, son of Cyrus, whom
Cambyses had put to death. This is the Artaxerxes who
wrote to his governors beyond the Euphrates, signifying,
that having received their advices relating to the Jews, he
required them to forbid the Jews from rebuilding Jenisa-
lem. Thus, from A. M. 3183. the Jews did not dare to
forwaru the repairs of the city walls, till 3550 ; when Ne-
hemiah obtained permission to rebuild them, from Arta-
xerxes Longimanus. Neh. 1: 2. — Calmet.
ARTEMAS ; St. Paul's disciple, who was sent by that
apostle into Crete, in the room of Titus, chap. 3: 12, while
he continued with St. Paul at Nicopolis, where he passed
the \vinter. We know nothing particular of the life or
death of Artemas; but the employment to which he was
appointed by the apostle is a proof of his great merit.
ARTEMIUS ; a distinguished martyr of the fourth cen-
tury. He was commander-in-chief of the Roman forces
in Egj'pf. He was accused by the pagans, 1st. of having
demolished several idols in the reign of Constantine the
Great ; and 2d. of assisting the bishop of Alexandria in
plundering the temples. Being summoned before the
emperor Juhan, to answer these charges, he confessed
them, and owned his faith, upon which he was deprived
of his commission and estate, and finally beheaded. — Fox.
ARTEMONITES; a denomination in the second cen-
tury ; so called from Artemon, who taught that, at the
birth of the man Christ, a certain divine energy united
itself to him. He was a Unitarian, of the same princi-
ples as Theodotus, (the tanner,) Paul of Samosata, and
the modern Socinians. — Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. p. 235 ;
Milner's Church Hist. vol. i. p. 256 ; Lardner's Heretic;,
pp. 360—362.— Williams.
ARTICLE OF FAITH, is, by some, defined a point of
Christian doctrine, which we are obliged to believe, as
having been revealed by God himself, and allowed and
established as such by the church. (See Confessions.)
ARTICLES, FIVE, OF PERTH ; to which James I.,
by intrigues and threatenings, procured the sanction of
the general assembly and the Scottish parliament. They
were, — 1st. Kneehng at the sacrament : 2d. Private com-
munion : 3d. Private baptism : 4th. Confirmation of chil-
dren ; and 5th. The observation of holidays.
ARTICLES OF SMALCALD ; certain articles drawn
up at that place by Luther, on occasion of the meeting of
the electors, princes, and states. They were principally
designed to show how far the Lutherans were disposed to
go in order to avoid a final rupture, and in what sense
they were willing to adopt the doctrine of Christ's pre-
ART
[ 127
ART
sence in the eucharist. The terms in which they are
expressed are somewhat dubious, and not so harsh and
irritating as those employed in the Confession, the Apolo-
gy, and the Fonn of Concord. — Henderson's Suck.
ARTICLES OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND.
(See CfliTKcn or England.)
ARTICLES, LAMBETH. The Lambeth articles were
so called, because drawn up at Lambeth palace, under
the eye, and with the assistance, of archbishop Whitgift,
bishop Bancroft, bishop Vaughan, and other eminent dig-
nitanes of the church. That the reader may judge how
Calvinistic the clergy were under the reign of queen
Elizabeth, we shall here insert them. " 1. God hath from
eternity predestinated certain persons to life, and hath re-
probated certain persons unto death. 2. The moving or
efficient cause of predestination unto life is not the fore-
sight of faith, or of perseverance, or of good works, or of
any thing that is in the persons predestinated ; but the
alone will of God's good pleasure. 3. The predcstinati
are a predetermined and certain number, which can
neither be lessened nor increased. 4. Such as are not
predestinated to salvation shall inevitably be condemned on
account of their sins. 5. The true, lively, and justifying
faith, and the Spirit of God justifying, is not extinguished,
doth not utterly fail, doth not vanish away in the elect, either
finally or totally. 6. A true believer, that is, one who is en-
dued with justiMng faith, is certified by the full assurance
of faith that his sins are forgiven, and that he shall be ever-
lastingly saved by Christ. 7. Savinggrace is not allowed, is
not imparted, is not granted to all men, by which they may
be saved, if they will. 8. No man is able to come to Christ,
unless it be given him, and unless the Father draw him ;
and all men are not dra^vn by the Father, that they may
come to his Son. 9. It is not in the will or power of every
man to be saved." What gave occasion to the framing
these articles was this : — Some persons had distinguished
themselves at the university of Cambridge by opposing
predestination. Alarmed at the opinions that were vented,
the above-mentioned archbishop, with others, composed
these articles, to prevent the belief of a contrary doctrine.
These, when completed, were sent down to Cambridge, to
which the scholars were strictly enjoined to conform.
ARTICLES, SIX: an act which passed both houses
of parliament, and obtained the assent of Henry VIII.,
by which the whole body of popery was restored, and
which consisted of the following points : — That in the
sacrament of the altar, after the consecration, there re-
maineth no substance of bread and wine, but the natural
body and blood of Christ ; that communion in both kinds
is not necessary ; that priests, according to the law of God,
may not marry ; that vows of chastity ought to be ob-
sen'ed ; that private masses ought to be continued ; and
that auricular confession is expedient and necessary, and
ought to be retained in the church. Archbishop Cranmer
made a noble stand against this act while it was passing
the house of lords, and disputed every inch of ground ;
but all his efforts were ineflectual. — Henderson's Buck.
ARTICLE, GREEK. Home, in his Introduction,
speaking of the signification of words and phrases, lays
down the two following rules ;
First. Emphases, in the sacred Scriptures, are to be
sought, sometimes in words, in particles, and also in the
Greek article. Instances of the latter emphasis are found
in Matt. Sfi: 28. Matt. 16: ir>. John 1: 21. and John 10: 11.
Second. When two or more personal nouns of the same
gender, number, and case, are connected by the copulative
kai (and) ; if the first has the definitive article, and the
second, third, &c. have not, they both relate to the same
person. Examples of this rule occur in 2 Cor. 1:3. 1
Cor. ^15: 24. Ephes. 5: 5. 2 Thess. 1: 12. 1 Tim. 5: 21.
Tit. 2: 13. 2 Fet. 1: 1. Jude 4 ; and altogether furnish a
most striking body of evidence in beh*f of the divinity
of our Savior.
The importance and force of the Greek article are fully
illustrated in the late BIr. Granville Sharp's Remarks on
the Uses of the Definitive Article of the Greek Text of the
New Testament, 12mo. 1803 ; in Dr. Wordsworth Letters
to Mr. Sharp ; and especiallv in Dr. Middleton's Doctrine
of the Greek Article, 8vo. 1808 ; and the Supplementary
Researches of Mr. Hugh Stuart Boyd, inserted in Dr. A.
Clarke's Commentary on Ephes. 6:, and at the end of his
Commentary on the Epistle to Titus. In the latter, Mr.
Boyd has combated and refuted the philosophical objec-
tions of Unilarians. — Hume's Introdnction.
ARTOTYRITES, (bread and cheese eaters;) a branch of
the Muntanists, in the second century, who are charge!
with eating bread and cheese in the eucharist. It is as-
serted that they did this in imiidtion of Ebel, of whom it
is said, (Gen, 4: 4.) he " brought of the firstling of his
flock, and the fat thereof ;" which, it is possible, they might
interpret, of their milk, or rather cream, as Grotius has
since done. But it is very possible that they might do this
in their love-feasts, rather than the eucharist.
The Artotyrites admitted women to the priesthood and
episcopacy ; and Epiphanius tells us that it was a common
thing to see seven girls at once enter into their church
robed in white, and holding a torch in their hands ; where
thej' wept and bewailed the wretchedness of human na-
ture, and the miseries of this life. — Williams ; Buck.
ARTS. The arts, which are now brought to such an
admirable state of perfection, it is universally allowed,
must have originated partly in necessity and partly in ac-
cident. At first, they must have been very imperfect and
very limited; but the inquisitive and active mind of man,
seconded by his wants, soon secured to them a greater
extent and fewer imperfections. Accordingly, in the fourth
generation after the creation of man, we find mention
made of artificers in brass and iron, and also of musical
instruments. Gen. 4: 21, 22, Those con.munities which,
from local or other causes, could not flourish by means of
agriculture, would necessarily direct their attention to the
encouragement and improvement of the arts. These con-
sequently advanced with great rapidity, and were carried
to a high pitch as far back as the time of Noah ; as we
may learn from the very large vessel built under his di-
rection, the construction of which shows that they must
have been well acquainted with some at least of the me-
chanical arts. They had also, without doubt, seen the
operations of artificers in other ways besides that of build-
ing, and, after the deluge, imitated their works as well as
they could. Hence it is, that shortly after that event, we
find mention made of utensils, oniaments. and many other
things which imply a knowledge of the arts. Compare
9:21, 11:1—9, 12:7,8. 14:1—113. 17:10, 18:4—6.
19: 32, 31: 19, 27, 34,
Egypt in the early ages of the world excelled all other
nations in a knowledge of the arts. The Hebrews, in
consequence of remaining four hundred years with the
Egyptians, must have become initiated to a considerable
degree into that knowledge which their masters possessed.
Hence we find among them men who were sufliciently
skilful and informed to frame, erect, and ornament the
tabernacle, Moses, it is true, did not enact any special
laws in favor of the arts, nor did he interdict or lessen
them in the ejes of the people ; on the contrar)', he speaks
in the praise of artificers. Exod. 3ci: 30 — 35. 36: 38:
22, 23, &c. The gran^ object of Bloses, in a temporal
point of view, was to promote agriculture, and he thought
it best, as was done in other nations, to leave the arts to
the ingenuity and industry of the people.
Soon after the death of Joshua, a place was assigned
by Joab, of the tribe of Judah, to artificers ; for in the
genealogy of the tribe of Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. 11:
14. we read of a place called the vallcij of craftsmen, and,
verses 21, 23. of a family of workmen of fine linen, and
another of potters ; and when Jerusalem was taken by
Nebuchadnezzar, the enemy rjirried away all the craftsmen
and smiths. 2 Kings 24: 14. But as proof that their skill
in manufactures and trade therein could not be very ex-
tensive, we find that the prophet Ezelriel, chap. 27. in
describing the afiluence of the goods which came to Tyre,
makes mention of nothing brought thither from .Tudea
except wheat, oil, grapes, and balm, which were all the
natural product of their ground. It appears that the mis-
tress of the family usually made the clothing for her house-
hold, and also for sale. Exod. 35: 25. 1 Sam. 2: 19. Prov.
31: IS — 24. Acts 9: 39. Employment consequently as far as
the arts were concerned, was "limited chiefly to those who
are engaged in the more difficult performances ; for instance,
those who built chariots, hewed stones, sculptured idols.
ASA
[ 128]
A8C
jr made them of metal, or who made them of instruments
of gold or silver, and brass, and vessels of clay, and the like.
Judg. 17: 4. Isa. 29: Ifi. 30: 14. Jer. 28: 13. Artificers
among the Hebrews were not, as among the Greelfs and
Romans, servants and slaves, but men of some rank and
worth : and as luxury and riches increased, ihey became
very numerous. Jer. 24: 1. 29: 2. 2 Kings 24: 14.
Building and architecture, however, did not attain much
perfection prior to the reign of the accomplished Solomon.
We read, indeed, before the Israelites came into the land
of Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were employed
in the construction of the tabernacle) excelled in all man-
ner of workmanship. Exod. 35 : 30 — 35. but we are then
told, that they had their skill by inspiration from God, and
it does not appear that they had any successors ; for, in
the days of Solomon, when they were at rest from all their
enemies, and were perfectly at liberty to follow out im-
provements of any kind, yet they had no professed artists
tliat could undertake the work of the temple; so that Solo-
mon was obliged to send to Hiram king of Tyre for a skil-
ful artist, 2 Chron. 7: 13, 14. by whose direction the model
of the temple and all the curious furniture of it was both
designed and finished. But after the Jews were under the
iulluence or power of ihe Romans, there is no doubt that
a better taste prevailed among them. Herod, at least,
must have employed some architects of distinguished
abilities to repair and beautify the temple, and render it
the superb structure which the description of Josephus
shows that it nmst have been. From the frequent men-
tion made in sacred history, of numerous instruments and
of various operations in metals, we are authorized to infer,
as well as from other sources, that a considerable number
of the arts was known and practised among them.
During the captivity, many Hebrews, (most commonly
those to whom a barren tract of the soil had been assign-
ed,) applied themselves to the arts and merchandise.
Subsequently, when they were scattered abroad among
difl'erent nations, a knowledge of the arts became so popu-
lar, that the Talmudists taught, that all parents ought to
learn their children some art or handicraft. They indeed
mention many learned men of their nation, who practised
some kind of manual labor, or as we should say, followed
some trade. Accordingly, we find in the New Testament,
'.hat Joseph the husband of Mary was a carpenter, and
that he was assisted by our Savior in his labors. Matt.
13: 55. Mark 6: 3. Simon is mentioned as a tanner in
the city of Joppa. Acts 9: 43. 10: 32. Alexander, a
learned Jew, was a coppersmith. 2 Tim. 4: 14. Paul and
Aquila were tent-makers. Not only the Greeks but the
Jews also, esteemed certain trades infamous. At any rale,
the rabbins reckoned the drivers of asses and camels,
barbers, sailors, shepherds, and innkeepers, in the same
class with robbers. Those Ephesians and Cretans, who
were lovers of gain, 1 Tim. 3: 8. Tit. 1: 7. were men, as
we may learn from ancient authors, who were determined
to get money in however base a manner. In the apostolic
age, the more eminent Greek tradesmen were united into
a society. Acts 19: 25. (See "Writing, Poetbv, Music,
Dancing.) — Home,
ASA ; the son and successor of Abijam, king of Judah,
Viegan to reign in the year of the world 3049, and before
Christ 955. He reigned forty-one years at Jerusalem, and
(lid right in the sight of the Lord. He purged Jerusalem
Irom the infamous practices attending the worship of
idols; and he deprived his mother of her office and
dignity of queen, because she erected an idol to Astarte,
which he burntm the valley of Hinnom. 1 Kings 15: 8. &c.
The Scripture, however, reproaches Asa with not de-
stroying the high places, which, perhaps, he thought it
politic to tolerate, to avoid the greater evil of idolatry.
His applicatiou also to Benhadad ibr assistance, was inex-
cusable. It implied, that Asa distnisted God's power and
goodness, which he had so lately experienced. Therefore
Ihe prophet Hanani was sent to reprove him for his con-
duct. Asa, however, was so exasperated at his rebukes,
that he put the prophet in chains, and at the same time
ordered the execution of several persons in Judah. To-
wards the latter part of his lite, he was incommoded with
swellings in his feet, which, gradually rising upwards,
killed him. The Scripture reproaches him. also, because,
in his last sickness, he had recourse to physicians, rather
than to the Lord. — Watson.
ASAHEL; the son of Zeruiah, and brother .to Joab,
He was killed by Abner, in the battle of Gibeon, 2 Sam.
2: 18, 19. while he obstinately persisted in the pursuit of
that general. To revenge his death, his brother Joab, some
years after, treacherously killed Abner, who had come to
wait on David at Hebron, in order lo procure him to be
acknowledged king by all Israel. 2 Sam. 3: 26, 27, (See
Abnek.) — Watson.
ASAPH ; a celebrated musician in the time of David,
was the son of Barachias of the tribe of Levi. Asaph,
and also his descendants, presided over the musical band
in the service of the temple. Several of the psalms, as
the fiftieth, the seventy-third to the eighty-third, have the
name of Asaph prefixed; but it is not certain whether the
words or the music were composed by him. "With regard
to some of them, which were written during the Babylo-
nish captivity, they cannot in any respect be ascribed to
him. Perhaps they were written or set to music by his
descendants, who bore his name, or by some of that class
of musicians of which the family of Asaph was the head
1 Chron. 6: 39. 2 Chron. 29: 30. 35: 15. Neh. 12: 46.
The psalms which bear the name of Asaph are doctrinal
or preceptive : their style, though less sweet than that of
David, is more vehement, and little inferior to the grandeur
of Isaiah. — Watson.
ASBURY, (Francis ;) senior bishop of the Methodist
Episcopal Church in the United States. He was born
near Birmingham, England, August 20, 1745 ; but as
most of his life was spent in laborious services among the
American Methodists, he is identified with them, in their
own feelings, and in the view of the public. He came to
this country in 1771, at the age of twenty-six, as a preacher.
In 1773, the first annual conference of the Methodists was
held at Philadelphia, when it consisted of ten preachers,
and about eleven hundred members. He was consecrated
bishop by Dr. Coke in 1784, an office which he continued
to fill with great reputation till his death, which happened
at the house of his old friend, Mr. George Arnold, in Vir-
ginia. He was there on a journey, and died suddenly,
March 31, 1816, in the seventy-first year of his age, and the
fifty-fifth of his ministry. His remains, by order of the
general conference, were brought to Baltimore, and depo-
sited in a vault prepared for that purpose under the recess
of the pulpit of the Methodist church in Eutaw street, in
that city.
From the time of his consecration, a period of thirty-two
years, bishop Asbury travelled yearly through the United
States. From the ardor of his feelings, he was peculiarly
calculated to keep the great machinery of the travelling
connection in motion. In the exercise of his episcopal
office, he ordained not less, probably, than three thousand
preachers, and preached seventeen thousand sermons. —
Asbury's Journal ; MS. of Rev. E. Mudge ; Bond's Letter
to Bishop M'Kendree; Allen's Biog. Diet.; Benedict's All
Religions.
ASCENSION OF CHRIST ; .his visible elevation to
heaven. Our Savior, having repeatedly conversed with
his apostles after his resurrection, and afforded them many
infallible proofs of its reality, led them from Jerusalem to
Bethany, and was raised up to heaven in their sight ; th^re
to continue till he shall descend at the last day to judge the
quick and the dead.
1. The evidences of this fact were numerous. The
disciples saw him ascend. Acts 1: 9, 10. Two angels tes-
tified that he did ascend. Acts 1: 11. Stephen, Paul, and
John saw him in his ascended state. Acts 7: 55; 50.; 9:
Rev. 1. The ascension was demonstrated by the descent
of the Holy Ghost; John 16: 7—14. Acts 2: 33. ; and the
terrible overthrow and dispersion of the Jewish nation is
still a standing ptoof of it. John 8: 21. MaU. 26: 64.
2. The time of Christ's ascension was forty days after
his resurrection. He continued so many days upon earth
that he might give repealed proofs of his resurrection ;
Acts 1: 3. ; instruct his apostles in every thing of impor-
tance respecting their office and ministry; Acts 1: 3. ; and
might open to them the Scriptures concerning himself, and
renew their commission to preach the Gospel. Acts 1: 5,
6. Mark 16: 15.
ASC
[ 120
ASH
S. As to the maiinctof his ascension, il was from mount
Olivet 1(1 heaven, not in -appearance only, but in reality,
and that visil)ly and locally. Il was a real motion of his
human nature; sinldcn, swift, glorious, and in a trium-
phant manner. He was parted from his disciples while
he was solemnly blessing them; and multitudes of an-
gels attended him with shouts of praise. Psalm 68: 17. ;
•47: 5, 6.
4. The eflccts or ends of his ascension were, 1. To ful-
fil the types and prophecies concerning it ; 2. To " appear"
as a priest " in the presence of God for us;" 3. To take
upon him more openly the exercise of his kingly office ;
4. To receive gifts for men, both ordinary and extraordi-
nary ; Psalm 68: 18 ; 5. To open the way to heaven for
his people ; Heb. 10: 19, 20. ; 6. To assure the saints of
their ascension to heaven after their resurrection from the
dead. John 14: 1, 2.— Watson.; Buck.
ASCETICS; such a.s inured themselves to greater de-
grees of abstinence and fasting than other men ; as
those mentioned by Origen, who abstained from llesh and
living creatures, in order to mortify and subdue their pas-
sions. Such abstinence the apostolical canons call askcsis,
the exercise of an ascetic life. So that all who abstained
from fle.sh on account of mortification, not out of an opi-
nion of its uncleanness, (as some heretics did.) n-ere call-
ed ascetics. The same appellation was given to those,
who were more than ordinarily intent or the exercises of
prayer and devotion. Accordingly, Cyril of Jerusalem
calls the prophetess Anna, who departed not from the
temple, but served God night and day. Asketria eul.ibcsate,
the most religious ascetic. In short, every king of uncom-
mon piety and virtue laid claim to the name. Whence it
appears that the ascetics were not originally the same with
monks, as Baronius, and the generality of the Romish
writers, pretend they were. Ascetics had been long in the
church ; but the monastic life was not known till towards
the fourth centuiy. The difference between ascetics and
monks is this : — 1. The monks were men who retired from
the business and conversation of the world to some dis-
tant mountain or desert wilderness ; but the first asce-
tics were men of an active life, living in cities as other
men, and differing from them only in the heights to which
they carried their virtue. 2. The monks were to be only
la}'men ; but the ascetics were indifferently of any order.
3. The monks were tied up to certain rules and laws of
discipline ; but the ancient ascetics were governed by no
laws but those of the Gospel. In short, though every
monk is an ascetic, every ascetic is not a monk ; the former
appellation being of a more general import than the
latter.
A monastery has sometimes the name asceierium given
It. The college of Undertakers, (Fmierani,') fbunded by
the emperor Anastasius, in which eight monks and three
acolylhists were employed in burying the dead, was also
called by this name ; as appears from the confirmation of
it bv the emperor Justinian. — H'endcrson^s Buck.
ASCHAM, (RosER,) a distinguished Engli.sh scholar,
and preceptor to queen Elizabeth, was born, 1-515 ; entered
Cambridge, 1530 ; was chosen fellow in 1534, and tutor in
1737. At this time he took side with the Protestants.
Such was his skill in Greek and Latin, that he was suc-
cessively chosen Latin secretary to king Edward and
qneen Mary. His most valuable M'ork is a treatise on
eaucation called the School-master, which even now is in
high reputation. His last hours were those of a penitent
sinner, rejoicing only in Christ. — Am. Ency. : Clissold.
ASCITES. (See'AscoDOGiTES.)
ASCLEPIDOTjEANS ; a petty sect in the third centu-
ry ; so called from Asclepidolu.'i, who taught, like Artemon
and the modern Socinians, that Jesus Christ was a mere
man. — Brnvgliton's Diet. ; Williams.
ASCODROGITES, or AscrrES ; o party of TlfonfomV.s,
in the second century, who, it is said, brought into their
churches bags, skins, or bottles, filled with new wine, to
represent the new wine mentioned by Christ ; then danced
round these bottles, and intoxicated themselves with the
wine. They are likewise called Ascila, and both words
are derived from the Greek askos, a bottle. The charge
appears improbable and ridiculous ; (butsccMoNTANiSTS.)
— Broitghlon's Diet. ; Williams.
ASCODRUTES; a branch of Gimslies, or Valentinians,
in the second century, who as.sertcd, that divine mysteries,
being the images of invisible things, ought not to be re-
pl'esciitcd by visible things, nor incorporeal things hy cor-
poreal and sensible. Therefore they rejected the sacra-
ments, and are said to have confined their religion to
theory. (See Gnostics.) — Broughton's Diet. ; Bell's Wan-
derings, p. 138.
ASENATH; daughter of Potiphar, wife of Joseph,
Gen. 41: 45., and mother of Ephraim and Manasseh.
(See Potiphar, ad Jin.) — Cnlmet.
ASHAN ; a city of Judah ; Josh. 15: 42. ; but, perhaps,
afterwards yielded to Simeon. Josh. 19: 7. Ensebiussays,
that, in his time, Beth-Ashan was sixteen miles from Je-
rusalem, west. — Calmet.
ASHDOD ; a city of the Philistines, Josh. 15: 46. 1 Sarr .
5: 1. This city, says Herodotus, (lib. ii. 157.) su.stained
the longest siege of any city in the world, against Ps'i.m
meticus, king of Egypt. (See Azotl-s.) — Calmet.
ASHDOTH ; a city in the tribe of Reuben, called Ash
doth-pisgah. Josh. 12: 3. 13: 20., because it was seatec
in the plains at the foot of mount Pisgah ; or, at the
springs of Pisgah.
. Ashdoth may be taken as Sheduth, for springs ; or rather
for rrVfe, which, falling from some height, form small cas-
cades in their descent, and shed their waters around. —
Calmet.
ASHER ; one of the sons of Jacob'and Zilpah, Leah's
servant. He had four sons and one daughter. Gen. 49:
20. Deut. 33: 24. The inheritance of his tribe lay in a
very fruitful country, with Phoenicia west, Libanus north,
Carmel and the tribe of Issachar south, and ZebuUin and
Naphtali east : but it never possessed the whole range of
district assigned to it. (See Canaan.) — Calmet.
ASHER ; a city between Scythopolis and Schechcm,
and, consequently, remote from the tribe of Asher. Josh.
17: 7. In the Old Itinerary to Jerusalem, it is placed be-
tween Scythopolis and Neapolis. EuseBins says there
was a large town of this name between Azoth and Aska-
lon also. — Calmet.
ASHES. To repent in sackcloth and ashes, or to lie
down .among ashes, was an external sign of self-affliction
for sin, or of grief under misfortune. We fiml it adopted
by Job ; (chap. 2: 8 ;) by many Jews when in great fear ;
Esth. 4: 3. ; and by the king of Nineveh. Jonah 3: (i.
Homer describes old Laertes grieving for the absence of
his son, — " Sleeping in. the apartment where the slaves
slept, in the ashes near the fire." Compare Jer. 6: 26.
" Daughter of my people, — w'allow thyself in ashes." " I
am but dust and ashes," said Abraham to the Lord ; Gen.
18: 27. ; indicating his deep sense of his own meanness in
comparison with God. God threatens to shower down dust
and ashes on the lands instead of rain ; Deut. 28: 24. ;
thereby to make them barren instead of blessing them.
(See Rain.) The Psalmist, in great sorrow, says, poet -
cally, that he had "eaten ashes." Psal. 102: 9. He sat on
ashes, and threw them on his head ; his food was sprinkled
with the ashes wherewith he was himself covered. So
Jeremiah (Lam. 3: 16.) introduces Jerusalem saying, "the
Lord hath covered me Vl^ ashes." There was a sort of
ley and lustral water, made with the ashes of the heifer,
sacrificed on the great day of expiation ; these ashes were
distributed to the people, and used in purifications, by
sprinkling, to such as had touched a dead body, or been
preseht at funerals. Numb. 19: 17.
The ancient Persians had a punishment which consisted
in executing certain criminals by stifling them in ashes.
(Valerius Waximus, lib. ix. cap. 2.)» Thus, the wicked
Menelaus was despatched, who caused the troubles n hich
had disquieted Judsea ; (2 Mace. 13: 5, R.) being thrown
headlong into a tower, fifty cubits deep, which was filled
with ashes to a certain height. The action of the criminal
to disengage himself, plunged him still deeper in the
whirling ashes ; and this agitation was increased by a
wheel, which kept them in continual movement, till he was
entirely stifled. — Calmet.
ASHIBIAH ; a deity adored bv the men of Hamath
who were settled in Samaria. 2 Kings 17: 30. Some of
the rabbins .say, that Ashimah had the shape of an ape;
others, that of a lamb, a goat, or a sc'yr. (Selden, de 0ns
ASH
[ 130]
ASH
St/r. Sijtitagm. ii. cap 9. et additiones And. Beyr. Undent.)
Both the ape and the goat were worshipped in Egypt, and
in the east. (Diodor. Sicul. lib. i. Basnage, Antiq. Jud.
torn. i. p. 190.) It may be further observed, that these
people came from Hamath, or Emesa, a city of Syria, on
the river Orontes, and we read, that the sun was adored in
this city under the name of Elah-Gabulah : whence the
emperor Hcliogabalus took his name. The god Elagabal
was represented by a large stone, round at the bottom,
which, rising insensibly to a point, terminated in a conic
or pyramidal figure. His worship became celebrated at
Eome, from the time of Heliogabalus, who caused a mag-
nificent .temple to be erected to him. Around this temple
were several altars, on which hecatombs of bulls and great
quantities of slieep were sacrificed every morning, and
abundance of excellent wine and spices poured out. The
name of Ashimah may very well be understood of fire from
heaven, or the sun ; or it may be derived from the Persian
Asuman, the name of an angel, or genius, who, according
to the ancient Blagi of Persia, presides over the twenty-
seventh day of every solar month, in the Persian year;
which, therefore, is called by the name of this genius.
The Magi believe Asuman to be the angel of death, which
separates the souls of men from their bodies. The Per:
sians likewise called heaven Asuman, and Svman ; which
comes near to the Hebrew Schamdim. — Calmet.
ASHLEY, (Jonathan,) minister of Deerfield, Massa-
chusetts, was graduated at Yale college, in 1730, and was
ordained in 1738. He died in 1780, aged sixty -seven. He
possessed a strong and discerning mind and lively ima-
gination, and was a pungent and energetic preacher. He
proclaimed the doctrines of grace with a pathos, which
was the efl'ect, not merely of his assent to their divine au-
thority, but of a deep sense of their importance and excel-
lency. He published a sermon on visible saints, vindicat-
ing Mr. Stoddard's sentiments respecting church member-
ship ; a sermon •" i the ordination of John Norton, Deerfield,
1741; the great duty of charilj'', 1742; a letter to W.
Cooper, 1745. — Allen.
ASHMUK, (Jehudi,) agent of the American Coloniza-
tion Society, was born of pious parents in Champlain, on
the western shore of the lake of the same name, New
York, in April, 1794. In early life he was an unbeliever;
but it pleased God to disclose to him the iniquity of his
hfeart and his need of mercy, and the value and glory of
the Gospel. He graduated at Burlington college in 1816,
and after preparing for the ministry, was elected a professor
in the theological seminary at Bangor, Maine, in which
place, however, he continued but a short time. Removing
to the district of Columbia, he became a member of the
Episcopal church, edited the Theological Repertory, and
published his memoirs of Rev. Samuel Bacon. He also
projected a monthly jonrnal for the American Colonization
Society, and published one number ; but the work failed
for want of patronage. Being appointed to take charge
of a reinforcement to the colony at Liberia, he embarked
for Africa, June 19, 1822, and arrived at cape Montserado,
August 8th. He had authority, in case he should find no
agent there, to act as such for the society, and also for the
navy department. In the abs^^ #f the agents, it was at
a period of great dithculty, that he assumed the agency.
The settlers were few, and surrounded with numerous
enemies. It was necessary for him to act as a legislator,
and also as a soldier and engineer^ to lay out the fortifica-
tions, superintending the construction, and this too in the
time of affliction from the loss of his wife, and while suf-
fering himself under a fever, and to animate the emigrants
to the resolute purpose of self-defence. About three months
after his arrival, just as he was beginning to recover
stretgth, and while his whole force was thirty-five men
and boys, he was attacked at the dawn of day, November
11, by eight hundred armed savages; but by the energy
and desperate valor of the agent, the assailants were re-
pulsed with the loss of four colonists killed, and four
wounded, and again in a few days, when they returned
with redoubled numbers, were utterly defeated. Here
was a memoi'able display of heroism. The same energy,
diligence, and courage were displayed in all his labors for
the benefit of ihe colony. When ill health compelled
him to take a voyage to America, he was escorted to the
place of embarkation, March 26, 1828, by three companiea
of the militia ; and the men, women, and children oi
Monrovia parted with him with tears. He left a commu-
nity of twelve hundred freemen. The vessel touched and
landed him at St. Bartholomews in very ill health. He
arrived at New Haven, August 10th, a fortnight before his
death. In his sickness he was very humble and patient.
He said, " I have come here to die. It is hard to be bro- .
ken down by the slow progress of disease. I wish to be
submissive. My sins, my sins ! they seem to shut me out
from that comfort which I wish to enjoy . I have been
praying for light ; and a hi tie light has come, cheering and
refreshing beyond expression." He died in the evening
of August 25, 1828, aged thirty-four years. An eloquent
discourse was preached by Leonard Bacon at his funeral,
describing his remarkable character, the important influ-
ence on the tribes of Africa of his piety and regard tc
justice, and his great services for the colonists. He was,
as Mrs. Sigourney represents,
" Their leader, when the blast
Of ruthless war swept by ; —
Their teacher, when the stomi was past,
Their guide 10 worlds on high."
Mr. Gurley, the editor of the African Repository, is
preparing an account of his life. In the Repository, vari-
ous communications, written by Mr. Ashmun, were pub-
lished : his Memoirs of S. Bacon have been already men-
tioned.— Afric. Repos. vol. iv. p. 214 — 224, 286 ; Christian
Spect. vol. ii. p. 528; N. Y. Merc. vol. 1. p. 13 ; Alkn's
B. Diet.
ASHKENAZ, or Ashchenaz ; one of the sons of Gomer,
and grandson of Japheth, who gave his name to the coun-
try first peopled by him in the north and north-western
part of Asia Minor, answering toBithynia; where were
traces long after of his name, particularly in that of Asca-
nius, applied to a bay and city, as well as to some islands
lying along the coast. It was also from this country, most
probably, that the king Ascanius, mentioned by Homer,
came to the aid of Priamus at the siege of Troy. From
the same source, likewise, the Pontus EiLxmus, or Black
sea, derived its name. It may further be remarked on the
identity of these countries, that the prophet Jeremiah, pre-
dicting the capture of Babylon, and calling by name the
countries which were to rise against it, exclaims, " Call
together against her the kingdoms of Ararat, (or Armenia,)
Minni, and Ashkenaz :" which was literally fulfilled ; as
Xenophon informs us that Cyrus, after taking Sardis, be-
came master of Phrj'gia on the Hellespont, and took along
with him many soldiers of that countiy. — Watson.
ASHPENAZ ; intendant, or governor of king Nebu-
chadnezzar's eunuchs, who changed the name of Daniel
and his companions. Dan. 1: 3. — Calmet.
ASHTAROTH. (See Astakoth.)
ASHUR ; a son of Shem, who gave name to Assyria.
It is believed that he dwelt originally in the land of Shinar,
and about Babylonia ; but was compelled by Nimrod to
remove thence, higher towards the springs of the Tigris,
in the province of Assyria, where he built Nineveh, Reho-
both, Calah, and Resen. This is the sense generally given
to Gen. 10: 11, 12. : " Out of the laud (Shinah) went forth
Ashur, and builded Nineveh," &c. But others understand
it to speak of Nimrod, who left his own country and at-
tacked Assyria, which he overcame, built Nineveh, and
here estabhshed the seat of his empire. The prophet Mi-
cah (chap. 5: 6.) calls Assyria the land of Nimrod. (See
Bochart, in Phaleg. lib. iv. cap. 12.) (See Assyria.) —
Calmet.
ASH-WEDNESDAY ; the first of Lent. It is so called
from the custom observed in the ancient church, of peni-
tents expressing their humiliation at this time by appear-
ing in sackcloth and ashes. But it is not certain that this
was always done precisely on Ash-Wednesday, there being
a perfect silence in the most ancient writers about it.
The discipline used towards penitents in Lent, as described
by Gratian, differed from their treatment at other times ;
for on Ash-Wednesday they were presented to the bishop,
clothed in sackcloth, and barefooted : then the seven peni-
tential psalms were sung ; after which the bishop laid his
hands on them, sprinkled them with holy water, and poured
ashes upon their heads ; declaring to them that as Adam
ASl
[ 131 1
A SI
was cast out of paradise, so they, for their sins, were cast
out of the church. Then the interior ministers expelled
them out of the donrs of the church. In the end of Lent,
on the Thursday before Easter, they were again presented
for reconciliation by the deacons and presbyters at the
gates of the church. But this method of treating penitents
in Lent carries with it the marks of a more modern prac-
tice ; for there was no use of holy water in the ancient
discipline ; nor seven penitential psalms in their service,
but only one, viz. the fifty-first. Neither was Ash-Wed-
nesday anciently the first day of Lent, till Gregory the
Great first added it to Lent, to make the number of fasting
days completely forty, which before were but thirty-six.
Nor does it appear that anciently the time of imposing
penance was confined to the beginning of Lent, but was
granted at all times, whenever the bishop thought the peni-
tent qualified for it. In Rome, the spectacle on this occa-
sion is most ridiculous. After giving themselves up to all
kinds of gaiety and licentiousness, during the carnival, till
twelve o'clock on the Tuesday night, the people goon Ash-
Wednesday morninginto the churches, when the ofliciating
priests put ashes on their heads, repeating the words,
" Dust tliou art, and unto dust thou shall return,"
The want of this discipline in the English church is at
present supplied by reading publicly, on Ash- Wednesday,
the curses denounced in the holy Scriptures against seve-
ral sorts of sins, the people repeating -after each curse.
Amen. — Henderson's Buck.
ASIA ; one of the four quarters into which geographers
have divided the earth. It lies be'tween 26 and 190 de-
grees of east, or 170 of west longitude; and between the
equator and 78 degrees of north latitude, extending in
length from the Dardanelles to Behring's straits, about
seven thousand five hundred and eighty-three British
miles ; and in breadth from the southern cape of the pe-
ninsula of Malacca, to the most northern parts of Siberia,
about five thousand two hundred and fifty. To have a
clear comprehension of the geography of this division of
the earth; the courses of the rivers; the direction of the
chain of mountains ; and the climate and relative situa-
tion of its various kingdoms ; it is necessary to attend to-
a peculiar feature in the configuration of its surface. The
central regions of the Asiatic continent rise into a vast and
highly elevated plain, extending several thousand miles in
every direction, and standing aloft like an immense table,
supported on all sides by high and precijiitous mountains
which overlook the surrounding countries. From this
vast elevation, the rivers of Asia flow as from a common
centre in every direction ; and the numerous kingdoms
stretch themselves around in gradual descent. On the
.south of this high central region, the vast plains of India
gradually descend to the great Southern ocean. From
iheir exposure they receive the fiercest rays of a tropical
sun, and are sheltered by the elevated front of the high
tract behind from every northern blast. On the west of
this extended elevation, lies the ancient Persian empire,
which also descends gradually towards the setting sun,
and the territory of Europe. On the east is the immense
empire of China, descending with the rivers to the Eastern
ocean ; and on the north is Siberia, descending without
interruption to the Frozen sea.
Asia, though in extent of surface inferior to America,
surpasses all the other divisions, in the antiquity of its
population, the agreeableness of its climate, the fertility
of its soil, and its luxuriant and deUcious productions.
Europe has no doubt surpassed it in the career of political
importance ; but in a historical and philosophical point
of view, Asia is still the most interesting portion of the
globe. Here were transacted the most important events
both of sacred history and profane. Here the human
race first made their appearance ; it was the theatre of
their earliest achievements ; the grand centre from which
population, science and all the arts of civilized life have
gradually diffused themselves over the other regions of
the world. In this quarter, the Almighty planted his
farorite people the Jews, among whom " he made bare his
arm, and by signs, wonders, and mighty deeds," establish-
ed the conviction of his lighteous providence, leading the
people of Israel like a flock by the hands of BIoscs and
Aaron. It was also the great scene of Divine revelation ;
the theatre on which the prophets uttered then prrdictit*
and where the Son of God illustrated and fuMillcd thei ..
Here the work of human redemption was accomplished by
the Messiah ; and from hence the light of the glorious
Gospel was difliised over a benighted world. In Asia, the
Christian faith was propagated by the aid of miracles and
cherished with the blood of martyrs, and there the first
Christian churches were planted under the direction of
inspired apostles.
Asia is divided by geographers into the following king-
doms, provinces, or states; most of which there will be
occasion to speak of under their respective heads, and conse-
quently a bare enumeration of them will sttlKce in this
place. Palestine, or the land of Jiidea ; Syria, in which
was included Pha-nicia ; Asia Minor, now called NatoUa ;
MESoroTAMiA, now ternied Diarbeck ; Chaldea ; Armb-
KiA ; Georgia; Assyria; China; Hindo.stan ; India be-
yond the Ganges ; Persia ; Arabia ; and Taktaey ; be-
sides a number of very considerable islands lying in the
Pacific ocean and Indian seas. — Jotics.
ASIA MINOR. Asia was generally divided into Major
andMinor, AsiaMinor wasalargecountr5',(Acls 19: 10.)
lying between the Euxine or Black sea northward, and the
Mediterranean southward. It is now called Anatolia or
Natolia. Asia Major denotes all the rest of the Asiatic
continent. Asia Minor contained the provinces, of Bithy-
nia, Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Pisi-
dia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Rlysia, Troas — all of which are
mentioned in the New Testament ; — Lydia, lonica, and
jEolis — which are sometimes included under Lydia —
Caria, Doris, and Lycia. Of these, Lydia and Caria —
taken in their larger acceptations, the latter including
Doris — Mysia and Phrygia, including Troas or Phrygia
Minor, formed the Roman froconsulat. Asia, which has
been thought by some to be the same as the Scripture Asia.
But, as Dr. Wells remarks, it is e\'ident that Mysia, Phry-
gia^ and Troas are reckoned by the sacred writei's as dis-
tinct provinces from the Asia so called in Scripture. It is
therefore more reasonably sttpposcd, that by Asia in the
New Testament is sometimes to be understood Lydia in
its largest acceptation, so as to include Ionia and jEohs ;
for in this were comprehended the seven cities, the churches
of which are styled the churches of Asia. How far this
may lie the country intended, 1 Pet. 1: 1. it is difficult to
determine : certainly proconsular Asia is too distant from
Cappadocia and Bithynia to be united ^vith them, or with
any other province mentioned in his salutation ; not to
say, that proconsular Asia was previously occupied and
taught by Paul, and afterwards by .Tohn. — Cahnct.
ASIAilCHS ; or As'im Frimipts, as they are called w
the Latin version of the Acts, (chap. 19: 31. " Certain of
the chief of Asia," Eng. Tr.) — were optiient citizens,
chosen like our stewards of public assemblies, into an
oflice of distinction, to celebrate public and solemn games
at their own exiiense. These chiefs, then holdin<j ;,ich
games at Ephesus, out of friendly consideration for Paul,
restrained him from appearing, as he proposed, in the thea-
tre, during the sedition raised by Demetrius, 'he gold-
smith, respecting Diana of Ephesus. The Asiarchs were
frequently priests of the religion whose games they cele-
brated : thus in the martydom of Polycarp, Philip the
Asiarch (a little afterwards called the high-priest) is soli-
cited to let out a lion against Polycarp, which he declares
he could not do, because that kind of spectacle was over.
These Asiarchs should b)' no means be confounded with
the archon, or chief magistrate of Ephesus ; for they were
representatives, not of a single city, but of many cities
united. Hence we find on medals and inscriptions, the
dignity of Bithi/iii\-RcaES ; also, Gn7(7^AKCHEs, and Cret-
arches. The Asiarchs were elected in the foUowingman-
ner: Each of the cities of Asia, about the beginning of
their year, which was at the autumnal equinox, held a
council, in which a proper person from among their o«ni
cities was proposed ; these names being transmitted to the
general council of proconsular Asia, one of them was fixed
on. The dignity was great ; but the expense also was
great ; so that only men of wealth could undertake it
Hence we find Aristides exerting himself strenuously lo
be discharged from this costly oflice, to which he had
been three or four times nominated. This notion of the
ASM
[ i32 ]
A^r
Asiarchs is confirmed by a medal of Rhodes, struck under
Hadrian, on the reverse of which we read, " a coin struck
in common by thirteen cities, in honor of the magistrate
of Rhodes, Claudio Fronto, Asiaech and high-priest of the
thirteen cities."
The consideration of these Asiarchs for the apostle Paui,
during the tumult, is not only extremely honorable to his
character, and to theirs, but is also a strong confirmation
of the remark made by the evangehst, (ver. 10.) that " all
they who dwelt in Asia heard the word of the Lord, both
Jews and Greeks." It shows also in what light the tumult
of Demetrius was beheld, since he took especial care to
observe that " all Asia" worshipped their goddess. Yet
were the very Asiarchs, now engaged in this worship, in-
tent on securing the man whom Demetrius represented as
its most formidable enemy. Though there was, properly
speaking, only one Asiarch at a time, yet those who had
passed through the olfice retained the title ; for which
reason they are mentioned in the plural by the evan-
gelist.— Calmet.
ASK ; (1.) To inquire. Gen. 32: 29. (2.) To demand.
Gen. 34: 10. (3.) To seek counsel. Isa. 30:2. (4.) To
pray for. John 15: 7. (5.) To accuse. Ps. 35: 10,11.
Christ's asking of the Father imports his pleading in our
nature for favors, as the due reward of his obedience unto
death. Ps. 21: 4. 2: 8. We ask in Christ's name, and in
faith, when by the help of his Spirit, and in a believing
dependence on his person, righteousness, and intercession,
we, in obedience to his comraaml, plead for, and firmly
expect, whatever he hath promised in his word suited to
our mind and capacity of enjoyment. John 14: 13. Jam.
1: 6. We ask amiss when we pray for what God has
neither commanded nor promised ; when we request any
thing in an ignorant, careless, unbelieving manner; or
seek it to answer some unworthy and sinful end. Jam. 4:
3. The nations that asked not for Christ, and were not
called by his name, are the Gentiles, who under the Old
Testament were destitute of the knowledge of Clirist, void
of desire after him, and made no profession of regard to
him. Isa. 66: 1. We "ask the beasts, fowls, fishes, and
earth, that they may declare unto us," when we earnestly
observe how the Divine power, wisdom, and gociduess are
manifested in tlieir creation, preservation, and government.
Job 12: 7, S.—Urmvn.
ASHKELON ; a city in the land of the Philistines, situ-
ated between Azotus and Gaza, on the coast of the Medi-
terranean sea. It was a place of great note among the
Pliilistines, and one of the seats of government ; famed
also for a temple dedicated to Apollo, at which Herod,
the father of Antipater and grandfather of Herod the
Great, officiated as. priest. After the death of Joshua, the
tribe of Jodah took the city of AshkSlon. Judges 1: 18.
Much is said of the mue of Ashkelon ; and the cypress-
tree, a shrub much esteemed of old, was veiy common in
this place. Ashkelon still subsists under the name of
Srjilyna, but is now inconsiderable. — Calmet; Jones; Wells's
Geagraphi/.
ASLEEP ; (1.) Taking rest in natural sleep. John 1:
5. (2.) Dead. Acts 7: 60. (3.) Careless, unconcerned,
spiiitually drowsy or dead. Song 7: 9. — Brown.
ASBIODEUS ; destroyer. The Jewish name of an evil
spirit; the demon of vanity or dress. Also the same as
Ashmaidai, Abaddmi, and Apollifon, the angel of death.
ASMONEANS ; a name given to the Maccabees, de-
scendants of Maltathias, who was, according to Josephu.s,
(Antiq. lib. xii. cap. 8.) the great-grandson of Asmona^us.
The family of the Asmonccans became very illustrious in
the later times of the Hebrew commonwealth ; it was the
support of the religion and liberty of the Jews ; and pos-
sessed the supreme authority, from Mattathias to Herod the
Great. (See Maccabees.) ,.^ It is no where said whether the
Asmonajans were of the race of Jozedech, in whose family
the office of high-priest continued in a lineal desceht, till
Alcimus was promoted to that dignity. This is certain of
the Asmonfeans, that they were of the course of Joarib, the
which was tlie first class of the sons of Aaron ; and, there-
fore, on failure of the former puntilical family (which had
now happened by the flight of Onja.s, son of (Jnias, into
Egypt) Ihcy had the best right to succeed to that .station.
Under tills iiglit. Jonnthan took the oftioc, when nominnted
to it by tlie reigning king in Syria ; being also elected
thereto, by the general suffrage of the people. — Prid. Con-
nect. fee. Part II. book iv.
ASNAPPAR ; a Icing of Assyria, who sent the Cuthce-
ans into Israel, Ezra 4: 10. Many think this was Sal-
manesser ; but others, with more probability, think it was
Esar-haddon.
ASP ; a species of serpent, often meotioned in Scrip-
ture, and therefore entitled to notice in this work. It be-
longs to the genus Coluber of Linna;us, who thtis defines
it : Nose terminated by an erect wart, body tawny, with
figured streaks, alternately distinct and confluent : beneath,
steel-blue, dotted with yellow. It is said to be common in
Africa, and about the banks of the Nile. Naturalists
differ in their accounts of its length. On the upper part of
the body, are three longitudinal rows of red spots with a
black margin; the union of the rows under the tail pro-
duces a kind of waved band, from which, as well as other
particulars, the asp bears some resemblance to the viper.
Its poison is more deadly than that of any other venomous
creature inhabiting the East. Its bite induces slumber,
which by degrees is converted into profound sleep. Deatii
ensues within twenty-four hours, unaccompanied by pain
or violent symptoms ; the only perceptible change being
the gradual diminution of pulsation. The whole body
immediately becomes of a blackish color ; and mortifica-
tion, as if from a gangrene, follows in the space of a day.
The bite of the asp is said by Aristotle to admit of no
remeily ; and Pliny allows of no other cure but to cut off
the wounded part.
The Hebrew pethen is variously translated into our ver-
sion ; but interpreters generally consider it as referring to
the asp. Zophar alluiles to it more than once in his de-
scription of a wicked man : " Yet his meat in his bowels
is turned, it is the gall of , asps within him. — He shall suck
the poison of asps ; the viper's tongue shall slay him."
Job 20: 14. The venom of asps is the most subtle of all j
it is mcurable, and, if the wounded part be not instantly
amputated, it speedily terminates the existence of the sut^
ferer. To these circumstances Moses evidently alludes,
in his character of the heathen : '■ Their wine is the poison
of dragons, and the cruel venom of asps," Deut. 33: 33.
See also Rom. 3: 13. To tread upon the asp is attended
with extreme danger; and to express in the strongest
manner the safety which the godly man enjoys under the
protection of his heavenly Father, it is promised, that he
shall tread with impunity upon the adder and the dragon,
Ps. 91: 13. No person of his own accord approaches the
hole of these deadly reptiles ; for he who gives them the
smallest disturbance, is in extreme danger of paying the
forfeit of his rashness with his life. Hence, the prophet
Isaiah, predicting the conversion of the Gentiles to the
faith of Christ, and the glorious reign of peace and truth
in those regions, which, prior to that pericul, were full of
horrid cruelty, declares, " The sucking child shall play on
the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his
hand on the cockatrice's den. They shall not hurt nor de-
stroy in all my holy mountain ; for the earth shall be ful!
of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea,"
Isaiah 11: 6^ — 9. In the glowing descriptions of the gol-
den age, with which the oriental writers and the raptu-
rous bards of Greece and Rome entertained their contem-
poraries, the wild. beasts grow tame, seipenls resign their
poison, and noxious herbs their deleterious qualities : all
is peace and harmony, plenty and happiness.
The soaring genius of these elegant writers, however,
could reach no higher than a negative felicity : but the
inspired bard, far surpassing them in the beauty and ele-
gance, as well as in the variety of imagery, with which he
clothes the same ideas, exhibits a glowing picture of posi-
tive and lasting happiness. The wolf and the leopard not
only forbear to destroy the lamb and kid, but even take
their abode with them, and lie down together. The calf
and the young lion, and the fatUng, not only come to-
gether, but also repose under the same covert, and are led
quietly in the same band, and that by a little child. The
cow and the she-bear not only feed together, but even
lodge their young ones, for whom they used to be most
jealously fearful, in the same place. All the serpent kind
is so perfectly harmless, that the sucking infant, or the
ASP
[ 133
A S S
newly-weaned child, puis his hand on the basilisk's den,
and plays upon the hole of the aspic. The lion, not only
abstains from preying on the weaker animals, but also be-
comes tame and domestic, and feeds on straw hkethe ox.
These are all beautiful circumstances, not one of which
has been touched by the ancient poets. — Jones ; Alibot.
ASPINWALL, (William;) m. d.: an eminent physi-
cian, was born in Brookhne, Mass., in June, 1743, and gra-
duated at Cambridge in 17t)4. In the war of the revolu-
tion he acted as a surgeon in the army. In the battle of
Lexington he served as a volunteer, and bore from the field
the corpse of his townsman, Isaac Gardiner, Esq., whose
daughter he afterwards married. After the death of Dr.
Boylston, he engaged in the business of inoculating for the
small pox, and erected hospitals for the purpo.se. Perhaps
no man in America ever inoculated so many, or had
such reputation for skill in that disease. Yet, when the
vaccine inoculation was introduced, after a proper trial,
he acknowleilged its efficacy and relinquished his o\^'n pro-
fitable establishment. For forty-five years, he had exten-
sive practice, frequently riding on horseback forty miles
a day. In his youth he lost the use of one ej'e ; in his
old age, a cataract deprived him of the other. He died
April 16, 1823, in his eightieth year, in the peace of one
who had long professed the religion of Jesus Christ and
practised its duties^ At the bed of sickness be was ac-
customed to give religious counsel. His testimony in fa-
vor of the Gospel he regarded as his best legacy to his
children. In bis political views, he was decidedly demo-
cratic or republican ; yet he was not a persecutor, and
when in the council, he resisted the measures of the vio-
lent. He was anxious, that wise and good men should
bear sway, and that all benevolent and reUgious institu-
tions should be perpetuated. — Allm ; Thacher's Med. Biog.
ASPHALTUS, or Jews' Pitch; a kind of bitumen,
which rises from the lake of Sodom, and which, being col-
lected, is much employed in the preparation of medicines,
and particularly, in embalming dead bodies. Joseph. Ant.
lib. V. De Bello, cap. iv. seu cap. v. in Lat. p. 892. The
asphaltus of the Dead sea, which rises at particular sea-
sons from the bottom of the lake, is thought to be superior
to every other kind. The Arabians fish for it diligently,
or gather it on the shore, whither the wind drives it. It
is shining, dark, heavy, and of a strong smell when burnt.
The ancients used it instead of mortar, and the walls of
Babylon were cemented by it. (See Dead Sea.) — Calmet.
ASS ; an animal, well known for domestic uses, and
frequently mentioned in Scripture. People of the first
quality in Palestine rode on asses, Judg. 5: 10. 10: 4. 12;
11. The ass was unclean by the law, because it did not
chew the cud. To draw ^ith an ox and an ass together,
was prohibited. Lev. 11: 26.
We read in Matt. 21: 4. that in order to accomplish a
prophecy of Zecliariah, (9: 9.) our Savior rode on an ass
into Jerusalem, in a triumphant manner. This has been
made a subject of ridicule by some ; but we ought to con-
sider, not only that the greatest men in Israel rode on
asses anciently, as we have seen above, but also, that God
had thought fit absolutely to prohibit the use of horses, and
of chariots for war ; (Deut. 17: 16. — compare Josh. 11: 0.)
that David rode on a mule, and ordered Solomon to use it
at his coronation; (1 Kings 1: 33, 34.) — that afterwards,
when Solomon and succeeding princes multiphed horses,
they were rebuked for it ; (Isaiah 2 : 6, 7. 31: 1. Hosea
14: 3.) and that the removal of horses is promised in the
daysof the Jlessiah, Hosea 1: 7. Micah 5: 10,11. Zech. 9:
10. So that on the whole we find, that this action of our
Lord is to be viewed not merely as an accomphshment of a
prophecy, but also as a revival of an ancient and venera-
ble Hebrew custom. An uncertainty, if not a difficulty,
ha.s been started, whether to adhere to the opinion of Dr.
Doddridge, or to that of Mr. Hervey, in respect to the kind
of ass on which our Lord rode into Jerusalem. Dr. Dod-
dridge observes, that the eastern asses are larger and
much better than ours, and that our Lord's triumphant
entry was not degraded by indignity; though humhh, it
was not mean. Mr. Hervey, on the contrary, glories in
whatever of meanness and disrepute attached to that cir-
cumstance. It may, however, be remarked, that much of
that extreme meanness which .some have found in the
character and situation of Jesus, arises from their imper-
fect acquaintance with local customs and manners, anri \r^
greatly diminished on closer inspection : for, however
humble might be his appearance, yet it was neither vul-
gar nor mean. How far the following extracts support
this idea, in respect to the kind of ass rode by otir Lord
when entering Jerusalem, is left to the reader ; but this is
not the only instance in which the medium is safest
and best.
" Christians cannot, indeed, repine at being forbidden
to ride on horseback in the streets of Cairo, for the asffs are
there very ua.vpsome, and are used fur riding, hrj the greater
part of the Mahometans, and by the most distinguished ^jro-
men. of the country." (Niebuhr, p. 34. French edition.) In
fact, this use of a.sscs is general in the East : and only the
grandees use horses in the cities. This excepts the Arabs
of the country, those in offices of government, &:c.
In the Gospel is mentioned the mulos onikos, (Matt. 18;
■6.) to express a large mill-stone, turned by asses, heavier
than that turned by women, or by slaves.
The Jen-s were accused by the pagans of worshipping
the head of an ass. Apion, the grammarian, who seems to
have been the author of this slander, (Joseph, lib. ii. contra
Apion,) affirmed, that the Jews kept the head of an ass in
the sarctuary ; that it was discovered there, when Antio-
chus Epiphanes took the temple, and entered into the most
holy place. He added, that one Zabidus having secretly
got into the temple, carried otf the ass's head, and con-
veyed it to Dora. Suidos (in Damocrito, and in Juda)
says, that Damocritus, or Democritus, the historian, aver-
red that the Jews adored the head of an aSs, made of gold,
and sacrificed a man to it every three, or every seven,
years, after having cut him in pieces. Plutarch (Sympo-
sia, lib. iv. cap. 5.)and Tacitus (Hist. lib. v.) being impos-
ed on by this calumny, report, that the Hebrews adored
an ass, out of gratitude for the discover)' of a fountain by
one of the.se creatures in the wilderness, at a time when
the army of this nation was parched with thirst, and ex-
tremel)' fatigued. It is probable, that no good reason can
be given for the accusation, which might have arisen from
a joke, or from accident. ]M. Le Moine says, in regard to
t'.ie first, that in all probability the golden urn containing
the manna, which was preserved in the sanctuary, was
taken for the head of an ass ; and that the omer of manna
might have been confounded wHth the Hebrew hamar,
w*')ich signifies an ass. See Assaro.x.
Washington, so justly named the father of his country,
was the fii"st who introduced this useful animal into the
United States. A (ew agriculturists only, owing either
to prejudice or neglect, have followed his laudable exam-
ple. The circumstances, (says the Encyclopedia Ameri-
cana,) which entitle the ass to a greater degree of atten-
tion and more general employment for draught and bur-
den in this country are these ; it is gentle, strong, hardy,
patient of toil, re-juiripg but a small quantity of coarse
food, surefooted, and capable of a high degree of attach-
ment to its owner. — Calmet ; Enaj. Am. ; Watson ; Abbotts
Scrip. Nat. History.
ASS OF BALAAM. Here -we shall only inquire.whether
it were a reality, or an allegory ; an imagination, or a
vision of Balaam? Austin, with the greater number of
commentators, supposes it was a certain fact, and takes it
literally. The greater part of the Jewish authors con-
sider it, not as a circumstance which actually took place,
but as a vision, or some similar occurrence.
Le Clerc solves the difficulty, by saying, Balaam believed
in the transmigration of souls, passing from one body into
another, from a man into a beast, reciprocally ; and, there-
fore, he was not surprised at the ass's complaint, but con-
versed mth it, as if it were rational. Others have imf-
gineddiffcrent ways of solving the difficulties of this histoiT.
There is yet to be considered whether the ass uttered
sounds, which, by the power of the angel then present,
were conveyed to Balaam as combined into distinct words,
though not such when they quitted the ass's mouth — in
which case the miracle would lie in the words, or the com-
bination of sounds in the air — or, whether the miracle lay
in the ears of Balaam, who heard, as combined into ar-
tiettlate words, sounds which the ass uttered without ! 'ing
conscious of spealring, or any verbal sense meant, or un-
ASS
[ 134
ASS
deretood by her, the ass, beyond her ordinary braying, or
those utterances whereby she had formerly been accustom-
ed to express her complaints. In the determination of this
question, Mr. Taylor assumes as facts : (1.) That Balaam
was accustomed to augury and presages. (2.) That on
this occasion he would notice every event capable of such
interpretation, as presages were supposed to indicate. (3.)
That he was deeply intent on the issue of his journey.
(4.) That the whole of his conduct towards Balak was
calculated to represent himself as an extraordinary person-
age. (5.) That the behavior of the ass did actually fre-
FiGURE the conduct of Balaam in the three particulars of
it which are recorded. First, the ass turned aside, and
went into the field ; for which she was smitten, reprov-
ed ; so Balaam, on the first of his perverse attempts to
curse Israel, was, as it were, smitten, reproved, pun-
ished, (1.) by God, (2.) by Balak. The second time
the ass was more harshly treated for hurting Balaam's
foot against the wall : so Balaam for his second attempt
w as no doubt still further mortified. Tldrdhj, the ass, see-
ing inevitable danger, fell down and was smitten severely :
in like manner Balaam, the third time, was overruled by
God, to speak truth, to his own disgrace ; and escaped,
not mthout hazard of his life, from the anger of Balak.
Nevertheless, as Balaam had no sword in his hand, though
he wished for one, with which to slay his ass ; so Balak,
notwithstanding his fury, and his seeming inclination, had
no power to destroy Balaam. In short, as the ass was op-
posed by the angel, but was driven forward by Balaam, so
Balaam was opposed by God, but was driven forward by
Balak, against his better knowledge. Were we sure that
Balaam wrote this narrative, and that Moses copied it, as
the rabbins affirm, (see Balaam,) this view of the subject
would remove the difficulties which have been raised about
it. It might then be entitled " a specimen of Balaam's
augury." — Calmet.
ASS, WILD. This animal, which was formerly well
known in the East, and is frequently mentioned in Scrip-
ture, is a much handsomer and more dignified animal
than the common ass. It is called para by the Hebrews,
and onager by the Greeks. That the wUd ass was knomi
and valued for its mettle, appears from a passage in
Herodotus, (Pol. 86.) where that writer says, " The In-
dian horse were well armed like their foot : but, beside
led horses, they had chariots of war, drawn by horses and
\rild asses." The reference of these animals to the troops
of India (a province at the head of the Indus, not our
Hindoostan) deserves attention ; because, the troops of
the onager are said by Gmelin, to " return towards India,
where they winter." Aristotle (Hist. lib. vi. cap. 36.)
mentions the wild ass, which is said to exceed horses in
swiftness ; and Xenophon says (Cyrop. lib. i.) that he has
long legs, is very rapid in running, swift as a whirlwind,
having strong and stout hoofs. Elian says the same ;
but that he may be tired, and when,taken, is so gentle that
he may easily be led about. Martial gives the epithet
"handsome" to the wild ass — "Pulcher adest onager;"
(Lib. xiii. Epig. 100.) and Oppian describes it as " hand-
some, large, vigorous, of stately gait, and his coat of a
silvery color, having a black band along the spine of his
back ; and on his f.anks patches as white as snow." BIr.
Monei says, " We gave chase to two wild asses, which
had so much the sp-^ed of our horses, that when they had
got at some distance, they stood still and looked behind at
us, snorting with their noses in the air, as if in contempt
of our endeavors to catch them." (Second Journey in
Persia, p. 200.) Ti:e latest traveller who has described
the onager is Sir R. K. Porter, in his " Travels in Persia,"
who also gives a figure of the animal. The mode of
hunting it is, as it was in Xer.ophon's time, by means of
several horses relieving each other, till the onager is com-
pletely tired. The color of Sir Robert's figure is a bright bay.
It is to Professor Gmelin, however, who brought a
female and a colt from Tartary to St. Petersburgh, that
we arc principally indebted for our acquaintance with the
wild ass. The female, which had been caught when very
young, though of small stature, and probably stinted in
growth by its captivity, and by want of suitable food,
travelled from Asiracan to Moscow (tburtecn hundreil
werstes) with the ordinary post, without any other repose
than that of a few nights ; she al.so travelled from Moscow
to Petersburgh, (seven hundred and thirty werstes,) and
did not seem to have suffered by the journey ; though she
died'in the autumu- following apparently from the effect
of the herbage of a marshy soil, and the cold and humidi-
ty of so northern a climate. She had nothing of the dul
ness and stupidity of the common ass. " I remarked that
she often passed two days without drinking, especially in
moist weather, or when very heavy dews fell. She also
preferred brackish water to fresh, and never drank of
what was troubled. She loved bread sprinkled with salt,
and sometimes would eat a handful of salt. I was told,
that when at Derbent, she always ran to drink of the Cas-
pian sea, though fresh water was near to her. She also
selected plants impregnated with saline particles ... or
those of bitter juices. She loved raw cucumbers ; and
some herbs which she refused when green, pleased her
when dried. She would not touch odoriferous or marsh
plants, nor even thistles. I was informed that the Per-
sians, when taming the young onagers, feed them with
rice, barley, straw, and bread. Our animal was ex-
tremely familiar, and followed persons who took care of
her, freely, and with a kind of attachment. The smell of
bread strongly attracted her ; but, if any attempt was
made to lead her against her will, she showed all the ob-
stinacy of the ass : neither would she suffer herself to be
approached behind, and if touched by a stick, or by the
hand, on her hinder parts, she would kick ; and this action
was accompanied by a slight grumbling, as expressive of
complaint. The male onager, which -was brought at the
same time as the female, but which died in the voyage
from Derbent to Astracan, was larger and less docile.
His length from the nape of the neck to the origin of his
tail was five feet ; his height in front, four feet four inches ;
behind, four feet seven inches ; his head two feet in
length ; his ears one foot ; his tail, including the tuft at
the end, two feet three inches. He was more robust than
the female ; and had a bar or streak crossing at his
shoulders, as well as that streak which runs along the
hack, which is common to both sexes. Some Tartars
have assured me that they have seen their cross-bar double
iiLSome males. Our onager was higher on her legs than
the common ass ; her legs also were more slender than
those of the ass ; and she resembled a young filly : she
could also scratch her neck and head easily with her hind
foot. She was weak on her fure legs ; but behind she
could very well support the heaviest man. Notwith-
standing her state of exhaustion, she carried her head
higlier than the ass, her ears well elevated, and showed a
vivacity in ail her motions. The color of the hair on the
greater part of the body, and the end of the nose, is silvery
white ; the upper part of the head, the sides of the neck,
and the body, are flaxen, or pale Isabella color. The
mane is deep brown ; it commences between the ears,
and reaches the .shoulders ; its hair is soft, woolly, three
or four inches long, like the mane of a young filly. The
coat in general, especially in winter, is more silky and
softer than that of horses, and resembles that of a camel.
The jirabs, no less than the Tartars, esteem the flesh of
the onager; and the Arab writers, who permit the eating
of its flesh, make the same difference between this ass and
the domestic ass, as the Hebrews did, whose law did not
permit the coupling of the onager with the she ass, as be-
ing of diSerent kinds." — Calmet.
ASS'S HEAD. The following passage occurs in 2
Kmgs u: 25. — "And there was a great famine m Samaria,
until an ass's head was sold for eighty pieces of sUver,
and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung foi five pieces
of silver." The sss here mentioned wets probably a
measure, or a kind of pack, or other quantity, well known.
Jesse .sent to Saul an ass of bread ; (1 Sam. 16: 20.) three
asses of bread were eaten by one person, in one day ; and
it may be doubled whether Abigad (1 Sam. 23: 18.) really
loaded osscs, quadrupeds, wi'h her presents to David ; for
the original literally n, ".she tojK two hundred of bread,
iScc. and placed them on the asser ;" which seems to hint
at something distinct iV?m ns.rv, .in.mals ; for then it would
be as it is in our version, '■ she placed them on asses."
Hence, it may read omi'o.'il.i hL-re to the <love's dung, in
the following clau:=e : "The while of the quantity called
ASS
[ 135]
ASS
an ass, (of dove's Jung,) was sold for eighty pieces of sil-
ver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five
pieces of silver." The reader will consider the above so
far as it seems to be reasonable. (See Dove's Duno.) —
Ctdmet.
ASSARON, or Omer ; a measure of capacity, used by
the Hebrews : the tenth part of an ephah, as its name de-
notes ; for it signifies tenth. Exod. 1(5: 16. It contained
five pints. The assaron was the measure of manna which
God appointed for every Israelite. Assnron, and dekaton,
signify the same a.s omer. Josephus calls it issaron. In
the Hebrew, instead of otner, asmrith is often used. Jose-
phus says, that in the time of Claudius, an assaron or
omer of meal was sold for four drachrace ; that is, about
eight shillings a peck; but this was in a time of dearth.
— Catmet.
ASSASSINS; a tribe or clan in Syria, called also
Ismaelians, probably from Ishmael, whose " hand was
against every man." Gen. 16: 12. Also, Bateni?its, or
Batenians. They are supposed to owe their origin to the
Karm/itians, (which see,) an heretical sect among the Ma-
hometans, who settled in Persia about the year 1090 ;
from whence in process of time they sent a colony into
Syria, which took possession of a considerable tract of
land among the mountains of Lebanon, extending nearly
from Antioch to Damascus. Their religion was com-
pounded of the various superstitions of the Persians, Jews,
and Mahometans ; but the distinguishing article of it was,
that the Spirit of the Supreme resided in their scheike (or
chief;) and that all his injunctions were the commands
of God ; and they were trained to that degree of submis-
sion, that they would instantly kill themselves at his com-
mand, being assured of immediate entrance into paradise.
Their chief was known in Europe by the name of the
" Old Man of the Mountain ;" and his followers were
called Assassins — according to some, from the family of
one of their leaders, named Arsacida ; or, according to
Mr. Mills, by corruption, from Hussanees, the followers of
Hussan ; or, according to Volney, from the Turkish word,
Hassnssm, (to kill silently and by surprise,) a night robber.
Their office was to murder any person whom their scheike
commanded. "This chief, from his exalted residence on
the summit of mount Lebanon, like a vindictive deity,
with the thunderbolt in liis hand, sent inevitable death to
all quarters of the world :" so that the chiefs of all nations
dreaded this sanguinary tyrant ; and many were weak
enough to pay him a secret pension, by way of security.
In 1272, however, they were subdued by the forces of the
sultan Bibaris ; but it is supposed that the Druses, who
now inhabit those mountains, sprang from some remains
of these barbarians. (See Druses.)
In the Greek and Roman repubhcs, the murder of a
reputed tyrant was held to be an act of heroic virtue,
though nothing could be more unjust, since the accused
had no opportunity of self-justification. Some wild re-
publicans in Germany, France, and even England, have
attempted to revive the abominable tenet ; and it has pro-
duced the murders of the duke de Berry, Kotzebue, and
other important characters. In some parts of Italy, assas-
sination is professed for hire ; and the government is defi-
cient, either in strength or principle, for its suppression -
Eney. Brit. : — Williams.
ASSEMBLIES OF THE CLERGY, are called convo-
cations, synods, councils. The annual meeting of the
church, of Scotland is called a general assembly. In this
assembly his majesty is represented by his commissioner,
who dissolves one meeting and calls another in the name
of the king, while the moderator does the same in the
name of Jesus Christ. (See Convocation, Presbyte-
rians.)— Buck.
ASSEMBLY OF DIVINES; a synod of laymen and
divines, who assembled, by authority of parliament, in
king Henr^' the seventh's chapel, Westminster. On the
first day, July 1st, 1643, sixty-nine assembled, among
whom were several Episcopalians, who afterwards with-
drew. Lord Clarendon says, " about twenty of them were
reverend and worthy persons," and some of them certainly
the most learned men of their time ; as Selden, Ains-
wonh, Gataker, Featly, &c. They signed " The Solemn
League and Covenant," drew up the Confession of Faith,
the Longer and Shorter Catechisms, &c. ; and several of
them jointly published a commentary on the Bible, in 2
vols, folio. — Neale's Hist, of Puritans, vol. ii. p. 03, &c.
Parsons's ed. ; B. Bennetts Memoirs of the Reformation,
p. 270, 2d ed.— Williams.
ASSENT; that act of the mind whereby it takes or
acknowledges any proposition to be true or false. There
are three degrees of assent : — conjecture, opinion, and belief.
Conjecture is but a slight and weak inclination to assent to
the thing proposed, by reason of the weighty objections
that lie against it. Opinion is a more steady and fixed as-
sent, when a man is almost certain, though yet some fear
of the contrary remains with him. Belief is a more full
and assured assent to the truth. (See Belief.) — Buck.
ASSIDEANS ; by some named Chasideans, from elm-
sidim, "merciful, pious." They were a kind of religious
society among the Jews, whose chief and distinguishing
character was, to maintain the honor of the temple, and
observe punctually the traditions of the elders. They were
therefore not only content to pay the usual tribute for the
maintenance of the house of God, but charged themselves
with farther expense upon that account ; for every day,
except that of the great expiation, they sacrificed a lamb,
ill addition to the daily oblation, which was called the sin-
oflering of the Assideans. They practised greater hard-
ships and mortifications than others : and their common
oath was, " By the temple ;" for which our Savior reproves
the Pharisees, who had learned that oath of them. Matt.
23: 16. From this sect the Pharisees sprung. The Assi-
deans are represented as a numerous sect, distinguished
by its valor, as well as by its zeal for the law, I Mac. 2:
42. A company of them resorted to Mattathias, to fight
for the law of God, and the liberties of their country.
This sect arose either during the captivity, or soon after
the restoration, of the Jews ; and were probably in the
commencement, and long afterward, a truly pious part of
the nation ; but they at length became superstitious. —
Watson.
ASSOS; a maritime city, by some geographers de-
scribed as belonging to Mysia, by others, to Troas. Luke,
and others, went by sea from Troas to Assos ; but Paul
went by land thither, and meeting them at Assos, they
went together to Mitylene, Acts 20: 13, 14. A. D. 56.
But there were many cities of this name. (1.) A mari-
time city, in Lycia. — (2.) Another in the territory of
Eolis. — (3.) Another in Mysia. — (4.) Another in Lydia.
— (5.) Another in Epirus Minor, the native country of
Cleanthis the philosopher, which also was called ApoUo-
nia, as Pliny says. To this last city Paul sailed. Acts 20:
13. It was between Troas and Mitylene, therefore, in the
district of Troas, and is marked accordingly in the maps.
Strabo says, that the luxurious kings of Persia had the
grain of which their bread was made brought from Assos, ^
the Mne which they drank from Syria, and the water
which they drank from the river Ulaeus. This need not
be taken literally : the import of the phrase being that
their power extended over these places ; and that they re-
ceived tribute from them. — Calmet.
ASSUMPTION ; a festival in the Romish church, in
honor of the pretended miraculous ascent of the Virgin,
body and soul, into heaven. It was established in the
seventh century, and fixed to the 15th of August. The
assumption of Mary was not always a point of faith ; the
ancient martyrologies speak of it with very great reserve,
as a thing not fully ascertained ; yet is it'at present uni-
versally believed in the Roman church, and a divine who
should deny it would be obliged to retract. The Greek
church also celebrate the festival of the Assumption on the
15th of August. The most ridiculous fables are 'believed
on this subject.
There were two apocryphal books entitled The Assump.
tion of Moses, and The Assumption of the Virgin.— Hender-
son's Buck.
ASSURANCE is the firm persuasion we have of the
certainty of any thing, or a certain expectation of some-
thing future.
Assurance of the Understanding is a well-grounded know-
ledge of divine things, founded on God's Word. Col. 2.—
Assurance of Faith does not relate to our personal interest
in Christ, but consists in a firm belief of the revelation
ASS
[ 136
ASS
ihat God lias given us of Christ in his worJ, with an en-
lirs dependence on him. Hcb. 10: 22. Afsurame of hope is
a f.nn expectation tliat Godwin grant lis the complete en-
jojment of what he has promised. Heb. 6: 11.
The doctrine of a.ssurance, i. e. the belief that' we have
an interest in the Divine favor, has afforded matter for
dispute among divines. Some have asserted that it is not
to be obtained in the present state, allowing that persons
may be in a hopeful way to salvation, but that they have
no real or absolute assurance of it ; but this is clearly re-
futed by facts as well as hy Scripture. That it is to be
obtained is evident ; for we have reason to believe many
persons have actually obtained it. Job 19: 25. Ps. 17: 15.
2 Tim. 1: 12. The Scriptures exhort us to obtain it. 2
Cor. 13: 5. Heb. 6: 11. 1 Thess. 5: 21. The Holy Spirit
is said to bear witness of it. Eom. 8: IG. The exercise
of the Christian graces is considered as a proof of it. 1
John 3: 14. 1 John 2: 3. We must, however, guard
against presumption ; for a mere persuasion that Christ is
ours, is no proof tliat he is so. We must have evidence
before we can have genuine assurance. It is necessary
to observe also, that it is not a duty imposed upon all
mankind, so that every one, in whatsoever state he may
be, ought to be fully persuaded of his salvation. "We
lo not affirm," says Saurin, " that Christians, of whose
sincerity there may be some doubt, have a right to assur-
ance; that backsliders, as such, ought to persuade them-
selves that tliey shall be saved ; nor do we say that Chris-
tians who have arrived to the highest degree of holiness
can be persuaded of the certainty of their salvation in
every period of their lives ; nor, if left to their own efforts,
ran they enjoy it ; but believers supported by the divine
aid, who walk in all good conscience before him, these
only have ground to expect this privilege."
Some divines have maintained that assurance is included
in the very essence of faith, so that a man cannot have
faith without assurance ; but we must distinguish between
assurance and justifying faith. The apostle, indeed,
speaks of the full assurance of faith ; but then this is a
full and firm persuasion of what tlie Gospel reveals ;
whereas the assurance we arc speaking of relates to our
personal interest in Christ, and is an etfect of this faith,
and not faith itself. Faith in Christ certainly includes
some idea of assurance ; for, except we be assured that
he is the Savior, we shall never go to or rely upon him as
such : but faith in Christ does not imply an assurance of
onr interest in him ; for there may be faith long before the
assurance of personal interest commences. The con-
founding of these ideas has been the cause of presump-
tion on the one hand, and despair on the other. When
men have been taught that faith consists in believing that
Christ died for tliem, and been assured that, if they can
•only believe so, all is well ; and that then they are imme-
diately pardoned and justified, the consequence has been,
that the bold and self-conceited have soon wrought them-
selves up to such a persuasion, without any ground for
it, to their own deception ; whilst the dejected, humble,
and poor in spirit, not being able to work themselves to
such a pitch of confidence, have concluded, that they
have not the faith of God's elect, and must inevitably be
lost.
The means to attain assurance are not those of an ex-
traonlinary kind, as some people imagine : such as visions,
dreams, voices, &;c. ; but such as are ordinary ; self-
examination, humble and constant prayer, consulting the
sacred oracles. Christian communication, attendance on
the divine ordinances, and perseverance in the path of
duty ; without which all our assurance is but presumption,
and our profession but hypocrisy.
Assurance may be lost for a season through bodily dis-
eases, which depress the spirits, unwatchfulness, falling
into sin, manifold temptations, worldly cares, and neglect
of private duty. He, therefore, who would wish to enjoy
this privilege, let him cultivate communion with God, ex-
ercise a watchful spirit against his spiritual enemies, and
•give himself unreservedly to Him whose he is, and whom
he professes to serve. See SaurMs Sermoyts, vol. iii. ser.
10. Eng. ed. ; Case's Sermons, ser. 13 ; Lamiert's Sermons
on John, ix. 35 ; IJervet/s Thcron and Aspasio, dialogue 17 ;
Home's Works, vol. i.'p. 342, 348; Brooks, Burgess, Roberts,
Baxter, FolhiU, and Davyc, on Assurance ; Hora Sol. vol. ii.
p. •2m.—Burlc.
ASSURITANS ; a branch of the Donatists, (which see,)
charged with Arianism.
ASSYRIA ; an ancient kingdom or empire of Asia,
comprehending those provinces of Turkey and Persia
which are now called Curdistan, Diarbec, and Irac Arabia.
It was bounded by Armenia on the north ; Media and
Persia on the east ; Arabia on the south ; and the river
Euphrates, which divides it from Syria and Asia iVIinor,
on the west. According to the description of the Greek
and Roman writers, the boundaries of Assyria compre-
hended all the countiies and nations between the Medi-
terranean sea on the west, and the river Indus on the
east ; and between the deserts of Scythia on the north,
and the Southern and Indian ocean. This empire having
once extended over so large a portion of Asia, the pro-
vinces under its dominion came to be distinguished by the
name 8f the sovereign state, an appellation which it re-
tained long after the dissolution of that great monarchy.
Thus Blesopotaraia was called Middle Assyria; the same
name was also given to Babylon and Chaldea ; and ac-
cording to Justin, book i. chap. 2. the country of Syria
was first called Assyria.
The whole country is said to have been remarkably
fertile in ancient times ; but the great antiquity which is
given to this kingdom, extending beyond the period when
letters were invented, added to the fabulous spirit of its
earliest annalists, has involved its history in darkness,
which, at this distance of time, it is not possible to dissi-
pate. Much of the Assyrian history, from the days of
Ninus to those of Sardanapalus, a period of twelve hun-
dred years, as handed down by several ancient writers,
and detailed by the moderns, requires to be received with
extreme caution, the whole of it being taken from the
original historian, Ctesias of Cnidus, a writer whom Aris-
totle, who lived only a few years after him, declares to
have been altogether unworthy of credit. It abounds witli
improbabilities ; and is, in a variety of respects, incom-
patible with the sacred history.
Of the origin, revolutions, and termination of Assyria,
properly so called, and distinguished from the grand mon-
archy which afterwards bore this appellation, the following
account is given by Mr. Play fair, as the most probable : —
" The founder of it was' Ashur, the second son of Shem,
who departed from Shinar, upon the usurpation of Nim-
rod, at the head of a large body of adventurers, and laid
the foundations of Nineveh, where he resided, and erected
a new kingdom, called Assyria, after his name. Gen. 10:
11. These events happened not long after Nimrod had
established the Chaldean monarchy, and fixed his resi-
dence at Babylon ; but it does not appear that Nimrod
reigned in Assyria. The kingdoms of Assyria and Baby-
lon were originally distinct and separate ; (Mieah 5: 6.)
and in this state they remained until Ninus conquered
Babylon, and made it tributary to the Assyrian empire.
Ninus, the successor of Ashur, (Gen. 10: 11.) seized on
Chaldea after the death of Nimrod, and united the king-
doms of Assyria and Babylon. This great prince is said
to have subdued Asia, Persia, Bledia, Egypt, &c. If he
did so, the effects of his conquests were of no long dura-
tion ; for, in the days of Abraham, we do not find that
any of the neighboring kingdoms were subject to Assyria.
Ninus was succeeded by Semiramis, a princess bold, en-
terprising, and fortunate ; of whose adventures and ex-
ploits many fabulous relations have been recorded. Play-
fair is of opinion that there were two princesses of this
name, who flourished at different periods : one, the con- ■_
sort of Ninus ; and another, who lived five generations
before Nitocris, queen of Nebuchadnezzar. Of the sue- :
cessors of Ninus and Semiramis, nothing certain is re-
corded. The last of the ancient Assyrian kings was .
Sardanapalus, who was besieged in his capital by Al'baces,
governor of Media, in concurrence with the Babylonians. '
These united forces defeated the Assyrian army, demol- i
ished the capital, and became masters of the empire,
B.C. 821. "
" After the death of Sardanapalus,'- says Mr. Playfaitj
" the Assyrian empire was divided into three kingdoms :
namely, the Median, Assyrian, and Babylonian. ArbaJ
la^H
I
ASS
[ 137]
ASS
ces retained the supreme authority, and nominated gov-
ernors in Assyria and Babylon, who were honored with the
title of kings, while they remained subject and tributary to
the Persian monarchs. Belesis," he says, " a Chaldean
priest, who assisted Arbaces in the conquest of Sardanapa-
ius, received the government of Babylon as the reward of
his services ; and Phul was intrusted with that of Assyria.
The Assyrian governor gradually enlarged the boundaries
of his kingdom, and was succeeded by Tiglath-pileser,
Salmanasar, and Sennacherib, who asserted and main-
tained their independence. After the death of Esar-had-
don, the brother and successor of Sennacherib, the king-
dom of Assyria was split, and annexed to the kingdoms
of Media and Babylon. Several tributary princes after-
wards reigned in Nineveh ; but we hear no more of the
kings of Assyria, but of those of Babylon. Cyaxares,
king of INIedia, assisted Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon,
in Ihe siege of Ninevelij which they took and destroyed,
B. C. 6013':"
The history of Assyria, deduced from scripture, and ac-
knowledged as the only authentic one by Sir Isaac New-
ton and many others, ascribes the foundation of the
monarchy to Pul, or Phul, about the second year of Ble-
nahem, king of Israel, twenty-four years before the era of
Nabonassar, fifteen hundred and seventy-nine years after
the flood, and, according to Blair, seven hundred and
sixty-nine, or, according to Ne%vton, seven hundred and
ninety years before Christ. Menahem, having taken for-
cible possession of the throne of Israel by the murder of
Shallum, (2 Kings 15: 10.) was attacked by Pul, but pre-
vented the hostilities meditated against him by presenting
the invader with a thousand talents of silver. Pul, thus
gratified, took the kingdom of Israel under his protection,
returned to his own country, after having received volun-
tary homage from several nations in his march, as he had
done from Israel, and became the founder of a great em-
pire. As it was in the days of Pul that the Assyrians
began to afliict the inhabitants of Palestine, (2 Kings 11:
9. 1 Chron. 5: 26.) this was the time, according to Sir
Isaac Newton, when the Assyrian empire arose. Thus
he interprets the words, " since the time of the kings of
Assyria ;" (Nehem. 9: 32.) that is, since the time of the
kingdom of Assyria, or since the rise of that empire. But
though this was the period in which the Assyrians afflicted
Israel, it is not so evident that the time of the kings of
Assyria must necessarily be understood of the rise of the
Assyrian empire. However, Newton thus reasons ; and
observes, that " Pid and his successors afflicted Israel, and
conquered the nations round about them ; and upon the
ruin of many small and ancient kingdoms erected their
empire ; conquering the Medes, as well as other nations.''
It is further argued, that God, by the prophet Amos, in
, the reign of Jeroboam, about ten or twenty years before
the reign of Pul, (see Amos 6: 13, 14.) threatened to raise
up a nation against Israel; and that, as Pul reigned
presently after the prophecy of Amos, and wa.s the first
upon record who began to fulfil it, he may be justly reck-
oned the first conqueror and founder of this empire. (See
1 Chron. 5: 26.) Pul was succeeded on the throne of
Assyria by his elder son Tiglath-pileser ; and at the same
time he left Babylon to his younger son, Nabonassar,
B. C. 747. Of the conquests of this second king of As-
syria against the kings of Israel and Syria, when he look
Damascus, and subdued the Syrians, we have an account
in 2 Kings 15: 29, 37. 16: 5, 9. 1 Chron. 5: 26. by which
the prophecy of Amos was fulfilled, and from which it
appears that the empire of the Assyrians was now become
great and powerful. The next king of Assyria was Shal-
maneser, or Salmanassar, who succeeded Tiglath-pileser,
B. C. 729, and invaded Phoenicia, took the city of Sama-
ria, and, B. C. 721, carried the ten tribes into captivity,
• placing them in Chalach and Chabor, by the river Gazon,
and in the cities of the IMedes. 2 Kings 17: 6. Shalmane-
ser was succeeded by Sennacherib, B. C. 719 ; and in the
year B. C. 714, he was put to flight with great slaughter
by the Ethiopians and Egyptians. In the year B. C. 711,
the Medes revolted from the Assyrians: Sennacherib was
slain ; and he was succeeded by his son Esar-Haddon,
Asserhaddon, Asordan, Assaradin,or Sarchedon, by which
names he is called by different writers. He began bis
18
reign at Nineveh, in the year of Nabonassar, 42; and in
the year 68 extended it over Babylon. He then carried
the remainder of the Samaiilans into captivity, and
peopled Samaria with captives brought from several parts
of his kingdom ; and in the year of Nabona.ssar 77 or 78,
he seems to have put an end to the reign of the Ethiopi-
ans over Egypt. " In the reign of Sennacherib and
Asser-Haddon," says Sir Isaac Newton, " the Assyrian
empire seems arrived at its greatness ; being united undei
one monarch, and containing Assyria, Media, ApoUoni-
atis, Susiana, Chaldia, ]\lesopotamia, Cilicia, Syria, Phoe-
nicia, Egypt, Ethiopia, and part of Arabia; and reaching
eastward into Elymais, and ParfPtaecene, a province of
the Medes ; and if Chalach and Chabor be Colchis and
Iberia, as some think, and as may seem probable from the
circumcision used by those nations till the days of Hero-
dotus, we are also to add these two provinces, with the two
Armenias, Pontus, and Cappadocia, as far as to the river
Halys : for Herodotus tells us thai the people of Cappa-
docia, as far as to that river, were called Syrians by the
Greeks, both before and after the days of Cyrus ; and that
the Assyrians were also called Syrians by the Greeks."
Asser-Haddon was succeeded in the year B. C. 668, by
Saosduchinus, At this time, Manasseh was allowed to
return home, and fortify Jerusalem ; and the Egyptians
also, after the Assyrians had hareissed Egypt and Ethio-
pia three years, (Isa. 20: 3, 4,) were set at liberty. Saos-
duchinus, after a reign of twenty years, was succeeded at
Babylon, and probably at Nineveh also, by Chyniladon, in
the year B. C. 647. This Chj'niladon is supposed hy
Newton to be the Nebuchodonosor mentioned in the book
of Judith, (1: 1 — 15,) who made war upon Arphaxad, king
of the Medes ; and, though deserted by his auxiliaries of
Cihcia, Damascus, Syria, Phcenicia, Moab, Ammon, and
Egypt, routed the army of the Medes, and slew Arphaxad.
Tliis Arphaxad is supposed to be either Dejoces or his son
Phraortes, mentioned by Herodotus. Soon after the death
of Phraortes, in the year B. C. 635, the Scythians invaded
the Medes and Persians ; and in 625, Nabopolassar, the
commander of the forces of Chyniladon in Chaldea, re-
volted from him, and became Iringof Babylon. Chynila-
don was either then or soon after succeeded at Nineveh
by the last king of Assyria, called Sarac by Polyhistor.
The authors of the Universal History suppose Saosduchi-
nus to have been the prince, who in the book of Judith is
called Nebuchodonosor. Following up his successes, he
reduced many of the cities in Media, stormed the cele-
brated capital Ecbatana, and levelled it with the ground,
after which he returned in triumph to Nineveh, the capi-
tal of his dominions. No sooner were the rejoicings for
this victory over, than he resolved to punish the nations
who had refused to assist him ; and for that purpose sent
Holofernes, the general of his army, to destroy by fire and
sword all that should oppose him. The command, dic-
tated by revenge, was executed with cruelly, and the
march of Holofernes through Mesopotamia was marked
by desolation and blood. The brave inhabitants of Be-
thulia first dared to oppose his progress. Fired with in-
dignation, he invested the city, cut off every supply of
water, and reduced the place to the utmost distress. The
beauty and the intrepidity of Judith, if we may give credit
to the book which bears her name, saved her city and
country from inevitable destniction. Approaching the
hostile camp, she insinuated herself into the tent and affec-
tions of Holofernes ; and in the dead of night, when her
watchful eye observed him buried in sleep and irine,
severed his head from his body with his own sword, and
escaped to her friends. The death of the leader struck
his army with consternation, and in their sudden flight
they lost their baggage, and were pursued with great
slaughter. Nebuchodonosor seems not long to have sur-
vived the destruction of his army, and his throne was
filled by Sarac.
At length, Nebuchadnezzar, the son of Nabopolassar,
married Amyit, the daughter of Aslyages, king of the
Medes, and sister of Cyaxares ; and by this marriage the
two families having conti-acted affinity, they conspired
against the Assyrians. Nabopolassar being old, and As-
lyages dead, their sons Nebuchadnezzar and Cyaxares led
Ihe armies of the two nations against Nineveh, slew Sa-
AST
[138 J
AST
rac, destroyed the city, and shared tlie kingdom of the
Assyrians. This victory the Jews refer to the Chaldeans ;
the Greeks, to the Medes ; Tobit, (14: 15.) Polyhistor, and
Ctesias, to both. With this victory commenced the great
successes of Nebuchadnezzar and Cyaxares, and it laid
the foundation of the two collateral empires of the Baby-
lonians and Medes, which were branches of the Assyrian
empire ; and hence the time of the fall of the Assyrian
empire is determined, the conquerors being then in their
youth. In the reign of Josiah, when Zephaniah prophe-
sied, Nineveh and the kingdom of Assyria were standing ;
and their fall was predicted by that prophet. Zeph. 1: 3.
2: 13. And in the end of his reign, Pharaoh-Necho, king
of Egypt, tlie successor of Psammetichus, went up against
the king of Assyria to the river Euphrates, to fight against
Carchcmish, or Circutium ; and in his way thither slew
Josiah, (2 Kings 23: 29. 2 Chron. 33: 20.) and therefore
the last king of Assyria -was not yet slain. But in the
third and fourth years of Jehoiakim, the successor of Jo-
siah, the two conquerors having taken Nineveh, and fin-
ished their war in Assyria, prosecuted their conquests
westward ; and leading their forces against the king of
Egj'pt, as an invader of their right of conquest, they beat
him at Carchemish, and took from him whatever he had
recently taken from the Assyrians ; (2 Kings 24: 7. Jer.
4(3: 2.) " and therefore we cannot err," says Sir Isaac
Newton, " above a year or two, if we refer the destruc-
tion of Nineveh, and fall of the Assyrian empire, to the
third year of Jehoiakim," or the hundi'ed and fortieth, or,
according to Blair, the hundred and forty-first, year of Na-
bonassar ; that is, the 3'ear B. C. 607.
Of the government, laws, rehgion, learning, customs,
&c., of the ancient Assyrians, nothing absolutely certain
is recorded. Their kingdom was at first small, and sub-
sisted for several ages under hereditary chiefs ; and their
government was simple. Afterwards, when they rose to
the sublimity of empire, their govemment seems to have
been despotic, and the empire hereditary. Their laws
were probably few, and depended upon tiie mere will of
the prince. To Ninus we may ascribe the division of the
Assyrian empire into provinces and governments ; for we
find that this institution was fully established in the reigns
of Semiramis and her successors. The people were dis-
tributed into a certain number of tribes ; and their occu-
pations or professions were hereditary. The Assyrians
had several distinct councils, and several tribunals for the
regulation of public affairs. Of councils there w'ere three,
which were created by the body of the people, and who
governed the state in conjunction with the sovereign. The
first consisted of officers who had retired from military
employments ; the second, of the nobility ; and the third,
of the old men. The sovereigns also had three tribunals,
whose province it was to watch over the conduct of the
people. The Assyrians have been competitors with the
Egyptians for the honor of having invented alphabetic
writing. It appears, from the few remains now extant of
the writing of these ancient nations, that their letters had
a great affinity with each other. They much resembled
one anotiier in shape ; and they ranged them in the same
manner, from right to left. — Jones ; Watson.
ASTAROTH, or Astarte, or Ashtoreth ; the name
of one of the Syrian deities, called by Jeremiah " the
queen of heaven," (ch. 7: 18, and 44: 17 — 25.) A temple
was erected to this idol, at the city of Hierapolis in Syria,
where three hundred priests attended at her altar, and were
constantly employed in offering sacrifices. Solomon, se-
duced from liis allegiance to the God of his fathers through
the influence of his foreign wives, introduced the worship
of Ashtoreth in Israel, and built a temple to her on the
mo^lnt of Olives. 1 Kings 11: 4—8. 2 Kings 23: 13.
Milton, in the first book of his Paradise Lost, 1. 437, &c.,
thus refers to this object of idolatrous worship :
With these in troops
Came Ashtoreth, whom the Phcenicians calf'd
Astarte, queen of Ueav'n, with crescent horns ;
To whose bright image nightly by the moon
Sidonian virgins paid their vows and songs,
In Sion also not unsung, where stood
Her temple on Ih' offensive mountain, built
By that uxorious Iting, whose heart, though large,
Beguil'd by fair idolatresses, fell
To idols foul.
Her temple at Aphac, on mount Libanus, is said to have
been a perfect stew of lewdness, a very school of the most
beastly lusts, there practised by her votaries, because Ve-
nus was supposed to have had her first intercourse in that
place with her beloved Adonis. — Gibbon's Rome, vol. i.
chap. 6. ; Jo7ies.
ASTAROTH, Astaroth-Caenaih, or Carenaim, or
Cahnea, (Gen. 14: 5.) was a city beyond Jordan, six miles
from Adraa, or Ediei, between that city and Abila. There
were two places named Astaroth, in the Batanea, nine
miles from each other, between Abila and Adraa. There
was also a Carnai'm, as Eusebius says, not far from Je-
rusalem. (See Carnaim.) Astaroth Carnai'm is supposed
to be derived from the goddess Astarte, adorned there,
who was represented with horns, or a crescent : for car-
naim signifies horns. 2 Mac. 12: 26. mentions a temple
of the goddess Atargatis, in Camion. Atargatis was the
same as Derceto, of Askelon, represented as a woman
with the lower parts of a fish, called by the Hebrews,
Dagon, or the god-fish. (See Dago:«.)
ASTARTE. (See Astaroth.)
ASTELL, (Mary;) an English lady, eminent for her
piety and erudition, was born 1668, and died 1731. She
exerted herself much to raise the standard of female edu-
cation ; and her vigorous pen advocated both the rights of
her sex, and the doctrines of the Church of England.
Living and conversing with the fashionable world, she yet
lived a life of holiness ; severe in virtue, serene in mind,
and cheerful in manner and conversation. She would
often say, ' that the real Christian alone has reason to be cheer-
ful; but he ought to be so always.' Her habits were ab-
stemious ; regarding teinperance as essential to study, as
well as to the spirit of devotion, and occasional abstinence
as her best physic. She enjoyed uninterrupted health,
until, late in life, she was seized with a fatal cancer in her
breast. This she long endured ; and at length submitted
to its amputation with patience and intrepidity. Finding
her dissolution drawing near, she ordered her coffin and
shroud to be made and brought to her bedside, that her
thoughts might not wander from the steady contemplation
of God and the world to come, — Betham ; Davenport.
ASTONIED ; astonished.
ASTONISHMENT ; a kind or degree of wonder intro-
duced by surprise. This emotion always relates to things
of the highest importance ; to things which appear too
vast and extensive for the grasp of intellect, rather than
to any thing of an intricate nature. The body marks in
a striking manner the singular state of the mind under
this emotion. The eyes are firmly fixed, without being
directed to any particular object ; the character of counte-
nance, which was formed by the habitual influence of
some predominant affection, is for a time efiaced ; and a
suspension of every other expression, a certain vacuityj
strongly notes this state of mind. — Buck. (See AmazE'
MENT, Wonder, Wine.)
ASTROLOGERS ; such as by observation of the stars
and sky, and calculations relative thereto, pretend to forfr
tell future events : they were famous among the heathen,
chiefly at Babylon. Isa. 47: 13. Dan. 1: 20.^Brown.
ASTROLOGY; the art of foretelling future events,
from the aspects, positions, and influences of the heavenly
bodies. The word is compounded o{ aster, star, and logos.
discourse ; whence, in the literal sense of the term, astro-
logy should signify no more than the doctrine or science
of the stars. Astrology judiciary, or judicial, is what we
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commonly call simple astrology, or that which pretends to
foretell mortal events, even those which have a dependence
on the free will and agency of man ; as if they were di-
rected by the stars. This art, which owed its origin to
the practice of knavery on credulity, is now universally
exploded by the intelligent part of mankind. Judicial
astrology is commonly said to have been invented in
Chaldea, and thence transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks,
and Romans ; though some will have it of Egyptian
origin, and ascribe the invention to Cham. But we derive
it from the Arabians. The Chaldeans, and the Egyptians,
and indeed almost all the nations of antiquity, were infa-
tuated with the chimeras of astrology. It originated in
the notion, that the stars have an inliuence, either bene-
ficial or malignant, upon the affairs of men, which may
be discovered, and made the ground of certain prediction,
in particular cases : and the whole art consisted in apply-
ing astronomical observations to this fanciful purpose.
Diodorus Siculus relates, that the Chaldeans learned these
arts from the Egyptians ; and he would not have made
this assertion, if there had not been at least a general tra-
dition that they were practised from the earliest times in
Egypt. The system was, in those remote ages, intimately
connected with Sabianism, or the worship of the stars as
divinities ; but v.hether it emanates from idolatry or fa-
tality, it denies God and his providence, and is therefore
condemned in the Scriptures, and ranked mth practices
the most offensive and provoking to the Divine Majesty.
— Watson. (See Astronomy.)
ASTRONOMY. The interests of agriculture and navi-
gation required some knowledge of astronomy. An evi-
dence that an attempt was made, at a very early period,
to regulate the year by the annual revolution of the sun,
may be found in the fact, that the Jewish months were
divided into thirty days each. Gen. 7: 11. 8: 4. In
astronomy, the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Phcenicians
exhibited great snperiority. We are informed, there were
magicians or enchanters in Egypt, (Exod. 7: 11. Lev. 20:
27." 19: 31. Deut. 18: 20.) denominated in Hebrew mek-
skephim, because they computed eclipses of the sun and
moon, and pretended to llie people, that they produced
them by the efficacy of their own enchantments. Some
of the constellations are mentioned by name in Job 9: 9.
3S: 31, 32. Isa. 13: 10. Amos 5: 8. 2 Kings 23: 5.
It is by no means a matter of wonder, that the Hebrews
did not devote greater attention to astronomy, since the
study of astrolog!/, which was intimately connected with
that of astronomy, and was very highly estimated among
the neighboring nations, Isa. 47: 9. Jer. 27: 9. 1: 35.
Dan. 2: 13, iS.. was interdicted to the Hebrews. Deut.
18; 10. Lev. 20: 27. Daniel, indeed, studied the art of'
astrology at Babylon, but he did not practise it. Dan. 1:
20. 2: 2. The astrologers (and those wise men mention-
ed. Matt. 2: appear to have been such,) divided the heavens
into apartments or habitations, to each one of which
apartments they assigned a ruler or president. This fact
developes the origin of the word, bcelzeboul, or the Lord of
the {celestial) dwelling. Matt. 10: 25. 12:21,27. Mark
3: 22. Lulve 11: 15 — 19. — Home's Introduction.
I. ASTYAGES, otherwise Cyaxakes, king of the Medes,
^"l ;cessor of Pliraortes, reigned forty years, and died A.
Jl. 3109, ante A. D. 595. He had a son, called Astyages,
or Darius ; and two daughters, Maudane and Amyit. For
Astyages, or Darius, or Ahasuerus, see the following ar-
ticle. Amyit married Nebuchadnezzar, son of Nabopo-
lassar, king of Chaldea, and was mother of Evil-merodach.
Standaue married Carabyscs the Persian, and was mother
of Cyrus. — Calmet.
II. ASTYAGES, otherwise Ahasuerus, (Dan. 9: 1.) or
Aktaxerxes, (Dan. 6:' 1. &r.) or Darius the Mede, (Dan.
5: 31.) or Cyaxares, (by his father's name,) or Apandas,
was, by his lather, Cyaxares, appointed governor of I\Ie-
dia, and sent with Nabopolassar, king of Babjiou, against
Sarac, (or Chiniladanus,) king of Assyria, whom they
besieged in Nineveh, took that city, and dismembered the
Assyrian empire. (See Assy'eia.) Astyages was with
Cyrus at the conquest of Babylon, and succeeded Belshaz-
zar, king of Babylon. Dan. 5: 30, 31. A. BI. 3147.
Cyrus succeeded him, 34515, Dan. 13: 65. See Isa. 13: \i:
2i: 15: 40: 17. Jcr. 50: 5\.:— Calmet.
ASUPPIM, HOUSE OF. This word occurs 1 Chror.
26: 15. Asuppim signifies collections. Hence the phra.se
is used evidently for a store-house ; probably of precious
things, connected with the temple.
ASYLUM. This word signifies a sanctuary, whither
unfortunate persons might retire for security from their
enemies, and from whence they could not be forced. Jt
has been supposed that Hercules' grandsons were tlie in-
stitutors of these places of refuge, in Greece, if not in Eu-
rope; for, apprehending the resentment of those whom
Hercules had ill-treated, they appointed an asylum or
temple of mercy at Athens. Cadmus erected another at
Thebes, and RomuUis another at Rome, on mount Pala-
tine. That of Daphne, near Antioch, was very famous.
2 Mace. 4: 34. Theseus built an asylum at Athens in
favor of slaves, and of the poor who should fly thi'.hcr,
from the oppression of the rich. There was one in iLe
isle of Calauria. — Tlie temples of Apollo at Delphi, of
Juno at Samos, of Esculapius at Delos, of Bacchus at
Ephesus, and many others in Greece, had the privilege.^
of being astjla. Romulus gave this right to a wood ad-
joining the temple of Vejovis. (Virgil, JEneid. viii. 342.)
Ovid speaks of a wood near Ostium, that enjoyed the same
privilege. (Fast. 1. 1.) Austin observes, (de Civit. lib.
i. cap. 34.) that the whole city of Rome was an asyluiu
to all strangers. — The number of these privileged pla'ces
was so much increased in Greece, under the emperor Ti-
berius, that he \vas obliged to recal their licenses, and to
suppress them. (Sueton. in Tiberio. Tacit. Annal. lib.
iii. cap. 6.) But his decree was little observed after his
death.
The altar of burnt sacrifices, and the temple at Jerusa-
lem, were sanctuaries. Hither Joab retired; (1 Kings 2:
28, 29, 31.) but Solomon observing that he would not quit
the altar, ordered him to be killed there. Moses com-
mands (Exod. 21: 14.) that any who had committed mur-
der, and Qed for protection to the altar, should be dragged
from thence. Sanctuaries were not for the advantage of
wicked men, but in favor of the innocent, when attacked
unjustly. When criminals retired to the sanctuary of a
temple, they were either starved, or forced thence, by fires
kindled around them. (See Refuge.) — Calmet.
ATAD. At Atad's threshing-fioor (Gen. 1: 11.) the
sons of Jacob, and the Eg>'ptians who accompanied them,
mourned for Jacob ; whence it was afterwards called
Abel-Mizraim, " the mourning of the Egyptians." (See
Abel-Mizraui.) — Calmet.
ATAROTH. There are several cities of this name : — -
1. One in the tribe of Gad, beyond Jordan, (Numb. 32:
3, 34.) the same, probably, w-ith Atroth-Shophan, given to
this tribe, verse 35. — 2. Another on the frontiers of
Ephraim, between Janohah and Jericho, (Josh. 1(3: 7.)
probably Ataroth-Addar, 1(5: 5. 18: 13. — 3. Ataroth
Beth-Joab, in Judah. 1 Chron. 2: 54. — Calmet.
ATHALIAH ; daughter of Ahab, king of Israel, and
wife of Joram, king of Judah. Her history is given in
the eleventh chapter of 2 Kings, and is fearfully monitory .
Racine has written a tragedy upon it.
ATHANASIUS, tlio celebrated patriarch of Alexandria,
was born in that city about 296. At the council of Nice,
though then but a deacon of Alexaadi'ia, his reputation
for skill in controversy gained him an honorable place in
the council, and with signal ability he exposed the sophis-
try of those who pleaded on the side of Anus. Six
months after, he was appointed the successor of Alexan-
der. Notwithstanding (he influence of the emperor, who
had recalled Arius from banishm.eut, and upon a plausible
confession of his faith, in which he a fleeted to be orthodox
in his sentiments, directed that h>' should be received by
the Alexandrian church. Athanasius refused to admit him
to communion, and exposed his prevarication. The
Arians upon this exerted themselves to raise tumults at
Alexandria, and to '.djure the character of Athanasius
with the emperor, ',rho was prevailed upon by falsehooti.s
to pronounce against him a sentence of banishment. In
the beginning of the reign of Constantius, he was recalled
to his happy people, but was again disturbed and deposed
through the influence of the Arians. Accusations were
also sent against him and other bishops fro'J the east to
the west ; but they were acquitted by pope Jnlius in fuh
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council. Athanasius was restored a second time to his
sse upon the death of the Arian bishop, who had been
placed in it. Arianism, however, being in favor at court,
he was condemned by a council convened at Aries, and
by another at Milan, and was a third time obliged to fly
into the deserts. His enemies pursued him even here,
and set a price upon his head. In this situation, Athana-
sius composed writings full of eloquence to strengthen the
faith of believers, and expose the falsehood of his enemies.
He returned 'with the other bishops whom Julian the apos-
tate recalled from banishment, and in A. D. 3(i2, held a
council at Alexandria, where the belief of a coHsubstantial
Trinity was openly professed. Many now were recovered
from Arianism, and brought to subscribe the Nicene
creed. Bat his peace was again interrupted by the com-
plaints of the heathen, whose temples the zeal of Athana-
sius kept always empty. He was again obliged to fly to
save his life. The accession of Jovian brought him back.
During the reign of Jovian, also, Athanasius held another
council, which declared its adherence to the Nicene faith ;
and with the exception of a short retirement under Valens,
he was permitted to sit down in quiet and govern his af-
fectionate church of Alexandria, until his death, in 373.
Of the forty-six years of his oflicial life, he spent twenty
in banishment.
Athanasius, (says the Encyclopedia Americana,) is one
of the greatest men of whom the church can boast. His
deep mind, his noble heart, his invincible courage, his
living faith, his unbounded benevolence, sincere humility,
lofty eloquence, and strictly virtuous life, gained the honor
and love of all. In all his \\Titings, his style is distinguish-
ed for clearness and moderation. The best edition is that
of Montfaucon, Paris, 1698.
Athanasius was an eminent instrument of maintaining
the truth, in an age when errors atfecting the great foun-
dation of our faith were urged with great subtlety. The
Scripture doctrine of the Trinity, as explained by him, at
length triumphed over the heresies which at one time met
with so much supflort and sanction ; and the views of
Athanasius have been received, in substance, by all ortho-
dox churches to the present time. — Wnlson ; Encyclopedia
Americana.
ATHANASIANS ; the orthodox followers of St. Atha-
nasius, the great and able antagonist of Arius. The
Alhanasian creed, though generally admitted not to be
drawn up by this father, (but probably, as Dr. Water-
land says, by Hilarj', bishop of Aries, in the fifth century,)
is universally allowed to contain a fair expression of his
sentiments. This creed says, " The catholic faith is this :
that we worship one God in trinity, and trinity in unity :
neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the sub-
stance. For there is one person of the Father, another of
the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But the God-
head of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is
all one ; the glory equal, the majesty co-eternal. Such as
the Father is, such is the Son, and such is the Holy
Ghost ;" namely, " uncreate, incomjirehensible, eternal,"
&c. " The Father is made of none, neither created nor
begotten. The Son is of the Father alone ; neither made
nor created, hit begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father
and the Son ; neither made, nor created, nor begotten, hid
proceeding,"
The true key to the Athanasian creed lies in the know-
ledge of the errors to which it was opposed. The Sabelli-
ans considered the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit as one in
person ; — this was " confounding the persons :" the Arians
considered them as differing in essence — three beings ; —
this was " dividing the substance :" and against the.se two
hypotheses was the icreed originally framed. And since
every sect was willing to adopt the language of Scripture,
it was thought necessary to adopt scholastic terms, in or-
der to fix the sense of Scripture language.
The eternal generation of the Son "of God forms an
essential part of this creed, as well as of the Nicene : it is
on this principle that the Son is called " God of God, Light
of Light, very God of very God; begotten, not made ;" —
which certainly does not apply to the human nature of
Christ, which was " made of a woman — made under the
law." Most certain it is, that many of the Christian fa-
thers maintain this mysterious doctrine of eternal genera-
tion ; and it has had able defenders, down to Dr. J. Owev.
Dr. Waterland, Dr. Edward Williams, and Andrew Fuller.
On the other hand, Trinitarians equally zealous have con-
sidered the opinion as both inconsistent in itself, and de-
rogatory to the Son of God — " as implying derivation and
inferiority" — though certainly not so intended by the
Athanasians. Dr. Watts, and other advocates for the pre-
exisience of Christ's human soul, have considered the pro-
duction of this first of creatures, as the highest sense in
which our Savior is in Scripture called " the Son of God."
— Doddridge's Worlts, (Parsons's edit.) vol. v. p. 182.
If on this subject the writer might, as an individual,
express his own sentiments, the chief fault in the creed
itself is, its overstepping the modesty of Scripture, and
attempting to define, with accnraci,', where the sacred
writers seem designedly to have left the subject under the
veil of mystery. The Supreme Being is, in all respects,
so infinitely above the conception of men, and perhaps of
angels, that it becomes us to conduct all speculations
relative to the Deity v\ath reverence, and even awe ; to
veil our faith under the wings of devotion, as the seraphim
cover their faces while they worship.
But the most exceptionable part of this creed lies in
what are commonly called " the damnatory clauses" —
" Whosoever will be saved, before all things it is necessa-
ry that he hold the catholic faith ; which faith, except
every one do keep whole and undefiled, without doubt he
shall perish everlastinglt/. And the catholic faith is this" —
proceeding to the statements of the doctrine of the trinity
above given. Now it is most certain, that we cannot use
too much caution on this subject. The Scripture indeed
speaks of faith in Christ as necessary to salvation, but re-
fers rather, perhaps, to the vital principle itself, than to
any form of confession ; and it seems above all things im-
proper to mingle anathemas with our devotions. This
has led many of the Engli.sh clergy and bishops, to wish
they were " well rid" of this creed altogether, which is
certainly a prevailmg sentiment ; and were the question
now put, on admitting this formulary into the church ser-
vice, there are, perhaps, but few, comparatively, that
would vote for it. However orthodox it may be, it does
not appear to be written in a Christian spirit. (See Asi-
ans.)— Watson; Williams; Dr, Waterland's Cr. Hist, of
the Athanasian Creed ; Eev. T. H. Home's Scripture Doc-
trine of the Trinity ; Burnett on the Articles, art. ii. and
viii. ; Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 62.
ATHEIST, in the strict and proper sense of the word,
is one who does not believe in the existence of a God, or
who owns no being superior to nature. It is compounded
of the tw-o terms, a, negative, and theos, God, signifying
without God. Atheists have been also known by the name
infidels ; but the word infidel is now commonly used to
distinguish a more numerous party, and is become almost
synonpnous with deist. He who disbelieves the existence
of a God, as an infinite, intelligent, and a moral agent, is
a direct or speculative atheist ; 'le who confesses a Deity
and providence in words, but deK es them in his life and
actions, is a practical atheist. That atheism existed in
some sense before the flood, may be suspected from what
we read in Scripture, as well as from heathen tradition ;
and it is not very unreasonable to suppose, that the deluge
was partly intended to evince to the world a heavenly
power, as Lord of the universe, and superior to the visi-
ble system of nature. This was at least a happy conse-
quence of that fatal catastrophe ; for, as it is observed by
dean Sherlock.' " The universal deluge, and the confusion
of languages, had so abundantly convinced mankind of a
divine power and providence, that there was no such crea-
ture as an atheist, till their ridiculous idolatries had tempt-
ed some men of wit and thought, rather to own no God
than such as the heathens worshipped."
Atheistical principles were long nourished and cherish-
ed in Greece, and especially among the atomical, peripa- ,
tetic, and sceptical philosophers ; and hence some have
ascribed the origin of atheism to the philosophy of Greece.
This is true, if they mean that species of refined athe-
ism, which contrives any impious scheme of principles
to account for the origin of the world, without a Di-
vine Being. For though there may have been in for-
mer ages, and in other countries, some perscms irri;'i.
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gious in principle ns well as in practice, yet we kuow of
none who, forming a philosophical scheme of impiety, be-
came a sect, and erected colleges of atheistical learning:,
till the arrogant and enterprising genius of Greece under-
took that detestable work. Carrying their presumptuous
and ungoverned speculations into the very essence of the
di\'inity, at first they doubted, and at length denied, the
existence of a first cause independent of nature, and of a
providence that superintends its laws, and governs the
concerns of mankind. These principles, with the other
improvements of Greece, were transferred to Kome ; and,
excepting in Italy, we hear little of atheism, for many
ages after, the Christian era. " For some ages before the
Reformation," says archbishop Tillotson, " atheism was
confined to Italy, and had its chief residence at Rome.
Uut, in this last age, atheism has travelled over the Alps
and infected France, and now of late it hath crossed the
seas, and invaded our nation, and hath prevailed to
amazement." However, to Tillotson, and other able
writers, we owe its suppression in England ; for they
pressed it do«Ti with a weight of soimd argument, from
which it has never been able to raise itself For although
in our tune, in France and Germany a subtle atheism was
revived, and spread its unhallowed and destructive influ-
ence for many years throughout the continent, it made
but little progress in that better-instructed nation.
Atheism, in its primarj' sense, comprehends, or at least
goes beyond, every heresy in the world ; for it professes
to acknowledge no religion, true or false. The two lead-
ing hypotheses which have prevailed, among atheists, re-
specting tliis world and its origin, are, that of Ocellus Lu-
canus, adopted and improved by Aristotle, that it was eter-
nal ; and that of Epicurus, that it was formed by a fortui-
tous concourse of atoms. " That the sotil is material and
mortal, Christianity an imposture, the Scripture a forgery,
the worship of God superstition, hell a fable, and heaven
a dream, our life without providence, and our death with-
out hope, like that of asses and dogs, are part of the glo-
rious gospel of our modern atheists."
The being of a God may be proved from the marks of
design, and from the order and beauty visible in the
world ; from universal consent ; from the relation of cause
and effect ; from internal consciousness ; and from the
necessity of a final as well as an efficient cause.
Of all the false doctrines and foolish opinions that ever
infested the mind of man, nothing can possibly equal that
of atheism, which is such a monstrous contradiction of all
evidence, of all the powers of understanding, and the dic-
tates of common sense, that it may be well questioned
whether any man can really fall into it by a deliberate
use of his judgment. All nature so clearly points out,
and so loudly proclaims, a Creator of infinite power, wis-
dom, and goodness, that whoever hears not its voice, and
sees not its proofs, may well be thought wilfully deaf, and
obstinately Mind. If it be evident, self-evident to every
man of thought, that there can be no effect without a
cause, what shall we say of that manifold combination of
effects, that series of operations, that system of wonders,
which fill the universe, which present themselves to all
our perceptions, and strike our minds and our senses on
every side ? Every faculty, every object of every faculty,
demonstrates a Deity. The meanest insect we can see,
the miuuiest and most contemptible weed we can tread
upon, is really suflicient to confound atheism, and baffle
all its pretensions. How much more that astonishing
variety and multiplicity of God's works with which we
are continually surrounded ! Let any man survey the
face of the earlh, or lift up his eyes to the firmament ; let
him con.sider the nature and instincts of brute animals,
and afterwards look into the operations of his own mind,
and will he presume to say or suppose that all the objects
he meets mth are nothing more than the result of unac-
countable accidents and blind chance ? Can he possibly
conceive that such wonderful order should spring out of
confusion ? or that such perfect beauty should be ever
formed by the fortuitous operations of unconscious, inac-
tive panicles of matter? As well, nay better, and morfe
easily, might he suppose that an earthquake might happen
to build towns and cities ; or the materials carried down by a
flood fit themselves up without hands into a regular fleet.
For what are towns, cities, or fleets, in comparison of the vast
and amazing fabric of the universe ! In short, atheism of-
fers such violence to all our faculties, that it seems scarce
credible it should ever really find any place in the human
understanding. Atheism is unreasonable, because it gives
no tolerable account of the existence of the world. This
is one of the greatest difficulties with which the atheist
has to contend. For he must suppose either that the
world is eternal, or that it was formed by chance and a
fortuitous concourse of the parts of matter. That the
world had a beginning, is evident from universal tradition,
and the most ancient hi.story that exists ; from there be-
ing no memorials of any actions performed previously to
the time assigned in that history as the era of the crea-
tion ; from the origin of learning and arts, and the liabili-
ty of the parts of matter to decay. That the world was
not produced by chance, is also evident. Nothing can be
more unreasonable than to ascribe to chance an eflcct
which appears with all the characters of a wise design
and contrivance. "Will chance fit means to ends, even in
ten thousand instances, and not fail in a single one ?
How often might a man, after shaking a set of letters in a
bag, throw them on the ground, before they would become
an exact poem, or form a good discourse in prose ? In
short, the arguments in proof of Deity are so numerous,
and at the same time so obvious to a thinldng mind, that
to waste lime in disputing with an atheist, is approaching
too much towards that irrationality, which may be consi-
dered as one of the most striking characteristics of the
sect.
The more noted atheists, since the Reformation, are Ma-
chiavel, Spinoza, Hobbes, Blount, and Vanini. To these
may be added Hume, and Voltaire, the coryphaeus of the
sect, and the great nursing father of that swarm of them
which has appeared in these last days.
Dr. Samuel Clarke, in his " Demonstration of the Being
of a God," says, that atheism arises either from stupid ig-
norance, or from corruption of principles and manners, or
from the reasonings of false philosophj' ; and he adds,
that the latter, who are the only atheistical persons capa-
ble of being reasoned with at all, must of necessity own,
that, supposing it cannot be proved to be trae, yet it is a
thing very desirable, and which any wise man would wish
to be true, for the great benefit and happiness of man,
that there was a God, an intelligent and mse, a just and
good Being, to govern the world. Whatever hypothesis
these men can possibly frame, whatever argument they
can invent, by wdiich they would exclude God and provi-
dence out of the world ; that very argument, or hypothesis,
will of necessity lead them to this concession. If they
argue, that our notion of God arises not from nature and
reason, but from the art and contrivance of politicians ;
that argument itself forces them to confess, that it is mani-
festly for the interest of human society, that it should be
believed there is a God. If they suppose that the world
was made by chance, and is every moment subject to be
destroyed by chance again ; no man can be so absurd as
to contend, that it is as comfortable and desirable to live
in such an uncertain state of things, and so continually
liable to ruin, without any hope of renovation, as in a
world that is under the preservation and conduct of a
powerful, wise, and good God. If they argue against the
being of God, from the faults and defects which they ima-
gine they can find in the frame and constitution of the
visible and material world ; this supposition obliges them
to acknowledge that it would have been better the world
had been made by an intelligent and wise Being, who
might have prevented all faults ajd imperfections. If
they argue against providence, from the faultiness and
inequality which they think they discover in the manage-
ment of the moral world ; this is a plain confession that
it is a thing more fit and desirable in itself that the world
should be governed by a just and good Being, than by
mere chance or uninteUigent necessity. Lastlj', if they
suppose the world to be eternally and necessarily self-ex-
istent, and consequently that every thing in it is establish-
ed by a blind and eternal fatality ; no rational man can
at the same time deny, but that liberty and choice, or a
free power of acting, is a more eligible state, than to be
determined thus in all our actions, as a stone is to move
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dovpnward, by an absolute and inevitable fate. lu a word,
which way soever they turn themselves, and whatever
hypothesis they make, coneernins; the original and frame
of things, nothing is so certain and undeniable, as that
man, considered ^^■ithout the protection and conduct of a
superior Being, is in a far worse case than upon supposi-
tion of the being and government of God, and of nien's
being under his peculiar conduct, protection, and favor. —
Watson; Fuh:y's Nat. Theology; Gisborne's do. ; Dwiglit's
Theology, vol. i. sermons 1, 2, and 3.
ATHENAIS, (afterwards Elia Eudocia,) empress of
the East, was the daughter of Leontinus, an Athenian phi-
losopher, -n'ho gave her a most elegant and liberal educa-
tion. To the learning and philosophy of the Greeks she
added the arts of elocution and music. Her father at his
death left all his property to her two brothers, except one
hundred pieces of gold, saying in his will, that " her une-
qvalkd merit ivas a svjfieknt portion." This merit, hou'ever,
was certainly no apology for such manifest injustice ;
irnieh was aggravated by the harsh treatment of her bro-
thers, who forced her to take refuge with an aunt on her
mother's side. Her amu took her to Constantinople,
about the year 420, and made the princess Pulcheria ac-
quainted with her situation. This princess, struck with
her singular beauty, learning, and modesty, found means
of making the admii-able qualities of her fair protegee
known to her brother Theodosius, surnamed the Young.
To him Athenais was soon married, and was acknowledg-
ed empress of the East in 422. Before her marriage she
embraced Christianity ; the spirit of which she exercised
towards her brothers. On hearing of her good fortune,
they had fled ; but she caused them to he brought to Con-
stantinople, obtained their forgiveness of the emperor, and
their elevation to stations of honor and trust. " I regard
you " said she, "as the instruments of ruy elevation. It
was not your cruelty, but the hand of Providence which
brought me here, to raise me to the throne."
A. rayed in the imperial purple, she still cultivated her
studies -ndlh ardor, and in every department of the sciences
then known, was thought to equal any philosopher of the
other sex. Her poems were the admiration of her o'n n
and succeedmg ages. She translated into verse the Pen-
tateuch, Joshua, Judges. Euth, together with the prophe-
cies of Daniel and Zechariah. The learned Pholius speaks
highly both of the merit of the poetry, and of the fidelity
of the translations ; so that her name was ranked among
theologians, as well as among the literati ; and this while
at the head of a magnificent court !
About the year 442, falling under the suspicion of the
emperor for some trifling cause, she obtained leave to re-
tire to Jerusalem. Here, indignant at the murder of some
of her friends, she stained her exalted character by an act
of revenge, which she afterwards never ceased to lament.
The remaining twenty years of her life were spent in acts
of benevolence and usefulness. — Bedinm.
ATHENS ; a citv of ancient Greece, distingui.<;hed not
merely for political greatness, and military power, but
rendered still more illustrious bv the slory it acquired
tajits, and from the arts and scien^ "s which were indebted
to it either for their origiji or their perfection.
Athens was situated on the Saronic gulf, opposite to the
eastern coast of the Pelopoimesus. It was inclosed in a
sort of peninsula, formed by the confluence of the two
rivers, the Ilissus and the Cephlsus. From the sea, on
which its greatness and importance so essentially depend-
ed, it lay at the distance of about four m.iles. It was sur-
rounded by walls of great extent and strength, and had
three harbors, the Pyrpcus, Munychia, and Phalerus. A
bay, f'rmed by projecting rocks, furnished a species of
triple harbor, at once spacious and secure, and the sur-
rounding shore was covered with edifices, the splendor of
which soon rivalled those of Athens itself. These har-
bors were joined to the city by a double range of walls,
called " the long walls," of which the north side extending
to Pii'aeus was five miles ; the south, which branched ofi'
to Phalenis, was four miles and a quarter in length ; and
that encompassing the Pirreus with Munychia was seven
miles and a half. These walls were built of hewn st-Jne,
and so broad that carriages could cross each other upon
them.
In the centre of the city itself, and constituting its chief
ornament, stood the Acropolis, the glory of the Grecian
art. On this elevation the whole of Athens was originally
built ; but as the city extended, the Acropolis came to serve
merely the purpose of a citadel. Here were accumulated
all those works of ornament c>f which Athens was so pro-
lific ; the Acropolis became the grand depository for every
thing the most splendid which human genius could pro-
duce in painting, sculpture, and architecture. But its
prime ornament was the Parthenon or virgin temple of
Minerva, an rn "rnving of which is here given ; a splen-
'if^-^?^-^,:''"^^^-^^a^s:-^
\ i(.w of IModi
from the learnmg, eloquence, and politeness of its mhabi-
The Panlie;ion.
did edifice, two hundred and seventeen feet in length, and
ninety-eight in breadth. Destroyed by the Persians, it
was rebuilt by Pericles with great additional splendor.
Av'ithiu was the statue of Minerva, by Phidias, the master-
piece of the art of statuary. It was of ivory, thirty-nine
feet in height, and entirely covered with pure gold, to the
value of twenty-four talents, or one hundred and twenty
thousand pounds sterling, nearly five hundred thousand
dollars. It is now in ruins, and presents an appearance
of great desolation. The Propylea also, of white marble,
formed magnificent entrances to the Parthenon. This
edifice was on the north side of the Acropolis ; and near it
was the Erectheura, of white marble also, consisting of
t KO temples, one dedicated to Blincrva, the other to Nep-
tune, besides a remarkable edifice called the Pandroseum.
In front of the Acropolis, and at each end, were the two
theatres, called the theatre of Bacchus, ami the Odeum :
the one designed for dramatic representations, and the
other for music, both of extraordinary magnificence. But
though the principal treasures of the Athenian art were
accumulated in the Acropolis, the city itself contained
many noble structures, among which were the gallery of
historical engravings, the tower of the winds, with nume-
rous monuments of illustrious men. Two of its most
ATH
[143]
ATH
splendid ornaments, however, were -w-ilhout the walls.
These were the temple of Theseus, and of Jupiter Olym-
pius, situated the one on the north, and the other on the
south side of ilu- i ii \ . Tli< f n ni' r v, :\,- nf the Doric order
of architecture ; and the latter of the Corinthian. In fact,
the temple of Jupiter Olympius surpassed, if possible,
every other structure of which Athens could boast. Im-
mense sums were expended upon it by the Atheuians ;
"ditions were made to it by successive sovereigns ; and
at length the fabric was completed by the emperor Adrian.
The exterior contained about one hundred and twenty
fluted columns, sLxty feet high, and six in diameter. Tlie
enclosure was half a mile in circumference.
Besides these wondrous productions of art, Athens pre-
sented other scenes, sacred in the eyes of posterity by the
classical associations to which they give rise. The Aca-
demy where Plato taught, was about three quarters of a
mile to the north- of the town. The Lyceum, where Aris-
totle diffused the light of science, and which from him be-
came the seat of the Academic school, was situated on
the north side of the city, beyond the river Ilissus. Near
It was the less famous Cynosarges, where Antisthenes
delivered his instructions, and founded the Cynic school.
Zeno chose the portico called P;Ecile, for the place of his
lectures; an edifice embellished with representations of
Athenian victories. Epicurus, fond at once of society and
of rural scenery, was the first to introduce a garden within
the walls, thus enjoying at the same instant these two
kinds of luxury. But political associations conspired
equally with such as were literary, to give interest to par-
ticular districts of Athens. The hill of Areopagus, where
that august assembly pronounced its decisions ; the Pry-
taneum, or senate-house ; the Pnyx, or forum in which
the sovereign people of Athens met to deliberate ; all
these places, without being particularly splendid in them-
selves, become interesting by the importance of the events
of which they were the theatre.
The rehgion of the common people of Athens consisted
in prayers, sacrifices, and puritications. They repaired
to the temples of their respective deities with downcast
eyes, and dejected countenances ; they kissed the ground,
jfl'ered their prayers, standing, or on their knees, or pros-
trate ; and held branches in their hands which they lifted
up towards heaven, or stretched out towards the statue of
the god, after applying it to their mouths. In addressing
the infernal deities, they struck the earth with their feet
or hands. Some pronounced their devout addresses in a
low voice ; but Pythagoras wished them always to be
uttered aloud, that nothing might be asked which could
excite a blush. The priests were the principal ministers
of religion ; next to them were the soothsayers and inter-
preters of omens. Their worship was originally perform-
ed in the open air, upon the tops of mountains, and on
these spots temples were afterwards erected, and dedi-
cated to Jupiter, to Apollo, and their other deities. There
were several orders of priests, and among them one was
denominated " high-priest," who had the superintendence
of the rest. Some temples were served by prieEtesses,
and particularly that of Bacchus. Their altars were con-
structed of various materials, and of different dimensions,
according lo tne variety of gods to whom they were con-
secrated. Both temples and altars were places of refuge,
or asylum, for malefactors and criminals of all descrip-
tions ; and it was deemed an act of sacrilege to force tliero
from their sanctuary. Their sacrifices were also of vari-
ous kinds, according to their object or design, the materials
of which they consisted, and the places in which th°y
were offered, as well as the ceremonies that attended
them. As public worship was prescribed by one of the
fundamental laws, and therefore closely connected witli
the constitution, it was impossible to attack their supersti
tion without endangering that constitution ; it was conse-
quently the duty of magistrates to maintain it, and to op-
pose all innovations visibly tending to its destruction.
This celebrated city aftbrds a striking instance of a fact
which has often been mentioned by the friends of revela-
tion in their controversies with the deists, namely, of how
little avail the highest advantages of civilization, of hu-
man learning, and of philosophy are, in teaching men the
knowledge of the true God, and that worship which is ac-
ceptable to him. Athens enjoyed all these advantages in
a measure which scarcely any other city that ever existed
in the world could boast of. The activity, the emulation,
the free scope to talents of every description, which were
excited by her popular form of government, raised her to
the highest pinnacle of political consequence. The multi-
tude of great men in every department, who followed each
other in splendid succession, even to her la.'it decline, is
altogether unexampled. In every branch of science, of
philosophy, and of literature, Athens was renowned. But
what was its state in regard to the subject of religion ?
Luke, the sacred historian, has informed us, that when
the apostle Paul visited it, A. D. 52, his soul was moved
at beholding so fine a citj' "wholly given up to idolatry."
Acts 17: 16. " Profcs-ing Iheiiiseives to be wise, they be-
came fools ; and chany^d the glory of the incorruptible
God into an image made like lo corruptible man." Rom.
1: 22, 23. From the earliest times, the objects of religious
worship multiplied among the A licnians. They received
the twelve principal divinities from the Lg^'ptians, and
added to them others from the Lybians and different na-
tions ; and so fearful were they of neglecting any deity,
or of being found deficient in their religious worship, that
they dedicated an altar " to the unknown God." In pro-
cess of time, a law was enacted, prohibiting, under pain
of death, the introduction of any foreign worship, with ut
a decree of the Areopagus. (See Areopagus.)
On the place where the great apostle boie his noble tes-
timony against idols, and decl.ired to tiiem ihe God whom
they ignorantly worshipped. Dr. E. D. Clarke, the travel-
ler, remarks, " It is not possi',j|.-> to conceive a situation of
greater peril, or one more calculated to prove the sincerity
of a preacher, than that in which the apostle was here
placed ; and the truth of this, perhaps, will never be bet-
ter felt than by a spectator, who from this eminence actu-
ally beholds the monuments of pagan jiomp and supersti-
tion by which he, whom the Athenians considered as the
setter forth nf strange gods, was then surrounded : repre
senting to the imagination the disciples of Socrates and of
Plato, the dogmatist of the porch, and the sceptic of the
academy, addressed by a poor and lowly man, who, ' rude
in speech,' without the ' enticing words of man's wisdom,'
enjoined precepts contrary to their taste, and very hostile
to their prejudices. One of the peculiar privdeges of the
Areopagites seems to have been set at defiance by the zeal
of St. Paul on this occasion ; namely, that of inflicting
extreme and exemplary punishment upon any person who
should slight the celebration of the holy mysteries, or
blaspheme the gods of Greece. We ascended to the sum-
mit by means of steps cut in the natural stone. The sub-
lime scene here exhibited is so striking, that a brief de-
scription of it may prove how truly it offers to us a com-
mentary upon the apostle's words, as they were aelivered
upon the spot. He stood upon the top of the rock, and
beneath the canopy of heaven. Belore him there was
spread a glorious prospect oi mountains, isiamls. seas, and
sines ; behind him towered the lofty Acropolis, crowned
with all its marble temples. Thus every object, whether
ATO
[ 144
ATO
in the face of nature, or among the works of art, conspired
to elevate the mind, and to fill it with reverence towards
that Being who made and governs the world. Acts 17: 24,
28. ; who sitteth in that light which no mortal eye can
approach, and yet is nigh unto the meanest of his crea-
tures ; in whom we live, and move, and have our being."
— Jones; Watson; Travels of Anacharsis, vol. ii. ch. 12;
Gillies' History of Greece, vol. ii. ; Young's History of
Athens.
ATHOCIANS : certain sectaries in the third century,
who maintained the mortality of the soul, and other er-
rors.— Centur. Magdch. cent. 13. c. 5 ; Williams.
ATONEMENT, THE DAY OF, was the tenth of Tizri,
which nearly answers to our September. The Hebrews
call it kippuT, or chippur, pardon, or expiation, because
the faults of the year were then expiated. The principal
ceremcnies were the follu\ving : The high-priest, after he
had washed, not only his hands find his feet, as usual at
common sacrifices, but his whole body, dressed himself in
plain linen like the other priests, wearing neither his pur-
)ile robe, nor the ephod, nor the pectoral, because he was
to expiate his own sins, together with those of the people.
He first offered a bullock and a ram for his own sins, and
those of the priests, putting his hands on the heads of the
victims, and confessing his own sins, and the sins of his
house. Afterwards, he received from the princes of the
people two goats for a sin-offering, and a ram for a burnt-
offering, to be offered in the name of the whole nation.
The lot determined which of the two goats should be sa-
ciificed, and which set at liberty. Af^ter this, the high-
priest put some of the sacred fire of the altar of burnt-
offerings into a censer, threw incense upon it, and entered
with it, thus smolring, into the sanctuary. After having
perfumed the sanctuary with this incense, he came out,
took some of the blood of the young bullock he had sacri-
ficed, carried that also into the sanctuarj', and dipping his
fingers in it, sprinkled it seven times between the ark and
the veil, which separated the holy from the sanctuary, or
most holy. Then he came out a second time, and beside
the altar of burnt-offerings killed the goat which the lot
had determined to be the sacrifice. The Wood of this
goat he carried into the most holy place, and sprinkled it
seven times between the ark and the veil, which separat-
ed the holy from the sanctuary; from thence he returned
into the court of the tabernacle, and sprinkled both sides
of it with the blood of the goat. During this time, none
of the priests, or people, were admitted into the tabernacle,
or injo the court. This being done, the high-priest came
to the altar of burnt-offerings, wetted the four horns of it
with the blood of the goat, and young bullock, and sprin-
kled it seven times with the same blood. The sanctuary,
the court, and the altar, being thus purified, he directed
the goat which was set at liberty by the lot, to be brought
to him, which being done, he put his hand on the goat's
head, confessed his own sins, and the sins of the people,
;; [id then delivered it to a person to carry it to some desert
]ilace, and let it loose, or throw it down some precipice.
(See Scape Goat.) This being done, the high-priest wash-
ed himself all over in the tabernacle, and putting on other
clothes, (some think his pontifical dress, his robe of pur-
ple, the ephod, and the pectoral,) sacrificed two rams for a
burnt-offering, one for himself, and the other for the peo-
ple. The day was a great solemnity of the Hebrews ; a
d.\y of rest, and of strict fasting. Leo of Modena, Bux-
torf, and others, have collected many particulars relative
to .he solemnities of this day, from the rabbins, as may
be seen in the larger edition of Calmet. — Calmet.
ATONEMENT. The term in the Hebrew language,
which we translate atonement, is copher. As a verb, it
literally signifies to cover ; and, as a noun, a covering.
Generally, wherever the word occurs, something that has
given serious offence, and produced a permanent state of
variance between the parties, is supposed ; and then, in
relation to the party offended, it signifies to pacify, to ap-
pease, or to render him propitious, as Gen. 32: 20. Ezek.
16: 63. "When applied to sin, it signifies to cover, or to
expiate it ; to atone, or make satisfaction for it. Ps. 32:
1. Lev. 16: 30. When the term respects the sinner him-
self, it implies his being covered or protected from punish-
ment, and is rendered a ransom or atonement for him.
Exod. 21: 30. Ch. 30: 12, 15. This seems to be the
plain, unforced meaning of the Hebrew word copher ; and
when we look into the Greek version of the Old Testament,
by the Seventy, we find it translated ilus/nos, propitiation ;
and " to make an atonement" they express by the word
exilaskomai, which signifies " to render propitious." —
Hence, the apostles, who wrote in Greek, when referring
to the death of Christ, make use of the very same terms
which are applied to the legal sacrifices in the Septuagint
version of the Old Testament ; representing the former
not only as a real and proper sacrifice, but as the truth
and substance of all the sacrifices of the Levitical law,
and the only true and efficacious atonement for sin. Heb.
9: passim, and ch. 10: 1 — 19. As, therefore, the Greek
word ilasmos is expressly applied to Christ, 1 John 2: 2.
Ch. 4: 10. and as it gives the true signification of the ori-
ginal word when applied to an atoning sacrifice, we must
either admit that the sacrifice of Christ was a real atone-
ment or propitiation for sin, or be reduced to the alterna-
tive of denying all that the Scripture says respecting the
design and the effect of sacrifices.
The atonement, properly speaking, is a moral and not a
commercial transaction. Crimes may be atoned for, hut
debts cannot be. Debts are transferable, crimes are not ;
the former may be mere accidents, but the latter enter in-
to the essence of moral character. If debts are assuined
and paid by a third person, the- first is of right ac-
quitted from farther obligation. But if atonement is offer-
ed by a third person for crimes, and the atonement is
accepted, the acquittal of the first from punishment is still
an act of grace ; since the criminal is no less personally
deserving of punishment than before. Hence our justifi-
cation before God, through the redemption which is in Christ
Jesus, is said to be freely, by his grace, and according to the
riches of his grace. Rom. 3: 24. Ephes. 1: 7.
In cases where the party offendmg is unable to render
adequate atonement in his own person, and where the
punishment could not be endured by him without ruining
him — as is the case in all capital offences — if the suffering
of another be accepted in his stead, the atonement thus
made by a substitute is technically termed a vicarious
atonement. This is a case that rarely happens in human
governments. Yet this is the case in relation to the
atonement made by Christ. He was wounded for our trans-
gressions ; he was bruised for our iniquities ; the chastisement
of our peace was upon him ; and by his stripes we are healed.
Isa. 53: (See Substitution.)
It may be well here to state clearly the Scripture sense
of the terms wrath and propitiation, as applied to God, in
treating this great subject. Rom. 1: 18. 5: 9. 3: 25. 1
John 4: 10. By the wrath of God, then, is meant, not a
turbulent passion, much less a settled implacability ; but
that moral sentiment of justice, which exists in perfection in
the Infinite Mind, and which dictates the punishment of
sin. By propitiation is meant that which, in a given case,
makes it proper and just for God to exercise his viercy in for-
giving sin .
As to the question whether the atonement be general, or
limited, " that controversy," as Mr. Malcom observes,
" has ever seemed rather the result of misunderstanding
between the parties, or of each party looking too exclu-
sively to those aspects of the doctrine, which seemed
best to comport with their system of theology. In some
respects the atonement is general ; in others limited : in
respect of sufficiency it is infinite ; in respect to its appli-
cation in the final salvation of men it is limited; but in no
respect is it indefinite."
Some writers (as Taylor in Calmet) confound atonement
with reconciliation. But the appeal to etymology in defence
of this confusion of ideas is but egregious trifling, unwor-
thy of a subject so vast and solemn. And as to Rom. 5:
11. it is well known that the original word there used is ;
not ilasmos, but katallangen, and should have been render-
ed reconciliation. It is God, and not man, who receives ;
the atonement ; but believers, as the whole context shows, j
receive reconciliation through Christ. The former provides t
the way, and secures the existence of the latter, in harmo-
ny with all the Divine perfections. They differ, therefore, |
as cause and effect differ ; and it is from confounding th!s j
distinction, that the most fundamental errors have beeoJ
ATO
r 145 ]
ATO
palmed upon tlie world wilh a show of plausibility- la
the New TeslameiU, as well as in the Old, the atonement
is represented as the ground and basis of reconciliation to
God. 2 Cor. 5: 18—21. Heb. 9: 15. Rom. 3: 21—20.
5: 1—21.
Neither is the term atonement to be confounded, as is
frequently done, with tlie term reikmplion. Between these
two terms there are plain differences ; and no one without
a perception of these difl'erences, can treat this great sub-
ject with lucidness or accuracy. They dilfer in object
and design, and of course are of a difierenl nature ; so
that things may be truly affirmed of one, which cannot be
truly affirmed of the other. First, they differ in object.
Atonement is offered to God as its object ; redemption is
purchased or procured for men as its object. Atonement
is a sacrifice offered ; redemption is a benefit conferred.
Stccmdly, they differ in desigyi. The design of the atone-
nieiit is to render God propitious, as the Sovereign Ruler ;
tl.e design of redemption, to make man everlastingly
blessed. Hence, tkirdhj, they differ in nature. Atone-
ment being made to God, and made by a sacrifice of ines-
timable value, is in its own nature infinite ; nor is it pos-
sible for us to conceive how its intrinsic worth and glory,
or its efficacy and adaptation to its end, could be increased.
Its suffidenaj is infinite ; for who can overrate " the pre-
cuiusMnod of Christ," or take exact account of his "um-
scarchnble riches'" Its end was '' tliat God might be just,
find the justijier of him that belieueth in Jesus." This end
was infinitely desirable ; for iuinvolves an infinite good,
g'ori/ to (rod in the highest, on earth peace, and good-will to
men. But this end the atonement has accomplished. God
IS JUST, AND THE JUSTIFIEK OF HIM THAT BELIEVETH IN JeSUS.
Its efficacy, therefore, is complete. It could not be more
so. By one offering of himself, says the apostle, he hath
perfected forever them that are sanctified. Heb. 10: 11,
Christ is the end of the laic for righteousness to every one that
-believeth. Eom 10: 10. iVIio shall lay any thing to the
charge of God's elect ? It is God that justifieth. Who is he
that anidemneth ? It is Christ that died; yea, rather that is
risen again ; ivho is also at the right hand of God, and vho
maketh intercession for us. Rom. 8: 33. 34. Is not that
atonement then in its nature infinite, which is sufficient
to satisfy God, the infinite Lawgiver and Judge, in the re-
mission of sin to every one who cordially confides in it ;
and which so effectually repairs the injury done by sin as
to justify Him in the sight of the whole universe for so
doing ? Can we talk of limits to the value of such a sacri-
fice ? Can we a.ssigTi bounds to the efficacy of such an
expiation ? Can we apply terms of measurement to the
nature of such an atonement for sin ? Is not the covering
ample enough to protect a universe from the punishment
xif sin, were they all in need of its protection, and to re-
sort to it for shelter ?
Redemption, on the contrary, is in its very nature defi-
nite. It has an inseparable relation to men, as its object ;
and therefore in its very nature is limited to the number,
for whom its price is paid, in whose behalf it is accepted,
and on whom the blessing is actually bestowed. Re-
demption is not expiation for sin, but the deliverance of
men from sin, by means of such an expiation. Hence,
Christ is said by his oivn blood to have obtained eternal re-
demption for us. Heb. 9: 12. Hence, the word redemp-
tion is used for pardon, which is our actual deliverance from
punishment, Ephes. 1: 7. Col. 1: 14. — for sanctificntion,
which is our actual deliverance from the dominion of sin,
1 Pet. 1: 18. Isa. 59: 20. — and for th-e resurrection ,v;\\\q.\\ is
the actual deliverance of our bodv from the grave at the
last day. Rom. 8: 23. Ephes. i: 14. 4: 30. Hence it
is clear that in Scripture usage, atonement and redemption
differ in their nature ; and that the one is the cause, and
the other the effect. Atonement is the ground of redemp-
tion. Isa. 53: 4 — 9. Redemption is the result of the
atonement. Isa. 53: 10 — 12. The atonement takes effect
by changing the relali<ins of God towards the guilty.
Bom. 3: 21. Redemption takes effect by changing the
relations of the guilty towards God. Rev. 11:4. The
former was completely finished on the cross. Dan. 9: 24.
John 19: 30. The latter is now in daily progressive ope-
ration, and will not be finished till the final consumma-
tion of all things. Ephes. 4: 30. The latter is a proper
19
subject of prayer; but not the former. Ps. 2t): 11. 130:
8. The atonement is definite only in design ; but in na-
ture, value, and sufficiency, is infinite, and in ailaptation
to the wants of sinners, universal. John 3: 10. Redemjv
tion, on the other hand, is personal in its nature, particu-
lar in its purpose and application, and, of course, limited
in its extent to the number of those who are actually made
partakers of its inestimable blessings, by faith in the Re-
deemer's blood. Acts 20: 28. Ephes. 5: 25—27. Titus
2: 14. Gal. 3: 10 — 14. In a word, atonement is the price
paid for the redemption of the church. By the blood of thy
covenant, I have sent forth thy prisoners out of tlie pit in which
there is no mater. Zech. 9; 11. Redemption is the free-
dom of the church, which was itself purchased by the
atonement. For thou wast slain, and hast redeemed us to
God by thy blood, out of every kindred, and tongue, and people,
and nation. Rev. 5: 9.
This doctrine of atonement, as thus stated, is the lead-
ing truth of Christianity, 1 Cor. 15: 3. and is styled by
St. Paul, from its distinguishing fact, the doctrine of the
" cross." and the doctrine of " Curist crucified." 1 Cor.
1: 17—24. Gal. 5: 11. 0: 12—14. This is that grand
peculiarity of the Gospel, which was then a stumbling-
block to the Jew, and foolishness to the Greek ; and which
in every age since has had to encounter the strongest op-
position from the various prejudices of the human heart.
It was indeed imbibed in its humbling and holy simplicitj'
by the primitive believers ; and was held fast in its purity
and glory by the persecuted Waldenses, that is, by the
true church, while the Mother of harlots was revelling in
the midnight darkness of a professed, but corrupted Gos-
pel. Its ascendency was in a measure restored at the
Reformation ; but only to encounter afresh similar opposi-
tion as at first, and from similar causes. For no%\', as
ever, " the preaching of the cross is to them that perish foolish-
ness ; but unto us which are saved it is the power of God."
" Errors on this subject," it has been well observed,
"sap the whole structure of religion. All the great out-
lines of theology become vague and incoherent notions,
when deprived oi' their connection with this central truth.
By necessary consequence, erroneous systems of religion
originate chiefly in wrong views of the atonement." Pa-
pists add human merit to Christ's, and then, as if this
were not sufficient, superadd penance and purgatory ;
thus falsifying the words of him who said on the cross. It
is finished. Arminians, regarding redemption as univer-
sal, have made it in every sense conditional ; and thus
denied the doctrine of gratuitous election. Socinians, de-
nying the necessity of an atonenu'ut in order to the for-
giveness of sin, reduce Christ to a mere man, and his
death to that of a martyr, sealing his doctrine with his
blood. Swedenborgians consider Christ's sufferings to
have been on his own account, not ours ; and hence dis-
card the imputation of his righteousness. Restorationists
contend that Christ died for all mankind ab.solutely, and
therefore all shall be ultimately saved. Universalists, (at
least, modern ones,) affirm that atonement simply means
reconciliation, and that Christ died mereh' to convince
mankind of the immutability of God's universal saving
love. Unitarians, in like manner, denying any proper
atonement, make Christ's dealh to he merely a powerful
means of improving our virtue. While Infidels, regard-
ing circumstances as the sole causes of virtue, and the
doctrine, miracles, hfe, and dealh of Christ, as altogether
unnecessary, reject the Bible altogether, as an imposition
on human credulity. Thus, in some form and to some
degree, error on this subject is radical in every erroneous
.S3'stem of religion.
It is painful to trace the progress of lax opinions on
this vital truth, for a century past. Spencer, Sykes, and
Warburton led the way, by their mode of treating the
Mosaic sacrifices. The immortal Butler, in his Analogy,
while asserting the efficacy of Christ's sacrifice to secure
the pardon of sin, had said with his usual modesty, '• How,
and in what particular way, it had this ellicacy, there are
not wanting persons who have endeavored to explain ; but
I do not find that the Sqripture has explained it," Dr, Tay-
lor, of Norwich, in his '' Scripture Doctrine of the Atone-
ment examined," and in his " Key to the .\postolic Writ-
ings," undertook this explanation, and gives the following
ATO
[ 146]
ATO
as Ills result : " By the tlood of Clirist, God discharges us
frota guilt, beccruse tie blood of Christ is the most powerful
mean of freeing us from the pollution and power of sin."
— " We have no sufficient ground to consider its virtue
and efficacy in any other light." He then goes on to say,
that by the blood of Christ is meant, not tlie corporeal sub-
stance— not the sufferings and death of our Lord — but
" the blood of Christ," says Dr. Taylor, " is his perfect
obedience and goodness." Thus by that species of sophis-
try which substitutes an effect for the cause ; which tells
one half of the truth, and overlooks or denies the other
half; together with an artful accommodation of Scripture
language to notions of his own ; he has succeeded in shut-
ting out from his scheme of atonement all reference to the
vindication of the Divine rectitude, and the satisfaction of
the Divine law, in which, according to the apostle, the
■whole nature and value of the atonement, as svch, consists.
(See Accommodation.) A writer in the sixth volume of
the Christian Observer, at the conclusion of a series of
valuable letters upon Dr. Taylor's Key, observes as fol-
lows : " The key of this author is not, I am persuaded,
the legitimate one. I should rather be tempted to resem-
ble it to some of those false keys, vulgarly called pick-
• locks. — The web of the key, to speak technically, is, in
those ingenious instruments, cut to as slender a form as is
consistent -with the strength necessary for turning the
bolt, in order that the chance of the impediment from the
wards may be as little as possible. But the lock with
which this theological adventurer had to do, was of such
a peculiar construction, as to resist every elibrt to open it,
except with tlie true key. The doctor gave some despe-
rate wrenches, and doubtless imagined that he had eflect-
ed his purpose, when he found the key turn in his hand.
But it has been discovered by others, that he did no more
than break it in the lock, and the bolt, for any thing
which he has done to remove it, remains where it was
before."
On Dr. Taylor's hypothesis, the name of atonement is
retained, though the thing itself is excluded. And his
theory may be regarded as that of the better sort of mo-
dern Unitarians. Yet there have arisen among them
bolder spirits, who discard the very name. Dr. Priestley,
in his Answer to Paine, had the temerity to affirm, "that
the doctrines of atonement, incarnation, and the trinity
have no more foundation in the Scriptures, than the doc-
trines of transubstantiation and transmigration." This
statement needs no comment. It must certainly have
been designed for those, whose knowledge of the Scrip-
tures was, like Mr. Paine's, somewhat superficial. (See
Christ crucified.)
2. A second hypothesis respecting the doctrine of atone-
ment, and which has even been embraced by some pro-
fessed Calvinists, differs in many important particulars
from that which has been already noticed. It consists in
admitting that the death of Christ was a sacrifice, propi-
tiation, or atonement for sin ; but then it denies that
there was any real, intrinsic value in it abstractedly con-
sidered, any thing that was calculated in its own nature
to effect the expiation of it, while it also resolves the
whole of its saving or atoning influence into Divine ap-
pointment. This is Butler's grand defect. And he has
been followed in it by Drs. Whitby, Price, Macknight,
and others.
Now although among these various writers there may
possibly exist some shades of difference, there are, never-
theless, certain leading points in which they all manifest-
ly agree ; such as, that the death of Christ was not abso.
lutely necessary to the salvation of sinfl»l men ; that God,
had it pleased him, might have saved sinners without the
intervention of his Son ; that other ways of saving the
eject were possible, and that there is no necessary con-
nection between the death of Christ and the pardon of
sill, except that which results from Divine appointment ;
for that the efficacy of the atonement does not arise from
the dignity of the sufferer, hut from its being the will of
God, that it sliould be so ; consequently, that the proper
divinity of the Son of God is not essentially connected
with the value of his sacrifice.
This hypothesis, though at first sight it may appear far
more plau,-.ib!r. than that of the Socinians, is liable to
many and insurmountable objections ; of which, in par-
ticular, two may be here mentioned. It impeaches the
wisdom of God as it appears in the economy of man's re-
demption ; and it has an equal tendency to depreciate in
our estimation the atonement which the Savior made. It
involves in it a bold reflection on the Divine wisdom, in-
asmuch as it supposes God to have effected that by great
means, which might have been equally well accomplish-
ed, as to every important result, by such as were inferior.
It is a maxim equally applicable to physics, to morals,
and to theology ; " Frustra fit per plura, quod fieri potest per
pandora." It is needless to eflect that by more instru-
ments, which may be done by fewer. Tliis axiom has
been formed, from contemplating the works and dispensa-
tions of God ; in which, whilst there is nothing defective,
we never discover any thing that is superfluous or redun-
dant. Admitting, therefore, the divinity of the Son of
God, it is not easy to perceive how any can deny it to be
essentially connected with the efficacy of his atonement ;
for if a divine person have suffered, " the just for the un-
just, that he might bring us to God," and if all this took
place by Divine appointment, we may rest satisfied, that
it was not only proper it should be so, but that nothing
less could have sulficed. The conclusion therefore seems
to be, that, had there been any other way by which sin
could be atoned for, the curse of a violated law removed,
and salvation consequently extended to guilty men, con-
sistent with the honor of the Divine government and the
perfections of Deity, Jehovah would certainly have spared
his own Son, and not have subjected him to those bitter
sufferings, both of soul and body, which we are told he
underwent. The force of this argument will equally ap-
ply in refutation of a maxim which has long been current
in the religious world, viz. " That one drop of the blootl
of Christ was sufficient to redeem the whole world,"
though it pleased God that he should sutler to the utmost.
But if that maxim were well founded, the question might
be fairly returned, " How shall we perceive the glory of
the Divine justice demonstrated, in punishing an innocent
person that might have been spared, and yet all the ends
that were to be answered by his being so punished have
been accomplished without it?" In fact, to affirm that
one drop of Christ's blood was sufficient to redeem the
world, is at once to impeach the goodness, the wisdom,
and the righteousness of the Supreme Governor of the
world, in not only causing the whole to be shed, but his
soul also to be made an offering for sin, which was alto-
gether unnecessary if that sentiment were true. It scarce-
ly need be added, that if, as the advocates of this hypo-
thesis affirm, the efficacy of the atonement arises solely
from its being appointed of God, and not from the dignity
of the sufferer, it would follow, that the blood of bulls and
of goats must have been as efficacious for putting away
sin, as the blood of Christ, for the former was as certainly
offered by Divine appointment as the latter ; but that doc-
trine stands opposed to the whole scope of the Epistle to
the Hebrews, in w-hich the apostle labors to evince the
total inadequacy of the former, and the infinite sufficiency
of the latter.
3. How sin may be forgiven, says Mr. Watson, without
leading to such misconceptions of the Divine character as
would encourage disobedience, and thereby weaken the
influence of the Divine government, must be considered
as a problem of veiy difficult solution. A government
which admitted no forgiveness, would sink the guilty to
despair ; a government which never punishes offence, is a
contradiction, — it cannot exist. Not to punish the guilty,
is to dissolve authority ; to punish without mercy, is to
destroy, and where allare guilty, to make the destruction
universal. That we cannot sin with impunity, is a mat-
ter determined. The Ruler of the world is not careless
of the conduct of his creatures ; for that penal conse-
quences are attached to the offence, is not a subject of
argument, but is matter of fact, evident by daily observa-
tion of the events and circumstances of the present life.
It is a principle, therefore, already laid down, that the
authority of God must be preserved ; but it ought to be
remarked, that in that kind of administration which re-
strains evU by penalty, and encourages obedience by fa-
vor and hope, we and all moral creatures are the interest-
1
A TO
I 147 ]
ATO
ed parties, and not the Divine Governor himself, whom,
because of his independent and all-sufficient nature, our
transgressions cannot injure. The reasons, therefore,
which compel him to maintain his authority, do not ter-
minate in himself. If he treats offenders with severity,
it is for our sake, and for the sake of the moral order of
the universe, to which sin, if encouraged by a negligent
administration, or by entire or frequent impunity, would
be the source of endless disorder and misery ; and if the
granting of pardon to offence be strongly and even severe-
ly guarded, so that no less a satisfaction could be accepted
than the death of God's own Son, we are to refer this to
the moral necessity of the case, as arising out of the gene-
ral welfare of accountable creatures, liable to the deep
evil of sin, and not to any reluctance on the part of our
Maker to forgive, much less to any thing vindictive in his
nature, — charges which have been most inconsiderately
and unfairly said to be implied in the doctrine of Christ's
vicarious sufferings. If it then be true, that the release
of offending man from future punishment, and his resto-
ration to the Divine favT)r, ought, for the interests of man-
kind themselves, and for the instruction and caution of
other beings, to be so bestowed, that no license shall be
given to offence ; — that God himself, whilst he manifests
his compassion, should not appear less just, less holy,
than he really is ; — that his authority should be felt to be
as compelling, and that disobedience should as truly,
though not unconditionally, subject us to the deserved
penalty, as though no hope of forgiveness had been ex-
hibited ; — we ask. On what scheme, save that which i.s
developed in the New Testament, are these necessary
conditions provided for ? Necessary they are, unless we
contend for a license and an impunit)' which shall annul
all good government in the universe, a point for which no
reasonable man will contend ; and if so, then we luust
allow that there is strong internal evidence of the truth
of the doctrine of Scripture, when it makes the offer of
pardon cimsequeut only r.pon the securities we have be-
fore mentioned. If it be said, that sin may be pardoned
in the exercise of the Divine prerogative, the reply is, that
if this prerogative were exercised towards a part of man-
kind only, the passing by of the rest would be with dil3i-
culty reconciled to the Divine char?.cter ; and if the benefit
were extended to all, government would be at an end.
This scheme of bringing men within the exercise of a
merciful prerogative, does n«t, therefore, meet the obvious
difBcully of the case ; nor is it improved by confining the
act of grace only to repentant criminals. For if repent-
tvuce imply a " renewal in the spirit of the mind," no cri-
minal v.-ould-of himself thus re|ient. But if by repentance
be meant merely remorse and terror in the im.mediate
view of danger, what offender, surrounded with the wreck
of former enjoyments, feeling the vanity of guilty plea-
sures, now past forever, and beholding the approach of
the delayed jienal visitation, but would repent ? \Ver»
the principle of granting partlon to repentance to icgulale
hnman governments, every criminal would escape, and
jiidicial forms would become a subject for ridicule. Nor
is it recognised by the Divine Being, in his conduct to
men in the present state, although in this world punish-
ments are not final and absolute. Repentance does not
restore health injured by intemperance ; property, wasted
by profusion ; or character, once stained by dishonorable
practices. If repentance alone couid secure pardon, then
all must be pardoned, and government dissolved, as in
the case of forgiveness by the exercise of mere preroga-
tive ; but if a merely arbitran,' selection be made, then
different and discordant principles of government are in-
troduced into the Divine administration, which is a dero-
gatory supposition.
The question proposed abstractedly. How may mercy
be extended to offending creatures, the subjects of the
Divine government, without encouraging vice, by lower-
ing the righteous and holy character of God, and the au-
thority of his government, in the maintenance of which
the whole universe of beings are interested ? is, therefore,
at once one of the most important and one of the most
difficult that can employ the human mind. None of the
theories which have been opposed to Christianity affords
a eatisfactory solution of the problem. They assume
principles either destructive of moral government, or
which cannot, in the circumstances of man, be acted
upon. The only answer is found in the holy Scriptures.
They alone show, and, indeed, they alone profes.5 to show,
how God maybe "just," and yet the "justifier" of the
ungodly. Other schemes show how he m,ay be merciful ;
but the difficulty does not lie there. The Gospel meets it,
by declaring '' the righteousness of God," at the same
time that it proclaims his mercy. The voluntary suflcr-
ings of the Divine Son of God '• for us," " the jiist for the
unjust," magnify the justice of God ; display his hatred
to sin ; proclaim " the exceeding sinfulness" of transgres-
sion, by the deep and painful manner in which they were
inflicted upon the Substitute ; warn the persevering offend-
er of the terriblcness, as well as the certaintj', of his pun-
ishment ; and open the gates of salvation to every
penitent. It is a part of the same Divine plan, also, to
engage the influence of the Holy Spirit, to awaken peni-
tence in man, and to lead the wanderer back to Himself;
to renew our fallen nature in righteousness, at the mo-
ment we are justified through faith, and to place us in
circumstances in which we may henceforth " walk not
after the flesh, but after the Spirit," All the ends of
government are here answered, — no license is given to
oflence, — the moral law is unrepealed, — a day of judg-
ment is still appointed,— future and eternal pimishmenis
still display their awful sanctions, — a new and singular
display of the awful purity of the Divine character is af-
forded,— yet pardon is offered to all who seek it ; and the
whole world may be saved.
With such evidence of the suitableness to the case of
mankind, imder such lofty views of connection with the
principles and ends of moral government, does the doc
trme of the atonement present itself. But other impor-
tant considerations are not vTinting to mark the united
wisdom and goodness of that method of extending mercy
to the guilty, which Christianity teaches us to have been
actually and exclusively adopted- It is rendered, indeed,
"worthy of all acceptation." by the circumstance of its
meeting the difficulties we have just dwelt upon, — diffi-
culties which could not otherwise have failed to make a
gloomy impression upon every offender awakened to a
sense of his spiritual danger ; but it must be very inatten-
tively considered, if it does not further commend itself to
us, by not only removing the apprehensions we might
feel as to the severity of the Divine Lawgiver, but as ex-
alting him in our esteem as " the righteous Lord, who
loveth righteousness," who surrendered his beloved Son
to suffering and death, that the inlluence of moral good-
ness might not be weakened in the hearts of his creatnres ;
and as a God of love, affording in this instance a view of
the tenderness and benignity of liis nature, infinitely more
impressive and affecting than any abstract description
could convey, or than any act of creating and providen-
tial povrer and grace could exhibit, and, therefore, most
suitable to subdue that enmity which had unnaturally
grown up in the hearts of his creatures, and \\hich, when
cornipt, they so easily transfer from a law which restrains
their inclination to the Lawgiver himself. If it be impor-
tant to us to know the extent and reality of our danger,
by the death of Christ it is displayed, not in description,
but in the most impressive action -, if it be important that
we should have an assurance of the Divine placability
towards us, it here receives a demonstration incapable of
being heightened ; if gratitude be the most powerful mo-
tive of future obedience, and one which renders command
on the one part, and active sen-ice on the other, "not
grievous but joyous," the recollection of such obligations
as those which the " love of Christ" has laid us under, is
a perpetual spring to this energetic affection, and will be
the means of raising it to higher and more delightful ac-
tivity forever. All that can most powerfully illustrate
the united tenderness and awful majesty of God, and the
odiousness of sin ; all that tan win back the heart of man
to his Maker and Lord, and render future obedience a
matter of affection and delight, as well as duty ; all that
can extinguish the angry and maUgnant passions of man
to man ; all that can "inspire a mutual benevolence, and
dispose to a self-denying charity for the benefit of others ;
all that can arou^ by hope, or tranqnillize by faith ; is to
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be found in the vicarious death of Christ, and the princi-
ples and purposes for which it was endured.
In order to understand the Tnanner wherem Christ be-
comes an atonement, " we should," says Dr. "Watts, " con-
sider the following propositions. 1. The great God hav-
ing made man, appointed to govern him by a wise and
righteous law, wherein glory and honor, life and immor-
tality, are the designed rewards for perfect obedience ;
but tribulation and wrath, pain and death, are the appoint-
ed recompense to those who violate this law. Gen. 3:
Rom. 2: 6, 16. 1: 32. — 2. All mankind have broken this
law. Rom. 3: 23. 5:12. — 3. God, in his infinite wisdom,
did not think fit to pardon sinful man, without some com-
pensation for his broken law ; for, 1. If the great Euler
of the world bad pardoned the sins of men without any
satisfaction, then his laws might have seemed not worth
the vindicating. — 2. Men would have been tempted to
persist in the rebellion, and to repeat their old offences. —
3. His forms of government among his creatures might
have appeared as a matter of small importance. — 4. God
had a mind to make a very illustrious display both of his
justice and of his grace among mankind ; on these ac-
counts he would not pardon sin without a satisfaction. — ■
5. Blan, sinful man, is not able to make any satisfaction
to God tor his own sins, neither by his labors, nor by his
sufferings. Eph. 2: 1, 8, 9. — 0. Though man be incapa-
ble to satisfy for his own violation of the law, yet God
would not suffer all mankind to perish. — 7. Because God
intended to make a full display of the terrors of his justice,
and his Divine resentment for the violation of his law,
therefore he appointed his own Son to satisfy for the
breach of it, by becoming a proper sacrifice of expiation
or atonement. Gal. 3: 10, 13.— 8. The Son of God being
immortal, could not sustain all these penalties of the law
which man had broken, without taking the mortal nature
of man upon him, without assuming flesh and blood.
Heb. 2: 13, 14. — 9. The Divine Being having received
."itich ample satisfaction for sin by the sufferings of hi.5
own Son, can honorably forgive his creature man, who
was the transgressor. Rom. 3: 25, 26. Now that this doc-
trine is true, will npj>f.ar, if we consider, 1. That an atone-
ment for sin, or an effectual method to answer the de-
mands of an oflended God, is the first great blessing guilty
man stow! in need of. Mic. 6: 6, 7. — 2. The very first
discoveries of grace which were made to man after his
fall implied in them something of an atonement for sin,
and pointed to the propitiation Christ has now made.
Gen. 3: 15. — 3- The train of ceremonies which were ap-
pointed hy Gfxl in the Jewish church are plain significa-
tions of such an atonement. 2 Cor. 3: Col. 2: 7, 8, 9.
Heb. 10: — i. Some of the prophecies confirm and explain
the iirst promise, and show that Christ was to die as an
atoning sacrifice for the sins of men. Dan. 9: 24 — 26.
Is. 53: — 5. Our Savior himself taught us the doctrine of
the atonement for sins by his death. Matt. 20: 28. John
(>: 51. Luke 22: 19. — 6. The terrors of soul, the conster-
nation and inward agonies which our blessed Lord sus-
tained a little before his death, were a sufficient proof that
he endured pnnishments in his soul which were due to
sin. Mark 14: 33. Heb. 5: 7.-7. This doctrine is de-
clared, and confirmed and explained at large, by the apos-
tles in their writings. 1 Cor. 15: 3. Eph. I: 7. 1 John
2: 2, iV:c. &c. — 8. This was the doctrine that was witness-
ed to the world by the amazing gifts of the Holy Ghost,
which attended the Gospel. See the Acts of the Apos-
tles.
The inferences and uses to he derived from this doctrine
are these : 1. How vain are all the labors and pretences of
mankind to seek or hope for any belter religion than that
which is contained in the Gospel of Christ. It is here alone
that we can find the solid and rational principle of recon-
ciliation to an offended God. Heb. 4: 14. — 2. How strange
and unreasonable is the doctrine of the popish church,
who, while they profess to believe the religion of Christ,
yet intiTxluce many other methods of atonement for sin,
besides the sufferings of the Son of God. See above.—
3. Here is a solid foundation, on which the greatest of
sinners tnay hope for acceptance with God. 1 Tim. 1: 15.
— 4. This doctrine should be used as a powerful motive to
excite repentance. Acts 5: 31. — 5. We should use this
atonement of Christ as our constant way of access to God
in all our prayers. Heb. 10: 19, 22. — 6. Also as a divine
guard against sin. Rom. 6: 1, 2. 1 Pet. 1: 15, 19. — 7.
As an argument of prevailing force to be used in prayer.
Rom. 8: 32. — 8. As a spring of love to God, and to his Son
Jesus Christ. 1 John 4: 10. — 9. As a strong persuasive
to that love and pity which we should show on all occa-
sions to our fellow creatures. 1 John 4: 11. — 10. It should
excite patience and holy joy under atBictions and earthly
sorrows. Rom. 5: 1—3. — 11. We should consider it as
an invitation to the Lord's supper, where Christ is set
forth to us in the memorials of his propitiations. — 12. As
a most effectual defence against the terrors of dying, and
as our joyful hope of a blessed resurrection. 1 Cor. 15:
50. — 13. Lastly, as a divine allurement to the upper
world. — Jones ; Watson -; Buck. See Watts's Ser. ser. 34,
35, 36, 37 ; Evans on the Atonement ; Dr. Owen on the Satis-
faction of Christ ; West's Scripture Doctrine of the Atom-
went ; Hervet/s Theron and Aspasio, dial . 3 ; Dr. Magee's
Discmtrses on the Atonement; Jerrani's Letters on ditto/
Griffin on ditto ; Stuart on ditto ; Malcom mi ditto.
ATTALIA ; a city of Pamphylia, which Paul and Bar-
nabas visited. Acts 14: 25. A. D. 45. It still subsists un-
der the name of SataHf. It was built (or refounded) by
Attains Philadelphus, king of Pergamos, who gave to it
his own name. — Calmet.
ATTENTION ; the state of the mind when it is steadi-
ly directed for some time, whether longer or shorter, to
some particular object of sense or intellect j and this so
exclusively that all other objects are for the time being
shut out. Job 37: 2. Frov. 4: 1. In all cases of atten-
tion, the act of the mind is a complex one, involving two
things. 1. The simple perception or series of perceptions
in view of the object. 2. The vivid emotion of interest
which accompanies the perception, and prevents that con-
tinual change of the object of thought which would other-
wise take place. On the strength of this emotion — the
desire to know the subject before its, more fully, definitely,
systematically, and thoroughly, and in preference to eve-
ry other — depends the power of attention. Intensity of
interest leads to singleness of purpose, and singleness o{
purpose enables the mind to keep its hold of the subject
undivided and unbroken.
Where the subject to be examined is complex, this pow-
er of patient and protracted attention is indispensable.
For as every complex whole is made up of parts, and as
the distinct perception of the whole iniplies a knowledge
of the relative situation of the different parts to each oth-
er ; so such a perfect comprehension of the object as a
whole, is the result of a series of successive acts of atten-
tion. Habit, however, immensely facihtates this process ;
so that the glance of the mind in the highest exercise of a
habit of attention is like lightning.
In agreement with this view of the subject, we often
speak of attention as great or small ; as existing in a very
high, or very slight degree. We commonly judge at first
of the degree of attention to a subject from the length of
time during which the mind is occupied with it. But
when we look a little farther, it will be found that the time
will generally depend upon the exclusiveness and permanencij
of the attendant emotion of interest ; from whatever cause
that interest may arise, competition, pleasure, or the sim-
ple sense of duty.
There have been mathematicians, (Archimedes, for ex-
ample,) who could investigate the most complicated pro-
blems amid every variety and character of disturbance.
Newton used to ascribe his superiority to other men, sim-
ply to his superior power o{ patient thought. The late Dr.
Scott composed one of his very best works in the midst of
his family ; frequently holding a child on one knee, and
with his other foot at the same time rocking an infant in
the cradle. President Dwight could at the same time
dictate to two amanuenses on different subjects, and bear
his part in the current of conversation. And of Julius
Caesar it is said, that while writing a despatch, he could
at the same time dictate four others to his secretaries ; and
if he did not write himself, could dictate seven letters at
once. These extraordinary powers of preserving, prolong-
ing, and at last of diversifying the attention, are the results
of habitually cultivating the power of attention, in coxacctioii
ATT
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AU D
Kith intellectual energy and order. And on the same habits
the strength of memory depends.
" Therefore," says the apostle, " we ought to give the
more earnest heed to the things that we have heard, lest
at any time we should let them sUp." Heb. 2: 1.
The knowledge derived from a discourse, says Robert
Hall, depends entirely upon attention ; in exact proportion
to which will be the progress made by a mind of a given
capacity. Not to listen with attention is the same thing
as to have ears which hear not, and eyes which see not.
While you are hearing, whatever trains of thought of a
foreign and extraneous nature obtrude themselves should
be resolutely repelled. In the power of fixing the atten-
tion, the most precious of the intellectual habits, mankind
differ greatly ; but every man possesses some, and it will
increase the more it is exerted. He who exercises no dis-
cipline over himself in this respect, acquires such a vola-
tility of mind, such a vagrancy of imagination, as dooms
him to be the sport of every mental vanity ; it is impossi-
ble such a man should attain to true wisdom. If we cul-
tivate, on the contrary, a habit of attention, it will become
natural, thought will strike its roots deep, and we shall,
by degrees, experience no difficulty in following the track
of the longest connected discour.se. As we find it easy to
attend to what interests the heart, and the thoughts natu-
rally follow the course of the affections, the best antidote
to habitual inattention to religious instruction, is the love
of the truth. Let the Word of Christ dwell in you richly,
and to hear it attentively will be a pleasure, not a task.
The practice of sleeping in places of worship, a practice,
we believe, not prevalent in any other places of public re-
sort, is not only a gross violation of the advice we are giv-
ing, but most distressing to ministers, and most disgrace-
ful to those who indulge it. If the apostle indignantly in-
quires of the Corinthians whether they had not houses to
eat and drink in, may we not with equal propriety ask
those who indulge in this practice, whether they have not
beds to sleep in, that they convert the house of God into a
dormitory ? A little self-denial, a very gentle restraint on
the appetite, would, in most cases, put a stop to this
abomination ; and with what propriety can he pretend to
desire the sincere milk of the Word, who cannot be pre-
vailed upon, one day out of seven, to refrain from the
excess which absolutely disqualifies him from receiving
it ? — Broren's Lectures on the Human Mind ; Upham's Ele^
menls ; Works of Rev. Eohert Hall, vol. i. p. 253.
ATTERBURY, (Bp. Francis,) son of Dr. Lewis After-
bury, was born at JliUon, in Buckinghamshire, in 1662 ;
educated at Westminster, and thence elected to Christ
church, in Oxford, where he soon distinguished himself
by his genius. In 1687, he was made master of arts, when
he exerted himself in the controversy with the papists,
vindicated Luther in the strongest manner, and discovered
an uncommon fund of learning, enlivened with great
vivacity. In 1690, he married Miss Osborn, a lady of
great beauty, but moderate fortune. About 1690, he took
orders, and in 1691 was elected lecturer of St. Bride's
church in London, and preacher at Bridewell chapel. He
was soon after appointed chaplain to king William and
queen Jlary. Alter various disputes and promotions, up-
on the accession of queen Anne, in 1702, Dr. Atterbury
was appointed one of her chaplains.
In the beginning of June, 1713, the queen advanced
him to the bishopric of Rochester. He was confirmed
July 4, and consecrated at Lambeth next day. The death
of the queen, in 1714, put an end to all farther hopes of
advancement ; for the new king treated him with great
coolness, doubtless aware of either the report or the fact
of his offer, on the death of Anne, to proclaim the preten-
der in full canonicals, if allowed a sufficient guard. This
disUke operated lilce oil on the inflammable mind of Atter-
bury, who not only refused to sign the loyal declaration of
the bishops, in the rebellion of 1715, but suspended a cler-
gyman for lending his church for the performance of di-
vine service to the Dutch troops brought over to serve
against the rebels. Not content with aconstitutional op-
position, he entered into a correspondence with the pre-
tender's party, in favor of the dispossessed family ; for
which offence he was apprehended in August, 1722, and
committed to the tower; and in the March following, a
bill was brought into the house of commons, for ihe inflic-
tion of pains and penalties. This measure, which on consti-
tutional grounds can never be defended, met with considera-
ble opposition in the house of lords, and was resisted with
great firmness and eloquence by Ihe bishop, who main-
tained his innocence with his usual acuteness and dexteri-
ty. His fTuilt, however, has been tolerably well proved
by documents since published, and nothing more is neces-
sary to warrant a confirmed moral distaste to his charac-
ter, than the contemplation of such a scene of smooth
dissimulation and hypocrisy. By this bill the bishop was
deprived and outlawed, and no Brilisli subject was per-
mitted to visit him abroad, without the kmg's sign manu-
al, which, however, was not refused to liis relatives. He
went to Paris, where he died, February 15, 1731.
As a composer of sermons. Dr. Atterbury still retains
the highest reputation ; his periods are easy and elegant,
his style flowing and beautiful ; but as a critic or dispu-
tant, he is rather dexterous than accurate, and rather popu-
lar than profound. A century ago, Doddridge called At-
terbury the glory of English pulpit orators; in whose
writings language appeared in its strictest purity and
beauty ; nothing dark, nothing redundant, nothing defi-
cient, nothing misplaced. But even in this excellence, he
has been surpassed by the late Rev. Robert Hall. His
chief sermons are, Acquaintance with God; Religious Re-
tirement; Lady Cole's Character; Propagation of the
Gospel ; Sufficiency of Revelation ; Ten'ors of Conscience ;
Curse on the Jews; and Felix TremWing. His works
have been published in four volumes. — Jones's Religious
Biog. ; Ency. Americana ; Doddridge on Preaching.
ATTITUDE. (See Accubatios ; Eatiku.)
ATTRIBUTES OF GOD, are the several qualities or
perfections of the Divine nature. Some distinguish them
into the negative, and positive or affirmative. The nega-
tive are such as remove froni him whatever is imperfect
in creatures : such are infinity, immutability, immortality,
&c. The positive are such as assert some perfection in
God which is in and of himself, and which in the c-ea-
tures, in any measure, is from him. This distinction is
now mostly discarded. Some distinguish them int.; ab-
solute and relative : ab.solute ones are such as agree with
the essence of God ; as, Jehovah, Jah, ice. ; relative ones
are such as agree with him in time, with some respect to
his creatures, as. Creator, Governor, Presen'er, Redeemer,
ckc. But the more commonly received distinction of the
attributes of God, is into commnnirable and iricommimicailt
ones. The communicable ones are those of which there
is some resemblance in men ; as, goodness, holiness, wis-
dom, &c. ; the incommunicable ones are such as there is
no appearance or shadow of in men ; as, independence,
immutability, immensity, and eternity. A later distribu-
tion still, for the sake of clearness, is into the natural aiid
moral attributes of God. See those difli^rent articles in
this wor'iv : and Bates, Charnorh, Aderncthy, and Saurin on
the Divine Perfections ; but especially Divight's Theology,
vol. i.
ATTRITION. The casuists of the church of Rome
have made a distinction between a perfect and imperfect
contrition. The latter they call attrition; which is the
lowest degree of repentance, or a sorrow for sin arising
from a sense of shame, or any temporal inconvenience
attending the commission of it, or merely from fear of the
punishment due to it, without any resolution to sin no
more : in consequence of which doctrine, they teach that,
after a wicked and flagitious course of life, a man may be
reconciled to God, and his sins forgiven on his death-bed,
by confessing them to the priest with this imperfect degree
of sorrow and repentance. This distinction was settled
by the council of Trent. It might, however, be easily
shown that the mere sorrow for sin because of its conse-
quences, and not on account of its evil nature, is no more
acceptable to God than hypocrisy itself can be.
AUD.^ANS, or Acdiani, the followers of Audasus,
(called, by Mosheim, Ardsus,) by all accounts a man of
severe virtue, in the fourth century, who haWng been
'■' excommunicated in Syria, on account of the freedom and
importunity with which he censured the corrupt and
licentious manners of the clergy," and banished into Scy-
thia, formed a religious society, of which he was appointed
AUG
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bishop, or pastor, on something like the primitive plan —
himself and flock laboring with their own hands. He is
charged with being an Anthropomorpliite, (which see,) and
explaining the Scriptures too literally ; which, perhaps,
originated in his rejecting the mystical interpretations of
some of the orthodox ; but his chief heresy was, in keep-
ing Easter at the time of the Jews' passover, contrary to
the decree of the council of Nice, which, they say, was
made to flatter Constantine, by making the festival of
Easter coincident with his birth-day. — Moslieim's Eccles.
Hist. vol. i. p. 430. ; Turner's View, p. 146. ; Bell's Wan-
derings, p. 139.
AUDIENTES, [hearers,] a cla.ss of catechumens, who
were allowed to hear sermons and the Scriptures read in
the church, in some of the ages falsely called primitive! —
Bingham's Antiquities, b. X. c. 2.
A'UGSBURGH, or AUGUSTAN CONFESSION. In
1530, a diet of the German princes was convened by the
emperor Charles V., to meet at Augsburgh.for the express
purpose of composing the religious troubles which then
distracted Germany. On this occasion, Melancthon was
employed to draw up this famous confession of faith
which may be considered as the creed of the German Re-
formers, especially of the more temperate among them.
It consisted of twenty-one articles, including the following
points : — The Trinity, original sin, the incarnation, justifi-
cation by faith, the word and sacraments, necessity of good
works, the perpetuity of the church, infant baptism, the
Lord's supper, repentance and confession, the proper use
of the sacraments, church order, rites and ceremonies, the
magistracy, a future judgment, free-will, the worship of
saints, &c. It then proceeds to state the abuses of which
the reformers chiefly complained, as, the denial of the sa-
cramental cup to the laity, the celibacy of the clergy, the
mass, auricular confession, forced abstinence from meats,
monastic vows, and the enormous power of the church of
Kome. The confession was read at a full meeting of the
diet, and signed by the elector of Saxony, and three other
princes of the Gerinan empire.
John Faber, afterwards archbishop of Vienna, and two
other catholic divines, were appointed to draw up an
answer to this confession, which was replied to by Me-
lancthon in his " Apology for the Augsburgh Confession,"
in 1531. This confession and defence; the articles of
Smalcald, drawn up by Luther; his catechisms, tec, form
the symbolical books of the Lutheran church ; and it must
be owned that they contain concessions in favor of some
parts of popery, particularly the real presence, that few
Protestants in this country would admit.
AUGUSTINE, (sometimes called in the .short style of
the middle ages, St. Austin,) one of the most celebrated
fathers of the church, whose writings for many centuries
had almost as potent an influence on the religious opinions
of Christendom as those of Aristotle exercised over philo-
sophy. He was born, November 13th, A. D. 354, at Ta-
gasta, an episcopal city of Nuniidia in Africa. His
parents, Patricius and Monica, were Christians of respec-
table rank in life, who afforded their son all the means of
instruction which his excellent genius and wonderful apti-
tude for learning seemed to require. He studied grammar
ar.d rhetoric at Madura, until he was sixteen years old ;
and afterwards removed to Carthage, to complete his stu-
dies. In both these cities, in all the fervor of unregenerate
youth, he entered eagerly into the seducing scenes of dis-
sipation and folly with ^^•hich he was surrotmded, and
became not only depraved but infamous in his conduct.
In this respect, he was not improved by his subsequent
connection with the Manichees, whose unhallowed princi-
ples alforded an excuse for his immorality, and threw a
veil over the vilest of his actions The simplicity and
minuteness with which he has narrated ilie numerous in-
cidents of hi? childhood, youth, and n^ature age, in his
celebrated book of " Confe'isions," have aflbrded abundant
matter cl' rnhcule to the profane and infidel wits of this
andtlie last ag?. The reflections, however, which accom-
pany his narrative, ars generally irrporlant anu judicious,
and furnish \n the moral philosopht, cop'oi.s m.ateri.-ils fnr
a history of I'.ie varieties of the human heart, and are of
superior valre to the humble Christian f r the inves:i-a-
tion and beli-r knowird^e of hij own. With a sl.-ip^-
though not uncommon inconsistency, few books have been
more frequently quoted as authority on matters relating to
general literature and philosophy by infidels themselves,
than St. Augustine's otherwi.se despised " Confessions,"
and his " City of God." But, whatever else is taught
in this remarkable piece of auto-biography, every pious
reader will be delighted with the additional proofs which
it contains of the ultimate prevalence of faithful prayer,
especially on the part of Christian parents. Monica's im-
portunate prayers to heaven followed the aberrations of
her graceless son, — when he settled at Carthage as a
teacher of rhetoric ; when he removed to Kome, and
lodged with a Maiiiehee ; — and when he finally settled at
Milan as professor of rhetoric. St. Ambrose was at that
time, A. D. 384, bishop of Blilan, and to his public dis-
courses Augustine began to pay much attention. His
heart became gradually prepared for the reception cf di-
vine truth, and for that important change of heart and
principles which constitutes '• conversion " The circum-
stances attending this. change, show that the mode of the
Holy Spirit's operations was in substance the same in
those early days as they are now; and time was when
some of the soundest divines and most worthy dignitaries
of the church of England were in the habit of referring
with approbation to this well-attested instance of a change
of heart.
In a frame of mind not tmfamiliar to those who have
themselves had "much forgiven," Augustine wished to
retire at once from so wicked a world as that in which he
had passed the first thirty-two years of his dissolute life.
His secession, however, was only a temporary one ; for
he and Alipius were, a few months afterwards, received
by baptism into the Catholic church. After having com-
posed several religious treatises in his retreat near Tagas-
ta, especially against the errors of the Manichees, from
which he had been so recently reclaimed, he was, in the
year 392, ordained priest by Valerius, bishop of Hippo,
now a part of the Barbary states on the coast of Africa.
He there held a public disputation with Fortunatus, a cele-
brated priest among the Manichees, iind acquitted himself
with great spirit and success ; he also wrote and preached
largely and to great efi'ect against the Donatists and Mani-
chees. His reputation as a divine increased ; and he was,
at the close of the year 395, ordained bishop of Hippo, in
which high station he continued with great advantage to
wage war against various orders of heretics.
Augustine had hitherto directed his theological artillery
principally against the predestinarian errors of the Mani-
chees ; but he was soon called upon to change his weapons
and his mode of warfare, in attacking a new and not less
dangerous class of heretics. In the year 412, he began to
M'rile against the injurious doctrines of Pelagius, a native
of Britain, who had resided for a considerable time at
Rome, and acquired universal esteem by the purity of his
manners, his piety, and his erudition. Pelagius was se-
conded by Celcstius, a man equally eminent for his talents
and his virtues. Their principles were propagated at first
rather by hints and intimations, than by open avowal and
plain declarations ; but this resen-e was laid aside when
they perceived the ready reception which their doctrines
obtained ; and Celestius began zealously to disseminate
them in Africa, while Pelagius sowed the same tares in
Palestine, whence they were speedily transplanted to al-
most every coiner of Christendom. If the brief notices,
which have come down to us respecting their tenets, in the
writings of their adversaries, be correct, they affirmed, " II
is not free will, if it requires the aid of God ; because every
one has it within the power of his own will to do anything,
or not to do it. Our victory over sin and Satan proceeds
not from the help which God aflbrds. but is owing to our
own free will. The prayers which the church offers up
either for the conversion of unbelievers and other sinners,
or for the perseverance of believers, are poured forth in
vain. The unrestricted capability of men's own free w-ill
is amply sufficient for all these things, and therefore no
necessity exists for asking of God those things which we
are able of ourselves to obtain ; the gifts of grace being
only necessary to enable men to do that more easily and
completely which yet they could do themselves, though
move slov.ly and with gi eater diflkul'v ; nnd that they are
AUG
[ 151]
AUG
perfectly free creatures," in opposition to all the current
notions of original sin and predestination. These novel
opinions were refuted by St. Augustine and St. Jerome, as
well as by Orosius, a Spanish presbyter, and they were
condemned as heresies in the council of Carthage and in
that of Mile\Tim. The discussions which then arose have
been warmly agitated in various subsequent periods of
the Christian church, though little new light has been
thrown upon thein from that age to the present. In his
eagerness to confute these opponents, St. Augustine em-
ployed language so strong as made it susceptible of an
interpretation wholly at variance with the accountability
of man. This led to further explanations and modifica-
tions of his sentiments, which were multiplied when the
Semi-Pelagians arose, who thought that the truth lay be-
tween his doctrines and those of the Pelagians.
Plaifere, in his " Appdlo Evangelium," has given the fol-
lowing as the substance of that opinion of the order of
predestination of which " many do say that St. Augustine
was the first author : 1. That God from all eternity de-
creed to create mankind holy and good. 2. That he fore-
saw man. being templed by Satan, would fall into sin, if
God did not hinder it ; he decreed not to liinder. 3. That
out of mankind seen fallen into sin and misery, he chose
a certain number to raise to righteousness and to eternal
life, and rejected the rest, leaving them in their sins. 4.
That for these his chosen he decreed to send his Son to
redeem them, and his Spirit to call them and sanctify
them ; the rest he decreed to forsake, leaving them to Sa-
tan and themselves, and to punish them for their sins."
Augustine also taught, that baptism brings with it the
forgiveness of sins ; that it is so essential, that the omis-
sion of it will expose us to condemnation ; and that it is
attended with regeneration. He also affirmed that the
virtue of baptism is not in the water ; that the ministers
of Christ perform the external ceremony, but that Christ
accompanies it with invisible grace ; that baptism is com-
mon to all, whilst grace is not so ; and that the same ex-
ternal rite may be death to some, and life to others.
In the various discussions which have arisen concern-
ing predestination and the doctrines with which it is
connected, some modern divines have quoted the argu-
ments of St. Augustine against the fllanichees, and others
.those which he employed against the Pelagians, according
to the discordant views which the combatants severally
entertain on these controverted points. In his " Retrac-
tions," he has qualified the harshness of his previous as-
sertions on many subjects.
Many were the theological labors to which he was in-
vited by the most eminent of his contemporaries ; and
hastily as some of his lucubrations were executed, it is not
surprising that among two hundred and seventy-two trea-
tises on different subjects, some are of inferior value and
unworthy of the fame which he had acquired in the
church. After a life of various changes, and of a mixed
character, he died A. D. 430, in the seventy-sixth year of
his age ; having been harassed at the close of life by see-
ing his country invaded by the Vandals, and the city of
which he was the bishop besieged. Though those barba-
rians took Hippo and burned it, they saved his library,
which contained his voluminous writings.
St. Augustine was a diligent man in the sacred calling ;
and that the office of a bishop even in that age of the
church was no sinecure, is evident from several notices in
his letters. At the close of one addressed to Marcellinus,
he gives the subjoined account : " If I were able to give
you a narrative of the manner m which I .^pend ray time,
you would be both surprised and distressed on account of
the great number of affairs which oppress me 'without my
being able to suspend them. For when some little leisure
is allowed me by those who daily attend upon me about
business, and who are so urgent with me that I can neither
shun them nor ought to despise them, I have always some
other writings to compose, which indeed ought to be pre-
ferred, [to those which Marcellinus requested,] because
the present juncture will not permit them to be postponed.
For the rule of charity is, not to consider the greatness of
the friendship, but the necessity of the affair. Thus I
have continually something or other to compose which
diverts me from writing what would he more agreeable to
my inclinations, during the little intervals in that multipli-
city of business with which I am burdened either through
the wants or the passions of others." He frequently
complains of this oppressive weight of occupation in
which his love of his flock had engaged him, by obeying
the apostolical precept, which forbids Christians from go-
ing to law before pagan tribunals. In reference to this
emplo)'ment his biographer, Posidonius, says: "At the
desire of Christians, or of men belonging to any sect what-
ever, he would hear causes with patience and attention,
sometimes till the usual hour of eating, and sometimes the
whole day without eating at all, observing the dispositions
of the parties, and how much they advanced or decreased
in faith and good works ; and when he had opportunity, he
instructed them in the law of God, and gave them suitable
advice, requiring nothing of them except Cliristian obedi-
ence. He sometimes wrote letters, when desired, on tem-
poral subjects ; but looked upon all this as unprofitable
occupation, which drew him aside from that which was
better and more agreeable to himself."
The character of this eminent fatlier has been much
misrepresented both as a man and as a writer. The
learnmg of St. Augustine, and particularly his knowledge
of Greek, have been disputed; and hence the importance
of his biblical criticisms has been depreciated. Dr. Lard-
ner, however, is of opinion, that he understood that lan-
guage better than some have supposed. Le Clerc himself
allows that he sometimes explains Greek words and
phrases in a very felicitous manner. Indeed, the com-
mencement of his conespondence with St. Jerome proves
him to have been no contemptible critic. Voltaire and
other profane wits have, in the exercise of their buffoonery,
impeached his moral conduct ; but their charges, when
impartially examined, will be seen to be founded in igno-
rance or in malice. One capital error however must
not be denied, his cruel persecution of the Donatists.
Mosheim observes that Augustine's high reputation filled
the Christian world ; and " not without reason, as a va-
riety of great and 'shining qualities were united in the
character of that illustrious man. A sublime genius, an
uninterrupted and zealous pursuit of truth, an indefati-
gable application, an invincible patience, a sincere piety,
and a subtile and lively wit, conspired to establish his
fame upon the most lasting foundaticms." Such a testi-
mony as this far outweighs the vituperative remarks and
petty sneers of a thousand infidels. — Watson; Enajc.
Amer. ; Bib. liepos. vol. iii. See Pelagians and Semi-Pe-
lagians.
AUGUSTINIANS. A name sometimes given to such
as believe in predestination, as taught by the celebrated
Augustine, bishop of Hippo.
AUGUSTINS, a religious order founded by pope Alex-
ander IV. in 1256, were to observe the rule of St. Augus-
tine, (the monk,) as prescribed by their founder ; namely,
to have all things in common, rich and poor — to employ
the first part of every morning in labor, the rest in read-
ing, izc. — to go in pairs — to eat only in their monasteries,
&c. Soon after its establishment, this order was brought
to England, where they had more than thirty houses, at
the time of the reformation. Catholic writers carry up
their origin to the 8th century, but admit that they greatly
degenerated, and were reformed in the 12th or 13th cen-
tury. In Paris, they are called the religious of St. Gene-
vieve. 3Iosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. iii. p. 193. Robinson's
Diet. Butler's Confessions, p. 129. — Williams.
AUGUSTUS, emperor of Rome, succeeded Julius Cae-
sar, nineteen years before A. D. A. M. 3955. Augustus
was the emperor who appointed the enrolment (Luke 2: 1.)
which obliged Joseph and the Virgin to go to Bethlehem,
the place where the Slessiah was to be born.
Augustus procured the crown of Judea for Herod, whom
he loaded with honors and riches ; and was pleased also
to undertake the education of Alexander and Aristobulus,
his sons, to whom he gave apartments in his palace. When
he came into Syria, Zenodorus and the Gadarenes waited
on him with complaints against Herod ; but he cleared
himself of the accusations, and Augustus added to his
honors and kingdom the tetrarchy of Zenodorus. He also
examined into the quarrels between Herod and liis sons,
and reconciled them. (Joseph. Ant. lib. xv. cap. 13.)
AUS
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AUT
Syllaeus, minister to Obodas, king of the Nabatheans, hav-
ing accused Herod of invading Arabia, and destroying
many people there, Augustus, in anger, wrote to Herod
about it ; but he so well justified his conduct, that the em-
peror restored him to favor, and continued it ever after.
He disapproved, however, of the rigor exercised by Herod
toward his sons, Alexander, Aristobulus, and Antipater ;
and when they were executed he is said to have observed,
"that it were better a great deal to be Herod's hog than
his son." (Macrob. Saturn, lib. ii. cap. 4.) After the
death of Lepidus, Augustus assumed the othce of high-
priest ; a dignity which gave him the inspection over cere-
monies and reUgious concerns. One of his first proceed-
ings was, an examination of the sybils' books, many of
which he burnt, and placed the others in two gold boxes,
under the pedestal of Apollo's statue, whose temple was
within the enclosure of the palace. (See Sybil.) This is
worthy of note, if these prophecies had excited a general
expectation of some great person about that time to be
born, as there is reason to suppose was the fact. It should
be remembered, also, that Augustus had the honor to shut
the temple of Janus, in token of universal peace, at the
time when the Prince of Peace was born. This is remark-
able, because that temple was shut but a very few times.
Augustus died, A.D. 14. — Cahnet.
AURICULAR ; what is .spoken into the ear or privately
— a term commonly applied to the private confession made
to a priest, as among the papists. See Confession.
AUSTIN, (ST.) called by the Romanists ihe apostle of
the English, a monk who at the close of the sixth century
(A. D. 597) was sent with forty monks by Gregory I. bish-
op of Rome, to introduce Christianity into the Saxon king-
doms. Ethelbert, king of Kent, kindly received him, and
professed his faith in the gospel, with many of his subjects.
It is said that Austin baptized ten thousand Saxons in one
day in the river Swale, near York. Thus was England
subjected to the see of Rome, and Austin became the first
archbishop of Canterbury. But with the British bishops
in Wales, successors of the British converts to Christianity
in the first centuiy (A. D. 94) Austin was not so success-
ful. They utterly refused subjection to the jurisdiction of
Rome, though in order to it Austin demanded but three
things ; and it is rcmnrkable that one of these was, that
they should give Christendom, that is, baptism, to their chil-
dren. The disappointed prelate in revenge sent the Saxon
armies upon these unolfending Christians, and shed the
blood of inultitudes. He died a few years after, A. D. 604
or 614. — Ency. Amer. ; Davenport; Benedict's History of
the Bojitists.
AUSTIN (SAMtraiL,) D. D. president of the university of
Vermont, was graduated at Yale college in 1783, and or-
dained, as the successor of Allen Mather, at Fairhaven,
Conn., Nov. 9, 1786, but was dismissed Jan. 19, 1790.
He was afterwards for many years pastor of a church in
Worcester, Mass. He was but a few years at the head of
the college in Burlington. After his resignation of that
place, he was not resettled in the ministry. He died at
Glastonbury, Conn., Dec. 4, 1830, aged 70 years. He was
eminently pious and distinguished as a minister.
He published letters on baptism, examining Merrill's
seven sermons, 1805 ; reply to Merrill's twelve letter.s,
1805 ; and the following sermons, — on disinterested love,
1790 ; on the death of Mrs. Blair, 1792 ; Massachusetts
missionary, 1803 ; dedication at Hadley ; ordination of
W. Fay, and of J. M. Whiton, 1808; at a fast, 1811; at
two fasts, 1812.
AUTHENTICITY. A term which is used to denote
the genuineness and credibility of any literary work. It
is frequently employed in relation to the Scriptures. No
question, it is evident, can be more important than this,
whether those books which compose the sacred Scriptures
are truly authentic documents ; that is, that they mere actu-
ally written by the persons whose names they bear, and espe-
cially, (if the author be unknown,) about the time which is
assigned to them, or at which they profess to have been written ;
and further, that they relate matters of fact as they really hap-
pened, and in consequence possess credibility and authority.
All men, but especially Christian ministers, it has been
well observed, should examine this matter to the founda-
, tion. See Genuineness ; Credibility ; Inspiration ; Au-
I THOKITY.
AUTHOR ; one who originates ; the first inventor or
maker of any thing. God is the author of peace ; he rei-
quires it by his law ; directs how to attain or maintain it :
he promises it in his word ; and bestows it by his Spirit.
1 Cor. 14:33. Christ is the author of faith, life, and salva-
tion ; he devised, he purchased, promises, offers, effects,
maintains, and perfects our faith, life, and salvation. Heb.
12.- 2. 5: 9. Acts 3:15.— Brmvn.
AUTHORITY ; 1. Power, rule, dignity, such as gives
one a right to command and enforce obedience. Prov. 29: 2.
2. A WARRANT, order, or PERMISSION, from a superior.
Matt. 21: 23. Acts 9: 14.
Matt. 7: 29. He spake as one having authority, and not as
ihe scribes. The authority here spoken of has been very
generally understood as meaning merely an awakening effi-
cacy, fitted to strike the conscience and the heart. But
this is not the proper meaning of the word. Dr. Paley
has far better illustrated it in the following remarks :
" Next to what our Savior taught, may be considered
the manner of his teaching, which was extremely pecu-
liar, yet I think precisely adapted to the peculiarity of his
character and situation. He produced himself as a mes-
senger from God. He put the truth of what he taught
upon authority. In the choice, therefore, of his mode of
teaching, the purpose by him to be consulted was im-
pression ; because conviction, which forms the principal end
of our discourses, was in the minds of his followers to
arise from a different source than argument, from their
respect to his person and authority," as the Son of God,
appointed of the Father to be the Savior, Lawgiver, aud
final Judge of the human race. All this was compre-
hended in his Messiahship ; and to authenticate his claim
to this high dignity, no less than to benefit mankind, all
his instructions were given, and all his miracles were
wrought. Hence his appeal, " If I do not the works
OF MY Father, believe me not," &c. John 10: 37, 38.
— Brmvn ; Foley's Evidences of Christianity.
AUTHORITY, Human; in matters religious and ec-
clesiastical, an assumed right of dictation, attributed to
certain fathers, councils, or church courts. On this sub-
ject bishop Hoadley writes — " Authority is the greatest
and most irreconcileable enemy to truth and argument
that this world ever furnished. All the sophistry — all the
color of plausibility — all the artifice and cunning of the
subtlest disputer in the world may be laid open and turned
to the advantage of that very truth which they are de-
signed to hide ; but against authority there is no defence."
He shows that it was authority which crushed the noble
sentiments of Socrates and others ; and that by authority,
the Jews and heathens combated the truth of the Gospel ;
and that, when Christians increased into a majority, and
came to think the same method to be the only proper one
for the advantage of their cause which had been the
enemy and destroyer of it — then it was the authority of
Christians, which, by degrees, not only laid waste the
honor of Christianity, but w^ell nigh extinguished it amongst
men. It was authority which would have prevented all
reformation where it is, and which has put a barrier
against it wherever it is not.
The remark of Charles II. is worthy of notice — that
those of the established faith make much of the authority
of the church in their disputes with dissenters ; but that
they take it all away when they deal with papists. — Buck.
AUTOCEPHALI BISHOPS, (Greek;) persons who
have no superior, or acknowledge no head. It is derived
AVE
[ 153]
AVI
from aulas and hephale, sui ipsius caput, his own head or
chief. This denomination was given by the primitive
church to such bishops as were exempted from the juris-
diction of others. Before the setting up of patriarchs, all
metropoUtans were autocephali, being accountalie to no
superior but a synod ; and, even after the' advancement
of patriarchs, several metropolitans continued thus inde-
pendent— as the archbishop of Cyprus, who, by a general
decree of the council of Ephesus, was freed from the ju-
risdiction of the patriarch of Antioch ; as also the metro-
politans of Iberia and Armenia. This was likewise a
privilege of the ancient British church, before the coming
of Austin the monk, when the seven British bishops, which
were all that then remained, paid obedience to the arch-
bishop of Caer-Leon, and acknowledged no superior in
spirituals above him. And Dinothus, the learned abbot
of Bangor, told Austin, in the name of all the Britannic
churches, that they owed no other obedience to the pope
than they did to every godly Christian.
Besides these, there was another sort of Autocephali,
namely, such bishops as were subject to no metropolitan,
but only to the patriarch of the diocese There were
thirty-nine such bishops in the large patriarchate of Con-
stantinople, twenty-five in that of Jerusalem, and si.xteen
in that of Antioch ; but at what time this sort of indepen-
dent bishoprics was first set up is uncertain. Valesius
mentions another sort of Autocephali, which were such
bishops as were wholly independent of all others, having
neither suffragans under them, nor metropolitans over
them. Of these, the bishop of Tomis in Scythia is an in-
stance, who was the only bishop of all the cities of that
province ; but instances of this sort are very uncommon.
Valesius, by mistake, and, in contradiction to Jerome,
reckons the bishops of Jerusalem before they were ad-
vanced to the patriarchal dignity, among this sort of Au-
tocephali.— Henderson's Buck.
AUTO DE FE. (See Act of Faith. Inquisition.)
AUTOGRAPH, (from auto and graphe.) The original
handwriting of a person, in distinction from a copy. This
word occurs very frequently in discussions on the genuine-
ness of the Scriptures, and the state of existing manu-
scripts in the original languages. It is here explained for
the sake of those to whom the word is not familiar, or to
whom its precise signification is not known.
AcTOGKAPHS of the prophecies, gospels, &c. are the
identical or original documents written by the respective
authors of the books of Scripture. Copies taken from
these are termed apographs. None of these original MSS.
are now remaining, nor could their preservation be ex-
pected, without the intervention of a miracle, during the
space of nearly eighteen centuries. It seems exceedingly
probable that Divine ProviJeme permitted them to be
early withdrawn from public inspection, lest, like other
relics, they should become objects of idolatrous venera-
tion. It is even asserted by Peter, bishop of Alexandria,
in the fourth century, that an original of John's gospel
was not only presei-ved, but ■i\-orshipped, a( Ephesus. —
Michaelis' lutrod. i. p. 250. — Henderson's Buck.
AVARICE, is an immoderate love to and desire after
riches, attended with extreme diffidence of future events,
making a person rob himself of the necessary comforts
of life, lor fear of diminishing his riches. (See Covetous-
NEss and Miser.)
AVATAR, in Indian mythology, an incarnation of the
Deity. According to the Hindoos, innumerable incarna-
tions have taken place ; but ten are particularly distin-
guished, and four of them arc the subjects of Puranas, or
sacred poems : these ten are the incarnations of Vishnu,
the supreme god. The first was in the form of a fish ;
the second in that of a tortoise ; the third in that of a
boar; the fourth in that of a monster — half man, half
lion ; the fifth in that of a dwarf; the sixth as the son of
larmadagni. All these took place in the satga ijuga, or
golden age ; the others are more recent The seventh is
the descent of Vishnu, to destroy a giant ; the eighth was
to chastise other giants ; the ninth had a similar object ;
and the tenth, which is yet to come, will take place at the
end of the kali yuga, or the iron age of the world.
AVE-MARY, or Ave-Maria, (Hail, Mary !) the angel
Gabriel's salutation of the Virgin Mary, when he brought
20
her tidings of the incarnation. It is become a prayei,
or form of devotion, in the Romish church. Their chap-
lets and rosaries are divided into so many Ave-Maries,
and so many Pater-nosters. The papists ascribe a won-
derful efficacy to their Ave-Maries.
Dr. Bingham observes, that, among all the short prayers
used by the ancients before their sermons, there is not the
least mention of an Ave-Mary ; and that its original can
be carried no higher than the beginning of the fifteenth
century. Vincentius Ferrerius was the first ecclesia-stical
writer that ever used it before his sermons ; from whose
example (he being a celebrated preacher in that age) it
gained such authority, as not only to be prefixed to all
their sermons, but to be joined with the Lord's prayer, in
the Roman breviary. — KtndersoiUs Buck.
AVEN ; a plain in Syria ; the same, probably, as the
plain of Baal-beck, or valley of Baal, where there was a
magnificent temple dedicated to the sun. It is situate be-
tween Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, and hence called the
valley of Lebanon. Josh. 11: 17. Amos 1: 5.
AVENGE ; to vindicate the rights, or redress the
wrongs, of those who have been injured. Gen. 2: 24.
Lev. 19: 18. Luke 18: 3, 7, 8. Acts 7: 24. Rom. 12: 19.
18: 20. God has a sovereign, and magistrates a subordi-
nate power, to avenge injuries. Private individuals are
forbidden to exercise this power. (See Retribution, and
Revenge.)
AVENGER OF BLOOD. The children of Israel were
commanded to appoint cities of refuge, that any one who
killed a person unawares, might fly thither from the aven-
ger of blood ; but if the act was committed with design,
the murderer was to be given up to the avenger, even
though he had fled to the altar of God. Exod. 21: 14.
Numb. 35. 1 Kings 2: 29 — 34. There is no mention of
any oflicer appointed for this purpose. But from the fact
that the sons of Saul were given up to the Gibeonites,
whose kinsmen Saul had slain, it appears that those near-
ly connected with the person who had been killed were
appointed the avengers of his blood ; a custom, of which
traces appear in almost all nations. — Sherwood ; Brown.
AVERSION; hatred, or dislike. Dr. Watts and others
oppose aversion to desire. When we look, say they, upon
an object as good, it excites desire : but when we look
upon an object as evil, it awakens what we call aversion
or avoidance. But Lord Kaimes observes that aversion
is opposed to affection, and not to desire. We have an
affection to one person ; we have an aversion to another :
the former disposes us to do good, the latter to do ill. —
Buck.
AVERY, (John.) a minister, who came to this country m
lfi35. While sailing from Newbury towards Marblehead,
where he proposed to settle, he was shipwrecked in a vio-
lent storm, August 14, 1635, on a rocky island, called
Thacher's Woe and Avery's Fall, and died, with his wife
and six children. Mr. Thacher escaped. Avery's last words
were, " I can lay no claim to deliverance from this dan-
ger ; but through the satisfaction of Christ I can lay claim
to heaven : this, Lord, I entreat of thee." — Magnal. iii.
77 ; Savage, i. 165 ; Eliot.
AVIM, a city of Benjamin. Josh. 18: 3. Also, a people
descended from Hevjeus. son of Canaan, who dwelt origi-
nally in the country afterwards possessed by the Caphto-
rim, or Philistines. Deut. 2: 23. Josh. 13: 3. There were
also Avim, or Hivites, at Shechem, or Gibeon. Josh. 9:
7. Gen. 34: 2. There were some also beyond Jordan, at
the foot of mount Hermon. Josh. 11: 3. Bochart thinks
that Cadmus, who conducted a colony of Ph<Enicians into
Greece, was a Hivite : his name, Cadmus, deriving from
the Hebrew, Kedem, the East, because he came from the
eastern parts to Canaan ; and the name of his wife, Her-
mione, from mount Herman, at the foot of which the Hi-
vites dwelt. In this case, the metamorphosis of Cadmus's
companions into serpents, is founded on the signification
of the name Hivites ; which, in the Phoenician language,
signifies serpents. But if Cadmus were of southern Egypt,
or of Ethiopia, his name might also signify serpent ,• as
here was a powerful monarchy of kings, whose family
name was Serpent. Nor was the name uncommon else-
where. The country of the Avim was also called Haze-
rim, (Deut. 2; 23.) in the Eastern interpreters and PUuy,
AXE
[ 154]
A YL
Raphia. Their terrilory ended at Gaza, beginning at the
river of Egypt ; and thus extending forty-four miles.
Sometimes this country appears to be called Shur ; which
the Arabic renders Gerarim. Gen. 20: 1. (See Gerar.)
— Cabnet.
AVIGNONISTS; certain fanatics of Avignon, in the
last century, who adopted the errors of the CoUyridians,
(which see,) who, in the fourth century, distinguished
themselves by an extraordinary devoSon to the holy Vir-
gin. The Avignonists were fotinded by Grabianca, a
Polish nobleman ; and Perncty, a Benedictine, (abbe of
Burgal,) a learned but most eccentric writer.- A work
published in 1790, entitled "The Virtues, Power, Clemency,
and Glory of Mary, Blother of God," i^attributed to his pen.
— Gregorie's Hist, des Sects Rel. vol. ii. p. 17. — WilKmns.
AWAKE. 1. To rouse one's self or another from natu-
ral sleep. Gen. 2R: 16. 1 Kings 18: 27. 2. To bestir
one's self Judg 5: 12. 3. To raise or arise from death
natural or spiritual. John 11: 11. 14: 12. God awakes to
the judgment he has commanded, when he openly and emi-
nently displays his power and other perfections, in punish-
ing his enemies and rescuing his people. Ps. 7: 6. His
sword of justice amakcd, when terribly displayed, in full
execution of the vengeance due to our sin, or Christ.
Zech. 13: 7. Christ is awaked before he please, when any
thing is done to disturb or interrupt his sensible fellowship
with his people. Songs 2: 7. 3: 5. 8: 4. The north wind
awakes and Mows on our garden, when the Holy Ghost pow-
erfully convinces our conscience, and that of others in the
church ; (Song 4: 16.) but some understand it of the ceas-
ing of trouble. We awake out of the snare of the devil,
awake because onr salvation is near, awake that Chiist may
give vs light, awake to righteousness, when, conscious of our
danger, and an approaching eternity, we shake off our
spiritual sloth and unconcern, and with great earnestness
study to know and to receive Jesus Christ and his right-
eousness, and in his strength to follow holiness in aU
manner of conversation. 2 Tim. 2: 26. Rom. 13: 11.
Eph. 5: 14. 1 Cor. 15: 34.— _Bro«.n.
AWE ; a strong sentiment of lespect, mingled with
emotions of fear ; a reverence so deep as almost to amount
to dread. Ps. 33: 8. Sublime, sacred and solemn objects
awaken awe, they fill at once the senses, the understanding
and the imagination, they make the beholder pause to con-
sider whether he is worthy to approach them any nearer :
they rivet his mind and body to the spot, and render him
cautious lest by his presence he should contaminate that
which is hallowed. So Jacob felt at Bethel, Gen. 28: 16,
17. and Peter when prostrate at the feet of Jesus, he ut-
tered that striking exclamation, (Lixke 5 : 8.) " Depart
from me ; for I am a sinful man, 0 Lord." AVhen the
creature places himself in the presence of the Creator ;
when he contemplates the immeasurable distance which
separates himself, a frail, finite, and guilty mortal, from
his infinitely perfect Blaker, he stands in awe before Him ;
his pride is humbled, his self conceit is abashed, his petu-
lance hushed, and his whole soul is subdued and softened
by the very contemplations which most expand and enno-
ble it. Ps. 4 : 4.
The general sentiment of mankind associates this state
of mind, with all just ideas of the Divinity, and unites
with the divine law in condemning the spirit of irre-
verence, levity and profaneuess. Deut. 5: 11. 28: 58. "If
tVie voice of universal nature, the experience of all ages,
the light of reason, and the immediate eiadence of my
senses," sayj Cumberland, " cannot awake me to a de-
pendence »<pon my God, a reverence for his religion,
and a huMble opinion of myself, what a lost creatitre am
I!" — Bromn; Crahbe's Synonymes.
AX^jl ; a well-known instrument. Deut. 19: 15. And
now jlso the axe is laid at the root of the tree. Matt. 3: 10.
" I' was customary with the Jewish prophets," says Adam
Clarke, " to representthekingdoms,nations and individuals
whose ruin they predicted, under the figure of forests and
trees doomed to be cut down. See Jer. 46: 22, 23. Ezek.
31: 3, 11, 12. — It has been well observed that there is an
allusion here to a woodman, who, having marked a tree
for excision, lays his axe at its root, and strips off his
outer garment, that he may wield his blows more power-
fully, and that his work may be quickly performed." The
learned author then proceeds, as do many others, to apply
this text to the Jews, nationally. But this is a radical mis-
take. John the Baptist is addressingindividuals, and speaks
of individual repentance, as indispensable to escape indi-
vidual ruin ; hence he used the plural form trees ; and not
the singular tree, which might much more naturally re-
present them, had he referred to them only as a political
body.
Great mischief has been done by transferring the lan-
guage of the New Testament, without ground, from indi-
viduals to nations. God does not save men by the Gospel
nationally, but individually ; and those interpreters misera-
bly err, who divert the reader of the Gospels or Epistles,
from the feeling uf personal interest and responsibility. How
different the views of St. Paul, " Tribulation and angitsh
UrON E^'ERY SOUL OF MAN THAT DOETH EVIL ; OF THE JeW
first, and ALSO OF THE GeNTILE ; Bl'T GLORY, HONOR, AND
PEACE, TO EVERY MAN THAT WORKETH GOOD ; TO THE JeW
first, and also to the Gentile ; for there is no respect
OF persons with God." Rom. 2: 9 — 11.
Such interpreters, (though perhaps unintentionally,)
make the labors and sufferings and instructions of our
Savior and his apostles of no real value. For what did
they exert themselves on this interpretation ? To save a
few Jews only from the destruction of Jerusalem ! Credat
Judaivs, Apella.
AXTELL, (Henry,) D. D., minister of Geneva, New
York, was born at Mendham, N. J. in 1773, and graduated
at Princeton in 1796. He went to Geneva soon after the
settlement of that part of the state, and was ver}' useful.
At the time of his ordination in 1812, his church consisted
of 70 members : at the time of his death of about 400.
In two revivals his labors had been particularly blessed.
He died Feb. 11, 1829, aged 55. His eldest daughter was
placed in the same grave.
AYL5IER, (John,) D. D. bishop of London, and tutor
of the celebrated and virtuous lady Jane Grey, was bom
at Aylmer Hall, Norfolk, towards the latter end of the year
1521. Grey, marquis of Dorset, when Aylmer was a
child, took a great fancy to him, attended to his education,
and afterwards gave him an exhibition at the university
of Cambridge, where he took his degree of bachelor of
arts ; after which he became tutor to the children of the
marquis. At a very early age he preferred the Protestant
to the Catholic faith, and was for some time the only
preacher in Leicestershire, where he was eminently useful
in convening the people to the Protestant religion. In the
reign of queen Mary, his warmth against the principles of
popery obliged him (owing to the violence of her minis-
try) to leave England, and retire to Strasburg, and after-
wards to Zurich, in Switzerland, where he instructed seve-
ral gentlemen's sons in the classics and religion. During
his exile, he was offered the Hebrew professorship of the
university of Jena, in Saxony ; but he declined it. After
the death of thetj-rannical Mary, he returned to England ;
and, at the commencement of Elizabeth's reign, was one
of the eight divines appointed to dispute at Westminster,
before many persons of distinction, against an equal num-
ber of Popish bishops. In 1573, he was made one of queen
Elizabeth's justices of the peace, and one of her ecclesi-
astical commissioners. In the same year, he also obtained
the degrees of bachelor of arts and doctor of ditnnity,
in the university of Oxford ; and in 1576, was made bish-
op of London, where he preached regularly and frequently
in his cathedral ; and so anxious was he for the attention
and spiritual welfare of his hearers, that on one occasion,
when he saw they were wandering while he was preaching,
he took a Hebrew Bible out of his pocket, and began to
read it ; and on finding them roused to astonishment, he
reproved them by making a few remarks on their being
attracted more by novelty than by the truths that were
spoken ; truths which were of lasting importance. During
the plague in 1578, he was very active in making provi-
sion that the sick might be visited, and have proper assis-
tance with regard to religion ; and ordered books to be J
published, with directions for the prevention of the dread-
ful disease. In 1581, he endeavored to establish lectures,
to be delivered to large assemblies in London, on the truth .
of the doctrines of the church of England ; but that mea- .
sure was opposed, and the design was not carried into
AZO
L 155 ]
A z y
execution. Infirm and aged, he conscientiously offered to
resign his bisliopric to Dr. Bancroft ; but lie refused to ac-
cept it. At length, on the 3d of June, 1594, aged 73, he
expired. Aylmer was a man of great learning, profound
knowledge, and sincere piety. He was economical, yet
generous; bold and daring, yet kind and forgiving; and
his chief vice was that of cherishing a persecuting dispo-
sition towards those who did not believe what he consid-
ered to be the truth. — Jones's Sehg. Biog. ; Strt/pe's Memoirs
of Bishop Aijlmer ; Wood's Fasti Oxon. ; Peirce's Vindica-
timi of Dissenters.
AYMOND, (De Savoy ;) a French martyr of the thir-
teenth century. He was minister of Bourdeaux. A com-
plaint being lodged against him by the clergy of that city,
his friends advised him to abscond. This he absolutely
refused, saying, " That should he absent himself, the peo-
ple might well imagine thai what he had preached con-
sisted only of dreams and fables, and not extracted from
the pure word of God ; but to prevent them from entertain-
ing such a notion, he determined to seal his testimony of
the truth with his blood." When he was seized upon, the
people would have rescued hira ; but he desired them to
forbear, saying, " since it is the will of God that I should
sutler for him, I will not resist his will." He remained
nine months in prison on the information only, and pa-
tiently suffered all the inclemencies of a jail. Being
brought to trial, he was ordered to be racked; when in the
extremity of the torture, he comforted himself with this
expression ; " This body must once die, but the soul shall
live ; for the kingdom of God endureth forever." At length
he swooned away, but on recovering prayed for his per-
secutors. The question was then put to him, " Whether
he would embrace the Roman Catholic persuasion ;" which
positively refusing, he was condemned to be burnt. At
the place of execution he said, '• 0 Lord, make haste to
help me ; tarry not; despise not the work of thy hands."
And perceiving some who used to attend his sermons, he
addressed them thus, " My friends, I exhort you to study
. and learn the Gospel ; for the Word of God abideth for-
ever. Labor to know the will of God, and fear not them
that kill the body, but have no power over the soul." The
executioner then strangled him, and afterwards burned his
body. — Fox.
AZA. Gaza and Azoth are sometimes so called. Jose-
phus notices a mountain of this name, near to which Judas
Maccabaeus fought against Bacchides, in his last encouu- '
ter. In the Maccabees, it is called mount Azotus.
AZARIAH; the name of several high-priests among
the Jews. 1 Chron. 6: 9, 10. It was also a name given to
TJzziah, king of Judah. 2 Kings 15. (See Uzziah.) Also
the Chaldean name given to Abednego. Dan. 1: 7. 3: 19.
(See Abednego.)
AZAZEL ; the Hebrew name of the scape-goat led
to the wilderness on the great day or fast of expiation.
Lev. 16: 10.
AZEKAH ; the name of a city in the tribe of Judah.
Josh. 15: 35. It lay to the south of Jerusalem, and east
of Bethlehem, distant about four leagues from the former,
and five from the latter. The army of the Philistines, in
which was the giant Goliah, encamped at Shocoh and
Azekah. 1 Sara. 17: 1.
AZOTUS, is the Greek name of the same city as is
called in the Hebrew, Ashdod. It was not taken by Josh-
ua, and being surrounded with a wall of great strength,
it became a place of great importance, and one of the
five governments of the Philistines. Hither was sent the
ark of God, when taken from the Israelites ; and here was
Dagon cast down before it, 1 Sam. 5: 2, 3. Uzziah, king
of Judah, broke down its wall, and built cities or watch-
towers about it, 2 Chron. 2fi: 6. It was taken by Tartan,
general of the kingof Assyria, (2 Kings 18: 17.) when it ap-
pears to have been very severely treated ; as Jeremiah
(chap. 25: 20.) gives the cup of desolation to be drunk by
" the remnant of Ashdod." It was not wholly destroyed,
however, for Amos (chap. 1: 8.) mentions " the inhabitant
of Ashdod ;" Zephaniah (chap. 2: 4.) says, " Ashdod shall
be driven out at noon-day ;" and Zechariah (9: 6.) says,
"a ba.stard shall dwell in Ashdod." From these notices,
it appears, that Ashdod was a place of great strengti and
consequence. Its New Testament name is Azotus and
here Philip was found, after his conversion of the euuuch,
at old Gaza, distant about thirty miles. Acts 8: 40.
Azotus was a port on the Mediterranean, between Aske-
lon and Ekron, or between Jamnia and Askelon, (Judith
3: 2. Gr.) or between Gaza and Jamnia, (Josephus, Antiq.
13: 23.) i. e. it lay between these cities, but not directly,
nor in the same sense. The present state of the town is
thus described by Dr. Wiitraan : (Travels in Syria, &c. p.
285.) " Pursuing our route through a delightful country,
we came to Ashdod, called by the Greeks, Azotus, and
under that name mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles ;
a town of great antiquity, provided with two small entrance
gates. In passing through this place, we saw several
fragments of columns, capitals, cornices, kc. of marbl?
Towards the centre is a handsome mosque, with a mina-
ret. By the Arab inhabitants, Ashdod is called Mezdel.
Two viiles to the south, on a hill, is a ruin, having in it; Ctn-
tre a lofty column still standing entire. The delightful ver
dure of the surrounding plains, together with a great
abundance of fine old olive trees, rendered the scene charm
ingly picturesque. In the villages, tobacco, fruits, and
vegetables are cultivated abundantly by the inhabitants ;
and the fertile and extensive plains yield an ample pro
duce of corn. Ashdod may be seen from the 'sloping
hill of easy ascent,' near Jaffa or Joppa." This extract
is thought by Mr. Taylor to confirm the conjecture above
formed, that the " cities " built by Uzziah, near Azotus,
were towers which commanded a considerable prospect ;
and very probably, he remarks, one of these towers was
placed on the hill where the Doctor observed a lofty column
standing. It appears that signals from hence might speed-
ily be communicated to Joppa, and, no doubt, to various
other surrounding signal-stations. Thus is the confusion
of " cities " around a city, removed by a better acquain-
tance with the actual geography of this district ; for which
we are indebted to an observant and intelligent travel-
ler.— Calmet.
AZYMITES ; Christians who administer the eucharist,
or holy communion, with unleavened bread. The word
is derived from the Greek azt/mos, sine fermento, which is
compounded of the privative a, and zytne, fcrmentum.
This practice occasioned great disputes, and at length a
rupture, between the Latin and Greek churches.
The learned Dr. Bingham is of opinion that the use of
wafers and unleavened bread was not knowm in the church
till the eleventh or twelfth centuries, when the oblations of
common bread began to be left off by the people ; for sc
long as the people continued to offer Ijread and wine, the
elements for the use of the eucharist were usually taken
out of them ; and, consequentl)', so long the bread was
the common leavened bread, made use of upon other oc-
casions. And he tells the following story in confirmation
of this : — As Gregory the Great was administering the
bread to a certain woman, in the usual form. The body of
our Lord Jesus Christ, ice. she fell a laughing, and, being
asked the reason, said it was because he called that the
body of Jesus Christ which she knew to be bread that she
had made with her own hands. Besides, the ancients say
expressly, that their bread was common bread, such as
they made for their own use upon other occasions ; and it
is further observable, that neither Photius nor any other
Greek writer, before Michael Cerularius, A. D. 1051, ever
objected to the use of unleavened bread in the Romish
church ; which they would, no doubt, have done, had that
practice prevailed at the time they wrote.
But the schoolmen, who maintain, that, during the first
ages of the church, none but un'.,.-avened bread was used
in the eucharist, say the primitive church did it in imita-
tion of our Savior himself, who celebrated the last sup-
per with unleavened b''jad ; but that, when the Ebionites
arose, who held tha' all the obseri'ances prescribed by the
Mosaical law were still in force, both the eastern and
western churches took up the use of leavened bread, and,
after the extinction of that heresy, the western church
returned to the azymus, the eastern obstinately adhering
to the former usage — Henderson's Buck.
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B.
I. BAAL, or Bel, (governor, ruler, lord,) a god of the
Phoenicians and Canaanites Baal and Astaroth are com-
monly mentioned together ; and as it is believed, that As-
taroth denotes the moon, Calmet concludes that Baal repre-
sents the snn. Bishop Munster, as quoted by Professor
Eobinson, supposes that this was the case, originalhj ; and
that the fundamental idea of all oriental idolatry — which
also may be traced from India to the north of Europe — is
the primeval porver of nature, which divides itself into the ge7ie-
rative, and the conceptive or productive power. He supposes
the sim and moon to have been worshipped as the repre-
sentatives of these powers, under the names of Baal and
Astarle. But Cyrenius supposes these appellations to sig-
nify the planets Jupiter and Venns. Be this as it may, it
is certain that the name Baal is used in a generic sense,
for the superior god of the Phoenicians, Chaldeans, Moab-
ites, and other people, and is often compounded with the
name of some other god ; as Baal-Peor, Baal-Zebub, Baal-
Gad, Baal-Zephon, Baal-Berith. Baal is the most ancient
god of the Canaanites, and, perhaps, of the East; and the
Hebrews too often imitated the idolatry of the Canaanites,
in adoring him. They offered human sacrifices to him,
and erected altars to him, in groves, on high places, and
on the terraces of houses. Baal had priests and prophets
consecrated to his sendee ; and many infamous actions
were committed in his festivals. Some learned men have
maintained, that the Baal of Phoenicia was the Saturn of
Greece and Rome ; and certainly there was great con-
formity between their services and sacrifices. Others are
of opinion, that Baal was the Phoenician (or Tyrian) Her-
cules, (an opinion not inconsistent with the other,) but it is
generally concluded, that Baal was the sun ; and on this
admission, all the characters which he assumes in Scrip-
ture may be easily explained. The great luminary was
adored over all the East, and is the most ancient deity
acknowledged among the heathen. See Idolatry.
The Hebrews sometimes called the sun Baal-Shemesh; —
Baal the sun. Manasseh adored Baal, planted groves, and
worshipped all the host of heaven ; but Josiah, desirous to
repair the evil introduced by Manasseh, put to death " the
idolatrous priests that burnt incense unto Baal, to the sun,
and to the moon, and to the planets, and to all the host of
heaven. He commanded all the vessels that were made
for Baal, and for the grove, (Ashreh, or Astaroth,) and
for all the host of heaven, to be brought forth out of the
temple. He took away the horses that the kings of Judah
had given to the sun, and burnt the chariots "of the sun
with fire." Here the worship of the sun is particularly
described ; and the sun itself is clearly expressed by the
name of Baal, 2 Kings 23: 11. The temples and altars of
the sun, or Baal, were generally on eminences. Manasseh
placed in the two courts of the temple at Jerusalem, altars
to all the host of heaven, and, in particular, to Astarle, or
the moon, 2 Kings 21: 5, 7. Jeremiah threatens those
of Judah, who had sacrificed to Baal on the house-top,
(chap. 32 : 29.) and Josiah destroyed the altars which
Ahaz had erected on the terrace of his palace, 2 Kings
23: 12.
Human victims were offered to Baal, a& they were to
the sun. The Persian Mithra (who is also the sun) was
honored with like sacrifices, as was also Apollo. Jeremiah
reproaches the inhabitants of Judah and Jeru.salem with
"building the high places of Baal, to burn their sons with
fire for burnt-oflerings unto Baal," (chap. 19: 5.) — an ex-
pression which appears to be decisive, tor the actual slay-
ing by fire of the unhappy victims to Baal.
The Scripture calls temples consecrated to Baal, i. e.
to the sun, chamanini. Lev. 26: 30. Isa. 17: 8. 27: 9. anJ
2 Chron. 34: 4. They were places inclosed with walKs,
in which a perpetual fire was maintained : they were fre-
quent in the East, particularly among the Persians ; and
the Greeks called them jiijreia, of pyratheia, from the Greek
pijr, fire ; or pyra, a funeral pile. There was in them, says
Strabo, (lib. xv.) an altar, abundance of ashes, and a fire
never suffered to go out. Maundrel, in his journey from
Aleppo to Jerusalem, observed some remains of them in
Syria. See Fire, places of.
Some critics have thought, that the god Belus of the
Chaldeans and Babylonians was Nimrod, their first kingj
others, that he was Belus the Assyrian, father of Ninus j
and others, a son of Semiramis. Many have supposed
Belus to be the same with Jcrpiter ; but Calmet concludes,
that Baal was worshipped as the sun among the Phoeni-
cians and Canaanites ; and that he was often taken in
general for the great god of the eastern people.
As much of the heathen idolatry, alluded to in the Old
Testament, is derived from the rites of Baal, which rites
are not yet extinct, even among ourselves, and as it ap-
pears by the number of names of places in Scripture, into
which this title is compounded, that his worship was
extremely popular, we subjoin the following particulars,
furnished by Mr. Taylor.
The Chaldeans say, that their metropolis derived its ori-
gin from Bel, who first of all built a great tower, or castle,
called by them Bar. All these authorities attribute the
origin of Babylon to Bel, and Bel was undoubtedly wor-
shipped as the peculiar deity of the place. But the real
character of Bel the infant is known from other quarters.
He is the Jupiter infans of classical mythology; and we
need not wonder that the second father of the human race,
in his re-vivification after his preservation, should be con-
sidered as a newly-born child, and become the great and
general object of worship ; since he was the first seed of
all mankind, and all mankind are his seed. Perhaps the
name Bel or Baal originally implied as much. But the
worship of the great patriarch was eventually transferred
to the sun as his symbol, or representative ; and this
luminary, as is well known, was uuiversalty adored. We
are not then to be surprised at the dedicatory title Apol-
lini Beleno ; for Herodian says (lib. viii.) that some call
the same deity Apollo, which others call Belin. This latter
was his name in Britain, also, as appears from that an-
cient memorial of it retained in the name of ffe&i's-gate,
at London.
The worship of Bel, Belus, Belenus, or Eelinus, was
general throughout the British islands ; and certain of its
rites and observances are still maintained in England,
notwithstanding the spread and the establishment of Chris-
tianity during so many ages. It might have been thought,
that the pompons rituals of popery would have superseded «
the druidical superstitions; or that the reformation to J
protestantism would have banished them : or that the pre-
valence of various sects would have reduced them to obli-
vion : but the fact is otherwise. Surely the roots of
druidism were struck extremely deep ! What charm
could render them so prevalent and permanent ? — " A
town in Perthshire, on the borders of the Highlands, is
called Tillie (or TulUe-) beltane, i. e. the eminence, or rising-
ground, of the fire of Baal. In the neighborhood is a dru-
idical temple of eight upright stones, where it is supposed
the fire was kindled. At some distance from this is ano-
ther temple of the same kind, but smaller, and near it is a
well, still held in great veneration. On Bdtane morning,
superstitious people go to this well, and drink of it ; then
they make a procession round it, as we are informed, nine
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times. After this, they in like manner go round the tem-
ple. So deep rooted is this heathenish siiperslition in the
minds of many who reckon themselves good Protestants,
that they will not neglect these rites, even when Beltane
falls on Sabbath." (Statist. Accounts of Scotland, vol. iii.
p. 1U5.J " On the first day of May, which is called Beltan,
or Bal-tein, day, all the boys in a township, or hamlet,
meet in the moors. They cut a table in the green sod, of
a round figure, by casting a trench in the ground, of such
circumference as to hold the whole company. They kindle
a lire, and dress a repast of eggs and milk in the consist-
ence of a custard. They knead a cake of oatmeal, which
is toasted at the embers against a stone. After the custard
is eaten up, they divide the cake into ,so many portions, as
similar as possible to one another in size and shape, as
there are persons in the company. They daub one of
these portions all over with charcoal, until it be perfectly
black. They put all the bits of cake into a bonnet. Every
one, blindfold, draws out a portion. He who holds the
bonnet is entitled to the last bit. "Whoever draws the
black bit, is the devoted person who is to be sacrificed to
Baal, whose favor they mean to implore, in rendering the
year productive of the sustenance of man and beast.
There is little doubt of these inhuman sacrifices having
been once olfered in this country, as well as in the East,
although they now pass from the act of sacrificing, and
only compel the devoted person to leap three times through
the flames; with which the ceremonies of this festival are
closed." (Id. vol. xi. p. 621.) " In Ireland, Bel-tdn is cele-
brated on the 21st June, at the time of the solstice. There,
as they make fires on the tops of hills, every member of
the family is made to pass through the fire ; as they reckon
this ceremony necessary to insure good fortune through
the succeeding year. This resembles the rite used by
the Romans in the Paliha. Bel-tein is also observed in
Lancashire." (Dr. Macpherson's Critical Dissert, xvii. p.
286.)
This pagan ceremony of lighting fires in honor of the
Asiatic god Belus, gave its name to the entire month of
May, which is to this day called mi na Bedl-tine, in the
Irish language.
The Bel-tein was certainly derived from the East : it is
practised at this day in the ceremonies of the Derma Ea-
jah, wherein the devotees walk barefoot over about forty
feet of burning coals. It was, we may presume, into a
Bel-tein that the three Hebrew youths were cast, bound
hand and foot, Dan. 3: 15. The Bel-tein, anciently, at Je-
rusalem, was held in the valley of Tophet ; and the hunt-
ing of children in honor of Bloloch, was the same ceremony
under an idol of another name. So general was this cus-
tom. Our bonfires are, possibly, remains of the Bel-tein ;
and the tricks of our lads in leaping over the rising flame,
might be proved to have antiquity m their favor, if it were
worth while. The io«-fire is, perhaps, derived from the
Saxon bene, bone, a favor, a boon, an occurrence which
gives pleasure : in this sense we may understand it iu
Chaucer, " he bade them all a bone ;" — he invited them to
an enjoyment : — or it may be taken in the sense of a boon,
a gift ; a fire to which contributions are made sratis, bv
all.
This custom maintains itself not only in the extreme
north, but also throughout Germany : in short, we see that
it involves all Europe. It can, therefore, occasion no sur-
prise that we find it so inveterately established in the coun-
tries mentioned in Scripture, where the sun had infinitely
more power and influence, and which are much nearer to
the original observances. The world was then plunged in
idolatry, and we cannot wonder that this branch of it pre-
vailed, since many of its ceremonies and superstitious rites
still exist, notwithstanding the influence of the Gospel.
This article affords matter for serious reflection.
II. BAAL. There were many cities in Palestine, into
■whose name the word Baal entered by composition ; either,
because the god Baal was adored in them ; or, because
these places were considered as the capital cities, — lords,
superiors, of their respective provinces. — Calmet.
BAALAH, otherwise Kirjath-jearim ; (Josh. 15: 9.) or
Kirjath-Baal, or Baalim of Judah ; (1 Chron. 13: 6.) a
city of Judah, not far from Gibeah and Gibeon, nine or
ten miles north-west of Jerusalem, where the ark was
stationed after the Philistines returned it, 1 Sam. 6: 21. —
Cahni't.
BAAL-BERITH, {lord of Ihe covenant ;) a deity of the
Shechemites, (Judg. 8: 33. 9: 4.) which the Israelites
made their god after the death of Gideon. There was at
Shechem a temple of Baal-Berith, in whose treasurj' they
accumulated that money which they afterwards gave to
Abimelech, son of Gideon. The most simple explanation
of the name Baal-Berith, is to take it generally, i. e. for the
god who presides over alliances and oaths. In this sense,
the true God may be tenned the God of covenants; and
if Scripture had not added the name Baal to Berith, it
might have been so understood. The most barbarous
nations, as well as the most superstitious, the most reli-
gious, and the most intelligent, have always invoked the
deity to witness oaths and covenants. The Greeks nad
their Zeus florkios, Jupiter the witness and arbitrator of
oaths ; and the Latins had their Deiis Fiilius, or Jupiter
Pistius, whom they regarded as the god of honesty and
integrity, and who presided over treaties and aUiances.
(See Berith.) The name of this idol, however, might; as
Mr. Taylor thinks, refer to the god of the city Berytus.
We know, that the Israelites borrow-ed many deities from
their neighbors ; and the medals of Eerytus show that the
objects of worship were much the same as at Tyre, Sidon,
&c., namely Astarte, or Good Fortune ; Neptune, &c.
BAAL-GAD, a city at the foot of mount Hermon, which
derived its name from the deity, Baal, there adored, Jo,sh.
11: 17. It was afterwards nameti Panias, and then CtBsarea
Philippi. See Gad, and C.)esare.\ Philippi. — Calmet.
BAAL-MEON, a city of Reuben, (Numb. 32: 38. 1
Chron. 5: 8.) sometimes called Beth-Baal-Meon, the house,
or temple, of Baal-Meon. The Moabites took it from the
Eeubenites, and were masters of it in the time of Ezekiel,
Ezek. 25: 9. Eusehius and Jerome place it nine miles
from Esbus, or Esebon, at the foot of mount Baaru, or
Abarim.
BAAL-PEOR. The import of this name is uncertain.
Simon takes it to denote " the lord of mount Peor," where
this deity was worshipped ; as the heathen had their Jupiter
Olympius, Apollo Clarius, Mercurius Cyllenius, &c. It has
been taken in an obscene sense, and with too much truth ;
for it is certain that the deities of the heathen were, and
still are, often of the grossest kind ; not that we know their
worshippers to have thought them scandalous, or to have
connected them with any offence against decency, or with
that sense of shame and indignation wdiich they excite in
us. They may have considered them as commemorative
memorials of distant persons and times, or as employed to
bring to recollection truths, in themselves perfectly innox-
ious ; although such means of recoriUng historical facts,
of whate^'er nature, are in our opinion criminally indeco-
rous, and utterly unfit for public exposure. Of this, the
compound of the Lingam and Yoni among the Hindoos,
affords open and popular proof; but there are other obser-
vances in some of their festivals, usually postponed till
after all Europeans are departed, which too obscenely jus-
tify the most offensive derivation of the name.
This false god is, by some, supposed to be the Adoni-^,
or Orus, adored by the Egj'ptians and other Eastern peo-
ple. Scripture informs us, (Numb. 25: 1 — 3.) thai the
Israelites being encamped in the wilderness of Sin, were
seduced to worship Baal-Peor, to partake of his sacrifices,
and to sin with the daughters of Sloab ; and the psalmist,
(Psalm 106: 28.) adverting to the same event, says, "they
ate the offerings of the dead." Peor is Or, or Oru>:. if we
cut off the article Pe, which is of no signification, dnis is
Adonis, or Osiris. The feasts of Adonis were celebrated
after the manner of funerals ; and the worshippers at that
time committed a thousand dissolute actions, particularly
after they were told that Adonis, whom they had mourned
for as dead, was alive again. (See Adonis.) Origen be-
lieved Baal-Peor to be Priapus, or the idol of turpitude,
adored principally by Avomen, and that Moses did not
think proper to express more clearly what kind of turpi-
tude he meant ; and Jerome says, this idol was represented
and worshipped in the same obscene manner as Priapus.
His opinion is, that efl'eminate men and women, who pros-
tituted themselves in honor of idols, as frequently men-
tioned in Scripture, w^ere consecrated to Baal-Peor, or
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Priapus. Maimonides asserts, that Baal-Peor was adored
by the most immodest actions : and there is no doubt that
he was the god of impurity. We know with what impu-
dence the daughters of Moab engaged the IsraeUtes to
sin ; (Numb. 25: 3.) and the prophet Hosea, (chap. 9: 10.)
speaking of this crime, says, ■' They went unto Baal-Peor,
and separated themselves unto that shame." The psalmist
expresses himself in the plural number ; " they ate the
sacrifices," — for the sacrifices of Baal-Peor were repasts,
such as were used at funerals ; with this difference, that
the latter were often accompanied ^vith real and sincere
sorrow ; whereas, in those of Adonis, the tears were feign-
ed, and the debauchery afterwards indulged, real. See
Chiun. — Calmit.
BAAL-PERASIB'I ; a place in the valley of Eephaim,
not very far distant from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 5: 23. The
reason of this appellation is given in 1 Chron. 14: 11. —
Calmet.
BAAL-SHALISHA, (2 Kings 4: 42. 1 Sam. 9: 4.) a
district placed by Jerome and Eusebius fifteen miles from
Dinspolis north. — Calmet.
BAAL-TAMAR, {Im-d of the pahn tree ;) a village near
Gibeah, where the children of Israel engaged the tribe of
Benjamin, Judg. 20: 33.
The palm tree occurs on many coins as a symbol at-
tending Astarte ; a branch of palm is held by the goddess
sitling on the rock ; and often by Jupiter, who, most pro-
bably, answers to the character of the lord of the palm tree.
It may be supposed that this symbol was chiefly adopted
where the palm was best known ; nevertheless, we find it
applied where it cannot be restrained to the idea of a pro-
duction of the country, merely, and therefore, most proba-
bly, it was introduced from where this symbol was locally
applicable. — Calmet.
IJAALTIS; the same as Astarte, or the moon; next to
Baal, the god most honored by the Phosnicians. See
AsTAKTE, and Astakoth. — Calmet.
BAAL-ZEBUB. See Beel-zebub.
BAAL-ZEPHOX ; a station of the Hebrews, (Ex. 14: 2,
9. Numb. 33: 7.) near Clysma, or Colsoum. Baal-Ze-
phon was, probably, a temple to Baal at the northern point
of the Red sea ; and, most likely, in or near an establish-
ment, or town, like the present Suez. The learned J. M.
Hasius understands the temple of Jupiter Cassius ; but it
was more probably at the head of the Red sea ; not on the
coast of the Mediterranean, as Ezion Gaber, at the head
of the gulf of Eloth, answered to Beth-Gaber, on the coast
of the Mediterranean. Some describe this deity, as in
shape, a dog ; (see Anubis ;) signifying his lagilant eye
over this place, and his office by barking, to give notice of
an enemy's arrival ; and to guard the coast of the Red sea,
on that side. It is said, he was placed there, principally,
to stop slaves that fled from their masters. — Calmet.
BA ASHA ; son of Ahijah, and commander of the armies
of Nadab, king of Israel. He killed his master treache-
rously at the siege of Gibbethon, and usurped the kingdom,
which he possessed twenty-four years. He exterminated
the whole race of Jeroboam, as God had commanded ; but
by his bad conduct, and his idolatry, incurred God's indig-
nation, 1 Kings 15: 27. 16: 7. A. M. 3051. Baasha, in-
stead of making good use of admonition, transported with
rage against a prophet, the messenger of it, killed him. —
Calma.
BABBLE ; to utter a vast deal of useless and unprofita-
ble talk. Prov. 23 : 29, Acts 17 : 18. A babbler is no
better than a serpent that bites, except it be enchanted.
Unless restrained by fear or favor, he will do mischief to
men's characters or interests with the multitude of his
unadvised words. Eccl. 10: 11. The vain babbling vrhich
ministers ought to shun, is- all empty noise about words,
sentiments, and customs, not allowed by Christ, nor calcu-
lated for the edification of men. 1 Tim. 6: 20.
BABE ; a young infant. Luke 1: 41. Weak and insig-
nificant persons are called babes, because of their igno-
rance, folly, frowardness, rashness, stupidity. Matt. 11:
25. Isa. 3: 4. Rom. 2: 20. In commendation, believers
are called babes, because they live on the pure milk of
gospel truth, and for their innocence, meekness, and hum-
ble sincerity in faith, love, profession, obedience. 1 Pet. 2:
2. In dispraise, some saints are called bodes, because of
their weakness in spiritual knowledge, power, and experi-
ence ; and for their stupidity, unteachableness, and readi-
ness to be seduced by Satan. ICor. 3. Heb. 5: 13. — Brown.
BABEL, Tower of. It received this name, because,
when the tower was building, God confounded the lan-
guages of those who were employed in the undertaking,
(Gen. 10: 10.) about A. M. 1775, one hundred and twenty
years after the deluge. Very difl'erent conceptions have
been formed on the nature and figure of the tower of Ba-
bel. Some have delineated it as being round in shape,
with a spiral pathway leading up to the top ; but it appears
more credible that it was square ; and that certain build-
ings, yet remaining in various parts of the world, may be
considered as transcripts, or imitations of it. Strabo calls
it a square pyramid. Mr. Taylor copied several instances
apparently nearly related to it in form and destination,
from which we select the following.
This pyramid, rising in several steps or stages, is at
Tanjore in the East Indies ; and affords, it is presumed, a
just idea of the tower of Babel. It is, indeed, wholly con-
structed of stone, in which it differs from that more ancient
edifice, which, being situated in a country destitute of
stone, was, of necessity, constructed of brick. On the top
of this pyramid is a chapel or temple ; affording a speci-
men of the general nature of this kind of sacred edifices in
India. These amazing structures are commonly erected
on, or near, the banks of great rivers, for the advantage
of ablution. In the courts that surround them, innumera-
ble multitudes assemble at the rising of the sun, after
having bathed in the stream below. The gate of the
pagoda uniformly fronts the east. The internal chamber
commonly receives light only from the door. An external
pathway for the purpose of visiting the chapel at the top
merits observation.
This is an ancient pyramid, built by the Mexicans iu
America; it agrees in figure with the former ; and has,
on the outside, an ascent of stairs leading up one side to
the upper story, proceeding to the chapels on its summit.
This ascent implies that the chapels were used, from time
to time ; and, no doubt, it marks the shortest track for that
pui-pose, as it occupies one side only. That the tower of
Belus had a chapel near the top, appears from Herodotus,
who, after mentioning the ascent, which was to the height
of a stadium, or three hundred and twenty feet, through
eight stages or stories, says, " In the last tower is a Jargt
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chnpel, but no statae," &c. Diodorus implies the same, when
he says, there were statues of gold, of which one was forty
feet high : it must have been a large chapel that could be
supposed to contain such a figure. Above this chapel was
an upper story, containing a chamber with a bed, before
which stood a golden table. In this chamber, Herodotus
says, no one slept at night except a female, whom the god
Belus (according to the Chaldeans, the priests of the temple)
had selected from the females of the city. Diodorus says,
this chamber served also for astronomical observations.
Let us now examine the narration of Moses. (Gen. 11: 9.)
Here it should be observed, (1.) that all mankind was not
concerned in building this tower; for the writer tells us
plainly, those who attempted it were travellers from the
East ; those, therefore, who continued in the East, were
no parties to it. (2.) The language of all mankind could
not be affected by any occurrence which did not involve
the main body, or the original stem, but only a part con-
sisting of emigrants settled far from the primitive abode.
(3.) It is at least as rational to suppo.se that idolatry, in-
tended or perpetrated, was the immediate cause of the
Divine anger, as any other crime hitherto imagined. ('!.)
It will be seen in the article Melchizedek, that the poste-
rity of Ham were kings of Babj'lon. We infer, therefore,
that Shem had no share in this undertaking ; consequently
his language — lip — sentiments, &c. were preserved pure.
The mode adopted by Providence in this miraculous dis-
persion forms no part of our present inquiry ; but if we
suppose some to be clamorous for this idolatry, others
against it ; some for this kind of work, others for another ;
together with the unavoidable necessity of new terms, to
express new materials, &c. we shall perceive rudiments
for occasion of great dissensions among this portion of
mankind. Historical traces of this primitive idolatry may
be discerned in the Hindoo narrations ; for they report
that '' the orisin of the Linga or Phallus, and of its wor-
ship, is said to have happened on the banks of Ciimud-vali,
or Euphrates, and the first Phallus was erected on its
banks, under the name of Balesn-aru-Linga (or the Linga
of Isn-ara the Infant, who seems to answer the Jupiter Puer
of the western mythologists.) Balesa is perfectly synony-
mous to Balesward, both denominations being indifferently
nsed in the Purans." (Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 593.)
Here, then, we have the origin of an idolatrous worship.
With clear references to the name of the Babylonian deity,
Bel or Belus. If the origin of that idolatry, which in the
time of Moses had overspread the countries around, be
connected with the Mosaic history of the tower of Babel,
then much of what has been said respecting the number
of persons engaged in the building this tower, or the num-'
ber of languages into which the families of the earth were
divided, (whether seventy, seventy-two, or seventy-five,
see Language,) might have been spared. On the other
hand, if such idolatry were about this time pubUcly insti-
tuted, then the history of Abraham's removal from it, to pre-
serve the ancient religion, properly follows this narration.
There are certain points of comparison between the
p}Tamids of Egypt (see PYBAMms) and the tower of Babel
to which our attention may be directed. (1.) A river runs
before the pyramids, which agrees with the notion of their
being sacred structures, since the stream was suitable to
purposes of ablution ; in like manner, a river ran before
the tower of Babel. (2.) The general form of these struc-
tures was alike, that is, broad at bottom, rising very high,
tapering at top. (3.) The internal construction was of
less costly materials than the external ; being of sun-baked
bricks, at best ; while the externa! was furnace-baked
bricks at Babel, but immense stones in Egypt, which in-
sured the durability of the Egj-ptian edifices. (4.) A city
extended on each side of the river in both instances. (5.)
The royal palace was separated from the temple by a con-
siderable width of water. (6.) There were apartments,
or chapels, in each. (7.) There were sacred cloisters or
courts around. (8.) There w^as (or was intended to be)
at the top a great image : there are indications of such an
intention on the top of the open pyramid. This thought
.IS not new ; the Jerusalem targuiu asserts it of Babel,
and says that the image was to have held a sword in its
hand, as a kind of protector against men and demons —
Faciamus nobis Imaginem adohationis in ejus fastigio, et po-
namus GlaJium in manu ejus, ut confernt contra acies fralium,
prius quam dispergamur de superficie terra. These obvious
agreements sufficiently evince th.at the structures were
alike in form and in destination, so that we may judge
pretty accurately on what we do not know of the one by
what we do know of the other. They contribute also to
establish the inference, that the same people (though not
the same branch of that people) were the builders of both.
The men engaged at Babel had two objects in view ;
(1.) to build a city, and (2.) a tower. There could be no
impiety in proposing to build a city ; yet it is expressly
stated, that in consequence of the Divine intei-position, the
continuation of the city was relinquished. On the other
hand, the tower was certainly intended as a place for wor-
ship, but not of the true God ; yet, it is no where said in
Scripture that it was destro5'ed, or its works suspended.
This is not easily explained ; and the circumstance is ren-
dered the more obsctu'e, by the accounts of its overthrow
which have been preserved in heathen writers. Eupole-
mus, quoted by Eusebius, (Praep. lib. ix.) says, " The city
Babel was first founded, and afterwards the celebrated
tower ; both which were built by some of the people who
had escaped the deluge. — The tower was eventually ruined
by the power of God." Abydenus, in his AssjTian Annals,
also mentions the tower ; which he says was carried up to
heaven ; but that the gods ruined it by storms and whirl-
winds, frustrated the purpose for w-hich it was designed,
and overthrew it on the heads of those who were engaged
in the work. The ruins of it were called Babylon. (Eu-
seb. Chron. p. 13.) The reader will bear tliis in mind,
as it will assist in determining our judgment on the char-
acter of the ruins still extant.
The following particulars of the tower of Belus are from
Dr. PrideaiLX : — " Till the time of Nebuchadnezzar, the
temple of Belus contained no more than the [central] tower
only, and the rooms in it served all the occasions of (hat
idolatrous w-orship. But he enlarged it by vast buildings
erected round it, in a square of two furlongs on every side,
and a mile in circumference, which was one thousand
eight hundred feet more than the square at the temple of
Jerusalem, for that was but three thousand feet round ;
whereas this was, according to this account, four thousand
eight hundred ; and on the outside of all these buildings,
was a wall inclosing the whole, which may be supposed
to have been of equal extent with the square in which it
stood, that is, two miles and a half in compass, in which
were several gates leading into the temple, all of solid
brass ; and the brazen sea, the brazen pillars, and the
other brazen vessels, which were carried to Babylon from
the temple of Jerusalem, seem to have been employed in
the making of them ; for it is said, that Nebuchadnezzar
did put all the sacred vessels, which he carried from Jeru-
salem, into the house of his god at Babylon, that is, into
this house or temple of Bel. This temple stood till the
time of Xerxes ; but on his return from the Grecian expedi-
tion, he demolished the whole of it, and laid it all in rub-
bish, having first plundered it of its immense riches, among
which were several images or statues of massy gold, and
one of them is said by Diodorus Siculus to have been fortv
feet high, which might perchance have been that which
Nebuchadnezzar consecrated in the plains of Dura.''
It is highly probable, that the remains of towers, shown
in Babylonia, are only ruins of old Babylon, built by Ne-
buchadnezzar. See Babylon, city of. — Calmet.
BABINGTON, (Gervase,) bishop of Llandaff and Exe-
ter, was born at Nottingham, in the year 1551. He was
educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, of which he be-
came fellow, and soon afterwards took his degrees of
masterof arts, and doctor of dirinity. He was then made
domestic chaplain to HeniT, earl of Pembroke, president
of the council in the marches of Wales, and assisted the
lady of that earl in her version of Ihe Psalms of David,
into English metre. He applied himself closely to the
study of divinity, and became one of the most impressive
and useful preachers of his day. In 15SS, he was installed
into the prebend of Wellington, in the cathedral of Here-
ford, and through the interest of his sincere and active
friend, the earl of Pembroke, was advanced to the bisho-
pric of Llandafl'. He was consecrated on the 29th of Au-
gust, 1591 ; and in February, 1594, was translated to the
BAB
[ 160]
BAB
see of Exeter, and confirmed on the 9th of March ; from
whence, in 1597, he was translated to Worcester, to which
he was nominated August 30, elected September 15, and
confirmed October 4. Bishop Babington was a man emi-
nently endowed mth every Christian ornament, as well as
mental qualification. His character admitted of no dero-
gation; for it was pure, unsullied, and, in a great mea-
sure, devoid of those failings which have attended the
characters of even the best of men. He possessed piety
without fanaticism, learning without ostentation, and gene-
rosity without prodigality. His time was spent in the cul-
tivation of his mind, and in the exercise of every virtue.
This good and great man expired on the 17th of May,
1610, in the fifty-ninth year of his age ; beloved and re-
gretted by all who were blessed with his friendship, or
honored with his affection ; and was buried in the cathe-
dra, of Worcester, without a tablet to mark the spot which
contained the ashes of a man so excellent. His works
were published in 1637, under this title : — " The Works
of the Right Reverend Father in God, Gervase Babington,
late Bishop of Worcester, containing comfortable Notes on
the Five Books of Moses." As also, " An Exposition up-
on the Creed, the Commandments, and the Lord's Prayer ;
with a Conference between Man's Frailty and Faith ;"
and three sermons, one of which was preached at Paul's
Cross, the second Sunday in Blichaelmas term, being upon
Election ; the second was preached at the court at Green-
wich, on the 24th of May, 1590 ; and the third is a funeral
sermon, on the death of T. L , Esq., preached by the
author while he was bishop of Llandafl'. — Life of Bishop
Babington, and Works ; Jones's Chr. Biog,
BABYLON, CouNTitY of, is generally called Baby-
lonia, from the name of its first city. Babel ; or Chaldea,
from the name of its inhabitants, the Chaldeans or Chas-
dim. When Babylon, instead of Nineveh, was the seat
of the supreme power, the words Babylonia and Chaldea
were equivalent with Assyria, and comprehended two
large tracts of territory on opposite sides of the Euphrates.
These were called in Scripture, Aram beyond the river,
and Aram on this side of the river. To the former, by
way of distinction, the Greeks gave the name of Assyria,
and to the latter that of Syria. The portion named Assy-
ria, comprehended a space of ' seven hundred miles in
length, between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris, from the
Armenian mountains, in which they rise, to the Persian
gulf, into which they then flowed into separate channels.
This was divided into three parts, 1. Mesopotamia, an ap-
pellation, indeed, which, in its hteral meaning, was appli-
cable to the whole extent, btit which was limited to the
northern region, where the rivers diverge, in general, a
hundred, and in some places two hundred miles asunder,
until, in their course towards the sea, they approach with-
in twenty miles of each other, in the vicinity of Bagdad.
2. Babylonia, extending from this narrow isthmus about
three hundred miles towards the Persian gulf, and never
exceeding fotirscore miles in its breadth between the rivers.
And, 3. The eastern district, property named Atur, but
frequently called Mesene and Adiabene, lying beyond the
Tigris, and reaching to the foot of the Carduchian hills.
It is to the second of these that the present article refers,
ti'id it is colled indiscriminately Babylonia or Chaldea ;
b\ir, in general, the latter name is used by sacred writers,
and the former by profane. Sometimes, indeed, these ap-
pellations are appropriated severally to a particular dis-
trict ; the former denoting the country more immediately
in the neighborhood of Babylon, and the latter that which
ttretches soufhward to the Persian gulf.
The climate of this country is temperate and salubrious ;
1 ut at certain seasons the heat is so intense, that the in-
habitants were accustomed to sleep with their bodies part-
ly immersed in water ; and the same practice, according
to tlie testimony of modern travellers, is continued to this
day. It seldom rains there above three or four times in
the course of a year ; and the lands were watered by
means of canals, trenches, and various sorts of engines,
provided in great abimdance for the purpose. The soil,
naturally rich, and thus carefully supplied with moisture
in the driest seasons, surpassed even that of Egypt in fer-
tility, and is said to have generally yielded from one
hundred to three hundred-fold. Its vegetable productions
grow to so extraordinary a size, that Herodotus declines '
giving a particular description of them, lest he should in-
cur the charge of exaggeration ; but he mentions, as one
instance, that the leaves of the wheat and barley were
four fingers in breadth. It afforded every where a viscous
clay, easily formed by the furnace, or even by the sun,
_ into the hardest bricks ; and the naphtha, or bitumen,
which was extremely abundant, furnished the firmest of
all cements.
The government of this country was of the most des-
potic description, and the sovereignty was considered as
hereditary. Every thing depended upon the will of the
prince ; and, hence, the laws were undefined, and the pun-
ishments arbitrary in the highest degree. Dan. 1: 10. 2:
5. 3: 19. Three separate tribunals, however, were ap-
pointed to administer justice ; the first of which took cog-
nizance of adultery, and similar oflences ; the second, of
thefts ; and the third, of all other crimes. The principal
officers of state seem to have been, the captain of the
guard, in whom the executive power resided ; the prince
of the eunuchs, who took charge of the education and sub-
sistence of the youth of the palace ; the prime minister, or
vizier, who was at the head of the police, and acted as
chief justice in the empire ; and the master of the magi,
whose business it wa-s to interpret prognostications, and
divine the events of futurity to the king. The immediate
household of the prince appears to have been extremely
numerous ; and particular districts were appointed to sup-
ply the different articles of food which were requisite for
the maintenance of the many thousands who daily fed at
his tables.
The religious system of the Babylonians bore a near
resemblance to that of the Egyptians, and has been very
ingeniously ascribed to the following source. The sudden
inundations of the Euphrates and 'Tigris, like those of the
Nile, occasioning, alternately, the most rapid, beneficial,
or destructive changes in the face of nature, attracted the
attention, and alarmed the anxiety of the unenhghtened
people, who witnessed and experienced their momentous
effects. The.se important changes were observed to have
an evident connection with the vicissitudes of the seasons,
and the revolutions of the heavenly bodies ; and hence,
these luminaries, whose influence was understood to be so
powerful and extensive, were considered, at first, as the
ministers or vicegerents of the Supreme Being, were
gradually worshipped as mediators or intercessors for man,
and were at length exalted to the rank of separate, but
subordinate divinities. The sacerdotal families, devoted
to the service of these deities, and thus led by their office
to be continually observing the motious of the celestial
bodies, gradually acquired such a degree of astronomical
skill, as had the appearance of supernatural communica-
tions, and gave them a complete ascendancy over the
minds of the multitude. This power they employed, as
their fancy or interest suggested, in prescribing an im-
mense variety of idolatrous rites and modes of worship ;
the most remarkable of which was the adoration of fire,
and the offering of human victims in sacrifice. These
sacerdotal tribes, who have been called by way of distinc-
tion, Chaldeans or Chaldees, were the phiiosophers as well
as the priests of their country. They pretended- to have
derived their learning from the first instructor, Oannes,
who sprung from the primogenial egg ; who was half
man or god, and half fish ; who appeared in the Red sea,
and taught the knowledge of letters and civilization in
general. This learning, as far as it went, they studied
very minutely, and handed it down by tradition from
father and son, with any little addition and improvement.
It consisted chiefly of some absurd opinions about the for-
mation and shape of the earth, a few astronomical obser-
vations, and a confused mass of astrological rules and
prognostications of the weather. — See Anc. Univ. Hist.
vol. iv. p. 332, &;c. ; Gillies's Hist, of the World, vol. i. p.
60, 72, 1 68, 195 ; Joms.
BABYLON, Empike of, may be considered as the
first great monarchy of which any records are to be found
in history. It appears to have been founded a short time
after the flood ; and, according to the astronomical tables
sent by Alexander to Aristotle, about 2234 years B. C.
Of this first Babylonian kingdom, there is very little to be
BAB
y^.
t icii
ba b
kncnm, except what is related in sacred Scripture ; that,
about 2000 years B. C. it consisted, under Nimrod, of four
cities, Babel, Erech, Accad, and Galneh ; that, about one
liundred years afterwards, it was enlarged by Ashur, who
built several other cities, and particularly the first Nine-
veh, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, three hundred
iniles above Babylon ; and that it continued till the year
B. C. 1230, when Ninus, having overrun the greater part
of Asia, founded a second Nineveh, between the rivers
Tigris and Euphrates, about fifty miles from Babylon,
and thus established what is called the Assyrian monar-
chy. But what is generally understood by the Babylonian
empire, began about 606 years B.C. when Belesis, or Ne-
bopolassar, hereditary satrap of Babylon, revolted against
tlie Assyrian monarch, Sardanapalus ; and having destroy-
ed that prince and his capital Nineveh, transferred the
seat of power to his own city. Thus there may be said
to have been two distinct kingdoms in Babylon ; one pre-
ceding, and the other following, the Assyrian empire. Or,
rather, more properly spealcing, there were three great
eras of the same monarchy in the country of Assyria.
The first of these commences with Nimrod, in the year
B. C. 2000, when Babylon was the seat of power; the
second with Ninus, in the year 1230, when Nineveh be-
came the metropolis of the empire ; and the tliird with
Belesis, in the year 606, when Babylon once more beheld
the sovereigns of the East residing in her palaces. This
subject, indeed, is beset with inextricable difficulties, and
involved in impenetrable darkness ; but the above state-
ment, which is founded upon the observations of the learn-
ed and ingenious Dr. Gillies, in his History of the World,
vol. i. p. 50 — 130, seems much more simple in itself, as
well as more consistent with history, than either the com-
mon account, which makes the Assyrian monarchy almost
coeval, but altogether unconnected, with the first kingdom
in Babylon ; or that of Sir Isaac Newton, who dates its
origin so late as the year B. C. 770.
Leaving our readers to decide this point for themselves,
we proceed to the proper subject of this article, namely, to
give a short sketch of the second Babylonian empire, es-
tabbshed by Belesis, or Nebopolassar, upon the ruins of
the Assyrian monarchy, about 606 years B. C.
Nebopolassar, or, as he is also called, Nebuchadnezzar,
continued in close alliance with Cyaxares the Mede, by
wliose assistance he had acquired the sovereignty, and by
whose friendship he became so powerful as to excite the
apprehensions of the neighboring princes. While he was
employed in resisting the Scythians, who had made them-
selves masters of Upper Asia, Necho, king of Egypt, in-
vaded his dominions in the south, reduced the city Car-
chemish, or Circesium, and encouraged the Syrians in
that quarter to revolt. Nebopolassar being now well ad-
vanced in years, sent his son Nebuchadnezzar, whom he
had associated with himself in the empire, to reduce those
countries to their former subjection. The young prince
defeated the army of Necho near the Euphrates, retook
the city of Carchemish, and quelled the insurgents in Sy-
ria; entered Judea, and took possession of Jerusalem ; re-
stored Jehoiakim to his throne, but carried to Babylon
great numbers of the principal Jews, with the treasures
of the palace, and part of the sacred vessels in the temple.
In the mean time, Nebopolassar died, and was succeeded
by his sun, upon his return from his expedition.
Nebuchadnezzar II., called also Labynetus, occupied
himself, during the first years of his reign, in enlarging
and embellishing his capital ; and during this period oc-
curred those events which are related in the book of Da-
niel, ch. 2. His tranquillity was interrupted by the revolt
of jehoiakim in Judea, who was soon reduced by the
Babylonian generals ; but Jechonias, his son, having also
attempted to shake off the Assyrian yoke, Nebuchadnez-
zar went in person to the siege of Jerusalem ; and having
made himself master of the city, he carried to Babylon all
its trea.sures and sacred utensils, leaving the government
to Zedekiah, the uncle of Jechonias. Recalled in a short
time to Judea by the revolt of Zedekiah, he defeated the
Egyptians, who had come to the assistance of the Jews,
took Jerusalem by storm, after a twelve-month's siege,
gave It up to pillage and slaughter, put out the eyes of the
king, and carried him away captive. Upon his return to
21
Babylon, he erected a golden statue in the plain of Dura,
sixty cubits in height, and commanded all his subjects to
worship it as a divinity. Dan. ch. 3. About three years
after this event, he again led his forces against the western
nations, made himself master of Tyre, after a siege of
thirteen years, overran the whole country of Egypt, re-
turned to adorn his capital with the booty which he had
acquired ; and, having sutfered the punishment of his
pride, as related in JDaniel, ch. 4: he died, in the forty-
fourth year of his reign.
Evil-Merodach, who succeeded his father Nebuchad-
nezzar, is described as a weak and licentious prince, and
was murdered by his relatives, after having reigned little
more than two years.
Neriglissar, the husband of Evil-Merodach's sister, and
one of the chief conspirators, reigned in his stead. Imme-
diately after his accession, he began to make preparations
for resisting the growing power of the Medes and Per-
sians. After spending three years in forming alliances,
and collecting troops, he marched to meet his opponents,
Cyaxares and Cyrus ; and, in a bloody engagement with
the latter, was defeated and slain.
Laborosoarchod, his son, succeeded to the throne. By
his cruelty and oppression, he provoked several of his
governors to raise the standard of rebellion, and to call in
the aid of Cyms. Marching to suppress these commo-
tions, he was met by the Persian prince, defeated with
great loss, and pursued to the very walls of his metropolis.
After Cyrus had retired with his army, the Babylonian
monarch indulged his vicious propensities to such excess,
that his own subjects, unable any longer to endure his ty-
rannical conduct, conspired against his Ufe, and put him
to death, in the ninth month of his reign. He was suc-
ceeded by Belshazzar, the son of Evil-3Ierodach, and
grandson of the great Nebuchadnezzar. His mother, Ni-
tocris, who was a woman of extraordinary talents, took
upon herself the management of public affairs ; and while
her son was pursuing his pleasures, she made every exer-
tion to preserve the tottering empire. She completed
many of the works which Nebuchadnezzar had begun ;
and, when Cyrus renewed his attacks upon the frontier
to^Tis, she employed the utmost activity in constructing
new fortifications for the defence of the capital. Belshaz-
zar, at length, in the fifth year of his reign, repaired in
person to the court of Croesus, king of Lydia, carrying
with him an immense treasure ; and with the aid of that
prince, as well as by the influence of his wealth, framed
a very formidable confederacy against Cyras. Having
hired a numerous army of Egyptians, Greeks, and othet
nations in Lesser Asia, he appointed Crcesus to the com-
mand, and directed him to make an incursion into Media.
These auxiliaries having been completely routed, Croesus
taken and dethroned, and Cyrus again advancing to Baby-
lon, Belshazzar attempted to make head against him in
the field, but was soon put to flight, and closely blockaded
in his capital. After a siege of two years, the city was
taken, as is related in the following article ; Belshazzai
was slain in the assault upon his palace ; and with him
terminated the empire of the Babylonians, about 538 years
B. C— See Rollings Anc. Hist. vol. ii. p. 3-1, &c. ; Pri-
deaux's Connections, vol. i. p. 51, Ace. ; Anc. Univ. History,
vol. iv. p. 394, &c. ; (JUlies's History of the World, vol. i.
p. 130, hcc. ; Jones.
BAI5YL0N, City of, the capital of the ancient king-
dom of Babylonia, is supposed to have been situated in
northiatitude thirty-two degrees and thirty-four minutes,
and in east longitude forty-four degrees, twelve minutes
and thirty seconds. It was founded by the first descen-
dants of Noah, 2234 years B. C, enlarged by Nimrod, the
great grandson of Noah, 2000 years B. C, and, in a man-
ner, completely rebuilt about 1200 years B. C hy the As-
syrian queen Semiramis. It was greatly strengthened
and beautified by various succeeding sovereigns ; but it
was by Nebuchadnezzar and his daughter Nitocris, that
it was brought to such a degree of magnificence and
splendor, as rendered it one of the wonders of the world.
The anmhesis between Babylon and Jerusalem, enters
largely inio the prophetic language of Scripture. Hence
the importance of an accurate knowledge of the real histo-
ry of both.
BAB
[162]
BAB
Babylon stood in the midst of a large plain, in a very-
deep and fruitful soil. It was divided into two parts by
the river Euphrates, which flowed through the city from
north to south. The old city v.'as on the east, and the
new city, built by Nebuchadnezzar, on the west side of the
river. Both these divisions were inclosed by one wall,
and the whole formed a complete square, four hundred
and eighty furlongs in compass. Each of the four sides
of this square had twenty-five gates of solid brass, at equal
distances ; and at every corner was a strong tower, ten
feet higher than the wall. In those quarters where the
city had least natural defence, there were also three of
these towers between every two of the gates; and the
5ame number between each corner and the nearest gate
on its two sides. The city was composed of fifty streets,
each fifteen miles long, and one hundred and fifty feet
Sroad, proceeding from the twenty-five gates on each side,
and crossing each other at right angles, besides four half
streets, two hundred feet in breadth, surrounding the
whole, and fronting towards the outer wall. It was thus
intersected into six hundred and seventy-six squares,
which extended four furlongs and a half on each of their
sides, and along which the houses were built, at some dis-
tance from each other. These intermediate spaces, as
ivell as tlie inner parts of the squares, were employed as
gardens, pleasure grounds, &c. ; so that not above one
half of the immense extent which the walls inclosed, was
occupied by buildings.
The walls of Babylon were of extraordinary strength,
being eighty-seven feet broad, and three hundred and fifty
feet high. They were built of brick, and cemented by a
kind of glutinous earth called bitumen, which had the
quality of soon becoming as hard as stone. These walls
were surrounded on the outside by an immense ditch, from
which the earth had been dug to make the bricks ; and
which, being always filled with water, added very much
to the defence of the city.
On each side of the river Euphrates was built a quay,
or high wall, of the same thickness with the walls around
the city. There were gates of brass in these walls, oppo-
site to every street \\'hich led to the river, and from them
were formed descents, or landing places, by means of
steps, so that the inhabitants could easily pass in boats,
from one side of the city to the other. There was also a
remarkable bridge thrown over the river, near the middle
of the city, built with wonderful art, of huge stones, fas-
tened together by means of iron chains and melted lead;
and is said to have been a whole furlong in length, and
thirty feet in breadth.
In order to prevent any inconvenience from the swell-
ings of the Euphrates, two canals were cut from that
river, at a considerable distance above the town, which
carried ofi" the superabundant waters into the Tigris.
From the place where these canals commenced, down the
sides of the river, both above and below the city, immense
banks were constructed, to confine the stream still more
efliectually within its channel, and to prevent still more
completely all danger of an inundation. In order to fa-
cilitate the construction of these works, an immense lake
was dug on the west side of Babylon, about forty miles
square, and thirty-five feet deep, into which the river was
turned by a canal, till the banks were completed ; and it
was then restored to its former course. This lake con-
tinued afterwards to receive annually a fresh supply of
water from the Euphrates, and was rendered very service-
able, by means of sluices, for watering the lands which
were situated below it.
At the two ends of the bridge over the Euphrates, were
two magnificent palaces, which had a subterraneous com-
munication with each other, by means of a vault or tun-
nel, under the bed of the river. The old palace, on the
east side, was about thirty furlongs in compass, and was
surrounded by three separate walls, one within tbe other,
with considerable spaces between them. The new palace,
on the opposite side, was about four times as large as the
other, and is said to have been eight miles in circumfe-
rence. The walls of both these edifices were embellished
with an infinite variety of pieces of sculpture ; and, among
the rest, was a curious hunting-scene, in which Semira-
mis was represented on horseback, throwing her jave-
lin at a leopard, while her husband Ninus was piercing a
lion.
The most remarkable structure in the new palace was
the hanging gardens, which Nebuchadnezzar is said to
have raised, in order to give his wife Amytis, (daughter
of Astyages, king of JMeclia,) some representation of the
beautiful mountainous and woody view.s which abounded
in her native country. These gardens occupied a square
piece of ground, four hundred feet on every side, and con-
sisted of large terraces, raised one above the other, till
they equalled in height the walls of the city. The ascent
from terrace to terrace was by means of steps ten feet
wide ; and the whole pile was sustained by vast arches,
built upon other arches, and strengthened on each side by
a solid wall, twenty-two feet in thickness. Within these
arches were very spacious and splendid apartments, which
are described as having commanded a very extensive and
delightful prospect. In order to form a proper pavement
for supporting the soil, and confining the moisture of the
garden, large flat stones, sixteen feet in length, and four
in breadth, were, first of all, laid upon the top of the up-
per arches ; over these was spread a layer of reeds, mixed
with bitumen ; upon this, two rows of brick, closely ce-
mented ; and the whole covered with sheets of lead, upon
which the earth or mould was laid to a sufficient depth for
the largest trees to take firm root. In the upper terrace
was a large reservoir, into which water was drawn from
the river by some species of engine, and kept there ready
to be distributed to any part of the gardens.
Scripture no where notices these celebrated gardens ;
but it speaks of willows planted on the banks of the rivers
of Babylon : " We hanged our harps on the willows in the
midst thereof," says Psal. 137: 2. Isaiah, describing in a
prophetic style the captivity of the Moabites by Nebu-
chadnezzar, says, " They shall be carried away to the val-
ley of willows" 15: 7. The same prophet, (ch. 21: 1.)
describing the calamities of Babylon by Cyrus, calls this
city the desert of the sea, Jeremiah, to the same purport,
says, (51; 36, 42.) "I will dry up the sea of Babylon, and
make her springs dry. The sea is come up upon her :
she is covered with the multitude of the waves thereof."
Megasthenes (ap. Euseb. Prasp. ix. 41.) assures us, that
Babylon was built in a place which had before abounded
so greatly with water, that it was called the sea. But the
language of the psalmist above quoted, suggests the idea
that the city of Babylon was refreshed by a considerable
number of streams ; " By the rivers [streams, flowing cur-
rents] of Babylon we sat down." — " On the willows (plu-
ral) in the midst thereof, we hanged our harps" (plural).
There must, then, have been gardens visited by these
streams, easily accessible to the captive Israelites ; not the
royal gardens, exclusively, but others less reserved ; and
the phrase, " in the midst thereof," that is, of Babylon,
seems to denote — not gardens above or below the city, but
strictly in its interior. We know, also, that there was but
one river at Babylon then, as there is but one now, the
Euphrates, so that when these captives represent them-
selves as " sitting by the rivers of Babylon," in the plural,
they inform us, that this river was divided into several
branches, or canals ; and these were, doubtless, works of
art. Moreover, from Jeremiah's threat of drying up the
sea of Babylon, we learn, that there was a considerable
lake or reservoir, in the interior of the city ; for to such
large receptacles of water the appellation sea was, and
still is, applied in the East. Undoubtedly, the water of
this lake, and of these canals, being furnished by the Eu-
phrates, the name of that river might be continued to
them, in a general sense : and if this be admitted, a great
proportion of those ditficulties which the learned have
hitherto found insuperable, are reduced to trifles, if they
do not vanish. Nor ought w^e to forget, that the Egyptian
Memphis, which we suppose to be a copy from Babylon,
was, in like manner, surrounded and visited by streams,
by canals, &c. aU of them drawn from one river, the Nile,
and bearing its name.
Near to the old palace stood the temple of Belus ; and
in the middle of the temple was an immense tower, about
six hundred feet in height, and the same number square
at the foundation. This huge pile of building consisted
of eight towers, each seventy-five feet high, placed one
BAB
above the olher, and gradually decreasing towards the top
like a pyramid. What has been described is understood
to have been the old tower of Babel ; but it was greatly en-
larged by Nebuchadnezzar, who built around its base a
number of other sacred edifices, forming a square nearly
three miles in compass. The whole was inclosed by a
strong wall, and the various entrances secured by solid
gates of brass, which are conjectured to have been formed
out of the spoils of the temple at Jerusalem. Dan. 1: 2.
2 Chron. 36: 7. In this temple of Belus, or, as some say,
on its summit, was a golden image forty feet in height,
and equal in value to three and a half millions sterling.
There was, besides, such a multitude of other statues and
sacred utensils, that the whole of the treasures contained in
this single edifice has been estimated at forty-two millions.
Many of the above statements, recorded in ancient au-
thors, respecting the wonders of Babylon, are unquestiona-
bly greatly exaggerated ; but, after every abatement that
can fairly be made, this city is understood to have com-
prehended a regular square, forty-eight miles in circuit,
and to have been eight times larger than London and its
appendages. See Gillies' Hist, of the World, vol. i. p. 166,
and Kennd's Geos. of Herodotus, p. 341. The city of
Babylon seems to have excelled in rich and ingenious
liianufactures, at a very early period in the history of the
world; and its '■ goodly garments" are mentioned 1450
years B. C. Josh. 7: 21. and 2 Sam. 13: 18.
Great boastings have been made of the antiquity of the
astronomical observations taken by the Babylonians. Jo-
sephus tells us, that Berosus, the Babylonian historian and
astronomer, agreed with Moses concerning the corruption
of manliind, and the deluge ; and Aristotle, who was curi-
ous in examining the truth of what was reported relating
to these observations, desired Cabsthenes to send him the
most certain accounts that he could find of this particular,
among the Babylonians. Calisthenes sent him observations
of the heavens, which had been made during one thousand
nine hundred and three years, computing from the origin
of the Babylonisli monarchy, to the time of Alexander.
This carries up the account as high as the one hundred
and fifteenth year after the flood, which was \rithin fifteen
years aftei? the tower of Babel was built. For the confu-
sion of tongues, which followed immediately after the
building of that tower, happened in the year in which Pe-
leg was born, one hundred and one years after the flood;
and fourteen years before that in which these observations
begin.
In ancient authors, much confusion is occasioned by a
too general application of the name of Babel : it has de-
noted the original tower, the original city, the subsequent
tower, the palace, the later city, and we shall find it ex-
pressing the province of Babylonia: in fact, it stands con-
nected in that sense with the plain of Dura, which is said
to be in the province of Babylon, and which might be
placed at a distance from the city, were it not for con-
siderations already recited. Ancient authors have raised
the wonder of their readers, by allowing to the walls of
Babylon dimensions and extent which confound the ima-
gination, and rather belong to a province than to a city.
But, that they really were of extraordinary dimensions,
would appear from references made to them by the pro-
phet, who threatens them with destruction. Jeremiah (50:
15.) says, "Her foundations are fallen, her walls are
thrown down ;" and again, (51: 44.) "The very wall of
Babylon shall fall :" and (verse 58.) " the broad wall of
Babylon shall be utterly broken :" — observe the broad
wall ; and in verse 53. we read, "Though Babylon should
mount up to heaven, [that is, her defences.] and though
she should fortify the height of her .strength," [that is, her
wall.] Thus we find allusions to the height, the breadth,
and the strength of the walls of Babylon.
The downfall and destruction of this proud metropolis
of the ancient world, is a subject so much dwelt upon by
the prophets, that before taking leave of the article, it may
not be improper to take a cursory glance at some of the
more important particulars concerning it.
Enriched with the spoils of the East, and exulting in the
day of her prosperity, Babylon seemed born to command
the world. She said in her heai't, according to the lan-
guage of the prcpbct, (!sa. 47: 7,8, &c.) "I am the queen
[ 1G3 J BAB
of nations, and my reign is forever. I am ; and there u-
none else beside me. I am exempted from that vicissitude
and decline which are incident to other nations. My des-
tiny shall survive coeval with those stars in which the ob-
servers of the heavens have read the records of my per-
petual duration." But her pride and luxury, her cruelty
to the Jews during their captivity at Babylon, and the sa-
crilegious impiety of her monarch, wrought her downfall.
She had been the instrument of the Divine vengeance to
punish guilty kingdoms ; and the lime was approaching
when " the Lord was to break the staff wherewith he had
smote so many nations," and destroy the weapon of war
which had been drunk with the blood of the people. Blore
than a hundred years before the accomplishment of this
prediction, Isaiah foretold the doom that was pronounced
against Babylon, named the prince who was to fulfil this
prophecy before he was born, described the minutest cir-
cumstances relating to the siege and the taking of the
city, and painted the perpetual desolation of this once
flourishing capital in every succeeding age. Isa. 13:
Jer. 45:
Isaiah has composed an ode on the occasion, which for
elegance of disposition, sublimity of sentiment, boldness
of coloring, beauty and force of expression, stands unrival-
led among all the monuments of genius which antiquity
has transmitted to modem times. A chorus of Jews is
first introduced, expressing their astonishment at the sud-
den downfall of Babylon, and their exultation at the un-
expected revolution in their affairs, by the destruction of
their tyrants.
" How hath the oppressor ceased ! the golden city ceas-
ed ! Jehovah hath broken the rod of the wicked, and the
sceptre of the rulers. He who smote the people in wrath
with a continual strolcc, he that ruled the nations in ven-
geance, is persecuted, and none hindereth."
The oppressed kingdoms and their rulers, denoted in
the prophetic style by " the fir trees and cedars of Leba-
non," are now next represented as shouting with joy, and
the earth with its inhabitants triumphing over the fall of
the tyrant.
" The whole earth is at rest, is quiet, Jhey break forth,
into a joyful shout : even the fir trees rejoice over thee,
the cedars of Lebanon : since thou art fallen, no feller is
come up against us."
The scene is then changed, and a new set of personages
introduced. The regions of the dead arc laid open, and
Hades represented as rousing up the shades of the depart-
ed monarchs. They rise up from their thrones to meet
the king of Babylon, and insult him on his being reduced
to the same humble and calamitous condition with them-
selves. This is the boldest figure that has ever been at-
tempted in poetical composition, and is executed with
astonishing conciseness and sublimity. Conceive the idea
of an immense subterraneous vault, a vast gloomy cavern,
all around the sides of which there are cells, in the man-
ner of the Jewish sepulchres, to receive the dead bodies :
here the deceased monarchs lie in distinguished state,
suitable to their former rank, each on his couch, with his
arms beside him, and his chiefs around him. These illus-
trious shades rise at once from their couches, and advance
from the entrance of the cavern to meet the king of Baby-
lon, and to deride him on his fall.
" Hades from beneath is moved for thee to meet thee at
thy coming : it rouseth up the departed shades, the mighty
of the earth : it raiseth from their thrones all the kings of
the nations: they triumph over thee. Art thou, even thou
too, become weak as we ? Art thou made like unto us ?
Is thy pride brought down to the grave, the sound of thy
sprightly iustnimeuts ? Is the vermin become thy couch,
and the earth-worm thy covering?"
The Jewish people are again brought forward, uttering
an exclamation in the form of a funereal dirge over the
fallen tyrant.
" How art thou fallen from heaven, 0 Lucifer, son of the
morning ! how art thou cut ofl" from the earth, thou who
didst subdue the nations ! For thou hast said in thine heart,
I will ascend into heaven, I will exalt mv throne abovu the
stars of God, I will be like the Most High. Yet thou art
brought down to the mansions of the dead, and to the sides
of the pit "
BAB
[ 164]-
BAB
Strangers are next introduced, who discover the corpse
of the king of Babylon, cast out and disfigured among the
common slain. They bitterly reproach him for his deso-
lating ambition, which brought him to such an ignomi-
nious end, and denounce vengeance on his race and pos-
terity.
" Is this the man thai made the earth to tremble, that
shook the kingdoms ? that made the world as a wilder-
ness, and destroyed the cities ? All the kings of the na-
tions lie in glory, every one in his own house. But thou
art cast out of thy grave like an abominable branch ; as
a carcass trodden under foot. Thou shalt not be joined
with them in burial, because thou hast destroyed the land,
and slain the people. Prepare slaughter for his children,
for the iniquity of their fathers, that they do not rise nor
possess the land, nor fill the face of the world with cities."
At last, God himself is introduced, denouncing the doom
of Babylon, the extirpation of the royal family, the utter
destruction of the city, its total desolation from age to age ;
and confirming the irreversible decree by the awful so-
lemnity of an oath.
" I will rise up against them, saith the Lord of hosts,
and I w ill cut off' from Babylon the name and remnant,
the son and the nephew. It shall become a heap of ruins,
a dwelling-place for dragons, an astonishment and a hiss-
ing, without an inhabitant. Isa. 14: 4 — 25. And Baby-
lon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees'
excellency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and
Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be
dwelt in from generation to generation : neither shall the
Arabian pitch his tent there, nor the shepherds make their
folds there. But the wild beasts of the desert shall lurk
in its ruins ; the houses shall be full of doleful creatures ;
there shall the owls dwell and the satyrs dance. And the
wild beasts of the island shall cry in their desolate domes,
and dragons in their pleasant palaces. I will make it a
possession for the bittern and pools of water : and I will
sweep it with the besom of destruction, saith the Lord of
hosts. Jehovah hath sworn, Surely as I have thought, so
shall it come to pass ; and as I have purposed, so shall it
stand." Isa. 13: 19. Ch. 14: 23, 24.
At the precise period appointed, this prediction was ful-
filled. This great city, the gloiy of kingdoms, whose
beauty, strength, and magnificence made it the wonder
of the world, has shared the ruin of Sodom and Gomorrah.
For the space of twenty-six years after the death of
Nebuchadnezzar, it continued to retain its glory, and was
at once the seat of an imperial cotu't, the station of a nu-
merous garrison, and the scene of a most extensive com-
merce. It was at length invested, about 540 years B. C.
by the victorious armies of Cyrus the Great. Crowded
with troops for their defence, surrounded with such lofty
walls, and furnished with provisions for twenty years, the
citizens of Babylon derided the efforts of their be.sie^er,
and boasted of their impregnable situation. On the other
hand, the conqueror of Asia, determined to subdue his
only remaining rival in the empire of the eastern world,
left no expedient untried for the i-eiluction of the city.^ By
means of the palm trees, which abounded in that country,
he erected a number of towers higher than the walls, and
made many desperate attempts to carry the place by as-
sault. He next drew a line of circumvallotion around the
city ; divided his army into twelve parts ; appointed each
of these to guard the trenches for a month, and resolved
to starve his enemy to a surrender. After spending two
years in this blockade, he was presented with an opportu-
nity of effecting his purpose by stratagem. Having learn-
ed that a great festival was to be celebrated in the city,
and that it was customary with the Babylonians, on that
occa.sion, to spend the night in drunkenness and debauch-
ery, he posted a part of his troops close by the spot where
the river Euphrates entered the rity, and anpther at the
place where it went out, with orders to march along the
channel, whenever they should find it fordable. He then
detached a third party to open the head of the canal, which
led to the great lake already described ; and, at the same
time, to admit the river into the trenches, which he had
draWji around the city. By these means, the river was so
completely drained by midnight, that his troops easily
found their way along its bed ; and the gates, which used
to shut up the passages from its banks, having been left
open in consequence of the general disorder, they encoun-
tered no obstacle whatever in their progress. Having thus
penetrated into the heart of the city, and met, according
to agreement, at the gates of the palace, they easily over-
powered the guards ; cut to pieces all who opposed them ;
slew the king Belshazzar, while attempting to make re-
sistance ; and received the submission of the whole city
within a few hours.
From this period, Babylon ceased to be the metropolis
of a kingdom, and its grandeur very rapidly decayed.
Its citizens were very impatient under the Persian yoke ;
and their pride was particularly provoked by the removal
of the imperial seat to Susa. Taking advantage of the
disorders in Persia, in consequence of the sudden death of
Cambyses, and of the massacre of the Magians, they con-
tinued, during the space of four years, to make secret
preparations for a revolt. At length, in the fifth year of
Darius Hystaspes, about 518 years B. C, they openly
raised the standard of rebellion ; and thus drew upon
themselves the whole force of the Persian empire. Deter-
mined upon a desperate defence, and desirous to make
their provisions last as long as possible, they adopted the
barbarous resolution of destroying all such persons in the
city as could be of no service during the siege. Having
sacrificed the lives of their friends, and resolutely regard-
less of their own, they successfully resisted all the strength
and stratagems of the Persians, for the space of eighteen
months, and fell at length into the hands of Darius, by
the following extraordinary instance of fortitude in one of
his officers. Zopyrus, one of the principal noblemen in
the Persian court, appeared in the presence of his prince,
covered with blood, deprived of his nose and ears, torn
with stjipes, and wounded in various parts of his body ;
unfolded to the astonished monarch his design of deserting
to the enemy, and arranged his future plan of operations.
Approaching the walls of the city, he was carried before
the governor, detailed the cruel treatment which he pro-
fessed to have received from Darius ; offered his services
to the Babylonians, who were well acquainted with his
rank and abilities ; acquired their confidence by several
successful sallies ; obtained, at length, the chief command
of their forces, and thus easily found means to betray the
city to his master. As soon as Darius was in possession
of Babylon, he ordered its hundred gates and its impreg-
nable walls to be demolished ; put to death three thousand
of those who had been principally concerned in the revolt ;
and sent fifty thousand women from different parts of his
empire, to supply the place of those who had been so cru-
elly destroyed at the commencement of the siege. In the
year B. C. 478, Xerxes, the successor of Darius, returning
i'rom his inglorious invasion of Greece, passed through the
city of Babylon ; and, partly from hatred to the Sabian
worship, partly with a view to recruit his treasures, plun-
dered the temple of Belus of its immense wealth, and then
laid its lofty lower in ruins.
In this state it continued till the year B. C. 324, when
Alexander the Great made an attempt to rebuild this sa.
cred edifice, and to restore its former magnificence. But,
though he employed about ten thousand men in this work
for the space of two months, his sudden death put an end
to the utrdertaking before the ground was cleared ol' its
rubbish. This mighty city declined very rapidly under
the successors of Alexander ; and, in the year 294 B. C.
was almost exhausted of its inhabitants by Seleucus Nica-
tor, who built in its neighborhooti the city of Releuci, or
New Babylon. It suffered greatly from the neglect and
violence of the Parthian princes before the Christian era ;
and evei-y succeeding writer bears testimony to its increas-
ing desolation. Diodorus Siculus, B. C. 44 ; Strabo, B. C.
30; Pliny, A. D. 66 ; Pausanias, A. D. 150 ; Maximus
Tyrius, and Constantine the Great, as recorded by Euse-
bius, — all concur in describing its ruined condition ; and
Jerome at length informs us, that, about the end of the
fourth century, its walls were employed by the Persian
princes as an inclosure for mid beasts, preserved there
for the pleasures of the chase. It was visited about the
end of the twelfth centui-y by Benjamin of Tudela in Na-
varre, who observed only a few ruins of Nebuchadnezzar's
palace remaining, but so full of serpents and other veno-
BAB
(165 J
BAB
Hlous reptiles, that it was dangerous to inspect tliem near-
ly. A similar account is given by other travellers ; by
Texeira, a Portuguese ; by Rauwolf, a Gennan traveller
in 1574 j by Petnis Valensis in 1616 ; by Tavcrnier, and
by Hanway.
Wc shall now direct our attention to the remains of
those once magnificent structures which distinguished
Babylon as the wonder of the world : of their elegance
we cannot judge, as that has ceased to exist ; of their
magnitude we can form some estimate, though not of their
connection, or mutual dependence : we shall, nevertheless,
find) on examination, sufficient particulars attached to these
monuments of persevering labor to justify the predictions
of the prophets, to clear them from the charge of incon-
sistency or prevarication, which is our principal object.
The first traveller who communicated an intelligible
account of these antiquities was Delia Valle, who, in 1616,
exammed them more minutely and leisurely than some
wjio went before him. His account of the more northerly
of these ruins, which he calls the tower of Belus, is in-
structive, notwithstanding later information.
To Rlr. Rich, resident at Bagdad for the East India
Companj', we are Indebted for a still more particular ac-
count of these monuments of antiquity ; his tracts have
greatly engaged the attention of the public, and have
given occasion to much investigation. The following are
extracts iVom his first worlc : (Lond. 1815.) " The ruins
of Babylon may in fact be said almost to commence from
Mohawil, a very iadifl'erent khan, close to which is a large
canal, with a bridge over it, the whole countr)' between it
and Hellah exhibiting at intervals traces of building, in
which are discoverable burnt and unburnt bricks and bitu-
men. Three mounds in particular attract attention from
their magnitude. The district called by the natives El-
Aredh Babel, extends on both sides of the Euphrates.
The ruins of the eastern quarter of Babylon commence
about two miles above Hellah, and consist of two large
masses or mounds connected with, and lying north and
south of, each other ; and several smaller ones wliich cross
the plain at difierent intervals. At the northern termi-
nation of the plain is Pietro Delia Valle's ruin ; from the
south-east, (to which it evidently once joined, being only
obliterated there by two canals.) proceeds a narrow ridge
or mound of earth, wearing the appearance of having
been a boundary wall. This ridge forms a kind of circu-
lar inclosure, and joins the south-eastern point of the most
southerly of the two grand masses. The whole area, in-
closed by the boundary on the east and south, and the
river on the west, is two miles and six hundred yards from
east to west, — as much from Pietro Delia Valle's ruin to
the southern part of the boundary, or two miles and one
thousand yards to the most southerly mound of all. The
first grand ma-'s of ruins [south] is one thousand one hun-
dred yards in length, and eight hundred in the greatest
breadth .... The most elevated part may be about fifty
or sixty feet above the level of the plain, and it has been
dug into for the purpose of procuring bricks. On the
north is a valley of five hundred and fifty yards in length,
the area of which is covered with tussocks of rank grass,
is longest froin east to west, and crossed from south to
north, by a line of ruins of very little elevation. To this
succeeds, going north, the second grand heap of ruins,
the shape of which is nearly a square of seven hundred
yards length and breadth .... This is the place where
Beauchamp made his observations ; and it certainly is the
. most interesting part of the ruins of Babylon : every ves-
tige discoverable in it declares it to have been composed
of buildings far .superior to all the rest which have left
traces in the eastern quarter: the bricks are of the finest
description, and notwithstanding this is the grand store-
house of them, and that the greatest supplies have been
and are now constantly drawn from it, they appear still
to be abundant. In all these excavation.s, walls of burnt
brick laid in lime mortar of a very good quality, are seen ;
and in addition to the substances generally strewed on the
.surfaces of all these mounds, we here find fragments of
alabaster vessels, fine earthen ware, marble and great
quantities of vami.shed tiles, the glazing and coloring of
which IS surprisingly fresh. In a hollow, near the south-
-rn part. I found a sciiulchral urn of earthen ware, which
had been broken in digging, and near it lay some human
bones, which pulverized with the touch."
We add a few remarks on these descriptions, with a
view to the appropriation of the mounds, before we close
the subject. Speculations have been indulged as well by
Mr. Rich as by Major Rennell, on the character of each
of these mounds of ruins. Leaving to those truly re-
spectable authorities the task of establisliing their theori,-s,
we shall content ourselves with following the voice of cur-
rent, and apparently unbroken, tradition. We say, there-
fore, that the Jlakloube, the Mujelibe, the pyramid of
Haroot and Maroot, (in other M'ords, Delia Valle's Ruin,)
or by whatever other appellation the signification of over-
turned, or topsy-turvy, be preserved — this ruin marks the
original tower of Babel : and, so far as may be judged by
comparison of its present shape with the neighboring
mounds, it never was finished. It is all but impossible,
that the ruins of a building raised to that central elevation
which might give it the appearance, or entitle it to the
appellation of a pyramid, should form an outline of sur-
face on its top, so nearly equable as this object presents
in Mr. Rich's delineation of it. That it was raised to un-
equal heights in difl'erent parts, or on its different faces,
is every way likely ; that it might answer, more or less,
the ])urpose of a cemetery, in after-ages, is credible ; and
that it might even receive some additions from it^otaries,
for such it had, no doubt, may be admitted : — yet, without
impeaching the proposition that it never reached that
height, or that complete form and condition, which its
founders contemplated. Mr. Rich himself remarks " that
there does not remain in the irregularities on the top a
sufficient quantity of rubbish to account for an elevation
equal to that of the tower, the whole height being now
only one hundred and forty feet." This testimony is de-
cisive. There is no need to expatiate on the confirmation
this affords to Scripture history. Except the dehige, the
tower of Babel, with the circtimstanccs attending it, is the
most ancient fact recorded, or that could be recorded ; it
was followed by consequences of the most interesting na-
ture to the human race, is attested by profane authority,
as well as sacred, and these ruins, to this day, afford
effective evidence, that the writer of the Mosaic narration
was equally faithful and well informed. To enlarge would
be to intrude on the reader's own reflections.
There would be something extremely melancholy in the
fate of Babylon, its desolation, its disappearance, its ex-
ternal annihilation, after so vigorous and so long continued
e.xertion to raise it to pre-eminence, did we not know that
its pride was excessive, and its po%ver was cruel. The
fierceness of war was the delight of its kings. Nebuchad-
nezzar him.self had been a warrior of no limited ambition;
the Chaldeans were bitter, hastj', sanguinarj', ferocious ;
and to read the accounts of their inhumanity prepares us
for a reverse, which we await, but do not regret. There
is something in the idea of retaliation from which the hu-
man mind is not averse — " As she hath done, so do to
her," is the language not of prophecy or of poetry only,
but of " even-handed ju.stice," in the common acceptation
of mankind. It is not only because we are better ac-
qitainled with the miseries inflicted on Jerusalem and the
sanctuary that we admit these feelings in respect to Baby-
lon : there can be no doubt, but what other nations had
equally suflTercd under her oppression : the people who
are emphatically called on to execute the vengeance de-
termined against her, had certainly been galled under her
yoke. Cyrus and Xerxes, who captured her city and de-
stroyed her temple, were but the avengers of their coun-
try. Alexander considered himself in the same light.
It is rather from a deficiency of historical accounts, than
from the facts of the case, that Babylon has been supposed
to have been reduced by a gradual decay only. Alre'.jy
have more symptoins of violence been discovere''. than
were formerly supposed, and it is inore than pos:.ible, that
our intercourse with Eastern writers may hnng us ac-
quainted with events which will enable us, to account for
appearances, that now present nothmg but uncertainties.
Idolatry took its rise at Babylon, was fostered and pro-
tected there, and from thence was iliflused throughout (at
least) the western world : the liberal arts, the more recon-
dite sciences, with eveiy power of the human mind, were
BAB
1G6 J
BAG
reii.'.^red subservient to systematic idolatry. Its doom,
therefore, must correspond with its crimes. It is enough
for us, that we know its punishment to be just ; and that
we are happily enabled to trace, in its ruins, the unequivo-
cal and even the verbal accomplishment of those predic-
tions which denounced its calamities — the monuments
of miseries long deserved, but not remitted though post-
poned.
The following are the comparative dimensions of the
principal ruins of ancient Babylon :
Mujelibe, circumference two thousand one hundred and
eleven feei; height remaining on the south-east, one hun-
dred and forty-one feet.
Kasr, or palace, square seven hundred yard.s.
Sea, or lake, by the plain, length eight hundred yards ;
breadth five hundred and fifty yards, by measurement.
Bridge, (supposed.) length six hundred yards ; breadth
nearly one hundred yards, ruins.
Temple of Belus, (Herodotus,) square five hundred
feet.
Temple of Belus, (supposed.) with the buildings near
it, ruins, length one thousand one hundred yards ; breadth
eight hundred yards ; height remaining fifty or sixty feet.
Birs Nimrood, circumference two thousand two hundred
and eighty-six feet ; height remaining, east fifty or sixty
feet ; west one liundred and ninety-eight feet ; tower, two
hundred and thirty-five feet.
Extent of the whole inclosure, above two miles and a
half, north and south — the same east and west. — Jones ;
Cahnet.
BABYLON THE GREAT ; an appellation given to
the false church, or airtichristian apostasy, by the writer
of the Apocalypse. Rev. 14: and IS:. To perceive the force
and propriety of denominating the apostate church of
Rome, by the name of this renoM'ned city, it is only neces-
sary to consider that the kings of Babylon were in for-
mer times the most formidable enemies which God's ancient
people, the Jews, had ; and that in various respects. For
not only as a nation did they suffer more from the Baby-
lonians, by the invasion of their country, and their being
carried into captivity, but much also of that corruption of
their worship, wliich brought down the judgments of heaven
upon them, seems to have been derived from that coun-
try. Hence the prophet Jeremiah, describing ancient
Babylon, saj's, "It is the land of graven images, and they
are mad upon their idols," ch. 50: 30. And again, " Baby-
lon hath been a golden cup in the Lord's hand, that made
all the earth drunken : the nations have drunken of her
wine ; therefore the nations are mad." 51: 7. Thus, "as
Babylon of old was the first of all idolatrous cities,
she is taken as the fittest emblem to set forth the enor-
mous guilt, and to exhibit in full light the extensive influ-
ence of idolatrous Rome ; each in its turn being the mother
of harlots and abominations of the earth ; the former cor-
rupting the heathen world with her fornication, and the
latter the Christian." — Hurd's Sermons, Inlroihirtion to Pro-
phecy, ser. 11. (See the article Anticiikist.)
BABYLON OF Peter. There have been many and
long-continued controversies among the learned on the
subject of the Babylon mentioned in his first Epistle, 5: 13.
The Babyltjn of Peter has been thought to be Rome ;
but in disproof of this notion it is only necessary to recall
attention to the order of the provinces saUUed by the apos-
tle. He places Pontus and Cappadocia first, certainly, be-
cause they were nearest to him ; and Bithynia last, be-
cause it was the most distant from hira. This is utterly
inconsistent with his being at this time resident in Rome,
■which would have prescribed a contrary order. " The
Syrian and Chaldee writers," says Mr. Yeates, " in the
Lives of the Apostles and JIarlyrs, record of the apostle
Peter, that "he preached in Syria, and Antioch, and in
Asia, Bithynia, Galatia, and other regions." They say
nothing of Babylon. " Elias, bishop of Damascus, writes,
that ... the country of Babylon . . . was called to the
faith by Addeus and Marus, of the seventy disciples,
which followed Bartholomew." And in the Epitome of
the Syrian Canons they -write, " The fifth sect is Babjdon,
in honor of the three constituted apostles ; Thomas, the
aposlle of the Hindoos and Chinese; Bartholomew, who
also is the Nathaniel of the Syrians ; and Addeus, one of
the seventy, who was master to Aghens and Mains, the
apostle of Mesopotatuia and Persia." Here they say
nothing of Peter, who, most assuredly, could not have
been omitted in this enumeration, had there been any
reason for inserting him. — Cobnet.
BABYLONIA ; the province of wiiich Babylon was the
capital, and which is now called Irac. (See Babylon,
CotJNTIlY OF, and ImAOE of NEEUCnADNEZ2.4R.)
BACA, THE VALLEY OF, Or OF TEARS, (Ps. 84: C.) probably
the same as the Valley of tears, or weepers, or Bochim.
Judg. 2: 1. 2 Sam. 5: 23. The psalmist says, "Blessed
is the man whose strength is in thee, in whose heart are
the ways of them, who, passing through the valley of
Baca, or tears, makes it a well, the rain also fiUeth the
pools ;" from which it has been generally inferred that the
valley of Baca was a dreary, thirsty, undesirable place — •
the veiy reverse of what appears to be the fact. The
following is from De la Roque, (Voy. de Syrie, p. 116.)
" I was extremely satisfied with our walk ; which, besides,
gave me an opportunity of admiring the most agreeable
territor)', and the best cultivated, perhaps, in all Syria,
lying the length of the plain from north to south, to the
mountains which separate it from that of Damascus. This
plain, or more properly speaking, the whole territory of
Baalbec, to the mountains, is named in Arabic, al-bfaa,
w^hich we express by Btkaa. It is watered by the river
Letanus, and by many other streams ; it is a delicious, I
might say an enclianting, country, and is nothing inferior
to the country of Damascus, which is so renowned among
the Orientals. Beka produces, among other things, those
beautiful and excellent grapes v>'hich are sent to various
parts, under the name of grapes of Damascus." This
.seems to be the very same place meant by the psalmist,
and to have retained (or recovered, as many places have,
under the present Arab government) its ancient appella-
tion. It is among the mountains of Lebanon, north of
Judea .
In a moral sense, the vale of tears signifies this world,
which, to good men, presents only an occasion of grief
and tears, iDecause of the disorders that prevail, of the con-
tinual dangers to which we are exposed, and the absence
of those eternal good things, which we ought to long
after. — Calmet.
BACCHUS ; the name of a pagan deity, or the god of
wine, whose statue was set up, in the reign of Julian the
Apostate, in the great church of Emessa in Palestine, and
in that of Epiphania j and the Chronicle of Alexandria
relates that Eustathius, bishop of the church in that city,
hearing the sound of instruments employed in the wor-
ship of Bacchus, and being told that they were played in
his church, instantly expired, after having prayed that he
might rather die than witness such abomination. — Render-
son^s Buck.
BACHUTH-ALLON, (the oakofmecpinq;) probably thus
denominated, because here Deborah, Rebekah's ntirse,'
died and was buried. Gen. 35: 8. Here also Deborah the
prophetess judged Israel. Judg. 4: 5.
BACK ; the opposite of the face. God casts our sins
behind his back when he fully forgives them, so as to place
them no more in the light of his countenance to punish
them. Isa. 38: 17. Ps. 90: 8. Jer. 16: 17. He shows men
the back, and not the face, when he disregards them, and re-
fuses to smile on or show favor to them. Jer. 18: 17.
Christ's giving his hack to the smiters, and his cheeks to them
that plucked of the hair, imports his ready and cheerful
exposure af himself to suffering for our sake. Isa. 1: 6.
]\Ien's turning their back on God, or his temple ; their
looking back, going back, drawing back, turning back, from
him, import their contempt of him ; their gradual revolt
from the knowledge, love, profession, and practice of his
truth. Jer. 2: 27. 32: 33. Their easting him or his laws
behind their back, imports their utmost contempt and ab-
horrence of both. Ezek. 23: 35. Neh. 9: 26. The church
\i3S \if:r back ploughed on, v!\ien her members are cruelly
oppressed and persecuted. Ps. 129: 3. The Jews, since
the cnicifixion of Christ, have their back bowed down alwaij.
The strength of their nation, their government, and great
men, are gone ; and they are laden and grievously op-
pressed with slavery, oppression, and sorrow. Ps. 69:
23. Rom; 11: 10.
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[ 167 1
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BACK, or Backward. In the metaphorical language,
■0 go, or turn back or backward, denotes wilful rebellion, and
active apostasy IVom God. Isa. 1: 4. Jer. 7: 24. and 15: (3.
To be driven, turn, or fall backwards, imports disappoint-
ment, and sudden, unexpected, and fearful destruction.
Ps. 40: 14, and 70: 2. Isa. 28: 13, and 44: 25. To turn
jndgment backwards, is violently to pervert good laws and
their sanctions, in order to promote and maintain wicked-
ness. Isa. 59: 14.
BACKBITE ; to speak evil of an absent person.
Paul classes this sin with several others of a heinous na-
ture. Rom. 1: 30. (See Detraction, and Slander.) — •
Calmet.
BACKSLIDING ; the act of turning from the path of
duty. It may be considered as partial, when applied to
true believers, who do not backslide with the whole bent
of their will ; as voluntary, when applied to those who,
after professing to know the truth, wilfully turn from it,
and live in the practice of sin ; as fatal, when the mind is
given up to judicial hardness, as in Ihe case of Judas.
Partial backsliding must be distinguished from liypociisij,
as the former may exist where there are gracious inten-
tions on the whole ; but the latter is a studied profession
of appearing to be ■what we are not.
The causes of backsliding are — the cares of the world ;
improper connections ; inattention to secret or clo.sct du-
ties ; self-conceit and dependence ; indulgence ; listening
to and parlej'ing with temptations. A bac/csliding state is
manifested by indifl'erence to prayer and self-examination ;
trifling or unprofitable conversation ; neglect of public
ordinances ; shunning the people of God ; associating with
the world ; thinking lightly of sin ; neglect of the Bible ;
and often by gross immorality. The consequences of this
awful state are — loss of character ; loss of comfort ; loss
of usefulness ; and, as long as any remain in this state, a
loss of a well-grounded hope of future happiness. To avoid
this state, or recover from it, we should beware of the
first appearance of sin ; be much in prayer ; attend the
ordinances; and unite with the people of God. We should
consider the awful instances of apostasy, as Saul, Judas,
Demas, &c. ; the many warnings we have of it ; (Matt.
24: 13. Heb. 10: 38. Luke 9: 02.) how it grieves the
Holy Spirit ; and how wretched it makes us ; above all
things, our dependence should be on God, that we may
always be directed by his Spirit, and kept by his power.
(See Apostasy.) — Henderson^ s Buck.
BACKUS, (Isaac, A. M.)a distinguished Baptist minis-
ter of Jlassachusetts, was born at Norwich in Connecticut,
in 1724. In 1741, a year memorable for the revival of
religion through this country, his attention was first ar-
rested by the concerns of another world, and he was
brought, as he believed, to the knowledge of the truth,
Eus it is in Jesus. In 174(5, he commenced preaching the
gospel ; and, April 13, 1748, he was ordained first minis-
ter of a congregational church in Titicut precinct, in the
town of IMiddleborough. Slassachusetts.
In 1749, a number of the members of Mr. Backus's
church altered their sentiments with regard to baptism,
and he at length united with them in opinion. He was
baptized by immersion in August, 1751. For some years
afterwards, he held communion •nith those who were bap-
tized in infancy ; but he afterwards discontinued this
from conviction of its impropiiety. A Baptist church
was formed, January 16, 1756, and he was installed its
pastor, June 23d of the same year, by ministers from Bos-
ton and Kehoboth. In this relation he continued through
the remainder of his life. He died November 20, 1806,
aged eighty-two years. He had been enabled to preach
nearly sixty years, until the spring before his death, when
he experienced a paralytic stroke, which deprived him of
speech, and of the use of his limbs.
Jlr. Backus was a plain, evangelical preacher, without
any pretensions to eloquence. It may be ascribed to his
natural diffidence that, when preaching or conversing on
important subjects, he was in the habit of shutting his
eyes. To his exertions the Baptist churches in America
owe not a little of their present flourishing condition. He
was ever a zealous friend to the equal rights of Christians.
When lh( Congress met at Philadelphia in 1774, he was
sent as an agent from the Baptist churches of the Warren
association, to support their claims to the same equal lib-
erties, which ought to be given to every denomination.
In October, he had a conference with the Blassacliusetts
delegation and others, at which he contended only for the
same privileges which were given to the churches in Bos-
ton ; and he received the promise, that the rights of the
Baptists should be regarded. On his return, as a report
had preceded him, that he had been attempting to break
up the union of the colonies, he addressed himself to the
convention of Massachusetts, December 9, and a vote was
passed, declaring his conduct to have been correct. When
the convention in 1779 took into consideration the consti-
tution of the state, the subject of the extent of the civil
power in regard to religion naturally presented itself, and
in the course of debate the perfect correctness of the Bap-
tist memorial, which was read at Philadelphia, was called
in question. In consequence of which, Mr. Backus pub-
lished in the Chronicle of December 2d, a narrative of his
proceedings as Baptist agent, and brought argumenis
against an article in the bill of rights of the constitution
of Massachusetts. He believed, that the civil authority
liad no right to require men to support a teacher of piety,
morality, and religion, or to attend public worship ; that
the Church ought to have no connection with the Stale ;
that the kingdom of tjie Lord Jesus was not of this world,
and was not dependent on the kingdoms of this world ;
and that the subject of religion shottld be left entirely to
the consciences of men.
The publications of Mr.. Backus were more numerous
than those of any other Baptist writer in America. Of
his three volumes of the History of the Baptists, he pub-
lished an abridgement, brought down to 1804. It con-
tains many facts, for which the public is indebted to the
patient industrj' of the writer, and it must be a very valu-
able work to Baptists, as it presents a minute account of
almost every church of that denomination in New Eng-
land. But these facts are combined without much atten-
tion to the connection, and Benedict's more recent History
of the Baptists has in a great measure taken its place. —
Mass. Bapt. Miss. Mag. i. 287, 288 ; Back-us's Church Hist.
iii. 139—141; Backus's Abridg. 209, 214; Benedict, ii.
267—274; Allen.
BACKUS, (Charles, D. D.,) an eminent minister, -was
born in Norwich, Connecticut, in 1749. He lost his pa-
rents in his childhood, but, as he early discovered a love
of science, his friends etssisted him to a liberal education.
He was graduated at Yale college in 17li9. His theolo-
gical education was directed by Dr. Hart of Preston. In
1774, he was ordained to the pastoral charge of the church
in Somers, in which town he remained till his death, De-
cember 30, 1803, after a faithful ministry of more than
twenty-nine years. In the last year of his residence at
college, the mind of Dr. Backus was impressed by divine
truth, and although his conduct had not been immoral, he
was deeply convinced of his sinfulness in the sight of
God. He was for a time opposed to the doctrines of the
gospel, particularl}' to the doctrine of the atonement, and
of the dependence of man upon the special influences of
the Holy Spirit to renew his heart. But at last his pride
was humbled, and he was brought to an acquaintance witli
the way of salvation by a crucified Redeemer. From this
time he indulged the hope, that he was reconciled unto
God. An humble and an exemplary Christian, under the
afflictions of life he quietly submitted to the will of his
Father in heaven. He was a plain, evangelical, impressive
preacher. Knowing the worth of immortal souls, he taught
\vith the greatest clearness the way of salvation through
faith in the Redeemer, and enforced upon his hearers that
hohness, without which no man can see the Lord. Dur-
ing his ministry, there were four .seasons of peculiar atten-
tion to religion among his people. Dr. Backus was emi-
nent as a theologian. His retired situation and his emi-
nence as an instructor, drew around him many who were
designed for the Christian ministry. Nearly fifty young
men were members of his theological school. In his last
sick-ness he had much of the divine presence. The last
words which he was heard to whisper, were " glory to
God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will to-
wards men."
He published the following sermons ; at the ordination
BAG
[168]
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of Freegrace Reynolds, 1795; of Tim. M. Cooley and
Joseph Russell, 1796 ; of Thomas Snell, 1798 ; five dis-
courses on the Truth of the Bible, 1 797 ; a century ser-
mon, 1801 ; a volume on Regeneration. — Conn. Mag. iv. ;
Alle?i's Biog. Did.
BACKUS, (AzEL, D. D.,) president of Hamilton college,
state of New York, was the son of Jabez Backus of Nor-
wich, Conn. His father bequeathed to him a farm in
Franklin, which, he says, ■' I wisely exchanged for an
education in college." He was graduated at Yale in 1787.
AVhile in college he was a deist ; but his uncle and friend.
Rev. Charles Backus of Somers, won him from infidelity
through the divine blessing, and reared him up for the
ministry. From the time that he believed the gospel, he
gloried in the cro.ss. In early life he was ordained as the
successor of Dr. Bellamy at Bethlem, where he not only
labored faithfully in the ministry, but also instittUed and
conducted a school of considerable celebrity. After the
estabiishment of Hamilton college, near Utica, he was
chosen the first president. He died of the typhus fever,
December 28, 1816, aged fifty-one, and was succeeded by
president Davis of Widdlebiiry college. He was a man
of an original cast of thought, distinguished by suscepti-
bility and ardor of feeling, and by vigorous and active
piety. Of his benevolence and goodness no one could
doubt. In his sermons, though familiar and not, perhaps,
sufficiently correct and elevated in style, he was earnest,
aflectionate, and faithful. He published a sermon on the
death of governor Wolcott, 1797; at the election, 1798;
at the ordination of John Frost, Whitesborough, 1813. —
Allen's Biog. Diet.; Edig. Intel, i. 527, 592; Panopl.
13: 43.
BACON, (Roger,) a learned monk of the Franciscan
order, was descended of an ancient family, and born near
Ilchester, in Somersetshire, in the year 1214. He received
the first tincture of learning at Oxford, from whence he
proceeded to the university of Paris, at that time much
frequented by the English. Having been admitted to the
degree of doctor, he returned to England, and took the
habit of the Franciscan order in 1210, when he was about
twenty-six years of age. He was now regarded as a most
able and indefatigable inquirer after knowledge by the
greatest men of the age ; and a fnnd was raised for the
purpose of defraying the expenses of advancing science by
experiments, the method which Bacon had determined to
follow. His discoveries were little understood, by the
generality of his contemporaries ; and because, by the
help of mathematical knowledge, he pert'ormed things
above the comprehension of the vulgar, he was sus-
pected of magic. He was particularly persecuted by his
own fraternity, so that they wonld not receive his books
into their library, and eventually got him imprisoned ; so
that, as he confesses himself, he had reason enough to re-
pent of his having taken such pains with the arts and
sciences ! At the particular desire of pope Clement IV.,
Eacon collected together, and enlarged his several treatises,
and sent them to him in 1267. This collection, which is
the same that the author himself entitled '' Opus Majus,"
or his Great Work, is still extant. It has been aflirmed,
and not without reason, that though his application to the
occult sciences was the pretended, yet the true cause of
the ill usage which Bacon experienced, was the freedom
with which he treated the clergy of his day, in his writings,
■wherein he spared neither their ignorance nor their want
of morals. He went so far as to reprove pope Innocent
IV. by letter, and is said to have made no scruple of de-
claring to those with whom he was intimate, that, in his
judgment, the pope was Antichrist. Dr. Jcbb, the learned
editor of Bacon's works, tells us, that he appears to have
proposed to himself two things, either by laying down a
good scheme of philosophy to excite the pope to reform
the errors that had crept into the church ; or, if he could
not eflect this, to projiose such expedients as would break
the power of Antichrist, and retard his progress; for he
appears to have been firmly persuaded that the church
would ere long be reformed, either by the pope himself, or
because the exorbitant dominion of Antichrist would be-
come obnoxious to mankind, and so fall to destruction.
When Bacon had been ten years in prison, a new pope
had been elected to the pontificate, and he resolved to aji-
ply to him for his discharge. AVith a view to convince
his holiness of both the innocence and usefulness of his
studies, he addressed to him a treatise, " On the Means
of avoiding the Infirmities of Old Age," written in Latin.
This book has been translated into English, by Dr. Richard
Prowne, who esteemed it one of the best performances
that ever was written. What effect it had upon the pope
does not appear: but towards the latter end of his reign,
Bacon, by the interposition of some noblemen, obtained
his release, and returned to Oxford, where he spent the
remainder of his days in peace, and died in the college of
his order, on the 11th of June, 1294. His last work was
a Compendium of Theology. " He was," says Dr. Shaw,
" beyond all comparison the greatest man of his time,
and might, perhaps, stand in competition with the great-
est that have appeared since. It is wonderful, considering
the ignorance of the age in which he lived, how he came
by such a depth of knowledge on all subjects. His writ-
ings are composed with that elegance, conciseness, and
strength, and adorned with such just and exquisite obser-
vations on nature, that, among all the chemists, we do not
know his equal." Dr. Freind ascribes the honor of intro-
ducing chemistry into Europe to Bacon, who, he observes,
speaks, in some part or other of his works, of almost every
operation now used in chemistry. '■ He was the miracle,"
saj's Freind, " of the age he lived in; and the greatest
genius, perhaps, for mechanical knowledge, that ever ap-
peared in the world since Archimedes. He appears, like-
wise, to have been master of the whole science of optics."
The telescope was not unknown to him. His skill in as-
tronomy was amazing : he discovered that error which
occasioned the reformation of the calendar, and which
has been regarded as one of the greatest efforts of human
industry. Even in moral philosophy he left excellent pre-
cepts, and is entitled to the remembrance of po.sterity as
a great philosopher, an admirable linguist, a sound theo-
logian, a wonderful man, and a sincere Christian. — Jones's
Chris. Biog. ; Ency. Amer.
BACON, (Sir Francis,) Lord Vemlam, Viscount of St.
Albans, the eminent statesman and illustrious philosopher,
was the son of Nicholas Bacon, lord keeper of the great
seal. He was born at York house, in the Strand, on the
22d of January, 1561. At an early age, he gave promise
of those talents which distinguished him in his more ma-
ture years, so that he attracted the notice of queen Eliza-
beth, W'ho familiarly called him her young lord keeper.
He entered Trinity college when he was in his twelfth
year, where he studied under Dr. Whitglft, afterwards
archbishop of Canterbury, and by the time he was sixteen
years old, he had made great proficiency in the learning
of those times ; so that he already began to project those
improvements in science, which paved the way for its
complete reformation from the Aristotelian subtleties, which
had so long obscured it. About this period, he accompa-
nied Sir Amias Pawlet on his embassy to France, and so
great an opinion was entertained of his discretion and
ability, that he was entrusted with a commission to the
queen, of which he acquitted himself with great credit.
Here at the age of nineteen, he wrote a work entitled. Of
the State of Europe, in which he gave the most astonish-
ing proofs of the early maturity of his judgment. Soon
after his father's death, in consequence of the straitness
of his circumstances, he betook himself to the study of
the common law ; it was, however, impossible that a ge-
nius that could range through the whole circle of the sci-
ences, should confine itself to so dry a study. In his mo-
ments of leisure, therefore, we find him taking a view of
the state of learning, and devising means for supplying
the defects, and correcting the errors he had detected. A
treatise which he published about this period, entitled,
" The greatest Birth of Time," but which is now lost, ap-
pears to have exhibited the ground-work of that splendid
design, which was afterwards disclosed more fully in his
" Grand Instauration of the Sciences." In the year 1592,
we find him engaged in defending the queen and the go-
vernment against the libellous attacks of the famous father
Parsons. Being chosen a member of parliament for Mid-
dlesex, in 1403 he freouently distinguished himself by the
B AC
[ iGil
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eloquemre tif his speeclies, and (hough he generally ap-
peared ou Ihe side of the court, he was regarded as uut
unfriendly to the interests of the people. He had frequent
access to the queen, \(lio sometimes advised with him on
state aflairs ; but his ojiposition to the payment of three
subsidies in the course of less than six years, gave such
offence to Elizabeih, (hat he was for some time forbidden
her presence, and ail the influence of the earl of Essex,
who was his warm friend, could not reinstate hiin in her
favor. The patronage of tliis nobleman seems indeed to
have raised a prejudice against him in the family of lord
Burleigh, his relative, (o whom, on several occasions, he
applied for some office in the state ; he did, however, pro-
cure for him, noiwithstanding the greatest opposition, the
reversion of (he si(uation of register to the star chamber,
worth sixteen hundred pounds a year ; but he did not come
into the possession of it for nearly twenty years afterwards,
nor did he obtain any other preferment during the whole
of (his reign, (hough his ex(ensive learning and eloquence
e^ciled the admiration of those in power. His patron, the
carl of Essex, however, still endeavored to serve him, and
warmly urged His being appointed attorney-general, against
all the remonstrances of Bacon's cousin, Sir Robert Cecil.
The earl frequently (ook his advice on business of impor-
tance ; but in the reverse of his fortunes that advice, how-
ever salutary, did not aUvays please him, and a shyness
ensued ; yet though there is some reason to suppose that
Bacon privately endeavored to serve the earl in his trou-
bles, his public appearance against hiin on his trial has
justly exposed him to (he censure of posteri(y. On the
death of the queen, Mr. Bacon lost no time in paying his
court to the new sovereign, who, on the twenty-third of
July, 1C03, bestowed on him the honor of knighthood ;
and in the month of AugTist, (he following year, he was
made one of his majes(y's council, wi(h a fee of forty
pounds per annum, to which was added, by another pa-
tent, a pension of sixty pounds, for (he special services of
his bro(her An(hony and himself. In 1605, he published
a work on " Tlie Proficiency and Advancement of Learn-
ing," first in English, and afterwards in Latin, which
gained him much celebrity, and drew upon him (he no(ice
of the king, to whom he dedicated it. His cousin. Sir
Robert, now earl of Salisbury, having obtained the con-
fidence of James, so as to fcl himself beyond all fear of
a rival, began to show him some favor; but Sir Francis
found a powerful opponent in the renowned Sir Edv.-ard
Coke, who had recently been made attorney-general. There
appears to have been a mutual jealousy between these two
great men. Coke en^'jing Bacon for the exten[ of his learn-
ing, and Bacon emuladng Coke for his profound know-
ledge in (he law. In 1807, Sir Francis was appointed
solicitor-general, after which his pracdee increased so
much, that he was retained in almost all great causes ;
he argued on the subject of the union between England
and Scotland before the house of commons; he was em-
ployed by that house (o represent to the king the grievances
of the' nation, in which he excited the applauses of both
parties, and afterwards rendered important services in a
conference with the lords on (he question of abolishing
the ancient tenures, and granting a sufficient revenue in-
stead of them, in which he carried the point by setting
(he business in so clear a light as convinced all his hear-
ers. In 1610, appeared his book '• On the Wisdom of the
Ancients," in which, launching out into a new (rack, he
endeavors (o develop (he physical, rnoral, and political
meaning couched under the fables of an(iqtii(y ; and,
however doubtful some of his hypotheses may appear, we
cannot but admire the profundity and variety of his know-
ledge. In loll, he was made a judge of the marshal's
court, and two years after, he succeeded Sir Henry Hobart,
as attorney-general ; when, it having been objected that
this office was incompatible with a seat in (he house of
commons, that house, from particular regard for him, over-
ruled the objection, and allowed hira to (alee his seat as
usual. While in this office, he exerted himself much (o
put a stop to the pernicious practice of duelling, and his
eloquent and learned charge on this subject, in (he star
chamber, so pleased the lords of the council, v.lio were
present, that they ordered it to be printed and published.
with the decree of (he court. Sir Francis Bacon's circuiii
s(ances were now in a more prosperous si(ua(ion (ban they
had ever been ; his pracdce was ex(ensive and profi(able,
he had (aken possession of his registership already men
tioned, and became possessed of several good es(a(es by
(he death of his brother, Mr. Anthony Bacon. But his
generosity, which often bordered on profusion, prevenled
him from amassing a fur(une. When Sir George ViUicrs
came into favor M'ith king James, Sir Francis endeavored
to ob(ain his good will, and (he «favorl(e, conscious of his
own inexperience, frequently advised with him on public
aff'airs. A le((er s(ill extant shows such superiority of
judgment, and so grea( a freedom of manner, as reflec(s
the highest credit on his head and his heart. He was now
rising rapiJly, and about this time was sworn a member
of his majesty's privy council, a promotion altogether un-
usual for a man in his station ; it is, however, much to be
regretted, that he sometimes exhibited too much servility
in flattering the king and the court. On the 7th of Blarch,
1617, the aged chancellor Egerton having voluntaiily re-
signed the seals, Sir Francis Bacon succeeded him, with
the tide of lord keeper, and soon after, the king going on
a progress to Scotland, he was entrusted with the conduct
of public affairs in his absence, and presided at the coun-
cil. In the beginning of 1619, he was made iorcl high
chancellor of England, had the tide of baron Vefulam
conferred upon him, and shorUy after, (he dignity of vis-
count St. Albans. This accumulation of honors added
litde to (he fame of so great a inan ; but they tended to
excite much jealousy, and probably contributed to his
subsequent misfortunes.
Amid.st the muldplicity and variety of engagements, in
which his high station involved him, he still found dme
for his favorite study of philosojihy. In li")20, he pub-
lished his most finished performance, under the title of
Novum Oraanwn Scientiarum, which formed the sequel to
his grand Instauralion of the Sciences. In this work he
illustrates the true mode of interpreting nature by sound
niductions, far remote from those puerile sophistries which
had so long disgraced the schools. He dedicated it to the
king, who f.ivorably received it, and wrote him a letter of
approval with his own hand. It was highly appreciated
by the learned men of his time, who regarded it as a stand-
ard of true philosophical inquiiy, and later limes have not
been unjust to his memory, in styling Mm "The Father
of the inductive Philosophy."
WTiile, however, he was thus acquliing the greatest
credit as a philosopher, a storm was rising, which soon
overwhelmed him with dishonor. Being of an easy tem-
per, and naturally generous and profuse in his domestic
economy, his household liad been guilty of great impo-
sitions, at which he had inconsiderately connived ; so that
in March, 1031, he v.'as accused by the house of commons
of having taken bribes, in causes that had come before
hira as chancellor. At first, he alteiuptod to defend him-
self from the charges, but more accnsalions beingbrouglrt
against him, he was impeached before the lords, on which
he threw himself ou the mercy of his judges, and received
sentence to pay a fine of forty thousand pounds, to be im-
prisoned in the tower during the Icing's pleasure, to be
incapable of holding any place of trust in the state, and
never to sit in parliament, or come within the verge of the
court. He w-as soon released from his confinement, and
obtained access to his majesty, «-ho granted him several
favors, and ai last remitted the wliole sentence ; but he
never recovered himself from this disgrace.
Being now freed from (he hurry of public business,
lord Bacon found full leisure for more pleasing and con-
genial sludico, and he frequently lamented that he had
been so long diverted from them" by the pursuits of am-
bition and false glory. During die five years which inter-
vened between liis rnisfortnnes and his death, he published
a number of interesting and important works, in addition
to (he revision and arrangcmen( of several of his former
(reatises, and we cannot too much admire the compass of
mind that, under so -many discouragements, could nccom-
plish, in so short a period, what would have constituted,
in ordinarv men, the labor of a long life. At this tmie he
wrote his '" History of Ke;iry VII," " Essays ; or, Coun-
BAG
[170]
BAG
^els Civil and Moral," and the " Third, Fourth, and Fifth
Parts of the G rand Instauration of the Sciences," by which
last work in particular he enlarged the boundaries of sci-
ence beyond all who had gone before him, as both indi-
viduals and learned societies of all the most civilized na-
tions of Europe have freely acknowledged.
And as his philosophy dealt not in metaphysical subtle-
ties, but in the sober results of experimental deduction ;
there was little tendency in his mind to doubt or oppose
the great truths of religion. From many parts of his
writings, he appears to have been a firm believer, and
experimentally acquainted with the power of these sacred
principles ; and his retirement seems to have been much
spent in this study, and his strongest consolations in adver-
sity to have been drawn from this divine source. His sen-
timents on these subjects appear to have been what is
called moderate Calvinism, that is to say, while he firmly
believed the doctrine of the divine decrees, and their in-
fluence on the future character of the elect, he maintained
the absolute accountableness of man, the full and free in-
vitations of the gospel, and the infinite value of the death
of Christ 10 save all ; though, through unbelief, many fall
short of the blessing. This will be better illustrated by
a short quotation from his confession of faith : " I believe
that tlje suffisrings of Christ, as they are sufficient to take
awaylhe sins of the whole world, so they are only effec-
tual to those who are regenerate by the Holy Ghost, who
breatheth where he will of his free grace, which grace,
as the seed incorruptible quickeneth the spirit of man, and
conceiveth him anew a son of God, and a member of
Christ."
In these pursuits he spent the years of his retirement,
gradually becoming more infirm, but frequently exerting
his faculties with an application beyond his strength ; till
he at last fell a sacrifice to his zeal, in making some ex-
periments with regard to the preservation of bodies. He
•was suddenly affiected in his head and stomach, so that,
not being able to reach his home, he was obliged to retire
to the house of the earl of Arundel, at Highgate, where
he sickened of a fever and defluxion on his breast ; and,
after a week's illness, expired in the sixty-sixth year of
his age, on the ninth of April, 1626. He was buried pri-
vately at St. Albans ; and his tomb remained for some
time undistinguished, until Sir Thomas Meantys, who had
formerly been his servant, raised a monument to his memo-
ry. Thus died lord Bacon, of whom it is little to say,
that he was one of the greatest philosophers of modern
times. To him belongs the praise of striking out a new
path to science, and rescuing it from that load of meta-
physical jargon which had overwhelmed and nearly ex-
tinguished it. Goethe says, " He drew a sponge over the
table of human knowledge." His contemporaries could
not fully appreciate the extent of his genius, and the value
of his labors. Sensible of this himself, he says in his will,
" My name and memory I bequeath to foreign nations
and to my o^\'n countrymen, after some time be passed
over!" With regard to physics, if the learned of our
times have made more brilliant discoveries, few will deny
that it was Bacon who led the way to those discoveries,
and laid the foundation of the sciences in the most solid
and decisive experiments.
In his person, lord Bacon was about the middle stature,
with a broad and open front, a lively and piercing eye,
and pleasing and venerable in his appearance, so as insen-
sibly to excite the esteem of all who saw him. He was
an eloquent and convincing speaker, an eminent lawyer,
and a great statesman ; and though the latter part of his
public career was sullied by charges highly dishonorable
to the exalted station that he filled as a judge, it has been
shown that these arose rather out of his too easy temper
with the underlings of his office, than by any desire to
participate in their exactions; it is also worthy of remark,
that, notwithstanding he feil under this grievous charge,
not one of the many decisions which he passed (and he is
said to have made no less than two thousand orders and
decrees in a year) was ever reversed as unjust. At the
age of forty, lord Bacon was married to a daughter of
Mr. Barnham, an alderman of the city of London, with
whom he received a good fortune, and she outlived hira
upwards of twenty years. He had no children. It is re-
marked of him, that he was so sensibly affected at every
eclipse of the moon, whether he observed it or not, that
he was seized with a fainting fit, from which he did not
recover till the eclipse was over ; but it left no remaining
weakness. His diet was rather plentiful, and in the latter
part of his life he preferred the stronger and more nourish-
ing meats, as most conducive to the strength of the con-
stitution. He made frequent use of nitre, the virtues of
which he has much extolled in his writings, taking about
three grains of it in some warm broth, every morning, for
nearly thirty years.
His works, which are numerous, were first collected to-
gether and published in London in four volumes, folio, in
1740 ; and Dr. Birch aftenvards edited a correct and valu-
able edition of them, in 1765, consisting of five volumes,
quarto. Of late years, they have repeatedly been reprinted
in ten volumes, octavo. — Jones's Chris. Biog ; Ency. Amer.
BACON, (John,) the celebrated English sculptor, was
born in Southwark, in Surry, November 24, 1740. His
father, Thomas Bacon, was a cloth-worker. At an early
age, he removed with his father to London, and worked
with him for the maintenance of the family. Even while
a boy, his aspiring and philosophic genius was working in
him so strongly, that he left his old trade, and, at the age
of fourteen, apprenticed himself to one Crispe, a maker
of porcelain, who taught him the art of modelling. All
his early experiments in the severe school of sculpture,
were privately made, during his hours of remission from
labor. The first of his works which caught the public
attention, was a colossal head of Ossian. He entered the
royal academy in 1768 as a student, and in 1769 received
the first gold medal, for sculpture, ever given by the royal
academy. The society of arts, to whom he presented his
Mars and Venus, became the personal friends of the artist.
The king also became his patron. From this time his
employment, skill, reputation, and fortune went on in a
steady career of improvement till his death, in 1799, at
the age of fifty-nine years.
Bacon was an enlightened and decided Christian. His
genius and fame were softened by humility, and conse-
crated to high and useful ends. It was his constant study
to embody in all his works some religious sentiment or
judicious moral. The school in which he was educated,
namely the pottery and artificial stone manufactory, had
made him acquainted with public feeling, and he addressed
it. " He infused more English good sense into his sculp-
ture," says Mr. Cunningham, " than any preceding artist.
In all that he did, there was a plain meaning, a sentiment
which lay on the surface ; which ignorance had not to call
on learning to explain, and which could be felt without
any reference to the antique. In sixteen competitions with
rival artists, it was his boast that he was fifteen times suc-
cessful." His monument to lord Chatham, and his statues
of judge Blackstone, and of lords Rodney and Cornwallis
are splendid eflTorts ; but his statues of Johnson and How-
ard are superior still, and " rival all similar works save
the sublime Newton, of Roubiliac. They stand, one on
the right, and the other on the left, of the entrance to the
choir of St. Paul's ; and the severe dignity of the philoso-
pher with his scroll, and the philanthropist with his prison
key, countenance the mistake of a distinguished foreigner,
who paid his respects to them as St. Peter and St. Paul."
Bacon's merits have been widely acknowledged. But
a plain tablet over his grave has the following inscription,
written by himself: "What I was as an artist, seemed
TO ME OF SOME IMPOKTANCE WHILE I LIVED ; BUT WHAT X
KEALLY WAS AS A BELIEl'ER IN ChRIST JeSUS, IS THE ONLY
THING OF IMPORTANCE TO ME NOW." — Menwirs, by Rev.
likhard Cecil ; Lives of Emin£7it Painters and Sculptors, by
Allan Cimningham, Esq.
BACON, (Miss Ann,) daughter of the celebrated sculp-
tor, John Bacon, Esq. distinguished alike for his learnmg
and piety, and of a mother, who exhibited all that was
lovely in the Christian character, was born on the 10th
of May, 1768. Miss Bacon received from her mother her
earliest instructions, and was taught by that excellent
woman to seek for her happiness in the paths of virtue
and the ways of religion. At the age of thirteen, death
deprived her of her parent, and she was then consigned
to the care of a lady of eminent piety, who kept a board-
BAD
L 171 1
BAG
ing-school, and who endeavored to improve this mournful
event to the spiritual advantage of her pupil. During her
'continuance at school, she sedulously employed her time
in the cultivation of her mind, and became as distinguished
Tor her knowledge as she wais celebrated for her piety.
At the age of twenty-three, her mind became enlightened
lo discern, and her heart to feel its own sinfulness ; and
after much inward conflict, searching of the Scriptures,
and prayer to God, she was brought to rest in Christ, as
the anchor of her hope. On her return home, she commu-
nicated to her father the state of her feelings; and from
his conversation and advice, derived great encouragement
and assistance.
Whilst to the concerns of religion she paid particular
attention, she was not indifferent to the attainment of
general literature. Her diary presented an exact por-
traiture of her lovely and pious heart. She corresponded
with persons of great learning and excellence, and her
letters were very superior, both in matter and composition.
To the study of the holy Scriptures she devoted much at-
tention and time. About four years previous to her death,
she had an attack of the pleurisy, which was only intro-
ductory to the consummation of that ill health, with which
she had been visited for several years, and which termi-
nated in a decline. During her long and subsequent ill-
ness, in which she suffered greatly from the disorder, she
never exhibited any indications of impatience, but with
gratitude received the attentions of her friends, and with
cheerfulness submitted to the determination of Providence.
Though greatly reduced by continued pain, she felt little
apprehension at the approach of death; but looking at her
wasted and almost fleshless arms, she said : — " The sight
of these withered limbs affords me solid pleasure ; for as
I discern the outward man decay, so, through the mercy
of my Redeemer, I believe the inward man is renewing
day by day." And at night, when first laid in bed, she
frequently said, — " Blessed be God, I have another day
less! I am another day nearer my journey's end."
Miss Bacon wais never married, though she lived to the
age of forty-one ; and for visits of mercy and deeds of
benevolence, she had therefore much lime which she could
so devote, and which she did not fail thus usefully to ap-
ply. At length, after a life of piety, benevolence, and
intellectual application, she expired the 24th of December,
1809, with a sure and certain hope of a joyful resurrec-
tion.— Jaiifs's Chris. Biog.
BACON, (Samuel.) agent of the American government
for establishing a colony in Africa, was an episcopal cler-
gyman. He proceeded in the Elizabeth to Sierra Leone,
with eighty-two colored people, accompanied by Rlr. Bank-
son, also agent, and Dr. Croser ; and arrived March 9,
1820. The Augusta schooner was purchased, anil the
people and stores were transhipped, and carried to Cam-
pel ar in Sherbro river, Starch 20th, Dr. Crozer and Mr.
Bankson died in a few weeks, and Mr. Bacon being taken
ill on the 17th of April, proceeded to Kent, at cape Shil-
ling, but died two days after his arrival, on the third of
Slay. Many others died. The circular of the Coloniza-
tion society, signed by E. B. Caldwell, October 26, describes
this disastrous expedition. — Allen ; Memoirs by Ashmun.
BADCOCK, (Samuel,) was the son of a respectable
butcher at South Molton, in Devonshire, where he was
born, February 23, 1747. His family and connections
were dissenters, and he was himself designed by them for
the ministerial function among the Nonconformists. The
compiler of Blr. Badcock's Memoir, in the General Bio-
graphical Dictionary, 1798, is pleased to tell us, that
" from habitual intercourse with some of the students at
Mr. Pooker's academy, he contracted some of those tenets
which compose the gloomy fanaticism of the Methodists :"
and immediately proceeds to instance the topics of free-
grace, election, justification by imputed righteousness,
final perseverance, Sec, as though these were the doctrines
contended for by the fanatical Methodists ; whereas they
are all, without exception, fundamental articles of the
church of England, and stiffly opposed by the Wesleyan
Methodists! How long Jlr. B. continued at this academy
we know not ; but on leaving it, he accepted a call to be
pststor to a dissenting congregation at Winbourne, in Dor-
setshire, where he was ordained, but did not continue
long with them, the salary being inadequate to his support.
From Winbourne he was invited to Barnstaple, in Devon-
shire, which was a much more ehgibic place for him, a.s
the income was adequate to his wants, and the distance
but a few miles from his nati^t! town. He accordingly
removed thither in 1769, and continued there nine or ten
years.
It would appear that, during Mr. Badcock's residence at
Barnstaple, he became somewhat lalitudinarian in his
creed ; and this is resolved into his falling in with the
writings of Dr. Priestley, to whom he paid a visit at Calne,
in Wiltshire, and estatjlished an intimacy and correspond-
ence M'ith the doctor. About the year 1780, he engaged
as a writer in the Monthly Review, which was then one of
the most popular literary journals of the day ; and the
talents which Mr. Badcock displayed in his department,
daring the few years that he continued to write for it,
tended greatly to raise its fame and establish its reputa-
tion. On the publication of Dr. Priestley's History of the
Corruptions of Christianity, Mr, Badcock undertook the
reply to that part which was the most labored and impor-
tant of the whole, viz. the " History of Early Opinions
concerning Jesus Christ :" it appeared in the Blonthly Re-
view for June, 17S3. His critique e.xtended to thirt3'-three
pages in the whole, and was after\vards reprinted ; but no
one, except Dr. Priestley, wished it shorter. It discovered
not merely acuteness, but an uncommon extent of reading
in the primitive fathers, and ecclesiastical history in gene-
ral. Ths doctor felt this attack so severely, and more
especially as proceeding from a quarter so unexpected
as the Monthly Review, that, with his usual celerity, in
less than a month he brought out a reply to the animad-
versions, though the reviewer had then discharged himself
of only half his ta.sk. At the moment of publishing his
reply. Dr. Priestley was ignorant who his antagonist was ;
and, therefore, unbiassed by prejudice or resentment, he
bestowed this eulogium on him : " The knowledge and
ability of the present reviewer make him a much more
formidable, and, therefore, a more resjiectable antagonist."
The late Dr. Johnson, speaking of BIr. Badcock's review,
at an interview which he had with him a little before his
death, said, " You have proved him as deficient in probity
as he is in learning : he borrowed from those who had
been borrowers themselves, and diil not know that the
mistakes he adopted had been answered by others."
lie was for several years troubled with dreadful head
achs, and so violent were they at times, that they threw
him into a state of delirium. This made him frequently
express his apprehension of some time or other losing his
reason : an event which he justly considered as lar more
to be drcadeil llian death itself. In 1787, he lost his mother,
a very excellent woman and most affectionate parent.
His behavior lo her was an example of fihal piety, and
his grief at her death exquisitely tender. At the Lent
assizes, 1788, he preached in the cathedral of Exeter,
having previously taken orders ; and his sermon before
the judges was greatly admired by those who heard it.
On the 19th of Blay following, he died of a bilious com-
plaint, at the house of his affectionate friend. Sir John
Chicester, Bart, in Queen street, May Fair, London. In
his person, Mr. Badcock was short, but well made, active,
lively, and agreeable. His eye was peculiarly vivacious,
and his whole countenance indicated strong intellectual
powers, far above the general run of mankind, and a dis-
position replete with sensibility, tenderness, and generosity.
As a pulpit orator he was much admired. Though all his
writings discover the hand of a mas'er, and exhibit abun-
dant traces of laborious research and profound learning,
it may be questioned if, in any of the.n, he has done more
essential service to the cause of Chri.<i'anity. than by his
masterly statement of the evidence ul its truth, arising
from miracles and prophecy, in the Fampton lectures. —
Jones's Chris. Biog. : Davenport : Enry. Amcr.
BAG ; a sack, pouch, or purse. The money collected
in the treasuries of eastern princes was reckoned up in
certain equal sums, put into bags, and sealed. God iss.aid
to seal and sew up men's iniquity in a bag ; a striking image,
to denote that he remembers every act and circumstance
thereof, in order to charge it on them, and punish them
for it, at a fiUure time. Job 14: 17. Riches blasted b>
BAK
[ ns]
BAL
the curse of God, are slyled ivages put into a bag with holes ;
that is, they profit not the ovraer, hut are secretly and
unexpectedly consumed. Hag. 1: 6. On the contrary,
treasures of spiritual good, blessings promised in the
heavens, to such as liberally expend their property, in do-
ing good on Christian principles, are said to be deposited
in bags, or purses, that wax not old. Luke 12: 33. Of
course, these riches of the soul are pennanent, and can
neither be tarnished, scattered, or lost. How few com-
paratively provide, according to the precept of the Savior,
these safe and indestructible depositories for tlieir wealth,
beyond the grave !
BAHURIM ; a town of Benjamin, (2 Sam. 3: Ifi. 17: 5.
16: 18.) probably built by the young men who escaped
the destruction of their tribe. It is thought to have been
also named Alraon, (Josh. 21: IS.) and Alcmath. 1 Chron.
6: 60.
BAILEY, (JoirN,) an excellent minister in Bos'on, was
horn in Lancashire, England. Fronr his earliest years, his
mind seems to have been impressed by the truths of re-
ligion. While he was yet very young, his mother on*-
day persuaded him to lead the devotions of the family.
When his father, who was a very dissolute man, heard of
it, his heart was touched with a sense of his sin in the
neglect of this duty, and he became afterwards an emi-
nent Christian. After having been carpfully instructed
in classical learning, he commenced preaching the gospel,
about the age of twenty-two. He soon went to Ireland,
where, by frequent labors, he much injured his health,
which was never perfectly restored. He spent about four-
teen years of his lite at Limericlf, and was exceedingly
blessed in his exertions to turn men from darkness to light.
While at Limericl^', a deanery was offered hiin, if he would
conform, with Ihe promise of a bishopric upon the first
vacancy. But disdaining worldly things, when they came
in competition with duty to his Savior and the purity of
divine worship, he rejected the offer in true disinterested-
ness and elevation of spirit. But neither this proof, that
he was inlcHt on higher objects than this world presents,
nor the blamelessness of his life, nor the strong hold which
he had in the affections of his acquaintance, could pre-
serve him from again suffering the hardships of imprison-
ment, while the papists in the neigliborhood enjoyed liberty
and countenance. When he was before the judges, he
."said to them, '■ if I had been drinking, and gaming, and
carousing at a tavern with my company, my lords, I pre-
sume that would not have procured my being thus treated
as an o.ft'ender. Must praying to God, and preaching of
Christ with a company of Christians, who are peaceable
and inoffensive, and as serviceable to his majesty and the
government as any of his subjects ; must this be a greater
crim.e ?" The recorder answered, '' We will have yon to
know it is a greater crime." His flock often fasted and
prayed for his release ; but lie was discharged on this
condition only, that he should depart from tlie country
within a limited time.
He came to New England in 16S4, and was ordained
the minister of Watertown, October 6, 1686, with his
brother, Thomas Bailey, as his assistant ; he removed to
Boston in 1692, and became assistant minister of the first
church, July 17, 1693, succeeding air. Moody. Here he
continued till his death, December 12, 1697, aged fifty-
three. He was a man eminent for piety, of great sensi-
biUty of conscience, and very exemplary in his life.
In his last sickness, he suffered under a complication of
disorders ; but he did not complain. His mind was soothed
in dwelling upon the sufferings of Ids Savior. At times
he was agitated with fears, though they had not respect,
as he said, so much to the. end, as lo w'liat he might meet
in the ivny. His last words were, speaking of CInist, " 0,
what shall I say ? He is altogether lovely. His glorious
angels are come for me l" He llicn closed his eyes, and
his spirit passed into etcrnily. He published an address
to the people of Limerick- ; and Man's Chief End to glo-
rify God, a sermon preached at Watertown, 1689. Mid-
dkton's Biog. Evan. iv. 101—105 ; Nunronfonn. Memorial,
i. 331—335 ; Slather's Fun. Ser. ,,- Magiialia, iii. 221— 238 ;
Eliot ; Farmer ; Allen's Am. Biog.
BAJITH ; a town of Moab. Isa. 15: 2.
BAKE. In the earliest limes, the oriental nations ap-
pear to have baked their bread with great simplicity on a
clean part of the hearth, or in a pan of iron. Gen. 18: 6.
Lev. 2: 4—7. After%vards, other inventions were employed.
It is said the Arabs are accustomed to make a fire in a
large stone pitcher, and when it is snfhciently heated, ap-
ply the soft paste or dough to the outside. As it is usually
very thin, the heat of the pitcher bakes it almost in an
instant. Dried dung is frequently used inside, as fuel ;
a practice which explains a very singular passage, Ezek.
4: 9 —17. Such a custom i.'i still found also in Barbary. —
Ten women baking the bread of a nation in one area, imports
great scarcity of provisions. Lev. 26: 26. The baker sleeping
nil the night, indicates the singular inattention of the Jew-
ish rulers to the dangers arising from the inflamed state of
the public mind, which menaced the destruction of the
state. Hos. 7: 6.
BALA, otherwise Zohar, or Zoar, one of the five cities
of the plain ; said to be called Bala, that is, sroallowed vp,
because when Lot quitted it, the earth opened and swal-
lOM'ed it up. — Calmet.
BALAAM ; a prophet, or diviner, of the city Pethor, ors
the Euphrates, whose history may he found in Numb. 22
to 25 chapters. Also 31: 2, 7, 8. See also Mic. 6: 5. 2
Pet. 2: 15. Jude 11. F.ev. 2: 14. — See alsoAss of Baiaam.
The rabbins relate many fanciful particnlars of Balaam ;
as that at first he was one of Pharaoh's counsellors ; ac-
cording (0 others, he was the father of Jannes and Jambres,
two eminent magicians ; that he squinted, and was lame ;
that he was the autrok pt that tassage i.t Nuiubeks,
wiiETiEi.v nis msTORY IS KEi.ATED ; and that Moses inserted
it, in like manner as he inserted other writings.
It h"s been much questioned whether Balaam were a
true prophet of the Lord, or a mere diviner, magician, or
fortune-teller. Origen and others say, that all his power
eons-istcd in magic and cursing ; because the devil, by
whose influence he acted, can only curse and injure.
Theodoret, Cyril of Alexandria, and Ambrose think he
prophesied without being aware of the import of what he
said ; but Jerome seems to have adopted the opinion of
the Hebrews, that Balaam knew the true Gotl, and was
a true prophet, though corrapied by avarice. Moses cer-
tainly says, he consulted the Lord ; and calls the Lord, his
God, (Numb. 22: 18.) but this might have been merely
because he was of the posterity of Shem, which patriarch
maintained the worship of the Lord among his descend-
ants ; so that, while the posterity of Ham fell into idolatry,
and the posterity of Japhet were settled at a distacce, in
Europe, the Shemites maintained the worship of Jehovah,
and knew his holiness and jealousy. This appears in the
profligate advice which Balaam gives Balak, to seduce the
Israelites to transgress against Jehovah, with the holiness
of whose nature the perverted prophet seems to have been
well acquainted. *'
There is something peculiar and worthy of notice in
the account of Balaam's divinations, Numb. 24: 1. " When
he saw that it pleased the Lord to bless Israel, he went not
as at other times to seek for enchantments ;" but began at
once to speak in the name of the Lord. He went not lite-
rally, as "time npon time to meeting Narhashim." There
is something peculiar here ; and to be properly understood,
the words must be strictly taken : — " he went not to meet"
— it was not, then, to make oliser\'ations — to watch atten-
tively— to inspect, that he went : but to meet, d la rencontre.
And what had he been used to meet, as implied in the
phrase? Nachashim ; the plural of JV«f/;<7s7i; serpents; (as
chap. 21: 6. "the fiery sekpents," Tfackashim. Had he
then been accnstomed, when in his own country, to go to
meet serpents ? to draw auguries froin those reptiles ? The
thing is not impossible ; since we know, that from almost
eveiy creature, auguries have been drawn. But it is much
more probable, that Balaam pretended to greater powers,
to intercourse with spiritual existences, who furnished him
with supernatural intelligence ; and who could and would
perform extraordinary feats of destruction in consequence
of his execration. The pretence has never v>'aiited profes-
sors, in eveiy age; and instances of it might be adduced
from Balaam, and the witch of Endor, from the famihar
spirits that peep and mutter, (Isaiah 8: 19.) out of the dust,
(29: 4.) to Cornelius Agrippa, and the modern illuminati
of Germany. — But, why employ the term serpents to ex-
BAL
i 1'3 1
BAL
press these spiritual powers ? and, what v;as the supposed
character of these Nachashim ? — Again, it will be naturally
inquired, whether we Iniow of any term derived from the
East which bears the double sense of serpent and spirilual
existence ? A spirilual existence not benevolent, not of ce-
lestial benignity, but insidious and infernal ? We do. And
if Balaam were reputed, or if he afTected, to hold inter-
course with the powers of destruction, with potent spirits of
the infernal regions, as his familiars, supposed to exist in,
or to assume the form and properties of serpents, there is
no word in Hebrew so proper to express this as N^acliash,
Nachashim. Nor should we overlook the insidious nature
of this prophet's advice, worthy a disciple of these Nacha-
shim ! What he could not effect against Israel by force,
he accomplished by fraud. Undoubtedly, this moral insi-
nuation, this guile, is drawn from the gliding, the insinu-
ating motion of the serpent tribe ; in accord with which, is
.the description in the Revelalion, (12:9.) of "the great
dragon, that old serpent, called the devil, and the Satan,
tvhich deceiveth the whole world ;" — But an animal serpent
could not deceive the whole world ; though the Hindoo
SAesAflNASAH, the destroyer, the sovereign serpent of the
infernal regions, might do so: and when we read, (2 Cor.
11: 3.) that the serpent beguiled Eve, we must not attribute
that to a natural serpent, to which a natural serpent is
incompetent. To supply this deficiency, and to impart
abihty for the purpose, to a natural serpent, recourse has
been had to supposition : — as, that the creature was merely
the vehicle by which a tempting spirit acted ; so Milton :
The devil enter'd, and his bruuil sense,
In heart or head, possessing, soon inspired
With act inteUigential ;
With tr-ick oblique
At first, as one who sought access, but fear'd
To interrupt, side-long he works his way :
So varied he, and of his tortuous train
Curl'd many a wanton wreath in sight of Eve,
To lure her eye
But, may we not rather acknowledge a like duplicitj' of
meaning in the Hebrew word Nachash, as in the Sanscrit
NAgah i Or, may not the Hebrew Nachash be its legiti-
mate representative, by transplantation, and, consequently,
have brought with it that double import which places it at
the head of serpents, natural and metaphorical : — " that old
serpent, the Satan." We have seen that the Satan (no
earthly spirit) tempted Job; why might he not tempt our
first parents ? He tempted David; he tempted the Messiah ;
why might he not tempt in paradise itself? But, "the Na-
chash of Genesis is punished by a sentence of degradation,
apparently animal degradation, therefore he was animal,"
say some ; — but will the reader have the goodness to con-
sider by what other terms the punishment inflicted on him,
could be rendered sensible to Adam ? What acquaintance
had our first father \rith the nature of spirits ? None. Of
what avail then, to him, would have been a punishment
simply spiritual on his enemy ? It would have been nei-
ther intelligible, nor cautionary. But the symbol, the
serpent, would be ever before his eyes in common with
other creatures, and the insidiousness of its mariners, with
the mortal consequences of its venom, would never be for-
gotten, and could never be mistaken. — Calmet.
BALAK ; son of Zippor, king of Moab, Numb. 22 — 25.
See Bala.am. Balaam having advised him to engage the
Israelites in sin, Balak, politically, as he thought, followed
his counsel ; which proved equally pernicious, (1.) to him
who gave it, (2.) to those who followed it, and (3.) to those
against whom it was intended. (1.) The Israelites who
were betrayed by it, were slain by their brethren who
continued unpcrverted ; (2.) Balaam, the author of it, was
involved in the slaughter of the aiidianites ; and (3.) Ba-
lak, who had executed it by means of the aiidianitc women,
saw his allies attacked, their country plundered, and himself
charged with being the cause of their calamity. — Calmet.
BALANCE; an in.strumenl for weighing ; much of the
sarne nature, probably, as the Boman steelyard, where the
weight is hung at one end of the beam, and the article to
1)6 weighed at the other end. Balances, in the plural, ge-
nerally appear to mean scales,— a pair of scales. Prov. 11:
1. Job 31: 6. Ps. e2:y. Dan. 5:27. Jot 37: 16. See
Weighing . — Calmet.
In Kev. 6: 5, the term zugos, rendered ' a pair of balan
ces,' is properly a yoke ; and it represents i:i the most
forcible manner the iron yoke of the papal power, and the
consequent famine of the word of God.
BALDNESS, is a natural clTcct of old age, in which pe-
riod of life the hair of the head, wanting nourishment, falls
ofiT, and leaves the head naked. Artificial baldness v,-a3
used as a token of mourning ; it is threatened to the volup-
tuous daughters of Israel, instead of well-set hair, Isa. 3;
24. See Mic. 1: 115 ; and instances of it occur. Isa. 15: 2.
Jer. 47: 5. See Ezck. 7: 18. Amos 8: 10.
The insult offered to Elisha h}" the j'oung people of
Bethel, improperly rendered, '• little children," who cricil
out after him, •■ Go up, thou bald head," may here be no-
ticed. The town of Bethel was one of the principal nuite-
ries of Ahab's idolatry, and ths conlemjit was olfered to
Elisha in his public character as a prophet of the Lord.
If in the expression, '-Go up," there v,-as also a reference
to the translation of Elijah, as turning it into jest, this was
another aggravation of the sin, to which these young
people were probably instigated by their parents. The
malediction laid upon them by the prophet was not an act
of private resentment, but evidently proceeded from pio
phetic impulse — Jl'alsun.
BALDI, (BER.vAr.nrs ;) an Italian of almost universal
genius. He was born atUrbiuo. in 1553, and made abbot
of Guastalla by the sovereign of that state. He was at once
a mathematician, philosopher, antiquary, geographer, his-
torian, orator, poet, and divine ; understood the ancient,
the oriental, and almost all the European languages; and
united a sound judgment, with his prodigious memory
and indefatigable application. Such a man is a rare
example of the extent to which the human faculties may
be cultivated under the influence of religion. lie died in
1617, leaving behind him only a few poems and scientific
works. Alas ! that talent.s and erudition like his should
leave so little to enrich the world i — Davenport.
BALDWIN, (TuoMAs,) D. D. a distinguished Baptist
minister in Boston, was born in Norwich, Conn., Dec. 23,
1753. After he had removed to Canaan in New Hamp
shire he became pious, and joined the Baptist churcli in
1781. It was M-ith pain, that he thus forsook his connec
tions and early friends ; for he had been educated a pcdo-
baptist, and his venerable minister at Norwich was his
grand-uncle. Having for some time conducted the reli-
gious exercises at public meetings, in August, 1782, he
ventured for the first time to take a text and preach doc-
trinally and methodically. His advantages for intellectual
culture had been few. At the request of the church, he
was ordained, June 11, 17S3, as an evangelist; and he
performed the duties of a pastor for seven 5'ears, besides
preaching often diu'ing each week in the towns within a
circle of fifty miles, •' chiefl)' at his own charges," some-
times receiving small presents, but never having a public
contribution. In these journeys he was obliged to climb
rocky steeps and to pass through dismal swamps ; and as
the poor people had no silver, and the continental currency
was good for nothing, sometimes the travelling preacher
was obliged cither to beg or to starve. For several years,
he was chosen a member of the legislature.
In 1790, he was invited to Boston, ;is the pastor of the
second Baptist church. He now successfully pui"sued a
course of study, and by his unwearied exertions acquired
a high rank as a preacher. His church, though small
in 1790, became under his care numerous and fiourish-
ing.
Of his own denomination in New-England he was at the
head, and to him all his brethren lookcrl for ailvice. Be-
sides being connected with most of the benevolent institu-
tions of Boston, he was a member of the Convention for
revising the Constitution of the Stale ; and just before his
death, was fixed upon, by one party among the peo|i!-,-. as
a candidate for an elector of president of the Uiiiled States.
He died very suddenly at WaterviUe, Maine, whither
he had gone to attend the commencement, Augusl 29,
1825, aged seventy-one years. Dr. Baldwin was a « .-■iter
of great perspicuity and vigor, and one of the best of iv.ca
"iTc tpns a good man. And amid eur lours.
Sweet, grateful thoughts within our bosoms rise ■
We traca his spirit up to brighter spher>?s.
BAL [ 174 ]
And Ihlnk with what pure rapturous surpriae
He found himself translated to the sicies :
From niglit ai once awolte to endless noon !
Oh ! with what transport did his eager eyes
Behold his Lord in glory I *Twa3 tne boon
His heart had longed for ! Why deem we it came too soon 1"
He published the following discourses : at the Thanksgiv-
ing, 1795 ; Quarterly Sermon ; at the Concert of Prayer ;
Account of a Revival of Religion, 1799 ; on the Death of
lieutenant governor Phillips ; Election Sermon, 1802 ; on
the Eternal Purpose of God ; at Thanksgiving ; before a
Misrionary Society, 1804 ; at the Ordination of D. Merrill,
1805 ; before the Female Asylum, 1806 ; on the Death of
Dr. Stillman ; at the Artillery Election, 1807 ; and, the
Baptism of Believers only, and Particular Communion
vindicated, 12mo. 1806. Of this work, the first and se-
cond parts were originally published in 1789 and 1794.—
Allen ; Biog. of Self-taught Men ; Am. Bap. Mag. 1826.
BALE, (John,) Bishop of Ossory ; an English divine,
bom in 1495, and educated at Cambridge. He became a
zealous convert from Popery to Protestantism ; in defence
of which he wrote many works during the reigns of Ed-
ward VI. queen Mary, and Elizabeth. His style, however,
is defective in Christian gentleness and kindness. He
appears to have been the last writer of those religious
dramas called Mysteries, once so celebrated in the South
of Europe. The work by which he is principally remem-
bered, is his Latin Account of the Lives of Eminent Brit-
ish Authors. — Davenport.
BALGUY, (John,) an eminent English divine, was bom
at Sheffield in 1686, and educated at Cambridge. Though
an excellent minister and writer, he never received any
higher preferment in the church of England, than prebend
of Salisbury. In the celebrated Bangorian controversy,
he espoused and maintained the liberal views of bishop
Hoadley. In reply to lord Shaftsbury, he published ' Two
Letters to a Deist ;' and ' The Foundation of Moral Vir-
tue.' Of his other works, the principal are two volumes
of aermons. He died in 1748. — Davenport.
BALM. See Balsam.
BALSAM TREE, or Balsam ; the celebrated Balm of
Glhad. Gen. 37: 25. 43:11. Jer. 8: 22. 46:11. 51:8.
Ezek. 27: 17. The word Bahammi may be derived from
Baal-shemen, that is, lord of oil; rr the most pi'ecious of
perfumed oils. In Arabic it is called Abuscham, that is,
' father of scent,' sweet-scented. The tree is an evergreen ;
grows to the height of about fourteen feet, and from
eight to ten inches diameter; the trunk having a smooth
bark, with spreading crooked branches ; small bright green
leaves, growing injhrees; and small while flowers on
separate footstalKS. The petals are fottr in number. The
fruit is a small, egg-shaped berry, containing a smooth
nut. The mode in which the balsam is obtained is de-
scribed by Mr. Bruce. The bark of the tree is cut with
an a.\'e, at a time when its juices are in the .strongest circu-
lation. These, as they ooze through the wound, in single
drops like tears, are received into small earthen bottles ;
and every day's produce is gathered, and poured into a
larger bottle, which is closely corked. AVhen the juice
first issues from the wound, it is of a light yellow color,
and a somewhat turbid appearance ; but as it settles it
becomes clear, has the color of honey, and appears more
fixed and heavy than at first. Its smell, when fresh, is
exquisitely fragrant ; strongly pungent ; not much unlike
that of volatile salts, but more odoriferous. If the bottle
be left uncorked, it loses this delicious aroma. The quan-
tity of balsam yielded by one tree never exceeds sixty
drops in a day. Hence its scarcity is such, that at the
present time the genuine balsam, though found in several
parts of Syria and Abyssinia, is seldom exported as an
article of commerce. Even at Constantinople, the centre
of trade of those countries, it cannot without great diflicully
be prccured. Its taste is bitter, acrid, aromatic, and as-
tringent. The Turks take it in small quantities in wattf
to excite the animal faculties, and fortify the stomacn. It
is in the highest esteem, as a medicine, as a cosmt'r,
and as an odoriferous unguent. It is said to grow sprn'^i-
neously and without culture, now, in its native conn' y.
Azab, and all along the coast to Bnbclmandcl. Eit \n
anctent times, its most famous place of cuUivaiion wts
Gilead or Jeiioo in Ju.lra. Hence the beautirul lai;' :,v
BAM
of Jeremiah, " Is there, no balm in Gilead ? Is there M phjsl-
dan there V' Jer. 8: 22.
There Were three kinds of balsam extracted from this
tree. The first was called opobalsamum, and was most
highly esteemed. It was that which flowed spontaneously,
or by means of incision, from ilie trunk or branches of the
tree in summer lime. The second Was carpohalsamum,
made by expressing the fruit when in maturity. The
third, and least esteemed of all, was hylobahamum, made
by a decoction of the buds and small young twigs. The
great value set upon this drug in the East is traced to the
earliest ages. The Ishmaelites, or Arabian carriers and
merchants, trafficking with the Arabian commodities into
Egypt, brought with them balm as a part of their cargo,
Gen. 37: 25. 43: 11. Jo.sephus, in the history of the anti-
quities of his country, .says that a tree of this balsam was
brought to Jerusalem by the queen of Saba, and given
among other presents to Solomon, who, as we know from
Scripture, was very studious of all sorts of plants, and
skilful in the description and distinction of them. And
here, indeed, it seems to have been cultivated and to have
thriven ; so that the place of its origin, through length of
time, combined with other reasons, came to be forgotten.
Notwithstanding the positive authority of Josephus, and
the great probability that attends it, we cannot put it in
competition with what we have been told in Scripture, as
we have just now seen that the place where it grew, and
was sold to merchants, was Gilead in Judea, more than
1730 years before Christ, or 1000 before the queen of
Saba ; so that in reading the verse, nothing can be plainer
than that it had been transplanted into Judea, flourished,
and had become an article of commerce in Gilead, long
before the period he mentions. " A company of Ishmael-
ites came from Gilead with their camels, bearing spicery,
and balm, and myrrh, going to carry it down to Egypt,"
Gen. 37: 25. Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Pliny, Straho,
Diodorus Siculus, Tacitus, Justin, Solinus, and Serapion,
speaking of its costliness and medicinal virtues, all say
that this balsam came from Judea. The words of Pliny
are, " But to all other odors whatever, the balsam is pre-
ferred, produced in no other part but the land of Judea,
and even there in two gardens only ; both of them belong-
ing to the king, one no more than twenty acres, the
other still smaller." The whole valley of Jericho was
once esteemed the most fruitful in Judea ; and the obsti-
nacy with which the Jews fought here to prevent the bal-
sam trees from falling into the possession of the Romans,
attests the importance which was attached to them. This
tree Pliny describes as peculiar to the vale of Jericho, and
as " more like a vine than a myrtle." It was esteemed so
precious a rarity, that both Pompey and Titus carried a
specimen to Rome in triumph ; and the balsam, owing to
its scarcity, sold for double its weight in silver, till its high
price led to the practice of adulteration. Ju.stin makes it
the chief source of the national wealth. He describes the
country in which it grew, as a valley like a garden, envi-
roned with continual hills, and, as it were, enclosed with
a wall. " The space of the valley contains two hundred
thousand acres, and is called Jericho. In that valley,
there is wood as admirable for its fruitfulness as for its
delight, for it is intermingled with palm trees and opobal-
samum. The trees of the opobalsamum have a resem-
blance to fir trees ; hut they are lower, and are planted
and husbanded after the manner of vines. On a set sea-
son of the year, they sweat balsam. The darkness of the
place is besides as wonderful as the fruitfulness of it; for
although the sun shines nowhere hotter in the world, there
is naturally a rnochrate and perpetual gloominess of the
air." According to Mr. Buckingham, this description is
most accurate. "Both the heat and the gloominess," he
says, " were observed by us, though darkness would be an
improper term to apply to this gloom." — Cahnet ; Watson ;
Enr>j. Avier.
BAMAH ; an eminence, or high place, where the Jews
worshinped their idols, Ezek. 20: ?9.
r.AMIAN, says Ibn Haukal, is a town half as large as
I ilkh, siluated on a hill. Before this hill runs a river,
tne stream of which flows into Gurjestan, Bamian has
iioi any gardens or orchnrds, and it is the only town la
iliis ilis'trict siluated en a lull. The cold part of Khorasn
BAN
[ 175]
BAN
is B.bout Bamian. ("Sir W. Ousley's Trans, p. 225.) This
town is affirmed to have been the residence of Shem. See
Chaldea. — Calmct.
BAMOTH i a station of the Israelites, Num. 21: 19, 20.
Eusebius says, Bamoth is a city of Moab, on the river
Amou . — Calmet .
BAMOTH-BAAL, the high places of Baal, or, the heights
sacred to Baal, was a city east of the river Jordan, given
to Reuben. Josh. 13: 17. Eusebius says it was situated
on the plains of the Arnon. — Calmet.
BAND; a connecting ligature ; a cord, or chain. Hence
also, a company of meu ; because bound and linked toge-
ther, as it were, for the accomplishment of an object. A
band of Roman soldiers consisted of about a thousand.
Acts 21: 31. 27: 1. Government and laws are bands that
restrain from sin, and draw into the path of righteous-
ness. Ps. 2; 3. Jer. 5: 5. Slavery, distress, fears, and per-
plexity are called bands, because they restrain liberty,
and create irritation. Lev. 26: 13. Ezek. 34: 27. Ps. 28:
22. Sinful customs, or meretricious allurements, are
bands ; they enslave, weaken, degrade, and embitter the
soul ; they are fetters that at first may seem soft as silk,
but are found at last to be stronger than iron. Isai. 58: 6.
Eccl. 7: 26. The wicked often 'have no bands in their
death ;" that is, they frequently die without any peculiar
distress, fear, or perplexity ; such as might be expected to
stamp their real character and condition on the verge of
their future woe. Ps. 73: 4. Eccl. 7; 15. 9: 2. Faith and
love are bands, which unite and fasten every believer to
Christ, and to the whole body of his holy people. Col. 2:
19. The authority, arguments, instances, and influence
of divine love, because they draw and engage us to follow
the Lord in a way suited to our rational nature, are gene-
rally supposed to be intended in Hos. 11: 4, by 'the bands
of a man ;' but as this idea of constraining love is distinctly
expressed in the clause preceding, I am more inclined to
understand the bands of a man, here to signify the strong
feelings of ntcessitij. See how the prodigal son was drawn
to liis father by these natural bands, as well as by the cords
of love. Luke 15: 14—20.
BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY ; so called from Ban-
gor, or the bishop thereof. Bishop Hoadley, the bishop of
that diocese, preaching before George I., asserted, from the
text " My kingdom is not of this world," the supreme au-
thority of Christ, as King in his own kingdom ; and that he
had not delegated his power, like temporal lafl'givers
during their absence from their kingdom, to any persons,
as his vicegerents or deputies. This important sermon
may be seen reprinted in the Liverpool Theological Repo-
sitory, vol. V. p. 301. In 1717, he also published his Pre-
servative, in which he advanced some positions contrary
to temporal and spiritual tyranny, and in behalf of the
civil and religious liberties of mankind : tipon which he
was violently opposed, accused, and persecuted by the ad-
vocates for church power ; but he was defended and sup-
ported by the civil powers, and his abilities and meekness
gained him the plaudits of many. — Henderson's Buck.
BANISHMENT ; exile ; judicial exclusion from one's
kindred and country, or from the presence of the king.
Ezra 7: 26. God's banished ones, {2 Sam. 14: 14,) may
mean either his children under his corrections, or his
chosen in their outcast and unconverted slate.
BANK ; a treasury for exchanging, receiving, or giving
cat money on interest. Luke 19: 23.
BANNER ; an ensign, or standard, used by armies or
caravans on their journeys in the eastern countries. The
original denel is rendered by lexicographers and translators
imder this word, as a noun, in which form it often occurs,
a standard, a banner ; as a veib, once, to set up a bimner,
Psalm 20: 5 ; as a participle pahul, vexillatus, one distin-
guished by a banner, the chief; as a participle niphal,
bannered, or with banners. The meaning of the root is
illustrated by the very ingenious and sensible author of
" Observations on Divers Passages of Scripture," who
shows, from Pitts and Pococke, that, as in Arabia and the
neighboring countries, on account of the intense heat of
the sun by day, people generally choose to travel in the
night ; so, to prevent confusion in their large caravans,
particularly in the annual one to Slecca, each company of
which the caravan consists has its distinct portable beacon,
which is carried on the top of a pole, and consists of seve-
ral lights, which are somewhat like iron stoves, into which
they put short dry wood, with which some of Ihe camels
are loaded. Every company has one of these poles be-
longing to it ; some of which have ten, some twelve, of
these lights on their tops, more or less; and they are like-
wise of difierent figures, as well as numbers ; one, perhaps,
in an oval shape ; another triangular, or in the form of an
M, or N, iScc, so that by these every one knows his respec-
tive company. They are carried in the front, and set up
in the place where the caravan is to pitch, before that
comes up, at some distance from one another. As travel-
ling then in the night must be, generally speaking, more
agreeable to a great multitude in that desert, we may be-
lieve a compassionate God, for the most part, directed
Israel to move in the night. And in consequence, must
we not rather suppose the standards of the tribes were
moveable beacons, like those of the Mecca pilgrims, than
flags or any thing of that kind? This ingenious author
seems, however, to forget, (1.) That the pillar of fire was
with the Israelites to direct their marches. (2 ) That the
Israelites were not a mere caravan, but an army ; and, as
such, for order, required standards as well by day as by
night. See Armies. — Watson.
BANQUET. The hospitality of the present day in the
East exactly resembles that of the remotest antiquity.
The parable of the " great supper" is in those countries
literally realized. And such was the hospitality of ancient
Greece and Rome. When a person provided an enter-
tainment for his friends or neighbors, he sent round a
number of servants to invite the guests ; these were called
vocatores by the Romans, and hletores by the Greeks. The
day when the entertainment is to be given is fijced some
considerable time before ; and in the evening of the day
appointed, a messenger comes to bid the guests to the
feast. The custom is thus introduced in Luke ; "Acer-
tain man made a great supper, and bade many ; and sent
his servant at supper time to say to them that were bidden.
Come, for all things are now ready." They were not now
asked for the first time ; but had already accepted the in-
vitation, when the day was appointed, and were therefore
already pledged to attend at the hour when they might be
summoned. They were not taken unprepared, and there-
fore could not in consistency and decency plead any prior
engagement. They could not now refuse, without violating
their word and insulting the master of the feast, and, there-
fore, justly subjected themselves to punishment. The
terms of the parable exactly accord with established cus-
tom. The Jews did not always follow the sama method ;
sometimes they sent a number of servants different ways
among the friends they meant to invite ; and at other
times, a single male domestic.
The Persians sent a deputation to meet their guests :
this deputation are called openers of the way ; and the
more distinguished the persons sent, and the greater the
distance to which they go, so much greater is the honor.
So it is proclaimed, " Go fonh and behold king Solomon,
with the crown wherewith his mother crowned him."
" The bridegroom cometh, go ye forth to meet him." The
names of the persons to be invited were inscribed upon
tablets, and the gate was set open to receive those who
had obtained them ; but to prevent any getting in that had
no ticket, only one leaf of the door was left open, and that
was strictly guarded by the servants of the family. Those
who were admitted had to go along a narrow passage to
the room ; and after all who had received tickets of adniis-
sion were assembled, the master of the house rose and
shut to the door, and then the entertainment began. The
first ceremony, after the guests arrived at the house of
entertainment, was the salutation performed by the master
of the house, or one appointed in his place. Among the
Greeks, this was sometimes done by embracing with arms
around ; but the most common salutation was by the con-
junction of their right hands, the right hand being reck-
oned a pledge of fidelity and friendship. Sometimes they
kissed the lips, hands, knees, or feet, as the person deserved
more or less respect. The Jews welcomed a stranger to
their house in the same -way; for our Lord complains to
Simon, that he had given him no kiss, had welcomed him
to his table with none of the accustomed tokens of respect.
BAN
[ 170 J
A N
. The custom of iCLliuiiig was in'.rodiice:! from Ihc nations
of the East, and parlicularly from Tersia, where it seems to
have been adopted at a very remoie period. The Old
Testament Pcrii'turcs allude to both customs; but they
finnish undeniable proofs of the antiquity of sitting. As
thi i is iindoubleiliy the most natural arid dignified posture,
so it seems to have been universally adopted by the first
generations of men ; ami it was not till after the lapse of
many ages, and when degenerate man had lo.st much of
tfie firmness of his primitive character, that he began to
recline.
The tables were constructed of three different parts or
separate tables, making but one in the whole. One was
placed at the upper end crosswise, and the two others
joined to its ends, one on each side, so as to leave an open
space between, by which the attendants could readily wait
at all the three. Round these tables were placed beds or
couches, one to each table ; each of these beds was called
iliniiim ; and three of these being uniled to surround the
three tables, made the tridmium. At the end of each di-
nium was a footstool, for Ihe convenience of mounting up
to it. Tliese beds were Ibrmed of mattresses, and sup-
ported on frames of wood, often highly ornamented; the
mattresses were covered with cloth or tapestry, according
to the quality of the entertainer. At the splendid feast
■which Ahasuerus made for the nobles of his kingdom,
beds of silver and gold were placed round the tables ; ac-
cording to a custom in the East of naming a thing from its
principal ornament, these must have been couches pro-
fusely ornamented with the precious metals. Each guest
inclined the superior part of his body upon his left arm,
the lower pari being stretched out at jenglh, or a little
bent ; his head was raised up, and his back sometimes
supported with pillows. In conversation, those who spoke
raised themselves almost upright, supported by cushions.
When they ate, they raised themselves on their elbow,
and made u,se of the right hand ; which is the reason our
Lord mentions the hand of Judas in the singular number :
" He that dippelh his hand with me in the dish, the same
shall betray me," Matt. 26: 23. See Accubation.
When a Persian comes inio an assembly, and has salut-
ed the house, lie then ineasures with his eye the place to
which his degree of rank entiiles him ; he straightway
wedges himself into the line of guests, without ofl;i;ring
any apology for the general disturbance which he pro-
duces. It often happens that persons take a higher seat
than that to which they are entitled. The Persian scribes
are remarkable for their arrogance in this respect, in
wliich they seem to bear a striking resemblance to the
Jews of the same profession in tl-.c days of our Lord.
The master of the entertainment has, however, the privi-
lege of placing any one as high in the rank of the assem-
bly as he may choose.- And Jlr. JMorier saw an instance
of it at a public enterlnininent to which he was invited.
When the assembly wa-s nearly full, the governor of Ka-
shan, a m.an of humble meiu, although of considerable
rank, came in and seated bimiself at the lowest place ;
when the master of tlie house, after numerous expressions
of welcome, pointed with his hand to an upper seat in the
assembly, to which he desired him to move, and which he
accordingly did. These circum.stances aflbrd a beautiful
and striking illustration of the parable which our Lord
uttered, when he saw how those that were invited chose
the highest places.
Before the G reeks went to an entertainment, they washed
and anointed themselves ; for it was thought very indecent
to appear on such an occasion, defiled with sweat and
dust ; but they wiio came oil" a journey were washed, and
clothed with suitable apparel, in the house of the enter-
tainer, before they were admitted to the feast. When
Telemachus and Pisistratus arrived at the palace of Me-
nelaus, in the course of their wanderings, they were imme-
diately suppUed with water to wash, and with oil to anoint
themselves, before they took their seats by the side of the
king. The oil used on such occasions, in the palaces of
nobles and princes, was perfumed with roses and other
odoriferous herbo. They also washed their hands before
they sat down to meat. To these customary marks of
respect, to which a traveller, or one who had no house of
his own, was entitled, otir Lord alludes in his defence of
Mary : " And he turned to the woman, and said unto Si
mon, Seest thou this woman? I entered into thine house:
thon ^avesl me no water I'or my feet, but she hath washed
my feet with tears, and wiped them with the hairs of her
head. Thou gavest me no kiss ; but this woman, since
the time I came in, hath not ceased to kiss my feet. My
head with oil thoa didst not anoint ; but this woman hatli'
anointed my feet with ointment," Luke 7: 44. Homer^
mentions it as a custom quite common in those days, for .
daughters to wash and afterwards to anoint the feet of
their parents. Our Savior was in the circumstances of
a traveller ; he had no home to wash and anoint himself
in, before he went to Simon's house; and, therefore, had
a right to complain that his entertainer had failed in the
respect that was due to him as a stranger, at a distance
from the usual place of his residence. The Jews regularly
washed their hands and their feet before dinner ; they
considered this ceremony as essential, which discovers the
reason of their astonishment, when they observed the dis-
ciples of Christ sit down at table without having observed
this ceremony : " Why do thy disciples transgress the tra-
dition of the elders ? for they wash not their hands when
they eat bread." Matt. 15: 2. After meals they wash them
again ; for, says the evangelist, " the Pharisees and all the
Jews, except they wash their hands oft, eat not, holding
the tradition of the elders," Mark 7: 3, 4. When they
washed their hands themselves, they plunged them into
the water up to the wrists ; but when others performed this
office for them, it was done by pouring it upon their hands.
The same custom prevailed in Greece, for Homer says,
the attendants poured water on the hands of their chiefs.
This was a part of the service which Elisha performed for
his master Ehjah ; but in no instance where such partial
washings are mentioned, is either the Hebrew taval or the
Greek baptizo employed.
To wash the feet was a mean and servile office, and,
therefore, generally performed by the female servants of
the family. It was occasionally performed, however, by fe-
males of the highest rank ; for the daughter of Cleobulus,
one of the Grecian sages, and king of Lindus, a city on
the south-east part of JRhodes, was not ashamed lo wash
the feet of her faiher's guests. And it was customary for
them 10 kiss the feet of those to whom they thought a more
than common respect was due ; for the daughter of Philo-
cleon, in Aristophanes, washed her father, anointed his
feet, and stooping down, kissed them. The towel which
was used lo wipe the feet after wa.shing, was considered
through all the East, as a badge of servitude. Suetonius
mentions it as a sure mark of the intolerable pride of Cali-
gula, the Roman emperor, that when at supper he suffered
senators of the highest rank sometimes to stand by his
couch, sometimes at his feet, girt w ith a towel. Hence it
appears that this honor was a token of humiliation, which
was not, however, absolutely degrading and inconsistent
with all regard to rank. Yet our blessed Redeemer did
not refuse to give his disciples, and Judas Iscariot himself,
that proof of his love and humility.
The entertainment was conducted by a symposiarch, or
governor of the feast. He was, says Plutarch, one chosen
among the guests, the most pleasant and diverting in the
company, that would not get drunk, and yet would drink
freely ; he was to rule over the rest, to forbid any disorder,
but to encourage their mirlh. He observed the temper of
the guests, and how tlie wine worked upon them ; how
every one could bear his wine, and to endeavor accordingly
to keep them oil in harmony, and in an even composure,
that there might be no disquiet nor disturbance. To do
this efiectually, he first proclaimed liberty to every one to
drink what he thought proper, and then observing who
among them was most ready to be disordered, mixed more
water with his wine, to keep him equally sober with the
rest of the company ; so that this officer took care that
none should be forced to drink, and that none, though leil
to their own choice; should get intoxicated. Such, we
have reason to believe, was the governor of the feast at
the marriage in Cana of Galilee, which our Lord honored
with his presence. The term archilriUmm literally signifies
the governor of a place furnished with three beds ; and he
acted as one having authority ; for he tasted the wine be-
fore he distributed it to the company, which, it is tmiver-
BAP
[ 177]
BAP
sally admitted, was one of the duties of a symposiarch.
Neither the name nor the act accords with the character
and situation of a guest ; he must, therefore, have been
the symposiarch, or governor of the feast. The existence
of such an officer among the Jews is placed beyond a
doubt, by a passage in the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasti-
cus, where his office is thus described ? " If thou be made
the master of a feast, lift not thyself up, but be among
them as one of the rest ; take diligent care of them, and
so sit down. And when thou hast done all thine office,
take thy place, that thou mayest be merry with them, and
receive a crown for the well-ordering of the feast," Eccle-
siasticus 32: 1. — IVatson.
BAPTISM ; (from the Greek baptisma or haptiso ;) a
word whose usage in the sacred writings has given rise to
a vast amount of unhappy and unnecessary disputation.
In accordance with the plan of our work we shall pre-
sent to our readers in succession the views taken of this
subject by the two great denominations into which the
Christian world is divided, Pedobaptisls and Baptists, in
articles prepared expressly for this work. For the first
the Rev. Joseph Tracy, Editor of the Boston Recorder,
is respon.sible ; the last prepared by the Rev. James D.
Knowles, Professor in the Newton Theological Institution.
VIEWS OF THE PEDOBAPTISTS.
Baptism. The word is derived from the Greek baptis-
ma and baptizn, and more remotely from bapto, and proper-
ly signifies a washing, whether the substance washed be
partially or wholly immersed in the liquid, or the liquid be
applied to the substance, by running, pouring, rubbing,
dropping, or sprinkling. There were (diaphorois baptis-
mais) " diverse washings" or baptisms enjoined under the
former dispensation, (Heb. 9; 10.) some of which were
performed by bathing, but more by sprinkling or affusion.
The apostle, having mentioned these " diverse baptisms,"
speaks expressly, in the following verses, of diverse sprink-
lings, which shows satisfactorily that they were included.
PROSELYTE BAPTISJI.
AVe have sufficient evidence that baptism, as an initia-
tory rite, was practised in connexion with circumcision,
on the admission of proselytes to the Jewish church, long
before the coming of Christ. As this fact is disputed, it
will be necessary to exhibit some of the evidence on which
it rests.
1. The baptism of proselytes appears altogether nfl(«rfl/
and probable, considering the genius of the Mosaic institit-
tions, and the views which the Israelites were accustomed
to entertain of the Gentile nations. Nothing was more
common among this people than lustrations and purifica-
tions by washing, or baptism. In these, the external part
of their religion in no small degree consisted. And as they
considered all the Gentiles to be impure, unclean, how natu-
ral for them to insist, when any of these came over to their
religion, that they should be ceremonially purified by the
application of water.
2. That the Jews were familiar with the rite of bap-
tism, previous to the coming of Christ, is implied in the
question addressed to John hy those who were sent to him
from Jerusalem : " II7(y bnpiizeth thou, if thou be not the
Christ, neither Elias, neither that prophet?" John 1: 25.
The inquiry was not, " What neivrite is this ?" but, " Why
do ynu administer it ?" The Jews had long been accus-
lomed to the rite of baptism ; but if John was " not the
Christ, neither Elias, neither that prophet," they under-
stood not by what authority, or for what reason, he had
taken it upon him to Ijaptii^e.
3. The Jewish rabbins, ancient and modern, bear testi-
m.ony to the custom of baptizing proselytes. This prac-
tice is mentioned and enjoined in both the Talmuds. It
is thus spoken of by Maimonides, a learned Jew, who
flourished in the twelfth century : " In nil ages, when a
Gentile is willing to enter into the covenant of Israel, and
place himself under the wings of the Divine Majesty, and
take upon him the yoke of the law, he must be circum-
ci.sed and baptized, and bring a sacrifice ; or if it be a wo-
man, he baptized, and bring a sacrifice."
4. Other writers besides Jews, ancient and modern, who
have paid most attention to the subject, and been in the
23
most favorable circumstances to form an opinion, have
been generally agreed in maintaining that the Jews bap-
tized their proselytes. Thus Arrian, a heathen philoso-
pher at Rome, A. D. 140, reproaches those who turned
proselytes to the Jews, calling them the baptized ones.*
And Cyprian, a Christian father of the third century, says,
" The case of the Jews, who were to be baptized by the
apostles, was different froin that of the Gentiles ; for the
Jews had already, and a long time ago, the baptism of the lam
and of Moses, and were now to be baptized in the name of
Jesus Christ."! Other writers, who speak expressly of
this practice among the Jews, are Leo Modena, in his
Jewish History, Lightfoot, Reiskius, Selden, Michaelis,
Ainsworth, Ernesti, Wetslein, Hammond, Witsius, Pri-
deaux, Stackhouse, Wall, Jahn, Priestley, Rosenmueller,
Kuinoel, Doddridge, ice.
5. The existence of such a rite as baptism among the
Jews can hardly be accounted for, unless it be traced to a
period anterior to the commencement of the Christian era.
We know that they baptized their proselytes in the second
century, and have continued to do so ever since. But
how was this rite introduced among them ? Was it copied
from the Christians? Is it likely that, at so early a period,
or at any period, the Jews, the most inveterate enemies of
Christ, should copy one of his sacraments, and incorporate
it among the institutions of their venerated lawgiver? To
those who have any knowledge of Jewish prejudices, the
supposition must appear incredible. It follows, therefore,
that the Jews must have received the custom ol^ baptizing
proselytes (as they profess) from the patriarchs of their
nation, and that it was in common use at the coming of
the Savior.
JOHN'S BAPTISM.
The first mention of baptism in the New Testament re-
lates to its administration by the forerunner of Christ.
"In those da5's came John the Baptist, preaching in the
wilderness of Judca," &c. Matt. 3: 1 — 6.
It has been made a question respecting the baptism of
John, whether it was the same as the ordinance instituted
by Christ, (Matt. 28: 29.) and observed in the church in
all periods since. We are decidedly of the opinion that it
was not the same, but merely an introductory rite, de-
signed to prepare the way for the gospel dispensation ; and
in this we agree, not only with ihe ancient church,:|: but
with the most respectable writers. Baptist andPedobaptist,
of the present day. The following are some of the reasons,
urged by Rev. Robert Hall (a Baptist) and others, to show
that the baptism of John was a preparatorij rite, and not
to be regarded as a Christian ordinance.
1. This baptism took place under the /ewis/i dispensation.
The Jewish dispensation continued in force till the death
of Christ. Then, the veil of the temple was rent in twain.
Then, the great sacrifice for sin was offered, and the typical
sacrifices ceased. It was then that Christ blotted out the
hand-writing of ordinances, that was against us, and took
it out of the way, nailing it to his cross," Col. 2: 14. Our
Savior lived under the old dispensation, and was a strict
observer of Ihe institutions of Moses ; and all that was
done in the church previous to his death belonged proper-
ly to ihat dispensation. This certainly is strong presump-
tive evidence that the baptism of John was not a Chris-
tian ordinance.
2. Christian baptism originated in the express command
of Christ : "Go ye and teach all nations, baptizing them
in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the
Holy Ghost." No such origin can be claimed for the bap-
tism of John, who baptized for some time before he htcm
Christ, John 1: 31. He ascribes his commission to the
J-flrtcr, John 1: 33.
3. The baptism of John was evid-enthj a preparatory or-
dinance. He came to " prepare the way of the Lord."
He preached to the people that the Messiah Kas coming,
and exhorted them to prepare to receive him ; and in or-
• Dissert, in Epicl«l. lib. ii. cap. 9. tEpis. *'3, ad Jubianum.
I Origen says, " Christ himself was tsaplized hy John, not with that
baptism which is in Christ, bin wilh that which is in the Inrr." (Com.
inKom. 6.) Chrysostom says, "It (the baptism of John) was as \l
were a hridee, which, from llie baptism of lije Jews, m.icle a way to
tlial of the Savior. It was superior to the first, but inferior to the se-
cond."—Homil. 24.
BAP
[178 1
BAP
der that they might be prepared, called them to repentance
and baptism.
4. One part of the design of John's baptism, as stated
by himself, shows it to have been entirely distinct from
Christian baptism: '-That he (Christ) should be made
manifest to Israel, therefore am I come baptizing with wa-
ter," John 1: 31. It was an important part of the object
of John's ministry and baptism, to point out the Messiah
to the Jewish people, bear public testimony in his behalf,
and induct him, by the washing of water, into the ministry.
It hardly need be said, that there is nothing in Christian
baptism which resembles this. " A Christian ordinance
not founded on the authority of Christ, not the effect but
the means of his manifestation, and first executed by one
who knew him not, is an incomprehensible mystery.^'*
5. The baptism of John, unlike Christian baptism, was
not administered in the name of the Father, the Son, and
the Holy Ghost. This we know ; because some, whom
John baptized, had " not so much as heard whether there
be any Holy Ghost," Acts 19: 2. Indeed, John did not
baptize in the name of Christ, or in any other name ; but
merely directed those who came to his baptism to " believe
on him who should come after him," Acts 19: 4.
6. Some of those who received John's baptism were
afterwards baptized by the apostles. This was the case
with certain disciples whom Paul found at Ephesus, (Acts
19: 5.) and in all probability with many others.
For these reasons we think it demonstrable, that John's
baptism was not Christian baptism, but rather an intro-
ductory rite, intended to prepare the way for the coming
of the Messiah and his kingdom.
BIODE OF B.\PTISM.
The Protestant world has long been agitated with an
unhappy controversy respecting the mode of Christian bap-
tism ; one part affirming, and the other denying, that a
total immersion in water is essential to the ordinance. After
long study and reflection, we are decidedly with those who
take the negative on this question. Our reasons for this
opinion we propose briefly to exhibit.
The question at issue between Baptists and Pedobap-
tists, relative to this matter, it should be remembered, is
not this : Whether immersion is valid baptism ? We ad-
rait that it is ; and are willing that those in our con-
gregations who prefer to be baptized in this way should
be gratified. Nor is the question this : AVhether immer-
sions have not been frequently practised in the Christian
church? for we admit that they have been. They have
been practised much more frequently, at some periods,
than it can be pro^'ed that they were in the days of the
apostles. But the question at issue is simply this : Is im-
mersion essential to the ordinance? Our Baptist brethren
contend with on.e voice that it is. They tell us that the
idea of immersion enters into the very " nature of bap-
tism ; that the terms baptism and immersion are equiva-
lent and interchangeable-''^ "The meaning of the word
(baptize) is always the same, and it always signifies to dip.
It never has any other meaning." ^ All Baptists hold, that
there can be no baptism without immersion ; that this is
essential to the ordinance. Now this we deny ; and in justi-
fication of the denial offer the following reasons :
1. The rite of immersion is not calculated for universal
practice. The health of ministers is often such as to ren-
der it unsafe for them to go into the water ; and the health
of those desiring baptism is more frequently such as to
render it unsafe for them to receive the ordinance in this
way. In some parts of the earth, and particularly at
some seasons of the year, it must be very inconvenient, if
not impracticable, to administer baptism by immersion.
Now is it likely that our blessed Lord, who intended that
his religion should be universal, would append to it, and
make essentia!, a rite which is so ill fitted for universal
practice ?
2. The signification of water baptism shows the pro-
priety of some other mode of administration besides im-
mersion. Water baptism is a symbol, an emblem of spi-
ritual baptism. It shadows forth, by an expressive sign,
the cleansing, purifying operations of the Holy Spirit.
• R. Hall. t Judsoii'B Sermon, p. 14.
J Carson on Baptism, pp. 13, S3.
Hence the mode of water baptism might be expected to
correspond to the manner in which the Divine Spirit is re-
presented as descending upon the heart. But this is uni-
formly by pouring or sprinkling. " I will poiir out my Spi-
rit unto you." " I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and
ye shall be clean." This pouring out and sprinkling of
the Holy Ghost is in Scripture called the baptism of the
Holy Ghost, of which water baptism is the instituted sign.
It seems evident, therefore, that pouring or sprinkling
must be a proper, if not the most proper, mode of water
baptism.*
3. That the original words used to denote the ordinance
of baptism may be used to signify immersion is conceded ;
but certainly they are not confined to this particular sense.
This is evident,
(1.) From their etymology. They are derived from the
Greek bapto, a word which, it is now admitted, does not
always signify immerse. Mr. Carson, a late Baptist wri-
ter, proves that this word signifies to dye, as well as to dip,
and to dye or color in any manner.
It is the word used in the Septuagint, where the body of
Nebuchadnezzar is said to have been rvet with the dew of
heaven, Dan. 5: 21. Certainly his body was not immersed
in the dew.
(2.) The translators of our New Testament, whenever
they have translated the words denoting baptism, have
uniformly given to them the general sense of washing.
See Heb. 9: 10. Luke 11: 38. Blark 7: 4. And in most
instances where they have transcribed (not translated) the
original words, they have connected them with particles
which show that they intended to use them in the same
general sense. This is true in all those cases in which
persons are said to be baptized with water, or with the
Spirit. No English scholar would say immersed with water.
(3.) The most respectable lexicographers, ancient and
modern, concur in giving to the words in question a wider
signification than that of simple immersion. In proof of
this, we may refer to Stephanus, Scapula, Passor, Suidas,
Hedericus, Coulon, Parkhurst, Ainsworth, Schleusner, and
Wahl. Indeed, Mr. Car.son, after announcing his position
that baptizo " always signifies to dip," admits that he has
" all the lexicographers against him," p. 79.
(4.) To the judgment of lexicographers may be added
that of th? most learned and respectable commentators
and theologians. Piscator, Zanchius, Alstedius, Mastricht,
Parens, Wicklifl"e, Leigh, Lightfoot, Calvin, Beza, Wit-
sins, Hammond, Wall, Poole, and many others, speak
of the mode of baptism as a thing not essential. It may
be immersion, or it may be something else.
(5.) But that which is most decisive in regard to the
meaning of the words denoting baptism, is their use. They
arc certainly used, by authors sacred and profane, in other
senses besides that of immersion. They are so used in
the apocryphal books of the Old Testament, and so trans-
lated by our English translators. See Ecclesiasticus 34:
25. Judith 12: 7. They are so used by the early Chris-
tian fathers. Origen represents the wood on the altar,
over which water was poured at the command of Elijah,
(1 Kings 18: 33.) as having been baptized. Cyprian, Je-
rome, and some other of the fathers, understood the pre-
diction, " I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye
shall be clean," (Ezek. 3G: 25.) as having reference to wa-
• It lias been said that baptism with water is not significant of tlie
baptism of the Spirit, but rather of the. Ijurial and rfsvrrection of
Christ. "We are buried with him by baptism into death." See
Rom. 6: 4, and Col. 2; 12. But if baptism with water is not significant
of the baptism of the Spirit, then why are the two baptisms spoken of
by Cbri^l in siicli immediate connexion ? " Except a man be bom of
irater and tile Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God."
'•John truly baptized with water, but ye shall be tiaptized with the
iro/y Ghost," John 3: 5. Acts 1: 5. And why is the renewing of the
Holy Ghost spotten of at all under the figure of a baptism, if this re-
newal is not the thing shadowed forth in literal baptism ? The passa-
gea in wtiich believers are said to be " buried with Christ by baptism
into death," do not seem to have any reference to the mode of baptism
with water. "The apostle is here spealcing," says Mr. Judson very
properly, " of spirilnat circumcision and spiritual baptism." In
spiritual baptism or regeneration, lielievers are spiritually " crucified
with Christ." die with him, are buried with him, and rise with him to
"newness of life and to new obedience." But what has all this to do
with the mode of water baptism ? And how far can it go towards pro-
ving that a total immersion in water is essential to the ordinance ?
For a full and satisfactory discussion of this subject, see Sttiart's
Commentary on Rom. 6: 4.
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ter baptism. The baptism of tears and blood was a favor-
ite phraseology with the early Christiaas.
The words denoting baptism are used in the New Tes-
tament where they cannot signify immersion. The con-
gregation of Israel " were baptized unto Moses in the
cloud and in the sea," 1 Cor. 10: 2. Yet we know that
Ihey were not baptized by an immersion in the waters, for
" they went into the midst of the sea upon dry ground,"
Exod. 14: 22. The Jews were accustomed to baptize, not
only their cups and pots, but their brazen vessels and their
tables, Mark 7: 4. But it is not at all likely that they
washed their large vessels and tables, by immersing them
in water.
4. The circumstances attending most of the baptisms re-
corded in the New Testament indicate some other mode
besides immersion. Let any impartial reader contemplate
the baptism of the three thousand on the day of Pen'ecost,
after the greater part of the day had been spent ; or the
baptism of Paul, in the peculiar situation in which he was
placed ; or the baptism of Cornelius and his family, when
the apostle said, " Can any man forbid water?" i. e. that
it should be brought ; or the baptism of the jailer and his
household, by one of his prisoners, in the midst of an agi-
tated and atfrighted city, and at the dead hour of night ;
and in whatever mode he may think these different per-
sons were baptized, he will find it difficult to satisfy him-
self that they could have been immersed.
5. Immersion was never considered as essentia! to bap-
tism till subsequent to the Reformation in the sixteenth
century. We say essential ; for this, if will be recollected,
is the point in dispute. That immersions were frequent
in the ancient church, (at some periods more frequent than
ihey now are among Pedofjaptists, or than they were in
the days of the apostles,) we see no reason to doubt. But
at times when immersions most generally prevailed, the
sick were always baptized in some other mode, and such
baptisms were considered as perfecty valid. A question
was proposed to Cyprian, about the middle of the third
century, "Whether they are to be esteemed right Chris-
tians who have been only sprinkled with water, and not
washed, or dipped V to which this learned father replied,
that " the sprinkling of water is of equal validity with the
laver.''* Cave says, that the primitive Christians " did
not hold sprinkling to be unlawful, especially in cases of
necessity, or where conveniency of immerging could not
be had."t Calvin tells us that, " the substance of bap-
tism being retained, the church, from the beginning, en-
joyed a liberty of using somewhat different rites."^ Dr.
Wall, who had a partiahty for immersion, says, " On ex-
traordinary occasions, baptism by affusion of water on the
face was by the ancients counted sufficient baptism. Of
this there are many proofs."'^
The author of Letters to Bishop Hoadley, a learned and
professed Baptist, admits that, " for thirteen hundred years
successively after the apostles, sprinkling was permitted
upon extraordinary occasions. "|| Mr. Robinson, also, a
learned Baptist, admits that, " before the Reformation,
sprinkling was held valid in cases of necessity ."Tf The
doctrine, then, that there can be no 'valid baptism without
immersion, is a novelty. It was not held by the primitive
church.
SUBJECTS OF CHRISTIAN BAPTISM.
There is a difference of opinion between Baptists and
Pedobaptists respecting not only the mode, but the subjects
of Christian baptism ; the latter affirming, and the former
denying, that the children of believing, covenanting parents
should be baptized. In support of the duty of baptizing
such children, the following reasons may be urged :
1. This duty is reasonable in itself, and in accordance
with our best affections. In the children of those we love,
we all naturally feel a peculiar interest. A good prince
would wish, and would provide, that the children of his
beloved and faithful friends should be placed in a near re-
lation to himself And shall it be supposed that the Prince
of life will not regard with tokens of peculiar favor the
children of his covenant people ?
2. The analogy of God's covenant dealings in past ages
* Op. lib. ii. epis. 7. t Prim. Chris, part i. cliip. 10.
1 Inalit. lib. iv. cap. 15. § Hist. In. Bap. part ii. chap. 9.
d Plain Account, &c. p. 16. IT HisL of Bap. p. 116.
is in favor of the doctrine of infant baptism. In all the
covenants which God has hitherto made with men, chil-
dren have been connected with their parents. Thus it
was in the covenants with Adam, with Noah, with Abra-
ham, and with David. God dealt favorably with the chil-
dren of Lot for their father's sake ; and he declares him-
self to l)e a God keeping covenant with those that love
him " to a thousand generations." How unlikely, then,
that in the covenant of the Christian church, God has
swerved from the invariable economy of his covenant
dealings, and sundered the connexion between believing
parents and their children?
3. Had children been deprived of their interest in the
covenant under the gospel dispensation, believing Jewish
parents in the primitive church would undoubtedly liave
complained. In the days of the apostles, many thousands
of the Jews believed, who were "all zealous of the law."
They were tenacious even of their former burthens ; and
would they cheerfully relinquish their accustomed privile-
ges? Yet we hear not a word of complaint on the subject.
There was no objection to the gospel, by friend or foe, on
this ground. It is morally certain, therefore, that in re-
spect to covenant relations and privileges, " their children
were as aforetime," Jer. 30: 20.
4. It is a conclusive argument in favor of infant bap-
tism, that baptism is norv substituted in place of circumcision.
In support of this proposition, it may \>e observed,
(1.) That the visible church has been substanlially rtc
same under both dispensations. It has held essentially
the same doctrines, enjoyed the same spiritual promises,
and professed the same religion, the religion of Ihe Bible.
The religion of the Old Testament is not distinct from that
of the New, like the religion of Brumha, or Mohammed.
In all essential particulars it is the same, and has been
professed by the church in all ages.
The church, under both dispensations, is represented as
the same in various pa.ssages of Scripture. The ancient
predictions of Ihe ingathering of the Gentiles, and of the
future prosperity and glory of the church, were made, not
to a new church to be established under the gospel, but to
the Zion of the Old Testament, the church at that time ex-
isting in Israel. See Isa. 60. and 49: 20, 21. Our SBvior
predicted that many should " come from the east, and
from the west, and sit down with Abraham, Isaac, and -
Jacob, in the" same " kingdom of heaven," the same visi-
ble church, from which " the children of the kingdom,"
the Jews, " should be east out ;" and tlrnt the same " king-
dom of God," in which the Jews had been unfaithful,
"should be taken from them, and given to a nation bring-
ing forth the fruits thereof," Matt. 8: 11, 12. 21: 43. In
perfect accordance with these predictions, Paul represents
the Gentile believers as graffed into the same olive tree
from which the Jews, for their unbelief, were broken off,
and into which the converted Jews shall be graS'ed again,
Rom. 11: 17. In view of these representations, nothing
is more certain, than that the visible church, under both
dispensations, has been substantially the same body. But
baptism is now, what circumcision was formerly, an insti-
tuted prerequisite to a regular standing in the visible
church. Consequently, baptism is substituted in place of
circumcision.
(2.) The covenant of the church, under both dispensa-
tions, has been essentially the same. This is evident from
the identity of the church. The church is constituted by its
covenant ; so that, if the former is unchanged, the latter
must be. The covenant of the church under the former dis-
pensation was the covenant with Abraham. Consequently
this, in its/wK and spiritual import, must be regarded as
the covenant of the church now. The covenant with Abra-
ham has never been abolished. It is spoken of in the Old
Testament as " everlasting ;" and in the New as to exist
"forever," Gen. 17: 7. Luke 1: 55. It is represented by
Paul as a covenant of " promise," and as " confirmed of
God in Christ ;" and we are assured that " the law, which
was four hundred and thirty years after, cannot disannul"
it, and render it of no effect, Gal. 3: 17. Believers under
the gospel are spoken of as children of the covenant with
Abraham, Acts 3: 25. It is on account of their interest
in this covenant that they are denominated " Abraham's
seed," (Gal. 3: 29.) and that Abraham is so often represent-
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ed as " the father of all them that believe." " He received
the sign of circumcision, a seal of the righteousness of
the faith which he had yet being uncircumcised, that he
might be the father of all them that believe," Rom. 4: 11.
It is evident from Scriptures such as these, that the cove-
nant of the church, lilfe the church itself, has been essen-
tially the same under both dispensations ; and that this
covenant is the covenant mth Abraham.* But of this
covenant, baptism is now, what circumcision was formerly,
the visible token. Hence, baptism has come in place of
circumcision.
(3.) Baptism and circumcision are oi precisely the same
import. Circumcision was both a sign and a seal. As a
sign, it represented the circumcision of the heart, or re-
generation. " Circumcision is of the heart, in the spirit,
and not in the letter," Rom. 2: 29. As a seal, it confirmed
"the righteousness of faith," or the covenant of grace,
Rom. 4: 2. Baptism, too, is both a sign and a seal. As a
sign, it is an emblem of " the washing of regeneration," or
the baptism of the Holy Ghost. As a seal, it assures those
who receive it, and whose characters are conformed to its
sacred import, that their faith is imputed to them for
righteousness. It thus appears that when the ancient to-
ken of the covenant was abolished, an ordinance was
established in the same church, and appended to the same
covenant, of precisely similar import. How is it possible,
then, to resist the conclusion, that the latter is substituted
for the former ?
(4.) The Scriptures countenance the idea, that baptism
is substituted in place of circumcision. " Beware," says
the apostle, " of the concision," or those persons who lay
an exorbitant stress on the rite of circumcision ; " for
ive," we who have been baptized, " are the circumcision,
who worship God in the spirit," Phil. 3: 2, 3. Again, to
the Colossians he says, " Ye are circumcised, with the cir-
cumcision made without hands, in putting off the body of
the sins of the flesh by the circnmcision of Christ, buried
with him in baptism," Col. 2: 11, 12. In other words, ije
are circumcised, having been baptized. It is admitted that
the circumcision and baptism here spoken of are both
spiritual. But if the two ordinances are spiritually the
sam^and the one was instituted in the church on the re-
moval of the other, is not this the substitution the one for
the other ?
(5.) The primitive Chiistian fathers considered bap-
tism as having come in the place of circumcision. Our
limits forbid us to cite particular passages. Whoever will
take the trouble to consult Wall's History of Infant Bap-
tism, vol. i, chapters 6 — 15, will find that many of the early
fathers, as Justin, Cyprian, Basil, Ambrose, Augustine,
and Chrysostom, speak expressly on this point. They
considered baptism as the Christian circumcision, and as
standing in the place of circumcision.
But if this is true, and if such was the understanding
of the church in times nearest the apostles, then the ques-
tion about baptizing infants is at an end. There certainly
was a command to circumcise infants ; and if baptism is
substituted in place of circumcision, the same command
is valid in favor of their baptism.
5. The Jewish proselyte baptism furnishes a conclusive
argument for the baptism of children. At the time of our
Savior's appearance, and long previous, the Jews had been
accustomed, not only to circumcise their proselytes, but to
baptize them. And they were accustomed to baptize chil-
ilren with their parents. In proof of this, see Wall's In-
troduction to the History of Infant Baptism. But when
our Savior gave the command, " Go ye and teach, or pro-
selyte, the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Fa-
ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost," must not his
disciples have understood him to intend that kind of bap-
tism to which both he and they had been accustomed, viz.
the baptism of children with their parents .? How could they
• Tlie Jews, ill Iho timo of Isaiah and Jereraiati, believed that God
had made a temporal covenant witli their nation, in Itie person of Abra-
ham their father, of whicli circumcision was the seal, the observance
of tho ceremonial law the condition, and temporal prosperity the bles-
sing prninised. Some Christian commentators have advanced the same
doctrme ; but the prophets earnestly and repeatedly protest against it.
They uniformly labor to enforce the troth, that holy obedience, sucii
as is now required under the Christian dispensation, was the condition
of the covenant with Abraliam.
have understood him in any other way ? Under these cif-
cumstances, instead of needing an express command to
authorize the baptism of children, the disciples needed an
express prohibition to prevent their doing it. But no
such prohibition was given.
6. Christ and his apostles taught and practised just as
we might expect, on supposition they intended that chil-
dren should be baptized ; and just as we should not ex-
pect, on the contrary supposition. In order to determine
what we might or might not expect of Christ and his
apostles, it will be necessary to keep in mind the esta-
blished customs of the period in which they lived. In the
Jewish church, children had always been connected with
their parents. They early received the token of the ever-
lasting covenant. Also the children of proselytes were
connected in covenant with their parents, and entitled to
the initial rites of circumcision and baptism. And now
what might be expected of Christ and his apostles, on
supposition they intended to put an end to this state of
things? Not silence, surely. Silence would be a virtual
approbation of it. On this .supposition, they would have
lost no opportunity of insisting that the ancient covenant
connexion between children and parents was abolished,
and must no more be recognised in the rites of the church.
But did they pursue such a course ? Never, in a single
instance.
What, then, might be expected of Christ and his apos-
tles, on supposition they intended that the established cove-
nant connexion of children with their parents should be
continued ? Not, indeed, that they should enjoin it by ex-
press precepts ; for this would be to enjoin expressly what
every one already understood and practised. But they
would be hkely often to allude to this connexion with
approbation, and to drop expressions which implied it.
They would be likely, also, as occasions occurred, to bap-
tize households, when those at the head of them made pro-
fession of their faith. And this, it hardly need be said, is
the course which our Savior and the apostles actually pur-
sued. Christ applauded the practice of bringing infants
to receive his blessing, and declared that " of such is the
kingdom of God," Luke 18: 15. He spoke of little chil-
dren being received in -his name, or as belonging to him,
Mark 9: 37, 41. Peter taught believing parents, that the
promise was to them and to their children. Acts 2: 39.
Paul affirms that " the blessing of Abraham," an impor-
tant part of which consisted in the covenant connexion of
his children, " has come on the Gentiles through Jesus
Christ ;" and he denominates the children of believing
parents ;io7(/. Gal. 3: 14. 1 Cor. 7: 14. He repeatedly bap-
tized households on the profession of parents, or of those
who had the charge of them. Lydia believed, and she
and her household were baptized. The jailer believed,
and he and all bis were baptized straightway. Paul also
baptized the household of Stephanus, 1 Cor. 1: 16.
7. The testimony of history is conclusive in favor of the
practice of infant baptism. It has been observed already,
that the Christian fathers considered baptism as having
come in the place of circumcision. Justin, who wrote only
about forty years after the death of John, says, " We have
not received this carnal circumcision, but the spiritual cir-
cumcision ; and we have received it by baptism.* Is it nol;
manifest from this passage what must been the opinion of
Justin in regard to the important question before us?
Irenseus, who wrote a few years later than Jastin, says,
" Christ came to save all persons who by him (renasrwi-
tur in Deum) are baptized unto God, infants, and little ones,
and children, and youths, and elder persons."* The only
objection to this testimony is, that Irenajus here expresses
baptism by a word which literally denotes regeneration,
putting, by a common figure, the thing signified for the
sign. That he really intended to express baptism by this
word is so evident from his use of it in other instances,
and from the general usage of the fathers, that Dr. Wall
does not hesitate to speak of the above passage as an " ex-
pressmcntion of baptized infants." And Whiston, a learned
Baptist, admits the same. " This," says he, " is a thing
undeniable by any modest arguer."t
Tertullian, who was contemporary with Irena>us, although
he advises to delay baptism in the case of infants and un-
• Wall's Hist, of In. Bap , vol. i. 1 Wall's Defence, p. 41.
BAP
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BAl'
married persons, yet spealcs most expressly of infant bap-
tism as a prevailing anil established practice.*
Origen, who was born within eiglity-fivre years of the
death of John, and was descended I'rom Christian ances-
tors who mnst have lived in the apostolic age, speaks re-
peatedly and expressly of infant baptism, and declares
that the practice had come down from the apostles. f
Subsequent to this period, infant baptism is mentioned
often, and in the most positive terms, by all the principal
Christian fathers, as Cyprian, Optatus, Basil, Gregory,
Ambrose, Chrysostom, Jerome, and Augustine. It is re-
cognised in the acts of councils, as well as the writings
of individuals. It is represented as resting on apostolic
e.tample and authority. Indeed, the right of infants to
baptism was denied by no one in the primitive church,
except those who rejected water baptism altogether. Pela-
gius, in his controversy with Augustine, had strong in-
ducements to deny it — so strong that he was reported by
some to have done so ; but he repels the charge as an in-
jurious slander. " Men slander me," says he, '• as if I
denied the sacrament of baptism to infants."' "I never
heard of any. not even the most impious heretic, who de-
nied baptism to infants. ''I
Dr. Wall, who has so thoroughly investigated the histo-
ry of infant baptism as to leave little to be done by those
who come after him, assures us that the first body of men,
of which he can find any account, who denied baptism to
infants, were the Petrobrusians, a sect of the Albigenses,
in the former part of the twelfth century. And Milner
says that, " a few instances excepted, the existence of
Anli-pedobaptism seems scarcely to have taken place in the
church of Christ till a little after the beginning of the Re-
formation."
Such, then, is the history of infant baptism ; and the
argument from this source, in favor of tlie divine origin
and authority of the practice, is deemed conclusive. If
infant baptism does not rest on the ground of apostolic ex-
ample, how can it be accounted for that it should have
been introduced so early into the church, and prevailed so
universally, and that, too, without a whisper of dissension,
or a note of alarm ? We have catalogues extant of all the
diSerent sects of professing Christians in the four first
centuries, — the very period when infant baptism must have
been introduced if it were not of divine original, — in which
the differences of opinion which obtained in those limes re-
specting baptism are particularly recounted and mmutely
designated. Yet there is no meution of any, except those
who denied water baptism altogether, who did not consider
infant baptism as a divine institution. Is it not certain,
then, that infant baptism is a divine institution ; that it is
not an innovation, but was sanctioned by the apostles
themselves? On this ground, and this only, " all sacred
and profane history, relating to the subject, appears plain
and consistent, from Abraham to Christ, and from Christ
to this day."
The principal writers on ihe Pedobaptist side are Wall,
Walker, Henry, Bradbury, Bostmick, Towgood, Addington,
Williams, P. Edrcards, Miller, Evans, Clarke, Glas, Par-
sons, Lathrop, Reed, Stuart, Woods, Worcester, Wardlaw,
MilUgan, Moore, Jerram, and Dwight. y fn ,„„
VIEWS OF THE BAPTISTS.
We will now proceed to state the opinions of the Bap-
tists, and the arguments by which they maintain them.
May the Spirit of Truth assist us in this sernce.
PRELIMIX.iRY OBSERVATIONS.
Baptism, (from hnptisma, a Greek word, deri\'ed from
the verb baptizo.) is the nanre of a Christian rite, which
the Savior has commanded all his followers to observe.
His commission to the apostles, and to all succeeding
ministers, requires them to " go into all the world, and
preach the gospel to every creature. He that believeth
and is baptized shall be saved, but he that believeth not
shall be damned," Mark 16: 15, 16. In the corresponding
passage, (Matt. 28: 19.) the same command is expressed
in somewhat different terms : " Go ye, therefore, and
• De Baptismo, cap. xviii,
^Ji°";- °." ^■''- ^^- """i Luke 14, and Com. on Rom Wh. :k
IWall'aHlst. ofln. Bap., VOL i.
teach all nations, baptizing them in the name of the FlI
ther, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost."
This command of the Savior is confirmed and illustrat-
ed by his own example, (Malt. 3: 13 — 17. Mafk 1: 9 — U.
Luke 3: 21, 22.) and by the uniform practice of the
apostles, both under his own immediate direction (John 4:
1, 2.) and after his resurrection. Acts 2: 38 — 41. 8: 12,
36 — 38. 9: 18, <kc. The rite has been observed, in some
form, through all the succeeding ages, by nearly all pro-
fessed Christians. ,
The Baptists, in common with the greater portion of
their brethren, believe that the ordinance of baptism is
positively binding on every Christian who has the oppor-
tunity to observe it. They believe it to be essential to
salvation, in the same sense that obedience to any
other command of the Savior is necessary to salvation.
They believe, that neither baptism nor any other ce-
remony is of any avail in preparing men for heaven,,
without regeneration by the power of the Holy Ghost ;
but they believe, that he who should deliberately refuse
to be baptized, or to perform any other duty, so far as
he understood that duty, and had the opportunity to
perform it, would thus furnish evidence that he had
not been born again, and consequently was unprepared
for heaven. " He that hath my commandments and
keepeth them, he it is that loveth me. He that loveth me
not, keepeth not my sayings," John 14: 21, 24.
The Baptists believe, moreover, that baptism is a speci-
fic rite, having, as to its essence, one unvarying character ;
and that, as there is but " one Lord" and " one faith,"
so there is, in the same literal, numerical sense, but
" one baptism," Eph. 4: 5.
Baptism is a positive institution, and the obligation to
practise it arises wholly from the authority of the Savior.
His command is the origin and the rule of our duty
respecting baptism ; we must obey the precept exactly as
it was meant to be observed ; we have no right to deviate,
in the slightest degree, from the prescribed rule, just as the
Jews could not, without guilt, deviate from a strict com-
pliance with the ceremonies of their law ; and consequent-
ly, if we can ascertain what the Lord Jesus meant by
baptism, that, and ihat only, we must practise, without
hesitation or change.
One additional observation remains : — As the Savior's
will is our only rule in baptism, and as that will is reveal-
ed in the Bible alone, we must resort to the Bible to
ascertain what is baptism, and who are the pi-oper sub-
jects. The Baptists adhere steadfastly to the great Pro-
testant principle, that the Bible is the sole and sufficient
rule in religious concerns. They accordingly appeal to
the Scriptures, and insist, that if any practice, claiming to
be a positive Christian rite, is not clearly sanctioned by
the Bible, it must be rejected, whatever arguments may
be produced in its favor from supposed analogies, or from
the practice of some portions of the Christian world.
After these preliminary remarks, we proceed to state,
that, in the opinion of the Baptists, baptism is the immer-
sion in water of a suitable candidate, in the name of the Father,
of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. The only suitable can-
didate is a person n-ho has been born of the Spirit, and mho is
united to Christ by faith .
The arguments by which the Baptists maintain these
positions must be presented in a very compendious man-
ner, without extended critical remarks, or a full citation
of authorities.
I. THE NATURE OF BAPTI.Sltl.
1. The first argument which proves that baj : s"i i.s
immersion only, is drawn from the meaning of the word
employed in the Scriptures to designate the rite. It must
be supposed that a proper word was used — one which
exactly defines the nature of the ordinance. If, then, the
meaning of that word can be ascertained, all doubt ought
to be removed.
The word is baptizo, which has been merely transferred
to our language, by changing the Greek for Roman let-
ters, and altering the termination.
What, then, is the ineaning of the Greek woi-d ? It is
natural to refer in the first place to the lexicons ; but these
all give, as the primary' meaning of the word, to dip, to
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plunge, to imnierse. Professor Stuart, in his learned arti-
cle in the Biblical Repository for April, 1833, p. 298, ad-
mits, respecting the Greek words bopto and baptizo, that
they both " mean to dip, plunge, or immerge into any thing
'liquid. All lexicographers and critics, of any note, are
agreed in this."
The next resort is, to the classical Greek writers, to as-
certain how they use the word. Professor Stuart has
quoted passages from Homer, Pindar, Aristotle, Aristo-
phanes, Herodotus, HeracUdes Ponticus, Aratus, Xeno-
phon, Plutarch, Lucian, Diodorus Siculus, Plato, Epicle-
tus, Hippocrates, Strabo, Polybius, and Josephus, all of
whom use the words bapto and baptizo to signify immer-
sion.
In the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, and in
the Apocrypha, the word baptizo is used to signify, " 1. To
plunge, immerge, dip in. 2. To overwhelm. 3. Towash,
or cleanse, by bathing the person in water."— See Prof.
Ripley's Examination of Prof Stuart's Essay, p. 38.
in the New Testament, the word baptizo and its deriva-
tives are repeatedly used in cases where the ordinance
of baptism is not referred to, Mark 7: 3, 4. Luke 11: 38.
Mark 7: 4, 8. Heb. i): 10. All these cases, however, are
shown by professor Ripley lo include the original, proper
meaning, to immerse.
In all this extended range of examination, while num-
berless examples of the use of the word baptizo to signify
immersion are found, professor Stuart himself has been
unable lo produce a single instance from the classical Greek
writers, from the Septuagint and Apocrypha, or from the
New Testament, where the word plainly and undeniably
signifies something inconsistent with immersion. Professor
Stuart acknowledges himself to be " philologically com-
pelled" to conclude, " that the probability that baptizo
implies immersion is very considerable, and on the whole
a predominant one ; but it does not still amount to cer-
tainty."— (Bib. Rep. p. 318.) There are few points on
which " fer^aw^y" is attainable ; and if, in religious con-
cerns, we refuse to believe and act till this " certainty" is
reached, where is the olhce of faith ? Reasonable proba-
bility is the highest evidence which can be obtained on
most subjects ; and if, after ascertaining the almost unani-
mous concurrence of all Greek writers respecting the
meaning of the word baptizo, its meaning is not to be re-
ceived as settled, it seems impossible to determine the
signification of any word whatever.
It would be easy to fill many pages with quotations
from the most distinguished Pedobaptist writers, of vari-
ous countries and ages, who confess that baptism means
immersion. Mr. Booth, in his learned work, " Pedobap-
tism Examined," has collected more than eighty testimo-
nies of this kind. A single quotation from Calvin is the
only one which our limits allow : " The very word baptize
signifies to immerse, and it is certain that immersion was
the practice of the ancient church." — L. 4. c. 15. !) 19.
2. The figurative use of the word is a second argument.
A figure is used for illustration or emphasis, *nd in either
case, its force depends on the literal signification. In this
figurative sense baptizo is used in the New Testament to
signify oiienvkelming. Thus in Luke 12: 50, " I have a
Daptism to be baptized with, and how am Istraitened until
it be accomplished !" That is, as professor Stuart rightly
paraphrases it, " I am about to be overrvhelmed with suf-
ferings, and I am greatly distressed with the prospect of
them," p. 310. Similar examples are found in Mark 10:
38, 39. Matt. 3: 11, &c.
The word is used figuratively to signify burial, in Rom.
6: 3, 4 : " Know ye not that so many of us as were bap-
tized into Jesus Christ were baptized into his death ?
Therefore we are buried with him by baptism intj death,
that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the
glory of the Father, even so we also should walk in new-
ne« of life." In Col. 2: 12, the same figure occurs:
"Buried with him in baptism, wherein also ye are risen
with him through the faith of the operation of God, who
hath raised him from the dead." It seems too plain for
argument, that baptism is here compared to a burial, in
which the believer, being " dead to sin," (Rom. 6: 2.) is
" buried" in baptism, and from this emblematic grave he
rises again to a new and spiritual life. The figure is apt,
beautiful, and impressive, if baptism is immersion ; but it
has no apparent pertinency if any thing else is baptism.
3. The places selected for the administration of baptism
furni.sh an argument. The accounts of the baptisms by
John would probably convey to the minds of all men who
should read the Bible for the first time, without any know-
ledge of the controversies on this subject, a right idea
concerning baptism. We find John baptizing the people
"in Jordan," Matt. 3: 5, 6.. Mark 1: 5, 6. If the idea
that the preposition " /«" might mean " at " were correct,
the fact would still remain, that he repaired, for the pur-
pose of baptizing, to the river Jordan, " the average
breadth of which, between the sea of Galilee and the
Dead sea, is from sixty to eighty feet, and its depth about
ten or twelve." — (Rob. Wahl's Lex. art. Jordan.) The rea-
son expressly assigned for selecting a spot at Enon, near
Salim, is, ^^ because there vms muchivaterthere,^' John 3; 23.
If the words translated much water were susceptible of the
translation which Beza and others have contended for, i. e.
" many streams or rivulets," it would nevertheless be a
fact, that the place was chosen for baptism with an express
reference to an abundant supply of water, and " many
streams or rivulets" v/ould afford accommodations for the
act of immersion. But it is highly improbable, in itself,
that there were many streams or rivulets in the neighbor-
hood of the Jordan, and professor Ripley has shown, with a
clearness and force which ought to settle the question, that
the phrase hudata polla, translated " much water," is a
Hebrew expression, which is repeatedly apphed in the Old
Testament to the sea, and which therefore signifies a great
quantity of water. Can there be any reasonable doubt, that
John selected this spot because it was a convenient place
for immersing the candidates ? Is it a probable interpreta-
tion, that he chose the spot because the multitude needed
many streams lo supply themselves and their cattle with
drink ?
The case of the Ethiopian, (Acts 8.) may be cited : "And
as they went on their way, they came unto a certain wa
ter, and the eunuch said, See, here is water; what doth
hinder me to be baptized ?" v. 36. " And they went
down both into the water, both Philip and the eunuch, and
he baptized him. And when they were come up out of
the water," &c. v. 38, 39. Whatever ingenious critics
may say, is not the impression which this account natural-
ly makes upon the mind of a plain man the true one ? i. e.
that the travellers had been conversing on the truths of
the gospel, and on the ordinance of baptism ; that when
they arrived at a body of water, the Ethiopian proposed
to be baptized ; and that Philip, having led him iilto the
water, immersed him. Do not all the circumstances lead
to this conclusion ?
Though in many other cases of baptism mentioned in
the New Testament, no reference is made lo the place
where the ceremony was performed, yet nothing is said in-
consistent with the idea of immersion. Oriental coun-
tries abound with large baths, and other collections of
water, where baptism could be, and where, in modern
times, it often has been, performed. It is a settled rule of
criticism, that a defective or obscure passage must be ex-
plained by those which are clear; and as we know that
large bodies of water were in some cases selected, we are
bound to conclude, that in other cases the practice was
similar, though nothing may be said on the subject.
4. The practice of the Christian world, for many centu-
ries, affords important testimony.
On this point there is overwhelming evidence. The best
ecclesiastical historians, Mosheim, Waddington, Nean-
der, &;c. affirm that the practice of the primitive churches
was immersion. Professor Stuart, after citing the testimony
of many ancient writers, says : — " But enough. ' It is,'
says Augusti, (Denkw. vii. p. 216.) 'a thing made out,'
viz. the ancient practice of immersion. So, indeed, all the
writers who have thoroughly investigated the subject con-
clude. I know of no one usage of ancient times which
seems to be more clearly and certainly made out. I can-
not see how it is possible for any candid man who exa-
mines the subject to deny this," p. 359.
F. Brenner, a Roman Catholic writer, states, " that thir-
teen hundred years was baptism generally and ordinarily
performed by the immersion of a man under water ; and
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only on extraordinary occasions was sprinkling or affusion
pertnitteci. These latter methods of baptism were called
in question, and even prohibited." — Stuart, p. 3fil.
In the Greek church, it is well known, the practice of
immersion is continued, without variation, till the present
day.
In the English Episcopal church, immersion was prac-
tised until the beginning of the seventeenth century. In
many old houses of worship, large baptisteries now exist,
which were once used in baptism. The first liturgy, in
1547, enjoins a trine immersion, in case the child is not
sickly. The present liturgy permits, though it does not
require, immersion.
Luther would have introduced immersion into his
church, if he had followed his own opinions. He says,
after speaking of baplisin as a symbol of death and re-
surrection, " On this account, I could wish that such as
are to be baptized .should be completely immersed into
water, according to the meaning of the word and the
signification of the ordinance ; not because I think it ne-
cessary, but because it would be beautiful to have a full
and perfect sign of so perfect and full a thing, as, aho,
without doubt, it was instituted by Christ." — Works, vol. ii.
p. 76, ed. 1551. (See Appendix to Professor Chase's Ser-
mon before Boston Association, in 1828.)
It may be added here, that the Jews early practised the
baptism of proselytes. It is not necessary to enter into the
controversy respecting the origin of this practice. It is
sufiicient for the present purpose to say, that this baptism,
as professor Stuart acknowledges, was performed by im-
mersion, p. 354. If, then, the Jews borrowed the practice
from the Christians, or if the Savior adopted a ceremony
already known, it is, in either case, a strong proof that
Christian baptism is immersion.
Other arguments might be adduced ; but the limits of
this article forbid us to proceed. Those which have been
mentioned are, however, sufficient. If " all lexicographers
and critics of any note" confess that baptizo means to im-
merse ; if the usage, in the classics, in the Septuagint and
Apocrypha, and in the New Testament, on other topics
than baptism, clearly, and in numberless passages, refers
to immersion, while not one passage undeniably means
something else ; if the figurative meaning of the word
clearly includes the idea of overn-hdming and burying ; if
the places selected for baptizing, in repeated instances
mentioned in the New Testament, were large bodies of
water ; if it is " a thing made out," that the ancient
churches practised immersion, and if the usage has been
continued by all professed Christians till a recent period,
and by large bodies of professed Christians till the present
day ; — the Baptists may well ask, — If the real nature of
baptism is not ascertained to be immersion, is it possible
to ascertain the meaning of any word or ceremony what-
ever ? They think the case perfectly clear, and they be-
lieve that all Christians are bound, on the simplest princi-
ples of evidence, to come to the same conclusion.
II. THE SUBJECTS OF BAPTISBI.
The second point which requires to be considered is of
still greater importance — Who are the proper subjects of
baptism ?
The Baptists maintain, that true believers in the Lord
Jesus Christ are the only proper subjects of baptism. Their
reasons for this opinion are numerous. A few of them
we will now state.
1. The first argument is drawn from the commission
which the Savior gave to his ministers. As our authority
to baptize is derived from the Savior alone, we must be
governed by his will in determining who are to be admit-
ted to the sacred rite. It is his prerogative to decide this
point; and we are bound to follow implicitly his direc-
tions. What, then, is the commission ? " Go ye into all
the world, and pre:\ch the gospel to every creature. He
that helieveth, and is baptized, shall be saved, and he that
believeth not shall be damned," Mark 16: 15, 16. Here
the qualifications of the persons to be baptized are clearly
defined. They are first to be taught the truths of the
gospel, and then those who belie.M are to be baptized.
The language is plain — the condition is exactly specified—
the relation between faith and baptism is unalterably es-
tablished. What right have the ministers of Christ lo
depart from the plain letter of his commission, and admit
to baptism those who do not and cannot believe ?
2. Another argument is drawn from ihe examples of
baptism in the Scriptures. John the Baptist required
repentance, and faith in the coming Blessiah, as qua-
hfications for baptism. Matt. 3: 5 — 12. Luke 3: 3 — 9.
Acts 19: 4. On the day of Pentecost, after Peter had
preached the go.spel to the multitude, " they that gladly
received his word were baptized," Acts 2: 41. At Sa-
maria, " when they believed Philip preaching the things
concerning the kingdom of God, and the name of Jesus
Christ, they were baptized, both men and women," Acts
8: 12. To the question of the eunuch, " What doth hin-
der me to be baptized ?" Philip replied, '■ If thou believest
with all thy heart, thou mayest," Acts 8: 37. Peter said,
respecting Cornelius and his friends, " Can any man for-
bid water that these should not be baptized, which have
received the Holy Ghost as well as we ?" Acts 10: 47.
To the question of the Philippian jailor, " What must I do
to be saved ?" Paul and Silas answered, " Believe on the
Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be save<I and thy house."
The subsequent verses state, that he and all his house-
hold were taught the truths of the gospel, that they all be-
lieved, and were all baptized. Acts 16: 30 — 34. It is
asserted of Lydia, that before she was baptized, " the
Lord opened her heart, that she attended to the things which
were spoken of Paul," Acts 16: 14. At Corinth, " Cris-
pus, the chief ruler of the synagogue, believed on the Lord
with all his house ; and many of the Corinthians, hearing,
believed, and were baptized," Acts 18: 8. Such was
the practical construction which the apostles placed on
the commission of their Lord. In every case of bap-
tism recorded in the Scriptures, some facts are stated,
which assert or imply that the persons baptized were be-
lievers.
There is, on the other hand, not a single ■cxamjile in the
Nem Testament of the baptism of an infant, nor one word
which fairly implies it. " There is no example of baptism
recorded in the Scriptures," says Mr. T. Boston, a Pedo-
baptist writer, (Works, p. 384,) " where any were baptized
but such as appeared to have a saving interest in Christ."
The cases of the baptism of households do not form an ex-
ception ; for it is expressly said of the Philippian jailor and
his household, and of Crispus and his hou.se, that they all
believed ; (Acts 16: 34, and 18: 8.) and though the same
asserlioQ is not made respecting the households of Lydia
and Stephanas, yet other circumstances are stated, which
imply that none of the members of those families were in-
fants. Many households are now baptized by Baptist
ministers, which contain no infants. While, therefore,
there is so much evidence that the apostles baptized none
but believers, it is evident, as Neander admits, that
" from the examples of the baptism of whole families, we
can by no means infer the existence of infant baptism."
—Bib. Repos. Ap. 1834, p. 273.
In the epistles, in which numerous questions respecting
the discipline of the churches and the duties of different
classes of persons are discussed, there is not a word which
implies that infants were regarded as in any sense mem-
bers of the visible family of Christ, as they would have
been if they had been baptized. Children are repeatedly
charged to obey their parents, and parents are commanded
to train up their children in the nurture and admonition of
the Lord ; but there is no hint at infant baptism. The pas-
sage 1 Cor. 7: 14, '■ The unbelieving husband is sanctified
by the wife, and the unbelieving wife is sanctified by the
husband ; else were your children unclean, but now are
they holy," has no bearing on the subject. It is plain that
a pious wife cannot so " sanctify" an unbelieving husband,
as that he can be entitled to baptism without personal
faith. Neither can pious parents so make their children
'■ holy," as that they can be entitled lo baptism without
personal faith. The meaning of the apostle is thus stated
by the Rev. John L. Dagg, in a note to Pengilly's Guide
to Baptism, as published by the Baptist General Tract so-
ciety : " The unbelieving husband is not unclean, so that
his wife may not lawfully dwell with him ; the unbeliev-
ing wife is not unclean, so that her husband may not
lawfully dwell with her. If they are unclean, then your
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•hilclren are unclean, and not one parent in the whole
church must dwell with or touch his children until God
shall convert them." If this interpretation is correct, this
verse is a decided proof that infant baptism did not ex-
ist in the days of the apostles.
The passage in Matt. 19: 13, 14, and the parallel passa-
ges in Mark 10: 13, 14, and Luke 18: 15, Ifi, are some-
times quoted as sanctioning infant baptism. " Then were
brought to Jesus httle children, that he should put his
hands on them and pray, and the disciples rebuked them.
But Jesus said. Suffer little children, and forbid them not,
to come unto me, for of such is the kingdom of heaven.
And he laid his hands on them." This passage has no
bearing on infant baptism. It cannot be proved that the
children referred to were infants. The same word is used,
(Mark 5: 39.) to designate a child twelve years old. The
object for which the children were brought to the Savior,
is dislinctly stated : — " that he should put his hands on
them and pray," in accordance with a Jewish custom,
which attributed high value to the blessing of a person
distinguished for age or piety. See Genesis 27, and
48: 11. We are told what the Savior actually did — ''he
laid his hands on them." There is no allusion to baptism.
The expression, " for of such is the kingdom of heaven;"
manifestly refers to the dispositions of those who shall
enter heaven, as in the verse which immediately succeeds
in Luke : " Verily I say unto you, whosoever shall not
receive the kingdom of God as a Hitk child, shall in no case
enter therein."
3. Since, then, the commission and the practice of the
apostles both confine baptism to believers, the Baptists
require, that those who consider infants as proper subjects
of baptism should produce from the Bible some plain pre-
cept which commands or permits infant baptism. The
Savior alone ca« so modify his commission as to admit to
baptism persons who do not believe. If he has modified
it, Ihe evidence must be produced from the Scriptures. If
such evidence cannot be produced, the Baptists argue, that
we have no more right lo baptize persons who do not pro-
fess faith in Christ, thfii we have lo neglect baptism alto-
gether.
Can such evidence be furnished ? Let us hear the con-
fessions of Pedobaptists themselves. Dr. Woods, in his
Lectures on Infant Baptism, says : — "It is a plain case,
that there is no express precept respecting infant baptism
in our sacred writings. The proof, then, that infant bap-
tism is a divine institution must be made out in another
way," lect. i. p. 11. Professor Stuart makes the same ac-
knowledgment in stronger terms : ■' Commands, or plain and
certain examples, in the New Testament, relative to it, [in-
fant baptism] I do not find." — Bib. Rep. Ap. 1833, p. 385.
Other Pedobapti,sts have made the same concession.
Bishop Burnet says, " There is no express precept or
rule given in the New Testament for baptism of infants."
— Exposition of Articles, art. xxvii.
If this is so, the Baptists think the case settled. They
cannot believe any institution to be divine, for which there
is in the Bible " no express precept," and of wliich there
are "no plain and certain examples in the New Testa-
ment." To "make out the proof in another way," they
consider to be unauthorized and dangerous. If a license
be given to mere inference, the worst errors of popery may
be sanctioned. The papist does not pretend to produce
an"expre.ss precept," or " plain and certain examples,"
for many of his corrupt and pernicious doctrines and prac-
tices; but he can "make out the proof in another way,"
to his own satisfaction at least. He does not justify his
practice of infant baptism by scriptural evidence only, but
by the authority of the chnrch ; and he justly accuses the
Protestant of inconsislency, who practises infant baptism
and yet pretends to take Ihe Scriptures as his only guide.
Among the other ways by which the practice is defend-
ed, the only one which can now be alluded to, and the one
on which the greatest stress has been laid, is, that " the
covenant with Abraham was a spiritual covenant, and
that as such it included infants; that they were accord-
ingly circumcised under the old dispensation ; that bap-
.ism is a .substitute forcircuincision, and that consequently
infants are to be baptized." The ]3aplists deny the truth
of every part of Ibis arsnnient. They deny that there
was any such thing as a church among the Jews, that is.
a separate body of true saints. The whole nation were
considered as one political body, and the rile of circum-
cision was a national mark of distinction, which all male
Jews, whether pious or wicked, were required to possess.
Jlale infants were accordingly circumcised, not because
their parents were pious, but because they were Jews ; and
the Jews were required to circumcise their male servants,
whether born in their houses or bought with their money,
on precisely the same principle that Ihey circumcised
their children, viz., because those servants and children
were now members of the Jewish nation. The Baptists
deny that there is any proof that baptism is a substitute
for circumcision. Not a word is said in the New Testa-
ment which justifies such a conclusion ; and to infer such
a substitution is a dangerous license, which virtually over-
throws the authority of the Bible. Multitudes who had
already been circumcised, were baptized by John and by
the apostles. Why so, if baptism was merely a substi-
tute for circumcision ? We learn from Acts 21, that Paul
was censured by many of the believing Jews, because he
taught the Jews which were among the Gentiles to forsake
Moses, sa)nng " that they ought not to circumcise their chil-
dren," v. 2\. How natural would it have been for Paul
to appease the clamor and conciliate the prejudices of the
Jews, by replying that baptism was a substitute for cir-
cumcision. Had this been the case, he ought to have
taught the doctrine. We may be sure that he would have
taught it. But we hear not a word from his lips on the
subject.
In the fifteenth chapter of Acts we are informed, that
a council was held at Jerusalem by the apostles and el-
ders, to determine the important question, how far the
Gentile converts were to be required to conform to Jewish
usages. The decision was : — " It seemed good to the Ho-
ly Ghost and to us, to lay upon you no greater burden than
these necessary things : that ye abstain from meals offer-
ed to idols, and from blood, and from things strangled, and
from fornication," v. 28, 29. " Thus," says Dr. Baldwin,
(Chris. Bap. p. 24.) " by the unanimous voice of a council,
comprising most if not all the apostles and elders of the
whole Christian church, and by the approbation of the
' Holy Ghost,' we see circnmcision put donn, and no sdbsti-
TtTTE proposed in its room '. In this whole account there is not
the most distant hint that baptism was lo be practised in
the room of circumcision. If these apostles and elders had
understood the subject as our Pedobaptist brethren do, is
it not perfectly unaccountable that they should not have
mentioned it on this perplexing occasion ? To rac, I con-
fess, the supposition is too unreasonable to be admitted."
If, however, baptism is a substitute for circumcision,
then the Jewish example must be followed out, and male
infants only must be baptized ; all male infants must be
baptized, and all male servants must be baptized, whatever
may be their age or character. If the example is authori-
tative in one point, why not in all ?
3. Another argument which proves that infant baptism
was unknown to the apostles, is, that there is no evidence
that it was practised in the churches for the first two cen-
turies. No clear and undeniable allusion is made to it by
any writer earlier than Terlullian, and there is some doubt
whether even he has reference to mere infants.
Venema, in his Ecclesiastical Hist. t. iii. s. 2. ^ 108-9,
says: "Tertullian has nowhere mentioned pedobaptism
among the traditions or customs of the church that were
publicly recei\'ed and usually observed, for in his book.
Be Baptismo, [supposed to tje written A. D. 204.] he dis-
suades from baptizing infants, and proves the delay of it
to a more mature age to be preferred. Nothing is to be
affirmed with certainty concerning the cuslom of the
church before Tertullian, seeing there is not anywhere, in
more ancient writers, that I know of, undoubted mention
of infant baptism."
But it is sufficient to adduce the testimony of one of the
most recent and most able ecclesiastical historians, Ne-
ander, who is professor of theology at Berlin, and is him-
self a Pedobaptist. After stating that baptism was, in the
days of the apostles, performed by immersion, " as best
adapted to express that which Christ intended to express
by this .symbol — the merging of the whole man into a new
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spirit and life," he says : " Since baptism was thus imme-
diately connected with a conscious and voluntary acces-
sion to the Christian fellowship, and faith and baptism
were always united, it is highly probable that baptism took
place only in those cases where both could meet together,
and that the custom of infant baptism was not practised
in this age." " The lateness of the time when the first
distinct mention of infant baptism is made, and the long
continued opposition made to it, lead us to infer its non-
apostolic origin." — Bib. Repos. Ap. 1834, p. 273-'!.
Infant baptism was probably introduced into the church
about the commencement of the third century, in connex-
ion with other corruptions, which even then began to pre-
pare the way for popery. A superstitious idea respecting
the necessity of baptism to salvation led to the baptism
of sick persons, and finally to the baptism of infants.
Sponsors, holy water, anointing with oil, the sign of the
cross, am! a multitude of similar ceremonies, equally un-
authorized by the Scriptures, were soon introduced. The
church lost her simplicity and purity, her ministers be-
came ambitious, and the darkness gradually deepened in-
to the long and dismal night of papal despotism.
4. One olher argument has great weight with the Bap-
tists. They consider infant baptism as inconsistent with
one of the fundamental principles of Christianity, viz. that
every man is held responsible for his own conduct, and must
be justified by his own individual faith. The piety of the
parent cannot save the child, and the piety of the child
cannot avail for the salvation of the parent. John the
Baptist told the Jews that even their connexion with Abra-
ham was an insufficient plea, Blatt. 3: 9. The same prin-
ciple is stated in Ezek. ch. 18. Repentance and faith are
required of every individual, as the indispensable condi-
tions of salvation. But infant baptism is founded on ano-
ther principle. It .supposes that the faith of the parent so
far extends its benefit to the child, as to entitle him to be-
come a visible member of the family of Christ. The child,
then, owes this privilege, not to his own faith, but to that
of his parent. Here is a very dangerous doctrine, the
true result of which is seen in the popish indulgences,
which are granted on the ground that the merits of one
man can be transferred to another.
Neander, in the article already quoted, argues the im
probability that Paul taught and practised infant baptism,
because it would have seemed to contradict his great
principle of justification by faith. This objection has not
less importance now ; and those who wish to maintain, in
all its purity, the doctrine of justification by faith, and to
preserve the church from tlie prevalence of popish errors,
ought to renounce Qvery thing which is not authorized by
the plain and unpcrverted word of Goil. The Baptists
stand on the firm Protestant principle — the principle of
the Refornration — that the Bible alone is the standard and
the guide for all Christians. Since, therefore, the com-
mission of the Savior requires faith as a qualification fiir
baptism ; since the apostles, so far as we can ascertain
their practice, baptized none but believers ; since Fedobap-
tists themselves acknowledge that there is no express pre-
cept nor plain example in the Scriptures on the subject ;
since there is strong evidence that infant baptism was un-
known in the apostolic age ; and since it is inconsistent
with the fundamental principle of justification by faith, —
the Baptists are constrained to view infant baptism as an
unscriptural corruption, and to maintain that true believ-
ers are the only proper subjects of baptism.
Having thus briefly presented a few of the reasons for
the doctrines maintained by the Bapti-sts, we may add,
that they cannot conscientiously regard any pei'sons as
baptized who have not been immersed on a profession of
their faith. Viewing, as most other Christians view, bap-
tism, as a prerequisite to the participation of the Lord's
supper, they cannot consistently consider those whom they
are compelled lo regard as unbaptized to be qualified to
partake of the supper. They do not deny nor question the
piety of their Pcdohaptist brethren, but they must, as ho-
nest men, refuse to recognise as baptism what they view
as an unauthorized ceremony. They desire the union of
all Christians, and they believe that they are laboring the
most effectually to promote that union, by endeavoring to
uphold m love the pure principles of the Bible. May the
24
God of Peace enable all his people to ascertain, and love,
and practise the truth, that they may be one indeed.
Among the best works on the Baptist side, are, Booth's
Pedobaptism Examined ; Dr. Gill's Works ; Stemiett's
IVorks ; Gale's Letters in Seply to Wall ; Fuller's Works ;
Carson and Coz on Baptism ; Pengilb/s Scripture Guide to
Baptism ; Wilson's Manual ; Fuller on Communion ; Dr.
Baldwin's Letters; Treatises on Baptism by Dr. Chapin,
Rev. Mr. Loomis, and Scv. Mr. Frey ; Rev. Mr. Judson's
Sermon on Baptism; Professor Chase's Sermon before the
Boston Association, 1S28 ; and Professor Ripley's Exami-
nation of Professor Stuart's Essay. j j) Knowles.
DESIGN OF BAPTI.SM.
A due regard to the doctrinal import and design of this
New Testament ordinance would probably go farther than
all the learning and ingenuity which have been employed
in managing the controversy on either side, to establish
the mind of an inquirer, both as to the proper subjects and
mode of administration. For it is plain that the value of
signs depends chielly upon the impor'ance of the things
signified. And as Dr. Owen observes, " there is nothing
in religion that hath any efficacy for compassing an end,
but it hath it from God's appointment of it to that purpose.
God may in his wisdom appoint anil accept of ordinances
and duties unto one end, which he will refuse and reject
when they are applied to another. To do any thing ap-
pointed unto an end, without aiming at that end, is no
better than the not doing it at all, in some cases much
worse." The design of baptism, therefore, as taught in the
New Testament, and the practical vses to which it is there
applied, ought to be thoroughly investigated by both minis-
ters and people ; in order that they may know and comply
with the revealed intention of God in its appointment.
'■ It is generally agreed among divines," says the learned
Venema, "that the communion of a believer with Christ,
and the eflects of his obedience, by which the guilt, the
pollution and the punishment of sin are taken away, and
so Ihc remission of sin, sanctification and glorification are
conferred, are presented to view in baptism ; yet they do
not sufficiently show the way and manue)- in which that
representation is made, and frequently speak with but little
consistency. If, in baptism, the appearance of nothing but
washing presented itself to our consideration, the thing
would be easy. For, seeing we are delivered from sin by
the obedience of Christ, that would be readily understood
by every one as the cause of our purification, and as re-
presented by water, in which there is a cleansing virtue ;
especially as the Scripture usually comprehends it under
the emblem of water. But washing is neither the only
idea, nor, as I think, llie principal one, of this institution."
The principal and most comprehensive design of this
ordinance appears from the Scriptures to be, a solemn,
rUET.IC, AND PEACTICAL I'KOFESSION OF ChKISTIANITV . ThuS
Paul sums up the baptism of John in Acts 19: 4. "John
verily baptized with the baptism of ketentance, saying
unto the people, that they should believe on him which
should come after him, that is, on Cukist Jesus." And
thus he describes his own ; (Gal 3: 27.) " As many of you
as have been baptized into Christ, have put on Chkist."
To the same purpose are the words of Peter on the day
of Pentecost ; " Repent, and be baptized, every one of you,
IN THE NAME OF Jesus Chkist." Hencc also a rejection of
baptism is by our Lord called a rejection of the counsel
OF God, that is, of Christianity. Luke 7: 30. Acts 20. 27.
And the reception of baptism is represented as the act by
which we JUSTIFY Gon ; that is, practically approve his
method of salvation by faith in the Messiah. Luke 7: 20
Hence, whatever may be said of baptism as it is now
generally understood and practised, and of the personal
religion of those who practise it, it is certain that it n-as
originally appointed to be the boundary of visible Christianity.
But this general design of baptism comprehends many
particulars. Christianity consists partly of truths to be
lielitved, partly of precepts to be obeyed, and partly of
premises to be hoped for; and this, its initiatory ordinance,
is rich in significancy in relation to them all. We are
tsught to regard it : 1. As the solemn tkofession of our
F.fITH IN THE Trinitt. Johu 1: 33. Matt. 3: lii, 17. 2S:
]y. Ephes.2: 18. Tit. 3:4—7. Particularly— n/'-irir nrfop-
BAP
[ 186 1
BAP
Um by the Father. Gal. 3: 26—29. 4: 1—7. John 1: 12, 13.
2 Cor. 6: 17, 18. 1 John 3: 1—3. Of our union to the Son.
Acts 8: 35—39. Rom. 6: 3—14. Col. 2: 12, 13, 20. 3: 1—
11. Matt. 20: 22, 23. 1 Pet. 3: 18—22. 1 Cor. 1: 30. Of
our sanctification by the Spirit. John 3: 5 — 8. 7: 37 — 39. 14:
15—17, 26, 27. 16: 12—15. Act.-. 2: 38, 39. Rom. 8: 1—
27. 2 Cor. 1:21,22. Gal. 3: 2, 3. 4:6,7. 5:22—25. Ephes.
1: 11 — 14. 4: 30. 5: 9. — 2. As THE fdblio pledge of the
KENUNCIATION AND KEMISSION Of SINS. Mark 1: 4, 5. ActS
2: 38. 22: 16. Rom. 6: 4. — 3. As the expression of our
HOPE of a future AND GLORIOUS RESURRECTION. Rom. 6: 5.
Col. 3: 1 — 4. 1 Cor. 15: 29. — 4. As a visible bond of
UNION AMONG CHRISTIANS. 1 Cor. 12: 3 — 31. Ephes. 4: 5.
Baptism, therefore, is designed to give a sort of visible
epitome of Christianity.
VII.— PERPETUITY OF THE LAW OF BAPTISM.
Although Christians have been generally agreed that
baptism was delivered to the primitive churches as an or-
dinance of universal and perpetual obligation, yet there
have been some, and two bodies ol Christians in particu-
lar, who have on diflerent grounds denied or questioned
its perpetuity. (See articles Quakers, and Anti-Baftists,
in this volume.) The first class consider all external
forms, in which they include Baptism and the Lord's Sup-
per, rather as obstructions than aids to spiritual worship ;
and hence interpret the apostolic commission, either of
baptism with the Holy Ghost, or limit its duration to the
close of the Jewish economy, as being rather a part of the
baptism of John than of Christ. They quote in favor of
these views, Blatt. 3: 11. John 3: 30. 1 Cor. 12: 13. Ephes.
4:5. and 1 Cor. 1: 17. The second class derive their opinion
chiefly from the supposition that Christian baptism is a
continuation of Jemsh proselyte baptism ; from which
they argue that it ought not to>be administered to any but
converted Pagans, Mahometans, and others, who did not
previously receive Christianity as the true religion.
Both of these classes of Christians have been requested
to consider, 1. That the apostles themselves understood
their commission of baptizing in water ; as is clear from
their practice recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. 2. That
to baptize reith the Holy Ghost, or put the soul under his
divine influence, is the prerogative of Christ alone. John
1: 33. 8: 37—39. Acts 1: 4—8. 2: 1—4. 3. That so far
from regarding the baptism of the Spirit as superseding
'he baptism of water, Peter, in the house of Cornelius,
irges it as a divine argument of the propriety of the
latter; Who can forbid water, that these should not be bap-
tized, who have received the Holy Ghost as well as we ? And
ht commanded them to be baptized in the name of the Lord.
Acts 10. 4. That this, therefore, is "the one baptism" to
which the apostle refers as being a visible bond of union
among Christians ; the baptism of the Holy Ghost, (su-
perior as it is in importance,) being so called, not literally,
but by a rich and beautiful metaphor, indicating the over-
whelming abundance of his holy influences and endow-
ments. Be ye filled with the Spirit. Ephes. 5: 18. John 7:
37 — 39. 5. That the Christian law of baptism could not
have been derived from that of Jewish proselytes ; because
many such proselytes were baptized, as the Ethiopian eu-
nuch, Cornelius, and others, which proves either that the
Christian administrators knew no such custom as proselyte
baptism, or that they rebaptized those wh6 had received
it. 6. That the apostles in their writings draw from the
baptism of their converts the most powerful motives to a
life of spiritual holiness. 7. That our Lord himself hon-
ored the ordinance by his own example ; and that while it
is safe to obey and imitate him, it must be dangerous to
set aside or slight even the least of his commandments.
Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you. John
15: 11. lie that hath my commandments and keepeth them,
he it is that loveth me. John 14: 21. Lastly, Christians are
exhorted to hold fast the profession of their faith without
rvavering, and to draw nigh to the throne of grace, having
their hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience, and their bodies
roashed with pure water ; which they cannot do unless bap-
tized. Heb. 10: 22, 23. Whence it follows that baptism
m water, however and to whomsoever it is to be admin-
istered, is a Christian ordinance of perpetual obligation.
Others have stated the argument thus. We have seen
that Christianity and its laws are of perpetual obligation ;
that baptism is a part of Christianity in its complete form ;
that the example of Christ in this particular is binding on
aU his disciples, through all ages ; that the perpetuity of
baptism is implied in the nature of the ordinance, as an
act of worship, a monument of the Savior's death, burial
and resurrection, a symbol of the renunciation of sin, and
the new birth to righteousness, a solemn selfdedication to
the Savior, a public recognition of our adoption as the
children of God, and of our hope of a glorious resurrec-
tion ; that the promise connected with the institution pro-
phetically declares its perpetuity ; that baptism is in-
wrought in the law of the institution with some other
things which are acknowledged to be of perpetual obliga-
tion, as teaching and believing ; and Ihat the apostles
understood it to be perpetual, and derived from it motives
to holiness, which are now powerless upon any other sup-
position than that the ordinance is still to be regarded.
Now in view of all these things, what shall we say ? Can
further evidence be necessary ? If there be any who still
doubt the perpetual obligation of the ordinance, we would
respectfully put to them the following questions : Is there
in the law of the institution any thing which appears to
limit the obligation of obedience to time, or place, or na-
tion ? Is not the language of the commission as exempt
as language can be, from all such limitations ? Was this
law ever repealed by the same authority which enacted it ?
If it were, it can certainly be shown when, and where,
and how ; and we ask for the evidence. AVe ask again,
Has it (as the seventh day Sabbath, has) been virtually
repealed, by being superseded by another ordinance ? If
so, what is its name ? and whence its origin ? and where
its authority ? We ask once more. Do not the same reasons
exist for its continuance, as did for its appointment 1 Miracu-
lous gifts were a seal to the commission ; they accredited
the apostles as messengers of God ; but now the proof of
the divine origin of Christianity is complete, and the mi-
raculous powers have ceased. They have ceased, because
the same reason for which they were given, does not con-
tinue. But the same doctrinal and the same practical uses
of baptism continue ; and why should the ordinance be
laid aside ? Why should it be regarded by any disciple
of the cracified Savior as antiquated or obsolete ? There-
fore we are buried with him by baptism in the likeness of his
death, that like as Christ was raised up from the dead by the
glory of the Father, so we also should walk in newness of life.
Rom. 6: 4, 5.
Need we remark then, how sacred is the obligation
which rests upon men of learning, and especially ministers
of the gospel, to instruct the disciples of Christ truly, in
relation to their Lord's command and their personal duty,
on this point as on every other. If the trumpet give an un-
certain sound, who shall prepare himself to the battle ? Let an
awful fear of God hold a torch before us in all our inqui-
ries, and the love of Christ constrain us {o feed his sheep, and
to feed his lambs. Editor.
BAPTISM FOR THE DEAD. The argument of 9t.
Paul, (1 Cor. 15: 29.) " If the dead rise not at all, what shall
they do who are baptized for the dead," has excited many
different ideas in the minds of interpreters. Bochart has
collected no less than fifteen senses in which it has been
understood, or rather in which learned men have confessed
that they did not understand it. Yet doubtless it was clear
and cogent, not only in the view of the apostle, but of the
Corinthian church whom he addressed. The three senses
most prominent are, 1. It is an appeal founded on the con-
duct of those who were converted and baptized in view of the
martyrdom of Christians ; thus fearlessly filling up the
ranks of the dead, from a confidence in their glorious resur-
rection. This sense is adopted by Doddridge. 2. It is an
appeal founded on the figurative sense of the word baptize,
that is, to overwhelm with sufferings; as in Matt. 20: 22, 23.
This sense is preferred by professors Stuart and Robinson.
Yet it seems to leave the phrase obscure, for what is the
meaning of " overwhelmed in sufferings for the dead ?" 3,
It is an appeal to the Corinthians, founded on the usual
spmtolic sense of the ordinajice of Christian baptism ; as in
Rom. 6: 4. Col. 3: 12, where the apostle explains it to sig-
nify, not only a death and burial, but also a resurrection
from the dead. The meaning of the apostle then is this ;
BAP
[187]
BAP
" If there be no resurrection, why express such a belief
in the use of the ordinance of baptism ? What shall they
do who have made this solemn profession of their faith
and hope, if there be no corresponding reality?" This
last sense is preferred by the learned Neander, and seems
most natural.
BAPTIS3I OF THE HOLY GHOST; that over-
whelming abundance of the gifts and graces of the Holy
Spirit, which our Savior, after his ascension, poured forth
upon his disciples. The basisof this beautiful metaphor
is found in the literal signification of baptism, which is to
cover one completely with any kind of element, particu-
larly water. So the apostles and primitive believers are
said to have been, not only in a degree subjected to the
influence of the Holy Spirit, but filled with it, immersed
in it, as in a new element of existence, life, perception,
feeling, and action. A measure of the same divine influ-
ence they had received before ; but this was a far more
copious and ample communication of it, to qualify them
for their public labors, as well as to elevate their personal
character, and to promote their spiritual enjoyment. Nor
does this rich donation of .spiritual blessings appear to
have been restricted to miraculous gifts on the one hand,
or to the primitive believers on the other. For it is repre-
sented, 1. As the prerogative of Christ's personal dignity.
Matt. 3: 11. Mark 1: 8. Luke 3: 16. John 1: 15—17, 32,
33. 2. As the grand distinction of his glorious reign.
John 7: 37 — 39. 16: 7. 3. As the special promise of the
new covenant. Luke 24: 49. Acts 1: 4 — 8. 2: 1 — 4, 16—
21, 33, 38, 39. Heb. 8: 6—12. 4. As the privilege and
seal of every believer. Ephes. 1: 13, 14. 4: 30. 5: 18.
Gal. 4: 6. 5: 16, 25. 5. As the proper object of expecta-
tion and prayer, Isa. 32: 15 — 17. 44: 3 — 5. Luke 11: 5 —
13. Phil. 1: 19. 6. As comprehending gifts and graces,
varied in kind and degree, lo supply the necessities of the
church, according to the will and wisdom of the Spirit
himself. 1 Cor. 12: 1—13, 31. 14: 1. Ephes. 5: 9. 4: 30.
Rem. 8: 9, 13, 11. 14: 17. 15: 13.
From these passages it appears that the Baptism of the
Holy Ghost is not to be confounded, on the one hand, with
regeneration, as it sometimes has been ; nor, on the other,
restricted to miracuhns poiveis, and of course lo the primi-
tive age ; but is to be sought in the more copious commu-
nication of such gifts and graces as are needed in the
present condition of the Christian church, by ourselves
and others. Whatever of superior illumination, sanctity,
or fervor ; whatever of heavenly purity of motive, clear-
ness of perception, tenderness of aflection, strength of
purpose, or energy of character ; whatever of divine peace,
and consolation, and hope, and joy, drawn from the things
eternal and unseen, we at any time need ; whatever is
necessary to mal;e the gospel effectual to its end, among
men — is to be sought and expected of God through Christ,
the great Dispenser of spiriraal blessings. Of Ids fulness
have all ive received, and grace for grace. The same is He
Khich bapiizelh nith the Holy Ghost. As);, and ye shall re-
ceiee, that your jo:/ may he full. John 1: 16, 33. 16: 24.
BAPTISM OF FIRE. The words of John in describing
the baptism of Christ, (Matt. 3: 11.) " He shall baptize
you with the Holy Ghost and rcith fire,'' have been vari-
ously interpreted. Some have referred the -kotAs '• with
fire," to a purgatory after death ; others to the unquench-
able fire of hell into which the wicked shall be plunged
after the final judgment ; others to the descent of the Holy
Ghost on the day of Pentecost, in the form of fiery tongues.
Others still consider the words, and with fire, as exegetical,
and interpret them ol' that celestial fervor and zeal which
the baptism of the Holy Ghost conferred upon those who
received it. And the structure of the original favors this
sense, as do also the facts of the case ; though, perhaps,
not to the exclusion of the external sign mentioned in Acts
2:3.
BAPTIS5I OF BLOOD. TertulUan gave this name to
martyrdom before baptism, and to the death of martyrs in
general. By himand other fathers after him, it was thought
to have a peculiar efficacy to purify from sins ; from which
mistaken notion it was urgently recommended to believers.
But the blood of Christ alone cleauseth us from all sin. 1
John 1: 7. Rev. 1: 5. 7: 14.
BAPTISTERIES. It would seem that the primitive
Christians w-ere under a necessity of baptizing in open
waters, or, where they had not private baths of their own,
of constructing baptisteries for the express purpose of ad-
ministering baptism. Authors are not agreed about the
time when the first baptisteries were built. All agree that
the first were, like the manners and condition of the people,
simple, and merely for use ; and that in the end, they rose
to as high a degree of elegant superstition, as enthusiasm
could invent.
Baptisteries are to be first sought for, where they were first
wanted, in towns and cities ; for writers of unquestionable
authority assert, that the primitive Christians continued to
baptize in rivers, pools, and baths, till about the middle of
the third century. Justin Martyr says that they went with
tlie catechumens to a place where there was water, and
TertulUan adds, that candidates for baptism made a pro-
fession of faith twice, once in the church, that is, before
the congregation in the place where they assembled to
worship, and then again when they came to the water ;
and it was quite indifferent whether it were the sea or a
pool, a lake, a river, or a bath. About the middle o( the
third ceutun,'', baptisteries began to be built : but there
were none within the churches until the sixth century ; and
it is remarkable that though there were many churches in
one city, 5'et, (with a few exceptions,) there was but one
baptistery. This simple circumstance, as popery advanced,
was perverted into a title to dominion ; and the congrega-
tion nearest the baptistery, or to whom in some places it
belonged, and by whom it was lent to the other churches,
pretended that all the others ought to consider themselves
dependent on them.
By a baptistery of the fourth century, (which must not
be confounded with a modern font.) is to be understood aa
octagon building, with a cupola roof resembling the dome
of a cathedral, adjacent to a church, but no part of it. All
the middle part of this building was one large hall, capable
of containing a great multitude of people. The sides were
parted oS, and divided into rooms ; and in some, rooms
were added without-side, in the fashion of cloisters. In
the middle of the great hall was an octagon bath, which
strictly speaking, was the baptistery, and from which the
whole building received its name. Some had been natural
rivulets before the buildings were erected over them, and
the pool was contrived to retain water suflicient for dip-
ping, and to discharge the rest. Others were supplied by
pipes ; and where baptism was perfonned on naked sub-
jects, (as from the fourth to the sixteenth centurj' was the
common practice of the Catholic as well as the Greek
churches, a practice founded on certain fanciful notions of
the fathers,) the water was conveyed into one or more of
the side rooms, that the baptism of the women might be
performed apart from that of the men. Some of the stu:-
rounding rooms were vestries ; others school-rooms, both
for the instruction of youth, and for transacting the affairs
of the church. Councils have been held in the gi-eat halls
of these buildings. It was necessary they should be capa-
cious ; for as baptism was now administered only twice a
year, the candidates were numerous, and the spectators
of each sex more numerous than they. It is an opinion
generally received, and very probable, that some of the
names given to these buildings, were borrowed from the
memorable pool of Bethesda. The Syriac and Persic ver-
sions call Bethesda a place of baptisteiy.
The most ancient baptistery is that of St. John Lateran.
At Rome, there were many ; in other Italian cities, only
one at first ; in the middle ages two, a unitarian, and
trinitariau ; in modern times, only one, the trinitarian.
Some are yet standing. The memory of others is pre-
ser\'ed in records and monumental fragments. The place
of others is now supplied by fonts within the churches.
At Constantinople, the baptistery of St. Sophia was one of
the appendages of that splendid church, erected by Con-
stantine, and rebuilt by Justinian with unrivaUed magnifi-
cence. And it is worthy of notice, that the canon laws,
the officers, the established rituals, the sermons of the
prelates, and the baptism of the archbishops themselves,
prove that baptism was here administered, by trine immer-
sion indeed, but only to instructed persons, whether pagans
or the descendants of Christians. It would be easy, ;a\-s
INIr. Robinson, to make similar remarks on the «huiches
BAP
BAP
a' Aiilioch, AlexauJria, JeriisaleiU; anil iiiauy more ; for
their baptisteries resembled that of St. Sophia, and their
baptism was that of believers by trine iminersion. — Rubin-
son's Hislonj of Baplism; Basnage ; Moshcim; Ciampini
Vet. Monuiaaita.
BAPTISTS ; a wcU-knowu denomination of Christians,
distinguished by their simple adherence to the Scriptures,
by Ihcir views of the spiritual consiitntion of the Christian
church, and of the holy de;iign, subjects, and mode of
baptism. In regard to this ordinance of Christ, " they
have ever held," says Mr. Benedict, their historian, " that
a personal profession of fiith, and an immersion in water,
are essential to baptism." Some of their aguments for
these opinions may be found under the article Baptism.
In regard to the constitution of the Christian church, while
they believe in the existence of a universal or catholic
church, composed of the whole body of believers in Christ
m all nations and ages, they think that the Christian
church, properly so called, was not visibly organized in
the family of Abraham, nor in the wilderness of Sinai;
but by the ministry of Christ himself and of his apostles ;
and that it was then constituted of such, and such only,
as made a credible profession of repentance from sin, and
faith in the Savior. All other's they consider to be con-
stitutionally excluded. That the primitive churches were
uniformly organized on these principles ; that they em-
braced only visible saints, and were essentially voluntary
compacts of piety, virtue, and brotherly love, they think
perfectly plain from the New Testament. This new and
beautiful organization, so unlike all establishments founded
on national principles, they believe to be the kingdom of
God, foretold by the prophet Daniel, and announced by
John the Baptist as at hand. Dan. 2: 44. And in the days
of those kings shall the God of heaven set up a kingdom, which
shall never be destroyed ; and the kingdom shall not he left to
other people, but it shall break in pieces and consume all these
kingdoms, and it shall stand forever. Matt. 3: 2. 4: 17. et
passim.
Hence the Baptists reject the baptism of infants, and
national church establishments, as obvious innovations,
incompatible with the spiritual purity of the visible church
of Christ. Hence they distinguish between the covenant of
grace in the Messiah, and the covenant of circumcision ;
which the Pedo-baptists consider as one, though twenty-
four years elapsed between them. Gen. 15: Gen, 17: Gal. 3:
Hence also they reject all claims of the civil magistrate
to any but a civd jurisdiction ; though willing and peace-
able subjects to civil autharity, where the rights of con-
science are not iiwolved. Hence, in every age, their strong
attachment to liberty ; especially to religious libert)', whose
principles they were the first to proclaim, and the first also
to exemplify. Their principles have subjected them to
persecution from age to age, and to such principles they
have counted it a glory to be martyrs. Though their own
blood has llowed freely, they have never shed the blood
of others. Indeed, civil persecution of any Iciud, on their
principles, is impossible. And to them was allowed the
happiness of establishiirg in this country, in 16315, a code of
laws, "in which," says Judge Story, -'we read for the first
time since Christianity ascended the throne of the Cossars,
the declaration that ' coirscience shorrld be free, and rueii
should not be punished for worshipping God in the way
they were persuaded he reqirired.' " This declaration
Rhode Island has never departed from ; and in it she has
been since followed by all the United States. That wretched
doctrine of the union of church and state, by which Chris-
tianity has been made the minister of every wrong, that
boasted alliance on which so many encomiums have been
lavished, they have ever regarded as a foul corruption, in-
consistent with the very aatuye o{ that kingdom which is not
of this world, destructive of the very purposes of the Chris-
tian church, and in effect " little more than a compact be-
tween the priest and the magistrate to betray the liberties
of mankind, both civil and religious." (Complete Works
of Robert Hall, vol. ii. p. 22.) Christians of these senti-
ments have existed in every age, and their number, as
Mr. Benedict observes, has been larger than their friends
generally imagine, or their opposers were ever willing to
acknowledge. Among the most distinguished are Beren-
garius, Peter de Brais, Henry, Arnold of Brescia, Lollard,
Wicklilie, Ty tidal, Meiino, Dudith, Schyn, Tombes, Cann«,
Grantham, Milton, Bunyan, Delaune, Gale, Gill, Stennct,
Booth, Buttcrworth, Gitlbrd, Ilyland, Carey, Mai'shmanj
Ward, Fuller, Hall, Foster, Gregory, Roger Williams,
Backus, Stilhnan, Baldwin, Staughton, Judson, &c
Origin, History, iScc. It has been asserted that the Bap-
tists originated in Germany about the year 1522, at the
beginning of the Reformation. It is true that no denomi-
nation of Protestants can trace the origin of its present
name, farther back than about the time of the Relbrma-
tion ; and most of them have origmated since that period.
And it appears to be true that the name of Baptists, by
which this people have since been known, was then fii-st
assumed, probably in opposition to that of Anabaptists,
with which their enemies were continually reproaching
them. (See ANArrAPxisTs.) It is not, however, the history
of a name, but the prevalence of principles, which is the
just object of attention with the student of ecclesiaslic;il
history. The Baptists do not pretend that the primitive
saints were called Baptists, but that all the primitive Chris-
tians were wiiat would now be called by this name ; and
that there always has been a people on earth, from the
introduction of Christianity, wdro have held the leading
sentiments by wliich they now are, and always have been,
distinguished, is a point which they most firmly beUeve,
and undertake to prove. In so doing, they attempt no
wrong to any other denomination in Christendom. Their
object, says Benedict, is not to show what is not true re-
specting others, but what is true concerning themselves.
They do not deny that Episcopalians can find bishops, and
the Presbyterians elders or presbyters, and the Methodists
zeal, and the Quakers inward light, among the primitive
Christians ; neither do they doubt that the Congregation-
alists or Independents have good grounds for thinking that
the apostolic churches were of their belief respecting
church goverrrment. They only ask that terms should be
properly explained. With most denominations they find
something with which they can agree, and their hearts
cleave in love to all who love the Lord Jesus Christ.
And though compelled in some few points to sliffer from
them all, it is only that they may with a pure conscience
contend for the faith, and keep the ordinances as they were de-
livered to the saints. Conscientious fidelity to Christ, and
an ardent desire by every lawful means to win others to
the same fidelity, they think, so far from deserving the
name of sectarianism, is the very essence of true Catholicism.
Innumerable volumes have lieen written under the title
of Church History ; but, after all, we know but very little
of the real church of Christ for many htrndred years. We
have very ample accounts of the Antichristian church,
that false pretender, in unhallowed alliance with the kings
of the earth, and drunken with the blood of the saints ; but
tire history of the uncon'upted church, which maintained
the word, worship, and ordinances of Christ, wliile all the
world was wondering after the beast, is enveloped in the ob-
scurity of that retreat which God prepared for her in the
wilderness. It is astonishing to perceive how far even
most Protestants are from acknowledging the whole truth
on this subject. So deeply has the corrupt union of church
and state, under wiiich they still live, blinded their eyes,
that Protestant writers still persist in styling the history
of the papal power, for example, the history of the Chris-
tian churclr. Against this the Baptists protest. They be-
lieve, with the ancient Waldenses, that " the church of
Rome is the whore of Babylon ;" and " that only is the
church of Christ, which hears the pure doctrine of Christ,
and observes the ordinarrces instituted by him, m whatso-
ever place it exists." (Waldensian Confession of the
twelfth century.) Mosherm, with all his violent prejudices
against the Baptists, in relating the history of the primi-
tive church, has given a description which will not apply
to his own church, the Lutheran, nor to any sect in Chris-
tendom except the Baptists. " The churches in those early
times," he observes, " were entirely independent, none oi'
them subject to any foreign jurisdiction, but each one go-
verned by its own rulers and laws. For though the church-
es founded by the apostles, had this particular deferenci;
shown them, that they were consulted in difficult and
doubtful cases, yet they had no juridical authority, no sort
of .supremacy over the others, nor the least right to enact
BAP
[ 1*J ]
B A
.aws for them." " A bishop during tlie first and second
century wns a jiorson who liad the care of one Christian
assembly. Ill this assembly he acted not su much with
the authority of a master, as with the Keal and diligence of
a faithful servant." " Baptism was administered in the
first century without the public assemblies, in places ap-
pointed for that purpose, and was performed by the im-
mersion of the whole body in water." Mr. Robinson, after
the most diligent research, not only confirms these state-
ments of IVtosheim, but says expressly, "All this time
they were Baptist churches ; and though all the fathers of
the four first ages,don-n to Jerome, were of Greece, Syria,
and Africa, and though they gave great numbers of his-
tories of the bajitism of adults, yet there is not one record
of the baptism of a child till the year 370, when Galates,
llie dying son of the Arian emperor Valens, was baptized
by order of the monarch, who swore he would not be con-
tradicted. The age of the prince is uncertain, and the as-
signing of his illness as the cause of his baptism, indicates
clonrly enough that infant baptism was not in practice."
But the primitive churches in process of time became
corrupted from the simplicity that is in Clu-ist. This
corruption, and the great apostasy to which it led, had
been foretold in the Scriptures ; (see article Antichrist,)
and even in the days of the apostles, the mystery of iniquity
did already work. When in the third century, the discipline
and morals of the principal churches became altogether
reliixed, such as had the purity of the Redeemer's Idngdom
at heart, after struggling in vain to resist the torrent of
corruption, gradually separated themselves from a commu-
nity which had become unworthy of the Christian name.
Though these early Protestant dissenters were confounded
with heretics by the prevailing party, wjiich assumed the
name of the Catholic church ; yet it is certain, that their
faith was scriptural and orthodox, and that among them
we must look for the humble, pure, ard persecuted church
of Christ. Such, for example, were the Novatians at
Rome; the Donatists in Africa; the iErians and Pauli-
cians in Greece ; the Carthori, or Puritans, of Germany ;
the Patcrines of Italy ; and the "Waldenses of France, and
other countries, a succession of whom continued up to the
time of the Reformation. (See Waldenses.)
For the history of the Bajitists in Germany and Holland,
sec the article Mennonites.
Great Bkit.^in. The Baptists in England form one of
the three denominations of Protestant Dissenters. They
separate from the Episcopal Establishment for the same
reasons as their brethren of the other denominations, with
whom they are united, and from additional motives result-
ing from their particular tenets respecting baptism. The
constitution of theirchurches and their mode of worship are
congregational or independent ; in the exercise of which
they are protected, in common with other dissenters, by
the act of toleration. Previous to this, they were liable to
pains and penalties as Non-conformists, and often suffered
for their peculiar sentiments as Baptists.
In ihe reign of Henry VIII., some of them were burnt,
and others banished. In the reign of Elizabeth, they were
subjected to impri.sonment ; and in that of James, they
fled into Holland. AVilliam Sawtre was the first who in
this country suffered at the stake for his religious opinions,
in Hfll, and who was supposed to deny infant baptism ;
r.nd Edward Wightman, a Baptist, of Burton-upon-Trent,
wns the last person that suilered this cruel kind of death
in Ene:land : so that this denomination had the honor of
both leading the way and bringing up the rear of all the
martyrs who were burnt alive in England ; besides which,
a great numbi^r of those who suflTered death for their re-
ligion in the two hundred intervening years were of the
Baptist dennniiuation.
The Baptists are distinguished into two denominations,
which have but little communication with one another ;
namely, the Particular and the General Baptists.
The Particular Baptists are so denominated, from
their embracing the Calvinistic system, which includes in
t, as a leading article, the doctrine of particular redemp-
tion, though there are many among them who admit the
Jniversality of the atonement. The Calvinistic or Par-
.icular Baptists are by far the most numerous ; their con-
gregations in England and Wales, in 1832, amounting to
above twelve hun<lred. They have ftur public academies
lor the education of young men for ti e ministry, at Bris-
tol, Stepney, Bradford, and Abergavenny ; and they have
(ong enjoyed two exhibitions for students, to be educated
for four years at one of the universities in Scotland, given
them by Dr. Ward, of Gresham college. In 1702, they
established the important Mission to India, which promises
so much good to all the nations of the East, and which
has been liberally assisted by the contributions of other
denominations. Other missions, at home, in Africa, the
West Indies, Ireland, and France, are also supported by
this body, at an expense of eighty thousand dollars in-
nually.
The General Baptists maintain the doctrine of general
redemption, and the other points of the Arminian system;
and are agreed with the Particular Baptists only on the
subject of baptism, worsh.ip, and church discipline. The
founder of this denomination is said to have teen a Mr.
Smith, an Episcopalian clergyman ; but resigning his living
in the church, he went over to Holland, where his princi-
ples were warmly opposed by Jlessrs. Ainsw-orth and
Robinson ; the former then pastor of the Brownists or In-
dependents at Amsterdam, and the latter of those ot
Leydcn. About the year 1611, this subdivision of Bap-
tists published a confession of faith, which is said to have
diverged much farther from Calvinism than those now
called Arminians would approve.
The General Baptists have of late been distinguished
into the Old and Neti) Connexion. The old General Baptists
have continued progressively to decline. Four of their
congregations in Loudon were some years ago united in
one. Socinianism has so far reduced their numbers that,
under its influence, they are likely to become extinct.
For the present, however, they hold a general assembly in
London, on the Tuesday in Whitsun-week, when a sermon
is preached, and the afl^'airs of their churches are taken
into consideration.
Towards the year 1770, a body of General Baptists arose
chiefly in the midland counties, which reverted to the doc-
trinal principles originally espoused by that denomination.
These, as they are more orthodox than the others, are also
much more zealous, more numerous, and more flourishing.
They are quite distinct from the old General Baptists, and
are known b)' the name of " the New Connexion." Their
congregations amount to one hundred and fourteen, and
their annual association is held at difierent places by rota-
tion. In the year 1798, an evangelical academy was
opened, and placed under the care of the Rev. Dan Tay-
lor ; but its patronage has been very small. Lately, it has
been removed from London to Wisbeach in Lincolnshire,
where its prospects are encouraging, though the connexion
yet experiences the want of able ministers. This society
also has established a mission in India.
The Scottish Baptists are of a more recent date, and
differ in various respects from the English Baptists. No
trace can he found of a Baptist church in Scotland, ex-
cepting one which appears to have been formed out of the
soldiers of Cromwell's anny, previous to 17(35 ; when a
church was settled at Edinburgh, under the pastoral care
of Mr. Carmichael and Blr. Archibald M'Lean. Others
have since been formed at Dundee, Glasgow, Paisley,
Perth, Largo, Dumfernline, and in most of the principal
towns of Scotland. There are also churches in several
towns in England, holding the principles of the Scottish
Baptists, and connected with ihem, particularly in London,
Noltingham, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, Carlisle,
Beverley, Jrc.
They think that the order of public worship which uni-
formly obtained in the apostolic churches, is clearly set
forth in Acts 2: 42 — 47, and therefore they endeavor to
follow it out to the utmost of their power. They require
a plurality of elders in every church, administer the Lord's
supper, and make contributions for the poor, every first
day of the week. The prayers and exhortations of the bre-
thren form a part of their church order, under the direction
and control of the elders, to whom it exclusively belongs
to preside in conducting the worship, to rule in cases of
discipline, and to labor In the word and doctrine, in dis-
tinction from the brethren exhorting one another. The
elders are all lay,..en, generally chosen from among the
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brethren ; but n-hen circumstances require, are supported
by their contributions. They approve also of jjersons who
are properly qualified for it, being appointed by the church
to preach the Gospel and baptize, though not vested with
any pastoral charge.
For several years after their first setting out, the Bap-
tist churches in Scotland were all of one faith and order ;
owned each other as sister churches, and had fellowsliip
one with another in the institutions of the Gospel, as did
also the diflerent societies in England that stood connected
with them. But of late years, numerous Baptist societies
have started up in different pans of Scotland, -nhich,
though they retain much of the doctrinal sentiments, and
of the social practices of the original churches, yet are
unhappily divided on some points of minor importance,
chielly respecting the administration of the Lord's supper.
These latter have sprung up chiefly out of what, in Scot-
land, is termed the Tabernacle Connexion ; that is, from
the societies gathered by the ministry and means of Messrs.
James and Robert Haldane. Setting out upon the princi-
ple of PEedo-baptism, numbers of them in process of time
changed their views on the article of Baptism, and formed
themselves into churches of that denomination, independ-
ent of the parent stock. Hence much confusion has arisen
among the Scottish Baptist churches, which has much de-
faced the beauty of the profession in that quarter. This
evil has also been greatly heightened in consequence of
divisions which have taken place among the original Scotch
Baptist churches themselves, occasioned by a sentiment
getting in among them, that the Lord's supper is not pe-
culiarly a church ordinance, nor the administration of it a
matter which belongs exclusively to the pastoral oflice ;
but that, on the contrary, it is the duty of any two or three
persfins, who may come together to worship God on the
first day of the week, to take the Lord's supper, though
none of them be a pastor. The adoption of this princi-
ple has occasioned considerable separations from the parent
societies, and introduced many divisions and subdivisions
among them ; an evil which time and further experience.
It is hoped, will rectify. For a more detailed account of
the General Baptists, the reader may consult Mr. Adam
Tnytorh History of the General Baptists, and his Life, of
Mr. Dan Taylor. And for a fuller view of the doctrinal
sentiments and social reUgious practices of the Scottish
Baptists, he is refened to The Works of Mr. Arch.
M'Lean, partiailarly his lUvstration of Christ's Commission
to his Apostles ; Mr. J. A. Haldane's View of Social Wor-
ship, &c. ; and 3tr. W. Braidn-ooiVs Letters on Various
Subjects, relating chiefly to Christian Fellowship and Chiirch
Order. For a complete account of the whole Baptist de-
nomination in England, see Cro;by, and Ivimey's History
of the English Baptists.
Ireland. In Dublin, fcc., Baptist churches have existed
for one hundred and eighty years. Of late, they increase
more rapidly than in times past, though the exact number
is not known.
United States. About ten years after the settlement
of New England, Roger Williams, the celebrated divine
of Salem, embraced the sentiments of the Baptists, for
which he was banished to Rhode Island. The first Ba\]-
tist church in the United States was founded by him at
Providence, Rhode Island, in 1639. The first minister
ever settled in New Hampshire was a Baptist, Hanserd
Knollys. He took charge of the first church in Dover, in
ir;35, but returned to England in 1639. His character has
been injured by most New England historians, but is vin-
dicated by Cotton Mather and Neale. Some of the first
settlers in Massachusetts, JIather says, were Baptists ;
" and as holy, watchful, fruitful, and heavenly people, as
perhaps any in the world ;" but the first church they at-
tempted to form was forcibly broken up by the magistrates,
and the members fined, by the General Court, in 1639.
Five years afterwards, a legislative act was passed for the
suppression of the obnoxious sect, " but with what suc-
cess," says Mr. Hubbard, " it is hard to say ; all men
being naturally inclined to pity them that suffer." Letters
of remonstrance from Sir Henry Vane and Sir Richard
Saltonstall, then in England, had no effect in arresting
the hand of persecution; "the bloody tenet" was carried
into operation upon the Baptists and Quakers ; and such
was the dreadful bUndness it produced in some of the best
of men, that Christians — Protestants — Puritans^in the
light of the seventeenth century — were beheld resorting
to fines, and prisons, and whipping posts, and gibbets, to
break down the consciences of their brethren, for whom
Christ died ! But God, who is rich in mercy, caused good
to arise out of evil. The persecutions inflicted on Messrs.
Holmes, Clark, and Crandal, drew the attention of Presi-
dent Dunster of Cambridge to the question in dispute ;
and lie became a convert to Baptist principles, though at
the loss of his high office. His preaching against infant
baptism led BIr. Thomas Gould to examine the subject ;
whose inquiries issued in founding the first Baptist church
in Boston, in 1065. But the legal opposition, in this state,
and the " glorious liberties'' of Rhode Island which invited
removal, so retarded their progress, that only eighteen
Baptist churches Avere found in this state a century after-
wards, at the commencement of the revolutionary war.
Under the new government, though for some time not fa-
vored with equal rights, their circumstances were greatly
improved and their numbers rapidly increased. This was
the case also in the other States of the Union; until they
have become, it is supposed, the most numerous denomi-
nation of Christians in the United States.
Besides the Regular or Associated Baptists, who are in
sentiment moderate Calvinists, there are several smaller
bodies who adopt the same views of baptism, but have no
direct connection with them. The Seventh-day Baptists
are mostly Calvinistic ; but the Free-'Will Baptists are
supposed to be inclined to Arminianism ; and the Chris-
tians, a sect which arose among them about thirty years
.since, with few exceptions, deny the Trinity. Formerly,
the Free-Will and the Christian Baptists were connected
together on the principles of Free or Mixed Communion ;
but latterly, a separation has taken place, similar to that
of the New Connexion in England. These denomina-
tions will be found under their proper names.
The Baptists of all denominations being independent or
congregational in their form of church government, their
ecclesiastical assemblies disclaim all right to interfere with
the concerns of individual churches. Their public meet-
ings by delegation from different churches, are held for the
purpose of mutual advice and improvement, but not for
the general government of the whole body.
The Associated Baptists in this country meet annually
in associations, and state conventions, to promote mis-
sions, education, and other benevolent objects. Every
three years there is a meeting of the Baptist General Con-
vention of the United States, which was formed at Phila-
delphia in 1814, and is restricted by its constitution to the
promotion of foreign missions. The American Baptist
Home Mission Society, formed in 1832, is chiefly de-
signed to supply the wants of the great valley of the l\Iis-
sissippi. They have also a General Tract Society at
Philadelphia. All these organizations, of course, are vo-
luntary and free ; the suggestions of brotherly love and
philanthropic wisdom, not the enactments of ecclesiastical
power. So long as they continue on this footing, and are
watched over by a vigilant prudence, they do not seem
liable to the abuses of clerical power, which in former
ages corrupted the churches from the simplicity which is
in Christ ; while by combining their sounsels, affections
and prayers, it enables the whole body to act with tenfold
advantage, energy and success, in advancing the Redeem-
er's kingdom on earth. They sustain missions in Burmah,
Siam, France, Western Africa, and among the American
Indians.
They have already established five or six colleges, nu-
merous academics and manual labor schools, and six
theological institutions, in different parts of the United
States, which are in a flourishing condition. In New
England alone, they have three hundred students prepar-
ing for the Christian ministry, and in the rest of the States
perhaps more than double that number.
The number of Regular Baptists in America, as reported
in Allen's Register for 1833, was as follows : 309 associa-
tions ; 5458 churches ; 3204 ordained ministers ; 402,863
communicants. About 50,000 communicants were added
to the churches by baptism in 1832. Connected with this
denomination is a population of not far from tluee millionb
•BAP
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ol souls ; embracing a respectable share of the wealth,
talent, learning, and influence of the country, as 'well as
one fifth of its population.
The following brief Declaration of Faith, with the
Church Covenant, was recently published by the Baptist
Convention of New Hampshire, and is believed to ex-
press, with little variation, the general sentiments of the
body in the United States.
I. Of the Scriptures. — We believe the Holy Bible
was written by men divinely inspired, and is a perfect
treasure of heavenly instruction ; thai it has God for its
author, salvation for its end, and truth without any mix-
ture of error for its matter ; that it reveals the principles
by which God will judge us ; and therefore is, and shall
remain to the end of the world, the true centre of Christian
union, and the supreme standard by which all human
conduct, creeds and opinions should be tried.
II. Of the true God. — That there is one, and only one,
true and living God, whose name is JEHOVAH, the Ma-
ker and Supreme Kuler of heaven and earth; inexpressi-
bly glorious in holiness ; worthy of all possible honor, con-
fidence and love ; revealed under the personal and relative
distinctions of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ;
equal in every divine perfection, and executing distinct
out harmonious offices in the great work of redemption.
III. Of the Fall of Man. — That man was created in a
state of holiness, under the law of his Maker, but by
voluntary transgression fell from that holy and happy
state ; in conseqtience of which all mankind are now sin-
ners, not by constraint but choice ; being by nature ntterh"^
void of that holiness required by the law of God, wholly
given to the gratification of the world, of Satan, and of
their own sinful passions, and therefore under just con-
demnation to eternal ruin, without defence, or excuse.
IV. Of the Way of Salvatio.-j. — That the salvation of
sinners is wholly of grace, through the mediatorial offices
of the Son of God, who took upon him otir nature, yet with-
out sin ; honored the law by his personal obedience, and
made atonement for our sins by his death ; being risen
from the dead, he is now enthroned in heaven ; and uniting
in his wonderful person the tenderest sympathies with di-
vine perfections, is every waj' qualified to be a suitable, a
compassionate, and an all-sufficient Savior.
V. Of Justification. — That the great Gospel blessing,
which Christ of his fulness bestows on sitch as believe in
Him, is justification ; that justification consists in the
pardon of sin and the promise of eternal life, on principles
of righteousness ; that it is bestowed not in consideration
of any works of righteousness which we have done, but
solely through his own redemption and righteousness ;
hat it brings us into a state of most blessed peace and fa-
vor with God, and secures every other blessing needful for
time and eternity.
VI. Of the Freeness of Salvation. — That the blessings
of salvation are made free to all by the Gospel ; that it is
the immediate duty of all to accept them by a cordial and
obedient faith ; and that nothing prevents the salvation of
the greatest sinner on earth, except his own voluntary
refusal to submit to the Lord Jesus Christ ; which refusal
will subject him to an aggravated condemnation.
VII. Of Grace in Reseneration. — That in order to be
saved, we must be regenerated or born again ; that rege-
neration consists in giving a holy disposition to the mind,
and is effected in a manner above our comprehension or
calculation, by the power of the Holy Spirit, so as to se-
cure our voluntary obedience to the Gospel ; and that its
proper evidence is found in the holy fruit which we bring
forth to the glory of God.
VIII. Of Gud's PiTtposE of Grace. — That election is
the gracious purpose of God, according to which he rege-
nerates, sanctifies, and saves sinners ; that being perfectly
consistent with the free agency of man, it comprehends all
the means in connection with the end ; that it is a most
glorious display of God's sovereign goodness, being infi-
nitely wise, holy and unchangeable ; that it utterly ex-
cludes boasting, and piomotes humility, prayer, praise,
trust in God, and active imitation of his free mercy ; that
it encourages the use of means in the highest degree ;
that it is ascertained by its effects in all who believe the
Gospel; is the foundation of Christian assurance; and
that to ascertain it with regard to ourselves, demands and
deserves our utmost diligence.
IX. Of the Perse\-erance of Saints. — That such only
are real believers as endure unto the end ; that th^ir
persevering attachment to Christ is the <;rand mark which
distinguishes them from superficial professors ; that a spe-
cial Providence watches over their welfare ; and they aie
kept by the power of God through faith unto sa.vation.
X. Harmony of the Law and Gospel. — That the law
of God is the eternal and unchangeable rule of his moral
government ; that it is holy, just, and good ; and that the
inability which the Scriptures ascribe to fallen men to fulfil
its precepts, arises entirely from their love of sin ; to deli-
ver them from which, and to restore them through a Me-
diator to unfeigned obedience to the holy law, is one great
end of the Gospel, and of the means of grace connected
with the establishment of the visible church.
XI. Of a Gospel Church — That a visible church of
Chri.st is a congregation of baptized believers, associated
by covenant in the faith and fellowship of the Gospel ;
observing the ordinances of Christ ; governed by his
laws ; and exercising the gifts, rights and privileges, in-
vested in them by his word ; that its only proper officers
are bishops or pastors, and deacons, whose qualifications,
claims, and duties are defined in the Epistles to Timothy
and Titus.
XII. Of Baptism and the Lord's Supper. — That Chris-
tian baptism is the immersion of a believer in water, in
the name of the Father, Son, and Spirit ; to show forth in
a solemn and beautiful emblem, our faith in a crucified,
buried, and risen Savior, with its purifying power ; that
it is pre-requisite to the privileges of a church relation ;
and to the Lord's supper, in which the members of the
church, by the use of bread and wine, are to commemorate
together the dying love of Christ; preceded always by
solemn self-examination.
XIII. Of the Christian Sabbath. — That the first day
of the week is the Lord's Day, or Christian Sabbath, and
is to be kept sacred to religious purposes, by abstaining
from all secular labor and recreations ; by the devout ob-
servance of all the means of grace, both private and pub-
lic ; and by preparation for that rest which remaineth for
the people of God.
XIV. Of Civil Government. — That civil government Ja
of divine appointment, for the interests and good order of
human society ; and that magistrates are to be prayed for,
conscientiously honored, and obeyed, except in things op-
posed to the will of our Lord Jesus Christ, who is the only
Lord of the conscience, and the Prince of the kings of the
earth.
XV. Of the Righteous and the AVicked. — That there
is a radical and essential diflference between the righteous
and the wicked ; that such only as through faith are justi-
fied in the name of the Lord Jesus, and sanctified by the
Spirit of our God, are truly righteous in his esteem ; while
all such as continue in impenitence and unbelief are in his
sight wicked, and under the curse ; and this distinction
holds among men both in and after death.
XVI. Of the AVorld to cojce. — That the end of this
world is approaching; that at the last day, Christ will
descend from heaven, and raise the dead from the grave,
to final retribution ; that a solemn separation will therf
take place ; that the wicked will be adjudged to endless
punishment, and the righteous to endless joy ; and that
this judgment will fix forever the final state of men in
heaven or hell, on principles of righteousness.
Church Co\-enant. — Ha%'ing been, as we trust, brought
by divine grace to embrace the Lord Jesus Christ, and to
give up ourselves wholly to him ; we do now solemnly
and joyfully covenant with each other, to walk together
IN HIM with brotherly lo'\'e, to his glory as our common
Lord. We do, therefore, in his strength engage,
That we will exercise a mutual care, as members one
of another, to promote the growth of the whole body in
Christian knowledge, holiness, and comfort ; to the end
that we may stand perfect and complete in all the will of
God.
That to promote and secure this object, we will uphold
the public worship of God and the ordinances of his house ;
and hold constant communion with each other therein;
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BAK
that we will cheerfully contribute of our property for the
support of the poor, and for tlie maintenance of a faithful
ministry of the Gospel among us.
That we will not omit closet and family religion at
home, nor allow ourselves in the too common neglect of
the great duty of religiously training up our children, and
those under our care, with a view to the service of Christ,
and the enjoyment of heaven.
That we will walk circumspectly in the world, that we
may vnn their souls ; remembering that God hath not
given us the spirit of fear, but of power and of love and
of a sound mind ; that we are the light of the world and
the salt of the earth, and that a city set on a hill cannot
be hid.
That we will frequently exhort, and if occasion shall
i-equire, admonish one another, according to Matthew
lyth, in the spirit of meel;ness ; considering ourselves
est we also be tempted, and that as in baptism we have
'jeen buried with Christ, and raised again ; so there is on
IS a special obligation henceforth to walk in newness of
ife.
And may the God of peace, who brought again from
the dead our Lord Jesus, that great Shepherd of the sheep,
through the blood of the everlasting covenant, make us
perfect in every good work to do his will ; v.-orking in us
that which is well pleasing in his sight through Jesus
Christ : to whom be glory forever and ever. Amen.
In church order, discipline, &c. the Baptists agree with
the CoKGREGATiOKALisTs ; which see. — Backus ; Benedict's
History of the Baptists; Allen's Baptist Eegister ; Du Pin;
Basnage ; Mosheim ; Milner ; Vv'addijiglon ; Robinson's
Ecclesiastical Researches ; Jones's History of the Christian
Church ; Jones's Dictionary of Religions Opinions.
BAR ; (1.) that whereby a door is bolted and made fast.
Neh. 3: 3, 6. (2.) A narrow cross-board, or rafter, to fas-
ten other boards to. Exnd. 26: 2G. (3.) A rock in the sea
that runs across its bottom. Jonah 2: 6. (4.) The bank or
shore of the sea, which as a bar shuts up its waves in their
own place. Job 38: 10. (5.) Strong fortifications and
powerful impediments are called oars, or bars of iron.
Amos 1: 5. Isa. 45; 2.
BARABBAS; a notorious robber, guilty also of sedi-
tion and murder ; yet preferred before Jesus Christ, by the
Jews. John 18: 40. Origen says, that in many copies,
Barabbas was called Jksus likewise. The Armenian has
the same reading : " Whom will ye that I deliver unto
you ; Jesus Barabbas, or Jesus who is called Christ ?"
This gives an additional spirit to the history, and well
deserves notice. — Calmet.
BAEACHEL, (blessing, or hmmng the knee to God ;) the
father of Elihu. Job 23: 6.
BARACHIAS; the father of Zacharias, mentioned Matt.
23; 35. and generallj' thought to have been Baruch, father
of Zechariah, who is mentioned by Josephus, in his books
concerning the Jewish war, as having been killed between
the porch and the altar, by the zealots, a little before the
taking of Jerusalem by the Romans.— Calmet.
BARAK ; the son of Abinoam, who was chosen by God
to deliver the Hebrews from that bondage under which
they were held by Jabin, king of the Canaanites, Judg. 4:
4. He refused to obey the Lord's orders, signified to him
*by Deborah, the prophetess, unless she consented to go
with him. Deborah therefore accompanied him towards
Kedesh of Naphtali ; and having assembled ten thousand
men, they advanced to mount Tabor. Sisera, being in-
formed of this movement, ntarcbed with nine hundred
chariots of war, and encamped near the river Kishon ;
but Barak rapidly descending from mount Tabor, and the
Lord having spread terror through Sisera's army, a com-
plete victory was easily obtained. Sisera was lolled by
Jael, and Barak and Deborah composed a hymn of thanks-
giving.— Calmet.
BARBARIAN ; a word ttsed by the Hebrews to denote
a stranger ; one who knows neither the holy language, nor
the law. According to the Greeks, all other nations, how-
ever learned or polite they might be in themselves and in
their manners, were barbarians. Hence Paul compre-
hends all mankind under the names of Greeks and barba-
rians, (Rom. 1: 14.) and Luke calls the inhabitants of the
'sland of Malta, barbarians, Acts 28: 2, 4. In 1 Cor. 11:
11. the apostle says, that if he who speaks a foreign laa
guage in an assembly, be not understood by those to
whom he discourses, with respect to them he is a bar-
barian ; and, reciprocally, if he understand not those who
speak to him, they are to him barbarians. Barbarian,
therefore, is used for every stranger, or foreigner, who
does not speak our native language, and includes no im-
plication whatever of savage nature or manners in those
respecting whom it is used. — Calmet.
BARBED ; having points like hooks or prickles of
thorn. Job 41; 17.
BARCEPHA, (Moses;) a Syrian bishop, of the ninth
century, celebrated for his great learning. The works of
his now extant, display marks of true genius, and an un-
common acquaintance with the art of writing.
BARCLAY, (Robert,) the celebrated apologist of the
Quakers, was born in 1648, at Gordonstown, in the shire
of Moray, in Scotland, of an ancient and honorable family.
The troubles of the country induced his father, Colonel
Barclay, to send him to Paris, to be educated under the
care of his uncle, who was principal of the Scotch college
in that city. Under his influence, he was easily induced to
become a convert to the Roman Catholic faith, on which
his father sent for him to return home, and soon after turn-
ing Quaker, yoijng Robert followed his example. Unit-
ing all the advantages of a learned education to great
natural abibties, it was not long ere he distinguished him-
self by his talents and zeal, in support of his new opinions.
His first work, published in 1(570, entitled " Truth cleared
of Calumnies, &c." Avas an answer to an attack on the
Quakers by a Scotch minister of the name of IMitchel. It
is written with great spirit and vigor, and tended greatly
to remove from the bc/dy the opprobrium under which they
lay with government. The book, however, which has
fixed his celebrity, is his " Apology for the True Christian
Divinity, as the same is preached and held forth by the
People in scorn called Quakers." It was originally pub-
lished in Latiti, and soon reprinted at Amsterdam, and
translated into German, Dutch, French, and Spanish, and,
by the author himself, into English. It received many
answers ; but they are now almost forgotten. The author
afterwards accompanied William Penn through the greater
part of England, Holland, and Germany, for the purpose
of propagating their sentiments, and acquired great respect
wherever he went. He had, however, after this, his own
share of persecution, and was inore than once imprisoned,
but spent the latter part of his life in the bo.som of a large
family, and died in 1690, in the forty-second year of his
age. — Hend. Buck.
BARCLAY, (Heivky, D. D.) an episcopal clergyman in
New Y^irk, was a native of Albany, and graduated at
Yale college in 1734. In Englaiid, he received orders in
the church, and was appointed missionary to the Mohawk
Indians. Having served in this capacity for some years,
with but little success, he was called to the city of New
York, and appointed rector of Trinity church. In this
respectable station he continued till his death, in 1765.
The translation of the liturgy into the Mohawk language,
made under his direction, and that of Rev. W. Andrews
and J. Ogilvie, was printed in 1769. Mr. Ogilvie suc-
ceeded him both among the Indians and at New York. —
Life of Bitten. 245 ; Millers Retr. ii. 356 ; Allen.
BAR-CHOCHEBA, or Chocheeas, or CnocniBUS ; a fa-
mous impostor. It is said, he assumed the name of Bar-
Chocheba, that is. Son of the Star, from the words of Bala-
am, which he applied to himself as the Messiah : " There
shall come a star (cocab) out of Jacob, and a sceptre out
of Israel." Bar-Chocheba engaged the Jews to revolt,
(A. D. 136,) under the reign of Adrian, who sent Julius
Severus against him. The Romans shut him up in Bether,
the siege of which was long and obstinate. The town,
however, was at length taken, and the war finished. Bar-
Chocheba perished, and the multitude of Jews put to death,
or sold during the war, and in consequence of it, was al-
most innumerable. After this, Adrian published an edict,
forbidding the Jews, on pain of death, to \-isit Jerusalem ;
and guards were placed at the gates, to prevent their en
tering. The rebellion of Bar-Chocheba happened A. D
136, in the 19th year of Adrian.— C«/me(.
BARD. CJoHN, M. D.) a learned physirian, was born in
BAR
[ 193
BAR
?'irlinglon, New Jersey, February 1, 17U). He receiveil :it»
vi-rly education uuiler the care of Mr. Aiinaii of Pliiladel-
!'\iia, a verj' eminent teacher. About the age of fifteen, he
las bound an apprentice for -ieveu years to Dr. Kearsly,
=i surgeon, of unliappy temper, and rigorous in the treat-
3i?ut of his pupils. Under his thraldom, the kindness of
.Mrs. Kearsly and the friendship of Dr. Franlilin beguiled
!i s sorrows. He engaged in business in 1737, and soon
V'Sjuired a large share of practice, and became much re-
•siiected. In 1743, he was induced hy urgent applications
t.XJm New York, to remove to that city, to supply the loss
of several eminent physicians. Here he continued till
vithin a few months of his death. In the year 1795, when
liie yellow fever had put to flight a number of physicians,
who were in the meridian of life, the veteran Dr. Bard,
I hough verging towards his eightieth year, remained at his
post. In May, 1798, he removed to his estate at Hyde
Vark, near Poughkeepsie Here he continued in the en-
nyment of perfect health, till he felt a paralytic stroke,
'vhich in a few days occasioned his death. He died, March
:iH ! 799, aged eighty-three years.
Dr. Bard was eminent in his profession, and his practice
was very extensive. Soon after the close of the war with
Great Britain, on the re-establishment of the Medical So-
ciety of the state of New York, he was elected its presi-
dent ; and he was placed in the chair for six or seven
successive years. He possessed a singular ingenuity and
:iuickness in discriminating diseases ; yet he did not pre-
sumptuously confide in his penetration, but was remarka-
bly particular in his inquiries into the circumstances of
the sick. Ever desirous of removing the disorders to
which the human frame is subject, his anxiety and atten-
tion were not diminished when called to visit the indigent,
from whom he could not expect compensation. His con-
duct, through his whole life, was marked by the strictest
honor and integrity. In conversation he was polite, affa-
ble, cheerful, and entertaining. To his pupils he was not
only an instructer, but a father. In the early part of his
Sfe. he devoted much attention to polite learning, in which
ae made great proficiency. He possessed a correct and
■elegant taste, and wrote with uncommon accuracy and
precision. He drew up an essay on the pleurisy of Long
Island in 1749, which was not published ; a paper, inserted
:n the London Medical Observations ; and several papers
in the yellow fever, and the evidence of its importation,
nserted in the American Medical Register. In 1750, he
■,>.sisted Dr. Bliddleton in the first recorded dissection in
America, that of Hermannus Carroll, executed for murder.
He was a firm believer in the truth and excellency of
■.be Christian religion. In a letter to his son, Dr. Samuel
ttard, he s.aid, -'Above all things, suffer not yourself by
■'.ny company or example, to depart, either in your conver-
siiion or practice, from the highest reverence taGod and
your religion." In his old age he was cheerfu* and re-
niarkable for his gratitude to his heavenly Father. —
riincher's Med. Biog. 9(5—103; M'Vickarh Life of S.
Gard ; Allen.
BARDESANES ; one of the ancient heretics. He
nourished about the year 170, and wa.s a native of Edes-
;ia, in Mesopotamia. According to Eusebius, he was inti-
mately acquainted with the Chaldean philosophy, and is
s\id also to have been well skilled in the Greek and Syrian
languages. He wrote against Marcion and other heretics,
•^■it afterwards fell into some of the errors of the Valen-
ii'iian school. Yet though this was the case, it would be
li.ijust to class his tenets indiscriminately with those of
; alentinus. He received the whole of the Old Testament,
tie believed that God, who was the Father of Jesus Christ,
(>■ IS the Creator of the world ; and he even held that the
'■'"ord of God, or his Son, co-operated in this creation. He
ri -Id, however, that the body of Jesus was a delusive
i.iiage which came down from heaven ; in which point,
iv.d that of the denial of the resurrection of the body, he
.iJTsed with Valentinus. It is also stated to have been
'- ne of his opinions, that the devil was not created by God.
H'! appears to have lived to retract some of his errors, and
!•■ abjure the doctrines of Valentinus. The fullest account
•1 his life and doctrines is given by Beausobre, vol. ii. p.
I 'S. See also Dr. Burton on the Early Tlcresics, note 13.—
Il-nd. Buch.
25
BARDESANISTS ; those who held the opinions if
Bardesanes.
BAR-JESUS, or, according to some copies, Bar-Jeu..
was a Jewish magician in the island of Crete. Acts 13.
6. Origen and Chrj'sostom think that Elymas, or Bar
Jesus, was converted, and that St. Paul speedily restored
his sight. — Watson.
EAR-JONA ; a name by which our Savior sometimes
calls Peter; (Matt. 16: 17.) and which, as some think, is
put for Bar-Johanna, son of John. — Calmet.
BARK ; (1.) to utter a cry, as a dog ; to give an alarm
of danger. Ministers, that, as dumb dogs, cannot bark, aie
such as have neither conscience nor courage to reprove
men's sins, and publish the alarming truths revealed by
God in his Word. Isa. 56: 10. Also, (2.) To peel the
bark or rind off a tree. Joel 1: 7.
BARLAAJMITES; the followers of BaHaam, in the
fourteenth century, who was a very zealous champion in
behalf of the Greek against the Latin church. It is saiil
that he adopted the sentiments and precepts of the Stoics,
with respect to the obligations of morality and the duties
of life ; and digested them into a work of his, which is
known bv the title of Ethica ex Stoicis. — Henderson's Buck.
BARLEY ; Exod. 9: 31. Levit. 27: 16, Arc. A well-
known kind of grain. It derives its Hebrew name frorr
the long hairy beard which grows upon the ear. Pliny,
on the testimony of Blenander, says that barley was the
most ancient aliment of mankind. In Palestine, the bar-
ley was sown about October, and reaped in the end of
March, just after the passover. In Egypt, the barley har-
vest was later; for when the hail fell there, (Exodus 9:
31.) a few days before the passover, the flax and bar-
ley were bruised and destroyed : for the flax was at its
full growth, and the barley began to form its green ears ;
but the wheat, and more backward grain, were not
damaged, because they were only in the blade, and the
hail bruised the young shoots which produce the ears.
The rabbins sometimes called barley the food of beasts,
because in reality they fed theif cattle with it, (1 Kings 4:
28.) and from Homer and other ancient writers we learn,
that barley was given to horses. The Hebrews, however,
frequently used barley bread, as we find by several pas-
sages of Scripture : for example, David's frien,-ls brought
to him in his flight, wheat, barley, flour, ice. 2 Sam. 17:
28. Solomon sent wheat, barley, oil, and wine, to the la-
borers king Hiram had furnished him. 2 Chron. 2: 15.
Elijah had a present made him of twenty barley loaves,
and corn in the husk. 2 Kings 4: 22. And, by miracu-
lously increasing the five barley loaves, Christ fed a mul-
titude of about five thousand. John (i: 8 — 10. The jea-
lousy-oflTering. in the Levitical i-istitution, was to be barley
meal. Numb. 5: 15. The common mincha, or offering,
was of fine wheat flour, (Le\at. 2: 1.) but this was of bar-
ley, a meaner grain, probably to denote the vile condition
of the person in whose behalf it was offered. For wliieh
reason, also, there was no oil or frankincense permitted to
be offered with it. Sometimes barley is put for a low.
contemptible reward or price. So the false prophets aic
charged with seducing the people for handfuls of barley,
and morsels of bread. Ezek. 13: 19. Hosea bought his
emblemaiic bride for fifteen pieces of silver, and a homer
and a half of barley. Hosea 3: 2. — Watson.
BARNABAS ; a disciple of Jesus Christ, and com-
panion of St. Paul in his labors. He was a Levite, born
in the isle of Cyprus. His proper name was Joses, to
which the apostles added Barnabas, signifying the soh of
cxmsolatinn. He is generally considered one of the sevcnlV
disciples, chosen by our Savior. He w;i.s brouglu up with
Paul, ,at the feet of Gamaliel. When that apostle cime to
Jerusalem, three years after his conversion. Barnabas in-
troduced him to the other a|X)Stles. (Acts 9: 26. 27.) about
A. D. 37. Five years afterwards, the church al Jerusalem,
being informed of the progress of the Gospel al Antioch,
sent Barnabas thither, who beheld n-ilh great joy the won-
ders of the grace of God. Acts 11: 22, 24. He exhorted
the faithful to perseverance. Some lime afterwards, he
went to Tarsus, to seek Paul, and bring him to Antioch,
where they jointly labored two years, and converted great
numbers; and here the discip'les were first called Chris-
tians. They lef\ Antioch, A. D. 44, to convey alms from
BAR
[ 194
BAR
lliis church to that al Jerusalem. At their return, they
Ijnmght John Mark, the cousin of Barnabas. While they
were at Antioch, the Holy Ghost directed that they should
be separated for those labors among the Gentiles to which
he had appointed them. They departed into Cyprus,
wherr they converted Sergius Paulus, the proconsul.
They preached at Perga, in Pamphylia, without much
su 'cess, by reason of the obstinacy and malice of the
Jews ; but being come to Iconium, they made many con-
verts. Here the Jews stirred up a sedition, and obliged
them to retire to Derbe and Lystra, in Lycaonia, where
St. Paul curing one jEneas, who had been lame from his
birth, the people of Lystra regarded them as gods ; •■ailing
Barnabas, Jupiter, and Paul, Mercury ; and would have
sacriiiced to them, which the two apostles with great diffi-
culty hindered : nevertheless, soon afterwards, they were
persecuted in this very city. Having revisited the cities
through which they had passed, and where they had
preached the Gospel, they returned to Antioch, in Syria.
In A. D. 51, Barnabas was sent with Paul from Antioch
to Jerusalem, on occasion of disputes concerning the ob-
servance of legal rites, to which the Jews wished to sub-
ject the Gentiles. Paul and Barnabas were present in the
council at Jerusalem, and returned immediately to Anti-
och. Peter, arriving there soon afterwards, was led to
countenance, in some degree, by his conduct, the obser-
vance of the fliosaic distinctions. Barnabas, too, (who,
being by descent a Levite, might retain some former no-
lions,) used the like dissimulation : but Paul reproved Pe-
ter and Barnabas with great freedom. Paul afterwards
determining to visit the churches in the isle of Cyprus,
and in Asia Minor, Barnabas desired that John Mark
might accompany them : but Paul objected, because Mark
had left them on the first journey. Hereupon the two
apostles separated : Paul went towards Asia ; and Barna-
bas, with Mark, to Cyprus. This is all we know certainly
concerning Barnabas. — Watson.
BARNABAS'S GOSPEL ; an apocryphal work ascribed
to Barnabas, the apostle, wherein the history of Jesus
Christ is related in a manner very different from the ac-
count given us by the four evangelists. The Mahome-
tans have this gospel in Arabic, and it corresponds very
well with those traditions which Mahomet followed in
his Koran. It was, probably, a forgery of some nominal
Christians, and afterwards altered and interpolated by the
Mahometans, the better to serve their purpose. — H. Buck.
BARNABAS'S EPISTLE. Barnabas, according to
Jerome, wrote a letter full of edification for the church. It
is frequently cited by Clement of Alexandria, and Origen.
Eusebius and Jerome reckon it among the apocryphal or
miranonUal writings ; but neither of them deny that it be-
longs to Barnabas. But he could not be author of a work
so full of forced allegories, extravagant and unwarrantable
explications of Scripture, together with stories concerning
beasts, and such like conceits, as make up the first part
of this epistle. It is uncertain to whom this epistle was
addressed, because we have not the superscription : but it
seems to have been written to the converted Jews, who
were too zealously addicted to the observance of the law
of Moses. It is divided into two parts. In the first, he
shows the unprofitableness of the old law, and the necessity
of the incai-nation and death of Jesus Christ. He cites,
and explains allegorically, several passages relating to the
ceremonies and precepts of the law of Moses, applying
them to Jesus Christ and his law. The second part is a
moral instruction, handled under the notion of two ways,
the one of light, the other of darhness ; the one under the
conduct of the angels of God, the other under the guidance
of the angels of Satan. The n-aij of light is a summary
of what a Christian is to do, in order to obtain eternal
happiness ; and the way of ilnrhiess is a representation of
those partictilar sins which exrdude men from the kingdom
of God.
This epistle was first published in Greek, from a copy
of father Hugh Menard, a Benedictine monk. An ancient
version of it was found in a manuscript of the abbey of
Corbey, near a thousand years old. Vossius published it
in the year 16.5li, together with the epistles of Ignatius.
Itisreiemly republished in the Apocryphal New Testa-
ment. Hend. Buck,
BARNABITES; a religious order, founded in the sll-
teenth century, by three Itaban gentlemen, who had been
advised, by a famous preacher of those days, to read care-
fully the epistles of St. Paul. Hence they were called
clerks of St. Paul ; and Burnabites, because they performed
their first exercise in the church of St. Barnabas, at Milan.
They dress in black, like the secular clergy, and devote
themselves to missions, preaching, and the instruction of
youth ; and in Italy, where they taught theology in the
academies of Milan and Pavia, in France, Austria, and
Spain, they had houses which they called colleges. In
France and Austria, they were employed to convert the
Protestants. The order only exists at present in Spain
and some parts of Italy. — Hend. Buck.
BARNARD, (John.) minister of Marblehead, Massa-
chusetts, was bom in Boston, November 6, 1681. His
parents were remarkable for their piety, and they took
particular care of his education. He was graduated at
Harvard college, in 1700. In the former part of his colle-
giate course, the sudden death of two of his acquaintance
impressed his mind, and led him to think of his own de-
parture from this world ; but the impression was soon ef-
faced. However, before he left that institution, he was
brought to repentance, and he resolved to yield himself to
the commands of God.
He was ordained minister of Marblehead, July IS,
1716, as colleague with Mr. Cheever. In 1762, he receiv-
ed Mr. Whitwell as his assistant. The last sermon which
he preached, was delivered, January 8, 1569. He died,
January 24, 1770, aged eighty-eight years.
Mr. IBarnard was eminent for his learning and piety,
and was famous among the divines of America. During
the latter part of his life, when he retained a vigor of mind
and zeal uncommon at so advanced an age, he was re-
garded as the father of the churches. His form was re-
markably erect, and he never bent under the infirmities
of years. His countenance was grand, his mien majestic,
and there was a dignity in his whole deportment. His
presence restramed the imprudence and folly of youth,
and when the aged saw him, ihey arose and stood up. He
added a knowledge of the Hebrew to his other theological
attainments; he was well acquainted with the mathema-
tics ; and he excelled in skill for naval architecture.
When he first went to Marblehead, and for some years
afterwards, there was not one trading vessel belonging to
the town. It was through his exertions, that a commer-
cial improvement soon took place.
His charity was of a kind which is worthy of imitation.
He was not disposed to give much encouragement to com
mon beggars ; but he sought out those objects of benevo-
lent attention, who modestly hid their wants. The poor
were often fed by him, and tire widow's heart was glad-
dened, while they knew not where to return thanks, except
to the merciful Father of the wretched. In one kind of
charity he was somewhat peculiar. He generally sup-
ported at school two boys, whose parents were unable to
meet this expense. By his last will, he gave two hundred
pounds to Harvard college. He left no children. In his
sickness, which terminated in his death, he said, with
tears flowing from his eyes, " My very soul bleeds, when
I remember my sins ; but I trust I have sincerely repent-
ed, and that God will accept me for Christ's sake. His
righteousness is my only dependence."
The publications of Mr. Barnard are numerous and
valuable. They show his theological knowledge, and his
talents as a writer. His style is plain, warm, and ener-
getic. The doctrines wJiich he enforces, are the same
which were embraced by the fathers of New England.
His version of the Psalms, which he published when he
was about seventy yeai-s of age, he fondly hoped would
be sung in all the New England churches ; but it was
never used beyond the limits of the town in which it wa.s
composed. The labors of Watts had rendered it unneces-
sary. A letter from Mr. Barnard to President Stilew,
written in 1767, giving a sketch of the eminent ministerK
of New England, is published in the Massachusetts His-
torical Collections. — Whitwell' s Fun. Serm. ; Collect. Hist.
Soc. viii. 66—69 ; X. 157, 167 ; Holmes, ii. 525 ; Allen.
BARNES, (Daniel H. LL. D.,) a distinguished concho
logist, died in the meridian of life, October 27. 1818. He
J
BAR
[ 195
BAR
and Dr. Griscom originated, and conducted with great
reputation, the high school of New York. He was also a
Baptist preacher. Invited by General Van Rensselaer to
attend the first public e.Kamination of the school establish-
ed by him at Troy, he proceeded to New Lebanon, and
there preached on Sunday, the day before his death, from
the text, " Ye know not what shall be on the marrow. For
what is your Ufe," &c. On Monday, while riding between
Nassau and Troy, the driver being thrown from his seat
as the stage was rapidly descending a hill. Dr. Barnes, in
his alarm, jumped from the carriage and fractured his
skull. He died in a short time after. Of the New York
lyceum of natural history he was an active member.
He was a classical scholar of high attainments, and of a
most estimable character as a man. He had presided
over several seminaries, and refused the presidency of the
college at Washington city. He was probably the first
conchologist in the United States. His learned communi-
cations on conchologj' were published in Silliman's Jour-
nal, with explanatory plaies.—Sillinwn's Jovrnal, xv. 401 :
Allen.
BARONIUS, (C^sAB,) an ecclesiastical historian, was
Corn in 1538, at Sora, in the Neapolitan territory, entered
the church, and, in 1598, rose to the dignity of cardinal.
But for the opposition of the Spanish court, he would have
filled the papal chair. His death took place in 1607. He
*rote several works ; but the production on which his
tame rests, is the Ecclesiastical Annals, from the first to
'he twelfth century. — Davenport.
BARRALIER, (H. F. N. D.) a youth of piety and pre-
xjcious talents, was bom at Mai-seiUes, in 1805, acquired
I knowledge of languages with extraordinary facility, and,
)<?fore he was sixteen, wrote a discourse on the Immor-
tality of the Soul; a Treatise on Morality; and some
,)oems. He died in 1821. — Darenport.
BARRINGTON, (Lord Viscount,) was the youngest
son of Benjamin Shute, a merchant of London, who was
(tie youngest son of Francis Shute, of Upton, in the county
n; Leicester, esquire. He was born at Theobalds, in
Hertfordshire, in the year 1678 ; and he received part of
his education at Utrecht, as appears from a Latin oration
which he delivered at that university. After his return
(<.' England, he applied himself to the study of the law in
the Inner Temple ; and. in 1701, he published, but without
his name, "An Essay upon the Interest of England, in
respect to Protestants dissenting from the Established
Church ;" a piece in which he endeavored to make it ap-
pear, that it would be unjust and impolitic to pass any
new laws unfavorable to the Dissenters ; and, in particu-
iar, to prevent occasional conformity. It was reprinted
two years after, with considerable enlargements ; and the
title, likewise, was somewhat varied. Having thus drawn
his pen in a good cause, and acquitted himself wnth great
reputation, he proceeded to publish another piece, iu quar-
to, entitled, " The Rights of Protestant Dissenters," in
two parts. — A second edition of which was printed in
1705, and dedicated to queen Anne.
In the year 1725, lord Barrington published, in (wo
volumes, octavo, his " Miscellanea Sacra ; or, a New Me-
thixl of considering so much of the History of the Apostles
as is contained in Scripture ; with four Critical Essays :
1. On the Witness of the Holy Spirit. 2. On the Distinc-
tion between the Apostles, Elders, and Brethren. 3. On
the Time when Paul and Barnabas became Apostles. 4.
On the Apostolical Decrees." In this work the noble au-
thor has, with great accuracy and judgment, traced the
methods taken by the apostles and first preachers of the
Gospel for propagating Christianity ; and explained, with
great distinctness, the several gifts of the Spirit, by which
they were enabled to discharge that office. These, in
particular, he has improved into an argument for the truth
of the Christian reUgion, which is said to have staggered
the infidelity of Mr. Anthony Collins. His lordship was
also author of several other tracts, chiefly political, which
he published at different times, and upon various occa-
sions. He died at his seat at Becket, in Berkshire, after
an Ulness of seven hours only, on the 14th of December,
1734, in the fifty-sixlh year of bis age.
This learned and distinguished nobleman was a disciple
tnd I'riend of ^Mr. Locke ; and as he had the highest re-
gard for the holy Scriptures, in which he was emmently
skilled, so, as a theological writer, he contributed greatly
to the diffusing of that spirit of free scriptural criticism,
which has since obtained among all denominations of
Christians. At the same time, his exemplary candor to-
ward those who differed from him in regard to religious
opinions, and his steady attachment to the principles of
liberty, both in church and stale, carried with them their
own encomium.
In private life, his lordship was a shining example of
sobriety, regularity, and justice ; he was religious without
enthusiasm, and zealous without bigotry. He was re-
markable for the politeness of his manners, and the grace-
fulness of his address ; and he enjoyed the constant friend-
ship and esteem of many of the greatest and best men the
nation ever knew.
He generally attended divine worship among the Dis-
senters, and for many years received the sacrament at
Pinners' hall, when Dr. Jeremiah Hunt was pastor of the
congregation that assembled there. — Brit. Biog. ; Jones's
Chris. Biog.
BARRENNESS. This was looked upon as reproach-
ful among the Greeks and Romans, but more particularly
so among the Jews ; which may be accounted for by the
constant expectation of the Jlessiah, and the hope that
every woman had, that she might be the mother of the
promised seed. This constant hope of the speedy coming
of the great " Seed of the woman," senes also to account
for many circumstances in the Old Testament history.
" Couple it," says the Rev. J. J. Blunt, " with this consi-
deration, and I see the scheme of revelation, like the phy-
sical scheme, proceeding with beautiful uniformity : a
unity of plan, ' connecting,' as it has been well said by
Paley, 'the chicken roosting upon its perch, with the
spheres revolving in the firmament ;' and a unity of plan
connecting, in like manner, the meanest accidents of a
household, with the most illustrious visions of a ja'ophet.
Abstracted from this consideration, I see in the history of
Moses details of actions, some trilling, some even offensive,
pursued at a length (when compared with the whole)
singularly disproportionate ; while things which the an-
gels would desire to look into, are passed over and for-
gotten. But this principle once admitted, all is consecrat-
ed ; all assumes a new aspect ; trifles, that seem at first
not bigger than a man's hand, occupy the heavens ; and
wherefore Sarah laughed, for instance, at the prospect of
a son, and wherefore that laugh was rendered immortal
in his name ; and wherefore the sacred historian dwells
on a matter so trivial, whilst the world and its vast con-
cerns were lying at his feet, I can fully understand. For
then I see the hand of God shaping every thing to his own
ends, and in an event thus casual, thus easy, thus unim-
portant, telling forth his mighty design of salvation to the
world, and working it up into the web of his noble pro-
spective counsels. Gen. 21: I'l. I see that nothing is
great or little before Him who can bend to his p\uposos
whatever he willeth, and convert the light-hearted and
thoughtless mockery of an aged woman into an instru-
ment of his glory, effectual as the tongue of the seer
which he touched with living coals from the altar. Bear-
ing this master-key in my hand, I can interpret the scenes
of domestic mirth, of domestic stratagem, or of domestic
wickedness, with which the history of Moses abounds.
The Seed of the woman, that was to bruise the serpent's
head. Gen. 3: 15. however indistinctly understood, (and
probably it was understood very indistinctly,) was the one
thing longed for in the families of old ; was ' the desire
of all nations,'- as the prophet Haggai expressly calls it,
Hag. 2: 7. ; and, provided they could accomplish this de-
sire, they (like others, when urged by an overpowering
motive,) were often reckless of the means, and rushed
upon deeds which they could not defend. Then did the
wife forget her jealousy, and provoke, instead of resent-
ing, the faithlessness of her husband, Gen. 16: 2. 30: 3,
9. ; then did the mother forget a parent's part, and teach
her own child treachery arid deceit. Gen. 25: 23. 27: 13. ;
then did daughters turn the instincts of nature backward,
and deliberately work their own and their father's shame,
Gen. 19: 31. ; then did the daughter-in-law veil her face,
and court the incestuous bed, Gen. 38: II.; and to be
Bar
[ 196]
BAR
childless, was to be a by-worJ, Gen. {6: 5. 30: 1. ; and
to refuse to raise up seed to a brother, was to be spit upon.
Gen. 38: 26. ' Deut. 25: 9. ; and the prospect of the pro-
mise, like the fulfilment of it, did not send peace into
families, but a sword ; and three were set against two,
and two against three. Gen. 27: 41. ; and the elder, who
woitld be promoted unto honor, was set against the youn-
ger, whom God would promote, Gen. 4: 5. 27: 41. ; and
national differences were engendered by it, as individuals
grew into nations. Gen. 19: 37. 26: 35. ; and even the
fQule.st of idolatries may be traced, perhaps, to this hal-
lowed source ; for the coiTuption of the best is the worst
corruption of all. Numb. 25: 1, 2, 3. It is upon this prin-
ciple of interpretation, and I know not upon what other so
well, that we may put to silence the ignorance of foolish
men, who have made those parts of the Mosaic history a
stumbling-Mock to many, which, if rightly understood,
are the very testimony of the covenant ; and a principle
which is thus extensive in its application and successful
in its results, which explains so much that is difficult, and
answers so much that is objected against, has, from this
circumstance alone, strong presumption in its favor, strong
claims upon our sober regard." — Watson.
BARROW, (Isaac, D. D.) distinguished alike as a ma-
thematician and divine, was born in London, in the month
of October, 1630. He received at the Charter-house school,
in two or three years, the first elements of knowledge ;
but there he discovered more of natviral courage than in-
clination to study, being much given to fighting, and fond
of promoting it among his school-fellows. That disposi-
tion -gave much pain to his fother ; and he frequently
wished, " that if it pleased God to take away any of his
children, it might be his sou Isaac." From that establish-
ment his father removed him, and sent him to Felstead,
in Essex. At that place his conduct changed ; he soon
made a very great progress in learning, and every other
valuable qualification ; and his master appmnted him
tutor to lord Fairfax, of Emoly, in Ireland, who was then
his scholar. In 1648, he tixik the degree of bachelor of
arts, and, in 1649, was chosen fellow of the college. Soon
after obtaining that fellowship, he detennined on quitting
the church, and on attending to the profession of physic ;
and in the acquisition of that knowledge he made great
proficiency. He attained an accurate knowledge of ana-
tomy, botany, and chemistry ; but feeling that he was
conscientiously bound, by the oath he had taken on his
admission to his fellowship, to study divinity, he applied
himself accordingly, and without delay, to its study. In
addition to that study, he devoted much time and atten-
tion to acquire a knowledge of astronomy ; and finding
that such science depended much upon geometry, he soon
made himself master of Euclid's Elements of Geometry,
and rapidly attained a profound knowledge of mathema-
tics. In 1653, he was incorporated in the degree of mas-
ter of arts, at Oxford ; and when Dr. Dupont resigtied the
chair of Greek professor, he recommended his pupil, DIr.
Barrow, for his successor. That situation he did not,
however, obtain, as he was suspected of holding Arminian
tenets. Barrow then determined to visit foreign coun-
tries ; but, in order to execute his design, he was obliged
to sell his books.
In 1660, he was chosen to the Greek professorship at
Cambridge. The duties of the professorship he performed
with wisdom and industry, and appeared habitually to re-
ooUect, that for all his talents he should be required to
render an account. On July 16, 1662, he was elected
professor of geometry, in Gresham college, at the recom-
mendation of Dr. Willtins, master of Trinity college, H7)i
afterwards bishop of Chester. In the same year, he wrol.^
some Greek verses on the marriage of king Charles an^ !
queen Catharine. Upon the 20th of May, 1663, he was
elected a fellow of the Koyal society, in the first choice
made by the council after their charter ^ and afterwardv
was appointed to the situation of first professor of a ma
thematical lecture, established at Cambridge, and he theii
resigned that of Gresham college. In 1669, be also re
signed his mathematical chair to his learned friend, Mr.
Isaac Newton ; being determined no longer to pursue th(
study of mathematics, but immediately to enter on thai
of divinity. Upon qititting his professorship, he was only
a fellow of Trinity college, till his uncle presented hiin
with a small sinecure in Wales ; and Dr. Ward, bishop
of Salisbury, conferred on him a prebend in his church.
In 1670, he was made a doctor in divinity, by mandate y
and when Dr. Pearson, master of Trinity college, was
promoted to the see of Chester, Ban'ow was appointed to
succeed him, by the king's patent, bearing date the 13tb
of Febntary, 1672. Barrow was chaplain to the king,
and to him he was much attached ; insomuch, that he de-
clared, " he had given it to the best scholar in England."
He would also caU him an " unfair preacher, because he
exhausted every subject, and left nothing for others to say
after him." In 1675, Barrow was chosen vice-chancellor
of the university ; and, in every situation to which he was
elected, he performed its duties with punctuality and -wis-
dom. Tl>e life of Barrow was, however, bat short. For-
ty-two years had not rolled oa^er him, ere he was num-
bered with the dead ; for, on the 4th of Blay, 1672, after
but a short illness, he expired. But his name has surviv-
ed him ; and not only is it recorded on the marble tablet,
erected in Westminster abbey, but it is handed down ia
his ^^ritings, which, fur close reasoning, deep thinking,
and sterling sense, have seldom been equalled, and never
surpassed. Barrow was, indeed, no ordinary man. His
religion was, at once, that of the head and heart ; and
whilst, therefore, his writings delight and improve the un-
derstanding, they enlighten and convince the judgment.
His temper was good ; his disposition amiable ; his mai»-
ners pleasing ; his conversation instructing ; his life mo
ral, useful, and pious, and his death happy. Let those
men, who assert that Christianity is a religion of fraud
and ignorance, remember, that amongst multitudes of
learned and literaiy men, Barrow not only believed in,
but vindicated and supported it.
For further account of this extraordinary man, see his
Life and Writings. — Jones's Chr. Eiog.
BARSABAS. Joseph Earsabas, sumamed Justu.'*,
was one of the first disciples of Jesus Christ, and probably
one of the seventy. When St. Peter proposed to the dis-
ciples to fill np the place of Judas the n-ailorjby choosing
another apostle, (Acts 1: 21.)Barsabas was nominated
along with Matthias ; but the lot fell on Matthias, who
was therefore numbered with the eleven apostles. —
We know nothing farther of the life of this Barsabas.
2. Barsabas -n'as also the surname of Judas, one of the
principal disciples mentioned. Acts 15; 22, &c. This is
all we know of Barsabas Judas. — Watson.
BARSUMAS ; bishop of Nisibis, in Persia, who' flou-
rished during the fifth century. Of all the promoters of
the Nestorian cause, says Mosheim, there was not one tp
whom it has such weighty obligations as to the famous
Barsnraas, who was removed from his place in the schoo?
of Edessa, and created bishop of Nisibis, in 435. Thif
zealous prelate labored with incredible assiduity and dex-
terity, from the year 440 to 485, to procure for the Nesto-
nans a solid and permanent settlement in Persia ; and
he was vigorously seconded in this undertaking by Blaa-
nes, bishop of Ardascira. So remarkable was the success
which crowned the labors of Barsumas, that his fame ex-
tended throughout the East ; and those Nestorians wh(>
still remain in Chaldea, Persia, Assyria, and the adjacem
countries, consider him alone, and not withotit reason, as
their parent and founder. This indefatigable ecclesiastic
not only persuaded Fironz, the Persian monarch, to expel
from his dominions .sttch Chi-istians as had adopted the
opinions of the Greeks, and to arlmit the Nestorians in
their place, but he even engaged him to put the latter ic
BAR
[ 197
BAS
possession of the primipal seat of ecclesiastical aulhorily
m Persia, the see of Seleucia, which the patriarch, or
catholic of the Nestorians has always fiUeJ, even down to
our times. The zeal and activity of Barsunias did not
end here r he erected a famous school at Nisibis, whence
issued those Nestorian doctors, who, in this and the fol-
lowing century, spread abroad their tenets through Egypt,
Syria, Arabia, India, Tartary and Cliina. — Moshcim.
BARTHOLOMEW, one of the twelve apostles. Matt.
10: 3. is supposed to be the same person who is called
Nathanael, one of the first of Christ's disciples. This
opinion is founded on the circumstance, that as the evan-
gelist John never mentions Bartholomew in the number
of the apostles, so the other evangelists never mention
Nathanael. And as in John 1: 45. Philip and Nathanael
are mentioned together as coming to Jesus, so in the other
evangelists, Philip and Bartholomew are constantly asso-
ciated together. The supposition also acquires additional
probability from considering, that Nathanael is particular-
ly mentioned among the apostles to whom Christ appeared
at the sea of Tiberias, after his resurrection ; Simon Pe-
ter, Thomas, and Nathanael, of Cana in Galilee ; the sons
of Zebedee, namely, James and John ; with two other of
his disciples, probably Andrew and Philip. John 21; 2.
It is an early tradition, that Bartholomew propagated the
faith as far as India, and also in the more northern ami
western parts of Asia, and that he finally suffered martyr-
dom. But all the particulars respecting the life and la-
bors of the apostles, not mentioned in the New Testament,
Me exceedingly uncertain. — Watson.
BARTHOLOMEW'S DAY; a feast held on the 2Uh
of August, in honor of Bartholomew, but awfully memo-
rable as the day of the horrid slaughter of the Huguenots
in France, in the year 1572, when, at midnight, not only
was a signal given to massacre all who were found in
Paris, but orders were issued that the massacre should
extend through the whole Inngilom ; in consequence of
which, in the space of thirty days, upwards of thirty thou-
sand victims are calculated to have been slain. (See
Persecution, Fkaxce.) — Hend. Buck.
BARTHOLOMITES; a religious order founded at
Genoa, in 1307 ; but, the monks leading irregular lives,
it was suppressed in 1650, and their effects confiscated.
In the church of the monaster)' of this order at Genoa, is
presen'ed the image which, it is pretended, Christ sent to
king Abgarus. — Buck.
BAB-TIMjEUS ; a blind man of Jericho, who sat by
the side of the public road, begging, when our Savior
passed that way to Jerusalem. Mark (10: 46 — 52.) says,
that " Jesus romitig out of Jericho, with his disciples, and
a great crowd, Bar-Tiraseus, when he heard it, began to
cry out, Jesus, Son of David, have mercy on me !" and
Jesus restored him to sight. But 3Iatthe\v, (20: 30.) re-
lating the same story, says, that two blind men, sitting by
the way-side, understanding that Jesus was passing, be-
gan to cry out, &c. and both received sight. Mark notes
Bar-Timaeus only, because he was more kno-mi, and not
improbably (as his name is preserved) was born in a su-
perior rank of life, therefore was no common beggar ; if,
besides, his blindness had been the cause of reducing him
to poverty, no doubt his neighbors would mention his
name, and take great interest in his cure. Probably,
Timseus, his father, was of note in that place ; as such
was generally the case, when the father's name was taken
by the son. The cure of another blind man, mentioned
Luke 18: 35, 43. is dilferent from this ; that happened,
when Jesus was entering into Jericho ; this, the next day,
as he was enmlng out. — Calmet.
BARUCH, the son of Neriah, and grandson of Maase-
iah, was of illustrious birth, and of the tribe of Judah.
He had a brother of the name of Seraiah, who occupied
an important station in the court of king Zedekiah ; but
he himself adhered to the person of the prophet Jeremiah,
and was his most steady friend, though his attachment to
him drew on himself several persecutions and much ill-
treatment. He appears to have acted as his secretary
during a great part of his life, and never left him till they
were parted by death, on which Baruch retired to Babylon,
where the rabbins say he also died in the twelfth year of
the cnptivity. Jer.36:43: The Book of Baruch is justly
placed among the apocryphal writings. Grotius thmks n
o. fiction written by some Hellenistic Jew ; and Si. Jerome
gives as tt'e reason why he il.d not write a commentary
upon it, that the Jews themselves did not deem it canoiii
jal.— IKrt(.wm.
I. BARZILLAI ; a native of Kogelim, in Gilead, anil
one who assisted David when expelled from Jerxisalem
by Absalom. 2 Sam. 17: 27, 28. When David returned
to Jerusalem, Barzillai attended him to the Jordan. — II.
A native of Blehulath, father of Adriel, who married K\-
chal, formerly wife of David. 2 Sam. 21: 8. — 111. A
priest, who married a daughter of Barzillai the Gileadile.
Nehem. 7: 63. — Caimct.
BASHAX. The land of Bashan, otherwise the Bata-
nsea, is east of the river Jordan, north of the tribes of G-\d
and Reuben, and in the half-tribe of Manasseh. It is
bounded east by the mountains of Gilead, the land of Am-
mon, and East'Edom ; north by mount Herinon: south
by the brook Jabbok ; west by the Jordnn. Og, k.ng of
the Amorites, possessed Bashan when 31oses conqi;ei'ed
it. Bashan was esteemed one of the most fruitful coun-
tries in the worid ; its rich pastures, oaks, and fine caltle
are exceedingly commended. Numb. 21: 33. 32; 33.
Isa. 2; 13. Dent. 3: 1. Psal. 22: 12.
The following description of this region is by Mr^Buck-
ingham : " We had now quitted the land of Sihon, king
of the Amorites, and entered into that of Og, the king of
Bashan, both of them well known to all the readers of the
early Scriptures. We had quilted, too, tlie districts ap-
portioned to the tribes of Reuben and Gad, and entered
that which was allotted to the half-tribe of Slaiiasseh,
beyond Jordan, eastward, leaving the land of the children
of Aminon on our right, or to the east of the Jabbok,
which divided Aminon, or Philadelphia, from Gerasa.
The mountains here are called the land of Gilead in t)ic
Scriptures, and in Josephus : and, according to the Roman
division, this was the country of the Decapolis, so often
spoken of in the New Testament, or the province of
Gauionitis, from the city of Gaiilon, its early capital. We
continued our way over this elevated tract, continuing to
behold, with surprise and admiration, a beautiful country
on all sides of us : its plains covered with a fertile soil, its
hills clothed with forests, and at every new turn presenting
the most magnificent landscapes that conld he imagined.
Amongst the trees, the oak was frequently seen ; and we
know that this territorj- presented them of old. In ennme-
rating the sources froiu which the supplies of Tyre were
drawn in the time of her great wealth and naval splemlor,
the prophet says, ' Of the oaks of Bashan have they made
thine oars.' (Ezek. 27: 6.) Some learned commemators,
indeed, believing that no oaks grew in these supposed de-
sert regions, have translated the word by alders, to prevent
the appearance of inaccuracy in the inspired writer. The
expression of ' the fat bulls of Bashan,' which occurs more
than once in the Scriptures, seemed to us equally incon-
sistent, as applied to the beasts of a country generally-
thought to be a desert, in common with the whole tract
which is laid down in the modem maps as sach, between
the Jordan and the Euphrates; but we eimld now fully
comprehend, not only that the bulls of this luxuriant coun-
try might be proverbially fat, but that its possessors, too,
might be a race renowned for strength and comeliness of
person. . . . The general face of this region improved as
we advanced further in it ; and every new directi'jn of our
path opened upon us views which surprised and charmed
us by their grandeur and beauty. Lofty nioantains gave
an outline of the most magnificent character; flowing
beds of secondary hills softened the romantic wildness of
the picture ; gentle slopes, clothed with wooi.1. gave a rich
variety of lints, hardly to he imitated by ih'? pci cil; deep
valleys, filled with murmuring streams and v=i t.ant mea-
dows, offered all the luxuriance of cultivaicn, aud herds
and flocks gave life and animation to scenes a' grand, a.s
beauliful, and as highly picturesque as the v'euics or taste
of a Claude conld either invent or desire.'" — Cwmet.
BASIL, called the Grcnt. to distinguish hir .Tom oilier
Greek patiiarchs of the same name, was bor in o'-J. at
Cesarea, in Cappadocia, and, after having studied at
Athens, he for a while taught rhetoric an-* ractised at
the bar. In 370, he was made bishop ol ("'e.area, where
BAS
[ 198
BAT
he died in 379. He is the most distinguished ecclesiastic
among the Grecian patriarchs. His efforts for the regula-
tion of clerical discipline, of the divine service, and of the
standing of the clergy ; the number of his sermons ; the
success of his mild treatment of the Arians ; and above
all, his endeavors for the promotion of a monastic life, for
which he prepared vows and rules, obser\'ed by himself,
and still remaining in force, prove the extent of his influ-
ence. The Greek church honors him as one of its most
illustrious patron saints, and celebrates his festival, Janua-
ry 1. His followers are widely extended ; there are even
some in America. They lead an austere life. The vows
of obedience, chastity and poverty, framed by Basil, are
the rules of all the orders of Christendom, although he
is particularly the father of the Eastern, as Benedict is
the patriarch of the Western order. In point of genius,
controversial skill, and a rich and flowing eloquence, Ba-
sil was surpassed by very few in the fourth century —
Bnry. Aimr. ; Davenport ; Mosheim ; Rob. Hist. Baptism,
p. 80.
BASILIAN MONKS ; religious of the order of Basil,
in the fourth century, who, having retired into a desert in
the province of Pontus, founded a monastery, and drew up
rules, to the amount of some hundreds, for his disciples.
This new society soon spread all over the East; nor was
it long before it passed into the West. Some pretend that
Basil saw himself the spiritual father of more than ninety
thousand monks in the East only ; but this order, which
flourished for more than three centuries, was considerably
diminished hy heresy, schism, and a change of empire :
hut the number is still considerable, and some are found
even in America. The historians of this order say that it
has produced 14 popes, 1805 bishops, 3010 abbots, and
11,085 martyrs, besides an infinite number of confessors
and virgins. This order likewise boasts of several empe-
rors, kings, and princes, who have embraced its rule. —
Hend. Buck.
BASILICA ; properly a royal palace ; but in the first
centuries of Rome, the basilicas were splendid public
buildings, of an oblong shape, and four-cornered, and
commonly adorned with Corinthian columns and statues,
where the citizens collected to consult for their common
welfare, transact mercantile business, and hear the young
orators exercise themselves in declamation. Some of
Ihem having been given by Constantine to the Roman.
Christians for their worship, the first buildings appropriat-
ed to this purpose obtained the name of basilica ; and af-
terwards, when new churches were built, the shape of the
ancient basilica was retained. — He/id. Buck.
BASILIDEANS ; the followers of Basilides of Alexan-
dria, a Gnostic leader of the early part of the second cen-
tury. (See Gnostics.) — Watson.
BASILIDES; author of one of the earliest heresies —
Gnostici.sm. Different opinions have been entertained
as to the time at which he lived ; but if he was a dis-
ciple of Menander, who was a disciple of Simon Magus,
he must have lived about the beginning of the second cen-
tury, and may have spread his doctrines in the reign of
the emperor Trajan. He studied at Alexandria, and is
said to have been also in Persia ; but whether he learned
his views of Gnosticism there is uncertain. — He7id. Buck.
BASKET, kophinos ; a wicker-basket, from kuphton, to
cut off, because made from twigs, or cuttings of trees, or,
from kouphotes, levity, on account of its liglitness. The
Jews appear to have been in the habit of using these wicker-
baskets, which were probably of a certain measure, for
carrying about with them their daily provision ; and as
the chief baker of Pharaoh, in his dream, carried three
baskets on his head with all manner of baked meats for
Pharaoh, we may thus infer the connection between the
image of the basket and the event of which it was the
emblem, — that when three days' provision should be ex-
pended, the event predicted should happen ; and hence
the basket which contains the daily provision becomes the
emblem of a day, — tlie time for which the provision would
last. The kophinoi were the baskets of which twelve were
filled with the fragments remaining after the five loaves
and two small fishes had been blessed and increased lo
the supply of five thousand persons hy our Lord ; Matt.
4: 20. Ifi It, and it is pr<ihahle from the number of
these baskets, that they were those belonging to the twelve
disciples, and used by them for the purpose of containing
their daily supply of food ; thus rendering the miracle, if
possible, more impressive. For not only were the wants
of the multitude supplied, but also the disciples themselves
obtained i fieir next day's provision from the five barley
loaves and two sinall fishes. Their subsequent mistake of
the words c f our blessed Lord, when he speaks of the lea-
ven of the Pharisees, — "It is because we have taken no
bread," was thus brought more home to themselves per-
sonally, whi'u their unbelief and want of understanding,
upon that occasion were reproved. — Shermood.
BASLE, Council of ; which commenced its sittings,
December 11, 1131, under the presidency of 'he cardinal
legate Juliano Caesarini of St. Angelo, and after holding
not fewer than forty-Jive, terminated its labors. May IB,
1443. Its objects, which were partly attained, wore to
extirpate heresies, limit the power of the pope, effect q
reformation of the clergy, and consolidate the interests
of the chtu'ch. Its decrees are not admitted into any of
the Roman collections, and are considered of no authority
by the Roman lawyers. They are, however, recognised
in points of canon law in France and Germany ; and
though sofhe later concordats have modified the applica-
tion of them, they have never been formally and entirely
annulled. — Hend. Buck.
BASNAGE DE BEAUVAL, (James,) an eminent Pro-
testant divine, was born at Rouen, in 1653, and educated
at Saumur in Geneva. When the edict of Nantz weis re-
voked, he retired to Rotterdam, and, in 1709, was chosen
one of the Walloon pastors at the Hague. Being in favor
with the grand pensionary Hcinsius, and still preserving
his attachment to France, he rendered such services to his
country, in facilitating the treaty of alliance with Holland,
that he was rewarded with his recall and the restoration
of his property. He died in 1723. Basnage was a man
of erudition, sincerity, and virtue ; and of such enlarged
political views and talents, that Voltaire declared him to be
more fit for a minister of state than of a parish. Among
his principal works are, a History of the Church ; a His-
tory of the Jews ; a History of the Religion of the Re-
formed Church ; and Annals of the United Provinces. —
Ency. Amer.
BASTARr ; one born out of wedlock. A bastard
among the Greeks was despised, and exposed to public
scorn, on accoimt of his spurious origin. In Persia, the
son of a concubine is never placed on a footing with the
legitimate cffspring; any attempt made by parental fond-
ness to do so would be resented by tlie relations of the
legitimate wife, and outrage the feelings of a whole tribe.
The Jewish father bestowed as little attention on the edu-
cation of his natural children as the Greek : he seems to
have resigned them, in a great measure, to their own in-
clinations ; he neither checked their passions, nor corrected
their faults, nor stored their minds with useful knowledge.
This is evidently implied in these words of the apostle : " If
ye endure chastening, God dealelh with you as with sons;
for what son is he whom the father chasteneth not ? But
if ye be without chastisement, whereof all are partakers,
then are ye bastards and not sons," Heb. 12: 7, 8. To
restrain the licentious desires of the heart, Jehovah by an
express law fixed a stigma upon the bastard, which was
not to be removed till the tenth generation ; and to show
that the precept was on no account to be violated, or suf-
fered to fall into disuse, it is emphatically repeated, " A
bastard shall not enter into the congregation of the Lord ;
even to his tenth generation shall he not enter into the
congregation of the Lord," Deut. 23: 2. — Watson.
BASTINADO; the punishment of beating with sticks.
It is also called tympanum, because the patient was beaten
like a drum. Upwards of a hundred blows were often
inflicted, and sometimes the beating was unto death. St. •
Paul, Heb. 11: 35, says that some of the saints were ior-
t.ired, iympanizo, suffered the tympanum, that is, were
stretched on an instrument of torture, and beaten to death
— Watson.
BAT. This singular creature, which possesses proper-
ties that connect it with both beasts and birds, has been
variously placed in systems of natural history. The editor
of Calniet says, " it' i.~: loo much a bird to be properly a
BAT
[ 199
BAT
beast, and too much a beast to be properly a bird." Doubts
as to its nature, however, no longer exist. The bat is now
universally made to take its place among the animal tribes,
to wliicli the bringing forth its young alive, its hair, its
teeth, as well as the rest of its habitudes and conformation,
eridently entitles it. In no particular, scarcely, does it
resemble a bird, except in its power of sustaining itself m
the air, which circumstance is scarcely enough to balance
the weight of those particulars which we have noticed, as
placing it among quadrupeds.
The Hebrew name of the bat denotes " the flier in duski-
ness," that is, the evening. It was similarly named by the
Greeks and the Latins. In Deut. 14: 18, 19, it is well de-
scribed : " Moreover the bat, and every creeping thing that
flieth, is unclean to you : they shall not be eaten."
' The legs of the bat are formed in a very particular
manner, and entirely different from any other animal. It
creeps with the iastruments of its flight. During the entire
winter, it conceals itself in its hole, as it does, also, during
the day-time even in summer, never venturing out, except
for an hour or two in the evening, in order to supply itself
with food. The usual place in which it takes up its abode
is the hollow of a tree, a dark cavern, or the chink of some
ruined building, of which it seems particularly fond. This
illustrates Isa. 2: 20, "In that day, a man shall cast his
idols of silver and his idols of gold to the moles and to the
bats :" that is, he shall carry his idols into the dark ca-
verns, old ruins, or desolate places, to which he himself
shall flee for refuge ; and so shall give them up, and re-
linquish them to the filthy animals that frequent such
places, and have taken possession of them as their proper
habitation.— ^Jiurt's Script. Nat. History.
BATANEA ; the same as Bashan, which see.
BATANISTS, or Assassins. See Assassins.
BATES, (William, D. D.) an eminent non-conformist
minister of the seventeenlh century, was born in the year
1625 ; but of the place of his birth, or the particulars of
his family, his contemporaries have left us no record. He
was educated at the university of Cambridge, where he
took the degree of bachelor of arts in 1647, and was ad-
mitted doctor of divinity in 1660. Soon after the restora-
tion, he was appointed chaplain to king Charles II.. and was
also, for some time, minister of St. Dunstan's in the West ;
from whence he was ejected by the act of uniformity.
He was one of the commissioners at the Savoy conference
in 1660, for reviewing the public liturgy, and assisted in
d-awing up the exceptions against the Book of Common
Prayer. He was likemse chosen on the part of the non-
conformist ministers, tegether with Dr. Jacomb and Mr.
Baxter, to manage the dispute with Dr. Pearson, after-
wards bishop of Chester, Dr. Gunning, afterwards bishop
of Ely, and Dr. Sparrow, afterwards bishop of Nonvich.
The object of this conference was to persuade the dissidents
to fall in with the requirements of the church of England,
in regard to its rituals and ceremonies. But to the sophis-
tical reasonings of Gunning, who seemed disposed to for-
ward a reconciliation between the church of England and
that of Rome, Dr. Bates constantly urged, that on the very
same grounds on which they imposed the crucifix and sur-
plice, they might bring in holy water, and all the trumpery
of popery. On this occasion, the doctor displayed heroic
firmness of mind, at the same time that he conducted him-
self with great wisdom and moderation. Whenever he
spake, what he said was solid, judicious, and to the point,
which procured him great respect from his brethren.
When he retired from his charge at Si. Dunstan's
church, in 1662, he took leave of his flock in the follow-
ing terms : " I know you expect I should say something
as to my non-conformity. I shall only say thus much : It
is neither fancy, faction, nor humor that makes me refuse
to comply, but merely the fear of oflfending God. And if,
after the best means used for my illumination, such as
prayer to God, discourse and study, I cannot be satisfied
about the lawfulness of what is required, if it be my un-
happiness to be in error, surely men will have no reason
to be angry with me in this world, and I hope God will
pardon me in the next."
Dr. Bates was honored with the friend.ship of the lord
keeper Bridgman, the lord chancellor Finch, the earl
of Nottingham, and Archbishop TUIotson. He was oH'ered
the deanery of Litchfield and Coventry, at the restoration,
but he declined the offer ; and, according to Dr. Calamy,
he might have been afterwards raised to any bishopric in
the kingdom, could he have conformed to the established
church. He resided for the latter part of his life at Hack-
ney, where he died on the 19th of July, 1699, in the seven-
ty-fourth year of his age.
In external appearance. Dr. Bates was extremely hand-
some ; his countenance mdd, yet dignified ; his voice re-
markably soft and pleasing ; and his style highly polished
for the age in which he lived. Dr. Calamy says, that he
was generally reputed one of the best orators of the day,
and was well versed in the politer parts of learning, which
so seasoned his conversation, as to render it highly enter-
taining to the more sensible part of mankind. His appre-
hension was quick and clear, and his reasoning faculty
acute, prompt, and expert. His judgment was penetrating
and solid, stable and firm. His memory was singularly
tenacious, and scarcely impaired at the period of his death.
His language was always neat and fine, but unaffected.
His method in all his discourses would bear the test of the
severest scrutiny. Mr. Granger says, that Dr. Bates was
a man of a good and amiable character ; much a scholar-
much a gentleman— and no less a Christian. His mode-
ration and sweetness of temper were known to all that
conversed with him, among whom were eminent and pious
men of various persuasions. Dr. TiUotson's friendship for
him began early ; and as his merit was invariably the
same, it continued without interruption to the end of that
prelate's life. He is esteemed the politest -HTiter of the
age among the Presbyterians. His works were collected
and published in a thick folio volume after his decease ;
and a new edition of them appeared in 1815, in four vo-
lumes octavo, with a Jlemoir prefixed. His "Harmony
of the Divine Attributes in the Work of Man's Redemp-
tion," has been deservedly popular.— Jo^ifs' Chris. Bwg.
BATH ; a measure of capacity for things liquid, being
the same with the ephah, Ezek. 45: 11, and containing ten
homers, or seven gallons and four pints. — Watson.
BATHING. The word washing in the New Testament,
from the Greek huo, signifies balking. John 13: 10. Acts
9:37. 16:33. Heb. 10: 23. 2.Pet. 2: 22. Rev. 1: 5. This
is the specific meaning of the word in the Greek wnters, and
in the Septuagint. Bathing undoubtedly took place first
in rivers and in the sea ; but men soon learned to enjoy
this pleasure in their ovn\ houses. Even Homer mentions
the use of the bath as an old custom. The bath, at this
period, was the first refreshment offered to the guest. In
later times, rooms, both public and private, were built ex-
pressly for the purpose of bathing. The public baths of
the Greeks were mostly connected with the gymnasia, be-
cause they were taken immediately after the athletic exer-
cises. The Romans, in the period of their luxury, imitated
the Greeks in this point, and built magnificent baths. The
following description applies both to the Greek and Roman
baths :— The building which contained them was oblong,
and had two divisions, the one for males, the other for fe-
males. In both, warm or cold baths could be taken. The
warm baths, in both divisions, were adjacent to each other,
for the sake of being easily heated. In the midst of the
building, on the ground floor, was the heating room, by
which not only the water for bathing, but sometimes also
the floors of the adjacent rooms, were warmed. Abo\e
the heating room was an apartment in which three copper
kettles were walled in. one above another, so that the low-
B At
[ 200
BAT
est was itmnciliately over the fire, the second over the first,
and the third over the second. In this way^either boiling,
Uilcewann, or cold water could be obtained. The water
was carried, by separate pipes, from these kettles into the
bathing rooms, and a fresh supply was immediately poured
into the kettles from a reservoir. Close to the heating
room were three separate rooms on each side, for the hoi,
the lukewarm, and the cold bath. The bathing-rooms
had, on the iloor, a basin of mason-wock, in which there
were seals, and round it 4. gallery, where the bathers re-
mained befoi-e they descended into the bath, and where,
also, the attendants were. There was also a sweating-
room, wliicli was heated by means of flues, and was called
laconicum. This room had an opening in the ceiling,
through which the light fell, and from which was sus-
pended a brazen plate, that could be raised and let down
at pleasure, to increase or lessen the heat. For undress-
Lig, for receiving the garments, and for anointing after
bathing, there were diflerent rooms; and connected with
the bath were walks, covered race-grounds, tennis-courts,
siiid gardens. These buildings, together -with a number
of baihing-rooms, were necessary for a public bath, which
was adorned with splendid furniture, and all the requisites
for recreation, and resembled, in its exterior appearance,
an extensive palace. Roman luxury, always in search of
means for rendering sensual enjoyments more exquisite,
in later times, built particular conduits for conducting sea-
water to the baths, used mountain snow, and enlarged
these establishments in such a way that even their ruins
excite admiration. (See Wichelhausen, on the Batlis of the
Ancients, Mannheim, 1807.) — Among the Europeans, the
Russians have peculiar establishments for bathing, which
are visited by all classes of llie people during the whole
year. The people regard these baths as a necessary of
life, and they are to be found in every village. They are
also met with in Finland. — Among the Asiatics, baths are
in general use. " The Turks are, by their religion, obliged
to make repeated ablutions daily : besides these, men and
women must bathe in particular circumstances and at
certain times. For this purpose, there is, in every city, a
public bath connected with a mosque ; and rich private
persons possess private bath-houses adorned with all the
objects of Asiatic luxurj'.
Public baths are common in Europe, and there are, at
present, few cities without them. Medicine has endeavored
to increase the wholesome effects of baths by various com-
positions and modes of application. Baths are distinguish-
ed by the nature of the fluid, by the degree of heat, and by
their influence upon the body. They are prepared with
water, milk, wine, &c. ; are of different temperatures ;
and herbs, iron, soap, and other substances are mixed with
them, as the purpose requires. There are, also, baths of
earth, sand, air, vapor, and electric baths. They are ap-
plied either to the whole body, or only to a single part.
The shower bath affords an agreeable and healthful mode
of bathing, and much use is made of it in medicine. Mi-
neral baths are those, the water of which naturally con-
tains mineral ingredients. — Ency. Amer.
BATH-KOL, dmighter of the voice. By this name the
J-iA'ish writers distinguish what they called a revelation
from God, after verbal prophecy had ceased in Israel ;
that is, after the prophets Haggai, Zechariah, and Mala-
cni. The generality of their traditions and customs are
founded on this bath-kol. They pretend that God re-
vealed them to their elders, not by prophecy, but by the
daughter of the voice. The balh-kol, as Dr. Prideaux
shows, was a fantastical way of divination, invented by
the Jews, like the Sortcs Virgiliana: among the heathen.
For, as with them, the words first opened upon in the
■works of that poet, was the oracle whereby they prognos-
ticated those future events which they desired to be in-
formed of; so with the Jews when they appealed to bath-
kol, the next words which they should hear drop from any
one's mouth were taken as the desired oracle. With some,
it is probable that bath-kol, the daughter of the voice, was
only an elegant personification of /rarfid'o;;. Others, how-
ever, more bold, said that it was a voice from heaven,
sometimes attended by a clap of thunder. — Watson.
BATH-SHEBA. See David ; Nathan; Solomon.
BATTLE. The object of a war may be obtained in two
diflerent ways : either one party forces the other, by skil-
ful manoeuvres, marches, demonstrations, the occupation
of advantageous positions, ifcc. to quit the field (which
belongs to the province of strategy) ; or the hostile masses
approach each other (by design or by chance), so that a
battle becojnes necessary to determine which shall keep
the field. The rules for securing a successful issue, whe-
ther they respect the preparations for the conflict, or the
direction of the forces when actually en^ged, belong to
tactics, in the narrower sense of the word. Strategy also
shows the causes which bring armies together, and pro-
duce battles without any agreement between tlie parties.
It belongs not to this article to explain this point. It may
be sufficient to say, in general, that armies, in their march-
es, (and consequently in their meeting,) are chiefly deter-
mined by the mountains and rivers of a country.
In ancient times and the middle ages, the battle-ground
was often chosen by agreement, and then the battle was a
mere trial of strength, a duel en gros ; but, in our lime, such
trifling is done away. War is now carried on for the real
or pretended interest of a nation, or a ruler who thinks or
pretends that his interest is that of ihe nation. Wars are
not undertaken for the purpose of fighting, and battles are
merely the consequence of pursuing the purpose of the
war. They arise from one party's striving to prevent the
other from gaining his object. Eveiy means, therefore, of
winning the battle is resorted to, and an agreement can
hardly be thought of. In this respect, a land battle is en-
tirely diflerent from a naval battle. The former is intended
merely to remove an obstacle in the way of gaining the
object of the war ; the destruction of the enemy, therefore,
is not the first thing sought for. The views of one party
can often be carried into effect mth very little effusion of
blood ; and if a general can obtain the same end by ma-
nccuvring as by a battle, he certainly prefers the former.
But the object of a naval engagement is, almost always,
the destruction of the enemy ; those cases only excepted,
in which a fleet intends to bring supplies or reinforcements
to a blockaded port, and is obliged to fight to accomplish
its purpose.
As the armies of the ancients were not so well organized
as those of the moderns, and the combatants fought very
little at a distance, after the battle had begun, manoeuvres
were much more difficult, and troops, w^hen actually en-
gaged, were almost entirely beyond the control of the gene-
ral. With them, therefore, the battle depended almost
wholly upon the previous arrangements, and the valor of
the troops. Not so in modern times. The finest combi-
nations, the most ingenious manoeuvres, are rendered
possible by the better organization of the armies, which
thus, generally at least, remain mider the control of the
general.
The battle of the ancients was the rude beginning of an
art now much developed. It is the skill of the general,
rather than the courage of the soldier, that now determines
the event of a battle. There is, probably, no situation,
which requires the simultaneous exertion of all the powers
of the mind more than that of a general at the decisive
moment of a battle. While the soldier can yield himself i
entirely to the impulse of his courage, the general must ;
coolly calculate the most various combinations ; while the '
soldier retreats, the general must endeavor to turn the tide
of battle by his ardor or his genius. Daring courage, uiv
daunted firmness, the most active and ingenious invention,
cool calculation, and thorough self-possession, amid scenes,
of tremendous agitation, and under the consciousness that
the faie of a whole nation may depend on him alone in the
trying moment, — these are the qualities which a good
general cannot dispense with for a moment. If it is the
character of genius to conceive great ideas instantaneous-
ly, m tary genius is in this respect the greatest. Great
generals have therefore been, in all ages, the objects of
admiration ; and as a great artist may be no example, in
a moral point of view, although we admire the genius
displayed in his productions, so we cannot but bestow the
same kind of admiration on the high intellectual gifts of a
great general. Few situations, therefore, enable a man to
acquire higher glory, than that of a great commander in a
good cause.
If troops meet accidentally, and are thus obliged to fight,
BAT
[ 201
BAT
tt is called a rencontre. Further, battles are distinguished
into offensive and defensive. Of course, a battle which is
offensive for one side, is defensive for the other.
Tacticians divide a battle into three periods — that of the
disposition, that of the combat, and the decisive moment.
The general examines the strength, reconnoitres the posi-
tion, and endeavors to learn the intention of the enemy.
If the enemy conceals his plan and position, skirmishes and
partial assaults are often advisable, in order to disturb
him, to obtain a view of his movements, to induce him to
advance, or with the view of making prisoners, who may
be questioned, &c. Since the general cannot direct all
these operations in person, officers of the staff, and aids
assist him ; single scouts or small bodies are sent out, and
spies are employed. Any person or thing (ministers, pea-
sants, shepherds, maps, &:c.) which can afford information
of the enemy, or the groimd on which the battle is to take
place, is made use of for obtaining intelligence, by force
cr otherwise. According to the knowledge thus acquired,
and the state of the troops, the plan of the battle, or the
disposition, is made ; and here military genius has an op-
portunity to display itself. There is an immense difference
between the quick, clear and ingenious disposition of a
-great general, which shows the leading features of the
plan to every commander under him, and provides for all
cases fa%'orable or unfavorable, with a few distinct touches,
without depriving the different commanders of freedom of
action, and the slow, indistinct, minute, and, after all, in-
accurate dispositions of a feeble commander. Napoleon's
dispositions are real master-pieces. Like a great artist, he
delineates, with a few strokes, the whole character of the
battle; and as the disciples of Raphael assisted in the
painting of his pictures, but necessarily worked in the
great style of their master, which his first lines gave to the
picture, so all the skilful generals under Napoleon labored
for the accomplishment of one great end, sometimes dis-
closed to them, sometimes concealed in the breast of their
commander. To the disposition also belongs the detaching
of large bodies which are to co-operate in the battle, but
not under the immediate command of the chief The plan
of the battle itself, the position of the troops, ikc. is called
the order of battle. This is either the parallel, or the in-
closing, (if the enemy cannot develope his forces, or you
are strong enough to outflank him,) or the oblique.
When each division of troops has taken its position, and
received its orders, and the weaker parts have been forti-
fied, (if time allows it,) the artillery placed on the most
favorable points, all chasms connected by bridges ; vil-
lages, woods, (kc. taken possession of, and all impediments
removed as far as possible, (which very often cannot be
done except by fighting,) then comes the second period —
that of the engagement. The combat begins, either on
several points at a given signal, as is the case when the
armies are very large, and a general attack is intended,
as, for instance, at Leipsic, where three fire-balls gave the
signal for battle on the side of the allies ; or by skirmishes
of the light troops, which is the most common case. The ar-
tillery endeavors to dismount the batteries of the enemy, to
destroy his columns, and, in general, to break a passage,
if possible, for the other troops. The forces, at the present
day, are brought into action mostly in columns, and not,
as formerly, in long but weak lines. Here the skill of
commanders of battalions is exerted. Upon them rests
the principal execution of the actual combat. The plans
and orders of a general reach only to a certain point ; the
chiefs of battalions must do the chief work of the battle.
Before the battle, the general places himself upon a point,
from which he can see the conflict, and where he can
easily receive reports — upon a hill, in a \^'ind-mill, &c.
Sometimes if there is no such favorable point, a staging is
erected. A few men are near him as his body-guard ;
others take charge of the plans and maps ; telescopes are
indispensable. He often sends one of his aids to take in-
stant command of the nearest body of cavalry, in order to
execute an order which must be carried into effect quickly.
He receives the reports of the generals under him, and
gives new orders ; disposes of the troops not yet in action ;
strengthens weak points ; throws his force upon the ene-
my where he sees them waver ; or changes, if necessary,
with a bold and ingenious thought, the whole order of battle.
26
The general now uses every means to bring on the third
period of the battle — the decisive moment. This cannot
always be the result of combinations. It often takes place
much sooner than was expected ; it is often protracted by
accidents, want of energy on the part of the commanders,
&c. Sometimes all the operations are drawing to the end
which the general aimed at, when an unforeseen accident
suddenly gives a new impulse to the enemy. Victory or
defeat depend now upon one moment, one happy idea.
Perhaps it is all-important to brealc, at once, the enemy's
centre, perhaps to concentrate the de.- tructive power of the
artillery, and, sweeping away some obstacle, to send, as
Napoleon often did, a ton'ent of cavalry upon a certain
point. Anything which can carry disorder into the ranks
of the enemy is of great use. If he begins to waver, or to
retreat in order, or to flee in disorder, it is always necessary
to follow up the victory with all possible vigor and celerity.
This is as important as victory itself Napoleon was, till
the last war in Germany, a master in this particular.
There are tliree maxims, as important for the general
as they are simple : (1.) Know your enemy, his strength
and intentions ; (2.) make all the operations and manoeu-
vres of the parts coincide, as much as possible, with the
great plan of the battle ; (3.) pursue victory to the utmost.
It is also a maxim, in regard to battles, as well as to the
conduct of the war generally, to make the enemy conform
to your plans, and to avoid the necessity of accommodating
yourself to his. Stratagems are often of the greatest ad-
vantage. After a battle, care must be taken of the wounded.
Soldiers are often appointed to take care of their unfortu-
nate comrades during the battle. It ought to be always
done, though it never can do good to any great extent.
At night, if cold, fires are lighted, that the wounded may
creep to them. Peasants are sent out to bring in the liv-
ing, and to bury the dead in large pits ; but, if possible,
soldiers should always be sent with them, because the
peasants, if of the enemy's nation, often plunder half
dead soldiers, and bury them alive. They are gene-
rally very rapacious, and think they have a right to in-
demnify themselves for their severe losses.
Such is the art of war, in ancient and in modern times.
How opposite is it to the pacific and benevolent principles
of Christianity ! The Son of man came not to destroy men's
lavs, but to save them. When his religion shall become
universal, the arts of peace and love shall alone be culti-
vated ; notmt shall not lift up sword against nation, neither
shall they learn war any more. Isai. 2: 4.
But there is a spiritual conflict — a perpetual contest
against prejudice, error, sophistry, infidelity, and sin — to
which all on earth are sumjiioned, and for which all
should be prepared. This is ths good fight of faith. Hap-
py they who are found most skilful and successful on this
glorious field ! Better is he that conquers one criminal
passion, that triumphs over one practical illusion, one
easily besetting habit of sin, that wins one soul to God,
that plants the standard of truth and holiness one step in
advance of its present position among men, than he who
taketh a city, or even subdues an empire at his feet. He
that overcometh shall inherit all things ; and I will be his God,
and he shall be my son. Rev. 21: 7. Be thou faithful vnto
death, and I will give thee a crmvn of life. Rev. 2: 10. — En-
cy. Amer. ; Foster's Glory of the Age.
BATTLE-AXE. (See Arms.)
BATTLEMENT ; a wall round the top of flat-roofed
houses ; as were those of the Jews, and other Eastern
people. (See Hodse.) The Jews were enjoined to adopt
this precaution against accidents, under the jienalty of
death. Deut. 22: 8. In Jer. 5: 10. the term appears to
denote towers, walls, and otlier fortifications of a city. —
Cahnct.
BAXTER, (RicHAKD,) was born at Rowton, in Shrop-
shire, November 12, 1615. He was one of the great non-
conformist divines ; and though he, in the early pai't of
his life, labored under many and great disadvantages,
owing to the irreligion and ignorance of those under
whose care he was placed, he was afterwards one of the
greatest men of the age in which he lived. During the
first few years of his life, he was much addicted to lying,
covetousness in play, fondness for romances, (tec. ; but,
fortunately for him, his father directed his attention to the
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historical part of tlie Bible, which much interested him,
and inspired him \\ith a desire to peruse those parts which
were more doctrinal. In consequence of such determina-
tion, by the perusal of the Bible and other religious books,
and the eonversations of his father, his mind became illu-
7\iinated, and his soul converted to God. After having
Deen for some time under the care of Mr. John Owen,
school-master of the free school at Wro.xeter, his parents
accepted of a proposal for placing him under the care of
Mr. Richard Wickstead, chaplain to tlie council of Lud-
low. This gentleman proved to be very incompetent to
his charge, being an indifferent scholar, and taking no
pains with his pupil. The only benefit he obtained, while
ipider his tuition, was the liberal use of his library, which
to him was of great advantage. At this time, the mind
of Mr. Baxter was considerably alarmed by the fear of
death, which produced in him great seriousness, and a
more earnest attention to religion. Divinity became his
first and favorite pursuit. Zealous in his attachment to
the cause of truth, Mr. Baxter entered into the work of
the ministry, after having been examined and ordained
by bishop Thornborough, of Worcester. In 1633, he be-
came master of the free school at Dudley, in "Worcester-
shire, where he deUvered his first sermon. In 1638, he
applied to the bishop of Winchester for holy orders, which
he received, being at that time attached to the church of
England. The et ccetera oath was his first inducement to
examine into this point ; and, though Mr. Baxter studied
the ablest works, he utterly rejected the oath. In 1640,
he was requested to become pastor of the church at Kid-
derminster, which he accepted, and continued there two
years. At this place he was eminently useful, and found
much encouragement. The state of the country at that
period was peculiarly precarious ; since at that time the
civil war, in the reign of Cromwell, commenced, and Rlr.
Baxter was a decided friend to the parliament, which ex-
posed him to many and great inconveniences. Notwith-
standing his attachment to the parliament, he considered
both parties partially erroneous. He admitted that great
indiscretion, and even much sin, was displayed and com-
mitted, in dishonoring the king, and in the language used
against the bishops, liturgy, and the church ; but he con-
sidered that wlioever was faulty, the Uberties of the peo-
ple and public safety ought not to be forfeited, and that
ihe people were not guilty of the faults of king or parlia-
ment, when they defended them ; and, that if both their
causes had been bad, as against each other, yet that the
subjettts should adhere to that party which most secured
the welfare of the nation. Wlien Mr. Baxter was at Kid-
derminster, he was considerably persecuted, which obliged
him to retire to Gloucester, where he found a civil, cour-
ceous, and religious people. There he continued a month,
(vhen many pamphlets were written on both sides of the
intending political parties, which unhappily divided the
.lation preparatory to a war. At that time, contentions
iiommenced between the commission of array and the
parliament militia. At the earnest request of the people,
Mr. Baxter returned to Kiddermmster, and remained with
them fourteen years ; when he joined colonel Whalley's
regiment, as chaplain, and was present at several sieges.
He confessed himself unwilling to leave his studies and
friends, but he thought only of the public good. He was,
however, compelled to quit the army, in 1657, in conse-
quence of a sudden and dangerous illness, and returned to
Worcester. From that place he went to London, to liave
medical advice. He was advised to visit Tunbridge
wells ; and after continumg at that place some time, and
finding his health improved, he visited London, just bd-
fore tlie deposition of Cromwell, and preached to the par-
liament the day previous to its voting the restoration of
the king. He preached, occasionally, about the city of
London, having a license from bishop Sheldon. He was
one of the Tuesday lecturers at Pinners' hall ; and also
had a Friday lecture at Fetter lane. In 1662, he preach-
ed his farewell sermon at Blackfriars, and afterwards re-
tired to Acton, in Middlesex. In 1676, he built a meeting-
house in Oxendon street ; and, when he had but once
preached there, the congregation was disturbed, and Mr.
Sedden, then preaching for him, was sent to the Gate-
house, instead of Mr. Baxter, where he continued three
months. In 1682, Mr. Baxter was seized, by a warrant,
for coming within five miles of a corporation ; and his
goods and books were sold, as a penalty, for five sermons
he had preached. Owing to the bad state of his health,
he was not at that time imprisoned, through the kindness
of Mr. Thomas Cox, who went to five justices of the
peajce, and made oath that Mr. Baxter was in a bad state
of health, and that such imprisonment would most likely
cause his death. In 1685, he was sent to the king's
bench, by a warrant from the lord chief justice Jefferies,
for some passages in his Paraphrase on the New Testa-
ment ; but, having obtained from king James, through
the good olfices of lord Powis, a pardon, he retired to
Charter house yard ; occasionally preached to large and
devoted congregations, and at length died, December 8,
1691, and was interred in Christ church.
Mr. Baxter's life was one continued scene of discord
and reproach, though of most considerable piety and zeal.
By multitudes he was revered, whilst by many he was
despised. It has been stated, that he was the author of
one liundred and forty-five distinct treatises, most of which
were polemical, and many were distinguished for their
learning and simplicity. Some of the most popular of
those treatises are. The Saints' Everlasting Rest ; Apho-
risms of Justification and the Covenants ; Catholic The-
ology ; A Treatise on Universal Redemption ; A Call to
the Unconverted. For a detailed account of this pious
and excellent man, see Bax/er's Life, quarto, and Calamy's
Non-cnnforiiiist^s Memorial ; Jones's Chr. Biog.
BAXTER, (Andrew ;) an eminent metaphysician,
born 1686, at Aberdeen, died 1750. He was educated at
King's college. His principal work was an Inquiry into
the Nature of the Human Soul, a production which War-
burton highly praised.
BAXTERIANISM ; so called from the learned and
pious individual whose biography has been given above.
His design was to reconcile Calvin and Arminius ; for
this purpose, he fonned a middle scheme between their
systems. He taught that God had elected some, whom
he is determined to save, without any foresight of ante-
cedent faith ; and that others, to whom the Gospel is
preached, have common , grace, which if they improve,
they shall obtain saving grace, acccrding to the doctrine
of Arminius. He owns with Calvin, that the merits of
Christ's death are to be applied to believers only ; but he
also asserts that all men are in a state capable of salva-
tion.
Mr. Baxter maintains that there may be a certainty
of perseverance here, and yet he cannot tell whether a
man may not have so weak a degree of saving grace as
to lose it again.
In order to prove that the death of Christ has put all in
a state capable of salvation, the following arguments are
alleged by this learned author : — 1. It was the nature of
all mankind which Christ assumed at his incarnation, and
the sins of all mankind were the occasion of his suffering.
2. It was to Adam, as the common father of lapsed man-
kind, that God made the promise. Gen. 3r 15. The con-
ditional new covenant does equally give Christ, pardon,
and life to all mankind, on condition of acceptance. The
conditional grant is universal: — "Whosoever believeth''
shall be saved." 3. It is not to the elect only, but to all~'
mankind, that Christ has commanded his ministers to
proclaim his Gospel, and offer the benefits of his pro-
curing.
There are, Mr. Baxter allows, certain fruits of Christ's
death, which are proper to the elect only : 1. Grace even-
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tually worketh in them true faith, repentance, conversion,
and union -n-ith Christ as his living members. 2. The
actual forgiveness of sin as to the spiritual and eternal
punishment. 3. Our reconciliation with God, and adop-
tion and right to the heavenly inheritance. 4. The Spirit
of Christ to dwell in us, and sanctify us, by a habit of di-
vine love. Rom. 8: 9 — 13. Gal. 5: 6. 5. Employment
in holy, acceptable service, and access in prayer, with a
promise of being heard through Christ. Heb. 2: 5, 6.
John 14; 13. fi. "Well-grounded hopes of salvation, peace
of conscience, and spiritual communion with the church
mystical in heaven and earth. Rom. 5: 12. Heb. 12: 22.
7. A special interest in Christ, and intercession with the
Father. Rom. 8: 32, 33. 8. Resurrection unto life, and
justification in judgment ; glorification of the soul at
death, and of the body at the resurrection. Phil. 3: 20, 21.
2 Cor. 5: 1, 2, 3.
Christ has made a conditional deed of gift of these
benefits to all mankind ; but the elect only accept and
possess them. Hence he infers, that though Christ never
absolutely intended or decreed that his death should even-
tually put all men in possession of those benefits, yet he
did intend and decree that all men should have a condi-
tional gift of them by his death.
Ba.tter's celebrated " Aphorisms of Justification," pub-
lished in 1649, aflbrded employment to himself and his
theological critics till near the close of his life ; and in
the many modifications, concessions, and alterations
which were extorted from him by men of different reli-
gious tenets, he sometimes incautiously proved himself to
be more Calvinistic than Calvin, and at others more Ar-
minian than Amiinius. The following observations, from
" Orme's Life of Baxter'^ are, on the whole, just and in-
stntctive : —
" Thus did Baxter, at a ver>' early period of his life,
launch into the ocean of controversy, on some of the most
interesting subjects that can engage the hitman mind.
The maimer in wliich he began to treat them was little
favorable to arriving at correct and satisfactory conclu-
sions. Possessed of a mind uncommonly penetrating, he
yet seems not to have had the faculty of compressing
within narrow limits his o-rni views, or the accounts he
was disposed to give 'of the views of others. All this
arose, not from any indisposition to be explicit, but from
the peculiar character of his mind. He is perpetually
distinguishing things into physical and moral, real and
nominal, material and formal. However important these
distinctions are, they often render his writings tiresome
to the reader, and his reasonings more frequently perplex-
ing than satisfactor>'. Baxter is generally understood to
have pursued a middle course between Calvinism and
Arminianism. That he tried to hold and adjust the ba-
lance between the two parties, and that he was most anx-
ious to reconcile them, are very certain. But it seems
scarcely less evident, that he was mitch more a Calvinist
than he was an Arminian. While this seems to me very
apparent, it must be aclmowledged, that if certain views
which have often been given of Calvinism are necessary
to constitute a Cahdnist, Richard Baxter was no believer
in that creed.
'■ While satisfied that among Baxter's sentiments, no
iniportant or \"ital error will be found, yet in the style and
method in which he too generally advocated or defended
them, there is much to censure. The wTanglirig and dis-
putatious manner in which he. presented many of his
views, was calculated to gender an unsanctified state of
mind in persons who either abetted or opposed his senti-
ments. His scholastic and metaphysical stjde of arguing
is unbefitting the simplicity of the Gospel, and cannot fail
to injure it wherever such is employed. It not only sa-
vors too much of the spirit of the schools, and the philoso-
phy of this world, but places the truths of revelation on a
level with the rudiments of human science.
" In illustration of the influence now adverted to, it
must he remarked, that the first stage in that process of
deterioration which took place among the Presbyterian
Dissenters, was generally characterized by the tenn Bax-
terianisra ; a word to which it is difficult to attach a defi-
nite meaning. It denotes no separate sect or party, but
rather a system of opinions on doctrinal points, verging
towards Arminianism, and which ultimalely passed to
Arianism and Socinianism. Even during Baxter's own
life, while the Presbyterians taxed the Independents with
Antinomianism, the latter retorted the charge of Socini-
anism, or at least with a tendency towards it, in some of
the opinions maintained both by Baxter and others of
that party. To whatever cause it is to be attributed, it is
a melancholy fact, that the declension which began even
at this early period in the Presbyterian body, went on
slowly, but surely, till, from the most fer\'id orthodoxy, it
finally arrived, in England, at the frigid zone of Unita-
rianism.
" I wish not to be understood as. stating that Baxter
either held any opinions of this description, or wa.s con-
scious of a tendency in his sentiments towards such a
fearful consummation, but, that there was an injurious
tendency in his manner of tliscussing certain important
subjects. It was subtle, and full of logomachy ; it tended
to unsettle, rather than to fix and determine ; it gendered
strife, rather than godly edifying. It is not possible to
study such books as his Methodus, and his Catholic Theo-
logy, without experiencing that we are brought into a
different region <'rom apostolic Christianity ; a region of
fierce debate and altercation about words, and names, and
opinions ; in which all that can be said for error is largely
dwelt upon, as well as what can be said for truth. The
ambiguities of language, the diversities of sects, the un-
certainties of human perception and argument, are urged,
till the force of revealed truth is considerably weakened,
and confidence in our own judgment of its meaning great-
ly impaired. Erroneous language is maintained to be
capable of sound meaning, and the most scriptural phrases
to be susceptible of unscriptural interpretation, till truth
and error almost change places, and the mind is bewilder-
ed, confounded, and paralysed. Into this mode of dis-
cussing such subjects, was this most excellent man led,
partly by the natural constitution of his mind, which has
often been adverted to ; partly by his ardent desire of
putting an end to the divisions of the Christian world, and
producing universal concord and harmony. He failed
where success was impossible, however plausible might
have been the means which he employed. He understood
the causes of difference and contention better than their
remedies ; hence the measures which he used frequently
aggravated instead of cuiing the disease. While a por-
tion of evil, however, probably resulted from Baxter's
mode of conducting controversy, and no great light was
thrown by him on some of the dark and difficult subjects
which he so keenly discussed, I have no doubt he contri-
buted considerably to produce a more moderate spirit
towards each other, between Calvinists and Armiuians,
than had long prevailed. Though he satisfied neither
party, he must have convinced both, that great difficulties
exist on the subjects in debate, if pursued beyond a cer-
tain length ; that allowance ought to be made by each,
for the weakness or prejudices of the other ; and that
genuine religion is compatible with soine diversity of
opinion respecting one or all of the five points." A simi-
lar effect to that which Blr. Orme ascribes to Baxter's
writings on the English Presbyterians, followed also on
the continent, among the reformed churches. It was the
same middle system, with its philosophical subtleties,
which Cameron and Amyraul taught abroad ; and which
produced in them those elTcits that have been justly as-
cribed, both in England and abroad, to Arminianism.
(See AMYR4UT and Cahekonites.) — Calnmy's Life of Bax-
ter; Baxter's Catholic Theologn, p. 51 — 53T Baxter's End
of Doctrinal Controvcrsij. pp. 154, 155; Buck; Watsnn ;
Omie's Life and Times of Baxter.
BAXTERIANS ; such as generally adopt the opinions
of Baxter with respect to divine grace and the extent of
redemption ; but there has never existed any particular
or separate denomination of Christians, known by his
name. — JJend. Buck.
BAY-TREE. This tree is mentioned only in Ps. 37:
35, 36. — " I have seen the wicked in great power, and
spreading himself like a green bay-tree. Yet he passed
away, and lo, he was not : "yea, I sought him. but he could
not be found." But the original word, ezrech, merely sig-
nifies a native tree — a tree grownng in its native soil, not
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having suffered by transplantation, and therefore spread-
ing itself luxuriantly. Many critics, however, think that
ezrech is the laurel. — Abbutt.
BAYAUD, (Chevalier de,) called the knight without
fear and n'iihout reproach, born ' in 1476, was one of the
most spotless characters of the middle ages. He was
simple and modest ; a true friend and tender lover ; pious,
humane, and magnanimous. The family of Terrail, to
which he belonged, was one of the most ancient in Dau-
phiny, and was celebrated for nobility and valor. Bay-
ard, educated under the eyes of his uncle George of Ter-
rail, bishop of Grenoble, early imbibed, in the school of
this worthy prelate, the virtues which distinguished him
afterwards. The tournaments were his first field of
earthly glory. Ai the age of eighteen, he greatly distin-
guished himself at the battle of Verona, where he took a
standard. Such was the splendor of his reputation, won
in subsequent battles, thnt Francis I. refused to receive
knighthood from any other sword than his, and he was
saluted in Paris as the savior of his country. He fell in
battle, April 30, 1524, surrounded by friends and enemies,
who all shed tears of admiration and grief. — Ency. Amer.
BAYARD, (John,) a friend to his country and an emi-
nent Christian, was born August 11, 1738, on Bohemia
manor, in Cecil county, Maryland. His father died with-
out a will, and being the eldest son, he became entitled,
by the laws of Maryland, to the whole real estate. Such,
however, was his affection for his twin brother, younger
than himself, that no sooner had he reached the age of
manhood, than he conveyed to him half the estate. After
receiving an academical education under Dr. Finley, he
was put into the compting house of Mr. John Rhea, a
merchant of Philadelphia. It was here, that the seeds of
grace began first to take root, and to give promise of
those fruits of righteousness which afterwards abounded.
He early became a communicant of the Presbyterian
church, under the charge of Gilbert Tennent. Some
years after his marriage, he was chosen a niling elder,
and he filled this place with zeal and reputation. Mr.
Whitefield, while on his visits to America, became inti-
mately acquainted with Mr. Bayard, and was much at-
tached to him. They made several tours together. AVhen
his brother's widow died, IMr. Bayard adopted the chil-
dren, and educated them as his oirn.. One of them was
an eminent statesman.
At the commencement of the revolutionary war, he
took a decided part in favor of his country. At the head
of the second battalion of the Philadelphia militia, he
marched to the assistance of Washington, and was pre-
sent at the battle of Trenton. He was a member of the
council of safety, and for many years speaker of the legis-
lature. In 1785, he was appointed a member of the old
congress, then sitting in New York ; but in the following
year he was left out of the delegation. In 1788, he re-
inoved to New Brunswick, where he was mayor of the
city, judge of the court of common pleas, and a ruling
elder of the church. Here he died, January 7, 1807, in
the sixty-ninth year of his age.
At his last hour, he was not left in darkness. That
Redeemer, whom he had served with zeal, was with him
to support him, and give him the victory. During his last
ilhiess, he spoke much of his brother, and one night,
awaking from sleep, exclaimed, " Mv dear brother, I shall
soon be with you." He addressed his two sons, " My
dear children, you see me just at the close of life. Death
has no terrors to me. What now is all the world to me ?
I would not exchange my hope in Christ for ten thousand
worlds. I once entertained some doubts of his divinity ;
but, blessed be God, these doubts were soon removed by
inquiry and reflection. From that time, my hope of ac-
ceptance -nath God has rested ■ on his meiits and atone-
ment. Out of Christ, God is a consuming fire." As he
approached nearer the grave, he said, " I shall soon be at
rest ; I shall soon be with my God. Oh glorious hope !
Blessed rest ! How precious are the promises of the
Gospel ! It is the support of my soul in my last mo-
ments." "While sitting up, supported by his two daugh-
ters, holding one of his sons by the hand, and looking in-
tently in his face, he said, " My Christian brother !" Then
turning to his two daughters, he continued, "You are my
Christian sisters. Soon will our present ties be dissolved,
but more glorious bonds " He could say no more,
but his looks and arms, directed towards heaven, express-
ed every thing. He frequently commended himself to
the blessed Redeemer, confident of his love ; and the last
words which escaped from his dying lips, were, " Lord
Jesus, Lord Jesus, Lord Jesus." — Evang. Intelligencer, ii
1_7, 49—57 ; Mien.
BAYLE, (Peter,) one of the most eminent of miodertt
philosophers and critics, was the son of a pTotgstant minis-
ter, and was born in 1647, at Carlat, in France. In his
youth, he manifested uncommon talents, and studied so
intensely as to do permanent injury to his health. For a
while, he was .seduced to the Catholic religion ; but he soon
abandoned it. In 1675, after having for some time sub-
sisted by private tuition, he becaine professor of philoso-
phy at Sedan ; and when, six years subsequently, the col-
lege of Sedan was suppressed, he obtained the same pro-
fessorship at Rotterdam. The latter, however, he was
deprived of, in 1696, by the calumnies and exertions of
his quondam friend, Jurieu, who never ceased to perse-
cute him. Bayle died at Rotterdam, in 1706, of a disease
in the chest. His works are numerous ; they compose
eight folio volumes, of which four are occupied with his
justly celebrated Critical Dictionary. Among the princi-
pal of his minor productions, may be mentioned his
Thoughts on Comets ; Reply to the Questions of a Pro-
vincial ; and Intelligence of the Republic of Letters. The
latter, which is an excellent review, was commenced in
1684, and continued for three years.
" Bayle," says Voltaire, " is the first of logicians and
sceptics. His greatest enemies must confess, that there
is not a line in his works, which contains an open asper-
sion of Christianity ; but his warmest apologists must
acknowledge, that there is not a page in his controversial
\vritings, which does not lead the reader to doubt, and
often to scepticism." All books were eagerly devoured
by him ; his taste for logic led him particularly to study
reUgious controversies ; and the amfidence of most theolo-
gians led him to undertake to prove, that several points
are not so certain and so evident as they imagined. But
lie gradually passed these limits ; and his mental habits
caused him to doubt even the most universally acknow-
ledged facts. Though an admirable logician, he was so
little acquainted with physics, that even the discoveries
of Newton were unknown to him . What a favorable
change might this knowledge have wrought in his habits
of mind ! " My talent," he says, " consists in raising
doubts ; but they are on/y doubts." He compares himself^
in this respect, to cloud-compelling Jupiter. But is there
no truth behind the cloud ? — Bayle, it is said to his honor
never attacked the great laws of morality. His favorit>i
books were Plutarch and Montaigne. The latter, without
doubt, encouraged his inclination to scepticism ; perhaps
both contributed to give to his style that vivacity, that
boldness of expression, and antique coloring, so observa-
ble in it.
The academic scepticism which the genius of Bayle
revived, and made popular in modern times, is fast pass-
ing away, if not altogether extinct. Nor is it likely ever
to be restored, by any train of favoring circumstances.
Men have discovered the radical absurdity of ever seek-
ing, for the avowed purpose of never finding ; of perpetu-
ally reasoning, in order never to come to any valuable
result. Doubt is but the first step of ignorance towards
inquiry ; and inquiry, honestly and patiently pursued,
leads to truth, knowledge, certainty. He who stops short,
is but half a philosopher. The academic philosophy is
much more suitable to the genius of ancient than of mo-
dern times, and more fitted for the infancy of the under-
standing than for the present more advanced period, when
many important discoveries have been ascertained, and
the strength of men's faculties have been successfully
tried in explaining many of the mysteries of nature. —
Davenport ; Ency. Amer. ; Douglas On Errors regarding He-
ligion.
BAYLY, (Lewis,) a native of Caermarthen, was edu-
cated at Oxford, and, in 1616, was consecrated bishop of
Bangor. He died in 1634. The Practice of Piety, a
work which was long popular, and went through sixty
BDE
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SEA
English editions, besides several in Welsh, was WTitten
by this prelate . — Davenport.
BAYNARD, (Anne,) daughter of Dr. E. Baynard.
Born at Preston, in Lancashire, in 1072 ; died at Barnes,
in Surry, 1097, aged twenty-five. Her father, observing
her genius and natural propensity to learning, gave her a
Very liberal education, of which she made the best use.
"As for learning," says the Rev. J. Prude, in his fune-
ral sermon, " whether it be to understand natural causes
and events, the courses of the sun, moon, and stars, the
qualities of herbs and plants ; to be acquainted with the
demonstrable varieties of mathematics ; the study of phi-
losophy, the writings of the ancients, and that in their
own proper language, without the help of an interpreter ;
these, and the like, are the most noble accomplishments
of the human mind, and accordingly do bring great de-
light and satisfaction along with them ; these things she
was not only conversant in, but mistress of; and that
to such a degree, that very few of her sex did ever arrive
at."
She took the greatest pains to perfect her knowledge
of the Greek tongue, that she might with greater pleasure
read St. Chrysostom in his own language. She was not
satisfied with reading only, but composed many things in
the Latin tongue. She would often say, " It was a sin to
be contented with a little knowledge." She was skilled in
reasoning, and eager to maintain the pure principles of
Christianity, against innovators and deists.
She used to say, " Human learning is worth nothing,
unless, as a handmaid, it leads us to the knowledge of
Christ, revealed in the Gospel as our Lord and Savior."
She was a constant attendant on the means of grace, fond
of retirement and meditation, and very charitable. She
had a love for the souls of her fellow-creatures ; and was
heartily afflicted with the errors, follies, and vices of the
age ; to see that " those who called themselves Christians,
should, by bad principles, and worse practice, dishonor
their profession, and not only hazard their salvation, but
that of their weak brother too, for whom Christ died."
And this temper of mind made her not only importunate
in her intercessions for the good of the world, but gave
her courage and discretion above her years or sex, to
benefit the souls of those she conversed with, by friendly
reproof, good eoimsel, or some learned and pious dis-
course.
Just before her death, she -n-ished, " that all young peo-
ple might be e.xhorted to the practice of virtue, to increase
their knowledge by the practice of philosophy, and, more
especially, to read the great book of nature, wherein they
might see the wisdom and power of the great Creator, in
the order of the universe, and in the production and pre-
servation of all things. It would fix in their minds a love
to so much perfection, frame a divine idea and an awful
regard of God, which heightens devotion, lowers the spirit
of pride, and gives a disposition and habit to his service ;
it makes us tremble at folly and profaneness, and com-
mands reverence and prostration to his great and holy
name."
"That women," saj's she, " are capable of such im-
provements, which will better their judgments and un-
ilerstandings, is past all doubt ; would they but set to it
in earnest, and spend but half of that time in study and
thinking, which they do in visits, vanity, and tolly, it
would introduce a composure of mind, and lay a sound
basis" and ground-work for wisdom and knowledge, by
which they would be better enabled to serve God and help
their neighbors." — Betham.
BDELLlUiW, occurs Gen. 2: 12. and Numb. 11: 7. In-
terpreters seem at a loss to know what to do with this
word, and have rendered it variously. Many suppose it
a mineral production. The Septuagint translates -.n the
first place, a carbuncle, and in the second, a crystal. The
bedoleh, in Genesis, is undoubtedl)^ some precious stone ;
and its color, mentioned in Numbers, where the manna is
spoken of as of the ccflor of MelKum, is explained by a
reference to Exod. 10: 14, 31. where it is likened to hoar-
frost, which being like little fragments of ice, may con-
firm the opinion that the bdellium is the beryl, perhaps
that pellucid kind, called by Dr. Hill the ellipomocrosti/la,
or beryl crystal. — Watson.
BEACON , t. ;.ignai erected on a rising groaad, or top
of a hill, to give warning of the approach of an enemy ;
or on a place of danger, to warn passengers to avoid it.
The Jews were like a beacon and ensign on a hill, when
the judgments of God had rendered them few in number,
and laid on them such alarming distress as loudly warned
others to avoid the like sins. Isa. 30: 17.
BEAN, (JosBPU,) minister of Wrentham, was bom in
Boston, March 7, 1718, of pious parents, was graduated
at Harvard college in 1716, and ordained the third minis-
ter of Wrentham, November 24, 1750. He died, Decem-
ber 12, 1784, aged sixty-six. Mr. Bean was an eminently
pious and faithful minister, and is worthy of honorable
remembrance. From his diary, it appears that he usually
spent one or two hours, moniing and evening, in reading
the Bible and secret devotion ; alsb the afternoon of Satur-
day, when his discourses were prepared for the Sabbath :
and the days of the birth of himself and children, as wc;i
as other days. He was truly humble, and watchful
against all the excitements of pride. His conscience was
peculiarly susceptible. His heart was tender and benevo-
lent. Such was his constant intercourse with heaven,
that hundreds of times, when riding in the performance
of parochial duty, he has dismounted in a retired place to
pour out his heart to God. When he had prepared a ser-
mon, he would take it in his hand, and kneel down to im-
plore a blessing on it. Notliing was permitted to divert
him from preaching faithfully the solemn truths of the
Gospel. He loved his work and his people, and they
loved and honored him. Such a life wiU doubtless obtain
the honor which cometh from God ; and in the day of
judgment, many such obscure men, whom the world knew
not, will be exalted far above a multitude of learned
doctors in divinity, and celebrated orators, and lofty digni-
taries, whose names once resounded through the earth. He
published a century sermon, October 26, 1773. — Panoplist,
V. 481—488 ; Alien.
BEAR. In the Hebrew, this animal is very expres
sively called the grumbler, or grorvhr.
There are three kinds of the bear known : the white,
the black, and the brown. Of the two fonner the Scrip-
ture does not speak ; the latter kind being the onJy one
known in the eastern regions. The brown bear, says
Buffon, is not only savage, but solitarj- ; he takes refuge
in the most unfrequented parts, and the most dangerous
precipices and uninhabited mountains. He chooses his den
in the most gloomy parts of the forest, in some cavern
that has been hollowed by time, or in the hollow of some
old enormous tree. The disposition of this animal is most
surly and rapacious, and his mischievousness has passed
into a proverb. His appearance corresponds isith his
temper : his coat is rugged, his limbs strong and thick,
and his countenance, covered with a dark and sullen
scowl, indicates the settled moroseness of his disposition.
The sacred writers frequently associate this formidable
enemy with the king of the forest, as being equally dan-
gerous and destructive. Thus Amos, setting before his
incorrigible countrymen the succession of calamities
which, under the just judgment of God, was about to
befal them, declares that the removal of one would btit
leave another equally grievous : " Wo "unto you that
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ies.ce tlie day of the Lord ! To what end is it for you ?
The day of the Lord is darkness, and not light. As if a
man did flee from a lion, and a bear met him." Amos 5:
18, 19. And Solomon, who had closely studied the cha-
racter of the several individuals of the animal kingdom,
compares an unprincipled and wicked ruler to these crea-
tures : " As a roaring lion and a ranging bear, so is a
wicked ruler over the poor people." Prov. 28; 15.
The she-bear is said to be even more fierce and terrible
than the male, especially after she has cubbed. So strong
is her attachment to her young, and so extreme the jea-
lousy with which she protects them, that no stranger,
whether man or beast, is sufiered to intrude on her soli-
tude with impunity. This circumstance finely illustrates
the beautiful imagery oj" the prophet, employed to deline-
ate the amazing change which the Gospel of Christ will
be the instrument of effecting in the human heart, and
the delightful harmony which will follow in its train :
" And the cow and the bear shall feed ; their young ones
shall Me down together." Isa. 11: 7.
To the fury of the female bear, when she happens to be
robbed of her young, there are several strilring allusions
in Scripture. Those persons who have witnessed her un-
der such circumstances, describe her rage to be most vio-
lent and frantic, and as only to be diverted from the object
of her vengeance with the loss of her life. How terrible,
then, was the threatening of the incensed Jehovah, in
con.sequence of the numerous and aggravated iniquities
_pf the kingdom of Israel, as uttered by the prophet Ho-
sea — " I will meet them as a bear bereaved of her whelps,
and will rend the caul of their heart !" Chap. 13: 8.
The execution of this terrible denunciation, in the inva-
sion of the land by the Assyrian armies, and the utter
subversion of the kingdom, is well known to every reader
of Scripture.
In the vision of Daniel, where the four great monar-
chies of antiquity are symbolized by different beasts of
prey, whose qualities resembled the character of these
several states, the Medo-Persian empire is represented by
a bear, which raised itself up on one side, and had be-
tween its teeth three ribs ; and they said thus unto it :
" Arise, devour much flesh." Dan. 7:5. All the four
monarchies agreed in their fierceness and rapacity ; but
there were several striking differences in the subordinate
features of their character, and their mode of operation,
which is clearly intimated by the different characters of
their symbolical representatives. The Persian monarchy is
represented by a bear, to denote its cruelty and greediness
after blood ; and in this imputation the prophet Jeremiah
unites, by designating the Persians •' the spoilers." Chap.
51: 48, 56. The learned Bochart has enumerated several
points of resemblance between that character of the Medo-
Persians and the dispositions of this animal. — Abbott.
BEARD. The Hebrews wore their beards, but had,
doubtless, in common with other Asiatic nations, several
fashions in this, as in all other parts of dress. Moses
forbids them, Levit. 19: 27. "to cut off entirely the
angle, or extremity of their beard;" that is, to avoid the
manner of the Egyptians, who left only a little tuft of
beard at the extremity of their chins. The Jews, in some
places, at this day, suffer a little fillet of hair to grow from
Lelow the ears to the chin ; where, as well as upon their
lower lips, their beards are long. When they mourned,
they entirely shaved the hair of their heads and beards,
and neglected to trim their beards, to regulate them into
neat order, or to remove v.'hat grew on their upper lips
and cheeks. Jer. 11: 5. 48: 37. In times of grief and
affliction, they plucked away the hair of their heads and
beards, a mode of expression common to other nations un-
der great calamities. The king of the Ammonites, de-
aigning to insult David in the person of his ambassadors,
cut away half of their beards, and half of their clothes ;
that is, he cut o9' all their beard on one side of their faces.
2 Sam. 10: 4, 5. 1 Chron. 19: 5. To avoid ridicule, Da-
vid did not wish them to appear at his court till their
beards were grown again. When a leper was cured of
his leprosy, he washed himself in a bath, and shaved
off aU the hair of his body ; after which, he returned into
the camp, or city ; seven days afterwards, he washed him-
self and his clothes again, shaved off all his hair, and
offered the sacrifices appointed for his purification. Lev.
14: 9. The Levites, at their consecration, were purified .
by bathing, and washing their bodies and clothes ; after
which, they shaved off all the hair of their bodies, and
then offered the sacrifices appointed for their consecrationi,
Numb. 8: 7.
Nothing has been more fluctuating in the different ages
of the world, and countries, than the fashion of wearing
the beard. Some have cultivated one part, and some
another ; some have endeavored to extirpate it entirely,
whilst others have almost idolized it : the revolutions of
countries have scarcely been more famous than the revo-
lutions of beards. It is a great mark of infamy among
the Arabs to cut ofl' the beard. Many people w-ould pre-
fer death to this kind of treatment. As they would think
it a grievous punishment to lose it, they carry things so
far as to beg for the sake of it : " By your beard, by the
life of your beard, God preserve your blessed beard."
Wlien they would express their value for any thing, they
say, " It is worth more than a man's beard." And
hence, we may easily learn the magnitude of the ofl'ence.
of the Ammonites, in their treatment of David's ambassa-
dors, as above mentioned ; and also the force of the em-
blem used, Ezek. 5: 1 — 5. where the inhabitants of Jeru-
salem are compared to the hair of his head and beard.
Though they had been dear to God as the hair of an east-
ern beard to its owner, they should be taken away and
consumed, one part by pestilence and famine, another by
the sword, another by the calamities incident on exile.
— Walsmi.
BEASTS. When this word is used in opposition to
man, as Psalm 36; 5. any brute creature is signified;
when to creeping things, as Lev. 11: 2, 7. 29; 30. four-
footed animals, from the size of the hare and upwards,
are intended ; and when to wild creatures, as Gen. 1; 25.
cattle, or tame animals, are spoken of. St. Paul, (1 Cor.
15; 32.) speaks of fighting with beasts, &c. by which he
does not mean his having been exposed in the ampithe-
atre, to fight as a gladiator, as some have conjectured, but
that he had to contend, at Ephesus, with the fierce uproar
of Demetrius and his associates. Ignatius uses the same
figure, in his epistle to the Romans : " From Syria even
unto Rome, I fight with wild beasts, both b}' sea and land,
both night and day, being bound to ten leopards ;" that
is, to a hand of soldiers. So Lucian, in like manner, says,
" For I am not to fight T\ith ordinary wild beasts, but with
men, insolent and hard to be convinced." In Revelation
4: 5; 6; mention is made of four beasts, or rather, as the
word zon signifies. Living Ones, as in Ezekiel 1: and so
the word might have been more justly translated. Wild
beasts are used in Scripture as emblems of tyrannical and
persecuting powers. The most illustrious conquerors of
antiquity, also, have not a more htmorable emblem. —
Watson.
BEATIFICATION, in the Roman Catholic church;
an act by which the pope declares a person beatified or
blessed after death. It is the first step to canonization,
which see. No person can be beatified till fifty years after
his death. All certificates or attestations of ■(drtuesand
miracles, the necessary qualifications for saintship, are
examined by the co.'.gregation of rites. This examination
often continues for several years ; after which, his holiness
decrees the beatification. The orpse and relics of the
future saint are thenceforth exposed to the veneration of
the superstitious ; his image is crowned with rays, and a
particular office is set apart for him ; but his body and
relics are not carried in procession. Indulgences, like-
wise, and remissions of sins, are granted on the day of his
beatification ; which, though not so pompous as that of
canonization, is, however, very splendid. Beatification
differs from canonization in this, that the pope does not
act as a judge in determining the state of the beatified,
but only grants a privilege to certain persons to honor
him by a particular religious worship, without incurring
the penalty of superstitious worshippers ; but in canoni-
zation, the pope speaks as a judge, and determines, ex ca-
thedra, upon the state of the person canonized. Beatifica-
tion was introduced when it was thought proper to delay
the canonization of saints, for the greater assurance of the
truth of the steps taken in the procedure. Some particular
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BEG
orders of monks have assumed lo themselves the power
of beatification : thus, Octavia Melchiorica was beatified
by the Dominicans.— Sicy. Amer.
BEATITUDE imports the highest degree of happiness
human nature can arrive to, the fruition of God in a future
life to all eternity. It is also used when spealcing of the
theses contained in Christ's sermon on the mount, where-
by he pronounces the several characters there mentioned
blessed. — Honlerson's Buck.
BEATTIE, (James, LL. D.) the author of the celebrated
"Essay on tlie Nature and Immutability of Truth," was
born, November 5, 1735, at Lawrencekirk, in Kincardine,
in Scotland. His father was a man of strict probity, and
considerable abilities ; but at the early age of seven years,
he was deprived by death of this faithful guide and guar-
dian. His mother, intelligent and affectionate, soon how-
ever discovered indications of genius, and placed him un-
der the care of the distinguislied Mr. James Milne. At a
very early period of life, Beattie was celebrated by his
fellow-pupils, not only for the superiority of his powers,
but for his indefatigable application, diUgent attention, and
regularity, in accomplishing the tasks assigned to him.
He was also kind, afiectionate, generous, and moral. His
reputation considerably extended, and he was beloved and
admired. He was not partial to mathematics ; but it is
evident, from his '•' Essay on Truth," that his powers of
abstraction were very considerable. When he entered the
highest class in the university, his attainments in moral
philosophy were very considerable. About that time, a
great zeal for the cultivation of that branch of knowledge
began to discover itself at Aberdeen ; and Reid, Campbell,
Gregory, and Gerard, (at that time resident at Aberdeen,)
were philosophers, mth whom few men, of any age or
country, cait be compared. They gave the direction to
the studies of Dr. Beattie, and were the causes of that
eminence to which he afterwards attained. The regular
course of Blarischal college was, however, completed in
four years ; and Beattie, in the year 1753, took his degree
of master of arts. Averse to display, he, however, took
that degree in private, because he considered it ostenta-
tious to take it in public ; and he held ostentation to be
incompatible with real merit.
In 1766, he married Miss Slary Deen, daughter of Dr.
Jam.es Deen ; and, about the same period, his far-famed
"Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth" was
published. Descartes and Locke had laid the foundation
of that fabric of sophistry and scepticism, which was af-
terwards reared by Hume and Berkeley. The two latter
had lately shown, that, by their theory of ideas, the most
absurd and dangerous doctrines might be proved to follow ;
and even that body and spirit were not real existences,
but merely ideas in our minds. To rebut errors so dan-
gerous. Dr. Beattie wrote this work, and demonstrated,
that whilst some truths are perceived intuitively, others
require proof; that assent can only be given to the latter,
by those who understand the evidence upon which they
rest ; that the faculty by which truth is perceived, in con-
sequence of proof, is called reason ; and that the name of
common sense should be given to that faculty, by which we
perceive self-evident truth. This essay greatly raised his
fame ; and his reputation, as an author and philosopher,
T.vpidly extended.
In 1768, he published his beautiful and celebrated " Min-
ivr3l," a poem which enrolled his name in the list of the
most distinguished poets. On the 12th of December, 1770,
he received the degree of doctor of laws from King's col-
lege, Aberdeen, and in 1771, he visited London. His late
majesty, king George the third, was much attached to his
writings and character : and, on the 30th of June, 1773,
he was presented to the king, at the levee, by lord Dart-
mouth ; and, in the month of Augu.st following, received
information that his majesty appointed him a pension.
In 1777, he prepared for the press his " Essay on Memo-
ry and Imagination," which is, by many persons, consi-
dered the master-piece of his prose works. In 1784, he
published a " Treatise on the Evidences of Christianity."
It is wTitten with great ability ; and, though nothing new
could be expected upon so trite a subject, "yet it has been
useful, and deserves attention. In 1790, he wrote his
" Elements of Moral Science," which contains an accurate
enumeration and arrangement of the perceptive faculties
and active powers of man ; a cursory view of natural the
ology ; and much miscellaneous information on ethics,
economics, politics, and logic. The second volume was
published in 1793.
By the loss of his pious, learned and excellent son, Mr.
James Hay Beattie, at this period, he was greatly afflicted ;
and, indeed, from the shock with which that melancholy
event aflfecled him, he never perfectly recovered. In ad-
dition to that bereavement, Dr. Beattie was also deprived,
by death, of his son Montague ; but whilst, as a Christian,
he cheerfully submitted to the determination of Provi-
dence, yet those calamities induced him, in later years, to
sequester himself from society ; and premature old age,
with all its infirmities, made rapid advances upon him ;
and, on the 18th of August, 1803, he expired, at Aberdeen,
in the sixty-eighth year of his age. In every situation in
life. Dr. Beattie acquitted himself with credit. He per-
formed his duties to his fellow-creatures and his God, with
integrity, zeal, and delight. In his early years, he was
light and frivolous ; but, as he became more acquainted
with the nature of his own heart, his conduct was consis-
tent, and uniformly correct. For the cause of truth,
Christianity, and science, he was a zealous and able advo-
cate. Many of his pupils have acknowledged their obli-
gations to him ; and the present and succeeding genera
tions wiU cheerfully unite in such acknowledgments.
His style was chaste ; his sentences uniformly simple ;
his poetry was very beautiful ; and it is to be regretted
that so small a part of his time was spent in the cultiva-
tion of the muses. — Sir W. Forbes's Life of Dr. Beattie ;
Jones''s Chr. Biog.
BEAUFORT^ (Maksaket,) countess of Richmond and
Derby, daughter of the duke of Somerset, was born, in
1441, at Bletsor, in Bedfordshire, and died in 1509. She
was thrice married — to the earl of Richmond, to Sir Henry
Stafford, and to lord Stanley. Her son, by her first hus-
band, was afterwards Henry VII. Christ's and St. John's
colleges, Cambridge, and the di\'inity professorship, were
founded by her. She was the third female writer England
produced. Her works are. The Mirroure of Golde for a
Sinful Soul ; and a translation of the first book of Thomas
a Kempis. — Davenport.
BEAUMONT, (Madame le Pktnce de ;) a justly popu-
lar French writer, born at Paris, in 1711. She lived many
yeai-s in England, chiefly employed in writing upon diffe-
rent subjects. Those of her works which are held in the
greatest estimation, are entitled Blagazin des Enfans
Magazin des Adolescens ; Magazin des Jeunes Dames ,
and Nouveau Blagazin Anglois. With the graces of
style, they join good sense and solid reasoning. Her sen
timents on education, particularly, are worthy of the gene-
ral admiration they met with.
" In educating youth," says Madame Beaumont, '■ it is
absolutely necessary in forming their young minds to "nr-
tue, never to separate religion and reason ; one must be
dependent on the other: for the support of which, it is of
the utmost importance to study the holy Scriptures, which
are alone capable of inspiring us with a just idea of the
eternal Being, the recompeuser of virtue, and the avenger
of crimes." Her writings are in the form of dialogues
between a governess and her pupils, and abound in illus-
trative stories. — Betham.
BECKER, (Belthasak,) a learned minister at Amster-
dam in the sixteenth century, who took occasion, from the
Cartesian definition of spirit, of the truth and precision
of which he was intimately persuaded, to Aeny boldly all
the accounts we have in Scripture of the seduction, influ-
ence, and operations of the dev-il and his infernal emissaries,
as well as all that has been said in favor of the existence
of ghosts, spectres, and magicians. The long and elaborate
work which he published in 1691, upon this interesting
subject, is still extant. In this singular production, which
bears the title of the World Bewitched, he modifies and
perverts with the greatest ingenuity, but also with equal
temerity and presumption, the accounts given by the sacred
writers of the power of Satan and wicked angels, and of
persons possessed by evil spirits ; he affirms, moreover,
that the unhappy and malignant being, who is called in
Scripture Satan, or the devil, is chained down with his
BED
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infernal ministers In hell ; so that he can never come forth
from this eternal prison to terrify mortals, or to seduce
the righteons from the paths of virtue. According to the
Cartesian definition, " the essence of mind is thought, and
the essence of matter extension. Now since there is no
sort of conformity or connection between thought and
extension, mind cannot act upon matter, unless these two
substances be united, as soul and body are in man : there-
fore no separate spirits, either good or evil, can act upon
mankind. Such acting is miraculous, and miracles can
be performed b> God alone. It follows of consequence
that the scriptural accounts of the actions and operations
of good and evil spirits, must be understood in an alle-
gorical sense." This is Becker's argument ; and it does,
in truth, little honor to his acuteness and sagacity. By
proving too much, it proves nothing at all. This error
excited great tumults and divisions, not only in all the
United Provinces, but also in some parts of Germany,
where several doctors of the Lutheran church were alarmed
at its progress, and arose to oppose it. Its inventor and
promoter, though refuted victoriously by a multitude of
adversaries, and publicly deposed from his pastoral charge,
"died in 1718, in the full persuasion of the truth of those
opinions which had drawn upon him so much opposition,
and professed, with his last breath, his sincere adherence
to every thing he had written on that subject ; nor can it
be said, that this his doctrine died with him, siriee it is
abundantly known, that it has still many votaries and
patrons, who either hold it in secret or profess it publicly.
— Mosheim.
BECKET, (Thomas a,) a celebrated English prelate, the
son of a merchant, was born at London, 1119, studied at
Oxford, Paris, and Bologna, and, on his return home, en-
tered the church. Henry II. made him high-chancellor
and preceptor to prince Henry, in 1158, admitted him to
the closest intimacy and confidence, and, in 1162, raised
him to the archbishopric of Canterbury. Because of his
great pertinacity in maintaining the exorbitant privileges
of the clergy, in opposition to the king, he W3.s murdered
in Canterbury cathedral, December 22, 1170. — Davenport.
BED. Mattresses, or thiclc cotton quilts folded, were
used for sleeping upon. These were laid upon the duan,
or divan, a part of \.\^ room elevated above the level of
the rest, covered with a carpet in winter, and a fine mat
in summer. (See Accubation, and BiNmnsTS.) A divan
cushion serves for a pillow and bolster. They do not keep
their beds made ; the mattresses are rolled up, carried
away, and placed in a cupboard till they are wanted at
night. And hence the propriety of our Lord's address
to the paralytic, "Arise, take np thy bed," or mattre.ss,
" and walk." Matt. 9: G. The duan on which these mat-
tresses are placed, is at the end of the chamber, and has
an ascent of several steps. Hence Hezekiah is said to
turn his face to the wall when he prayed, that is, from his
attendants. In the day, the duan was used as a seat, and
the place of honor was the corner. Amos 3: 12. — Watson.
BEDAN. We read in 1 Sam. 12: 11. that the Lord
s,"nt several deliverers of Israel ; Jerubbaal, Bedan, Jeph-
thah, Samuel. Jerubbaal we know to be Gideon ; but we
nowhere find Bcdan among the judges of Israel. The
LXX, instead of Bedan, read Barak ; others think Bedan
10 be Jai'r, of Manasseh, who judged Israel twenty-three
Vfars. Judg. 10: 3. There was a Bedan, great-grandson
to Machir, and JaVr was descended from a daughter of
Machir. The Chaldee, the rabbins, and after them the
generality- of commentators, conclude that Bedan was
Samson, of Dan ; but the opinion which supposes Bedan
and Jai'r to be the same person, seems the most probable.
The names of Samson and Barak were added m many
Latin copies, before the conections of them, by the Roman
censors, were published. The edition of Sixtus "V. reads,
" Jerobaal, et Baldan, ct Samson, et Barak, et Jephte." —
Calm^t.
BEDE, (generally styled " the venerable Bede,") an
eminent writer and an English monk, was born at "Wer-
mouth and Jarrow, in the bishopric of Dnrham, in the
vear 073. At the early age of six years, he was sent to
the monastery of St. Peter, under the superintendence of
abbot Benedict, by whom, and his successor Ceolfrid, he
was educated for twelve years. "When he had arrived at
the age of nineteen, he was ordained deacon by bishop
Beverley. In a short time, by his diligence and applica-
tion, he became a proficient in general knowledge, and in
classical literature. He was so strongly attached to a
monastic life, that when pope Sergius wrote to abbot Ce-
olfrid, in a very urgent manner, to send him to Rome to
give his opinion on some important points, Bede would
not accept it. Several years were spent by him in making
collections for his celebrated work on ecclesiastical hi.s-
torj', the materials for which he collected from the Hves
of eminent persons, annals in convents, and such chroni-
cles as were written before his time. That work was pub-
lished in the year 731, when he was fifty-nine years of
age. It gained him such universal applause, that the most
profound prelates conversed with him, and solicited his
advice on the most important subjects ; particularly Eg-
bert, bishop of York, a man of very extensive learning ;
and to whom he wrote a long, learned, and judicious let-
ter, which furnished the world with such an account of the
state of the church at that time, as cannot be met with in
any other history. He had then every symptom of con-
sumption, which at last proved to be the case. This afhic-
tion he supported with incredible firmness of mind ; and
though this lingering complaint was united with asthma,
he was never heard to complain, but was always calm and
resigned. Though his body was thus afflicted, his mind
was buoyant and active ; and he cimtinued, with great
assiduity, to translate the Gospel of St. John into the Saxon
language, and also some passages which he Mas then ex-
tracting from the works of Isidore. He also took his usual
interest in the education and improvement of :iome monks
whom he was instructing. His piety and virtue, united
to his lengthened days, entitled him to the appellation of
venerable. England scarcely ever produced a greater
scholar or divine. Bayle says that " there is scarcely any
thing in all antiquity worthy to be read, which is not to be
found in Bede, though he travelled not out of his own
country ;" and that, " if he had lived in the times of St.
Augustine, St. Jerome, or Cbrysostom, he would undoubt-
edly have equalled them, since, even in the midst of a
superstitious age, he wrote so many excellent treatises."
Bede died at the age of sixty-three, A. D. 735. His re-
mains were interred, first in the church of his own monas-
tery, but afterwards removed to Durham, and placed in
the same coflin with those of St. Cuthberl. There were
several epitaphs composed in honor of him, but none
considered suitable to his virtues and talents. As an
author, he excelled in the purity and elegance of his style ;
and, as a man, he was eminent for those virtues and graces
which adorn human nature. — Jones's Chr. Biog.
BEE. Shakspeare, our great poet, has admirably de-
scribed the laws and order of a
community of these industri-
ous, useful, and well known
insects. To attempt even an
outline of the natural history
of the bee would occupy more
space than can be devoted to
this entire article ; we must,
therefore, refer the reader who
is desirous of the information,
to other works, and proceed to
notice those passages of Scrip-
ture in which it is spoken of, and which require elucidation.
In Judges 14: 8, we are informed that Samson, on in-
specting the carcass of a lion which he had some time
previously killed, found that a swarm of bees had taken
BEE
[ 209 ]
BEG
np their residence in it. We notice the circumstance,
because it has been supposed to contradict the statement
of Aristotle and other eminent naturaUsts, who affirm that
bees will not alight upon a dead carcase, nor taste the
flpsh ; that they will never sit down in an unclean place,
nor upon any thing which emits an unpleasant smell.
The variance between this statement and that of the sa-
cred writer, is, however, only apparent. The frequently
occurring phrase introduced into this text, " after a time,"
shows that the circumstance referred to was long posterior
to the death of the animal, whose body, from an exposure
to beasts and birds of prey, and the violent heat of the
sun, was reduced to a mere skeleton, and divested of all
effluvia. That bees have swarmed in dry bones, we have
thetestimonyofHerodotus.of Seranus, andof Aldrovandus.
Indeed, as bones in their nature, when dry, are exceedingly
dry, there is no more to be said against such a place of
residence, than against the same among rocks and stones.
Some writers have contended that bees are destitute of
the sense of hearing ; but their opinion is entirely without
foundation. This will appear, if any proof were neces-
sary, from the following prediction : " And it shall come
to pass in that day, that the Lord shall hiss for the fly that
is in the uttermost parts of the rivers of Egypt ; and for
the bee that is in the land of Assyria." Isa. 7: 18. The
aUu.sion which this text involves, is to the practice of call-
ing out the bees from their hives by a hissing or whistling
sound, to their labor in the fields, and summoning them
again to return when the heavens begin to lower, or the
shadows of evening to fall. In this manner, Jehovah
threatens to arouse the enemies of Judah, and lead them
to the prey. However widely scattered, or far remote
from the scene of action, they should hear his voice, and
with as much promptitude as the bee, that has been taught
to recognise the signal of its owner, and obey his call,
they should assemble their forces ; and although weak
and insignificant as a swarm of bees in the estimation of
a proud and infatuated people, they should come with irre-
sistible might, and take possession of the rich and beautiful
region that had been abandoned by its terrified inhabitants.
The allusion of Moses to the attack of the Amorites,
which involves a reference to the irritable and revengeful
disposition of the bee, is both just and beautiful : " And
the Amorites which dwelt in that mountain came out against
you, and chased you as bees do, and destroyed you in
Seir, even unto Hormah." Deut. 1: 44. 'Every person
who has seen "a swarm of disturbed bees, will easily con-
ceive the fierce hostility and implacable fiu-y of the ene-
mies of Israel, which this expression is intended to denote.
The same remarks will apply to Psalm 18: 12, in which
there is a similar allusion.
The surprising industry of the bee has, from the earliest
times, furnished man with a delicious and useful article,
in the honey which it produces.
This was very common in Palestine. In Exod. 3: 8,
dec, the circumstance of its flowing with milk and honey
is selected as a striking proof of its being the glory of all
lands ; and in Deut. 32: 13. and Ps. 81: 16, the inhabitants
are said to have sucked honey out of the rocks. With
this agree 2 Sam. 14: 25 ; Matt. 3: 4, &c., and the testi-
mony of intelligent travellers. Hasselquist says, that be-
tween Acra and Nazareth, great numbers of wild bees
■ breed, to the advantage of the inhabitants ; and Maundrel
observes, that when in the great plain near Jericho, he per-
ceived in many places a smell of honey and wax, as strong
as if he h.id been in an apiary.
It is reasonably supposed, however, that the honey men-
tioned in some of these passages was not the produce of
bees, but a sweet syrup produced by the date-tree, which
■was common in Palestine, and which is taown to have
furnished an article of this desciiption. There is also in
some parts of the East, a kind of honey Avhich collects
upon the leaves of the trees, something like dew, and which
is gathered by the inhabitants in considerable quantities.
It is very sweet when fresh, but turns sour after being
kept two days. The Arabs eat it with btuter; they also
put it into their gruel, and use it in rubbing their water-
skins, for the purpose of excluding the air. It is collected
in the months of May and June ; and some persons as-
sured our traveller that the same substance was likewise
27
produced by the thorny tree Tereshresh, at the same lime
of the year.
Honey was prohibited as an offering on the altar, under
the Levitical dispensation, (Lev. 2: 11.) but its first-fruits
were to be presented for the support of the priests, ver. 12.
Some writers have supposed that these first-fruits were of
the honey of the dale, but such an interpretation is forced
and unnatural : the articles intended in verse 12, are ob-
viously the same as those which are specified in the pre-
ceding verse.
Honey newly taken out of the comb has a peculiar deli-
cacy of flavor, which will in vain be sought for, after it
has been for any length of time expressed or clarified.
This will help to explain the energy of expression adopted
by the Psalmist, when speaking of the divine laws : " More
to be desired are they than gold, yea, than much fine gold ;
sweeter also than honey, and the droppings of honey-
combs." Ps. 19: 10.
A fine lesson on the necessity of moderation is taught
by Solomon : (Prov. 25: 16.) " Hast thou found honey ? eat
so much as is sufficient for thee, lest thou be filled there-
with, and vomit it." Upon this passage, Harris has cited
the foUomng observations of Dr. Knox : " Man. indeed,
may be called a bee in a figurative style. In search of
sweets, he roams in various regions, and ransacks every
inviting flower. AVhatever displays a beautiful appear-
ance solicits his notice, and conciliates his favor, if not his
afliection. He is often deceived by the vivid color and at-
tractive form, which, instead of supplying honey, produce
the rankest poison ; but he perseveres in his researches,
and if he is often disappointed, he is also often successful.
The misfortune is, that when he has found honey, he en-
ters upon the feast with an appetite so voracious, that he
usually destroys his own delight by excess and satiety." —
Abhotl's Scrip. Nat. Hist.
BEEL-ZEBUB, the same as Baal-zebub ; which see.
BEER, a well, a town about twelve miles from Jerusa-
lem, in the way to Shechem, or Napolose. It is probable,
that Jotham, son of Gideon, retired to this place, to avoid
falling into the hands of his brother Abimelech. ,Tudg,
9: 21.—Calmet.
BEER-LAHA-ROI, a well between Kadesh and Shur,
where the angel of God appeared to Hagar. Gen. 16: 14.
— Calmet.
BEEROTH, a city of the Gibeonites, afterwards belong-
ing to Benjamin, (Josh. 9.- 17. 18: 25. 2 Sam. 4: 2. Ezra
2: 25.) seven miles from Jerusalem, toward Nicopolis. —
Calmet.
BEETLE, is mentioned only in Lev. 11: 22. It is
thought by some critics to be a species of the locust, but
by others, the very kind of scarabaeus to which the ancient
Egyptians paid lUvine honors. — Abhoii's Saip. Nat. Hist.
BEEVES ; the genuine name for a class of clean ani-
mals. Collectively, herds. (See Heifer.) — Calmet.
BEFORE THE LORD. To be before God, is to enjoy
his favor, and the smiles of his providence. Ps. 31 : 22.
To come before Aim, is to come to his temple and ordinances,
and worship him, and have familiar fellowship with him.
Ps. 100: 2. 65; 4. 42: 2. To ivalk before him, is to behave
as under his eye, depending on his strength, and aiming
at his glory as our chief end. Gen. 17: 1. To sin before
him. is to do it in his view, and \vith a hold and open con
tempt of him. Gen. 13: 13. To haoe other gorls before him,
is to have them in his sight, and in opposition to him
Exod. 20: 3. To set the Lord before us, is to make him the
object of our trust, the pattern of our conduct ; and to in-
tend his glorj', and consider him as our witness and
judge in all we do. — Bronm^s Diet.
BEGHARDS, or Beguakps, i. e. hard beggars, a term
variously applied in ecclesiastical history. It was applied
first to certain religious of the order of St. Francis, who
lived in common under monastic vows, and supported
themselves by the manufacture of linen cloth. At length
degenerating, they were suppressed by the pope's autho-
rity, and the name became a term of reproach — beggars.
On the dawn of the Reformation, it was applied, in its
spiritual sense, to certain praying people, from the earnest-
ness of their devotions, and thence became (like ;Meiho-
dist) a term of reproach, applied to all serious people ;
particularly the Waldenses abroad, and the Wickliflites.
BE H
[ 210
BEH
and Lollards in England. — Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. iii.
pp. 231—234 ; Haiveis's Church Hist. vol. ii. p. 275.
BEGUINES, is said to be the feminine of Begliards ;
but they seem to have had a prior establishment in the
eleventh century. They derive their origin from St.
Begge, duchess of Brabant, and daughter of Pepin, mayor
of the palace of the king of Austria, in the seventh cen-
tury. A variety of convents were formed under this name,
both in Germany and Flanders, the ladies of whom lived
a single life, and divided their time between works of in-
dustry and devotion, but without entering into vows of
celibacy. After the commencement of the Reformation,
the term was applied more generally to pious females, in
its best sense— those who wrestled hard in prayer.—
Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. iii. p. 233, Note u, iy Dr.
Madaine ; Williams.
BEGINNING, denotes, 1. The first part of time in
general. Gen. 1: 1. — 2. The first part of a particular pe-
riod ; as of the year ; of the duration of the state or king-
dom of the Hebrews. Exod. 12: 2. Isa. 1: 26.-3. The
first actor, or the cause of a thing. Numb. 10: 10. Mic.
1: 13. — 4. That which is most excellent. Prov. 1: 7. 9:10.
From the beginning is, 1. From eternity, ere any creature
was made. 2 Thes. 2: 13. Prov. 8: 23.-2. From the
very/irst part of time. 1 John 3: S. — 3. From the begin-
ning of a particular period ; as of Christ's public ministry.
John 8: 25. Christ is called the beginning, and the begin-
ning of the creation of God; he is from eternity, and gave
being to time and every creature. Rev. 1: 8. and 3: 14.
Col. 1: 18.
BEHEMOTH. The animal denoted by this appellation
in the book of Job, has been variously detennined by
learned men ; some of whom, especially the early Chris-
tian writers and the jemsh rabbins, have indulged in suf-
ficiently extravagant notions. To detail these would be
useless, and we shall therefore pass them over in silence.
The late editor of Calmet, whose extensive learning
and indefatigable industry will always entitle him to re-
spectful attention, notwithstanding his love of fanciful con-
jecture, has well remarked, that " the author of the book
of Job has evidently taken great pains in delineating highly
finished and poetical pictures of two remarkable animals,
behemoth and leviathan: these he reserves to close his
descriptions of animated nature, and with these he termi-
nates the climax of that discourse, which he puts into the
mouth of the Almighty. He even interrupts that dis-
course, and separates, as it were, by that interruption,
these surprising creatures from those which he had de-
scribed before ; and he descants on them in a inanner
which demonstrates the poetic animation with which he
wrote. The leviathan is described at a still greater length
than the behemoth ; and the two evidently appear to be
presented as companions ; to be reserved as fellows and
associates." Mr. Taylor then proceeds to inquire what
were the creatures most likely to be companionized and
associated in early ages, and in countries bordering on
Egypt, where the scene of this poem is placed ; and from
the " Antiquities of Herculaneum," the " Prienestine Pave-
ment," and the famous " Statue of the Nile," he shows
these to have been the crocodile — now generally admitted
to be the leviathan, and the hippopotamus, or nver-horse.
" After these authorities," he remarks. " I think we mav
without hesitation, conclude, that this association was not
rare or uncommon, but that it really was the customary,
manner of thinking, and, consequently, of speaking, in
ancient times, and in the countries where these creatures
were native ; we may add, that being well known in Egypt,
and being, in some degree, popular objects of Egyptian
pride, distinguishing natives of that country, for their mag-
nitude and character, they could not escape the notice of
any curious naturalist, or writer on natural history ; so
that to suppose they were omitted in this part of the book
of Job, would be to suppose a blemish in the book, imply-
ing a deficiency in the author : and if they are inserted,
no other description can be that of the hippopotamus."
Aristotle represents the hippopotamus to be of the size
of an ass ; Herodotus affirms that in stature he is equal
to the largest ox ; Diodorus makes his height not less than
five cubits, or above seven feet and a half; and Tatius
calls him, on account of his prodigious strength, the Egyp-
tian elephant. Captain Beaver thus describes one which
he met with in Western Africa : " The animal was not
swimming, but standing in the channel, in, I suppose, about
five feet water : the body immerged, and the head just
above it. It looked steadfastly at the boat till we were
withi.i about twenty yanls of it, w-hen 1 lodged a ball half
way between its eyes and nostrils : it immediately tumbled
down, but instantly rose again, snorted, and walked into
shallower water, where I had an opportunity of seeing its
whole body, and then discovered that it was an hippopota-
mus. It afterwards advanced a little towards the boat,
then towards the shore, and turned entirely round once or
twice, as if at a loss what to do, plunging violently the
whole time. At last, it walked into deeper water, and then
dived : we watched its rising, and then pursued it ; and
this we did for near three hours, when, at length it landed
on a narrow neck of sand, and walked over it into fifteen
or sixteen fathoms of water. We then gave up the pur-
suit, having never been able to get a second shot at it.
The longest time it was under water during the pursuit,
W'as twenty minutes, but immediately after being wounded
it rose every three or four minutes. Its body appeared to
be somewhat larger than that of the largest buffalo, with
shorter but much thicker legs ; a head much resembling
a horse's, but longer ; large, projecting eyes ; open and
wide distended nostrils ; short, erect ears, likea cropt horse
when it pricks them up, or those of a well-cropped terrier.
I perceived nothing like a mane, and the skin appeared to
be without hair ; but of this I am not certain, for being
totally ignorant whether the animal was ferocious or not,
immediately after I fired we rowed from it, expecting it
would attack us."
In Job 40: 17, 18, the sacred writer conveys a striking
idea of the bulk, vigor, and strength of the behemoth.
He movelh his tall like a cedar :
The sinews of his thighs are interwoven together.
His ribs are as strong pieces of copper ;
His backbone like bars of iron.
The idea of his prodigious might is Increased by the
account given of his bones, which are compared to strong
pieces of brass, and bars of iron. Such figures are com-
monly employed by the sacred writers, to express great'
hardness and strength, of which a striking example occurs
in the prophecy of Micah : "Arise and thresh, 0 daughter of
Zion; for I will make thy horn iron, and I will make thy hoofs
brass : and thou shalt beat in pieces many people," (Micah
4: 13.) so hard and strong are the bones of the behemoth.
He is chief of the works of GoJ.
lie that made him has fixed his weajjon.
Here he is described as one of the noblest animals which
the Almighty Creator has produced. The male hippo-
potamus which Zernighi brought from the Nile to Italy,
was sixteen feet nine inches long, from the extremity of
the muzzle to the origin of the tail ; fifteen feet in circum-
ference ; and six feet and a half high ; and the legs were
about two feet ten inches long. The head was three feet
and a half in length, and eight feet and a half in circum-
ference. The opening of the mouth was two feet four
inches, and the largest teeth were more than a foot long.
Thus, his prodigious strength; his impenetrable skin;
and vast opening of his mouth, and his portentous voracity ;
BEH
[211]
BEH
l>ie whiteness and hardness of his teeth ; his manner of
life, spent with equal ease in the sea, on the land, or at
the bottom of the Nile, — equally claim our admiration,
and entitle liim, says Paxton, to be considered as the chief
of the ways of God. Nor is he less remarkable for his
sagacity ; of which two instances are recorded by Pliny
and Solinus. After he has gorged himself with corn, and
begins to return with a distended belly to the deep, with
averted steps he traces a great many paths, lest his pur-
suers, following the lines of one plain track, should over-
take and destroy him while he is unable to resist. The
second instance is not less remarkable : when he has be-
come fat with too much indulgence, he reduces his obesity
by copious bleedings. For this purpose he searches for
newly-cut reeds, or sharp-pointed rocks, and rubs himself
against them till he makes a sufficient aperture for the
blood to flow. To promote the discharge, it is said, he
agitates his body ; and when he thinks he has lost a suffi-
cient quantity, he closes the wound by rolling himself in
the mud.
In compliance with the prevailing opinion, which refers
this description to the hip|)opotamus, we have thought it
right to exhibit some of the points of resemblance which
have been discovered between that creature and the be-
hemoth of the book of Job. Drs. Good and Clarke, how-
ever, think that the sacred writer refers to an animal of
an extinct genus. Dr. Clarke believes it to have been the
mastadanton or mammoth, some part of a skeleton of which
he has carefully examined, and thus described in his com-
mentary on Gen. 1: 24. " The mammoth for size will an-
swer the description in verse 19 : "He is the chief of the
ways of God." That to which the part of a skeleton be-
longed, which I examined, must have been, by computa-
tion, not less than twenty-five feet high, and sixty feet in
length ! The bones of nm toe I measured, and found them
three feet in length 1 One of the very smallest grinders
of an animal of this extinct species, full of processes on
the surface, more than an inch in depth, which showed
(hat the animal had lived on flesh, I have just now weighed,
and found it, in its very dry state, four pounds eight ounces,
avoirdupois : the same grinder of an ehphant I have
weighed also, and found it just tKO pounds. The mammoth,
therefore, from this proportion, must have been as large
as two elephants and a quarter. We may judge by this of
its size ; elephants are frequently ten and eleven feet high :
this will make the mammoth at least twenty-five or twenty-six
feet high ; and as it appears to have been a many-toed ani-
mal, the springs which such a creature could make, must
have been almost incredible ; nothing by swiftness could
have escaped its pursuit. God seems to have made it as
the proof of his power ; and had it been prolific, and not
become extinct, it would have depopulated the earth.
Creatures of this kind must have been living in the days
of Job : the behemoth is referred to here, as if perfectly
commonly knomi." — Abbot ; Jones.
BEHMEN, or Boehme, (Jacob,) a celebrated mystic
■writer, bom in the year 1575, at Old Seidenburgh, near
Gorlitz, in Upper Lusatia ; he was a shoemaker by trade.
He is described as having been thoughtful and religious
from his youth, taking peculiar pleasure in frequenting
public worship. At length, seriously considering within
liimself that speech of our Savior, My Father which is in
heaven will give the Holy Spirit to them that ask him, he was
thereby thoroughly awakened in himself, and set forward
to desire that promised Comforter ; and, continuing in that
earnestness, he was at last, to use his own expression,
" surrounded with a divine light for seven days, and stood
in the highest contemplation and kingdom of joys !"
After this, about the year 1600, he was again surrounded
by the divine light, and replenished with the heavenly
knowledge ; insomuch that, going abroad into the fields,
and viewing the herbs and grass, by his inward light he
saw into their essences, use and properties, which were
discovered to him by their lineaments, figures, and signa-
tures. In the year 1610, he had a third special illumina-
tion, wherein still further mysteries were revealed to him.
It was not till the year 1612, that Behmen committed these
revelations to writing. His first treatise is entitled Au-
rora, which was seized on and withheld from him by the
seaate of Gorlitz, (who persecuted him at the instigation
of the primate of that place,) before it was finished, and
he never afterwards proceeded with it, further than by
adding some explanatory notes. The next production of
his pen is called The Three Principles. In this work he
more fully illustrates the subjects treated of in the former,
and supplies what is wanting in that work. The contents
of these two treatises may be divided as follows ; 1 . How
all things came from a working will of the holy triune
incomprehensible God, manifesting himself as Father,
Son, and Holy Spirit, through an outward perceptible
working triune power of fire, light, and spirit, in the king-
dom of heaven. 2. How and what angels and men were
in their creation ; that they are in and from God, his real
offspring; that their life began in and from this divine lire,
which is the Father of light, generating a birth of light in
their souls ; from both which proceeds the Holy Spirit, or
breath of divine love in the triune creature, as it does in the
triune Creator. 3. How some angels, and all men, are
fallen from God, and their first state of a divine triune
hfe in him ; what they are in their fallen state, and ' he
difference between the fall of angels and that of man. 4.
How the earth, stars, and elements were created in con
sequence of the fallen angels. 5. "Whence there is good
and evil in all this temporal world, in all itscreatures, ani-
mate and inanimate ; and what is meant by the curse, that
dwells every where in it. li. Of the kingdom of Christ ;
how it is set in opposition to, and fights and strives against,
the kingdom of hell. 7. How man, through faith in Christ,
is able to overcome the kingdom of hell, and triumph over
it in the divine power, and thereby obtain eternal salva-
tion ; also how, through working in the helhsh quantity
or principle, he casts himself into perdition. 8. How and
why sin and misery, wrath and death, shall only reign for
a time, till the love, the wisdom, and the power of God,
shall, in a supernatural way, (the mystery of God made
man,) triumph over sin, misery, and death ; and make
fallen man rise to the glory of angels, and this material
system shake off its curse, and enter into an everlasting
union with that heaven from whence it fell.
The year after he wrote his Three Principles, — by which
are to be understood the dark world, or hell, in which the
devils Uve ; the light world, or heaven, in which the an-
gels live ; the external and visible world, which has pro-
ceeded from the internal and spiritual worlds, in which
man, as to his bodily life, lives, — Behmen produced his
Threefold Life of Man, according to tlte Three Principles.
In this work he treats more largely of the state of man in
this world: 1. That he has that immortal spark of life
which is common to angels and devils. 2. That divine
life of the light and spirit of God, which makes the essen-
tial difference between an angel and a devil, the last hav-
ing extinguished this divine Ufe in himself; but that man
can only attain unto this heavenly life of the second prin-
ciple through the new birth in Chri.st Jesus. 3. The life
of the third principle, or of this external and visible world.
Thus the life of the first and third principles is common
to all men ; but the life of the second principle only to a
true Christian or child of God.
Behmen wrote several other treatises, besides the three
already enumerated ; but these three being, as it were, the
basis of all his other writings, it was thought proper to
notice them particularly. His conceptions are often clothed
under allegorical symbols ; and in his latter works he has
frequently adopted chemical and Latin phrases to express
his ideas, which phrases he borrowed from conversation
with learned men, the education he had re ;eived being
too illiterate to furnish him with them : but as to the mat-
ter contained in his writings, he disclaimed having bor-
rowed it either from men or books. He died in the year
1624. His last words were, " Now I go hence into Para-
dise."
Some of Behmen's principles were adopted by the late
ingenious and pious William Law, who has clothed them
in a more modem dress and in a less obscure style. See
Behmen's Works; Oakley's Memoirs of Behmen. — Hender-
son's Buck.
BEHOLD; a call for particular attention. It imports
sadden excitement, wonder, joy, certainty, momentous-
ness. Isa. 7: 14. John 1: 29. Matt. 21: 5. Kev. 16: 15.
Luke 24: 39. To behold, is, 1. To look on ; see Gen. 31:
BEL
1212]
BEL
51. 2. To consider, know, care for. Lam. 1: 12. John
19: 5, 26, 27. God beheld not iniquity in Jacob, nor perverse-
iiess in Israel ; though his omniscient eye discerns sin in
his people on earth, he observes it not as an enemy, wrath-
fuUy to punish them for it. But the word may be rendered.
He hath not beheld injury against Jamb, rurr vexation against
Israel ; that is, he will not suffer them to be hurt. Numb.
23: 21. To behold Christ, is with wonder and attention to
know, believe in, and receive him. Isa. 65; 1. — Brown.
BEHOOVE, to be necessary, just, and becoming. As
it became. God, for the honor of his nature, counsels, word,
and work, to expose Christ to suffering ; so it iehooiied
Christ to sutfer, and be in all things like unto his brethren
of mankind, that he might display his Father's perfec-
tions, fulfil his purposes, promises, and types, destroy the
works of the devil, and sympathize with, and serve us.
Heb. 2: 10, 17.— Brown.
BEKAH ; half a shekel. Ex. 38: 26.
BEL. (See Baal.)
BEL AND THE DRAGON, (history of,) an apocry-
phal and uncanonical book of Scripture. It was always
rejected by the Jewish church, and is extant neither in the
Hebrew nor the Chaldee language ; nor is there any proof
that it ever was so. Jerome gives it no better title than
'' the fable of Bel and the Dragon."
Selden thinks this httle history ought rather to be con-
sidered as a sacred poem, or fiction, than a true account.
As to the Dragon, he observes, that serpents {dracones)
made a part of the hidden mysteries of the pagan religion ;
as appears from Clemens Alexandrinus, Julius Fimiicus,
Justin Martyr, and others. And Aristotle relates, that in
Mesopotamia, there were serpents which would not hurt the
natives of the country, and infested only strangers. Whence
it is not improbable, that both (be Mesopotainians them-
selves, and the neighboring people, might worship a serpent,
the former to avert the evil arising from those reptiles, the
latter out of a principle of gratitude. But of this there is
no clear proof ; nor is it certain that the Babylonians wor-
shipped a dragon or serpent. — Hcnd. Buck.
BELCHER. (Jonathan,) governor of Massachusetts
and New Jersey, was the son of Andrew Belcher of Cam-
bridge, one of the council of the province, and a gentle-
man of large estate, who died in 1717, and grandson of
Andrew Belcher, who lived in Cambridge in 1646, and
who received in 1652 a license for an inn, granting him
liberty " to sell beer and bread for entertainment of stran-
gers and the good of the town." He was born in January,
1681. As the hopes of the family rested on him, his father
carefully superintended his education. He was graduated
at Harvard college in 1699. While a member of this in-
stitution, his open and pleasant conversation, joined with
his manly and generous conduct, conciliated the esteem
of all his acquaintance. Not long after the termination
of his coUegial course, he visited Europe. The acquaint-
ance which he formed with the princess Sophia and her
son, afterwards king Gi orge H. laid the foundation of his
future honors.
After the death q' gf vernor Burnet, he was appointed
by his majesty to th: government of Massachusetts and
New Hampshire m -730. In this station he continued
eleven years. The leading men of New Hampshire, who
wished for a distinct government, were hostile to him ;
and his resistance to a proposed new emission of paper
bills also created him enemies. On being superseded, he
repaired to court, where he vindicated his character and
conduct, and exposed the base designs of his enemies.
He was restored to the royal favor, and was promised the
first vacant government in America. This vacancy oc-
curred in the province of New Jei-sey, where he arrived
in 1747, and where he spent the remaining years of his
life. In this province, his memory has been held in de-
served reipect.
Whan he first arrived in this produce, he found it in the
utmost confusion by tumults and riotous disordere, which
nad for some time prevailed. This circumstance, joined
to the unhappy controversy between the two branches of
the legislature, rendered the first part of his administra-
tion peculiarly difficult ; but by his firm and prudent
measures he surmounted the difficulties of his situation.
He steadily pursued the interest of the province, endea-
voring to distinguish and promote men of worth without
partiality. He enlarged the charter of Princeton college,
and was its chief patron and benefactor. Even under the
growing infirmities of age, he applied himself with his
accustomed assiduity and diligence to the high duties of
his office. He died at Elizabelhtown, August 31, 1757,
aged seventy-six years.
Governor Belcher possessed uncommon gracefulness of
person and dignity of deportment. He obeyed the royal
instructions on the one hand, and exhibited a real regard
to the liberties and happiness of the people on the other.
He was distinguished by his unshaken integrity, by his
zeal for justice, and care to have it equally distributed.
Neither the claims of interest nor the solicitations of friends
could move him from what appeared to be his duty. He
seems to have possessed, in addition to his other accom-
phshments, that piety, whose lustre is eternal. His religion
was not a mere formal thing, which he received from tra-
dition, or professed in confonnity to the custom of the
country in which he lived ; but it impressed his heart, and
governed his life. He had such views of the majesty and
holiness of God, of the strictness and purity of the divine
law, and of his own unworthiness and iniquity, as made
Mm disclaim all dependence on his own righteousness,
and led him to place his whole hope for salvation on the
merits of the Lord Jesus Christ, who appeared to him an
all-sufficient and glorious Savior. He expressed the hum-
blest sense of his own character, and the most exalted
views of the rich, free, and glorious grace offered in the
gospel to sinners. His faith worked by love, and produced
the genuine fniits of obedience. It exhibited itself in a
life of piety and devotion, of meekness and humility, of
justice, truth, and benevolence. He searched the holy
Scriptures with the greatest diligence and delight. In his
family he maintained the worship of God, himself read-
ing the volume of truth, and addressing in prayer the
Majesty of heaven and of earth, as long as his health and
strength would possibly admit. In the hours of retire-
ment, he held intercourse with Heaven, carefully redeem-
ing time from the business of this world, to attend to the
more important concerns of another. Though there was
nothing ostentatious in his religion, yet he was not ashamed
to avow his attachment to the Gospel of Christ, even when
he exposed himself to ridicule and censure. When Mr.
Whitefield was at Boston in the year 1740, he treated that
eloquent itinerant with the greatest respect. He even fol-
lowed him as far as Worcester, and requested him to con-
tinue his faithful instructions and pungent addresses to
the conscience, desiring him to spare neither ministers nor
rulers. He was indeed deeply interested in the progress
of holiness and religion. As he approached the termina-
tion of his life, he often expressed his desire to depart,
and to enter the world of glory. — Burr's Fun. Ser. ;
Hutchinson., ii. 367 — 397 ; Holmes, ii. 78 ; Smith's Nem Jer-
sey, 437, 438 ; Belhwp's New Hampshire, ii. 95, 126, 165—
180 ; Wliitejield's Journal for 1743 ; Marshall, i. 299 ; Mi-
not, i. 61; Eliot; Mass. Hist. Col. vii. 28; Allen.
BELIAL. The phrase, " sons of Belial," signifies
wicked, worthless men. It was given to the inhabitants of
Gibeah, who abused the Levite's wife, (Judg. 19; 22.)and
to Hophni and Phineas, the wicked and profane sons of
Eh. 1 Sam. 2; 12. In later times, the name Behal de-
noted the devil : " What concord hath Christ with Belial ?"
(2 Cor. 6; 15.) for as the word literally imports " one who
will do no one good," the positive sense of a doer of evil
was applied to Satan, who is the author of evil, and, emi-
nently, " the evil one."— IFofton.
BELIE ; to give one the lie. To belie the Lord, is
falsely to ascribe our prosperity or distress to some other
principal cause rather than God. Jer. 5: 12. Prov. 30: 9.
BELIEF, in its general and natural sense, denotes a
persuasion or an assent of the mind to the truth of any
proposition. In this .sense, belief has no relation to any
particular kind of means or arguments, but may be pro-
duced by any means whatever: thus we are said to be-
heve our senses, to believe our reason, to believe a wit-
ness. Belief, in its more restrained sense, denotes that
kind of assent which is grounded only on the authority or
testimony of some person. In this sense, belief stands op-
posed to knowledge and science. We do not say that we
BEL
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BEL
believe snow is white, but we knorv it to be so. But when
a thing is propounded to us, of which we ourselves have
no knowledge, but which appears to us to be true, from
the testimony given to it by another, this is what we call
belief. (See Faith.) — Ht/idersoii's Buck.
BELIEVERS; an appellation given, toward the close
of the first century, to those Christians who had been ad-
mitted into the church by baptism, and instructed in all the
mysteries of religion. They were thus called in contra-
distinction to the catechumens who had not been baptized,
and were debarred from those privileges. Among us, it is
often used synonymously with Christian. (See Chris-
tian.)— Hmiiersim's Buck.
BELKNAP, (Jeke.my, D. D.,) minister in Boston, and
eminent as a writer, was born June 4, 1744, and was a
descendant of Joseph Belknap, who lived in Boston in
1(358. He received the rudiments of learning in the gram-
luar school of the celebrated Mr. Lovel, and was graiUi-
aled at Harvard college in 17(32. He exhibited, at this
early period, such marks of genius and taste, and such
talents in writing and conversation, as to excite the most
pleasing hopes of his future usefulness and distinction.
Having upon his mind deep impressions of the truths of
religion, he now applied himself to the study of theology,
and he was ordained pastor of the church in Dover. New
Hampshire, February 18, 1767. Here he passed near
twenty years of his life with the esteem and affection of
his flock, and respected by the first characters of the state.
He was persuaded by them to compile his history of New
Hampshire, which gained him a high reputation. In
1786, he was dismissed from his people. The presbyterian
church in Boston, becoming vacant by the removal of
Mr. Annan, and having changed its establishment from
the presbyterian to the congregational form, soon invited
him to become its pastor. He was accordingly installed,
April 4, 1787. Here he passed the remainder of his days,
discharging the duties of his pastoral office, exploring va-
rious fields of literature, and giving his efficient support
to every useful and benevolent institution. After being
subject to frequent returns of ill health, he was suddenly
seized by a paralytic affection, and died June 20, 1798,
aged fifty-four years.
Dr. Belknap in his preaching did not possess the graces
of elocution; nor did he aim at splendid diction, but pre-
sented his thoughts in plain and perspicuous language,
that all might understand him. He was one of the foun-
ders of the Massachusetts Historical Society, the design
of which he was induced to form in consequence of a
suggestion of Thomas "Wallcut of Boston, a diligent col-
lector of old and valuable books, as w-ell as on account of
his frequent disapjjointment from the loss of valuable pa-
pers, in prosecuting his historical researches.
Dr. Belknap gained a high reputation as a writer ; but
he is more remarkable for the patience and accuracy of
his historical researches, than for elegance of style. His
deficiency in natural science, as manifested in his history
of New Hampshire, is rendered more prominent by the
rapid progress of natural history since his death. His
Foresters is not only a description of American manners,
but a work of humor and wit, which went into a second
edition. Before the revolution, he wrote much in favor of
freedom and his country, and he afterwards gave to the
public many fruits of his labors and researches. His last
and most interesting work, his American Biography, he
did not live to complete.
The foUowuig extract from some lines, found among
his papers, expresses his choice with regard to the manner
of his death, and the event corresponded with his wishes.
When failh and patience, hope and love
Have made ue meet for heaven above,
Row blest the privilege to rise,
Snatched in a moment to the skies ;
Unconscious to resign our breath,
Nor taste the bitterness of death !
Mass. Hist. Col. vi. 10: 18 ; Columi. Cent. June 25, 1798 ;
J^olyanthos, i. 1—13 ; Allen.
BELL, (John,) an eminent surgeon of Edinburgh, and
a man of very considerable literary talents, died at Rome
in 1820. He is the author of the Anatomy of the Human
Body, Principles of Surgery, and other anatomical and
surgical works, and of excellent Observations in Italy.—
Davenport.
BELLAMY, (Joseph, D. D.) an eminent American mi-
nister, was born at New Cheshire, Connecticut, in 1719,
and was graduated at Yale college in 1735. It was not
long after his removal from New Haven, that he became
the subject of those serious impressions, which, it is be-
lieved, issued in renovation of heart. From this period
lie consecrated his talents to the evangelical minis*ry. At
the age of eighteen, he began to preach with acceptance
and success. An uncommon blessing attended his mi-
nistry at Bethlem, in the town of Woodbury ; a large pro-
portion of the society appeared to be awakened to a sense
of rehgion, and they were unwiUing to part with the man,
by whose ministry they had been conducted to a knowledge
of the truth. He was ordained to the pastoral office over
this church in 1740. In this retirement, he devoted him-
self with uncommon ardor to his studies and the duties of
his office till the memorable revival, which was most con-
spicuous in 1742. His spirit of piet)' was then blown into
a flame ; he could not be contented to confine his labors
to his small society. Taking care that his own pulpit
should be vacant as little as possible, he devoted a con-
.siderable part of his time for several years to itinerating
in diflerent parts of Connecticut and the neighboring colo-
nies, preaching the gospel daily to multitudes, who flocked
to hear him. He was instrumental in the conversion of
many. When the awakening declined, he returned to a
more constant attention to his own charge. He now be-
gan the task of writing an excellent treatise, entitled,
True Religion delineated, which was published in 1750.
His abilities, his ardent piety, his theological knowledge,
his acquaintance with persons under all kinds of religious
impressions qualified him peculiarly for a work of this
kind.
From this time he became more conspicuous, and young
men, who were preparing for the gospel ministry, applied
to him as a teacher. In this branch of his worlt he was
eminently useful till the decline of life, when he relin-
quished it. His method of instruction was the following :
After ascertaining the abilities and genius of those who
applied to him, he gave them a number of questions on
the leading and most essential subjects of religion in the
form of a system. He then directed them to such books
as treat these subjects with the greatest perspicuity and
force of argument, and usually spent his evenings in in-
quiring into their improvements and solving dilficulties,
till they had obtained a good degree of understanding in
the general system. After this, he directed them to write
on each of the questions before given them, reviewing
those parts of the authors, which treated on the subject
proposed. These dissertations were submitted to his ex-
amination. As they advanced in ability to make proper
distinctions, he led them to read the most learned and acute
opposers of the truth, the deistical, Arian, and Sociniau
writers, and laid open the fallacy of their most specious
reasonings. When the systein was completed, he directed
them to write on several of the most important points
systematically, in the form of sermons. He next led them
to peruse the best experimental and practical discourses,
and to compose sermons on like subjects. He revised and
corrected their compositions, inculcating the necessity of a
heart truly devoted to Christ, and a life of watching and
prayer, discoursing occasionally on the various duties,
trials, comforts, and motives of the evangelical work, that
his pupils might be, as far as possible, •• scribes well in-
structed in the kingdom of God." In 1786, Dr. Et^llamy
was seized by a paralytic afliection, from which he i ever
recovered. He died, March 6, 1790, in the fiftieth year of
his ministry, aged seventy-one.
His wTitings procured him the esteem of the pious and
learned, at home and abroad, with many of whom he
maintained an epistolary correspondence. In his preach-
ing, a mind rich in thought, a great command of language,
and a powerful voice, rendered his extemporary discourses
peculiarly acceptable. He was one of the most able di-
vines of this country. In his sentiments, he accorded
mainly with president Edwards, with whom he was inti-
mately acquainted.
He published a sermon, entitled, Eariy Piety recom-
BEL
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BEL
raenaed ; True Religion delineated, 1750 ; sermons on the
Divinity of Christ, the Blillennium, and the Wisdom of
God in the Permission of Sin, 1758 : letters and dialogues
on the Nature of Love to God, Faith in Christ, and Assu-
rance, 175y ; essay on the Glory of the Gospel ; a vindica-
tion of his sermon on the Wisdom of God in the Permission
of Sin ; the Law a School-master, a sermon ; the great Evil
of Sin ; election sermon, 1762. His works were published
in three.volumes, 1811, with a sketch of his Ufe. — Bene-
dict's Fun. Serin. ; Brainerd's Life, 22, 41, 43, 55 ; Trwrn-
bull, ii. 159 ; Tkml. Mag. i. 5 ; Allen.
BELLARMINE, (CARniNAL ;) a great Roman Catholic
oracle and Jesuit, born at Monte Puleiano, in Tuscany, in
1542. He was most assiduous in his opposition to the
Protestants, and was sent into the Low Countries to arrest
their progress. The talent which he displayed in his con-
troversies, called forth the most able men on the other
side ; and, for a number of years, no eminent divine
among the Reformers failed to make his arguments a par-
ticular subject of refutation. His principal work was, A
Body of Controversy, written in Latin, the style of which
is perspicuous and precise, without any pretension to purity
and elegance. He displays very considerable acquaintance
with the Scriptures, and is deeply versed in the doctrine
and practice of the church. He was, on the points of pre-
destination and efficacious grace, more a disciple of Au-
gustine than a Jesuit. As his book did not assert that the
popes had a direct power over temporal things, it was
placed by Sixtus V. among the prohibited books ; which,
with the differences that were found among the Catholics
themselves, gave the Protestants no small advantage. At
his death, the cardinal bequeathed one half of his soul to
the Virgin Mary, and the other to Jesus Christ. — Hend.
Buck.
BELLATOR ; an eminent Latin commentator on the
Scriptures of the fifth century. He was contemporary
■oath Gregory the Great, Cassiodorus, Primasius, and Isi-
dore of Seville. — Mosheim.
BELLINGHAM, (Richakd,) governor of Massachu-
setts, was a native of England, where he was bred a law-
yer. He came to this country in 1634, and August 3, was
received into the church, with his wife, Elizabeth, and in
the following year, was chosen deputy governor. In 1611,
he was elected governor, in opposition to Mr. Winthrop,
by a majority of six votes ; but the election did not seem
to be agreeable to the general court. He was re-chosen
to this office in 1654, and after the death of governor En-
dicott was again elected, in May, 1665. He continued
chief magistrate of Massachusetts during the remainder
of his life. He was deputy governor thirteen years, and
governor ten.
Governor Belli^gham lived to be the only surviving pa-
tentee named in the charter. He was severe against those
who were called sectaries ; but he was a man oi' incorrupti-
ble Integrity, and of acknowledged piety. In the ecclesi-
astical controversy which was occasioned by the settlement
of Mr. Davenport, he was an advocate of the first church.
—Allen; IIiitcMnsmi, i. 41, 43, 97, 211, 269; NeaVs Hist.
i. 390; Mdther's Mag. ii. 18; Holmes, i. 414; Savage's
Winthrop, ii. 43 ; Hist. Coll. n. s. iii. 143 ; vi. 610.
BELLOWS ; a well-known wind instrmnent, for blow-
ing of fires, in iron works, smith's forges, &c. The bellows
uri burnt, the lead is consumed of the fire ; the founder melteth
in vain : the lungs and labor of the prophets, and the judg-
ments of God, are, as it were, wasted to no purpose, as
wickedness and wicked persons are not ptrrged away from
church or state. .Ter. 6: 29. — Brown.
BELLS. During the three first centuries, it is certain
that Christians did not meet in their assemblies by the no-
tice of any pubhc signal ; nor can it be imagined, that in
an age of persecution, when they met privately in the
night, they would, as it were, betray themselves by such
notice to their enemies. Baronius, indeed, supposes there
was an order of men appointed to give private notice of
assembling to every particular member of a Christian
congregation ; but, for want of hght, we can determine
nothing about it.
That bells were an early invention, is evident from their
use in the days of Moses, since it was enjoined on the high-
priest of the Israelites, that the lower hem of the robe in
which he officiated should be ornamented with pomegra-
nates and gold bells, set alternately, in order that he might
minister therein, that his sound might Tie heard when he
went into the holy place before the Lord, and when he
came out, that he might not die. It seems to have been
ordained as a mark of respect, that the high-priest might
give public notice of his entering before the Lord ; and,
perhaps, to prevent his being put to death by those who
watched the temple, that its sacred precincts might not be
violated ; none but the high-priest being permitted to enter
into the holy place.
Viewed in this light, there appears nothing extraordinary
in the use of bells, simply considered ; but as sacred per-
sons gave sanction, in the minds of people prone to wan-
der from the simplicity of truth, to make every thing about
them, and even their dress, possess some sacred function,
so these ornaments came to be held up to the people a.s
something more than mere bells and pomegranates ; and
hence, Josephus informs us, that while the latter signified
lightning, the former denoted thunder; and long before
the days of Josephus, it appears that superstitious notions
were attached to bells. In illustration of this remark, ac-
cept the following extract from Burder's Oriental Customs,
vol. ii. p. 291 : — " Among the heathens of the East, the sun
was called Baal, or Bel, from his supposed dominion over
all things, whence the word came at last to denote a lord
or master in general. He was considered as the author
of vibratory motion, the source of musical sound ; and
such instruments as emit a sound by percussion, were call-
ed bells, from Bell, or Bel, the name by which the sun was
denoted among the druids. For the same reason, a bell
seems in very early times to have been made a sign or
symbol of victory or dominion. Thus, as horses were
employed in war, and are celebrated in the earliest anti-
quity, for their strength, stately port, and undaunted cou-
rage, bells became a part of their martial furniture." To
this custom the prophet Zechariah alludes, when in an-
nouncing the change to be wrought by the universal pre-
valence of true religion, he says. In that clay shall there be
upon the bells of the horses, HOLINESS UNTO THE
LORD. Zech. 14: 20.
Possibly, bells were also used as music, with super-
stitious notions. They are mentioned 1 Chron. 15: 19 ;
and perhaps the sounding brass, coupled with the tinkling
cymbal, was a sort of bell. Among the heathen, the use
of bells in their religious ceremonies was common in an-
cient times. The sounding brass, in some shape or other,
was struck in the sacred rites of the Dea Syria, and in
those of Hecate. It was thought to be good for all kinds
of expiation and purification. It had, moreover, some se-
cret influence over the spirits of the departed. The priests
of Proserpine at Athens, called Hierophants, rang a bell to
call the people together to sacrifice ; and one indispensable
ceremony in the Indian pooja, is the ringing of a small bell
by the officiating brahmin. The women of the idol, or
dancing girls of the pagoda, have httle golden bells fas-
tened to their feet, the soft harmonious tinkling of which
vibrates in unison with the exquisite melody of their
voices. Hence it appears probable, that the Jews derived
much of their foolish notions respecting bells, as well as
other things of more serious moment, from the heathen
nations.
The rage for amalgamating the superstitions of the pa-
gan world with the outside of Christianity, through the
falsely-called liberality of persons pretending to be the
abettors of truth, hut who are in reality the worst enemies
that Christianity ever had to contend with, together with
the desire of the heathen themselves to uphold their old
customs — those who, like too many of the present day,
exerted all their influence in endeavoring to unite princi-
ples that must ever remain separated — this rage for min-
gling truth with error in the early ages of the church, when
heathen usages could be made in any degree to correspond,
or when coincidence between pagan gods and goddesses,
and Christian saints, could, however remotely, be brought
to bear, was the means of introducing a great variety of
dogmas, in every respect contrary to the simplicity which
becometh the Gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ ; and among
these, the adoption of bells was not omitted. Hence ap-
pears to have arisen the use of them in churches, now so
BEL
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BEL
I bemoan the dead.
I abate Ihe lightning.
I announce the sabbath.
I arouse the indolent.
I disperse the winds.
1 appease the revengeful.
universal ; and had their use, without abuse, served the
purpose to which they were, perhaps, originally applied,
it would have been well : but long before the Reformation
in England, the clergy had found means to delude the
minds of themselves and their people with the most super-
stitious opinions respecting them ; and, as if they felt
anxious that their follies should be carried to future ages,
they thought proper to inscribe the bells they erected with
those opinions. Of these a few specimens will illustrate
the subject. One set of bells in a parish church in Cam-
bridgeshire was thus inscribed : —
liaudo Deum veruni. I praise the true Gotl.
Plebem voco. I call the people.
Congrego clerum. I a^emble the clergy.
Defiuiclos ploro. I lament the dead.
Pesteni fungo. 1 drive away infection.
Festa decoro. 1 grace the festival.
Another —
Funera plango.
Fulgura frango
Sabbala pango.
Excito lentos.
Dissipo venlos.
Paco cruentos.
Another —
Dulcis sisto nielis Campania I am called the sweet-toned bell of the
vocor Gabrielis. angel Gabriel.
At Lonsborough in Yorkshire — ■
See Cvvlhberte ora pro nobis.
St. Cuthben pray for us.
At Aldoborough in Yorkshire —
See Jacobe ora pro nobis.
St. James pray for us.
These specimens show the influences atlributed to bells ;
and it is almost incredible, so much had the notion of the
sanctity of bells prevailed, that the ordinance of baptism
was profanely applied to their consecration, by washing
them inside and out, with water set apart, in the name of
the holy Trinity ; the bishop adding holy oil, crosses, and
exorcisms, the then usual forms of baptism ; and, withal,
appointing godfathers and godmothers, who, as they held
the ropes, gave them their names, and engaged to answer
on their behalf such questions as the bishop might ask the
said bells ; and besides all this, the bishop, whilst he
anointed them, that is, the bells, "prayed God to give his
holy Spirit to them, that they might become .sanctified for
the expelling of all the power, snares, and illusions of the
devil — for the souls of the dead ; and especially for the
chasing away of storms, thunder, and tempests."
In further proof of what is here advanced regarding the
superstitious ideas attached to bells, the following two in-
scriptions, carefully copied from two bells, in Christ church,
Hampshire, are given ; the church in which they are placed
is suppased ft) have been erected in the reign of the suc-
cessor of WiUiam, commonly called the Conqueror : —
" May the virtue of the bell make us live well. — As thy
name is Touzeyns, [all saints], may it be to us a token of
good !"
" 0 great Augustine ! be kindly present, I pray thee, that,
while this bell is ringing, the holy Lamb may speedily chase
away all evil !"
These in.'^criptions appihr direct and positive evidence
of some of the mischiefs that have arisen from atteinpts,
alas! too successful, to graft Christianity upon the old
slock of paganism, by the Romish church. Nor is im-
provement to be expected within her pale, since the same
superstition remains in the countries under her influence ;
and no longer ago than the j'ear 18H1, one of our country-
men travelling through Italy, observed it customary to jin-
gle the church bells whenever there was a thunder-storm ;
and upon inquiring of a peasant on one occasion the mean-
ing of such disturbance, he was answered, " that it was
dor"! to drive away the devil." And a bell has, not long
ago, been exhibited to the society of antiquaries, called the
Bell of St. Caenon (St. Kinnon), of whose sanctity the
people of ihat part of Ireland whence it was brouglit think
so highly, as to imagine that the breach of an oath taken
upon it, would be followed by instant death !
If such be the sentiments infused into the minds of the
unlettered, by those who have the care of souls, over so
large a part of what is called the Christian world as the
church of Rome embraces within its doininion, how thank-
ful ought we, as Protestants, to be, that, by the blessing cjf
God, we are in some measure drawn from the atmosphere
of its influence! How dreadful must be the situation of
those who, in matters of comparatively small importance,
teach such diabolical opinions ; — those who ought to watch
over the church of God for good and not for evil ! Let us
take them as examples to avoid their practices, which are
calculated to enslave the mind in ignorance and idolatry,
and to call down the vengeance of lieaven on those who
follow their wicked devices. — Hendcrsoiis Buck.
BELLY, is used in Scripture for appetite, Philip. 3: 16.
Rom. 16: 18. Also for the heart, or the secret springs of
the mind, Prov. 2(1: 27, 30. 22: 18. John 7: 38. The
"belly of hell" is a strong phrase to express Jonah's
dreadful condition in the deep. Jonah 2: 2. Ecclus. 2: 5.
— Watson.
BELOE, (William,) a divine and critic, was born at
Norwich, in 1756, and educated at Cambridge. After hav-
ing been assistant to Dr. Parr, who was then head master
of Norwich school, he took orders, and obtained church
preferment. He was, finally, reclor of All-hallows, a pre-
bendary of St. Paul's, and librarian of the British museum.
In conjunction with Dr. Nares, he established the British
Critic. He is the author of Anecdotes of Literature and
Scarce Books ; The Sexagenarian ; and olher works ; and
the translator of Herodotus, and Aulus Gellius. He died
in 1817. — Davenport.
BELOVED ; much valued, desired, and delighted in.
Deut. 21: 15. Christ is the beloved of God ; God infinitely
esteems, loves, and delights in him as his Son and media-
torial servant. Matt. 3: 17. He is the beloved of saints, is
highly esteemed, desired, praised, and delighted in, with
their whole heart, mind, and strength. Song 4: 16. Saints
are the beloved of God and Christ ; and the church a be-
loved city. In infinite love to them, God devised their sal-
vation, Jesus laid down his life and intercedes for them,
and all the divine persons concur to save and delight in
them. Song 5:1. Rev. 20: 9.— 5rwra.
BELSHAM, (Thomas,) an eminent advocate of Unitari-
anism, was born April 15, 1750. At the age of sixteen, he
was admitted inio the academy at Daventn,', then under
the care of Dr. Ashworth, 1766. At this time it appears he
had many doubts of his personal piety. '• I much fear," he
says, " that Christ is not formed in my soul. — I have had
some pretty deep convictions this month ; but I fear I
have too often resisted the Holy Spirit. I am ready to
fear that God has not elected me, and that I am irrevoca-
bly doomed to hopeless misery." In 1767, he solemnly
dedicated himself to God in the manner recommended by
Dr. Doddridge in his " Rise and Progress." From his
doubts and fears, however, he seems never to ha\-e been
relieved, until he adopted the system of philosophical ne-
cessity, and final restoration. In 1778, he was settled as
pastor of a dissenting congregation at Worcester, from
which however he removed, in 1781, to take ch.arge of the
Daventry academy. Here his sentiments underwent a
change, so far that in 1789 he avowed himself a Unitarian,
of the school of Priestley. He resigned his station, and
immediately took charge of Hackney college, a Unitarian
institution ; where he continued to discharge the office of
tutor until 1805, when he became minister of Essex street
chapel, London, as successor to Dr. Disney and 3Ir. Lind-
sey. He seems lo have enjoyed little happiness at either
of his successive situations ; his conscientiousness was
painfully great ; and his religious system excluded him
from the peace and consolation derived from the atone-
ment of Christ, and the influence of his Spirit. He pub-
lished various works, which gave him great reputation
among his friends, though others regard him as a servile
thinker, a cold reasoner, and a bold controversialist. After
Dr. Priestley, he was regarded as the leader of Unitarian-
ism in England. His Calm Inquiry, Evidence of Chris-
BEM
[216 J
BEN
tianity, Review of Wilberforce, and Memoirs of Lindsey,
including a history of American tJnitarianism, are best
known. He died in 1830. — Memoirs of Mr. Behham ;
Chris. Reg. ; Magee on Atonement; Works of Dr. Chan-
ning, and Robert Hall.
BELSHAZZAR ; the last king of Babylon, and, accord-
ing to Hales and others, the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar,
Dan. 5: 18. During the period that the Jews were in cap-
tivity at Babylon, a variety of singular events concurred
to prove that the sins which brought desolation on their
country, and subjected them for a period of seventy years
to the Babylonish yoke, had not dissolved that covenant
relation which, as the God of Abraham, Jehovah had en-
tered into with them ; and that any act of indignity perpe-
trated against an afflicted people, or any insult cast upon
the service of their temple, would be regarded as an affront
to the majesty of Heaven, and not suffered to pass with
impunity, though the perpetrators were the princes and
potentates of the earth. Belshazzar was a remarkable
instance of this. He had an opportunity of seeing, in the
case of his ancestor, how hateful pride is, even in royalty
itself; how instantly God can blast the dignity of the
brightest crown, and reduce him that wears it to a level
ivith the beasts of the field ; and consequently how much
the prosperity of kings and the stability of their thrones
depend upon acknowledging that " the Most High ruleth
in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomsoever he
will." But all these awful lessons were lost upon Bel-
shazzar.
The only circumstances of his reign recorded, are the
visions of the prophet Daniel, in the first and third years,
Dan. 7: 1. 8: 1; and his sacrilegious feast and violent
death, Dan. 5: 1 — 30. Isaiah, who represents the Baby-
lonian dynasty as " the scourge of Palestine," styles Nebu-
chadnezzar "a serpent," Evil-Merodach "a cockatrice,"
and Belshazzar " a fiery flying serpent," the worst of all,
Isa. 14: 4 — 29. And Xenophon confirms this prophetic
chatacter by two atrocious instances of cruelty and barba-
rity, exercised by Belshazzar upon some of his chief and
most deserving nobles. He slew the only son of Gobryas,
in a transport of rage, because at a hunting match he hit
with his spear a bear, and afterwards a lion, when the
king had missed both ; and in a fit of jealousy, he brutally
castrated Gadatus, because one of his concubines had
commended him as a handsome man. His last and most
heinous offence was the profanation of the sacred vessels
belonging to the temple of Jerusalem, which his wise
grandfather, and even his foolish father Evil-Merodach,
had respected. In that very night, in the midst of their
mirth and revelling, the city was taken by surprise, Bel-
shazzar himself put to death, and the kingdom transferred
to Darius the Blede. If the character of the hand-writing
was known to the magi of Babylon, the meaning could
not be conjectured. Perhaps, however, the character was
that of the ancient Hebrew, or what we now call the Sa-
maritan ; and in that case, it would be familiar to Daniel,
though rude and unintelligible to the Chaldeans. But
even if Daniel could read the words, the import of this
solemn graphic message to the proud and impious mo-
narch could only have been made known to the prophet
by God. All the ideas the three words convey, are num-
bering, weighing, and dividing. It was only for the power
which sent the omen, to unfold, not in equivocal terms,
like the responses of heathen oracles, but in explicit lan-
guage, the decision of the righteous Judge, the termination
of his long-suffering, and the instant visitation of judgment.
-See Babylon. — Watson.
BELTESHAZZAR ; the name given to Daniel at the
court of Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1: 7.
BELUS;, a river of Palestine. On leaving Acre, and
turning towards the south-east, the traveller crosses the
river Belus. near its mouth, where the stream is shallow
enough to be easily forded on horseback. This river rises
out of a lake, computed to be about six miles distant, to-
wards the south-east, called by the ancients Palus Cendo-
via. Of the sand of this river, according to Pliny, glass
was first made ; and ships from Italy continued to convey
it to the glass-houses of Venice and Genoa, so late as the
middle of the seventeenth century.
BEMA, (Gr.) ; a tribnoal ; the name of the bishop's
throne, in the ancient church. This seat, or throne, toge-
ther with those of the presbyters, were always fixed at the
upper end of the chancel, in a semicircle above the altar.
For anciently, the seats of the bishops and presbyters were
joined together, and both called thrones. The manner of
their sitting is related by Gregory Nazianzen, in his de-
scription of the church of Anastasia, where he speaks of
himself as bishop sitting upon the high throne, and the
presbyters on lower benches, on both sides about him.
Some learned men think this was done in imitation of the
Jewish synagogues, in which, according to Maimonides,
at the upper end, looking towards the holy land, the lam
was placed in the wall, in an arch, and on each side were
seated the elders in a semicircle.
Augustine tells Maximus, the Donatist bishop, that
"when bishops come to stand before the tribunal of
Christ, at the last judgment, they will then have no tribu-
nals, no lofty seats, or covered chairs ; though such honors
are granted them for a time in this world, for the benefit
and advantage of the church." See Chukch.
The bishop's throne was likewise called sedes and cathe-
dra ; whence come our English names cathedral and see,
for a church where the bishop's chair or seat is fixed. See
Cathedral and See.
The term bema was also given by the Manichees to their
altar, and to the day on which Manes was killed, because
on that day they adorned their bema or altar with great
magnificence. — Henderson' s Biirlx.
BENAIAH, son of Jehoiada ; captain of David's guard.
He took " the two lions of Moab," that is, the two cities of
Ar, or Ariel ; or the city Ar, divided into two parts by the
river Arnon. He also killed a lion in a pit, in time of
snow. He killed a giant five cubits high, who was armed
with sword and spear, though he himself had a staff only
in his hand. He adhered to Solomon against Adonijah ;
was sent by Solomon to kill Joab ; and was made general-
issimo in his place, 1 Kings 1: 36. 2: 29 — Some persons
of this name returned from Babylon with Ezra. — Calmet.
BEND. God's bending Judah for himself, and the filling
the bow with Ephraim, is his enabling them to defeat the
Syro-Grecian forces in the time of the Maccabees. Zech.
9: 13. The vine, the royal family of Judah, bent her roots
toroards the king of Egypt, when king Zedekiah entered
into a covenant with, and depended on him for assist-
ance against the king of Babylon. Ezek. 17: 7. The gen-
tiles come bending to the church, when, in the apostolic
or after-ages, they unite with it, with great readiness, af-
fection, and humility. Lsa. 60: 14. To be bent to back-slid-
ing, is to be earnestly set upon it. Hos. 11: 7. — Bromn's
Bib. Did.
BENEATH. Men, especially if wicked, are said to
be from beneath ; their bodies are sprung ^f the earth,
and live on it, their aflections sadly cleave to it, and they
are children of hell. John 8: 23. — Brcmm.
BENEDICT, (St.,) one of the originators of monas-
tic institutions in the West, was born at Norscia, in Italy,
in 480. Early in life, he retired into a de.sert, and spent
three years in a cavern. Being discovered, his sanctity
drew to him such numbers of people, that he founded
twelve convents. In 529, he went to Monte Cassino,
built a monastery on the site of the temple of Apollo,
gave rise to the Benedictine order, and died in 543 or 547.
— Davenport.
BENEDICT XIII., (pope,) son of the duke of Gravina,
a Neapohtan nobleman, was born in 1649, and was raised
to the papal chair in 1724. He was pious, virtuous, and
liberal; but, unfortunately, placed too much confidence in
cardinal Coscia,.his minister, %ho shamefully oppressed
the people. A fruitless attempt which he made to recon-
cile the Romish, Greek, Lutheran, and Calvinist churches,
bears honorable testimony to his tolerant spirit. His theo-
logical works form three folio volumes. He died in 1730.
— Davenport.
BENEDICT XIV., (pope,) whose name was Prosper
Lambertini, was of an illustrious family at Bologna, in
which city he was borri, in 1675. After having been
bishop of Ancona, and archbishop of Bologna, he was
elected pope in 1740. He protected the arts and sciences,
endeavored to heal the dissensions and reform the disci-
pline of the church ; and displayed such a liberal spirit, that
BEN
[ 217 ]
BEN
ne was sometimes culled the Protestant pope. In private
life he was extremely aniiahle. He died in 1753, His
works fill sixteen volumes in I'olio. — Davenport.
BENEDICTINES ; an order embracing almost all the
monks in the West from the sixth to the tenth century.
They were so called, because they followed the rule of
Benedict, of Norscia. The rules which the monasteries in
France and Spain had received from their bishops, as well
as that of St. Ckilumba, were essentially the same as those
of Benedict. He established himself in a monastery on
Monte Cassino, near Naples, in 529, in a grove of Apollo,,
after the temple had been destroyed, and this monastery
became the model of all the others. After this time, the
monks, who had worn dilTerent dresses, now wore black.
These monasteries were afterwards reformed by the Clu-
niacs, a branch of the Benedictines, who had their origin
and name from the convent of Clugny, in Burgundy,
founded in the year yiO. In (he twelfth century, the order
contained two thousand monasteries. In the middle ages,
they were the asylums of literature and science; and in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, they had at-
tached to them a considerable number of abbeys and pri-
ories in different parts of France. They are still found in
Italy, Sicily, Spain, Germany, and Austria; but many of
them are very la.x in their rules. — Henderson's Burk.
BENEDICTINE FATHERS; celebrated editions of
the writings of the fathers, edited by some of the most
learned of the Benedictine monks in France. — Henderson's
Buck.
BENEDICTION ; in a general sense, the act of bless-
ing, or giving praise to God, or returning thanks for his
favors. The Jews, it is said, are obliged to rehearse a
hundred benedictions every day, of which eighty are to be
spoken in the morning. It was usual to give a benedic-
tion to travellers on their taking leave, a practice which is
still preser\'ed among the monks. Benedictions were like-
wise given among the ancient Jews, as well as Christians,
by imposition of hands. And when at length the primitive
simplicity of the Christian worship began to give way to
ceremony, they added the sign of the cross, which was
made with the same hand as before, only elevated or ex-
tended. Hence benediction in the modern Romish church
(benedictio sacerdotoUs) is used, in a more particular man-
ner, to denote the sign of the cross made by a bishop or
prelate, as conferring some grace on the people.
The pope gives a solemn benediction three times every
year ; viz. on Maunday Thursday, on Easter, and on As-
cension day. The term is also employed to denote the
blessing pronounced by the priest at the death-bed of the
sick, when it is called benedictio beatica.
Among Protestants, the word is commonly applied to
the blessing implored by the minister and congregation at
the close of public worship, only with this diiference, that
consistent Dissenters, instead of aping the Romish priest,
who really professes to impart the blessing, use the form,
" be with us," instead of " be with you."
Benediction is also used for an ecclesiastical ceremony,
whereby a thing is rendered sacred or venerable. In this
sense, benediction diflfers from consecration, as in the latter,
unction is applied, which is not in the former : thus the
chalice is consecrated, and the pix blessed ; as the former,
not the latter, is anointed, though in the common usage
these t^o words are applied promiscuously. The spirit of
piety, or rather of superstition, has introduced into the
Romish church benedictions for almost every thing : we
read of forms of benedictions for wax candles, for boughs,
for ashes, for church vessels, for ornaments, for flags, or
ensigns, arms, first-fruits, houses, ships, paschal eggs, cici-
lium, or the hair-cloth of penitents, church-yards. Sic. In
general, these benedictions are performed by aspersions of
holy water, signs of the cross, and prayers suitable to the
nature of the ceremony. The forms ofthe.se benedictions
are found in the Roman pontifical, in the Roman missal,
in the book of ecclesiastical ceremonies, printed in pope
Leo X.'s time, and in the rituals and ceremonies of the
difTerent churches, which are found collected in father
Blartene's work on the rites and discipline of the church. —
Henderson's Buck.
BENEFACTORS; such as do good to others; espe-
cially if in imjTortant .stations, and on an extensive scale.
Every Christian is called by his religion to earn this truly
glorious name. Be 7u>t overcome of evil, but overcome evil
mth good. Rom. 12: 21. As we therefore hare opportuniltj,
let us do good unto all men, especially unto them n'ho are of the
houseJwld of faith. Gal. 6: 10. Flatterers have often aji-
plied the glorious title of benefactors to rulers and princes
who have little deserved the name, (as to Ptolemy Euer-
getes, king of Egypt,) though their office requires them to
be such. To this custom our Lord refers in Luke 22: 25.
See Cotton Blather's excellent "Essays to do Good," to the
early reading of which Franklin ascribed that love of prac-
tical usefulness, which so eminently distinguished his sub-
sequent hfe. That usefulness might have been still greater,
if, like Howard's, it had been ennobled and quickened by
Christian principles — by the grateful, ardent, and admiring
love of that Heavejo-y Benefactor, who when on earth
went about doing good.
BENEFICE, in the ecclesiastical sense of the word,
means a church endowed with a revenue for the perform-
ance of divine service, or the revenue itself assigned to an
ecclesiastical person, by way of stipend for the service he
is to do that ehurch.
As to the origin of the word, we find it as follows, in
Alet's " Ritual." " This word was anciently appropriated
to the lands which kings used to bestow on those who
had fought valiantly in the wars, and was not used in this
particular signification but during the time that the Goths
and Lombards reigned in Italy, under whom those fiefs
were introduced, which w-ere pecuUarly termed benefices,
and those who enjoyed them benefciarii, or vassals ; for
though the Romans also bestowed lands on their captains
and soldiers, yet those lands had not the name of benefices
appropriated to them ; but the word benefice was a general
term, which included all kinds of gifts or grants, according
to the ancient signification of the Latin word. In imita-
tion of the new sense in which that word was taken with
regard io fiefs, it began to be employed in the church when
her temporalities began to be divided, and to be given up
to particular persons, bj' taking them out of those of the
bishops. This the bishops themselves first introiUiced, pur-
posely to reward merit, and assist such ecclesiastics as
might be in necessity. However, this was soon carried to
greater lefigths, and at last became unlimited, as has since
been manifest in the clericate and the monasteries. A bene-
fice, therefore, is not merely a right of receiving part of the
temporalities of the church for the service a person renders
it ; a right which is founded upon the Gospel, and has al-
ways subsisted since the apostolic age ; but it is that of
enjoying a pai't of the temporalities of the church, assigned
and determined in a special form, so as that no other cler-
gyman can lay any claim or pretension to it. And in this
age, it is not barely the right of enjoying a part of the tem-
poralities of the church, hut is likewise a fixed and perma-
nent right, in such a manner that it devolves on another
after the death of the incumbent, which anciently was
otherwise ; for, at the rise of benefices, they were imlulged
to clergymen only for a stated time, or for life ; after Mhich,
they reverted to the church."
It is not easy to determine when the effects of the church
were first divided. It is certain, that in the fourth century,
all the revenues were in the hands of the bishops, who dis-
tributed them hy their ccconomi or sten-ards ; and they con-
sisted chiefly in alms and voluntary contributions. When
the church came to have inheritances, part of them were
assigned for the maintenance of the clergj', of which w»
find some footsteps in the fifth and sixth centuries ; but
the allotment seems not to have been a fixed thing, but to
have been absolutely discretional, till the twelfth century.
Benefices were divided, hy the canonists, into simple and
sacerdotal. The first sort laj's no obligation, but to read
prayers, sing, &c. Such kind of beneficiaries are canons,
chaplains, chanters, tVc. The second is charged with the
cure of souls, the guidance and direction of consciences,
iVc. Such are rectories, vicarages, i;c. The canonists
likewise specify three ways of vacating a benefice ; viz. de
jure, de facto, and by the sentence of a judge. A benefice is
void de jure, when a person is guilty of crimes for which
he is disqualified by law to hold a benefice : such are he-
resy, simony, &c, A benefice is void both de facto and
de jure, by tiie natur:il death or resignation of '.he incum-
BEN
[218]
BEN
bent. Lastly, a benefice is vacated hy sentence of the judge,
when the incumoent is dispossessed of it, by way of punish-
ment for immorality, or any crime against the state.
The Eomanists, again, distinguish benefices into regvlar
and secular. Regular benefices are those held by a reli-
gious or monk of any order, abbey, priory, or convent.
•Secular benefices are those conferred on the secular priests,
of which sort are most of their cures.
The church distinguishes between dignities and benefices.
The former title is only applicable to bishoprics, deaneries,
archdeaconries, and prebends : the latter comprehends all
ecclesiastical preferments under those degrees ; as rectories
and vicarages. It is essential to these latter, that they
be bestowed freely, reserving nothing to the patron ; that
they be given as a provision for the clerk, who is only an
vsu-fructuary, and has no inheritance in them ; and that all
contracts concerning them be in their own nature void.
See Pluralities ; Kesidence ; and Simony. — Henderson's
Buck.
BENEFICIARY; in Europe, a beneficed person, or
one who receives and enjoys one or more benefices. He is
not, however, the proprietor of the revenues of his church ;
he lias only the administration of them, unaccountable for
the same to any but God. — Henderson' s Buck.
In the United States, it is more generally used for one
who receives aid from an Education society.
BENEFIT ; (1.) the gifts and favors of God. 2 Chron.
32: 23. (2.) The favors and useful deeds of men one to
another. 2 Cor. 1: 15. Phil. 14. Salvation from sin and
misery to holiness and happiness is called the benefit ; it is
the greatest display of God's favor to us, and comprehends
all kindness. 1 Tim. 6: 2. — Brown.
BENEFIT OF CLERGY ; a privilege enjoyed by those
in holy orders, which originated in a religious regard for
the honor of the church, by which the clergy of Roman
Catholic countries were either partially or wholly exempt-
ed from the jurisdiction of lay tribunals. It extended, in
England, only to cases of felony ; and though it was in-
tended to apply only to clerical felons or clerks, yet as
every one who could read was, by the laws of England,
considered to bea clerk, when the rudiments of learning
came to be diffused, almost every man in ihe community
came to he eiJtitled to this privilege. Peers were entitled
to it whether they could read or not ; and by the statutes
of 3 and 4 William and Mary, c. 9 ; and 4 and 5 William
and Mary, e. 21, it was extended to women. In the earlier
periods of the Catholic church in England, the clerk, on
being convicted of felony, and claiming the benefit of
clergy, was handed over to the ecclesiastical tribunal for
a new trial or purgation, the pretty uniform result of
which was his acquittal. His pretended trial of purgation
gave rise to a great deal of abuse and perjury, so that at
length the secular judges, instead of handing over the cul-
prit to the ecclesiastics for purgation, ordered him to be
detained in prison until he should be pardoned by the
king. By the statute of 18 Ehz. cap. 7, persons convicted
of felony, and entitled to benefit of clergy, were to be dis-
charged from prison, being first branded in the thumb, if
laymen ; it being left to the discretion of the judge to de-
tain them in prison not exceeding one year ; and by the
statute of 5 Anne, c. fi, it was enacted, that it should no
longer be requisite that a perspn should be able to read in
order to be entitled to the privilege ; so that from the pass-
ing of this act, a felon was no more liable to be hanged be-
cause of his deficiency in learning. The statutes formerly
made specific provisions, that, in particular cases, the cul-
prit should not be entitled to benefit of clergy; but the
statute of 7 and 8 George IV. c. 28, provides, that "benefit
of clergj', with respect to persons convicted of felony, shall
be abolished." In North America, this privilege has been
formally abolished in some of the states, and allowed only
in one or two cases in others ; while in others, again, it
does not appear to have been known at all. By the act
of Congress of ipril 30, 1790, it is enacted, that "benefit
of clergy shall ncjt be used or allowed, upon conviction of
any crime for which, by any statute of the United States,
the punishment is or shall be declared to be death." — En-
(JJ. Amer.
BENEFIELD, (Sebastian,) an eminent divine of the
seventeenth century, was born August 12, 1559, at Pres-
tonbnry, in Gloucestershire. He was educated at Oxford.
In 1608, he took the degree of D. D., and five years after-'
ward, was chosen Margaret professor in that university.
Dr. Benefield was so eminent a scholar, disputant, and di-
vine, and particularly so well versed in the fathers and
schoolmen, that he had not his equal in the university.
He was strongly attached to the doctrinal opinions of Cal-
vin . He was remarkable for strictness of life and sincerity ;
of a retired and sedentary disposition ; and consequently
less easy and affable in conversation. He died, August
21, 1630. His works, in ten volumes, are devoted to doc-
trinal and practical theology. — Bliddhton's Biog.
BENEZET, (Anthony,) a distinguished philanthropist
of Philadelphia, was born at St. Quintins, a town in the
province of Picardy, France, January 31, 1713. About
the time of his birth, the persecution against the Protestants
was carried on with relentless severity ; in consequence of
which many thousands found it necessary to leave their
native country, and seek a shelter in a foreign land.
Among these were his parents, who removed to London
in Februar)', 1715, and, after remaining there upwards of
sixteen years, came to Philadelphia in November, 1731.
During their residence in Great Britain, they had imbibed the
rehgious opinions of the Quakers, and were received into
that body immediately after their arrival in this country.
In the early part of his life, Benezet was put an appren-
tice to a merchant ; bnt soon after his marriage, in 1740,
when his affairs were in a prosperous situation, he left the
mercantile business, that he might engage in some pursuit
which would afford him more leisure for the duties of reli-
gion, and for the exercise of that benevolent spirit, for
which, during the course of a long life, he was so conspi-
cuous. But no employment which accorded perfectly with
his inclination presented itself, till the year 1712, when he
accepted the appointment of instructer in the Friends'
English school of Philadelphia. The duties of tlie honora-
ble, though not very lucrative office, of a teacher of youth,
he from this period continued to fulfil with unremitting
assiduity and delight, and with very little intermission, tiU
his death. During the two last years of his life, his zeal
to do good induced him to resign the school which he had
long superintended, and to engage in the instruction of the
blacks. In doing this, he did not consult his worldly in-
terest, but was inUuenced by a regard to the welfare of
men, whose minds had been debased by servitude. He
wished to contribute something towards rendering them fit
for the enjoyment of that freedom, to which many of them
had been restored. So great was his sympathy with every
being capable of feeling pain, that he resolved towards the
close of his life, to eat no animal food. This change in his
mode of living is supposed to have been the occasion of his
death. His active mind did not yield to the debility of his
body. He persevered in his attendance upon his school,
till within a few days of his decease. He died, May 3,
1784, aged seventy-one years.
Such was the general esteem in which he was held, that
his funeral was attended by persons of all religious deno-
minations. Jlany hundred negroes followed their friend
and benefactor to the grave ; and by their tears they
proved, that they possessed the sensibilities of men. An
officer, who had seiTed in the army during the war with
Britain, observed at this time, " I would rather be Anthony
Benezet in that coffin, than George Washington with all
his fame." He exhibited uncommon activity and industry
in every thing which he undertook. He used to say, that
the highest act of charily, was to bear with the unreasona-
bleness of mankind. He generally wore plush clothes, and
gave as a reason for it, that, after he had worn them for
two or three years, they made comfortable and decent
garments for the poor. So disposed was he to make him-
self contented in every situation, that wheu his memory
began to fail him, instead of lamenting the decay of his
powers, he said to a young friend, '• This gives me one
great advantage over you ; for you can find entertainment
in reading a good book only once ; but 1 enjoy that plea-
sure as often as I read it, for it is always new to me."
Few men. since the Aays of the apostles, ever lived a
more disinterested lite ; yet apcn h;s death-bed he ex-
pressed a desire to live a little longer, " that he might
bring down self." The. last time he ever walke-' across
BEN
[219 ]
BEN
his room, was to take from his desk six dollars, which he
gave to a poor widow whom he had long a-ssisted to main-
tain. In his conversation, he was aflable and imreserved ;
in his manners, gentle and conciliating. For the acquisi-
tion of wealth, he wanted neither abilities nor opportunity ;
but he made himself contented with a little; and with a
competency, he was liberal beyond most of those whom a
bountiful Providence had encumbered with riches. By his
will he devised his estate, after the decease of his wife, to
certain trustees, for the use of the African school. While
the British array was in possession of Philadelphia, he was
indefatigable in his endeavors to render the situation of the
persons who sufl'ered from captivity, as easy as possible.
He knew no fear in the presence of a fellow man, however
dignified by titles or station ; and such was the propriety
and gentleness of his manners in his intercourse with the
gentlemen who commanded the British and German troops,
that, when he could not obtain the object of his requests,
he never failed to secure their civilities and esteem.
Although the life of Mr. Benezet was passed in the in-
struction of youth, yet his expansive benevolence extended
itself to a wider sphere of usefulness. Giving but a small
portion of his time to sleep, he employed his pen both day
and night in writing books on religious subjects, composed
chiefly with a view to inculcate the peaceable temper and
doctiines of the Gospel in opposition to the spirit of war,
and to expose the flagrant injustice of slavery, and fix the
stamp of infamy on the traffic ia human blood. His writ-
ings contributed much towards meliorating the condition
of slaves, and undoubtedly had influence on the public
mind in efiecting the complete prohibition of that trade,
which, until the year 1808, was a blot on the American
national character. In order to disseminate his publica-
tions and increase his usefulness, he held a correspond-
ence with such persons, in various parts of Europe and
America, as united with him in the same benevolent de-
sign, or would be likely to promote the objects which he
was pursuing. No ambitious or covetous views impelled
him to his exertions. Regarding all mankind as eliildren
of one common Father, and members of one great family,
he was anxious thot oppression and tyranny should cease,
and that men should live together in mutual kindness and
afl'ection. He himself respected, and he wished others to
respect, the sacred injunction, " Do unto others, as yon
■would that they should do unto you.'' On the return of
peace, in 1783, apprehending that the revival of commerce
would be lilcely to renew the African slave, trade, -nhich
during the war had been in some measure obstructed, he
addressed a letter to the queen of Great Britain, to solicit
her influence on the side of humanity. At the close of
this letter he says, " I hope thou wilt kindly excuse the free-
dom used on this occasion by an ancient mat^, whose nund,
for more than forty years past, has been much separated
from the common course of the world, and long painfully
exercised in the consideration of the miseries under which
so large a part of mankind, equally with us the objects of
redeeming love, are suffering the most unjust and grievous
oppression, and who sincerely desires the temporal and
eternal felicity of the queen and her royal consort." He
published, among other tracts, an Account of that Fart of
Africa iniiabited by Negroes, 1762; a Caution to Great
Britain and her Colonies, in a short Representation of the
Calamitous State of the Enslaved Negroes in the British
Dominions, 1767 ; some Historical Account of Guinea,
with an Inquiry into the Pdse and Progress of the Slave
Trade, 1771 -, a Short Account of the Religious Society of
Friends, 1780 ; a Dissertation on the Plainness and Sim-
plicity of the Christian ReUgion, 1782 ; Tracts against the
Use of Ardent Spirits ; Observations on the Indian Natives
of this Continent, 1784. — Rush's Essays, 311 — 314 ; Vaux's
Memoir ; Neie and Gen. Biog. Diet. ; AnuT. Mies. ix. 192 —
104 ; Eees's Cycl. : Allen's Biog. Diet.
BENGEL, or Bengelihs, (John Albert,) a distinguish-
ed pious German theologian, and a celebrated bibhcal
critic. He was born at VVinneden, in Wurtemberg, 1687,
studied at Stuttgart and Tubingen, and in 1713 be-
came preacher and professor at Denkendorf. In 1741, he
was made councillor and dean of the cloister Herbrichtin-
gen ; and, in 1749, he was created abbot or prelate of Al-
pirshach, where he died, November 2, 1752. His chief
studies were the New Testament and the f:ilhcrs. lie
was the first Lutheran divine who applied to the criticism
of the New Testament a grasp of mind which embraced
the subject in its whole extent, and a patience of investiga-
tion which the study required. While a student, he was
much perplexed by the various readings, which led him to
form the determination of making a text for himself, which
he executed in a very careful and scrupulous manner, ac-
cording to very r.ttional and critical rules, excepting that
he would not admit any reading into the te.^t which had
not been previously printed in some edition. In the book
of Revelation alone, he deviated from this rule. His con-
scientious piety tended greatly to allay the fears which had
been excited among the clergy with respect to various
readings ; and to hitn belongs the honor of having struck
out that path which has since been trod with so much eclat
by Wetstein, Griesbach, and others.
Besides his Greek New Testament, printed at Tubingen^
1734 and 171)3, 4to. Bengel publishetl a Gnomon which is
highly esteemed, and an Exposition of the Apocalypse,
which laid the foundation of a prophetical school in Ger-
many, which exists at this day. According to his system,
the end of the Ibrtj'-two months, and of the number cf the
beast, was Jlay 21, 1810 ; and the destruction of the beast
is to take place June 18, 1836, — Henderson's Bueli,
I. BEN-HADAD, a son of Tabrimon, king of Syria,
who came to assist Asa, king of Judah, again.st Baasha,
king of Israel, and obliged him to return and succor his
own country, and to abandon Ramah, which he had un-
dertaken to fortify, 1 Kings 15: 18. This Benhadad is
probably Hadail, the Edomite, who rebelled against Solo-
mon, 1 Kings 11: 25. — II. A king of Syria, son of the
above Ben-hadad, who made war against Aha'b, A. BI.
3103. See Ahab, and Hazael. — III. A son of Hazael,
above mentioned, from whom Jehoash, king of Israel, re-
covered ail that Hazael had taken from his predecessor, 2
Kings 13: 3, 24, 25. Jehoash defeated him three times,
and compelled him to surrender all the coimtry beyond
Jordan, namely, the lands belonging to Gad, Reuben, and
Manasseh, which Hazael had taken.
Josephus calls those princes Hadad, who, in Scripture,
are named Ben-hadad, or son of Hndad ; adding that the
Syriansof Damascus paid divine honors to the last Hadad,
and Hazael, in consideration of the benefits of their go-
vernment, and particularly because they adorned Damas-
cus with magnificent temples. — Cahmt.
BEN-HENNON, or Ben-hinnon, orGEn-msxox, orGsn-
EEKi-HiNNoN, that is, " the valley of the children of Hin-
non,"' or, " the son of intense lamentation," south-east of
Jerusalem. Some say, it was the common sewer to Jeru-
salem, and an emblem of hell, which is called gehcnna.
See Gehenxa. This valley was likewise called Tophet.
See ToniET. — Calnict.
BENI KHAIBIR ; sons of Keber, the descendants of
the Rechabites, to whom it was promised, Jer. 3-5: 19,
" Thus saith the Lord, Jonadab, the son of Kechnb, shall
not want a man to stand before me forever." They were
first brought into notice in modern times by Mr. Samuel
Brett, who wrote a narrative of the proceedings of the great
council of the Jews in Hungary. A. D. 1650. He sa}'s of
the sect of the Rechabites, " that they observe their old
rules and customs, and neither sow, nor plant, nor build
houses ; but live in tents, and often remove from one place
to another with their whole property and families." They
are also mentioned in Niebuhr's travels. Sir. Wollf, a
converted Jew, gives the following account in a late jour-
nal. He inquired of the rabbins at Jerusalem, relative to
these wandering Jews, and received the following informa-
tion : " Rabbi Mose Secot is quite certain that the Beni
Khaibir are descendants of the Rechabites ; at this present
moment they drink no wine, and have neither vineyard,
nor field, nor seed ; but dwell, like Arabs, in teats, and are
wandering nomades. They receive and observe the law
of Moses by tradition, for they are not in possession of the
written law," Mr. Wollf afterwards himself visited this
people, who have remained, amidst all the changes of na-
tions, a most remarkable monument o^the exact fulfilment
of a minute, and apparently at first sight an unimportant,
prophecy. So true is it, that not one'jot or tittle of the
word of God shall pass away ! See Rechabites. — Watson.
BEN
[ 220 J
BEN
BENJAMIN ; the youngest son of Jacob and Rachel,
Gen. 35: 16, 17, &c. Rachel died immediately after he
■was born, and with her last breath named him Ben-oni, the
son of my sorrow : but Jacob called him Benjamin, the son
of my right hand. His history may be found in Genesis.
He is often called in Scripture Jemini, only, that is, my
right hand. Of his tribe Jacob says, " Benjamin shall ra-
ven as a wolf; in the morning he shall devonr the prey,
and at night he shall divide the spoil;" (Gen. 49: 57.) and
Moses, in his last song, says, " The beloved of the Lord
shaU dwell in safety by him ; and the Lord shall cover him
all the day long, and he shall dwell between his shoulders.''
Deut.33: 12. The words — ''Benjamin is a ravening wolf,"
are allusively applied to Paul, who was of the tribe of Ben-
jamin ; but much moie properly to the valor of the tribe.
See Judg. chapter 20. and Canaan. — Calmet.
BENSON, (Geokge, D. D.) an eminently learned non-con-
fomiist divine, was descended from a good family, and bom
at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, in the year 1699. Be-
ing very early distinguished for a remarkable seriousness
of temper, and a great attachment to his books, his parents
determined to educate him for the ministry ; with which
view, when he had passed through a course of grammar
learning, he was -went to an academy at Whitehaven,
where he continued about a year, and from thence he was
removed to tlie university of Glasgow, where he completed
his academical studies.
In the year 1721, Mr. Benson came to London, and hav-
ing been examined and approved by several of the most
eminent Presbyterian ministers, he began to preach, first
at Chertsey, and afterwards in London, where the learned
Dr. Calamy took him into his family, and treated him with
great kindness. By the recommendation of this friend, he
afterwards went to Abington in Berkshire, and was una-
nimously chosen pastor of the congregation of Protestant
Dissenters in that town, where he continued seven years,
diligently employing that time in the study of the sacred
writings, and in laboring to instruct and edify the people
under his care.
His first publication was " A Defence of the Reasona-
bleness of Prayer, with a Translation of a Discourse of
Blaximus Tyiius, on the Subject, and Remarks on it."
This appeared during his continuance at Abingdon ;
whence he removed in the year 1729, upon an invitation
to become minister to a congregation in King John's
Court, Soulhwark ; where he performed the duties of the
pastoral otfiee with great diligence and fidelity for eleven
years, and was much beloved by his congregation.
The attempt which Mr. Locke had made to throw light
upon some of the most obscure and difficult parts of Paul's
Epistles, by close attention to the original design with which
they were WTitten, and by carefully pursuing the thread of
the author's reasoning, induced and encouraged IMr. Benson
to attempt the illustration of the other Epistles of St. Paul,
in a similar method. Accordingly, in the year 1731, he
published, in quarto, " A Paraphrase and Notes on Paul's
Epistle to Philemon, attempted in imitation of BIr. Locke's
manner. AVith an Appendix ; in which is showni, that
Paul could neither be an Enthusiast, nor an Impostor ;
and consequently, tlie Christian Religion must be (as he
has represented it) heavenly and divine." This publica-
tion meeting with a verj' favorable reception, our author
proceeded, with great diligence, and increasing reputation,
to publish Paraphrases and Notes on the two Epistles to
the Thessalonians, the first and second Epistle to Timothy,
and the Epistle to Tilus ; adding some Dissertations on
several important subjects.
In 1735, Mr. Benson published, in three thin volumes,
quarto, " The History of the first planting of the Christian
Religion, taken from the Acts of the Apostles, and their
Epistles. Together with the remarkable Facts of the Jew-
ish and Roman History, which alfected the Christians
within this period." J.n this work, besides illustrating
throughout, the history of the Acts, and most of the Epis-
tles, by a v-iew of the histoi7 of the times, the occasion of
the several Epistles, and the state of the churches to which
they were addressed, the learned author hath established
the truth of the ChilStian religion, on a number of facts,
the most public, important, and incontestible ; the relations
of which we have from eye-witnesses of unquestionable
integrity ; and ■which produced such great and extensiTfl
alterations in the moral-«nd religious state of the world,
as cannot be rationally accounted for, without admitting
the reality of these facts, and the truth of these relations.
In 1740, Mr. Benson was chosen pastor of the congre-
gation of Protestant Dissenters in Crutched Friars, Lore-
don, in the room of Dr. William Harris ; and in this situa-
tion he continued till his death. He had, for several years,
as his assistant, the very eminent and learned Dr. Lard-
ner ; and they constantly lived together in the greatesS
friendship. In 1743, Mr. Benson published, in octavo,
his treatise on " The Reasonableness of tlie Christian Re-
ligion, as delivered in the Scriptures ;" and, the following
year, in consideration of his great learning and abilities,
the university of Aberdeen conferred on him the degree of
doctor in divinity.
Dr. Benson, having finished those Epistles of Paul or>
which he intended K> ■n'rite paraphrases and notes, pro-
ceeded to explain, after the same manner, the se^ven Epis-
tles, commonly called Cathohc Epistles ; namely, the Epis-
tle of James, the two Epistles of Peter, the Epistle of Jude,
and the three Epistles of John. These, and his other la-
bors in sacred literature, met with a very favorable recep-
tion in foreign countries, and particularly in Germany, a.'i
well as at home; where they procured him the friendship
and esteem of many eminent persons in the established
church, as well as amongst the Dissenters. He died, in a
very composed and resigned manner, on the 6th of April,
1762, in the sixty-third year of his age.
Dr. Benson was a man of great piety and learning — in>
tensely studious, and unwearied in his researches aftei
theological truth, which ■sras the principal business of his
life. On all occasions, he was a zealous advocate for free
inquiry, and the right of private judgment ; but, though
his integrity was unquestioned, yet the freedom with which
he expressed his sentiments on some points controverted
amongst Christians, exposed him to censures and indecent
reflections from men of little candor and contracted views.
The doctor left behind him, in manuscript. " The His-
tory of the Life of Jesus Christ, taken from the New Tes-
tament, with Observations and Reflections proper to illus-
trate the Excellence of his Character, and the Divinity of his
Mission and Rehgion." Several critical dissertations were
annexed to this performance ; and the whole was published
together, in the year 1764, in one volume, quarto ; to ■whictj
■was prefixed, a mezzotinto print of the author. Dr. Amo-
ry, who URs the editor of this work, hath also added to it,
" Memoirs of the Life, Character, and Writings of Dr.
Benson." — Joneses Chris. Biog.
BENTH AM, (Jekemv,) an Engli.sh writer of great repu-
tation in legislation, metaphysics, and morals, ■was born in
1747. At three years of age he is said to have read Ra-
pin's History of England as an amusement, and at seven,
he read Telemaque in French. Such was the contempla-
tive turn of his mind, and the clearness and accuracy of
his observation, from early childhood, that at the age of
five years he had acquired the name of " the philosopher."
Wliile at Westminster school, he obtained from Helvetius
on the Mind a glimpse of that " grentest happiness princi-
ple," w-hich he aftem'ards so powerfully developed. At
thirteen; he entered Oxford, and at sixteen took his degree
of A. B. being the youngest graduate then known at either
of the universiries. He was early acquainted with Ho-
garth, Blackstone, and Johnson. While at Oxford, the
expulsion of five students under the stigma of Methodism,
for " reading and talking over the Bible," awakened a dis-
gust vrith the Church of England which continued through
life. On being required to sign the Thirttj-tiine Articles, he
makes these remarks, " When out of the multitude of his
attendants Jesus eh ise twelve for his apostles, by the men
in office he was declared to be possessed by a devil ; by
his own friends he was set down for mad. The like fate,
were my conscience to have showed itself more scrupulous
than that of my official casuist, was before my eyes. Be-
fore the eyes of Jesus stood a comforter — his Father — an
Almighty one. Before my weak eyes stood no comforter."
In the" year 1772, he was called to the bar, but saw so
much chicane in legal business as then conducted, as led .
him at first to determine on quitting the profession, and
eventually on working a complete reform in the system of
BEN
[221 J
BEN
English jurispruJcnce. To lliis immense labor he devoted
the whole of his long and laborious Ul'e ; and before his
death he had constructed a systematic plan of civil and
criminal law, founded entirely upon reason, and having
for its object the happiness of the human race. He died,
June 6, 1832. His ruling passion was strong in death.
Sending all but a single attendant from his bedside, he
said, "I now feel that 1 am dying: our care must be to
minimize the pain." The influence of his utilitarian prin-
ciples has been extensive in legislation, its proper sphere ;
its application in inorals is not less just, but is attended
with difliculties, perhaps insuperable to the human under-
standing wuhout the aid of revelation. Happily, in morals
we have a sure guide already in the New Testament.
Among Mr. Bentham's intimate friends, were Howard,
Eomilly, and Lafayette. He availed himself of every
means in his power of forming and cherishing a friendship
with whoever in any country indicated remarkable bene-
volence. But, that he might be in the less danger of
falling under the influence of any wrong bias, he kept
himself as much as possible from all personal contact with
what is called the world. With such care over his intel-
lectual faculties and moral affections, and with the excel-
lent direction which he gave to both, his own happiness
could not but be sure.
He was capable of great severity and continuity of men
tal labor. For upwards of half a century, he devoted sel-
dom less than eight, often ten, and occasionally twelve
hours of every day, to intense study. This was the
more remarkable, as his physical constitution was b)' no
means strong. His health, during the periods of child-
hood, youth, and adolescence, was infirm ; it was not until
the age of manhood that it acquired some degree of vigor.
But that vigor increased with advancing age ; so that dur-
ing the space of sixty years he never labored under any
serious malady, and rarely suflered even from slight indis-
position. At the age of eighty-four, he looked no older, and
constitutionally was no older than most men at sixty ; thus
adding another illu.strious name to the splendid catalogue
which establishes the fact, that severe and constant mental
labor is not incompatible with health and longevity, but
conducive to both, provided the miiid be unauxious, and
the habits temperate.
He was a great economist of time. He knew the value
of minutes. The disposal of his hours, both of labor and
repose, was a matter of systematic arrangement ; and the
arrangement was determined on the ))rinciple, that it is a
calamity to lose the smallest portion of time. He did not
deem it sufficient to provide against the loss of a day or
an hour : he took efl'ectual means to prevent the occur-
rence of any such calamity to him : he was careful to pro-
vide against the loss even of a single minute ; and there is
on record no example of a human being who lived more
habitually under the practical consciousness that bis days
are numbered, and that " the night cometh, in which no
man can work." The serenity and cheerfulness of his
mind, when he became satisfied that his work was done,
and that he was about to lie down to his final re.st, was
truly affecting. On that -B'ork he looked back with a feel-
ing which would have been a feeling of triumph, had not
the consciousness of how much still remained to be done,
changed it to that of sorrow that he was allowed to do no
more. But this feeling again gave place to a calm but
deep emotion of exultation, as he recollected that he left
behind him able, zealous and faithful minds, that would
enter into his labors and complete them.
His various publications amount to about one handred ;
and several of the greatest importance have been trans-
lated into most European languages. — The Museum j An-
nual Biography, 1833.
BENTLEY, (Dr. Richard,) an eminent divine and most
profound linguist, was bom at Wakefield, in the county of
York, in the year 1662, but on what day or month seems to
be uncertain. His father was either a blacksmith, or a tan-
ner; bnt he appears to have possessed some means, and a
^sire that his son should reap the benefit of them by a
"^■^d education ; nor was Richard indiflerent to,' or
•^^V^ss of these advantages. After making considerable
^■j^ '/cl" '^^ learned languages, he was entered at
"■". Cambridge, where he soon distinguished
himself by his assiduous application, and before he was
twenty-four years of age, be had compiled fur himself a
sort of Hexapla, a thick quarts, in the first column of
which he arranged all the words in the Hebrew Bible,
while the five others exhibited the difi'crent acceptations
of them, in the Chaldec, Syriac, and Scptuagint versions,
those of Aquila, and Symmachus, and that of Theodo.'ius.
He likewise wrote another quarto volume of the various
readings and emendations of the Hebrew text, found in
those ancient versions, a work that would have done honor
to a more aged critic. Having taken the degree of master
of arts at Cambridge, he was incorporated into the uni-
versity of Oxford, and soon afterwards became, domestic
chaplain to Dr. Stillingfleet, bishop of Worcester, in whose
family he had resided for fourteen years, in the capacity
of tutor to his son. A Latin letter to Dr. Mill, containing
some observations relative to Johannes Malala, the Greek
historiographer, published in 1691, affords a convincing
evidence of Dr. Bentley's deep learning, and was highly
spoken of by that profound scholar, Graevius, who wroto
to him on the occasion in the highest terms of commenda-
tion. About this time, the doctor was appointed one of
the preachers of the course of lectures founded by the Hon.
Mr. Robert Boyle, afterwards lord Orrery ; and in the year
16yi, he published eight sermons, preached at this lecture.
In the same year, he was made keeper of the royal library
at St. James's, when an incident occurred, which gave
occasion to the controversy that was -so long carried on
between him and the Hon. Mr. Boyle. During this contro-
versy, he published his edition of Callimachiis, to which he
prefixed a short, but excellent, essay on the Greek Pronun-
ciation. In the year 1700, his majesty king Wilham III.
was pleased to present Dr. Bentley to the mastership of
Trinitj' college, Cambridge, worth about IIKIO/. a year;
and the following j'ear, the archdeaconry of Ely was con-
ferred upon him. During his situation in the college, the
doctor met with much to tr)' him : being rather of an arbi-
trary disposition, he excited the opposition of some of the
fellows, who complained of him lo the bishop of Ely, or>e
of the visiters, with the design of getting him removed
from the office of master. The doctor presented to the
bishop his defence in the form of a pamphlet, entitled,
"The Present State of the University;" and thus com-
menced a quarrel, which lasted for twenty years, w-ith
great animosity on both sides, and was at last dropped
without any decision. He was afterwards chosen Regius
professor of divinity at Cambridge.
In 1720, Dr. Bentley issued proposals for a new edition
of the New Testament in Greek, accompanied with the
Latin version of Jerome : taking up that father's observa-
tion, that in the translation of the Holy Scriptures, "the
very order of the words is mystery," he conjectured that if
the mo.st ancient Greek manuscripts were compared with
Jerome's Latin, they might be foimd to agree with that
version, both in the words and order ; and upon trial; his
ideas were realized even beyond his expectations. He
stated also in these proposals, that he believed he had re-
covered, with very few exceptions, the exemplar o( Or\s.en,
the great standard of the most learned fathers, for more
than two hundred years after the council of Nice ; and ob-
served, that by the aid of the Greek and Latin manuscrii'ts,
the text of the original might be so far settled, that insle'd
of thirty thousand different readings; found in th" bt.-a
modern editions, not more than two luindred wojld i!c-
serve much serious consideration. To these propo^a- ha
annexed a specimen, the last chapter of the Bool; o! '. ve-
BER
[ 222 ]
BER
latioD, with a Latin version, and the various readings in
the notes ; but Dr. Conyers Middleton, who-had opposed
him on a former occasion, wrote some very severe re-
marks upon them ; and the tide of opposition ran so
high, that the doctor thought proper wholly to drop his
design.
Dr. Bentley died on the 14th of July, 1742, at the age of
eighty, and was buried in the chapel of Trinity college.
With regard to his attainments, he was a profound scholar,
and the greatest critic in the learned languages of the time
in which he lived ; but his uncommon learning was belter
appreciated abroad than in his own country. In his man-
ners he was rather haughty and overbearing, and too often
treated others with contempt : this was particularly illus-
trated by his saying of Joshua Barnes, tliat " he understood
as much Greek as a Greek cobbler;" and of himself,
" When I am dead, Christopher Wasse will be the most
learned man in England." — Jo?ies's C/ir. Biug.
BEKEA ; a city of Macedonia, near mount Cithanes,
where Paul preached the gospel with success, Acts 17: 11
— 13. There is a medal of Berea extant, which is re-
markable for being inscribed, " of the second Macedonia,"
and also for being the only Macedonian medal of the date
(A. XJ. C. 706.) inscribed with the name of the city where
it was struck. Compare Acts 17: 11. — "mile Bereans." —
Cabiiel.
BEREANS ; a small sect of dissenters from the church
of Scotland, who take their title from, and profess to follow
the example of, the ancient Bereans, (Acts 17: 11,) in
building their system of faith and practice upon the Scrip-
tures alone, without regard to any human authority what-
ever.
Mr. Barclay, a Scotch clergyman, was the founder of
this denomination. They first assembled as a separate
society of Christians in Edinburgh, in 1773.
The Bereans agree with the established churches of
England and Scotland respecting the Trinity, predestina-
tion, and election, (though they allege that these doctrines
are not consistently taught in either ;) but they differ from
them in various points — particularly,
1. They reject all natural religion, as undermining the
cause of revealed religion, by rendering it unnecessary
and superfluous.
2. They consider faith in Christ and assurance of salva-
tion as inseparable, or rather, as the same thing, because
God has said, " He that believeth shall be saved." If we,
therefore, credit this testimony, (which is all that they
mean by faith,) it must be impious to doubt of our salva-
tion. Mr. Barclay says, ''By whatever evidence I hold
the resurrection of Jesus, by the same precise evidence I
must hold it for a tnilh that I am justified — for God hath
equally asserted both." But on this M'Lean remarks —
"The resurrection is a truth independent of my believing,
and the subject of direct testimony ; but my justification is
not declared to be a truth until I believe the former ; nor is
it directly asserted, but promised on that provision, ' If
thou shalt believe,' &c. Rom. 10: 9." (See McLean's
Commission of the Apostles.) This seems to be the most
dangerous tenet of the Bereans, because it reduces faith to
fancy, since it amounts to this, — " If I persuade myself
that I am a believer, then I am one."
3. They say. that the sin afaiist the Holy Ghost is no-
thing else but unbelief; and that the exjiression, " It shall
not be forgiven, neither in this world, nor that which is to
c'l'ne," means only that a person dying in unbelief would
not be forgiven, neither under the former dispensation by
Moses, nor under the Gospel dispensation, which, in re-
spect of the Mosaic, was a kind of future world, or world
to come. — This however is more than doubtful. See Aion.
4. They consider the whole of the Old Testament pro-
phecic.5, and especially the book of Psalms, as typical or
prophetic of Christ, and never apply them to the experi-
ence of private Christians. Under this and the first head,
they agree with the followers of Mr. Hutchinson. See
HoTOlIIT.sONI.'iNS.
5. Th^y maintain the sovereignty of God, and uncondi-
tional elrctinn, in the strongest language of the Calvinists.
The Bereans practise infant baptism, and administer the
Lord's supper monthly; btit, in admitting to communion,
tliey do not require that account of personal experience,
which many other churches do ; but, after due admonition,
they exclude unworthy members for immoral conduct,
though they do not pretend to " deliver them over to Sa-
tan," as the apostles did.
The denomination has several congregations in Scotland,
and some few in England and America. — Bnrcloy's As-
surance of Faith rhidimled ; M'Lean's Cnmmis, p. 92. N j
Supplement to Ennj. Brit. ; Williams.
BERENGARIUS, or Berenseh ; a celebrated reformer
of the eleventh ce^tur3^ He was a man of most acute
genius, extensive learning, and exemplary sanctity of life
and manners. He denied the doctrine of the real presence,
as it was then commonly termed ; and by writing against
it, called forth all the learned of the church of Rome to
defend the doctrine of transuhstanliation. Berenger was
a native of France, educated under Fulbert, bishop of
Chartres, a very learned man ; and taking orders in the
church, became deacon of St. Maurice, and ultimately
archbishop of Anglers, in the province of Anjou. He was
also principal of the academy of Tours. The prevalent
sentiment of his day relative to the eucharist was, that the
bread was the identical body, and the wine the very blood
of Christ — not only figuratively, but substantially and pro-
perly. Berenger, on the contrary, insisted that the body
of Christ is only in the heavens ; and that the elements of
bread and wine are merely the symbols of his body and
blood. Several of the bishops wrote against him, most
bitterly complaining of his heresy ; but not feeling the
force of their arguments, Berenger remained unmoved,
and defended his opinions with the utmost pertinacity.
He wrote a letter on the subject to Lanfrank, who was at
that time at the head of the convent of St. Stephen's at
Caen, in Normandy, and called from thence by William
the Conqueror to be archbishop of Canterbury, which being
opened while the latter was from home, was officiously
transmitted by the convent to pope Leo. The pontifl',
shocked at its heretical contents, summoned a council at
Fercelli, at which Berenger was commanded to be present.
His friends, however, advised him against going, and he
consequently sent two persons to attend the council and
answer in his behalf. Lanfrank also was present and
pleaded for Berenger ; but the latter was concleinned, the
two persons who appeared for him imprisoned, and Lan-
frank commanded by the pope to draw up a refutation of
the heresy of Berenger, on pain of being himself reputed
a heretic ; with which injunction he thought it prudent to
comply. This example was followed also by the council
of Paris, summoned the very same year by Henry I., in
which Berenger and his numerous adherents were threa-
tened with all sorts of evils both spiritual and temporal —
evils which were in part executed against the heretical pre-
late ; for the mon.arch deprived him of all his revenues.
But neither thrcatenings nor fines, nor the decrees of sy-
nods, could shake the firmness of his mind, or oblige him
to retract his sentiments. In the mean while, the opinions
of Berenger were everywhere spreading rapidly, insomuch
that, if we may credit contemporary writers, " his doctrine
had corrupted all the English, Italian, and French na-
tions." Thuanus adds, that " in Germany were many of
the same doctrine, and that Bruno, bishop of Treves, ba-
nished them all out of his diocese, sparing only their
blood." Three times Berenger was compelled to abjure
his sentiments, at Rome; and as often, on returning to
France, avowed and spread them with renewed zeal, un-
til, disgusted with a controversy in which the first princi-
ples of reason were so impudently insulted, and exhausted
by an opposition which he was unable to overcome, he aban-
doned all his worldly concerns, and retiring into solitude,
passed the remainder of his days in fasting, prayer, and
the exercise of piety. In the year 1088, death put a period
to the aflliction which he sufl'ered in retirement, occasioned
by bitter reflection upon his repeated dissimulations at
Rome ; leaving behind him, in the minds of the people, a
deep impression of his extraordinary sanctity. It is not so
generally known, that Berengarius also strenuously or
posed papal celibacy, and the baptism of infants. His^
lowers were as numerous as his fame was illustrit^"""
Jones; Mosheim ; Mihicr ; hiiiuy, vo\. \. y. 22. „„ .,
BERENGARIANS ; a denomination, in.ikrius Thr
century, who adhered to the opiirtons of Be-
BER
[ 223 ]
BER
Catholics ranked lliem among the most dangerous heretics.
See Berengarius.
BERKELEY, (Du Geor'Je,) the learned and ingenious
bishop of Cloyne. in Irehui'l, and a distinguished benefac-
tor of Yale college, (Con.) was born in that kingdom, at
Kilcrin, near Thomastown, March 12, 1(584. He acquired
the rudiments of his education at the school of Killcenny ;
%vas admitted pensioner of Trinity college, Dublin, at the
age of fifteen ; and chosen fellow of that college, July 'J,
1707, having been placed under the tuition of Ur. Hall.
The first public proof that he gave of his literary abilities,
was in a Latin treatise on arithmetic, written before he
was twenty years old, though not published till 1707.
Two years afterwards, came forth "TheTheory of Vision,"
which, of all his works, seems to do the greatest honor to
his sagacity ; being, as Dr. Reid remarks, '' the first at-
tempt with which we are acquainted, to distinguish the
immediate and natural objects of sight, from the conclu-
sions which we have been accustomed from infancy to
draw from them." In 1710, appeared "The Principles of
Human Knowledge;" and in 1713, "Dialogues between
Hylas and Philoneus :" the design of both which pieces is
to prove the commonly-received notion of the existence of
matter to be false : that sensible material objects, as they
are called, are not external to the mind, but exist in it,
and are nothing more than impressions made upon it by
the immediate act of God, according to certain rules,
termed laws of nature, from which, in the ordinar)' course
of his government, he never deviates ; and that the uni-
form adherence of the Supreme Spirit to these rules is what
constitutes the reality of things to his creatures. These
works, if the author himself is to be credited, were drawn
up against, or in opposition to, sceptics and atheists ; ne-
vertheless, Mr. Hume, speaking of these writings of the
very ingenious author, as he calls him, declares .that " they
form the best lessons of scepticism, which are to be found
either among the ancient or modern philosophers, Bayle not
excepted." Whatever were Berkeley's intentions in com-
posing them, that they are in reahty merely sceptical, ap-
pears from this, that tliei/ admit of no answer, and produce no
conviction. Their only efTect is, to cause that momentary
amazement, and irresolution, and confusion, which are the
results of scepticism. But our author had not reached his
twenty-seventh year when he propounded this whimsical
theory.
Our present concern, however, is with Dr. Berkeley, not
as a philosopher or metaphysician, but as a Christian and
friend to revelation, and therefore we proceed to add, that
in 1712, he published three sermons in favor of passive
obedience and non-resistance, which went through at least
three editions at the moment. To such an extent was the
duty of allegiance carried in these sermons, that they
brought upon the author the reproach of Jacobitism, and
it cost his friend Wr. Molineux no little pains to wipe oft"
that impression at court. But the graces of his composi-
tion procured him many admirers ; for acuteness of parts
and beauty of imagination were so conspicuous in his writ-
ings, that his reputation was soon established, and his com-
pany sought, even where his opinions did not find admission.
In 1721, he accompanied the duke of Grafton on his mis-
sion to Ireland as viceroy, in the capacity of chaplain ; and
in the same year obtained the degree of doctor in divinity.
On the ISth of May, 1724, he was promoted to the deanery
of Derry, worth twelve hundred pounds per annum. In
172ci, he published " A Proposal for converting the savage
Americans to Christianity, by a College to be erected in
the Summer Islands, otherwise calledthe Isles of Bermu-
da;" a scheme which had employed his thoughts for three
or four years past, and he evinced his earnestness in the
noble undertaking by the sacrifices he made to carry it
into eflect. He made a voluntary ofier to resign all his
preferments, and to dedicate the remainder of his life to the
office of instructing the American youth, on a salary from
government of one hundred pounds yearly. He prevailed
on three junior fellows of Trinity college, Dublin, to give up
all their prospects of preferment at home, and to exchange
their fellowships for a settlement in the Atlantic ocean of
forty pounds a year. He procured his plan to be laid be-
fore George I., who commanded Sir Robert Walpole to
submit it to the consideration of the house of commons ; the
result of which was the granting uf a charter tu him for
erecting a college in Bermuda, to consist of a president
and nine fellows, who were obliged to maintain and edu-
cate Indian scholars, at ten pounds a year each. He also
obtained from the commons the grant of a sum, the amount
to be determined by the king; and accordingly ten thou-
sand pounds were promised by the minister, for the pur-
chase of lands, and erecting the college. Having married
the daughter of the Hon. John Foster, speaker of the Irish
house of commons, on the 1st of August, 1728, Dr. Berke-
ley set sail in the following month for Rhode Island, on
his way to Bermuda, taking \vith him his wife, a single
lady, and two gentlemen of fortHJue. Yet the scheme en-
tirely failed, and Berkeley was obliged to return home, af-
ter residing nearly two years at Newport, Rhode Island.
The reason assigned is, that Sir Robert "Walpole never
heartily embraced the project, and the smn voted by par-
liament was converted bj' him to other purposes. At his
departure, he distributed the books he had brought with
him among the clergy of Rhode Island. For further par-
ticulars of his residence in this country, of his literary
influence, and liberality to Yale college, see Allen's Ame-
rican Biographical Dictionary.
In 1732, he published " The Minute Philosopher," in two
volumes, octavo. This masterly work, which was com-
posed at Newport, Rhode Island, is written by way of dia-
logue, on the model of Plato, a philosopher he is said to
ha"ve miich admired ; and in it he pursued the freethinker
through the various characters of atheist, libertine, enthu-
siast, scorner, critic, metaphy.sician, fatalist, and sceptic.
The same year, he printed a sermon which he had preach-
ed before the Society for propagating the Gospel in foreign
parts. In 1733, he was made bishop of Cloyne, and there
took up his residence, faithfully prosecuting the duties of
his elevated station, and continuing his studies with un-
wearied application.
In person, bishop Berkeley was remarkably handsome,
with a countenance full of expression and benignity, of
muscular strength, and a robust constitution. He was an
early riser, and much devoted to his studies. The excel-
lence of his moral character is indeed conspicuous in his
writings : he was certainly a very amiable, as well as a
very superior man ; and Pope is scarcely thought to have
dealt in hyperbole, when he attributed
"To Berkeley every virtue under heaven."
In July, 1752, bishop Berlceley removed, with his lady
and family, to Oxford, partly to superintend the education
of a son, but chiefly to indulge the passion for learned re-
tirement, vi'hich had ever strongly possessed him, and
which was one motive mth him in forming the Bennuda
project. Here he lived highly respected, till the evening
of Sunday, January 14, 1753, when, as he was in the
midst of his family, listening to a sermon which his lady
was reading to him, he was seized with what was called a
pal.^y in the heart, and instantly expired. — Jones's Chr. Bia.
BERNARD of Menthon, archdeacon of Aosta. was
born in 923, near Annecy, in Savoy, and was celebrated
among his contemporaries for his learning and piety ; but
his claims to the notice of later ages rest on his having
been the benevolent founder of the two admirable institu-
tions on the Great and Little St. Bernard, by means of
which the lives of so many travellers have been saved.
He died in 1008. — Davenport.
BERNARD of Thukingia ; a fanatical hermit of the
tenth century, who threw almost all Europe into conster-
nation, by preaching that the end of the world was at
hand. Multitudes relinquished their occupations, and be-
came pilgrims ; and others were so frightened at an eclipse
of the sun which then occurred, that they hid 'hcmselves
in caverns and holes in the rocks. The terror spread by
this man was not wholly removed till towards the close of
the eleventh century. — Davenport.
BERNARD, (St.,) the celebrated abbot of Clain'aux,
was born at Fontaine, in Burgimdv, in 1091, of noble pa-
rents. An austere manner of li\ang, solitary studies, an
inspiring eloquence, boldness of language, and the reputa-
tion of a prophet, rendered him an oracle to all Christian
Europe. He was named the honeyed teacher, and his writ-
ings were styled n stream from Paradise. He was the an-
tagonist of the schoolmen, and uniform advocate of prac-
B ER
[ 224
BEPv
seal Christianify. But it ouglil to be confessed, that, like
Alhanasius, Augiisline, aiiil other Catholic fathers, he was
misled by the love of ecclesiastical conformity, to false
pretensions, and persecuting principles. All ecclesiastical
dignities he constantly refused ; but his virtues and talents
gained him a higher inrUience in the Christian world than
n>as possessed even by the pope himself, and the disputes
of the church were often referred to his arbitration. His
eloquence was powerfully displayed in the multitudes that
he induced to assume the characters of crusaders. He died
in 1153. Luther says of him, "If there has ever been a
pious monk wno feared God, it was St. Bernard; whom
alone I hold in much higher esteem than all other monks
and priests throughout the globe." His devotional Medi-
tations are still read and admired, even among Protestants.
They were translated into English by dean Stanhope.
There are editions of his works in six volumes, and in two
volumes, folio. — Davenport.
BERNARD, (Ci.aude,) a native of Dijon, born in 1588,
who assumed the title of "the poor priest," is worthy of
commemoration for his ardent and persevering charity.
His whole life was devoted to assisting the poor, attending
the sick in the hospitals, and preparing criminals for death.
For these purposes, he not only solicited benefactions from
the rich, but sold his own inheritance, which was worth
nearly twenty thousand pounds. He died in 1(541. — Da-
vf.nport.
BERNAEDINES ; an order of monks, founded by Ro-
bert, abbot of Moleme, and reformed by St. Bernard, a
celebrated Franciscan friar of the fourteenth century.
They wear a white robe, with a black scapulary ; and
when they officiate, they are clothed with a large gown,
which is all white, and has great sleeves, with a hood of
the same color. They differ very httle from the Cister-
cians, and had their origin towards the beginning of the
twelfth century. — Henderson's Buck.
BERNARDIN DE SAINT-PIERRE, (James Henky,)
author of the celebrated " Studies of Nature," was born at
,^>u
Havre, in 1737, and is said to have been a descendant of
;he celebrated Eustace de St. Pierre, the patriotic mayor
of Calais. At the age of twenty, he entered into the en-
gineer service ; and he successively served at Malta, in
Russia, and in Poland. On his revisiting his native coun-
try, he obtained a captain's commission in the engineer
corps, and was sent to the Isle of France, from whence,
however, after a residence of three years, he returned, with
no other fortune than a collection of shells and insects, and
a narrative of his voyage. The latter, which was his first
literary effort, was published in 1773 ; and he, thenceforth,
devoted himself to literature. His Studies of Nature ap-
peared in 17S4, and passed rapidly through several edi-
tions. Paul and Virginia was published in 1788, and this
delightful tale acquired an unprecedented popularity, and
set the seal on his reputation. During the reign of terror,
he narrowly escaped the scaffold. From Napoleon and
his brother Joseph he received pensions, which gave com-
fort to his latter days. He died in 1814. His Harmonies
of Nature was given to the press after his death. The best
edition of his works is in twelve octavo volumes. The
philosophy of St. Pierre is occasionally eccentric ; but the
piety of his sentiments, the purity of his morality, and the
beauty of his style, deserve the iifglisst praise. — Davenport
BERNICE, or Berenice ; daughteRof Agrippa the
Great, king of the Jews, and sister of Agrijffa 'he young-
er, also king of the Jews. She was first betron^ed "> Mark,
son of Alexander Lysimachus,,alabarch of .^Jexandria ;
out afterwards she married Herod, king of Ch|['''^'^> '''^i'
own uncle, by the father's side. After the death of HeroJ,
she proposed to Polemon, king of Pontus and part of Cili-
cia, that if he would be circumcised she would marry him.
Polemon complied, but Berenice did not continue long with
him. She returned to her brother Agrippa, with whom she
lived in such a manner as to excite scandal. She was pre- '
sent with him, and heard the discourse of Paul before Fes-
tus, at Cjesarea of Palestine, Acts 25: 23. — Calmet.
BEROSXJS, the Babylonish historian, was, by nation, a
Chaldean ; and by office, a priest of Belus. Tatian says,
he lived in the time of Alexander the Great, and dedicated
his work to king Antiochus, the third after Alexander, that
is, Antiochus Theos, or perhaps, Antiochus Soter ; for the
many years between Alexander and Antiochus Theos
(some reckoning sixty-four from the death of Alexander
to the first year of Antiochus Theos) might induce us to
prefer this sense. Berosus, having learned Greek, went
first to the isle of Cos, where he taught astronomy and as-
trology ; and afterwards to Athens, where he acquired so
much reputation by his astrological predictions, that in the
gymnasium, where the youth performed their exercises, a
statue, with a golden tongue, was erected to him. Jose-
phus and Eusebius have preserved some valuable frag-
ments of Berosus's history, which greatly elucidate many
places in the Old Testament ; and without which, it would
be difficult to produce an exacl series of the kings of Ba-
bylon.— Calmet.
BERQUIN, (Arnold,) an elegant, pious, and amiable
writer, who devoted his pen to the instruction of youth,
was born at Bordeaux, in 1749, and died at Paris, in 1791.
His works, consisting of Idylls ; the Children's Friend ;
the Youth's Friend ; the Little Grandison ; the Family
Book ; and several similar productions, form twenty vo
lumes. The Children's Friend is, in part, imitated from
the German of Weiss. — Davenport.
BERSMAN, (George ;) a very eminent classical au-
thor, professor of poetry and Greek in the universities of
Wittemberg and Leipsic, and well versed in various other
departments of science and Hterature. Born 1539, died
1611, aged seventy-two. In his last sickness he mani-
fested great humility and prayerfulness, and delighted in
repeating the words of Job, I knom that my Redeemer liv-
eth : and also of John, God so loved the world, &c. And
that of the apostle. No one of us liveth to himself; together
with the 42d, 51st, and 90th psalms; also the German
hymn from the words of the proto-martyr Stephen, Lord
Jesus, receive my spirit. And thus, at length, placidly, and
without any discomposed gesture or motion, like one be-
ginning to fall asleep, he restored his happy spirit to God
— Clissold.
BERTHA ; daughter of Charibert, king of France, and
wife of Ethelbert, king of Kent, during the heptarchy in
England. Ethelbert was one of the Wisest and most pow-
erful of the Saxon princes, but a pagan. It was expressly
stipulated on the marriage, that Bertha, who was a Chris-
tian, should profess her own religion unmolested. Listen-
ing to the doctrines of her faith, Ethelbert became a convert
to it in 597. — Betham.
BERTRAM, or Ratram, monk of Corby in France; a
celebrated writer in the ninth century, who deserves the
first rank among those that refuted the doctrine of Rad-
bert concerning the real presence of Christ in the eucharist.
He defended the Latin church against Photius, the hymn
Trina Deltas against Hincmar, and the doctrine of Godes-
chalcus concerning predestination. — Mosheivi.
BERYL ; a pellucid gem of a bluish green color, whence
It is called by the lapidaries, aqua marina. Its Hebrew
name is a word also for the same reason given to the sea,
Psalm 48: 7. It is found in the East Indies, Peru, Sibe-
ria, and Tartary. It has a brilliant appearance, and is
generally transparent. It was the tenth stone belonging
to the high-priest's pectoral, Exod. 28: 10, 20. Rev. 21:
2Q.— Watson.
BERYLLIANS ; so called from one Beryllus, a learned
Arabian bishop, in the third century. He taught, that
Christ did not exist before Mary ; but that a Spirit from
God himself, a portion of the divine nature, was united to
him at his birth. His sentiments, therefore, nearly corre-
sponded with those of the modern Socinians, which see.
He is said, however, to have yielded to the arguments of
\
BET
[225]
BET
Origen, and to have returned to the bosom of the Christian
church . — Mosheim .
BESET ; to surround as an army. Judg. 19; 20. God
heseU men behind and before ; he exactly knows, upholds,
and governs them, that they can go nowhere but as he
permits, and where they are surrounded with his presence.
Ps. 139: 5. Men's sinful doings beset them, when they ap-
pear charged on them, and with mighty force entangle
them in their deserved punishment, Hos. 7: 2. The sin
that easily besets men is the sin of their nature and tem-
perament, or their predominant lust, which, being deep
rooted in their heait and affections, and connected with
their outward circumstances in life, readily, and without
much opposition, instigates, and, as it were, shuts them
up to the commission of wiclced acts. Heb. 12; 1. —
])row?t.
BESOM ; an instrument to sweep with. God's judg-
ments are called a besom of destruction ; they make a great
stir and confusion ; they often cut off multitudes, and with
ease sweep them into trouble, the dunghill of contempt,
or pit of endless m.isery. Isa. 14; 23. — Broivn.
BESOR, or Bosoe ; a brook which falls into the Medi-
terranean, between Gaza and Rhinocorura ; or between
Rhinocorura and Egypt. This is " the brooli of the wil-
derness," (Amos 6: 14,) or the river of Egypt, mentioned
in Scripture, Josh. 15; 4 — 17. 2 Chron. 7:"8. — Calmet.
BETHABARA, beyond Jordan, where John baptized,
{John 1; 28.) was the common ford of the river, and pro-
bably the same as Beth-barah, Judg. 7: 24. — Calmet.
BETHANY; (John 11; 18.) a village, distant about
two miles east from Jerusalem, at the ascent of the mount
of Olives, and on the way to Jericho. Here Martha and
Mary dwelt, with their brother Lazarus, whom Jesus
raised from the dead ; and here Mary poured perfume on
our Savior's head. — Calmet.
BETH-AVEN ; the same with Bethel. On the revolt
of the ten tribes, this city belonged to the kingdom of Is-
rael, and was consequently one of the places in which Jero-
boam instituted the worship of his golden calves. It seems
to have been in allusion to this that the prophet Hosea, in
derision, calls it Beth-aven, that is, "the house of vanity,
or of idols," chapter 4; 15, instead of Bethel, that is, " the
lionse of God," the name which Jacob fonnerly gave it,
when favored with the vision of the mysterious ladder, on
which angels ascended and descended from heaven. Gen.
28. — Jones.
BETHEL; a city west of Hai, on tlie confines of the
tribes of Ephraim and Benjamin, (Gen. 12; 8. 28; 10,)
and occupying the spot where Jacob slept, and had his
memorable dream. See Jacob. Eusebius places Bethel
twelve miles from Jerusalem, in the way to Sichem, or
Napolose. Bethel was also called Bethaven, and probably
is the Eli-oun of Sanchoniatho. See Beth-aven. — Calmtt.
BETHER. There is mention made of the mountains
of Bether, in the Song of Solomon, ch. 2; 17, and 8: 14.
It does not seem to be altogether agreed among the learn-
ed, what is intended by the mountains of Bether ; but the
prevailing opinion is, that Betheron is intended, which in
Eusebius is called Bether, and Bethara in Josephus. There
is frequent mention of Bether in the Jewish writings. It
was taken by the emperor Adrian, during the rebellion of
Earchochebas, in the third century. " The number of
Jews inclosed in it was so great," says the Gemara, '' that
the blood which ran from the dead bodies into the sea,
carried stones along with it as large as a bushel, and that
it ran four miles into the sea." Several are of opinion
that the place here alluded to, is the same with Betheron,
which lay in the territories of the tribe of Ephraim. — Jones.
BETHESDA. This word signifies the house of mercy,
and was the name of a pool, or public bath, at Jerusalem,
which had five porticos, piazzas, or covered walks around
it. John 5; 2 — 4. This bath was called Bethesda, be-
cause, as some observe, the erecting of baths was an act
of great kindness to the common people, whose infirmities
in hot countries required frequent bathing ; hut the gene-
rality of expositors think it had this name rather from the
great goodness of God manifested to his peoplcj in bestow-
ing healing virtues upon its waters. The word kolumictkra,
which in that passage is translated pool, signifies a reser-
voir of water, deep enough in which to allow a person to
29
swim. There were two pools of that description formerly.
Compare 2 Kings 18; 17, with Neh. 3; 15. It was at the
latter of these pools that Jesus directed the blind man to
wash for the recovery of his sight. John 9; 7. The five
porches mentioned by the evangelist, John 5; 2 — 4, are
supposed to have been five apartments for the accommo-
dation of the multitude that came to the pool to be cured
of their bodily diseases. Mr. MaundreU says, that when
he was at Jerusalem, he saw what was supposed to have
been the pool of Bethesda, on the one side adjacent to St.
Stephen's gate, and on the other to the area of the temple,
in Jerusalem, near the mount on which the temple stood ;
one of them was called " the Upper Pool," and the other
" the Pool of Siloam," which was near the king's garden.
" It is," says he, " an hundred and twenty paces long, forty
broad, and at least eight deep. At its west end it disco-
vers some old arches, which are now dammed up." Maun
drell, ubi supra, pp. 107, 108. " In these porches," says
the evangelist, " lay a great number of impotent people,
blind, halt, withered, waiting for the moving of the water.
For an angel went down at a certain season into the pool,
and troubled the water ; whosoever then first, after the
troubling of the water, stepped in, was made whole of
whatsoever disease he had," John 5; 2 — 4. Whether the
miracles performed at the pool of Betliesda, were confined
to the season of the particular feast mentioned in the first
verse of the chapter, as the words " at a certain season"
seem to imply, or whether that expression may be taken
in a more enlarged sense to signify that the water had its
healing quality at other Jewish festivals, cannot now be
ascertained. That it did not possess these properties at
all times, but only when an angel went down and agitated
the water, is clear from the words of the evangelist. The
agitatioji of the water ; its suddenly healing virtue as to all
diseases ; and the limitation to the first that should go in,
are all miraculous circumstances. Commentators have,
however, resorted to various hypotheses to account for the
whole without divine agency. Dr. Hammond, Michaelis,
Kuinoel, and others, suppose it received medicinal proper-
ties from the warm blood of the temple sacrifices ; Mead,
from metallic salts at the bottom ; Mr. Taylor, from a cold
spring which flowed only at particular seasons. Doddridge
combines the common hypothesis with that of Blead ;
namely, that the water had at all times more or less of a
medicinal projierty ; but at some period, not far distant
from that in which the transaction here recorded took
place, it was endued with a miraculous power ; an extra-
ordinary commotion being probably observed in the water,
and Providence so ordering it, that the next person who
accidentally bathed here, being under some great disorder,
found an immediate and unexpected cure ; the like pheno-
menon in some other desperate case, was probably ob-
served on a second commotion ; and these commotions
and cures might happen periodically.
All those hypotheses, however, which exclude miracle in
this case, are very unsatisfactory, nor is there any reason
whatever to resort to them ; for, when rightly viewed,
there appears a mercy and a wisdom in this miracle, which
must strike every one who attentively considers the ac-
count, unless he be a determined unbeliever in miraculous
interposition. For, 1. The miracle occurred kata kairon,
from time to time, that is, occasionally, perhaps frequent
ly. 2. Though but one at a time was healed, yet, as this
might often occur, a singularly gracious provision was
made for the relief of the sick inhabitants of Jerusalem in
desperate cases. 3. The angel probably acted invisibly,
hut the commotion in the waters was so strong and pecu-
liar as to mark a supernatural agent. 4. There is great
probability in what Doddridge, following TertuUian, sup-
poses, that the waters obtained their healing property not
long before the ministry of Christ, and lost it after his re-
jection and crucifixion by the Jews. In this case, a connex-
ion was established between the healing virtue of the pool
and the presence of Christ on earth, indicating Him to be
the source of this benefit, and the true acent in conferring
it ; and thus it became, afterwards at least, a confirmation
of his mission. 5. The whole might also be emblematical,
" intended," says Macknight, " to show that Ezekiel's vi-
sion of waters issuing out of the sanctuary was about to
be fulfilled, of which waters it is said, They shall he heal-
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fe«, and every thina; shall live where the river cometh." It
cannot be objected that this was not an age of miracles ;
and if miracles be allowed, we see in this particular super-
natural visitation, obvious reasons of fitness, as well as a
divine compassion. If, however, the ends to be accom-
phshed by so public and notable a miraculous interposition
were less obvious, still we must admit the fact, or either
force absurd interpretations upon the text, or make the
evangelist carelessly give his sanction to an instance of
vulgar credulity and superstition. — Watson; Calmet ; Jones.
BE THE SD A, to lie at the pool of ; a gross accom-
modation of a simple historical fact, in which some preach-
ers indulge when urging sinners not to despair of salvation.
There is reason to fear that multitudes have, by this abuse
of Scripture, been deluded to their eternal ruin.
In Germany, the formula is used proverbially in speaking
of theological candidates who are waiting for a living. —
Henderson^ s Jjitck.
BETH-EZEL ; a place mentioned, Mic. 1: 11, which
Grotius supposes to be Beth-el, called here by another
name, importing " The house of separation," because it
was the principal seat of idolatrous worship. — Calmet.
BETH-HACCEREM ; the name of a city situated on
an eminence between Jerusalem and Tekoah. Jer. 6: 1.
Malchiah, the son of Rechab, was prince of Beth-haccerem.
Neh. 3: H.— Jones.
BETH-HOGLA. There were two places of this name
in Palestine, one in the tribe of Judah, Josh. 15: 6, which
Eusebius fixes at the distance of eight miles from Gaza ;
the other. Josh. 17: 21, Jerome places at the distance of
two miles from Jordan, and says it belonged to the tribe
of Benjamin. — Jones.
BETH-HORON. The Scripture mentions two cities of
this name ; lor it is said, 1 Chron. 7: 24, that Sherah, a
female of the tribe of Ephraim, " built Beth-horon, the
nether and the upper." But though they both lay within
the bounds of the tribe of Ephraim, it is not certain in what
part of the tribe each lay. It is plain from the narrative,
that one of them at least was situated on an eminence ;
for when Gibeon smote the Canaanites, the latter are de-
scribed as going up to Beth-horon, Josh. 10: 10. But from
Beth-horon to Azekah, the way lay down hill on the other
side ; hence it is added, that " as the Canaanites were in
the going down (of the hill) of Beth-horon, the Lord cast
down great stones upon them, unto Azekah," verse 11. —
Wells's Geography, vol, i. 310; Jones.
BETH-JESHIMOTH; a city in the tribe of Reuben,
Josh. 13: 20, afterwards possessed by the Moabites. Eze-
kiel foretold the destruction of this and other cities of Mo-
ab, chapter 25: 9. Eusebius places it ten miles from the
river Jordan. — Jones.
BETHLEHEM ; a city in the tribe of Judah, Judg. 17:
7 ; and likewise called Ephrath, Gen. 48: 7 ; or Ephratah,
Mic. 5: 2 ; and the inhabitants of it, Ephrathites, Ruth 1:
2. 1 Sam. 17: 12. Here David was born, and spent his
early years as a shepherd. And here also the scene of
the beautiful narrative of Ruth is supposed to be laid.
But its highest honor is, that here our divine Lord conde-
scended to be born of woman : — " And thou, Bethlehem
Ephratah, though thou be little among the thousands of
Judah, yet out of thee shall he come forth unto me, that is
to be ruler in Israel, whose goings forth have been of old,
from everlasting." Travellers describe the first view of
Bethlehem as imposing. The town appears covering the
ridge of a hill on the southern side of a deep and extensive
valley, and reaching from east to west. The most conspi-
cuous object is the monastery erected over the supposed
"Cave of the Nativity ;" its walls and battlements have
the air of a large fortress. From this same point, the
Dead sea is seen below on the left, seemingly very near,
" but," says Sandys, " not so found by the traveller ; for
these high, declining mountains are not to be directly de-
scended." The road winds round the top of a valley, which
tradition has fijced on as the scene of the angelic vision
which announced the birth of our Lord to the shepherds ;
but different spots have been selected, the Romish authori-
ties not being agreed on this head. Bethlehem (called in
the New Testament Bethlehem Ephrata and Bethlehem of
Judea, to distinguish it from Bethlehem of Zabulon) is
situated on a rising ground, about two hours' distance, or
not quite six mi.es from Jerusalem. Here the traveller
meets with a repetition of the same puerilities and disgust- ■
ing mummery which he has witnessed at the church of the
sepulchre. "The stable," to use the words of Pococke,
"in which our Lord was born, is a grotto cut out of the
rock, according to the eastern custom." It is astonishing
to find so intelligent a writer as Dr. E. D. Clarke gravely
citing Jerome, who wrote in the fifth century, as an authori-
ty for the truth of the absurd legend by which the cave of
the nativity is supposed to be identified. The ancient
tombs and excavations are occasionally used by the Arabs
as places of shelter ; but the gospel narrative affords no
countenance to the notion that the Virgin took refuge in
any cave of this description. On the contrary, it was evi-
dently a manger belonging to the inn or khan : in other
words, the upper rooms being wholly occupied, the holy
family were compelled to take up their abode in the court
allotted to the mules and horses, or other animals. But
the New Testament was not the guide which was followed
by the mother of Constantine, to whom the original church
owed its foundation. The present edifice is represented
by Chateaubriand as of undoubtedly high antiquity ; yet
Doubdan, an old traveller, says that, the monastery was
destroyed in the year 1263 by the Moslems ; and in its
present state, at all events, it cannot lay claim to a higher
dale. The convent is divided among the Greek, Roman,
and Armenian Christians, to each of whom separate parts
are assigned as places of worship and habitations for the
monks ; but, on certain days, all may perform their devo-
tions at the altars erected over the consecrated spots. The
church is built in the form of a cross ; the nave being
adorned with forty -eight Corinthian columns in four rows,
each column being two feet six inches in diameter, and
eighteen feet high, including the base and the capital. The
nave, which is in possession of the Armenians, is separated
from the three other branches of the cross by a wall, so
that the unity of the edifice is destroyed. The top of the
cross is occupied by the choir, which belongs to the Greeks.
Here is an altar dedicated to the wise men of the east, at
the foot of which is a marble star, corresponding, as the
monks say, to the point of the heavens where the miracu-
lous meteor became stationary, and directly over the spot
where the Savior was born in the subterranean church
below ! A flight of fifteen steps, and a long narrow pas-
sage, conduct to the sacred crypt or grotto of the nativity,
which is thirty-seven feet six inches long, by eleven feet
three inches in breadth, and nine feet high. It is lined
and floored with marble, and provided on each side with
five oratories, " answering precisely to the ten cribs or
stalls for horses that the stable in which our Savior was
born contained !" The precise spot of the birth is marked
by a glory in the floor, composed of marble and jasper en-
circled with silver, around which are inscribed the word.s,
Utc de Virgine Maria Jesus Christus nattts est. Over it is a
marble table or altar, which rests against the side of the
rock, here cut into an arcade. The manger is at the dis-
tance of seven paces from the altar ; it is in a low recess
hewn out of the rock, to which you descend by two steps,
and consists of a block of marble, raised about a foot and
a half above the floor, and hollowed out in the form of a
manger. Before it is the altar of the Magi. The chapel
is illuminated by thirty-two lamps, presented by different
princes of Chiistendom. Chateaubriand has described the
scene in his usual florid and imaginative style : " Nothing ,
can be more pleasing, or better calculated to excite devo-
tional sentiments, than this subterraneous church. It is
adorned with pictures of the Italian and Spanish schools,
which represent the mysteries of the place. The usual
ornaments of the manger are of blue satin, embroidered
with silver. Incense is continually burning before the .
cradle of our Savior. I have heard an organ, touched by
no ordinary hand, play, during mass, the sweetest and
most tender tunes of the best Italian composers. These
concerts charm the Christian Arab, who, leaving his camels
to feed, repairs, like the shepherds of old, to Bethlehem,
to adore the King of kings in the manger. I have seen
this inhabitant of the desert communicate at the altar of
the Magi, ■with a fervor, a piety, a devotion, unknown
among the Christians of the West. The continual arriva
of caravans from all tbe nations of Christendom j the pub-
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lie prayers ; the prostrations ; nay, even the richness of
the presents sent here by the Christian princes, altogether
produce feelings in the soul, which it is much easier to
conceive than to describe."
Such are the illusions which the Roman superstition
casts over this extraordinary scene ! In another subterra-
neous chapel, tradition places the sepulchre of the Inno-
cents. From this, the pilgrim is conducted to the grotto
of St. Jerome, wliere they show the tomb of that father,
who passed great part of his life in this place ; and who,
in the grotto shown as his oratory, is said to have trans-
lated that version of the Bible which has been adopted by
the church of Rome, and is called the Vulgate. He died
at the advanced age of ninety-one, A. D. 422. The village
of Bethlehem contains about three hundred inhabitants,
the greater part of whom gain their livelihood by making
beads, carving mother-of-pearl shells with sacred subjects,
and manufacturing small tables and cruci&xes, all which
are eagerly purchased by the pilgrims.
BethleheiE has been visited by many modern travellers.
The following notice of it by Dr. E. D. Clarice will be read
with interest ; " After travelling for about an hour from the
time of our leaving Jerusalem, we came in view of Beth-
lehem, and halted: to enjoy the interesting sight. The
town appeared covering the ridge of a hill, on the south-
ern side of a deeji and extensive valley, and reaching from
east to west ; the most conspicuous object being the mo-
nastery, erected over the cave of the nativity, in the su-
burbs, and upon the eastern side. The battlements and
walls of this building seemed like those of a vast fortress.
TliC Dead sea below, upon our left, appeared so near to us
that we thought we could have rode thither in a very short
space of time. Still nearer stood a mountain upon its
western shore, resembling in its form the cone of Vesuvius
near Naples, and having also a crater upon its top, which
was plainl}' discernible. The distance, however, is much
greater than it appears to be ; the magnitude of the objects
beheld in this fine prospect causing them to appear less
remote than they really are. The atmosphere was re-
markably clear and serene ; but we saw none of those
clouds of smoke, which, by some writers, are said to ex-
..hale from the surface of the lake, nor from any neighbor-
ing mountain. Every thing about it was in the highest
degree grand and awful. Bethlehem is six miles from
Jerusalem. Josephus describes the interval between the
two cities as equal only to twenty stadia ; and in the pas-
sage referred to, he makes an allusion to a celebrated well,
wliich, both from the account given by him gf its situation,
and more especially from the text of the sacred Scriptures,
2 Sam. 23: 15, seems to have contained the identical foun-
tain, of whose pvu-e and delicious water we were now
drinldng. Considered merely in point of interest, the sa-
cred narrative is not likely to be surpassed by any circum-
stance of pagan history. The well still retains its pristine
renown ; and many an expatriated Bethlehemite has made
it the theme of his longing and regret." — Watson.
BETHLEHEMITES ; a sect, also called Star-bearers,
because they were distinguished by a red star having five
rays, which they wore on their breast, in memory of the
star which appeared to the wise men. Several authors
have mentioned this order, but none of them have told us
their origin, nor where their convents were situated ; if we
except Matthew Paris, who says that, in 1257, they ob-
tained a settlement in England, which was at Cambridge,
in Trumpington street.
There still exists, in the Spanish AVest Indies, an order
of Bethlehemites, who are habited like capuchins, except
that they wear a leathern girdle instead of a cord, and on
their right side an escutcheon representing the nativity of
Christ.— Henri. Buck.
BETHPHAGE ; so called from its producing figs ; a
small village situated in mount Olivet, and, as it seems,
somewhat nearer Jerusalem than Bethan3^ Jesus being
come from Bethany to Bethphage, commanded his disci-
ples to seek out an ass for him that he might ride, in Tiis
triumphant entrance into Jerusalem, Matt. 21: 1, &c. The
distance between Bethphage and Jerusalem is about fifteen
furlongs . — Watson .
BETHUNE, (DiviE,) an eminent philanthropist and
Christian, was born at Dingwall, Rosshire, ScJtland, in
1771. In early life he resided at Tobago, where his only
brother was a physician. At the command of his pious
mother, he left the irreligious island and removed to the
United Slates, in 1792, and .settled as a merchant in New
York. He soon joined the church of Dr. Mason ; in 1802,
became one of its elders. He died, September 18, 1824.
His wife was the daughter of Isabella Graham. Before a
tract society was formed in this country, Mr. Belhune
printed ten thousand tracts at his own expense, and him-
self distributed many of them. He also imported Bibles
for distribution. From 1803 to 1816, he was at the sole
expense of one or more Sunday schools. The tenth of his
gains he devoted to the service of his heavenly Master.
In his last sickness, he said, " I wish my friends to help
me through the valley by reading to me the word of God.
I have not read much lately but the Bible : the Bible ! the
Bible ! I want nothing but the Bible ! 0, the light, that
has shined into my soul through the Bible !" His end was
peace. Such a benefactor of the human family is incom-
parably more worthy of remembrance, than the selfish
philosophers and the great warriors of the ea.nh.— Alien ;
N. Y. Observer ; B. Recorder, Oct. 16.
BETHSAIDA ; a city, whose name in Hebrew imports
a place of fishing or of hunting, and for both of these exer-
cises it was well situated. As it belonged to the tribe of
Naphtali, it was in a country remarkable for plenty of
deer ; and as it lay on the north end of the lake Gennesa-
reth, just where the river Jordan runs into it, it became
the residence of fishermen. Three of the apostles, Philip,
Andrew, and Peter, were born in this city. It is not men-
iioned in the Old Testament, though it frequently occurs
in the New : the reason is, that it was but a \'illage, as
Josephus tells us, till Philip the tetrarch enlarged it, mak-
ing it a magnificent city, and gave it the name of Julias,
out of respect to Julia, the daughter of Augustus Ca!sar.
The evangelists speak of Bethsaida ; and yet it then
possessed that name no longer : it was enlarged and beau-
tified nearly at the same time as Ca;sarea, and called Julias.
Thus was it called in the days of our Lord, and so would
the sacred historians have been accustomed to call it. But
if they knew nothing of this, what shall we say of their age ?
In other respects, they evince the most accurate knowledge
of the circumstances of the time. The solution is, that,
though Philip had exalted it to the rank of a city, to which
he gave the name of Julias, yet, not long afterwards, this
Julia, in whose honor this city received its name, was ba-
nished fromjhe country by her own father. The deeply-
wounded honor of Augustus was even anxious that the
world might forget that she was his daughter. Tiberiiis,
whose wife she had been, consigned the unfortunate prin-
cess, after the death of Augustus, to the most abject pover-
ty, under which she sank without assistance. Thus adu-
lation must under two reigns have suppressed a name,
from which otherwise the city might have wished to derive
benefit to itself; and for some time it was called by its
ancient name, Ilethsaida, instead of Juhas. At a later
period, this name again came into circulation, and appears
in the catalogue of Jewish cities by Pliny. By such inci-
dents, which are so easily overlooked, and the knowledge
of which is afterwards lost, do those who are really ac-
quainted with an age disclose their authenticity. '■ But
it is strange," some one will say, " that John reckons this
Bethsaida, or Julias, where he was born, in Galilee, John
12: 21. Should he not know to which province his birth-
place belonged V Philip only governed the eastern dis-
tricts by the sea of Tiberias ; but Galilee was the portion
of his brother Anlipas. Bethsaida or Julias could therefore
not have been built by Philip, as the case is ; or it did not
belong to Galilee, as John alleges. In fact, such an error
were suihcient to prove, that this gospel was not written
by John. Julias, however, was situated in Gaulonitis,
%vhich district was, for deep political reasons, divided from
Galilee ; but the ordinary language of the time asserted its
own opinion, and still reckoned the Gaulonitish province
in Galilee. When, therefore, John does the same, he
proves, that the peculiarity of those days was not unknown
to him ; for he expresses himself after the ordinary manner
of the period. Thus Josephus informs us of Judas the
Gaulonite from Gamala, and also calls him in the follow-
ing chapters, the Galilean ; and then in another work he
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[ 228
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applies the same expression to him ; from whence we may
be convinced that the custom of those days paid respect to
a more ancient division of the country, and bade defiance,
in the present case, to the then existing poUtical geography.
Is it possible that historians who, as it is evident from such
examples, discover throughout so nice a knowledge of geo-
graphical arrangements and local and even temporary
circumstances, should have written at a time when the
theatre of events was unknown to them, when not only
their native country was destroyed, but their nation scat-
tered, and the national existence of the Jews extinguished
and extirpated ? On the contrary, all this is in proof that
Ihey -i^Tote at the very period which they profess, and it
also proves the usual antiquity assigned to the gospels. —
IVatson.
BETHSHAN ; a city belonging to the half-tribe of Ma-
nasseh, on the west of Jordan, and not far from the river.
It was a considerable city in the time of Eusebius and
Jerome, and was then, as it had been for several ages be-
fore, called Scythopolis, or the city of the Scythians, from
some remarkable occurrence when the Scythians made an
irruption into Syria. It is said to be six hundred furlongs
from Jerusalem, 2 Mace. 12: 29. After the battle of mount
Gilboa, the Philistines took the body of Saul, and hung it
against the wall of Bethshan, 1 Sam. 31: 10. Bethshan
is now called Bysan, and is described by Burckhardt as
situated on rising ground on the west of the Ghor, or val-
ley of Jor<\a.n.^Watsmt.
BETHSHEMESH, liouse of the sun ; a city of the tribe
of Judah, belonging to the priests, Josh. 21: 16. It was
thirty miles north-west of Jerusalem. The Philistines
having sent back the ark of the Lord, it was brought to
Bethshemesh, 1 Sam. 6: 12, where some of the people out
of citriosity having looked into it, the Lord smote seventy
of the principal men belonging to the city, and fifty thou-
sand of the common people, verse 19. It is here to be
observed that it was solemnly enjoined. Numb. 4: 20, that
not only the common people, but that even the Levites
themselves should not dare look into the ark, upon pain of
death. " It is a fearful thing," says bishop Hall, " to use
the holy ordinances of God with an irreverent boldne.ss ;
fear and trembling become us in onr access to the majesty
of the Almighty." — Watson.
BETH-SHITTAH ; a place south-west of the sea of
Tiberias, to which Gideon pursued Midian, Judg. 7: 22. —
Calmet.
BETH-TAPPUAH ; a city of Judah, (Josh. 15: 53,)
which Eusebius says is the last city of Palestine, in the
way to Egypt, fourteen miles from Raphia. — Calmet.
BETHUEL, son of Nahor and Milcah, was Abraham's
nephew, and father of Laban, and of Rebecca, Isaac's
wife. Bethuel does not appear in the atfair of Rebecca's
marriage, but Laban only, Gen. 24: 50. See Laban. —
Calmet.
BETHUL, or Bethuel ; a crty of Simeon, (Josh. 19: 4.
1 Chron. 4: 30,) the same, probably, as Bethelia, which
Sozomen speaks of, as a town belonging to the inhabitants
of Gaza, well peopled, and having several temples remark-
able for their structure and antiquity ; particularly a pan-
theon, (or temple dedicated to all the gods,) situated on an
eminence made of earth, brought thither for the purpose,
which commanded the whole city. He conjectures that it
was named Bethelia, which signifies the lumse of God, by
reason of this temple. — Calmet.
BETH-ZUR ; a city of Judah, (Josh. 15: 58,) which was
fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chron. 11: 7. Lysias, regent of
Syria under yotmg Antiochus, son of Antiochus Epipha-
nes, besieged Bethzur with an army of sixty thousand foot
and five thousand horse ; but Judas Maccabceus coming
"to succor the place, Lysias was obliged to raise the siege,
1 Mace. 4: 28. 6: 7. Judas put his army to flight, and af-
terward.s, making the best use of the arms and booty found
in the enemy's camp, the Jews became stronger and more
formidable than they had heretofore been. Bethzur lay
opposite to South Edom, and defended the passages into
Judea from thence. We read, 2 Mace. 11: 5, that Bethzur
was five furlongs from Jerusalem ; but this is evidently a
mistake. Eusebius places it twenty miles from that city,
toward Hebron, and Dr. Pococke speaks of a village on a
ftill hereabout.s, called Befhsaon .— Cn/me^
BETROTHMENT ; a mutual promise or compact be-
tween two parties for a future marriage. The word im-
ports as much as giving one's troth ; that is, true faith, or
promise. Among the ancient Jews, the betrothing was
performed either by a writing, or by a piece of silver given
to the bride. After the maniage was contracted, the young
people had the liberty of seeing each other, which was not
allowed them before. If, after the betrothment, the bride
should trespass against that fidelity she owed to her bride- >
groom, she was treated as an adulteress. See Marriage.
God betroths or espouses his people to himself, when he
leads them by faith into union with the Lord Jesus Christ,
forming with him a relation so close, tender and sacred,
that they enjoy a saving interest in his person, righteous-
ness, grace, and glory, and he and they may rejoice in one
another. He betroths them forever, by an everlasting co-
venant, that neither time, sin, nor any thing else can dis-
annul ; and in righteousness, consistently with his essential
righteousness, and clothed with his imputed righteousness ;
and in judgment, with great wisdom and prudence ; and
in faithfulness, in fulfilment of his covenant and promise,
and sincerely determined to fulfil the marriage trast to-
wards them ; and to loving-kindness and mercies to their
persons, so base, wretched, guilty, vile, and rebellious.
Songto3: 11. Hos. 2: 19, 20. Of this, ministers, by the
preaching of the Gospel, are means and instruments. 2
Cor. 11: 2.— Watson; Bron-n.
BETTER. On the definite understanding of this little
word, as used in Scripture, depends much of our right
conception, both of the superior excellence of spiiitual to
providential blessings, and of the Christian dispensation to
the patriarchal and Mosaic which preceded it. In both
cases, we are to look upon the former as simply preparato-
ry, the latter /««? and eternal. God's love is Jeter Man
life, is more sweet, pleasant, profitable, sure, and honora-
ble. Psalm 63: 3. Christ's love is better than wine ; we
cannot sinfully exceed in desire of, and delight in it : it is
enjoyed without money and without price ; it never loses
its sweetness and virtue ; our living on it by faith renders
us active, holy, and zealous for God, content with our lot,
happy in ourselves, and a comfort to all around us. Song
1: 2. His obedience and suflering are better sacrifices than '
the Jewish, in respect of matter, manner of oblation, effi-
cacy, and fruit. Heb. 9: 23. His blood speaks better things
than that of Abel : it purchases and procures full remission
and eternal salvation to his enemies and murderers ;
whereas Abel's imprecated vengeance on his murderer.
Heb. 12: 24. He, his fruit, word, and saving instruction,
are better than gold, than rubies ; are more valuable, de-
lightful, useful, exalting, and durable. Prov. 8: 14 — 19.
and 3: 14. Psalm 119: 72. His priesthood, and the pro-
mises of the Gospel, are a better hope, a more clear, honora-
ble, and extensive ground of hope for all the blessings of
time and eternity, than the Jewish sacrifices and shadows
could be. Heb. 7: 19. The better covenant, estabhshed on
better promises, is the covenant of grace, which, in respect
of its party contracted with, its freedom, firmness, benefits
conferred, honor and use, is far preferable to the covenant
of works : — and is better than the national covenant made
with the Hebrews at Sinai ; it promises far more vt^uable
blessings than the quiet possession of Canaan, and is more
sure and permanent ; — and the New Testament dispensa-
tion of it is far more spiritnat, easy, clear, and extensive
than the Old. Heb. 7: 22. and 8: 6. Our revelation is more
plain, full and extensive : our ordinances are more clear,
spiritual, and easy : we have the substance of their cere-
monies with infinite advantage, in Christ's birth, life,
death, resurrection, and ascension ; have a more abundant
and wide-spread eflusion of the Holy Ghost, and a more
eminent freedom from the impression of the broken law
on our conscience. Heb. 11: 40.
A day in God's courts is better than a thousand ehewheve.
Fellowship with him is infinitely more delightful, profita-
ble and honorable than any earthly advantage. Ps. 84: 10.
A little that a righteous man hath, his dinner of herbs, or
dry morsel, is better than the wealth or delicate provision
of the wicked. It springs from God's redeeming love, is
blessed of him, is a pledge of glory, and a means of draw-
ing the affections and thoughts to God in Christ. Ps. 37:
16. Prov. 15: 16, 17, and 16: 8, and 17 1. The saints'
BE V
[ 229 I
BEZ
resurrection is belter, more glorious and happy than a re-
covery from a stale of affliction ; or a miraculous restora-
tion to natural life ; or the resurrection of the wiclced to
everlasting damnation. Heb. U: 35. Heaven is a hetler
country ! its inhabitants, exercises, and enjoyments are far
more holy, honored, and happy than those on earth : and
to b(f with Christ is far better than to be with saints and
ordinances on earth ; as one is freed from every stain of
sin, every temptation and trouble, and clearly sees, and fully
delights in God as his allinall. Heb. 11: 16. Phil. 1; 23.
BEULAH, married ; a name given to the Jewish church,
importing its marriage with God, as their husband and
sovereign Lord, Isa. 02; 4. — Calmet.
BEVERIDGE, (William, D. D.) bishop of St. Asaph,
was horn at Barrow, in Leicestershire, in the year 1038. He
was distinguished, when young, for his seriousness and in-
telligence ; and when only of the age of fifteen, was sent
to St. John's college, Cambridge. There his industry, his
l:nowledge, and his rapid improvement surprised and
delighted his tutors ; and when only eighteen, he took his
degree of bachelor of arts. His incessant application to
the study of the learned languages, and of oriental learn-
ing, had been so astonishing, that at that time he wrote
" A Treatise on the Excellency and Use of the Oriental
Tongues ;" and at the age of twenty, he published a Sy-
riac Grammar, both of which works demonstrated him to
be a scholar of no ordinary powers. Nor was he less dis-
tinguished for his moral than his mental qualifications.
He was serious, pious, and exemplary in all his transac-
tions with men, and in all the connexions of life. At the
age of twenty-two, the seclusion and classic pursuits of the
college he exchanged for the duties of a clergyman. In
1060, he was ordained deacon in the church of St. Botolph,
Aldersgate : afterwards, in the same month, a priest ; and
Dr. Sheldon, then bishop of London, immediately collated
him to the vicarage of Yealing in IMiddlesex. At that time
he was engaged in writing an interesting work, afterwards
published, and entitled " Private Thoughts upon Religion,
digested into Twelve Articles, with Practical Resolutions
founded thereon." To the performance of liis clerical duties
at Yealing he was conscientiously attentive, and gained
the esteem of his parishioners. In 1669, he published his
celebrated work on chronology, to the study of which it is
a good introduction. In 1672, he was chosen, by the mayor
and aldermen of London, rector of St. Peter's, Cornhill ;
and persuaded that, connected with such appointment,
many and arduous duties would be imposed on him, he
conscientiously resigned the vicarage of Yeahng. In the
same year he presented to the world an elaborate and
most valuable work — A Collection of all the Apostolical
Canons, consisting of those attributed to the Apostles ; of
the Councils of Nice, Ephesus, Constantinople, Chalcedon,
TruUo, Carthage, Ancyra, Neocassarea, Gangra, Antioch,
Laodicea ; the Arguments and Arabic Paraphrases of Jo-
seph the Eg)'ptian, on the Canons of the Four General
Councils ; the Canons of Dionysius Alexandrinus, Petrius,
St. Athanasius, St. Basil, Theophilns, Archbishop of Alex-
andria; the Catholic Epistles of Cyril ; with a variety of
othet Letters; and an Alphabetical Index of the Contents
of all the Canons and various Synods ; to all of which in-
loresting and important documents he subjoined learned
nnd voluminous notes. His time, though thus occupied,
was not however wholly engaged by the acquisition or
communication of sacred learning. He applied himself
with tlie utmost zeal and industry to the discharge of the
duties of his ministry. His discourses were instructive
and serious, his private exhortations warm and affection-
ate ; his attendance at the church, and to all his pastoral
functions, was regular and uniform ; and his labors were
crowned with such eminent success, that he was then call-
ed "The great Reviver and Restorer of Primitive Piety."
In 1704, he accepted the see of St. Asaph, vacant by the
translation of Dr. George Hooper to Bath and Wells. Thus
placed in a station far more eminent, his care and diligence
increased in proportion as his power in the church be-
came enlarged. His labors in his study were most impor-
tant. He wrote an admirable work—" Private Thoughts
upon a Christian Life ; or. Necessary Directions for its
Beginning and Progress upon Earth, in order to its Final
Perfection in the Beatific' Vision." Also a treatise, wliich
has been repeatedly published, and as repeatedly admir-
ed, called " The Great Necessity and Advantage of Public
Prayer and frequent Communion ; designed to revive Pri-
mitive Piety ; with Meditations, Ejaculations, and Prayers
before, at, and after the Sacrament." In addition to the
works which, in this sketch of his life, have been enume-
rated, he composed — 1. "Thesaurus Theologicus, or a
Complete System of Divinity, summed up in brief Notes
upon select Places of the Old and New Testament, cVcc." —
2. " A Defence of the Book of Psalms, collected into Eng-
lish Metre by Sternhold and Hopkins, with Critical Obser-
vations on the New Version compared with the Old." And
3. " An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles ;" on which
many strictures have been wisely and justly made.
Bishop Beveridge was a person of sincere piety, of strict
ihtegrily, and of great zeal for religion. It was said of
him, when living, and, though long since dead, it may do
repeated, that " he was one of the greatest and best men
that England ever bred." He was never married, and
had but few relations. But to them he was invariably
kind and affectionate ; and thus distinguished himself in
all his relations of life, and connexions with men. At
length, at the age of seventy-one, full of grace and good
works, he died, March 5, 1708, at his lodgings in the
Cloisters, in Westminster abbey, and was buried in St.
Paul's cathedral. To the societies for the Propagation of
the Gospel, and Promoting Christian Knowledge, he left the
greatest part of his estates. For further account of this
excellent man, see his Life and AVorks. Also, Complete
History of England, vol. iii. ; Preface to his Private
Thoughts on Religion ; Preface to his Sermons ; Life of
Bishop Bull. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
BEWARE. To beware of Christ, is to have a due and
holy awe of him on our spirit, and carefully guard against
every thing tending to offend him. Ex. 23; 21. lobervare
of men, is to take heed lest they deceive us. Mark 12; 38.
To beware of sin, is to avoid every appearance of it, and
temptation to it ; and to the utmost of oar power watch
against and oppose it. Matt. 10: 6. — Brown.
BEWITCH ; wickedly to deceive and hurt, by juggling
tricks and diabolic charms. Acts 8; 9. False teachers be-
witch men, when by Satanic methods of guileful reasoning,
specious pretences to holiness or learning, apparent mira-
cles, or proud boasting, thej' deceive their mind, and de-
stroy their soul. Gal. 3: 1. — Brown.
BEYOND. To know the signification of beyond, on the
other side, or, on this side, it is necessary to know where the
sacred writer was at the time of writing. Thus, beyond
or on the other side of Jordan, with Moses, who gave his
finished books to the Hebrews eastward of Jordan, signifies
the west side of that river ; while such as lived or wrote
on the west side of Jordan, call the east side beyotid, or the
other side. Deut. 3: 25. and 11: 30. Josh. 9: 10. and 13; 8.
Some critics think the Hebrew word Hhebcr ought some-
times to be rendered on this sidi', as Josh. 12: 7. Deut. 1:
1, and perhaps Gen. 1; 10.' Beyond measure, is exceedingly.
Mark 6; 51. To go beyond and defraud, is to exceed the
conditions of a bargain, and laws of honesty ; or to trans-
gress the rules of chastity and rites of marriage. 1 Thess.
4: 6. — Brown.
BEZA, or Beze, (Theodore,) one of the most eminent
of the reformers, was born at Vezelai, in the Nivernois, in
1519, and was originally a Catholic, and intended for the
law. At the age of twenty, he gained an unenviable repu-
tation, by the composition of Latin poetry which was at
once elegant and licentious, and w-hich,'^ome years after-
BIB
[ 230 ]
i:
wards, he pnblished under the title of Juvenile Poems.
Though not in orders, he possessed benefices of considera-
ble value. These, however, he abandoned in 1548, and
retired to Geneva, where he publicly abjured Popery. To
this he was induced by his having meditated, during ill-
ness, upon the doctrines which he had heard from his Pro-
testant tutor, MelchiorWolmar ; and perhaps also, in some
measure, by his attachment to a lady, whom he carried
with him to Geneva, and married. He now accepted the
Greek professorship at Lausanne, whicli he held for ten
years. It was while he was thus occupied, that he pro-
duced his tragedy of Abraham's Sacrifice, his version of
the New Testament, and his hateful defeuce of the right
of the magistrate to punish heretics. In 1559, he removed
to Geneva, and became the colleague of Calvin, through
whom he was appointed rector of the academy, and theo-
logical professor. Two years after this, he took a promi-
nent part in the conference at Poissy, and was present at
the battle of Dreux. He returned to Geneva, in 1563, suc-
ceeded Calvin in his offices and influence, and was thence-
forward considered as the head of the Calvinistic church.
After an e.\'ceedingly active life, he died on the 13th of
October, 1005. His theological works are numerous, but
are now nearly forgotten. — Davenport.
BEZALEEL; a famous artificer, son of Uri, (Exod.31:
2. 35: 30,) of whom it is said, that he was filled with the
Spirit of God, to devise excellent works in gold, silver, and
all other workmanship. — A remarkable testimony to 'he
antiquity of the arts, to the esteem in which they were
held, to the source whence they were understood to spring,
and to the wisdom (by inspiration) of this artist.
BEZEK ; a city where Saul reviewed his army, before
he marched against Jabez-Gilead. 1 Sam. 11: 8. Euse-
bius says there were two cities of this name near one an-
other, seven miles from Sichem, in the way to Scythopolis.
— Calmet.
BEZPOPOFTSCHINS ; a class of Russian dissenters,
including all those which either have no regular priests,
or who refuse to acknowledge those of the established
church : they are the Dtihohortsi, Pomeryans, Theudosians,
and some others. — Pinkerton's Greek Church, p. 305. (See
Kaskonniki.) — IVilliams.
BIBLE ; (biblia,) the name applied by Christians, by
way of einincnce, to the collection of sacred writings of
the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments.
I. Bible, Historij of. — It is thought that Ezra published
the Scriptures in the Chaldee character ; for, that language
being generally used among the Jews, he thought proper
to change the old Hebrew character for it, which hatli
since that time been retained only by the Samaritans,
among whom it is preserved to this day. Prideaux is of
opinion that Ezra made additions in several parts of the
Bible, where anything appeared necessary for illustrating,
connecting, or completing the work ; in which he appears
to have been assisted by the same Spirit in which they
were first written. Among such additions are to be reck-
oned the last chapter of Deuteronomy, wherein Moses
seems to give an account of his own death and burial, and
the succession of Jo.shua after him. To the same cause
our learned author thinks are to be attributed mfiny other
interpolations in the Bible, which created difficulties and
objections to the authenticity of the sacred text, no ways
to be solved without allowing them. Ezra changed the
names of several places which were grown obsolete, and,
instead of them, put their new names by which they were
then called in the text. Thus it is that Abraham is said
to have pursued the kings who carried Lot away captive
as far as Dan ; whereas that place in Moses' time was
called Laish, the name Dan being unknown till the Dan-
ites, long after the death of Moses, possessed themselves
of it. The Jewish canon of Scripture was then settled
Dy Ezra, yet not so but that several variations have been
made in it. Malachi, for instance, could not be put in the
Bible by him, since that prophet is allowed to have Uved
after Ezra ; nor could Nehemiah be there, since that book
mentions, (chap. 12. v. 22.) Jaddua as high-priest, and
Darius Codomanus as king of Persia, who were at least
a hundred years later than Ezra. It may be added, that,
in the first book^f Chronicles, the genealogy of the sons
of Zerubbabel is carried down for so many generations as
must necessarily bring it to the time of Alexander : and
consequently this book, or at least this part of it, could
not be in the canon in Ezra's days. It is probable the two
books of Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, and Mala-
chi, were adopted into the Bible in the time of Simon the
Just, the last of the men of the great synagogue,
II. Bible, ancient Divisions and Order of. — After the re-
turn of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, Ezra col-
lected as many copies as he coald of the sacred writings,
and out of them all prepared a correct edition, arranging
the several books in their proper order. These books he
divided into three parts : I. The law. II. The prophets.
III. The Hagiographa, i. e. the holy writings. I. The
law contains — 1. Genesis; 2. Exodus; 3. Leviticus; 4.
Numbers ; 5. Deuteronomy. II. The writings of the
prophets are — 1. Joshua; 2. Judges, with Ruth ; 3. Sam
uel ; 4. Kings : 5. Isaiah ; 6. Jeremiah, with his Lamen-
tations ; 7. Ezekicl ; 8. Daniel ; 9. The twelve minor
prophets; 10. Job; 11. Ezra; 12. Nehemiah; 13. Es
ther. III. The Hagiographa consists of — 1. The Psalms ;
2. The Proverbs; 3. Ecclesiastes ; 4. The Song of Solo-
mon. This divL-Jion was made for the sake of reducing
the number of the sacred books to the number of the let-
ters intheir alphabet, which amount to twenty -two. After-
wards the Jews reckoned twenty-four books in their canon
of Scripture ; in disposing of which, the law stood as in
the former division, and the prophets were distributed into
former and latter : the former prophets are Joshua, Judges,
Samuel, and Kings ; the latter prophets are Isaiah, Jere-
miah, Ezekiel, ami the twelve minor prophets ; and the
Hagiographa consists of the Psalms, 4he Proverbs, Job,
the Song of Solomon, Ruth, the Lamentations, Ecclesias-
tes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, the Chronicles. Under the name
of Ezra they comprehend Nehemiah: this order hath not
always been observed, but the variations from it are of nc
moment. The five books of the law are divided into fifty-
four sections. This division many of the Jews hold tc
have been appointed by Moses himself; but others, with
more probability, ascribe it to Ezra. The design of this
division was, that one of these sections might be read in
their synagogues every sabbath-day : the number was
fifty-four, because, in their intercalated years, a month
being then added, there were fifty-four sabbaths : in other
years they reduced them to fifty-two, by twice joining to-
gether two short sections.
III. Bible, modern Divisions of. — The division, of the
Scriptures into chapters, as we at present have them, is
of modern date. Some attribute it to Stejihen Langton,
archbishop of Canterbury, in the reigns of John and
Henry III. ; but the true author of the invention was
Hugo de Sancto Caro, commonly called Hugo Cardinalis,
because he was the first Dominican that ever was raised
to the degree of cardinal. This Hugo flourished about
A. D. 1210: he wrote a comment on the Scriptures, and
projected the first concordance, which is that of the vulgar
Latin Bible. The aim of this work being for the more
easy finding out any word or passage in the Scriptitres, he
found it necessary to divide the book into sections, and the
sections into subdivisions ; for till that time the vulgar
Latin Bibles were without any division at all. These
sections are the chapters into which the Bible hath ever
since been divided ; but the subdivision of the chapters
was not then into verses, as it is now. Hugo's method
of subdividing them was by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F,
G, placed in the margin, at an equal distance from each
other, according to the length of the chapters. The sub-
division of the chapters into verses, as they now stand in
our Bibles, had its original from a famous Jewish rabbi,
named Blordecai Nathan, about 1445. This rabbi, in
imitation of Hugo Cardinalis, drew up a concordance to
the Hebrew Bible, for the use of the Jews. But though
he followed Hugo in his division of the books into chap-
ters, he refined upon his inventions as to the subdivision,
and contrived that by verses. This being found to be a
much more convenient method, it has been ever since fol-
lowed. And thus, as the Jews borrowed the division of
the books of the holy Scriptures into chapters from the
Christians, in bke manner the Christians borrowed that
of the chapters into verses from the Jews. The pre-
sent order of the several books is almost the same (the
BIB
[ 231
BIB
Apocrypha excepted,) as that made by the council of
Trent.
IV. BiBLK, il/SS. of. — Notwithstanding the tendency
of the art of priming to supersede, and even to occasion
the total loss of written copies of the Scriptures, numerous
apographs still exist, some of which are of great antiqui-
ty, and possess great authority in determining certain
questions of biblical criticism. Others of great value are
known to have existed till within a late period, and served,
ere they disappeared, as exemplars from which others
were taken.
1. Hebrew MSS. — These are either rolls designed for
the use of ihe synagogue, or square manuscripts designed
for private use. The former are all on parchment, and
written with the greatest care and accuracy : the latter arc
either on vellum or paper, and are of various sizes. The
characters vary in their appearance : the Spanish being
perfectly square and elegant ; the German crooked and
rude ; and the Italian holding a middle place between
both. A family relationship has also been discovered be-
tween these three classes. The Spanish are held in great
estimation among the Jews, on account of (heir having
been corrected after the Codex of Hillel — a MS. of the
highest antiquity. The German MSS. frequently vary
from the Masoretic text, and are greatly valued by bibli-
cal critics. The Italian differ from both these classes,
and form a separate family.
All the Hebrew manuscripts of note, known to be ex-
tant, were written, according^o Dr. Kennicott, between the
years 1000 and 1437 — a circumstance which leads him to
infer, as bishop Walton had done before him, that some
measures had been adopted by the Jews for the general
destruction of such as did not agree with the corrected or
genuine copies. They have been collated by Kennicott
and De Rossi, and amount in all to eleven hundred and
nine. One of the most remarkable is the Codex Laudia-
nus, which contains not fewer than fourteen thousand
variations from Vander Hooght's edition of the Hebrew
Bible.
2. Samaritan MSS. — Of the Pentateuch, written in the
Samaritan character, seventeen manuscripts are known to
be extant : they are preserved in the Bodleian, the British
Museum, and the libraries at Leyden, Paris, Milan, and
Rome.
3. Greek MSS. — Of these, an immense number are still
in existence ; some of them containing the books both of
the Old and New Testaments, and others only certain parts,
divisions, or boolcs. Some are written in uncial or capital
letters, others in cursive or small letters ; some without any
division of words, in what is called scriptio continua ;
some on vellum or parchment, and others on paper. They
are of various ages, from the fourth to the fifteenth cen-
tury. Some of them are what is called rescripti, or tran-
scribed on parchment which has since been used, the wri-
ting on which having been obliterated to give place for the
more recent text. Some are l/i-Hngual, i. e. they exhibit,
besides the Greek text, the Latin version in the opposite
])age or column.
'[1.] Greek MSS. of the Old Testament .—The number
of these extant has not yet been ascertained ; but Dr.
Holmes collated one hundred and thirty-Jive for his edition
of the LXX. The principal, which are in uncial charac-
Dhs, are the Alexandrian, Vatican, Cottonian, Sarravian,
C', xrtinian, Caesarean, Ambrosian, Coislinian, Basiliano-
Vatican, and Turiuian.
[2.] Greek ,MSS. of the New Testament.— 'Nearly five
hundred of these were either wholly or partially collated
previous to the publication of the more recent critical
editions of the New Testament : in the execution of which,
Griesbach took a distinguished part, having collated for
his own edition not fewer than three hundred and fifty-Jive ;
but Professor Scholz,who is now editing a critical edition,
is said to have consultedsijrAKWrerfmanuscripts that were
totally unknown tc Grie.sbach. It has been customary,
since the time of Bengel, to distinguish between certain
families, recensions, or editions of the JISS., according to
their supjxjsed affinity or relatioo-'hip ; and various sys-
tems of affinity ha7e beer : on;:-'; t.cted by Bengel. Semler,
Griesbach, Michaehs, Ho? »ii Scholz. That of Gries-
bach, according o wr x-. i ca-sifies them into the Alex-
andrian, Occidental, and Byzantine, has been not unsuo
cessfully attacked by Matthsi, Dr. Latrrence, and Mr.
Nolan ; while that of Hug has been greatly modified by
the results brought out by the indefatigable researches of
his pupil. Professor Scholz. Some of the principal uncial
MSS, are the Alexandrian of the fourth century, now pre-
served in the British Museum ; the Vatican, of the fifth ;
the Codex Beza;, or Cantabrigiensis, of the fifth ; Ephremi,
a rescript of the sixth or seventh ; Clermont, of the seventh
or eighth. For a full account of these, and most of the
the other MSS. see the Introductions of AlichaeUs and
Home. ,
V. Printed Editions of the Hebrew and Greek Texts. —
Since the invention of printing, nearly one hundred diffe-
rent editions of the Hebrew Bible have been issued from the
press, and about three hundred and fifty editions of the
Greek New Testament. It is of course impossible to de-
scribe all these editions in a work like the present ; but
the following list will be found to contain the more im
portant : —
1. Hebrew Bible. — By a collation of the different edi-
tions of the Hebrew BiJjle, it has been ascertained that
they admit of a distinct classification.
[1.] Th8 Soncinian Recension of 1488, the first printed
Hebrew Bible. — The Pentateuch was reprinted from the
Bologna edition of the same in 1482, and the other books
were based on other earlier editions of the several parts
of the Bible. From this Bible were derived the Brixian
of 1494 ; the rabbinical Bibles of Bomberg, 1518—2 1 ; and
the editions of Munster, 1536 ; and Stephens. 1539 — 44.
[2.] The Complutensian Recension, in the famous Polj'-
glot, of 1514 — 17. — The only edition derived from this
source is the Hebrew text of Bertram's Triglolt, 1586.
[3.] The Bombergian Recension, in Bomherg's Bible of
1525 — 28. — The text of this edition was altered through-
out, to make it agree with the Masora. It was edited by
the celebrated rabbi, Jacob ben Haiim, and gave birth to
the following: Bonibcrg's, of 1528, in 4to., 1.533, 1544,
and his rabbinical Bible of 1547—49; Stephens', 1544 —
46 ; Justinian's, 1551, 1552, 15(i3, 1573 ; Elon's, of 1618 j
De Gava's, 1566, 1568, 1582 ; Bragandin's, 1614, 1615, 1619,
1628, 1707 ; Plantin's, 1566 ; Hartman's, 1595, 1598 ; and a
Wittenberg edition ol^ 1586 or 1587.
[4.] Editions containing a mixed text. — 1. The Antwerp
Polyglot, 1569, 1572 , from which sprang the Paris Polv-
glot, 1628, 1645 ; the London Polyglot, 1657 ; the Leipsic
Polyglot, 1750 ; Arias Montanus's Bible, 1571 ; Reineccii,
1725, 1739, 1756, and in 1793 by Doederlein and Meisner,
with the various readings of Kennicott and De Rossi. 2.
The Hutterian text, 1587 ; from this were derived the texts
of Wolder, 1596, and NisseUus, 1662. 3. The Euxtorfian
text, 1611 ; Janson's 1639 ; Buxt. Rabbinical Bible, 161S,
1619 ; Amsterdam Rabbinical Bible, 1724. 4. Text of Jl/e-
nasse ben Israel, 1630, 1631, 1645. 5. The lexlot Joseph Athi-
as, 1661, 1667 ; from this text is taken that of Clodius, 1677
1692, 1716 ; Jablonsk-y, 1699, 1712; Opitius, 1709 ; J. D.
Michaelis, 1720 ; and the celebrated edition of Vander
Hooght, 1705, of the text of which the following are re-
prints : — Prop's, 1724 ; Schmidius, 1740 ; Houbigant's,
1753 ; Simonis's, 1752, et freq. ; Kennicott's, 1776, 1780 ;
Jahn's, 1806 ; Boothroyd's, 1810 ; Frey's, 1812 ; Hahn's,
1832 ; and the stereotype edition now printed by BIr.
Duncan.
2. Greek New Testament. — The principal editions of
the Greek New Testament may be divided into the more
ancient and the inore modern : the former are of importance,
inasmuch as they are the sources from which so many
others have been derived ; the lalter, because they are the
result of a more complete collation of BISS. and editions,
and have been conducted on more matured principles of
bibUcal criticism.
(A.) More ancient editions. — 1. The Complutensian text,
1514, followed in the Antwerp and Paris Polyglots, and
in the editions of Plantin and many others. 2. The edi-
tions of Erasmus, 1516, 1519, 1522, 1527, 1535, <kc. 3.
Stephens', 1546, 1549, 1550 ; London Polyglot, 1657 ; Mill,
1707 ; Kuster, 1710 ; Bagster's Polyglots, i. Beza. 1565,
1576, 1582, 1589, 1598: Elze^ik, 1624, &c
(B.) More modern eaitions. — 1. IfWs Greek and English
New Testament, 1709, 19. 2. Bengelius's, 1734. 3 Wet-
BIB
[ 232 J
BIB
stem's, 1751, 17^. 4. Bmyer's, 1763 ; Hanvood's, 1776,
1784 ; 3fa«;i<CT's,Riga, 1782, 1788, 1803, 1804, 1807 ; AUer't,
1786, 1787; GriesbacKs, 1796; 1806, 1809, 1818; Knapp's
1797, 1813, 1824; Vaier's, 18^4.
VI. Bible, Versions of. — The number of translations of
the Scriptures is now very great. Some of them are de-
rived from a common origin ; some are made immediately
from the originals ; others are mediate, or versions made
from other versions.
(A.) Genealogy of Biblical Versions.
(i.) Versions made immediately from the Hebrew. — 1.
The Greek of the LXX. 2. That of Aquila. 3. Theodo-
tion. 4. Symmachus. 5th, 6th, and 7th, or the three
anonymous versions. 8. The version of St. Mark, Venice.
9. The Samaritan version. 10 — 17. The different Chaldee
Targums. 18. The Syriac. 19. The Arabic of Saadias.
20. That of Joshua in the Polyglot. 21. That of Erpe-
nius. 22. That of Ben Levi. 23. Samaritan-Arabic.
24. Jen-ish-Arahic. 25. Malay-Arabic. 26. Persic. 27.
Jewish-Tartar. 28. Jen'ish-Greek. 29. Jewish- Spanish. 30.
Jewish- German. 31 — 43. The Latin versions of Jerome,
(or the Vulgate,) Pagniniis. Montanus, Malvenda, Caje-
lan, Houbigant, Munster, Leo Jiida, Castalio, Junius and
Tremelius, S. Schmidt, Dalhe, Schott and Winzer. 44 —
46. German, of Luther, Michaelis, Augusti, and DeWette.
47—50. English, King James's -Bible of 1611, Purves's,
Geddes's, Boothroyd's, with translations of single books
by Lowth, Blayney, Hor.sley, Stock, Goode, and others.
51. Resen's Danish version. 52. Sn.eclish version of 1774.
53. Gaelic. 54. Dutch. 55. Modern Russ. 56. Carnio-
lan. 57. Italian of Bruccioli. 58. French. 59. Polish
of Radzivil. 60. Barman of Judson.
(ii.) Versions made from the Greek. — 1—10. The
Synac of the Hexapla ; the Philoxenian ; Figurata ; those
of Jacob of Edessa, Mar Abba, Thomas of Heraclea,
Simeon of Licinius, Ephraim Syrus, the Karkuphic, and
he Syriac Targum. U — 14. The Arabic of the Penta-
teuch in MSS. ; of the Pentateuch in the Parisian and
London Polyglots ; of the Hagiographa and the version
in use among the Melchites. 15, 16. The Latin, the Itala
and Jerome's corrected version. 17. Gothic. 18. Arme-
nian. 19. Sdavonic. 20. Georgian. 21. Ethiopic. 22.
Coptic- 23. Sahidic. 24. Bashmuric. 25. Anglo-Ameri-
an version, by Thompson. Besides these, with the ex-
•eption of the Samaritan and the mixed Jewish dialects,
here does not exist a language into which the Old Testa-
ment has been translated from the Hebrew, which does not
possess a translation of the New Testament from the Greek.
(iii.) Versions made from the Syriac — 1. The Arabic
f Job and the Chronicles in the Polyglots. 2. And va-
.ous Psalters and Pentateuchs.
(iv.) Versions derived from the L.iTiN. — 1. The Anglo-
Saxon. 2. The English versions of WicklifTe and other
arly translators. 3. That of Rheims. 4 — 6. The Arabic
f Don Juan, Raphael Tuki, and the Propaganda. 7.
The German versions, made before the Reformation, and
t'lose of Eckius and Ulemberg. 8. The French of De
J^acy. 9, 10. The Italian of Malermi and Martini. 11,
12. The Spanish of 117S, and 1793—4. 13. The Hunga-
rian by Kaldi. 14. The Polish. 15. The Bohemian. 16.
The Portuguese by Peveyra.
(v.) Versions from the German. — 1. The First Danish
version. 2. Swedish. 3. Finnish. 4. Icelandic. 5. Pome-
miian. 6. Ijtiv Saxon. 7. First Dutch. 8. Greeiilandic.
9. Esquimaux.
(vi.) From the English.— 1. The Irish. 2. The Welsh.
3. The Mohawk.
(vii.) From the Ethiopic — The Amharic.
(viii.) From the Coptic — An Arabic version in the Ma-
ronite monastery at Rome.
(ix.) From the Armenian. — The Armeno-TurUsh New-
Testament.
(x.) From the Sclavonic. — The Tchuvashian, Tchermisian,
Mordvinian, Carelian, and Zirianie Gospels.
In the aosence of authentic accounts, respecting the
manner in wnich most of the more recent versions have
been executed, it is at present impossible to determine
whethei ;.t.> .^ave been done immediately from the origi-
nals 5. "aether they claim as theiv parent one or other
of the pii6-«.,-»tu,g iransi.a;ions
(B.) History of Biblical versions. "We have already
mentioned the first translation of the Old Testament by
the LXX. Both Old and New Testaments were after-
wards translated into Latin by the primitive Christians ;
and while the Roman empire subsisted in Europe, the
reading of the Scriptures in the Latin tongue, which was
the universal language of that empire, prevailed every-
where ; but since the face of affairs in Europe has been
changed, and so many different monarchies erected upon
the ruins of the Roman empire, the Latin tongue has by
degrees grown into disuse ; whence has arisen a necessity
of translating the Bible into the respective languages of
each people ; and this has produced as many different
versions of the Scriptures in the modern languages, as
there are different nations professing the Christian religion.
Besides which, many versions have recently been made
by the missionaries and others, for the benefit of the
heathen. Of most of these, as well as of the ancient
translations, and the earliest printed editions, we shall now
take notice in their order.
I. The Ancient Version.
1. Anglo-Saxon versions of the Psalms were made by
bishop Adhelm, about the year 706, and by king Alfred,
who died in the year 900. The whole Bible was translat-
ed by the venerable Bede, about the beginning of the
eighth century. The Heptateuch, translated by Elfric
towards the close of the tenth century, was published at
Oxford in 1699 ; and the Gospels were printed, London,
1571, 1658; Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1665, 1684.
2. The Arabic- — In this language there exist numerous
versions of different portions of the Bible. Of these the
more important are the Pentateuch, by Saadias, made in
the tenth century, and published at Constantinople in
1546. It is printed also in the Polyglots, the text of the
other books in which is from unknown authors. The
Arabic version of the four Gospels was first published at
Rome in 1590, 1591 ; the New Testament by Erpenius, at
Leyden, in 1616, and another under the editorship of
Salomon Negri, in London, in 1729. The whole Bible
was printed for the Propaganda at Rome, 1671, in three
vols, folio.
3. The Armenian version was made towards the close
of the fourth century, by Miesrob and Isaac, two of the
most learned men of the nation. It was first printed at
Amsterdam, 1666, under the care of Uscan, an Armenian
archbishop, who has been charged with altering it after
the Vulgate. It has since appeared at Constantinople,
1705 ; Venice, 1805 ; and Petersburgh and Serampore,
1817. The edition of 1805 is highly critical. The New
Testament was first published separately in 1668.
4. Of the Bashmuric, an Egyptian dialect, fragments
only have been published, by Pastor Engelbreth, Copen-
hagen, 1816. They exist in the Borgian museum, at
VeUtri.
5. The Coptic New Testament was published by Wil-
kms, Oxford, 1716. The version is of high antiquity,
probably from the fourth century, and is greatly esteempd
by critics.
6. The Ethiopic version is also supposed to have been
made in the fourth century. Separate books of the Old
Testament have been published at different times, and in
the London Polyglot. The New Testament was first
printed in 1548, 1549, but very incorrectly ; and indeed the
present text of this version, which otherwise would be of
great service in biblical criticism, is altogether in such a
state, as to be comparatively of little value. That of the
Polyglot edition is still more incorrect than the Roman.
7. The Georgian was made about the year 600, by na-
tives qualified for the undertaking, who had spent some
time in Greece, and made themselves well acquainted with
sacred literature. The first edition of the New Testament
was printed at Tiflis about the beginning of last century,
and the whole Bible, at Moscow, in 1743.
8. The Gothic version was made by Ulphilas, bishop of
the Moeso-Goths, about the middle of the fourth century.
It comprised all the hooks of the Scripture ; but with the
exception of the four Gospels, the Pauline Epistles, and
some fragments of Ezra and Nehemiah, they have either
been lost, or remain undiscovered in some of the librarie.i
BIB
[ 233 J
BIB
of It'Jy. The four Gospels are presented in the Codex
Afgenteus, or " Silver Book," in the university library at
Upsala. in Sweden, and were first published by Junius, at
Dordrecht, 1665. The last edition, by Zahn, printed at
"Weissenfels, 1805, is an elegant and complete critical
work.
9. Greek of the LXX. (See Septuagint.)
10. Latin. The Latin versions were numerous, and
some of them of high antiquity. The most celebrated
are, 1. The Vetus, or Itala, which appears to have been
made about the beginning of the second century. Few
fragments of it now remain, but such as have been
preserved were collected and published from various
sources, by Blanchini, Eome, 1720, and Sabatier, Rheims,
1743. 2. The Revised Version of Jerome. Owing to the
great confusion which had been introduced into the ancient
Vulgate, by the discrepancies existing between the diffe-
rent copies of the Ante-Hexaplar Septuagint, from which
it was made, it was found necessary, towards the close of
the fourth century, to undertake a revision of it, which
task pope Damasus devolved upon Jerome, the first
biblical scholar of that age. Of this version only the
Book of Job and the Psalms have come down to our times.
3. The Nav Version of Jerome, now partly contained in the
modern Vulgate. This was made from the original He-
brew, and closely follows the rabbinical interpretation at
that time current in Palestine, where Jerome made him-
self thoroughly acquainted with the Hebrew language.
It was violently opposed at first, but gradually superseded
the less correct translations, and, after the time of Gregory
the Great, was universally received in the western church.
In the council of Trent, it was declared to be the only
authentic text, and the standard by which all disputations,
expositions, and sermons were to be tried. It has under-
gone several revisions, the tw-o most remarkable of which
are those made by popes Sixtus V. and Clement VIII.
Though the former of these pontiff's had affixed the seal
of infallibility to the edition published under his auspices,
it was ordered by his successor to be suppressed, as swarm-
ing with errors ; and another equally infallible edition was
brought out, difl'ering from the former in upwards of two
thrnisand instances !
11. The Persic version of the Pentateuch, published in
the Constant inopolitan Polyglot, 1546, was made by Jacob
ben Joseph, a native of Tus, in Persia, and is not more
ancient than the ninth century. It is barbarously servile.
The Gospels exist in two Persic translations ; that pub-
lished in the London Polyglot, and that published by
Wheelor and Pierson, 1652 — 57. They are neither of them
verj' ancient.
12. The Sahidic version is supposed to have been made
in the second or thud century, and is considered of great
value for critical purposes. The most complete collection
of the fragments which we possess of this version was
prepared by Dr. "Woide, and published at Oxford, 1799.
13. The Samaritan version, made some time between
the second and eighth centuries. It is done from the Sa-
maritan text, but the translator has made considerable use
of the Targ-um of Onkelos. It is found in the Paris and
London Polyglots.
14. The Synnc versions are four in number: — 1. The
Feshilo, or accurate version, most protibly made early in
the second century ; and, of all the translations now ex-
tant, so far as the New Testament is concerned, the most
desen-ing to be thoroughly studied by every biblical scholar.
The text of the Old Testament was first printed by Ga-
briel Sionita in the Paris Polyglot ; and the editio princcps
of the New Testament by Widmanstad, Vienna, 1555.
The most useful edition of the Syriac New Testament is
that published by Schafi", w-ith an excellent lexicon : the
most convenient and elegant edition is that lately furnished
by Mr. Bagster. 2. The Philoxenian, made by Polycarp,
the rural bishop of Philoxenus, bishop of Hierapolis or
Mabug, in the government of Aleppo, A. D. 488—508.
It is sen-ile in the extreme, but is of great use in deter-
mining certain readings of the New Testament. It was
published at Oxford, 1778, 1779, accompanied with a Latin
translation. 3. The Hexaplar version, made by Paul,
bishop of Tela, in the years 616 and 617. Only the books
of Joshua, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel liave been oub-
30
lished. As the name indicates, it was made from the
Septuagint text in Origen's Hexapla. 4. The Jerusalem
Syriac version,^f which some fragments have been dis-
covered and published by Professor Alder.
II. The Modern Versions.
1. The Amharic version, undertaken by BI. Asselin,
French consul at Cairo, is in the royal dialect spoken at
the court of Gondar, in Abyssinia, and prevalent in the
eastern parts of Africa. The four Gospels were published
by the Bible Society, in 1823.
2. The Assamese, in the language of the kingdom of
Assam, in the East Indies. The New Testament in this
language was printed at Serampore, in 1819.
3. The Basque New Testament was first printed at Ko-
chelle. 1571.
4. The Bikaneer New Testament has been published by
the Serampore missionaries, for the use of the natives who
live to the south of the Punjab.
5. The Bohemian. Of the Scriptures in the Bohemian
language, not fewer than fourteen translations have come
do-mt to our times. The oldest was made in 1400, and is
still preserved in Dresden. The New Testament was first
published in 1474, and the whole Bible in 1488. The
Protestants have a version made by eight of their learned
men, who were sent to Wirtemberg and Basle to study
the Oriental languages, and make themselves well ac-
quainted with the principles on which other tran.slations
had been conducted. It was first published in 1579 — 93, in
six vols. 4to., at the expense of the baron John Zerotimus.
6. The Brija-Bhassa Gospels have been prepared by the
Serampore missionaries, and that of Matthew was finished
in 1816.
7. The Bullom. version of the four Gospels and the Acts
has recently been made by the Rev. Mr. Rj'lander, a mis-
sionary on the west coast of Africa, where that language
is spoken. The Gospel of Matthew was printed in"l816.
8. The Buhcha or Buloshee, another Serampore version,
made for the use of the natives of Bulochistan, a province
in the north-west of India.
9. The Bnndelkvndce, undertaken at the same place.
10. The Burman New Testament was translated by
Felix Carey, but was lost at sea ; a new translation has
since been prepared and printed by Mr. Judson, the
American missionary in the Burman empire ; to which he
has added the Old Testament.
11. The CaJmuc version of the New Testament has been
prepared by 3Ir. Schmidt of St. Petersburg, and part of it
has been printed by the Eu.<;sian Bible Society.
12. The Canarese New Testament, translated by the
Rev. Mr. Hands, into the language of the Carnatic, was
printed in 1820. The Old Testament is far advanced.
13. The Chinese. Two versions of the entire Bible exist
in the Chinese language ; the one executed by Dr. Marsh-
man, 1814 — 21, the other by Dr. Morrison and Jlilne,
1812 — 23. Vast numbers of copies of the New Testa-
ment, and separate books, have been circulated among the
Chinese who live out of China Proper, or who trade in the
Eastern seas.
14. The Cingalese, originally prepared by the Dutch for
the inhabitants of Ceylon. The four Gospels were first
printed at Columbo in 1739 ; the entire New Testament,
with Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus, in 1783. A new
version has been undertaken by the missionaries resident
on the island, and part of it has already gone through
more than one edition.
15. The Creolesc version, made for the use of the ne-
groes in the Danish "West India Islands, was published at
Copenhagen, 1781, at the expense of the king of Denmark.
Another for the use of the slaves in Surinam, has been
published by the Bible Society.
16. The Croatian New Testament, by Pastor Truber,
was first published at Tubingen, 1551. The whole Bible
was first printed at Wittemberg in 1584.
17. The Curdish version of the New Testament is pro-
ceeding under the auspices of the Bible Society, but has
not yet been completed.
18. The first Danish New Testament, by Jlikkelson,
was published in 1524 ; tl;; whole Bible iii 1550. It is
one of the best of the European versions of the Scrintures.
BIB
[234]
B IB
19. The Dutch have three versions : the first made from
the version oi' Luther, and published in 1560 ; the second,
■which is now commonly in use, and is oftiigh value, was
prepared, by order of the synod of Dort, from the origi-
nal languages. It was first printed in 1637. The third
version comprises the New Testament only, and was pub-
lished for the use of the Remonstrants, in ItiSO.
20. The Delaware version comprises only the three epis-
tles of John. It was prepared by Mr. Deneke, a Mora-
vian missionary, and printed at New York, 1818.
Lll. The English Bible. The first English Bible we
read of wsts that translated by J. Wicklifl'e, about the year
1360, but never printed, though there are manuscript
copies of it in several of the public libraries. A transla-
tion, however, of the New Testament by Wicklifl^e, was
printed by Mr. Lewis, in 1731. J. de Trevisa, who died
about 1398, is also said to have translated the whole
Bible ; but whether any copies of it are remaining does
not appear. The first printed Bible in our language was
that translated by W. Tindal, assisted by Miles Coverdale,
printed abroad in 1526 ; but most of the copies were
bought up and burnt by bishop Tonstal and Sir Thomas
More. Tindal's first publication only contained the New
Testament, and was revised and republished by him
in 1530. The prologues and prefaces added to it, reflect
on the bishops and clerg)' ; but this edition was also sup-
pressed, and the copies burnt. In 1532, Tindal and his
associates finished the whole Bible, except the Apocrypha,
and printed it abroad ; but, while he was afterwards pre-
paring a second edition, he was taken up and burnt for
heresy in Flanders. On Tindal's death, his work was
carried on by Coverdale and John Rogers, (superintendant
of an English churcli in Germany, and the first martyr in
the reign of queen Mary,) who translated the Apocrypha,
and revised Tindal's translation, comparing it with the
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and German, and adding prefaces
and notes from Luther's Bible. He dedicated the whole
10 Henry VIII. in 1537, under the borrowed name of
Thomas Matthews ; whence this has been usually called
Matthews's Bible. It was printed at Hamburgh, and li-
cense obtained for publishingit inEngland, by the favor of
archbishop Cranmer, and the bishops Latimer and Shaxton.
The first Bible printed by authority in England,
and publicly set up in churches, was the same Tindal's
version, revised and compared vsdth the Hebrew, and
in many places amended by Miles Coverdale, after-
wards bishop of Exeter ; and examined after him by
archbishop Cranmer, who added a preface to it ; whence
this was called Cranmer's Bible. It was printed hy Graf-
ton, of the largest volume, and published in 1540 ; and,
by a royal proclamation, every parish was obliged to set
one of the copies in their church, under the penalty of forty
shillings a month ; yet, two years after, the popish bish-
ops obtained its suppression by the king. It was restored
under Edward VI., suppressed again under queen Mary's
reign, and restored again in the first year of queen Eliza-
beth, and a new edition of it given in 1562. Some Eng-
lish exiles at Geneva, in queen Mary's reign, viz. Cover-
dale, Goodman, Gilbie, Sampson, Cole, Wittingham, and
.{Tnox, made a new translation, printed there in 1560, the
New Testament having been printed in 1557 ; hence called
the Geneva Bible, containing the variations of readings,
marginal annotations, &c. on account of which it was
much valued by the Puritan party in that and the follow-
ing reigns. Archbishop Parker resolved on a new trans-
lation for the public use of the church, and engaged the
bishops, and other learned men, to take each a share or
portion ; these being afterwards joined together and printed,
■ndth short annotations, in 1568, in large folio, made what
was afterwards called the Great English Bible, and com-
monly the Bishops' Bible. In 15S9, it was also published
in octavo, in a small, but fine black letter ; and here the
chapters were divided into verses, but without any breaks
for the,"ri, in which the method of the Geneva Bible was
followed, which was the first English Bible where any
distinction of Vi-'rscs was made. It was afterwards printed
in large folio, wHh corrections, and several prolegomena,
in 1572: this i\ called Matthew Parker's Bible. The
ij-'fial letters of each translator's name were put at the
end or nls part ; i". gr. at the end of the Pentateuch W.
E., for William Exon, that is, William, bishop of Exeter
whose allotment ended there ; at the end of Samuel, R
M., for Richard Menevensis, or bishop of St. David's, to
whom the second allotment fell ; and the like of the rest.
The archbishop oversaw, directed, examined, and finished
the whole. This trjmslalion was used in the churches for
forty years, though the Geneva Bible was more read in
private houses, being printed above twenty times in as
many years. King James bore it an inveterate haired on
account of the notes, which, at the Hampton court con-
ference, he charged as partial, untrue, seditious, (tec. The
Bishops' Bible, too, had its fauUs. The king frankly
owned that he had seen no good translation of the Bible
in English ; but he thought that of Geneva the worst of
all. After the translation of the Bible by the bishops,
two other private versions had been made of the New
Testament ; the first by Laurence Thompson, from Beza's
Latin edition, with the notes of Beza, published in 1582,
in quarto, and afterwards in 1589, varying very little from
the Geneva Bible ; the second by the Papists at Rheims,
in 1581, called the Rhemish Bible, or Rhemish translation.
These, finding it impossible to keep the people from hav-
ing the Scriptures in their vulgar tongue, resolved to give
a version of their own, as favorable to their cause as
might be. It was printed on a large paper, with a fair
letter and margin ; one complaint against it was, its re-
taining a multitude of Hebrew and Greek words, untrans-
lated, for want, as the editors express it, of proper and
adequate terms in the English to render them by ; as the
words azyvus, tiinihe, holocaust, prepuce, pasche, &c. ; how-
ever, many of the copies were seized by the queen's search-
ers, and confiscated ; and Thomas Cartwright was so-
licited by secretary Walsingham to refute it ; but, after a
good progress made therein, archbishop Whitgift pro-
hibited his further proceeding, as judging it improper that
the doctrine of the church of England should be committed
to the defence of a Puritan ; and appointed Dr. Fulke in
his place, who refuted the Rhemists with great spirit and
learning. Cartwright's refutation was also afterwards
published in 1618, under archbishop Abbot. About thirty
years after their New Testament, the Roman Catholics
published a translation of the Old at Doiiay, 1609 and
1610, from the Vulgate, with annotations, so that the Eng-
lish Roman Catholics have now the whole Bible in their
mother-tongue ; though, it is to be observed, they are for-
bidden to read it without a license from their superiors.
The last English Bible was that which proceeded from
the Hampton court conference, in 1603, where, many ex-
ceptions being made to the Bishops' Bible, king James
gave order for a new one ; not, as the preface expresses
it, for a translation altogether new, nor yet to make a good
one better ; or, of many good ones, one best. Fifty-four
learned men were appointed to this office by the king, as
appears by his letter to the archbishop, dated 1604, which
being three years before the translation was entered xipon,
it is probable seven of them were either dead, or had de-
clined the task, since Fuller's list of the translators makes
but forty-seven, who, being ranged under six divisions,
entered on their province in 1607. It was published in
1611, with a dedication to James, and a learned preface,
and is commonly called King James's Bible. After this,
all the other versions dropped, and fell into disu*, except
the epistles and gospels in the Common Prayer Book,
which were still continued according to the Bishops' trans-
lation, till the alteration of the liturgy in 1661, and the
psalms and hjmrns, which are to this day continued as in
the old version. The judicious Selden,in his Table-Talk,
speaking of the Bible, says, " The English translation of
the Bible is the best translation in the world, and renders
the sense of the original best, taking in for the English
translation the Bishops' Bible, as well as King James's.
The translators in king James's time took an excellent
way. That part of the Bible was given to him who was
most excellent in such a tongue, (as the Apocrypha to
Andrew Downs,) and then they met together, and one
read the translation, the rest holding in their hands some
Bible, either of the learned tongues, or French, Spanish,
or Italian, &c. If they found a..y fauU, they spoke ; if
not, he read on." [King James's Biblt is that now read
by authority in all the churches in Britain.] Notwith-
BIB
[ 235 J
BIB
standing, however, the excellency of this translation, it
must be acknowledged that our increasing acquaintance
with oriental customs and manners, and the changes our
language has undergone since king James's time, are
very powerful arguments for a new translation, or at least
a correction of the old one. A very considerable change
has been unwarrantably introduced into the text in the
subsequent editions, by turning into italics what did not
thus appear in the editio princeps and several which fol-
lowed it ; by means of which, numerous passages are
rendered unavoidably perplexing to the mere English
reader. There have been various English Bibles with
marginal references, by Canne, Hayes, Barker, Scatter-
good, Field, Tennison, Lloyd, Blayney, Wilson, Scott, and
Bagster.
22. The Esrjuimaux version of the New Testament has
been prepared at different times by the Moravian mission-
aries, and printed between the years 1809 and 1826.
23. The Esthonian New Testament was first printed in
1685, and the whole Bible in 1689.
24. The Faroese Gospel of Matthew was printed at
Copenhagen, 1S23, for the use of the inhabitants of the
Faroe Islands.
25. The Finnish New Testament was first printed at
Stockholm, 1548, and the whole Bible at the same place,
1642. It was executed by certain professors and clergy-
men well qualified for the task.
26. The Formosan version of the Gospels of Matthew
and John, was prepared by Robert Junius, a Dutchman,
and printed at Amsterdam in 1661.
27. The French Bible.— The oldest French Bible is the
version of Peter de Vaux, (Waldo,) chief of the Wal-
denses, about the year 1160. Raoul de Preste translated
the Bible into French in the reign of king Charles V. of
France, about A. D. 1383. Besides these, there are seve-
ral old French translations of particular parts of the Scrip-
ture. The doctors of Louvain published the Bible in
French at Louvain, by order of the emperor Charles V".,
in 1550. There is a version by Isaac le Maitre de Sacy,
pubUshed in 1,672, with explanations of the literal and
spiritual meaning of the text, which was received with
wonderful applause, and has often been reprinted. Of
the New Testaments in French, which have been printed
separately, one of the most remarkable is that of F. Ame-
lotte, of the Oratory, composed by the direction of some
French prelates, and printed, with annotations, in 1666,
1667, and 1670. The author pretends he had searched all
the libraries in Europe, and collated the oldest manu-
scripts ; but, in examining his work, it appears that he
has produced no considerable various readings which had
not before been taken notice of either in the London Poly-
glot, or elsewhere. The New Testament of Mons, printed
in 1665, with the archbishop of Cambray's permission,
and the king of Spain's license, made great noise in the
world. It was condemned by pope Clement IX. in 1668,
bi' pope Innocent XI. in 1669, and in several bishoprics
of France at several times. The New Testament, pub-
lished at Trevoux, in 1702, by M. Simon, with literal and
critical annotations upon difficult passages, was condemned
by the bishops of Paris and Meaux in 1702. F. Bohours,
a Jesuit, -n-ith the assistance of F. F. Michael Tellier and
Peter Bernier, Jesuits, likewise published a translation of
the New Testament in 1697 ; but this translation is for
the most part harsh and obscure, which was owing to the
author's adhering too strictly to the Latin text. There
are likewise French translations published by Protestant
authors ; one by Robert Peter Olivetan, printed in 1535,
and often reprinted with the corrections of John Calvin
and others ; another by Sebastian Castalio, remarkable for
particular ways of expression never used by good judges
of the language. John Diodati likewise published a French
Bible at Geneva in 1644 ; but some find fault \\'ith his
method, in that he rather paraphrases the text than trans-
lates it. Faber Stapalensis translated the New Testa-
ment into French, which was revised and accommodated
to the use of the Reformed churches in Piedmont, and
printed in 1534. Lastly, John le Clerc published a New
Testament in French at Amsterdam, in 1703, -with anno-
tations, taken chiefly from Grotius and Hammond ; but
the use of this version was prohibited by order of the
States general, as tending to revive the errors of SabeUins
and Socinus.
26. The Gaelic. — The New Testament in this language
was first published in 1765 ; and the Old Testament, in
three volumes, printed at different times, in 1785, 1787,
and 1801. The translation has since been revised and
improved, and new editions have issued from the press in
1807 and 1826.
29. The German versions. — Of these there exists a great
number ; but the most important are, — 1. The version of
Luther, of which the New Testament appeared in 1522,
and the entire Bible in 1530 ; the different books appeared
in the interval either separately or coupled together, as
they were got ready. The edition of 1546 was printed
under the reformer's immediate superintendence ; and,
giving to it all the perfection in his power, he was desircui
that it should be considered as the standard copy of this
great work. It was made immediately from the Hebrew
and Greek originals ; but in order to render it as correct
as possible, he collected a number of learned men, to re-
vise every sentence by a collation not only of the version
with the original text, but with the Targums, the LXX,
the Vulgate, and other versions. Of these, Melancthon
appears to have taken the most active part in the assist-
ance rendered to Luther. It is highly distinguished for
its energj' and perspicuity ; and the style is so pure and
elegant, as to be considered a model of the vernacular
language even in the present day. 2. The version of
Piscator, professor at Herborn, at which place it appeared
in 1602. It was designed to give a closer rendering of
the words and plirases of the original, and appears to
have derived considerable coloring from the Latin version
of Tremellius and Junius. It was in great repute among
the members of the Reformed church. 3. The version
of /. D. Michaelis, published between the years 1773 and
1791, and accompanied with notes for the unlearned, is
professedly an improved translation of the Scriptures, ac-
cording to more enlightened principles of criticism and
interpretation. In many respects, it unquestionably pos-
sesses great merit ; but the unwarrantable liberties which
the author has not infrequently taken with the text, and
the fondness for conjecrure which he has indulged, detract
from its claims on public confidence and adoption. 4.
The version of Augusti and De Wette, 1809—1814, one of
the last that has appeared in the German language, is cer-
tainly one of the best translations ever published in any
language. Simple, close, yet easy and elegant, it must
be read with pleasure ; and though one of the translators
is well known to occupy the first rank among the neolo-
gians of the present day, it is a remarkable circumstance
that his peculiar dogmatical views appear to have exerted
no influence on the version. Translations of the Bible
into German existed some time before the Reformation :
the oldest known was printed in the year 1466.
30. The modern Greek or Fomaic version of the New
Testament was made by Maximus Calliergi, and printed
at Geneva, 1638. A translation of the Old Testament is
now being made in Greece, under the auspices of the
Bible Society.
31. The Greenlandish New Testament exists in two
translations ; the one printed in 1799, and the other in
1822.
32. The Grisonic. — The Bible, in the language or dialect
of the Orisons, was published in 1719.
33. The Guzeratee version of the entire Scriptures has
been made and printed for the use of the inhabitants of
the peninsula of Guzerat.
34. The Hebrew New Testament. — Several attempts
have been made to furnish a good translation of the bocks
of the New Testament in the original language of the
Old. The first edition is that of EUas Hutter, published
in his Polyglot of 1599 : the second was published by
Professor Robertson in 1661, but most of the copies
perished in the great fire of London : a third and greatly
revised text was published by the Jews' Society in 1S21 ;
but the best is that lately executed by the lamented Mr.
Greenfield, and published by Bagster in 1831.
35. The Helvetian .—In this language there are two ver-
sions : the former was executed by Leo Juda, and pub-
lished between the years 1525 and 1529 : the latter, called,
BIB
[236 ]
BIB
by way of distinctiou, the New Zuricli Bible, was made
by the learned orientalist, Hottinger, assisted by several
other biblical scholars of acknowledged ability. It was
pttblished at Zurich in 1667.
36. The Hindee or Hijidostanee New Testament, prepared
111 two different translations by the Serampore missiona-
ries, and by the Rev. Henry Martyn, is extensively in cir-
culation among the inhabitants of Hindo.stan.
37. The Hungarian. — Besides a popish version made
from the Vulgate, there exists a Protestant version, exe-
cuted with great care by Caspar Caroli, and first published
in 1589.
38. The Icelandic New Testament, done by 0. Gottschalk-
son, was printed in 1539, at Copenhagen ; and the whole
Bible was published at Holum, in 1584, under the super-
intendence of bishop Thorlakson, who liberally contributed
to defray the expense of the undertaking.
39. The Irish version of the New Testament was exe-
cuted by Dr. Daniel, archbishop of Tuam ; and that of
the Old Testament by Mr. Kiag, but revised by Dr. Be-
dell, bishop of Kilinore. The whole was printed in 1685,
at the expense of the Hon. Robert Boyle.
40. The Italian. — The first Italian Bible, published by
the Romanists is that of Nicholas Malermi, a Benedictine
monk, printed at Venice in 1471. It was translated from
the Vulgate. The version of Anthony Braccioli, published
at Venice in 1532, was prohibited bj' the council of Trent.
The Calvinists likewise have their Italian Bibles. There
is one of John Diodati, in 1607 and 1641 ; and another
of Maximus Theophilus, in 1551, dedicated to Francis de
Medicis, duke of Tuscany.
The latest version that has appeared in Italian is that
of Martini, printed in 1769—1779.
41. The Karelian. — In this Finnish dialect the Gospel of
Matthew was printed at Petersburgh in 1820.
42 — 45. Into the Khassee, the Kashmeeree, the Kanooj, and
the Kunkuna dialects, versions of different portions of the
Scriptures have been prepared by the missionaries of Se-
rampore.
46. The Laponese New Testament was first printed in
1755, and the whole Bible at the printing-office of Dr.
Nordin, bishop of Hermosand, in 1810.
47. The Lithuanian version of the Bible is said to have
been first made by one Chylinsbey, and printed in Lon-
don, 1660 ; but it is merely stated by Le Long, without
giving his authority. It was afterwards printed at Koen-
igsberg, 1735.
48. The Livonian or Lettish, made by Ernest Glfick, was
published at Riga, 1689.
49. The Lusatian, in what is called the Sorabic dialect
of the AVendish, printed at Bautzen in 1728.
50. The Madagassee or Madagascar version of the New
Testament has recently been completed by the missiona-
ries belonging to the London Missionary Society.
51. The iliflftraWn version of the New Testament, and
the historical books of the Old, have been prepared and
printed at Serampore.
52. The Malay. — Into this language the entire Scrip-
tures have been translated at different times by learned
Dutchmen, connected ■n'ith the East India company. The
New Testament was printed in 1668, and the whole Bible
m 1731, 1733, in Roman characters. It was afterwai'ds
prmted in Arabic characters in 1758.
53. The Malayalim language, spoken on the coast of Ma-
.abar, has recently received a translation of the Scriptures
by the Rev. B. Bailey, of the Church Missionary Society.
54. The Maltese, a remnant of the ancient Punic. Into
this dialect the New Testament has been recently trans-
lated by a learned native, under the superintendence of
the Rev. Mr. Jowett ; and a version of the Old Testament
is in progress.
55. The Monks New Testament was first printed in
1756—1760 ; and the whole Bible at Whitehaven, 1775.
56. The Mohawks have as yet only had the Gospels of
Matthew, Mark, and John, and a few chapters of the Old
Testament translated into their language.
57. Into the Mohegan language the whole of the New
Testament, and several portions of the Old, were trans-
lated by the Rev. Mr. Freeman, but do not appear ever to
have been printed.
58. The Mongolian Gospels have been prepared by Mr.
J. Schmidt of Petersburgh, with the assistance of two
native Mongolians ; and tlie whole of the Old Testament,
in a very superior manner, by the Rev. Messrs. Swan
and Stallytrass, missionaries in Siberia. The gospels were
printed in 1815, 1816.
59. The Mordmashian Gospels, translated and printed at
Petersburgh, 1821.
60. Into the Orissa language, the whole Bible has been
translated by the Serampore missionaries ; and the New
Testament has already gone through two editions.
61. The Pali is the learned language of Ceylon and the
Burman empire, and is spoken in South Bahar. The New
Testament in this language was undertaken by W. Tol-
frey, Esq., in 1813, and is being completed by the mission-
aries Chater and Clough.
62. Besides the Persic, specified among the ancient ver-
sions, there is a version of the four Gospels by Lieut.
Col. Colebrooke, printed at Calcutta, 1804 ; a version of
the New Testament, by the Rev. Henry Martyn, printed
at Petersburgh in 1815 ; and two distinct translations
of the Old Testament are at present in progress ; the one,
by the Rev . William Glen, at Astracan ; and the other
by the Rev. T* Robinson, chaplain at Poonah.
63. The Polish language possesses tliree versions of the
Scriptures ; a Roman Catholic, a Protestant, and a So.
cinian version. The first was printed at Cracow in 1561 ;
the last under the patronage, and at the expense of prince
Radzivil, at Pinckzow, in 1563 ; and that of the Calvinistic
Protestants in 1596. A version into the Judeo-Polish
dialect has recently been prepared, and is now circulating
among the Jews in that country.
64. The Pomeranian version, done from Luther's Bible,
was printed in 1588. It is no longer in use.
65. The Portuguese have two versions ; the one done by
Protestants, and printed, — the New Testament at Am-
sterdam, 1681, and the Old Testament at Batavia, 1748 —
1753 ; and the other by Antonia Pereira, a Roman Catho-
lic, from the Vulgate. The New Testament was printed
at Lisbon in 1781, and the Old Testament in 1783.
66. The Pushtoo version of the New Testament, begun
by Dr. Leyden, and finished by individuals employed by
the Serampore missionaries, was printed in 1818. The
version of the Old Testament, in the same language, is in
progress.
67. The Punjabee or Sikh version of the entire Bible
has been prepared and printed by the same individuals.
68. The Russian versions. — Into a Polish dialect of the
Russian, a translation of the Pentateuch, and other parts
of the Scriptures, was made by Dr. F. Scorina, and pub-
bUshed, 1517 — 1525. A version of the entire Bible was
made by Dean GHick towards the close of the seventeenth
centtiry, but the MS. was destroyed at the siege of Mari-
enburg, in 1702. In consequence of the establishment of
the Russian Bible Society, a modern version has been
prepared by proper persons, selected for the undertaking,
of which the four Gospels appeared in 1819 ; the Gospels
and Acts in 1820 ; and the entire New Testament in 1823.
A translation of the Psalms was printed Ln 1822, and the
first eight books of the Old Testament were printed in
1824, but have never been published, in consequence of
the interference of those who are inimical to the spread
of the Scriptures. These last mentioned were made from-
the original Hebrew.
70. The Eomane.se version. — In the Churreelsche dialect
of this language, the Bible was pubUshed in 1657 ; and
in that of Ladin in 1719.
71. Into the Samogitian language, a version of the New
Testament was made by a Roman Catholic bishop, at the
request of the Russian Bible Society, and printed in
1820.
72. The Sanscrit, or learned language of India, pos-
sesses a version of the entire Scriptures, executed by the
Serampore missionaries, and printed between the years
1808 and 1818.
73. A Servian version of the New Testament was
prepared for the Russian Bible Society, and printed in
1825.
74. The Spanish versions are various. The earliest,
done from the Vulgate, was printed at Valencia, 147S.
BIB
L ay? 1
BIB
Pinel's version of the Old Testament, for the use of the
Jews, was printed at Ferrara in 1553. There are also the
versions of De Reyna, 15(59 ; San Migaiel, 1793, 1794 ;
and Arnata, begun in 1823, and not yet completed.
75. The Swedish versions are two : that made from
Luther's version, and published in 1541 ; and the revised
version, undertaken by order of the king in 1774 . The
latter translation, though executed in accordance witli the
more enlightened critical principles of the period at which
it was made, has never gained the approbation of the
Swedish public, and has not superseded the more early
authorized version.
76. The Tabr.itian version, executed by the London So-
ciety's missionaries, comprises most of the books of the
New Testament, and several of those of the Old. The
rest are in progress.
77. The Tamul versions are also two in number : that
executed by the German missionaries, the New Testament
of which was printed at Tranquebar, 1715 ; and the Old
Testament at the same place, 1723 — 1728 ; and another
by Fabricins, also a German missionary, and printed at
Madras, 1777.
78. The Tartar versions exist in different dialects ; but
none of them contain more than a single book or two,
excepting that executed by the Scotch missionaries at
Karass, on the north of the Caucasus, and that in the
Orenburg-Tartar dialect, both of which comprise the whole
New Testament. The former was printed at Karass in
1813 ; the latter at Astracan in 1820.
79. The Tdeegoo or Telinga New Testament, was trans-
lated by the missionaries at Serampore, where it was
printed in 1818. They also completed a translation of the
Pentateuch into the same language.
80. In the Turkish language, there exist three versions
of the New Testament. The first was executed by Dr.
Lazarus Seaman, and printed in 1666. The second was
made by Albertus Bobovsky or Ali Bey, dragoman to the
sultan Mahomet IV"., and completed in the foremen-
tioned year ; but it was not printed till 1819, when it was
carried through the press at Paris, at the expense of the
British and Foreign Bible Society. In consequence, how-
ever, of egregious faults and improprieties having been
detected in the style, and in many of the renderings, the
committee of that society were ultimately obliged to sup-
press the edition ; and a new impression, purged from the
objectionable matter, appeared in 1827. An edition from
a revised and connected copy of Bobovslcy's version of the
Old Testament also appeared at the same place in 1828.
The third version of the Turkish New Testament was
undertaken by Mr. Dickson, one of the Scotch missiona-
ries at Astracan . It is partially based on the Karass Ncav
Testament, and that of Bobovslry. A considerable por-
tion of the Old Testament was also completed by the same
translator ; but, omng to the change of biblical affairs in
Russia, no part of either has been ptiblished.
81. The Virginian translation of the Scriptures was
executed by Ehot, the apostle of the Indians. The New
Testament was printed at Cambridge, 1661, and the whole
Bible in 1685.
82. The Wdllachian New Testament was first printed
at Belgrade in 1648 ; the entire Bible in 1668, at Buk-
harest.
.83. The Welsh version was made in consequence of an
act of parliainent passed in the reign of queen Elizabeth.
The New Testament appeared in 1567, and the whole
Bible in 1588. It has since been revised and corrected,
and has gone through many editions.
84. The New Testament has been translated and printed
in the Wutrh or Midinnee dialect, which is spoken on the
eastern bank of the Indus.
VII. Bibles, Polyglot. — Bibles printed in several lan-
guages, exhibiting, in general, the text of the different
versions on the same page, or at least on the two open
pages of the volume, are called Polyglots, from polus,
viany. and the Attic glotia, a language.
1. The earliest attempt of the kind was made by Aldus,
the celebrated Venetian printer ; but it contains only the
first fifteen verses of the first of Genesis. The Psalter,
by Justinian, Genoa, 1516, in Hebrew, Arabic, Greek,
Chaldean, and Latin, is the first Polyglot of any biblical
book. His example was followed by Potkeu, who, in
1518, published the Psalter in Hebrew, Greek, Elhiopic,
and Latin.
2. The first Polyglot of the whole Bibls was the Com-
plutensian, so called from its having been printed at Cam-
plutum, in Spain, 1502 — 1517, and published in 1522, in
0 vols, folio. It contains the Hebrew, Latin Vulgate, and
Greek of the Old Testament, and the Greek and Latin
Vulgate of the New. It was undertaken and superin-
tended by Cardinal Ximenes, whom it cost about 50,000
ducats, though only six hundred copies were printed. It
contains the first printed, though not the first published,
edition of the Greek New Testament.
3. The Eoijal Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, 1569—72, in
8 vols, folio. It was published at the expense of PhiUp
II. of Spain, and edited by Arias Montanus. In addition
to the texts in the Complutensian, this edition exhibits
part of the Targum, and the Syriac version of the New
Testament, with literal Latin translations.
4. The Parisian Polyglot, published by Le Jay, 1628—
45, in 10 vols, large folio, adds to the former the Samari-
tan Pentateuch and version, the Syriac version of the
Old Testament, and an Arabic translation both of the Old
and New. It also gives a Latin version of each of the
Oriental texts.
5. T'he London Polyglot, published 1657, in 6 vols, folio,
contains, besides the texts of all the former Polyglots,
the Psalms, Song of Solomon, and the New Testament in
Ethiopic, and the Gospels in Persic. It also contains the
Chaldee paraphrase in a more complete state than any
of the preceding works. It was edited by Brian Walton,
afterwards bishop of Chester, and generally has accom-
panying it the invaluable Heptaglot Lexicon by CasteU,
a work which is indispensable to those who would consult
the Oriental texts to advantage, since the Latin transla-
tions in the Polyglot itself are not to be depended on.
To the first volume are prefixed important prolegomena ;
and the last is entirely occupied mth various readings
and other critical matters.
6. Seinecii Polyglot, Leipsic, 1750, in 3 vols, folio, con-
tains the Old Testament in Hebrew, Greek, Seb. Schmidt's
Latin translation, and Luther's German ; and the New
Testament in ancient and modern Greek, the Syriac, the
same Latin and German versions. It is very accurately
printed, cheap, and convenient.
7. Bagster's Polyglots. — For elegance, accuracy, and
convenience, the productions of Mr. Bagster's press far
surpass all preceding editions of Polyglot Bibles. They are
so printed that any selection of texts may be had at the
option of the purchaser. There are, however, two prin-
cipal works of this desciption: the Quarto Polyglot, 1821,
containing the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English texts
of the Old Testament ; and the Greek, Syriac, Latm, and
EngUsh of the New: and the Folio Polyglot, in 1831,
one of the most splendid volumes ever published, con-
taining the Bible in the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, Latin,
English, French, German, and Italian languages. — Hend.
Buck-
BIBLIANDER ; a learned Lutheran divine, and dis-
tinguished writer, of the sixteenth centuiy. — jSIosheim.
BIBLIAS ; a Christian martyr at Lyons in the second
century, during the persecution of the emperor Jlarcus
Aurelius. At first, she had the weakness to apostatize
from fear ; but still a Christian in her heart, she abhorred
herself for the crime, and could not conceal the horror she
felt at the rites of paganism. She was again arrested and
put to the torture. Believing her to have intelligence
with the Christians, they thought to make her ov n the
crimes they were accused of; amongst others, th:it of
eating children. " How can that be," cried Biblias,
"when they are forbidden to shed blood!" Resolute to
expiate her former fault, she continued to justify them,
and sufl^ered martyrdom. — Betham.
BIBLICAL CRITICISM, is the science by which we
arrive at a satisfactory' acquaintance with the origin, his-
tory, and present slate of the original text of Scripture.
In the wide extent of its investigations, it embraces the
languages in which the Scriptures were originally written,
together with the cognate or kindred dialects ; "the mate-
rials used for writing ; the composition, collection, and
BIB
[ 238 ]
BID
preservation of the different books ; the age, character,
and relationships of MSS. ; the ancient versions ; the
various readings ; the printed editions ; and the various
philological and historical means to be employed in order
to determine what the text was as it proceeded from the
original penmen. It has been divided into two kinds :
lower criticism, which is more of a verbal and historical
nature, and is confined to the words, or the collocation of
the words, as they stand in the manuscript or printed
texts, the ancient versions, and other legitimate sources
of appeal ; and higher criticism, which consists in the ex-
ercise of the judgment in reference to the text, on grounds
taken from the nature, fonn, method, subject, or argu-
ments of the different books ; the nature and connexion
of the context ; the relation of passages to each other ;
the kno-mr circumstances of the writers, and those of the
persons for whose immediate use they wrote. Of the two,
the former is obviously the more important, as it presents
a firm basis on which to rest our investigations : the lat-
ter, lying more open to conjecture and variety of opinion,
may easily be abused, and has indeed been carried to a
most unwarrantable length by many German critics.
The science of biblical criticism should be assiduously
cultivated by all who venture to' interpret the Bible : for
in attempting to expound a work of such high antiquity,
which has passed tlu'ough a variety of copies, both ancient
and modern, written and printed, copies which differ from
each other in very numerous instances, they should have
some reason to believe that the copy or edition which they
undertake to interpret, approaches as nearly to the origi-
nal, as it can be brought by huinan industry', or human
judgment. Or, to speak in the technical language of criti-
cism, before they expound the Bible, they should procure
the most correct text of the Bible. This principle, which
is justly deemed important in reference to mere human
productions, must necessarily commend itself as of para-
mount and indispensable importance in its application to
the Scriptures. Without attending to it, we never can be
satisfied that what we interpret, really is what it professes
to be — t/ie word of God.
The object of this science is not to expose the word of
the Lord to the uncertainties of human conjecture (a charge
which has sometimes been brought against it) ; for there is
no principle which it more firmly resists than conjectural
emendation, or emendation not founded on documentary
evidence. Its object is not to weaken, much less to destroy
the edifice, which " for ages has been the subject of just
veneration," but to show the firmness of the foundation on
which the sacred edifice is built, and prove the genuineness
of the materials of which it is constructed. See Marsh's
Lectures, pp. 24, 26. — Henderson^s Suck.
BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION; the science of teach-
ing or expounding the meaning of the Bible. Strictly speak-
ing, it is either grammatiad, when the meaning of words,
phrases, and sentences is made out from the usus loquendi,
and the context ; or historical, when the meaning is illus-
trated and confirmed by historical arguments, which serve
to evince that no other sense can be put upon the passage,
whether regard be had to the nature of the subject, or the
genius and manner of the writer. It presupposes a know-
ledge of biblical criticism, and an acquaintance with ancient
geography, chronology, the civil, reUgious, and political
history, the manners, customs, &c. of the Jews and of the
surrounding nations, and especially with the doctrinal and
preceptive contents of the Bible itself as a whole, and of its
different parts in particular. As the same method, and the
same principles of interpretation are common both to the sa-
cred volume, and to the productions of uninspired men, it fol-
lows, that the signification of words in the Holy Scriptures
must be sought precisely in the same way in-which the
meaning of words in other works usually is, or ought to be
sought. Hence also it follows, that the method of investi-
gating the signification of words in the Bible is no more
arbitrary than it is in other books, but is in like manner
regulated by certain laws, drawn from the nature of lan-
guages. And since no text of Scripture has more than one
meaning, w'e must endeavor to find out that one true sense
precisely in the same manner as we would investigate the
sense of Homer or any other ancient writer ; and in that
sense, when so ascertained, we ought to acquiesce, unless,
by applying the just rules of interpretation, it can be shown
that the meaning of the passage has been mistaken, and
that another is the only just, true, and critical sense of the
place. In order to assist in determining what is this one
meaning, the following rules have been laid down: — 1.
Ascertain the usus loquendi, or the notion affixed to a word
by the persons in general by whom the language either is
now or formerly was spoken, and especially in the particu-
lar connexion in which such notion is affixed. 2. Retain
the received signification of a word, unless weighty and
necessary reasons require that it should be abandoned. 3.
Where a word has several significations in common use,
that must be selected which best suits the passage in ques-
tion, and which is consistent with an author's known cha-
racter, sentiments, and situation, and the known circum-
stances under which he wrote. 4. Although the force of
particular words can only be derived from etymology, yet
too much confidence must not be placed in that frequently
uncertain science. 5. The distinctions between words
which are apparently synonymous, should be carefully
examined and considered. 6. The epithets introduced by
the sacred writers are also to be carefully weighed and
considered, as all of these have either a declarative or ex-
planatory force, or serve to distinguish one thing from an-
other, or unite these two characters together. 7. General
terms are used sometimes in their whole extent, and some-
times in a restricted sense ; and whether they are to be
understood in the one way or in the other, must depend on
the scope, subject-matter, context, and parallel passages.
8. The most simple and obvious sense is always the true
one. 9. Since it is the design of interpretation to render
in our own language the same discourse which the sacred
authors originally wrote in Hebrew or Greek, it is evident
that an interpretation, or version, to be correct, ought not
to affirm or deny more than the inspired penmen affirmed
or denied at the time they wrote : consequently we must
always take a sense from Scripture, and not bring one to
it. 10. No interpretation can be just, which brings out of
any passage a sense that is repugnant to the ascertained
nature of things.
The subsidiary means for ascertaining the sense of
Scripture are the usus loquendi, context, scope, subject-mat-
ter, philological and doctrinal parallelisms and analogies,
historical circumstances, quotations and exegetical com-
mentators.— Hen d. Buck ; Stuart's Ernesti i Home's Tntrod.
to the Scriptures ; Bib. Sepository, for 1831.
BIBLICISTS, or Biblici ; a class of divines in the
twelfth century, who in opposition to the scholastics, and
in conformity with the example of the ancient doctors,
drew their systems of theology from the Holy Scriptures,
as illustrated by the writings of the fathers. In this last
particular, they differed from the Waldenses, whose theo-
logy was purely biblical. They were also opposed to the
Mystics. Paris was the centre of their influence, and was,
at this time, frequented by .students of divinity from all
parts of Europe, who resorted thither in crowds, to receive
instruction from the most celebrated masters in the bibli-
cal, mystic, and scholastic theology. The Biblicists were
sometimes distinguished by the title of Positivi, or Ancient
Theologists, because they explained the doctrines of reli-
gion, in a plain and simple manner, by passages drawn
from the Holy Scriptures, from the decrees of councils,
and the writings of the ancient doctors ; and very rarely
made use of the succors of reason, or philosophy, in their
theological lectures, though they did not reject them alto-
gether. Of this class were St. Bernard, Peter, surnamed
the Chanter, Walter of St. Victor, and others. Anselm,
archbishop of Canterbury, Lanfrank, and Hildebert, of the
preceding centuiy, were their chief models. — Mosheim.
BIDDELIANS ; so called from John Biddle, A. M. of
the university of Cambridge, and one of the first persons
who publicly propagated Socinianism in England. He
taught that Jesus Christ, to the intent that he might be our
brother, and have a fellow-feeUng of our infirmities, and
so become the more ready to help us, hath no other than a
human nature ; and therefore in this very nature is not
only a person, since none but a human person can be our
brother, but also our Lord and our God. He was cruelly
persecuted, and died in prison, in 1662.
Biddle. as well as Socinus and others of similar senti-
BIL
[ 239 ]
BIL
ments before and since, made no scruple of calling Christ
Godj though he believed him to be a human creature only,
on account of the divine sovereignly with which he was
invested. Toulmin calls him the father of the modern
Unitarians. He was the author of various small works in
defence of his sentiments, which are now scarce. His
"Scripture Catechism" met with an able refutation from
the pen of Dr. Owen. See his works, vol. viii. — H. Bnck.
BIDDING PRAYER. It was part of the office of the
deacons in the ancient church, to be monitors and directors
of the people in their public devotions in the church. To
this end they made use of certain Icnown forms of words,
to give notice when each part of the service began. Agree-
able to this ancient practice is the form, "Let us pray,"
repeated before several of the prayers in the English litur-
gy. Bishop Burnet, in his " History of the Reformation,"
vol. ii. p. 20, has preserved the form as it was in use before
tbj; reformation, which was this : — After the preacher had
Ddined and opened his text, he called on Ihe people to go
to their prayers, telling them what they were to pray for :
" Ye shall pray," says he, " for the king, the ]X)pe," &:c.
After which, all the people said their beads in a general
silence, and the minister kneeled down likewise, and said
his: they were to say a pater-noster, ace Maria, &c. and
then the sennon proceeded. — Hend. Buck.
BIGOTRY consists in being obstinately and perversely
attached to our own opinions ; or, as some have better de-
fined it, " a tenacious adherence to a system or opinion,
adopted without investigation, and defended without argu-
ment, accompanied -nqth a malignant intolerant spirit to-
wards all who differ." It must be distinguished from love
to truth, which influences a man to embrace it wherever he
finds it ; and from true zeal, which is an ardor of mind ex-
citing its possessor conscientiously to defend and propagate
the principles he maintains with the meekness of wisdom.
Bigotry is a kind of prejudice, combined with a certain de-
gree of malignity. It is thus exemplified and distinguished
by a sensible writer : " When Jesus preached, Prejudice
cried, Can any good thing come out of Nazareth ? Crucify
him, crucify him, said Bigotry. Why, what evil hath he
done ? replied Candor." Bigotry is mostly prevalent with
those who are ignorant ; who have taken up principles
without due examination ; and who are naturally of a
morose and contracted disposition. It is often manifested
more in unimportant sentiments, or the circumstantials of
religion, than the essentials of it. Simple bigotiy is the
spirit of persecution without the power ; persecution is
bigotry armed with power, and carrying its will into act.
As it is the effect of ignorance, so it is the nurse of it, be-
cause it precludes free inquiry, and is an enemy lo truth :
it cuts also the very sinews oi' charily, and destroys mode-
ration and mutual good will. If we consider t^ie different
makes of men's minds, our own ignorance, the liberty that
all men have to think for themselves, the admirable exam-
ple our Lord has set us of a contrary spirit, and the bane-
ful effects of this disposition, we must at once be convinced
of its 'impropriety. How conlradiclon,- is it to sound rea-
son, and how inimical to the peaceful religion we profess
to maintain as Christians ! See Catholicism ; Liberali-
ty ; Persecctio:!, and books under that article. — Hend.
Buck ; Draper on Bigotry ; Fuller's Works, vol. i, p. 239.
BILLOWS. Grievous afflictions succeeding one another
are called in the Scriptures God's n-aves or biilati-s. Sent
and ordered by God, they terrify, perplex, and threaten lo
destroy men. Ps. 43: 7. and 88: 7. This phrase also signi-
fies frequently the Divine wrath which broke on Jesus'
soul. Ps. 69; 1, 2. The billows or swellings of Jordan
denote the greatest trials, or perhaps death. Jer. 12: 5.
BILNEY, (Tho.mas.) one of ihe English reformers and
martyrs, was born near the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, and educated at Cambridge. At an early age he be-
came bachelor of both laws ; but soon after, in reading the
New Testament in the translation of Erasmus, he was de-
livered from the errors of popery and the bondage of sin ;
and leaving the study of human law, devoted himself
wholly to the study of divinity. In a letter to Cuthbcrt
Tons al, bishop of London, he gives the following lively
picture of his conversion, and inward call to the^Gospel
ministry. Referring to 1 Tim. 1: 13, This is a faithful
saying, &c., he says, " This one sentence, through God's
instruction, and inward working, did so exhilarate my
heart, which before was wounded with the guilt of my
sins, and almost in despair, that immediately I found
wonderful comlbrt and quietness in ray soul ; so that my
bruised bones leaped for joy. After this, the Scriptnr-.-s
became sweeter to me than honey or the honey-comb. For
by them I learned that all my travels, fastings, watchings,
redemption of masses, and pardons, without faith in Christ,
were but, as St. Augustine calls them, " a hasty running
out of the right way ;" and as the fig-leaves, which could
not cover Adam's nakedness. And as Ailam could find
no rest to his guilty soul, till he believed in the promise
of God, that Christ, the seed of the woman, should tread
upon the serpent's head ; so neither could I find deliver-
ance from the sharp stings and bitings of my sins, till I
was taught of God that lesson which Christ spake of in
the third chapter of John : As Moses lifted up the serpent in
the n'ilderness, eve?i so must the Son of ntaii be lifted up ; that
whosoever believeth in him should not perish, b«t have everlast-
ing life. As soon as, by the grace of God, I began to taste
the sweets of this heavenly lesson, which no man can
teach, but God alone, who revealed it lo Peter, I begged
of the Lord to increase my faith. And at last 1 desired
nothing more, than that I, being so comforted by him,
might be strengthened by his Holy Spirit and grace, that
I might teach sinners his ways, which are mercy and truth,
and that the wicked might be converted unto him by me,
who also was once myself a sinner indeed." — In another
letter, speaking of the scholastic di\ines and popish priest",
he remarks, " This is the root of all mischief in Ihe churcli,
that they are not sent inwardly of God. For without
this inward calling of God, it helpeth nothing to be a hun-
dred times consecrated by a thousand bulls, either of pope,
king, or emperor. God beholdeth the heart, and his judg-
ment is according to truth, howsoever we deceive the judg-
ment of men for a time ; though they also al lasi shall see
the abomination. This, I say, is ihe original nf all mischief
in -the church, that we thrust in ourselves into the charge
of souls, whose salvation and the glory of God (which is
to enter in by the door, John 10: 1 — 9) wb do not thirst nor
seek for, but altogether our own lucre and profit."
The minisir}' of Bilney was crowned with success.
Many gownsmen of the university, among whom was the
celebrated Latimer, were led by his instramentality to the
Savior. He extended his labors into the country ■with
great effect ; until cardinal Wolsey, alarmed by his suc-
cess, arrested him, Nov. 25, 1527, and brought him to trial
for preaching the doctrines of Luther. After four appear-
ances before his judges, his firmness was overcome, rather
by the persuasions of his friends than from conviction, and
he signed a recantation, December 7, 1529. Aftcj this, he
returned to Cambridge ; "but the consideration of what he
had done emblitered his peace, and brought him to the
brink of despair. Latimer, who was intimate with him,
tells us that "Mr. Bilney's agony was such that ncihing
did him good, neither eating nor drinking, nor any other
communication of God's word ; for he thought that all the
whole Scriptures were against him, and sounded to his
condemnation." Being restored, however, by the grace of
God and conferences with good men, to peace of con-
science, he resolved to give up his life in defence of the
truth he had sinfully abjured. Accordingly, in 1531, he
went into Norfolk, and there preached the Gospel, at first
privately and in houses, afterwards openly in the fields ;
bewailing his former recantation, and begging al! men to
take warning by him, and never to trust the counsels of
friends, so called, nlien their purpose is to dran- them from the
true religion. Being thrown into prison, Drs. Call and
Stokes were sent to persuade him again to recant ; but Ihe
former of the.se dirines, by Bilney's doctrine and conduct,
was greatly drawn over to the side of the Gospel. Find-
ing him inflexible, his judges condemned him to be
burned.
To some of his friends who visited him in prison the
night before he suffered, and who expressed surprise al his
perfect cheerfulness, Bilney, putting his hand into the
flame of the candle, (as he had often done before.') replied,
" I feel by experience that the fire is hot, yet I am per-
suaded by God's holy Word, and by the experience of some
spoken of in it, that in the flame they felt no heat, and in
BIN
[ S40 ]
BIO
ihe fire no consumption. And I believe, that though the
stubble of my body shall be wasted, yet my soul shall
thereby be purged ; and that after short pain, joy unspeak-
able shall follow." With like serenity, on his way to the
stake, he remarked : " When the mariner undertakes a
voyage, he is tossed on the billows of the troubled seas,
yet in the midst of all, he beareth up his spirits with this
consideration, that ere long he shall come into his quiet
harbor ; so (added he) I am now sailing upon the troubled
sea, but ere long my ship shall be in a quiet harbor. I
doubt not, but, through the grace of God, I shall endure
the storm ; only I would entreat you to help me with your
prayers." His friend Dr. Warner, who had accompanied
him in prison and to the stake, in taking his last leave of
his beloved fiiend, was so much aflected that he could say
but little for his tears. Bilney accosted him with a hea-
venly smile, thanked him kindly for all his attentions, and
bending towards him, whispered, in a low voice, his fare-
well words, of which it is hard to say whether they convey
more of love to his friend, or faithfulness to his Master :
" Pasce gregem tuum, pasce grcgcm tuum ; ut cum venerit Do-
minus, inveniat te sic facientem : Feed your floch, feed your
flock ; that the Lord, nhen he cometh, may find you so doing."
His afflicted friend could make no answer, but retired
I'rom the awful scene ovenvhelmed with grief and tears.
Some mendicant friars who had been present at his
condemnation, having been accused by the people of insti-
gating his death, and fearing to lose their customary alms,
at this moment besought him to assure the people to the
contrary. Bilney instantly complieil, aud assuied the peo-
ple of their innocence in this sad affair.
The faggots were then applied, and the body of the
dying martyr was consumed to ashes, A. D. 1531, in the
reign of Henry the Eighth ; leaving behind him the cha-
racter of distingui.shed learning and piety. — Middleton's
Evang. Biog.
BILSON, (Thomas ;) an English prelate, born at Win-
chester, in 1535, where, and at Oxford, he was educated.
The Perpetual Government of Christ's Church, which he
jjublished in 1593, led to his obtaining the see of Worces-
ter, whence lie was translated to that of Winchester. In
the Hampton court conference he bore a prominent part :
and, in conjunction with bishop Smith, had the revision of
Ihe new translation of the Bible. He died in 1616. He
produced various controversial works and sermons. — Da-
vettpnrt..
BIND, TO, ANn LOOSE, is a figurative expression derived
from carrying burdens ; that is, confirming or removing a
burden of the mind. It is also taken for condemning or
absolving : (Matt. 16: 19.) " I will give uiuo you the keys
of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever 3'e shall bind
on earth, shall be bound in heaven ; and whatsoever ye
shall loose on earth, shall be loosed in heaven." Binding
and loosing, in the language of the Jews, expressed per-
mitting, or forbidding, or judicially declaring any thing to
be permitted, or forbidden. In the promotion of their doc-
tors, they put a key into their hands, \iith these words :
" Receive the po\yer of binding aud loosing ;" whence the
allusion, '■ Ye have taken away the key of Icnowledge,"
Luke 11: 52. " I am not come to unloose the law, but to
complete it," says our Savior, Matt. 5: 17, that is, as in
our translation, " not to destroy the law, but to fulfil it."
The religion of Jesus has perfected the law of Moses, dis-
covered its true spirit, unfolded its secret meanings, and
accomplished all its types and figures. If it have also
abrogated some of its ceremonial institutions, it is only for
the purpose of accommodating mankind at large, and
causing ihe essential principles of it to be better observed.
" To bind the law upon one's hand for a sign ;" to "wear
it like a bracelet on one's arm," (Deul. 6: 8,) was meant
figuratively, implying an intimate acquaintance with its
precepts ; but the Jews took it literally, and bound parts
of the law about their wrists. See Phylactekies. In Isa.
8: 16, " Bind up the testimony, seal the law," is to be un-
derstood thus, " Seal what thou hast been writing, bind it
about with thread or riband, and set thy seal upon it :
for closure and confirmation of its contents ; to witness
thy confidence in its veracity, and thy expectation of com-
pletion." It is said that Daniel was the most learned of
the magi, interpreters of dreams, &c. " for showing, (ex-
plaining) hard sentences, and dissolving of doubts ;" (Heb.
untijing of knots;) also, chapter 5: 16, where "loosing"?
things which were bound is used to express — the explana-
tion of things concealed. See Daniel. — Calmet.
BINGHAM, (Joseph,) an eminent divine, was born at
Wakefield, in Yorkshire, in 1668, and educated at Oxford,
where he obtained a fellowship, which he resigned, in con-
sequence of being censured for heterodox opinions concern-
ing the Trinity. He then retired to his living of Head-
bourne Worthy, in Hampshire. In 1712, he obtained the
rectory of Havant ; in 1720, he was nearly ruined by the
South sea bubble ; and he died in 1723. His Origines Ec-
desiasticcn, or Christian Antiquities, is a valuable work. —
Davenport.
BIOGRAPHY. It has been remarked by Dr. Johnson,
that "no species of writing seems more worthy of cultiva-
tion than biography, since none can be more delightful or
more useful : none can more certainly enchain the heart
by irresistible interests, or more widely diffuse instruction
to every diversity of condition." Our great English mo-
ralist might have gone further than this, in praise of his
own favorite theme, and added, that to treasure up memo-
rials of the wise, the learned, and the virtuous, is to fulfil
an exalted duty to mankind. It is gratifying to reflect
how much this branch of useful knowledge has been culti-
vated since the commencement of the last century. To
say nothing of the memoirs of individuals published in a
detached form, we have now the " General, Historical, and
Critical Dictionary," in ten volumes, folio ; — the " Biogra-
phia Britannica," in seven volumes, folio; — a "General
Biography ; or. Lives, Critical and Historical, of the most
Eminent Persons of all Ages and Countries," in ten vo-
lumes, quarto, by Dr. Aikin and others; — "The General
Biographical Dictionary, by Mr. A. Chalmers," in thirty- .
two volumes, octavo ; — the " British Biography," in ten
volumes, octavo, edited by the late Dr. 'Towers ; besides
many similar collections of minor interest, such as the
compilations of Lodge, Granger, Birch, Lempriere, Daven-
port, Betham, and others. 'These noble collections do ho-
nor to our literature. But every reflecting mind must be
aware, tliat the extent and costhness of these works place
them entirely out of the reach of the great mass of the
reading population of this country, to whom a single vo-
lume of well-selected lives might be a desideratum. To
supply this deficiency, has been one object aimed at in the
present undertaking, which, it is hoped, will not be found
without its use. The editor, however, claims the privilege
of adopting the words of Blr. Jones, with the view of ob-
viating some objections that may arise respecting the plan
on which he has proceeded : for he is quite aware that
some persons may censure it, as being too confined, while
others may, view it as quite latitudinarian.
Taking a review of the numerous sections into which
Christendom is now divided, the Church of England may
be fairly allowed, with the exception of Germany, to take
the precedence on the score of erudition. In her academic
bowers, biblical literature has been cultivated in times
past to great extent and valuable purpose. To her minis-
ters and members, consequently, something like a promi-
nence will be found to be given in this manual ; and so
far, the editor trusts, he shall stand clear of the charge of
having indulged any sectarian bias. Let it, however, be
recorded to the honor of this generation, that the Englisii
statute book is no longer disgraced by those odious penal
enactments, the test and corporation acts, which fonnerly
placed the conscientious non-conformist " under the ban."
That middle wall of partition is now removed out of the
way ; and, accordingly, the modest dissenter is, in these
pages, permitted to take his place, without a blush, by the
side of his conforming brother ; to whom, though he may
be expected to yield the palm in respect of the number of
learned men, and the extent of their literary attainments,
he comes not a whit behind, in the less showy, but more
solid and useful acquisitions in theological lore. Some
little pains have also been taken to adjust, with an impar-
tial hand, the conflicting claims of the difl'erent classes of
English dissenters. The Presbyterian will here find that
his favorite Knox, Maclaurin, Baxter, Doddridge, Davies,
Henry, Campbell, Stewart, Witherspoon, and many others,
of whom he may be justly proud, have not been overlooked
BIR
I 241 1
BIR
in Ihis compilalion. The IndKpendenl, or Congregalionalisl,
vijl be gratified to meet with his Owen, Watts, Howe,
Chandler, Grosvenor, Leland, Jennings, Blather, Edwards,
Dwight, and a long ti cetera of illustrious names ; while the
Baptist would have good reason to complain of injustice,
had we omitted Gale, Gill, Bunyan, Robinson, Stennelt,
■Booth, Fuller, Rytand, Hall, cum muhis aliis. The Method-
ists will find that a niche in the temple of fame has been
reserved to their Whitefield and Wesley, Fletcher and As-
bury, Clarke and Watson ; — and even the peaceful Quaker
has not been forgotten : he will recognise in the memorials
of Barclay and Penn, the founders of the denomination to
which he belongs. But our catalogue of classification is
not yet complete. The English Catholics have triumphed
after a mighty struggle, and are placed, in respect of civil
agd religious privileges, as in this country, on an equality
with their other fellow citizens. They had a right to ex-
pect that such men as Bossuet and Fenelon, Fleury and
Massillon, Pascal and Rollin, whose writings have done so
much honor to their church, and been the source of so
much delight and information to all who have dissented
from it, should here be allowed to repose in peaceful soli-
tude among the mighty and illustrious dead of other .com-
munions.
A word to the tyro in the study of ecclesiastical history
shall close this article. Though it cannot be denied that
the alphabetical plan of arrangement is better fitted to fa-
cilitate reference than any other, it nevertheless has its dis-
advantages. By reading the lives in this volume chronolo-
gically, it will be found a useful compendium of church
history. For instance ; would the reader form an estimate
of the state of society in regard to morals and religious
knowledge prior to the dawn of the Reformation ? It is
recommended to him to take the lives in something like the
following rotation : — Bacon ( Roger), JBede, Claude (of Tu-
rin), Grosseteste (Robert), and ArnJfd (of Brescia). From
these he will discover, that the state of Europe at that time,
may be fitly termed one of " darkness visible, serving only
to discover sights of woe." And this will prepare him for
reading advantageously the lives of WickliflTe, Huss, Je-
rome (of Prague), Luther, Melanethon, Erasmus, Calvin,
Beza, Grotius, Zuinglius, and the other continental re-
formers : after which he will be prepared to enter on the
" noble army" cf reformers and martyrs of Eugland ;
such as Bilney, Tyndal, Latimer, Ridley, Cranmer, Colet,
Hooper, with many others who were the glory of the six-
teenth centur)' — men " who loved not their lives unto the
death" — but whose memorials ought to be held in ever-
lasting remembrance. He may then advance to the seven-
teenth century, when he will find fully verified the truth
of an observation once made concerning it, by George the
Third, " There were giants in the earth in those days."
Such indeed is their number, so extensive the acquire-
ments, and so profound the erudition of the divines and
others of that period, that we gaze and admire, and are
humbled at the view !
The reader may wish, of many of these lives, that they
had been given more in detail ; and to say the truth, the
editor could have wished so too ; but to have indulged his
own feelings in this respect, must have necessarily en-
larged the size and price of the book, and consequently,
defeated the end which throughout this work it was indis-
pensable to keep in view. — Jones's Chr. Bicig.
BIRCH, (Tho.mas, D. D.) a valuable historical and bio-
graphical writer, was born in London, in the year 1705.
His parents were both of them Quakers ; and his father,
who was a cotfee-mill maker by trade, endeavored to bring
him up to his own business ; but so ardent was the youth's
passion for reading, that he solicited his father to be in-
dulged in this inclination, promising, in that case, to pro-
vide for himself. After gaining an education, he took
orders, obtained various literary honors and church prefer-
ments, and was one of the secretaries of the Royal society.
By a fall from his horse, while riding for his health, he
was unfortunately killed, in _1766. The first great work
of Dr. Birch was " The General Dictionary, Historical and
Critical," wherein a new translation of that of the cele-
brated Mr. Bayle was included, and which was interspersed
with several thousand lives never before published. It was
m the year 1731, that Dr. Birch, in conjunction with some
31
other persons, agreed with the booksellers to carry on this
imjxirtant undertaking. The whole design was completed
in ten volumes, folio; the first of which appeared in 1731,
and the last in 1741. It is universally allowed that this
work contains a very extensive and useful body of biogra-
phical knowledge. We are not told what were the parti-
cular articles written by Dr. Birch ; but there is no doubt
of his having executed a great part of the Dictionary.
The next great design in which Dr. Birch engaged, was
the publication of " Thurlow's State Papers." This collec-
tion, which consists of seven volumes, in folio, came out
in the year 1742. In 1744, Dr. Birch published, in octavo,
" The Life of the Honorable Robert Boyle, Esq. ;" which
hath since been prefixed to the quarto edition of the works
of that excellent man and eminent philosopher. In 1751,
Dr. Birch published, in two volumes, octavo, "The Mis-
cellaneous Works of Sir WaUer Raleigh ;" to which was
prefixed the life of that great, unfortunate, and injured
man. The same year, he revised the quarto edition of
" Milton's Prose Works," and added a new lile of that
incomparable man.
What enabled Dr. Birch to go through such a variety of
undertakings, was his being a very early ri.ser ; whereby
he had executed the business of the morning before num-
bers of people had begun it. But with all this closeness
of application, he was not a solitary student. He was of
a cheerful and social temper, and entered much into con-
versation with the world. He was personally connected
with most of the literary men of his time, and with some
of them he maintained an intimate friendship.
Dr. Birch was entitled to that highest praise, of being a
good man, as well as a man of knowledge and learning.
His sentiments, with respect to subjects of divinity, were
rational and enlarged ; and he was a zealous friend to reli-
gious and civil liberty. His turn of thinking was similar
to that of the late bishop Hoadley ; and surely the wise
and liberal minded will not esteem it a dishonor to him,
that he had a conformity to the principles of that eminent
and excellent prelate. — Jones's Chr. Siog.
BIRDS ; one of the most beautiful and numerous class-
es of animated nature. A few introductory observations
may be permitted, before we proceed to describe the seve-
ral individuals that are presented to our notice, in review-
ing the ornithology of the Bible.
The common name for a bird in the Hebrew Scriptures,
is tzephur, the rapid mover, or harrier ; a name very ex-
pressive of these volatile creatures. A more general and
indefinite name is ouph, a flier ; but this appellation de-
notes every thing that flies, whether bird or insect. It is
frequently translated " fowl" in the English Bible. A
bird of pre)' is called oith, a rusher, from the impetuosity
with which it rushes upon its prey. In several of the pas-
sages where it occurs, our translators have rendered its
plural form by " fowls."
The first thing which claims our attention, is Ifeir struc-
ture of the feathered tribes. In a comparative vii w with
man, their formation seems much ruder and more imper-
fect ; and they are in general found incapable of .ne do-
cility even of quadnipeds. To these, however, tney hold
the next rank ; and far surpass fishes and insects, both in
the structure of their bodies, and in their sagacity.
In reference to the structure of birds of the most perfect
order, a few things demand our attention.
The whole body is shaped in the most convenient man-
ner for making its way through the air ; being, as Mr.
Ray observes, constructed very near Sir Isaac Newton's
form of least resistance. According to Barr, in his conti-
nuation of BufTon, " it is neither extremely ma.ssive, nor
equally substantial in all its parts ; but being designed to
rise in the air, is capable of expanding a large surface
without solidity. The body is sharp before, to pierce and
make its way through that element : it gradu.nlly increases
in bulk, till it has acquired its just dimensions, and falls
off in an expansive tail." The motion of birds being two-
fold, walking and flying, thej' are provided with legs, at
once wonderfully contrived to walk with, and raise them
like a spring for their flight ; wings to buoy them up, and
waft them along ; and a tail to keep them steady in the
air, assist them in their evolutions, and direct them in
their course.
BIR
[ 242 ]
BIR
Although the fi.-alhery covering of birds is admirably
Kmstructed for lightness and buoyancy, their wings are
furnished with a strength that is amazing ; and by these
they are enabled to impel themselves forward with an
inconceivable rapidity. To fit them the better for their
flight, the feathers are disposed in the most perfect order,
lying one way ; and, that they may glide more smoothly
along, they are furnished with a gland situated on the
rump, from which they occasionally press out oil with the
bill, and anoint the feathers.
Their beak or bill is a curious piece of art, formed of a
hard, horny substance, constructed in the most commodious
manner for piercing the air. Their ears stand not out
from their head to retard their flight ; and their eyes are
placed in such situations as to take in nearly a hemisphere
on either side.
Birds have no teeth to chew their food ; but those of the
granivorous kind are provided with two stomachs, in one
of which the victuals is softened and macerated before it
enters the other to be completely digested. Being often
employed in traversing the upper regions, where they
would be much incommoded did they bring forth their
young in the manner of quadrupeds, their mode of gene-
rating is wisely made to differ, and their offspring are pro-
duced by means of eggs. In the speedy growth of young
birds, by which they acquire a degree of strength and size,
so as to be able so soon to provide for themselves, we have
also an instance of the tender care of Providence.
What unseen power inspires these little creatures with
" the passion of the groves," at the most fit season for
forming their alliances ; that is, when the genial temper
of the weather covers the trees wuh leaves, the fields with
, grass, and'produces such swarms of insects for the support
of their future progeny? And how comes it to pass, that
no sooner is the connubial league formed, than the little
warblers immediately set about building their nests, and
making preparation for their tender offspring? In the
building of their nests, what art and ingenuity are dis-
played ! "Whether they are constructed from the collected
portions of clay and mortar, or from the more light mate-
rials of moss and straw, they contrive to mould them into
the most convenient forms, and to give them a durability
proportionate to their wants. Nor is the wonder less, that
birds of the same kind, however widely separated, should
all follow the same order of architecture, in the construc-
tion of their habitations : that each should make choice of
the situatiorf most suitable to its kind ; and that all should
agree in laying as many eggs as to be sufficient to keep
up their species, yet no more than they can conveniently
hatch and bring up.
In the incubation, with what patience do these little
creatures sit on their eggs when necessary, till the young
are ready to be hatched, and then howofficious in assisting
the little prisoners to escape! With what inimitable care
do they afterwards watch over and provide for their brood,
until it is capable of doing so for itself ; and with what
scrupulous exactness, during this period, do they distribute
to each its allotted portion of food !
The observations we have made are applicable to the
feathery tribe in general ; but when we turn to the pecu-
liarities of a few of the difi'erent species, we shall observe
that the wisdom and the goodness of God are no less con-
spicuous. How wonderful is the migration of some birds ;
or that surprising instinct by which " the stork in the hea-
vens knoweth her appointed times," and " the crane and
the swallow observe the time of their coming !" Jer. 8: 7.
These are a few of the proofs of the wisdom and good-
ness of God, Avhich this part of creation exhibits ; but, few
as they are, they are sufficient to excite our admiration,
and inspire us with sentiments of adoring gratitude to the
Author of all being.
The number of birds already known, amounts, we be-
deve, to between three and four thousand. To distinguish
the diflerent kinds from each other, and the varieties of
the same kind, when they happen to diifer, is a work of
great difficulty ; and perhaps the attainment, when made,
would not repay the labor. Linna;us divides all birds into
six elasses, n.imely ; birds of the rapacious Mricl— birds of
the pie kind — birds of the poultry Kind — birds of the sparrow
kind— hirds of the duck kind— and birds of the crane kind.
The first four compiehend the various kinds of lanj
birds ; the two last, those that belong to water.
From the Hebrew legislator, who had issued the strictest
injunctions on the subject of animals, clean and unclean,
we might naturally expect directions equally strict respect-
ing birds ; a class no less distinguished among themselves,
by their qualities and modes of life. But heie his animal
characteristics, derived from the feet, failed ; nor was it
easy to fix on marks which should, in every instance,
guide the learned and the unlearned to a right conclusion.
Hence there is not, in the Mosaic institutes, any reference
to conformation, as the means of distinguishing birds into
clean and unclean, lawful and unlawful ; a list of excep-
tions forms the sacred directory, and certain kinds are
forbidden, without a word concerning those that are al-
lowed.— Abbott's Scrip. Nat. History. ,
BIRTH, is taken for the natural descent of offspring
fi'om its parent : figuratively. New Bieth imports an en-
tire change of principles, manners, and conduct. See
Regeneration.
There have been great difficulties started, on the nature
of the instrument rendered stools in our translation, Exod.
1: 16. "And the king of Egj'pt said to the Hebrew mid-
wives. When ye do the office of a midwife to the Hebrew
women, and see them upon the stools, if it be a son, then
ye shall kill him ; but if it be a daughter, then she shall
live." Now the Hebrew word (abenim) rendered stool,
plainly signifies "a stone vessel for holding water," in
Exod. 7: 19. By referring the pronoun to the children,
therefore, the sense of the passage would be this : " When
you see the new-born children, for the purpose of being
washed, in the vessels of stor^e for holding water, ye shall
destroy the boys." Upon this subject Mr. Taylor remarks,
(1.) that this custom in relation to children is justified by
Eastern usages; (2.) that this destruction of boys (or
children) at their nativity is actually practised in the courts
of Eastern monarchs. Thevenot (Part ii. p. 9S) hints at
these maxims and practices : " The kings of Persia are so
afraid of being deprived of that power which they abuse,
and are so apprehensive of being dethroned, that they de-
stroy the children of their female relations, when they are
brmight to bed of boys, by putting them into an earthen trough,
where they suffer them to starve :" that is, we suppose,
under pretence of preparing to wash them, th'ey let them
pine away, or contrive to destroy them in the water.
Apply this to the situation of Israel in Egj'pt : it was
not every child, every son born throughout all Israel, as
well those in the country of Goshen as those in the city of
Mizraim, that was included in the directions of Pharaoh ;
but those of the chiefs, the principals ; for, had Pharaoh
thus treated all Israel, he had undoubtedly raised a rebel-
lion ; he had diminished his stock of slaves, which was his
property ; whereas, the depriving that people of chiefs
answered his purpose equally well. He acted much ac-
cording to the custom of his own court and seraglio, and
did not very greatly extend it, except by including a dis-
tinct race, and a sojourning people. These considerations
coincide with the idea previously suggested, that Moses
and Aaron were of note and rank, among the Israelites,
by birth and by natural condition ; and they agree per
fectly with the account of Josephus, who relates that the
birth of Moses was predicted, as of a child who should
wear the crown of Pharaoh, taking it from him : that is
Pharaoh feared some illustrious youth would rise up to
destroy him, and to deliver Israel, which fear became his
torment.
These extracts serve to illustrate the conduct of Herod ;
first, toward his own sons, (see Herod,) secondly, toward
the infants of Bethlehem : for, if the kings of Persia de-
stroy the infants of their own relations, and if the king of
Egypt, fearing the birth of Moses, was peculiariy jealous
and vigilant, where is the wonder, that Herod destroyed
the infants of Bethlehem, under the idea, that among them
was concealed a pretender to his crown ? He did no more
than was approved and practised in the East in such
cases ; nay, perhaps he might applaud his own clemency
in that he did not destroy the parents also, with their elder
offspring, but only infants entering on their second year.
In confirmation of the proposition, that the children, not
the mothers, were washed in the stone vessels containing
BIR
[ 243
BIS
water, Mr. Taylor has given in his Fragments an engrav-
ing from an ornamental basso relievo on a sepulchral urn,
which shows a midwife in the act of placing a new-born
infant in a vessel, apparently of the same nature, and for
the same purpose, as the Hebrew abeiiim : her intention
is, evidently, to wash the child ; while the mother sits in
an enfeebled attitude, looking on. An attendant holds a
capacious sivatlier, to receive the child after washing; and
Ihe notice of the time of the child's birth, and perhaps its
horoscope, occupies a female, who stands behind, and who
inscribes it with a sli/lus on a globe. This representation,
he remarks, proves that children were committed to the
midwife for the purpose of being washed; Pharaoh might
therefore say to the Hebrew midwives, or to those Egyp-
tian women who were midwives to the Hebrew women, as
was the opinion of Josephus, " When you are engaged in
washing the Israelite infants, if they be boys, contrive to
drown them in the water." This order not succeeding to
his mind, he directed his officers to seize, and to drown by
force, whatever young Israelites (boys) they could lay
their hands on.
The ancients bestowed considerable attention on the
washing of a new-born infant; and, indeed, it was in
some degree ceremonious. " The Lacedemonians,''' says
Plutarch, in his Life of Lycurgus, " washed the new-horn
infant in tviite. (principally, no doubt, persons of property,)
meaning thereby to strengthen the infant ;" but generally
they washed the child in water ; warmed, perhaps, in
Greece ; cold, perhaps, in Egypt ; or according to the sea-
son. We see, then, that the washing of a child newly born
was a business of some consideration : how easily, there-
fore, did the hearers, and readers of Christ and his apostles
comprehend the phrase "the nmshing of n generation i^^ or
of " the new birth."
Mr. Taylor's engraving suggests another subject of in-
quiry, respecting the swaddling clothes appropriate to in-
fants; an article but imperfectly known by us. Our
translation has, els it may be thought somewhat unhappily,
used the term srraildling bands ; which implies a number
of small pieces — narrow rolls — strips — bands : but the true
import of the word is, more probably, that of a large cloth,
or wrapper; such as the female figure in the engraving
holds up, extended, ready to receive the child ; an enve-
lope of considerable capacity and amplitude.
The idea may be applied to an occun'ence in the New
Testament ; of the propriety of which application the
reader will judge with candor. " The virgin mother
brought forth her son, the first-born ; and she enveloped
him in an ample swaddling robe, such as befitted, at least
in some degree, the heir of David's bouse ; and she took
that kind of care of him which persons in competent cir-
cumstances take of their new-born infants." If this be a
fact, observe, how it became a sign to the shepherds : " You
shall find the babe wrapped in a handsome swaddling cloth
— though lying in a manger." For aught we know, they
might have found in Bethlehem, theo crowded to excess,
a dozen or a score of infants lying in mangers ; but none
with those contradictory marks of dignity and indignity ;
of noble descent, and of personal inconvenience ; of re-
spectable station, and of refuge-taking poverty. — Calmet.
BIRTH-RIGHT, or Primogeniture, was the right of
the first-born or eldest son, to take the precedence of his
brethren. In ancient times, and particularly among the
Hebrews, many privileges were annexed to the right of
primogeniture. The first-born son was consecrated to the
Lord. Exod. 22: 29. To him belonged " the excellency
of dignity and the excellency of power," Gen. 49: 3. Ho
had a double portion of the estate allotted him, Deut. 21:
17, and, in the royal families, succeeded to the government
of the kingdom. 2 Chron. 21: 3. The right of primoge-
niture, and the privileges belonging to it, might, neverthe-
less, be forfeited by improper conduct, and consequently
transferred from an elder to a younger brother, as we see
was actually done by Isaac in the case of his two sons,
Esau and Jacob. The apostle terms Esau "a profane
person, who for one morsel of meat, sold his birth-right,"
Heb. 12: K,. And in Gen. 27: 37, we are informed how
the patriarch Isaac transferred the privileges of his birth-
right to his brother Jacob. " And Isaac answered and
said unto Esau. Behold T have made him thy lord, and all
his brethren have I given to him for servants ; and with
corn and wine have I sustained him." Hence it appears
that to confer the dominion or rule on anyone, is to consti-
tute him the first-born. See Ps 89: 27.
A proper attention to what has been now remarked is
necessary, to lead us into the meaning of much that is said
in the apostolic writings respecting the dignity which was
conferred upon Christ, as the head of his body, the church,
when he was raised from the dead, and for the sufferings
of death crowned with glory and honor. He is tennttt the
" first-born," or " first begotten from the dead," and " the
heir of all things," Col. I: 18. Rev. 1: 5. Heb. 1: 2. The
Father, by raising him from the dead and exalting him to
the throne of his glory in the heavens, is said to have con-
stitiUed him " both Lord and Christ," Acts 2: 3li, " Lent)
OF ALL," chapter 10: 3(5, which is equivalent to his being
" heir of all things ;" and it imports his supreme dominion
as the lord, proprietor, ruler, and disposer of all persons
and things ; all power and authority bemg given unto him
both in heaven and on earth. Matt. 28: 18. Hence it is
said, '■' The Father lovelh the Son, and hath given all
things into his hands," John 3: 33. Christ, considered in
reference to his divine nature, M'as "before all things,"
Col. 1: 17, and '• had glory with the Father before the
world was made," John 17: 5. He in the beginning wa?
with God, and was God, by whom all things were made
Jolm 1: 1. He is said to have existed "in the form <•'
God," and to have " thought it no robbery to be equal
with God," Phil. 3; 0, but he emptied himself of the form
or majesty of Deity ; took tipon him a mortal body ; wa?
made, for a little while, lower than the angels, for the suf
feringsof death, and to accomplish our salvation, humbled
himself, even to the death of the cross. Phil. 2: 8. Heb.
2: 9, 10, 14. This is that obedience of the Savior's which
was so acceptable in the sight of his heavenly Father, John
10; 17, in which he is represented as delighting, Eph. 5:
2, and as rewarding, by conferring upon his Son, " domi-
nion and glory, and a kingdom, that all people, nations,
and languages, should serve him," Dan. 7: 14, Heb. 1: 2 —
4, having put all things under his feet. 1 Cor. 16: 27.
All the angels of God are now his subjects, and are com-
manded to worship him. 1 Pet. 3: 22. Heb. 1: fi. All
the redeemed company are his heritage, his peculiar people.
1 Pet. 5: 3. Titus 2; 14. They are his brethren to whom
he stands related as the first-born among them. Eom. 8;
29. He is their head, their Lord, and their lawgiver ; the
object of their love, worship, and obedience. He is also
the dispenser of all spiritual blessings ; for " it hath pleas-
ed the Father that in Him should all fulness dwell," Co!.
1: 19. And not to enlarge further, he is '■ heir of llie hea-
venly inheritance," for it is in his right, and as joint-heirs
with him that all his redeemed brethren obtain it. Luke
22: 29. Col. 3: 14. Rom. S: 17.— Jones.
BISHOP,* (Gr. epislvpos ;) an overseer, superiiitauliit, or
inspector. The English word comes immediately IVoji llie
Saxon, bisclwp, which is only a derivative of the Greek.
I. In the New Testament it is once applied to Ciu■i^t,
(1 Pet. 2: 25.) but in every other passage is spoken of mcu
who have the oversight of Christ's Hock. Because the
same men are called both bishops and presbyters or elders,
the inference has been drawn by the advocates of a pai;ty
in the ministerial office, that this community of iin.vic m-
dicated community of ofice and authority. The reverse
of this however appears from the fact, that over tlie per-
sons called indifferently elder, presbyter and bishop, an
office will be found of oversight and authority hel-l by
Timothy and Titus, and direclionshow to discharge it, and
a strict injunction to Timothy, " the same commit thou to
faithful men who shall be able to teach others also." In
the church of Ephesus, there were ministers thus called,
before Timothy was fixeu there, as may be seen from Acts
20. If those ministers had tiie power of ordination, it
would not have been necessary to set Timothy over that
church in order to exercise these very powers. (See Orci-
NATioN.) Similar to the authority which Timothy possess-
ed at Ephesus was that which was exercised by Titus over
* The article which appeared under this lie.ad in the fir?^ edition of
this wnrit not beinor aalislaclorv to Episcop-ili-ans, the Rcr. I\Ir. Biy-tnlj
of New York, hii furnished the following argument for Episooixicy,
BI S
[ S44 ]
BIS
the island of Crete, which is represented as very populous,
and famous in history for its hundred cities. In every
one of these Titus was authorized by St. Paul to " ordain
elders, and set in order the things that are wanting."
The fact is, that during the lives of the apostles, the three
orders of the ministry were distinguished by the names
of apostles ; bishops, presbyters or elders ; and deacons.
After the death of the apostles, their successors in the first
order of the ministry, not choosing to retain the name
which by way of eminence had been applied to the twelve,
took the name of bishops, which was never afterwards
appUed to the secaiid order of the ministry, but was con-
sidered as the appropriate name of the first order. Theo-
doret says expressly, that " in process of time those who
succeeded to the apostolic otTice left the name of apostle
to the apostles strictly so called, and gave the name of
bishop to those who succeeded to the apostolic office."
Thus the narne of bishop and that of elder or presbyter,
which were promiscuously used for the same office in
Scripture, came to be distinct in the ecclesiastical use of
words, as the offices were from the beginning. Bishops,*
as they are distinct from presbyters, do not derive their
succession from those who are promiscuously called in the
New Testament bishops or elders, but from the apostles
themselves, and their successors, such as Timothy, Titus,
Silvanus, Epaphroditus, &c.
II. Episcopacy, according to the views of Episcopalians,
is the divine constitution of the Christian church in the
first order of her ministry.
In the preface to the ordinal of the Church of England,
and of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United
States, it is declared as " evident unto all men diligently
reading Holy Scripture and ancient authors, that from the
apostles' time there have been these orders of ministers
in Christ's church, bishops, priests and deacons." In the
ofiice of making deacons, in that of ordaining priests, and
in that of consecrating bishops, the same truth is solemnly
declared in the supplications to Almighty God, who is
addressed as having by his divine providence and Holy
Spirit instituted divers orders of ministers in his church,
and bishops, priests and deacons are enumerated as these
orders. An external commission, conveyed by episcopal
consecration or ordination, is considered necessary to
constitute a lawful rainistn', and il is therefore in the
ordinal declared that no man shall be accounted or taken
to be a lawful bishop, priest, or deacon in this church, or
suffered to execute any of said functions, unless he has
had episcopal consecration or ordination ; and the power
of ordaining, setting or laj-ing hands upon others is vest-
ed in the bishops.
The proof of this solemn and offtciat declaration is, 1st.
from Scripture. ■' Paul and Timotheus," the one an apos-
tle, the other having the episcopal power of ordination, ad-
dress themselves as servants of Jesus Christ to all the
saints which are at Pbilippi, with the " bishops," then the
interchangeable name of presbyters or elders, " and the
deacons." Here are certainly three orders. The apostle
Paul, writing to Timothy, who is elsewhere termed an
apostle, (compare 1 Thess. I: 1, with 2: 6.) also gives
him particular directions as to an order of ministers whom
he calls bishops, (the same who in another place are called
elders or presbyters,) and also as to an order inferior to
them, whom he calls deacons. Here also there are to be
observed three orders of ministers. That of these three
orders bishops were superior, is very evident in the cases
of Timothy and Titus. Presbyters or elders had been
already ordained at Ephesus and Crete. Had they the
power of ordination ? No : but Timothy and Titus are
sent there for the express purpose of laying on hands, of
ordaining to the ministry. It is alleged by some, that
Timothy and Titus were extraordinary officers and held
**' Concerning the signification of the wonl bisliop," says the judi-
cious Hoolcer, " it is clearly tinlnie that no other thing is thereby
signified but only an oversight in respect of a particular church antt
congregation r for, I beseech yon. of what pariah or particular congre-
gation was Matthias bishop? His office Scripture doth term episco-
pal, which being no other tn.an was common unto all the apostles of
Christ, forasmuch as in that uumlier there is not any to whom the
oversight of many pastors did not belong by force and virtue of thai
olBce, it foUoweth that the very word doth sometimes, even in Scripture,
signify an oversight such aa includeth cliargs over pastors them-
selves."
this power as evangeliatd. But presbyters and deacons were also avail'
gelista. If then the powers of Timothy and Tilus ceased wilii them be-
cause they were evangelists, for the same reason ceased the power*
of the presbyters and deacons. Thus, in destroying Iheir episcopal
poWer, these writers would also destroy the Christian ministry. Again,
it is said thai St. Paul's charge to Timothy implies Ihal presbylerff
had the power of ordination. " Neglect nol the gifl that is in thee,
which was given Ihee by prophecy, wilh ihe laying on of the hands of
the presbytery. '' Bui he also says in his second epistle, " Stir up the
gift of God, which is in Ihee by the putting on of my hands."
St. Paul then ordained Timothy, it would hence appear, with the
concurrence of the presbytery ; and thai their concurrence was intend-
ed to express approbation, and not to conveij authoriltj, seems evident
from the phraseology, " by the putting on of my hands,''—" trith iha
laying on of the hands of the presbytery.''
In the Church of England, and in the Protestant Episcopal Chorcti
In the United Stales, this concurrence is still observed.
III. If from Scripluro proof we proceed to Ihe historical proof of
episcopacy, we shall find the declaration of the ordtoal fully eslablisli-
ed. ^ ^
The writimrs of Ignatius abourvd throughout with testimonies. To the
Trallians he says, " He that is within the allar is pure, but he that isf
without, thai is. does any thing without the bishop and presbyters and
deacons, is nol pure in his conscience." To the Smyrneans, '■ Let no
man do any thins of what belongs to the church without the bishop."
IrenEeus says, " We can reckon up those whom the apostles ordained
to be bisliops in the several churches, and who they were that succeed-
ed them, to ourtimes." Clemens of Alexandria thus enumerales the
three orders of the ministry : " There are other precepts without num-
ber, some which relate to presbyters, others which belong to bishops,
others respecting- deacons." Terlullian, writing of baptism, asserts,
" Tlie power of baptizing is lodged in the bishops, and that il may he
also exercised by presbyters and deacons, but nol wilhoul the bishop's
commission."
Origen, commenting on that petition, " forgive us our debts, thus
writes : " Besides these there is a debt due to widows who are niaintamea
by the church, another to the deacons, another to the presbyelers, and
another to bishops, which is the greatest of all, and exacted by the
church." Cyprian, whose epistles are many of them addressed to lh»
presbvtets and deacons, in his 32d episUe writes, " When otir Ljord^
whos^ precepts we ousht to follow, was setUing the honors of hra bishop,
and the regimen of his church, we find him speaking thus lo Peter : ' 1
say unto theo that thou art Peter,' &c. From thence in a regnlar succes-
sion downwartfe, wedate lire ordination of bishops, and the course of ec-
clesiastical administrations, so as that we understood the church lo he
settled upon her bishops. The deacons onght no more lo allempl any
thing against bishops by whom deacons are made, than deacons should
aimmst God who makes bishops."
"To add authorities would be unnecessary. One fact is however worthy
of consideration— that there is no ancient ecclesiastical writer extant
who does nol speak of certain individuals as bishops of particular
churches ; for mstance, Ignatius, bishop of Antioch ,• Polycarp, bishop
of Smyrna ; or wfio mentions as cotcmporary with them in their par-
ticular churches any other bishops. This uniformity is not to be ex-
plained, but on the principle tlul there was in each of those churches
some one individuJd supreme in the powers of ordination and govern-
ment, on whom was bestowed the title of bishq). It is proper in this
place to make a distinction between the minislers and gorernmeiu of
the church properly so called. Thjajiiislry is of divme conslilulion,
in the three orders of bishop, prieafWd deacons. But the government
of the church is of human regulatiofl, susceptmie of such modifications
as circumstances may render advisable. Offices may be organized ; the
mode in which her ministers are invested wilh jurisdiction may bo va-
ried; the constitution of her legislative, executive and judiciary powers
may assume such organization .as expediency may dictate. '" I may se-
curely " (savs Hooker.) " therefore conclude Ihal there are at this day
in the Church of England no other than the same degrees of ecclesias-
tical orders, namely, bishops. pri»sts, and deacons, which had their bc-
ginninc from CHirist and his Ijlessed apostles themselves. As for deans,
prebendaries, parsons, vicars, curates, arcMracons, and such like names
bein? not found in the Scriptures, we have been thereby, through some
men's errors Ihoti'ht to allow ecclesiastical degrees nol known nor ever
heard of in the better ages of fonuer times. All tbesn are in trulh but
lilies of office, whereunio partly ecclesiastical persons and partly others
are in sundry forms and conditions admilled, as the stole of the church
doth need, degrees of order stiH remaining the same they Were from the
besinning." , ,_, ,t , u-„u
We conclude with a challenge from the matchless Hooker— which,
as has been well remarked, has remained two hundred years unan-
swered •— " We require yon 10 find oul but one church upon the face
of the whole earlh that hath not been ordered by episcopal regiment
since the lime that the blessed apostles were here conversant" And
though departures from it, <says bishop Doane,) since the time of which
he spoke have been but too frequent and loo great, '■ episcopal regi-
ment" is still maintained as Christ's ordinance for the perpetuation and
governmeni of his church, and is received as such by eleven Iwtjlflba
of the whole Christian world.
ANTf-EPISCOPAL AEGtmENT.
It is now generally conceded, that there is no distinction
made in the New Testament between bishops and elders
or presbyters.* The terms are used interchangeably.
* In a celebrated work, " The Institution of the Christian Man,"
approved expressly by archbishop Cranmer, bishops Jewell, miller,
and Stillingfleel, and the main boilv of the English clergy, together
with the king and parliament, it is declared, " In the Ne\y Testament
there is no menlion of any other degrees but deacons or ministers, ana
presbyters or bishops." The celebrated Hooker, the ablest advocate,
by far, of episcopacy, says, "The necessity of polity and regimen in all
churches may be believed, whhoul holding any one certain form to be
necessary in them all. And the general principles are such as do not
particularly describe any one; but sundry fotins of disripUne may bo
BIS
L 'ii^ 1
BIS
Bishop Onderdonk, in his " Episcopacy tested by Scripture," 42, 45 and tne parallel pas
favs "the name bishop, which now designates the highest of James and John when
?rade in the ministry, is not appropriated to this office m perior power and dignity
42, 45 and tne parallel passage ; and our Lord's reproa
■ - • ■ they sought an office of sii
t^e ''^i:^;"r:eisivr7r't:^r<x :. sr w^e^e^u; ^ce4-of jh: t:.^. 't;^.
freTbvters rtlders) and «Hrt«( «-e ««./.« rte iVo. Testa- together, no more than two classes are ever spoken of,
^^Itconc^rnbTbillosxstobl regarded as pertaining to and Peter and John certainly styled .hcmselves exp hciily
hvtPrs or elders a second grade ; and deacons a third, tions of ecclesiastical officers more extensively tban is
Tomaintain this ground it must be shown, 1. That the done in any other part ol the New Testament, we find
Jec«««% of Ihe f^ost^es- office was, that they exclusively no officers -ntioned^but_b,shops__or__eMers._^and ^deac<.n..
office and powers to others- 3. That there has been an fice. (2.) There ,s no intimation tnai it wouiaue so uan>-
««i«f.rr««*6ruccessir of such officers to the present milted, no directions (as m the case ot other officers) as to
Wshops ^ Faitog to estab ish either of these poin\s, it is the qualifications and duties of such otScers and no exi.or-
Hp,rU fatal to their cause But tation to ministers or churches to submit to them. (..Oil
"T't e'^ommiss'oTinXt. 28"i9, 20 is plainly given was ™p«««e that the ^P-f-/7,''[/^^;„^-b;:" -e'/
to all ministers, to the end of the world, and conveys the transmitted. (See Apostle.) 4.) It cannot be pro^^^^^
same authority to all. ""ough often affirmed, that Timothy and Tiius were pre
The verv same duties are assigned to all ministers in latical bishops.* „,.,.. ,v. „ „.=
the New Testament. Episcopalians deny this in refer- JIT. But admitting all that ,s claimed oti hese points
ence to ordination and discipline. In 1 Tim. 3: 2, 4 and by the advocates of episcopacy, there is "°t ^fe sligh est
5, " a bishop must be one that ruleth well his own house ; " reason to believe that the superior office (of I 'shops) has
oherwise"how shall he take care of the church?" 1 been uninterruptedly transmitted to the present incum-
Tim T- 17 "lit the elders who rule well be counted wor- bents. The chief ground relied on to prove the succes-
thy of double honor," &c. Here ruling is as expressly sion is the testimony ot the lathers. But this testimony is
assigned to elders as bishops : and this is the only place not deserving of the credit sometimes given to it. For,
wh re ruling is expressly assigned to a bishop. (1.) those who have testified on this subject have given
Ordination (see article Oruination) is spoken of as hav- erroneous testimony on other subjects.f (2.) The « orUs
ing been exercised both hy the apostles, Acts 6: 6. 13: 3. of several of the fathers have been corrupted and partially
U-^-^ ^ni bu the nnsb,iters*\ Tim. i:U. The only case lost. Mosheim says of Ignatius' wntings. (often appealed
'awMch orinaio'ican pisslbly be ascribed to any per- to m this controversy) "the ati.henticity of the epistle
son who w^as a bishop in the modern sense, is 1 Tim. to Folycarp is extremely doubtful, and the qi e t on con-
5- 22, and this depends wholly on the supposition that cerning all his epistles involved m much obscurity and
Timothy was such a bishop, which cannot be proved. It many difficulties." (3.) The testimony of the fainers
isTpropeTexhortation to a presbyter, and is often used does not establish the d.stmcnon in the clergy contended
at m'l,dern ordinations. Timothy was himself ordained for ;t but Iren^eus, the best witness, par icularly tesufie.s
bv the presbytery, and of course was no more than a that ministerial power is presbytenan, not episcopal. (4.;
common nre^bvter The succession, if traced at all. must be through the church
But on the power of ordination, as well as of discipline, of Rome,^ a precarious and uncomfortable ground ol
the Scriptures lay very little stress. Ordaining is men- Christian confidence. That any powers o a ^mne na-
tioned but nine times, and in all cases but two, incidental- ture passed through such impure hands, « ill be slo« ly ad-
Iv ruling six times, and without a hint of its peculiar mitted by a man of piety. (5.) The ordination ol Lng-
consequence. Preaching (the duty of presbyters) is ex- lish bishops cannot be traced up to the church of Home.]
hibited as the great and important duty of a minister, and
ordination and ruling powers as altogether inferior. In 1
Tim. 5: 17, superior honor is given to those who preach,
on account of the superiority of their employment. Of
course the peculiar powers claimed for bishops (the al-
leged superior officers) are far below those assigned to
presbyters (the inferior officers !)
It is important also to observe, particularly, 1st. The
manner in which ministers are spoken of in Mark 10:
enually consistent trilh the general axioms of Scripture." Dr. Rey-
nolds professor of divinity at Oxford, Eng., declares that all who
tailored for five hundred years before his time, thought that " all pastore,
whether entitled bishops or priests, have equal power and authority bij
the word of God;" and this he declares to be the common judgment
of the reformed churches in Switzerland, Savoy, France, Germany,
Hungary, Poland, Netherlands, Scotland and England, embracing the
frhoh Protestant toorld. Dr. Holland, king's professor of divinity at
Oxford, says " that to affirm the office of bishop to be different from
lliat of presbyter is false and contrary to Scripture, the fathers, and to
the doctrines of the church of England." Bishop Bumet acknowledges
the same thin". The London Christian Observer, the leading Episco-
pal periodical in England, said in 1S04, " Episcopalians found not the
merits of their cause upon any express injunction
ecclesiastical government in the Scriptures, for there is none. -
* In 1 Tim. 4: 14 is a clear case of presbyterian, or congregational
ordination. " Neglect not the gift that is in thee, which was given thee
by prophecy, with iIk laving on of the hands of tiK presbi/tery" (or
. _.r_.Li_ .^.ij \ Ti il.« n,.»«K,,tarir l„i(1 nn ihpir hnnfis and nore
shops
* That Timothy i
Ephesus. is nowhen
vas ever sole and permanent bishop or diocesan of
,declaredin theNcwTostimcnl. Tlie suhscriptiof
al'the close of 2 Tim. is admitted on all hands not to have been inspir
ed, and is of no authority. The same remarks .apply
Titus. But Dr. Hoadley asks, " Why wer
manded to ordain elders ?" It does not ap
reason of Timothy's being at Ephesus. N
suuod rejsidence in wliat are claimed to hav
Timothv and Titus CODI-
!ar that this was the chief
iher he or Tilus had any
Both
the
ade a tcmpnrar
5 duties of a presliyt
1 the respective places, and there e
i.cnTiu^ testifies th;\t Linus was made bishop of Rome by Paul and
Peter- and after him Anaclotus: and after him Clement. Tertultian
says that Clement w.i.s first bishop of Rome, after the death of Peter
and Paul. He also says lh.it Pcler was first liishop of Antioch. A?ain,
that Euodias was first bishop of Antioch. Jfrome says that Pelel
s;il at Rome twenlv-fivs years, till the last year of Nero. Ag-ain, tha»
I''natius was third 'bishop of Antioch after Peter. This shows that, ei
cept as la facts passing under their oirn eyes, the fathers are not to bi
relied on, "they received traditionary accounts so loosely.
I The bishop of whom Ignatius speaks, w-as pastor of a sinfli
church, and perfoi-mcd all the ordinary duties of a minister. He ex
hor^ Polycarp to preach, to see that widow-s were not neglected. t(
know all his parishioners, even man and maid servants, and to insptc"
every marriage. Ha speaks of the bishops of the church in Magnesia
in the plural number. Jerome says " a presbyl/r is the same as bishop,
delineation of and originally the churches were governed by tlie joint council of ths
mne " presbyters." A»ain, "llic .bishops know that they are grealer than
presbyters, rathe'r by custom than by real appoinlmeit
Tertuilian says, "elders preside
mbly of elders.) Here the presbytery laid on their hands and bore
a material part in the transaction. In vain will Episcopalians say the
presbytery were present, not to convey authority, but for concurrence.
Imposition of hands alw-ays denotes conferring some gift. But, say
they, from Paul was derived the rirti;eof the act, ("by the puuing on
of mi/ hands," 2 Tim. 1: 6.) That Paul assisted there is no doubt;
but that he took any superior part, there is no proof One text is as
Btrong as the other, and the only mode of reconciling the two is to
understand Paul and the presliyters to have h.ad an equal and joint all those o™n^'^^=.5_^™^[J ^J"/
agency in the transaction ' ' " " ...... --^ .„.
: presbyters of Alexandri
1 hundred years." These exl -.-ici
of the word " with '
L the other, there cannot ho shown to be any e3.sen-
i the meamng or forc.e.
of hands, and ordination.'
ordained their bishop for m
might be enlarged. . ^ ,.
§ There were in the church of Rome at one lime four ponlitT;. who
all denounced each other as usurpers. It is not agreed who were the
first seven bishops of Rome. Eusebius himself acknowledges it is no
easy matter to tell who succeeded the apostles. Contesttnl eleciious in
ly every considerable city, and decrees of councils r^nderin? nuu
-aere any simoniacal contract exislM, rentier n
doubtful who were true bishops, and impossible to prove thai any pennon
on earth is a legal or line.al successor to the apostles.
I Doddridg
'refera to' Jones' and Boda's Eccla«i»«-'c.al Hl<to:y to
BIT
[ 210
BLA
That a distinction in the ministry was introduced early
Rfter the apostolic age is admitted. But it appears to
have been of human origin, and to have taken place
gradually. See articles Episcopacy ; Archbishop ; Cho-
REpiscopi ; Diocf.se ; Metropolitan ; Patriakch ; Pri-
mate ; Sdffragan ; Translation, k^c- Dtvight's Theolo-
gy; IVorlaof Dr. J. M. Maso,i.,vo\.m.; Christian Spec-
tator for March 1834 and 1835 ; Episcopacy examined and
re-examined, published at the Episcopal press, New York ;
and works mentioned under Episcopacy.
BISSELL, (JosiAH,) a generous philanthropist of this
country, was the .son of deacon Josiah Bissell. About the
year 1814 or 1815, he was one of a number of young men,
who removed from Piitsfield, Mass., to the new town of
Rochester, N. Y. The increa.se in the value of the land
which he had purchased made him rich ; but his wealth
he very liberally employed in promoting the various bene-
volent operations of the age. He expended many thou-
sands of dollars. Were his example followed by the rich,
the face of the world would soon be renewed. At great
expense, he was the principal promoter of the " Pioneer"
line of stages, so called, which did not run on Sunday, and
which was established for the sole purpose of preventing
the desecration of that holy day. His piety was ardent ;
his courage unshaken by the calumnies and revilings of
men who preferred gain to godliness. A.s he had lived for
Christ, he died in the triumphs of faiih, early in April,
1831, aged forty years. When told that he would soon
die, he said, " Why should I be afraid to die ? The Lord
knows, I have loved his cause more than all things else;
I have wronged no man ; I possess no man's goods ; I am
at peace with all men ; I have peace, and trust, and con-
fidence ; I am ready, witling, yea, anxious to depart."
When told the next day, that lie was better, he said, "I
desire to go; my face is set." "Tell my children to
choose the Lord Jesus Christ for their portion, and to
serve him better than I have done. Say to the church, —
Go on gloriously. Say to impenitent sinners,— If they
wish to know the value of reUgion, look at a dying bed "
—Allen.
BITE. Angrily to contend with and injure others is
called by St. Paul a biting of them ; it is learned from the
old serpent, it manifests malice, and spreads a destructive
infection. Gal. 5: 25. (See Backbiting.) Divine judg-
ments are sometimes compared to the hite of a serpent, to
indicate their suddenness, sharpness, and destructive pow-
er. Eccl. 10:8. Jer.8: 17. Hab. 2: 7. For the like rea-
son, wim, when for a long lime used to excess, liiics liU a
serpent, and stings like an adder. Prov 23- 32
BITHYNIA; (I Pet. I: 1 ) a province of Asia Minor,
m the northern part of that peninsula ; on the shore of the
The Jlischna in Pcsachim, cap. 2, reckons five species of
these hitler herbs: 1. Clvazareth, taken for lettuce; 2.171-
sin, supposed to be endive or succory; 3. Tamca, proba-
bly lan.sy : 4. Charubbmim, which Bochart thought might
be the nettle, but Scheuchzer shows to be the camomile ;
5. Meror, the sow-thistle, or dent-de-lion, or wild lettuce.
Mr. Forskal says, " the Jews in Sana and in Egypt eat
the lettuce with the paschal lamb." He also remarks,
that moru is centaury, of which the young steins are eaten
in February and March. — Watson.
BITTERN ; a singular bird, about the size of the com-
mon heron, but differing from it greatly in the color of its
plumage. The crown of the head is black, with a black
spot also on each side about the angle of the mouth ; the
back and upper part are elegantly variegated with differ-
ent colors, black, brown, and gray, in beautiful arrange-
ment. This species of bird is common only in fen coun-
tries, where it is met with skulking about the reeds and
sedge ; and its usual posture is with the head and neck
erect, and the beak pointed directly upwards. It permits
persons to approach near to it, without rising. It flies
principally towards the dusk of the evening, and then
rises in a very singular manner, by a spiral ascent, till
quite out of sight. It makes a curious noise when among
the reeds, and a very different, though sufficiently singu-
lar one, as it rises on the wing in the lught. See Wil-
loughby's Ornithology.
Isaiah, foretelling the destruction, of Babylon, says, " I
will make it a possession for the bittern, and pools of
water." Isa. 14:23. And Zephaniah prophesying against
Nineveh, says, " The flocks shall lie down in the midst of
her ; all the beasts of the nations, both the cormorant and
the bittern, shall lodge in the upper lintels of it ; their
voice shall sing in the windows." Zeph. 2: 14. — Jones.
BLACKBURNE, (Francis,) a theologian, was born
at Richmond, in Yorkshire, in 1705, and was educated at
Cambridge. In 1750, he was made archdeacon of Cleve-
land. He was a friend to religious liberty, and hostile to
confessions of faith. On this subject he was deeply in
volved in controversy. The most celebrated of his per-
formances on it is the Confessional, which appeared in
1776. His works have been collected in six volumes oc-
tavo. He died in 1787. — Davenport.
BLACKLOCK, (Thomas,) a divine and poet, was born
at Annan, in Dumfries, in 1721, and lost his sight by the
small pox, when he w'as only six months old. To amuse
and instruct him, his father and friend used to read to him,
and by this means he acquired a fund of information, and
even some knowledge of Latin. At the age of twelve, he
began to versify, and his devotion to the muses was con-
tinued through life. Considering his circumstances, his
FiiTino tnTr;r,,T PK,-,r„- J r. 1 • u ■■^•-'^^'"y tinucd tlirough liie. Lonsiuenng his circumstances, ms
r-uxme, having rhrvgia and Galatia to the south. It is u . ■. u . j- i . .u ■ ■> r
fimnnc ao hoin™ n„a ,ci, '■•a'l.i lu uii. . uaui. ills poenis have great meiit. He studied at the university of
lamous as being one of the provinces to whr.h the anostle i-j_u l r _ ._ j i.- :_ .t ■.:?__-
„ ' provinces to whi'.h the apostle
Peter addressed his first epistle ; also, as having been un-
der the government of Pliny, who describes the manners
and characters of the Christians there, about A. D. 106;
also for the holding the most celebrated council of the
Christian church in the city of Nice, its metropolis, about
A. D. 325. It should seem to be, with some justice, con-
sidered as a province taught by Peter ; and we read (Acts
lb: 7.) that when Paul attempted to go into Bithynia, the
Spirit suffered him not. It is directly opposite to Constan-
tinople.— Ca'met.
BITTERNESS, waters of. (See Adultery )
BITTER HERBS, (merurim.) Exod. 12: 8, and Num.
9: It. The Jews were coiumandel to eat their passover
with a salad of bitter herbs ; but wheiher one particular
plant was intended, or any kind of bitter herbs, has been
made a question. By the Septuagint it is rendered epi
pikndon ; by Jerome, " am lactitcis agreslibus ; and by the
Gr. Venet., epi pikrisin. Dr. Geddes^ remarks, that " it is
highly probable that the succory or wild lettuce is meant."
the year Gr>?, the siircessora to AustJQ
-.1 m En?lanil, hy fir tlie greater part of
dination, by Airtan and Fiiian, who came
and were noUiinj more Ihan presbvters;
,. , „ „ . • ices were conycrtoil by them, (/lev OTorfE
6isAiM." Z3a,.r/ers.a.ys, remarking nn the testimony of Bede,
-You will find that the English had a snrrcssicn of bishops by the
Scotttsk prr.ih,/lKrs' orihnntion. and there i« ns mention in Beda of
any scruple .if I'n lawftdness of the cwrao."
lubitantialc the fact. " that
ihe monk bein^ almn-^t e^l
%he iTi^h-tpi w-tre of Scottish
out of th-; Culdee monaster
though when the northern princes
Edinburgh for ten years, and his progress in the sciences
was very considerable. He was ordained minister of
Kircudbright, but, being opposed by the parishioners, he
retired on an annuity, and rec"eived students at Edinburgh
as boarders, and assisted them in their studies. Besides
liis poems, he is the author of some theological works, and
an article on the education of the blind ; the latter was
printed in the Encyclopfedia Britannica. He died in July,
1791, regretted by all his friends. — Davenport.
BLACKJIAN, (Ad.am,) first minister of Stratford, Conn.,
■was a preacher in Leicestershire and Derbyshire, England.
After he came to this country, he preached a short time
at Scituate, and then at Guilford ; in 1640, he was settled
at Stratford, where he died in 1065. His successors were
Israel Chauncey, Timothy Cutler, Hezekiah Gould, Isra-
hiah Wetniore, and recently Mr. Dutton, afterwards pro-
fessor at Yale. Notwithstanding his name, JIather re-
presents him as for his holiness " purer than snow, whiter
than nulk." With almost the same name as Melancthon,
he was a Melancthon among the reformers of New Ha-
ven, but with less occasion, than the German, to complain,
that " old Adam was too hard for his young namesake."
Mr. Hooker so much admired the plainness and simplicity
of his preaching, thn' he said, if he could have his choice,
he should choose to liv-e and die imder his ministry. His
son, Benjamin, a graduate of Harvard college in 166S.
preached for a time at Maiden, but left that place in 1678 .
and afterwards at Scarborough. In 1683, he was a repre
BL A
[247 ]
BLA
Benlative of Saco, in which tomi he was a large land-
holder, and owner of all the mill privileges on the east
side of the river. He probably died in Boston. — Magna-
Ua, in. 94 ; Fohom's Hist. Saco, 164.
BLACKSTONE, (Sir William,) an eminent and re-
ligious lawyer, was the third son of a silk mercer, and
was bora in London, in 1723. After having been for se-
veral years at the Charter house, he completed his educa-
tion at Pembroke college, Oxford, and at both seminaries
displayed superior talent. HaWng chosen the profession
of the law, and entered the Middle Temple, in 1741, he
wrote his elegant valedictory poem, the Lawj-er's Fare-
well to his Muse. He remained in comparative obscurity
till 1753, when he began to deliver, at Oiford, his lectures
on the English laws ; which, in 1705 and the four follow-
ing years, he published, with the title of Commentaries
on the Laws of England. In consequence of these lec-
tures, he was elected Vinerian professor of law in the uni-
versity, and obtained a great accession of business. In
1761, he sat in parliament as member for Hindon, and
was made king's counsel, and solicitor-general to the
queen. In 1770, he was offered the place of solicitor-ge-
neral, but declined it, and was made a judge of the king's
bench, whence he was soon after transferred to the com-
mon pleas. He died in 1780. Blackstone was the first
who wrote on the Ary and repulsive subject of English
law, in such a manner as not to excite disgust in a reader
of taste. Like almost all lawyers, he leans to the side of
prerogative ; nor is there much more of enlargement in
liis principles of religious liberty. For this reason he was
exposed to attack from Priestley, Junius, and Bentham. —
Davenport.
BLAIR, (KoBEKT,) a divine and poet, was horn at Ed-
inburgh, in 1699, and educated at that university. He
was minister of Athelstaneford, in East Lothian, where
he died in 1747. His poem of the Grave is popular, and
deservedly so, and has obtained him a place among otu'
standard poets. — Davenport.
BLAIR, (Dk. Hugh,) was bom at Edinburgh in 1718,
and was the son of a merchant. He was educated at the
university of his native city, and was licensed to preach
in 1741, when he became minister of Colessie, in Fife.
In 1743, he was appointed minister of the Canongate,
Edinburgh ; in 1754, he was removed to Lady Yester's ;
and in 1759 to the High Church, where he continued dur-
ing the remainder of his life. A professorship of rhetoric
and belles lettres having been founded by his majesty, in
1762, Dr. Blair was appointed professor ; and here origi-
nated his Lectures on Composition, which he published in
1783. The first volume of his Sermons was published in
1777, and acquired such a rapid popularity, that he not
only obtained a large sum of money for the succeeding
volumes, but was rewarded with a pension of two liun-
dred pounds per annum. Dr. Blair died at Edinburgh, in
1800. In his sermons, his style is elegant, and he enforces
the moral duties with great feMcity of language and argu-
ment. His lectures still remain a standard work. —
Davenport.
BLAIR, (James,) first president of William and Mar'
college, Virginia, and a learned divine, was bom and edu-
cated in Scotland, where he obtained a benefice in the
episcopal church. On account of the unsettled state of
religion, which then existed in that kingdom, he quitted
his preferments and went into England near the end of
the reign of Charles II. The bishop of London prevailed
on him to go to Virginia -as a missionary, about the year
lf)85 ; and in that colony, by his exemplary conduct and
unwearied labors in the work of the ministry, he much
promoted religion, and gained to himself esteem and repu-
tation.
Perceiving that the want of schools and seminaries for
literary and religious instniction would in a great degree
defeat the exertions which were making, in order to propa-
gate the gospel, he formed the design of estabhshing a
college at "Williamsburg. This object he efiected, and he
was its first president. After a life of near sixty years in
the ministry, he died in a good old age, August 1, 1743,
and went to enjoy the glory for which he was destined.
He published our Savior's Divine Sermon on the Jlount
explained, and the Practice of it recommended, in divers
Sermons and Discourses, 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1742. Thi3
work is spoken of with high approbation by Dr. Doddridge,
and by Dr. Williams in his Christian Preacher. — Introduc-
tion to the above work ; Millers Retr. ii. 335, 336 ; New and
Gen. Biog. Diet. ; Burnet's Hist. Chvn Times, ii. 129, 130,
folio; Keith, 168; Beverley ; Allen.
BLAIR, (Samuel,) a learned minister in Pennsylvania,
was a native of Ireland. He came to America very early
in life, and was one of Mr. Tennent's pupils in his acade-
my at Neshaminy. About the year 1745, he himself
opened an academy at Fog's manor, Chester county, with
particular reference to the study of theolog)' as a science.
He also took the pastoral charge of the church in tliis
place.
Mr. Blair was one of the most learned and able, as well
as pious, excellent, and venerable men of his day. He
was a profound divine, and a most solemn and impressive
preacher. To his pupils he was himself an excellent
model of pulpit eloquence. In his life he gave them an
admirable example of Christian meelmess, of ministerial
diligence, of candor, and Catholicism, without a derelic-
tion of principle. He was eminently serviceable to the
part of the country where he lived, not only as a minister
of the gospel, but as a teacher of human knowledge.
From his academv, that school of the prophets, as it was
frequently called, there issued forth many excellent pupils,
who did honor to their instructer, both as scholars and
Christian ministers. Among the distinguished characters,
who received their classical and theological education at
this seminar)', -were his nephew, Alexander Cumming,
Samuel Davies, Dr. Rodgers of New York, and James
Finley, Hugh Henry, and a number of other respectable
Aevgymen.— Allen ; Miller's Retr. ii. 343; Mass. Miss.
Mag. iii. 362 ; Davies' Life.
BLAIR, (John,) one of the associate judges of the Su-
preme court of the United States, died at Williamsburg
in Virginia, August 31, 1800, aged sixty-eight. He was
an amiable, accomplished, and truly virtuous man. He
discharged with ability and integrity the duties of a num-
ber of the highest and most important public trusts ; and
in these, as well as in the relations of private life, his
conduct was upright and so blameless, that he seldom or
never lost a friend, or made him an enemy. Even ca-
lumny, which assailed Washington, shrunk from his friend,
the unassuming and pious Blair. Through life he in a
remarkable manner experienced the truth of our Savior's
declaration, " Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit
the earth ;" and at death he illustrated the force of the
exclamation, " Let me die the death of the righteous, and
let my last end be like his." — Claypoole's Adv. Sept. 12,
1800; Marshall. v.2lf>; Allen.
BLAKE, (Robert,) one of the most celebrated of Bn-
BLA
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tish admirals, was born at Bridgewaler, in 1501), and edu-
cated at Wadham college, Oxford. By the interest of the
Puritans, he was elected member for Bridgewater, in 1640.
In the struggle between Charles I. and his people, he es-
poused the cause of liberty, and distinguished himself by
his gallant defence of Taunton, and other exploits. In
1649, he was put iu commar^d of the f.jet. His fiist
achievement was the destruction of prince Rupert's squad-
ron, at Blalaga. In 1652 and 1653, he fought four despe-
rate engagements with the Dutch fleet, under Van Tromp,
m two of which the enemy were defeated with great loss.
The ntxt theatre of Blake's glory was the Mediterranean,
to which he sailed in 1654, and where he destroyed the Tu-
nisian castles of Goletta and Porto Ferino, and intercepted
the Spanish plate fleet. Having received intelligence that
another plate fleet was lying at Santa Cruz, in TeneriflTe,
he sailed thither, forced his way into the harbor, burned
the ships, and came out without having suflered any loss.
His health was now entirely broken, and he bent his course
homeward, but expired, August 27, 1657, while the fleet
was entering Plymouth Sound. Admiral Blake was not
merely a man of courage and talent ; he was pious, just,
and singularly disinterested. — Dave?tport.
BLAME. That certain actions are wrong, and deserve
blame, is generally admitted ; but in settling the appUca-
tion of blame, there has been not a little discussion among
philosophers. The question lies at the foundation of
morals. Iu treating it, three inquiries are necessary:
Who is the agent ? What rule had he to direct him ? In
what circumstances was he placed ?
For in the first place, we never attribute blame to any
merely fnysicnl agent, but only to a nwral agent. When a
house is ^et on fire, we attach no blame to the firebrand,
but ot^ly to the incendiary. Nor is even a moral agent
subjcei lO blame, unless complete in his faculties ; the idiot
and ih" lunatic are therefore free. In the next place, a
complete moral agent, under given circumstances, me com-
pa/e with some rule. Different views of blame arise from
applying different rales as the standard of judgment. This
is evident among the heathen, in the absence of divine
revelation. And in Christian communities, the difference
Fprings from not understanding the revealed rule of right.
God lias given us the true standard in his word. Con-
formity to this standard is virtue ; want of such conform-
ity is vice, or in other words, sin. Every deviation from
it, or defect in coming up to it, resulting from choice or
inclination, is worthy of blame. An action or emotion of
the soul is not blameworthy, unless it flows from design
or evil disposition. Evil disposition is in fact essential to
blame. If we find this in a moral agent, we find all that
is necessary to lay the foundation for blame. The evil
lies in the nature of the disposition, not iu its cause. Hence
the folly and futility of cormion excuses, founded on natu-
ral propensities or peculiar circumstances of temptation.
Hence the criminality of men, who attempt to excuse
themselves for the same things they blame in others.
Rom. 2: 1 — 10. Some place all blame in actioits ; but our
Lord has taught us to place it chiefly on wrong affections,
(Matt. 6: 1—34. Mark 7: 20—23.) and reason echoes to
his voice ; for all actions take their moral character and
coloring from the disposition. Circumstances do indeed
modify the hues of guilt, giving it a .softer or a sterner
shade ; and blame is graduated accordingly. But the
original ground of blame is found in voluntary deviation
from the divine rule of rectitude. }V7io can understand his
errors ? Fs. 19: 12.
BLANCHE OF CASTILE, daughter of Alphonso IX.
king of Castile, and Eleanor of England, wife of Lewis
VIII. and mother of Lewis IX. king of France, was born
1185, and died 1253. She was the second of eleven children,
and educated by her mother, a wise and virtuous princess,
\vith great care. When about fifteen or sixteen years of
age, she became the wife of prince Lewis, son of Philip
Augustus of France. During the reign of Philip, Lewis
and Blanche were much at court where the beauty and
fine qualities of the latter made her equally loved and ad-
mired. In 1223, she mounted the throne ; and by her
conduct in this high station justified the choice of her hus-
band. They had nine sons and two daughters. After her
husband's death, from the absence or flight of the nobility.
many of whom refused, on various pretences, to attend
her son's coronation, she found herself in a species of
solitude ; but putting her trust in Heaven, she exerted her
utmost powers in spite of discouragement. This extraor
dinary woman, who to unrivalled beauty, wit, eloquence,
and address, joined the undaunted spirit of a hero, and
the foresight and prudence of the most enlightened poli
tician, having assumed the regency, soon gave a form to
the government, and confided the education of her son to
the constable de Montmorenci, the greatest statesman and
warrior in France. All those she placed about the prince
and her other children, were remarkable for their knowledge
and piety. The wisdom and energy of her administration
crushed the spirit of rebellion, and gave peace to her dis-
tracted country. When her son Lewis, in 1248, under-
took an expedition to the Holy Land, she remonstrated
against it ; for, though pious, she was elevated above the
political errors of her age. When delivering the sovereign
authority into his hands, she said, " I rvould rather a thou-
sand limes consent to lose you, all royal as you are, and more
dear to me than all the world contains, than knojv you to com-
mit a fault which may deprive you of the protection of Heaven."
— Betham.
BLANDINA ,- a Christian martyr of Lyons, who suf-
fered in the second century, in the severe persecution under
IMarcus Antoninus, (or Aurelius.) Though of so weaK and
delicate a constitution, that her friends feared she would not
be able to sustain the tortures with the rest of her fellow-
sufferers, they were all deceived. She was tortured in
different ways, from morning till night, and while her
body was torn and mangled, she only said, " I am a Chris-
tian, and no evil is committed among us." Being after-
wards thrust, with others, into a horrid dungeon, their feet
distended in a wooden trunk, till many died, she appears
to have aided in confirming and comforting her companions.
They were at length led out into the amphitheatre, and
exposed to wild beasts. Blandina, suspended to a stake
in the form of a cross, was engaged in earnest prayer, and
greatly encouraged her fellow-sufferers by her meek and
imdaunted behavior. None of the beasts at that time
touching her, she was reserved for a futurr trial.
On the last day of the spectacles, Blandina was again
brought from the prison, with Pontius, a Christian youth of
fifteen. They were ordered to swear by the idols ; and
the mob, perceiving that all their menaces availed noth-
ing, became incensed, and aggravated their tortures by all
possible methods. Pontius, after a magnanimous exercise
of patience, died under his sufferings. And Blandina,
last of all, who had exhorted her now lifeless friends, as a
mother her children, soon followed them to the presence
of the Lord ; rejoicing in the triumph which his grace had
won in their fidelity, even unto death. Even her enemies
confessed that no woman among them had ever suffered
so much.
These sufferers of Lj'ons disclaimed the name of mar-
tyrs as too glorious for them ; but they showed a constancy,
mildness, and charity truly apostolical. They reproached
not those who fell away from the faith, but prayed to God
for them ; and many who had shrunk back like Peter, now
returned with penitent hearts, and voluntarily declared
that they were Christians. — Betham; Milner.
BLASPHEMY, blasphemia, properly denotes calumny,
detraction, reproachful or abusive language, against whomsO'
ever it be vented. That blasphemia aiid its conjugates art
very often applied, says Dr. Campbell, to reproaches not
aimed against God, is evident from the followng passages :
Matt. 12: 31, 32. 27: 39. Mark 15: 29. Luke 22: 65. 23:
39. Kom. 3: 8. 14: 16. 1 Cor. 4: 13. 10: 30. Eph. 4: 31.
1 Tim. 6: 4. Titus 3: 2. 1 Peter 4: 14. Jude 9, 10. Acts
6: 11, 13. 2 Peter 2: 10, 11 ; in the much greater part of
which the Enghsh translators, sensible that they could
admit no such application, have not used the words blas-
pheme or blasphemy, but rail, revile, speak evil, &c. In one
of the passages quoted, a reproachful charge brought even
against the devil, is called krisisblasphemias, (Jude 9.) and
rendered by them, "railing accusation." The import of
the word blasphemia, is maledicentia, in the largest accepta-
tion ; comprehending all sorts of verbal abuse, impreca-
tion, reviling, and calumny. And let it be observed, that
when such abuse is mentioned as uttered against God,
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iHere is properly no change made in the signification of
the word : the change is only in the application ; that is,
in the reference to a different object. The idea conveyed
in the explanation now given is always included, against
whomsoever the crime be committed. In this manner,
every term is understood that is applicable to both God
and man. Thus, the meaning of the word disobey is the
same, whether we speak of disobeying God or of disobey-
ing man. The same may be said of believe, honor, fear,
kc. As therefore, the sense of the term is the same,
though differently applied, what is essential to constitute
the crime of detraction in the one case, is essential also in
the other. But it is essential to this crime, ag commonly
understood, when committed hy one man against another,
that there he in the injurious person the will or disposition
to detract from the person abused. Were mistake in re-
gard to character, especially when the mistake is not con-
ceived by him who entertains it to lessen the character,
nay, is supposed, however erroneously, to exalt it, is never
construed by any into the crime of defamation. Now, as
blasphemy is in its essence the same crime, but immensely
aggrai'ated by being committed against an object infi-
nitely superior to man, what is fimdamental to the very
existence of the crime will be found in this, as in every
other species which comes under the general name. There
can be no blasphemy, therefore, where there is not an
impious purpose to derogate from the di\'ine Majesty, and
to alienate the minds of others from the love and reve-
rence of God. The blasphemer is no other than the ca-
ftunniator of Almighty God. To constitute the crime, it
is as necessarj' that this species of calumny be intentional.
He must be one, therefore, who hy his impious talk en-
deavors to inspire others with the same iireverence towards
the Deity, or perhaps abhorrence of him, which he in-
dulges in himsell". And though, for the honor of human
nature, it is to be hoped that very few arrive at this enor-
mous guilt, it ought not to be dissembled, that the habitu-
al profanation of the name and attributes of God, by
common swearing, is but too manifest an approach towards
it. There is not an entire coincidence : the latter of these
vices may be considered as resulting solely from the de-
fect of what is good in principle and disposition ; the
former, from the acquisition of what is ev\\ in the ex-
treme ; but there is a close connexion between them, and
an insensible gradation from the one to the other. To
accustom one's self to treat the Sovereign of the universe
with irreverent familiarity, is the first step ; malignly to
arraign his allribiUes, and revile his providence, is the
last. The first di\ine law published against it, " He that
blasphemeth the name of the Lord," (or Jehovah, as it is
in the Hebrew,) "shall be put to death," (Lev. 24: 16.)
when considered along with the incident that occasioned
it, suggests a very atrocious offence in words, no less than
abuse or imprecations vented against the Deity. And if
we add to this the only other memorable instance m sacred
history, namely, that of Rabshakeh, it will lead us to con-
clude that it is solely a malignant attempt, in words, to
lessen men's reverence of the true God, and, by viliftlng
his perfections, to prevent their placing confidence in him,
which is called in Scripture blasphemy, when the word is
employed to denote a sin committed directly against God.
This was manifestly the attempt of Rabshakeh, when he
.said, " Neither let Hezekiah make you trust in the Lord,"
(the word is Jehovah,) " saying, Jehovah will surel)' de-
liver us. Hath any of the gods of the nations delivered
his land out of the hand of the king of Assyria ? Where
are the gods of Hamath and of Arpad ? Where are the
gods of Sepharvaim, Hena, and Iva ? Have they deliv-
ered Samaria out of my hand ? Who are they, among
all the gods of the countries, that have delivered their
country' out of mine hand, that Jehovah should deliver
Jerusalem out of mine hand?" 2 King' IS: 30, 33 — 35.
— Wation.
BLASPHEMY AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST.
It will naturally occur to inquire, what that is, m particu-
lar, which our Lord denominates " blasphemy against
the Holy Spirit." Matt. 12: 31, 32. Mark 3: 28, "29. Luie
12: 10. But without entering minutely into the discussion
of this question, it may suffice here to obseri'e, that this
blasphemy is certainh- not of the constructive kind, but
32
direct, manifest, and malignant. First, it is mentioned
as comprehended under the same genus with abuse against
men, and contradistinguished only by the object. Second-
ly, it is further explained by being called speaking against
in both cases : " Whosoever speaketh a word against the
Son of man." — " Whosoever speaketh against the Holy
Ghost." The expressions are the same, in effect, in all
the evangelists who mention it, and imply such an oppo-
sition as is both intentional and malevolent. This cannot
have been the case of all who disbelieved the mission of
Jesus, and even decried his miracles ; many of whom, we
have reason to think, were afterwards converted by the
apostles. But it was the wretched case of some who, in
stigated by worldly ambition and avarice, slandered what
they knew to be the cause of God ; and, against convic-
tion, reviled his work as the operation of evil spirits. This
view of the sin against the Holy Ghost is confirmed by
the circumstances under which our Lord spoke. (See
Unpardonable Sin.) — Walsoii.
BLESILLA ; daughter of Paula, a celebrated Roman
lady, and sister of Eustochium ; died at Rome in 38?,
aged twenty. She was a woman of great sensibility,
piety, and learning. She was very beautiful, and in early
life much addicted to dress ; but becoming more deeply
impressed with religious ideas, she gave herself up to
study and prayer. On the death of her husband, though
so )'Oung, she refused to enter into any other engage-
ment, and is much extolled b)- St. Jerome, for her memory
and eloquence. She kiiew^ perfectly the Greek and Latin
languages, and had conquered so well the difficulties of
the Hebrew, as to spe4k it with facility. — Eetham.
BLEBIISH ; whatever renders a person or thing imper-
fect or unlovely. The Jewish law required the priests to
be free from blemishes of person. Lev. 21: 17 — 23. 22:
20 — 24. Scandalous professors are blemishes to the church
of God, (2 Peter 2: 13. Jude 12.) and therefore ought to
be put away from it, in the exercise of a godly discipline.
BLESS, BLESSING. There are three points of \-iew
in which the acts of blessing may be considered. The
first is, when men are said to bless God, as in Psalm 103:
1, 2. AVe are then not to suppose that the divine Being,
who is over all, and, in himself, blessed for evermore, is
capable of receiving any augmentation of his happiness,
from all the creatures which he has made : such a suppo-
sition, as it would imply something of imperfection in the
divine nature, must ever be rejected with abhorrence ;
and, therefore, when the creatures bless the adorable Cre-
ator, they only ascribe to him that praise and dominion,
and honor, and glon.', and blessing, which it is equally the
duty and joy of his creatures to render. But when God
is said to bless his people, (Gen. ]: 22. Eph. 1: 3.) the
meaning is, that he confers benefits upon them, either
temporal or spiritual, and so communicates to them some
portion ol that blessedness which, in infinite fulness, dw-ell,>
in himself James 1: 17 Psalm 104: 24, 2S. Luke '•_:
9 — 13. In the third place, men are said to bless their fel-
low-creatures. From the time that God entered into co-
venant with Abraham, and promised extraordinary bless-
ings to his posterity, it appears to have been customary
for the father of each family, in the direct line, or line of
promise, prerious to his death, to call his children around
him, and to inform them, according to the knowledge
which it pleased God then to give him, how, and in what
manner, the divine blessing conferred upon Abraham was
to descend among them. XTpon these occasions, the pa-
triarchs enjoyed a divine illumination; and under its in-
fluence, their benediction was deemed a prophetic oracle
foretelhng events with the utmost certainty, and extending
to (he remotest period of time Thus Jacob blessed his
sons, (Gen. 49:) and Moses, the children of Israel. Dent.
33:. When Alelchisedek blessed Abraham, the act of
benediction included in it not merely the pronouncing
solemn good wishes, but also a petitionary address to
God that he would be pleased to ratify the benediction by
his concurrence with what was prayed for. Thus Moses
instructed Aaron, and his descendants, to bless the con-
gregation, " In this wise shall ve bless the children of Is-
rael, saj-ing unto them. The Lord bless thee, and keep
thee ; the Ix)rd make his face to shine upon thee ; the
T^rd lift up hi': countenance upon thee, and ^ive thee
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inace." Num. 4: 23. David says, " I will take the cup
of salvation, and call upon the name of the Lord." Ps.
116: 13. This phrase appears to be taken from the prac-
tice of the Jews in their thank-ofTeriiigs, in which a feast
•was made of the remainder of their sacrifices, and the
ofl'erer^, together with the priests, did eat and drink belbre
the Lord ; when, among other rites, the master of the feast
took a cup of wine in his hand and solemnly blessed God
for it, and for the mercies which were then acknowledged,
and gave it to all the guests, every one of whom drank in
his turn. To this custom it is supposed our blessed Lord
alludes in the institution of the cup, which also is called,
(1 Cor. 10: 16.) " the cup of blessing." At the family
feasts also, and especially that of the passover, both wine
and bread were in this solemn and religious manner dis-
tributed, and God was blessed, and his mercies acknow-
ledged. They blessed God for their present refreshment,
for their deliverance out of Egypt, for the covenant of cir-
cumcision, and for the law given by Moses ; and prayed
that God would be merciful to his people Israel, that he
would send the prophet Elijah, and that he would render
them worthy of the kingdom of the Messiah. See also
1 Chron. 16: 2, 3. In the Mosaic law, the maimer of
blessing is appointed by the lifting up of hands. Our
Lord lifted up his hands, and blessed his disciples. It is
probable that this action was constantly used on such oc-
casions. The palm of the hand held up was precatory ;
and the palm turned outwards or downwards was bene-
dictory. (See Benediction, and Lord's Supper.) — Watson.
BLINDFOLDING. This is the treatment which Christ
received from his enemies. Tt refers to a sport which was
common among children, called muinda, in which it was
the manner first to blindfold, then to strike, and to ask
who gave the blow, and not to let the person go till he had
named the right man who had struck him. It was used
in reproach of our blessed Lord as a prophet, or divine
instructer, and to expose him to ridicule. Luke 22: 63, 64.
— Watson.
BLINDNESS, is often used in Scripture to express ig-
norance, or a want of discernment in divine things, as
well as the being destitute of natural sight. (See Isa. 42:
18, 19. 6: 10. Matt. 15: 14.) "Blindness of heart" is the
want of understanding arising from the influence of vi-
cious passions. " Hardness of heart" is stubbornness of
will, and destitution of moral feeling. Moses sa)'s, " Thou
shalt not put a stumbling-block before the blind," (Lev.
19: 14.) which may be understood literally ; or figurative-
ly, as if Moses recommended that charity and instruction
should be shown to them who want light and counsel, or
to those who are in danger of going wrong through their
ignorance. Moses says also. " Cursed be he who maketh
the blind to wander out of his way," (Deut. 27: 18.) which
may also be taken in the same manner. An ignorant or
erring teacher is compared by our Lord to a blind man
leading a bUnd man ; — a strong representation of the pre-
sumption of him that professes to teach the way of salva-
tion without due qualifications, and of the danger of that
impUcit faith which is often placed by the people in the
authority of man, to the neglect of the Holy Scriptures.
Blindness, as a disease of the organ of vision, may be
produced by drying up the natural humors of the eyes,
through which the rays of light pass ; and tliis may be
the effect of old age, which produces dimness and at length
bhndness ; or it may be the consequence of great heat,
applied to the eyes, and in this manner one of the kings
of England is said to have been blinded, by the holding
of a heated brass bason before his eyes, which gradually
exhaled their moisture. If the eyes are dried up, they
must be harde.ned. Or, blindness may proceed from a
cataract, or thick skin, growing over a part of the eye,
and preventing the passage of the rays of light to the in-
terior, the proper seat of vision ; this might anciently be
thought to give the appearance of hardness to the eye ;
and we ourselves call such an appearance a wall-eye. —
The reader may recollect other instances.
Mr. Taylor wishes by these considerations to account
for the seeming contrariety, which appears sometimes be-
tween the margin and the text in our translation, (and in
other translations also,) which renders the same word blind-
ness and hardness ; for it is by no means unusual, for youpg
persons especially, to discover the strong distinction be-
tween the terms blindness and hardness ; while the cause
of their adoption to express the same distemper, entiray
escapes them. So we read, (Mark 3: 5.) " Being grieved
for the blindness — hardness — of their hearts." So (Kom. 11:
25.) "Blindness- — hardness — in part hath happened to Is-
rael." Eph. 4: 18. " Because of the blindness-^hardness —
of their hearts." 2 Cor. 3: 14. " Their minds were blinded"
— hardened : and elsewhere. Now, if in these and other
places, the disorder alluded to were a blindness occa-
sioned by desiccation of the visual agents, or any of their
parts, whether arising from causes already suggested, or
from any other, then we readily perceive by what means
the two ideas of blindness and hardness might originate
from the same word ; and that, in fact, both renderings
may be correct, since by one we are led to the cause, hard-
ness ; and by the other to the effect, blindness.
There is another sense in which our English word set is
used, in reference to the eyes ; which, for aught we know,
may be derived metaphorically from the state of plaster
drying or hardened ; that is, when it describes a stiff, im-
mobile condition ; a fixed, staring, effectless exertion of
looking : but, the brain being in a state ineompetent to
profit by the sensations it receives from the optic nerves,
(if indeed it do receive those sensations,) the party can
hardly be said to see ; and, it is questionable, whether the
optic nerve itself be in a state to convey sensations to the
brain, or the retina to receive that depicturation of objects
upon it, which is the sine qua mm of vision. It is gene-
rally understood, (or ought to be,) that the phrase "make
this people's heart fat," alludes to the effect of full feed-
ing, of greedy gratification of the appetite, whereby a
quantity of fat seals itself on the heart, and there increases,
till it overburdens that important source of activity. In
like manner, this setting of the eyes is the effect of that
drowsy disposition which attends excess.
This investigation removes objections which have been
raised from the commission given by God to the prophet.
Some have said, God commands the prophet to do a cer-
tain thing to this people, and then punishes the people :
nay, this appears stronger still, where the passage is quoted,
as, (John 12: 40.) He hath blinded their eyes and hardened
their hearts ; which seems to be contradictory to Matt. 13:
15. where the people themselves are said to have closed
their ov^-n eyes : and so Acts 28: 27. These seeming con-
tradictions are very easily reconciled, by taking the phrase-
ology in its true import : (1.) " Set the eyes of this peo-
ple"— prophesy SMc\i flowing times, such abundant jollity,
that the people, devoting themselves to gormandizing, may
be inebriated with the very idea ; and still more with the
enjoyment itself, when it arrives. (2.) God, by giving
plenty and abundance, affords the means of the people's
abusing his goodness, and becoming both over-fat with
food, and intoxicated with drink ; and thus, his very be-
neficence may be said to make their heart fat, and their
eyes heavy : while, (3.) at the same time, the people by
their omi act, their over-feeding, become unwieldy — indo-
lent— bloated — over-fat at heart ; and, moreover, so stupl-
fied by liquor and strong drink, that their eyes and ears
may be u.>;eless to them : with wide open eyes, " staring,
they may stare, but not perceive ; and listening, they may
hear, but not understand ;" and in this lethargic state they
will continue ; preferring it to a more sedate, rational con-
dition, and refusing to forbear from prolonging the causes
of it, lest at any sober interval they shofild see truly with
their eyes, and hear accurately with their ears ; in conse-
quence of which they should be shocked at themselves,
he converted, be changed from such misconduct, and I
should heal them ; should cure these delusory effects of
their surfeits and dissoluteness. Compare Isa. 5: 11. 28:
7. AVhere is now the contradiction between these different
representations of the same event ? — Is it not an occurrence
of daily notoriety, that God gives, but the sinner abuses
his gifts to his own injury, of body and mind ? No person
who has witnessed the progress of intoxication, will deny
that whatever efforts the party makes to see, those efforts
are fruitless ; his eyes goggle, warn? "j, decline all manner
of ways, notwithstanding this jcZ-ncsj of their internal
parts : — in fact, the muscles which movis .'be eye may act,
after a sort, while the eye itself is incapaj-^ of .accurate
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vision, because incapable of transmitting correct images
of external objects.
This may also hint a reason why our Lord spoke in
parables ; that is, the people were too much stupiiied to
see the plain and simple truth j but their attention might
possibly be gained by a tale, or be caught by an inference.
— WaUon ; Calmet.
BLOOD. Besides its proper sense, the fluid of the veins
of men and animals, the term in Scripture is used, 1. For
life. " God will require the blood of a man," he will
punish murder in what manner soever committed. " His
blood be upon us," let the guilt of his death be imputed to
BS. " The voice of thy brother's blood crieth ;" the mur-
der committed on him crieth for vengeance. " The avenger
of blood:" he who is to avenge the death of his relative.
Numb. 35: 24, 27. 2. Blood means relationship, or con-
sanguinity. 3. Flesh and blood are placed in opposition
to a superior nature : " Flesh and blood hath not revealed
it unto thee, but my Father who is in-heaven." Matt. 16:
17. 4. They are also opposed to the glorified body:
" Flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God."
1 Cor. 15: 50. 5. They are opposed also to evil spirits :
" We wrestle not against flesh and blood," against visible
enemies composed of flesh and blood, " but against prin-
cipalities and powers," &c. Eph. 6: 12. 6. Wine is
called the pure blood of the grape : " Judah shall wash
his garments in the blood of the grape." Gen. 49: 11.
Deut. 32: 14. 7. The priests were established by God to
judge between blood and blood ; that is, in criminal mat-
ters, and where the life of man is at stake ; — to determine
whether the murder be casual, or voluntary ; whether a
crime deserve death, or admit of remission, &c. 8. In
its most eminent sense, blood is used for the sacrificial
death of Christ ; whose blood or death is the price of our
salvation. His blood has " purchased the church." Acts
20: 28. " We are justified by his blood." Eom. 5; 9.
"We have redemption through his blood." Eph. 1: 7,
&c. (See Atonement.)
That singular and emphatic prohibition of blood for
food from the earliest times, which we fine in the holy
Scriptures, deserves particular attention. God expressly
forbade the eating of blood alone, or of blood mixed with
the flesh of animals, as when any creature was suffocated,
or strangled, or killed without drawing its blood from the
carcass. Exod. 9: 4. Lev. 17: 10 — 14. (See Animal.)
This restraint, than which nothing can be more express,
was also, under the new covenant, enjoined upon believing
Gentiles, as " a burden," which it seemed necessary to the
Holy Spirit to impose upon them." Acts 15: 28, 29. For
this prohibition, no vioral reason seems capable of being
offered ; nor docs it clearly appear that blood is an un-
wholesome aliment, which some think was the physical
reason of its being inhibited ; and if, in fact, blood is de-
etcrious as food, there seems no greater reason why this
should be pointed out by special revelation to man, to
guard him against injury, than many other unwholesome
Kliments. There is little force in the remark, that the eat-
ing of blood produces a ferocious disposition ; for those
nations that eat strangled things, or blood cooked 'H'ith
other aliments, do not exhibit more ferocity than others.
The true reason was, no doubt, a sacrificial one.
Let any one attempt to discover any reason for the pro-
hibition of blood to Noah, in the mere circumstance that
it is " the life," and he will find it impossible. It is no
reason at all, moral or instituted, except that as it was
LIFE SUBSTITUTED FOR LIFE, the life of the animal in sacri-
fice for the life of man, and that, therefore, blood had a
sacred appropriation. See Abel. — Watson.
BLOT ; a sinful slain ; a reproach. Job 31: 7. Prov.
9: 7. To blot out living things, or one's name or remem-
brance, is to destroy, abolish. Gen. 7: 4. Deut. 9: 14, and
25: 19, and 29: 20. Col. 2: 14. To A/of ok! s/n, is fully and
finally to forgive it. Isa. 44: 22. God's blotting men out
of his book, is to deny them his providential favors, and
cut them off by an untimely death. Ps. 39: 28. Exod. 32:
32, 33. His not Wotting their name out of the book of
life imports his clearly manifesting their eternal election.
Rev. 3: 5. — Bromn.
BLOW; a stroke; a heavy judgment inflicted by the
rod of God's anger. Ps. 39: 10. Jer. 14: 7. To blow, as
wind doth. The hloning of the Holy Ghost is his mysteri-
ous exertion of his power to convince, purify, refresh, and
comfort his people. Song 4: 16. John 3: 8. — Brown.
BOANERGES. This word is neither Hebrew nor Sy-
riac, and some have thought that the transcribers have not
exactly copied it, and that the word was benereen, which
expresses the sound of the Hebrew of the phrase, " sons of
thunder." The name Boanerges, therefore, given to James
and John, imports that they should be eminent instruments
in accomplishing a wondrous change, and should, like an
earthquake or thunder, mightily bear down all opposition,
by their inspired preaching and miraculous powers. That
it does not relate to their made of preaching is certain ; for
that clearly appears to have been calmly argumentative,
and sweetly persuasive — the very reverse of what is usu-
ally called a thundering ministry. — JValson.
BOAR, WILD. This animal, which is the original of all the
varieties of the hog kind, is by no means so stupid ncr so
filthy a beast as that we have reduced to taraeness. He
is something smaller than the domestic hog, and does not
so vary in his color, being always found of an iron gray,
inclining to black ; his snout is much larger than that of
the tame animal, and the ears are shorter, rounder, and
black ; of which color are also the feet and the tail. But
the tusks are larger than in the tame breed ; they bend
upwards circularly, and are exceedingly sharp at the
points.
The wild boar roots up the ground in a different manner
from the common hog ; the one turns up the earth in little
spots here and there ; the other ploughs it up like a furrow,
and does irreparable damage in the cultivated lands of the
farmer, destroying the roots of the vine and other plants.
From this we may see the propriety with which the
psalmist represents the subversion of the Jewish common-
wealth, under the allegory of a vine, destroyed by a boar:
" Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast
out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparedst room
before it, and didst cause it to take deep root, and it filled
the land. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her
branches unto the river. Why hast thou broken down her
hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck
her ? The boar out of the woods doth waste it, and the
wild beast of the field doth devour it," Psalm 80: 8—13.
If this psalm was written, as is supposed, during the Baby-
lonian captivity, the propriety of the allegory becomes more
apparent. Not satisfied with devouring the plants and
fruit which have been carefully raised by the skill and at-
tention of the husbandman, the ferocious boar lacerates
and breaks with his powerful tusks the roots and branches
of the surrounding vines, and tramples them beneath his
feet. The reader will easily apply this to the conduct pur-
sued by the Chaldeans towards the Jewish state, whose
desolation is thus pathetically bewailed by the prophet :
" The Lord hath trodden under foot all my mighty men in
the midst of me : he hath called an assembly against me
to crush my young men : the Lord hath trodden the vir-
gin, the daughter of Judah, as in a wine-press." Lam. 1: 15.
The boar is exceedingly fond of marshes, fens, and reedy
places ; a disposition which is probably referred to in Ps.
68; 30, '' Rebuke the company of the spearmen," — or, as
it is literally, " the beast of the reeds," or canes. — Ahbotfi
Script. Nat. History.
BOAST. The saints boast of or in God, or glory in
Christ, when they rejoice in, highly value, aud comme.id
him, and loudly publish the great things he has done for
them. Ps. 34: 2. Isa. 45: 25. Glonj not, and lie not against
the truth ; do not proudly and deceitfully pretend to have
true -nisdom and zeal for God when you have it not. Jam.
3: 14. — Brown.
BOAZ ; the name of one of those brazen pillars which
Solomon erected in the porch of the temple, 1 Kings 7: 21.
The other, called Jachin, was on the right hand of the en-
trance, Boaz on the left. Eoaz signifies strength, firmness.
They were together thirty-five cubits high : as in 2 Chron.
3: 15 ; i. e. each separately was seventeen cubits and a
half: 1 Kings 7: 15. and Jer. 52: 21. say eighteen cubits,
in round numbers. Jeremiah says the thickness of these
columns was four fingers, for they were hollow ; the cir-
cumference of them was twelve cubits, or four cubits dia-
meter ; the chapiter of each was in all five cubits high.
BOD
262 ]
BOG
These chapiters, in dillereni parts oi Scripture, are said to
be of different heights, of three, four, or five cubits ; be-
cause they were composed of different ornaments or mem-
bers, which were sometimes considered as omitted, some-
times as included. The body of the chapiter was of three
cubits, the ornaments with which it was joined to the shaft
of the pillar, were of one cubit : these make four cubits ;
the row which was at the top of the chapiter was also of
one cubit ; in all five cubits. — Calmet.
BOCflART, (Samuel;) a learned French Protestant di-
vine and general scholar, bom at Rouen, in Normandy, in
1599. His father was a Protestant minister, and his mo-
ther was the .sister of Peler du Moulin. His studies were
prosecuted under Thomas Dempster, at Paris, and after-
wards at Sedan and Saumur. He made a very early pro-
gress in learning, particularly in the Greek language, of
which we have a proof in the verses he composed in praise
of his first master. Having gone through a course of phi-
losophy, and studied theology under Camero, he followed
the latter to London, where, however, he made but a short
stay, for, about the end of 1621, he was at Leyden, applying
himself to the study of the Arabic, under Erpenius. When
Bochart returned to France, he was chosen minister of Ca-
en, where he distinguished himself by public disputations
with father Veron, a very famous controvertist. The dis-
pute was held in the castle of Caen, in the presence of a
great number of Catholics and Protestants. Bochart came
off with honor and reputation, which was not a little in-
creased on the publication of his Phaleg and Canaan, which
are the titles of the two parts of his " Geographia Sacra,"
1646. In 1652, the queen of Sweden invited him to Stock-
holm, where she gave him many proofs of her esteem and
regard. At his return into France, he continued his ordi-
nary exercises, and was one of the members of the Acade-
my of Caen, which consisted of all the learned men of that
place, whither several of the sons of the English gentry"
resorted for education ; and among others, the earl of Ros-
common, afterwards an eminent poet. One of his most
learned works, and by which he acquired great fame, was
his " Hierozicon," which treats of the natural history of the
.Scripture, particularly the animals, and which was printed
in London in 1663. He died of apoplexy, while engaged
in the academy in a public discussion with his friend Huet,
May 16, 1667, at the age of sixty-eight.
Besides what we have mentioned, Bochart wrote a trea-
tise on the Terrestrial Paradise, on the Plants and Precious
Stones mentioned in Scripture, and some other pieces; but
he left them unfinished. As many of his dissertations as
could be collected were published in the edition of his works
printed in Holland, 1692. The learned Rosenmueller pub-
lished his Hierozicon in. three volumes, quarto, Leipsic,
1793 — 1799, much enlarged and improved. — Bayk rind
Sloreri ; Jones's Chr. Biog.
BOCHIM, the place of mourners^ 07 vf Tveepings ; a place
near Shiloh, where the Hebrews celebrated their solemn
feasts. Here the angel of the covenant appeared totbem,
and denounced the sinfulness of their idolatry, which
caused bitter weeping among the people; whence the place
had its name, Judg. 2: \Q.— Calmet.
BODE, (CHRisTornER Augustus,) a learned German
orientalist, was born at Wernigerode, in 1723, and acquir-
ed, by his own exertions, the Arabic, Syriac, Chaldee, Sa-
maritan, Ethiopian, rabbinical Hebrew, Armenian, Turk-
ish, and Coptic languages. He was professor of philo.sophy
in the university of Helmstadt. He died in 1796. His
principal works consist of translations of the Scriptures
from the oriental languages. — Davenport.
BODY ; a real substance ; an organized system ; gene-
rally the animal frame of man, as distinguished from his
spiritual nature. Paul also speaks of a spiritual body, in
opposition to the animal, 1 Cor. 15: 44. The body which
we animate, and which returns to the earth, is an animal
body ; but that which will rise hereafter, will be spiritual,
neither gross, heavy, frail, mortal, nor subject to the wants
which oppress the present body.
Body is opposed to shadow, or figure. Col. 2: 17. The
ceremonies of the law are figures and shadows realized in
Christ and the Christian religion.
A regularly organized community, like the Christian
church, is called a body. 1 Cor. 10: 17.
" The body of sin," Rom. 6: 6, called also " the body of
this death," Rom. 7: 24, is the system and habit of sin in
which Christians hved before conversion, and which after-
wards is viewed as a loathsome burden. By an extension
of the same figure, the disposition to sin is called "the old
man." As the latter is "crucified with Christ," by faith
through the Holy Spirit ; so the former is " put off" in
baptism, " that the body of sin might be destroyed, that
henceforth we should not serve sin."
" Where the body is, there the eagles assemble," (Matt.
24: 28,) is a sort of proverb used by our Savior. In Job
29: 30, it is said that the eagle — viewing its prey from a
distance — as soon as there is a dead body — it immediately
resorts thither. Our Savior compares the wicked to a dead
body, by God in his wrath given up to birds and beasts of
prey ; wherever they are, there will be likewise the judg-
ments of God to seize and condemn them. Corpus^ in good
Latin authors, is sometimes used to signify a carcass, or
dead body. (See Eagle.) In this passage, there seems
to be an allusion to the body of the Jews, preyed on by
the Roman eagles : the eagle being the standard of that
peoplte. — Calmet.
BODY OF DIVINITY. See Theology.
BOERHAAVE, (Hekman,) one of the most eminent ol
modem physicians, was bom, in 1668, at Voorhout, near
Leyden. His father, the minister of Voorhout, educated
him for his own profession, and he made an honorable
progress in his studies. But, on the death of his parent,
who left him slenderly provided for, he obtained a subsist-
ence by mathematical lectures, and at length devoted him-
self to the medical profession. He took the degree of
M. D. at the university of Harderwick, in 1693. At first,
his success was limited ; but at length he became professor
of physical botany at Leyden, and his lectiu'es at once en-
hanced the fame of the university and established his
own. In 1714, he became rector of the university. Pa-
tients thronged to him from all quarters, wealth conse-
quently flowed in upon him, and he confessedly stood at
the head of modem physicians. From his multifarious
knowledge, Boerhaave has been called the Voltaire of sci-
ence. But unlike Voltaire, Boerhaave was a decided Chris
tian. His daily halaits were those of a man who walke
with God. And in the agonies of his last sickness, he
served : He that loves God ought to think nothing ilesirah
but what is >nost pleasing to Supreme Goodness. He died
September 23, 1738. His works are numerous ; among
the principal may be mentioned, Institutiones Medicce ;
Aphorisnii de Cognoscendis et Curandis Morhis ; Index Plan-
tarum : and Elementa CliimicB. — Davenport.
BOETHITJS, a Latin statesman, philosopher, and writer,
was of a noble Roman family, and was bom in 455. He
was thrice consul, and was for many years a favorite of
Theodoric, king of the Goths. His zeal for orthodoxy,
however, at length excited the anger of Theodoric, who
was an Arian. Boethius was unjustly charged with trea-
son, his properly was confiscated, and he was thrown into
prison, where he was beheaded, in 526. AVhile a captive,
lie wrote his famous Consolations of Philosophy ; a work
which has been translated by two of the most illustrious of
the British sovereigns, Alfred and Elizabeth. The whole
of his compositions occupy two folio \o\\imes.^Davenport.
BOGOMILI, or Bogarmit.s ; a sect of heretics which
arose about the year 1179. They held that the use of
churches, of the sacrament of the Lord's supper, and all
prayers except the Lord's prayer, ought to be abolished ;
that the baptism of Catholics is imperfect; that the per
BOG
263 J
BOH
sons of ihe Trimly are unequal, and lUal ikey often made
themselves visible to those of their sect. — Hend. Buck.
BOGUE, (David, D. D.) many years president of a dis-
senting academy at Gosport, and one of the founders of the
London Missionary society, was a native of North Britain,
and born February 18, 1758. Being intended by his pa-
rents for the clerical profession, young Bogue was sent in
the year 1762, when only twelve years of age, to the uni-
versity of Edinburgh, where he pursued his studies during
a period of nine years. On quitting the university, in
1771, he received the degree of master of arts, and was
soon after licensed to preach in the kirk of Scotland. His
ordination took place, at Gosport, June 18, 1777, the only
minister olficialing on the occasion being Dr. Henn,' Hun-
ter, of the Scots' church, London Wall ; from which it
may be inferred that his own church was at that time up-
on the Presbyterian plan.
In 1784, he visited the continent of Europe, " wandering
through France and Flanders," where the aspect of things,
in regard to religion, threw him into melancholy.
In 1785, his congregation had increased to such a de-
gree, that he and his friends were encouraged to build a
new place of worship, which was opened, May 22, with
two sermons preached by Dr. Hunter, of London. He
now prosecuted his ministry with considerable success ;
and in 1789, in consequence of a visit which he paid to
some friends in London, and particularly through the zeal
and liberaUty of George Welch, Esq., an opulent banker
of London, he was induced to open a seminary for the
education of young men for the ministry, on a more ex-
tended scale than heretofore ; and to qualify himself for
the various departments of this office -was an herculean
labor. At first, he had no assistant ; but in a little time he
obtained the co-operation of Mr. Weston, a man of solid
parts, and with his aid, the academy went on prosperously.
After some years, IMr. Weston removed to Sherborne, in
Dorsetshire, and was succeeded in the academy by Mr.
Bennett, in conjunction with whom our author wrote the
" History of the Dissenters." Soon after this, the seminary
at Gosport was much enlarged by the liberal proposal of
Kobert Haldane, Esq., of Edinburgh, who sent ten addi-
tional students to the seminary at Gosport, for whose edu-
cation he engaged to pay the annual sum of ten pounds
each, for three years. But the character of the seminary
received its greatest revolution from the rise of the London
Missionary society. That body soon learned the necessity
of preparing its agents for their arduous work ; and as
Sir. Bogue had been very instruinental in founding the
society, it was resolved he should be the tutor of its mis-
sionaries, who, from that period, formed the majority of
the students at Gosport.
The Baptist Jlission to India had been recently set on
foot, and this, no doubt, operated as an additional impetus
to missionary exertions on the part of Mr. Bogiie and his
friends. Accordingly, in the month of September, 1795,
the affair of missions was taken up in good earnest : ser--
.nons were preached at different places by various minis-
ers. Mr. Haweis, Blr. Burder, Mr. Greathead, Sir. Row-
.and Hill, and by Mr. Bogue, who took for his text. Hag.
: 2. "This people say, the time is not come; the time
that the Lord's house should be built." This discourse
had such a powerful effect upon the audience, that it paved
ihe way for the formation of the London Missionary socie-
ty : twenty-five directors were chosen, among whom was
Mr. Bogue ; a treasurer and secretaries were appointed,
and the society put in train.
In 1796, an application was made to Mr. Bogue, by his
friend, Kobert Haldane, Esq. to become a missionary in
person. This latter gentleman had formed the project of
quitting his native country, like the good bishop Berkeley,
and in company with Sir. Ewing and Mr. Innes, both of
■whom had lately resigned their stations in the church of
Scotland, of proceeding to Bengal, to preach the Gospel
among Ihe Hindoos. A further object which Sir. Haldane
had in view, wa.s to form a seminary in India for the in-
struction of others, who might diffTus'e the light of the Gos-
]iel to the widest extent ; and to furnish the necessary
funds for this grand and benevolent enterprise, Sir. Hal-
dane disposed of his fine estate at Airdne, near Glasgow.
To this proposal Mr Bogue gave his consent ; and on De-
cember 9, 1796, accompanied Sir. Haldane to London, to
wait on Mr. Dundas, then president of the board of control
for Indian aflTairs ; the government, however, refused to
sanction the project, and the scheme failed, mainly through
the influence of the East India company. From this time,
Sir. Bogue bent all his efl'orts to promote the interests of
the Slissionary society ; and to effect this, he was instant
in season and out of season. He traversed the British
islands in every direction, to make known the Slissionary
society, and stimulate exertions in its behalf, in doing
which he was "in labors more abundant." But we must
now attend him chiefly in his career as an author ; and
passing by some of the earlier and minor productions of
his pen, we may mention his " Essay on the Divine Au-
thority of the New Testament," which, though composed
in English, was translated into French, Italian, German;
and Spanish, a circumstance that shows the high estima-
tion in which the work was held. It forms a comprehen-
sive treatise on the di%'inity of the Christian religion. Ano-
ther of Sir. Bogue'.s works is a volume of discourses on the
subject of the millennium. His '-History of the Dissenters,"
in four volumes, octavo, written in conjunction with Dr.
Bennett, has already been adverted to. It is his greatest
undertaking in point of extent, and was projected as a
continuation of Neal's History of the Puritans. The work,
however, has not been a favorite .vith the public, having
dragged heavily through the first edition, li certainly
comprises a mass of interesting and valuable materials,
which will be found highly useful when the subject shall
be taken up by some master mind, who, to the mere in-
ductive application of historical facts, shall possess the
faculty of compression, and imbue the whole with the phi-
losophy of history. Sir. Bogue died at Brighton, on the
25th oi' October, 1625, in his seventy-sixth year.
In his bodily frame. Sir. Bogue was muscular, and ra-
ther athletic ; his constitution soirnd and vigorous ; inso-
much that he scarcely knew, in his own person, what
sickness or infirmity meant. His life was one of almost
herculean labor ; but as a preacher he was not very popu-
lar. His learning and talents, though not of the highest
order, were certainly above mediocrity ; and it was his
unwearied study to render himself useful in his day and
generation. In praise of his disinterestedness, it deserves
to be recorded, that on one occasion he refused to accept
the sum of two hundred pounds, voted him by the Mis-
sionary society, as an expression of the sense they enter-
tained of his services in its behalf. — Jones's Chr. Biog.
BOHAN, (a stone ,) a Keubenite, who had a stone erected
to his honor, on the frontier between Judah and Benjamin,
to commemorate his exploits in the conquest of Canaan,
Josh. 15: 6. 18: \1.— Calmet.
BOHESIIAN BRETHREN; the name of a Christian
sect, which arose in Bohemia, about the middle of the fif-
teenth century, from the remains of the Hussites, Dissa-
tisfied n"ith the advances made towards popery, by which
the Calixtines had made themselves the ruling party in
Bohemia, they refused to receive the compacts or articles of
agreement between that party and the council of Basle
(November 30, 1-133) ; and began about 1457, under the
direction of a clergyman of the name of Slichael Bradatz,
to form themselves into separate parishes, to hold meetings
of their own, and to distinguish themselves from the rest
of the Hussites by the name of Brothers, or Brothers' Union ;
but they were often confounded by their opponents with
the Waidenses and Picards, and, on account of their seclu-
sion, were called Cavern-hunters. Amidst the hardships
and sufferings which they suffered from the Calixtines and
the Catholics, without offering any resistance, their num-
bers increased so much, through their constancy in belief,
and the purity of their morals, that in the year 1500, their
parishes amounted to two hundred, most of which had
chapels belonging to them. The peculiarities of their reli-
gious belief are exhibited in their confessions of faith,
especially their opinions in regard to the Lord's supper.
They rejected the idea of Iransnbstantiation, and admitted
only a mystical spiritual presence of Christ in the eucha-
rist. On all points they professed to take the Scriptures
as the ground of their doctrines, and for this, but more es
pecially for the constitution and discipline of their churches,
they received the approbation of the reformers of the six-
BOL
[ 254 ]
BON
teenlh cetifurj'. This constitution the)' endeavored to mo
del according to the accounts which they could collect re-
specting the primitive churches. They aimed at the resto-
ration of the piimitive purity of Christianity, by the exclu-
,sion of the vicious from their communion ; by the careful
separation of the sexes ; and by the distribution of their
members into three classes : — the beginners, the proficients,
and the perfect. Their strict system of superintendence,
extending even to the minute details of domestic life, con-
tributed much towards promoting this object. To can y
on their system, they had a multitude of officers, of ditfer-
ent degrees, as bishops, seniors and conseniors, presbyters
or preachers, deacons, a?diles, and acolytes, among whom
the management of the ecclesiastical, mora), and civil af-
fairs of the community were judiciously distributed. Their
first bishop received his ordination from a Waldensian
bishop, though their churches held no communion with
the Waldenses in Bohemia. They were destined, however,
to experience a like fate with that oppressed sect. When,
in conformity to their principle not to perform military
service, they refused to take up arms in the Smalcaldic
war against the Protestants, Ferdinand took their chapels
from them ; and, in 15^3, one thousand of their society
retired into Poland and Prussia, where they at first settled
at Maiienwerder. The agreement which they entered into
at Sentomir, April 14, 1570, with the Polish Lutherans and
Calvinistic churches, and, still more, the dissenters' peace
act of the Polish convention, 1572, obtained toleration for
them in Poland, where they united more closely with the
Calvinists under the persecutions of the Swedish Sigis-
mund, and have continued in this connection to the present
day. Their brethren who remained in Moravia and Bo-
hemia, recovered a certain degree of liberty under Jlaxi-
milian II., and had their chief residence at Fulneck, in
Moravia, and hence have been called Moraoian Brethren.
The issue of the thirty years' war, which terminated so
unfortunately for the Protestants, occasioned the entire
destruction of their churches, and their last bishop, Come-
nius, who had rendered important services in the educa-
tion of youth, was obliged to flee. From this time they
made frequent emigrations, the most important of which
took place in 1712, and occasioned the establishment of the
New Brethren's church by count Zinzendorf.
Though the Old Bohemian Brethren must be regarded
as iiow extinct, this society deserves ever to be had in re-
membrance, as one of the principal guardians of Christian
truth and piety, in times just emerging from the barbarism
of the dark ages ; as a promoter of a purity of discipline
and morals, which the reformers of tlie sixteenth century
failed to establish in their churches ; and as the parent of
the widely-extended association of the United ISrethren,
whose constitution has been modelled after theirs. — IJpnd.
Bj/rk.
BOILEAU, (JajMes,) an elder brother of the celebrated
poet, born at Paris, in 1635, was a doctor of the Sorbonne,
I canon, and dean and grand vicar of Sens. He died in
1716. He is the author of several theological and other
vorks in the Latin language, the most celebrated of which
» the Historia Flagellantium. James Boileau, like his
rolher, was caustic and witty. Being asked why he al-
ways wrote in Latin, he replied, "For fear the bishops
"jould read me, in which case I should be persecuted."
S"he Jesuits he designated as men " who lengthened the
reed, and abridged the decalogue." — Davenport.
BOLINGBROKE, (Henry St. John,) celebrated for
lis political career, his talents and eloquent writings, and
for his hostility to Christianity, was born at Battersea,
fEng.) 1672, and died 1751. In his religious system, he
Acknowledges a God, but is for reducing all his attribntes
to rvisdom and power ; blaming divines for distinguishing
between his physical and moral attributes ; and asserting
that we cannot ascribe justice and goodness to God accord-
ing to our ideas of them, nor argue with any certainty
about them ; that it is absurd to deduce moral obligations
from the moral attributes of God, or to pretend to imitate
him in those attributes. He resolves all morality into self-
love as its first principle, and final centre ; as many others
have done, although, as has been acutely observed, " this is
the same thing as for every indivichial to treat himself as the
~eing." In the details of morality he is equally
lax, and his bad temper and dissipated habits but too un-
happily confirmed the bad tendency of his principles.
M^l'
Christianity is honored, not injured, by such assailants.
Rarely have finer powers been more fatally abused. " His
argument," it has been said, "is of that elevated quality
that deals in lofty language and privileged assertion ; and
of that intrepid character, that fears not, as occasion may
demand, to beat down the very positions, which when,
cTlher occasions demanded, it had been found convenient
to maintain." See his Philosophical Works and Letters
on History. — Davenport ; Enetj, Amer. ; FuHer's Works ;
Masee on Atonement.
BOLIVAR, (Simon,) the great captain of South Ameri-
ca, was born in the city of Caraccas, in 1783, and died in
1830, at San Pedro Alejandrino, a country seat about a
league from Santa Martha. His body was embalmed and
laid in state for three days; the people floclcing in crowds
to look upon the reinains of their liberator. Four days
previous to his death, he issued a decree to the citizens of
Colombia, which concluded in the following words : " Co-
lombians— I leave you — but my last prayers are offered
up for the tranquillity of Colombia — and if my death will
contribute to this desirable end, by a discontinuance of
party feeling, and consolidate the union, I shall descend
witli feelings of contentment into the tomb which will soott
be prepared for me." — Davenport.
BOLLANDUS, (John,) a Jesuit, born in the Netherlands,
in 1596, was chosen by his fraternity to carry into efiect
Rossweide's plan of the Acta Sanctorum, or Lives of the
Saints. He completed five folio volumes, the first part of
which he published in 1643. Since his decease, in 1663,
the work has been continued, by Henschenius and others,
to the extent of fifty-three volumes, and is still incomplete.
— Davenport.
BOLLANISTS ; a society of Jesuits in Antwerp, which
published, under the title of " Acta Sanctorum," the tradi-
tions and legends of the saints. They received this name
from John Bolland, who first undertook to digest the ma-
terials already accumulated by Heribert Hoswey .—Hend.
Buck.
BOND ; literally a baud or chain, Acts 25: 14 ; meta-
phoricall)', oppression, captivity, afiiiction, Psalm 116: 16.
Phil. 1: 7; morally, an obligation of any kind. Numb. 30:
12. Jer. 5: 6. Ezek. 20: 37. The bond of inirjuittj is the
state of sin, wherein by the curse of the law and his own
corruption, the unconverted sinner, in all his desires,
thoughts, words, and actions, is shut up to the service and
wages of unrighteousness. Acts 8: 23. " On the other
hand, peace with God through Christ, with our own con-
sciences and with one another, is a beautiful hand which
unites the affections, designs, exerci.ses, and operations of
the several members of the Christian church. Ephes. 4:
3. Chnritij, that is, Christian love, is called ly St. Paul
the bond of perfeetness, because it completes the Christian
character, promotes a close union in church relation, and
renders the gifts and graces of all subservient to mutual
progress towards perfect holiness, happiness, dignity, use-
fulness and glory. Col. 3: 14. The bond of the covenant is
a confirmed state in the covenant of grace which decrees
our salvation, and which binds us under the most deep and
lasting obligations to be the Lord's. Ezek. 20: 37. — Brown.
BONDAGE OF CORRUPTION. This phra.se of St.
Paul, Rom. 8: 21, has been difl^erently understood, as has
the whole magnificent passage of which it forms a part.
Some, mistaking the connection and scope of the passage,
have explained it of moral corruption, and have hence ar-
BOO
[ 255
BOO
gued the final restoration of all men to holiness and happi-
ness. But the context plainly shows that the apostle is treat-
ing exclusively of the future glory which awaits the believer
in Christ, in consequence of his adoption as a child of God
and joint-heir with Christ. A part of that glory is the de-
liverance of this visible creation from its present subjection
to change, decay and death, in the day that this mortal
shall put on immorlality. 1 Cor. 15: 50 — 54. 2 Cor. 5: 4.
BONIFACE, (St.) whose real name was Wilfrid, was
born at Crediton, in Devonshire, about A. D. 080 ; travel-
led, about 716, through inany parts of Germany (of which
he is called the apostle), to convert the heathens ; was con-
secrated a bishop, at Rome, by Gregory II. in 723 ; returned
to Germany, and reclaimed the Bavarians from paganism,
and was, finally, massacred in Friesland, in 755. — Da-
venport.
BONOSIANS ; the followers of Bonosus, bishop of Sar-
dica, who is said to have been of the same sentiments with
the Photinians, which see. — Williams.
BONES ; the hard parts of animal bodies which support
their form. To be bone of one's bone and flesh of his
flesh, Gen. 2: 23, 2 Sam. 5: 1, or a member of his body, of
his flesh and of his bo7l^, Eph. 5: 30, is to have the same na-
ture, and to be united m the nearest relation and affection.
Iniquities are said to be in men's bones, when their body
is polluted by them, or is suS'ering under the consequences
and curse of them. Job 20: H. Ez. 22; 27. A penitent
or troubled spirit is often compared to broken, burnt, pierced,
shaking or rotten bones ; to represent the acuteness of its
distress, the prostration of its powers, the agony of its
fears, the depth of its disorders, and the extreme difficulty
of its cure. The vallei/ of dry bones in Ezekiel's vision,
represents a state of utter helplessness, apart from divine
interposition and aid. Ez. 37: 1 — 17. — Brown.
BONNER, (Edmund,) a prelate, "damned to everlasting
fame," under the appellation of "bloody bishop Bonner,"
was the son of a peasant, at Hanley, in AVorcestershire,
anil was educated at Pembroke college, Oxford. Henry
VIII. made him his chaplain, bishop of Hereford, and then
of London, and eniployed him on embassies to France,
Germany, and the pope. He was imprisoned and deprived
of his bishopric, in the reign of Edward VI. ; but was re-
stored by Mary, and signalized himself by his vindictive
and persecuting spirit. Queen Elizabeth imprisoned him
in the Marshalsea, and he died there, in 15fi9, after ten
years' confinement. Bonner was a man of learning and
talent ; but so sanguinary, that, in allusion to his excessive
corpulence, he was quaintly said to have abundance of guts,
but no bmvels. — Davenport.
BONNET, was a covering for the head, worn by the
Jewish priests. Josephus says, that tho bonnet worn by
the private priests was composed of several rounds of linen
cloth, turned in and sewed together, so as to appear like a
thick linen crown. The whole was entirely covered with
another piece of linen, which came down as low as their
forehead, and concealed the deformity of the seams. See
Exod. 28: 40. The high-priest's bonnet was not much
diflerent from that which has been described. These bon-
nets appear to have resembled the modern turban of the
East. — Watson.
BONZES ; priests of the religion of Fo, in Eastern Asia,
^lariicularly in China, Burmah, Tonkin, Cochin-China, and
,':ipan. Living together in monasteries, unmarried, they
grea'ly resemble the monks of corrupt Christian churches ;
the system of their hierarchy also agrees, in many respects,
with that of the Catholics. They do penance, and pray for
the sins of the laity, who secure them from want by en-
dowments and alms. The female bonzes may be compared
lo the Christian nuns, as the religion of Fo admits of no
priestesses, but allows of the social union of pious virgins
and widows, under monastic vo%vs, for the performance
of religious exercises. The bonzes are commonly ac-
quainted only with the external forms of worship and the
idols, without understanding the meaning of their rehgious
symbols. — Hcnd. Buck.
BOOK ; a wTiting composed on some point of knowledge
by a person intelligent therein, for the instruction or amuse-
ment of the reader. The word is formed from the Gothic
boka. or Saxon boc, which comes from the northern buech,
ot hurhaus, a beech or service-tree, on the bark of which
our ancestors used to write. Book is distinguished from
pamphlet, or single paper, by its greater length ; and from
tome or volume, by its containing the whole writing on the
subject. Isidore makes this distinction between liber and
codex ; that the former denotes a single book, llie latter a
collection of sever.tl ; thou:;h, a>,o-rMug to Scipio JMuflei,
codex signifies a book in the square form ; liber, a book iti
the roll form. The primary distinction between liber and
codex seems to have been derived, as Dr. Heylin has observ-
ed, from the different materials used for writing, among the
ancients : from the inner side of the bark of a tree, used
for this {)urpose, and called in Latin liber, the name of liber
applied to a book was deduced; and from that tablet,
formed from the main body of a tree, called cuudex, was
derived the appellation of codex.
1. Several sorts of materials were formerly used i.
mailing books : stone and wood were the first materia
employed to engrave such things upon as men were de
sirous of having transmitted to posterity. Porphyry makes
mention of some pillars preserved in Crete, on which the
ceremonies observed by the Corybantes in their sacrifices
were recorded. The works of Hesiod were originally writ-
ten on tables of lead, and deposited in the temple of the
muses in Boeotia. The moral law of Jehovah was writte i
on tables of stone. The law-s of Solon were cut on wood
planks. Tables of wood and ivory were common among t^
ancients : those of wood were very frequently covered wit
wax, that persons might write on them with more ease, o
blot out what they had written. And the instrument u>.n-.
to write with was a piece of iron, called a style ; and hen
the word "style" came to be taken for the composition '
the writing. The leaves of the palm tree were afterwards
used instead of wooden planks, and the finest and thinnest
part of the bark of such trees as the lime, ash, maple, and
elm ; and especially the tilio, or phiUyrea, and Egyptian
papyrus. Hence came the word liher, (a book,) which sig-
nifies the inner bark of the trees. And as these barks were
rolled up in order to be removed with greater ease, each
roll was called volumen, a volume ; a name al'terwards
given to the like rolls of paper or parchment. From
the Egyptian papyrus, the oldest material comnwnfy em-
ployed for writing on, the w-ord paper is derived. After
this, leather was introduced, especially the skins of goats
and sheep. For the king of Perganuis, in collecting his
library, was led to the invention of parchment made of
those skins. The ancients likewise wrote upon linen.
Pliny says, the Parthians, even in his time, wrote upon
their clothes ; and Livy speaks of certain books made of
linen, lintei libri, upon which the names of magistrates,
and the history of the Roman commonwealth, were writ-
ten, and preserved in the temple of the goddess Woneta.
2. The materials generally used by the ancients for their
books, were liable to be easily destroyed by the damp, when
hidden in the earth ; and in times of war, devastation, and
rapacity, it was necessary to bury in the earth whatever
they wished to preserve from the attacks of fraud and vio-
lence. "With this view, Jeremiah ordered the writings,
which he delivered to Baruch, to be put in an earthen ves-
sel, Jer. 32. In the same manner, the ancient Egj'ptians
made use of earthen urns, or pots of a proper shape, for
containing whatever they wanted to inter in the earth, and
which, without such care, would have been soon destroyed.
We need not wonder then, that the prophet Jeremiah should
think it necessary to inclose those writings in an earthen
pot, which were to be buried in Judea, in some place
where they might be found without much diiriculty on the
return of the Jews from captivity. Accordingly, two dif-
ferent writings, or small rolls of writing, called books in
the original Hebrew, were designed to be inclosed in such
BOO [ 256 J BOO
an earthen vessel ; bm commentators have been much inside, or the order and arrangement of points and -ettfr.)
embarrassed m givmg any probable account of the neces- into lines and pages, with margins, and other appiirte-
sity of two wntmgs, one sealed, the other open ; or, as the nances. This has undergone many varieties ■ at first the
passage has been commonly understood, the one smM«;>, letters were only divided into Imes, then into separate
the other left open for any one to read; more especially, as words ; which, by degrees, were noted vAih accents and
both were to be ahke buried m the earth and concealed distributed by points and stops into periods paragraphs
from every eye, and both were to be examined at the re- chapters, and other divisions. In some counTries as
turn from the captivity. But the word translated open, in among the orientals, the hnes began from the ric'ht 'and
reference to the evidence or book which wa^ open, (1 Sam ran to the left ; in others, as in northern and wes'^eii na-
^.7, -1, Dan. 2: 19, 30. 10: 1.) signifies the reveahng of tions, from the left to the right; others, as the Grecians
future events to the mmds of men by a divine agency; followed both directions alternately, going in the one and
and It IS particularly used in the book of Esther, 8: 13, to returning in the other, called boustrophedol, becau^ it was
express a book's making known the decree of an earthly after the manner of oxen turning when at plough In the
king Consequently the open book ol Jeremiah seems to Chmese books, the lines ran from top to bottom ' Again •
gnify, not its being then lying open or unroUed before the page in some is entire, and unifora ; in others, divided
em, whiethe other was sealed up; but the book that into columns; in others, distinguished into texts and noiPs
ad revealed the will of God, to bring back Israel into either marginal, or at the bottim usia^ its fu^s^ed
heir own country, and to cause buying and selhng of with signatures and catch-words ; also with a register to
nouses and lands again to take place among them. This discover whether the book be coinplete To these are oc-
was a book of prophecy opening and revealing the future casionally added the apparatus of siimmaries, or side-notes •
pturn of Israel, and the other little book, which was or- the embellishments of red, gold, or figured initial letters'
red to be buned along with it, was the purchase deed. head-pieces, tail-p.eces, effi^es, schemes, map and the
3 By advening to the difi-erent modes of writing in like. The end of the book.^now denoted by fans, was an-
nstern coumnes, we obtain a satisfactory intei-pretation ciently marked T^ith a <j, called coronis, aifd the whde
a passage in the book of Job, 19: 23, 24, and a distinct frequently washed with al oil drawn from cedar or cifroa
','.11 . O .h'f"""" ^'f ^"°" "'""'^ '^ '°'' '" ™^ "■^"^- ^'^'P^' '""'^-"^ ^^'»'«<^" 'he leaves to preserve iUVom rot-
vir. nr n?.H f ""J T^' Were now written ! 0 that they ting. There also occur certain formula at the begimi[ng
vere prmted (wntten in a book ! that they were graven and end of books ; as among the Jews, the word hezek e^^
v.th an iron pen and lead in the rock forever !" In the fortis, which we find at the end of the books of Exodus it
.ast there IS a mode of writing, which is designed to fix viticus. Numbers, Ezekiel, kc. to exhort the reader to be
-ords m the memory but the wntmg is not intended for courageous, and proceed on to the following book The
,K ? k'?-, A';™'^'i">g'y, ^ve are informed by Dr. Shaw, conclusions were also often guarded with imprecations
ml',^ h?n ZZ °v\T "" Barbary by means of a against such as should falsify them; of wh^h we have an
smooth, thm board, shghtly covered with whitmg, which instance in the Apocalypse. The Mahometans for the
may be wiped oif or renewed at pleasure. Job expresses hke reason, place the name of God at the beginning of aU
lis wish not on y that his words were written, but also their books, which cannot fail to procure them protection
written in a book from which they should not be blotted on account of the infinite regard which they my to tS
out nay still further, graven in a rock, the most perraa- name, wherever found. For the hke reason it iT that di-
W™rfiu''?'''^>u^;''T "'''^ °^ "^"^ 1=^^^= °'' tfie ancient emperors begin with the
letteis were filled with lead ; or the rock was made to re- formula. In Nomine Dei. At the end of each bolk, the Jews
t'hp'Ll'^nf" 'fil' ' "f f ^'^'"^ ^'^^ '"°\" ^'°™S also added the number of verses contained in it, and at the
the ancients. So Pliny,- At first, men wrote on the leaves endof the Pentateuch the number of sections; that it might
ol palm, and the bark ol certain trees ; but afterwards pub- be transmitted to posterity entire. The Bla^orites and Jla-
hc documents were preserved on leaden plates, and those hometan doctors have goie further, so as to number the
r '^T.r. fi Tu"\ ™ "'"■' "^''";"- , , , , , several words and letters in each hook, chapter, verse, &c.
4.1 he first books were m the fonn of blocks and tables, of the Old Testament and the Alkoran. The scarcity and
ol winch we find frequent mention in Scripture, under the high price of books in former ages, ought to render lis the
appellation sepher, which the Septuagint render axines, that more grateful for the discovery of the |reat art of printing,
IS, square tables : of w uch form the book ut the covenant, as especially by that means the Holy Bible, " the word of
book of the law, book, or bill of divorce, book of curses, truth and gospel of our salvation," is made familiar to all
&c. appear to have been. As flexible matters came to be classes.
written on they found it more convenient to make their 5. The universal ignorance that prevailed in Europe,
books in form of rolls, called by the Greeks kontakia, by from the seventh to the eleventh century, may be ascribed
the Latins volumina, which appear to have been in use to the scarcity of books during that period, and the difii-
among the ancient Je\ys as well as the Grecians, Romans, culty of rendering them more common, concurring with
I-ersians, and even Indians ; and of such did the libraries other causes arising from the state of government and
chiefly consist, till some centuries after Christ. The form manners. The Romans %vrote their books either on parch-
wluch obtains among us is the square, composed of sepa- ment, or on paper made of the Egyptian papyrus The
rate leaves ; which was also known, though little used, latter, being the cheapest, was of course the most com-
among the ancients ; having been invented by Attalus, monly used. But after the Saracens conquered Egypt in
king ot rergamus, the same who also invented parch- the seventh century, the communication between that
ment : but it has now been so long in possession, that the country and the people settled in Italy, or in other parts
oldest manuscripts are found in it. Slontfaucon assures of Europe, was almost entirely broken ofl", and the papy-
us, .hat ol a 1 the ancient Greek manuscripts he has seen, rus was no longer in use among them. They were obliged
mere are but two m the roll form ; the rest being made up on that account to write all their books upon parchment ;
much after the manner of the modern books. The rolls, or and as the price of that was high, books became extremely
volumes, were composed of several sheets, fastened to rare and of great value. We may judge of the scarcity
each other, and rolled upon a stick, or i™}*™s; the whole of materials for writing them from Sne circumstance,
making a kind of column, or cylinder, which was to be There still remain several manuscripts of the eighth,
managed by the ™W,c,« as a handle; it being reputed a ninth, and following centuries, «Titten on parchment
kind of crime to take ho d of the roll itself The outside from which some fomer writing had been erased, in or^
of the volume was called frons; the ends of the nviiiheus der to substitute a new composition in its place. Thus, it
were called c«rm/«, honis ;' which were usually carved is probable, several of the ^wks of the ancients perished,
ami adorned likewise wi h sdver, ivory, or even gold and A book of Livy or of Tacitus might be erased, to make
piecious stones. Whilst the Egyptian papyrus was in room for the legendary tale of a saint, or the superstitious
wh^Xv'wrn .' nn ' 7^^^^' " ^'°^' '° ™" "? P'^'i'"^ "^ ^ '^'^^- " ^ay, worse instances are^ecorded,
what they wrote ; and as this had been a customary prac of obliterating copies of the Holy Scriptures to make room
tice, many continued 1 when they used other materials, for the lucubrations of some of the more modern fathers
which might very safely have bee-a treated in a diflerent of the church. Manuscripts thus defaced, the vellum or
manner. To the form of books bekigs the economy of the parchment of which is occupied with some oiher writings,
BOO
257
BOO
are called ' palimpsests," codices rescripti or palimpsesti,
from palimpseslos, " that which has been twice scraped."
As this want of materials for writing will serve to account
for the loss of many of the works of the ancients, and for
the small number of manuscripts previous to the eleventh
centurj', many facts prove the scarcity of books at this
period. Private persons seldom possessed any books what-
ever ; and even monasteries of note had only one missal.
In 1299, John de Pontissara, bishop of Winchester, bor-
rows of his cathedral convent of St. Swilhin, at Winches-
ter, " bibliam bene glossatam," that is, the Bible, with mar-
ginal annotations, in two folio volumes ; but gives a bond
for the return of it, drawn up with great solemnity. For
the bequest of this Bible to the convent, and one hundred
marks, the monks founded a daily mass for the soul of the
donor. If any person gave a book to a religious house, he
believed that so valuable a donation merited eternal salva-
tion, and he offered it on the altar with great ceremony.
The prior and convent of Rochester declare, that they will
every year pronounce the irrevocable sentence of damna-
tion on him who shall purloin or conceal a Latin transla-
tion of Aristotle's Poetics, or even obliterate the title.
Sometimes a book was given to a monastery, on condition
that the donor should have the use of it for his life ; and
sometimes to a private person, with the reservation that he
who receives it should pray for the soul of his benefactor.
In the year 1225, Roger de Insula, dean of York, gave se-
veral Latin Bibles to the university of Oxford, on condition
that the students who perused them should deposit a cau-
tionary pledge. The librarj' of that university, before the
year 1300, consisted only of a few tracts, chained or kept
in chests, in the choir of St. Mary's church. The price of
books became so high, that persons of a moderate fortune
could not afibrd to purchase them. In the }'ear 1174, Wal-
ler, prior of St. Swithin's at Winchester, purchased of the
monks of Dorchester, in Oxfordshire, Bede's horaiUes and
St. Austin's psalter for twelve measures of barley and a
pall, on which was embroidered in silver the history of St.
Eirinus converting a Saxon king. About the year 1400,
a copy of John of Meun's " Roman de la Rose" was sold
before the palace-gate at Paris for forty crowns, or 33 1.
6 s. 6d. The countess of Anjou paid, for a copy of the
homilies of Haimon, bishop of Halbersladt, two hundred
sheep, five quarters of wheat, and the same quantity of rye
and railleU Even so late as the year 1471, when Louis
XI. of France borrowed the works of Rhasis, the Arabian
physician, from the faculty of medicine at Paris, he not
only deposited by way of pledge a considerable quantity
of plale, but he was obliged to procure a nobleman to join
with him as surety in a deed, binding himself under a
great forfeiture to restore it. But when, in the eleventh
century, the art of malring paper was invented, and more
especially after the manufacture became general, the num-
ber of manuscripts increased, and the study of the sciences
was wonderfully facilitated. Indeed, the invention of the
art of making paper, and the invention of the art of print-
ing, are two very memorable events in the history of lite-
rature and of human civilization. It is remarkable, that
the former preceded the first dawning of letters and im-
provement in knowledge, towards the close of the eleventh
centur>' ; and the latter ushered in the light which spread
over Europe at the era of the reformation.
6. If the ancient books were large, they were formed of
a number of skins, of a number of pieces of linen and cot-
Ion cloth, or of papyrus, or parchment, connected together.
The leaves were rarely written over on both sides, Ezek.
2: 9. Zech. 5: 1. Books, when written upon very flexible
materials, were, as stated above, rolled round a stick ;
and, if they were very long, round two, from the two ex-
tremities. The reader unrolled the book to the place which
he wanted, and rolled it up again, when he had read it,
Luke 4: 17 — 20 ; whence the name mcgelle, a volume, or
thing rolled up. Psalm 40: 7. Isaiah "34: 4. Ezek. 2: 9.
2 Kings 19: 14. Ezra 6: 2. The leaves thus rolled round
the stick, which has been mentioned, and bound with a
string, could be easily sealed, Isaiah 29: 11. Dan. 12: 4.
Kev. 5: 1. 6: 7. Those books which were inscribed on
tablets of wood, lead, brass, or ivory, were connected to-
gether by rings at the back, through which a rod was
passed to carry them by. The orientals appear to have
33
taken pleasure in giving tropical or enigmatical titles lo
their books. The titles pretiixcd to the fifty-sixth, sixtieth,
and eightieth psalms appear to be of this description. And
there can be no doubt that David's elegy upon Saul and
Jonathan, 2 Sam. 1: 18, is called in Hebrew the bow, in
conformity with this peculiarity of taste.
The book, or flying roll, spoken of in Zech. 5: 1, 2, twen-
ty cubits long, and ten wide, was one of the ancient rolls,
composed of many slcins, or parchments, glued or sewed
together at the end. Though some of these rolls or vo-
lumes were very long, yet none, probably, was ever made
of such a size as this. This contained the curses and ca-
lamities which should befal the Jews. The extreme
length and breadth of it shows the excessive number
and enormity of their sins, and the extent of their punish-
ment.
Isaiah, describing the effects of God's wrath, says. " The
heavens shall be folded up like a book," (scroll,) Isai. 34:
4. He alludes to the way among the ancients, of rolling
up books, when they purposed to close them. A volume
of several feet in length was suddenly rolled up into a very
small compass. Thus the heavens should shrink into
themselves, and disappear, as it were, from the eyes of
God, when his ^Tath should be kindled. These ways of
speaking are figurative, and very energetic.
7. Book is sometimes used for letters, memoirs, an edict,
or contract. In short, the word book, in Hebrew, sepher, is
much more extensive than the Latin liber. The letters
which Babshakeh delivered from Sennacherib to Hezekiah
are called a book. The English translation, indeed, reads
letter ; but the Septuagint has biblimi ; and the Hebrew
text, sepherim. The contract, confirmed bj' Jeremiah
for the purchase of a field, is called by the same name,
Jer. 32: 10 ; and also the edict of Ahasuerus in favor of
the Jews, E.sther 9: 20, though our translators have called
it letters. The writing which a man gave to his wife when
he divorced her was denominated, in Hebrew, " a book of
divorce," Deut. 24.
Books, }Vriters of. The ancients seldom -wTote their
treatises with their own hand, but dictated them to their
freedmen and slaves. These were either tachugraphoi,
amanuenses, notarii, ''hasty writers," or halUgraphoi, libra-
rii, " fair writers," or bibliographoi, librarii, " copyists."
The ofiice of these last was to transcribe fairly that which
the fonner had written hastily and from dictation ; they
were those who were obliged to write books and other
documents which were intended to be durable. The cor-
rectness of the copies was under the care of the emeniiator,
corrector, (ho dokimazon ta gegrammtna.) A great part of the
books of the New Testament was dictated after this cus-
tom. St. Paul noted it as a particular circumstance in
the epistle to the Galatians, that he had written it with his
own hand, Gal. 6: 11. But he aSixed the salutation ^\-ith
his own hand, 2 Thess. 3: 17. 1 Cor. Iti: 21. Col. 4: 18.
The amanuensis who wrote the epistle to the Romans, has
mentioned himself near the conclusion, Rom. 16: 22.
Books, modes of publication. Works could only be mul-
tiplied by means of transcripts. Whenever in this way
they passed over lo others, they were beyond the control
of the author, and published. The edition, or publication,
by means of the booksellers, was, only at a later pcn'c-d,
advantageous to the Christians. The rccitatio preceded the
publication, which took place often merely among some
few friends, and often with great preparations before ma.-
ny persons, who were invited for that purpose. From
hence the author became known as the writer, and the
world became previously informed of all which they might
expect from the work. If the composition pleased them,
he was requested to permit its transcription ; and thus the
work left the hands of the author, and belonged to the pub-
licum. Frequently an individual sent his literary labors
to some illlustrious man, as a present, sirena, munitsailum ;
or he prefixed his name to it, for the sake of giving him a
proof of friendship or regard, by means of this express and
particular direction of his work. Wlieu it was only thus
presented or sent to him, and he accepted it. he was consi-
dered as the person bound to introduce it to iL- worM. or
as the patronus liliri, who had pledged himself, as the jtatrn
uus persona, to this duty. It now became his office to pro-
vide for its publlcatioabv means of transcripts^ to facilitate
BOO
[ 258 J
BOO
4s appro;ich ad Umina potentioruni to the gales of men ol
great influence, and to be its defensor.
Thus the works of the first founders of the Christian
church made their appearance before their community.
Their epistles were read in those congregations to which
the}' were directed ; and whoever wished to possess them
either took a transcript of them, or caused one to be pro-
cured for him. The historical works were made known
by the authors in the congregations of the Christians, per
ricitationem : the object and general interest in them pro-
cured for them readers and transcribers. St. Luke dedi-
cated his writings to an illustrious man of the name of
Theophilns. — Watson.
BOOK OF JUDGMENT. Daniel says, "Judgment
was set, and the books were opened," 7: iO. This is an
allusion to what is practised, when a prince calls his ser-
vants to account. The accounts are produced, and in-
quired into. It is possible he might allude also to a custom
of the Persians, among whom it was a constant practice
overy day to write down what had happened, the services
done for the king, and the rewards given to those who had
performed them ; as we see in the history of Ahasuerus
and Blordecai. When, therefore, the king sits in judg-
ment, the books are opened, and he compels all his servants
to reckon ■with him ; he punishes those who have been
faiUng in their duty, compels those to pay who are in-
debted to him, and rewards those who have done him ser-
vices. There will be, in a manner, a similar proceeding
at the day of God's final judgment. Eev. 20: 12. — Calmct.
BOOK OF LIFE, or Book of tue living, or Book of
niE Lord, Ps. 69: 28. It is very probable, that these de-
scriptive phrases, which are frequent in Scripture, are taken
from the custom observed generally in the courts of princes,
of keeping a list of persons who are in their service, of the
provinces which they govern, of the officers of their armies,
of the number of their troops, and sometimes even of the
names of their sokliers. Thus Moses desires God rather
to blot him out of his book, than to reject Israel, Exotl. 32:
32. When it is said, that any one is written in the book
of life, it means that he particularly belongs to God, is
enrolled among the number of his friends and servants.
When it is said, " blotted out of the book of life," this sig-
nifies, erased from the list of God's friends and servants ;
as those who are guilty of treachery are struck off' the roll
of officers belonging to a prince. It is probable, also, that
the primitive Christian churches kept lists of their mem-
bers, in which those recently admitted were enrolled :
these would take a title analogous to that of the hook of
life, or the Lamb's book of life : as this term occurs prin-
cipally in the Revelation, it seems likely to be derived from
such a custom. Hev. 3: 5. 22: 19. Something of the same
nature we have, in Isaiah 4: 3, where the prophet alludes
to such as were " written among the living in Jerusalem ;"
that is, enrolled among the citizens of that city of God j to
which the Christian church was afterwards compared. In
a more exalted sense, the book of life signifies, the book
of justificatioH ; or the register of those who through grace
have been chosen to eternal life in Christ. Luke 10: 20.
Phil. 4:3. Rev. 13: 8. 17:8. 20:12,15. 21:27.— Calmet.
BOOTH ; a tent made of poles, and used as a tempora-
ly residence S,'o TrvT — Calmet
BOOTH (Abraham ) the -well known champion of Bap
tist prmciples, venerable foi ms learnmg, piety, and talents,
v.';s born at Blackwell, in Derbyshire, in the month of May,
1734. He was the eldest child of a large family ; and his
father being a farmer, he brought his son up to the busi*
ness, in which he a.ssisted him, till he had arrived at the
age of sixieen. His education therefore, in early years,
was very much neglected ; he never went even to a com-
mon day-school ; and the only instruction he received, was
in the knowledge of the English alphabet, which his father
taught him, after the toils and fatigues of the day. It has
been frequently and justly observed, that many who have
received the least instruction, have, in the course of a
comparatively short space of time, made the most rapid
improvement, both in mind and heart, and have become
blessings to their friends, and ornaments to society; while
others have disgraced both their preceptors and themselves,
and only left behind them names dishonored and unworthy.
To the former may be added Abraham Booth. His mind,
ever active and energetic, was at length roused to exertion,
and he determined to cultivate it himself. This resolution,
once adopted, never forsook him ; and, in a short time, lie
perfected himself in arithmetic and Writing ; and while the
other members of his family were enjoying their nocturnal
repose, he was studying and preparing himself for that fu-
ture usefulness, for which he was subsequently so distin-
guished. The bodily fatigues of farming not suiting his
health, he learned to work in the stocking-frame ; but neither
was this application adapted to him. He was destined for a
more responsible and important work. His parents were
members of the church of England ; and, till their atten-
tion was arrested by the discourses of some zealous itine-
rant preachers, who were General Baptists, they constantly
attended their parish church. The mind of young Abra-
ham was strongly impressed with their arguments, and,
after mature consideration, he consented to be baptized, at
Barton, by Mr. Francis Smith. Mr. Booth gave very early
marks of piely ; and was frequently, when his parents
thought he was devoting his time to recreation, overheard
in prayer. His friends, impressed with the idea that he
possessed talents for usefulness in the church of God, ex-
pressed their anxieties for him to enter the ministry ; and,
after many prayers and much consideration on the import-
ance of the great work on which he was entering, he be-
came a preacher among the General Baptists. He was
an active minister of the Gospel ; preaching at Melbourne,
Barton, Loughborough, Diseworth, and many other sur-
rounding places, where he labored with much success. In
1738, he married Miss Elizabeth Bowman, an amiable and
intelligent young woman, by whom he had a largelfamily.
These incre.ising demands on his income induced him to
open an academy at Sutton Ashfield, for young gentlemen,
in which he was joined by his amiable partner, who re-
ceived a proportionate number of females.
In 1760, there were distinct churches formed, in conse-
quence of the Baptist connexion having increased ; and
Mr. Booth was accordingly set apart for the society of
Kirby Woodhouse, where he labored for several years, till
an event occurred, which made it his painful duty to leave
a people to whom he was much attached, and among
T-'honi he had labored for many years. His doctrinal sen-
timents underwent an important change. Hitherto he had
held the Arminian doctrine of the inefficacy of divine
grace, and wrote a work on " Absolute Predestination," in
which he opposed the docrine of election, which he after-
wards warmly vindicated. He now published his " Reign
of Grace," being the substance of discourses preached in
a room at Sutton Ashfield, after his secession from the
General Baptists.
In 1768, he was called to the pastoral office of the church
in Present street, Goodman's fields, London, and was or-
dained over them. He now studied intensely, and soon
shone as a theologian and a scholar. In 1770, he pub-
lished a tract, entitled " The Death of Legal Hope the Life
of Evangelical Obedience," which has been greatly prais-
ed. In 1792, the cries and tears of the persecuted Africans
arrested his attention, and he publicly avowed his utter
abhorrence of the slave trade ; he took an active part in
forwarding petitions to the Enghsh legislature for its abo-
lition ; and he preached an able and judicious discourse, in
aid of the society formed for effecting the abolition of that
horrid and disgraceful traffic. Mr. Booth now became a-
author of fi.-st-rate celebrity in the B;iptist denomination.
BOO
[ 259 ]
BOR
and of which it may be truly said that he was one of its
brightest ornaments. In 1778, he published "An Apology
for the Baptists, in which they are vindicated from the
imputation of laying an undue stress on the ordmance of
Baptism j" namely, when they refuse communion at the
Lord's table with unbaptized persons. A powerful effort
has indeed been lately made, by an eloquent writer of their
own denomination, to overturn the principles of the "Apo-
logy," and vindicate the practice of mixed communion ;
but Mr. Booth has been most ably supported by Mr. Jo-
seph Kinghorn, of Norwich, and still more recently have
the fundamental principles of his essay been vindicated by
Mr. J. G. Fuller, of Bristol, son of the late secretary to the
Baptist mission, in a small volume, which has yet received
no reply from the advocates of mixed communion.
In 178-i, in consequence of the appearance of a posthu-
mous publication, on the subject of infant baptism, from
the pen of the celebrated Mattliew Henry, Mr. Booth gave
to the world his " Pedobaplism examined, on the Princi-
ples, Concessions, and Reasonings of the most learned Pe-
dobaptists," in which he meets his opponents on their own
ground, avails himself of their own weapons, and, with
singular dexterity, turns them against themselves. The
volume was reviewed by Mr. Badcock, in the Monthly
Review for September, 1784, in which he takes occasion
to remark in the course of his critique, that "he sets his
opponents together by the ears, and leaves them to over-
throw the very cause, in defence of which they professed
to take the field." The edition was quickly disposed of,
and in 1787, our author came forward with a second edi-
tion, now greatly enlarged by addiiional quotations from
the writings of the most celebrated Pe Jobaptists, accompa-
nied by additional illustrations, remarks, and reasonings,
comprised in two thick and closely printed volumes. In
this performance, the reader will be astonished at the ex-
tent of the author's reading and research, his indefatigable
industry, and his patient perseverance in the prosecution
of his subject ; nor le.ss so at his skill in the luminous ar-
rangement of his materials, which are collected from an-
cient fathers, from historians of every age and country,
fjrom the most eminent professors and pious divines. In
a word, he seeiBS to have exhausted the controversy on the
side of the Baptists. An attempt, however, was made to
furnish a reply, by Dr. Williams, afterwards president of
the Rotherham dissenting academy, which called up our
author again, in nyS, when he published " A defence of
Pedobaplism examined ; or. Animadversions on Dr. Ed-
ward Williams's Anti-pedohaptism examined." It was
comprised in a volume of more than five hundred pages,
and displays equal abdity with the former work. After
being many years out of print, a new edition of the whole
of these pieces on the baptismal controversy has recently
made its appearance (1828) in three volumes, octavo,
handsomely printed.
To enumerate all the productions of our author's pen
would be to extend this article to too great a length, since
almost every year furnished some new proof of his labori-
ous exertions in the cause of pure and imdefiled religion ;
but his " Essay on the Kingdom of Christ," his " Pastoral
Cautions," and his " Amen to Social Prayer," may be spe-
cified among his minor productions ; and they are all of
them pieces of uncommon excellence. But his " Glad Ti-
dings to perishing Sinners ; or, the Genuine Gospel a com-
plete Warrant for the Ungodly to believe in Jesus Christ,"
which appeared in 1796, and which was followed by a
second edition in 1800, was a publication of greater ex-
tent, and will abundantly recompense the cost and pains
of perusing it. His last publication was a discourse, deli-
vered at one of the monthly meetings of the Baptist church-
es in the metropolis, entitled, " Divine Justice essential to
the Divine Character," with a copious appendix ; and in
none of his writings did the author give more solid proofs
of an enhghtened mind, or of more cogent and powerful
reasoning. Mr. Booth died on the 27lh of January, 1806,
in the seventy-second year of his age, deeply regretted by
all who knew him. He possessed a powerful and vigorous
mind, cultivated by intense study, enlarged and expanded
by reading and reflection, and enriched by a copious unc-
tion from the Spirit of all grace. He was a man of the most
inflexible integrity, great sanctity of manners, and exhi-
bited to all around, a pattern of the Christian ministei.
His works, (excepting those on baptism.) were published,
in three octavo volumes, in 1813, with an Essay on his
Life and Writings. — Joneses Chris. Biog.
BOOTY; spoils taken in war. Num. 31: 27—32. Ac-
cording to the law of Moses, the booty was to be divided
equally between those who were in the battle and those
who were in the camp, whatever disparity there might be
in the number of each party. The law further required
that, out of that part of the spoils which was assigned to
the fighting men, the Lord's share should be separated ;
and for every three hundred men, oxen, asses, sheep, &c.
they were to take one for the high-priest, as being the
Lord's first-fruits ; and out of the other moiety, belonging
to the children of Israel, they were to give for every fifty
men, oxen, asses, sheep, &c. one to the Levites. — Watson.
BOOZ, or BoAz ; one of our Savior's ancestors accor.i-
ing to the flesh, son of Salmon and Rahab, a Canaanitesu
of Jericho, whom Salmon, of the tribe of Judah, married.
Some say, there were three of this name, the son, grand-
son, and great-grandson of Salmon ; the last t)eing husband
of Ruth, and father of Obed. This they believe to be the
only way in wliich Scripture can be reconcUed with itself,
since it reckons 366 years between Salmon's marriage, and
the birth of David, and yet mentions only three persons
between Salmon and David, viz. Booz, Obed, and Jesse
Mr. Taylor, however, prefers the solution of Dr. Allix.
The Targuni on Ruth snj's, that Salmon is styled Salmon
the Just ; his works and the works of his children were
very excellent ; Boaz was a righteous person, by whose
righteousness the people of Israel were delivered from the
hands of their enemies, &c. There were but 366 years
from the first of Joshua to the birth of David — for from the
Exodus to the temple were 480 years ; add to 366 the forty
years' wandering in the wilderness, the life of David se-
venty years, and four years of Solomon — the total is 480
years. He therefore supposes that Salmon might beget
Boaz when he was 96 years old ; Boaz begat Obed when
he was 90 years old ; Obed at 90 begat Jesse ; and Jesse
at 85 begat David. We know that long life often descends
in a family ; old Parr had a son who lived to be very old :
and, what is no less remarkable, old men of such famUies
have had children very late in life, as after the age of a
hundred years ; of which old Parr himself is one exam-
ple.— Cnlmet.
BORDING, (James,) an eminent Christian, was bom
1546, and died 1616, aged sixtj'-nme. " Bording," says
Melchior Adam, " was second to none in the study of
theology, and he cultivated it with the subliine view of
conforming his life to the divine nill or doctrine." After
a laborious life, finding his health giving way, he retired
from pubhc business, and arranged his afl'airs as one who
was soon to depart from this to a better world. He made
his will, selected and daily visited the place of his burial,
and composed the epitaph which was inscribed on his
tomb. For, said he, " if Mirmillo, the gladiator, was anx-
ious to fall in a dignified manner, by how much more does
it become a Christian to endeavor, lest, in the closing scene,
he dishonor a life, which in all other respects had been
most excellent." His wishes were fulfilled in relation to
his last hour, and with a mind perfectly collected and se-
rene, he breathed out his soul on the bosom of God his
Savior. — C/issord.
BORE, (Cathakine von,) a nun of Nimptochen in Ger-
many, afterwards the wife of Luther, was the daughter of
a gentleman of fortune. At the commencement of the
Reformation, she, with eight other nuns, convinced by
Luther's writings of the impropriety of monastic vows,
escaped from her convent, in 1533. This bold step was
highlj' praised by Luther, who undertook their justification.
Catharine was then but twenty-six, and the charms of
youth in these circumstances, led her enemies to censure
her mthout foundation, as having left her convent for a
libertine Ufe. Luther, hurt with this report, would have
married her to Glacius, minister of Orlamunden ; but she
not liking Glacius, he married her himself, in 1526. Luther
always delighted in the heroism of his wife. He would
not part with her, he afterwards observed, for all the riches
of the Venetians. Catharine was tenderly attached to her
husband ; she was pious, modest, gentle, plain in her attire,
BOS
[ 260 ]
BOS
and economical in her house, where she displayed all the Meaux. He was also made a counseUor of state and first
hospUahty ot the German iwblesse, without their pride. She almoner to the duchess of Burgundy These offices he
pnpi^i^T'r'TcJe"' ?;u"" f 'ittier.-B.^/m™. held till the 12th of April, 1704, on which day he died, at
JiUKKJiLLlbib; a Christian sect m Holland, so named Paris, in the seventy-sixth year of liis age
from their founder Borrel, a man of great learning in the He wrote much ; but his works are chiefly polemical
Hebrew, Greelr, and Latin tongues. They reject the use He took great part in the disputes which were carried on
ol the sacraments, public prayer, and all other external acts with the Protestants, although he was no advocate for the
ol worship. They assert that all the Christian churches of infallibility of the pope, or his power of deposin<' kings ■
the world have degenerated from the pure apostolic doc- both which pretensions he zealously opposed and" refused
trines, because they have suflered the word of God, which the cardinal's hat, which was offered him by pope Innocent
IS infallible, to be expounded, or rather corrupted, by doc- XI., as an inducement for him to remain silent on those
tors who are fallible. They lead a very austere life, and subjects.
«="^'°yi^ Sff^' pa" of their goods in aims.— Hend. Buck. His Funeral Orations have been much admired. They
BOKKOMLO, (Charles,) a cardinal, justly celebrated are certainly able compositions : and some of them record
lor his virtues, was of an illustnous Lombard family, and the praises of worthy and excellent characters ■ but it ia
was born, m 1538, at the castle of Arona, in the Milanese, painful to observe so much eloquence wasted on so un-
He was created a cardinal and archbishop of IMilan, by his worthy an indi\'idual as the crafty and implacable Le Tel-
uncle pope Pius IV. He was a model of piety and of cha- lier. IBossuet was, however, bold in expressing his oomions
r:ty, and a munificent patron of learning. His efforts to before his superiors. In a dispute betwixt him and Fene-
reform the monastic orders drew on him the vengeance of Ion, while the king was present, he expressed his opinion \
a fanatical monk, who attempted, but happily, without sue- with so much warmth, as led the king to sav ''What
cess, to assassinate him Borromeo died in 1584 ; in 1610, nmild you have dm,e, if I had taken part Jth Ftndon against
he was canonized; and m 1697, a colossal bronze statue y«,.?"_Bossuet replied, "7 n-ould have spoken ten times as
of him, sixty-six feet high, was erected at Arona. His loud I" On another occasion, as he bad inveighed against
*''t?l°.?'^^'..«:°''''il.'?'=™Pyfi^^fo''0^ol»m<-s.— 2)fl«e«port. theatrical exhibitions, to which Louis ^vas addicted the
r II .u- -■ , ,_ .. Lipreme His Universal History, which has ever been considered
possessor of all things, might he not transfer the right of his principal work, was composed while he was preceptor
the Egyptians to his own people, and require Ihem to de- to the dauphin, and was chiefly intended for the use of
mand what he gave them? When the Egyptians had that prince. He has so well tinted out, in his introduc
denied them their just wages, might not God, the supreme lion, the extensive usefulness of history in general and of
judge, allot them their wages, and order them to demand a chronological abridgment of it in particular that it is
It in this manner ? Exod. 3: 22. and 12: 35. To borrow unnecessary to say any thing here on fhese subj-ects He
money or goods, without earnestly endeavoring to pay in was, indeed, the first who produced a true general history
due time, IS a mark of a wicked and covetous person. Ps. which, like a map, according to hii5 own excellent comnan-
61: ^\. It IS smtul to injure m any way what we have son, collects and arranges, in one great and consistent
%n9nM Tl,? 15.-£™i.«; Calmet plan, with perfect symmetry and correctnes-s, the most
BOfeOIVI The fiont of the upper part of the body —the material events of every nation from the beginning of
breast. The Orientals generally wore long, wide, and time, in their due situation, connexion, and order This
oose garments ; and when about to carry any thing away however, is not the sole merit of his worii:, which derives
that their hands would not contain, they used for the pur- great part of its value from the skill with which the history
pose a fold in the bosom of their robe. To this custom our of religion is combined with that of the worid ; and the
I.ord aUudes— • Good measure shall men give into your care which is taken throughout, to show the importance of
Dosom, Luke b: JB. To have one "m our bosom," ini- the former, by the series of events exhibited in the latter
phes kindness, .secrecy, intimacy. Gen. 16: 5. 2 Sam. 12: Everywhere he shows the overruling providence of Him.'
H. Christ is in the bosom of the Father; that is, possesses who
the closest intimacy and perfect knowledge of the Father, "Rides in the whirlwind, and directs the siorm "
John 1: 18. Our Savior is said to carry his lambs in his and shows, in the turbulence of human aflairs, the execu-
bosom which beautituUy represents his tender care and tion of his designs, the performance of his promises, and
Rn^".;^^'' T'l^'T' ^'^^°■• "-C«''™'- the fulfilment of those ihreatenings which he has denoun-
T hi -It ' ri "^'^''^^' ^^^ strongest parts of a buckler, ced against tyrants and impious nations. It must, how-
BntQiir^ f T '^'' r, ^ . . , '^^^f' *><= remembered, that M. Bossuet was a CathoKc, and
K„f c , i' * o^^Y^L^'^."^'"^') '^'^^°P of Meaux, was indeed a zealous one ; of course, he will be expected to
ooin beptember .7, lb27, of respectable parents, at Dijon, speak as a Catholic. As a controversialist, he is distiu-
lie capital ot Burgundy, and now of the department of the guished by great logical acuteness, and infinite dexterity
Cote d Ur. He received his first instructions at the college in exposing the weak points of an opponent, and conceal-
01 Jesuits m tliat city, where he gave early proofs of su- ing his own. These qualities are particularly exhibited in
perior talents, and by chance got possession of a Bible, his celebrated " Exposition of the Roman Catholic Faith "
r.nlVZfir,' V ^"^ impression on him. Being in- addressed principally to Protestants ; which, however, was
finith his studie^.T^he Tf' ''°; i? ^^'''^ '\}^'^"' '" "'"^ J'^"'^ ""^"'°? *^ approbation if the pope, ere it ve-
^ijt^ht^^tn ) college of Navan-e. After com- ceived his " Imprimatur." The points on wdiich he chiefly
ft.n.^! t "^''"'°g'<='^^ ^'Jf.^^; he received the degree of lays stress, are the antiquity and unity of the Catholic
rfoctoi ol the Sorbonne, m 1652, and immediately removed church ; the accumulated authorities of fathers, councils
Ifti,;^;.! 'Vi" '"''" first appointed canon of the church, and popes ; and the necessity of a final umpire n matters
on it d himslir "^'l""' ""f ""' 'f ^"^ '^r"- ^''^ ^" ^=- °f 'i"<='""'^ '^'^'l discipline. On all these points, however,
quitted himsel with great credit, and appears to have he was ably answered by the venerable John Claude and
devoted himself to his clerical duties without any endea- other ministers of the French Calvinists, as well as by
nu., n, » ^J^'fl"?" 1 ".' ^''^'?T^ assiduously in the archbishop Wake, who, in his " Exposition of the Doctrine
instruction of his flock; and, though both learned and elo- of the Church of England," exposes much management
^3>,y nft" r' '" "'"^^"^'"^'''^ h's discoi^xses to the and artifice in the suppression and alteration of Bossuefs
ns"^^,, /.^.M iTr'-,, f""^' "'l^T^ 'W^'^ '° ^^- fi^^' ^'l'''""- The iLfe bishop Kurd also, in his valuable
ns and preached before the king and oblain^S; in 1669, " Sermons at Lincoln's Inn, introductory to the Study of
without any sohcttatioii the bishopric of Condon. But the Prophecies," has taken occasion to unravel some of his
bemg appointed, m 1670, preceptor to tlie dauphin, he Eophisn5^5, and expose his fallacies. To his credit, however
l?,'?r, ,^,'i ^;'^°P"'=,' ""^'^^ might devote himself more it must be recorded, that Bossuet was an enem - to perse-
fl?.?H,ll,l; ""P"«^"' °^"'- . When he had completed cution, though he does not appear to have exerted his influ-
ihe education ot tlie prmce, Louis XIV advanced him, as ence in preventing the revocation of the edict of Nantes,
a recompense lor his attention and fidelity, to the see of On the whole, he was a man of great genius, lofty spirit,
BOX
I a6] ]
BO U
and extraordinary vigor of mind. His works were pub-
lished in 1743, in twenty quarto volumes, and many of
■ them have been often reprinted in various forms. — Nouv.
Diet. Hist. ; Jones's Clir. Eiag.
BOSTON, (Thomas,) a very pious Scotch divine, was
born at Dunse, in 1670, and died minister of Ettriclf, in
1732. In early youth he was much beloved for his sweet-
ness of temper, progress in learning, and seriousness of
conversation. He finished his studies at the university of
Edinburg before he was twenty, and received license to
preach. He was ordained minister of Shrimpton in 1700.
He was a most excellent preacher, and a devoted pastor.
His po thumous works were numerous, but he is chiefly
remembered by his Human Nature in its Fourfold State ;
a work which has gone through numerous editions. —
Davenport ; Miildleton, iv. 255.
BOSTWICK, (David,) an eminent minister in New
York, was of Scotch extraction, and was bom about the
year 1720. He was first settled at Jamaica on Long Island,
where he continued till 1756, when the synod translated
him to th^ Presbyterian society of New York. In this
charge he continued till November 12, 1763, when he died,
aged forty-three. He was of a mild, catholic disposition,
of great piety and zeal; and he coniined himself entirely
to the proper business of his office. He abhorred the fre-
quent mixture of divinity and politics, and much more the
turpitude of making the former subservient to the latter.
His thoughts were occupied by things %vhich are above, and
he wished to withdraw the minds of his people more from
the concerns of this world. He was deeply grieved, when
some of his flock became, not fervent Christians, but furi-
ous politicians. He preached the Gospel ; and as his life
corresponded with his preaching, he was respected by good
men of all denominations.
A few months before his death, his mind was greatly
distressed by apprehensions respeqting the interests of his
family, when he should be taken from them. But God
was pleased to give him such views of his power and
goodness, and such cheerful reliance upon the wisdom and
rectitude of his government, as restored to him peace and
calmness. He was willing to cast himself, and all that
was dear to him, upon the providence of his heavenly Fa-
ther. In this temper he continued to his last moment, when
he placidly resigned his soul into the hands of his Savior.
Such is the serenfcy frequently imparted to Christians in
the solemn hour of dissolution.
He published a sermon, preached May 25, 1758, enti-
tled, " Self disclaimed, and Christ exalted."' It received
the warm recommendaiiou of Gilbert Tennent. It is a
sermon for ministers, penetrating into the subtile workings
and base motives of the human heart, and presenting th^
most serious truths, in a manner very perspicuous and
affectionate. He published also an account of the life, cha-
racter, and death of president Davies, prefixed to Davies's
sermon on the death of George II., 1761. After his de-
cease, there was published from his manuscripts, " A Vin-
dication of the Right of Infants to the Ordinance of Bap-
tism, being the substance of several discourses from Acts
3: 39."— Allen; Middletnn's Biog. Evang. iv. 414—418;
New and Gen. Biog. Did. ; Smith's New York, 193 ; Pre/,
to Bost7vick's Vindication.
BOTTLE. The difference is so great between the pro-
perties of glass bottles, such as are in common use among
us, and the bottles made of skin, which were used ancient-
ly by most nations, and still are used in the East, that
when we read of bottles, without carefully distinguishing
in our minds one kind of bottle from the other, mistake is
sure to ensue. For instance, (Josh. 9: 4.) the Gibeonites
" did work wilily ; they took upon their asses wine-bot-
tles, old, and rent, and bound up" — patched. So verse
13, " These bottles of wine were new, and behold they be
rent." Surely to common readers this is unintelligible!
So Matt. 9: 17, '■ Neither do men put new -wine into old
bottles ; else, the bottles break, and the wine runneth out,
and the bottles perish :" — " but new wine," says Luke, (5:
38.) " must be put in new bottles, and both are preserved."
Now, what idea have English readers of old, and rent, and
patched (glass) bottles ? Or, of the necessity of new glass
bottles for holding nerc wine ? Nor should we forget the
figure employed by Job : (32; 19.) " my belly is as wine
which hath no vent ; it is ready to burst, like, nen; bxtles.''
To render these, and some other passages, clear, we must
understand some of the properties of the bottles alluded to.
The accompanying engraving, which is copied from the
Antiquities of Herculaneum, (vol. vii. p. 197.) shows, very
clearly, the form and nature of an ancient bottle ; out of
which a young woman is pouring wine into a cup, which
in the original is held by Silenus. It appears from this
figure, that after the skin has been stripped off the animal,
and properly dressed, the places where the legs had been,
are closed up ; and where the neck was, is the opening
left for receiving and discharging the contents of the bot-
tle. This idea is very simple and con,<;picuous in the
figure. No doubt, such bottles, when full, in which state
this is represented, differ from the same when empty : be-
ing, when full, swollen, round, and firm; when empty,
flaccid, weak, and bending. — Calmct.
BOUDINOT, (Elias, L.L.D.,) first president of the
American Bible Society, was born in Philadelphia, May 2,
1740. His great-grandfather, Elias, was a Protestant in
France, who fled from his country on the revocation of the
edict of Nantes ; his father, Elias, died in 1770 ; his mo-
ther, Catharine Williams, was of a Welsh family. After
a classical education, he studied law under Richard Stock-
ton, whose eldest sister he married. Soon after commen-
cing the practice of law in New Jersey, he rose to distinc-
tion. He early espoused the cause of his country. In
1777, congress appointed him commissary general of pri-
soners ; and in the same year he was elected a delegate to
congress, of which body he was elected the president, in
November, 1782. In that capacity he put his signature to
the treaty of peace. He returned to the profession of the
law ; but was again elected to congress under the new
constitution, in 1789. and was continued a member of the
house six years. In 1796, W^ashinglon appointed him the
director of the mint of the United States, as the successor
of Rittenhouse : in this office he continued till 1805, when
he resigned it, and, retiring from Philadelphia, passed the
remainder of his life at Burlington, New Jersey. He lost
his wife about the year 1808 : he himself died. October 24,
1821, aged eightj'-one.
After the establishment, in 1816, of the Am. Bible Society,
which he assisted in creating, he was elected its first presi-
dent ; and he made to it the munificent donation of ten
thousand dollars. He afterwards contributed liberally
towards the erection of its depository. In 1812, he was
elected a member of the American Board of Commissii iiers
for Foreign Missions, to which he presented, the next .year,
a donation of one hundred pounds, sterling. When three
Cherokee youths were brought to the foreign mission
school in 1818, one of them by his permission took his
name, for he was deeply interested in every attempt to
meliorate the condition of the American Indians His
house was the seat of hospitality, and his days were rpent
in the pursuits of biblical literature, in the exercise of the
loveliest cl^Bties of life, and the performance of the high-
est ChristilFduties. He was a trustee of Princeton col-
lege, in which he founded, in 1805, the cabinet of natural
history, which cost three thousand dollars. He was a
member of a Presbyterian church. By the rehgion which
he professed, he was supported and cheered as he went
down to the grave. His patience was unexhausted ; his
faith was strong and triumphant. Exhorting those around
him to rest in Jesus Christ as the only ground of trust, and
commending his daughter and only child to the care of his
BOU
[ 262 1
BOU
friends, he expressed his desire to depart in peace to the
bosom of his Father in heaven, and his last prayer was,
" Lord Jesus, receive my spirit."
By his last will, Dr. Boudinot bequeathed his large
estate principally to charitable uses ; 200 dollars for ten
poor widows ; 200 to the New Jersey Bible society, to pur-
chase spectacles for the aged poor, to enable them to read
the Bible ; 2,000 dollars to the Moravians at Bethlehem,
for the instruction of the Indians ; 4,000 acres of land to
the society for the benefit of the Jews ; to the Magdalen
societies of New Yorlc and Philadelphia, 500 dollars each ;
three houses in Philadelphia to the trustees of the general
assembly, for the purchase of books for ministers ; also,
5,000 dollars to the general assembly, for the support of a
missionary in Philadelphia and New York ; 4,080 acres
of land for theological students at Princeton ; 4,000 acres
to the college of New Jersey, for the estabUsliment of fel-
lowships ; 4,542 acres to the American board of commis-
sioners for foreign missions, with special reference to the
benefit of the Indians ; 3,270 acres to the hospital at Phi-
ladelphia, for the benefit of foreigners ; 4,589 acres to the
American Bible Society ; 13,000 acres to the mayor and
corporation of Philadelphia, to supply the poor with wood
on low terms ; also, after the decease of his daughter, 5,000
dollars to the college, and 5,000^||^ theological semina-
ry of Princeton, and 5,000 to the^^f erican board of com-
missioners for foreign missions, aiTD the remainder of his
estate to the genen-l assembly of the Presbyterian church.
How benevolent, honorable, and useful is su^h a chari-
table disposition of the property which God intrusts to a
Christian, compared with the selfish and narrow appropri-
ation of it to the enrichment of family relatives, without
any reference to the diflusion of truth and holiness in the
earth ? For such deeds of charity, the names of Boudinot,
and Burr, and Abbott, and Norris, and Phillips, will be held
in lasting, most honorable remembrance.
Dr. Boudinot published The Age of Revelation, or the Age
of Reason an Age of Infidelity, 1790, also 1801 ; an oration
before the society of the Cincinnati, 1793; Second Advent
of the Messiah, 1S15 ; Star in the West; or, an Attempt
to discover the long-lost Tribes of Israel, preparatory to
their return to their beloved city Jerusalem, octavo, 1816.
hike Mr. Adair, he regards the Indians as the lost tribes. —
Allen; Panop. xvii. 399 ; xviii. 25; Green's Disc. 278.
BOUNDS, BOUNDARIES ; Umits. Moses forbids any
one to alter the bounds of his neighbor's inheritance :
(Deut. 19: 14.) " Thou shalt not remove thy neighbor's
land-mark, which they of old time have set on thine inhe-
ritance, which thou dost inherit," ice. All the people
curse the man who should remove the bounds planted by
their ancestors, Deut. 27: 17. Job (24: 2.) reckons those
who are guilty of this crime among thieves and robbers,
and oppressors of the poor. Josephus (Antiq. lib. iv. cap.
8.) has interpreted the law of Moses in a very particular
sense. He says, " that it is not lawful to change the li-
mits, either of the land belonging to the Israelites, or that
of their neighbors with whom they are at peace ; but that
they ought to be left as they are, having been so placed
by the order of God himself: for the desire which avari-
cious men have to extend their Mmits, is the occasion of
war and division ; and whosoever is capable of removing
the boundaries of lands, is not far from a disposition to
violate all other laws."
Among the Romans, if a slave, with an evU design,
changed any boundary, he was punished with death. Men
of condition were sometimes banished, and private persons
punished according to the circumstances of their crime,
by pecuniary fines, or corporal punishment. The respect
of the ancients for boundaries proceeded almost to adora-
tion. Numa Pompilius, king of the Romans, ordained,
that offerings should be made to boundaries, with thick
milk, cakes, and first-fruits. Ovid says, that a lamb was
sacrificed to them, and that they were sprinkled with
blood ; and Juvenal speaks of cake and pap, which were
laid every year upon the sacred bounds.
The Scripture reckons it among the effects of God's om-
nipotence, to have fixed bounds to the sea, Ps. 104: 9. Job
26: 10. Prov. 8: 29. Jer. 5: 22.— Calmel.
BOURDALOUE, (Louis,) a Jesuit, and a French preach-
er of consummate eloquence, was born at Bourges, in 1632.
The reputation which he acquired by preaching in the
country induced his superiors to send him to Paris, where
he immediately acquired popularity, and became the favor-
ite preacher of Louis XIV., who sent him into Languedoc,
to convert the Protestants. The latter part of his fife was
spent in visiting the sick and the prisons, and in other
works of charity. He died, universally regretted, in 1704.
His sermons occupy sixteen volumes, and have often been
reprinted. — Daoenport.
BOURIGNONISTS ; the followers of Antoinette Bou-
rignon, a lady in France, who pretended to particular in-
spirations. She was born at Lisle, in 1616. At her birth
she was so deformed, that it was debated some days in the
family whether it was not proper to stifle her as a monster ;
but her deformity diminishing, she was spared. From
her childhood to her old age she bad an extraordinary turn
of mind. She set up for a reformer, and published a great
number of books filled with very singular notions ; the
most remarkable of which are entitled, " The Light of the
World," and " The Testimony of Truth." In her confes-
sion of faith, she professes her belief in the Scriptures, the
divinity and atonement of Christ. She believed also that
man is perfectly free to resist or receive divine grace ;
that there is no such thing as foreknowledge or election ;
that God is ever unchangeable love towards all his crea-
tures, and docs not inflict any arbitrary punishment ; but
that the evds they suflfer are the natural consequence of
sin ; that religion consists not in outward forms of worship
nor systems of faith, but in an entire resignation to the
will of God, and those inward feelings which arise from
immediate communion with God. She held many extra-
vagant notions, among which, it is said, she asserted that
Adam, before the fall, possessed the piinciples of both sex-"
es ; that in an ecstasy, God represented Adam to her mind
in his original state ; as also the beauty of the first world,
and how he had drawn it from the chaos ; and that every
thing was bright, transparent, and darted forth life and
ineffable glory ; that Christ has a twofold manhood — one
formed of Adam before the creation of Eve, and another
taken from the virgin Blary ; that his human nature was
corrupted with a principle of rebellion against God's will :
with a number of other wild ideas. She dressed like a
hermit, and travelled through France, Holland, England,
and Scotland. She died at Franeker, in the province of
Frise, October 30, 1680. Her principal p^ons were Chris-
tian Bartholomew, a Jansenist priest at Slechlin. and Peter
Poinet, who employed a surprising genius and an uncom-
mon sagacity to dress out the reveries of fanaticism. In his
" Divine Economy," lie reduced the substance of Bourig-
non's fancies to a regular form. Dr. Garden of Aberdeen
attempted to introduce them into Scotland, and wrote an
apology in their favor, or at least labored to spread it. He
was condemned and deposed by the general assembly, in
1701. If we may believe Dr. ICippis, she had more disci-
ples in Scotland than in any other country perhaps in the
world. — Henderson's Buck.
BOURNE, (Richard.) a missionary among the Indians
at Marshpee, was one of the first emigrants from England,
who settled at Sandwich. Being a religious man, he offi-
ciated publicly on the Lord's day, until a minister, Mr.
Smith, was settled ; he then turned his attention to the In-
dians at the southward and eastward, and resolved to bring
them to an acquaintance with the Gospel. He went to
Marshpee, not many miles to the south. The first account
of him is in 1658, when he was in that town, assisting in
the settlement of a boundary between the Indians and the
proprietors of Barnstable. Having obtained a competent
knowledge of the Indian language, he entered on the mis-
sionary service with activity and ardor. On the 17th of
August, 1670, he was ordained pastor of an Indian church
at Marshpee, constituted by his own disciples and converts ;
which solemnity was performed by the famous Eliot and
Cotton. He died at Sandwich, about the year 1685, leav-
ing no successor in the ministry but an Indian, named
Simon Popmonet. Mr. Bourne is deserving of honorable
renlembrance, not only for his zealous exertions to make
known to th* Indians the glad tidings of salvation, but for
his regard to their temporal interests. He wisely consi-
dered, that it would be in vain to attempt to propagate
Christian knowledge among them, unless they had a terri-
BOW
[ 263
BOY
tory where they might remain in peace, and have a fixed
habitation. He therefore, at his own expense,' not long
after the year 16(i0, obtained a deed of Marshpee from
Quachalisset and others, to the South sea Indians, as his
people were called. This terrilory, in the opinion of Mr.
Hawley, was perfectly adapted for an Indian town ; being
situated on the sound, in sight of Martha's Vineyard, cut
into necks of land, and well watered. After the death of
Mr. Bourne, his son, Shearjashub Bourne, Esq. succeeded
him in the Marshpee inheritance, where he lived till his
death, in 17iy. He procured from the court at Plymouth
a ratification of the Indian deeds, so that no parcel of the
lands could be bought by any while person or persons
without the consent of all the said Indians, not even with
the consent of the general court. Thus did the son pro-
mote the designs of the father, watching over the interests
of the aborigines. A letter of Mr. Bourne, giving an ac-
count of the Indians in Plymoiuli county and upon the
cape, is preserved in Gookin . — Mather^ Mag. iii. 199 ;
Coll. Hist. Soc. i. 172, 196—199, 218; iii. 18S— 190 ; viu.
170; Gookin: Morton, 192; Hutchinson, i. 166; Allen.
BOVEY, (Catharine,) daughter of John Riches, mer-
chant of London, was married to William Bovey, Esq.
of Flaxley in Gloucestershire, at the age of fifteen. This
lady is not noted either as a linguist or a writer ; yet sucli
were her qualities and accomplishments, that she may
justly claim a place in the first rank of female worthies
At the age of twenty-two, she was left a widow, ■without
children, and very opulent ; and being, likewise, an neireso
to her father, these circumstances, added to her illustrious
qualities, gained her crowds of admirers : but she chose
to remain in a state of widowhood, that she might have
no interruption to her improvement in knowledge and re-
ligion, and her devotedness to the happiness of the poor.
Her domestic expenses were managed with a decency and
dignity becoming her fortune ; but with a frugality that
made her income abound to all proper objects of charity,
to the relief of the necessitous, the encouragement of the
industrious, and the instruction of the ignorant. She
distributed not only with cheerfulness but with joy, being
sometimes unable to refrain from tears, on beholding the
happiness she had imparted. The word of God was her
guide ; her closet her delight ; and her whole character
beautifully developed the power and excellence of Christian
principles. She died Jan. 21, 1726, aged fifty-six. — Betham.
BOW. (See Arms, Military.)
BOWDOIN, (James, LL. D.) governor of Massachu-
setts, and a philosopher and statesman, was born in Boston,
August IS, 1727, and was the son of James Bowdoin.an emi-
nent merchant. He graduated at Harvard college in 1745.
During his residence at the university, he was distinguished
by his genius and unwearied application to his studies,
while his modesty, politeness, and benevolence gave his
friends assurance, that his talents would not be prostituted,
nor his future eminence employed for the promotion of
unworthy ends. When he arrived at the age of twenty-
one years, he came in possession of an ample fortune, left
him by his father, who died September 4, 1747. He was
now in a situation the most threatening to his literary and
moral improvement ; for one great motive, which impels
men to exertion, could have no influence upon htm, and
his great wealth put it completely in his power to gratify
the giddy desires of youth. But his life had hitherto been
regular, and he now, with the maturity of wisdom, adopted
a system, which was most rational, pleasing, and useful.
He determined to combine with the enjoyments of do-
mestic and social life a course of study, which should en-
large and perfect the powers of his mind. At the age of
twenty-two years, he married a daughter of John Erving,
and commenced a system of literary and scientific re-
search, to which he adhered through life.
In the year 1753. the citizens of Boston elected him one
of their representatives in the general court, where his
learning and eloquence soon rendered him conspicuous.
•He continued in this station until 1756, when he was
:hosen into the council, in which body he was longknown
and resnected. With uniform abdity and patriotism he
advocated the cause of his country. In the disputes
which laid the foundation of the American revolution, his
writings and exertions were eminently useful. In the
year 1775, a year most ciitical and important to Amerit^
he was chosen president of the council of iMassachuselts,
and he continued in that office the greater part of the time
till the adoption of the state constitution in 1760. He was
president of the convention which formed it ; and some of
its important articles are the result of his knowledge of
government.
In the year 1785, after the resignation of Hancock, he
was chosen governor of Massachusetts, and was re-elected
the following year. In this office, his wisdom, firmness,
and inflexible integrity were conspicuous. He died in
Boston, after a distressing sickness of three months, N*^
vember 6, 1790, aged sixty-three.
Governor Bowdoin was a learned man, and a constant
and generous friend of literature. The American academy
of arts and sciences, incorporated at Boston, May 4, 1750,
at a time when our country was in the deepest distress,
was formed under his jnfluence, and was an object of his
constant attention. He was chosen its first president, and
he continued in that office till his death. He was consti-
tuted doctor of laW's by the university of Edinburgh, and
was elected a member of the Royal societies of London
and Dublin. He was deeply convinced of the truth and
excellence of Christianity, and it had a constant effect
upon his life. As the hour of his dcpai'ture approached,
he expressed his satisfaction in the thought of going to
the full enjoyment of God and his Redeemer.
Governor Bowdoin was the author of a poetic " Para-
pnrase of the Economy of Human Life," dated March 28,
.759. He akso published a philosophical discourse, pub-
licly addressed to the American academy of arts and sci-
ences in Boston, Novembers, 1780, when he was inducted
into the office of president. — Tliacher's Fun. Ser. ; Loivell's
Eulogy; Mass. Mai;, iii. 5—8, 304, 305, 372; U7dver.
Asyh, i. 73—76; Miller, ii. ; Minot's Hist. Insur.; Mar-
shall, V. 121 ; Amer. Qu. Hev. ii. 505 ; Maiiie Hist. Col.
184; Eliot; Allen.
BOY BISHOP, TUE. Anciently, on the 6th of Decem-
ber, it being St. Nicholas's day, the choir boys in cathe-
dral churches chose one of their number to maintain the
slate and authority of a bishop, for which purpose the boy
was habited in rich episcopal robes, wore a mitre on his
head, and bore a crosier in his hand ; and his fellows, for
the time being, assumed the character and dress of priests,
yielded him canonical obedience, took possession of the
church, and, except mass, performed all the ecclesiastical
ceremonies and offices. Though the boy bishop's election
was on the 6th of December, yet his office and authority
lasted till the 2Sth, being Innocents' day. Mr. Gregorie
found the processional of the boy bishop. By the statutes
of the church of Sarum, for the regulation of this extra-
ordinary scene, no one was to interrupt or press upon the
boy bishop and the other children during their procession
or service in tlie cathedral, upon pain of anathema. It
further appears, that at this cathedral the boy bishop held
a kind of visitation, and maintained a corresponding state
and prerogative ; and he is supposed to have had power
to dispose of prebends that fell vacant during his episco-
pacy. If he died within the month, he was buried like
other bishops in his episcopal ornaments, his obsequies
were solemnized with great pomp, and a monument was
erected to his memory, with his episcopal effigy. About
one hundred and fifty years ago, a stone monument to one
of these boy bishops was discovered in Salisbury cathe-
dral, under the seats near the pulpit, from whence it was
removed lo the north part of the nave between the pillars,
and covered over with a bo.x of wood, to the great admi-
ration of those who, uuacquainted with the anomalous
character it designed to commemorate, thought it " almost
impossible that a bishop should be so small in person, or
a child so great in clothes."
This singular custom, it appears, was obseiTed also at
Canterbury, St. Paul's, Colchester, Westminster, Eton
York, Be\-erly, and all the churches that had cathedral wor-
ship, in England, and at many places on the continent. —
Henderson^ Buck ; Robinson on Baptism, 151.
BOYLE, (Robert,) a philosopher, who ranks with
Bacon and with Newton, was the seventh son of the cele-
brated earl of Cork, and was born at Lismore, in Ireland,
January 26, 1626, the year that Bacon died. He was
BO y
[264 J
BRA
committed to the care of a country nurse, with instructions
to bring him up as hardy as if he had been her own son.
'•• For his father," he tells us, " had a perfect aversion for
the fondness of those parents, which made them breed
their children so nice and tenderly, that a hot sun or a
good shower of rain as much endangers them, as if they
were made of butter or of sugar." He thus gained a
strong and vigorous constitution ; which, however, he
afterwards lost in a considerable degree, by its being treated
too delicately. When he was about three years old, he
lost his mother, who was a most accomplished woman ;
and whom he regrets on that account, because he did not
know her. A second misfortune was, that he learned to
stutter, by mocking some-children of his own age, of which,
though no endeavors were spared, he could never be per-
fectly cured. Eton has the honor of his early education,
which was perfected by private tutors, and lastly at Ge-
neva. After having travelled over various parts of the
continent, he settled in England, and devoted himself to
trience, especially to natural philosophy and to chemistry ;
and till the close of his existence, he unremittingly perse-
vered in his scientific pursuits. Of the Royal society he
was one of the first members ; but he declined the office
of president, as he did also that of pruvust of Eton col-
lege. Philosophy, however, did not wholly engross his
time ; much of his leisure was given to theological studies,
to the composition of moral and religious works, and to
the advancement of religion, for which latter object he
expended very considerable sums. Among his pious acts
was the founding of a lecture for the defence of natural and
revealed religion. As an experimental philosopher, he
displayed indefatigable ardor, and uncommon penetration
and skill, and he, undoubtedly, opened the way to many
modern discoveries. As a man, his character was of the
most estimable kind ; his manners wen- singularly mild
and courteous, and he possessed piety without bigotry,
learning without arrogance, and charity without ostenta-
tion. Boyle was never married. He died on the ^Oth of
December, 1691, a week after his favorite sister, lady
Kanelagh, to whom he was affectionately attached, and
with whom he had lived for the most part of nearly half
a century.
'• His knowledge," says bishop Burnet. " was of so vast
an extent, that if it were not for the variety of vouchers
ill their several sorts, I should be afraid to say all I know.
He carried the study of the Hebrew very far into the rab-
binical writings, anil the other Oriental tongues. He had
read so much of the fathers, that he had formed a clear
judgment of all the eminent ones ; he had read a vast
deal on the Scriptures, had gone very nicely through the
various controversies in religion, and was a true master
of the whole body of divinity ; he entertained so profound
a veneration tor the Deity, that the very name of God was
never mentioned by him without a pause and a visible
stop in his discourse ; in which Sir Peter Pett, who knew
him for almost forty years, affirms, that he was so exact,
that he did not remember him once to fail in it. To those
who conversed most with him in his inquiries into nature,
it was obvious that it was his leading object in that, on
which, as he had his own eye constantly fixed, so he took
care to put others often in mind of it, viz. lo raise in him-
self and others more exalted thoughts of the greatness and
glory, and wisdom and goodness of the Deity. Such was
the impression of this upon his own mind, that he con-
cludes the article of his will, which has a reference to the
P.oyal society, in these words : " Wi.slnng them also a
happy success in their laudable attempts to discover the
true nature of the works of God, and praying that they,
and all other searchers into physical truths, may cordially
refer their attainments to the glory of the great Author of
nature, and to the comfort of mankind." His charities
were princely, and of which some notice has been already
taken, in his efforts for disseminating the knowledge of
the gospel in various parts. He expended seven hundred
pounds in printing an edition of the Bible in the native
Irish, and having it distributed among those who spoke it.
He contributed largely to an impression of the Bible in
Welsh ; and during his life, he contributed three hundred
pounds annually to advance the design of propagating
Christianity in America. His liberality also towards such
literary persons as needed his assistance, was extraordi-
nary ; and, according to bishop Burnet, who was often
his almoner, for several years before his death, he dis-
tributed one thousand pounds a year among the French
refugees, who had fled from that country to escape perse-
cution, and others who had taken refuge in England from
the calamities of Ireland. And in all his charities he
adhered as strictly as possible to the injunction of his di-
vine Master, " Let not thy left hand know what thy right
hand doeth." The works of this eminent philosopher were
collected and printed in five volumes, folio, London, 1744 ;
and a valuable abridgment has been published by Dr.
Shaw, in three volumes quarto. See Birch's Life of the
Hon. Robert Boyle. — Davenport ; Jones.
BOYLE'S LECTURES ; a course of eight sermons,
preached annually ; set on foot by the Hon. Robert Boyle,
by a codicil annexed to his will, in 1691, whose design, as
expressed by the institutor, is to prove the truth of the
Christian rehgion against infidels, without descending to
any controversies among Christians, and to answer new
difficulties, scruples, &c. For the support of this lecture
he assigned the rent of his house in Crooked Lane, to some
learned divine within the precincts of Loudon, to be elected
for a term not exceeding three years. But the fund
proving ])recarious, the salary was ill paid ; to remedy
which inconvenience, archbishop Tennison procured a
yearly stipend of fifty pounds forever, to be paid quarter-
ly, charged on a farm in the parish of Brill, in the county
of Bucks. To this appointment we are indebted for many
■excellent defences of natural and revealed religion.—
HeMd. Buck.
BOYLSTON, (Zabdiel,F.R. S.) was born at Brookline,
Massachusetts, in 1684. He studied medicine at Boston,
and entered into the practice of his profession in that place.
In 1721, when the small-pox broke out in Boston, and
spread alarm through the whole country, the practice of
inoculation was introduced by Dr. Boylston, notwithstand-
ing it was discouraged by the rest of the faculty, and a
public ordinance was passed to prohibit it. He persevered
in his practice in spite of the most violent opposition, and
had the satisfaction of seeing inoculation in general use
in New England, for soine time before it became common
in Great Britain. In 1725, he visited England, where he
was received with much attention, and was elected a fel-
low of the Royal society. Upon liis return, he continued
at the head of his profession for many years, and accu-
mulated a large fortune. Besides communications to the
Royal society, he published two treatises on the small-pox
He died in 1766, in Christian hope. — Davenport ; Allen.
BOX TREE, /os/ijir; so called from its flourishing, or
perpetual viridity — an evergreen. Isaiah says, " I will
plant in the wilderness the cedar, the sliittah tree, and the
myrtle, and the oil tree ; I will set in the desert the fir
tree, and the pine, and the box tree together." 41: 19.
The nature of the box tree might lead us to look for ever-
greens among the foregoing trees, and perhaps by tracing
this idea we might attain to something like satisfaction
respecting them, which at present we cannot. A planta-
tion of evergreens in the wilderness is not unlikely to be
the import of this passage. The contrast between a per-
petual verdure, and sometimes tmiversal brownness, not
enlivened by variety of tints, must be very great : never-
theless we must be careful not to group unnaturally asso-
ciated vegetation. — Calmet.
BOZEZ ; the naine of a rock which Jonathan climbed
up to attack the Philistines. 1 Sam. 14: 4. It was situ-
BRA
[ 265 ]
BftA
aled between Myron and Michmash, and formed, vnth a
similar rock opposite, called Seveh, a defile or strait. —
C'almet.
BOZRAH. (See Be/.er.)
BRACELET. A bracelet is commonly worn by the
oiiental princes, as a badge of power and authority. "When
the caliph Caj'em Benirillah granted the investiture of cer-
tain dominions to an eastern prince, he sent him letters
patent, a crown, a chain, and bracelets. This was proba-
bly the reason that the Amalekite brought the bracelet
wliich he found on Savil's arm, along with his crown, to
David. 2 Sam. 1: 10. It was a royal ornament, and be-
ionged to the regalia of the kingdom. The bracelet, it
must be acknowledged, was worn both by men and
women of different ranks; but the original word, in the
second Book of Samuel, occurs only in two other places,
and is quite different from the term which is employed to
express the more common ornament known by that name.
And besides, this ornament was worn by kings and princes
in a ditfercnt manner from their subjects. It was fastened
above the elbow ; and was commonly of great value. —
U'alson.
BRADBURY, (Thomas,) a dissenting minister, born at
Wakefield, in 1677, became the successor of Daniel Bur-
gess, and an imitator of that preacher's st)'le of pulpit
eloquence. He died in 1759. His sermons possess con-
siderable merit, and his character was much esteemed. —
Davenpmt ; Doddridge'' s Lectures, 25.
BRADFORD, (William,) second governor of Plymouth
colony, and one of the first settlers of New England, was
bom at Ansterfield, a village in the north of England, in
1588. He was educated in the practice of agriculture.
His paternal inheritance was considerable ; but he had no
better education than such as usually falls to the share
of the children of husbandmen. At the age of twelve
years, his mind was seriously impressed by divine truth
in reading the Scriptures, and an illness of long continu-
ance conjspired to preserve him from the foUjes of youth.
His good impressions were confirmed by attending upon
the ministry of Mr. Richard Clifton. As he advanced in
years, he was stigmatized as a separatist ; but such was
his firmness, that he cheerfully bore the frowns of his
relatives and the scoffs of his neighbors, and connected
himself with the church, over which Blr. Clifton and Blr.
Robinson presided, fearless of the persecution, which he
foresaw this act would draw upon him. Believing that
many practices of the estabUshed church of England were
repugnant to the directions of the word of God, he was
fully resolved to prefer the purity of Christian wor.ship to
any teinix)ral advantages which might arise from bending
his conscience to the opinions of others. Accordingly, at
the age of eighteen, he emigrated to Holland, and joined
his brethren at Amsterdam.
Mr. Bradford, after a residence of about ten years in
Holland, engaged with zeal in the plan of removal to
America, which was formed by the English church at
Leyden under the care of Mr. Robinson. He accordingly
embarked for England, July 22, 1620, and on the si.\th of
September set sail from Plymouth with the first company.
While the ship in November lay in the harbor of Cape
Cod, lie was one of the foremost in the several hazardous
attempts to find a proper place for the seat of the colony.
Betbre a suitable spot was agreed upon, his wife fell into
the sea, and was drowned. Soon after the death of gov-
ernor Carver, at Plymouth, April 5, 1621, Mr. Bradford
was elected governor ill his place. He was at this time
in the thirty-third year of his age, and was most conspicu-
ous for wisdom, fortitude, piety, and benevolence. One
of the first acts of his administration was to send an em-
bassy to Blassasoit for the purpose of confirming the
league with the Indian sachem, of procuring seed corn for
the next season, and of erploring the country. It was
well for the colony that the friendship of Blassasoit was
hus secured, for his- influence was extensive. In conse-
quence of his regard for the new settlers, nine sachems in
September went to Plymouth, and acknowledged them-
selves loyal subjects of king James. In the same month,
a party was sent out to explore the bay of jMassachusetts.
They landed under a cliil", supposed lo be Copp's hill in
Boston, where they were received with kindness by Ob-
34
batinewa, who gave them a promise of his as&istan(^e
against the squaw sachem. On their return, they carried
with them so good a report of the country, that the people
lamented that they had established themselves at Fly-
mouth; but it was not now in their power to remove.
In the beginning of 1622, the colony began to experi-
ence a distressing famine, occasioned by the arrival of
new settlers, who came unfurnished with provisions. In
the height of their distress, a threatening mes.sage was re-
ceived from Canonicus, sachem of Narragansett, expressed
by the present of a bundle of arrows, bound with the skin
of a serpent. The governor sent back the skin filled with
powder and ball. This prompt and ingenious reply termi-
nated the correspondence. The Narragansetts were so
terrified, that they even returned the serpent's skin with-
out inspecting its contents. It was however judged neces-
sary to fortify the town ; and this work was performed by
the people, while they were sufTering the extremity of
famine. For some time they subsisted entirely upon fish.
In this exigency, governor Bradlbrd found the advantage
of his friendly intercourse with the Indians. He made
several excursions among them, and procured corn and
beans, making a fair purchase by means of goods, which
were brought by two ships in August, and received by the
planters in exchange for beaver. The whole quantity of
corn and beans, thus purchased, amounted to twenty-eight
hogsheads. But still more important benefits soon re-
sulted from the disposition of governor Bradford to pre-
serve the friendship of the natives. During the illness of
Blassasoit in the spring of 1623, Mr. Winslow was sent to
him with cordials, which contributed to his recovery. In
return for this benevolent attention, the grateful sachem
disclosed a dangerous conspiracy, then in agitation among
the Indians, for the purpose of totally extirpating the
English. This plot did not originate in savage maUgnity,
but was occasioned by the injustice and indiscretion of
some settlers in the bay of Massachusetts. As the most
effectual means of suppressing the conspiracy, Massasoit
advised, that the chief conspirators, whom he named,
should be seized and put to death. This melancholy work
was accordingly performed by captain Standish, and the
colony was relieved from apprehension. When the report
of this transaction was carried lo Holland, BIr. Robinson
in his next letter to the governor, expressed Ins deep con-
cern at the event. " O that you had converted some,"
said he, " before 3'ou had killed any !''
The scarcity which had been experienced by the plant-
ers, was in part owing to the impolicy of laboring in com-
mon, and putting the fruit of their labor into the pubhc
store. To stimulate industry by the prospect of indiridual
acquisition, and thus to promote the general good by re-
moving the restraints upon selfishness, it was agreed in
the spring of 1(523, that every family should plant for
themselves, on such ground as should be assigned them
by lot. After this agreement, the governor was not again
obliged to traffic with the Indians in order to procure the
means of subsistence for the colony. Thus will fail the
common-stock projects of Ann Lee, Owen, and other en-
thusiasts.
Such was the reputation of Sir. Bradford, acquired by
his piety, wisdom, .and integrity, that he wat' annu.ally
chosen governor, as long as he lived, excepting in the
years 1633, 1636, and 1614, when BIr. Winslow was ap-
pointed, and the years 1634 and 1638, when BIr. Prince
was elected chief magistrate. At these times it was by
his own request, that the people did not re-elect him.
Governor Winthrop mentions the election of BIr. Winslow
in 1633, and adds, "BIr. Bradford having been governor
a:«'Ut ten years, and now bi/ impiniunity gol off.'' What a
lesson for the ambitious, who bend llieir whole influence
to gain and secure the high offices of state ! BIr. Brad-
ford strongly recommended a rotation in the election of
governor. •' If this appointment," he pleaded, '■ was any
honor or benefit, others beside himself should partake of
it ; if it was a burden, others beside himself should help
to bear it.'' But the people were so much attached to him,
that for thirty years they placed him at the head of the
government, and in the five years when others were
chosen, he was first in the list of assistants, which gave
him the rank of deputy governor. After an infirm and
BRA
[ 266
BRA
jeclining slate i,f health for a number of months, he was
suddenly seized ly an acute disease, May 7, 1657. In
the night, his mind was so enraptured by contemplations
upon religious truth and the hopes of futurity, that he said
to his friends in the morning, " The good Spirit of God
has given 'me a pledge of my happiness in another
world, and the first fruits of eternal glory." The next
day, May 9, 1657, he was removed from the present state
of existence, aged sixty-eight, greatly lamented by the peo-
ple, not only in Plymouth, but in the neighboring colonies.
Though he never enjoyed great literary advantages,
governor Bradford was much inclined to literary pursuits.
He was familiar with the French and Dutch' languages,
and attained considerable knowledge of the Latin and
Greek ; but he more assiduously studied the Hebrew, be-
cause, as he said, " he would see with his own eyes the
ancient oracles of God in their native beauty." He had
read much of history and philosophy ; but theology was
his favorite study. His life was exemplary and useful.
He was watchful against sin, a man of prayer, and con-
spicuous for holiness. — Allen.
BRADLEY, (jAntES, D. D.) an eminent astronomer snd
mathematician, was born in 1702, at Shireborn, in Glou-
cestershire, educated at Baliol college, Oxford, and took
orders, but resigned two livings, in order to give himself
up wholly to astronomy. He was successively Savilian
professor at Oxford, lecturer on astronomy and experi-
mental philosophy, and astronomer royal. The latter
office he held, with high reputation, from 1741 till his
death, in 1762. In 1751, George II. offered him the rich
living of Greenwich, but Bradley declined it as incompati-
ble with his other studies : a pension of two hundred and
fifty pounds was, in consequence, conferred on him. Brad-
ley immortalized his name, and extended the bounds of
astronomical science, by his discoveries of the aberration
of the fixed stars, and the nutation of the earth's axis. A
part of his voluminous and valuable observations, made
at the royal observatory, was published in 1798. In addi-
tion to his merit as a man of science, Dr. Bradley was
«>ous, modest, benevolent, humane, and generous in pri-
vate life. — Davenport ; Encyclop. Americ. ; Jones's Christian
Biography.
BRAD'WARDINE, (Thomas,) denominated the pro-
found doctor, was born at Bradwardine, in Herefordshire,
late in the thirteenth century, and educated at Merlon col-
lege, Oxford. He was the confessor of Edward III., and
attended him to France. In 1349, he was made archbishop
of Canterbury, but died six weeks subsequently, deeply
lamented on account of his genuine piety, his extensive
erudition, and humble yet earnest zeal for the instruction
of the people committed to his care. Bradwardine was
scarcely less eminent as a mathematician than as a theo-
logian. Among his works are Geometria Speculativa.
But of all his writings, that which he wrote against the
Pelagians is the most celebrated. Its title is, De Causa Dei,
Of the Cause of God. The late Dr. Gill, in his Cause of
God and Truth, refers to Bradwardine more than once, and
calls him a second Augustine. This commendation is great.
He did not make a formal opposition to popery as such ;
but is thought in his opinions to have favored the follow-
ers of Lollard, and to have diffused much of that evan-
gejcal light, which 'Wicklifle afterwards imbibed, and re-
flected more boldly.— /)at)en;)Ort ; Mosheim ; IvimetJ.
BRAHMINISM. See Hindooism.
BRAINAED, (John G. C.) a poet, was the son of judge
Jeremiah G. Brainard, of New London, Conn., and was
born about the year 1797. He was graduated in 1815 at
Yale college. Brainard studied law, and commenced
the practice at Middletown ; but not finding the success
which he desired, in 1822 he undertook the editorial charge
of the Connecticut Mirror at Hartford. Thus was he oc-
cupied about seven years, until, being marked as a victim
for the consumption, he returned about a year before his
death to his father's house. He died September 26, 1828,
aged thirty-two.
He was an excellent editor of the paper which he con-
ducted, enriching it with his poetical iiroductions, which
have originalily, force, and pathos, and witji many beauti-
ful prose coinpcKiiions, and refraining from that personal
abuse, which many editors seem to think essential to their
vocation. In this respect, his gentlemanly example it
worthy of being followed by the editorial corps. He, who
addresses himself every week or every day to thousands
of readers, sustains a high responsibility. If, destitute of
good breeding and good principles, he is determined to at-
tract notice by the personalities, for wliich there is a greeo'y
appetite in the community; if he yields himself a slav^
to the party which he espouses, and toils for it by con.
tumelies upon his opponents ; if, catching the spirit of an
infuriated zealot, and regardless of truth and honor, he
scatters abroad his malignant slanders and inflammatory
traducements ; then, instead of a wise and benevolent
teacher and guide, he presents himself as a sower of dis-
cord and a minister of evil. In an Utopian common-
wealth, or a republic constructed by pure reason and right,
if the laws subject the teacher of ten children to an exa-
mination and approval before he can commence his labors,
they would not allow a beardless youth, without judgment
or principle, nor a man of full age, without conscience or
honor, to send forth from day to day into the houses of the
people, a foul and malignant spirit, to corrupt them by
indecencies and blasphemies, and drive them to madness
by falsehoods and bitter incitements. Mr. Brainard po.s-
sessed a kindness of heart and rectitude of mind, which
would not allow him to traduce and revile. He could not
be the drudge of some patriotic impostor, who, hungry for
office, clamorously boasts of seelring the interests of the
dear people.
The change experienced by the renovated, pardoned
sinner, is described by him in the following lines :
" All sights are fair to the recovered blinil ;
All aoilnds are muaic to llie deaf restored ;
The lame, made whole, leaps like the sportive bind ;
And the sad, bow'd down sinner, with his load
Of shame and sorrow, when he cuts the cord,
And leaves his pack behind, is free again
In the light yoke and burden of his Lord."
In his last illness he said, " This plan of salvation in
the gospel is all that I want ; it fills me with wonder and
gratitude, and makes the prospect of death not only peace-
ful, but joyous." He published Occasional Pieces of
Poetry, 12mo. 1825.— Spec. Amer. Poet. iii. 198—212;
Hames's Serm. ; Allen.
BRAINERD, (David,) an eminent preacher and mission-
ary to the Indians, was born at Haddam, Connecticut,
April 20, 1718. As his mind was early impressed by the
truths of religion, he took delight in reading those books
which communicate religious instruction ; he called upon
the name of God in secret prayer ; he studied the Scrip-
tures with great diligence ; and he associated with seve-
ral young persons for mutual encouragement and assist-
ance in the paths of wisdom. But in all this he afterwards
considered himself as self-righteous, as completely desti-
tute of true piety, as governed by the fear of future pun-
ishment and not by the love of God, as depending for
salvation upon his good feelings and his strict life, without
a perception of the necessity and the value of the mediation
of Christ. At this time he indeed acknowledged, that he
deserved nothing for his best works, for the theory of sal-
vation was familiar to him ; but while he made the ac-
knowledgment, he did noifeel what it imphed. He still
secretly relied upon the warmth of his affections, upon his
sincerity, upon some quality in himself, as the ground of
acceptance ..with God ; instead of relying upon the Lord
Jesus, through whom alone there is access to the Father.
At length, he was brought under a deep sense of his sin-
fulness, and he perceived, that there was nothing good in
himself. This conviction was not a sudden perturbation
of mind ; it was a permanent impression, made by the
view of his own character, when compared ■with that holy
law of God, which he was bound to obey. But the dis-
covery was unwelcome and irritating. He could not
readily abandon the hope, which rested upon his religious
exercises. He was reluctant to admit, that the principle,
whence all his actions proceeded, was entirely corrupt.
He was opposed to the strictness of the divine law, which
extended to the heart as well as to the life. He murmured
against the doctrine, that faith was indispensably neces-
sary to salvation, and that faith was completely the gift
of God. He was irritated in not finding any way pointed
BRA
L267 ]
BRA
oni, which would lead him to the Savior ; in not finding
any means prescribed, by which an unrenewed man could
of his own strength obtain that, which the highest angel
could not give. He was unwilling to believe, that he was
dead in trespasses and in sins. But these unpleasant
truths were fa.stened upon his mind, and they could not be
shaken off. It pleased God to disclose to him his true
character and condition, and to quell the tumult of his
.soul. He saw that his schemes to save himself were en-
tirely vain, and must for«ver be ineffectual ; he perceived
that it was self-interest, which had before led him to pray,
and that he had never once prayed from any respect to the
glory of God ; he felt that he was lost. In thi.s state of
mind, while he was walking in a solitary place in the
evening of July 12, 173y, meditating upon rehgious sub-
jects, his mind was illuminated with completely new views
of the divine perfections ; he perceived a glory in the
character of God and in the way of salvation by the cru-
cified Son of the Most High, which was never before dis-
icerned ; and he was led to depend upon Jesus Christ for
righteousness, and to seek the glory of God as his princi-
pal objecL
In 1739, he became a member of Yale college, where
he was distinguished for application and general correct-
ness of conduct. He was expelled from this institution in
1742, in consequence of having said, in the warmth of
his religious zeal, that one of the tutors was as devoid of
grace as a chair. In the spring of 1742, he began the
.'Study of divinity, and at the end of July was licensed to
preach. Having received, from the society for propa-
gating Christian knowlege, an appointment as missionaiy
to the Indians, he commenced his labors at Kauuameek,
a village of Massachusetts, situated between Stockbridge
find Albany. He remaiiied there about twelve months,
and on the removal of the Kaunameeks to Stockbridge,
he turned his attention towards the Delaware Indians. In
1714, he was ordained at Newark, New Jersey, and fixed
his residence near the forks of the Delaware in Pennsyl-
vania, where he remained about a year. From this place,
be removed to Crosweeksung, in New Jersey, where his
pfTorts among the Indiaus were crowned with great success.
'Xhe Spirit of God seemed to bring home effectually to the
hearts of the ignorant heathen the truths which he de-
livered to them with aft'ection and zeal. His Indian in-
terpreter, who had been converted by his preaching,
oo-operaicd cheerfully in the good work. It was not un-
common for the whole congregation to be in teal's, or to
be crying out under a sense of sin. In less than a J'ear,
Mr. IBrainerd baptized seventy-seven persons, of whom
(hirty-eight were adults, aud gave satisfactory evidence
of having been renovated by the power of God ; and he
lieheld, with unspeakable pleasure, between twenty and
thirty of his converts seated round the table of the Lord.
The Indians were at the tmie entirely reformed in their
lives. They were very humble and devout, and ituited in
Christian affection. The lives of those Indian converts
in subsequent years, under John Brainerd and William
Tennent, were in general holy and exemplary, furnishing
evidence of the sincerity of their faith in the gospel.
In the summer of 1746, Mr. Brainerd visited the Indians
on the Susquehannah, and on his return in September,
found himself worn out by the hardships of his journey.
His health was so much impaired, that he was able to
preach but little more. Being advised in the spring of
1747 to travel in New England, he went as far as Boston,
and returned in July to Northampton, where, in the family
of Jonathan Edwards, he passed the remainder of his
days.
Mr. Brainerd was a man of vigorous powers of mind.
A\Tiile he was favored with a quick discernment and ready
invention, with a strong memory and natural eloquence,
he also possessed in an uncommon degree the penetration,
the closeness and force of thought, and the soundness of
judgment, which distinguish the man of talents from him,
who subsists entirely upon the learning of others.
His knowledge of theology was micommonly extensive
and accurate. President Edwards, whose opinion of Mr.
Brainerd was founded upon an intimate acquaintance with
him, says, that " he never knew his equal, of his age and
Handing, for clear, accurate notions of the nature and es-
sence of true religion, and its distinctions from its various
false appearances." Mr. Brainerd had no charity for the
religion of those, who, indulging the hope that they were
interested in the divine mercy, settled down in a stale of
security and negligence. He believed, that the good man
would be continually making progress towards perfection,
and that conversion was not merely a great change in the
views of the mind and the affections of the heart, pro-
duced by the Spirit of God ; but that it was the beginning
of a course of holiness, which, through the divine agency,
would be pursued throngh life. In his own character
were combined the most ardent and pure love to God, and
the most unaffected benevolence to man, an alienation
from the vain and perishable pursuits of the world, the
most humbling and constant sense of his own iniquity,
which was a greater burden to him than all his atHictions,
great brokenness of heart before God for the coldness of
his love and the imperfection of his Christian virtues, the
most earnest breathings of soul after holiness, real delight
in the gospel of Jesus Christ, sweet complacence in all his
disciples, incessant desires and importunate pra}'ers that
men might be brought to the knowledge and the obedience
of the truth, and that thus God might be glorified and the
kingdom of Christ advanced, great resignation to the will
of his heavenly Father, an entire distrust of hi.s own heart,
and a universal dependence upon God, the absolute re-
nunciation of every thing for his Redeemer, the most clear
and abiding views of (he things of the eternal world, a
continual warfare against sin, and the most unwearied
exertion of all his powers in the service, and in obedience
to the command?, of the Most High. He loved his Savior,
and wished to make known his precious name anjong the
heathen.
In his last illness, and during the approaches of death,
Mr. Brainerd was remarkably resigned and composed.
He spoke of that Mnllingness to die, which originates in
the desire of escaping pain, and in the hope of obtaining
pleasure or distinction in heaven, as veiy ignoble. The
heaven which he seemed to anticipate, consisted in the
love and service of God. When he was about to be sepa-
rated forever from the earth, his desires seemed to be a.s
eager as ever for the progress of the gospel. He spolce
much of the prosperity of Zion, of the infinite imix)rtance
of the work which was committed to the ministers of
Jesus Christ, and of the necessity which was imposed
upon them, to be constant and earnest in prayer to God
for the success of their exertions. Eternity was before
him, with all its interests. " 'Tis sweet to me," said he,
"to think of eternity. But Oh, what shall I say to the
eternity of the wicked '. I cannot mention it, nor think
of it. The thought is loo drcadful!" In answer to the
inquiry, how he did, he saiel, " I am almost in eternity ; I
long to be there. My work is done. I have done with
all ray friends. All the world is now nothing lo me. Oh I
to be in heaven, to praise and glorify God with his holy
angels !" At length, after the trial of his patience by the
most excruciating sufferings, his spirit was released from
its tabernacle of clay, and entered those mansions, which
the Lord Jesus hath prepared for all his faithful disciples,
Oct. 9, 1747, aged twenty-nine years.
The exertions of Mr. Brainerd in the Christian cause
were of short continuance ; but they were intense, and in-
cessant and effqctuaL One must be either a very good or
a very bad man, who can read his life without blushing
for himself. If ardent piety and enlarged benevolence,
if the supreme love of God and the inextinguishable de-
sire of promoting his glory in the salvation of immortal
soids, if persevering resolution in the miilst of the most
pressing discouragements, if cheerful self-denial and un-
remitted labor, Lf humility and zeal for godliness, united
with conspicuous talents, render a man worthy of remem-
brance, the name of Brainerd will not soon be forgotten.
A new edition of his Memoirs was published in 1822,
by Sereno Edwards Dnight, including his Journal. Presi-
dent Edwards, his biographer, had omitted the already
printed journals, which had been published in two parts ;
the first, from June 19, to November 4, 1745. entitled Mi-
rabilia Dei inter Indicos ; the second from November 24,
1745, to June 19, 1746, with the title, Divine Grace dis-
played, &c. These ovimals Blr. Dwi^lit has incorporated
BRE
268 ]
BRE
ifl a regular chronological series with the rest of the diary,
as alone given by Edwards. — Brainerd' s Life ; his Journal ;
Edwards' Fun. Serm. ; Middhton's Biog. Evang. iv. 262 —
264 ; AsseiMy's Miss. Mag. ii. 449 — 452 ; Boston Recorder,
.1824, p. 196.
BRAMBLE, (atad,) a prickly shrub. Judg. 9: 14, 15.
Ps. 58: 9. In the latter place it is translated " thorn."
Hiller supposes atad to be the eynobastus, or sweet-brier.
The anthor of " .Scripture illustrated " says, that the bram-
ble seems to be well chosen as the representative of the
original ; which should be a plant bearing fruit of some
hind, being associated, (Jndg. 9: 14.) though by oppo-
sition, with the vine. The apologue or fable of Jothara
has always been admired for its spirit and apphcation. It
has also been considered as the oldest fable extant. —
Watson.
BRANCH ; a title of Messiah : " And there shall come
forth a rod ont of the stem of Jesse, and a Bkanch shall
grow out of his roots." Isa. 11: 1. See also Zech. 3: 8. 6:
12. Jer. 23: 5. 33: 15. When Christ is represented as a slen-
der twig, shooting out from the trunk of an old tree lopped
lo the very root and decayed, and becoming itself a
mighty tree, reference is made, 1 . To the kingly dignity
(if Christ, springing up from the decayed honse of David ;
2. To the exaltation which was lo succeed his humbled
condition on earth, and to the glory and vigor of his me-
diatorial reign. — Watson.
BRANDENBURG, confession of ; a formulary or
confession of faith, drawn up in the city of Branden-
burg by order of the elector, with a view to reconcile the
tenets of Luther ^Tith those of Calvin, and to put an end
lo the disputes occasioned by the confession of Augsburg.
See Augsburg Confession. — Hend. Buck.
BRANDT, (Gekakd,) a jioet and divine, was born at
Amsterdam in 1626, and died there in 1685. He was
pastor of a congregation of Remonstrants. His most
important works are, a History of the Reformation in the
Low Countries, fortr volumes quarto ; a life of De Ruyter ;
and Latin Poems. — Davenport.
BRASS. The word brass occurs verj' often in onr trans-
lation of the Bible ; but that is a mixed metal, for the
making of which we are indebted to the Gennan metal-
lurgists of the thirteenth century. That the ancients
knew not the art of making it, is almost certain. None
of their writings even hint at the process. There can be
no donbt, that copper is the original metal intended. This
is spoken of as known prior to the flood ; and to have
been discovered, or at least wrought, as was also iron, in
the seventh generation from Adam, by Tubal-cain : whence
the name Vnkan. The knowledge of these two metals
must have been carried over the world aftera'ards with
(he spreading colonies of the Noachidae. Agreeably to
this, the ancient histories of the Greeks and Romans speak
of Cadmus as the inventor of the metal which by the
former is called chalhos, and by the latter as ; and from
him had the denomination eadmea. According to others,
Cadmus discovered a mine, of which he taught the use.
The name of the per.sou here spoken of was undoubtedly
the same with Ham, or Cam, the son of Noah, who pro-
bably learned the art of assaying metals from the family
of Tubal-cain, and communicated that knowledge to the
people of the colonj' which he settled. — Watson.
BRAY, (TnoMAs, D. D.) ecclesiastical commissary for
Maryland and Virginia, -was sent out by the bishop of
London in 1699, and was indefatigable in his efforts to
promote religion in the colonies, and among the Indians
and negroes. Libraries were instituted by him both for
missionaries and for parishes. He crossed the Atlantic
several times, and spent the greater part of his life in
these labors. Soliciting the charities of others, he also in
his disinterested zeal contributed the whole of his small
fortune to the support of his plans. Through his exer-
tions, parish libraries were established in England, and
various benevolent societies in London were instituted,
particularly the Society for the propagation of the Gospel
in foreign parts. He died February 15, 1730, aged
seventy-three. — Allen.
BREACH ; a breaking, or place broken. God's breach
of promise is not his falsification of his word, but the just
interruption of its fulfilment on account of Israel's sin ;
and it may be remarked, that God never promised tliaf
th6se who came out of Egj'pt should enter Canaan.
Moreover the words may be thus understood : AVhen your
children are brought into Canaan, then shall it appear
I have made no breach of my promise, as you have
falsely charged me. Numb, 14; 34, Moses stood in the
breach : Israel's sins had opened the way for the destruc-
tive vengeance of God to destroy them utterly, but Moses'
powerful intercession prevented it. Ps. 106: 23. The
Jews' iniquity was like a breach swelling out in a high wall ;
it had brought (tie righteous judgments of God just to th»
very point of ruining them. Isa. 30: 13. — Brerm.
BREAD; a word which in Scripture is taken for food
in general. Gen. 3: 19. 18: 5. 28: 20. Exod. 2: 20,
Manna is called bread from heaven. E.xod. l(i: 15.
The ancient Hebrews had several ways of baking bread -
they often baked it under the ashes, upon tlte hearth, upon
round copper plates, or in pans or stoves made on pur-
pose. At their departure out of Egypt, they made some
of these unleavened loaves for their journey. Exod. 12;
39. Elijah, when Jleeing from Jezebel, found at his head
a cake, which had been baked on the coals, and a cruse
of water. I Kings 19: 5. The same prophet desired the
widow of Sarepta to make a little bread (cake) for him,
and to bake it under the ashes. 1 Kings 17: 13. The
Hebrews call this kind of cake huggoth : and Hosea_(7: 8.)i
compares Ephraim to one of them which was not turned,
but was baked on one side only. Busbequius (Constanti-
nop. p. 36.) says, that in Bulgaria this sort of loaf is still
very common. They are there called Irugates. As sooii
as they see a guest coming, the "H'omen immediately pre^
pare these unleavened loaves, which are baked under the
ashes, and sold to strangers, there being no baliers in this
eounlry. See Baking.
As the Hebrews generally made their bread very thin,
and in the form of little flat cakes, or wafers, they did not
cut it with a knife, but broke it ; which gave rise to that
expression so usual in Scripture, of breaking bread, to
signify eating, sitting down to table, taking a repast. In
the institution of the eucharist, our Savior broke the bread
which he had consecrated ; whence, to break bread, and
breaking of bread, in the New Testament, are used for
celebrating the eucharist.
The forms given to bread in different conntries, how-
ever, are varied according to circumstances, whether i*
be required to sustain keeping for a longer or a shorter
time ; that bread which is to be eaten the same day it is
made is usnally thin, broad, and fiat ; that which is meant
for longer keeping, is larger and more bulky, that its
moisture may not too soon evaporate. So far as we recol-
lect, the loaves most generally used among the Jews were
round ; though the rabbins say the shew-bread was square.
We have representations of loaves divided into twelve
parts : we cannot affirm, that the loaf used by our Lord
at the eucharist was thus divided ; but if it were, it shows
how conveniently it might be distributed among the dis-
ciples, to each a part : and possiNy such a compartition
of it might be thought to tend towaixts settling the ques-
tion, whether Judas partook of it. We think he did not ;
but that our Lord in some degree complied with a custom
mentioned in the article Eating. We conceive, too, that
such a divided loaf gives no improper comment on the
passage, " We being many are one bread" — many par-
takers, each having his portion from the same loaf. 1
Cor. 10: 17.
Bread and water are used for sustenance in general.
Deut. 9: 9, 18, ikc. "Bread of afiliction, and water of
affliction," (1 Kings 22: 27.) are the same as a little bread
and a little water, or prison-bread and prison-water.
Prison allowance.
The psalmist speaks of the bread of tears, and the bread
of sorrows. Ps. 42: 3. 127: 2. Meaning continual sor-
row and tears, instead of food ; or which make us lose the
desire of eating and drinking. _" Bread of wickedness,
bread of deceit," is bread acquired by fraudulent and
criminal practices. These metaphors are verj' energetic.
Bread, daily. To show an entire dependence on our
heavenly Father's care, we are instructed to pray day by
day for our daily bread. Matt. 0: 11. The Greek word
epiousios, sufficient, used by the evangelists, may be under-
TABLE OF SHEW BREAD
BR £
[ 269 J
BRE
stood as opposed to perioiisins, superfiuot/s. Many commi?n-
tators include in this petition, a prayer for the daily supply
for the spiritual wants of the believer by divine grace,
as well as a daily supply for his temporal need by divine
providence. — Calmet.
BREAD OF THE PRESENCE, or Shew-bread, was
bread offered every Sabbath day to God on the golden
table placed in the holy place. Exod. 25; 30. The He-
brews affirm, that the loaves were square, having four
sides, and covered with leaves of gold. They were twelve
in number, in memory of the twelve tribes of Israel, in
whose names they were offered. Every loaf was com-
posed of two assarons of flour, which make about five
pints one tenth. The loaves had no leaven, were pre-
sented hot every Sabbath day, the old loaves being taken
away, which were to be eaten by the priests only. With
this offering there was salt and incense ; and even wine,
according to some commentators. Scripture mentions
only salt and incense ; but it is presumed wine was added,
because it was not wanting in other sacrifices and offer-
ings. It is believed that the loaves were placed one upon
the other in two piles, of six each ; and that between every
loaf there were two thin plates of gold, folded back in a
semicircle, the whole length of them, to admit air, and to
liinder the loaves from glowing mouldy. These golden
jilates, thus turned in, were supported at their extremities
by two golden forks which rested upon the ground.
But there is much difference of opinion among com-
mentators as to the manner in which these loaves were
placed upon the table.
It is more difficult, however, to ascertain the use of the
shew-bread, or what it represented, than almost any other
emblem in the Jewish economy. The learned Dr. Cud-
worth has the following remarks on the subject in his
treatise on the Lord's supper: "When God had brought
the children of Israel oiU of Egypt, resolving to manifest
himself in a peculiar manner present among them, he
thought good to dwell amongst them in a visible and ex-
ternal manner ; and therefore, while they were in the wil-
derness, and sojourned in tents, he would have a tent or
tabernacle built, to sojourn with them also. This mystery
of the tabernacle was fully understood by the learned
Nachmanides, who, in few words, but pregnant, expiess-
eth himself to this purpose : ' The mystery of the taber-
nacle was this, that it was to be a place for the Shekinah,
or habitation of Divinity, to be fixed in :' and this, no
doubt, as a special type of God's future dwelling in Christ's
human nature, which was the true Shekinah : but when
the Jews were come into their land, and had there built
them houses, God intended to have a fixed dwelling-house
also ; and, therefore, his movable tabernacle was to be
turned into a standing temple. Now, the tabernacle or
temple being thus as a house, for God to dwell in visibly,
to make up the notion of dwelling or habitation complete,
there must be all things suitable to a house belonging to
it. — Calmet.
BREAK. To break with breach on breach, is to afflict
with one sore trouble after another. Job 16: 14. The
breaking of the heart denotes great inward grief and trott-
ble, or a deep and kindly conviction of, and scffrow for,
sin. Acts 21: 13. Luke"4: 18. Isa. 61: 1. To break up
ov-r fallow ground, is to study a deep conviction of sin and
misery, and care to be reformed by means of God's word.
Jer. 4: 3. Hos. 10: 12. The breaking of the day signifies
the first appearance of the morning light, (Gen. 32: 25.)
the first beginning of the gospel dLspeusation, and of the
state of perfect and everlasting glory. Song 2: 17. Break-
ing of bread signifies the giving and receiving of the Lord's
s.upper Acts 2: 42, and 20: 1.— Brown.
BREATHE ; to draw natural breath; to Uve. Josh.
10: 40, and 11: 11. God's breathing imports bis powerftil
and easy formation of man's soiil in him. Gen. 2: 7.
Christ's breathing on his disciples figured his inspiring
them with the noted gifts and graces of the Holy Ghost.
John 20: 22. The Spirit's breathing on the dry bones im-
ports his giving zeal, courage, and hope, to the captive
Jews at Babylon, his giving ."spiritual life and activity to
his elect, and liis quickening the bodies of saints at the
last day. Ezek. 37: y. The saints breathing towards God
is prayer, whereby our spiritual life is maintained and
manifested, and our weakness and pres.«ure discovered.
Lam. 3: 56. Wicked men breathe out slaughter and cm-
elty ; heartily hate their neighbors, chiefly the saints, and
take pleasure to threaten and destroy them. Acts W; ) .
Ps. 27: 12.— Brown.
BREAST, bosmn. The females in the East are more
anxiously desirous than those of northern climates, of a
full and swelling breast : in fact, they study embonpoint of
appearance, to a degree imcommon among ourselves ;
and what in the temperate regions of Europe might be
called an elegant slenderness of shape, they consider as a
meagre appearance of starvation. They indulge the.se
notions to excess. It is necessary to premise this, before
we can enter thoroughly into the spirit of the langttage in
Cant. 8: 10— Calmet.
BREAST-PLATE, Military. (See Armor.)
BREAST-PLATE, a piece of embroidery about ten
inches square, (Exod. 28: 15.) of very rich work, which
the high-priest wore on his breast. It was made of two
pieces of the same rich embroidered stuff of which the
ephod was made, having a front and a lining, and forming
a kind of purse, or bag, in which, according to the rab-
bins, the Urim and Thummim was inclosed. The front
of it was set with twelve precious stones, on each of which
was engraved the name of one of the tribes. They were
placed in four rows, and divided from each other "by the
little golden squares or partitions in which they were set,
according to the following order :
The nat-"^ gi^^" ^° '^ stones here are not free fom
doubt f-' '^^ are very imperfectly acquainted w:ia inis
pin " natural science. The breast-nlate was fastcr.c aJ
BRE
[ 270
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the four corners ; those on the top to each shoulder, bj' a
golden hook, or ring, at the end of a wTeathed chain :
those below, to the girdle of the ephod, by two strings or
ribands, which also had two rings and hooks. This or-
nament was never to be severed from the priestly gar-
ments ; and it was called " the memorial," being designed
to remind the priest how dear those tribes should be to
him, whose names he bore upon his heart. It was also
named the " breast-plate of judgment," probably, because
by it was discovered the judgment and me will of God ;
or, because the high-priest who wore it was the fountain
of justice, and put on this ornament when he exercised
his judicial capacity in matters of great consequence,
which concerned the whole nation. Compare Urim and
TnuMMiM. — Calmet.
BRETHREN, THE TWELVE. (See Mareowmen.)
BRETHREN AND SISTERS OF THE FREE
SPIRIT ; an appellation assumed by a sect which sprung
up towards the close of the thirteenth centur)', and gained
many adherents in Italy, France, and Germany. They
look their denomination from the words of St. Paul,
(Rom. 8: 2, 11.) and maintained that the true children of
God were invested with perfect freedom from the jurisdic-
tion of the law. They held that all things (lowed by
emanation from God ; that rational souls were portions
of the Deity ; that the universe was God ; and that by the
power of contemplation they were united to the Deity,
and acquired hereby a glorious and sublime liberty, both
from the sinful lusts and the common instincts of nattire,
with a variety of other enthusiastic notions. Many edicts
were published against them ; but they continued till about
the middle of the fifteenth century. — Hend. Buck.
BRETHREN AND CLERKS OF THE COMMON
LIFE ; a denomination assumed by a religious fraternity
towards the end of the fifteenth century. They lived
under the rule of St. Augustine, and were said to be emi-
nently useful in promoting the cause of religion and
learning. — Hend. Buck.
BRETHREN, WHITE, were the followers of a priest
from the Alps, about the beginning of the fifteenth cen-
tury. They and their leader were arrayed in white gar-
ments. Their leader carried about a cross like a stand-
ard. His apparent sanctity and devotion drew together
a number of followers. This deluded enthusiast prac-
tised many acts of mortification and penance, and endea-
vored to persuade the Europeans to renew the holy war.
Boniface IX. ordered him to be apprehended, and com-
mitted to the flames ; upon which his followers dispersed.
— Hend. Buck.
BRETHREN, UNITED. (See Moravians.)
BREVIARY ; a daily office, or book of divine service,
m the Romish church. It is composed of matins, lauds,
first, third, sixth, and ninth vespers ; and the compline
or post-commwiio : i.e. of seven different hours, on account
of that saying of David : " Seven times a day will I praise
thee ;" whence some authors call the breviary by the
name of horcc canonic(E — caiwjiitid hours.
The breviary of Rome is general, and may be used in
all places : but on the model of this have been built vari-
sous others, appropriated to each diocese, and each order
^^eligious ; the most eminent of wliich are those of tiie
jjj^sjjictines, Bernardins, Carthusians, Carmelites, Domi-
of the ft"'! Jesuits ; that of Cluni, of the church of Lyons,
jn Spain.'''^'^ °f Milan, and the IMozarabic breviary used
The hrevii.
name of /joro/offP' '■^^ Greeks, which they call by the
churches and mon *''^> '^ ''^'^ same in almost all the
The Greeks divide '^r'^^ "'='' f°""^^ '*'<= Ctreek rites.
kathismata (sedHia) smP'^^'-'^' '°'° twenty parts, called
pauses or rests. In generar^'^^"^'^ "'^y ^''^ ^ '*'°'l "^^
two parts; the one containUr" *;''''"''l'^'''"""y ™"^'>*'* "''
called mesomikticn ; the other that^'i? u "^ evcnmg,
into matins, lauds, first, third sixt. mornmg, divided
and the compline. ' "■^"'1 i"°* vespers.
The institution of the breviary not beit>.
there ha;-e been inserted m it the lives o^^''^ ^T?\\
of ridiculous and ill-attested stories, which faK^" •
to several reformations of it by several eouncilsx'^'^'*.*'^'"
larly those of Trent and Cologne; by sevcralfSi^™;
ticularly Pius V., Clement VIII.. and Urban VII. ; as also
by several cardinals and bishops ; each lopping off some
extravagances, and bringing it nearer to the simplicity of
the primitive offices.
Originally every person was obliged to recite the brevi-
ary every day ; but by degrees, the obligation was reduced
to the clergy onlj', who are enjoined, under pain of mortal
sin and ecclesiastical censures, to recite it at home when
they cannot attend in pubhc.
BREWSTER, (William ;) one of the first settlers of
Plymouth colony, and a ruling elder of the church, was
born in England in the year 1560, and was educated at
the university of Cambridge, where his mind Was impress-
ed with religious truth, and he was renewed by the Spirit
of God.
His attention was now chiefly occupied by the inter-
ests of religion. His life was exemplary, and it seemed
to be his great object to promote the highest good of those
around him. He endeavored to excite their zeal for holi-
ness, and to encourage them in the practice of the Chris-
tian virtues. As he possessed considerable properly, he
readily and abundantly contributed towards the support
of the gospel. He exerted himself to procure faithful
preachers for the parishes in the neighborhood. By de-
grees, he became disgusted with the impositions of the
prclatical party, and their severity towards men of a
moderate and peaceable disposition. As he discovered
much corruption in the constitution, forms, ceremonies,
and discipline of the established church, he thought it his
duty to withdraw from its communion, and to establish
with others a separate society. This new church, under
tlie pastoral care of the aged Mr. Clifton and Mr. Robin-
son, met on the Lord's days at Mr. Brewster's house,
where they were entertained at his expense, as long as
they could assemble without interruption. When at
length the resentment of the hierarchy obliged them to
seek refuge in a foreign country, he was the most forward
to assist in the removal. He was seized with Mr. Brad-
ford in the attempt to go over to Holland in Ui07, and was
imprisoned at Boston, in Lincolnshire. He was the great-
est sufferer of the company, because he had the most pro-
perty. Having with much difficulty and expense obtained
his liberty, he first assisted the poor of the society in their
embarkation, and then followed them to Holland.
Such was his reputation in the church at Leyden, that
he was chosen a ruling elder, and he accompanied the
members of it, who came to New England in 1020. He
suffered with them all the hardships, attending their settle-
ment in the wilderness. He partook with them of labor,
hunger, and -watching ; and his Bible and his swcn-d were
equally familiar to him. As tlie church at Plymouth was
for several years destitute of a minister, Mr. Brewster,
who was venerable for his character and years, frequently
ofliciatcd as a preacher, though he could never be persuad-
ed to administer the sacraments.
Through his whole hfe he was remarkably temperate.
He drank nothing but water, until within the last five or six
years. During the famine, which was experienced in the
colony, he was resigned and cheerful. When nothing
but oysters and clams were set on his table, he would give
thanks, that his family were permitted " to suclc of the
abundance of the seas, and of the treasures hid in the
sand." He was social and pleasant in conversation, of a
humble and modest spirit ; yet, when occasion required,
courageous in administering reproof, though with such
tenderness, as usually to give no ofi'ence. He was conspi-
cuous for his compassion towards the distressed ; and if
they were suffering for conscience sake, he judged them,
of all others, most deserving of pity and relief He had
a peculiar abhorrence of pride. In the government of the
church, he was careful to preserve order and the purity
of doctrine and communion, and to suppress contention.
He was eminent for piety. In his public prayers he was
full and comprehensive, making confession of sin with
deep humility, and supplicating with fervoi the divine
mercy through the merits of Jesus Christ. Yet he avoid-
ed a tedious prohxiiy, lest he should damp the spirit of
devotion. In his discourses, he was clear and distinguish-
ing, as well as pathetic ; and it pleased God to give him
uncommon success, so that many were converted by his
BRO
[ 271
BRO
ministry. At his death he left what was called an excel-
lent library. It was valued at forty-three pounds in silver,
and a catalogue oi' the books is preserved in the colony
records. — Belhiop's Amcr. BiogAi. 252 — 256 ; Collect. Hist.
Soc. iv. 108, 113—117 ; 3Iorton, 153; Neat's N. E. i. 231 ;
Savage's Winthrop, i. 91 ; Magnalia, i. 14 ; Prince, 89.
BRIDAINE, James ; a French ecclesiastic, born near
XJzes, in 1701, was celebrated for his eloquence, and for
his indefatigable zeal in travelling to almost every part
of France to preach. In the course of his life, he under-
took two hundred and fifty-si.x journeys through the king-
dom, and there was scarcely a village where he did not
display his powers. His Spiritual Songs have gone
through forty-seven editions. He died in 1767. — Davenport.
BRIDE ; a new-married female. In the typical lan-
guage of Scripture, the love of the Eedeemer to the church
is energetically alluded to in the expression, " the bride,
Ihe Lamb's wife," Rev. 21: 9. See Makriage, and Solo-
mon's Song. — Calmet.
BRIDEGROOM. See Marriage, and Canticles.
BRIDGETINS, or Brigittins ; an order denominated
from St. Bridgit, or Birgit, a Swedish lady, in the four-
teenth century. Their rule is nearly that of Augustine.
The Brigittins profess gieat mortification, poverty, and
self-denial ; and they are not to possess anything they
can call their own — not so much as a halfpenny ; nor even
to touch money on any account. This order spread much
through Sweden, Germany, and the Netherlands. In Eng-
land we read of but one monastery of Brigittins, and this
built by Henry V. in 1415, opposite to Richmond, now
called Sion house; the ancient mhabitants of which, since
the dissolution, are settled at Lisbon. — Henderson's Buck.
BRIDLE. Instead of it, a cord drawn through the nose,
•was sometimes used for leading and commanding camels,
mules, (Sec. The restraints of God's powerful providence
are called his bridle and hoo}:. The bridle in the jaws
of the people causing them to err, is God's suffering the As-
syrians to be directed by their foolish counsels, that they
might never finish their intended purpose against Jerusa-
lem. Isa. 37: 29. and 30: 2S. The restraints of law, hu-
manity, and modesty are called a bridle: and to let it loose
is to act without regard to any of these. Job 30: 11. Blood
coming to Ihe liorse-bridles, implies the terrible slaughter of
the antichristians at the battle of Armaggeddon, or about
that time. Rev. 14: 20. — Brotvn.
BRIEFS, APOSTOLICAL, are letters which the pope
despatches to princes and other magistrates concerning any
public affair. — Henderson's Buck.
BRIER. See Thorn.
BRIMSTONE, rwpauvit. Gen. 19: 24. Deut. 29: 23. Job
18: 15. Psalm 11: 6. Isa. 30: 33. 34: 9. Ezek. 38: 22. It
is rendered theioji by the Septuagint, and is so called in
Luke 17: 29. Fire and brimstone are represented iti many
passages of Scripture as the elements by which God pu-
nishes the wicked, both in this life, and another. There
is in this a manifest allusion to the overthrow of the cities
of the plain of the Jordan, by showers of ignited sulphur,
to which the physical appearances of the country bear
witness to this day. The soil is bituminous, and might
be raised by eruptions into the air, and then inflam-
ed and return in horrid showers of ovei-whelming fire.
This awful catastrophe, therefore, stands as a type of the
final and eternal punishment of the wicked in another
world. In Job 18: 15, Bildad, describing the calamities
which overtake the wicked person, says, " Brimstone shall
be scattered upon his habitation." This may be a general
expression, to designate any great destruction : as that in
Psalm 11: 6, "Upon the wicked he shall rain fire and
brimstone." Moses, among other calamities which he
sets forth in case of the people's disobedience, threatens
them with the fall of brimstone, salt, and burning like the
overlhrow of Sodom, &c., Deut. 29: 23. The prophet
Isaiah, 34: 9, writes that the anger of the Lord shall be
shown by the streams of the land being turned into pitch,
and the dust thereof into brimstone. See Dead Sea.—
Watson .
BROAD. God is a place of broad rivers to his people ;
nis fulness can never be exhausted ; in him they obtain
the most delightful pleasure and prospect, and the surest
de-'ence ; and he is sufficiently capable to destroy and
overwhelig all that seek their hurt. Isa. 32; 22. His law
is exceeding broad ; it extends to every person and circum-
stance, requires innumerable things to be done, and as
many to be hated and avoided. Ps. 119: 96. He sets per-
sons in a broad place, when he gives them great liberty,
wealth, power, and prosperity. Job 36: 10. Ps. 18: 19.
The way to hell is broad ; multitudes of men walk in it.
and by sinful courses unnumbcied, they get thither at last.
Matt. 7: i3.—Brcrmn.
BROCK, (John,) minister of Reading, Massachusetts,
was born in England, in 1620, and was distinguished for
early piety. He came to this country about the year 1637.
He was graduated at Harvard college, in 1646, and, after
residing there two years longer, engaged in preaching the
Gospel, first at Rowley, and then at the isle of Shoals. He
continued at this last place till 1602, when he removed to
Reading, as successor of Samuel Hough; being ordained
November 13, 1662. Here he ministered in holy things
till his death, June IS, 1688, aged sixty-seven. He was
succeeded by Mr. Pierpont. His wife was the widow of
Mr. Hough.
Mr. Brock was an eminent Christian, and a laborious,
faithful minister, preaching not only on the Sabbath, but
frequently on other days. He established lectures for
young persons, and for the members of the church. He
often made pastoral visits, and they were rendered very
useful by his happy talents in conversation. He was so
remarkable for holiness and devotion, that it was said of
him by the celebrated Mitchell, "he dwells as near heaven,
as any man upon earth." He was full of faith and of the
Holy Ghost. Several remarkable stories are related of the
efficacy of his prayers, in which he frequently had a par-
ticular faith, or an assurance of being heard. When he
lived at the isle of Shoals, he persuaded the people to enter
into an agreement to spend one day in ever)' month, be-
sides the Sabbaths, in religious worship. On one of these
days, the fishermen, who composed his society, desired
him to put off the meeting, as the roughness of the weather
had for a number of days prevented them from attending
to their usual employment. He endeavored in vain to
conrince them of the impropriety of their request. As
most of them were determined to seize the opportunity for
making up their lost time, and were more interested in
their worldly than in their spiritual concerns, he addressed
them thus: "If you are resolved to neglect your duly to
God, and will go away, I say unto you. Catch fish if you
can ; but as for you, who will tany and worship the Lord
Jesus Christ, I will pray unto him for you, that you may
catch fish until you are weary." Of thirty-five men, only
five remained with the minister. The thirty who went
from the meeting, with all their skill, caught through the
whole day but four fishes ; while the five who attended
divine service, afterwards went out and caught five hun-
dred. From this time, the fishermen readily attended all the
meetings which Mr. Brock appointed. A poor man, who
had been very useful with his boat, in carr}'ing persons
who attended public worship over a river, lost his boat in
a storm, and lamented his loss to his minister. Mr. Brock
said to him, " Go home, honest man ; I will mention the
matter to the Lord : you will have your boat again to-mor-
row." The next day, in earnest prayer, the poor man re-
covered his boat, which was brought up from the bottom
by the anchor of a vessel, cast upon it without design. A
number of such remarkable correspondences between the
events of providence and the prayei-s of Mr. Brock, caused
Mr. John AUeu, of,Dedham, to say of him, '• I scarce ever
knew any man so familiar with the great God, as his dear
servant Brock." — blather's Magnalia, iv. Hi — 143; Coll.
Hist. Soc. vii. 251 — 254; Stone'} Fun. Serm. on Prentiss;
Fitch's Serm. at the Ordination of Tucke ; Allen.
BROIDERED ; wrought with various colors of needle-
work. Exod. 28: 4. Broidered hair is that which is plait-
ed, and put up on cri.sping pins. 1 Pet. 3: 9. — Brown.
BROBIFIELD, (Edward,) a young man of uncommon
genius, was born in Boston, in 1723. He was graduated
at Harvard college, in 1742. He lived but a short time
to display his virtues and his talents, for he died, Au-
gust 18, 1746, aged twenty-three years. From his child-
hood he was verj' amiable and modest As he grew
up, the powers of his mind were unfolded, and he disco-
BRO
2^2 ]
SftO
Vereil remarkable ingenuity and penetration, which were
strengthened and increased as he became acquainted with
mathematical science. His genius first appeared in the
use of the pen, by which with adn:irable exactness he
sketched the objects of nature. He made himself so fa-
tnihar with Weston's short hand, that he was able to take
down every word of the professors' lectures at the college,
and the sermons which were delivered from the pulpit. He
was skilful in projecting maps. As he was well skilled in
music, he for e.tercise and recreation made with his own
hands an e.xcellent organ, with two rows of keys and seve-
ral hundred pipes. The workmanship exceeded any thing
of the kind which had been imported from England. He
took peculiar pleasure in pursuits which related to na-
tural philosophy, for he wished to beliold the wisdom of
God in his works. He made great improvement in the
microscopes wliich were then used, most accurately grind-
ing the finest gla.sses, and muUiplying the powers of optical
inslAiments. He met with no mechanism which he did
not readily improve. But these were only the amusements
of Blr. Bromfield. He was engaged in the pursuits of
higher and more interesting objects, than those which had
reference only to the earth, and could occupy the mind but a
few days. Though from childhood he possessed the virtues
which endeared him to his acquaintance, yet it was not
before he reached the age of seventeen, that he was con-
verted by the influence of the Divine Spirit from his na-
tural state of selfishness and iniquity, to the supreme love
of his Maker. From this period, the truths of revelation
claimed his intense study, and it was his constant aim to
conform his life to the requisitions of the gospel. Nothing
interested him so much, as the character of Jesus Christ
and the wonders of redemption, which he hoped would ex-
cite his admiralion in the future world, and constitute his
everlasting blessedness. He left behind him a number of
manuscripts, which contained his pious meditations, and
marked his progress towards perfection. Though his body
was feeble, his whole soul was indefatigable. In his eyas
there was an expression of intellect, which could not be
mistaken. Had his life been spared, his name might have
been an honor to his country, and ihilosophy might have
been dignified by a connexion ■n'n.a genuine religion. —
Princess Ace. of Brnmfield ; Panoplist, ii. 193 — 197; Allen.
BROOK, is distinguished from a river by its flowing only
at particular times ; for example, after great rains, or the
melting of the snow; whereas a river flows constantly at
all seasons. However, this distinction is not always ob-
served in the Scripture ; and one is not unfrequently taken
for the other,— ''■ - ijreat rivers, such as the Euphrates, the
Nile, the Jordan, and others, being called brooks. Thus
the Euphrates (Isa. 15: 7) is called the brook of willows.
It is observed th#it the Hebrew word, nalial. which signifies
a brook, is also the term for a valley, whence the one is
often placed for the other, in different translations of the
Scriptures. To deal deceitfully '• as a brook," and to " pass
away as the stream thereof," is to deceive our friend when
he most needs and expects cur help and comfort, (Job 6:
15 ;) because brooks, being temporary streams, are dried
up in the heats of summer, when the traveller most needs
a supply of water on his journey. — Watson.
BROOKE, (Lady Elizabeth,) daughter of Thomas Cul-
pepper, Esq., of Wigsale, in Sussex, was born at that place,
in the month of January, 1601. In infancy she was de-
prived, by death, of the counsels and advice, assistance
and prayers of her mother ; hut her godmother. Lady
Slaney, superintended her early education with great care
and kindness. At the age of nineteen, she was married to
Sir Robert Brooke, whose fortune was respectable, and
whose character was virtuous. In very early life, this
lady devoted herself to God and religion, and maintained
an unexceptionable character, until she exchanged the tri-
als of earth for the joys of heaven. By many eminent
men, she was considered to be one of the most intelUgent
females. Her knowledge of divinity and the holy Scrip-
tures was very considerable ; nor was that knowledge
merely practical ; it was doctrinal and critical. Though
comparatively unacquainted with the Greek and Hebrew
tongues, yet her chaplains used often to say, that her con-
versation was frequently more profitable and pleasant than
their own studies ; and that whilst they were teaching.
they were being instructed. Her investigation of sacred
subjects was profound. With the surface of knowledge
she was not content. On difficulties she consulted all the
learned men with whom she was acquainted; and, by the
astonishing lapidity of her reading, and the retentive pow-
ers of her mind, she accumulated daily some increase to
her stock of knowledge. She was very industrious to pre-
serve all that affected or instructed her in the sermons
which she heard ; attending to them when delivered, re-
peating them in her family, writing down the substance of
them, and digesting them into questions and answers, or
under heads of common places. To the management and
regulation of her family, she did not, however, forget to
attend. Of their spiritual interests she was habitually
regardful ; and, not contented with a personal devotion to
God, she was anxious that her house also should serve the
Lord. In her breast, bigotry and intolerance never found
an abode. All the servants of Jesus Christ, of whatever
sect or party, she loved as fellow pilgrims and fellow heirs.
Her charity was unbounded, and her generosity was very
great. Her mind was habitually devotional ; and in prayer,
reading the Scriptures, and pious meditations, she spent
the greater part of her life. Of her it has been justly said —
" She had the knowledge of a divine, the faith, holiness,
and zeal of a Christian, the wisdom of the serpent, and the
innocency of the dove." For further account of this inte-
resting woman, see Burder's Memoirs of Pious Women. —
Jones's Chr. Biog.
BROOKS, (Eleazak,) an American brigadier-general,
was born in Concord, Massachusetts, in 1726. Without
the advantages of education, he acquired a valuable fund
of knowledge. It was his practice in early life to read the
most approved books, and then to converse with the most
intelligent men respecting them. In 1774, he was chosen
a representative to the general court, and continued thirty-
seven years in public life, being successively a representa-
tive, a member of the senate, and of the council. He took
a decided part in the American revolution. At the head
of a regiment he was engaged in the battle at White Plains,
in 1776, and distinguished himself by his cool, determined ^
bravery. From the year 1801, he secluded himself in the
tranquil scenes of domestic life. He died at Lincoln, No-
vember 9, 1806, aged eighty years. General BroolfS pos-
sessed an uncommonly strong and penetrating mind, an4
his judgment as a statesman was treated with respect.
He was diligent and industrious, slow in concerting, buv
expeditious in performing his plans. He was a firm be-
liever in the doctrines of Christianity, and in his advanced
years accepted the office of deacon in the church at Lin-
coln. This office he ranked above all others which he had
sustained in life. — Stearns's Fun. Serm. ; Columb. Cent. Nov.
22, 1806 ; Allen.
BBOOKS, (John, LL. D.) governor of Massachusetts,
was born at Medford, in 1752. His father was captain
Caleb Brooks, a farmer ; and his early years were spent
in the toils of a farm, with no advantages of education but
those of a town school. He was afterwards equally dis-
tinguished as a physician, a soldier, and a statesman. In
the battle of Saratoga, October 7, at the head of his regi-
ment, he stormed and carried the intrenchmenis of the
German troops. In the battle of Monmouth, he was acting
adjutant-general. When the conspiracy at Newburgh, in
March, 1783, had well nigh disgraced the army, Washing-
ton rode up to Brooks, and requested him to keep his offi-
cers within quarters to prevent their attending the insur-
gent meeting ; the reply was, " Sir, I have anticipated your
wishes, and my orders are given." With tears in his eyes,
Washington took him by the hand and said, "Colonel
Brooks, this is just what I expected from you."
From the army. Brooks returned to private life, free
from the vices incident to soldiership, rich in honor, es-
teem, and affection, but without property, and without the
means of providing for his family, except by resuming his
practice of medicine. By Washington he was appointed
marshal of the district and inspector of the revenue ; in
the war of 1812, he was appointed adjutant-general of
Massachusetts by governor Strong, whom he succeeded as
chief magistrate, in 1816. For seven years successively
he was re-elected ; and with great dignity and faithfulness
he presided over the affairs of the commonwealth. In
BRO
[ 273
BRO
1823, he retired lo private life, being succeeded by Wil-
liam Eustis. He died, March 1, 1825, aged seventy-two
years.
Governor Brooks held a high rank as a physician. He
was scientific and skilful. His manners were dignified,
courteous, and benign ; and his kind offices were doubled
in value by the manner in which he performed them. In
the office of chief magistrate, he labored incessantly for the
public good. His addresses to the legislature manifested
large and liberal views. No one could doubt his integrity
and devoted patriotism. He was the governor of the peo-
ple ; not of a party. In his native town, of which he was
the pride, the citizens were accustomed to refer their dis-
putes to his arbitreinent, so that lawyers could not thrive
m Medford. In private life he was most amiable and
highly esteemed, the protector and friend of his numerous
relatives, and the delight of all his acquaintance. The
sweetness of his temper was evinced by the composure and
complacency of his countenance. Towards the close of
his life, he connected himself with the church in Medford
under the pastoral care of Dr. Osgood. A short time be-
fore he died, he said, " I see nothing terrible in death. In
looking to the future, I have no fears. I know in whom I
hare believed ; and I feel a persuasion, that all the trials
appointed me, past or present, will result in my future and
eternal happiness. I look back upon my past life with
humility. I am sensible of many imperfections that cleave
to me. I know, that the present is neither the season nor
the place, in which to begin the preparation for death.
Our rvhuh life is given us for this great object, and the
work of preparation should be early commenced, and be
never relaxed tUl the end of our days. To God I can ap-
peal, that it has been mj' humble endeavor to serve him in
sincerity ; and wherein I have failed, I trust in his grace
10 forgive. I now rest my soul on the mercy of my
adorable Creator, through the only mediation of his Son,
our Lord. Oh, what a ground of hope is there in that
saying of an apostle, that God is, in Christ, reconciling a
guilty world to himself, not imputing their trespasses unto
them ? In God I have placed my eternal ha., and into
his hands I commit my spirit ! " To the Medical society
he bequeathed his librarj'. Besides his valuable official
communications as chief magistrate, he published a dis-
course before the Humane society, 1795 ; discourse on
Pneumonia, before the Medical society, 1808. — Thacher's
Med. Biog. 197 — 207 ; DixwelVs Memoir ; Columi. Centinel,
May 18, 1825 ; Alleji.
BROTHER. 1. A brother by the same mother, an ute-
rine brother. Matt. 4: 21. 20: 20. 2. A brother, though
not by the same mother, Matt. 1: 2. 3. A near kinsman,
a cousin, Matt. 13: 55. Mark 6: 3. Observe, that in Matt.
13: 55, James, and Joses, and Judas, are called the adelphot,
brethren, of Christ, but were most probably only his cousins
by his mother's side ; for James and Joses were the sons
of Marj', Matt. 27: 56 ; and James and Judas, the sons of
Alpheus, Luke 6: 15, 16 ; which Alpheus is therefore pro-
bably the same with Cleophas, the husband of Mary, sister
to our Lord's mother, John 19: 25. — Waison.
BROUGHTON, (Thomas,) a learned divine and hterary
character, was bom in London, in 1701, studied at Eton
and Cambridge, and died, vicar of Bedminster, St. Mary
Redclilfe, Bristol, and a prebendary of Salisbury, in 1771.
He was one of the principal contributors lo the Biographia
Britannica, and also wTote several works, among which
is a Diclionarj' of all Religions, two volumes, fplio. See
Hannah Adams. — Davenport.
BROA\TS', (John,) of Haddington, a celebrated, though
self-educated Scotch divine, was born, in 1722, at Kerpoo,
in Perthshire, became a minister and di\'inity professr, and
died m 1787. He was a man of eminent piety, and great
usefulness. His principal works are, a Body of Dirinity,
one volume, octavo ; the Self-Interpreting Bible, two vol-
umes, quarto ; and a Dictionary of the Bible, two volumes,
octavo, often referred to in this work. — Davenport.
BROWN, (Chadd ;) minister of the first Baptist church.
Providence, Rhode Island. He fled thither from persecu-
tion in Massachusetts, in 1636, and became, in 1639, one
of the members of the Baptist church formed at that time
by Roger Williams, when William Wickenden was ap-
pointed first elder With him 3Iv. Brown was associated
3.5
in the pastoral care of the church in 1642, and was a fle-
voted and successful minister. He died about 1665 ; and
his colleague in 1669. In 1792, the town of Providence
voted to erect a monument lo his memory. His descend-
ants, for nearly two centuries, have been among the most
distinguished citizens of Rhode Island. His grandson,
James Brown, was a minister of the same church ; and
four of the grandsons of James have been patrons of Brown
university; — Nicholas; Joseph, LL.D. who died Decem-
ber, 1785 ; John, an eminent merchant, who died, Septem-
ber 20, 1803, aged sixty-seven ; and Moses Probably also
Elisha was a grandson, who was lieutenant-governor, and
died in April, 1802, aged eighty-five. — Coll. Hist. Soc. s. s.
ix. 197.— Benedict, i. 477 ; Allen.
BROWN, (Nicholas,) an eminent merchant of Rhode
Island, died at Providence, May 29, 1791, aged sixty-one.
From early youth his attention had been directed to mer-
cantile pursuits, and by the divine blessing upon his dili-
gence and uprightness he acquired a very ample fortune.
But although he was rich, he did not make an idol of his
wealth. His heart was liberal, and he listened to every
call of humanity or science. The interests of government,
of learning, of religion, were dear to him. He loved his
country, and rejoiced in her freedom. The pubUc buUdings
in Providence, sacred to religion and science, are monu-
ments of his liberality. He was an early and constant
patron of the college. In his reUgious principles he was
a Baptist, and he was a lover of good men of all denomi-
nations. He was not ashamed of the Gospel, nor of the
poorest of the true disciples of the Redeemer. His general
knowledge and the fruitfulness of his invention furnished
him with an inexhaustible fund of entertaining conversa-
tion.— Stillman's Fun. Serm. ; Providence Gaz.; Allen.
BROWN, (Chakles Bkockden,) a distinguished Ameri-
can writer, was born in Philadelphia, January 17, 1771.
After a classical education under Robert Proud, author of
the History of Pennsylvania, he was, at the age of eigh-
teen, apprenticed to a lawyer, Alexander Wilcox ; but his
time was chiefly employed, not in the study of the law, but
in various literarj' pursuits. Timidity and an invincible dis-
like to the legal profession prevented him from becoming
a member of the bar. He devoted himself entirely to lite-
rature, and_ in six years, from 1798 to 1804, published six
novels of an original and powerful character. At this pe-
riod his opinions were unsettled and sceptical ; but soon
after, he declared himself a finn believer and advocate of
Christianity. He now abandoned novel writing, and de-
voted his powers to more serious and useful pursuits ; and
his character seems to have undergone a perceptible and
pleasing change. He had previously conducted a periodi-
cal work, in 1799 and 1800, the Monthly Blagazine and
American Review ; and in 1805, he commenced the Lite-
rary Magazine and American Register, avowedly on new
principles. He also wrote three political pamphlets. In
1806, he commenced the semi-annual American Register,
five volumes of which he lived to publish. He died. Feb.
22, 1810, al the age of thirty-nine. — N. A. Review, June,
1819; Enc.Amer.; Allen; Memeir prefixed to Ms Works.
BROWN, (Francis, D. D.) president of Dartmouth col-
lege, was born at Chester, New Hampshire, January 11,
1784, and graduated, in 1805, al Dartmouth, where he was
a tutor from 1806 to 1809. In January, 1810, he was or-
dained the minister of North Yarmouth, Slaine, as the
successor of Tristram Gilman, whose daughter he married.
Of Bowdoin college he was an overseer and trustee. In
1815, he was appointed president of Dartmouth college.
He died of the consumption, July 27, 1820, aged thirty-six.
His predecessor was Dr. Wheelock ; his successor Dr. Da-
na. ■• His talents and learning, amiableness and piety,
eminently qualified him for the several stations which he
filled, and rendered him highly useful and popular." He
published several sermons, among which are the follow-
ing : at the ordination of Allen Greely, 1810 ; at a fast on
account of the war, 1812 ; on the evils of war, 1814 ; be-
fore the Maine Missionary socielv, 1814.— iorrf's Lempr. ;
Allen.
BROWN, (Catharine,) a Cherokee, was born about the
year 1800, at a place, now called Wills-Valley, in a beau-
tiful plain of tall forest trees, within the chartered limits of
Alabama, a few miles west of the Georgia line, and twen-
BRO
[274]
ERO
«y-five miles south-east of the Tennessee river. On each
side of the valley rose the Raccoon and. Lookout moun-
tains. Her parents were half-breeds ; they were ignorant
of the English language ; and the amount of their religion
was, that there was a Creator of the world, and also a
future state of rewards and punishments.
In IStJl, the Moravians commenced a mission at Spring-
place in the Cherokee country, about forty or fifty miles
east of Wills-Valley ; soon afterwards, Rev. Gideon Black-
burn made eflbrts for several years to establish a school
among the Cherokees. In 181(5, Rev. Cyrus Kingsbury,
employed by the American board for foreign missions, ap-
peared at a Cherokee council and obtained penuission to
establish schools. He selected, as the place for the first
school, Cliiekaraaugah, now called Brainerd, twenty or
thirty miles north of Spring-place, ^vithin the limits of Ten-
nessee. Catharine heard of this school, and, though living
at a distance of a hundred miles, she became a member
of it, in July, 1817, being then seventeen years of age.
In threa nnW.lis she learned to read and write. In Decem-
ber, 1817, she cherished the hope, that she had experienced
the power of the gospel in her heart. She was baptized,
January 25, 1818, and admitted as a member of the church,
March 29. In June, 1820, she undertook to leach a school
at Creek path, near her father's. For sweetness of temper,
meekness, and gentleness, she was unsurpassed. To her
parents she was very dutiful and aflectionate. A weekly
prayer meeting was instituted by her ; and she was zealous
to insQ-uct her ignorant neighbors in the great trnths of
the gospel. She formed the purpose of perfecting her
education, that her usefulness might be increased. But in
the spring of 1823, her health declined, she had a settled
consumption, and it became evident that her death was
near. She said, — " I feel perfectly resigned to the will of
God. I know he will do right with his children. I thank
God, that I am entirely in his hands. I ftiel wiling to live,
or die, as he thinks best. My only wish is, that he may
be glorified." Having been conveyed about fifty miles, to
the house of her friend, Dr. Campbell, she there died, July
18, 1823, aged twenty-three. Let any scoffer at mi.ssions
contemplate this lovely child of the wilderness, won from
the gloom of paganism to the joyous, lofty hopes of Chris-
tianity, and triumphing over the king of teiTors, and then
say, if he can, that the missionary enterprise is idle, and
useless, and a waste of money. An interesting memoir of
Catharine Brown was compiled by Rufus Anderson, as-
sistant secretary of the American board for foreign mis-
sions, and published in 1825. — Anderson' s Memoir ; Allen.
BROWN, (Davip,) a Cherokee, was a brother of the
preceding, who followed her to the school at Brainerd. In
November, 1819, he assisted John Arch in preparing a
Cherokee spelling-book, which was printed. At the school,
he became convinced of his sinfulness, and embraced the
salvation offered in the gospel. Soon after he was ad-
mitted to the church, he set out for New England, to at-
tend the foreign mission school at Cornwall, Connecticut,
that he might be prepared to preach the gospel. His visits
to Boston and other towns had a favorable eflect in excit-
ing a missionary zeal. After passing two years at the
school, with Elias Boudinot and six other Cherokees, he
remained a year at Andover, enjoying many advantages
for improvement. In the mean time, his brother, John,
had become a convert and made a profession, and died in
pea ■-.■ \\~ '>arents also, and other members of his family,
Dau becom-e jjious. He returned to them in 1824, having
first delivered, in many of the principal cities and towns,
an address on the wrongs, claims, and prospects of the
American Indians. Iti the spring of 1829, he was taken
ill, and bled at the lungs. He wrote, June 1st, " On the bed
of sickness I have enjoyed sweet communion with my Sa-
vior." He died at Creek-path, September 14, 1829, at
the house of Rev. Mr. Potter, giving evidence that he died
in the faith of the gospel. — Anderson; Miss. Her.; Alien,
BROWN, (Dp. Thomas,) a man eminent as a metaphysi-
cian, moral philosopher, and poet, was born at Kirkmabreok,
in Scotland, in 1777, and displayed an early acuten&ss and
thirst for knowledge. His first education was received in
the vicinity of London, and was com]4eted at the univer-
sity of Edinburgh. At the age of twenty, he wrote a mas-
teriy unswer to Darwin's Zoonomia. In 1810, he succeeded
Mr. Stewart, at Edinburgh, as professor of moral philoso-
phy, and soon gained universal admiration as a lecturer,
by his eloquence and talents, and afl'ection by his kindness
to the students. Dr. Brown was a professed believer in
Christianity ; and though he too seldom adverts to the Bi-
ble in his philosophical lectures, yet his system of meta-
physics and morals approaches nearer to the simplicity
and purity of the sacred volume, than that of many pro-
fessed expounders of it. He has thrown more light on the
essential distinction of the mind and the body, and on the
mental emotions and associations, than perhaps any pre-
ceding writer. His brilliant career was unfortunately cut
short, by consumption, on the 2d of April, 1820. As an
analytical philosopher, his reputation is established by his
inquiry into the Relation of Cause and Eflect ; Lectures
on the Philosophy of the Human Mind ; and Physiology
of the Mind : as a poet, by his poems, in two volumes ;
Agnes ; the Wanderer of Norway ; and the Paradise of
Coquettes. — Davenport.
BROWNE, (George, D. D.) archbishop of Dublin. The
birthplace of this eminent prelate is uncertain, nor have
we any precise account of his parents. But he was the
first prelate who embraced the reformation in Ireland. He
received the principal part of his education at Hallywell,
in Oxford, but was originally a friar of the order of St.
Augustine. In 1534, he took the degree of doctor in divi-
nity in some foreign university, but was admitted to the
same honor at Oxford and Caiubridge. Henry the Eighth
became attached to him, for inculcating into the minds of
the people of England, the necessity of discarding the doc-
trine of the invocation of saints, and for enforcing on them
the necessity of applying alone to Christ for salvation. To
him, that king, in the year 1535, presented the archbishop-
ric of Dublin. In May, 1536, Browne made so admirable
a speech on the subject of a bill that was at that time de-
pending, for establishing the king's supremacy over the
church of Ireland, that in consequence thereof, the act,
with much diflrculty, passed. At the time when Henry
the Eighth ordered the monasteries in England and Ire-
land to be destroyed, archbishop Browne immediately or-
dered, that every vestige of superstitious relics, of which
there were many in the two cathedrals of St. Patrick and
the Holy Trinity in Dublin, should be removed. Not con-
tented with this direction, he caused the same to be done
in the other churches of his diocese, and supplied their
places with the creed, the ten commandments, and the
Lord's prayer. In 1545, a command having been issued,
that the liturgy of king Edward the Sixth should be com-
piled, it was violently opposed, and only by Browne's party
received. Accordingly, on Easter day following, it was
read in Christ church, Dublin, in the presence of the mayor
and the bailiff's of that city ; when the archbishop delivered
a judicious, learned, and able sermon against keeping the
Bible in the Latin tongue, and the worship of images. In
October, 1551, the title of primate of all Ireland was con-
ferred on Browne ; which the malignant and persecuting
Mary soon deprived him of, on account of his zeal in the
reformation. Archbishop Browne died in the year 1556.
As to his character, he was a man of considerable natural
parts, great industry, and indefatigable application. To
truth he was a sincere friend, and would often declare,
that he would rather sacrifice his life than resign his princi-
ples. None of his works are extant, except his " Sermon
on the Liturgy." See Wood's Hist, and Antiq. Univ. Ox-
on.; Lifeand Death of George Browne, Esq. ; Cox's Hist,
of Ireland ; Sir James Warr's Works. — Jones's Chr. Biog.
BROWNE, (Sir Thomas,) a physician and eminent
writer, was born in London, in 1605, and educated at Win-
chester and Oxford. He took his degree at Leyden, and
settled at Norwich, where he gained extensive practice.
His Beligio Medici having been surreptitiously published,
he gave to the world a correct edition in 1642, which was
soon translated into several languages, and repeatedly re-
printed. It was attacked by many writers, some of whom,
wnth equal absurdity and injustice, accused the author of
being an infidel, and even an atheist. This work was fol-
lowed by his celebrated Treatise on Vulgar Errors; and
Hydriotaphia, or a Treatise on Urn Burial, published to-
gether with the Garden of Cyrus. He died in 1682. Browne
was a man of great benevolence, and of extensive erudi-
BRO
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BRU
tion. His style is singular and pedantic, but has generally
strength, and often felicity of expression. — His son Ed-
■ward, who was bom about 1642, and died in 1708, was
president of the College of Physicians, and is the author of
an Account, in two volumes quarto, of his own Travels in
Austria, Hungary, Thessaly, and Italy. — Davenport.
TlROWNE, (Simon,) was born at Shepton Mallet, in
1680, and became a dissenting minister, first at Ports-
mouth, and next in the Old Jewry, in which latter situa-
tion he remained till 1723, when his reason was shaken
by the loss cf his wife and his only son. The monomania
which afflict id him was of an extraordinary kind. Though
retaining th ; power of reasoning acutely, he believed that
God " had annihilated in him the thitlking substance," and
that though he seemed to speak rationally, he had " no more
notion of what he said than a parrot." Imagining himself
no longer a moral agent, he refused to bear a part in any
act of worshio. While in this state, however, he continued
to write forcilily. and, among other things, produced a De-
fence of the Religion of Nature, and the Christian Revela-
tion, against Tindall's Christianity as old as the Creation.
To this he prefi.ted a dedication to queen Caroline, in which
he affectingly e.'spatialed on his soulless state. His friends
suppressed this melancholy proof of his singular insanity ;
but it is prc3er\'cd in the Adventurer. He died in 1732.
He is the author of hymns, sermons, and various contro-
versial and theological pieces. — Davaiport.
BROWNISTS ; a sect that arose among the Puritans
towards the close of the sixteenth century ; so named from
their leader, Robert Erown. He was educated at Cam-
bridge, and was a man of good parts and some learning.
He began to inveigh openly against the ceremonies of the
church, at Norwich, in 1580 ; but, being much opposed by
the bishops, he. with his congregation, left England, and
settled at Bliddleburgh, in Zealand, where they obtained
leave to worship God in their own way, and form a church
according to their own model. They soon, however, began
to diflcr among themselves, so that Brown, growing weary
of liis office, returned to England in 1589, renounced his
principles of separation, and was preferred to the rectory
of a church in I^Torthamptonshire. He died in prison in
l(i.'<0. The revolt of Brown was attended \vith the dissolu-
tion of the church at Middleburgh ; but the seeds of Brown-
isra which he had sown in England were so far from being
destroyed, that Sir Waller Raleigh, in a speech in 1592,
computes no less than twenty thousand of this sect.
The articles of their faith seem to be nearly the same
as those of the church of England. The occasion of their
sfparalion was not therefore any fault they found with the
faith, but only with the discipline and form of government
of the churches in England. They equally charged cor-
ruption on the Episcopal and Presbyterian forms; nor
^^■uuld they join with any other reformed church, because
they were not assured of the sanctity and regeneration of
the members that composed it. They condemned the so-
lemn celebration of marriages in the church, maintaining
that matrimony, being a political contract, the confirma-
uon thereof ought to come from the civil magistrate ; an
opinion in which they are not singular. They would not
allow the children of such as were not members of the
church to be baptized. They rejected all forms of prayer,
and held that the Lord's prayer was not to be recited as a
prayer, being only given for a rule or model whereon all
our prayers are to be formed. Their form of church go-
vernment was nearly as follows : — When a church was to
be gathered, such as' desired to be members of it made a
confession of their faith in the presence of each other, and
signed a covenant, by which they obliged themselves to
walk together in the order of the gosi)el. The whole pow-
er of admitting and excluding members, with the decision
of all controversies, was lodged in the brotherhood. Their
church officers were chosen from among themselves, and
separated to their several offices by fasting, prayer, and
imposition of hands. But they did not allow the priest-
hood to be any distinct order. As the vote of the brethren
made a man a minister, so the same power could discharge
him from his office, and reduce him to a mere layman
again ; and as they maintained the bounds of a church to be
no greater than what could meet together in one place, and
join in one communion, so the power of these officers was
prescribed within the same limits. The minister of one
church could not administer the Lord's supper to another,
nor baptize the children of any but those of his own socie-
ty. Any lay-brother was allowed the liberty of giving s
word of exhortation to the people ; and it was usual for
some of them, after sermon, to ask questions, and reason
upon the doctrines that had been preached. In a word,
every church on their model is a body corporate, having
full power to do every thing in itself, without being ac-
countable to any class, synod, convocation, or other juris-
diction whatever. The reader will judge how near the
Independent churches are allied to this form of govern-
ment. See Independents.
The laws were executed with great severity on the
Brownists ; their books w-ere prohibited by queen Eliza-
beth ; their persons imprisoned, and some hanged. Bro\ni
himself declared on his death-bed that he had been in
thirty-two different prisons, in some of which he coirid not
see his hand at noon-day. They were so much persecuted,
that they resolved at last to quit the country. According-
ingly many retired and settled at Amsterdam, where they
formed a church, and chose Mr. Johnson their pastor, and
after him Mr. Ainsworth, author of the learned Commen-
tary on the Pentateuch. Their church flounshed near a
hundred years. Among the Brownists, too, were the fa-
mous John Robinson, a part of whose congregation from
Leyden, in Holland, made the first pennauent settlement
in North America ; and the laborious Canne, the author
of the marginal references to the Bible. — Htnd. Buck.
BRUCKER, (John James,) a learned Lutheran clergy-
man, was born at Augsburg, in 1696, and died minister of
St. Ulric's, in his native city, in 1770. Of his works, the
most valuable and the best known is the History of Philo-
sophy, in six volumes quarto, of which Dr. Enfield pub-
lished an English abridgment. Brucker was nearly fifty
years employed on it ; and it displays a degree of erudition,
judgment, and impartiality, which is highly honorable to
its author, — Davenport.
BRUEN, (JlATTniAs,) a distinguished minister in New-
York, was born at Newark, New Jersey, April 11, 1793.
He dated his renovation of mind by the divine Spirit
at the age of eighteen. After graduating at Columbia
college, in 1812, he studied theology with Dr. Mason. In
1816, he travelled in Europe with his distinguished pre-
ceptor. About the beginning of 1819, being invited to
preach in the American chapel of the oratory at Paris, he
was ordained in London, and then passed six mouths at
Paris. In 1822, he was employed as a missionary in the
city of New York, but refused to receive any compensai-
lion. During his labors, he collected the Bleecker street
congregation. Of this people he became the stated pastor,
and conti[Uied such till his death, by iufiammatiiv. of the
bowels, September 6, 1S29, aged thirty-six years.
Blr. Bruen engaged earnestly in various benevolent in-
stitutions. He was agent and corresponding secretary of
the Domestic Jlissionary Society ; and when it was changed
into the American Home Missionary Society, he still as-
sisted by his counsels. Bible, Sunday school, tract, and
foreign mission societies engaged his efforts ; and in the
Greek cause he cheerfully co-operated. He was accom-
plished in manners, in literature, and in the knowledge of
mankind. Though he had high and honorable feelings,
abhorring every thing mean, yet he had humble views of
his own acquisitions, intellectual and moral. All his dis-
tinction! he laid at his Master's feet. In the last week of
his life, he suffered extreme pain. It was a sudden sum,-
BRU
276
BUC
mons to depart ; yet was he calm and resigned. " I die,"
said he, "ia peace and love with all men." Thus, after
embracing his wife and two babes, and most impressively
addressing his relatives, he fell asleep In Jesus. He pub-
lished a sermon at Paris on the death of a lady of New
York ; and Sketches of Italy. — Cox's and Skinner's Serm. ;
Home Miss. Mag. ; Bost. Becord. Nov. 11, 1829 ; Allen.
BRUISE . The l/ruise of a sou! imphes doubts, fears,
anguish, inward trouble on account of the prevalence of
sin,God's wrath, &c. Matt. 12: 40. 2. God ttrnised Christ,
in inflicting on his soul and body the fearful punishment
due to our sin. Isa. 53: 5. 3. Satan bruises Christ's heel,
m harassing his humble manhood, and afflicting his mem-
bers on earth. Gen. 3: 15. Rom. Il5: 20. 4. Chvisl bruises
Satan's head, when he crushes his designs, despoils him
of his power, triumphs over him on the cross, or in the
conquest of his chosen ; and when he enables his people
to oppose, conquer, and tread his temptations under foot.
— The king of Egypt is called a bruised reed, to mark the
weak and broken state of his kingdom, and his utter ina-
bility to help such as depended on him. 2 Kings 18: 21.
Weak saints and their feeble graces, are bruised, or bruised
reeds, which Christ mill not break ; they are trodden down
and afflicted by Satan, by false teachers, by the world, by
ilieir own lusis, and are in a pained and disjointed case,
imable to oppose their spiritual enemies ; but Jesus will
protect, heal, comfort, and deliver them. Isa. 42: 3. Luke
4: 18. — Brown.
BRULIUS, (Peter,) one of the reformers of the six-
teenth century. He succeeded Calvin as pastor of the
church in Strasburg, on the Rhine, and was much beloved
by the people, who were edified by his valuable ministr)'.
There prevailed at this time throughout the Netherlands
the most earnest desire to be instructed in the reformed
religion ; so that in places where the truth was not or dar-
ed not to be preached, private invitations were sent to the
ministers who resided in towns where the pure gospel was
preached openly. Some people in Tourney invited Bru-
lius from Strasburg. Ready to every good word and
work, this excellent man complied with their request, and
came to Tourney, September, 1544, Avhere he was joyfully
received by the friends who invited him. After staying
some time, he made an excursion to Lisle, in Flanders, for
the same object, and returned to Tourney in October. But
the governors of the city, being papist, having heard of
his arrival, shut the gates and made strict search for him ;
so that his friends were obliged to let him over the wall by
a rope. Unhappily, on his reaching the ground, a stone
fell on him, by which his leg was broken, and his enemies
seized him. He was put in prison, and notwithstanding
the efforts of the senate of Strasburg, he was put to death,
being burned in a slow fire, February 19, 1545, to the
grief of all good men.
Brulius m prison and at the stake beha\T!d nobly ; no-
thing could shake his faith, or triumph over his firmness.
Among other things, he assured his papal judges "that
he neither knew or cared for any other jmrgatori/, than the
blood of Christ, which alone remits both the guilt and
punishment of sin." The day before he suffered, he wrote
to his wife, informmg her what he was to undergo, and
exhorting her to be satisfied with the consolations of God,
concluding that she ought not to grieve on his account, but
to rejoice, since this whole dispensation was an honor that
his heavenly Father had conferred on him ; that Jesus
Christ had suftered infinitely more for him ; and that the
servant's condition ought not to be better than his Lord's.
What an admirable comment on the omnipotence of divine
grace m the soal'.—Middleton.
BRUNTON, (M.^RY,) the daughter of colonel Balfour,
was born m Barra island, one of the Orkneys, in 1776,
married a minister of the Scotch church in 1796, and died
in 1818, equally admired for her talents and beloved for
her disposition and virtues. She is the author of Disci-
pline and of Self-Conlrol, two excellent novels ; and she left
an unfinished tale called Emehne,and some minor pieces
which her husband published. — Davenport. '
BRUIS, (Peter de ;) a distinguished reformer and martyr
of the twelfth century. Mosheim says, after speaking of
the Catharists, " A much more rational sect was that which
was founded about the year 1110, in Languedoc and Pro-
vence by Peter de Bruys, (or Bruis,) who made the most
laudable attempts to reform the abuses, and to remove the
superstitions thai disfigured the beautiful simplicity of the
Gospel." During a laborious ministry of about twenty
years, he engaged a great number of followers, who were
called after him Petrobrnssians, or from the principal place
of their residence, Vaudois, Valdenses, or \\'aldenses.
Probably he was, strictly speaking, not the founder of the
sect, for that people claim a far higher antiquity, but
was one of their most distinguished preachers or barbs.
This last ia, in fact, the Waldensian account of him. To
him is ascribed that admirable treatise on Antichrist, an
extract from which may be found under the word Anti-
christ, in this volume. De Bruis was burned at St. Giles,
in 1130, by an enraged populace, instigated by the clergy,
" whose traffic," says Mosheim, " was in danger from the
enterprising spirit of this reformer." If we may judge from
the above treatise, his piety, judgment, courage, talents,
knowledge of the Scriptures, spiritual understanding of
the true gospel, zeal, and eloquence, were of a very high
order, and would not suffer by comparison with any of the ■
reformers of the sixteenth centuJT ; nor will any one who
knows how Dr. Mosheim applies the term, think the worse
of him, but the higher, for what he calls his " mixture of
fanaticism." Happy had it been for the Protestant
churches, had such a " mixture" existed in the later re-
formers, as would have broken the adulterous alliance of
church and state, and given to those fettered churches the
primitive purity and freedom which De Bruis intrepidly
asserted in life and in death. As, among other things, he
taught " that no persons are to be baptized before they had
the full use of their reason," he is justly claimed by the
modem Baptists, as belonging to their fraternity. — Mo-
sheim; Ivimey.
BRYANT, (Jacob,) a philologist and antiquary, w-as
bom at Plymouth, in 1715, and received his education at
Eton and King's college, Cambridge. The duke of Marl-
borough, to whom he had been tutor, gave him a place in
the ordnance department. He settled at Cypenham, in
Berkshire, and died Nov. 4, 1804, of a jnortification in the
leg, occasioned by bruising the skin against a chair. Bry-
ant was an indefatigable and a learned writer, but fond
of paradox. He wrote one work to maintain the au-
thenticity of the pseudo Rowley's poems, and another to
prove that Troy never existed. His principal production
is a New System or Analysis of Ancient Mythology, in
three volumes quarto, which was published in 1774 and
1776. It is ingenious and emdite, but often fanciful and
erroneous. Among his other compositions are. Observa-
tions relative to Ancient History ; a Treatise on the Au-
thenticity of the Scriptures ; Observations on the Plagues
of Egypt ; and Dissertations on the Prophecy of Balaam,
&c . — Davenport .
BUCER, (Martin,) was born in 1491, at Scholestadt, a
town of Alsace. At the age of seven, he took the religious
habit of the order of St. Dominic, and, mth the leave of
the prior of his convent, went to Hiedelberg to learn logic
and philosophy. Having, after this applied himself to the
study of divinity, he made it his endeavor to acquire a
thorough knowledge of both Greek and Hebrew. About
this time, some of the writings of Erasmus came abroad,
and Bucer read them with avidity. Soon after, he got
possession of several tracts of Luther's, and, comparing
the tenets of that reformer with the Scriptures, to which
the latter appealed, he began to entertain doubts concern-
ing several points of the religion in which he had been
educated. His uncommon learning, and his eloquence,
the latter of which was assisted by a strong and musical
voice, together with his free censure of the vices of the
times, recommended him to Frederic, the elector palatine,
who made him one of his chaplains. In 1521, he passed
some time with Luther, at Hiedelberg, and discussed many
points of doctrine with the great champion of the Refor-
mation ; the result of which was, his adopting most of his
religious opinions, particularly his doctrine of justification
by faith, and not by works. This change in his doctrinal
sentiments naturally enlisted him on the side of the le-
former, and he proved an efficient coadjutor to him. Some
time after this, falling in with the writings of Zuinglius,
who difliered from Luther on some points of ndnor impor-
BUG
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BUG
lance, paiUculaily with regard to the eucharist, Bucer,
after mature consideration, was induced to give the prefe-
rence to the sentiments of Zuinghus, and sided with him ;
though he used his utmost endeavors to unite the two par-
lies, both of whom opposed the popish religion.
Bucer is regarded as one of the first authors of the Re-
formation, at Strasburg. where he taught theology for
twenty years, being one of the ministers of the town. He
assisted at most of the conferences that were held between
the Catholics and the Reformed ; and, in 1548, was sent
fi;r to Augsburg, to sign that agreement between the two
parties which was called the Interim. It did not, however,
meet his approbation, and his warm opposition to it expos-
ed him to many difficulties and hardships, the news of
which reaching England, where his character stood high,
Cranmer, then archbishopof Canterbury, invited him over,
which he readily accepted.
In 154y, a handsome apartment was assigned him in the
university of Carnbridge, and a salary appointed him as a
teacher of theologj'. King Edward the Sixth entertained
the highest respect for him ; and, on being told that he
suffered much from the cold of the climate, sent him
a hundred crowns to purchase a German stove. He,
nevertheless, survived only two years ; for in 1551, he
died of a complication of disorders, and was buried at
Cambridge with great funeral pomp. Five years after, in
the reign of queen Mary, his body was dug up, and pub-
licly burned, and his tomb demolished ; but it was after-
wards set up again, by order of queen Elizabeth. His
character is thus given by bishop Burnet : " Martin Bucer
was a very learned, judicious, pious, and moderate person.
He was, probably, inferior to none of the reformers in
point of learning ; but for zeal, for true piety, and a most
lender care for preserving unity among the foreign church-
es, Melanclhon and he, without disparaging the rest, may
be ranked apart by themselves. He was much opposed
by the popish party at Cambridge ; who, though they com-
plied with the law, and so kept their places, yet, either in
the way of argument, or, as if it had been for dispute sake,
set themselves much to disparage him. Nor was he fur-
nished, naturally, with the quickness that is necessary for
a disputant, from which they studied to draw advantages ;
and, therefore, Peter Martyr advised him to avoid all pub-
lic disputations." His writings were partly in Latin, and
partly in German, and exceedingly numerous. — Jones's
Chml. Biog.
BUCHANAN, (George,) one of the boasts of Scottish
literature, was born, in I50ti, at Killairn, in Dumbarton-
shire, and, after having pursued his studies at Paris and
St. Andrew's, and served for a while in the army, he was
appointed tutor to the earl of Cassilis. with whom he re-
mained in France during five years. Returning from Pa-
ris with the earl, he was made tutor to the natural son of
James V. Two satires which he wrote on the monks sckiu
drew down their vengeance upon him, and he was impri-
soned, but was fortunate enough to escape. Once more
visiting the continent, he successively taught at Paris, at
Bordeaux, and at Coimbra, at which latter city the freedom
of his opinions again caused his imprisonment. He next
spent four years at Paris, as tutor to the marshal de Bris-
sac's son. During this continental residence, he composed
his Baptistes and Jepthes, translated the Medea and Alces-
tes of Euripides, and began his Latin version of the
Psalms. In 1560, he returned to his native land and em-
braced Protestantism. Yet he had the favor of the court,
obtained a pension from Mary, was made principal of St.
Leonard's college, at St. Andrews, and was chosen as pre-
ceptor to James VI. When subsequently reproached with
having made his royal pupil a pedant, Buchanan is said
to have replied, that "it was the best he could make of
him." Buchanan died poor, in 1582. As an historian, he
is elegant and vigorous, but partial and deficient in judg-
ment ; as a man, he was unamiable ; as a politician, he
was too unscrupulous and violent ; as a Latin poet, he
ranks among the highest of the modern, especially for his
version of the Psalms. — Davenport.
BUCHANAN, (CLArnius,) vice-provost of the college
of Fort William, in Bengal, was born at Cambuslang, near
Glasgow, on March the 12th, 176i5. His fathj^r, Mr. Alex-
ander Buchanan, was a man of respectable learning, and
of excellent character, and was highly esteemed in various
parts of Scotland, as a laboriotis and faithful teacher. His
mother, the daughter of BIr. Claudius Somers, was a wo-
man of great piety and superior understanding. By his
parents, Buchanan was early trained in religious priiciples
and habits ; and the future usefulness of this very excel
lent man may probably, in some degree, be traced to his
early impressions. At the age of seven, Buchanan was
sent to the grammar school of Inverary, in Argyleshire,
of which his father was master ; and under his tuition the
son made considerable progress in the knowledge of the
Greek and Latin tongues. Until the age of thirteen, he
continued at Inverary, and in the following year was
appointed tutor to the two sons of Mr. Campbell of Dun-
stanage. For two years he continued in that situation,
and evinced much knowledge and information, and a ca-
pacity to teach, which in one so young could scarcely be
expected. At this time he w-as under considerable im-
pressions of a religious nature, and frequentlj' spent an
hour in devotion amidst the rocks on the sea-shore : but
his serious thoughts were dissipated by gay society. In
1787, he went to London. He here attended on the minis-
try of the pious Mr. Newton, to whom he applied by letter
for advice ; and, by desire of Mr. Newton, had an inter-
view with him. In him he found an enhghtened and ex-
perienced guide, a wise and faithful counsellor, and a
steady and affectionate friend. Blr. Buchanan, after his
conversion, felt a strong desire to become a minister of the
gospel, and communicated his wish to Blr. Newton. That
desire the good man cherished, introduced him to a phi-
lanthropic individual, (Mr. Thornton,) and by his advice
and prayers assisted in fitting him for his future duties
and trials. BIr. Thornton determined on sending him, at
his expense, to the university of Cambridge ; and in Sli-
chaelmas term, 1791, he was admitted a member of
Queen's college. Mr. Buchanan took his degree of ba-
chelor of arts before he left college, and received the una-
nimous approbation of the professors. On the 20th of
September, 1795, he was ordained a deacon at Fulham, by
the late bishop Porteus ; and in Blarch, 1796, was appoint-
ed a chaplain in the East India Company's service.
British India is under great obligations to Mr. Buchanan,
for various and important services rendered by him ; hut,
for his zeal, and energ)', and perseverance, which, in spite
of opposition, he continued to manifest for the translation
of the Holy Scriptures into the vernacular tongues of In-
dia, the obligations are incalculable. Bigotry, short-sight-
ed and interested, opposed this effort of Christian apostolic
zeal; but that opposition waseventually compelled to cede
to the force of truth ; and in the year 1804, the first ver
sion of any of the gospels in Persian and Hindostanee,
which w ere printed in India, i.^sued from the press of the
college of Fort William, of which, in 1801, he had been
appointed vice-provost and protessor of classics, by the
marquis of Wellesley. He was also much engaged, at
this time, in the institution of a civil fund for widows and
orphans. Blr. Buchanan now wrote his celebrated " Me-
moir of the Expeiliency of an Ecclesiastical Establish-
ment fiir British India," which was extensively read, and
generally approved. Early in the year 1806, Mr. Bucha-
nan drew up proposals for a subscription for translating
the Holy Scriptures into fifteen oriental languages : and,
in consequence of his exertions in their distribution, the
college of Fort William, the British and Foreign Bible
Society, and the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and
Glasgow, supported or contnbuted to the cause. In the
BUC
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monlh of l\Iay in this year, Mr. Buchanan departed from
Calcutta on a' journey to the coast of Malabar. He visit-
ed Jellasore, Cuttack, Juggernaut, Visagapatam, Madras,
Pondicherry, Tranquebar, Tanjore, Madura, Ceylon, Tra-
vancore, the Syrian churches of Malayala, Cochin ; and
returned from thence by sea, in Blarch, 1807, to Calcutta.
The knowledge which he attained by that journey was
immense, and was only equalled by the fatigues he en-
dured, the privations to which he submitted, and the scenes
of superstition and ignorant idolatry which he witnessed.
The journey was one of more than five thousand miles.
Lord Minto was now appointed to the government of India.
Mr. Buchanan thought that some of the .measures he had
taken were unfavorable to religion, and therefore, in No-
vember, 1807, presented his celebrated " Memorial," com-
plaining, 1st, Of the withdrawing the patronage of go-
vernment from translations of the Holy Scriptures. 2fl,
Of the suppression of such translations. 3d, Of improper
conduct to the venerable missionary Swartz. And 4th,
Of restraining the Protestant missionaries from the exer-
cise of ihoiti functions, and establishing an imprimatur for
theological works. To this memorial the Bengal govern-
ment did not attend; and he therefore transmitted a copy
to the East India directors, in England. Buchanan now
determined on again visiting the coast of Malabar, and
proceeding to Europe ; he then preached an affecting and
important farewell sermon, and on the 27th of November,
1807. sailed from Calcutta, and visited Ceylon, Cochin,
TeUicherry, Goa, and Bombay. At the latter of these
places, he promoted, by his exertions and pecuniary as-
sistance, the publication of the gospels into the Malayaline
language ; and, on the 14th of March, 1808, he sailed from
Point de Galle to England. In the month of August, 1808,
he arrived in England, and visited Scotland and Bristol ;
and, at the latter place, on February 2t5th, 1809, he preach-
ed his celebrated sermon for the Church of England Mis-
sionary Society, entitled "The Star in the East." He af-
terwards visited Oxford and Cambridge ; presented orien-
tal manuscripts to the latter university, and received, from
that tmiversity, the degree of doctor in divinity. For some
tiine he was then engaged to preach at Welheck chapel,
London, where he labored with great advantage ; and in
November, 1800, was married to the daughter of Henry
Thom.pson, Esq. of Kirby Hall, Yorkshire. He afterwards
retired to that county ; undertook the charge of the parish
of Ouseburn ; and labored, in season, and out of season,
for the salvation of his parishioners. On the 12th of June,
he preached the annual sermon before tlie Church Mis-
sionary Society. On the 1st of July, he preached two
commencement sermons before the university of Caiu-
bridge, for which he received the thanks of many eminent
men, and prepared them, at the request of the university,
for publication. Those sermons were published with his
celebrated " Christian Researches in Asia." Of the latter
work, no praise can be excessive. In 1811, Buchanan was
again greatly indisposed by a paralytic attack. He pro-
posed, however, to visit Palestine, and announced his de-
termination. In the month of May he visited Buxton,
and preached a sermon, which he afterwards published, on
" The Healing Waters of Bethesda." In the autumn, he
again visited Scotland, and returned through Ireland ; but,
on his journey, he once more experienced a severe para-
lytic afl'ection. Notwithstanding the shock, his mind was
Dnin;v.red ; and he published, in the Christian Observer,
it. 1S12, " A Defence of the Syrian Christians from the
Charges of some Danish JMissionaries in India ;" and con-
tinued his ex'ertions, to supply the Syrian Christians with
a translation of the Scriptures. In 1812, he once more di-
rected his attention to the organization of a more exten-
sive ecclesiastical establishment for British India. The
lime approached for the renewal of the charter of the East
India Company ; and the friends of religion, in England,
availed themselves of it, fprthe purpose of obtaining from
the company the recognition of more liberal principles ;
ind Buchanan prepared, for the consideration of the Eng-
hsh government, a sketch of an ecclesiastical establish-
ment for Briti.sh India. During the concluding period of
the life of Dr. Buchanan, he was actively engaged in the
proceedings in parliament, on the subject of promoting
Christianity in India. He pulJished a work, entitled
'•Colonial Ecclesiastical Est'ablishuiont ;" and another,
" Apology for promoting Christianity in India." The re-
sult of his efforts was highly serviceable to the cause of
Christianity in India; and the house. of commons deter-
mined to adopt a line of proceeding, which all wise and
good men desired. He finally settled at Broxbourne, in
Hertfordshire, for the purpose of superintending a nev/
edition of the Syriac New Testament. The health of Dr.
Buchanan now gradually declined ; yet he continued his
exertions for the cause of God and truth, till, on February
the 9lh, 1815, after a paralytic seizure, and an illness of a,
few days, his labors terminated in death. He was inter-
red at Little Ouseburn, in Yorkshire ; and over his tomb
was placed a plain but expressive monumental inscription.
See his Life, written by the Ftev. Hugh Pearson, M. A.
of St. John's college, Oxford, — Jones' Christ. Biog.
BUCHANITES ; a sect of enthusiasts who sprang up
at Irvine, in the west of Scotland, about the year 1783.
Mr. White, the minister of a relief congregation in that
Xown, having been invited to preach in the neighborhood
of Glasgow, a female named Elizabeth Buchan, the wife
of a painter, was captivated with his eloquence, and, wri-
ting to him, announced that he was the first that had spo-
ken to her heart, and requested permission to {lay him
a visit at Irvine, that the work of her conversion might be
perfected. On her arrival, she was joyfully received
by the members of the congregation ; engaged without
intennission in religious exercises ; went from house to
house ; conducted family worship ; answered questions,
resolved doubts, explained the Scriptures, and testified that
tlie end of the v orld was at hand, and that it was the duty
of every Christian to abandon the concerns of time, and
prepare for tho reception of Christ. Mr. White, favoring
her and her vieire, was complained of to the presbytery,
by which he was deposed from his ministry. Thus a dis-
tinct parly was formed, the meetings of which were '
commonly held at night, and on these occasions the new
prophetess indulged in her reveries, styling herself the
woman of the twelfth of Revelations, and Mr. White her
first-born. Such gross outrage on the common sense of
the inhabitants occasioned a popular tiim.ult, to save her
from whose fury the magistrate sent her under escort to
some distance : after which, with her clerical friend and
about forty deluded followers, she wandered up and down
the country, singing, and avowing that they were travellers
for the New Jerusalem, and the expectants of the imme-
diate coming of Chiist. They had a cominon fund on
which they lived, and did not consider it necessary to work,
as they believed God would not suffer them to want. Mrs.
Buchan died in 1792, and the sect soon after broke up. —
Henderson's Buck.
BUCKMINSTER, (Joseph, D. D.,) minister of Ports-
mouth, New Hampshire, was born October 14, 1751, Be-
ing the delight and hope of his parents, they were desirous
that he should become a minister of the gospel. He was
graduated at Yale college in 1770, and from 1774 to 1778,
was tutor in that seminary. At this period he became
temporarily attached '.o a lady, then of reputation and
celebrity, whose character is the basis of one of the produc-
tions of Mrs. Foster. He was ordained over the north
church in Portsmouth, January 27, 1779, as successor of
Dr. Langdon, after whose death Dr. Stiles had supplied
the pulpit one or two years. After a ministry of thirty-
three years, he died, June 10, 1812.
Dr. Buekminster was an eminently pious man. He left
an unsullied reputation, and was greatly beloved and
deeply lamented. His mind had been well cultivated. A
brilliant imagination, his most distinguishing faculty, gave
a richness to his styde. He had a heart of sensibility.
His voice, strong and musical, expressed the various emo-
tions of his soul. His attitude and gestures were unaf-
fected and impressive, while his countenance itself was
eloiuent. But his popularity as a preacher is to be as-
cribed also to the boldness and the energy, with which he
proclaimed the great and all-important truths of the gos-
pel. In his preaching, he dwelt much on the iniquity of
the human heart, on ;he character and value of the atone-
ment by the crucified Son of God, and on the necessity of
regeneration by the Holy Spirit, of faith and repentance,
and the holiness, without which there is no admission into
BU C
[ 279 ]
BUD
heaven. lu his own opinion, he began to preach before
he was truly a servant of God ; and afterwards he ceased
to preach for a time, in the persuasion that his motives
were selfish and unworthy. But after a long period of
distress, light broke in upon his mind. A few years after
his settlement, on the anniversary of his ordination, he
wrote as follows : — " Blush, 0 my soul, and be ashamed,
that thou hast felt no more of thy own worth, and the
worth of thy fellow immortals, the infinite love and com-
passion of God, of thy dear Redeemer, and the excellency
of the gospel. Shall God call me, who have been so great
and aggravated an oflfender, to the higli and honorable
office of publishing the glad tidings of salvation, and of
an ambassador for him, to woo and beseech men to be re-
conciled to him ; and sliall I be lukewarm and indifferent ?"
But notwithstaading the talents, the piety, the faithfulness,
and the fervent zeal of Dr. Buekminster, no very remark-
ab.i effects attended Ids preaching ; showing, that, after
all the skilfttl and diligent toil of the planter, it is God
only, who according to his sovereign pleasure givcth the
increase. On account of his catholic disposition, Dr. Buck-
minster possessed the regard of other denominations of
Christians besides his own. In the private relations of life,
he was faithful, affectionate, and interesting. — Panojilist,
viii. 105 — 111 ; AdoTiis's Ann. of Portsm. 353 — 355; Par-
Icer's Fun. Scrm. ; Farmer's Coll. iii. 121 ; Allen.
BXJCOIINSTER, (Joseph S.,) a celebrated minister of
Boston, was the son of the preceding, and was born May
26, 1784. Under the cultivation of his devoted parents,
his talents were early developed. At the age of four years,
he began to study the Latin grammar ; at the age of
twelve, he was ready for admission into college. He gra-
duated at Harvard with distinguished honor in 1800. The
next four years were spent partly in the family of his re-
lative, Theodore Lyman, of Waltham, partly as an assis-
tant in the academy at Exeter, and in the prosecution of
theological studies. In October, 1804, he began to preach
at Brattle street, Boston, where he was ordained as the
successor of Dr. Thacher, January 30, 1805. A severe ill-
ness immediately followed, which interrupted his labors un-
til March. In the course of this year, the return of the epi-
lep.sy, which he had previously experienced, excited his ap-
prehensions, that" his mental faculties would be destroyed.
He wrote in October — " The repetition of these fits must at
length reduce me to idiocy. Can I resign myself to the
loss of memory, and of that knowledge, I may have vain-
ly prided myself upon? OGod! enable me to bear this
thought." A voyage to Europe being recommended, he
sailed in JIay. 1S06, and visited England, Holland, Swit-
zerland, and France. In Paris he spent five months ; and
there, and in London, he collected a valuable library of
nearly three thousand volumes. After his return in Sep-
tember, 1807, he was occupied in the ministry about five
years, with occasional attacks of the epilepsy, till his death,
caused by that disorder, June 9, 1812, aged twenty-eight
years.
Mr. Buclnninster was a veiy interesting and eloquent
preacher. Though of scarcely the middle size, yet a fine
countenance, combining sweetness and intelligence, ap-
propriate and occasionally animated gestures, a brilliant
imagination, and a style of winning elegance, caused his
hearers to hang with delight upon his lips. Deeply inte-
ic-sted in biblical criticism, he superintended the publica-
tion of Griesbach's New Testament, and in 1812 was ap-
pointed the first professor at Cambridge on the Dexter
foundation. In his religious sentiments, as appears from
the two volumes of his sermons, published since his death,
he differed in some important respects from his father.
His literary taste and associations appear to have unfor-
tunately beguiled his noble mind from the simplicity of
the gospel, and betrayed him into an indefinite and lax
theology. Deeply as this is to be regretted, and radically de-
fective as his sermons are in this respect, yet in others they
cannot be read without admiration and profit by the evan-
gehcal believer. His views seem not to have sunk to the
low standard of the Socinians, for he speaks of •' the
incarnation" of the Son of God, "the vicegerent of Jeho-
vah," and he saw in his life a " wonderful contrast of pow-
ers— divine greatness and mortal debility, ignominy and
glory, sulTering and triumph, the servant of all aiid the
Lord of all." — Memoir; Mass. Hist. Col. s. t. ii. 271,
Chrislinn Spectator, v. 145 ; Allen.
BUCKLER. See Arms, Military.
BUDHISM, or BooonisM. This religion is spread over
the Burman empire, Siam, Ceylon, Japan. Cochin China,
and the greater p:irt of China Proper. It has been con
tended, that it was also the ancient religion of Hindostan
itself, and that the prevailing brahminical superotitions
were the invention of later times. It is iu'lF.ert probaole,
that all the idolatrous systems of religion, which have
ever existed in the world, have had acommo.1 origin, and
have been modified by the different fancie'; and corrup-
tions of ditre;'ent nations. The essence of idolatrj' is eve-
ly where the same. It is every wheir, "abominable" in
its principles and its rites, and every where the cau.se of
indescribable and manifold wretch' dijcs.
It is asserted by Mr. Ward, thai tivo of the six schools
of philosophy which once flourishet) among the Hindoos,
taught the same atheistical piiurip'cs as the disciples of
Boodh now maintain ; and it it indisputable, that these
two sects were numerous belore the appearance of Boodh.
This personage is said, in tiurman books, to have been a
son of the king of Benaren, and to have been born about
the j-ear GOO before Christ. He is supposed to have adopt-
ed the atheistical system of these sects, and his principles
were espoused and maintained by the successive mo-
liarchs of his family, who are charged by the brahmins
wiih the crime of destroying their religion, and substitu-
ting atheism. At length, however, the brahmins obtained
the ascendenc)', and arming themselves with the civil
power, they so efl^ectually purified Hindostan from the of-
fensive heresy, that scarcely a vestige of the Boodhist su-
perstition is now to be traced in that country. It found a
refuge in Ceylon, and neighboring regions ; and the most
learned Burmans assert, that it was introduoed into that
empire, about four hundred and fifty years after the death
of Boodh, or (as he is more commonly called) Gaudama.
The Boodhists believe, that, like the Hindoo Vishnu,
Boodh has had ten incarnations, which are described in
the Jatus, amounting, it is said, to five hundred and fifty
books. The following summaiy statement of the princi-
ples of Boodhism is copied from the valuable work of
Mr. Ward on the History, Literature, and Religion of the
Hindoos :
" The Boodhists do not believe in a First Cause ; they
consider matter as eternal ; that every portion of ani-
mated existence has in itself its own rise, tendency and des-
tiny ; that the condition of creatures on earth is regula-
ted by works of merit and demerit : that works of merit
not only raise mdividuals to happiness, but as they pre-
vail, raise the world itseU" to prosperity ; while (in the
other hand, when vice is predominant, the world degene-
rates till the universe itself is dissolved. They suppose,
however, that there is always some snperior deity, who
has attained to this elevation by religious merit ; but they
do not regard him as the governor of the world. To the
present grand period, comprehending all the time in-
cluded in a kulpn, they assign five deities, four of whom
have already appeared, including Gaudama or Boodh,
whose exaltation continues five thousand years, two thou-
sand three hundred and fifty-six of which had expired
A.D. 1814. After the expiration of the five thousand years,
another saint will obtain the ascendency, and be deified.
Six hundred millions of saints are said to be canonized
with each deity, though it is admitted that Boodh took
only twenty-four thousand devotees to heaven with him.
" The lowest state of existence is in hell ; the next, is
that in the forms of brutes : both these are slates of pun-
ishment. The next ascent is to that of man, which is
probationary. The next includes maJiy degrees of honor
and happiness, up to demi-gods, ice. which are states of
reward for works of merit. The ascent to superior deity
is from the stale of man.
" The Boodhists are taught, that there are four superior
heavens, which are not destroyed at the end of a kulpu :
that below these, there are twelve other heavens, followed
by six inferior heavens ; after which follows the earth,
then the world of snakes, and then thirty-two chief hells ;
to which are to be added, one hundred and tttenty liells
of milder torments.
BUD
[ 280 J
BUE
" The highest state of glory is absorption. The person
■who is unchangeable in his resolution, who has obtained
a knowledge of things past, present, and to come, through
one kulpu, who can make himself invisible, go where he
pleases, and who has attained to complete abstraction,
will enjoy absorption.
"The Hindoo idea of absorption is, that the soul is re-
ceived into the divine essence ; but as the Boodhists reject
the doctrine of a separate Supreme Spirit, it is difficult to
say what are their ideas of absorption. Dr. Buchanan
says, (A. Researches, vol. vi. p. 180,) Nigban ' implies,
(that is, among the Burmans,) exemption Irom all the
miseries incident to humanity, but by no means annihi-
lation.'
" Those who perform works of merit, are admitted to
the heavens of the different gods, or are made kings or
great men on earth ; and those who are wicked, are born
in the forms of diflerent animals, or consigned to different
hells. The happinessofthe.se heavens is wholly sensual.
" The Boodhists beheve, that at the end of a kulpu, the
universe is destroyed. To convey some idea of the extent
of this period, the illiterate Cingalese use this comparison ;
if a man were to ascend a mountain nine miles high, and
to renew these journeys once in every hvmdred years, till
the mountain were worn down by his feet to an atom, the
time required to do this, would be nothing to the fourth
part of a kulpu.
" Boodh. before his exaltation, taught his followers, that
after his ascent, the remains of his body, his doctrine, or
an assembly of his disciples, were to be held in equal re-
verence with himself. When a Cingalese, therefore, ap-
proaches an image of Boodh, he says, ' I take refuge in
Boodh ; I take refuge in his doctrine ; I take refuge in
his followers.'
" There are five commands delivered to the common
Boodhists : the first forbids the destruction of animal life ;
the second forbids theft ; the third, adultery; the fourth,
falsehood ; the fifth, the use of spirituous liquors. There
are other commands for the superior classes, or devotees,
which forbid dancing, .oongs, music, festivals, perfumes,
elegant dresses, elevated seats, &c. Among works of the
highest merit, one is the feeding of a hungry, infirm tiger
■with a person's own flesh.
" The temples erected in honor of Boodh, in the Burman
empire, are of various sizes and forms, as quadrangular,
pentagonal, hexagonal, heptagonal, or octagonal. Tho.se
of a round spiral form can be erected only by the king, or
Viy persons high in office. An elevated spot is preferred
for the erection of these edifices ; but where such an eleva-
tion cannot be found, the building is erected upon the se-
cond, third, fourth, fifth and sixth terrace.
" When the author asked a Boodhist, why, since the
object of their worship was neither creator nor preserver,
they honored him as God, he was answered, that it was an
act of homage to exalted merit.
" The priests worship at the temples daily, or ought to
do so. The worship consists in presenting flowers, in-
cense, rice, betel-nuts, Ace, repeating certain prayers.
'J'lie priest cleanses the temple, preserves the hghts, and
receives the offerings. A worshipper may present his own
offerings, if he is acquainted ■with the formulas. The five
commands are repeated by a priest twice a day to the peo-
ple, who stand up and repeat them after him.
" Boodh, as seen in many temples, appears seated upon
a throne placed on elephants, or encircled by a hydra, or
in the habit of a king, accompanied by his attendants. In
most of the modern images, however, he is represented in
a sitting posture, ■with his legs folded, his right hand rest-
ing upon his right thigh, and his left upon his lap: a yel-
low cloth is cast over his left shoulder, which envelopes
his right arm. His hair is generally in a curling state,
like that of an African ; his ears are long, as though dis-
tended by heavy ear-rings. The image is generally placed
in the centre of the temple, under a small arch prepared
for the purpose, or under a small porch of wood, neatly
gilded. Images of celestial attendants, male and female,
are frequently placed in front of the image.
" It appears evident from their writings, that the ancient
religion of the Burmans consisted principally in religious
austerities. When a person becomes initiated into the
priesthood, he immediately renounces the secular state,
lives on alms, and abstains from food after the sun has
passed the meridian. The ancient wTitings of the Bur-
mans mention an order of female priests ; but it is likely
that these were only female mendicants.
" Priests are forbidden to marry : they are to live by
mendicity ; are to possess only three garments, a begging
dish, a girdle, a razor, a needle, and a cloth to strain the
■water which they drink, that they may not devour insects.
" The priests reside in houses which are built and of-
fered to them as works of merit. There are numerous
colleges, which are built in the style of a palace, by per-
sons of wealth, and in which boys are taught.
" The priests are the school-masters, and teach gratui-
tously as a ■work of merit, the children being maintained
at home by their parents. If a priest finds a pupil to be
of quick parts, he persuades the parents to make him a
priest ; but if a boy wishes to embrace a secular life after
be has been some time in the college, he is at liberty to
do so.
" The Burman feasts are held at the full and change of
the moon. At these times, all public business is suspend-
ed ; the people pay their homage to Gaudama, at the tem-
ples, presenting to the image rice, fruits, flowers, candles,
&c. Aged people often fast during the whole day. Some
visit the colleges, and hear the priests read portions of the
Boodhist ■writings.
" According to the religion of Boodh, there are no dis-
tinctions of cast. The Burmans burn their dead with
many ceremonies, especially the bodies of the priests."
(Ward's View of the History, Literature and Eeligion of
the Hindoos, vol. ii. pp. 387—393.)
The religion of Boodh, then, is, in effect, atheism: and
the highest reward of piety, the object of earnest desire and
unwearied pursuit, is annihilation. How wretched a sys-
tem is this ; how devoid of adequate motives to virtue ; and
how vacant of consolation ! 0 how must every humane
heart, and much more every Christian, desire, that the
pure and glorious gospel may shed its light upon this gross
darkness, — Knowles's Memoir of Mrs. Judsmi.
BUDSO ; a form of idolatrous worship, introduced into
Japan, from China and Siam. Its author is supposed to
have been Budha, whom the Indian brahmins conceive to
be their god Vishnu, who, they say, made his ninth appear-
ance in the world, under the form of a man so named. —
Williams.
BUDN^ANS ; a sect in Poland, who disclaimed the
worship of Christ, and ran into many wild hypotheses.
Budnffius, the founder, was publicly excommunicated in
1584, with all his disciples ; but afterwards he was admit-
ted to the communion of the Socinians. — Henderson's Buck.
BUELL, (Sajiiuel, D. D.,) an eminent Presbyterian
minister on Long island, was bom at Coventry, in Con-
necticut, September 1, 1716. In the seventeenth year of
his age, it pleased his merciful Father in heaven to renew
his heart, and teach him those truths which are necessary
to salvation. He was graduated at Yale college in 1741.
While in this seminary, his application to his studies was
intense, and his proficiency was such as rewarded his
toils. It was here that he first became acquainted with
David Brainerd, ^vith whom he was very intimate till
death separated them. Their friendship was the union of
hearts, attached to the same Redeemer, having the same
exalted views, and animated by the same spirit.
It was his intention to spend a number of years with
Mr. Edwards, of Northampton, in theological studies ; but
the extensive revival of religion at this period rendering
the zealous preaching of the truth peculiariy important, he
immediately commenced those benevolent labors, which
occupied and delighted him through the remainder of his
life. After being licensed, he preached about two years iii
different parts of New England ; and such was the pathos
and energy of his manner, that almost every assembly
was melted into tears. In November, 1743, he was or-
dained as an itinerant preacher, in which capacity he was
indefatigable and very successful. He was the instrument
of doing much good, of impressing the thoughtless, of re-
forming the vicious, and of imparting to the selfish and
worldly the genuine principles of benevolence and godli-
ness. Carrying with him testimonials from respectable
BUG
[281 1
BUL
ministers, he was admitted into many pulpits, from which
other Itinerants were excluded. While he disapproved of
the imprudence of some in those days, when religious
truth was brought home remarkably to the heart, he no
less reprehended the unreasonable opposition of others to
the work of God. During this period, his health was much
irnpaired, and a severe fit of sickness brought him to the
very entrance of the grave ; but it pleased God, who holds
the lives of all in his hand, to restore his health and pro-
long his usefulness for many years.
He was led to East Hampton, on Long island, by a di-
rection of Providence in some respects extraordinary, and
was installed pastor of the church in that place, Sept. 19,
174(5. For a number of the first years of his ministry, he
seemed to labor without effect. His people paid but little
attention to the concerns of religion. But in 1764, he wit-
nessed an astonishing change. Almost every individual
in the town was deeply impressed, and the interests of
eternity received that attention, wdiich their transcendent
importance demands. He had the happiness at one time
of admitting into his clmrch ninety-nine persons, who, he
believed, had been renewed, and enlightened with correct
view's of the gospel, and inspired with benevolent princi-
ples of conduct. In the years 1785 and 1791, also, he was
favored, through the influence of the Holy Spirit on the
hearts of his hearers, with great success. Afler a life of
eminent usefulness he died, July 19, 1798, aged eighty-
one.
Dr. Buell presents a remarkable instance of disinterested
exertion for the good of others. He was an example of
all the Christian virtues. He was attached to literature
and science, and was the father and patron of Clinton
academy, in East Hampton. His house was the mansion of
hospitality. Possessing a large fund of instructive and en-
tertaining anecdote, his company was pleasing to persons of
every age. In no respect was he more distinguished, than
for a spirit of devotion. In his last hours, his mind was in
perfect peace. He had no desire to remain any longer ab-
sent from his Savior. He observed, as the hour of his de-
parture approached, that he felt all his earthly connections
to be dissolved. The world, into which he was just enter-
ing, absorbed all his thoughts ; so that he was unwilling to
suffer any interruption of his most cheering contempla-
tions from the last attention of his friends. While they
were endeavoring to prolong the dying flame, he would
put them aside with one hand, while the other was raised
towards heaven, where his eyes and soul were fixed. In
this happy state of mind he expiretl.
He published a narrative of the revival of religion
among his people in 1764, and fourteen occasional dis-
courses, which evince the vigor of his mind and the ardor
of his piety.— Co«. Euan. Mag. ii. 147—151, 179—182 ;
Daggett's Fun. Serm. ; Allen.
BtJFFIER, (Claude,) a Jesuit, Avas bom in Poland, of
French parents, in 1(561, and studied at the college of Rou-
en, where he afterwards held the situation of theological
professor. He died in 1737. Buffier was employed in
the Memoires de Trevoux, and likewise produced a great
number of theological, metaphysical, biographical, and
geographical works. Several of them were collected in a
folio volume, with the title of a Course of Sciences on new
and simple Principles. Though sometimes superficial, he
is, on the whole, an elegant and instructive writer.— 2)fl-
vcnport.
BUGENHAGIUS, (John.) one of the reformers of the
sixteenth century, distinguished not more for his talents
than for his meekness and humility, was born at Julia, iu
Pomerania, in 1485. His education was liberal, and his
proficiency so great that at the age of twenty he opened a
school at Treptow, which he taught with great reputation.
Here he received so much light from Erasmus' Lucubra-
tions, that he began to lecture publicly on the Scriptures.
He was soon called from his school to the church, and his
preaching was attended by multitudes of all r.anks. Prince
Bogislaus also employed him in writing a history of Pome-
rania. In 1520, Luther's book on the " Babylonish Cap-
tivity" was put into his hands. Having looked over a
few leaves, as he sat at dinner with his colleagues, he said,
" there never was a more pestilent heretic than the author
of that book." But a few days after, having read it with
36
great diligence and attention, his mind was changed, and
he made this recantation before them all : " What .shall I
say of Luther? All the world hatli been blind and in
Cimmerian darkness ; only this one man has found out
the truth." It was not long before most of his colleagues
were led to form a similar judgment. The new views of
Bugenhagius respecting the law anil gospel, justification
by faith, &c. being publicly preached with great success,
the Catholic bishop was enraged, and stirred up a persecu-
tion. Upon this, IJugenhagius went to Wittemburg, and
formed a personal acquaintance with Luther, in 1521.
Here he was soon chosen pastor of the church, in which
he labored with much inward happiness through many
changes of affairs for thirty years ; never leaving the, flock
over n-hich the Holy Ghost had made him overseer, neither be-
cause of the dangers of war or of pestilence ; preferring
the very homely fare among the people where God had
made him useful, to the proffered riches and preferment,
both of his own prince and of the king of Denmark. He
assisted Luther in his translation of the Bible. He also
assisted greatly in reforming the churches in Brunswick,
Hildesheim, and Denmark ; and finished his devoted and
useful life, by a peaceful death, April 20, 1558, in the
seventy-third year of his age. — MUldleton's Evan. Biog.
BUILD. Besides the proper and literal signification of
this word, it is used with reference to children and a nu-
merous posterity. Sarah desires Abraham to take Hagar
to wife, that by her she may be builded up, that is, have
children to uphold her family. Gen. 16: 2. The raidwives
who refused obedience to Pharaoh's orders, when he com-
manded them to put to death all the male children of the
Hebrews, were rewarded for it ; God built them houses,
that is, he gave them a numerous posterity. The prophet
Nathan tells David that God would build his house ; that
is, give him children and successors. 2 Sam. 7: 27. Mo-
ses, speaking of the formation of the first woman, says,
God built her with the rib of Adam. Gen. 2: 22. — Watson.
EUL ; the eighth month of the ecclesiastical year of the
Jews, and the second month of the civil year. It answers
to October, and consists of twenty-nine days. On the
sixth day of this month the Jews fasted, because on that
day Nebuchadnezzar put to death the children of Zedekiah
in the presence of their unha']ipy father, v.'hose eyes, after
they had been witnesses of this sad spectacle, he ordered
to be put out. 2 Kings 25: 7. We find the name of this
month mentioned in Scripture bat once. I Kings 6: 38. —
Watson.
BULKLEy, (Peter,) first minister of Concord, Massa-
chusetts, was born at Woodhill in Bedfordshire, England,
January 31, 1583. He was educate'd at St. John's, in
Cambridge, and was fellow of the college. He had a gen-
tleman's estate left him by his father. Dr. Edward Bulkley,
of Woodhill, whom he succeeded in the ministry, ior
twenty-one years he continued his faithful labors without
interruption ; but at length, being silenced for non-confor-
mity to some of the ceremonies of the English church, he
came to New England in 163^ that he might enjoy liberty
of conscience. After residing some time at Cambridge,
he began the settlement of Concord in 1636, with a num-
ber of planters who had accoiupanied him from England.
He formed, July 5, 1636, the twelfth church which had
been established in the colony, and in 1637 was constituted
its teacher, and .lohn Jones its pastor He died in this
town, March 9, 1659, aged seventy-six. His first wife was
a daughter of Thornas Allen, of Goldington ; his second,
a daughter of Sir Richard Chitwood. By these he had
fourteen children, three of whom were educated lor the
ministry. Edward, who succeeded him about 1659, died
at Chelmsford, January 2, 1696. and was buried at Con-
cord : his son Peter, a graduate of 1660, was agent in
England in 1676 ; was speaker of the house and assistant
from 1677 to 1684 ; and died. May 24, 1688.
Mr. Bulkley was remarkable for his benevolence. He
expentled a large estate by giving farms to his servants,
whom he employed in husbandry. It was his custom
when a servant had lived with him a ccrt.Tin number of
years, to dismiss him, giving him a piece of land for a
ifarm, and to take another in his place. He was familiar
and pleasant in his manners, though while subject to bodi-
ly pains he was somewhat irritable, and in preaching was
BUL
[ 282 ]
BUL
kC times considered as severe. So strict was his own vir-
tue, that he could not spare some follies, which were thought
loo inconsiderable to he noticed. In consequence of his
pressing importunately some charitable work, contrary to
the wishes of the ruliiig elder, an unhappy division was
produced in the church ; but it was healed by the advice
of a council, and the abdication of the elder. By means
of this troublesome affair, Mr. Bulkley said he knew more
of God, more of himself, and more of men. He was an
excellent scholar, and was distinguished for the holiness
of his life and his diligent attention to the duties of the
ministry. He gave a considerable part of his library to
Hai'vard college.
He published a work entitled, the Gospel Covenant, or
the Covenant of Grace opened, Sec. London, 1646, 4to. pp.
383. This book was so much esteemed, that it passed
through several editions. Mr. Bulkley also wrote Latin
jioetry, some specimens of which are preserved by Dr.
Mather in his history of New England. — Mather's Magn.
iii. 96, 98 ; Neal, i. 321 ; Non-confarm. Mentor, last ed. ii.
200 ; Holmes, i. 314 ; Coll. Hist Soc. x. 168 ; Ripley's Bed.
Sr.rm. ; Allen.
BULL ; the name applied to the males of all the species
of the ox. {Eos, Lat.) See Ox.
BULL, Papal ; a written letter despatched by order of
the pope, from the Roman chancery, and sealed with lead.
It is a kind of apostolical rescript, or edict, and is chiefly in
use in matters of justice or grace. If the former be the
intention of the bull, the lead is hung by a hempen cord ;
if the latter, by a silken thread. It is this pendant lead,
or seal, which is, properly speaking, the bull, and which
is impressed on one side with the heads of St. Peter and
St. Paul,'and on the other with the name of the pope, and
the year of his pontificate. The bull is written in an old
round Gothic letter, and is divided into five parts ; the nar-
rative of the fact ; the conception ; the clause ; the date ;
and the salutation, in which the pope styles himself Servus
nervorum, the servant of servants. These instruments, be-
sides the lead hanging to them, have a cross, with some
text of Scripture, or religious motto, about it. Thus, in
those of pope Lucius III., the deWce was, ^rfy«i>n yw.', Deus
Salutaris noster ; that of Urban III., Ad te, Dnmine, levnvi
animam meam ; and that of Alexander III., Vias tuns. Do-
mine, deinonstra mihi.
Bulls are granted for the consecration of bishops, the
promotion to benefices, the celebration of jubilees, fee.
Those brought into France are limited by the laws and
customs of the land ; nor are they admitted till they have
been examined, and found to contain nothing contrary to
the liberties of the Galilean church. After the death of a
pope, no bulls are despatched during the vacancy of the
see. Therefore, to prevent any abuses, as soon as the pope
is dead, the vice-chancellor of the Roman church takes the
seal oft' the bulls, and, in the presence of several persons,
orders the name of the deceased pontiff to he erased, and
covers the other side, on which are the faces of St. Peter
and St. Paul, with a linen cloth, sealing it with his own
seal. The word bull is derived from hullare, to seal letters :
or from bulla, a drop or bubble. Some derive it from the
Greek bonle, council: Pezron from the Celtic buil, bubble.
Bull in ccena Domlni is a particular bull, read every year
on the day of the Lord's supper, or Blaunday Thursday,
in the pope's presence ; containing excommunications and
anathemas against heretics, and all who disturb or oppose
the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the holy see. After the read-
ing of the bull, the pope throws a burning torch into the pub-
lic place to denote the thunder of this anathema. The coun-
cil of Tours, in 1510, declared the bull in cccna Domini void
in regard to France. — Hend. Buck.
BULL, (George ;) an eminent prelate and theologian,
horn at the city of Wells, in 1644, was educated at Tiverton
and Oxford, and was ordained at the age of twenty-one.
Having passed through the minor dignities of the church, he
was made bishop of St. David's, in 1705, and died in 1709.
His Hnrmonia Apostolica was published in 1669 ; his main
work. Defensio Fidei Nicens, appeared in 1685 ; and his
Judicium Ecclesia: Catholicum, in 1694. For the latter
production he received the thanks of Bossuet. and various
French divines. He likewise produced other pieces of
less note, and many sermons.
With the increase of his revenue, his charity and hospi-
tality increased even in greater proportion, so that they
frequently exceeded his means. The mean idea of ma-
king his fortune by church preferment never entered his
mind ; but, after securing a ver}' slender provision for his
family, for whom he esteemed God's blessing the best in-
heritance, he devoted the remainder to the relief of the ne-
cessitous poor, about sixty of whom, every Sunday, either
were supplied with meat or received money, at his charge.
Widows and orphans were much indebted to his liberality,
and he often lightened the sufferings of the prisoner by
his timely bounty. On perceiving his dissolution to be
approaching, and observing that his medical attendant
was reluctant to express his opinion of him, he thus ad-
dressed him : " Doctor, you need not be afraid to tell me
freely what 5'our opinion of me is ; for I thank my good
God that I am not afraid to die. It is what I have expected
long ago, and I hope I am not unprepared for it now."
He spent his last hours in exhorting all around him to de-
vote their lives to the service of God ; urging upon them
the importance of religion, and the vanity of all earthly
things. He was a profoundly learned and pious man, and
most exemplary in his conduct. In his opinions he was
rather inclined to Arminianism ; but he was accounted one
of the ablest advocates for the doctrine of the Trinity, of
the time in which he lived. — Davenport ; Jones's Christ.
Biog.
BULLINGER, (Henkt ;) one of the early reformers,
was born in the canton of Zurich, at Baumgarten, in 1504.
The works of Melancthon converted him to Protestantism,
and he became closely connected with Zuingle, to whom
he succeeded as pastor of Zurich. He was one of the au-
thors of the Helvetic confession, and assisted Calvin in
drawing up the formulary of 1549. BuUinger was a mo-
derate and conscientious man ; and it is much to his honor
that, on the ground of its being inconsistent with Chris-
tianity for any one to hire himself out to slaughter those
who had never injured him, he successfully opposed a
treaty for supplying France with a body of Swiss merce-
naries. He died in 1575. His printed works form ten
folio volumes. — Davenport ; Middleton.
BULRUSH ; gimah. Exodus 2: 3. ; Job 8: 11. ; Isaiah
18: 2. 35; 7. A plant gro-n-ing on the banks of the Nile,
and in marshy grounds. The stalk rises to the height of
six or seven cubits, besides two under water. The stalk
is triangular, and terminates in a crown of small filaments
resembling hair, which the ancients used to compare to a
thijisus. This reed, the Cyperus papyrus of Linnseus, com-
monly called " the Egyptian reed," was of the greatest
use to the inhabitants of the country where it grew ; the
pith contained in the stock served them for food, and the
woody part for building vessels, figures of which are to
be seen on the engraven stones and other monuments of
Egyptian antiquity. For this purpose they made it up,
like rushes, into bundles ; and, by tying these bundles to-
gether, gave their vessels the necessary shape and solidity.
" The vessels of bulrushes," or papyrus, " that are men-
tioned in sacred and profane history," says Dr. Shaw,
" were no other than large fabrics of the same kind with
that of Bloses, (Exodus 2: 3. ;) which, from the late intro-
duction of plank and stronger materials, arc now laid
aside." Thus Pliny takes notice of the " naves papyraceas
armamentaque NUi," "ships made of papyrus, and the
equipments of the Nile ;" and he observes, '^ ex ipsa qui-
dem papyro navigia texunt," •' of the papyrus itself they con-
struct sailing vessels." Herodotus and Diodorus have re-
corded the same fact ; and among the poets, Lucan, '•' Con-
seritur hibultt Memphitis cymba pap7jro," " the Memphian" or
Egyptian "boat is made of the thirsty papyrus ;" where
the epithet bibulCi, "drinking," " soaking," " thirsty," is
particularly remarkable, as corresponding with great ex-
actness to the nature of the plant, and to its Hebrew name
which signifies to soak or drink up. These vegetables re-
quire much water for their growth ; when, therefore, the
river on' whose banks they grew was reduced, they perish-
ed sooner than other plants. This explains Job 8: 11.
where the circumstance is referred to as an image of tran-
sient prosperity : " Can the flag grow without water ?
Whilst it is yet in its greenness, and not cut down, it with-
ereth before anv other herb." — Watson.
BUN
[ 283
BUR
BUNYAN, (John,) the author of the Pilgrim's Progress,
an admirable allegory, which enjoys an unexampled but
deserved popularity, was of humble birth, being the son
of a travelling tinker, and was bom, in 1628, at Elstow,
in Bedfordshire. For some time he followed his father's
occupation, and led a wandering, dissipated Life, after which
he served in the parliament army, and was at the siege of
Leicester, where, being drawn out to stand sentinel, an-
other soldier of his company desiring to take his place, he
consented, and thereby, probabl}', avoided being shot
through the head, by a musket ball, which killed his com-
rade. It is impossible, when reading the account of the
first twenty years of his life, as recorded in his " Grace
Abounding," not to be forcibly impressed with the truth
of the doctrine, now generally received by all Christians,
of the special Providence of God. His preservation from
drowning, from destruction by an adder, by a musket shot,
and from death by various ways, demonstrate that doc-
trine to be unquestionably true ; and the facts which he
has communicated, as to his conversion, additionally con-
firm the veracity of that doctrine. For although some al-
lowances are to be made for his enthusiasm, and, there-
fore, for the language which he frequently adopted, yet,
the facts which he records are unquestionably true ; and,
if they be true, the inference appears to be obvious.
It appears, however, that he still continued unacquaint-
ed with the sinfulness of his nature, and the necessity of
faith in Christ, till he met with four poor women, at Bed-
ford, " sitting at a door, in the sun, talking about the things
of God — about a new birth — about the work of God in
their hearts, as also how they were convinced of their
miserable state by nature — of the mercy of God in Jesus
Christ — of his word and promises — of the temptations of
Satan — and of their wretchedness of heart and unbelief.''
Bunyan was so affected with the conversation of these good
women, that he availed himself of every opportunity to
converse with them. His irreligious companions perceiv-
ed a difference in him, which was to them offensive ; and
being unable to disturb in him that steady purpose of his
mind, to seek for happiness in God alone, they resigned
his society. As soon as Mr. Bunyan obtained a good
hope, that he was interested in the salvation of Jesus
Christ, he communicated the state of his mind to Mr. Gif-
ford, a Baptist dissenting minister, residing at Bedford ;
attended his preaching, and obtained from it much advan-
tage ; and, believing that baptism, by immersion, on a
personal profession of faith, was most scriptural, he was
so baptized, and admitted a member of the church, A. D.
1653.
In 1656, Mr. Bunyan, conceiving that he was called, by
God, to become a preacher of the Gospel, delayed not to
comply with that call. The measure excited considerable
notice, and exposed him to great persecution. Subsequent
to the restoration, his preaching brought him within the
gripe of the law, and he was for nearly thirteen years im-
mured in Bedford jail, where he supported himself and his
family by tagging laces. His leisure hours were spent in
writing the Pilgrim's Progress, and other works, similar
in kind, but inferior in merit. He was at last released,
through the interposition of Dr. Owen and bishop Barlow,
of Lincoln, and he resumed his ministry at Bedford. Af-
ter his enlargement, he travelled into several parts of
England, to %'i.sit the dissenting congregations, which pro-
cured him the epithet of bishop Bunyan. In king James
the Second's reign, when that prince's declaration, in favor
of liberty of conscience came, Mr. Bunyan, by the volun-
tary contributions of his followers, built a large meetip^
house at Bedford, and preached constantly to great coi.
gregations. He also, annually, visited London, where he
was very popular ; and assemblies of twelve hundred have
been convened in Southwark to hear him, on a dark win-
ter's morning, at seven o'clock, even on week days. In
the midst of these and similar exertions, he closed his life ;
and, at the age of sixty, on the 31st of August, 1688, '• he
resigned his soul into the hands of his most merciful Re-
deemer."
He was interred in Bunhill Fields burying-ground, and
over his remains a handsome tomb was erected. Of Bun-
yan it has been said, and with seeming propriety, " that
he appeared in countenance to be of a stern and rough
temper, but in his conversation mild and affable ; not giveu
to loquacity or much discourse in company, unless some
urgent occasion required it ; obseri'ing never to boast of
himself or his parts, but rather seem low in his own eyes,
and submit him.self to the judgment of others ; abhorring
lying and swearing ; being just, in all that lay in his pow-
er, to his word ; not seeming to revenge injuries ; loving
to reconcile differences, and making friendship with all.
He had a sharp quick eye, accompanied with an excellent
discerning of persons, being of good judgment and quick
wit."
Of the " Pilgrim's Progress," but one opinion seems to
be entertained. Mr. Grainger said, that the Pilgrim's
Progress was one of the most ingenious books in the Eng-
lish language ; and in this opinion, he states, Mr. Merrick
and Dr. Roberts coincided. Dr. Radchffe termed it " a
pha^nix in a cage." Lord Kaimes said, '• it was composed
in a style enlivened, like that of Homer, by a proper mix-
ture of the dramatic and narrative, and upon that account
has been translated into most European languages." Dr.
Johnson remarked, " that it had great merit, both for in-
vention, imagination, and the conduct of the story ; and it
had the best evidence of its merit — the general and con-
tinued approbation of mankind. Few hooks," he said,
" had had a more extensive sale j and that it was remar-
kable that it began very much like the poem of Dante, yet
there was no translation of Dante when Bunyan wTote."
Dr. Franklin said, "Honest John Bunyan is the first man
I Imow of, who has mingled narrative and dialogue to-
gether ; a mode of writing very engaging to the reader,
who, in the most interesting passages, finds himself ad-
mitted, as it were, into the company, and present at the
conversation." Dean Swift declared, that he " had been
better entertained and more informed by a chapter in the
Pilgrim's Progress, than by a long discourse upon the will
and the intellect, and simple or complex ideas." And
Cowqier, (in his '• Miscellanies," vol. i. p. 283.) has immor-
talized him in some beautiful lines, which the length of
this memoir precludes from being inserted. Still more re-
cently, it has been commended in the strongest terms by
the London Quarterly, Edinburg, and North American
Reviews ; and its author is classed with Milton, as one of
the only two great original creative geniuses of the seven-
teenth century.
In addition to his '■ Pilgrim's Progress," he wrote two
other allegorical pieces : " Solomon's Temple spiiitualized,"
and " The Holy War ;" the latter of which has excited a
degree of attention nearly equal to that displayed to his
" PilgTim's Progress."
His works form two folio volumes. Bunyan had a
talent for repartee. A quaker ■visited him in Bedford jail,
and declared that, by order of the Lord, he had sought for
him in half the piisons of England. " If the Lord had sent
you," replied Bunyan, " you need not have taken so much
trouble to find me out ; for the Lord knows that I have
been a prisoner in Bedford jail for the last twelve years."
See his own account of himself, entitled "' Grace Abound-
ing," &c. His works in folio, and Life prefixed ; " Wil-
son's History of Dissenting Churches ;" •' Middleton's
Evangelical Biography;" "The Life of Mr. John Bim-
yan, bv Joseph Ivimey." — Davenport; Jones' Christ. Biog.
BURCHET, (James Robert, Esq.,) of Doctors' Coin-
mons, London, was born 1765, and died 1810, aged forty-
five, after a life of Christian usefulness. In his last ill-
ness, he said to a friend, " You and I have spent many
happy hours together, and vou -will naturally be desirous
BUR
[ 284 ]
BUR
of knowing something of the state of my mind ; but such
is the weakness of my body that I shall not be able to say
much. I now feel that if the anportmit concerm of teligion
had not bem attended to before, this is twt the time ; but blessed
be God, Jesus Christ has done all things well : his salvation is
complete ; and I desire to renounce all my own doings, and
to throw myself at his feet as a poor sinner, entirely de-
pending upon his atoning blood and righteousness for ac-
ceptance with God. You and I have been walking many
years together, and devising many plans for the glory of
God and the good of souls, and I hope yon will long be
spared as an instrument to promote his cause ; but 0, do
let me, as a dying man, recommend to you to look well to
dU your motives. I now see that the best of plans may be
formed, and the best works done, without the best motives.
You do not know a hundredth part of what has daily and
hourly passed in raymind. Ihave now such a sense of the infi-
nite holinessof God, that if it were not for thepromise of his word,
I sometimes think I should be ready to sink in despair. I trust
I can say I know in whom I have believed. My mind is
very comfortable, my faith is unshaken, the fear of death
is taken away. I long to depart and be with Christ. I
would not exchange, for ten thousand worlds, the glory I
have in prospect." — Ctissold.
BURCKHARDT (John Lewis,) the son of a Swiss
colonel, was born at Lausanne, in 1784, and studied at
Lcipsic and Gottingen. Being of an enterprising disposi-
tion, he offered his services to the African Association, to
explore Africa. They were accepted ■ and, after he had
acquired Arabic and a knowledge of physic and surgery
at Cambridge, he sailed in 1809. In Syria he remained
two years and a half, in the character of a mussulman,
and learned the spoken Arabic dialects. His first journey
included Nubia, the eastern coast of the Red sea, Mecca,
and Medina. He reached Cairo in 1815, and v^as preparing
to penetrate to Timbuctoo, when he died of a dysentery.
His valuable Travels have been published. — Davenport.
BURDEN ; a heavy load. The word is commonly used
in the prophets for a disastrous prophecy. The burden of
Babylon, the burden of Nineveh, of Moab, of Egypt.
The Jews asking Jeremiah captiously, "What was the
burden of the Lord? he answered them, You are that
burden ; you are, as it were, insupportable to the Lord ; he
will throw you on the ground, and break you to pieces, and
you shall become the reproach of the people, Jer. 23 :
33 — 10. The burden of the desert of the sea, (Isa. 21 : 1.)
is a calamitous prophecy against Babylon, which stood on
the Euphrates, and was watered as by a sea ; and which,
from being great and populous, as it then was, would soon
be reduced to a solitude. See Babvlon. — Calmct.
BURGH (James,) the author of the Dignity of Human
Nature ; Political Disquisitions ; and other works of merit ;
was born, in 1714, at Madderty, in Perthshire, and was
educated at St. Andrew's. After having been a linen
draper, an assistant at a grammar school, and a corrector
in Bowyer's printing office, he opened an academy at
Stoke Newington, which he conducted for nineteen years.
He died in 1775. — Davenport.
BURGHERS, a numerous and respectable class of
seceders from the church of Scotland, originally con-
nected with the Associate Presbytery ; but some difference
arising about the lawfulness of the burgess oath, a sepa-
ration took place in 1739, and those who refused the oath
were called Anti-burghers (which see) ; but as these sects
have been lately happily reunited, it is not now necessary
to enter into the merits of the dispute. See Seceders. —
BURGESS (Daniel,) an able but eccentric dissenting
divine, was born, in 1615, at Staines, in Middlesex; was
educated at Westminster and Oxford ; resided in Ireland,
from 1667 -to 1674, as chaplain and school-master; was
imprisoned, under the act of uniformity, after his return
to England; became an exceedingly popular minister, for
many years, in London ; and died in 1713. His piety and
learning were alloyed by too much of humor and drollery.
In one sermon, he declared, that the reason why the descen-
dants of Jacob were named Israelites was, that God would
not have his chosen people called /rtcoi//fS. In another, he
exclaimed, "If you want a cheap suit, you will go to
Monmouth street ; if a suit for life, you mil go to the
court of chancery ; but for an eternally durable suit, you
must go to the Lord Jesus, and put on his robe of righteous-
ness."— Davenport. ■*
BURIAL, the interment of a deceased person ; an
office held so sacred, that they who neglected it have in
all nations been held in abhorrence. As soon as the last
breath had fled, the nearest relation, or the dearest friend,
gave the lifeless body the parting kiss, the last farewell
and sign of affection to the departed relative. This was
a custom of immemorial antiquity ; for the patriarch Jacob
had no sooner yielded up his spirit, than his beloved
Joseph, claiming for once the right of the first-born, "fell
upon his face and kissed him." It is probable he first
closed his eyes, as God had promised he should do :
" Joseph shall put his hands upon thine eyes." The parting
Iriss being given, the company rent their clothes, which
was a custom of great antiquity, and the highest expression
of grief in the primitive ages. This ceremony was never
omitted by the Hebrews when any mournful event hap-
pened, and was performed in the following manner : they
took a knife, and holding the blade downwards, gave the
upper garment a cut in the right side, and rent it an hand's
breadth. For very near relations, all the garments are
rent on the right side. After closing the eyes, the next
care was to bind up the face, which it was no more lawful
to behold. The next care of surviving friends was to
wash the body, probably, that the ointments and perfumes
with which it was to he wrapped up, might enter more
easily into the pores, when opened by warm water. This
ablution , which was always esteemed an act of great charity
and devotion, was performed by women. Thus the body
of Dorcas was washed, and laid in an upper room, till the
arrival of the apostle Peter, in the hope that his prayers
might restore her to life. After the body was washed, it
was shrouded, and swathed with a linen cloth, although,
in most places, they only put on a pair of drawers and
a white tunic ; and the head was bound about with
a napldn. Such were the napkin and grave-clothes in
which the Savior was buried.
2, The body was sometimes embalmed, which was
performed by the Egyptians after the following method :
the brain was removed with a bent iron, and the vacuity
filled up with medicaments ; the bowels were also drawn
out, and the trunk being stuffed with myrrh, cassia, and
other spices, except frankincense, W'hich were proper to
exsiccate the humors, it was pickled in nitre, in which it
lay for seventy days. After this period, it was wrapped in
bandages of fine linen and gums, to make it adhere ; and
was then delivered to the relations of the deceased entire ;
all its features, and the very hairs of the eyelids, being
preserved. In this manner were the kings of Judah
embalmed for many ages. But when the funeral obse-
quies w-ere not long delayed, they used another kind of
embalming. They wrapped up the body with sweet
spices and odors, mthout extracting the brain, or removing
tiie bowels. This is the w-ay in which it was proposed to
embalm the lifeless body of our Savior, which was pre-
vented by his resurrection. The meaner sort of people
seem to have been interred in their grave-clothes, without
a coffin. In this manner was the sacred body of our Lord
committed to the tomb. The body was sometimes placed
upon a bier, which bore some resemblance to a coffin or
bed, in order to be carried out to burial. Upon one of
these was carried forth the widow's son of Nain, whom
om' compassionate Lord raised to life, and restored to his
mother. We are informed in the history of the kings of
Judah, that, Asa being dead, they laid him in the bed, or
bier, which was filled with sweet odors. Josephus, the
Jewish historian, describing the funeral of Herod the
Great, says, his bed was adorned with precious stones ;
his body rested under a purple covering ; he had a diadem
and a crown of gold upon his head, a sceptre in his hand ;
and all his house followed the bed. The bier used by the
Turks at Aleppo is a kind of coffin, much in the form of
ours, only the lid rises with a ledge in the middle.
3. The Israelites committed the dead to their native
dust, and from the Egyptians, probably, borrowed the
practice of burning many spices at their funerals. " They
buried Asa in his own sepulchres, which he made for himself
in the city of David, and laid him in the bed which was filled
BUR
[ 285
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with sweet odors, and divers kinds of spices, prepared by
the apothecaries' art; and they made a very great bnrning
for him," 2 Chton. 16: 14. Thus the Old Testament his-
torian entirely justifies the account which the evangelist
gives, of the quantity of spices with which tlie sacred
body of Chiist was swathed. The Jews object to the
quantity u.sed on that occasion, as unnecessarily profuse,
and even incredible ; but it appears from their own writings,
that spices were used at such times in great abundance.
In the Talmud it is said, that no less than eighty pounds
of spices were consumed at the funeral of rabbi Gamaliel
the elder. And at the funeral of Herod, if we may believe
the account of their most celebratcdiistorlan, the procession
was followed by five hundred of his domestics carrying
spices. Why then should it be reckoned incredible, that
Kicodcmus brought of myn'h and aloes about a hundred
pounds' weight, to embahn tlie body of Jesus ?
4. The funeral procession was attended by professional
mourners, eminently skilled in the art of lamentation,
whom the friends and relations of the deceased hired, to
assist them in expressing their sorrovv'. They began
the ceremony with the stridulous voices of old women,
who strove, by their doleful modulations, to extort grief
from those that were present. The children in the streets
through which they passed, often suspended their sports,
to imitate the sounds, and joined with equal sincerity iir
the lamentations. " Bnt whereunto shall I liken this
generation ? It is like unto children sitting in the markets,
and calling unto their fellows, and saying, We have
mourned unto you, and ye have not lamented," Matt. 9:
17. Music was afterwards introduced to aid the voices of
the mourners : the trumpet was used at the funerals of the
great, and the small pipe or flute fur those of meaner
condirion. Hired mourners were in use among the
Greeks as early as the Trojan war, and probably in
ages long before ; for in Homer, a choir of mourners were
planted around the couch on which the body of Hector
was laid out, who sung his funeral dirge with many sighs
and tears : —
" A melancholy choir attend around.
With plaintive sighs and music's solemn sound ;
Alternately ihey sin?, alternate flow
The obedient tears, melodious in their woe." Pope.
In Egypt, the lower class of people call in women, who
play on the tabor ; and whose business it is, like the hired
mourners in other countries, to sing elegiac airs to the
sound of that instrument, which they accompany with the
most frightful distortions of their limbs. These women
attend the corpse to the grave, intermixed with the female
relations and- friends of the deceased, who commonly have
their hair in the utmost disorder ; their heads covered with
dust ; their faces daubed with indigo, or at least rubbed
with mud ; and howUng like maniacs. Such were the
minstrels whom our Lord found in the house of Jairus,
malcing so great a noise round the bed on which the dead
body of his daughter lay. The noise and tumult of these
retained mourners, and the other attendants, appear to have
begun immediately after the person expired. It is evident
that this sort of mourning and lamentation was a kind of
art among the Jews: "Wailing shall be in the streets;
and they shall call such as are skilful of lamentation to
wail," Amos 5: 16. Mourners are still hired at the obse-
quies of Hindoos and Blahometans, as in former times.
To the dreadful noise and tumult of the hired mourners,
the following passage of Jeremiah indisputably refers,
and shows the custom to be derived from a very remote
antiquity : '■ Call for the mourning women that they may
come ; and send for cunning women, that they may come,
and let them make haste, and take up a wailing for us,
that our eyes may run down with tears, and our eyelids
gush out with waters," Jer. 9: 17. ^he funeral processions
of the Jews in Barbary are conducted nearly in the same
manner as those in Syiia. The corpse is borne by four to
the place of burial : in the first rank march the priests,
next to them the kindred of the deceased; after whom
come those that are invited to the funeral; and all singing
in a sort of plaintive song, the forty-ninth Psalm. Hence
the prophet, (Amos S: 3,) warns his people that public
calamities were approaching, so numerous and severe, as
should iTiake them forget the usual rites of burial, and
even to sing one of the songs of Zion over the dust of a
departed relative. This appears to be confirmed by a
prediction in, the eighth chapter : " And the songs of the
temple shall be bowlings in that day, saith the Lord God ;
there shall be many dead bodies in every place ; they
shall cast them forth'with silence ;" they shall have none to
lament and bewail ; none to blow the funeral trump or
touch the pipe and tabor ; none to sing the plaintive dirge,
or express their hope of a blessed resurrection, in the
strains of inspiration. All shall be silent despair. See
Sepulchres. — Walsoji.
BURKE, (Edmund,) whose name fills so large a space
in the political and literary aimals of Great Britain,
was the son of an eminent attorney, and was bom at
Dublin, January 1, 1730. After having received his
early education from Abraham Shackleton, a quaker
school-master of Ballytore, he went to Trinity college,
Dublin, in 1746, where !ie remained three years, and pur-
sued an extensive course of study, on a plan of liis own.
In 1753, he entered as a law student at the Temple, but
applied himself almost wholly to literature ; his unremit-
ting attention to which at length injured his health. Du-
ring his illness, he became an inmate in the house of Dr.
Nugent, a physician, to w'nuse daughter he was afterwards
imited. This union he always desciibed as the chief
blessing of his life. His first acknowledged work, wliich
was of course published anonymously, was his Vindica-
tion of Natural Society ; an admirable imitation of lord
Bolingbroke's style and manner of reasoning wliich de-
ceived even some of the best judges. This was followed,
in the ensuing year, by his Essay on the Sublime and
Beautiful. It completely established his reputation as a
man of genius and a fine \mter, and brought liim ac-
quainted with some of the most eminent personages of the
age. His political career did not commence till 1761,
when lie accompanied the Irish secretary, William Gerard
Hamilton, to Ireland. Nor can he be said to have entered
fiiUy on that career till 1765, when he became the private
secretary and friend of the marquis of Rockingham, then
the first lord of the treasury, who brought him into parlia-
ment, as member for Wendover. Thenceforth he took a
prominent part in the debates of the liouso of commons.
In 1774, without any solicitation on his part, he was
elected for Bristol ; but this seat he lost at the next election,
in consequence of his having displayed too much liberali;y
of principle, with respect to the Catholics and to Ire' md.
He subsequently sat for Malton. In the mean v.'lule,
he gave to the public his Observations on Grenville's State
of the Nation ; a Short Account of a late short Adminis-
tration ; Thoughts on the Causes of the present Discon-
tents ; and his speeches on American Aflairs. To the
impolitic contest with America he made a strenu(,:is and
eloquent resistance as a senator. On the downf .1 of
lord North's ministry, Burke obtained the oljic.: of pay-
master-general, and a seat in the council ; and he availed
himself of this opportunity to carri' liis celebrated reform
biU. which he had previously brought forward in vain.
The expulsion of the coalition ministry, of course, deprived
him of his office. The prosecution of Mr. Hastings, and
the opposition to Mr. Pitt's regency bill, were among his
next and greatest parliamentary eflbrts. Though the
fonner of these has drawn down upon him much censure,
and even calumny, there can be no doubt that he imder
took it as a sacred and imperative duty. This is irrefra-
gablvproved by hi- recently puh!i-=hed letters to Dr. Law-
BUR
\ 286 ]
BUR
reuce. When the French revolution took place, he early
foresaw the result, and, in 1790, he produced hig celebrated
Reflections on that event. A breach between him and
Blr. Fox was also occasioned by their diSerence of opinion
on this important subject. In 1794, he retired from par-
liament, and a pension of one thousand two hundred
pounds a year was bestowed on him by the government.
From the lime when his Reflections were publislied, till
his decease, his literary hostility to the doctrines of revo-
Intionar)' France was continued with unabated vigor.
The last work which lie gave to the press was Two Letters
on a Regicide Peace : the concluding two were posthumous.
He died on the 8th of July, 1797. His compositions have
been collected in sixteen volumes octavo. In private life,
Burke was amiable and benevolent ; in public, indefatiga-
ble, ardent, and abhorrent of meanness and injustice. It
was this latter quaUty which rendered him a persevering
advocate of the Irish Catholics. As an orator, he ranks
among the first of modem times ; and as a writer, whether
we consider the splendor of his diction, the richness and
variety of his imager)', or the boundless stores of knowledge
which he displays, it must be acknowledged that there are
few who equal, and none who transcend him. Burke was a
sincere believer in Ciiristianity, and his noble mind was
moulded and elevated by its pure and generous sentiments.
Unlike some of his greatest contemporaries, he made nei-
ther the bottle nor the dice his household deities ; he had
no taste for pursuits that kill time rather than pass it ; "I
have no time," said lie, '■ to be idle." His fame is spot-
less. Although in the judgment of the world, he was the
greatest statesman and orator of his own and perhaps of
any age, his humility was even more rare and remarkable
than his genius. He decUned the honor of an interment
in the great national receptacle of illustrious men, West-
minster abbey, and even forbid it in his will ; assigning
as his reason, " I have had in my life but too much of
noise and compliment." To the approach of death he
submitted with a calm and Christian resignation, undis-
turbed by a murniur, hoping, as he said, to obtain the divine
mercy through the intercession of a blessed Redeemer,
whicli (in his own words) " he liad long sought with
unfeigned humiliation, and to which he looked with a
trembUng hope." The first clause in his will marks in a
manner equally striking his deliberate views and deepest
feelings on this great subject, and is a sort of testamentary
witness to the world of the truth and value of the Gospel
of Christ. " According to the ancient, good, and laudable
custom of which my heart and understanding recognise
the propriety, I bequeath my soul to God, hoping for his
mercy only through the merits of our Lord and Savior
Jesus Christ. My body I desire to be buried in the church
at Beaconsfield, near to the bodies of my dearest brother,
and my dearest son, in all humility praying that as we
have lived in perfect unity together, we may together
have a part in the resurrection of the just."
There never was a more beautiful alhance between
virtue and talents. All his conceptions were grand, all
his sentiments generous. The gi-eat leading trait of his
character, and that which gave it all its energy and its
color, was that strong hatred of vice which is no other than
the passionate love of virtue. It breathes in all his
WTitings ; it was the guide of all his actions. But even
tlie force of his eloquence was insufl5cient to transfuse it
into the weaker or perverted minds of his contemporaries.
Mr. Burke was too superior to the age in which he lived.
— Davenport ; Prior's Memoirs of Burke.
BURKITT, (William, M. A.) This exemplary divine,
and useful commentator, was born at Hitcham, in Suf-
folk, July 25, 1650. In childhood, he appeared endowed
with an excellent memory, which, by the grace of God and a
good education, became a sacred repository. Of his conver-
sion he thus speaks : " While I continued at school at Cam-
bridge, it pleased God to visit me with the small pox, but
very favorably, and, as I hope, in great mercy laying the
foundation of my spiritual hesJth in that sickness ; work-
ing, as I hope, a prevailing thorough change in the very
frame and disposition of my soul. May my soul and all
that is within me bless thy name, O Lord, that this sickness
should by the blessing of thy Holy Spirit, open my blind
eyes, which hath closed the eyes of so many in darkness
and death ! 0 happy sickness, that ends in the recovery
of the soul to God !"
From the college he came to Bilston Hall in Suffolk,
and was chaplain there. He entered upon the ministry
very early, after having been ordained by bishop Rey-
nolds, and not long after was settled in Milden in Suffolk,
where he remained twenty-one years, preaching evangeli-
cal tnith in a clear and lively manner. In 1692, he
removed to Dedham in Essex, which was blessed with his
labors about eleven years and a half. He died by a ma-
lignant fever at the age of fifty-three, deeply lamented
by all who knew him.
Mr. Burlutt was a devoted and successful minister.
He delighted in his JFaster's work. His preaching was
clear and easy to be understood. To matter me most edi-
fying and heavenly, was added the charm of a sweet and
musical voice, which made him a very acceptable preach-
er. His family religion was indeed such as became the
gospel. He was a great redeemer of time ; variety and
improvement were his chief diversions. Few have been
more dead to the world and its vanities. He expended
much of his living on poor students of divinity. In his
last sickness he was very happy. He blessed God espe-
cially that he had finished his Practical Exposition of the
New Testament, which he said, he had ushered into the
world with many, very many prayers. — Middleton.
BURLEIGH, (Mildred, Lady,) eldest daughter of Sir
Anthony Cooke, was born 1526, and died 1589. Dr. Wot-
ten, in his Reflections on ancient and modem Learning, as-
sures us that " no age was so productive of learned women
as the sixteenth century. The fair sex seemed to believe
that the Greek and Latin added to their charms ; and Plato
and Aristotle, untranslated, were frequent ornaments of
their closets." Probably this may be ascribed to the noble
art of printing, whicli had just then awakened the minds
of people, and furnished them with a vast variety of books
to improve their understanding. The utmost care was
taken of the education of lady MUdred by her excellent
father, and his pains were well repaid ; she being as emi-
nent for her great learning and good sense, as for her
piety and charity. She took great delight in reading the
works of the Greek fathers, Basil, Cyril, Chrysostom,
Gregorj", Nazianzen, and others, and even translated one
of the works of Chrysostom into English. And when
she presented the university library in Cambridge with
the great Bible in Hebrew and other languages, she sent
it with an epistle in Greek, written with her own hand.
In 1546, she was married to Sir WiUiam Cecil, after-
wards lord Burleigh, lord high-treasurer of England, and
privy counsellor to queen Elizabeth. Her union was
long and happy ; but all her children died young, except-
ing two daughters. Five days after the decease of this
exemplary woman, her husband wrote his Meditation on
the Death of his Lady ; in which his sorrow is blended with
grateful praises of her zeal for learning ; her benefactions
to Cambridge, &c. ; her widely extended benevolence ; and
the admirable secrecy, by which during her life-time they
were hidden even from him. — Betham.
BURNET, (Gilbert,) the celebrated bishop of Salisbu-
ry, was born at Edinburgh on the 18th of September,
1643. He received his early instmctions from his fp'her.
who was eminent for his zeal and piety, and under whose
guardianship he made so rapid an advancement in the
acquisition of knowledge, that at the age of ten years he
perfectly understood the Latin language. At this time,
his father sent him to the college of Aberdeen, where he
BUR
[ 287 ]
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acquired a thorough knowledge of the Greek language,
and went through the usual course of Aristotelian logic and
philosophy with great applause. At the early age of
fourteen, he took the degree of master of arts; and though
so young, applied himself to the study of civil law, though
he soon became weary of that study, and turned his mind
and exertions to divinity ; perused attentively and criti-
cally the Old and New Testaments ; read the most noted
controversial writers in divinity ; and to these studies ap-
plied fourteen hours during every day. In 1665. Mr. Bur-
nett was ordained priest, by the bishop of Edinburgh, and
presented by Sir Robert Fletcher, to the living of Saltoun ;
and, by his attention to the welfare of his tlock, soon
gained their affections and well wishes. He regularly
preached twice on every Sabbath day, and once in the
week : catechized three times a week ; and went round,
from house to house, instructing and exhorting the inha-
bitants. The sick he visited twice a day, and gave as
much from his income as remained beyond the sum ex-
pended in his bare subsistence. The same year in which
he was ordained, he was so disgusted with the conduct of
some of the Scotch bishops, who, as he said, were "remiss
in their functions, as some did not live within their diocese,
and those who did, took no care of them ; in fact, that
there was a levity and carnal way of living about them,
that verj' much scandalized him ;" that he drew up a me-
morial of the abuses of the Scotch bishops, which exposed
him to their spleen. In 1669, he was made professor of
divinity at Glasgow, which office he honorably filled.
He was unwearied in his attentions to the interests of his
pupils, and studied from four in the morning tUl ten, in
order that more time might be allotted to his charge. He
continued in his office for four years and a half, exposed,
through his liberal moderate principles, to the reproaches
and ill-will of the Episcopalian and Presbyterian parties.
In this year he published his modest and free Conference
between a Conformist and Non-conformist. In 1672, Bur-
net married lady Margaret Kennedy, (daughter of the
earl of CassiUs.) who was as distinguished for her piety
as for her extensive knowledge. Shortly after his mar-
riage, he published his " Vindication of the Authority,
Constitution, and Laws of the Church and State of Scot-
land ;" which was dedicated to the earl of Lauderdale.
This work gained b'm so much credit, and so greatly in-
creased his reputation, that he was requested to accept of
a bishopric, with a promise of the next vacant archbish-
opric ; but he refused them both. Burnet at that time
lost the favor of the court, owing to some misrepresenta-
tions of th^earl of Lauderdale. In 1675, he was appointed
preacher at tlie Rolls chapel ; and shortly after this, be-
came a useful and popular preacher at St. Cleinent's. At
this time, by the entreaties of Sir William Jones, he pub-
lished his "History of the Reformation of the Church of
England ;" which met with great success, and is allowed
by all to be the execution of a masculine pen, and to con-
tain a very comprehensive view of all the events of that
important period, from the reign of Henry the Eighth to
Elizabeth. On its completion he received the thanks of
both houses of parliament : hut in the following spring,
the court was so much displeased with him, for some of
his publications, that he w-as discharged from his lecture
at St. Clement's ; and on the death of Charles, he visited
Paris, and from thence he went to Italy, Switzerland, Ge-
neva, and Utrecht. On his arrival " at that place, he
was invited to the Hague, by the prince and princess of
Orange. The in\-itation he accepted, and took an active
part in the councils then carrj-ing on in relation to the
affairs of England ; and his instructions were of service
•) the prince. This so much disgusted the English court,
that a charge of high treason was alleged, and his person
was in danger ; but the States refused to deliver him up
to the malice of his enemies. At this period, Dr. Burnet
married Mrs. Mary Scott, a lady as famed for her private
virtues as for her noble birth.
In 1688, Dr. Burnet was advanced to the see of Salis-
burj' ; yet so disinterested was he, and so little did he
esteem worldly grandeur and honors, that he solicited for
it in favor of Dr. Lloyd, then bishop of St. Asaph. He
went down on his accession to his diocese, and discharged
the duties of that office with piety and zeal, and made it
a rule, every summer, to make a tour for six or seven
weeks, to go through the livings of his diocese, and to
watch their progress. During his residence at Salisbun,',
he constantly preached ever}' Thursday, and in the even-
ing he had a lecture in his own chapel, when he ex-
pounded some portion of Scripture. He also instituted a
little nursery for students in divinity, which he regularlv
attended to himself; and to the.>e students he allowed thirty
pounds a year. " He was a warm and constant enemy to
pluralities, where nou'residence was the cause of them." In
the j'car 1692, he published a treatise, entitled " The Pasto-
ral Care ;" in which the duties of a minister are scrupulous-
ly and with great propriety enforced. In 1698, bishop Bur-
net was deprived of his second wife ; but his large family,
united to the tenderness of their ages, inclined him to seek
for a prudent, confidential nurse, which he found in the
person of Mrs. Berldey, to whom he was united by mar-
riage in the following year : shortly after his marriage,
he became tutor lo the duke of Gloucester, to whose edu-
cation, morally and religiously, he paid the utmost atten-
tion. About this time he published his " Exposition of
the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England ;" and
was the first who projected the scheme for the augmenta-
tion of poor livings. Thus was the life of this excellent
prelate devoted to acts of charity and usefulness ; he was
learned, yet modest and unassuming; pious, yet cheerful;
and he proved religion not to he incompatible with a con-
sistent attention to the concerns of this life. He departed
this life on the 17th of March, 1714, at the venerable and
patriarchal age of seventy-four, and was interred in the
parish church of St. James, Clerkenwell. For further
account of this eminent scholar, Christian, and divine, see
Life of Burnet, by Thomas Burnet, Esq. ; Burnet's His-
ioTj of his Own Times ; Kennet's History of England. —
Jones\^ Chris. Biog.
BURNET, (Elisabeth,) eldest daughter of Sir Rich-
ard Blake, was born 1661, and died 1708. At eleven
5'ears of age, she began to have a true sense of reli-
gion, and read with great application the books which w ere
put into her hands ; but was not quite satisfied, aspiring
after more sublime notions than what she found in them.
On this account, more than ordinarj' care was taken in her
education to make her think less liighly of herself. At
seventeen, she was married to Robert Berkley, Esq. of
Worcester. With him she visited the continent, and re-
sided some time at the Hague ; but returned to England
about the time of the revolution in 16SS.
Her knowledge and virtues attracted many acquaint-
ance. Dr. Stillingfieet was her intimate friend, and used
to say that he knew not a more considerable woman in
England. Her husband dying in 1693. she applied her-
self wholly to devotion, reading, acts of charity, and ofh-
ces of friendship, especially to her late husband's Protest-
ant relations. She also took an active part in fotmding a
hospital for which JMr. Berkley had lel\ a valuable be-
quest. She also established many schools for the instruc-
tion of poor children, and employed her pen in useful
compositions.
In 1700, she w-as married to the celebrated bishop Bur-
net, and was a mother indeed to his family of children ;
of which her husband was so sensible that by his will,
then made, he left them entireh' under her care and au-
thority. Such was her benevolence that she was uneasy
at using even a fifth part of her income for herself. Her
death, like her life, was that of a calm and happy Cliris-
tian. — Betham.
BURNING BUSH, that in which the Lord appeared to
Moses at the foot of mount Horeb. Exod. 3: 2. Sach
was the splendor of the Divine Slajesty, that its efful-
gence dazzled his sight, and he was unable to behold it ;
and in token of his humility, submission and reverence,
" Moses hid his face." So did Elijah in after-times.
1 Kings 19: 12. Yea, the very angels cover their faces
in the presence of God. Isa.6:2. 'WTien the Hebrew-
lawgiver, just before his death, pronounced his blessing
upon the chosen tribes, he called to mind this remarkable
event, and supplicated in behalf of the posteritj- of Joseph,
" the good w-ill of him that dwelt in the bush,'' Deut. 33: 16.
These last words of Moses seem to indicate, that tliere
was, in this memorable transaction, something of an alle-
BUR
[ 288
BUT
gorical or mystical import, tliough tliere are diflerent
opinions as to tlie particular thing tliat it was designed to
shadow forth. Some have thought that Jehovah dwelling
in the bush, in a blaze of fire, and the former not being
consumed by it, might possibly be intended as an emblem
of the manifestation of God in the flesh ; that mystery of
godliness which was exhibited in the fulness of the times,
when " the Word, who was with God, and was God, and
by whom all things were created, was made flesh, and
tabernacled among men" — the brightness of the Father's
glory, and in whom all the fulness of the Godhead dwelt
bodily. IJohn 1: 1— 14. Col. 1: 15— 19 ; ch. 2: 9. And
that this was the truth, reality, and ultimate import of the
Shechinah, there can be no reasonable doubt. But others
consider that the particular thing intended to be taught the
Hebrews by this phenomenon, namely, the bush of thorns
or briars, burning yet not consumed, was to intimate to
tliem that God was present with them in their great afllic-
tion and tribulations, and, by his providence, so ordering
matters that their afflictions did not consume them ; agree-
ably to the words of the prophet : " In all their aSlictions
he 'wa.s afiiicted, and the angel of his presence saved
(hem." Isa. 63: 9. " This fire, also," says bishop Fa-
Mick, " might be intended to show that God would there
meet with the Israelites and give ihem his law in fire and
lightning, and yet not consiune them." — Joites.
BURINIT-OFFERINGS.— See Offerings.
BURR, (Jonathan,) minister of Dorchester, Mass. was
born at Redgrave in Suffolk, England, about the year
1604. Being silenced in England with many others for
resisting the impositions of the prelatical party, and ap-
prehending that calamities were in store for the nation, he
came to New England in 1639, with his wife and three
children, willing to forego all worldly advantages, that he
might enjoy the ordinances of the gospel in their pnrity.
He was admitted a member of the church in Dorchester
under the pastoral care of Richard Mather, December 21.
iHe was in a .short time invited to settle as a colleague with
Jlr. Mather in the ministry. The most experienced Chris-
tians in the country found his ministry and his whole de-
portment breathing much of the spirit of a better world.
The eminent Mr. Hooker, once hearing him preach, re-
marked, '• Surely this man wUl not belong out of heaven,
for he preaches, as if he were there already." He died,
after a short sickness, August 9, 1641, aged 37 years.
Mr. Burr was esteemed both in England and in this
country for his piety and learning. In proportion to the
ardor of his ]iiety was the extent of his charity. He sin-
cerely loved his fellow-men, and while their eternal in-
terests pressed with weight on his heart, he entered with
lively sympathy into their temporal afflictions. Rarely
did he visit the poor without communicating what was
comfortable to the body,' as well as what was instructive
and salutary to the soul. When he ■nas reminded of the
importance of having a greater regard to his own interest,
he replied, I often think of those words, " he that soweth
sparingly shall reap sparingly." For the general interests
of religion in the world he felt so lively a concern, that
his personal joys and sorrows seemed inconsiderable in
comparison. He was bold and zealous in withstanding
every thing which brought dishonor on the name of God ;
but under personal injuries he was exemplarily meek and
patient When informed that any thought meanly of
him, his reply was, '• I think meanly of myself, and
therefore may well be content, that others thirik meanly
of me." AVhen charged with what was faulty, he re-
laarktd, " If men see so much evil in me, what does God
see ^.— Mather's Ma^n., iii. 78—81 ; Panopliat, Sept. 1808 ;
Savn ire's Winllirop, ii.22; Hariris' Hist, of Dorchester in
CoH. '7fa<. Sor. ix. 173— 183; Allen.
BURR, (Aaron.) president of New Jersey college, a
descendant of the preceding, was a native of Fairfield in
Connecticut, and was born in the year 1714. He was
graduated at Yale college in 1735. In 1742, he was in-
vited to take the pastoral charge of the Presbyterian church
at Newark in New Jersey. Here he became so eminent
as an able and learned divine and an accomplished scho-
lar, that in 17 18 he Avas unanimously elected president of
the college, which he was instrumental in founding, as
successor to Mr. Dickinson. The college was removed
about this time from Ehzabeihtown to Newark, and in
1757, a short time before the death of Mr. Burr, to Prince-
ton. In 1754 he accompanied Mr. Wliitefield to Boston,
having a high esteem for the character of that eloquent
itinerant preacher, and greatly rejoicing in the success of
his labors. After a life of usefulness and honor, devoted
to his Master in heaven, he was called into the eternal
world, September 24, 1757, in the midst of his days, being
in the forty-third year of his age.
President Burr had a slender and delicate frame ; yet
to encounter fatigue he had a heart of steel. To amazing
talents for the despatch of business he joined a constancy
of mind, that commonly secured to him success. As long
as an enterprise appeared possible, he yielded to no dis-
couragement. When his services were requested by the
trustees of the college in soliciting donations for the pur-
chase of a library and philosophical apparatus, and for
erecting a building for the accommodation of the students,
he engaged with his usual zeal in the undertaking, and .
every where met with the encouragement, which the de-
sign so fully deserved. A place being fixed upon at
Princeton for the site of the new building, the superintend-
ance of the work was solely committed to him. Until the
spring of 1757, when the college was removed to Newark,
he discharged the duties both of president and pastor of a
church. Few were more perfect in the art of rendering
themselves agreeable in company. He knew the avenues
to the hiunan heart, and he possessed the rare power of
pleasing without betraying a design to please. As he was
free from ostentation and parade, no one would have sus-
pected his learning, unless his subject required him to
display it, and then every one was surprised that a person,
so well acquainted with books, should yet possess such
ease in conversation and such freedom of Behavior. He
inspired all around him with cheerfulness. His arms were
open to good men of every denomination. A sweetness
of temper, obliging courtesy and mildness of manners,
joined to an engaging candor of sentiment, spread a glory
over his reputation, and endeared his person to all his
acquaintance. — Allen.
BURR, (JosEPu,) a philanthropist, died at Manchester,
Vt., without a family, April 14, 1828, aged 56, bequeath-
ing more than 90,000 dollars to various objects of charity.
He bequeathed for foreign missions 17,000 dollars,
15,000 to the Bible society, 12,000 to Middlebury college,
10,000 to the American Home Missionary society, 5,000
to the Tract, Colonization, and Vermont Missionary so-
cieties each, 5,000 to the parish in Manchester, 3,000 to
an Education society, 1,000 to Dartmouth and Williams
colleges each, 10,000 for a public seminary of learning
in Blanchester. He bequeathed these thousands of dollars,
besides bestowing a large amount of property upon his
relatives. With a small patrimony he had acquired his
estate by his unfailing judgment and prudence. He was
the banker of his region. He was honorable and con-
scientious. With correct religious views and a moral
deportment, he yet avowed no hope of a spiritual reno-
vation, until a short time before his death. On his last
morning he said, " I think I am waiting for the coming
of my Lord." — Mission. Herald, xxiv. 226; Jones.
BUSHEL ; a Jewish measure, containing about a pint
less than a peck. — Matt. 5: 15.
BUTLER, (JosKPH, BisHOT,) the celebrated author of
" The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the
Constitution and Course of Nature," was the youngest of
eight children of Mr. Thomas Butler, residing at Wan-
tage, in Berkshire, and was born in that town in the year
1692. He received his primary education at the free
grammar school of Wantage, under the tuition of tl«;
Rev. Philip Barton. At that school he received much
sound instruction, and became as distinguished for his
steady, moral, serious character, as for his genius and
learning. His father was a Dissenter; and 5Ir. Butler,
having quited the grammar school, was sent to a Presby-
terian dissenting academy at Tewkesbury. Mr. Butler,
at that academy, received from Mr. Jones, the principal
tutor, who was a man of extraordinary learning, the
greatest attention, and made a progress in the study of
theology which was truly surprising. His letters, written
at that time to the celebrated Dr. Samuel Clarke, contain-
BUT
[ 289
BUT
ing his iloHb.s as to tlie tenable nature of some of the
arguments made use of by that divine, in demonstrating
the being and attributes of God, displayed a sagacity and
depth of thought which excited the notice and even re-
spect of Dr. Clarke. The whole correspondence is now
annexed to that incomparable treatise. His mind, at that
time, was also much occupied in examining the principles
of non-conformity, and in endeavoring to satisfy himself
whether he should beccmie a dissenting clergj-man or a
minister of tlie established church. The result of that
investigation appears to be, that he considered, on the
whole, Episcopacy to be preferable ; and accordingly, on
•.ne 17th of March, 1714, he was admitted a commoner of
Oriel college, Oxford. With Mr. Edward Talbot, who
was the second son of Dr. Edward Talbot, he formed at
college a very intimate acquaintanceship ; and through
the medium of Mr. Talbot, many of Mr. Butler's subse-
quent 'preferments may be traced. It was tints that, in
1718. he was appointed preacher at the Rolls, by Sir Joseph
Jekyll ; and in 1721, he took the degree of bachelor of
laws. He continued at the Rolls until 1726, in which
year he published, in one volume, octavo. Fifteen Sermons,
preached at that chapel. By the continued friendship of
Dr. Talbot, then bishop of Durham, he had presented Mr.
Butler to the rectory of Haughton, near Darlington, and
afterwards to that of Stanhope. At Stanhope he after-
wards much resided ; and, during seven years, he per-
formed with unremitting assiduity and piety, all the duties
of a parish priest. In 1733, he quitted the retirement of
Stanhope, to become chaplain to lord Charles Talbot.
He at the same time was admitted at Oxford to the degree
of doctor of laws, and was shortly afterwards presented
by the chaplains with a prebend in the church of Roches-
ter. In 1736, Dr. Butler was appointed clerk of the closet
to queen Caroline ; and, in the same year, presented a
copy of the treatise for which his name has Iseen so long,
so extensively, and so justly celebrated. That work, and
his uniformly consistent conduct, insured him the respect
and esteem of the queen; and, in 1738, he was conse-
crated to the bishopric of Bristol. In 1740, king George
II promoted liim to the deanery of St. Paul's, London;
but finding the demands of that dignUy to be incompatible
with his parish duty at Stanhope, where he had still re-
sided six months of the year, he immediately resigned
that rich benefice. In 1750, he was translated to the .see
of Durham, in consequence of the decease of Dr. Edward
Chandler. In the following year he distinguished him-
self by his charge " On the Importance of External Reli-
gion.'' In consequence of that charge, bishop Butler has
been accused of being addicted to superstition, of being
inclined to popery, and of dying in the communion of the
church of Rome ; but such calumnies have been long since
refuted by the evidence of facts. Rank and talents, and
usefulness and piety, present, however, neither separate
nor combined, any impediments to the advances of death ;
for he had been but a short time seated in his new bish-
opric, when his health declined ; and at Bath, on the IGth
of July, 1752, he expired. His corpse was conveyed to
Bristol ; and there, in the cathedral, was interred all that
was mortal of this learned prelate.
Of bishop Butler's Analogy but one opinion has been
entertained. It has always been regarded as a work of
very superior merit, and as displaying a depth of thought
and a profundity of mind, acquired or possessed but by
few. It is a standard work on the evidences of Chris-
tianity.— Head. Buck.
BUTTER, is taken in Scriptirre, as it has been almost
perpetuallv in the East, for cream or liquid butter, Prov.
30: 33. 2 Sam. 17: 29. The ancient way of making
butter in Arabia and Palestine was probably nearly the
same as is stdl practised by the Bedowcen A;-abs and
floors in Bnrbary, and which is thus described by Dr.
Shaw : " Their method of making butter is by putting
the milk or cream into a goat's skin turned inside out,
which they suspend from one side of the tent to the other ;
and then pressing it to and fro in one uniform direction,
they quickly separate the unctuous and wheyey parts. In
the Levant, they tread upon the skin with their feet, which
produces the same etfect." The last method of separ.aling
the butter from the milk, perhaps may throw light upon a
passage in Job of some didicuUy : " When 1 wa.slied my
steps with butter, and the rock poured me out rivers of
oil," Job 31: 6. The method of making butler in the
East illustrates the conduct of Jael, the wife of Ileber, de-
scribed in the book of Judges : ■' And Sisera said unto
her. Give me, I pray thee, a little water to drink, for I am
thirsty : and she opened a bottle of milk, and gave him
drink, and covered him." In the song of Deborah, the
statement is repeated : " He asked water, and she gave
him milk ; she brought forth butter in a lordly dish,"
Judges 4: 19. 5: 25. The vSnrd hemah, which our trans-
lators rendered butter, properly signifies cream ; which is
undoubtedly the meaning of it in this passage : for Sisera
complained of thirst, and asked a little water to quench
it ; — a purpo.-se to which butter is but Uttle adapted. 5Ir.
Harmer, indeed, urges the same objection to cream, which,
he contends, few people would think a very proper beve-
rage for one that was extremely thirsty ; and concludes that
it must have been butter-milk wliich Jael, who had just
been churning, gave to Sisera. But the opinion of Dr.
Russel is preferalale, — that the hemah of the Scriptures is
probably the same as the haymah of the Arabs, which is not,
as Harmer supposed, simple cream, but cream produced by
simmering fresh sheep's milk for some hours over a slow
fire. It could not be butter newly churned, which Jael
presented to Sisera, because the Arab butter is apt to he
foul, and is commonly passed through a strainer belbre it
is used : and Russel declares, he never saw butter offered
to a stranger, but always hai/mak ; nor did he everobseiwe
the orientals drink butter-milk, but always hhan, which is
coagulated sour milk, diluted -with, water. It was lebari,
therefore, which Pococke mistook for butter-milk, with
which the Arabs treated him in the Holy Land. A simi-
lar conclusion may be drawn concerning the butter and
milk which the wife of Heber presented to Sisera : they
were forced cream or haijmak, and hhan, or coagulated
sour milk, diluted with water, which is a common and re
freshing beverage in those sultry regions. In Isaiah 7-.
15, butter and honey are mentioned as food which, in
Egj'pt and other places in the East, is in use to this day.
The butter and honey are mixed, and the bread is then
dipped in it. — ]Fatsini.
BUTTERWORTH, (John.) pastor of the Baptist church
in Coventry, and author of the valuable Concordance, was
born in Lancashire, (Eng.) Dec. 13, 1727. His parents
were deeply pious, and had the singular happiness to see
all their five sons become so ; four of them became min-
isters of Baptist churches. When about fifteen years of
age, John became a constant hearer of the Methodists, and
imbibed their religious sentiments ; but left them soon
after his conversion, which was in his nineteenth year.
His own account of that event, though much abridged, is
interesting. " I was frequently under convictions of sin ;
and though outwardly moral, yet knew that my nature
was inclined to all iniquity. I was only restrained through
education, frequent converse with professors, and fear of
open shame : not from any dislike I had to sin. Yet my
conscience was frequently awakened, and I formed many
resolutions of living a holy life ; but a few days or a week
would wear ofl' these impressions, and worldly things
occupied my mind ; so that the older I gre«', the more
wicked I became. One night after hearing Jlr. John
Nelson preach from Blatt. 8: 2, I thought all seemed
more affected than myself. The hardness of my heart
had always been my trouble ; because of which all the
sermons I had heard were ineffectual. I returned home
with a heavy spirit, cr}'ing to God that he wcmld take an-ay
my hesrt of slotif.. and g/re me a heart of flesh. I then ex-
perienced a longing af^er holiness ; a desire to be holy as
God is holy. I hoped to live without sin, vhich I then
thought was attainable in this life. I used to govern my
thoughts daily, as much as in me lay ; and those words
impressed my mind. Blessed are the?/ nhirk do hunger and
thirst after righteousness, for they shall be filled. Still \ foi.nd
unbelief a great burden ; laboring hard to believe, but
could not ; for indeed I was ignorant of the nature of
faith. One morning, I was in deep thought on this sub-
ject, reasoning with myself why I was still in unbelief,
when these words dropped into my mind, By grace an yt
saved, through faith ; and that not of yourselves : it k the
BUY
[ 290 ]
BYZ
^ift of God. This word ?(// revolved in my mind. A
gift, thought I, is not merited ; if it were, it would be a
debt, and not a gift. I had leaned all along towards the
doctrine of merit, and of obtaining grace by good works ;
but now I saw faith to be an undeserved gift, and that
God might bestow it on my vilest neighbors, and leave me
in my moral duties without faith. This led me to think
there was some truth in the doctrine of election ; and that
it was not upon foresight of faith and obedience, but of
pure sovereignty ; and that faith and obedience were the
fruits and effects of election, and not causes thereof. My
sentiments began to change from Arminianism to Calvin-
ism. I searched the Bible all that day ; and the evidence
in favor of election shone like the sun, and came forcibly
upon me. As I saw it in the Bible, so I saw the doctrine
exemplified in the world. I concluded that if ever God
would show me favor and give me faith, it would be of
mere mercy. I was not left to neglect the worship of God,
but I sought him sorrowing. One evening I was reading
in the Bible, and cast my eye upon these words of our
Lord, (John 6: 47,) Verily, verili/, I soy unto you, he that he-
lieveth in me hath everlasting life. I was struck with the
passage — it was as if spoken to me. I did immediately
believe that Jesus Christ was a suitable, precious, and
almighty Savior ; I trusted in him alone for salvation ;
and therefore in him I had everlasting life. I could not
but believe and rejoice. I said. Who can help believing ?
for T thought it as easy then as I had found it hard before.
I was transported mth the love of Christ. The Bible was
my delight and meditation all the day. I attained more
knowledge of Scripture in a month afler this, than I have
done in years since. I was not satisfied unless I knew
every text that related to doctrine or practice, and where
it was ; and thus I soon attained a general knowledge of
the whole Bible."
Soon after this, Mr. Butterworth entered the ministry.
In 1751, he accepted the call of the Baptist church in
Coventry, was ordained to the pastoral office among them ;
and there labored until his death in 1803, a period of fifty-
two years. He was greatly beloved by the people of his
charge, and not undeservedly, for he possessed the main
qualifications for pastoral usefulness in great perfection ;
and while enjoying the love of his family and flock on
earth, he held sweet communion with Heaven. In the
decline of life, that passage was finely exemplified in him,
The path of the juU is as the dawning light, which shineth
Tnore and more unto the perfect day. As death advanced, he
cheerfully advanced to meet him, and all his letters breathe
the spirit of the ripened saint. " We are thankful, (he
says, in 1800,) and we have abundant cause to be so ;
having all the comforts of this life, (which multitudes
have not) the means of grace ; the exercise of faith in
Christ ; and in general, comfort of mind and peace of con-
science ; reconciliation to God, both respecting the way
of salvation, and providential dispensations. — I often
think that I am one of the- richest men in Coventry ; for
he is not rich who wants more, but he who has enough ;
and like Jacob and Paul. I have enough ! Yea, I have all,
and abound. — I have much to bless God for ; his comforts
delight my soul." In 1803, he wrote to one of his grand-
sons, " Nothing in the creation is so important as an in-
terest in Christ ; if 5'ou are favored herewith, you are
made forever. This is my consolation under the infirmi-
ties of age, that I am going home to a better country, and
to a fairer and larger inheritance than ever I had in Eng-
land." A week afterwards, this good man entered into
his eternal rest in the 7()th year of his age, coming to the
grave as a shock of corn in his season. His excellent Con-
cordance however still lives to instruct and benefit the
woild. It has met with general approbation for its con-
venience, copiousness, and accuracy ; it being far more
full and complete than Brown or Taylor, and less expen-
sive than Craden. — Mimoir of Mr. Biittcnvorth.
BUY. — To buy from men is to obtain right to, and pos-
session-of, a thing by giring a price for it. Gen. 41: 2.
To bj/y from Christ is, under a sense of need, and a belief
of their excellence and fitness for us, to receive himself
and his blessings freely as the eternal portions of our souls,
and to forsake whnrever stands in opposition thereto. Isa.
55: 1. Rev. 3: 18. Matt. 13: 44. To buy the truth and not
sell it, imports the most diligent consideration and em-
bracemenl of it and cleaving to it, whatever hazard, ex-
pense or trouble it costs us. To bui/ the merchandise of
Fomeis, at the eternal hazard of our souls, to embrace her
abominations ; or by money, intercession, or the like, to
procure antichristian dignities, offices, relics, pardons.
Rev. 18 : 11. God bought his chosen people by giving his
Son to the death as an infinite ransom for them. 1 Cor.
6 : 19. He bought the Hebrew nation in exerting his
power and goodness on their behalf, bringing them from
Egj'pt, and loading them with mercies unnumbered, that
they might be his pecuhar people. Dent. 32: 6. liebwjs
professed Christians in giving them his word ; and at much
expense of power and goodness delivering them from hea-
thenism, popery or profaneness, that they might serve
him. 2 Pet. 2: 4. Christ bought his church by paying
the infinite price which the law demanded, and therefore
it is his property. Acts 20 : 28. 1 Cor. 6 : 14. Eph.
1 : 14. — Brown.
BUXTORF, (John,) an eminent Calvinistic divine, was
born in 1554, at Camen, in Westphalia. Being very
learned in Hebrew and Chaldaic, in the acquirement of
which he obtained the assistance of many learned Jews,
he was engaged, by the magistrates of Basil, in the pro-
fessorship of those languages, which he taught with great
success. He died at Basil, in 1629. His works are,
Lexicon Chaldaicum, Thalmudicum, et Eahbinicum ; The-
saurus Linguce Hebraicce ; Hebrew Bible, -ndth the Rabbi-
nical and Chaldaic Paraphrases, the Massora, &c. ; He-
brew and Chaldaic Dictionary ; Hebrew Grammar ; Syna-
goga Judaica, a Collection of Modes and Ceremonies ;
Bibliotheca JRabbimca ; Institutio Epistolaris Hebraic^ ; Con-
cordanticB Hebraicfs, &:c. iVc. — Ency. Amer.
BUXTORF, (John,) son of the preceding, was born at
Basil, in 1599, and was made professor of the Oriental
languages there. He published a Chaldaic and Syriac
Lexicon ; Tractatus de Punctorum Vocalium et Accentuum in
Libris Veteris Testamenti Hebraicis Origine, Antiquitate et
Auctoritate ; and Anti-Critica, sen Vindiciec Veritatis Hebra-
icce ; in the two last of which he defended his father's
opinions concerning the Hebrew vowel points. He
was also the author of Dissertations on the Old and
New Testament ; FlorUegium Hebraicum ; Exercitationes
Philologica-criticce, &c. He died at Basil in 1664. —
Enaj. Amer.
BUZ, son of Nahor and Milcah, and brother of Huz,
Gen. 22; 21. Elihu, one of Job's friends, was descended
from Buz, son of Nahor. Scripture calls him an Arame-
an, or Syrian, (Job 32: 2.) where Ram is put for Aram.
The prophet Jeremiah (chap. 25: 23.) threatens the Buz-
ites, who dwelt in Arabia Deserta, with God's wrath. —
Calmet.
BYZANTINE CHURCH, comprehending all the
churches which acknowledge the supremacy of the ecu-
menical patriarch of Constantinople. Of the population
included within its pale, reduced as it now nearly is to the
limits of Turkey in Europe, Greece, and Palestine, it is
not easy to form a correct estimate. The Greek popula-
tion (properly so called) of the Morea, the islands Liva-
dia, Epirus, Thessaly, and Slacedonia, cannot be estimated
at more than a million and a half; and those resident in
the other provinces of European Turkey, including the
principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, in Asiatic Tur-
key and Egypt, would probably be overrated at the same
number. Three millions, we are inclined to think, would
be a full allowance for the subjects of the universal bishop
of the Eastern world. — Hend. Buck.
BYZANTINE RECENSION ; the text of the Greek
New Testament, as propagated within the limits of the
patriarchate of Constantinople. The readings of this
recension are those which are most commonly found in
the koine Exdosis, or common printed Greek text, and are
also most numerous in the existing manuscripts which
correspond to it, a very considerable additional number of
which have recently been discovered and collated by Pro-
fessor Scholz. The Byzantine text is found in the four
Gospels of the Alexandrian manuscript ; it was the origi-
nal from which the Sclavonic version was made, and was
cited by Chrysostom and by Theophylact, bishop of Bul-
garia.— Horned Introduction.
CAB
1291 1
CXI
C.
CAB ; a Hebrew measure, the sixth part of a seah, or
satiim ; and the eighteenth part of an ephah. A cab con-
tained three pints, one tiiird of our wine measure ; or two
pints, five sixths of our corn measure, — Calniet.
CABALA, (Heb.) traditions- Among the Jews, it
principally means the mystical interpretations of their
Scriptures, handed down b}' tradition. The manner in
which Blaimonides explains the cabala, or traditions of
the Jews, is as follows ; — " God not only delivered the law
to Moses on mount Sinai, but the explanation of it likewise.
When Moses came down from the mount, and entered
into his tent, Aaron went to visit him, and Moses ac-
quainted Aaron with the laws he had received from God,
together -nith the explanation of them. After this, Aaron
placed himself at the right hand of Bloses, and Eleazar
and Itharaar, the sons of Aaron, were admitted, to whom
Moses repeated what he had just before told to Aaron.
These being seated, the one on the right, the other on the
left hand of Moses, the seventy elders of Israel, who com-
posed the sanhedrim, came in. Moses again declared
the same laws to them, with the interpretations of them,
as he had done before to Aaron and his sons. Lastly, all
who pleased of the common people were invited to enter,
and Moses instructed them likewise in the same manner
as the resL So that Aaron heard four times what Moses
had been taught by God upon mount Sinai ; Eleazar and
Ithamar three times ; the seventy elders twice 5 and the
people once, Moses afterwards reduced the laws n-hich
he had received into writing, but not the explanations of
them : these he thought it sufficient to trust to the memo-
ries of the above-mentioned persons, who, being perfectly
instructed in them, delivered them to their children, and
these again to theirs, from age to age."
The cabala, therelbre, is properly the oral law of the
Jews, delivered down, by word of mouth, from father to
son ; and it is to these interpretations of the written law
our Savior's censure is applied, when he reproves the
Jews for making the commands of God of none effect
through their traditions, Mark 7:
Some of the rabbins preiend that the origin of the ca-
Ijala is to be referred to the angels ; that the angel Raziel
instructed Adam in it ; that the angel Japhiel, Shem ; the
angel Zedekiel, Abraham, &c. But the tnuh is, these ex-
plications of the law are only the several interpretations
and decisions of the rabbins on the law of Moses ; in the
framing of which they studied principally the combina-
tions of particular w'ords, letters, and numbers, and by
that means pretended to discover clearly the true sense of
the difficult passages of Scripture,
This is properly called the artificial cabala, to distin-
5fui.sK It from simple tradition ; and it is of three sorts.
The first, called Gematria. consists in taking letters as
figures, and explaining words by the arithmetical value
of the letters of which they are composed. For instance,
the Hebrew letters of Jabo-Schiloh, (Shiloh shall come,)
inake up the s-ame arithmetical numljer as Mashiach (the
Blessiyh ;) from whence they conclude that Shiloh signifies
the Messiah.
The second kind of artificial cabala, which is called
Kotaricnn, consists in taking each particular letter of a
word for an entire diction. For example, of Bereschith,
which is the first word of Genesis, composed of the letters
B, R, A, S, C, H, J, T, they make— Bara-Rakia-Arez-
Schamaim-Jam-Tehomoth, i. e. he created the firmament,
the earth, the heavens, the sea, and the deep ; or in form-
ing one entire diction out of the initial letters of many :
thus, in Atah-Gibbor-Leolani-Adonai (thou art strong for-
ever, O Lord,) they put the initial letters of this sentence
together, and form the word Agla, which signifies either,
I will reveal, or a drop of dew, and is the cabalistic name
of God.
The third kind, called Themvrn, consists in changing
and transposing the letters of a word : thus of the word
Bereschilh, (the first of the book of Genesis,) they make
A-hetisri, the first of the month Tisri, and infer from
thence that the world was created on the first day of the
month Tisri, which answers \'ery nearly to our September.
The cabala, according to the Jews, is a noble and sub-
lime science, conducting men by an easy method to the
profoundest truths. Without it, the holy Scriptures could
not be distinguished from profane books, wherein we find
some miraculous events, and as pure morality as that of
the law, if we did not penetrate into the truths locked up
under the external cover of the literal sense. As men
were grossly deceived, when, dwelling upon the sensible
object, they mistook angels for men ; so also they fall into
error or ignorance, when they insist upon the surface of
letters or word.s, which change with custom, and ascend
not up to the idests of God himself, wliich are infinitely
more noble and spiritual.
Some visionaries, among the Jews, believe that Jesus
Christ wrought his miracles by virtue of the mysteries 01
the ca))ala. Some learned men are of opinion that Py-
thagoras and Plato learned the cabalistic art of the Jews
in Egj'pt : others, on the contrary, say the philosophy of
Pythagoras and Plato furnished the Jews ^\-ith the ca-
bala. Blost of the heretics in the primitive Christian
church fell into the vain conceits of the cabala, par-
ticularly the Gnostics, Valentinians, and BasUidians
Heiid. Btirk.
C ABA LISTS; those Jewish doctors who profess the
study of the cabala- In the opinion of these men, there
is not a word, letter, or accent in the law, without some
mystery in it. The first cabalistical author that we
know of is Simon the son of Joachai, who is said to have
Uved a little before the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus.
His book, entitled Zohar, is extant ; but it is agreed that
many additions have been made to it. The first part of
this work is entitled ZiniKtha, or MipteTij ; the second.
Lira Hahba, or the <rreat Synod ; the third, Idra Lata, or
the Link SpHid ; which is the author's adieu to his disci-
ples.— H(nd. Bud-
CABIRI, (great, pon-crfu! ;) the four great gods of the
ancient pagans, particularly the Samothracians, They
were named Axieros, Axiokersa, Axiokersos, and Cas-
railkis, which are explained by Bochart to be Ceres, Pluto,
Proserpine, and Mercurj' ; all children of Jupiter. —
Brmtghinn^s Dut ; Dariefs Diet, vf Ant. ; WiUiani.^.
CABUL ; the name which Hiram, king of Tyre, gave_
to the twenty cities in the land of Galilee, of which Solo-
mon made him a present, in acknowledgment for the great
seri'ices in building the temple. 1 Kings 9: 31. These
cities not being agreeable to Hiram, on viewing them, he
called them the land of Cabul, which in the Hebrew ton?ue
denotes displeafing ; others take it to signify binding or
adhesive, from the clayey nature of the soil. — -n^al.fon.
CADARIANS, ( poire rfn! ;) a sect of Mussulmcn, ac- '
cording to D'Herbelot, who maintain free-mil in opposition
to fate, from which they are charged with admitting two
first principles, like the Manichsans. — Erougliton's Diet. ;
Williams.
CADIZADELITES; a sect of mongrel Mahometans,
in their doctrine and manners resembhng the ancient Sto.
ics, and remarkably grave ; believing in Slahomet as the
Paraclete, yet, some of them at least, reverencing Jesus
Christ, and favoring the Christians. They receive both
the Bible and the Koran, practise circumcision, and scru-
ple not to drink mne. — Bicant's Hist, of the Ottoman Em-
pire ; BroHghton's Diet. ; iniliams.
CAIAPHAS, high-priest of the Jews, succeeded Simon,
son of Camith ; and after possessing this dignity nine
years, from A. BI. 4029 to 4038, he was succeeded by
Jonathan, son of Ananas, or Annas. Caiaphas was high-
priest, A. IM. 4037, which was the year of Jesus Christ's
death. He married a daughter of Aimas, who also is
called high-priest in the' gospel, because he had long en-
joyed that dignity. When the priests deliberated on the
seizure and death of Jesus Christ, Caiaphas declared, that
there was no room for debate on that matter, " because it
was expedient that one man should die for the people.
CAI
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CAK
that the whole nation should not perish." John 11: 49, 50.
This sentiment was a prophecy, which God suffered to
proceed from the moutli of the high-priest on this occa-
sion, importing, that the death of Jesus would be for the
salvation of the world. When Juda-s had betrayed Jesus,
he was first taken before Annas, who sent him to his son-
in-law, Caiaphas, who possibly Uved in the same house.
John 18: 24. The priests and doctors of the law there
assembled to judge our Savior, and to condemn him.
The depositions of certain false witnesses being insuffi-
cient to justify a sentence of death against him, and Jesus
continuing silent, Caiaphas, as high-priest, said to him,
" I adjure thee by the living God, that thou tell us whether
thou art the Christ, the Son of God !'' To this adjura-
tion, so solemnly made by the superior judge, Jesus an-
swered, " Thou hast said ; nevertheless I say unto you,
hereafter shall ye see the Son of man sitting on the right
hand of po-wer, and coming in the clouds of heaven."
On hearing these words, Caiaphas rent liis clothes, saying,
" What farther need have we of witnesses ? Behold now
you have heard his blasphemy. What think ye »" They
answered, "He is worthy of death." And, as the power
of life and death was not at this time in their hands, but
was reserved by the Romans, they conducted him to Pi-
late, that he might confirm their sentence, and order his
execution.
Two years after this, VitelUus, governor of Spia, com-
ing to Jerusalem at the paseover, was received very mag-
nificently by the people. As an acknowledgment for this
honor, he restored the custody of the high-priest's orna-
ments to the priests, he remitted certain duties raised on
the fruits of the earth, and deposed the high-priest Caia-
phas. From this it appears that Caiaphas had faUen
nnder popular odium, fw his deposition was to gratify the
people. — Watson.
CAIN, the eldest son of Adam and Ere. He was the
first man who had been a child, and the first man born
of woman. For his history, as connected with that of
Abel, see Abel. The mark set upon Cain, " lest any one
finding him should kill him," has been variously inter-
preted. Some have supposed it a change in the color of
his skin, others a certain horror of countenance. The
IjXX. understood the passage to mean, that the Lord gave
him a sign, to assure him that his life should be preserved.
Whatever it was, its object was not to aggravate, but to
mitigate his punishment, which may rnthnate that Cain
had manifested rejientance.
Btr. Taylor, in iUustration of the history of Cain, ob-
serves : Cain had slain Abel his brother ; this being a
very e-ttraordinary and eiubarrassing instance of guilt,
and perhaps the first enormous crime among mankind
whii'h required excmpJani_ punishment, the Lord thought
proper to interpose, and to act as judge on this singularly
affecting occasion. Adam might he ignorant of this guilt,
ignorant by what process to detect it, and ignorant by
what penalty to punish it ; but the Lord (metaphorically)
hears of it, by the blood which cried from the gi'onnd ;
and he detects it, by citing the murderer to his tribirnal ;
where, after eiamination and conviction, he passes sen-
tence on him: — " Thou art. cursed from the earth, mhichhath
opened her mouth to receive thy irother's blood ; a fugitive
and a vagabond shalt thou be in the earth." And Cain
raii to the Lord, ^^ Ts mjf iniqidti/ too great for expiation?
Is there no fine, no suffering, short of such a vagabond
state, that may be accepted ? Behold, thmi hast banished
me this day from the face of the land {adamali) where I was
born, where my parents dwell, my native country ! and
from thy presence also, in thy public worship and institu-
tions ; / must lum hide mijself from all my heart holds
dear, being prohibited from approaching my fonner inti-
mates, and thy venerated altar. I shall be a fugitive, a
vagabond on the earth ; and any one (in future years) n-lw
findeth me may slay me without compunction, as if I were
rather a wild beast than a man." The Lord said, " I
mentioned an expiation formerly, on account of your
crime of ungovernable malice and anger, bidding you
lay a sin-offering before the sacred entrance ; but then you
disregarded that admonition and command. Neverthe-
less, as I did not take the life of your father Adam, though
forfeited, when I sat in judgment on him, but abated of
that rigorous penalty ; so I do not design that yon should
be taken off by sudden death ; neither immediately from
myself, nor mediately by another. I pronounce, there-
fore, a much heavier sentence on whoever shall destroy
Cain. Moreover, to show that Cain is a person sufl'ering
imder punishment, since no one else has power to do it ;
since he resiiits the justice of his feUow-men ; since his
crime has called me to be his judge, I shall brand his
forehead with a mark of his crime ; and then, whoever
obsenres this mark will avoid his company : they will not
smite him, but they will hold no intercourse with him,
fearing his irascible passions may take offence at some
unguarded word, and should again transport him into a
fury, which may issue hi bloodshed. Beside this, aU
mankind, wherever he may endeavor to associate, shall
fear to pollute themselves by conference with him." — The
uneasiness continually arising from this state of seques-
tration, led the unhappy Cain to seek repose in a distant
settlement.
He retired into the land of Nod, !3'ing east from the
province of Eden. While he dwelt in this cotmtry, which
is generally understood to be Susiana, or Chusistan, he
had a son, whom he named Enoch, in memorj' of whoni
he built a city of the same name. This is all we leara
from Scripture concerning Cain. — Watson ; Calmet.
CAINAN, son of Enos, born A. M. 323, when Enos
was ninety years of age. Gen. 5: 9. At the age of
seventy, Cainan begat Mahalaleel ; and died, aged nine
hundred and ten, A."M. 1235.
CAINAN, a son of Arphaxad, and father of Salah.
He is neither in the Hebrew nor in the Vt%lgate of Gen.
11: 12 — 14., but is named between Salah and Arphaxad,
in Luke 3: 36. The LXX. in Gen. 10: 24. 11: 12. admit
him. Some have sttggested, that the Jefl's suppressed the
name Cainan out of their copies, designing to render the
LXX. and Luke suspected. Others, that Moses omitted
Cainan, being desirous to reckon ten generations only
from Adam to Noah, and from Noah to Abraham. Others,
that Arphaxad was father of both Cainan and Salah ; of
Salah naturally, of Cainan legally. Others, that Cainan
and Salah were the same person, under two names ; this
they allege in sirpiwrt of that opinion which maintains
Cainan to be really son of Arphaxad, and father of Salah.
Many learned men believe, that this name was not origi-
nally in the text of Luke, but is an addition by inadver-
tent transcribers, who, remarking it in some copies of the
LXX., added it.— Calmet.
CAINITES ; a, sect that sprnngup about the )-ear 130 ;
so called, because they esteemed Cain worthy of the
greatest honors. They honored those who carry in Scrip-
ture the most visible marks of reprobation ; as the inha-
bitants of Sodom, Esau, Korah, Dathan, and Abiram.
They had in particular great veneration for Jndas, under
the pretence that the death of Christ had saved mankind
—llend. Buck.
CAKES. The Hebrews had several sorts of cakes,
which they offered in the temple, made of meal, of wheat,
or of barley ; kneaded sometimes with oil, sometimes "n'itb
honey ; sometimes only nibbed over with oil when baked,
or fried ■wi\\i oil in a frying-pan.
For offering, these cakes were salted, but tmleavened.
If the cakes which were offered were baked in an oven,
and sprinkled or kneaded mth oil, the whole was pre-
sented to the priest, who waved the offering before the
Lord, then took so much of it as was to be burned on the
altar, threw that into the fire, and kept the rest himself.
Lev. 2: 4. If the offering were a cake kneaded with oil,
and dressed in a fr)dng-pan, it was broken, and oil was
poured on it ; then it was presented to the priest, who
took a handful of it, which he threw on the altar-fire, and
the rest was his own. It should be obsen'ed, that oil in
the East answers the purpose of butter among us in
Europe.
Cakes or loaves, offered with sacrifices of beasts, as was
customary, (for the great sacrifices were always accom-
panied by offerings of cakes, and libations of wine and
oil,) were kneaded with oil. The wine and oil were not
poured on the head of the animal about to be sacrificed,
(as among the Greeks and Romans,) but on the fire in
which the victim was consumed. Num. 28: 1, &c. The
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law regulated the quantity of meal, wine, and oil, for eacli
kind of victim. See Bread. — Calmct.
CALAH ; a city of Assyria, built by Ashur. Gen. 10:
12. From it the adjacent country, on the north-east of the
Tigris, and south of the Gordian mountains of Armenia,
was called Callachene, or Callacine. — Watsun.
CALAMUS, kanha ; (Exod. 30: 23. Cant. 4: U. Isa. 43:
24. Jer. 6: 20. Ezek. 27: 19.) an aromatic reed, growing
in moist places in Egypt, in Judea, near lake Genesareth,
and in several parts of S)Tia. It grows to about two feet
in height ; bearing from the root a knotted stalk, quite
round, containing in its cavity a soft white pith. The
whole is of an agreeable aromatic smell ; and the plant is
said to scent the air even while growing. When cut down,
dried, and powdered, it makes an ingredient in the richest
perfumes. It was used for this purpose by the Jews.
Calamus Scriptorius ; a reed answering the purpose
of a pen to write with. The ancients used styles, to
write on tablets covered with wax ; but reeds, to -nTite
on parchment or papyrus. The Psalmist says. " My
tongue is the pen of a ready writer." 45: 1. The He-
brew signifies rather a style. The third book of Macca-
bees states, that the writers employed in making a list of
the Jews in Egj^pt, produced their reeds quite worn out.
Baruch wrote his prophecies with ink, (Jer. 36: 4.) and,
consequently, used reeds ; for it does not appear that
quills were then used to vrnXe with. In 3 Johii 13, the
apostle says, he did not design to write with pen (reed)
and ink. The Arabians, Persians, Turks, Greeks, and
Armenians, to this day, write with reeds, or rushes. —
Watson.
CALAMY, (Edmund,) a celebrated non-conformist di-
vine, was bom at London, in 1600, and studied at Cam-
bridge. Having embraced Presbyterianism, he took an
active part in the religious disputes of the age, and was
one of the authors of the treatise which bore the title of
Smectymnus, and was directed against Episcopacy. He
was a member of the assembly of divines at Westmin-
ster ; but he strenuously opposed the trial of the king,
and the usurpation of Cromwell, and had a share in effect-
ing the restoration of Charles the Second. The restored
monarch offered him the bishopric of Litchfield, but he
refused it, and he was subsequently expelled from his liv-
ing by the act of uniformity. Such was the shock to his
health, in consequence of the fire of London, that he is
said to have died of it, in 1666. He produced many ser-
mons and controversial -nTilings. Calamy was a learned,
yet a plain, faithful, pious, and practical preacher. On
one occasion, after the restoration, when preaching before
general Monk on the subject of ^'filthy lucre" he said,
" And why is it czWeA filthy, but because it makes men do
base and filthy things ? Some men -will betray three king-
doms for filthy lucre's sake ;" at the same time throwing
his handkei'chief toward%the general's pew. — Davenport.
CALAMY, (Edmund, Dr.) an eminent non-conformist
divine, grandson of the preceding, was born in London,
April 5th, 1671. His father, bearing the same name, was
one of the ministers ejected by the act of uniformity, from
his living at Moreton, in Essex. His father early placed
him in the merchant tailors' school, where he obtained
the esteem of his master, DIr. Hartcliffe, and gained much
elementaiy knowledge. He was subsequently instructed
at the seminary of 3Ir. Cradock, in Suffolk, where he
procured, by his talents and worth, the esteem of many
persons, who afterwards attained to great eminence in the
church of England. At the age of seventeen, he was re-
moved to the university of Utrecht, and placed under the
tu'iion of two distinguished professors, De Uiies and
G.ievius. There he studied intensely. One whole night
of every week, in addition to all his protracted days, he
devoted to the acquisition of knowledge. In 1691, when
Principal Carstairs was sent to Holland, in quest of a gen-
tleman to fill a professor's chair in the university of Edin-
linrgh, he applied to Calamy, and pressed him to accept
the. situation ; but he declined the proffered honor, though
soon afterwards he returned to England, for the purpose
of pursuing his studies in the Bodleian library. After
studying the controversy between the conformists and non-
conformists, he determined on entering the ministry among
the latter, and frequently preached in the meeting-house
at Oxford, and round the neighborhood. In 1672, he was
requested to assist the minister of a Presbyterian congre-
gation in Blackfriars' ; and in 1673 was ordained at Little
St. Helen's. In 1702, he was chosen to a.ssist Dr. Wil-
hams, and elected one of the Tuesday lecturers at Saltcrs'
hall. In 1703, the Rev. Sir. Alsop being removed, by
death, from his congregation in Westminster, Dr. Calamy
succeeded him ; and there, to persons of high rank and
considerable knowledge and information, he tor many
years preached with pious ardor and wise fidelity. In
1702, he published an " Abridgment of Baxter's History
of his Life and Times," and an " Apologj- for Non<on-
formists." In 1703, he an:?wered bishop Hoadlry's
Reasonableness of Conformity to the Church of England,
in a work entitled " A Defence of Moderate Non-conform-
ity," &c. Soon after this publication, bishop Hoadlcy
wrote a work, entitled, " A Serious Admonition to Jilr.
Calamy." In 1704, Mr. Calamy published the second
part of his Defence of Moderate Non-conformity, which
the celebrated Locke pronounced to be unanswerable. In
1705, he wrote the third part of his Defence, and added
thereto a Letter to Hoadley, in reply to his " Defence of
the Reasonableness of Conformity." In 1707, HoaiUey
published his " Defence of Episcopal Ordination,'' and
Calamy wrote a reply to it ; but that reply, from pruden-
tial motives, he did not print. In 1709, at the request of
several distinguished persons in Scotland, he visited that
country ; was received with the highest marks of respect
and esteem, and was honored by the universities of Edin-
burgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, with the degi-ee of doctor
of divinity. In 1713, he published a second edition of his
" Abridgment of Baxter's Life and Times," and continued,
as usual, faithfully and zealously to preach to a large and
attentive congregation. In 1718, he wrote a vindication
of his grandfather and other ejected ministers, from the
charges brought against them by Echard, in his history
of England ; and in 1720, his far celebrated " Non-con-
formists' Memorial " first made its appearance. That
work contains biographical notices of the t%vo thousand
ministers, lecturers, masters, and fellows of colleges, who
were ejected and silenced by the act of uniformity.
His mind -was not, however, solely devoted to the cause
of non-conforraity, but he was often engaged in recom-
mending the doctrines or duties of religion. In 1722, he
dedicated a volume of sermons on the " Docti-ine of the
Holy Trinity," to the king, who ordered hbn to be pre-
sented with fifty pounds. He -nTOte a short life of Mr.
Howe, publislied man}' single sennons, and left behind
him the manuscript of an Historical Account of his own
Life, with some Reflections on the Times in which he had
lived. That account consisted of three volumes folio, and
has recently been pubhshed. He died on the 3d of June,
1732, aged sixty-two.
To Dr. Calamy dissenters were much attached, in con-
sequence of the zeal, and ability, and kindness with which
he pleaded their cause ; and most men allow that he was
a sincere Christian, a good scholar, and a sound theolo-
gian. See Mayors Sermon on the Death of Calamy; Cala-
my's Airiilgmeiit of the Life of Baxter, kc. — Jones's Chr.
Bio?.
CALAS, (John,) an unfortunate merchant of Toulouse,
of the Protestant religion. When his son, Marc Antoine,
who had embraced the tenets of the CathoUcs, had stran-
gled himself in a fit of melancholy, the father was seized
by the suspicious government, as guilty of the murder.
No proof could be offered against him, and self-evident as
it was that a weak old man could not execute such a deed
of violence on a youth full of strength, in a house where
the family was then resident, even if the feelings of a
parent v,'ere put out of the question, yet he was condemned
and broken upon the wheel in 1762, in the sixty-fifth yeir
of his age. The family of the unhappy man retired l.i
Geneva, ni.d Voltaire subsequently undertook to deli n.!
his memo:/. He succeeded in drawing pubhc atteniion
towards the circumstances of the case, and a rev.sion of
the tria! was ^ranted. Fifty judges once more examined
the facts, and declared Galas altogether' innocent. —
Dai'cnport.
CALASn, (MAnros,) a Franciscan friar, was born at
Calasio, n..iir Aquila, in the Neapolitan territory, about
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1550. He died in 1620, just as he was on the point of
publishing his Concordance of the Bible, in four folio
volumes ; an excellent work, which forms a complete He-
brew Lexicon, and on which he had spent forty 3'ears of
incessant labor. Hebrew was as familiar to Calasio as
his native language. His Concordance appeared in 1621,
and was republished by Romaine, in 1717. — Davenport.
CALATR AVA, the nuns of the order of, were founded
in. 1219, by Don Gonsalves Yanes, grand-master of the
knights of Calatrava, in Spam. They wore the habit of the
Cistercians, and performed the same probations as the
knights. — Brou^rhton's Diet. ; Williams.
CALDERARI, {braziers,) a pohtico-religious sect of
Italy, set on foot, during the reign of Murat, in opposition
to the Carbonari, which see. — Williams.
CALDERWOOD, (DAvm,) a Scotch Presbyterian di-
vine, was born in 1575, and strenuously opposed the plan
of James VI. to establish conformity between the English
and Scotch churches ; for which opposition he was ba-
nished. Retiring to Holland, he published, in 1625, his
work, entitled Altare Damascenum ; a severe attack on
Episcopacy. He returned to Scotland ; contributed greatly
to the establishment of Presbyterianism ; and died in 1651.
Calderwood left a voluminous history of the church of
Scotland, of which only a portion has been printed.
He was a man endowed with extraordinary powers of
mind ; and was, during the whole of his useful life, a firm
friend to non-conformity, devoted to the cause, and con-
tinually wrote in its favor : nor was he less distinguished
as a Christian than as a divine. His piety w-as tmdis-
sembled and eminent ; and though the correctness of his
creed may be questioned, the sincerity of his religion must
be admitted. See Calderwood's History of the Church
of Scotland, and Spotwood's History of the Church of
Scotland. — Davenport ; Jones's Chr. JBiog.
CALDWELL, (Elias B.) clerk of the supreme court of
the United States, graduated at Princeton in 1796, and
died at Washington in May, 1825, gladdened by the pro-
mises of the religion which he professed. He zealously
assisted in forming and conducting the American Coloni-
zation Society, of which he was the corresponding secre-
tary. In honor of him, the managers of the society gave
the name of Caldwell to a town in their African colony.
Mr. C, in order to brmg religious instruction to the un-
taught in the country near Washington, obtained a license
to preach from the preshj'tery, and was accustomed to
preach on the Sabbath. — African Eepos. i. 126 ; Miss.
Herald, 22: 81.; Alle?i.
CALEB, son of Jephunneh, a heroic prince of Judah,
was sent with Joshua and others to view the land of Ca-
naan. Num. 13. They brought with them some of the
finest fruits as specimens of its productions ; but some
of the spies discouraging the people, they openly declared
against the expedition. Joshua and Caleb encouraged
them to go forward, and the Lord sentenced the whole
multitude except these two to die in the desert. 11: 1 — 10.
When Joshua invaded and conquered great part of Ca-
naan, Caleb with his tribe came to Gilgal, and asked
for a particular possession, which Joshua bestowed upon
him with many blessings, ch. 14: 6 — 15. Caleb, there-
fore, with his tribe, marched against Kirjath-arBa, (after-
wards Hebron,) took it, and killed three giants of the race
of Anak ; from thence he went to Debir, or Kirjath-sepher,
which was taken by Othniel ; 115: 13 — 19. Caleb is thought
to have survivei' fnshua. — Calmet.
CALENDAR ; ihe order and series of the months that
make up a year : it comes from the word Caknda, the
name wh'cii the Romans gave to the first days of the
month. The Roman calendar was composed by Romu-
lus, founder of Rome, who being better versed in martial
affairs than acquainted with the stars, made a 3'ear often
months, whereof the first was March, then April, May,
June. iuintU, called afterwards Julius, and Sextil, called
also m process of time, August, September, October, No-
vember, December : he gave March, Blay, Quintil, and
October, each thirty-one days, and hut' thiity each to the
other six ; so that altogether made b\U three hundrcil :ind
four days. Numa Pompilius reformed this, and imitated
the Grecians, to allow the year twelve lunar months, ( if
thirty and twenty-nine days each, one after the other.
which made thi'ee hundred and fifty-four days ; but be-
cause he loved an uneven number, through a superstition
that he held from the Egyptians, he made his of three
hundred and fifty-five days,_ and gave it twelve months,
viz. January, February, March, &c. January was of
twenty-nine days, February of twenty-eight, March, May,
July, and October, of thirty-one, and the other six of
twenty-nine each : it did not matter, February's being an
even number, because he designed it for the sacrifices that
were made for the gods of hell, to which that number, be-
cause unlucky, better belonged. Numa would have the
month of January, which he placed at the winter solstice,
to be the beginning of the year, and not March, which
Romulus placed at the equinox of the spring. He also
made use of the intercalation of the Grecians, who added
a supernumerary month every second year, which con-
sisted successively of twenty-two and twenty-three days ;
and that to equal the civil year to the motion of the sun,
which makes its revolution in three hundred and sixty-five
days, and about six hours, he ordered the chief pontifls to
show the people the time and manner of inserting these
extraordinary months ; but whether it was through igno-
rance, sviperstition or interest, they confounded things so
much, that the feasts which should be kept according to
this institution at certain times, fell upon quite different
seasons, as the feasts of autumn upon the spring, &c.
This disorder was so great, that Julius Csesar, dictator
and sovereign pontifls, after he had won the battle of Phar-
salia, did not look upon the reformation of the calendar
as a thing unworthy his eare. He sent for the famous
astrologer, Sosigines, from Alexandria, who ordered the
year according to the course of the sun, and having com-
posed a calendar of three hundred and sixty-five days, he
left the six hours to form a day at the end of every fourth
year, which day was to be inserted in the month of Feb-
ruary, after the 24th of that month, ■n'hich the Romans,
according to their way of counting, called the sixth of the
calends ; and hence came the word bissextile, because
they said twnce Se.xto Cnlcndns, to imply the ten days by
which the solar year of three hundred and sixty-five days
surpassed Numa's of three hundred and fifty-five; he
added two da5's to January, Sextil, and December, who
had before but twenty-nine ; and added to April, June,
September, and November, a day to each, leaving the
month of February but twenty-eight days in the ordinary
years, and twenty-nine in the bissextile. And as by the
negligence of those who were to order and distribute the
intercalary months, the beginning of the year was found
to be seventeen days before the winter solstice, and that
it was then also a year of the intercalation of the month
of twenty-three days, which in all made ninety ; for this
reason, I say, this year of the correction of the calendar
by Julius Cffisar was of fifteen months, and of four hun-
dred and»forty-five days, and \fts therefore called the year
of confusion. It is of importance to observe that this
emperor, willing to accommodate himself to the humor
of the Romans, who were used so long to the lunar year,
begun the Julian year upon a day of the ne'W moon, which
followed the winter solstice, and which was at that time
eight days after it, and that was the reason why the year
begun since eight days after the solstice of Capricorn. It
was not hard for the Romans, who then commanded most
part of the earth, to make this correction of Julius Caesar
to be received, and bring it in use amongst the remote.st
nations. The Grecians left off their lunar, and the inter-
calation of their forty-five days every fourth year. The
Egyptians fixed their Tliot, or the first day of their year,
which before changed from one season to another; the
Hebrews did the like, — so that it became tlie calendar of
all nations. The primitive Christians kept the same name
of the months, the same number of days of the months,
and the intercalation of a day in the bissextile year; but
took out of the Julian calendar the nundinal letters, which
marked the days of assembly, or feriir, and put other let-
ters in their place to mark Sundajf, and the other days of
the week ; and instead of the profane feasts, and the
plays of the Romans, they placed in order the feasts and
ceremonies of the true religion. About the beginning of
the sixth age, Dennis the abbot, surnamed the Little, see-
ing the different customs of the eastern and western
CAL
[ 295 J
CAL
thurchcs about the time of celebrating Easter, he pro-
posed a calendar according to the Victorian period, com-
posed of cycles of the sun and moon, with reference to
the birth of Jesus Christ ; for until then the greatest part
of the Christians counted their eras from the foundation
of Rome, or from the consuls and emperors, always keep-
ing to the custom of the Romans as to the beginning of
the year, fixed on the first of January. This calendar of
the ancient church showed precisely enough the new moon,
and consequently the time of the feast of Easier ; but in
succeeding ages, it was discovered that this calculation did
not agree altogether with the course of the sun and moon,
and that the feast of Easter was no more held upon the
full moon of the first month. And this error in astronomy
was of evil consequence, because the feast of Easter
would have insensibly fallen in winter, and then in au-
tumn and summer. To remedy this disorder, pope Gre-
gor)' XIII. sent briefs to all Christian princes, and to all
famous universities, to desire them to seek means to re-
estaulish the vernal equinox in its right place ; and after
he had received the opinions of all the learned, he cut off
ten days in the calendar, and confirmed it with a bull in
1581, so that the day after St. Francis, which is the 4th
of October, was called fifteen instead of five ; by this cor-
rection, what was before the 11th of October became the
21st; and the equinox of spring, which fell upon the 2d
of March, was changed to the 12th, as it was in the time
of the council of Nice, in 325. The same pope found a
way to hinder the like disorder for the future, in cutting
ofl' one bissextile day every hundred years. This cor-
rection was received by all those that are of the church
of Rome, but has not been allowed of by the Protestants
of England, Germany, kc. And there were several
learned men that wrote against this reformation ; amongst
others .Maestlinus, professor of mathematics at Tubingen,
Scaliger, and Georgius Germanus ; and there was a new
modelled calendar made by BIr. Viete, and presented to
the pope, with his notes upon the faiilts that lie observed
in the Gregorian. This is also called the new and perpe-
tual calendar, because the disposition of the epacts, which
are substituted for the golden number, will make it of use
in all times, whatever may be discovered in the motion of
the stars. — Blojidd ; Hend. Buck.
CALENDARS ; books containing the memorials of the
days on which the martyrs sufiered. At first, the calendar
contained the mention of the martyrs only ; but, in the
course of time, the confessors, or those who, without ar-
riving at the glory of martyrdom, had confessed their
faith in Christ, by their heroic virtues, were admitted to
the same honor. The calendars were preserved in the
churches. A calendar of the church of Rome was pub-
lished by Boucher, another by AUatius, a third by Joannes
Wanto, chancellor of Paris. A most ancient calendar of
the church of Carthage was published bj' IMabillon. But
the principal work of this kind is Joseph Assemann's
" Calendar of the Universal Church, illustrated with
notes." Butler's Life of Alban Butler ; Henderson's
Buck.
CALENDERS ; Mahometan friars, so called from
Santon Calenderi, their founder, who went bare-headed,
and clothed in the skins of ■n'ild beasts, whom they resem-
bled in their morals, or rather want of morals. — Brough-
ton's Vict. ; WiUimns.
CALEPODIUS ; a Christian minister of Rome, who
suffered martyrdom in the persecution of the emperor
Maximinus. After being inhumanly treated, and bar-
barously dragged about the streets, a millstone was
fastened about his neck, and he was thrown into the
river Tiber, A. D. 2Z5.—Fox.
CALIGULA, (Caixts,) emperor of Rome, succeeded
Tiberius, A. D. 37 ; and reigned three years, nine months,
and twenty-eight days. It does not appear that he mo-
lested the Christians. Caius having commanded Petro-
nius, governor of Syria, to place his statue in the temple
at Jerusalem, for the purpose of adoration, the Jews so
vigorously opposed it, that, fearing a sedition, he sus-
pended the order. He was killed by Chrereas, one of his
guards, while coming out of the theatre, A. D. 41, in the
fourth j-earof his reign ; and was succeeded by Claudius.
—Cohnel.
CALISTUS; abishopof Rome, who suffered martyrdotn,
A . D. 221 . The manner of his death is not recorded Fox.
CALIXTUS, properly Cai,lisen, (George ;) the most
able and enlightened theologian of the Lutheran church
in the seventeenth century, was born in 1586, at Melby,
in Holstein, and educated at Flensborg and Helmstadt.
In 1607, in the latter university, he turned his thoughts
to theology ; in 1609, visited the universities of the south
of Germany ; in 1612, those of Holland, England, and
France, where his intercourse with diflerent religious par-
ties, and the gi'eatest scholars of his time, developed thai
independence and liberality of opinion, for which he was
distinguished. After a brilliant victory, in 1614, in a dis-
pute with the Jesuit Murianus, he was made professor of
theology, and died in 1656. His treatises on the authority
of the Holy Scriptures, transubstantiation, celibacy, su-
premacy of the pope, and the Lord's supper, belong, even
according to the judgment of learned Catholics, to the
most profound and acute writings against Catholicism.
But his genius, and the depth of his exegetic and his-
torical knowledge, exposed him to the persecutions of the
zealots of his time. His assertion that the points of
difference between Calvinists and Lutherans were of less
importance than the doctrines in which they agreed, and
that the doctrine of the Trinity was less distinctly ex-
pressed in the Old Testament than in the New, and his
recommendation of good works, drew upon him the re-
proaches of crypto-papism. His heresy was termed Sijn-
cretism. See below. The elector John George I. of Saxony,
protected him, in 1655, at the diet of Ratisbon, against the
Lutheran theologians. His historical investigations and
his philosophical spirit shed new light on dogmatic the-
ology and the exegesis of the Bible, and gave them a more
scientific form. He made Christian morality a distinct
branch of science, and by reviving the study of the Chris-
tian fathers, and of the history of the church, prepared
the way for Spener, Thomasius, and Sender. He edu-
cated his son, Frederick Ulrick Calixtus, and many other
enlightened theologians. — Ency. Amer.
CALIXTINS ; a branch of the Hussites in Bohemia
and Moravia, in the fifteenth century. The principal point
in which they differed from the church of Rome, was the
use of the chalice (calix,) or communicating in both kinds.
Calixtins was also a name given to those among the
Lutherans who followed the opinions of George Calixtus,
a celebrated divine in the seventeenth century, who en-
deavored to unite the Romish, Lutheran, and Calvinistic
churches, in the bonds of charity and mutual benevo-
lence. He maintained, 1. That the fundamental doctrines
of Christianity, by which he meant those elementary
principles whence all its truths flow, were preserved pure
in all three communions, and were contained in that an-
cient form of doctrine that is vulgarly known by the name
of the apostles' creed. 2. That the tenets and opinions
which had been constantly received by the ancient doctors
during the first five centuries, were to be considered as of
equal truth and authority with the express declarations
and doctrines of Scripture. — Hend. Buck.
CALL ; to name a person or thing, Acts 11: 26. Rom.
7: 3. 2. To cry to another for help ; and hence, to pray.
The first passage in the Old Testament in which we meet
uith this phrase, is Gen. 4: 26, where we read, " Then
began men to call on the name of the Lord," or Jehovah ;
the meanmg of which seems to be, that they then first
begun to worship him in public assemblies. In both the
Old and New Testament, to call upon the name of the
Lord, imports invoking the true God in prayer, with a
confession that he is Jehovah, that is, with an acknow-
ledgment of his essential and incommunicable attributes.
In this view the phrase is applied to the worship of Christ.
Acts 2: 21. 7: 59. 9: 14. 22: 16. Kom. 10: 12. 1 Cor. 1: 2.
— Watson.
CALLING. Divines have disputed much in modern
times concerning " the calls and invitations of the gospel ;"
and difficulties have been started about reconciling them
with the scripture doctrines of election and parlicidar re-
demption. Many, no doubt, have obscured and perverted
the doctrine of divine grace by what have been termed
ministerial calls, and exhortations, and gospel offers. Per-
sons, while in a state of unbelief. ha\^ been directed what
C AL
[ 296
C AL
they should do in order to work themselves into a converted
state, and become qualified for trusting in Christ. Faith
has been represented as some laborious exercise of the
mind ; and sinners have been urged to strive hard to per-
fonn the great work of believing, that they may be justi-
fied. These things are unquestionably both improper and
pernicious ; because instead of exhibiting Christ as the
immediate, the free,' and the all-sufficient relief of the
guilty, they convert the gospel into a law of works, and
give'the sinner as much to do, in order to obtain an mter-
est in Christ and his salvation, as if he were to obey the
whole law.
1. But though the calls of the gospel may have been
misrepresented, and converted into a self-righteous system,
nothmg is more plain than that there are invitations, calls,
and exhortations addressed to unbelievers, in the Scrip-
tures. Such are Isa. 55: 1—4. Matt. 11: 28. John 7: 37.
Rev. 22: 16, 17. Christ represents the preaching of the
gospel under the similitude of inviting persons to a mar-
'iag« supper, where every thing was prepared and ready
for "their use. Matt. 22: 2—15. Luke 14: Ifi— 24. Paul
speak-s of himself and fellow-apostles as Christ's ambas-
sadors, commissioned by him to beseech, to pray, and to
entreat men to be reconciled to God. 2 Cor. 5: 18 — 21.
And this corresponds with the words in the parable, " Com-
pel them to come in." Luke M: 23. No doubt, this
compulsion is only to he effected by persuasion, the forci-
ble persuasion of truth ; and there is in the gospel testi-
mony and promise every thing that is calculated to pro-
mote that object. If indeed the gospel resembled some
cold mathematical problem which persons might examine
and re-examine, and tlien lay aside as a thing in which
they had no immediate interest or concern, it would be as
supposed ; but if we reflect upon its important and inte-
resting nature to every one who hears it, and how deeply
their present peace and final happiness are involved in
the reception which they give it, we must at once perceive
how much the state of the question becomes thereby al-
tered ; for " it is not only a faithful saying, but a saying
that is worthy of all acceptation," that is, supremely ex-
cellent'and desirable, " that Christ Jesus came into the
world to save sinners." 1 Tim. 1: 15. Accordingly, when
the first preachers of the word went abroad among the
nations as the heralds of salvation, they pressed home the
doctrine of reconciUation upon men, declaring that God
was now accessible to sinners by the death of his Son ;
and they urged this as the grand motive and argument
why men should be reconciled unto God : and these things
they enforced upon their consciences with a view to excite
their affections, their hopes and their fears. On the other
hand, " knowing the ten'ors of the Lord, they persuaded
men" to tlee from the wrath to come, awakening the care-
less and unconcerned to a proper consideration of their
state, and of the danger they incurred in rejecting the
great salvation. They, at the same time, set before them
the glorious suitableness and freedom of that salvation,
the evidence by which it is supported, and the happiness
which results i'rom enjoying it ; thus alluring them by the
mercies of God ; and in all this, addressing themselves,
not merely to the speculative fancy, but " to every man's
conscience as in the sight of God." 2 Cor. 4: 2. Thus
they " compelled them to come in." And the divine wis-
dom and condescension were equally manifested in this ;
for we ofTen see the pressing invitations and importunate
entreaties, even of our fellow-creatures, influencing the
most obdurate minds, when every other method has proved
ineffectual. And to this method the blessed God hath
condescended to have recourse, to work upon the human
mind, in sending the message of peace, pardon, and re-
conciliation among his rebellious creatures. Thus far
both the Arminian and the Calvinist are agreed.
2. If now the word of God does contain invitations, calls,
and entreaties to sinners, while dead in trespasses and
sins, to repent and believe the gospel ; and if, on the other
hand, it asserts that no man can come unto Christ, or believe
in him, except the Father dram him : neither of which pro-
positions can be denied ; then, certainly, the difficulty
which we may feel in harmonizing them, should not influ-
ence us to deny the truth of either. We ought rather to
confess ouv ignorance, and leave it to God to harmonize
these apparent difficulties, and to justify his own ways to
man. The Arminian, it is true, has his theory for tliis
purpose, and the Calvinist has his ; but neither, it seems,
has yet given universal satisfaction. The Arminian, dis-
satisfied with the obvious distinction between a natural
and a moral inability, pleads for sufficient grace to ail ; to
which the Calvinist replies, that this hypothesis, while
denying in every case that of sovereign efficiency, ascribes
to man and not to God, the very turning point of his own
salvation. See Arminianism, and Calvinism.
3. "On this difficult question," says a late writer, " what
must we answer ? Must we say that God could not fore-
see the event ? This cannot be admitted without doing
injustice to his perfections as well as to Scripture, which
foresaw and foretold the rejection of the JMessiah by the
Jews, and the rejection of the Jews for murdering the
Messiah. Must we say that God expostulates with none
but the elect ? But this is rather cutting the knot than
untying it. Must we then say that God is insincere in
addressing them ? This is dreadful : for if God can speak
falsely, dangerous is the state of those who trust him.
Neither of these inferences can be admitted ; indeed it
would answer no end ; for to admit either of these, is to
plunge ourselves into a thousand difficulties for the sake
of removing one. Let us then rest, where we ought to
rest. Let us believe the Scripture propositions to be true,
and, applying ourselves to practice, let us leave the man-
ner of reconciling them to God. I call it but the shadow
of a difficulty ; for indeed a man must know very Uttle
of God, very little of himself, and very Uttle of Scripture,
not to know that two truths may be both certain, and yet
the harmony of them be beyond his comprehension.
4. There is then a universal call of the gospel to all
men ; for wherever it comes, it is the voice of God's Spirit
to those who hear it, calling them to repent and believe
the divine testimony unto the salvation of their souls ;
and it leaves them if,excusable in rejecting it. John 3: 14
19. Heb. 10: 26 — 29. This universal call, however, is
not inseparably connected with salvation ; for it is in
reference to that, that Christ says, " Many are called, but
few are chosen." Matt. 22: 14.
5. Though these words, therefore, are well understood,
as they occur in general use, it must nevertheless be ap-
parent to all who read the New Testament with attention,
that they have a sacred and appropriate signification as
used by the evangelists and apostles, the proper under-
standing of which is of considerable importance. For the
Scripture also speaks of a calling which is effecttial, and
which consequently is more than the outward ministry of
the word ; yea, more than some of its partial and tempo-
rary effects upon many who hear it, for it is always as-
cribed to God's making his word effectual through the en-
lightening and sanctifying influences of his Holy Spirit.
In the golden chain of spiritual blessings which the apos-
tle enumerates in Rom. 8: 30., originating in the divine
predestination, and terminating in the bestowment of eter-
nal glory on the heirs of salvation, that of calling forms
an important link. " Moreover, whom he did predesti-
nate, them he also called, and whom he called, them he
also justified, and whom he justified, them he also glori-
fied." Thus it is said, " Paul may plant, and ApoUos
water, but God giveth the increase." 1 Cor. 3: 6, 7.
Again, he is said to have " opened the heart of Lydia,
that she attended to the doctrine of Paul." Acts 16: 14.
Hence, faith is said to be the gift of God. Eph. 2: 8.
Phil. 1: 29. The Spirit takes of the things of Christ, and
shows them to men, (John 16: 14.) and thus opens their
eyes, turning them from darkness to light, and from the
power of Satan unto God. Acts 26: 18. And so God
saves his people, not by works of righteousness which
they have done, but according to his mercy, by the wash-
ing of regeneration and renewing of the Holy Spirit.
Tiras 3: 5. Thus they are saved, and called with an holy
calling, not according to their works, but according to the
divine purpose and grace which was given them m Christ
Jesus before the world began. 2 Tim 1: 9. It is evident
that in these and the like passages, the term calling has
much the same meaning as conversion ; only that it more
forcibly suggests the idea of the Gospel as the mstrument,
and of God as the author. See also Rom. 1: f> 8: 28, 30
CAL
[ 297
CAL
9:11,23,24. 11:29, 1 Cor. 1: 24— 31. 1 Thess. 1: 5. 2
Thess. 2: 14. Every unbias.sed mind mu.st admit this
conclusion.
6. Effeclual calling has been more particularly defined
be the call of the gospel, accompanied with the inward
work of God's Spirit, whereby convincing us of our sin
and misery, enlightening our minds with the knowledge
of Christ, and renewing our wills, he doth persuade and
enable us to embrace Jesus Christ, freely offered to us in
the gospel. This may further be considered as a call from
darkness to light, (1 Pet. 2: 9.) ; from bondage to liberty,
(Gal. 2: 13.) ; from the fellowship of the world to the fel-
lowship of Christ, (1 Cor. 1: 9.); from misery to happi-
ness, (1 Cor. 7: 15.) ; from sin to holiness, (1 Thes. 4: 7.) ;
finally, from all created good to the enjoyment of eternal
felicity. 1 Pet. 3: 10. Tt is considered in the Scripture
as an huly calling, (2 Tim. 1; y.) ; an high calling, (Phil.
3: 14.) ; an heavenly calling, (Heb. 3: 1.) ; and witlmut re-
pentance, as God will never cast off any who are once
drawn to him. Rom. 11: 29. — Jones; Watson; Buck;
Gill ; Eidgeley ; Sennet ; McLean ; Fuller.
CALLENDER, (Elisha.) minister of the first Baptist
church in Boston, was the son of Ellis Callender, who was
a member as early as 1669, and minister of the same
church from 1708 till 1726. In early life the blessings of
divine grace were imparted to him. He was graduated
at Harvard college in the year 1710. At his ordination,
Jlay 21, 1718, Drs. Increase and Cotton Mather and Mr.
Webb, though of a different denomination, gave their as-
sistance. He was very faithful and successful in the pas-
toral office till his death, March 31, 1738. He was
succeeded by Mr. Condy. A few days before his death
he said, " When I look on one haad, I see nothing but
sin, guilt, and discouragement ; but when I look on the
other, I see my glorious Savior, and the merits of his
precious blood, which cleanseth from all sin. I cannot
saj', that I have such transports of joy, as some have had ;
but through grace I can say, I have gotten the victory
over death and the grave." The last words which fell
from his lips were, " I shall sleep in Jesus." His life was
unspotted ; his conversation was always afl'able, religious,
and dignified; and his end was peaceful and serene. —
Mackus's Hist, of New England, iii. 124 ; Boston Eve. Post,
April 3, 1738 ; Allen ; Benedict.
CALLENDER, (John,) an eminent Baptist minister
and writer in Rhode Island, was a nephew of Elisha Cal-
lender, and was graduated at Harvard college in 1723 . He
was ordained colleague with Mr. Peckam as pastor of the
church at Newport, Oct. 13, 1731. This was the second
Baptist church in America. It was founded in the year
1644. Mr. Callender died January 26, 1748, aged forty-
one. He was a man of very considerable powers of
mind, and of accomplished education. The purity and
evangelical simplicity of his doctrine, confirmed and em-
bellished by the virtuous and devout tenor of his life, en-
deared him to his flock, and justly conciliated the esteem
of all the wise, worthy, and good. Humanity, benevo-
lence, and charity breathed in his conversation. He was
distinguished equally for his candor and piety. He col-
lected many papers relating to the historj' of the Baptists
in this countrj', which were used by Mr. Backus. A cen-
tmy after the deed of Rhode Island was obtained of the
Narragansett Indians, he delivered at Newport, March 24,
1738, a sermon on the history of the colony, which was
published in 1739, with additions. This historical dis-
course, usually called the Century Sermnn, brings dowm
the history of Rhode Island and Providence plantations,
from 1637 to the end of the first century. This is but a
small work ; yet it is the only history of Rhode Island
which has been written, and it is honorable to its author.
- He published also a sermon at the ordination of Jeremiah
Condy, 1739, and a sermon on the death of Blr. Clap of
Newport, 1745. — Backus' s Hist, of New England, iii. 229 ;
Allen ; Benedict.
CALMET, (Augustine,) an erudite divine and critic,
and a monk of the Benedictine order, was born near Com-
mercy, in Lorraine, in 1672 ; became abbot of St. Leo-
pold, near Nancy, and, afterwards, of Senones ; and died
in 1757. Calmet is a voluminous author, and his works
abound in information ; but they are exeeedingly prolLx,
38
and written in an ungraceful style. The most popular of
his numerous productions is, a Historical and Critical
Dictionary of the Bible, in four volumes quarto, which,
in a compressed form, has been naturalized in the English
and other languages. — Davenport.
CALNEH ; a city in the land of Shinar, built by Nira-
rod, and one of the cities mentioned. Gen. 10: 10., as
belonging to his kingdom. It is believed to be the same
with Calno, mentioned in Isa. 10: 9. It is said by the
Clialdee interpreters, as also by Eusebius and Jerome, to
be the same with Ctesiphon, standing upon the Tigris,
about three nWes distant from Seleucia, and that for somi;
time it was the capital city of the Parthians. Bochart,
Wells, and Michaelis agree in this opinion. — Watson.
CALOYERS ; a general name given to the monks of
the Greek church. It is taken from the Greek kalogeroi,
which signifies good old men. These religious consider
Basil as their father and founder, and look upon it as a
crime to follow any other rule than his. There are three
degrees among them — the norices, who are called Archa-
ri ; the ordinary professed, called Microchemi ; and the
more perfect, called Megalochemi. They are likewise
divided into Coenobites, Anchorets, and Recluses.
The coenobites are employed in reciting their office from
midnight to sunset ; and as it is impossible, in so long an
exercise, they should not be overtaken with sleep, there is
one monk appointed to wake them ; and they are obliged
to make three genufle.xions at the door of the choir, and,
returning, to bow to the right and left to their brethren.
The anchorets retire from the conversation of the world,
and live in hermitages in the neighborhood of the monas-
teries. They cuhivate a little spot of ground, and never
go out but on Sundays and holidays, to perform their de-
votions at the next monastery : the rest of the week they
employ in prayer and working with their hands. As for
the recluses, they shut themselves up in grottos and ca-
verns on the tops of mountains, which they never go out
of, abandoning themselves entirely to Pro\'idence. They
live on the alms sent them by the neighboring monas-
teries.
In the monasteries, the religious rise at midnight, and
repeat a particular office, called from thence Mesonycti-
con, which takes up the space of two hours ; after which,
they retire to their cells till five o'clock in the morning,
when they return to the church to say matins. At nine
o'clock, they repeat the terce, sexte, and mass ; after which
they repair to the refectory, where is a lecture read till
dinner. Before they leave the refectory, the cook comes
to the door, and, kneeling down, demands their blessing.
At four o'clock in the afternoon, they say vespers ; and at
six, go to supper. After supper tliey say an office, from
thence called apodipho ; and, at eight, eacli "■-->nk retires
to his chamber and bed till midnight. Every day, after
matins, they confess their faults on their knees to their
superior.
They have four lents. The first and greatest is that
of the resurrection of our Lord. They call it the grand
quarantain, and it lasts eight weeks. During this lent,
the religious di'ink no wine, and their abstinence is so
great, that, if they are obliged, in speaking, to name milk,
butter, or cheese, they always add this parenthesis, Timitis
agios sarncostis, i. e. saving the respect due to the lioly lent.
The second lent is that of the holy apostles, which begins
eight days after Whitsunday ; its duration is not fixed, it
continuing sometimes three weeks, and at other times
longer. During this lent, they are allowed to drink wine.
The third lent is that of the Assumption of the Virgin ; it
lasts fourteen days, during which they abstain from fish,
excepting on Sundays, and the day of the transfiguration
of our Lord. The fourth lent is that of Advent, which
they observe after the same manner as that of the
apostles. -
The caloyers, besides the usual habit of the monastic
life, wear over their shoulders a square piece of stuff, on
which are represented the cross, and the other marks ul
the passion of our Savior, with these letters, JC. XC. NC.
i. e. Jesus Christus vincit.
All the monks are obliged to labor for the benefit of
their monastery, as long as they continue in it. Some
have the care of the fruits, others of the grain, and others
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iif the cattle. The necessity the caloyers are under of
cultivating their own lands, obliges them to admit a great
number of lay-brothers, who are employed the whole day
in working.
Over all these caloj'ers there are visiters or exarchs,
who visit the convents under their inspection, only to draw
from them the sums which the patriarch demands of them.
Yet, notwithstanding the taxes these reUgious are obUged
to pay, both to their patriarch and to the Turks, their con-
vents are very rich.
The most considerable monastery of the Greek caloyers
in Asia, is that of mount Sinai, which \vfts founded by
the emperor Justinian, and endowed with sixty thousand
crowns revenue. The abbot of this monastery, who is
also an archbishop, has under him two hundred religious.
This convent is a large square building, surrounded with
walls fifty feet high, and with but one gate, which is
blocked up to prevent the entrance of the Arabs. On the
eastern side there is a window, through which those within
draw up the pilgrims in a basket, which they let down by
a pulley. Not many miles beyond this, they have another,
dedicated to St. Catharine. It is situated in the place
where Moses made the bitter waters sweet. It has a
garden, -with a plantation of more than ten thousand palm
trees, from whence the monies draw a considerable reve-
nue. There is another in Palestine, four or five leagues
from Jerusalem, situated in the most barren place imagi-
nable. The gate of the convent is covered mth the .skins
of crocodiles, to prevent the Arabs setting fire to it, or
breaking it to pieces with stones. It has a large tuwer,
in which there is always a monk, who gives notice by
a bell of the approach of the Arabs, or any vnld
beasts.
The caloyers, or Greek monks, have a great number
of monasteries in Europe ; among which that of Penteli,
a mountain of Attica, near Athens, is remarkable for its
beautiful situation, and a very good library. That of
Callimachus, a principal town of the island of Chios, is
remarkable for the occasion of its foundation. It is called
Niamogni, i. e. the sole Virgin, its church having been
built in memory of an image of the holy virgin, miracu-
lously found on a tree, being the only one left of several
which had been consumed by fire. Constantine Mono-
machus, emperor of Constantinople, being informed of
this miracle, made a vow to build a church in that place,
if he recovered his throne, from which he had been driven ;
which he executed in the year 1050. The convent is
large, and built in the manner of a castle. It consists of
about two hundred religions, and its revenues amount to
sixty thousand piastres, of which they pay five hundred
yearly to the grand seignior.
There is in Amourgo, one of the islands of the Archi-
pelago, called Sporades, a monastery of Greek caloyers,
dedicated to the Virgin ; it is a large and deep cavern, on
the top of a very high hill, and is entered by a ladder of
fifteen or twenty steps. The church, refectory, and cells
of the religious who inhabit this grotto, are dug out
of the sides of the rock vrAh admiratjle artifice.
But the most celebrated monasteries of Greek caloyers
are those of mount Athos, in Macedonia. They are
twenty-three in number ; and the religious live in them
so regularly, that the Turks themselves have a great
cctfjm for them, and often recommend themselves to their
prayf.^s. Every thing in them is magnificent ; and, not-
withstanding they have been under the Turk for so long
a time, they have lost nothing of their grandeur. The
pnncipal of these monasteries are De la Panagia and
Anna Laura. The religious, who aspire to the highest
dignities, come from all parts of the East, to perform here
their noviciate, and, after a stay of some years, are re-
ceived, upon their return into their own country, as
apostles.
The caloyers of mount Athos have a great aversion to
the pope, and relate, that a Roman pontiff, having visited
their monasteries, had plundered and burned some of
them, because they would not adore him.
There are female caloyers, or Greek nuns, who like-
wise follow the rule of Basil. Their nunneries are always
dependent on some monastery. The Turks buy sashes
of their working, and they open their gates freely to the
Turks on tliis occasion. Those of Constantinople are
widows, some of whom have had several husbands.
They make no vow, nor confine themselves within their
convents. The priests are forbidden, under severe penal-
ties, to visit these rehgious. — Hend. Buck.
CALVARY ; or, as it is called in Hebrew, Golgotha,
" a skull," or " place of skulls," supposed to be thus de-
nominated from the similitude it bore to the figure of a
skull or man's head, or from its being a place of burial.
It was a small eminence or hill to the north of mount
Sion, and to the west of old Jerusalem, upon which our
Lord was crucified. The ancient summit of Calvary has
been much altered, by reducing its level in some parts,
and raising it in others, in order to bring it within the area
of a large and irregular building, called " The Church of
the Holy Sepulchre," which now occupies its site. But in
doing tins, care has been taken that none of the parts
connected with the crucifixion should suflfer any altera-
tion. The same building also incloses ■nithin its spacious
walls several other places reputed sacred. The places
which claim the chief attraction of the Christian visitant
of this church, and those only perhaps which can be relied
on, are, the spot on which the crucifixiion took place, and
the sepulchre in which our Lord was afterwards laid.
The first has been preserved without mutilation : being a
piece of ground about ten yards square, in its original
position ; and so high above the common floor of the
church, that there are, according to Chateaubriand, twenty-
one steps to ascend up to it. ilr. Buckingham describes
the present mount as a rock, the summit of which is as-
cended by a steep flight of eighteen or twenty steps from
the common level of the church, which is equal with that
of the street without ; and besides this, there is a descent
of thirty steps, from the level of the church, into the
chapel of St. Helena, and by eleven more to the place
where the cross was said to be found. On this little mount
is shown the hole in which the cross was fixed ; and near
it, the position of the crosses of the two thieves : one, the
penitent, on the north ; and the other on the south. Here,
also, is shown a cleft in the rock, said to have been caused
by the earthquake which happened at the crucifixion.
The sepulchre, distant, according to Mr. Jolhfle, forty-
three yards from the cross, presents rather a singular and
unexpected appearance to a stranger ; who, for such a
place, would naturally expect to find an excavation in the
ground, instead of which, he perceives it altogether raised,
as if artificially, above its level. The truth is, that in the
alterations which were made on Calvary, to bring all the
principal places within the projected church, the earth
around the sepulchre was dug away ; so that, what was
originally a cave in the earth has now the appearance of a
closet or grotto above ground. The sepulchre itself is about
six feet square and eight high. There is a sohd block of
the stone left in excavating the rock, about two feet and a
half from the floor, and running along the whole of the
inner side ; on which the body of our Lord is said to have
been laid. This, as well as the rest of the sepulchre, is
now faced with marble : partly from the false taste which
prevailed in the early ages of Christianity, in disguising
with profuse and ill-suited embellishments the spots ren-
dered memorable in the history of its Founder, and part-
ly, perhaps, to preserve it from the depredations of the
visitants. This description of the holy sepulchre wiU but
ill accord with the notions entertained by some English
readers of a grave ; but a cave or grotto, thus excavated
m rocky ground, on the side of a hill, was the common
receptacle for the dead among the eastern nations. Such
was the tomb of Christ ; such that of Lazarus ; and such
are the sepulchres still found in Judea and the east. It
may be useful further to observe, that it was customary
with Jews of property to provide a sepulchre of this kind
on their own ground, as the place of their interment after
death ; and it appears that Calvary itself, or the ground
immediately around it, was occupied with gardens ; one
of which belonged to Joseph of Arimathea, who had then
recently caused a new sepulchre to be made for himself.
It was this sepulchre, so close at hand, and so appropriate,
which he resigned for the use of our Lord ; little thinking
perhaps, at the time, how soon it would again be left
vacant for its original purpose by his glorious resurrection.
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So much for the similarities between the evangelists'
description of the sacred places and those appearances
which they now present : it remains to inquire, what
proof we have that their localities were accurately pre-
served. It is certain that many thousands of strangers
resorted every year to Jerusalem, for purposes of devotion,
who would find themselves interested, in a more than
ordinary degree, in the transactions which that city had
lately witnessed, and with the multitudinous reports con-
cerning them, which were of a nature too stupendous to
he concealed. The language of Luke (24: 28.) plainly
imports wonder that so much as a single pilgrim to the
holy city could be ignorant of late events ; and Paul
appeals to Agrippa's knowledge, that " these things were
not done in a corner." It is, in short, impossible, that the
natural curiosity of the human mind — to adduce no su-
perior principle^should be content to undergo the fatigues
of a long journe}' to visit Jerusalem, and yet, when there,
should refrain from visiting the scenes of the late aston-
ishing wonders. So long as access to the temple was
free, so long would Jews and proselytes from all nations
pay their devotions there ; and so long would the inquisi-
tive, whether converts to Christianity, or not, direct their
attention to mount Calvary, with the garden and sepulchre
of Joseph. The apostles were at hand, to direct all in-
quiries; neither James nor John could be mistaken ; and
during more than tliirty years, the localities would be
ascertained beyond a doubt, by the participators and the
eye-witnesses themselves.
It is worth our while to examine the evidence in proof
of the continued veneration of the Christians for the holy
places, which should properly be divided into two periods ;
the first to the time of Adrian's ^lia ; the second from
that time to the days of Constantine. Jerome, writing to
Marcella concerning this custom, has this remarkable
passage: {Ep. Vi . ad Marcell .) "During the whole time
from the ascension of the Lord to the present day, through
every age as it rolled on, as well bishops, martjTS, and
men eminently eloquent in ecclesiastical learning, came
to Jerusalem ; thinking themselves deficient in religious
knowledge, unless they adored Christ in those places from
which the gospel dawn burst from the cross." It is a
pleasing reliection that the leading men in the early
Christian communities were thus diligent in acquiring the
most exact information. They spared no pains to obtain
the sacred books in their complete and perfect state, and
to satisfj' themselves by ocular inspection, so far as possi-
ble, of the truth of those facts on which they built the
doctrine they delivered to their hearers. SoMelito, bishop
of Sardis, (A. D. 170.) writes to Ouesimus, " When I
went into the East, and was come to the place where those
things were preached and done :" — so we read that Alex-
ander, bishop of Cappadocia, (A. D. 211,) going to Jtru-
salem for the sake of prai/er, and to visit the sacred places,
was chosen assistant bishop of that city. This seems to
have been the regular phraseology on such occasions ; for
to this cause Sozomen ascribes the visit of Helena to Je-
rusalem, for the sake of prayer, and to visit the sacred
places."
This may properly introduce the second period in this
history, on which we lay great stress ; — it is no longer the
t.-3timony of friends ; it is the testimony of enemies ; it
is the record of their determination to destroy to their
utmost every vestige of the gospel of Christ. On that
d.^ermination we rest our confidence ; they could not be
mistaken ; and their endeavors guide our judgment.
. Jerome says, (Ess. 13. ad Paitliu.) " From the time of
Hadrian to that of the government of Constantine, about
the space of one hundred and eighty j'ears, in the place
of the resurrection was set up an image of Jupiter ; in the
rock of the cross a marble statue of Venus was stationed,
to he worshipped by the people ; the authors of these
persecutions supposing, that they should deprive us of
our faith in the resurrection and the cross, if they could
but pollute the holy places by idols. Bethlehem, now our
most venerable place, and that of the whole world, of
which the Psalmist sings, ' Truth is sprung out of the
earth,' was overshadowed by the grove of Thammuz,
i. e. of Adonis ; and in the cave where once the Messiah
appeared as an infant, the lover of Venus was loudlv
lamented." This is a general account of facts ; a fe\\
additional hints may be gleaned from other writers.
Sozomen is more particular. We learn from him, that
"the GentUes by whom the church was persecuted, in
the very infancy of Christianity, labored by e\'ery art,
and in everj- manner, to abolish it : the holy place they
blocked up with a vast heap of stones ; and they raised
that to a great height, which before had been of consider-
able depth ; as it may now be seen. And moreover, the
entire place, as well of the resurrection, as of Calvary,
they surrounded by a wall, stripping it of all ornament.
And first they overlaid the ground with stones, then they
built a temple of Venus on it, and set up an image of the
goddess. And that the evidence of this desecration should
not rest on '-monkish historians," Providence has preserved
incontestible witnesses in the medals of Adrian, which
mark him as the founder of the new city, jElia, and exhibit
a temple of Jupiter, another of Venus, and various other
deities, all worshipped in it.
It is evident, that if the rock of Calvary and the holy
sepulchre were surrounded by the same wall, as Sozomen
asserts, they could not be far distant from each other ; and
this wall, with the temples and other sacra it inclosed,
would not only mark these places, but, in a certain sense,
would preserve them ; as the mosque of Omar preserves
the site of the temple of Solomon, at this day. While,
therefore, we abandon to the doubts of Dr. Clarke and
Capt. Light the commemorative altars and stations, which
we think it not worth while to defend, and while we
heartily wish that all these places had been left in their
original state, to tell their own story, we must be allowed
to relieve the memory of Helena, the Christian empress,
from the gudt of deforming by intentional honors these
sacred localities ; and the monks, however ignorant or
credulous, from the imputation of imposing on their pil-
grims and visiters, in respect to the site of the places they
now show as peculiarly holy.
On the whole, we are called to admire the proofs yet
preserved to us by Providence, of transactions in these
localities nearly two thousand years ago. Facts which,
for centuries, employed the artifices and the power of the
supreme government in church and state, of the Jewish
hierarchy, and of the Roman emperors, to subvert, — to
destroy the evidences of, — 3'et the evidences defied their
malignity ; — of the barbarians — Saracens and Turks to
demolish ; but they still survive ; — of heathen philosophy,
and soi-disant modern philosophy, to annul, but in vain.
The labors of Julian to re-edify the temple continue almost
living witnesses of his discomfiture. The sepulchres of
the soldiers who fell in assaulting Jerusalem, remain
speaMng evidences of the destruction of the city, accoiMing
to prediction, by the Romans. The holy sepulchre stands,
a traditional memorial of occurrences too incredible to
obtain credit, unless supported by super-human testimon}'.
Or, if that be thought dubious, mount Calvary certainly
exists, with features so distinct, so peculiar to itself, and
unlike everj' thing else around it, that in spite of the ill-
judged labors of honest enthusiasm, of the ridiculous tales
of superstition, and the mummery of ignorance and arro-
gance, we have only to compare the original records of
our faith with circumstances actually existing ; to demon-
strate that the works on which our belief relies were
actually written in the country, at the times, and by the
persons — eye-witnesses — which they purport to be.
Calv-vry !
Thy name to me ia balm. On thee my Ihoiighta
Repose the livelong Jay ; and when at nigtil
Deep sleep descends on men, my thonghls awake
To muse upon Illy wonders. Round Ihy Cross
Twine my eternal hopes, and flourish there.
Watson ; Calnwt.
CALVIN, (JoH.v,) was born July 10, 1500, at Noyon,
in Picardy. His father, Gerard, was neither distinguished
by affluence nor learning ; but by his judicious, prudent
and upright conduct, he obtained, as he merited, the pa-
tronage of the Montmor famdy, in Picardy. Calvin was
educated, in early hfe, under their roof; and afterwards
studied some subsequent years at the college de la
Marche, in Paris, under the' tuition of JIarturin Cordier,
for whose learned and pious instructions he entertained
CAL
[ 3()0 J
CAL
the most sincere and grateful recollection. From the col-
lege de la Marche, he proceeded to that of Montaign ; and
whilst he advanced in the attainment of profound know-
lodge, he became increasingly pious. His father, accu-
rately estimating his talents, and wisely attending to the
peculiar habits of his mind, obtained for him, when only
twenty years of age, the rectory of Punt L'Eveque, at
Noyon, and a benefice in the cathedral church. For some
reason, however, which it appears impossible accurately
to ascertain, Calvin aftenvards directed the energies of his
mind to the study of the law at Orleans, under the direc-
tion of the celebrated civilian, Pierre de I'Etoile, and
attained a proficiency in the science which astonished his
contemporaries. The death of his father compelled his
return to Noyon, and for a short time retarded his studies.
But revisiting Paris, he again renewed them ; and, at the
age of twenty-four, published his Commentary on the
celebrated work of Seneca on Clemency. Calvin had
already discovered the absurdities of popery, and freely
written on them to his friends ; and by his intimacy with
Nicholas Cop, who about this time was summoned before
the French court, for having exposed the errors of the
national religion, had raised many suspicions against him,
and his flight to Basle became necessary. The revival
of letters, and the exertions of Luther and Melancthon,
two celebrated reformers, combined at this era to en-
courage a disposition which prevailed, to investigate the
doctrines of the church of Rome, and assisted in effecting
a reformation, which all wise men must applaud, and at
which all good men must rejoice. From Paris, Calvin
directed his foot.steps to Xaintonge, and in its retirement
pursued his studies in theology ; composed some fornsula-
ries, to be used as homilies ; and, above all, grew in per-
sonal holiness, and thus prepared his mind for his future
labors in the c-.ase of truth. Calvin then visited Nerac ;
resided some time with Jacques le Fevre d'EstapIes, who
was formerly the instructer of the offspring of Francis the
First ; and then revisited Paris. In the succeeding year,
Francis the First determined, if possible, to extinguish the
spark of reformation in Paris ; directed not merely the
torture, but the death, of many eminent and pious indi-
viduals, of both sexes, for their antipathy to a church
which they considered as idolatrous, and to rites and cere-
monies which they regarded as superstitious. From such
scenes the mind of Calvin revolted. From such a church
he was determined to separate. He therefore published
" La Psychopannyschie," or a refutation of the doctrine,
that the souls of the just sleep till the general resurrec-
tion ;— and he then fled the kingdom. He retired to Basle,
and devoted, with Simon Grinee, much time to the study
of Hebrew.
The apology made by Francis the First for the persecu-
tion of the reformed, and which was, that they were' bad
citizens, disobedient subjects, and clamorous anabaptists,
at this time excited the holy displeasure of Calvin, and he
published his "Christian Institutes," dedicating them to
Francis. In Italy, about the same period, the principles
of the Reformation began to dawn ; and the reformer,
beholding with the purest satisfaction, the first beams of a
clearer light, hastened to that country ; and, aided by the
wise and accompUshed daughter of Louis XII., the duchess
de Farrare, he assisted in promoting the spread of the
Protestant faith. At the town of Piedmont, he ventured
publicly to preach the doctrines of the Refonuation ; but,
in the commencement of the year 1536, he was compelled
to quit this scene of his labors. In the autumn of the
same year he visited Geneva ; was prevailed on by Fafel
and Pierre Viret, to settle there ; and immediately com-
menced the arduous duties of a reformed Christian min-
ister in the consistory. In Geneva, the Protestant religion
had much spread, and that city had contracted a close
alliance with Bern ; but the state of morals was very low,
and, therefore, whilst the talents of Calvin commanded
respect, his austerity and sanctity were reprobated or ridi-
culed. Calvin was accused of Arianism ; but the charge
he refuted. He opposed the re-establishment of supersti-
tions ceremonies and feasts; but himself and his two
friends, Farel and Virel, were hated by the Catholics, and
were ultimately banished from Geneva. At Strasburg,
however, he found a shelter from the storni of persecu-
tion ; and, aided by Bucer, he was appointed professor of
theology, and pastor of a French church. Though ban-
ished from Geneva, he cherished for its inhabitants a
Christian regard ; he frequently addressed them by letters ;
he wrote an admirable reply to a publication by Cardinal
Sadolet, which was calculated, by the falsity of its reason-
ings (though disguised by ability and ingenuity,) to shake ^
the faith of the reformed. He directed the energies of his ^
mind to the conversion of all schismatics ; and he repub-
. lished his " Christian Institutes." In 1540, he was invited
to return to Geneva. He at first declined ; but, at length,
.solicited by two councils, and by the ministers and inhabi-
tants of the city, he quitted Strasburg in the spring of
1541, with an understanding that he should speedily re-
turn ; and was received with transport at Geneva. Active
and energetic, zealous and persevering, Calvin instantly
commenced the work of reformation. The ecclesiastical
laws he assisted in revising ; the ordinances he altered ;
and before the year had closed, this work of usefulness
was accomplished, and approved by a general council.
Those laws were as efficient and salutary, as they were
wise and equitable. At this time he wrote a catechism,
which was translated into various languages, and met with
general approbation. He also published a " Commentary
on the Epistle to Titus," and dedicated it to his old friends
Viret and Farel. His labors now rapidly increased. He
preached nearly every day ; he lectured very frequently
in theology ; presided at meetings ; instructed churches ;
and defended the Protestant faith in works celebrated for
their perspicuity and genius. Nor was he less active in
his duties as a citizen than as a theologian, or a minister
of Jesus Christ. In 1543, he composed a liturgy for the
church at Geneva. He also wrote a work on the necessity
of a reformation in the church, and exposed the absurdi-
ties of a frivolous translation of the Bible, by Castalio, in
the compilation of which fancy had been consulted at the
expense o6 truth, and sound instead of sense. The ene-
mies to the reformation were numerous and potent when
combined, but singly they were nothing. The truth of
this remark was felt by Calvin ; and he, therefore, refuted
the various works of their enemies as they appeared.
Thus he answered Albert Pighius.
But his efforts were not all controversial. He estab-
lished, at Geneva, a seminary for the education of pious
young men in the Protestant faith, who, by their future
ministrations, should extend the borders of the true
church ; and in that great work of usefulness he was
assisted by the celebrated Beza. At that time also, the
AValdenses, inhabiting Cabriers, and other places, Avho
were persecuted by order of the parliament of Aquitaine,
and who fled to Geneva, found in Calvin a sincere and
zealous friend. He vindicated in public their cause, and
in private relieved their necessities. In the year 1546,
the efforts of Calvin were various, though painful.
Charles V., who was a determined enemy to the Protest-
ant religion, had alarmed some by his threats, and cor-
rupted others by his promises. Calvin exerted himself to
counteract all his efforts. But this ^^'as not all. Whilst
some were lukewarm at Geneva, others were additionally
profligate. To convert and convince them, he labored
M-ith incessant anxiety, though with but inadequate suc-
cess. In 1547, whilst Germany was the scene of war,
and France the theatre of persecution, Calvin wrote his
" L'Antidote," being a controversial work on the doctrine
of the first seven sections of the council of Trent, and
also " a Warning Letter to the Church of Rouen," igainst
C AL
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iKe doctrines of a monk who taught the Gnostic and
Aminoniian heresies. In the same year he also continued
his pastoral duties, and proceeded in the composition of
his " Commentaries on Paul's Epistles." In 1548, Beza
retired to Geneva, and, with Calvin, formed future plans of
yet more extended and important Usefulness. Calvin,
accompanied by Farel, iu tlie following year visited the
Swiss churches ; and wrote two very able and learned
letters to Sociniis, the founder of the sect called Socinians.
In 1550, he assisted yet further in the work of reforma-
tion, by obtaining the direction of the consistory at Ge-
neva, for the communication of private as well as public
religious instruction to its inhabitants, and for a total dis-
regard, by every one, of all feast and saint days. The
next year was less favorable to the peace of Calvin. A
controversy on the doctrine of predestination agitated the
church ; '.be enemies of Calvin misrepresented his senti-
ments, and endeavored to excite a general antipathy, not
merely to his doctrines, but also to his person. But
Providence rendered their attempts abortive.
Calvin is accused of having, at this time, acted with a
tyrannical and persecuting spirit towards the heretical
Servetus. With him Calvin was once intimate, and also
corresponded. Servetus, by his conduct and publications,
especially by his " Restitutio Christianismi," attracted
the attention of the pope, and of the persecuting cardinal
Tournon. It is stated that Calvin declared, " If that
heretic (Servetus) came to Geneva, he would take care
that he should be capitally punished." But this statement
his friends confidently deny ; and reply, that he persuaded
Servetus not to visit Geneva ; that he disapproved of all
religious persecution ; that he could, if he had thought
proper., for three years before Servetus was so punished,
have exposed him to his enemies, but which he woukl not
do ; and that, Calvin, in his writings, declares, that with
his original imprisonment and prosecntion 'he was not at
all implicated. It cannot, however, be denied, that it was
at the instigation of Calvin he was prosecuted, as his
secretary was his accuser at Geneva, and exhibited arti-
cles against him. By the council of Geneva, Servetus
was condemned to be burned to death ; and, on the 27th
of October, the punishment was inflicted. The impro-
priety of that punishment is admitted by all the friends
of civil and religious liberty, and the apologists for Calvin
alike condemn it. But they contend, and with seeming
propriety, that it was consonant with the spirit of the age,
xrith the laws of Geneva, and mth even the opinions of
many of the great, and even good men, who then lived.
About this time Calvin w'as much aifected by the per-
- sedition of his friend and fellow-laborer, J^arel, for having
condemned the immorality of the Genevese ; and was
almost incessantly occupied in acts of kindness to the
persecuted Protestants, who, on the death of Edward,
king of England, had been compelled to quit the country.
He was also engaged in writing his " Commentaiy on
the Gospel of John." Nor could the spirit of bigotry
and persecution, which prevailed in England, fail of at-
tracting his attention. He communicated with the sutfer-
ers, both in England and France, and was indefatigable
in rooting up all heresies which then disturbed the peace
of the church. Towards the close of the year, Calvin
visited Frankfort, for the purpose of terminating the con-
troversy as to the Lord's supper, which had been so long
agitated. He returned to Geneva much indisposed, but
devoted his time to writing his '• Commentary on the
Psalms ;" and to active, energetic, and successful ex-
ertions, through the medium of German ambassadors,
on belialf of the Protestants at Paris, who, in that year
( 1555,) were unjustly and inhumanly persecuted. At this
■ tmie, a sect called the Tritheists, headed by Gentilis, who
believed that God consisted not merely of three distinct
persons, but also of three distinct essences, was revived ;
and Calvin directed his attention to a refutation of the
system. In the succeeding year, he proposed the estab-
lishment of a college at Geneva, for the education of
ytWlh ; and in three years his wishes were accomplished,
and himself was elected to the situation of professor of
divinity, jointly with Claudius Pontus. This college after-
wards became eminently useful, and was much distin-
guished for the learned and pious men who emanated
from it. In the same, and the following year, Calvin was
presented with the freedom of the city of Geneva ; re-
printed his " Christian Institutes," as well in French as
Latin ; prepared for the press his " Commentary on
Isaiah ;" and combated, with success, a new heresy which
had arisen, as to the mediatorial character of Christ. In
15IU, Calvin was summoned belbre the council of Geneva,
at the desire of Charles IX., as being an enemy to France
and her king. But, on examination, it appeared, that the
only charge which could be established against him, was
that of having sent Protestant missionaries to that king-
dom. Soon afterwards, he published his " Commentary
on Daniel ;" and much interested himself on behalf of the
Protestants in France, who were then persecuted by the
duke of Guise. In 15(j'2, his health rapidly declined ; and
he was compelled to restrict his labcrs to Geneva and his
study. But in this and the following year, he lectured on
the doctrine of the Trinity ; completed his " Commenta-
ries on the Books of Moses and Joshua," and published
his celebrated " Answers to the Deputies of the Synod of
Lyons." In the year 1564, his health became gradually
worse ; but yet he insisted on perforuung as many of his
duties as his strength would possi'.ily allow. On the
twenty-fourth of March, he Mas present at the assembly.
On the twenty-seventh, he was carried into the council,
and delivered, before the seigneurs who were assembled,
his farewell addiess ; and on the second of April, he ap-
peared at church, received from Beza the sacrament of
the Lord's supper, and joined in the devotions of the
great congregation. To the syndics, in the ensuing
month, he delivered an able and afi'ecting oration ; and to
the ministers of the town and countiy, assembled on an
occasion in his room, he addressed a pathetic and admi-
rable discourse. This was his last public labor. The
remaining moments of his life were dedicated to acts of
devotion, until May the twenty-fourth, at eight P. SI.,
when he expired, aged fifty-four.
The grief of the Genevese was inconceivably great.
As a citizen, a pastor, a reformer, a father, he was uni-
versally regretted, and his memoiy was embalmed in the
tears and sorrows of a wide-spread population.
Calvin was of a middling stature, with sallow com-
plexion ; but his eyes were celebrated for their brilliancy.
He was sincere, disinterested, and benevolent. The style
of his writings is elegant and chaste, and they contain
much of the softest and most persuasive eloquence.
As an expositor of the Scriptures, Calvin was sober,
spiritual, penetrating. As a theologian, he stands in the
very foremost rank of those of any age or country. His
Institutes, composed in his youth, amidst a pressure of
dtUies, and the rage and turbulence of the times, invinci-
ble against everj' species of assault, give him indisputably
this pre-eminence. As a civilian, even though the law
was a subject of subordinate attention, he had few equals
among his contemporaries. In short, he exhibited, in
strong and decided development, all those moral and in-
tellectual qualities which marked him out for one who
was competent to guide the opinions, and control the
commotions, of inquiring and agitated nations. Through
the most trying and hazardous period of the Reformation,
he exhibited, invariably, a wisdom in counsel, a prudence
of zeal, and at the same time, a decision and intrepidity
of character which were truly astonishing. Nothing
could for a moment deter him from a faithful discharge
of his duty ; nothing detrude him from the path of recti-
tude. When the very foundations of the world seemed
to be shaking, he stood erect and firm, the pillar of the
truth. He took his stand between two of the most pow
erful kingdoms of the age, resisted and assailed alter
nately the whole force of the papal domination — main
tallied the cause of truth and of God against the intriguins
Charles on the one hand, and the courtly and bigoioi;
Francis on the other. The pen was his most efl'ectu.ii
weapon ; and this was beyond the restriction or refutati.>n
of his royal antagonists. Indeed, on the arena of theolo
gical controversy, he was absolutely unconquerable by
any power or combination of powers, which his numerous
opponents could bring against him. He not only refuted
and repressed the various errors which sprang up so
abundantly in consequence of the commotion of the
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times, and wliich tlirealened to defeat all the efforts ^vl)icl]
were making for the moral illumination of the world ; but
the publication of the Institutes contributed, in a wonder-
ful decree, to give unity of religious belief to the friends
of the keformation, and, of course, to marshal the strength,
and combine and give success to the efforts, of all contend-
ers for the faith once delivered to the saints.
Notwithstanding all that has been said to his disparage-
ment, it is certainly true that Calvin was a great and good
man. In the full import of the phrase, he may be styled
ji. benefactor of the v/orld. Most intensely and effectually,
too, did he labor for the highest temporal, and especially
for the eternal, interests of his fellow-men. He evidently
brought to the great enterprise of the age a larger amount
of moral and intellectual power than did any other of the
reformers. Even the cautious Scahger pronounces him
the most exalted character that has appeared since the
days of the apostles, and, at the age of twenty-two, the
most learned man in Europe. And the immediate influ-
ence of his invincible mind is still deeply felt through the
mast"rly productions of his pen, and will continjie to be
feU in the advancement of the pure interests of the church,
until liie complete triumph of her principles.
Calvin deserves the thanks, and not the curses, of pos-
terity. He was ardently esteemed by all the good of his
own time ; and he has since been, is now, and will conti-
nue to be, esteemed, so long as high moral excellence and
the severe majesty of virtue shall, to any extent, be objects
of human approbation.
His works first appeared in a collected form, at Geneva,
in Uvdve vols. fbl. 1578 ; they were reprinted at the same
place in seven vols. fol. 1617 ; and in nmii vols. fol. at Am-
sterdam, in 1671. This last is the best edition. (See Mac-
kmzie's Life of Cahmi ; 3foslieim's Eccl. Hist. Cent. xvi. ;
Defense de Calvin, par Drelincourt ; Narrative of Calvin, by
Beza ; Histoire Litteraire de Genive, by M. J. Senebier ;
Jones's Christ. Biog., and Christ. Sped, for May, 1828.)—
Heiid. Buck.
CALVINISM ; the name given to that system of reli-
gious faith which corresponds in the main with that of
Calvin ; though in some points differing from the views
of the illustrious reformer. Calvin considered every
church as a separate and independent body, invested with
the power of legislation for itself. He proposed that it
should be governed by presbyteries and synods, composed
of clergy and laity, without bishops, or any clerical subor-
dination ; and maintained that the province of the civil
magi.-.trate extended only to its protection and outward
accommodation. He acknowledged a real, though spirit-
ual presence of Christ in the eucharist ; and he confined
the privilege of communion to pious and regenerate be-
lievers. These sentiments, however, are not imbibed by
all who are called Calvinists.
In 1336, Calvin was appointed professor of divinity at
Geneva, where he established that system of church polity
calle". r 'tsbyterittnism, originally considered as an essential
part ol Calviiisra ; btit since the synod of Dort (or Dor-
drecht), v'lich embraced, digested, and established his
theologi 1^1,1 principles, in 1618, above forty years after his
decease, the term Cahnnism is generally confined to those
principles, independent of his system of church polity.
Calvinists, however, contend that their system did not
originate with Calvin, but is as ancient as the Scriptures
from which it is drawn. They also say it is in substance
the same as that of Augustine, and it is certainly very
difficult to distinguish them. Mr. Toplady (in his'" His-
toric Proof,") has indeed traced the doctrine, in a .series
of quotations, from the times of the apostles to those of the
Teformation ; and though some of his extracts may be ob-
jected to, the work, as a whole, seems scarcely to admit
of refutation. Our present object however is, to represent
the sentiments of Calvin, and those denominated from
him, which have been distinguished into High (hyper, or
ultra) Calvinists, Strict Calvinists, and Moderate (or mo-
dern) Calvinists.
The first class w-ill be found described in this work, un-
der Antinomians, Crispites, and Hofkinsians, to which it
is sufficient to refer. Strict Calvinists are those who adopt
the opinions of Calvin himse!*', and the synod of Dort,
above referred to. , The most offensive point in Calvin's
system, is the doctrine of absolute jiredestiualij"!, and its
counterpart, reprobation : on these points, therefore, we
shall quote his own words, in which if he errs by exces-
sive rigor in his statements, the origin of his error can be
seen.
" Predestination," says Calvin, "by wliich God adopts
some to the hope of life, and adjudges others to eternal
death, no one, desirous of the credit of piety, dares abso-
lutely to deny. But it is involved in many cavils, espe-
cially liy those who make fore-knowledge the cause of it.
AVe maintain, that both belong to God ; but it is preposte-
rous to represent one as dependent on the other.
" Predestination we call the eternal decree of God, by
which he hath determined, in himself, what he would have
to become of every individual of mankind. For they are
not all created with a similar destiny ; but eternal life is
fore-ordained for some, and eternal damnation for others.
Every man, therefore, being created for one or the other
of these ends, we say he is predestinated either to life or
to death."
This point, this eminent reformer proceeds to argue
from the conduct of the Almighty respecting the seed of
Abraham, and toward certain individuals, as Jacob and
Esau. (Institutes, Book III. chap. xxi. 1^5, &c. Allen's
Trans, vol. ii. pp. 404-5.)
" Now, with respect to the reprobate, (proceeds Calvin,)
whom the apostle introduces in the same place : — as Jacob,
without any merit yet acquired by good works, is made an
object of grace, so Esau, while yet unpolluted by any crime,
is accounted an object of hatred, Rom. 9: 13. If we turn
our attention to ivorks, we insult the apostle, as though he
saw not that m hich is clear to us : now that he saw none
is evident, bc-ause he expressly asserts the one to have
been elected, and the other rejected, while they had not
yet done any good or evil, to prove the foundation of di-
vine predestination not to be in works. — Secondly, when
he raises the question, whether God is unjust, he never
urges, what would have been the most absolute and obvi-
ous defence of his justice, that God rewarded Esau accord-
ing to his wickedness ; but contents himself mth a differ-
ent solution, — that the reprobate are raised up for this
purpose, that the glory of God may be displayed by their
means. — Lastly, he subjoins a concluding observation,
that ' God hath mercy on whom he will have mercy, and
whom he will he hardeneth.' You see how lie attributes
both to the mere will of God. If, therefore, we can assign
no reason why he grants mercy to his people, but because
such is his pleasure, neither shall we find any other cause
but his will for the reprobation of others : for when God is
said to harden, or show mercy to ivhom he pleases, men
are taught by this declaration to seek no cause beside his
will." (/«»/., ^11. Allen's Trans, p. 425.)
It is most clear, however, from his words elsewhere, that
this great divine did not mean to destroy human responsi-
biUty, nor to set aside the use of means ; since the Scrip-
ture addresses to man exhortations and reproofs, though
it constantly attributes to the grace of God the Spirit and
power of obedience. (See Inst. Book III. chap. v. ^ 4.)
We shall subjoin only, as immediately connected ^ith
this subject, Calvin's opinion of the corruption of human
nature, by original sin. The foUowdng is his doctrine on
this mysterious point : —
" Original sin appears to be an hereditary pravity and
corruption of our nature, diffused through all the parts of
the soul, rendering us obnoxious to the divine wrath, and
producing in us those works which the Scripture calls
works of the flesh. . . . These two things, therefore, should
be strictly observed : first, that our nature, being so totally
vitiated and depraved, we are, on account of this very cor-
ruption, considered as convicted and justly condemned in
tlie sight of God ; to whom nothing is acceptable but right-
eousness, innocence, and purity. And this liableness to
punishment, arises not from the delinquency of another ;
for when it is said, that the sin of Adam renders us ob-
noxious to the divine judgment, it is not to be understood
as if we, though innocent, were undeservedly loaded with
the guilt of his sin ; but because we are all subject to a
curse in consequence of his transgression — he is therefore
said to have involved us in guilt. Nevertheless, we de-
rive from him, not only the punishment, but also the pol-
CAL
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lutlon, to v-liich the punishment is justly due." (Instit.
Book II. chap. i. ■5, 3. Allen's Trans, vol. ii. pp. 266-7.)
"We now proceed to exhibit an abstract of the same sj's-
tera, as arranged and matured in the articles of the synod
of Dort, in reference to the five points in dispute with the
Arminians, (as stated under that article,) which forms the
general standard of strict Calvinism.
1. Of Predestination. "As all men have sinned in
Adam, and have become exposed to the curse and eternal
death, God would have done no injustice to any one, if he
had determined to leave the whole human race under sin
and the curse, and to condemn them on account of sin ;
according to those words of the apostle, ' all the world is
become guilty before God.' Kora. 3: 19, 23 ; 6: 23
" That some, in time, have faith given them by God, and
others have it not given, proceeds from his eternal decree ;
for ' kno%vn unto God are all his works from the begin-
ning,'&:c. (Acts 15: IS. Eph. 1: 11.) According to which
decree, he graciously softens the hearts of the elect, how-
ever hard, and he bends them to believe : but the non-elect
he leaves, in just judgment, to their own perversity and
hardness. And here, especially, a deep discrimination, at
the same time both merciful and just, a discrimination of
men equally lost, opens itself to us ; or that decree of elec-
tion and reprobation which is revealed in the word of God :
which, as perverse, impure, and unstable persons do wrest
to their own destraction, so it affords ineffable consolation
to holy and pious souls." (Comp. Art. XVII. of the Church
of England.)
" But election is the immutable purpose of God ; by
which, before the foundations of the earth were laid, he
chose, out of the whole human race, fallen by their own
fault from their primeval integrity into sin and destruc-
tion, according to the most free good pleasure of his own
will, and of mere grace, a certain number of men, neither
better nor worthier than others, but lying in the same mi-
sery with the rest, to salvation in Christ ; whom he had,
even from eternity, constituted Blediator and head of all
the elect, and the foundation of salvation ; and therefore
he decreed to give them unto him to be saved, and effect-
ually to call and draw them into communion with him, by
his word and Spirit : or he decreed himself to give unto
them true faith, to justify, to sanctify, and at length pow-
erfully to glorify them," &;c. Eph. 1: 4 — 6. Rom. 8: 30.
" This same election is not made from any foreseen faith,
obedience of faith, holinees, or any other good quality and
disposition, as a pre-rcquisite cause or condition in the man
who should be elected, &c. ' He hath chosen us, (not he-
cause we n-ere,) but that we tnight be holy,' &c. Eph. 1:
4. Rom. 9: 11—13. Acts 13: 48.
" Moreover, holy Scripture doth illustrate and commend
to us, this eternal and free grace of our election, in this
more especially, that it doth testify all men not to be elect-
ed ; b\U that some are non-elect, or passed by, in the eternal
election of God, whom traly God, from most free, just, ir-
reprehensible, and immutable good pleasure, decreed to
leave in the common misery, into which they had, by their
onm fault, cast themselves ; and not to bestow on them
living faith, and the grace of conversion ; but having been
Icit in their own ways, and under just judgment, at length,
not only on account of their unbelief, but also of all their
olhcrsins, to condemn and eternally punish them, to the
manifestation of his own justice. And this is the decree
of reprobation, which determines that God is in no wise the
author of sin, (which, to be thought of, is blasphemy,)
but a tremendous, incomprehensible just judge and aven-
ger." (Scott's Synod of Dort, pp. 112—124.)
2. Of THE Deatu OF Christ. Passing over, for brevity's
sake, what is said of the necessity of atonement, in order
to pardon, and of Christ having offered that atonement
and satisfaction, it is added : — •'• This death of the Son of
God is a single and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction
for sins ; of infinite value and price, abundantly sufficient
to expiate the sins of the whole world : hut because many
who are called by the Gospel do not repent, nor believe in
Christ, but perish in unbelief; this doth not arise from
defect, or insufficiency of the sacrifice offered by Christ
upon the cross, but from their own fault
" God -willed that Christ, through the blood of the cross,
f.nould, out of every people, tribe, nation, and language,
efficaciously redeem all those, and those only, who were from
eternity chosen to salvation, and given to him by the Fa-
ther ; that he should confer on them the gift of faith," &c.
(Scott's Synod, &c. pp. 128—130.)
3. Of Man's CoRRUrTioN, &c. " ' All men are con-
ceived in sin, and horn the children of wrath,' indisposed
(iiiepti) to all saving good, prepense tq evil, dead in sin,
and the slaves of sin ; and williout the regenerating grace
of the Holy Spirit, they neither are willing nor able to re-
turn to God, to correct their depraved nature, or to dispose
themselves to the correction of it." This will not be found
to differ materially from the third article of the Arminia-ns,
(page lis,) and therefore need not here be enlarged on,
though both widely difier from the doctrine of the lattc:
remonstrants and Anti-calvinists in general. (Scott's Sy
nod. pp. 12,"), 126.)
7. Of Grace and Free-will. " But in lilic manner as,
by the fall, man does not cease to be man, endowed wiili
intellect and will ; neither hath sin, which hath pei-vaded
the whole human race, taken away the nature of the liti
man species, but it hath depraved and spiritually stained
it ; so that even this divine grace of regeneration does nut
act upon men like stocks and trees, nor take av.-ay the
properties (proprittates) of his will ; or violently compel il,
while unwilling; but it spiritually quickens, heals, cor-
rects, and sweetly, and at the same time powerfully, in-
clines it ; so that whereas it before was wholly governeil
by the rebellion and resistance of the fiesh, now prompt
and sincere obedience of the Spirit may begin to reign ; in
which the renewal of our spiritual will, and our liberty,
truly consist : in which manner, (or for which reason.)
unless the admirable Author of all good should work in
us, there could be no hope to man of rising from the fall
by that free-mill, by which, when standing, he fell into
ruin." (Scott's Synod, p. 141.)
5. On Perseverance. "God, who is rich in mercy,
from his immutable purpose of election, does not wholly
take away his Holy Spirit from his own, even in lamenta-
ble falls ; nor does he'so permit ihem to decUne, (prolabi.)
that they should fall from the grace of adoption, and the
state of justification ; or commit the sin vnto death, or
against the Holy Spirit ; that, being deserted by him, they
should cast themselves headlong into eternal destruction.
.... So that not by their own merits or strength, but by
the gratuitous mercy of God, they obtain it, that they nei-
ther totally fall from faith and grace, nor finally continue
in their falls and perish." (Scott's Synod, pp. 150, 151.)
Ha\'ing given tliis summary of the sentiments of Calvin
himself, and of the ancient or strict Calvinists, who are by
no means extinct, it is proper to observe, that there are,
and always have been, many who embrace the Calvinistic
system in its leading features, who object to some particu-
lar parts, and to the strong language in which some of the
propositions are expressed. These are called Moderate,
or Modern Calvinists, who differ from Calvin, and the
synod of Dort, chiefly on two points — the doctrine of re-
probation, and the extent of the death of Christ.
1. Reprobation, or "predestination to death or mi.serv
as the end, and to sin as the means, I call (says Dr. E.
Williams) an impure mixture" with Calvinism, " as having
no foundation either in the real meaning of Holy Writ, or
in the nature of things ; except, indeed, we mean by it,
what no one questions, a determination to punish iha
guilty." — Dr. W. calls this a "mixture, because its co;i-
nexion with predestination to life is arbitrary and forced :
— impure, because the supposition itself is a foul aspersion
of the divine character. Augustine, Calvin, Perkins, Twisse,
Rutherford, &c., though highly valuable and excellent men,
upon the whole, were not free from this impure mixture of
doctrine. But of all modern authors, (if v.-e except the
philosophical Necessarians.) Dr. Hopkins, of America, seems
the most open in his avowal of the sentiment " above men-
tioned. See HopKiNsiANs. (Dr. Williams's Serm. and
Charges, p. 128, and Appendix, p. .393.)
The term reprobate is indeed scriptural, simjily meaning
to reject ; and stands in Scripture in imniediaie connexion
with the sins of those who are thus rejected. Thus the
prophet Jeremiah (chap. 6: 30), speaking of ihe apostate
Jews, " Reprobate silver shall men call them, because the
Lord hath rejected them ;" not, however, before they had
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rejected him, and turned aside to idols : and the apostle
Paul speaks of some " reprobate concerning the faith,' 'i.e.
who had rejected the truths of the gospel ; and of others, as
" reprobate to ever}' good work," because they paid no re-
gard to its holy precepts. (See 2 Tim. 3: 8. Tit. 1: 26.)
Nor does it appear to be ever used in the Scriptures in the
sense of non-elected. (See Cruden's Concordance in Be-
probate.) Hence it has been contended, and that very re-
cently, that reprobation has no connexion with the predes-
tination of the Scriptures. (See " The Doctrine of Eternal
Reprobation disproved, and sovereign distinguishing Grace
defended," by Philanthropos. London, 1821.)
It must be confessed after all, that the election of some
men (whether few or many) to eveiiasting life implies the
non-election of others, which is a point to which the mind
can never be reconciled, but from a deep conviction, that
had we ourselves been left to perish in our sins, God would
have been just in our condemnation, and that we have no
claim to distinguishing mercy : — " It is of the Lord's mer-
cies that we are not consumed, and because his compassions
fail not." When viewed in this its true light, the election
of any, much more of so vast a multitude as shall finally
be saved out of every 7iatioji and Jdiidrcd aiid tongue and peo-
ple, appears an act of grace equally wonderful and glori-
ous, and worthy of all the rapturous praise ascribed for it
in the Scriptures.
As to reconciling the conduct of God with our view of
the fitness of things, this is not the only case in which it
seems impracticable in the present world. O the depth of
the riches, both of the wisdom and knmt'Iedge of God. How
unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past finding out.
Rom. 11: 33 — 3(5. In such instances it is wise, as well as
by any, who did not wish to calumniate the doctrine of
atonement, to have made God placable ; but merely yie^ved
as the means appointed by divine wisdom, by which to be-
stow forgiveness. But still it is demanded, in what way can
the death of Christ, considered as a sacrifice of expiation,
be conceived to operate to the remission of sin, unless by
the appeasing a Being, who otherwise would not have for-
given us ? To this, the answer of the Christian is, — I know
not, nor does it concern me to know, in what manner the sa-
crifice of Christ is connected with the forgiveness of sins ;
it is enough that this is declared by God to be the medium
through which ray salvation is effected :— I pretend not to
dive into the councils of the Almighty. I submit to his
wisdom, and I will not reject his grace, because his mode
of vouchsafing it is not within my comprehension."
So Andrew Fuller, in his " Calvinistic and Socinian Sys-
tems compared," (Letter vii.) strongly reprobates the idea
of placating the Divine Being by an atonement ; " contend-
ing that the atonement is the effect, and not the cause of di-
vine love" to men ; and insists, " that the contrary is a
gross misrepresentation of the Calvinists in general,"
though it must be confessed some Calvinists have giv-
en too much countenance to such an idea. Mr. Fuller
adds, " If we say a way was opened by the death of Christ,
for the free and consistent exercise of mercy, in all the
methods which sovereign wisdom saw fit to adopt, perhaps
we shall include every material idea which the Scriptures
give us of that important event."
Mr. Jerram says, (Letters on the Atonement, p. 23.) "I
do not believe that any respectable writer, on our side,
says, that a satisfaction, or an atonement to divine justice,
was required, as a motive to love and pity ; but merely as
pious, to be silent; for " who art thou, O man, that repliest a medium whereby that sentiment could be consistently
against God ? " manifested. No one supposes satisfaction for sins neces-
A very ingenious man (Mr. John Bacon, the statuary)
vised to compare the rashness of our judging of the divine
conduct in our jTeseni state of imperfection, to the folly of
a man who should judge of a room-full of"K;omplicated ma-
chinery, by looking through the key-hole.
2. The other subject on which Modern Calvinists differ
from the great reformer, relates to the nature and extent
of Christ's death. The doctrines of atonement, and of
justification by the imputation of Christ's righteousness,
aie clearly admitted by all who assume the name of Cal-
vinists, and by many others ; but there are subordinate
p ints on which they differ. Some contend that Christ not
only died restrictively for a certain number, that is, the
elect ; but that he underwent a certain degree of punish-
ment, exactly in proportion to the demerit of those indivi-
duals ; insomuch, that had their number, or the number of
their sins, been greater, he must have suffered still more
than he actually did for their redemption. This arises from
their not only considering sins as debts (as our Lord him-
self teaches us) ; but from carrying the analogy farther
than the subject will allow ; for sins and debts certainly
\rill not in all points agree. As, for instance, debts may
he paid in kind, by returning that we owe, which never
(■:in apply to sins. Nor does it appear consistent with the
tlivine dignity to represent the covenant of grace as a com-
mercial bargain. Many Calvinists therefore represent hu-
man redemption (and they think scripturally) as flowing
originally from the free and sovereign mercy of God, who
having chosen to redeem sinners to himself, gave his only-
begotten Son to be their Redeemer, in a way honorable to
the divine perfections, as well as abundantly sufficient to
obliterate human guilt ; and this atonement they consider
as expressly made, that '^whosoever believes" in Christ,
and cordially approves this way of salvation, " should not
perish, but have everlasting hfe ;" its merit being fully
commensurate to the whole mass of human guilt. So that
virtually Christ died for all men, in the most unlimited
sense, though those who receive not the atonement, can of
course derive no benefit therefrom. And this may be il-
lustrated even on the principle of a debt, since the offer of
a friend to give pecuniary satisfaction for a debt, may be
rendered nugatory, by the debtor himself refusing utterly
to accept the boon. The gospel itself does not insist upon
men being saved against their will.
Thus Dr. Magee, in his excellent work on the Atone-
ment, says : — " The sacrifice of Christ was never deemed
sary to induce God to be merciful ; though we do believe
that that mercy could not be consistently manifested with-
out an atonement. (See Heb. 2: 9, 10.)
On the extent of Christ's death, we have remarked above
that the church of England, and some of its most illustrious
prelates, admitted its universality. So have the most dis-
tinguished Calvinistic divines of the present age ; as Dr.
E. Williams, Dr. T. Scott, Andrew Fuller, Dr. Dwight, &c.
It ought to be added, however, that these divines hold this
universality of Christ's death, to be perfectly consistent
with the particular and efficacious redemption of the
church. Hence it is rather a more full development of
the ancient doctrine, than a deviation from it.
After all that has been written against " the Calvinism
of the church of England," it appears to many of her mem-
bers, and perhaps to all others, that her system is that of
Moderate Cahanism. (See Overtones True Churchman as-
certained.) She embraces the doctrines of election, original
sin, &c. ; but she is silent on the doctrine of reprobation,
and admits the universality of the Savior's death.
It is much to be regretted that preachers and writers
who have thought it their duty to oppose Calvinism, have
so generally fallen into the same sort of error complained
of under the article Arminianisin, of not taking proper
pains to understand what it is, or else have not possessed
candor enough to do it justice. If, as is to be hoped, this
is the effect of mere misapprehension, still how deplorable
it is that the disciples of one blessed Master should allow
themselves to misapprehend one anothei' on subjects of such
vast practical moment. Had the late lamented Watson
ever read with attention the works of Jonathan Edwards,
or Andrew Fuller, or even so common a book as Buck's
Theological Dictionary, it is difficult to beUeve he would
have represented Moderate or even Strict Calvinism in the
odious form he has, in his Institutes, and Biblical and The-
ological Dictionary. " The main characteristic of all these
theories," he says, " from the first to the last, from the
highest to the lowest, is, that a part of mankind are shut
out from the mercies of God, on some ground irrespective
of their refusal of a sincere offer to them of salvation
through Christ, made with a communicated power of em-
bracing it. Some power they allow to the reprobate, as
natural power, and degrees of superadded moral power ;
but in no case the power to believe unto salvation."
Now what are the facts of the case ? Did Mr. Watson
himself believe that the guilty heathen are condemned for
CAL
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refusing the offer of salvation through Christ ? How
could this be, when they never heard of Christ ? Again ;
in reference to such as hear the Gospel, where is the pas-
sage of Scripture which speaks of a " communicated pow-
er" of embracing it, where it was not actually embraced ?
Unbelievers, it is admitted, do always resist the Holy Ghost;
and it wants no other power to receive than to resist. Whe-
ther this power be called natural or moral, it is a power
which all sinners possess, and exercise daily in every act
of sin; but alas, only to their own destruction. No new
increase oi potver could avail to save them, without a radi-
cal change of disposition. Where there is a new disposi-
tion WTOught in any one, a mill to believe the truth, no Cal-
vinist holds that God denies the porver. Of course, they
hold that all who perish, perish only by their own volun-
tary continuance in sin ; while all that are saved, are
saved by God's distinguishing grace.
" Whatever notions of an exaggerated sort (says the
profound author of the Natural History of Enthusiasm)
may belong to some Calvinists, Calvinism as distinguished
from Arminianism, encircles or involves great truths,
which, whether dimly or clearly discerned — whether de-
fended in scriptural simplicity of language, or deformed
by grievous perversions, will never be abandoned while
the Bible continues to be devoutly read, and which, if they
might indeed be subverted, would drag to the same ruin
evei7 doctrine of revealed religion. Let it be granted that
Calvinism has often existed in a state of mixture with
crude, or presumptuous, or preposterous dogmas. Yet
surely whoever is competent to take a calm, an independ-
ent, and a truly philosophic survey of the Christian sys-
tem, and can calculate also the balancings of opinion, the
antitheses of belief — will grant that if Calvinism, in the
modern sense of the term, were quite exploded, a long time
could not elapse before evangelical Arminianism would
find itself driven helplessly into the gulf that had yawned
to receive its rival ; and to this catastrophe must quickly
succeed the triumph of the dead rationalism of Neology, and
then that of Atheism." (Essay upon Edwards on the Will.)
Calvinism originally subsisted in its greatest purity in
the city of Geneva ; from which place it was first propa-
gated into Germany, France, the United Provinces, and
Britain. In France it was abolished by the revocation of
the edict of Nantz. It has been the prevailing religion of
the United Provinces ever since 1571. The theological
system of Calvin was adopted and made the public rule of
faith in England, under the reign of Edward VI. The
church of Scotland was also modelled by James Knox,
agreeably to the doctrines, rites, and form of ecclesiastical
government established at Geneva. In England, Calvin-
ism had been on the decline from the time of queen Eli-
zabeth until about sixty years ago, when it was again
revived, and has been on the increase ever since. The
major part of the clergy, indeed, are not Calvinists, though
the articles of the church of England are Calvinistical. It
deserves to be remarked, however, that Calvinism is
preached in a considerable number of the churches ; only
several of the evangelical clergy have adopted ultra and
exclusive views on the subject ; while it is also the distin-
guishing characteristic of the discourses delivered by the
Congregational and Particular Baptist ministers ; by those
of lady Huntingdon's connexion, and by the powerful
body of Welch Calvinistic Methodists. In Scotland, its
principles are commonly taught in the establishment, and
with scarcely any exception among dissenters. In the
United States, it is embraced and taught by the great ma-
jority of churches, inclading all classes of the Pre.sbyteri-
ans, Congregationalists, and Associated Baptists.
See Calvin's Institutes ; Life of Calvin ; Brine's Tracts ;
Jonathan Edwards's IVorks ; Gill's Cause of God and Truth ;
Toplady's Historic Proof and Wnris at large; Assembly's
Catechism ; Fuller's Calvinistic and Sodnian Systems com-
pared, and Fuller's Complete U'^orks.
CAMALDOLITES ; an order founded by St. Romauld,
an Italian fanatic, in the eleventh century. The manner
of life he enjoined his disciples to observe was this : — They
dwelt in separate cells, and met together only at the time
of prayer. Some of them, during the two lents in the
year, obsen'ed an inviolable silence, and others for the
space of a hundred days. On Sundays and Thursdays
39
they fed on herbs, and the rest of the week only on breid
and water. — Hend. Buck.
CAMBRIDGE MANUSCRIPT; a copy of the Gospels
and Acts of the Apostles, in Greek and Latin. Beza found
it in the monastery of Irenceus, at Lyons, in 1562, and gave
it to the university of Cambridge in 1582. It is a quarto,
and written on vellum ; sixty-six leaves of it are much
torh and mutilated ; and ten of these are supplied by a
later transcriber. It is written in the srriptio coniinva, and
the Greek is in uncial characters. From this and the
Clermont copy of St. Paul's epistles, Beza published his
larger annotations in 1582. See Dr. Kipling's edition of
it. — Henderson's Buck.
CAMEL. The original name of this animal has passed
into most languages, ancient and modern. In Hebrew it
is called gemel, from the verb to repay, requite; proba-
bly on account of its revengeful disposi^on. " A camel's
anger," is an Arabian proverb for an irreconcilable enmity.
There is no animal which remembers an injury longer,
nor seizes with greater keenness the proper opportunity of
revenge ; which is the more remarkable on account of its
gentle and docile disposition, when unprovoked by harsh
treatment.
From the Scriptures we learn that the camel constituted
an important branch of patriarchal wealth. Job had at
first three thousand, and after the days of his adversity
had passed away, six thousand camels. The Arabians
estimate their riches and possessions by the number of
their camels ; and speaking of the splendor and wealth of
a noble, or prince, they observe, he has so manj' camels ;
not so many pieces of gold. The Midianites and Ama-
lekites had camels without number, as the sand upon the
sea-shore ; many of which were adorned with chains of
gold, and other rich and splendid ornaments, Judg. 7: 12.
So great was the importance attached to the management
and propagation of camels, that a particular officer was
appomted in the reign of David, to superintend their keep-
ers. Nor is it w-ithout a special design, that the inspired
writer mentions the descent of the person appointed ; he
was an Ishmaelite, and therefore supposed to be thoroughly
skilled in the treatment of that useful quadruped.
There are as many as seven species of camel discrimi-
nated by zoologists; but it is only the Arabian camel, or
dromedary, and the Bactrian camel, that are known in
Scripture.
The former species is distinguished by having only one
bunch or protuberance on the back. Its general height,
measured from the top of the dorsal bunch to the ground,
is about six feet and a half, but from the top of the head
when the animal elevates it, it is not much less than nine
feet : the head, however, is usually so carried as to be
nearly on a level with the bunch, or rather below it, the
animal bending the neck extremely in its general posture.
The head is small ; the neck very long ; and the body of
a long and meagre shape ; the legs rather slender, and the
tail, which is slightly tufted at the extremity, reaches to
the joints of the^hiiid legs. The feet are very large, and
are hoofed in a peculiar manner, being divided above into
two lobes, the extremity of each lobe being guarded by a
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small hoof. The under part of the foot is guarded by an
extremely long, tough, and pliable skin, which, by yielding
in all directions, enables the animal to travel with peculiar
ease and security over dry, hot, stony, and sandy regions,
which would soon parch and destroy the hoof. On the
legs are six callosities, — one on each knee, one on the in-
side of each fore leg on the upper joint, and one on the
inside of each hind leg at the bottom of the thigh. On the
lower part of the breast is also a large callous or tough
tubercle, which is gradually increased by the constant habit
which the animal has of resting upon it in lying down.
The native country of the camel is Arabia, from whose
burning deserts it has been gradually diflused over the rest
of Asia and Africa. The Arab venerates his camel as
the gift of heaven, as a sacred animal, without whose aid
he could neither subsist, trade, nor travel.
The hair of these animals, which is fine and soft, and is
renewed every year, is used by the Arabians to make
stufls for their clothing and furniture. It was of this ma-
terial that Elijah the Tishbite wore a dress, (2 Kings 1:
8.) ; and also John the Baptist, Matt. 3: 1. It must not be
supposed, however, that the description of hair-cloth used
by these and .other prophets mentioned in Scripture, bore
any resemblance to the beautiful cashmire shawl, imported
into this country: it was a much coarser manufacture of
this material, and is still used by the modern dervises.
We may probably obtain some idea of its texture, from
what Braithwaite says of the Arabian huts : " They are
made of camels' hair, something like our coarse hair-cloths
to lay over goods."
Blessed with their camels, the Arabs not only want for
nothing, but they fear nothing. In a single day they can
traverse a tract of fifty leagues into the desert, and thus
escape the reach of their enemies. All the armies in the
world, says Buffon, would perish in pursuit of a troop of
Arabs. Figure to yourself, for instance, observes this
> writer a country without verdure, and without water ; a
burning sand, an air alwa5'S clear, plains of sands, and
mountains stjll more parched, over which the eye extends
without perceiving a siligle animated being ; a dead earth,
perpetually tossed by the winds, presenting nothing but
bones, scattered flints, rocks perpendicular, or overthrown :
a naked desert where the traveller never breathes under a
friendly shade, where nothing accompanies him; and where
nothing recals to mind the idea of animated nature ; an
absolute solitude, infinitely more frightful than that of the
deepest forest ; for to man trees are, at least, visible ob-
jects : more solitary and naked, more lost in an un-
bounded void, he every where beholds the extended space
surrounding him as a tomb : the light of the day, more
dismal than the darkness of night, serves only to give him
a clearer idea of his own wretchedness and impotence, and
to present before his eyes the horror of his situation, by
extending around him the immense abyss which separates
him from the habitable parts of the earth : an abyss which
he would in vain attempt to traverse, for hunger, thirst,
and burning heat haunt him every moment that remains
between despair and death. The Arab, nevertheless, by
the assistance of his camel, has learned to surmount, and
even to appropriate these frightful intervals of nature to
himself. They serve him for an asylum, they secure his
repose, and maintain his independence. The Arab is early
accustomed to the fatigues of traveUing, to want of sleep,
and to endure hunger, thirst, and heat. With this view
he instructs, rears, and exercises his camels. A few days
after their birth, he folds their limbs to remain on the
ground, and in this situation he loads them with a pretty
heavy weight, which is never removed but for the purpose
of replacmg a greater. Instead of allowing them to feed
at pleasure, and to drink when thev are thi'rsty, he regu-
lates their repasts, and makes them gradually travel long
journeys, diminishing at the same thne their quantity of
food. When they acquire some strength, he exercises
them to the course ; he excites their emulation by the ex-
ample of horses, and in time renders them equally fwift
and more robnst. At length, when he is assured of the
strength, fleetness, and sobriety of his camels, he loads
hem with whatever is necessary for his and their subsist-
ence, departs with them, arrives unexpectedly at the con-
fines of the desert, robs the first passenger he meets, pil-
lages the straggling habitations, loads his camels with the
bdbty, and if pursued is obliged to accelerate liis retreat.
It is on these occasions that he unfolds his own talents and
those of his camels ; he mounts one of the fleetest, and
conducting the troop, makes them travel night and day,
almost without stopping to eat or drink ; and in this man-
ner he easily passes over the space of three hundred
leagues in eight days. During all that time of fatigue
and travel, he never unloads his camels, and only allow.s
them an hour of repose, and a ball of paste each day.
They often run in this manner for eight or nine days
without meeting with any water, and when by charice
there is a pool at some distance, they scent the water,
even when half a league from it. Thirst makes them re-
double their pace, and they drink as much at once as serves
them for the time that is past, and for as much to come ;
for their journey often lasts them several weeks, and their
abstinence continues till their journey is accomplished.
The driest thistle and the barest thorn, are all the food
this useful quadruped requires ; and even these, to save
time, he eats while advancing on his journey, without
stopping or occasioning a moment of delay. As it is his
lot to cross immense deserts where no water is found, and
countries not even moistened with the dew of heaven, he is
endued with the power, at one watering place, to lay in a
store, with which he supplies himself for thirty days to
come. To contain this enormous quantity of fluid, nature
has formed large cisterns within him, from which, once
filled, he draws at pleasure the quantity he wants, and
pours it into his stomach, with the same effect as if he
then drew it from the spring.
Notwithstanding that the camel is so extremely revenge-
ful as to hear in mind, and resent, in the most terrible
manner, any injury it may have sustained, its patience is
the most extraordinary. Its sufferings seem to be great ;
for when it is overloaded, it sends forth the most lamenta-
ble cries, but never offers to resist the tyrant who oppress-
es it. At the slightest signs it bends its knees, and lies
upon its belly, suffering itself to be loaded in this position ;
at another sign it rises with its load, and the driver getting
upon its back, encourages the animal to proceed with hrs
voice and with a song.
Throughout Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Arabia, Barbary,
and various other contiguous countries, all kinds of mer-
chandise are carried by camels, which, of all conveyances,
is the most expeditious, and attended with the least ex-
pense Merchants and otlu tn\ pliers assemble, and
unite m caravans to avoid the insults and robberies of the
Arabs. These caravans are often numerous, and are al-
ways composed of more camels than men. Each camel is
loaded according to his strength : the larger ones carrying
from a thousand to twelve hundred pounds weight, and
the smaller, from six to seven hundred. Burckhardt stales
that a camel can never be stopped \\hi\e its companions are
moving on. The Arabs are therefore highly pleased with
a traveller who jumps off his beast, and remounts without
stopping it, as the act of kneeling down is troublesome
and fatiguing to the loaded camel, and before it can lise
again, the caravan is considerably ahead. He also affirms
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CAM
it to be an erroneous opinion, that the camel delights in
sandy ground. It is true, he remarlfs, that he crosses it
with less difficulty than any other animal, but wherever
the sands are deep, the weight of himself and his load
malfes his feet sink into tlie sand at every step, and he
groans and often sinks under his burden. Hence, this
traveller states it to be,'that camels' skeletons are found
in great numbers where the sands are deepest. It is tlie
hard, gravelly ground of the desert, which is most agreea-
ble to this animal.
The Bactrian camel is distinguished from the Arabian
camel or dromedary, by having two bunches on his back.
It is not so numerous as the other, and is chiefly confined
to some parts of Asia. Unlike the dromedary, whose
movement, as we have seen, is remarkably swift, the
Bactrian camel proceeds at a slow and solemn pace.
From the account now furnished of this animal, we
may see the propriety and beauty of several passages of
Scripture, in which it is mentioned or alluded to.
Reviewing his own passing days, and properly estimat-
ing the shortness of human life, jfob exclaims —
O ! swifter than a courier are my days :
They flee away — they see no good.
As SWELLING SHIPS they sweep on ;
As an eagle swooping on its prey.
This passage has sadly perplexed commentators. The
ojiginal of the third line, literally rendered, is "ships of
Abeh ;" or, if Abeh be taken for swiftness, " ships of
swiftness."
For the purpose of ascertaining what might probably
be the intention of the saered writer, Mr. Taylor thus ana-
lyses the import of the words : My days pass faster than a
running messejiger^ who exerts his speed when sent on im-
portant business ; they even fly, like a fugitive who escapes
for his life from an enemy ; they do not look around them to
see for any thing good i they are passed as ships of swift-
ness; as a vulture flying hastily to the newly-fallen prey.
By marking the climax, we find the messenger swift, the
fugitive more swift, the ships swifter than the fugitive,
and the vulture swiftest of all.
In support of this ingenious conjecture, Mr. Taylor cites
the following passage from " honest Sandys :"
"The whole caravan being now assembled, consisted
of a thousand horses, mules, and asses ; and of fine hun-
dred CAMELS. These are the SHIPS of Arabia ; their
SEAS are the deserts, a creature created for burthen,"
&c. It does not clearly appear in this extract, however,
though it might be gathered from it, that the camel has
the name of the " Ship of Arabia ;" but Mr. Bruce comes
in to our assistance, by saying, " What enables the shep-
herds to perform the long and toilsome journeys across
Africa, is the CAMEL, emphatically called, by the
Arabs, THE SHIP OF THE DESERT! he seems to
have been created for this very trade," &c. The idea
thus thrown out, and in a great measure confirmed by
Sandys and Bruce, is further supported by an account of
the swiftness of these metaphorical "ships," furnished in
Morgan's History of Algiers. This writer states, that the
dromedary, in Earbary called Aashare, vn\i, in one night,
and through a level country, traverse as much ground as
any single horse can perform in ten. The Arabs affirm,
that it makes nothing of holding its rapid pace, which is a
most violent hard trot, for fotir-and-trventy hours on a stretch,
without showing the least signs of weariness, or inclina-
tion to bait ; and that, having swallowed a ball or two of
a sort of paste, made up of barley-meal and a little powder
of dry dates, mth a bowl of water, or camel's milk, the
indefatigable animal will seem as fresh as at first setting out,
and ready to continue running at the same scarcely credible rate
for as many hours longer, and so on from one extremity of
the African desert to the other, provided its rider could
hold out without sleep, and other refreshments. During
his stay in Algiers, Mr. Morgan was once a party in a di-
version in which one of these Adshnri ran against some of
the swiftest Barbs iu the whole jVeja, which is famed for
having good ones, of the true Libyan breed, shaped like
greyhounds, and which will someiimes run down an os-
trich. The reader will not, we apprehend, be displeased
at our transferring his account to these pages.
" We all started like racers, and for the first spurt, most
of the best mounted among us kept pac« pretty well ; but
our grass-fed horses soon flagged : several of the Libyan
and Numidian runners held pace, till we, who still fol-
lowed upon a good round hand gallop, could no longer
di.scern them, and then gave out ; as we were told after
their return. When the dromedary had been out of sight
about half an hour, we again espied it, flying tanards us
with an amazing velocity, and in a very few moments was
amongst us, and seemingly nothing concerned ; while the
horses and mares were all on a foam, and scarcely able to
breathe, as was likewise a tall fleet greyhound dog, of the
young princess, who had followed and kept pace the -whole
time, and was no sooner got back to us, but lay down pant-
ing as if ready to expire."
This account shows, also, with what propriety the pro-
phet calls this animal the "swift dromedary," (Jer. 3: 23.)
as well as the wisdom of Esther's messengers, in choosing
it to carry their despatches to the distant provinces of the
Persian empire, Esth. 8: 10.
The writer just quoted informs us, that the Arabs guide
their dromedaries by means of a thong of leather, which
is passed through a hole purposely made in the creature's
nose. Will not this illustrate the expression in 2 Kings
19: 28 ; "I will put ray hook in thy nose, and my bridle
in thy lips, and I will turn thee back by the way by which
thou earnest ?" This denotes, no doubt, the depth of the
Assyrian's humiliation, and the swiftness of his retreat.
Another passage which Mr. Taylor thinks maybe illus-
trated by the application of the term Aashare to a swift
dromedary, is Prov. 6: 10, 11 —
A little sleep, a little slumber,
A little folding of the arms to sleep;
So shall thy poverty come as one thai travelleth,
And thy want as an armed man.
It is evident that the writer means to denote the speed
and rapidity of the approaches of penury ; therefore, in-
stead of, "one that travelleth," we may read "a post, or
quick messenger," an express. But our present business
is with the " armed man." Now, the words thus trans-
lated are no where used to denote an armed man, or " a
man of a shield," as some would render them literally ;
but the Chaldee paraphrast translates them thus, " S7vift
like an Aashare," or, mounted on an Aashare, that is, an
^(jsAarc-rider, to answer to the post or express, in the former
line. Thus we shall have an increase of swiftness sug-
gested here, as the passage evidently demands. The senti-
ment, on the principles above suggested, would stand thus :
So shall thy poverty advance as rapidly as an express,
And thy penury as a strong and swifl antagonist or [Aa^^re-rider.J
In that sublime prediction, where the prophet foretells the
great increase and flouiishing state of Messiah's kingdoms,
by the conversion and accession of the Gentile nations, he
compares the happy and glorious concourse to a vast as-
semblage of camels : " The multitude of camels shall cover
thee, the dromedaries of Midiau and Ephah." That peo-
ple, rather than irrational animals, are intended, is evident
from these words : " All they from Sheba shall come ; they
shall show forth the praises of the Lord." Isa. 60: 6. In
adopting this figure, the prophet might, perhaps, have his
eye on the hieroglyphical writing of the Egyptians, in
which the figure of a camel represented a man ; and if so,
besides its strict conformity to the genius of Hebrew poe-
try, we can discern a propriety in its introduction into this
illustrious prediction. Some interpreters piously refer the
prophecy to Christ himself ; and imagine it began to re-
ceive its accomplishment when the magi, proceeding from
the verj' places mentioned by the prophet, worshipped the
new-born Savior, " and presented unto him gifts ; gold,
and frankincense, and myrrh." But Midian, and the other
places mentioned by the prophet, lay to the south of Judea ;
while the evangelist expressly says the magi came from
the east ; which, as well as their name, magi, or wise
men, clearly proves that Persia was their native countr)',
and the place of their abode.
To pass a camel through the eye of a needle, was a
proverbial expression among the nations of high antiquity,
denoting a difficulty which neither the art nor the power
of man could surmount. Our Lord condescends to employ
it in his discourse to the disciples, to show how extremely
difficult it is for a rich man to forsake all, for the cause of
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God and truth, and obtain the blessings of salvation : I say
unto you, it is easier for a camel to go through the eye ot
a needle than for a rich man to enter into the kmgdom ot
heaven," Matt. 19: 24. Many expositors are of opinion,
that the allusion is not to the camel, but to the cable by
which an anchor is made fast to the ship ; and for camel
they read camil, from which our word cable is supposed to
be derived. It is not, perhaps, easy to determine which
of these ought to be preferred ; and some interpreters ot
considerable note, have accordingly adopted both views.
Others have asserted, that there was near Jerusalem a lovv
gate, called the Needle's Eye, under which a camel could
not pass without being unloaded.
However, though the exact proverbial expression, which
was doubtless well understood by those to whom it was
addressed, may be to us unintelligible, the instriiction con-
veyed is obvious. Eiches are a snare and olten a hin-
drance in the way to heaven; and the heart that is su-
oreinelv set upon them, can never be brought to a cordial
surrender of itself to the meek, lowly, and self-denying
Jesus without which it is impossible to enter into his
kingdom But the things that are impossible with men,
are "possible with God. Divine Grace can do away the
impossibility, by bringing tU heart to a willing comphance
with the requirements of the gospel.
In Malt. 23: 2-!, is another proverbial expression : Ve
strain at a gnat, and swallow a camel." Dr. Adam Clarke
has proved, that there is an error of the press in the Eng-
lish translation, by which at has been substituted for out.
The passage as it now stands, conveys no sense : it should
be, " Ye strain out the gnat, and swallow down the ca-
mel." The allusion is to the custom which prevailed
among both Gentiles and Jews, of straining the liquor
which they drank, for the purpose of ejecting those insects
which so swarm in some southern countries, and hence,
easily fall into wine-vessels. Some of the commentators
have wished to get rid of the camel in this passage, trom
an idea that our Lord could not have united so huge an
animal with so small an insect. They, therefore, propose
to understand a larger species of fly. This conjectural
emendation, however, cannot be admitted, as it is unsup-
ported by all the ancient versions. The expression must
be taken hyperboUcaUij . To make the antithesis as strong
as may be, two things are selected as opposite as possible ;
the smallest insect, and the largest animal. And this very
antithesis was used by the Jewish and Greek writers, as
appears from Wetstein.
The expression has generally been understood by Eng-
lish readers, as implying an effort to swallow, but reject-
ing something very small and inconsiderable, yet receiving
without hesitation something much larger and more im-
portant : but the fact is, it alludes to a custom the Jews
had of straining or filtering their wine, for fear of swal-
lowing any forbidden insect. Now, as it would be ridicu-
lous to strain liquor for the sake of clearing it from insects,
and then eating the largest of those insects ; so the conduct
of those is not only ridiculous, but highly criminal, who
are superstitiously anxious in avoiding small faults, yet
scruple not to commit the greatest sins.
Camels are spoken of in Scripture,
1. As an article of wealth and state. Gen. 12: 16. 30:
43. 2 Kings 7: 9. 1 Chrou. 27: 30. Ezra 2; 67. Neh. 7: 69.
Job 1: 2.
2. As used for travelling, Gen. 24: 64. 31: 34. 1 Emgs
10:2.
3. As an important means of traffic. Gen. 37: 25. 1
Chron. 12: 40. Isa. 30: 6.
4. As used in war, Judg. 6: 5. 7: 12. 1 Sara. 30: 17.
Jer. 49: 29.
5. Asaspoilinwar,Judg. 8: 21. 1 Sam. 27: 9. 1 Chron.
5; 21. Job 1: 17. Jer. 49: 32.
6. As sufferers in the plagues brought upon the brute
creation for the sin of man, Ex. 9: 3. 1 Sam. 15: 3.
7. As furnishing an article of clothing. Matt. 3: 4. Zech.
14: 15.
8. Connected with these animals, we have a pleasing
instance of industry, humility, and courtesy in a young
woman of rank and fortune. Rebekah \\'as seen at
the well, condescending by personal labor to supply the
wants of the camels of Abraham's servant ; nor did her
good disposition and good conduct go unrewarded; those
camels shortly after bore her into the Land of Promise, to
become the wife of Abraham's son, and one in the hne of
mothers from whom he should descend, in whom all the
families of the earth are blessed. Gen. 24: 19—64.
9. The camel is prohibited for food as unclean, Lev. 11:
14. Deut. 14: 7.
10. Camels are prophetically and figuratively mentioned
in the Old Testament, haiah (21: 7.) predicts the march
of Cyrus's army to the conquest and destruction of Baby-
lon in the time of Belshazzar. Isaiah (30: 6.), alludes to
the folly and presumption of the Israelites, or Jews, or
both, who in the time of their trouble carried treasures on
camels into Egypt, to purchase the assistance of that peo-
ple, and acknowledged not the Lord their God, who alone
could save and dehver them. Isa. 60: 6, is part of a most
sublime prediction, figurative of the purity and enlarg:e-
ment of the church in the reign of the Messiah, when dif-
ferent nations shall with alacrity and zeal dedicate them-
selves and their substance to the service of God.
Jer. 49: 29, 32, predicts the confusion and ruin that
should befal Kedar and Hazor, enemies of Israel, upon
whom God would bring his judgments by the hand of
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. The fulfilment of this
prediction took place during the captri'ity of the Jews, and
would tend greatly to encourage their hopes that the pro-
mises of their deliverance and return should also in due
time be accomplished. Very similar is the prediction, (Ez.
25; 5,) that Eabbah, the chief city of Ammon, should be
taken as a stable for camels by the Chaldeans.
CAMELS' HAIR ; an article of clothing. John the
Baptist was habited in raiment of camels' hair, and Char-
din states, that such garments are worn by the modern
dervishes. There is a coarse cloth made of camels' hair
in the East, which is used for manufacturing the coats of
shepherds, and camel-drivers, and also for the covering of
tents.— It was, doubtless, this coarse kind w*ich was
adopted by John. By this he was distinguished from
those residents in royal palaces who wore soft raiment.
Elijah is said in the English Bible to have been '■ a hairy
man," (2 Kings 1: 8.) ; but it should be " a man dressed
in hair ;" that is, camels' hair. In Zech. 13: 4, " a rough
garment," that is, a garment of a hairy manufacture, is
characteristic of a prophet. — Calmet. ,„.,, ,
CAMELEON, or Chameleon. In the English Bible, the
chameleon is transformed into the mole, (Lev. 11: 30,) ao
animal that has little pretension to be associated with rep-
tiles of the lizard species. The Hebrew word, from a root
which signifies to breathe, is peculiarly appropriate to this
curious animal, which, according to vulgar opinion, is the
" creature nourished by the wind and air."
The chameleon nearly resembles the crocodile in form,
but differs widely in its size and appetites. Its head is
about two inches'long, and from thence to the beginning
of the tail four and a half ; the tail is five inches long, and
the feet two and a half ; the thickness o( the body varies
at different times, for the animal possesses the power of
blowing itself up and contracting itself, at pleasure.
During his visit to the east, Le Bruyn purchased several
chameleons, for the purpose of preserving them alive, and
making observations on their nature and manners ; but
the most interesting account of this curious animal is thali
furnished by the enterprising and lamented Belzoni, which
we transcribe.
" There are three species of chameleons, whose colors are
pecuhar to themselves : for instance, the commonest sort are
those which are generally green, that is to say, the body ali
green, and when content, beautifully marked on each side re-
gularly on the green with black and yellow, not in a confused
manner, but as if drawn. This kind is in great plenty, and
never have any other color except a light green when they
sleep, and when ill a very rale yellow. Out of near lorty I
had the first year when I was in Nubia, I had but one. and
that a very small one, of the second sort, which had red
marks. One chameleon lived with me eight months, and
most of that time I had it fixed to the button of my coat ;
it used to rest on my shoulder, or on my head. I have
observed, when I have kept it shut up in a room for some
time, that, on bringing it out in the air, it would begin
drawing the air in j and on putting it on some marioium,
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it has had a -ffonderful effect on it immediately : its color
became most brilliant. I believe it will puzzle a good many
to say what cause it proceeds from. If they did not
change when shut up in a house, but only on taking them
into a garden, it might be supposed the change of the colors
was in consequence of the smell of the plants ; but when in
a house, if it is watched, it will [be seen to] change every
ten minutes ; some moments a plain green, at others all
its beautiful colors will come out, and when in a passion
it becomes of a deep black, and will swell itself up like a
balloon ; and, from being one of the most beautiful ani-
mals, it becomes one of the most ugly. It is true they
are extremely fond of the fresh air; and on taking them
to a window where there is nothing to be seen, it is easy
to observe the pleasure they certainly take in it : they be-
gin to gulp down the air, and their color becomes brighter.
I think it proceeds, in a great degree, from the temper
they are in : a little thing will put them in a bad humor.
If, in crossing a takle, for instance, you stop them, and
attempt to turn them another road, they will not stir, and
are extremely obstinate : on opening the mouth at them,
it vnW set them in a passion : they begin to arm them-
selves, by swelling and turning black, and will sometimes
hiss a little, but not much. The third I brought from Jeru-
salem, was the most singular of all the chameleons I ever
had : its temper, if it can be so called, was extremely sa-
gacious and cunning. This one was not of the order of
the green kind, but a disagreeable drab, and it never once
varied in its color in two months. On my arrival at Cairo,
I used to let it crawl about the room, on the furniture.
Sometimes it would get down, if it coitlJ, and hide itself
awav from me, but in a place where it could see me ; and
sometimes, on my leaving the room and on entering
it, would draw itself so thin as to make itself nearly on a
level with whatever it might be on, so that I might not see
it. It had often deceived me so. One day, having mis.sed
it for some time, I concluded it wns hid about the
room ; after looldng for it in vain, I thought it had got out
of the room and made its escape. In the course of the
evening, after the candle was lighted, I went to a basket
that had got a handle across it : I saw my chameleon, but
its color entirely changed, and different to any I ever had
seen before : the whole body, head and tail, a brown, with
black spots, and beautiful deep orange colored .spots round
the black. I certainly was much gratified. On being dis-
turbed, its colors vanished, unlike the others ; but after
this I used to observe it the first thing in the morning,
when it would have the same colors. Their chief food
•was tlies ; the fly does not die immediately on being swal-
lowed, for ou taking the chameleon up in my hands, it
was easy to feel the fly buzzing, chiefly on account of the
air they draw in their inside : they swell much, and par-
ticularly when they want to fling themselves off a great
height, by filling themselves up like a balloon. On fall-
ing, they get no hurt, except on the mouth, which they
bruise a little, as that comes first to the ground. Some-
times they will not drink for three or four days, and when
they begin, they are about half an hour drinking."
An Italian professor of natural history, who dissect-
ed two of these curious animals, is of opinion that the
change of color arises from the fact of their having four
skins, extremely fine, whence arise the different colors.
— Abbott.
CAMERONIANS, or Old Dissenters, as they choose
to call themselves in Scotland. They received the first
denomination from the Rev. Richard Cameron, a celebrated
field preacher, who exercised his ministry in the moun-
tains and moors of Scotland, refusing to accept the indul-
gence to tender consciences, granted by Charles XL, be-
cause such an acceptance seemed to him an acknowledg-
ment of the king's supremacy, and that he had before a
right to silence them. Cameron separated from his Pres-
byterian brethren in 1661) ; and afterwards, as his enemies
assert, was slain at the head of an insurrection at Airs-
moss, in Kyle, July 20th, 1680. His followers, however,
consider his death most honorable ; and say that " he felt
by the sword of his bloody persecutors, while he, and a
number of his followers, being suddenly and furiously at-
tacked, were iv?bly defending their lives and religious
liberties." Their political opinions accorded with those
of Hampden, Sydney, and Russell ; and considering that
the king (Charles II.) had forfeited his crown, without any
probability of success, they declared war against his go-
vernment. They were rash and daring in the extreme ;
but it is now agreed that they were most cruelly oppressed,
and Solomon himself has told us, that " oppression will
make a wise man mad."
They were sometimes called Whigs, from their attach-
ment to the cause of liberty ; and " mountain men," from
their being obliged to take refuge among the mountains.
In their religious principles they were rigid adherents to
"the solemn league and covenant," and they warmly
supported the Revolution of 1688, though they protested
against the eccle.'iiastical establishment as then settled iu
Scotland. They have ever since lived in peaceable sub-
mission to the laws ; and, in proof of the loyalty of their
principles, they state that " the twenty-sixth regiment of
foot was first raised from their body, and still bears the
name of Cameronians." In 1743, Mr. M'Millan, and
others of their preachers, constituted a presbyter)', which
they called " the Reformed Presbytery," on account of their
strict adherence to the principles of the Reformation in
Scotland, in the sixteenth century.
This denomination, though not numerous, have three
presbyteries — in Scotland, Ireland, and North America.
In Scotland they have sixteen congregations — some very
small, and two of them are called collegiate charges, hav-
ing two ministers each. In Ireland they have six congre-
gations, and nine in America ; but most of them are stated
to be without pastors. See R. Adam's R. W. vol. ii. p.
157, &c. " A Short Account of the old Presbyterian Dis-
senters," &c., Falkirk, 1806. Dr. S. Charleris's Discourse
on the Centenary of the Revolution, (1788.) Blackwood's
Mag. \%19.— Williams.
CAMISARS, or Camisards ; French prophets, or fana-
tics of the Cevennes, as they were sometimes called, arose
in the latter part of the seventeenth centurj-. M. Gre-
goire attributes their origin to a certain "school of the
prophets" in Dauphiny, conducted by a Calvinist named
Du Serre. As he has not given his authority, we can only
say the thing is not incredible. The ebullitions of enthu-
siasm have often arisen in the temple of piety ; and when
real Christians have met for devotion, the exterior signs
of piety have sometimes deeply impressed and excited the
imitation of persons who were strangers to the inward
principle. Such have wTought themselves up to an exag-
gerated state of feeling, which they have in some cases
mistaken for devotion, and in others for inspiration ; and
even good and intelligent menhavebeen sometimes drawn
into the delusion, as appears to have been the case in the
instructive and melancholy instance now before us.
These pretended prophets first appeared iu Dauphiny
and Vivarais. In the year 1688, five or six hundred Pro-
testants of both sexes gave themselves out to be prophets,
and inspired of the Holy Ghost, and they soon amounted
to many thousands. They had strange fits, which came
upon them with tremblings and faintings, as in a swoon,
which made them stretch out their arms and legs, and
stagger several times before they dropped down. Thry
struck themselves with their hands ; they fell on their
backs, shut their eyes, and heaved their breasts. The
symptoms answer exactly to those produced by inspiring
nitrous oxide, and were the lact then discovered, we should
have been tempted to suspect imposture. They remained
a while in trances, and coming out of them, declared that
they saw the heavens open, the angels, paradise, and hell.
Those who were just on the point of receiving the Sj-int of
prophecy dropped do-mi, not only in the assemblies, t ut in
the fields, and in theii- own houses, crying oat Mercy.
The least of their assemblies made up four or five hun-
dred, and some of them amounted to even three or four
thousand. The hills rebounded with their loud cries for
mercy, and with imprecations against the priests, the pope,
and his anti-Christian dominion ; with predictions of the
approaching fall of popery. All they said at these times
was heard and received \\nth reverence and awe.
In the year 1706, three or four of these prophets came
over into England, and brought their prophetic spirit with
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them, which discovered itself in the same way, namely,
by ecstasies, and agitations, and inspirations under them,
as it had done in France : and they propagated the like
spirit to others, so that before the year was out, there were
two or three hundred of these prophets in and about Lon-
don, of both sexes, and of all ages.
The great subject of their prediction was, the near ap-
proach of the kingdom of God, the hcippij times of the church,
and the millennial state. Their message was, (and they were
to proclaim it as heralds to every nation under heaven,)
that the grand jubilee, "the acceptable year of the Lord,"
the accomplishment of those numerous Scriptures concern-
ing the nen; heavens, and the new earth, the kingdom of the
Messiah, the marriage of the Lamb, the first resurrection, or
the nerv Jerusalem descending from above, was nam even at
the door — that this great operation was to be effected by
spiritual arms only, proceeding from the mouths of those
who should by inspiration, or the mighty gift of the Spirit,
be sent forth in great numbers to labor in the vineyard —
that this mission of God's servants should be witnessed to by
signs and wonders from heaven, by a deluge of judgments
on the wicked universally throughout the world; as famine,
pestilence, earthquakes, wars, ice. ; that the exterminating
angels should root out the tares, and there shall remain
upon earth only good corn ; and the works of men being
thrown down, there shall be but one Lord, one faith, one
heart, and one voice among mankind. And they declared
that all the great things they have spoke of would be
manifest over the whole earth, within the term of three
years.
These prophets also pretended to the gift of languages,
of miracles, of discerning, &c. Discerning the secrets of
the heart ; the power of conferring the same spirit on
others by the laying on of hands, and the gift of healing.
To prove they were really inspired by the Holy Ghost, they
alleged the complete joy and satisfaction they experienced,
the spirit of prayer which was poured forth upon them,
and the answer of their prayers by the Most High.
These pretensions, however, laid the foundation of their
detection and complete overthrow. They went so far as
to pretend to raise the dead, and fixed upon one of their
own number for the experiment, who was to rise on a par-
ticular day. But Dr. Emes did not rise, nor could they
raise him.
The press teemed on this occasion, as well may be sup-
posed, with publications pro and con. One of the most
remarkable was entitled, " A Brand snatched from the
Burning," &c. ; and contained the confessions and re-
tractations of one John Keymer, who was apprentice to a
printer. His wife and sister, it seems, were first drawn
into the snare, and thus urged him to " seek the blessing,"
as it was called, by imposition of the hands of these pro-
]ihets. This accordingly he did receive from the hands of
Elias Marion, one of those who had come from France,
who pronounced over him several sentences in French,
which he did not understand ; but they were afterwards
translated for him, and given to him written in English.
They purported to be the words of God himself, expressed
in the first person, and began thus : " My child, till now
thou hast been rebellious to my will. I come, I tell thee,
to appropriate thy heart to me. . . . Resign thyself to follow
me. I call thee." Poor Keymer did so (as he supposed)
for a considerable time, till he saw the failure of all the
predictions of these prophets ; and the extravagance and
licentiousness of their conduct, which at last proceeded to
open adultery, completely cured him. Among the predic-
tions falsified, one was, the burning of London on the 25th
of March, and another, the conversion of queen Anne,
who was to go and prophesy in Barbican. Among the
most celebrated of these prophets was Jolm Lacey, Esq.,
a member of Mr. Calamy's congregation, and a man of
considerable property, who entered into all their absurdi-
ties, except that of a community of goods, to which he
stronj:ly objected, having an income of two thousand
pounds per annum. In one of his fits of inspiration, Mr.
Calamy, (afterwards Dr. C.,) had an opportunity of seeing
him, and gives the following account of it :
" I went into the room where he sat, walked up to him,
and asked him how he did ; and, taking him by the hand,
lifted it up, when it fell fiat upon his knees, as it lay be-
fore. He took no notice of me, nor made me any answer ;
but I observed the humming noise grow louder and louder
by degrees, and the heaving in his breast increased, till it
came up to his throat, as if it would have suffocated him ;
and then he at last began to speak, or, as he would have it
taken, the Spirit spake in him. The speech was sj'Uabical,
and there was a distinct heave and breath between each
syllable ; but it j'equired attention to distinguish the words.
When the speech was over, the humming and heaving
gradually abated ; and I again took him by the hand, and
felt his pulse, which moved pretty quick ; but I could not
perceive by his hands any thing like sweating, or more
than common heat."
Mr. Walter Wilson, from whom we take this quotation,
adds : " Some time after this, Mr. Lacey, v^ithout giving
the least notice, got up one morning, left his lady in bed,
quitted his house and children, and, taking a few necessa-
ries mth him, went to live among the prophets. Then he
took to himself for wife Betty Gray, who had been a snuf-
fer of candles at the playhouse, but now passed for a per-
son inspired. This transaction, in one of his inspirations,
which Mr. Calamy saw, he called a quitting Hagar and
taking himself to Sarah ; and declared that he did it by
order of the Spirit !" See Gregoire's Hist. vol. i. p. 370.
Chauncey's Works, vol. iii. p. 2, &c. Hughson's Fr. and
Eng. Prophets. Lacey's Prophetic Warnings. A Brand
snatched out of the Burning. Wilson's Dissenting Church-
es, vol. iv. p. 77. — Williams.
CAMMERHOF, (Frederic,) a Moravian bishop, came
to this country in 1746, to assist bishop Spangenberg. In
1748, he visited the establishment at Shomokin, on the
Susquehannah ; in 1750 he repaired to Onondaga to pro-
mote the introduction of the gospel amongst the Iroquois.
He died at Bethlehem, his usual place of residence, April
28, 1751, greatly deplored. During four years he had
baptized eighty-nine Indians. There was so much sweet-
ness and benevolence in his character, as to impress even
the savages with respect for him. His mild and friendly
behavior once turned the heart of an Indian, enraged by
his reproofs, who had resolved to kill him. — Loskiel ;
Allen.
CAMP, or Encampment, of the Israelites. The whole
body of the people, consisting of six hundred thousand
fighting men, besides women and children, was disposed
under four battalions, so placed as to inclose the taberna-
cle, in the form of a square, and each under one general
standard. (See Armies.) There were forty-one encamp-
ments, from their first in the month of March, at Rameses,
in the land of Goshen, in Egypt, and in the ivilderness,
until they reached the land of Canaan. They are thus
enumerated in Numbers 33: —
1. Rameses 21. Haradah
'2. Succoth 22. Makheloth
3. Etham, on the edge of 23. Tahath
the wilderness 24. Tarah
4. Pihahiroth 25. Mithcah
5. Marah 2ti. Hashmonah
6. Elim 27. Moseroth
7. By the Red sea 28. Bene-jaakan
8. Wilderness of Sin 29. Hor-hagidgad
9. Dophkah 30. Jotbathah
10. Alush 31. Ebronah
11. Rephidim 32. Ebion-gaber
12. Wilderness of Sinai 33. Kadesh
13. Kibroth-hattaavah 34. Mount Hor
14. Hazeroth 35. Zaimonah
15. Rithmah 36. Punon
16. Rimmon-parez 37. Oboth
17. Libnah 38. Ije-abarim
18. Rissah 29. Dibon-gad
19. Kehelatha 40 Almon-diblathaim
20. Shapher 41. Mountains of Abarim.
In the second year after their exodus from Egypt, they
were numbered ; and upon an exact poll, the number of
their males amounted to six hundred and three thousand,
five hundred and fifty, from twenty years old and upwards.
Num. 1: 2. This vast mass of people, encamped in beau-
tiful order, must have presented a most impressive spec-
tacle. That it failed not to produce effect upon the riihly
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endowed and poetic mind of Balaam, appears from Num-
bers 24: 2., " Aud Balaam lifted up his eyes and he saw
Israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes ; and
the Spirit of God came upon him, and he took up his para-
ble and said, How goodly are thy tents, 0 Jacob, and thy
tabernacles, 0 Israel! As the valleys are they spread
forth, as gardens by the river side, £is the trees of lign
aloes which the Lord hath planted, and as cedar trees be-
side waters." Grandeur, order, beauty, and freshness,
were the ideas at once suggested to the mind of this un-
faithful prophet, and called forth his unwilling admiration.
Perhaps we may consider this spectacle as a type of the
order, beauty and glory of the true " church in the wilder-
ness," in those happy days when God " shall not beliold
iniquity in Jacob, nor perverseness in Israel ;" when it
shall be said, " The Lord his God is with him, and the
shout of a king is among them." — Watson.
CAMP-MEETINGS ; religious festivals held among the
Methodists in some parts of England, and the United
States of America, and also among the Presbyterians in
the back settlements of the latter country. _ In Kentucky,
and some adjacent parts, not fewer than fifteen or twenty
thousand people assemble on such occasions. They come
in wagons or on horseback from distant districts, bring
provisions with them, and erecting booths under the dense
shade of the forests, they devote a whole week to the reli-
gious exercises of the pehod. They have prayer meet-
ings, &c. in separate tents, or in groups in the open air,
morning and evening, and four sermons daily, two in the
earlier, and two in the latter part of the day, while the
festival lasts. The great day is the Sabbath, when the vast
population of the more immediate neighborhood assemble
and swell the numbers, and the ordinance of the Lord's
supper is administered. According to the testimony of
those who have been present, nothing can exceed the effect
produced by the evening scene, when the otherwise impe-
netrable gloom of the woods is lighted up into one blaze
by the numerous fires which are kindled and kept burning,
and the sound of so many thousands of voices, causing the
immense groves to re-echo the praises of the Most High.
The general order and propriety which prevail on such oc-
casions evince the deep hold which religion has on the
minds of those who thus meet for the purposes of spiritual
edification and improvement — Hend. Buck.
CAMPBELL, (George, D. D.,) an eminently learned and
liberal divine of the last century, was born on the 25th
of December, 1719, at Aberdeen, Scotland. He sprang
from a very honorable stock, numbering among his ances-
tors several of the descendants of the family of Argyle.
His father, the Rev. Colin Campbell, was one of the minis-
ters of the city of Aberdeen, and held in high estimation
by good men of all denominations, for his pious and bene-
volent disposition ; so that he was often intrusted by the
provincial synod, and other ptiblic bodies, with the distribu-
tion of their charitable donations. His wife's name was
Margaret, the daughter of Alexander Walker, Esq., who
had been provost of the city ; by her he had tliree sons
and three daughters, who were in very early life deprived
of this worthy guide of their youth, as he died on the 27th
of August, 1728, regretted by every one that laiew him,
both on account of his unaffected manners, diffusive bene-
volence, and faithful discharge of the duties of his pro-
fession. As George, the subject of this memoir, was the
youngest son, his portion of his father's scanty inheritance
was very small ; it was to Iris own exertions, and the great
natural energy of his mind, that he was chiefly indebted
for his progress and advancement in future life. He re-
ceived the rudiments of classical instruction at the gram-
mar school of his native city, which had been famed for
■more than a century for the successful teaching of the Latin
tongue ; and he afterwards entered as student at Marischal
college, where the celebrated Dr. Thomas Blackwell, prin-
cipal and professor of Greek, had introduced an ardent
zeal for prosecuting the study of that very rich and expres-
sive language. Thus he laid betimes an ample and solid
foundation for that profound and various erudition, and
that critical sagacity, by which he afterwards rendered
such essential services to the church. It seems to have
prentice to a writer to the signet in Edinburgh. He ac
quired in this situation that knowledge of the constitution
and laws of his country, and that habit of close reasoning
and accurate inditing, for which he was afterwards so much
distinguished. He soon, however, became dissatisfied
with this profession, and betook himself to the study of
the Scriptures, and whatever would tend to quaUfy him
for the office of a minister of the gospel. Before the ex-
piration, therefore, of his apprenticeship, he attended the
lectures on divinity, then delivered by professor Gobdie,
at the university of Edinburgh ; and not long afterwards be-
came a student of theology, under professor Lumsden, of
King'scollege, and pro('essorChalmers,of Mansghal college,
Aberdeen. Here he particularly distinguished himself by_
his discourses, delivered, according to usual custom, in the
Scotch universities. Wishing, however, to acquire further
information and greater skill in polemical divinity than
these exercises would afford, he entered into a literary asso-
ciation, with several of the other students, among whom
may be particularly mentioned the Rev. Dr. Glennie,
Mr. James M'Kail, and Mr. 'William Forbes. This socie-
ty was formed in the month of January, 1742, and a num-
ber of young men of great promise were gradually ad-
mitted into it ; but, according to the account given by
several of the members, Mr. Campbell was considered as
the life and soul of the society, and as one likely to attain
great eminence in his profession. Like most young men
of genius, his style was rather florid ; but he made no pa-
rade of science : the discourses delivered by him, w"hen a
youth, displayed much good sense, a soimd knowledge of
theology, and an intimate acquaintance with the Holy
Scriptures ; and whenever they appeal to the imagination
or the passions, abound in the finest and most touching
sentiments, evincing his natural powers of eloquence, and
the great success with which he had cultivated them. Af-
ter the usual course of theological studies, he was proposed
to the synod, and at length hcensed as a preacher, on the
11th of June, 1746. Two years after this, he received a
presentation to the parish of Banchory Terman, situated
seventeen miles from Aberdeen, where his great talents
as an expounder of Scripture, began to show themselves
in his morning lectures to his congregation, which were
remarkable for their great simplicity and perspicuity.
While thus explaining the New Testament to his flock, he
conceived the idea of translating a part of it, the result of
which was his publication, several years after, of his
Translation of the Four Gospels. After continuing nine,
years in this country parish, he was called to succeed Mr.
John Bisset, as one of the ministers of Aberdeen ; here his
talents as a lecturer shone in their proper sphere : and
having the advantage of the best libraries, he commenced
a course of lectures on rhetoric, criticism, and other sub-
jects, which were delivered to the literary society of that
place, and afterwards served as the basis of his '■ Philoso-
phy of Rhetoric," and other works, by which he gained
much celebrity. At this time he had not published any
thing, except a sermon preached before the synod of Aber-
deen, on " The Character of a Blinister as a Teacher and
Pattern;" but this he has not included in the collection he
made some time before his death, probably because of the
style being not sufficiently simple. In 1750, Mr. Campbell
received a royal presentation to the office of principal of
Marischal college, which at that time became vacant.
Two other candidates had applied for it, one of whom was
supported by the magistrates of Aberdeen, and the other
by the landed interest of the county, and many of the
heads of the-coUege; but Mr. Campbell having been in-
duced to write to Archibald, duke of Argyle, who had
great influence in the affairs of Scotland at that time, and
having modestly stated his relation to the duke's famUy,
this application, together with his high character and re-
spectable talent, succeeded in procuring him the appoint-
ment. Placed thus at the head of the university, he soon
approved himself worthy of his dignity. That celebrated
infidel, Mr. David Hume, had just published his Essay on
Miracles, which excited great attention among the learned
of the day ; nor did he meet with any opponent whom he
deigned to notice, until professor Campbell entered the
been once his intention to prepare himself for the study lists, and preached a sermon on the subject before the pro-
3f the law ; and we find him actually engaged as an ap- vinsial synod of Aberdeen, which, at their request, he af-
CAM
t 312]
CAM
lexwards formed into a Dissertation on Miracles. Before
its publication, however, he transmitted the manuscript,
through the medium of his friend. Dr. Blair, of Edinburgh,
for BIr. Hume's inspection. The philosopher, notwith-
standing all his indifference, evidently felt the force of the
arguments used in this learned and acute performance ; he
objected to a few expressions, and pointed out some in-
stances in which he had been misunderstooil ; on which
Mr. Campbell revised the work, generously expunging the
offensive expressions, and made use of the remarks of his
opponent, to render his dissertation more complete. When
published, a copy was sent to Mr. Hume, who was so
pleased with his conduct, that he declared he felt an incli-
nation to answer it, if he had not in early life made a de-
termination never to answer any opponent. This disser-
tation appeared in 1763, and was dedicated to the earl of
Bute, at that time prime minister : it had a most extensive
sale in this country, and was translated into the French,
Dutch, and German languages ; so that the name of Dr.
Campbell, (for he had in the mean time received the de-
gree of doctor of divinity from King's college,) was re-
garded with the greatest respect by the literary men of
every European state. For twelve years he discharged
the duties of principal of Marischal college, being held in
equally high estimation by the professors and the students,
and living on the most happy terms with all his colleagues.
He was esteemed a most worthy man, a sincere Christian,
a good preacher, and above all, oue of the best lecturers
of his time ; he used very few, sometimes not any notes,
and where he spoke entirely extempore, he seldom failed
in enlightening the understanding, and moving the hearts
of lus auditors. On the 26th of Jane, 1771, he was ap-
pointed professor of divinity in his college, instead of Dr.
Gerard, who was removed to King's ; and as he was thus
called to additional labor, he found it necessary to resign
his pastoral charge as one of the ministers of the city ; as
minister of Gray Friars, however, an office connected with
the professorship, he preached once on the Lord's day in
one of the established churches. Dr. Campbell did not
adhere closely to the customary prelections of the former
professors, who used to meet the students twice a week
during the session, and spend one of these opportunities in
hearing them discourse : he intimated, immediately on
commencing liis labors, that he should always deliver lec-
tures twice in the week, and fixed upon another day for
hearing the students' discourses, when they had any to
deliver. He was the first ^professor that ever limited the
compass of subjects in the' divinity lectures ; it had been
the custom to extend them far beyond the period usually
allotted to the study of those subjects ; but Dr. Campbell
very wisely confined them within the space of four years,
so that every student had, by this means, the advantage
of attending the whole course. The chief excellence of
these lectures, however, consisted in their ingenuity and
profound learning ; in their luminous arrangement and
admirable perspicuity ; and above all, in the method which
he always purstted. of leading the students to think for
themselves, and not slavislily to depend upon the opinions
and systems of others made ready to their hands. His
own understanding was at once capacious and acute ; he
was too independent to be fettered by human systems, and
too judicious to be led astray by fanciful theories ; he would
declare the truth, how much soever it might conllict with
liis own private notions and practices, or those of the body
with which he stood connected. Deeply skilled in church
history, Scripture criticism, polemical divinity, and every
subject of importance to the student and the minister, he
was eminently qualified to direct the studies of others,
■while his public discourses and labors well exemplified the
in.structions that he gave. His Lectures on Ecclesiastical
History furnish ample illustration of these remarks ; they
were not published till after the author's death, being re-
vised and written out for the press only a sliort time before
his last illness. In the month of April, 177), he preached
and published his excellent sermon on the spirit of the gos-
pel, which will be long read as an admirable specimen of
his talents and candor. Five years afterwards, he completed
his Philosophy of Rhetoric, the two first chapters of which he
had composed at least twenty-five years before. This
work abounds with most interesting remarks on style and
elocution, and the most accurate criticism ; the theory of
evidence which it contains, the Encyclopasdia Britannica
describes as the most valuable part, " to which there is
nothing superior ; perhaps nothing equal, in our own, or
any other language." In 1776, on the day appointed for
a fast, on account of the American war. Dr. Campbell
preached a sermon on the nature, extent, and importance
of allegiance. This discourse, in which the author dis-
putes the right of the colonies to throw off their allegiance,
■was written with so much force of argument, and in so
excellent a spirit, that, at the request of dean Tucker, six
thousand copies were circulated through America. The
following year, another discourse appeared on the success
of the first preachers of the gospel, considered as a proof
of its truth. It was preached before the Society for Pro-
pagating Christian Knowledge, and pubhshed~at their re-
quest. Here " the policy of heaven" and " that of this
world" are finely contrasted ; and the argument for the
divine origin of the gospel, from the success of its first
pubhshers, triumphantly stated. In the year 1779, the
doctor evinced his liberality of sentiment in " An Address
to the People of Scotland, on the alarm raised by the bill
in favor of the Roman Catholics." The following senti-
ments, extracted from this able pamphlet, contain at once
the happiest illustration of the writer's spirit and manner,
and the most luminous statement of the argument itself.
" Let popery be as black as you will : call it Beelzebub, if
you please ; it is not by Beelzebub, that I am for casting out
Beelzebub, but by the Spirit of God. We exclaim against
popery ; and in exclaiming against it, betray but too mani-
festly, that we have imbibed the spirit for which we detest
it. In the most unlovely spirit of popery, we would fight
against popei^)' ! It is not by such weapons, that God has
promised to consume tlie man of sin, but by the breath of
his mouth ; that is, his word. Christians, in ancient times,
confided in the divine promises ; we, in these days, confide
in parliament ! True religion never flourished so much
— never spread so rapidly, as when, instead of persecuting,
it was persecuted ; instead of obtaining support from hu-
man sanctions, it had all the terrors of the magistrate and
the laws armed against it."
Dr. Campbell published several other discourses ; but
the last, and most valuable production of his pen, was his
'' Translation of the Four Gospels," which is generally
admitted to be excellent ; and the preliminary dissertations
with which it is accompanied, have done much in remov-
ing some of those difficulties which are to be met with in
the commonly received version. This admirable work
has met with a most extensive circulation ; the author,
however, did not long survive to witness its success. On
the 31st of March, 1796, while sitting with his friends, he
was taken ill ; but the next morning he was at his desk
as usual, though he complained that he could not write
Avith his accustomed ease. The following day he had a
paralytic stroke, which deprived him of his speech, under
which he languished till his death, which happened on the
7th of April, giving no other signs of sensibility than his
frequent efforts to speak. Though he was not permitted
to leave a testimony behind at the time of his decease, he
had already borne one about five years before, when he
was judged to be at the point of death. On that occasion,
he expressed himself in the following terms : " GoA has
been itleascd to give me some understanxiing of his promises iii
the gospel of his Son Jesus Christ. These I have communicated
to others in my life. I mom entertain the faith and hope of
them ; and this mxiy he cxtnsidered as the testimony of a dying
man." Within a year of his death, he resigned his office
of divinity professor in the Marischal college ; and soon
after, his majesty having graciously conferred on him a
pension of three hundred pounds per annum, he gave up
his situation as principal, and retired from public life. He
was small in stature, and in old age, rather inclined to
stoop ; his countenance was open, and his eye pierciag,
and indicative of great mental acumen. He studied very
closely, especially towards the latter part of his life, rising
generally at five o'clock in the morning, and continuing,
with few and short intervals, engaged in study till twelve
at night ; and yet, owing to his regularity of living and
great temperance, his constitution was not impaired ; so
that he had entered on the seventy-seventh year of his age
CAN
[ 313 1
CAN
al the period of his decease. His character may be sum-
med up in a few words. His imaginalionwas fertile ; his
judgment vigorous and acute ; his learning profound and
various; of a cheerful temper, unfeigned piety, and un-
blemished morals, of modest and gentle manners, and re-
markable for his ingenuousness, and love of truth ; in
short, as a man and a Christian, in public, or in private
life, as a husband, as a minister of the gospch and as the
principal of a college and professor of divinity, he had,
perhaps, few equals — cWtainly no superior. — IJfe, hy tlu
liev. George Skene Keith ; Jones's Chris. Biog.
CAMPHIRE ; Canticles 1: U ; 4: 13. Sir T. Browne
supposes thai the plant mentioned in the Canticles, ren-
dered kupros in the Septuagint, and eijprus in the Vulgate,
is that described by Dioscorides and Pliny, which grows in
, .Egypt, and near to Ascalon, producing an odorate bush of
-flowers, and yielding the celebrated okui:i ciiprinum. This
13 one of the plants which is most grateful to the eye and
• the smell. The deep color of its bark, the light green of
. its foliage, the softened mi.xture of white and yellow with
which the flowers, collected into long clusters like the lilac,
are colored ; the red lint of the ramifications which sup-
port them, form an agreeable combination. The flowers,
whose shades are so delicate, diffuse around the sweetest
odors, and embalm the gardens and apartments which
they embellish. The women take pleasure in decking
themselves with Ihese nosegays of beauty and clusters of
fragrance.
With the powder of the dried leaves, also, Ihey give an
orange tincture to their nails, to the inside of their hands,
and to the soles of their feet. The expression, rendered
" pare their nails," Deut. 21: 12, may perhaps rather mean,
"adorn, their nails;" and imply the antiquity of this prac-
tice. This is a universal custom in EgT,fpt, and not to
conform to it would be considered indecent. It seems to
have been practised by the ancient Egyptians, for the nails
of the mummies are most commonly of a reddish hu6. —
Watson.
CAMUS, (John Petek ;) a French prelate, was born at
Paris, in 1582, and was made bishop of Belley by Henry
IV. After having held his see for twenty years, he re-
signed it to live in retirement ; but his virtues and piety
soon occasioned him to be drawn from his retreat. He
was appointed vicar-general to the archbishop of Rouen ;
and, subsequently, bishop of Arras. He died in his seven-
tieth year, when on the point of going to his new diocese.
His works, which are said to amount to more than two
hundred volumes, have fallen into oblivion. Of the men-
dicant monks he was a determined and persevering enemy,
^ and he incessantly attacked them with the keenest raillery
and satire. — Davenport.
CANA ; the city in which our Lord performed his first
miracle, was in Galilee, and pertained to the tribe of Ze-
bulo3. The village now bearing the name, and supposed
to occupy the site of the ancient town, is pleasantly situa-
te! on the descent of a hill, about sixteen miles north-west
■ of Tiberias, and six north-east of Nazareth. Dr. Rich-
ardson states, that in a small Greek church in this place,
lie was shown an old stone pot, made of the common coni-
. pact lime-stone" of the country, which the hierophant in-
■, formed him was one of the original pots that contained
the water which underwent the miraculous change at the
wedding, which was here honored by the presence of
Christ. "It is worthy of note." says Dr. Clarke, "that
walking among the ruins of a church, we saw large massy
stone pots, answering the description given of the ancient
vessels of the country; not preserved nor exhibited as
rcliques, but lying about, disregarded by ihe present inha-
bitants, as antiquities with whose original use they were
• unacquainted. From their appearance, and the number
of them, it was quite evident, that a practice of keeping
water in large stone pots, each holding from eighteen to
twenty-seven gallons, was once common in the country."
(■Travels, P. ii. eh. 14.) Cana, or, as it is now called,
Kefer Kenna, or Cane Galil, contains about three hundred
mhabitants, who are chiefly catholic Christians. There
was another place bearing the same name, belonging to
- the tribe of Asher, which was situated in the neighborhood
of Sidon. — Cahnet.
CANAAN, the son of Ham. The Hebrews belipvp
10
that Canaan, having first discovered Noah's nakedness,
told his fallier Ham ; and that Noah, when he awoke,
having understood what had passed, cursed Canaan, the
first author of tlie oflience. Others are of opinion, that
Ham was puni.shed in his son Canaan, Gen. 9: 25. For
though Canaan is mentioned. Ham is not exempted from
the malediction ; on the contrary, he suffers more from it,
since parents are more affected with their children's misfor-
tunes llian with their own ; especially if the evils have been
inflicted through some fault or folly of theirs. Some have
thought that Canaan, may be put cUiptically for the father
of Canaan, that is. Ham, as it is rendered in the Arabic
and Septuagint translations.
The posterity of Canaan was numerous. His eldest
son, Sidon, founded the city of Sidon, and was father of
the Sidonians and Phcenicians. Canaan had ten other sons,
who were fathers of as many tribes, dwelling in Palestine
and Syria ; namely, the Hittites, the Jebusites, the Amo
rites, the Girgasites, the Hivites, the Arkites, the Sinites,
the Arvaditcs, the Zemarites, and the Hemathites. It is
believed that Canaan lived and' died in Palestine, which ,
from him was called the laud of Canaan. Not^iithstanding
the curse is directed against Canaan the son, and not
against Ham the father, it is often supposed that all the
posterity of Ham were placed under the malediction,
" Cui"sed be Cana;in ; a sei"vant of servants shall he be
unto his brethren." But the true reason why Canaan
only was mentioned probably is, Ihat the curse was in
fact restricted to the posterity of Canaan. It is true that
many Africans, descendants of other branches of Ham's
family, have been largely and cruelly enslaved ; but so
have other tribes in different parts of the world. There
is certainly no proof that the negro race were ever placed
under this malediction. Had they been included in it,
this would neither have justified their oppressors, nor
proved that Christianity is not designed to remove the evil
of slavery. But Canaan, alone in his descendants, is
cursed, and Ham only in that branch of his posterity. It
follows that the subjugation of the Canaanitish races to
Israel fulfils the prophecy. To them it was limited, and
with them it expired. Part of the seven nations of the
Canaanites were made slaves to the Israelites, when they
took possession of their land ; and the remainder by
Solomon.
CANAAN, Land uf. In the map it presents the appear-
ance of a naiTow slip of country, extending along the east-
ern coast of the Sleibterranean ; from which, to the river
Jordan, the utmost width does not exceed fifty miles.
This river was the eastern boundav)' of the land of Ca-
naan, or Palestine, properly so called, which derived
its name from the Philistines originally inhabiting the
coast. To three of the twelve tribes, however, Reuben,
Gad, and Manasseh, portions of territory were assigned
on the eastern side of Ihe river, which were afterwards
extended by the subjugation of the neighboring nations.
The territory of Tyre and Sidon was its ancient border on
the north-west ; the range oftheLibanus and Anti-libanus
forms a natural boundary on the north and nortli-east ;
while in the south it is pressed upon by the Syrian and
Arabian deserts. Within this circumscribed district, such
were the physical advantages of the soil and climate, there
existed, in the happiest periods of the Jewish nation, an
immense population. The kingdom of David and Solomon,
however, extended far beyond these narrow limits. In a
north-eastern direction, it was bounded only by the river
Euphrates, and included a considerable part of Syria.
It is stated that Solomon had dominion over all the region
on the western side of the Eujihrates, from Thiphsah, or
Thapsacus, on that river, in latitude thirty-five degrees
twenty minutes, to Azzah, or Gaza. '■ Tadmor in the
wilderness," (Palmyra,) which the Jewish monarch is
stated to have built, (that is, cither founded or fortified.)
is considerably to the north-east of Damascus, being only
a days' journey from the Euphrates ; and Hamath. the
Epiphania of the Greeks, (still called Hamah.) in the
territory belonging to which city Solomon had several
" store cities,' is seated on the Orontes, in latitude thirty-
four degrees fortv-five minutes north. On the east and
south-east, the kingdom of Solomon was extcndcil by the
ronipicsl of the cohnlrv of Monh, that of the Ammonites,
CAN
[314]
CAN
and Edom ; and tracts which -R-ere either inhabited or
pastured by the Israelites, lay still further eastward.
Maon, which belonged to the tribe of Judah, and was
situated in or near the desert of Paran, is described by
Abulfeda as the farthest city of Syria towards Arabia,
being two days' journey beyond Zoar. In the time of
David, the people of Israel, women and children included,
amounted, on the lowest computation, to five millions ;
besides the tributary Canaanites, and other conquered
nations. The vast resources of the country, and the
power of the Jewish monarch, may be estimated not only
by the consideration in which he was held by the contem-
porary sovereigns of Egj'pt, Tyre, and Assyria, but by
the strength of the several kingdoms into which the domi-
nions of David were subsequently divided. Damascus
revolted during the reign of Solomon, and shook off the
Jewish yoke. At his death, ten of the tribes revolted
under Jeroboam, and the country became divided into the
two rival kingdoms of Judah and Israel, having for their
capitals Jeru.salem and Samaria. The kingdom of Israel
fell before the Assyrian conqueror, in the year B. C. 721,
after it had subsisted about two hundred and fifty years.
That of Judah survived about one hundred and thirty
years, Judea being finally subdued and laid waste by
Nebuchadiiezzar, and the temple burned, B. C. 588.
Idumea "n-as conquered a few years after. From this
period till tlie era of Alexander the Great, Palestine re-
mained subject to the Clialdean, IWedian, and Persian
dynasties. At his death, Judea fell under the dominion
of the kings of Syria, and, with soine short and troubled
intervals, remained subject either to the kings of Syria or
of Egypt, till John Hyrcanus shook oif the Syrian yoke,
and assumed the diadem, B. C. 130. The Asmonean
dynasty, which united, in the person of the monarch, the
functions of king and pontiff, though tributary to Roman
conquerors, lasted one hundred and twenty-six years, till
the kingdom was given by Antony to Herod the Great,
of an Idumean family, B. C. 39.
2. At the time of the Christian era, Palestine was di-
vided into five provinces ; Judea, Samaria, Galilee, Perea,
and Idumea. On the death of Herod, Archelaus, his
eldest son, succeeded to the government of Judea, Samaria,
and Idumea, with the title of tetrarch ; Galilee being
assigned to Herod Antipas ; and Perea, or the country
beyond Jordan, to the third brother, Philip. But in less
than ten years, the dominions of Archelaus became an-
nexed, on his disgrace, to the Roman province of Syria;
and Judea was thenceforth governed by Roman procura-
tors. Jerusalem, after its final destruction by Titus,
A. D. 71, remained desolate and almost uninhabited, till
the emperor Hadrian colonized it, and erected temples to
Jupiter and Venus on its site. The empress Helena, in
the fourth century, set the example of repairing in pilgri-
mage to the Holy Land, to visit the scenes consecrated by
the gospel narrative ; and the country became enriched
by the crowds of devotees who flocked there. In the
beginning of the seventh century, it was overrun by the
Saracens, who held it till Jerusalem was taken by the
crusaders in the twelfth. The Latin kingdom of Jerusa-
lem continued for about eighty years, during which the
Holy Land streamed continually with Christian and Sa-
racen blood. In 1187, Judea was conquered by the illus-
trious Saladin, on the decline of whose kingdom it pBSsed
though various revolutions, and at length, in 1317, was
finally swallowed up in the Turitish empire.
Palestine is now distributed into pashalics. That of
Acre or Akka extends from Djebail neariy to Jafia ; that
of Gaza comprehends Jafl"a and the adjacent plains ; and
these two being now united, all the coast is under the
jurisdiction of the pasha of Acre. Jerusalem, Hebron,
Nablous, Tiberias, and, in fact, the greater part of Pales-
tine, are included in the pa,shalic of Damascus, now held
in conjunction with that of Aleppo ; which renders the
present pasha, in effect, the viceroy of Syria. Though
both pashas continue to be dutiful subjects to the grand
seignior in appearance, and annually transmit considerable
sums to Constantinople to insure the yearly renewal of
their offic, they are to be considered as tributaries, rather
than subjects of the porte ; and it is supposed to be the
reUgio'.iS supremacy of the sultan, as caliph and vicar of
Mahomet, more than any apprehension of his power,
v.-hich prevents them from declaring themselves inde-
pendent. The reverence shown for the firmans of the
porte throughout Syria attests the strong hold which the
sultan maintains, in this character, on the Turkish popu-
lation. The pashas of Egypt and Bagdad are attached
to the Turkish sovereign by the same ecclesiastical tie,
which alone has kept the ill-compacted and feeble empire
from crumbling to ruin.
3. A few additional remarks ^on the topography and
climate will tend to elucidate the force of many of those
parts of Scripture which contain allusions to these topics.
Dr. E. D. Clarke, after stating his resolve to make the
Scriptures his only guide throughout this interesting
territory, says, " The delight aflbrded by the internal
evidences of truth, in every instance where their fiideUty
of description was proved by a comparison with existing
documents, surpassed even all we had anticipated. Such
extraordinary instances of coincidence even with the
customs of the country as they are now exhibited, and so
many wonderful examples of illustration afforded by con-
trasting the simple narrative with the appearances pre-
sented, made us only regret the shortness of our time, and
the limited .sphere of our abilities for the comparison.'"
Judea is beautifully diversified with hdls and plains — hills
now barren and gloomy, but once cultivated to their sum-
mits, and smiling in the variety of their produce, chiefly
the olive and the vine ; and plains, over wliich the Bedouin
now roves to collect a scanty herbage for his cattle, but
once yielding an abundance of which the inhabitants of a
northern climate can form no idea. Rich in its soil ;
glowing in the sunshine of an almost perpetual summer ;
and abounding in scenery of the grandest, as well as of
the most beautiful kind ; this happy country was indeed a
land which the Lord had blessed : but Mahometan sloth
and despotism, as the instruments employed to execute
the curse of heaven, have converted it into a waste of rock
and desert, with the exception of some few spots, which
remain to attest the veracity of the accounts formerly
given of it. The hills of Judea frequently rise into
moimtains ; the most considerable of which are those of
Lebanon and Hermon, on the north ; those which surround
the sea of Gahlee, and the Dead sea, also attain a resjiect-
ble elevation. The other mountains of note are, Carmel,
Tabor, Ebal, and Gerizim, and the mountains of Gil-
boa, Gilead, and Abarim ; with the summits of the
latter, Nebo and Pisgah : a description of which will be
found .under their respective heads. Many of the hdls
and rocks abound in caverns, the refuge of the distressed,
or the resorts of robbers.
4. From the paucity of rain which falls in Judea, and
the heat and dryness of the atmosphere for the greater part
of the year, it possesses but few rivers ; and as these have
all their rise within its boundaries, their course is short, and
their size inconsiderable : the principal is the Jordan,
which runs about a hundred miles. The other remarkable
streams are, the Amon, the Jabbok, the Kishon, the Ke-
dron, the Besor, the Sorek, and the stream called the river
of Egypt. These, also, will be found described under
their respective heads. This country was once adorned
with woods and forests ; as we read of the forest of cedars
in Lebanon, the forest of oaks in Bashan, the forest or
wood of Ephraim, and the forest of Hareth in the tribe
of Judah. Of these, the woods of Bashan alone remain ;
the rest have been swept away by the ravages of time and
of armies, and by the gradual consumption of the inhabi-
tants, whose indolence and ignorance have prevented their
planting others.
5. There are no volcanoes now existing in Judea or its
vicinity : nor is mention made of any in history, although
volcanic traces are found in many parts on its eastern side,
as they are also in the mountains of Edom on the south,
the Djebel Shera and Hesma, as noticed by Burckhardt.
There can be no doubt that many of the sacred writers
were familiarly acquainted with the phenomena of volca-
noes ; whence it may be inferred that they were presented
to their observation at no great distance, and from which
they drew some of their sublimest imagery. Mr. Home
has adduced the following instances : " The mountains
quake at him, and the hills mdt, and the earth is burned at
CAN
[ 315]
CAN
his presence. His fury is poured out like fire, and the roclcs
are thrown down by him," Nahum 1: 5,6. " Behold, the
Lord Cometh forth out of his place, and will come down
and tread upon the high places of the earth. And the
mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall
be cleft as rvax be/me the fire, and as the Waters that are
poured down a steep place," Blicah 1: 3, 4. " O that thou
wouldest rend the lieavens, that thou wouldest come down,
that the mountains might jiom daivn at thy presence. As
when tlie melting fire bumeth, the fire causeth the waters to
boil, to make thy name known to thine adversaries, that
the nations may tremble at thy presence. When thou
didst terrible things which we looked not for, thou earnest
down, the mountains flowed down at thy presence,"
Isa. G4: 1—3,
6. The chmate of Judea, from the southern latitude of
the country, is necessarily warm. The cold of winter is,
indeed, sometimes greater than in European climates
situated some degrees farther to the north ; taut it is of
short duration, and the general character of the climate is
that of heat. Both heat and cold are, however, tempered
by the nature pf the surface ; the winter being scarcely
felt in the valleys, while in the summer the heat is almost
insupportable ; and, on the contrary, in the more elevated
parts, during the winter months, or rather weeks, frosts
frequently occur, and snow sometimes falls, while the air
in suiimrer is gomparatively cool and refreshing. Many
winters pass without either snow or frost ; and in the
coldest weather which ever occurs, the sun in the middle
of the day is generally warm, and often hot ; so that the
pain of cold is in reality but little felt, and the poor who
cannot afford fires may enjoy, during several hours of the
day, the more genial and invigorating influence of the
sun. This is the ordinaiy character of the winters ;
though in some years, as will be seen presently, the cold
is more severely felt during the short time that it prevails,
which is never more than two months, and more fre-
quently not so much as one. Towards the end of No-
vember, or beginning of December, domestic fires become
agreeable. It was at this time that Jehoiakim, kmg of
Judah, is represented by Jeremiah as sitting in his winter
house, with a fire burning on the hearth betbre him, Jere-
miah 30: 22. The same luxury, though frequently by no
tneans necessarv, is used by the wealthy till the end of
March.
7. Rain only falls during the autumn, winter, and
spring, when it sometimes descends with great violence :
tlio greatest quantity, and that which properly constitutes
the rainy season, happening between the autumnal equinox,
or somewhat later, and the beginning of December ; during
which period, heavy clouds often obscure the sky, and
several days of violent rain sometimes succeed eaclt other
with winds. This isv.'hat in Scripture is termed the early
or the former rain. Showers continue to fall at uncertain
intervals, with some cloudy but more fair weather, till
towards the vernal equinox, when they become again
more frequent and copious till the middle of April. These
are the latter rains, Joel 2: 23. From this time to the end
of May, showers come on at irregular intervals, gradually
decreasing as the season advances ; the sky being for the
most part serene, and the temperature of the air agreeable,
though sometimes acquiring a high degree of heat. From
the end of May, or beginning of June, to the end of Sep-
tember, or middle of October, scarce a drop of rain falls,
the s'.i)- being constantly unclouded, and the heat generally
cppressive. During thi.s period, the inhabitants commonly
sleep on the tops of their houses. The storms, especially
in the autumn, are preceded by short but violent gusts of
wind, which, from the surface of a parched soil, raise
great clouds of dust ; which explains what is meant by,
"Ye shall not se« wind," 2 Kings 3: 7. The continuation
of the same passage likewise impUes, that such circum-
scribed whirlwinds were generally considered as the pre-
cursors of rain : a circumstance likewise alluded to by
Solomon, who says, " Whoso boasteth himself of a false
gift, is like clouds and wind without rain," Prov. 25: 14.
Another prognostic of an approaching storm is a small
cloud rising in the west, and increasing until it overspreads
the whole heavens. Such was the cloud, " like a man's
hand," which appeared to Elijah, on motmt Carmel ;
which spread " till the heaven was black with clouds and
wind, and there was a great rain," 1 Kings 18: 44. To
this phenomenon, and the certainty of the prognostic, our
Savior alludes : " When ye see a cloud" (or the cloud,' ten
nr.phelht) " rise out of the west, straightway ye say, There
Cometh a shower ; and so it is," Luke 12: 54. The same
appearance is noticed by Homer : —
" Slow from the main tlie tieavy vapora rise,
Spread in dim streams, and pai! along the skies,
Till black as niglil ihe swelling tempest shows,
The cloud condensing as Ihe west wind Ijlows.
He dreads the impending storm," &c. PoPB.
Hail frequently falls in the winter and spring in very
heavy stonns, and with hail-stones of an enormous size.
Dr. Russell says that he has seen some at Aleppo which
measured two inches in diameter ; but sometimes they
are found to consist of irregularly shaped pieces, weighing
near three ounces. The copious dew forms another pecu-
liarity of this climate, frequently alluded to in Scripture :
so copious, indeed, is it sometimes, as to resemble small
rain, and to supply the wants of superficial vegetation.
Mr. Maundrell, w-hen travelling near mount Hermon,
says, " We were instntcted by erperience what the
Psalmist means by ' the dew of Hermon,' Psalm 133: 3 ;
our tents being as wet with it, as if it had rained all
night."
7. The seasons are often adverted to in Scripture, under
the terms " seed-time and harvest ." The former, for
wheat, is about the middle of October to the middle or end
of November : barley is put into the ground two and
sometimes three months later. The wheat harvest com-
mences about the twentieth of May, and early in June
the whole is oflf the ground. The barley harves*, it is to
be observed, is generally a fortnight earlier, A survey
of the astonishing produce of this country, and of the
manner in which its most rocky and, to appearance, in-
superably sterile parts, are made to peld to the wants of
man, -will be sufficient to refute the objections raised by
sceptical writers against the possibiUty of its furnishing
subsistence to the mfiltitude of its former inhabitants re-
corded in Scripture. Dr. Clarke, when travelling from
Napolose to Jerusalem, relates, "The road was moim-
tainous, rocky, and full of loose stones ; yet the cultivation
was every where marvellous ; it aflfcrded one of the most
striking pictures of human industry which it is possible to
behold. The limestone rocks and stony valleys of Judea
were entirely covered with plantations of figs, vines, and
olive trees : not a single spot seemed to be neglected. The
hills, from their bases to their utmost summits, were en-
tirely covered with gardens : all of these were free from
weeds, and in the highest state of agricultural perfection.
Even the sides of the most barren mountains had beer
rendered fertile, by being divided into terraces, like step»
rising one above another, whereon soil had been accuma
lated with astonishing lahor. Among the standmg crops
we noticed millet, cotton, Unseed, and tobacco ; and occa
sionally small fields of barley. A sight of this territcrj
can alone convey any adequate idea of its surprising
produce : it is truly the Eden of the east, rejoicing ia
the abundance of its wealth.- Under a wise and a benc.fi'
cent government, the produce of the Holy Land would
exceed all calculation. Its perennial harvest ; the salubrity
of its air ; its limpid springs ; its rivers, lakes, and match-
less plains ; its hills and dales ; — all these, added to the
serenity of its climate, prove this land to be indeed ' a
field which the Lord hath blessed : God hath given it of
the dew of heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and
plenty of corn and wine,' " An oriental's ideas of fertility
differ, however, from ours ; for to him. plantations of figs,
vines, and olives, with which the limestone rocks of Judea
were once covered, would suggest the same associations
of plenty and opulence that are called up in the mind of
an Englishman by rich tracts of corn-land. The land
of Canaan is characterized as flowing with milk and
honey ; and it still answers to this description ; for it
contains extensive pasture-lands of the richest quality,
and the rocky country is covered with aromatic plants,
yielding to the wild bees, who hive in the hollow of the
rocks, such abundance of honev as to supply the poorer
classes with an article of food. "Honey from the rocks is
,.C A Nj^,; [ 2
repeatedly referred to in the Scriptures, as a delicious food,
and an emblem of plenty, 1 Sam. 11:25; Psalm 81: 10.
Dates are another important article of consumption ; and
the neighborhood of Judea was famovis for its numerous
palm trees, which are found springing up from chance-
sown kernels in the midst of the most arid districts.
When to these wild productions we add the oil extracted
from the olive, so essential an article to an oriental, we
shall be at no loss to account for the ancient fertility of
the most barren districts of Judea, or for the adequacy
of the soil to the support of so numerous a population,
notwithstanding the comparatively small proportion of
arable land. There is no reason to doubt, however, that
corn and rice would be imported by the Tyrian merchants ;
which the Israelites would have no difficulty in exchanging
for the produce of the olive-ground and the vineyard, or
for their flocks and herds. Delicious wine is still produced
in some districts, and the valleys bear plentiful crops of
tobacco, wheat, barley, find millet. Tacitus compares
both the climate and the soil, indeed, to those of Italy
10 J CAN
Sini ; and it i.s ]irobable, since we do not read of theil!
abode in cities, that they lived dispersed, and in tents,
like the Scythians, roving on bofli sides of the Jordan, on
the hills and plains ; and that they were called by that
name from the Hebrew pliimitz, which signifies " to dis-
perse." The Canaanites dwelt in the midst of all, and
were surrounded by the rest. This appears from the
sacred writings to have been the respective situation of
those seven nations, which are said to have been doomed
to destrttction for their idolatry and wickedness, when the
Israelites first invaded their countrj'. The learned have
not absolutely determined whether the natiohs proceeding
from Canaan's otlier six sons should be reckoned among
the inhabitants of the land of Canaan. The prevalent
opinion is, that they were not included. As to the customs,
manners, arts, sciences, and language of the seven nations
that inhabited the land of Canaan, they must, from the
situation they severally occupied, havebeen very diflerent.
Those who inhabited the sea-coast were merchants, and
by reason of their commerce and wealth scattered colonies
and he particularly specifies the palm tree and balsam tree over almost all the islands and maritime provinces of the
as productions which gave the country an advantage over
his own. Among other indigenous productions may be
enumerated the cedar and other varieties of the pine, the
cypress, the oak, the sycamore, the mulberry tree, the fig
tree, the willow, the turpentine tree, the acacia, the aspen,
the arbutus, the myrtle, the almond tree, the tamarisk, the
oleander, the peach tree, the chaste tree, the carob or
locust tree, the oskar, the doom, the mustard-plant, the
aloe, the citi'on, the apple, the pomegranate, and many
flowering sarubs. The country about Jericho was cele-
brated for Its balsam, as well as for its palm tre^s ; and
two plantations of it existed during the last war between
the Jews and the Romans, for which both parties fought
desperately. But Gilead appears to have been the coun-
try in which it chiefly abounded : hence the name " balm
of Gilead." Since the country has fallen under the Turk-
ish dominion, it has ceased to be cultivated in Palestine,
but is still found in Arabia. Other indigenous productions
have either disappeared or are now* confined to circum-
scribed districts. Iron is found in the mountain range of
Libanus, and silk is produced in abundance in the plains
of Samaria.
9. The grand distinction of Canaan, however,' is, that it
was the only part of the earth made, by divine institution,
a type of heaven. So it was exhibited to Abraham, and
also to the Jews. It pointed to the eternal rest which the
spiritual seed of the father of the faithful were to enjoy
after the pilgrimage of life ; its holy city was the figure
of the " Jerusalem above ;" and Zioii, with its solemn and
joyful services, representeil that "hill of the Lord" to
which the redeemed shall come with songs, and everlasting
joy upon their heads ; where they shall obtain joy and
gladness, and sorrow and sighing shall fly away. —
IVatson.
CANAANITES, the posterity of Canaan by his eleven
sons, who are supposed to have settled in the land of Ca-
naan, soon after the dispersion of Babel. Five of these
are kno«m to have dwelt in the land of Canaan ; viz.,
Heth, Jebus, Hemor or Amor, Girgashi, and Hevi or
Hivi ; and these, together with their father Canaan, be-
came the heads of so many nations. Sina or Sini was
another ^son of Canaan, whose settlement is not so pre-
cisely ascertained; but some authors infer, from the
affinity of their names, that the desert of Sin, and mount
Sinai, were the places of his abode, and that they were
so called from him. The Hittites inhabited the country
about Hebron, as far as Beersheba, and the brook Besor,
reckoned by Moses the southern limits of Canaan. The
Jebusites dwelt near them on the north, as far as the city
of Jebus, since called Jerusalem . The Amorites possessed
the country on the east side of Jordan, between the river
Arnon on the south-east, and mount Gilead on the north,
afterwards the lot of Reuben and Gad. The Girgashites
lay next above the Amorites, on the east side of the sea
of Tiberias, and their land fl'as afterwards possessed by
the half-tribe of Manasseh. The Hivites dwelt north-
ward, under mount Libanus. The Perizzites, who make
one of the seven nations of the Canaanites, are supposed,
by Heylin and others, to be the descendants of Sina or
Mediterranean. (See Phoenicia.) The colonies which
Cadmus carried to Thebes in Bceotia, and his brother Cilix
into Cilicia, are said to have proceeded from the stock of
Canaan. Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, Cyprus, Corfu, Majorca,
Minorca, Gades, and Ebutris, are supposed to have been
peopled by the Canaanites. The other Canaanites, whose
situation was inland, were employed partly in pasturage,
and partly in tillage, and they were also well skilled in the
exercise of arms. Those who dwelt in the walled cities,
and who had fixed abodes, cultivated the land ; and those
who wandered about, as the Perizzites seem to have done,
grazed cattle : so that among the Canaanites, we discover
the various classes of merchants, and consequently, mari-
ners ; of artificers, soldiers, shepherds, and husbandmen.
"We learn, also, from their history, that they were all
ready, however diversified by their occupations or local
interests, to join in a common cause ; that they were well
appointed for war, both offensive and defensive ; that
their towns were well fortified ; that they were sufficiently
furnished with military weapons and warlike chariots ;
that they were daring, obstinate, and almost invincible ;
and that they were not destitute of craft and policy.
Their language, we find, was well understood by Abraham ,
who was an Hebrew, for he Conversed readily with them
on all occasions ; but as to their mode of -miting, whether
it was originally their own, or borrowed from the Israel-
ites, it is not so easy to determine. Their religion, at
least in part, seems to have been preserved pure till the
days of Abraham, who acknowledged Melchisedek to be
jiriest of the most high God ; and Melchisedek was, without
doubt, a Canaanite, or, at least, dwelt at that time in
Canaan in high esteem and veneration.
2. But we learn from the Scripture history, that the
Hittites in particular were become degenerate in the time
of Isaac and Rebekah ; for they could not endure the
thoughts of Jacob's marrying one of the daughters of
Heth, as Esau. had done. From this time, then, we may
date the prevalence of those abominations which subjected
them to the divine displeasure, and made them unworthy
of the land which they possessed. In the days of Mosps,
they were become incorrigible idolaters ; for he commands
his people to destroy their altars, and break down their
images, (statues or pillars,) and cut down their groves,
and burn their graven images with fire. And lest they
should pervert the Israelites, the latter were strictly en-
joined not to intermarry with them ; but " to smite them,
and utterly destroy them, nor show mercy upon them,"
Deut. 7: 1 — 5. They are .accused of the cruel custom of
•sacrificing men, and are said to have made their seed pass
through the fire to Moloch, Levit. IS: 21. Their morals
were as corrupt as their doctrine : adultery, bestiality of
all sorts, profanation, incest, and all manner of unclean
ness, are the sins laid to their charge. " The Canaanites,"
says Mr. Bryant, " as they were a sister tribe of the
Mizraim, resembled them in their rites and reUgion.
They held a heifer, or cow, in high veneration, agreeably
to the customs of Egypt. Their chief deitv was the' sun,
whom they worshipped, together with the Baalim, under
the titles of Ourchol, Adonis, or Thamuz."
0 A N
L 31T J
CAN
3. When the measure of the iclolali'ies and abominations
of the Canaanites was filled up, God delivered their coun-
try into the hands of the Israelites, who conquered it
under Joshua. However, they resisted with obstinate
valor, and kept Joshua employed six years, from the time
of his passing the river Jordan, and entering Canaan, in
the year B. C. 14j1, to the year B.C. 1415, the sabbatical
year beginning from tlie autu.nnal equino.'C ; when he
made a division of the land among the tribes of Israel,
au.l rested from his conquests. As God had commanded
this people, long before, to be treated with rigor, (see
Deut. 7: 2,) Joshua extirpated great numbers, and obliged
the rest to lly, some of them into Africa, and others into
Greece. Proeopius says, they first retreated into Egypt,
but advanced into Africa, where they built many cities,
and spread themselves over those vast regions which
feach to the straits, preserving their old language with
little alteration. In tlie time of Alhanasius, tlie Africans
still said they were descended from the Canaanites ; and
when asked their origin, they answered, " Canani." It is
agreed, that the Punic tongue was nearly the same as the
Canaanitish or Hebrew. — Watson.
CANAANITES, Destructio.n of. On the rigorous
treatment of the nations of Canaan by the Israelites, to
which infidels have taken so many exceptions, the follow-
ing remarks of Paley are a sufficient reply : The first
thing to be observed is, that the nations of Canaan were
destroyed for their wickedness. This is plain from Lev.
IS: 21, itc. Now the facts disclosed in this passage
sufficiently testify, that the Canaanites were a wicked
people ; that detestable practices were general amotigst
them, and even habitual ; that it was for these enormities
the nations of Canaan were destroyed. It was not, as
some have imagined, to make way for the Israelites ; nor
was it simply to make away with their idolatrj' ; but it
was because of the abominable crimes which usually
accompanied the latter. And we may further learn from
the passage, that God's abhorrence of these crimes and
his indignation against them are regulated by the rules
of strict impartiality, since Jloses solemnly warns the
Israelites against falling into the like wicked courses,
" that the land," says he, " cast not you out also, when
you defile it, as it cast out the nations that were before
you ; for whosoever shall commit any of these abomina-
tions, even the souls that commit them shall be cut off
! from among their people," Lev. 18: 28, 29. Now, when
i God, for the wickedness of a people, sends an earthquake,
j or a fire, or a plague amongst them, there is no complaint
of injustice, especially when the calamity is known, or
expressly declared beforehand, to be inflicted for the
! wickedness of such people. It is rather regarded as an
act of exemplary penal justice, and, as such, consistent
with the character of the moral Governor of the universe.
The objection, therefore, is not to the Canaanitish nations
being destroyed; (for when their national wickedness is
considered, and when that is expressly stated as the cause
of their desttuction, the dispensation, however severe, will
not be questioned ;) but the objection is solely to the
manner of destroying them. I mean there is nothing but
the manner left to be objected to : their wickedness
accounts for the tiring itself. To which objection it may
b; replied, tliat if the thing itself be just, the manner is
of little, signification, of little signification even to the
safTcrers themselves. For where is the great diflerence,
even to them, wljether they were destroyed by an earth-
quake, a pestilence, a famine, or by the hands of an
enemy ? Where is the difference, even to our imperfect
apprehensions of divine justice, provided it be, and is
known to be, for their wickedness that they are destroyed ?
But this destruction, you say, confounded the innocent
with the guilty. The sword of Joshua, and of the Jews,
spared neither women nor children. Is it not the same
with all other national visitations ? Would not an earth-
quake, or a fire, or a plague, or a famine amongst theni
have done the same ? Even in an ordinary and natural
death, the same thing happens ; God takes away the life
he lends, without regard, that we can perceive, to age, or
sex, or character. " But, after all, promiscuous mas.sa-
cres, the Intrning of cities, the laying waste of countries,
are things dreadful to reflect upon." Who doubts it ? so
are all the judgments of Almighty God. The effect, in
whatever way it shows itself, must necessarily be tre-
mendous, when the Lord, as the Psalmist expresses it,
" moveth out of his place to punish the ^^'icked." But it
ought to satisfy us j at least this is the point upon which
we ought to rest and fix our attention ; that it was for ex-
cessive, wilful, and forewarned wickedness, that all this
befel them, and that it is all along so declared in the
history which recites it.
But further, if punishing them by the hands of the
Israelites rather than by a pestilence, an earthquake, a
fire, or any such calamity, be still an objection, we may
perceive, I think, some reasons for this method of punish-
ment in preference to any other whatever ; always bearing
in our mind, that the question is not concerning the
justice of the punishment, but the mode of it. It is weil
known, that the people of those ages were affected by no
proof of the power of the gods which they worshipped, so
deeply as by their giving them victory in war. It ■« as
by this species of evidence that the superiority of their
own gods above the gods of the nations which they con-
quered, was, in tlieir opinion, evinced. This being the
actual persuasion wliich then prevailed in the world, no
matter whether well or ill founded, how -n-cre the neigh-
boring nations, for whose admonition this dreadful ex-
ample was intended, how were they to bo cc^ivinced of
the supreme power of the God of Israel above the pre-
tended gods of other nations ; and of the righteous cha-
racter of Jehovah, that is, of his abhorrence of the vices
which prevailed in the land of Canaan? How, I say,
were they to be convinced so well, or at all indeed, as by
enabling the Israelites, whose God he was knowm and
acknowledged to be, to conquer under his banner, and
drive out before them, those who resisted the execution
of that commission with which the Israelites declared
themselves to be invested, namely, the expulsion and ex-
termination of the Canaanitish nations ? This convinced
surrounding countries, and all who v.'ere observers or
spectators of what passed, first, that the God of Israel was
a real God ; secondly, that the gods which other nations
worshipped, were either no gods, or had no power against
the God of Israel ; and thirdly, that it was he, and he
alone, who possessed both the power and the will, to
punish, to cTestroy, and to exterminate from before his
face, both nations and individuals, who gave themselves
up to the crimes and wickedness for which the Canaanites
were notorious. Nothing of this sort would have a.\i-
peared, or with the same evidence, from an earthquake,
or a plague, or any natural calamity. These might not
have been attributed to divine agency at ail, or not to the
interposition of the God of Israel.
Another reason which made this destruction both more
necessary, and more general, than it would have other-
wise been, was the consideration, that if any of the old
inhabitants were left, they would prove a snare to those
who succeeded them in the country ; would draw and
seduce them by degrees into the vices and corruptions
which prcvaileil among themselves. Vices of all kinds,
but vices most particularlj'" of the licentious kind, are
astoni-shingly infectious. A little leaven leaveneth the
whole lump. A small number of persons, addicted to
them, and allowed to jiractise them 'with impunity or en-
couragement, will spread them through the whole mass.
This reason is formally and expressly assigned, not
simply for the punishment, but for the extent to which it
was carried ; namely, extermination : " Thou shall utterly
destroy them, that they teach you not to do after all their
abominations, which tbey have done unto their gods."
In reading the old Testament account, therefore, of the
Jewish wars and conquests in Canaan, and the terrible
destruction brought upon the inhabitants thereof, we are
always to remember that we are reading tlie execution of
a dreadful but just sentence pronounced by Jehovah
against the intolerable and incorrigible crimes of thc'^e
nations; that they were intended to he made an example
to the whole world of God's avenging wrath against sins,
which, if they had been suffered to continue, might have
polluted the whole ancient world, and which could only
be checked by the signal and public overthrow of nations
notoriously addicted to them, and so addicted as even to
CAN
L 318
have incorporated them into their religion and their pubUc
institutions ; and that the Israelites were mere instru-
ments in the hands of a righteous Providence for eflecting
the extirpation of a people, of whom it was necessary to
make a public example to the rest of mankind ; that this
extermination, which might have been accomplished by a
pestilence, by fire, by earthquakes, was appointed to be
done by the hands of the Israelites, as being the clearest
and most intelligible method of displaying the power
and the righteousness of the God of Israel, his power
over the pretended gods of other nations, and his righteous
mdignation against the crimes into which they were
fallen. — Watson ; Paley's Sermons, Ser. 29.
CANOACE, the name of an Ethiopian queen, whose
eunuch coming to Jerusalem to worship the Lord, %vas
baptized by Philip the deacon, near Bethsura, in the way
to Gaza, as he was returning to his own country, Acts
8: 27. The Ethiopia here mentioned was the isle or pe-
ninsula of Meroe to the south of Egypt, which, as Mr.
Bruce shows, is now called Atbara, up the Nile. Candace
was the common name of the queens of that country.
Strabo and Pliny mention queens of that name as reign-
ing in their times. That the queen m.enlioned in the Acts
was converted by the instrumentality of her servant,
and that the country thus received Christianity at that
early period, are statements not supported by any good
testimony. See Abyssinian Church. — IVatson.
CANDLESTICK. The instrument so rendered by our
translators was more properly a stand for lamps. One
of beaten gold was made by Moses, (Exod. 25: 31, 32,) and
fut into the tabernacle in the holy place, over against the
table of shew-bread. The basis of this candlesticlf was
also of pure gold ; it had seven branches, three on each
side, and one in the middle. When Solomon had built
the temple, he was not satisfied with placing one golden
candlestick there, but had ten put up, of the same form
and metal with that described by Bloses, five on the north,
and five on the south side of the holy place, 1 Kings 7: 'IQ.
Alter the Jews returned from their captivity, the golden
candlestick was again placed in the temple, as it had been
before in the tabernacle by Moses. The lamps were kept
burning perpetually ; and were supplied morning and
evening with pure olive oil. Josephus says, that after the
Romans had destroyed the temple, the several things
which were found within it, were carried in triumph to
Home, namely, the golden table, and the golden candle-
stick with seven branches. These were lodged in the
temple built by Vespasian, and consecrated to Peace ; and
at the foot of mount Palatine, there is a triumphal arch
CAN I
still visible, upon which Vespasian's triumph is repre-
sented, and the several monuments which weie cairied
publicly in the procession arc engraved, and among the
rest the candlestick with the seven branches, which are
still discernible upon it. In Eev. 1; 12 — 20, mention is
made of seven golden candlesticks, which are said to be
emblems of the seven Christian churches.— IFn/sow.
CANKER, OK Gangrene ; a terrible disease, which
inflames antl mortifies the flesh upon which it seizes ;
spreaiis swiftly ; endangers the whole body ; and can
scarcely be healed without cutting ofl" the infected part.
By the microscope it appears, that swarms of small
worms, preying on the flesh, constitute this disease ; and
that new swarms, produced by these, overrun the neigh-
boring parts. Errors and heresies are liliened to a canker ;
they overspread, corrupt, and prey on the souls of men ;
they destroy the vitals of religion, and afterward the
forms of godliness, and bring spiritual ruin and death on
persons and churches, and afterwards ruin upon nations,
wherever they are allowed, 2 Tim. 2: 17. Covetous men's ■
silvtr and gold are cankered ; the rust thereof bears witness
against them, and eats their fesh as fire : the covetous
hoarding it up from use is attended with painful anxiety,
and brings on a fearful curse, and endless tonnent.
James 5: 3.- — Brown.
CANKER-WORM, ialejc ; Psalm 105: 34 ; Jer. 51: 27,
where it is rendered caterpillar ; Joel 1:4; 2: 25 ; Nahum
3: 15, cankcr-n-orm- As it is frequently mentioned with
the locust, it is thought by some to be a species of that
insect. It certainly cannot be the canker-worm, as our
version rendci-s it ; for in Nahum, it is expressly said to
have wings and fly, to camp in the hedges by day, and
commit its depredations in the night. But it may be, as
the Septuagint renders it in five passages out of eight
where it occurs, the hrvcjms, or " hedge-chaffer." Never-
theless, the passage, (Jer. 51: .27,) where the in/fi is de-
scribed as " rough." that is, with hair standing an end on <
it, leads us very naturally to tlie rendering of our transla-
tors in that place, " the rough caterpillar," which, hke
other caterpillars, at a proper time, casts its exterior cov-
ering and flies away in a winged state. Scheuchzer ob-
serves that we should not, perhaps, be far from the truth,
if with the ancient interpreters, we understood this iaUk,
after all, as a kind of locust ; as some species of them
have hair principally on the head, and others have prickly
points standing out. — Watson.
CANNE, (John ;) the celebrated author of the marginal
references and notes to the Bible, was born in England
about the year 1590 or 1600. In early life, this learned and
excellent man was a minister in the established church ; but
adopting the principles of the Non-conformists, he seceded,
and joined the Baptists not far from KiSO. He was for
some time pastor of the church in Southwark, London ;
being successor to Mr. Hubbard, its first pastor. He was
banished to Holland, where not considering baptism a
prerequisite to communion, he succeeded the learned
Ainsworth (see Ainswokth, Henky, D. D.) ss pastor of
his church in Amsterdam, and was deservedly popular.
AVhile in banishment in 1634, he published a work on the
" Necessity of Separation from the Cliurch of England."
In 1640, he returned for a short time, on a visit to Eng-
land, and founded the Baptist church in Broadmead,
Bristol, of which Robert Hall was the late pastor. It was
then called a " gathered church," to distinguish it from
that of the parish. Mr. Canne was equally eminent for
learning, piety, knowledge of the Scriptures, and zeal for
reformation. In a conference with Mr. Fowler, a pious
minister of the establishment, on the duty of " cleaving
close to the doctrine of the Lord Jesus in his instituted
worship," Mr. Fowler agreed with him in the necessity
and duty of reformation ; but objecting that at that time
" they should not be suiTered, but would be cast out of all
the public places," Mr. Canne answered, " That mattered
not, they should have a barn to meet in, keeping the wor-
ship and commands of the Lord as they were delivered
ns !" He was styled by ]\Ir. John Rogers, in l(i57, an
" old sufferer and standard against the prelates and
tyrants, old and new."
But that which has immortalized the name of Canne,
is his judicious selection of marginal references to the
CAN
[ 319
CAN
Bible. He was the author of three sets of notes, which
accompanied three editions of the Bible. The first printed
at Amsterdam in 1617, is dedicated To the Eight Honor-
able the Lords and Comim/is assembled in the High Court of
Parliament. In the preface to the second, 1604, he says,
in allusion to Jacob's seveii years' service for Rachel,
" I can truly speak it, I have served the Lord in this work
more than thrice seven years, and the time hath not seemed
long, neither hath the work been any burden to me, for
the love I have had to it." His great ambition wa-s to make
the Bible its own interpreter. He prepared for the press
a third edition, witli large annotations ; but it seems it was
never published, and this greatest labor of his life was
lost to the world. — Icimeifs Hist. Eng. Bap.
CANON. The word innort had long been in use among
the early ecclesiastical ^iTiters, and in verj' general ac-
ceptation, before it was transferred to a collection of holy
Scriptures. It meant no more, generally, than a " book,''
and a •' catalogue ;" but in particular : — 1. A " catalogue
of things that belong to the church ;" or, a " book, that
served for the use of the church." Hence a collection
of hymns which were to be sung on festivals, as also a
list, in which were introduced the names of persons belong-
ing to the church, acquired the name of hanon. The word
was used in a sense yet more limited ; of 2. A " publicly
approved catalogue of all the books that might be read in
public assemblies of Christians, for instruction and edifi-
cation." Finally, but not until very recent times, it has
comprised immediately, 3. A " collection of divine and
inspired writings." The last signification most modern
scholars have adopted. They use, therefore, canonical
and inspired, (kanonikos and theopneustos,) as perfectly
synonymous.
I. Canon of the Old Testament. Soon after the re-
turn of the Jews from the Babylonian captivity, a collec-
tion was prepared of ail writings of the Hebrews then
extant, which, on account of their antiquity, contents, au-
thors, and the claims of divine inspiration which they
possessed, became revered and holy in the view of all the
members of the new government. In the temple was
reposited a sacred hbrary of these writings, which, for a
considerable time before Christ, the particular year is
unknown, ceased to be further enlarged.
After the period when this coUection was made, there
arose, among the Jews, authors of a diflerent kind, histo-
rians, philosophers, poets, and theological romancers.
I Now they had books, very unlike in value, and of various
, ages. The earlier were held, as productions of prophets,
[ to be holy ; the later were not, because they were com-
posed in times when there was no longer an uninterrupted
prophetical succession. The ancient were preserved in
1 the temple ; the modern were not. The ancient were in-
I troduced into a public collection ; the modern into none
( whatever, at least into none of a public natm'e. And if
the Alexandrian Christians had not been such great ad-
I mirers of them, if they had not added them to the manu-
; scripts of the Septuagint, (in the original, if composed in
J the Greek language ; and in a Greek translation, if the
1 autograph was Hebrew,) who knows whether we might
ihrtve a single page remaining of all the modern Jewish
[uTilers ?
!At a late period, a long time since the birth of Christ,
these two kinds of -WTitings have been distinguished by
appropriate names, derived chiefly from the use which
was made of the writings ; the earlier were called Ca-
NONicAT,, the more recent, Apochryphal, Books. And
the whole collection of the former was comprehended
under the appellation of Canon of the Old Testament.
It has been pretty generally agreed that the forming of
the present canon of the Old Testament should be attri-
buted to Ezra. To assist him in this work, the Jewish
writers inform us, that there existed in his time a great
syruigngite, consisting of one hundred and twenty men,
including Daniel and his three friends, Shadrach, BIc-
sliach, and Abednego ; the prophets Haggai and Zacha-
riah : and also Simon the Just. But it is very absurd to
suppose that all these lived at one time, and formed one
svii iLTiigue, as they are pleased to represent it: for from
the nine of Daniel to that of Simon the Just, no less than
two hundred and fifty 3-ears must have intervened.
It is, however, by no means improbable, that Ezra was
assisted in this great work by many learned and pious
men, who were contemporary with hiin, and as prophets
had always been the superintendents, as well as writers
of the sacred volume, it is likely that the inspired men
who lived at the same time as Ezra, would give attention
to this work. But in regard to this great synagogue, the
only thing probable is, that the men «ho are said to have
belonged to it, did not live in one age, but successively,
uiuil the time of Simon the Just, ■v\ ho was made high-
priest about twenty-five years after the death of Alexan-
der the Great. This opinion has its probability increased
by the consideration, that the canon of the Old Testament
appears not to have been fully completed, until about the
time of Simon the Just. Walachi seems to have lived
after the time of Ezra, and therefore his prophecy could
not have been added to the canon by this eminent scribe,
unless we adopt the opinion of the Jews, who will have
Malachi to be no other than Ezra himself; maintaining,
that while Ezra was his proper name, he received that of
Malachi from the circumstance of his having been sent
to superiirtend the rehgious concerns of the Jews, for the
import of that name is a messenger, or one sent.
I5ut this is not all, — in the book of Nehemiah mention
is made of the high-priest Jaddua, and of Darius Codo-
manus, king of Persia, both of whom lived at least a
hundred years after the time of Ezra. In the third chap-
ter of the first book of Chronicles, the genealogy of the
sons of Zerubbabel is carried down, at least, to the time
of Alexander the Great. This book, therefore, could not
have been put into the canon by Ezra ; nor much earlier
than the time of Simon the Just. The book of Esther,
also, was probably added during this interval.
The probable conclusion therefore is, that Ezra began
this work, and collected and arranged all the sacred books
which belonged to the canon before his time, and that a
succession of pious and learned men continued to pay
attention to the canon, until the whole was completed,
about the time of Siii:un the Just. After which nothing
was ever added to the canon of the Old Testament.
Most, however, are of opinion, that nothing was added
after the book of Blalachi was written, except a few
names and notes ; and that all the books belonging to the
canon of the Old Testament were collected and inserted
in the sacred volume by Ezra himself. And this opinion
seems to be the safest, and is by no means incredible in
itself. It accords also with the uniform tradition of the
Jews, that Ezra completed the canon of the Old Testa-
ment ; and that after Malachi there arose no prophet who
added any thing to the sacred volume.
Whether the books were now collected into a single
volume, or were bound up in several cuJices, is a question
of no importance ; if we can ascertain what books were
received as canonical, it matters not in what form they
were preser\red. It seems probable, however, that the
sacred books were at this time distnhuted into three vo-
lumes,— the law, the prophets, and the hagiographa.
This division we know to be as ancient as the time of our
Savior, for he says, " These are the ^ords which I spake
unto you, while I was yet with you, that all things must
be fulfilled, which were written in the law, and in the pro-
phets, and in the psalms, concerning me," Luke 24: 44.
Josephus, also, makes mention of this division, and it is
by the Jews, with one consent, referred to Ezra, as its
author.
In establishing the canon of the Old Testament, we
might labor under considerable uncertainty and embar-
rassment, in regard to several books, were il not that the
whole of what are called the Scriptures, and which are
included in the threefold division mentioned above, re-
ceived the explicit sanction of our Lord. He was not
backward to reprove the Jews for disobeying, misinter-
preting, and adding their traditions to the Scriptures, but
he never drops a hint that they had been unfaithful, or
careless, in the preservation of the sacred books. So far
from this, he refers to the Scriptures as an infillible rule,
which " must be fulfilled," and " could not be broken."
We h.ave, therefore, an important pouit established with
the utmost certainty, that the volume of Scripture which
exi.sted in the time 'of Christ and his ajiostles, v.-as uncor-
CAN
[ 320 ]
CAN
rupted, and was esteemed by them as an inspired and in-
fallible, rule. Now, if we can ascertain what books were
then included in the sacred volume, we shall be able to
settle the canon of the Old Testament without un-
certain tj'.
To do this, it is necessary to resort to other sources of
information ; and happily the Jewish historian, Josephus,
furnishes us with the very information which we want ;
not, indeed, as explicitly as we could wish, but sufficiently
so to lead us to a very satisfactory conclusion. He does
not name the books of the Old Testament, but he numbers
them, and so describes them, that there is scarcely room
for any mistake. The important passage to which we
refer, is in his first book against Apion. " We have,"
says he, " only two-and-twenty books which are to be be-
lieved as of divine authority, of which five are the books
of Moses. From the death of Jloses to the reign of Ar-
tnxerxes, king of Persia, tlie propliets who were the sue-'
cessors of Bloses, have written in thirteen books. The
remaining four bouks contain hymns to God, and docu-
ments of life for the use of men." Now the five books
of Moses are universally agreed to be Genesis, Exodus,
Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. The thirteen
hooks written by the prophets will include Joshua, Judges,
with Ruth, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, with La-
mentations, Ezekicl, Daniel ; the twelve minor prophets.
Job, Ezra, Esther, and Chronicles. The four remaining
books will be Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the
Song of Solomon, which make the whole number twentj'-
two ; the canon then existing is proved to be the same as
that which we now possess. It would appear, indeed,
'that these books might more conveniently be reckoned
twenty-four, and this is the present method of numbering
them by the modern Jews ; but formerly the number was
regulated by that of the Hebrew alphabet, which consists
of twenty-two letters ; therefore they annexed the small
book of Ruth to Judges, and probably it is a continuation
of this boolc by the same author. They added, also, the
Lamentations of Jeremiah to his prophecy, and this was
natural enough. As to the minor prophets, which form
twelve separate books in our Bibles, they were anciently
always reckoned one book ; so they are considered in all
ancient catalogues, and in every quotation from them.
But we are able also to adduce other testimony to prove
the same thing. Some of the early Christian fathers,
who had been brought up in paganism, when they em-
braced Christianity were curious in their inquiries into
the canon of the Old Testament, and the result of llie re-
searches of some of them still remain. Melito, bishop
of Sardis, travelled into Judea, for the very purpose of
satisfying himself on this point. And although his own
WTitings are lost, Eusebius has preserved his catalogue
of the books of the Old Testament, from which it appears
that the very same books were, in his day, received into
the canon, as are now found in our Hebrew Bibles. And
the interval between Blelilo and Josephus is not a hundred
ysars, so that no alteration in the canon can he reasonably
^^tpposed to have taken place in this period. Very soon
nfter Melito, Origen furnishes us with a catalogue of the
books of the Old Testament, which perfectly accords with
Dur canon, except that he omits the minor prophets ;
which omission must have been a mere slip of the pen in
him or his copyist, as it is certain that he received this as
1 book of holy Scripture ; and the number of the books
3f the Old Testament, given by him in this very place,
cannot be completed without reckoning the twelve minor
prophets as one.
After Origen, we have catalogues, in succession, not
only by men of the first authority in the church, but by
councils, consisting of numerous bishops, all which are
perfectly the same as our own. It will be sufficient merely
to refer to these sources of information. Catalogues of
the books of the Old Testament have been given by Atha-
nasius, by Cyril, by Augustine, by Jerome, by Rufin, by
the council of Laodicea, in their sixtieth canon, and by the
councd of Carthage. There is also a catalogue in the
Talmud, which perfectly corresponds with ours. And'
when it is considered that all these catalogues exactly
correspond with our present canon of the Hebrew Bible,
the evidence must a]>pear complete to every impartial
mind, that the canon of the Old Testament is settled upon
the clearest historical grounds. There seems to be nothing
to be wished for further in confirmation of this point.
II. Canon of the New Testament. Many persons who
write and speak on the subject of the New Testament ca-
non, appear to entertain a wrong impression in regard to it ;
as if the books of the New Testament could not be of au-
thority until they were sanctioned by some ecclesiastical
council, or by some publicly expressed opinion of the
fathers of the church ; and as if any portion of their au-
thority depended on their being collected into one x'olume.
But the truth is, that every one of these books was of au-
thority, as far as known, from the moment of its publica-
tion ; and its right to a place in the canon is not derived
from the sanction of any church or council, but from the
fact that it M'as written by inspiration. And the appeal to
testimony is not to prove that any council of bishops or
others, gave sanction to the book, but to show that it is
indeed Ifie genuine work of Matthew, or John, or Peter,
or Paul, whom we know to have been inspired.
The books of the New Testament were, therefore, of
full authority before they were collected into one volume ;
and it would have made no difference if they had never
been included in one volume, but had retained that sepa-
rate form in which they were first published. And it is
by no means certain that these books were, at a very early
period, bound in one volume. As far as we have an)'
testimony on the subject, the probability is, that it was
more customary to include them in two volumes, one of
which was called the gospel, and the other the apostles.
Some of the oldest manuscripts of the New Testament
extant, appear to have been put up in this form ; and the
fathers often refer to the Scriptures of the New Testament
under these two titles. The question — when was the
canon constituted ? — admits, therefore, of no other proper
answer than this, that as soon as the last book of the New
Testament was written and published, the canon was
completed. But if the question relates to the time when
these books were collected and published in a single vo-
lume, or in two volumes, it admits of no defijiite answer ;
for those churches which were situated nearest to the
place where any particular books were published, would,
of course, obtain copies much earUer than churches in a ,
remote part of the world. For a considerable period, the
collection of these books in each church must have been
necessarily incomplete ; for it would take some time to
send to the church or people with whom the autographs
were deposited, and to write off fair copies. This ne-j
cessary process will also account for the fact, that some]
of the smaller books were not received by the churches so '
early nor so universally as the larger. The solicitude of
the churches to possess immediately the more extensive ,
books of the New Testament, would doubtless induce them
to make a great exertion to acquire copies ; but probably
the smaller would not be so much spoken of, nor would
there be so strong a desire to obtain them without delay.
Considering how difficult it is now, with all our improve-
ments in tire typographical art, to multiply copies of the
Scriptures with sufficient rapidity, it is truly wonderful
how so many churches as were founded during the first
century, to say nothing of individuals, could all be sup-
plied with copies of the New Testament, when there was
no speedier method of producing them, than by writing
every letter with the pen ! The pen of a ready writer
must then, indeed, have been of immense value. The
idea entertained by some, especially by Dodwell, that
these books lay for a long time locked up in the coflers of
the churches to which they were addressed, and totally
unknown to the rest of the world, is in itself most im-
probable, and is repugnant to all the testiinony which
exists on the subject. Even as early as the time when
Peter wrote his second epistle, the writings of Paul were
in the hands of the churches, and were classed with the
other Scriptures. 2 Peter 3: 14, 15. And the citation
from these books, by the earliest Christian writers, living ,
in different countries, demonstrates that from the time of
their publication, they were sought after with avidity, and
were widely dispersed. How intense the interest which
the first Christians felt in the writings of the apostles,
can scarcely be conceived by us, who have been familiar
CAN
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with iKese books from our earliest years. How solicitous
would they be, for examjile, who had never seen Paul,
but had heard of his wouderful conversion, and extraor-
dinary labors and gifts, to read his writings I And proba-
blv they who had enjoyed the high privilege of hearing
this apostle preach, would not be less desirous of reading
his epistles ! As we know, from the nature of the case,
as well as from testimony, that many uncertain accounts
of Christ's discourses and miracles had obtained circula-
tion, how greatly would the primitive Chiistians rejoice
to obtain an authentic historj', from the pen of an apostle,
or from one who wTote precisely what was dictated by an
apostle ? We need no longer wonder, therefore, that every
church should wish to possess a collection of the writings
of the apostles ; and knowing them to be the productions
of inspired men, they would want no further sanction to
their authority. All that was requisite was to be certain
that the book was indeed written by the apostle whose
name it bore. Ileuce some things in Paul's epistles,
which seem to common readers to be of no importance,
are of the utmost consequence. Such as, — I, Tertius,who
wrote This epistle, (f-c. The salutation with mine onm hand.
So I write in every epistle. Ye see horn large a letter I have
rvritten unto you with mine own hand. The salutatio?i by the
hand of me., Paul. The salutation of Paul with mine own
hand, which is the taken in every epistle. This apostle com-
monly employed an amenuensis ; but that the churches to
which he wrote might have the assurance of the genuine-
ness of his epistles, from seeing his own hand-writing, he
constantly wrote the salutation himself. So much care
was taken to have these sacred writings well authenticated
on their first publication. And on the same account it
was that he and the other apostles were so particular in
giving the names and the characters of those who were
the bearers of their epistles. And it seems that they were
always committed to the care of men of high estimation
in the church ; and commonly more than one appears to
have been intrusted with this important commission.
If it be inquired, what became of the autographs of
these sacred books, and why they were not preserved,
since this would have prevented all uncertainty respecting
the true reading, and would have relieved the biblical
critic from a large share of labor ? it is sufficient to an-
swer, that nothing different has occurred, in relation to
these autographs, from that which has happened to all
other ancient writings. No man can produce the auto-
graph of any book as old as the New Testament, unless
it has been preserved in some extraordinarj' wa}', as in
the case of the manuscripts of Herculaneum ; neither
could it be supposed, that in the midst of such vicissi-
tudes, revolutions and persecutions, as the Christian
church endured, this object could have been secured by
any thing short of a miracle. And God knew, by a su-
perintending providence over the sacred Scriptures, they
could be transmitted with sufficient accuracy, by means
of apographs, to the most distant generations. Indeed,
there is reason to believe that the Christians of early times
were so absorbed and impressed with the glory of the
truths revealed, that they gave themselves little concern
about the mere vehicle by which they were commimi-
cated. They had matters of such deep interest, and so
novel, before their eyes, that they had neither time nor
inclination for the minutias of criticism. It may be there-
fore, that they did not set so high a value on the possession
of the autograph of an inspired book as we should, but
considered a copy, made with scrupulous fidelity, as
equally valuable with the original. And God may have
suffered these autographs of tlie sacred writings to perish,
lest, in process of time, they should have become idolized,
like the brazen serpent ; or lest men should be led super-
stitiously to venerate the mere parchment and ink, and
form, and letters, employed by an apostle. Certainly, the
history of the church is such as to render such an idea far
from being improbable.
The slightest attention to the works of the fathers will
convince any one that the writings of the apostles were
held from the beginning, in the highest estimation ; that
great pains were taken to distinguish the genuine produc-
tions of these inspired men from all other bo<jks ; that
they were sougijt out willi nncnmmon diligence, and read
with profound attention and veneration, not only in pri-
vate, but publicly in the churches ; and that they are cited
and referred to universally as decisive on every point of
doctrine, and as authoritative standards lor the regulation
of faith and practice.
This being the state of the case when the books of the
New Testament were communicated to the churches, we
are enabled, in regard to most of them, to produce testi-
mony of the most satisfactory kind, that they were ad-
mitted into the canon, and received as inspired, by the
universal consent of Christians in every part of the world.
And as to those few books, concerning which some per-
sons entertain doubts, it can be shown, that as soon as
their claims were fully and impartially investigated, they
also were received -with universal consent. And that
other books, however excellent as human compositions,
were never put upon a level with the canonical books of^
the New Testament ; that spurious writings under the
names of the apostles, were promptly and decisively re-
jected, and that the churches were repeatedly warned
against such apochni^jhal books.
I. Catalogues. — Here, as in the case of the Old Testa-
ment, we find that, at a very early period, catalogues of
these books were pubhshed, by most of the distinguished
Fathers whose writings have come down to us : the same
has been done, also, by several councils, whose decrees
are still extant.
These catalogues are, for the most, part, perfectly har-
monious. In a few of them, some books now in the canon
are omitted, for which omission a satisfactory reason can
commonly be assigned.
1. The first regular catalogue of the books of the New
Testament, which we find on record, is by Origen, who
Uved about one hundred years after the death of the
apostle John, and whose extensive biblical knowledge
highly qualified him to judge correctly in this case.
In this catalogue, he mentions, " The Four Gospels,
The Acts of the Apostles, Fourteen Epistles of Paul, Two
of Peter, Three of John," and " The Book of Revela-
tion." This enumeration Includes all the present canon,
except the Epistles of James and Jude, but these were
omitted by accident, not design ; for in other parts of his
writings, he acknowledges these Epistles as a part of the
canon. And while Origen furnishes us with so fall a
catalogue of the books now in the canon, he inserts no
others, which proves that in his time the canon was well
settled among the learned ; and that the distinction be-
tween inspired writings and human compositions was as
clearly marked as at any subsequent period.
2. The next catalogue of the books of the New Testa-
ment (to which I will refer,) is that of Eusebius, the
learned historian of the church ; to whose diligence and
fidelity, in collecting ecclesiastical fads, we are more in-
debted than to the labors of all other men, for tViat period
which intervened between the days of the apostles and his
own times. Eusebius may be considered as giving his
testimony about one hundred years after Origen. His
catalogue may be seen in his Ecclesiastical History. — ■
Eusebius, Ere. Hist. 1. iii. e. 25, compared with e. 3. In it
he enumerates every book wliich we now have in the
canon, and no others ; but he mentions that the Epistle
of James, the Second of Peter, and Second and Third of
John, were doubted of by some ; and that Revclatic n was
rejected i>y some, and received by others ; but Eusebius
himself declares it to be his opinion that it should be
received without doubt.
There is no single witness among the whole number of
ecclesiastical writers, who was more competent to give
accm'ate information on this subject than Eusebius. He
had spent a great part of his life in searchmg into the
antiquities of the Christian church ; and he had an inti-
mate acquaintance with all the records relating to ecclesi-
astical atfairs, many of which arc now lost ; and almost
the onlv information which we have of them has been
transmitted to us by this diligent compiler.
3. Athanasins, so well known for his writings and his
sufl'erings in defence of the di\inity of our Savior, in his
Festal Epistle, and in his Synopsis of Scripture, has left
a catalogue of the books of the New Testament, ^^hich
perfectly agrees with the canon now in use.
CAN
[ 322 ]
CAN
4. Cyril, in his (.-atechetical work, lias also given us a
catalogue, perfectly agreeing with ours, except that he
omits the book of Revelation. Why that book was so
often left out of the ancient catalogues and collections of
the Scriptures, shall be mentioned hereafter. Athanasius
and Cyril were contemporary with Eusebius ; the latter,
however, may more properly be considered as twenty or
thirty years later.
5. Then, a little afler the middle of the fourth century,
■we have the testimony of all the bishops assembled in the
council of Laodicea, The catalogue of this council is
contained in their sixtieth canon, and is exactly the same
as onrs, except that the book of Revelation is omitted.
The decrees of this council were, in a short time, received
into the canons of the universal church ; and, among the
rest, this catalogue of the books of the New Testament.
Thus we And, that a-s early as the middle of the fourth
century, there was a universal consent, in all parts of the
world to which the Christian church extended, as to the
books -which constituted the canon of the New Testament,
with the single exception of the book of Revelation ; and
that this book was also generally arlmitted to be canonical,
we shall lake the opportunity of proving in the sequel of
this work.
(5. But a few years elapsed from the meeting of this
council, before Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis, in the island
of Cyprus, published his work on Heresies, in which he
gives a catalogue of the canonical books of the New
Testament, which in every respect, is the same as the
canon now received.
7. About the same time, Gregory Nazianzen, bishop of
Constantinople, in a poem " On the True and Genuine
Scriptures," mentions distinctly all the books now re-
ceived, excc]it Revelation.
8. A few years later, we have a list of the books of the
New Testament in a work of Philastrins, bishop of Brizia,
in Italy, which corresponds in all respects, with those now
received, except that he mentions no more than thirteen
of Paul's Epistles. If the omission wa.s designed, it pro-
bably relates to the Epi.stle to the Hebrews.
9. At the same time li\'ed Jerome, who translated the
whole bible into Latin. He furnishes us with a catalogue
answering to our present canon in all respects. He does,
however, speak doubtfully about the Epistle to the He-
brews, on account of the uncertainty of its author. But,
in other parts of his writings, he shows that he received
this book as canonical, as well as the rest. — Epist. ad
Paulinum.
10. The catalogue of Rufin varies in nothing from the
canon now received. — Expos, in Sijmhol. Aposi.
H. Augustine, in his work on " Christian Doctrine,"
has inserted the names of the books of the New Testa-
ment, which, in all respects, are the same as ours.
12. The council of Carthage, at which Augustine was
present, have famished a catalogue which perfectly agrees
with ours. At this council, Ibrty-lbur bishops attended.
The list referred to is found in their fort)--eighth canon.
13. The tinknown author, who goes under the name of
Dionysius the Areopagite, so describes the books of the
New Testament as to sliow that he received the very same
as a:e now in the canon.
11. Another satisfactory source of evidence in favor of
the canon of the New Testament, as now received, is the
fact that these books and these books alone. were quoted
as sacred Scripture, by all the fathers, living in parts of
the world the most remote from each other. The truth
of this assertion will fully appear when we come to speak
particularly of the books which compose the canon . Now,
how can it be accounted for, that these books, and these
alone, should be cited as authority in Asia, Africa, and
Europe ? No other reason can be assigned, than one of
these two, — either, they knew no other books which
claimed to be canonical ; or, if they did, they did not
esteem them of equal authority with those which they
cited. On either of these grounds the conclusion is the
same, — That the books qcoted as Scripture are alone
THE cA.N'ONicA'. r.ooKS. To npply this rule to a particular
case, — The First Epistle of Peter is canonical, because it
is continually citeil by the m.o.st ancient Christian vmters
m cverj' p.-ir; of the world ; but the book called the
Revelation of Peter is apocrj-phal, because none of the
early fathers have taken any testimonies from it. The
same is true of the Acts of Peter, and the Gospel of
Peter. These wTitings were totally unknown to the
primitive church, and are therefore spurious. This argu.
ment is perfectly conclusive, and its force was perceived
by the ancient defenders of the canon of the New Testa-
ment. Eusebias repeatedly has recourse to it ; and,
therefore, those persons who have aimed to unsettle our
present canon, as Toland and Dodwell, have attempted to
prove that the early Christian writers were in the habit
of quoting indifferently and promiscuously, the books'
which we now receive, and othcis which are now rejected,
as apocryphal. But this is not correct, as has been shc-wn
by Nye, Richardson and others. The true method of do*
termining this matter is by a careful examination of all
the passages in the writings of the fathers, where olhei
books besides those now in the canon have been quoted.
Some progress was made in collecting the passages in the
writings of the fathers, in which any reference is made
to the apocryphal books, by the learned Jeremiah Jones,
in his " New Method of Settling the Canon of the New
Testament ;" but the work was left incomplete. This
author, however, positively denies that it is common foi
the fathers to cite these books as Scripture, and asserts
that there are only a very few instances in which any of
them seem to have fallen into this mistake.
III. A third proof of the genuineness of the canon of
the New Testament may be derived from the fact, that
these books were publicly read as Scripture in all the
Christian churches.
IV. A fourth argument, to prove that our canon of the
New Testament is substantially correct, may be derived
from the early versions of this sacred book into other
languages.
Although the Greek language was extensively known
through the Roman empire when the apostles wrote, yet
tlie Christian church was in a short lime extended into
regions where the common people, at least, were not ac-
quainted with it, nor with any language except their own
vernacular tongue. While the gift of tongues continued,
the difficulty of malcing known the gospel to such people
would, in some measure, be obviated ; but when these
miraculous powers ceased, the necessity of a version of
the gospels and epistles into the language of the people
would become manifest. As far, therefore, as we may be
permitted to reason from the nature of the case, and the
necessities of the churches, it is exceedingly probable that
versions of the New Testament were made shortly alter
the death of the apostles, if they were not begun before.
Can we suppose that the numerous Christians in Syria,
Mesopotamia, and the various parts of Italy, would be
long left without having these precious books translated
into a language which all the people could understand ?
But we are not left to our own reasonings on this subject.
We know that at a very early period there existed Latin
versions of the New Testament, which had been so long
in use before the time of Jerome, as to have become con-
siderably cornipt, on which account he undertook a new
version, which soon superseded those that were more
ancient. Now, although nothing remains of these ancient
Latin versions, but uncertain fragments, yet we have good
evidence that they contained the same books as were in-
serted in Jerome's version, now denominated the Vulgate.
But perhaps the old Syriac version of the New Testa
ment, called Peshito, furnishes the strongest proof of the
canonical authority of all the books which are contained
in if. This excellent version has a very lugh claim to
antiquity ; and in the opinion of some of the best Syriac
scholars, who have profoundly examined this subject, was
made before the close of the first century.
The arguments for so early an origin are not, indeed,
conclusi\-e, but they possess much probability, whethei
we consider the external or internal eWdence. The Syrian
Christians have always insisted that this version was
made by the apostle Thaddeus ; but without admitting
this claim, which would put it on a level with the Greek
original, we m.ay believe that it ought not to be brought
down lower than the second centurj-. It is universally
received by all the numerous sects of Syrian Christians,
CAN
ind must be anterior to the existence ol' the oldest of
hem. 3Iaues, who lived in the second century, proba-
jly had read the New Testament in the Syriac, which
.vas his native tongue ; and Justin Martyr, when he testi-
ies that the Scriptures of the New Testament were read
n the assemblies of Christians on every Sunday, proba-
ily refers to Syrian Christians, as Syria was hits native
ilace, where also he had his usual residence. And Mi-
-haelis is of opinion that Melito, who wrote about A. D.
170, has e.<:pressly declared that a Syrian version of the
Sible existed in his time. Jerome also testifies, explicitly,
.hat when he wrote, the Syriac Bible was publicly read in
the churches ; for, says he, '■ Ephrem the Syrian is held
in such veneration, that his writings are read in several
rhurc lies immediately after the lessons from the Bible."
A is also well known that the Armenian version, which
,tself is ancient, was made from the Syriac.
; On the general evidence of the genuineness of our
Canon, I would subjoin the following remarks -.^
I 1. The agreement among those who have given cata-
)<jgites of the books of the New Testament, from the ear-
liest times, is almost complete. Of thirteen catalogues
io which we have referred, seven contain exactly the
t;am° hooks as are now in the canon. Three of the oth-
srs ditfer in nothing but the omission of the book of Keve-
ation, for which they had a particular reason, consistent
fl-ilh their belief of its canonical authority ; and in two
3f the remaining catalogues, it can be proved that the
books omitted or represented as donbtful, were received
IS authentic by the persons who have given the cata-
logues. It may be asserted, therefore, that the consent of
the ancient chiuch, as to what books belonged to the ca-
non of the New Testament, was complete. The sacred
Volume was as accurately formed, and as clearly distin-
:giiished from other books, in the third, fourth, and fifth
centuries, as it has ever been since.
2. Let It be considered, moreover, that the earliest of
these catalogues was given by Origen, who lived within
a hundred years of the death of the apostle John, and
'who by his reading, travels, and long residence in Pales-
tine, had a full knowledge of all the transactions and wri-
tings of the church, until his own time. In connection
with this, let it be remembered, that these catalogues were
rirawuup by the most learned, pioits, and distinguished men
in the church, or by councils ; and that the persons fur-
nishing them, resided in different and remote parts of the
world ; as, for example, in Jerusalem, Coesarea, Carthage
land Hippo in Africa, Constantinople, Cyprus, Ale.taiulria
in Egypt, Italy, and Asia Minor. Thus it appears that the
'Canon was early agreed upon, and that it was every
where the same ; therefore, we find the fathers, in all their
writings, appealing to the same Scriptures ; and none are
charged with rejecting any canpnic.al book, except heretics.
3. It appears from the testimony adduced, that it was
never considered necessary that any council or bishop
I should give sanction, to these books, in any other way
I than as witnesses, testifying to the churches that these
j were indeed the genuine \%Titing3 of the apostles. These
I books, therefore, were never considered as deriving their
i authority from the churA, or from councils, but were of
■ complete authority as soon as published : and were deliv-
' ered to the churches to be a guide and standard, in all
things relating to faith and practice. The fathers would
,have considered it impious for any bishop or council to
pretend to add any thing to the authority of inspired books,
or to claim llie right to add other books to those handed
down from the apostles. The church is founded on the
apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ being the chief cor-
ner stone ; but the sacred Scriptures are no how depend-
ent for their authority on any set of men who lived since
they were written.
4. We may remark, m the last place, the benignant
providence of God towards his church, in causing these
precious books to be written, and in watching over their
preservation, in the midst of dangers and persecutions ;
so that, notwithstanding the malignant designs of the en-
emies of the church, they have all come down to us un-
mutilated, in the original tongue in which they were pen-
ned by the apostles.
Our liveliest gratitude is due to the great Head of the
[ 323 ] CAN
church for this divine treasure, from which we are per
mitted freely to draw whatever is needful for our instruc-
tion and consolation. And it is our duty to prize thij pre-
cious gift of divine revelation above all price. On the
law of the Lord we should methtate day and night. It is
a perfect rule ; it shines with a clear light ; it exercises a
salutary influence on the heart , it warns us when we are
in danger; reclaims us when we go astray ; and comforts
us when in affliction. The word of the Lord is " more to
be desii-ed than gold, yea, than much fine gold, sM-eetcr
also than honey, and the honey-comb." They who are
destitute of tliis inestimable volume call for our tcndcrest
compassion, and our exertions in circulating the Bible
should never be remitted, until all are supplied with this
divine treasure ; but Ihcy who possess this sacred volume
and yet neglect to study it, are still more to be pitied, ft r
they are perishing in the midst of plenty. In tiie midtt
of light they walk in darkness. God has sent to them
the word of' life ; but they have lightly esteemed the rich
gift of his love. 0 that their eyes were opened, that they
might behold wondrous things in the law of the Lord.
— Ps. 19 : 10. — See also Alexander on the Canon ; Cosin's
Scholastiral History of the Canon ; Dii FMs Complete Histo-
ry of the Caiwn and IVrilcrs of the Old and New Testament;
Jer. Jones's Nar and Full Method of Settling the Canonical
Authority of the New Testament ; Blair's Lectures on tht
Canon of the Old Testament ; Stoseh Commaii. Histor. Crit.
d« Lihb. N. T. Canone ; Lardner's Credibility, and Eichorn's
Introdnct. to the Old Testament; Hend. Buck.
CANOiXS, Ecclesiastical, statutes or rules fixed by
councils, and possessing the force of ecclesiastical law.
From the time of Constantine the Great, the first Christian
emperor, many councils were held, and canons or laws
drawn up, for the government of the church ; they were
collected into three volumes, by Ivo, bishop of Chartres
in France, about the fourteenth year of king Henry
I., and are called the decrees ; they were corrected about
thirty-five years afterwards, by Gratian, a Benedictine
monk, and are now the most ancient volumes of the eccle-
siastical law. They were published in England in the
reign of king Stephen.
The next'in order of time were the decretals; they
were letters of the popes, for the determination of some
controversy ; and of these there are likewise three vol-
umes. They laid an obligation on the laity as well as the
clergy. The first volume of these decretals was com-
piled by Raimund Barcinius, chaplain to pope Gregory
IX., and published about the fourteenth year of king
Henry III. It was appointed to be read in all schools,
and admitted as law in all the ecclesiastical courts of
England. About sixty years afterwards, Simon, a monk
of Waldcn, read these laws in the univei-sity of Cam-
bridge, and the next year in that of Oxford. The second
volume was collected and methodized by pope Boniface
XIU.. and published about the twenty-seventh year of
king Edward I. The third volume was collected by pope
Clement V., and published in the council of Vienna, and
likewise in England, in the second year of Edward II. ;
they took, from that pope, the name of Clementine, These
decretals were never received any where but in the pope"s
dominions, John Andreas, a famous canonist in the f( ur-
teenth century, wrote a commentary on these decretals,
which he entitled "Novella;," from a very boiuiiful
daughter he had, named Novella, whom he bred a scho-
lar. But these foreign canons, even when the papa, au-
thority was at the highest in England, were of no force
■where they were found to contradict the prerogative of
the king or the laws of the land.
The ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the see of Rome, in
England, was founded on the canon law ; and this crea-
ted quarrels between kings, and several archbishops and
prelates, who adhered to those papal usurpations ; for
such foreign canons as were received there, had no force
from any papal legatine, or provincial authority, but sole-
ly from the consent and approbation of the king and people.
Besides the foreign canons, there were several laws and
constitutions made "there for the government of the church ;
and all these received their force from the ro.yal assent ;
and if, at any time, the ecclesiastical courts d[d, by their
sentences, endeavor to enforce obedience to such canons
CAN
[ 324 J
CAN
the conrts at common law, upon complaint made, -n'ould
grant prohibitions. These canons were all collected and
explained by Lyndwood, dean of the arches, in the reign
of Henry VI. But, having been made in the times of
papal authority, they were revised, some time after the
Reformation, by commi.'isioners appointed for that pur-
pose ; among whom was archbishop Cranmer. The work
is entitled " Eeformatio I>egum Ecclesiasticanim, ex au-
thoritate Regis Hen. VIII. inchoata, et per Edw. VI. pro-
veeta." But the king's death prevented it being con-
firmed. This book was put into elegant Latin by Dr.
Hadden, university orator at Cambridge, with the assis-
tance of Sir John Cheek, who was tutor to king Edward VI.
The authority vested in the church of England, of mak-
ing canons, was ascertained by a statue of Henry VI 11.,
commonly called the act of the clergy's submission ; by
which they acknowledged that the convocation had been
always assembled by the king's writ ; after which follows
this enacting clause, viz, : — " That they shall not attempt,
allege, or claim, or put in use, any coDStitutions or canons,
without the king's assent." So that, though the power of
making canons resided in the clergy, met m convocation,
their force was derived from the authority of the king as-
senting to, and confinning them.
The old canons continued in force till the reign of James
I,, when, the clergy being lawfully assembled in convo-
cation, that king gave them leave, by his letters patent,
to treat, consult, and agi'ee on canons ; w'hich they did,
and presented them to the king, who gave his royal as-
sent to them, and by other letters patent, did for himself,
his heirs, and successors, ratify and confirm the same.
These canons were a collection out of the several preced-
ing canons and injunctions ; and, being authorized by
the king's commission, according to the form of the sta-
tute of the 25 Hen. VIII., they were warranted by act of
parUament, and becaime part of the law of the land, and
as binding in ecclesiastical matters as any statute what-
ever in civil. Some of the canons in 1603 are now obso-
lete, as the seventy fourth, which requires that the bene-
ficed clergy shall wear gowns with standing collars, and
square caps.
In the reign of Charles I., several canons were passed
by the clergy in convocation. They were approved by
the king and privy council, the judges and other eminent
persons of the long robe being present ; after which, they
were subscribed in .he house of lords by the bishops, none
refusing but the bis hop of Gloucester, for which he was
suspended ab officio aud beneficio by both houses. Notwith-
standing which solemn approbation, these canons gave
great offence. Some were displeased with the seventh,
entitled " a declaration concerning rites and ceremonies."
But (he greatest c !amor was against the sixth, entitled
" an oath enjoined for the preventing all innovations in
doctrine and goveniQient." It was likewise objected to
them that they were not made pursuant to the above-men-
tioned statute of the 2.5th of Hen. VIII., because they
were made in convocation, after the parliament was dis-
solved. After the restoration, when the bishops were re-
stored by an act of parliament to their jurisdiction, there
was a proviso in the act, that it should not confirm the
canons made in 1640 ; and thus the ecclesiastical laws
were left as they were before the year 1610. — Hend. Buck.
CANON, a person who possesses a prebend or revenue
allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathe-
dral or collegiate church. Canons are of no great anti-
quity. Paschier observes, that the name was not kno-ira
before Charlemagne; at least, the first we hear of are in
Gregory de Tours, who mentions a college of canons
instituted by Baldwin XVI., archbishop of that city, in
the time of Clotharius I. The common opinion attributes
the ..institution of this order to Chrodegangns, bishop of
Mentz, about the middle of the eighth century.
CANONS, (book of,) ordinances prepared for Scotland
by order of Charles I., and desigTied completely to subvert
the constitution of the Scottish church. They declared
the'power of the king in all matters spiritual to be abso-
lute and unlimited ; and they pronounced sentence of ex-
communication against all who should declare the go-
vernment of the church, by bishops and archbishops, to be
tinscriptural and unlawful. — Hend. Buck.
CANONICAL HOURS, are certain stated times of the
day consigned more especially by the Romish church to
the offices of prayer and devotion ; such are matins, lauds,
&c. In England, the canotiical hotirs are from eight
to twelve in the foreuooH ; before or after which, mar
riage cannot be legally performed in any church. — Hend.
Buck.
CANONICAL LETTERS, in the jmdent church, were
testimonials of the orthodox faith which the bi.shops and
clergy sent each other to keep up the Catholic commu-
nion, and distinguish orthodox CirristiaDS from heretics,
— Hend. Buck.
CAWoNICAL LIFE, the rale of living prescribed by
the ancient clergy who lived in community. The canoni-
cal life was a kind of medium between the monastic and
clerical lives. — Hend. Buck.
CANONICAL OBEDIENCE is that submission which,
by the ecclesiastical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay
to their bishops, and the religious to their superiors. —
Hend. Buck.
CANSTEIN, (Charles Hii.itebtiand, von,) founder of
a famous establishment for printing Bibles, which goes
under his name, was born, in 1667, at Limienburg, in
Germany, studied at Frankfort on the Oder, travelled
much in Europe, went, in 1688, to Berlin, where he was
appointed page of the elector of Brandenburg, and served
as a volunteer in the Netherlands. A dangerous sickness
obliged him to leave the military service. He went to
Halle, where he became familiarly acquainted with Spe-
ner. His wish to spread the Bible among the poor led
him to form the idea of printing it with stereotype plates.
Thus originated the famous institution, called in German,
Die Camleinche Bibelanstah. Canstein published some
works, wrote the life of Spener, and died, in 1719, in'
Halle, leaving to the great orphan asylum his library, and
a part of his fortune. — Ency. Amir.
CANTICLES, (Tire book of,) in Hebrew, shir hashirim, the
smtg of songs. The church, as well as the synagogue, re-
ceived this book generally as canonical. The royal author-
appears, in the typical spirit of his time, to have designed
to render a ceremonial appointment descriptive of a spi-
ritual relation ; and this song is accordingly considered, by
judicious writers, to be a mystical allegory of that sort
which induces a more sublime sense on historical truths,
and which, by the description of human events, shadows
out divine circumstances. The sacred writers were, by
God's condescension, authoiized to illustrate his strict and
intimate relation to the church by the figure of a mar-
riage ; and the emblem must have been strikingly becom-
ing and expressive to the conceptions of the Jews, since
they annexed ideas of peculiar mystery to this appoint-
ment, and imagined the marriage union to be a counter-
part representation of some original pattern in heaven.
Hence it was performed among them with very peculiar
ceremonies and solemnity, and with every thing that could
give dignity and importance to- its rites. Solomon, there^
fore, in celebrating the circumstances of his marriage, was
naturally led, by a train of correspondent reflections," to
consider that spiritual connexion which it was often em-
ployed to symbolize ; and the idea must have been the
more forcibly suggested to him, as he was at this period
preparing to build a temple to God, and thereby to furnitli
a visible representation of the Hebrew church. The spi-
ritual allegory thus worked up by Solomon to its highest
perfection, was very consistent with the prophetic style,
which was accustomed to predict evangelical blessings by
snch parabolical figures ; and Solomon was more immedi-
ately furnished with a pattern for this representation by
the author of the forty-fifth Psalm, who describes, in a
compendious allegory, the same future connexion between
Christ and his church.
2. But though the work be certainly an allegorical re-
presentation, many learned men, in an unrestrained eager-
ness to explain the song, even in its minutest and most
obscure particulars, have too far indulged their imagina-
tions ; and, by endeavoring loo nicely to reconcile the lite-
ral with the spiritual sense, have been led beyond the
boundaries which a reverence for the sacred Scriptures
should ever prescribe. The ideas which the sacred writers
furnish concerning the mystical relation between Christ
CAN
[ 325 J
CAP
and his church, though well accommoJaled to our appre
hension by the allusion of a marriage union, are too gene
ral to illustrate every particular contained in this poem
which may be supposed to have been intentionally deco-
rated with some ornaments appropriate to the literal con-
struction. When the general analogy is obvious, we arc
not always to expect minute reseinblance, and should not
be too curious in seeking for obscure and recondite allu-
sions. Solomon, in the glow of an inspired fancy, and
unsuspicious of misconception or deliberate perversion,
describes God and his church, with their respective attri-
butes and graces, under colorings familiar and agreeable
to mankind, and exhibits their ardent affection under the
authorized figures of earthly love. No similitude, indeed,
could be chosen so elegant and apposite for the illustration
of this intimate and spiritual alliance, as a marriage union,
if considered in the chaste simplicity of its first institution,
or under the interesting circumstances with which it was
established among the Jews.
3. This poem may be considered, as to its form, as a
dramatic poem, of the pastoral kind. There is a succes-
sion of time, and a change of place, to different parts of
the palace and royal gardens. The persons introduced as
speakers, are the bridegroom and bride, and their respec-
tive attendants. The interchange of dialogue is carried on
in a wild and digressive manner ; but the speeches are
adapted to the persons with appropriate elegance. The
companions of the bride compose a kind of chorus, which
seems to bear some reseinblance to that afterwards adopt-
ed in the Grecian tragedy. Solomon and his queen as-
sume the pastoral simplicity of style, which is favorable
to the communication of their sentiments. The poem
abounds throughout with beauties, and presents every-
where a delightful and romantic display of nature, painted
at its most interesting season, and described with every
ornament that an inventive fancy could furnish. It is
justly entitled the Song of Songs, or most excellent song,
as being superior to any that an uninspired writer could
have produced, and tending, if properly understood, to pu-
rify the mind, and to elevate the affections from earthly to
heavenly things.
" Every part of the Canticles," says a modern writer,
" abounds in poetical beauties ; the objects which present
themselves on every side, are the choicest plants, the most
beautiful flowers, the most delicious fruits, the bloom and
vigor of spring, the sweet verdure of the fields, flourishing
and well-watered gardens, pleasant streams and perennial
fountains. The other senses are represented as regaled
with the most precious odors, natural and artificial ; with
the sweet singing of birds, and the soft voice of the turtle ;
with milk and honey, and the choicest of wine. To these
enchantments are added all that is beautiful and graceful
in the human form, the endearments, the caresses, the de-
licacy of love. If any object be introduced which seems
not to harmonize with this delightful scene, such as the
awful prospect of tremendous precipices, or the wildness
of the mountains, or the haunts of the Uons ; its eflTect is
only to heighten, by the contrast, the beauty of the other
objects, and to add the charms of variety to those of grace
and elegance." (Bossuet's Preface to the Canticles.)
In the following passage, the force and splendor of de-
scription is united with all the softness and tenderness of
passion :
" Get thee up, ray companion,
My lovely one, come away :
For lo ! the winter is past,
Tile rain is over, is gone,
Tile flowers are seen on the earth :
The season of the song is come,
And the voice of the turtle is heard in our land;
The fig-tree puis forth its green figs,
And the vine's tender grapes yield a fragrance :
Arise, my companion, my fair one, and come."
Ch. 2: 10—13.
The following comparisons abound in sweetness and
delicacy :
" How sweet is thy lore, O my sister, O spouse,
How much belter than wine is" thy love.
And the odor of thy perfumes than all spices !
Thy lips, O spouse, distil honey from the comb,
Honey and milk are under thy tongue,
And the scent of thy garments is like the fragrance of Lebanon. ' '
Ch. 4; 10, 11.
There are .some others which demand a more accurdie
investigation.
" Thy hair is like a flacl< of gnats.
That browse upon Mount tiitcad."
Ch. d:l-5.
The hair of the goat is soft, sinooth, of a yellow cast,
like that of the bride ; see ch. 7: 5, and compare 1 Sam.
19: 13, 16. with Ifi: 12; her beautiful tresses are compared
with the numerous flocks of goats which covered this
flourishing mountain from the top to the bottom.
"Thy teclh arc like the shorn liock,
Which have cnnie up from the ivashing place.
All of which h.ave twins.
And none among them is Iicreavcd."
The evenness, whiteness, and unbroken order of the
teeth is here admirably expressed:
"Like the twice-dyed thread of crimscin arc thy lips,
And thy language is sweet."
That is, thin and ruby-colored, such as add pecuiiar
graces to the sweetness of the voice.
" Like the slice of a pomegranate
Are thy cheeks amidst thy tresses."
Partly obscured, as it were, by her hair, and exhibiting
a gentle blush of red, from beneath the delicate shade, as
the seeds of the pomegranate, the color of which is white
tinged with red, surrounded by the rind.
"Thy neck is like Ihe lower of Uavid
Built for an armory ;
A Ihousand shields are hung up against it,
All bucklers for the mighty.^'
The neck is described as long, erect, slender, according
to the nicest proportion, decorated with gold, gems, and
large pearls. It is compared with some turret of the cita-
del of Zion, more lofty than the rest, remarkable for its
elegance, and not less illustrious for its architecture than
for the trophies with which it was adorned, being hung
round with shields and other impleinents of war.
" Thy iwo breasts are like two young kids.
Twins of Ihe gazelle, thai browse among the lilies ;"
delicate and smooth, standing equally prominent from the
ivory bosom. The animal with which they are compai^d
is a creature of exquisite beauty, and from that circum-
stance it derives its name in the Hebrew. Nothing caa
be imagined more truly elegant and poetical than these
passages ; nothing more apt or expressive than these com-
parisons. The discovery of these excellencies, however,
only serves to increase our regret for the many beauties
wdiich we have lost, the perhaps superior graces, which
extreme antiquity seems to have overcast with an impene-
trable shade. See Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry,
Lect. xxxi. — Watson; Jones.
CAPERNAUIM; a city frequently mentioned by the
evangelists as having been much the place of the Savior's
residence, during the period of his pubhc ministry. It
stood on the shore of the sea of Galilee in the borders of
Zebulon and Naphthalim. Matt. 4: 13, 14.
Capernaum is no where mentioned in the Old Testa-
ment, under that or any other name like it ; and, there-
fore, it is not improbable that it is one of those tt wns which
were built by the Jews after their return from the Baby-
lonish captivity. It is said to have taken its name from
an adjacent spring which was of great repute for its clear
and limpid waters, and which, according to Josephus, was
by the natives called Capernaum. As this spring was in
all probability a particular inducement to the building Ml'
the town where it stood, so the to^\-n became the usual
place to which persons resorted in order to be conveyed
from Galilee to any part on the other side of the sea. ISut
that which beyond every other consideration renders this
city memorable is, that it was the theatre on which the
Son of God manifested his glory, by many stupendous
miracles, and where he also delivered some" of his most
interesting discourses. That divine sermon, for example,
which is recorded in the sixth chapter of John's gospel,
was delivrrod in the synagogue of Capernaum. Sec vcr.
59. If the reader will only pursue the simple and artljss
narrative of the evangelist from Mark 1: 31, to ch. 2: 12,
he mil have abundant materials before him for realising
what interest was then excited in this city, by the preach-
ing and the miracles of the Messiah. The prophet Uii^h
CAP
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CAP
liad indeed long ago predicted these events, and even
pointed out the spot where they should occur ; see Isa. 9:
1, 2, a passage which we are expressly told met its acconi-
plishments, in the occurrences at Capernaum, to which
we have briefly adverted. See IMatt. 4: 12— 1(). But Ca-
pernaum did not improve its privileges! Jesus himselt
" upbraided the cities in which most of his mighty works
were done, because they repented not ;" and of this city
in particular how awful is the denunciation which he pro-
nounced upon it : " And thou, Capernaum, wliich art ex-
alted unto heaven [in gospel privileges], shall be brought
down to hell : for if the mighty worifs which have been
done in thee, had been done in Sodom, it would have re-
mained to this day ; but it shall be more tolerable for the
land of Sodom in the day of judgment than fur thee,"
Matt. 11: 20 — 24. It is an obvious reflection from these
solemn words, that spiritual privileges cannot be abused
with impunity ; that those who enjoy the light of divine
revelation, will have to render to God a strict account for
the use which they have made of it ; and that wherever
the Lord sends his gospel, and plants the ministry of his
word, that place incurs a serious responsibdity for which
it will be made answerable at a future period. Luke 12:
48, andch. 16: 31.
Capernaum, which at one time was the metropolis of all
Galilee, has long since sunk into insignificance, and has
long consisted of no more than six poor fishermen's cot-
tages. See "Wells' Geography of the New Testament. —
Jo?ics ; Bib. Cijclo.
CAPHTOK ; the name of an island or country, whence
sprang the people called in Scripture Caphtokims. It is
remarkable that the same people are also sometimes called
Cherethims, or Cherethiles, and Philistines. Gen. 10: 14.
Deut. 2; 23. Jer. 47: 4, and Amos 9: 7. The authors of
the Universal History, following Bochart, are of opinion,
that by Caphtor was meant Cappadocia : but Calmet, who
has entered largely into this question, in a dissertation
prefixed to the first book of Samuel, endeavors to show that
the ancient Caphtor was the isle of Crete, and that the
Philistines, the Caphtorimsi or the Cherethims, who after-
wards settled in Palestine, came from thence. Compare
Ezek. 25: 16. Zeph. 2: 5. 1 Sam. 30: 14. See Blayney's
Jeremiah, Svo. p. 414. — Jones.
CAPITO, (WoLroANG FABnicins,) one of the reformers,
was born in Alsace, 1478, of a family of rank, and after
receiving an excellent education applied himself to the
study of medicine, law, and divinity, in each of which he
took his doctor's degree. At Heidelberg, he became ac-
quainted with Oecolampadius, to whom he became united
in the strongest ties of friendship; and their mutual com-
munication was never interrupted but by death. Having
completed a liberal circle of studies, Capito became a
preacher, first in Spire, and afterwards in Basil, where
he continued many years. From thence he was sent for
by the elector Palatine, who made him his counsellor,
and sent him on several embassies. Charles V. conferred
on him the order of knighthood. At Strasburgh, however,
whither he had followed Bucer, he astonished the world
b) avowing and preaching the reformed religion. His
famj soon "pread, and Margaret queen of Navarre, sister
to the French king, sent James Faber and Gerard Rufus
privately to hear him; and thus the Protestant doctrine
was intro<^uced into France. In 1.525. he returned by re-
qr;;st to his na''ve country, where he preached the go.spel
in its purity, lie was present at the dispute of 152S at
Bene, and at the diet of Ratisbon in 1541 for the .settling
of religion, and greatly distinguished himself. He died
of the pla,g;",e in the end of 1541.
Capito \vas a very prudent and eloquent nrin, a great
wilic in Hebrew, and master of the v:hole circle of human
knnw'edae. Thi?. -with the endowment of the highest
wisdtm — the knowledge of God an 1 his truth —furnished
liiin ie the most eminent manner for the sacred fu:.'Ction :
and 'u.d Messed him .accordingly. He left several ^ I'.ua-
hle w :\s. — Muhlkton' s Biog. Evan.
CAPl'.VDOCIA : a province of Lydia, in Asia, ex.-'i.d-
ing from mount Taurus to the Euxine sea. It war Vi".nd-
cd on the east by the river Euphrates and Armenia J'.v. r;
on the Siiiith by LycajniT. and Armenia Blajor ; ei- '.ht
west by Galatia ; and o:; the north by Pontus ; tl c v. i ,■■ ;
Stretching from the thirty-eighth to the forty-first degree of
north latitude. The name of the country, according to
Pliny, was derived from the river Cappadox. It contained,
besides the city of Mazaca, which was its metropolis, and
■n-hich was afterwards called Ca:saria, by Tiberius, in ho-
nor of Augustus, the following places of note: Comina,
Diocaisaria, Neocassaria, Tyana, Sebastia, and Sebastopo-
lis. The principal rivers which fertilize this region are
the Melas ; the Iris ; and the Hylas. The district on the
southeast, which environs the Antilaurus, is mountainous
and barren : the other parts are fertile, abounding with
fruits of every kind ; enriched with mines of silver, brass,-,
iron, and alum ; and producing alabaster, crystal, jasper,
and onyx. The horses which were reared in this country
were so excellent, that they were purchased by the sur-
rounding nations, and at length became so famous at
Rome, that none but the emperor was permitted to possess
them. The natives are thought to have descended Irom
Togarmah, and to be intended by those who traded with
the Tyrians in " horses and mules," as mentioned in Ezek.
27: 14.
From the feeble light of ancient histor)', M'e find that
this country was a province of Lydia, in the reign of Crm-
sus, about 500 years before Christ. It continued a Iriug-
dom till about the birth of Christ, when it was conquered
by the Romans, annexed to that empire, and its independ-
ence forever extinguished.
The religion of the Cajipadocfans, previous to the intro-
duction of Christianity, seems to have been a mixture of
the Persian and Grecian superstitions ; which instead of
promoting the happiness of the state by favoring useful
employments, crowded into one temple, dedicated to Jupi-
ter, no less than three thousand ministers, to loll in luxu-
rious apathy, or to plot in ambitious cabals ; and instead
of directing men to the practice of virtue, incited them to
the most senseless penances ; to lacerate their bodies in
honor of Bellona, or to offer human sacrifices to Diana,
and other idols. And so proverbial did the wickedness of
the Cappadoeians ultimately become, that the neighboring
nations denominated every person distinguished by his
depravity a Cappadocian, as a term of reproach. Chris-
tianity, however, was early planted here, and Peter wrote
his first epistle, amongst others, to the Christian converts
in Cappadocia. See Acts 2: 9, and 1 Pet. 1: 1. The gos-
pel long flourished in that country, and the existence of
Christian churches is easily traced there till the ninth or
tenth century. See EoUin's Ancient History, and Pri
deaux's Connexion. — Jumh.
CAPTIVES. The treatment of persons taken in war
among ancient nations, throws great light upon many
passages of Scripture. The eastern conqueror often strip-
ped his unhappy captives naked, shaved t'neir heads, and
made them travel in that condition, exposed to the burning
heat of a vertical sun by day, and the chilling cold of the
night. Such barbarous treatment was to modest women
the height of cruelty and indignity ; especially to those
who had 'oeen educated in softness and elegance, who had
figured in all the superfluities of ornamental dress, and
whose faces had hardly ever been exposed to the sight of
man. The prophet Isaiah mentions this as the hardest part
of the sufl'erings in which female captives are involved :
" The Lord will expose their nakedness." The daughter
of Zion had indulged in all the softness of oriental luxury ;
but the ofl'ended Jehovah should cause her unrelenting
enemies to drag her forth from her secret chambers into
the view of an insolent soldiery ; strip her of her orna-
ments, in which she so greatly delighted ; take away her
splendid and costly garments, discover her nakedness, and
compel her to travel in that miserable plight to a far distant
country, a helpless captive, the properly of a cruel lord.
Arrived in the land of their captivity, captives were often
purchased at a very low price. The prophet Joel complains
of the contemptuous cheapness in which the people of Is-
rael « ere held by those who made them captives : " And
they have cast lots for my people; and have given a boy
for a ha-lol, and sold a girl for wine, that they might
drink." The custom of casting lots for the captives taken
in war appears to have prevailed both among the Jews
and the Greeks. The same allusion occurs in the prophecy
ofCbadiah: " Strangers carried away captive his forces,
CAP
L 327
CAP
f end foreigners enteied into his gates, and cast lots upon
Jerusalem," Ob. 11. With respect to the Greeks, we
have an instance in Tryphiodorus : —
'' Shared out by lol Ihe female captives stand,
Tile spoils divided with an equal hand ;
Each to his sliip conveys his rightful share,
Price of their toil, and tropliies of the war."
! 2. By an inhuman custom, which is still retained in the
I East, the eyes of captives taken in war were not seldom
! put out, sometimes literally scooped or dug out of their
, sockets. This dreadful calamity Samson had to endure
from the unrelenting vengeance of his enemies. In a pos-
r terior age, Zedekiah, the last king of Judah and Benjamin,
j after being compelled to behold the violent death of iiis
! sons and nobility, had his eyes put out, and was carried
in chains to Babylon. The barbarous custom long sur-
vived the decline and fall of the Babylonian empire ; for
by the testimony of Mr. Maurice, in his history of Hin-
dostan, the capuve princes of that couutry were often
treated in this manner by their more fortunate rivals ; a
red hot iron was passed over their eyes, which etfectually
deprived them of sight, and at the same time of their litle
and ability to reign. To the wretched state of such pri-
soners, the prophet Isaiah alludes in a noble prediction,
where he describes in very glowing colors the character
and work of the promised Messiah : " He hath sent me to
heal the broken hearted, to preach deliverance to the cap-
tives, and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty
them that are bruised," as captives too frequently were by
the weight of their fetters.
3. It seems to have been the practice of eastern kings,
to command their captives taken in war. especially those
that had, by the atrociousness of their crimes or the stout-
ness of their resistance, greatly provoked their indignation,
to lie down on the ground, and then put to death a certain
part of ihem, which they measured with a line, or deter-
mined by lot. This custom was not, perhaps, commonly
practised by the people of God, in their wars with the na-
tions around them ; but one instance is recorded in the
life of David, who indicted this punishment on the Moab-
ites : " And he smote Moab, and measured them with a
line, casting them down to the ground ; even with two
lines measured he to put to death, and with one full line to
keep alive : and so the Moabites became David's' servants,
and brought gifts," 2 Sam. 8: 2. But the most shocking
punishment which the ingenious cruelty of a haughty
and unfeeling conqueror ever inflicted on the miserable
captive, is described by Virgil in the eighth book of the
jEneid ; and which even a Roman, inured to blood, could
not mention without horror : —
" (^uid memorem infandas ccBde^i .' quid facta lyranju," &.C.
Li.;e 4S5.
" What words can paint those execrable times,
The subjects' surTerings, and the tyrant's crimes!
That blood, those murders, O ye gods ! replace
On his own head, and on his impious race ;
The living and the dead, at his command
Were coupled face tu face, and hand to hand;
Till, cholced with ptench, in loathed embrace.s tied.
The lingering wretches pined away, and died " — DnjJen.
It is to this deplorable condition of a captive that the
apostle refers, in that pathetic exclamation, " 0 wretched
man that I am ! who shall deliver me from the body of
' this death ?" Vv'ho shall rescue me, miserable captive as
I am, from this continual burden of sin which I carry about
with me ; and which is cumbersome and odious, as a dead
carcase bound to a living body, to be dragged along with
it wherever it goes ? — Watson.
CAPTIVITY. God generally punished the sins and
infidelities of the Jews by different captivities or servi-
tudes. The first captivity is that of Egypt, from which
■they were delivered by Jloses, and which should be consi-
dered rather as a permission of providence, than as a pu-
nishment for sin. Six captivities are reckoned during the
government by judges : the first, under Chushan-risha-
thaim, king of Mesopotamia, which continued about eight
years ; the second, uniler Eglon, king of Moab, from which
the Jews were delivered by Ehud ; the third, under the
Philistines, from which they were rescued by Sliamgar ;
the fourth, untler Jabin. king of Hazor, from which they
weie deUvered by Deborah and Barak; the fifth, under
Ihe Jlidianilj.s, from which Gideon freed them; and the
sixth, under the Ammonites and Philistines, during tha
judicatures of Jephthah, Ibzan, EVon, Abdon, Eli, Sam-
son, and Samuel. But the greatest and most remarkable
captivities were those of Israel and Judah, under their re-
gal government.
Captivities of Israel. In the year of the world 3261,
Tiglath-pileser took several cities, and carried away cap-
tives, principally from the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the
half-tribe of Manasseh, 2 Kings 15: 29. In the year of
the world 3283, Shahnaneser took and destroyed Samaria,
after a siege of three years, and transplanted the tribes
that had been spared by Tiglath-pileser, to provinces be
yond the Euphrates, 2 Kings IS: 10, 11. It is generally
believed, there was no return of the ten tribes from this
second captivity. But when we examine carefully the
writings of the prophets, we find the return of at least a
great part of Israel from the captivity clearly pointed out.
Hosea says, "They shall tremble as a bird out of Egypt,
and as a dove out of the land of Assyria ; and 1 will place
them in their houses, saith the Lord," Hos. 11: 11. Amos
says, ■' And I will bring again my people Israel from their
captivity : they shall build their ruined cities, and inhabit
them," Ice, Amos 9: 14. Obadiah observes, " The cap-
tivity of this host of the children of Israel shall possess that
of the Canaanites," fcc, Ob. 18, 19. To the same pur-
pose speak the other prophets. •' The Lord shall assem-
ble the outcasts of Israel, and gather together the dispersed
of Judah," Isa. 11: 12, 13. Ezekiel received an order
from God to take two pieces of wood, and write on one,
" For Juilah and for the children of Israel ;" and on the
other, "For Joseph and for all the house of Israel ;" and
to join these two pieces of wood, that they might become
one, and designate the re-union of Judah and Israel, Ezek.
37: 16. Jeremiah is equally express : '■ The house of Ju-
dah shall walk with the house of Israel ; and they shall
come together out of the north, to the land which I have
given for an inheritance to their fathers," Jer. 3: 18. See
also Jer. 31: 7—9, 16, 17, 20. 16: 15. 49: 2, &c. Zech. 9:
13. 10: 6, 10. Mic. 2: 12. In the historical books of Scrip-
ture, we find that the Israelites of the ten tribes, as well as
of Judah and Benjamin, returned from the captivity.
Among those that returned with Zerubbabel are reck-
oned some of Ephraim and Manasseh, who settled at Je-
rusalem with the tribe of Judah. When Ezra numbered
those who returned from the captivity, he only inquired
whether Ihey were of the race of Israel; and at the first
passover which was then celebrated in the temple, was a
sacrifice of twelve he-goats for the whole house of Israel,
according to the number of the tribes, Ezra 6: 16, 17. 8:
35. Under the JMaccabees, and in our Savior's time, we
see Palestine peopled by IsraeUtes of all the tribes indif-
ferently. The Samaritan Chronicle asserts that in the
thirty-fifth year of the pontificate of Abdelus, three thou-
sand Israelites, by permission of king Sauredius, returned
from captivity, under the conduct of Adus, son of Simon.
Captivities of Judah. The captivities of Judah are
generally reckoned four : the first, in the year of the v.orld
3398, under king Jehoiakim, when Daniel and others were
carried to Babylon ; the second, in the year of the world
3101, and in the seventh year of the reign of Jehoiakim,
when Nebuchadnezzar carried three thousand and twenty-
three Jews to Babylon ; the third, in the year of the world
3406, and in the fourth of Jehoiachin, when this prince,
with part of his people, was sent to Babylon ; and the
fourth, in the year 3416, under Zedekiah, from which peri-
od begins the captivity of seventy years, foretold by the
prophet Jeremiah. Dr. Hales computes that the first of
these captivities, which he thinks formed the commence-
ment of the Babylonish captivity, took place in the year
before Christ 605. The Jews were removed to Babylon
by Nebuchadnezzar, who, designing to render that city the
capital of the East, transplanted thither very great num-
bers of people, subdued by him in ditferent countries. In
Babylon, the jews had judges and elders, who governed
them, and who decided matters in dispute juridically, ac-
cording to their laws. Of this we see a proof in the story
of Susanna, who was condemned by elders of her own
nation. Cyrus, in the year of the world 3457, and in the
first year of his reign at Babylon, permitted the Jews to
return to their own country, Ezra 1: 1. However, they
CAP
[ 32S ]
CAR
did not obtain leave to rebuild the temple; and the comple-
tion of those prophecies which foretold the termination of
their captivitj* after seventy yeai-s, was not till the year of
the world 318(3. In that year, Darius Hystaspes, by an
edict, allowed theai to rebuild the temple. In the year of
the world 3537, Artaxerxes Loagimanus sent Nehemiahto
Jerusalem. The Jews assert that only the refuse of their
nation returned from the captivity, and that the principal
of them continued in and near Babylon, where they had
been settled, and where they became very numerous. It
may, however, be doubted whether the refuse of Judah was
really carried to Babylon. It appears from incidental ob-
servations in Sciipture that some remained ; and Major
Rennell has offered several reasons for believing that only
certain cla.sses of the Jews were deported to Babylon, as
well as into Assyria. Nebuchadnezzar carried away only
the principal inhabitants, the warriors, and artisans of
every kind ; and he left the husbandmen, the laborers,
ind, in general, the poorer classes, that constitute the
S[reat body of the people. — Calmet.
CAPUCHINS ; religious of the order of St. Francis,
fhey owe their origin to Matthew de Bassi, a Franciscan
i)f the duchy of Urbino ; who, having seen St. Francis re-
presented with a sharp-pointed capuche, or cowl, began to
wear the like in 1525, with the permission of pope Clement
VII. His example was soon followed by two other reli-
gious, named Lewis and Raphael de Fossembrun ; and the
pope, by a brief, granted these three monks leave to retire to
some hermitage, and retain their new habit. The retire-
ment they chose was the hermitage of the Camaldolites
near Massacio, where they were very charitably received.
This innovation in the habit of the order gave great of-
fence to the Franciscans, whose provincial persecuted
these poor monks, and obliged them to flee from place to
place. At last, they took refuge in the palace of the duke
de Camerino, by whose credit they were received under
the obedience of the Conventuals, in the quality of Hermits
Blinors, in the year 1527. The next year, the pope ap-
proved this union, and confirmed to them the privilege of
wearing the square capuche, and admitting among them
all who would take the habit. Thus the order of the Ca-
puchins, so called from wearing the capuche, began in the
year 1528.
Their first establishment was at Colmenzono, about a
league from Camerino, in a convent of the order of St, Je-
rome, which had been abandoned. But, their numbers
increasing, Lewis de Fossembrun built another small con-
vent at Montmelon, in the territory of Camerino. The
great number of conversions which the Capuchins made
by their preaching, and the assistance they gave the peo-
ple in a contagious distemper, with which Italy was afflict-
ed the same year, 1528, gained them an universal esteem.
In 1529, Lewis de Fossembrun built for them two other
convents ; the one at Alvacina, in the territory of Fabria-
no, the other at Fossembrun, in the duchy of Urbino.
Matthew de Bassi, being chosen their vicar-general, drew
up constitutions for the government of this order. They
enjoined, among other things, that the Capuchins should
perform divine service without singing ; that they should
say but one mass a day in their convents : they 'directed
the hours of mental prayer, morning and evening, the days
of disciplining themselves, and those of silence: they for-
bade the monks to hear the confessions of seculars, and
enjoined them always to travel on foot : they recommended
poverty in the ornaments of their church, and prohibited
in them the use of gold, silver, and silk : the pavilions of
the altars were to be of stufi", and the chalices of tin.
This order soon spread itself all over Italy, and into Si-
cily. In 1573, Charles IX. demanded of pope Gregory
XIII. to have the order of Capuchins established in France,
which that pope consented to ; and their first settlement
in that kingdom was in the little town of Picpus, near Pa-
ris; which they soon quitted, to settle at Meudon, from
whence they were introduced into the capital of the king-
dom. In 1606, pope Paul V. gave them leave to accept
of an establishment, which was ofl'ered them in Spain.
They even passed the seas to labor on the conversion of
the infidels ; and their order is become so considerable
that it is at present divided into more than sixty provinces,
consisting of near 1,600 convents, and 25,000 monks, be-
sides the missions of Brazil, Congo, Barbary, Greece, Sv
ria, and Egypt.
Among those who have preferred the poverty and humi-
lity of the Capuchins to the advantages of birth and fortune,
was the famous Alphonso d'Este, duke of Modena and
Reggio, who, after the death of his wife Isabella, took the
habit of this order at Munich, in the year 1626, under the
name of brother John Baptist, and died in the convent of
Castelnuovo, in 1644. In France likewise, the duke de
Joyeuse, after having distinguished himself as a great ge-
neral, became a Capuchin, in September, 1587.
Father Paul observes, that " the Capuchins preserve j
their reputation, by reason of their poverty ; and that if '
they should suffer the least change in their institution,
they would acquire no immovable estates by it, but would
lose the alms they now receive." He adds : "It seems
therefore as if here an absolute period were put to all fu-
ture acquisitions and improvements in this gainful trade ;
for whoever should go about to institute a new order, with
a power of acquiring estates, such an order would certainly
find no credit in the world ; and if a profession of poverty
were a part of the institution, there could be no acquisitions
made whilst that lasted ; nor would there be any credit
left when that was broke."
There is likewise an order of Capuchin nuns, who fol-
low the rule of St. Clara. Their first establishment was at
Naples, in 1538, and their foundress was the venerable
mother Maria Laurentia Longa, of a noble family of Cata-
lonia, a lady of the most uncommon piety and devotion.
Some Capuchins coming to settle at Naples, she obtained
for them, by her credit with the archbishop, the church of
St. Euphebia, without the city ; soon after which she built
a monastery of virgins, under the name of " Our Lady of
Jerusalem," into which she retired in 1534, together with
nineteen young women, who engaged themselves, by so-
lemn vows, to follow the third rule of St. Francis. The
pope gave the government of this monastery to the Capu-
chins ; and, soon after, the nuns quitted the third rule of
St. Francis to embrace the more rigorous rule of St. Clara,
from the austerity of which they had the name of " Nuns
of the Passion," and that of " Capuchines" from the habit
they took, which was that of the Capuchins.
After the death of their foundress, another monastery
of Capuchins was established at Rome, near the Quirinal
palace, and was called " The Monastery of the Holy Sa-
crament ;" and a third, in the same city, built by cardinal
Baronius. These foundations were approved, in the year
1600, by pope Clement VIII., and confirmed by Gregory
XV. There were afterwards several other establishments
of Capuchins ; in particular one at Paris, in 1604, founded
by the duchess de MerccEur, who put crowns of thorns on
the heads of the young women whom she placed in her
monastery. — Hend. Buck.
CAPUTIATI ; a denomination which appeared in the
twelfth century, so called from a singular kind of cap
which distinguished their party. They wore upon their
caps a leaden image of the virgin Mary, and declared
publicly that their purpose was to level all distinctions, to
abrogate magistracy, and to remove all subordination
among mankind, and to restore that primitive liberty, that
natural equality, which were the inestimable privilege of
the first mortals." — Hend. Buck.
CARAVAN ; the name given to a company of persons,
who, in the eastern countries, travel through the deserts in
a body, in order to be secure against the attacks of the
Arabs and robbers with which they are infested. As it is
by means of its caravans that almost the whole trade of
Asia is carried on, as well as that of some of the northern
parts of Africa, and as there are many allusions in the Old
Testament to this mode of travelling, and of conducting
their traffic, some acquaintance with the subject will be
found very useful in throwing hght upon that portion of
the Holy Scriptures.
Every caravan is commanded by a chief, or aga, v/ho
has under him a sufiicient number of janizaries or sol-
diers, belonging to the states through which they are to .
pass, for conducting them in safety to the place of their
destination. Before a caravan can be formed, it is neces-
sary to obtain a written permission from one sovereign
prince, and it must have the sanction o£. at least two
I
CAKAVAN RESTING AT NIGHT,
ATTACK ON A CAUAVAN.
P. 328.
CAR
[ 329 ]
CAR
others. This license must specify the number of men and
beasts of burden, as well as the quantity of merchandise
of which it is composed. The owners of the caravan may
choose the officers, and determine the regulations to be ob-
served during its journey. There are commonly four prin-
cipal officers attached to each caravan ; the first is com-
mander in cliief ; the second commands during the march ;
the third when it halts ; and the fourth, should it happen
to be attacked by any of the predatory tribes of Arabs,
numbers of which are always lying in wait for that pur-
pose, and who subsist by plunder. There is also a purser
or treasurer, having under him a number of clerks and
interpreters, whose bu.siness it is to keep accurate journals
of whatever occurs, from which, signed by the principal
officers, those concerned may form a judgment how far
their interests have been attended to. As the greater part
of the Arabian princes have no other revenue than what
arises from plunder, they keep spies for the purpose of
informing them of the departure of the caravans, which
they often attack with .superior force, and frequently suc-
ceed in carrying ofi" considerable booty ; if they succeed
in defeating it, the whole is entirely pillaged, and the es-
cort, whether pilgrims, travellers, or merchants, are car-
ried away and sold for slaves. The gains of the merchants
belonging to these caravans are often incredibly great ; as
an instance of which, we are told of a traveller, who, with
goods for which he paid only thirty pounds, by repeated
barters and exchanges, in the course of one journey gained
six thousand ! These immense profits, which are by no
means uncommon, induce numerous adventurers to ac-
company the caravans, notwithstanding the hardships and
inconveniences of the journey, which in many instances
are extremely severe. Unwholesome food, intolerable wa-
ter, and often none at all, long and fatiguing marches over
burning sands, are circumstances with which they must
invariably lay their account, besides being exposed to the
thefts and robberies of a crowd of vagrants, who resort to
the caravans for the sole purpose of living at the expense
of the simple and unwary.
The long and toilsome journeys which these caravans
perform through barren deserts and uninhabited wilds,
and the hardship and fatigue which travellers sometimes
endure, appear to us almost incredible. Provisions and
water must be carried several hundred miles. In these
parched regions there are few wells, and fewer still of ri-
vers of water, while travellers are every hour exposed to the
whirlwinds and the hordes of wandering Arabs. To ac-
complish .such painful journeys, Providence has furnished
the inhabitants of these countries with a beast of burden
peculiarly fitted for traversing those burning wastes. From
the persevering strength of the camel, which the Arabians
emphatically called " the ship of the desert," from liis mo-
deration in the use of food, and from the singularity of his
internal structure, by which he can lay up a supply of wa-
ter for several days, he is enabled to traverse the most
inhospitable climes, under the ponderous load of seven
hundred weight ; and with a pound of food, and short in-
tervals of rest, he will travel sixteen hours a-day, perform-
ing with astonishing despatch a journey impracticable by
any other animal. A caravan usually consists of several
huridreds of those loaded camels, attended by Arabs, which
are hired by the merchants at a low rate for the perform-
ance of the journey. See Camel.
Perhaps the following extract from the writings of a late
traveller, may give the reader a more hvely idea of one of
those caravans, than many pages of detailed narrative, and
preclude the necessity of any further enlarging. " It was
midnight," says he, " when we air^'ived at the kan of Me-
nemen. I perceived at a distance a great number of scat-
tered lights ; it was a caravan making a halt. On a near
approach, I distinguished camels, some lying, others stand-
ing, some with their loads, others relieved from their bur-
dens. Horses and asses without bridles, were eating bar-
ley out of leathern buckets ; some of the men were still on
horseback, and the women, veiled, had not alighted from
their dromedaries. Turkish merchants were seated cross-
legged on carpets, in groups round the fire, at which the
slaves were busily employed in dressing pilau. Other
travellers were smoking their pipes at the door of the kan,
chewing opium, and listening to stories. Here were peo-
42
pie roasting coffee in iron pots ; there hucksters going
about from fire to fire, offering for sale, cakes, fruits, and
poultry. Singers were amusing the crowd. Imans were
performing their ablutions, prostrating themselves, rising
again, and imploring the prophet (Mahomet), while the
camel drivers lay snoring on the ground. The place was
strewed with packages, bags of cotton, and coufis of rice.
All these objects, now distinct, now confused, and enve-
loped in a half shade, exhibited a genuine scene of the
Arabian nights." See M. Chateaubriand's Travels, vol.
i. p. 303, 304 ; Jackson's Morocco, p. 237.— Jones.
CARAVANSERA. See Inn.
CARAITES, or Karaites ; an ancient Jemsh sect.
The name signifies, " Textualists, or Scripturists," and
was originally given to the school of Shammai, (about
thirty years or more before Christ,), because they rejected
" the traditions of the elders," as embraced by the school
of HiUel and the Pharisees, and all the fanciful interpreta-
tions of the cabala, which see. They claim, however, a
much higher antiquity, and produce a catalogue of doctors
up to the tiose of Ezra.
The rabbinists have been accustomed to call them Sad-
ducees ; but they believe in the inspiration of the Scrip-
tures, the resurrection of the dead, and thQ final judgment.
They believe that the Messiah is not yet come, and reject
all calculations of the time of his appearance : yet they
say, "it is proper that even every day they should receive
their salvation by Messiah, the son of Bavid." In the
practice of their religion, they diffisr from the rabbinists
in the observance of the festivals, and keep the Sabbath
with more strictness. They extend their prohibition of
marriage to more degrees of affinity, and admit not of
divorce on any slight or trivial grounds.
The sect of Caraites still exists, but their number is
'■ very inconsiderable." They are found chiefly in the
Crimea, (where Dr. Edward Clarke visited a settlement
of them,) Lithuania, and Persia; at Damascus, Constanti-
nople, and Cairo. Their honesty in the Crimea is said to
be proverbial ; and Dr. Clarke visited one of their rabbles,
whom he pronounces to be " highly esteemed, and exceed-
ing well informed." See Hannah Adams's History of the
Jews, pp. 49, 411. 496 ; Allen's Modern Judaism, chapter
XXV.; Enfield's Philos. vol. ii. pp. 160—162; Ency. Brit.
— WilUams.
CARBONARI, (literally, Chanoahmcn ;) a modern po-
litico-religious sect, lately sprung up in Italy, supposed
to originate from the Freemasons, and, like them, meeting
in secret societies, and observing certain mystical rites and
signs. Like the Freemasons, they pretend to derive their
first principles from the Scriptures, and to adopt the mo-
rahty of the gospel and the symbols of Christianity, the
which, however, they apply politically, and, it is said, sedi-
tiously. The cross, for instance, rendered sacred by the
suflTerings of our divine Lord, they represent as the instru-
ment to crucify those whom they designate as enemies and
tyrants, against whom they vow eternal hatred ; and they
profess to reverence our Savior " as the most deplorable,
and the most illustrious victim of despotism."
Before the counter-revolution in Naples, the nation had
almost all become Carbonaii ; and the sect spread into
Germany, Switzerland, and other countries ; but they by
no mean's ought to be considered as a religious denomina-
tion. When they grew numerous and powerful, another
sect was formed to oppose and counteract them, who
were called Calderari, (or Braziers, which see.) Memoirs
of the Secret Societies of Italy, 8vo. ; Blonthly ]\Iaga-
zine, vol. !i. pp. 201, 597 ; Literary Gazette, No. 139. —
Witiam.^.
CARBUNCLE ; a very elegant gem, the color of which
is a deep red mingled ■with scarlet. It is commonly found
in a pure and faultless state ; and is of the same degree
of hardness as the sapphire, which is second only to the
diamond. It is naturally of an angular figure, and is
found adhering by its base to a very heavy and ferrugi-
nous stone of the emery kind. Its common size is near a
quarter of an inch in length, and two thirds of that in dia-
meter. In its thickest parts, when held up against the
sun, it loses its deep tinge, and in color resembles a burn-
ing charcoal, on which account the ancients gave it the
name of anthrax. The fire produces no mutation in its
CAR
[ 330 ]
CAR
oolor. Hitherto it has_been found only in the East Indies,
and there but rarely. '(Hill's History of Fossils.)
The carbuncle was the third stone in the first row of
precious stones composing the high-priest's breast-plate.
Ex.28: 17. See Beeast-flate. — Jones.
CARCHEMISH ; the name of a town situated on the
banks of the Euphrates, and belonging to the Assyrians,
from whom it was taken by Pharaoh-Necho, king of
Egypt, 2 Chron. 35: 20. The Egyptians left a garrison
in it, and in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, king of Judah,
Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, retook it and cut
the garrison in pieces. The prodigious slaughter of the
Egyptians which took place on this occasion, was foretold
by the prophet Jeremiah in a very animated style, and with
great poetic energy and livehness of coloring. Jer. 46: 1—
12. In the third and fourth verses of that chapter, the
mighty preparations of the Egyptians for the contest are
described, and the prophet, who foresees the defeat, is led
to express his astonishment at an event so contrary to
what might have been expected. But he accounts for it,
(ver. 10,) by resolving the whole into the Divine disposal,
Jehovah having decreed that neither ST\-iftness nor strength
should avail, or protect from the impending overthrow. In
ver. 7, 8, 9. the king of Egypt is represented as coming up
to the assistance of his garrison, animated with all the os-
tentation and insolence of anticipated success. He is
compared to a mighty river such as the Nile, or the Eu-
phrates, when they overflow their hanks, and threaten to
overwhelm the country with desolation and ruin. The
prophet seems to hear him calling aloud to the nations of
which his army is composed, giving them the signal for
action, and rousing them to deeds of desperate valor ; but
all in vain, since the time is come fur God to avenge him-
self of his ancient foes, who are doomed to slaughter, and
fall a bloody sacrifice on the plains of the north. The
whole concludes with an apostrophe to the daughter of
Egypt, whose wound is pronounced incurable, and her
disgrace universally known ; forasmuch as the number
of her warriors have only served to augment the scene of
confusion, and more effectually to destroy each other, ver.
11, 12. See 2 Kings 23: 29.— Jonts.
CARDINAL ; an eminent dignitary in the Roman church.
Among the Latins, the word cariiinalis signifies principal,
and in this sense were vatti cardinahs, four cardinal or chief
winds ; p/iiiceps cardhialis, a sovereign prince ; missii r.ardi-
nalis, and attare cardinak, for the great mass or great altar
of a church. It was also a name that was given to certain
officers of the emperor Theodosius, as to generals of ar-
mies : to the praefecti in Asia and Africa, because they
possessed the chief offices in the empire. — Head. Buck.
CARDINAL, (origin of the office.) There were two
sorts of churches in towns ; one sort was as the parish
churches of these times, and were called titles ; the others
were hospitals for the poor, and were called deaneries :
the first were served by priests, and the other governed by
deans ; the other chapels in the towns were called orato-
ries, where mass was celebrated without administering
the sacraments, The chaplains of these oratories were
called local priests, that is, priests that belonged to some
particular place. And to put a greater distinction between
these churches, the parish churches were called cardinales,
or cardinal titles, and the priests that officiated in them,
and administered the sacraments, were called cardinals.
This was chiefly used at Rome, where the cardinals at-
tended the pope whilst he celebrated mass, and in the pro-
cessions, and therefore Leon IV. calls them presbyteros sui
cnrdinis. In the council held at Rome in 853, the deacons
who looked after the deaneries, had also the title of cardi-
nals, either because they were the chiefest deacons, or be-
cause they assisted with the cardinals, i. e. priests at the
pope's mass. The greatest function of the Roman cardi-
nals was to go to the pope's council, and to the synods,
and to give their opinions concerning ecclesiastical affairs.
It was one of them that was generally chosen pope ; for it
was rare that any bishop was chosen in those days ; it
being recorded in the ecclesiastical history, that pope Ste-
phen VII., chosen in 890, caused his predecessor Formosus
to be dug up again, and annulled all his ordinances, al-
leging that he was made pope against the disposition of
the holy decrees in the time that he was bishop of Ostia.
Finally, these cardinals have engrossed to themselves the
power of choosing a pope, since the council celebrated at
Rome, in 1059, under Nicholas II. In process of time,
the name of cardinal, which was common to all titulary
priests or curates, was appropriated to those of Rome, and
afterwards to seven bishops of the neighborhood of Rome.
All these cardinals were divided under five patriarchal
churches, as St. John of Lateran, St. Mary JMajor, St. Pe-
ter of the Vatican, St. Paul's, and St. Lawrence's. In
following times, the pope gave the title of cardinal to other
bishops, besides those here mentioned ; and it is said the
first that had this honor conferred upon him was Conradus,
archbishop of Mayence, who received it from pope Alexan-
der III., who also conferred the same honor on Gardin of
Sala, archbishop of Milan, in 1165, and since that some
bishops were created cardinal priests of Rome, with one
of the titles thereof; so William, archbishop of Rheims, was
made cardinal, with the title of St. Sabine, by pope Cle-
ment III., or, according to others, by Alexander III. And
finally, Clement V. and his successors gave the title of
cardinal priests to many other bishops, which custom has
been followed since. As for the deacon cardinals, it must
be observed, Ihat in the beginning there were seven in the
church of Rome, and in the other churches, this number
was augmented, at Rome, to fourteen, and at last they
created eighteen, who were called cardinal deacons, or prin-
cipal, to distinguish them from others that had not the care
of deaneries. Afterwards were counted twenty-four deane-
ries in the city of Rome ; and now there are fourteen af-
fected to the deacon cardinals. The priest cardinals are to
the number of fifty, which, with the six cardinal bishops
of Ostia, Porro, Sabina, Palestrina, Frascati, and Albano,
who have no other titles but those of their bishoprics,
make generally the number of seventy. Innocent IV. gave
the cardinals the red cap in the council of Lyons, held in
1243 ; Paul II. the red gown in 1464. Gregory XIV. be-
stowed the red cap upon the regular cardinals, who wore
but a hat before. Urban VIII. gave them the title of emi-
nence, for they had before but that of most illustrious.
When the pope has a mind to create any cardinals, he
writes their names that he designs for this dignity, and
gets them read in the consistory, after he has told the
cardinals, Fratres habeiis, that is, " You have for brothers,"
&c. The cardinal patron sends for those that are at
Rome, and conducts them to his holiness to receive their
red caps from him ; until then they are incognito, and
cannot come to the meeting ; and as for those that are ab-
sent, the pope despatches one of his chambermen of honor
to carry them their cap ; but they are obliged to receive
the hat at his own hands. When they come to Rome, they
are received in cavalcade. The cardinal's dress is a sat-
tane, a rochet, a mantelet, or short purple mantle over
their rochet ; the mozette, and a papal cape over the rochet
in public and solemn actions. The color of their garment
difl'ers according to the times : either it is red, or of the
color of dried roses or violets. The regular cardinals wear
no silk, nor any other color but that of their order, but the
red hat and cap are common to them all. When cardinals
are sent to princes' courts, it is in quality of legates a late-
re ; and when they are sent to any town, their government
is called legation. There are five legations, viz. that of
Avignon, of Ferrara, of Bologna, of Ravenna, and of Pe-
rouse. Here follows Fr. Maimbourg's curious remarks
upon this subject : — When the cathedral church was va-
cant, the pope sent one of the neighboring bishops to go-
vern it, until another bishop was chosen, who took posses-
sion of it as of his proper church, and received its title,
which the administering bishop, or he that took care of it
during the vacancy, had not. This was what they called
a cardinal bishop in those times, from the word cardo,
which signifies a hinge, showing by that, that the titulary
bishop was tied to his church to exercise continually of his
proper authority all the functions of his bishopric. This is
what the word cardinal signifies in its natural and true in-
terpretation, as can be clearly seen in many letters of St.'Gre-
gory the Great ; for this pope understanding that the church
of Aleria, in the isle of Corsica, was vacant, he wrote to a
bishop of Corsica, called Leo, to go to govern it, and after-
wards established Martin there to be the cardinal bishop
thereof ; so here is a succession of tw"o bishops, whereof the
CAR
[331 1
CAR
one was but visiter or administrator, and the other titular.
The same Gregory satisfied the clergy and nobility of Na-
ples, that he approved their desire of having Paul bishop
of Neri, and their visiter made their cardinal bishop ;
whence it is easy to see, that in this pope's time, and be-
fore him, all titular bishops, who by their ordination were
tied to their church, were called cardinal bishops. The
same may be said of the priests and deacons, to whom
their priests had given some benelice or charge that tied
them to any church in their diocese ; and also the arch-
deacons, and the other dignities, M'ere cardinals of the
churches they governed. The other priests and deacons
that had no such tie were not called cardinals. And it
was for this reason that those the popes sent into pro-
vinces, and the nuncios he sent to Constantinople, were
indeed deacons of the Roman church, but not cardinals.
By this same reason, all the curates, tied by their titles to
the parishes wherein they administered the sacraments,
were called cardinal priests. He was also called a cardi-
nal priest who officiated in chief in an}' great man's chapel
or oratory ; so that there were deacon, priest, and bishop
cardinals in all the dioceses of the world. And as for the
church of Rome, there was no other cardinal bishop in
pope Gregorjr's time but he himself, who in quality of pro-
per bishop of the particular church of Rome, was tied there
as to his title. The priest cardinals were all the curates
of Rome, and all the other priests that served in any other
chapel or oratory. The deacons and cardinal archdeacons
■were such as had a title where to exercise their functions.
This is what the cardinals of the church of Rome were
in St. Gregory's time, and near four hundred years after
him. But in the eleventh age, the popes, whose grandeur
was much increased, taking crowns, which was begun the
first time by pope Dalmasius II., in lOJiS ; they began also
to settle a court, and a regular council of cardinals, bish-
ops, priests, and deacons, different from those that had
this title before. The cardinal bishops were they that
were suffragans of the pope as metropolitan. The priest
and cardinal deacons were chosen by the pope at pleasure,
in all the provinces of Christendom, whether bishops,
priests, abbots, princes, commanders, monks, or other re-
ligious, to whom he gave the title of churches, without
obliging them to officiate in them. And so as the name
of pope, which in the five or six first ages was common to
all bishops, was afterwards appropriated to the Roman
pontiff. So likewise the name of cardinal, which had been
common to all titulary bishops, priests, and deacons, in
regard of the churches they were linked to, as St. Gregory
speaks, does now belong only to the cardinals of the
church of Rome, who are in the highest rank of that
church. Nevertheless it is observed, that ever since the
establishment of this college of cardinals, the bishops,
maintaining their pre-eminency, have had the first place
in assemblies and public meetings in the pope's own pre-
sence. This is seen in the act of the dedication of the
church of Marmoutier, by pope Urban II., in 1090, when
he came to France to keep the famous council of Cler-
mont- for in that ceremony, Huges, archbishop of Lyons,
was ne.^t the pope, and after him followed the other arch-
bishops and bishops, followed by the priests and deacons
that were cardinals, and of the pope's retinue. In 769,
the council of Rome, held under pope Stephen IV., de-
creed, that none should be chosen pope but a priest or
deacon cardinal. In 1130, the cardinals began to be mas-
ters of the pope's election under Innocent II., and made
themselves the sole choosers, to the exclusion of the rest
of the clerg}' of Rome, under Alexander III., in 1160. So
rising more and more, it is at last come to this, that though
they be but priests and deacons, yet the dignity of cardinal
alone places them above bishops. — Hmi. Buck.
CARE ; thought, and concern about a thing. God's
providence towards his creatures, especially his people, is
called his care for them. He considers their ease, preserves
their existence and powers, governs their acts, and pro-
motes their welfare. Matt. 6:'26, 30. 1 Cor. 9; 9. 1 Pet.
5: 7. Men's care is either, (1.) lawful, consisting in a se-
rious thought and earnest endeavor to please God, em-
bracing his Son, obeying his law, turning from sin ; and
to promote our neighbor's temporal or spiritual advantage ;
and in a moderate endeavor to gain a competent portion
of the good thing's of this life. 2 Cor. 7: 11, 12. Phil. 2:
20. 1 Pet. 5: 7. (2.) Sinful in endeavoring to fulfil sinful
lusts or pleasures ; and in immoderate concern and endea-
vor to obtain carnal advantages : such care is forbidden.
Matt. 6: 31. Phil. 4: 6, The cares of this world, that choke
the word of God, and render it unfruitful, are immoderate
and anxious concern for earthly enjoyments, which pre-
vents the word from having a proper effect on our hearts.
Matt. 13: 22. To eat bread with care or carefulness, is to
do it under pinching straits, and under apprehension of
terrible judgments. Ezek. 4: 16, and 12: 18, 19. We are
not careful to answer thee in this matter ; we need give no
answer in words, being ready to manifest our fixed resolu-
tion, by the endurance of suffering. Dan. 3: 16. — Brown.
CAREY, (Felix,) son of Dr. William Carey the mis-
sionar)', was born in 1786 ; assisted his father in his pious
labors in Bengal ; and died at Serampore, in 1822. Among
his works were, a Grammar and Dictionary of the Burman
Language, unfortunately lost at sea in 1812 ; a Pali Gram-
mar ; and other philological productions. — Davenport.
CARLETON, (George, D. D.) bishop of Chichester, was
born at Norham, Northumberland, 1559, his father being
then governor of that important castle. He was prepared
for the university under the care of Bernard Gilpin, styled
"the Northern Aposfle." He graduated the first of bis
class, at Edmund hall, Oxford, 1580. While he remained
at college, which he did for thirty-seven years after, he
had the reputation of a great orator and poet, and subse-
quently, of a skilful theological disputant. In 1617, he
was made bishop of Landaff. In 1618, he was sent by
James I. with three other English divines, (Drs. Hall, Da-
veuant, and Ward,) to the synod of Dort, where it seems
he stood up for episcopacy. He received no answer in
public ; but several of the reformed ministers, he says,
in. private assured him they approved it, but that their
state, being republican, could not admit of episcopacy.
On his return, the States sent a letter to king James highly
commending him and the rest of the divines for their vie-
tue, learning, piety, and love of peace. He was advanced
to the see of Chichester in 1619, of which he continued
bishop until his death, in 1628. He was a man of solid
judgment and various reading, particularly in the fathers
and schoolmen ; a strenuous opponent of Rome, and a
steady, consistent Calvinist. Camden was his friend and
admirer. He left many works. — Middleton.
CARMEL, in the southern part of Palestine, where
Nabal the Carmelite, Abigail's husband, dwelt, Joshua 15:
55; 1 Sam. 25 .— Watsmu
CAR3IEL was also the name of a celebrated mountain
in Palestine. Though spoken of in general as a single
mountain, it ought rather to be considered as a mountain-
ous region, the whole of which was known by the name
of Carmel, while to one of the hills, more elevated than
the rest, that name was usually applied by way of emi-
nence. It had the plain of Sharon on the south ; over-
looked the port of Ptolemais on the north ; and was
bounded on the west by the Mediterranean sea; forming
one of the most remarkable promontories that present
themselves on the shores of that great sea. According to
■Volney, it is about two thousand feet in height, and has
the shape of a flattened cone. Its sides are steep and
rugged ; the soil neither deep nor rich -, and among the
naked rocks stinted with plants, and wild forests which it
presents to the eye, there are at present but few traces of
that fertility which we are accustomed to associate with
the idea of mount Carmel. Yet even Volnei,' himself ac-
knowledges that he found among the brambles, ■irild vines
and olive trees, which proved that the hand of industry
had once been employed on a not ungrateful soil. Of its
ancient productiveness there can be no doubt ; the ety-
mology and ordinary apphcarion of its name being suffi-
cient e\'idence of the fact. Carmel is not only expressly
mentioned in Scripture as excelling other districts in that
respect ; but, every place possessed of the same kind of
excellence obtained from it the same appellation in the
language both of the prophets and the people. Mount
Carmel is celebrated in the Old Testament, as the usual
place of residence of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. It
was here that Elijah so successfully opposed the false
prophets of Baal, (1 Kings IS.) and there is a certain
CAR
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CAR
part of the mountain facing the west, and about eight convent of A vila, in Castile : these last are divided into
miles from the point of the promontory, which the Arabs two congregations, that of Spain, and that of Italy,
call Mansur, and the Europeans the place of sacrifice, in The babit of the Carmelites was at first white, and the
commemoration of that miraculous event. Near the same cloak laced at the bottom with several lists ; but pope Ho-
place is still shown a cave, in which it is said the pro- norius IV. commanded them to change it for that of the
phet had his residence. The brook Kishon, which issues minims. Their scapulary is a small woollen habit, of a
from mount Tabor, waters the bottom of Carmel, and brown color, thrown over their shoulders. They wear no
falls into the sea towards the northern side of the moun- linen shirts, but instead of them linsey-woolsey. — Hend.
tain, and not the southern, as some Airiters have errone- Suck.
ously stated. Its greatest elevation is about one thousand CARNAL ; fleshly, sensual, sinful. Worldly enjoy-
five hundred feet ; hence, when the sea-coast on one side, mems are carnal, because they only minister to the wants
and the plain on the other, are oppressed with sultry heat, and desires of the animal part of man, Rom. 15 : 27. 1
this hill is refreshed by cooling breezes, and enjoys a de- Cor. 9: 11. The ceremonial parts of the Mosaic dispen-
lightful temperature. The fa.stnesses of this rugged moun- sation were carnal; they related immediately to the
tain are so difficult of access, that the prophet Amos class- bodies of men and beasts, Heb. 7:16; 9 : 10. The wea-
es them with the deeps of hell, the height of heaven, and pons of a Christian's warfare are not carnal ; they are
the bottom of the sea ; " Though they dig into hell," (or not of human origin, nor are they directed by human wis-
the dark and silent chambers of the grave,) " thence shall dom, 2 Cor. 10 : 4. — Wicked or unconverted men are repre-
mine hand take them ; though they climb up to heaven, seuted as under the domination of a " carnal mind, which
thence will I bring them down; and though they hide is enmity against God," and which must issue in death,
themselves in the top of Carmel, I will search and take Rom. 8: 6, 7. See Affections.
them out thence ; and though they be hid from my sight CARNIVAL ; a Roman festival. By pope Gregory
in the bottom of the sea, thence will I command the ser- the Great about COO, Ash Wednesday was made the begin-
pent, and he shall bite them," Amos 9: 2, 3. Lebanon ning of the forty days fast, another day before was called
raises to heaven a summit of naked and barren rocks, fast-eve, because in the night of this day, at twelve o'clock
covered for the greater part of the year with snow ; but the fast began. This fast was preceded by a feast of
the top of Canuel, how naked and sterile soever its pre- three days, called the carnival. This is the origin of the
sent condition, was clothed with verdure which seldom was present carnival or Faschings, as it is called in the south of
known to fade. Even the lofty genius of Isaiah, stirau- Germany, and which continues, in that country, from
lated and guided by the Spirit of inspiration, could not find twelfth day to Ash Wednesday. The name carnival is de-
a more appropriate figure to express the flourishing state rived from the Latin words carne and vale (according to
of the Redeemer's kingdom, than " the excellency of Car- Ducange, from the Latin denomination of the feast in the
mel and Sharon." — IVatson. middle ages, camelevamen,) because at that time people took
CARBIELITES, or wmxE fkiars; religious of leave of flesh. Previously to the commencement of their
the order of Our Lady of Moimt Carmel. They pretend long abstinence, men devoted themselves to enjoyment,
to derive their original from the prophets Elijah and Eli- particularly during the three last days of the carnival,
.sha ; and this occasioned a very warm controversy be- The carnival is nothing but lheSa^«raa?!a of the Christian
tween this order and the Jesuits, about the end of the Romans, who could not forget their pagan festivals. At
seventeenth century, both parties publishing several works, least, it greatly resembles the Saturnalia, which were
and petitioning the popes Innocent XI. and Innocent XII. ; celebrated, annually, in December, with all kinds of mirth,
the latter of whom silenced them both, by a brief of the pleasure, and freedom, in honor of Saturn, and the gold-
20th of November, 1698. en age when he governed the world, and to preserve the
What we know of their original is, that, in the twelfth remembrance of the libert}' and equality of men in the
century, Almeric, legale of the holy see in the East, and youth of the world. In Rome, the carnival brought to
patriarch of Antioch, collected together several hermits in view, in a lively manner, the old Saturnalia in a new
Syria, who were exposed to the violence and incursions of form. During the last days of the carnival, and particu-
the barbarians, and placed them on mount Carmel, for- larly during the day which preceded the long fast, mum-
merly the residence of the prophets Elijah and Elisha ; meries, plays, tricks, and freedom of every kind abound-
from which mountain they took the name of Carmelites, ed. From Italy, the modern Saturnalia passed to the
Albert, patriarch of Jerusalem, gave them rules in 1205, other Christian countries of Europe.
which pope Honorius III. confirmed in 1224. The carnival is celebrated, in modern times, with the
_ The peace concluded by the emperor Frederic II. with greatest show and spirit at Venice and Rome. In the
the Saracens, in the year 1229, so disadvantageous to former place, it begins after Christmas. The diversions
Christendom, and so beneficial to the infidels, occasioned of it are shows, masquerades, the amusements of the
the Cannelites to quit the Holy Land, under Alan, the place of St. Mark, and sometimes, in case of the visits of
fifth general of the order. He first sent some of the reli- great princes, a regatta, or boat race. After this, there
gious to Cyprus, who landed there in the year 1238, and was a second carnival at Venice, the Venitian mass, called
founded a monastery in the forest of Fortauia. Some Si- also the festival of the Ascension, and the Brecentaur festival,
cilians, at the same time, leaving mount Carmel, returned because it commonly began on Ascension day, and be-
lo their own country, where they founded a monastery in cause the celebration of the marriage of the doge with
the suburbs of Messina. Some English departed out of the Adriatic sea was connected with it. It continued four-
Syria, in the year 1440, to found others in England. 0th- teen days. No character-masks were worn there, except
ers of Provence, in the year 1244, founded a monastery Venitian dominos. The carnival at Rome (see Goethe's
in the desert of Aigualates, a league from Marseilles ; excellent description. Das Romisch Cameval, and that of
and thus, the number of their monasteries increasing, they lady Morgan) continues but eight days, and is occupied
held their first European general chapter in the year 1245, mostly in masquerades and races. Since the return of
at their monastery of Aylesford, in England. peace, the carnival has been celebrated again in Cologne,
After the establishment of the Carmelites in Europe, on the Rhine, under the direction of the committee of
their rule was in some respects altered ; the first time, by fools, to the great satisfaction of all who were present. In
pope Innocent IV., who added to the first article a precept Spain, the carnival is called carnestolendas. — Ency. Amer.
of chastity, and relaxed the eleventh, which enjoins absti- CAROLOSTADIANS, so called from Carolostadt, a
nence at all times from flesh, permitting them, when they colleague of Luther; but he denied the real presence in
travelled, to eat boiled flesh. This pope likewise gave the eucharist, as taught by Luther, and raised a tumult at
them leave to eat in a common refectory, and to keep asses Wittemberg in his absence; on which account he was
or mules for their use. Their rule was again mitigated obliged to retire to Switzerland. Mosheim says he was a
by the popes Eugenius IV. and Pius II. Hence the order man of a warm enthusiastic temper, declaimed wildly
is divided into two branches, viz. the Carmelites of the an- against human learning, and countenanced some of the
dent observance, called the moderate or mitigated, and those extravagancies of the German Anabaptists.— (See Mo-
of the strict observance, who are the barefooted Carmelites ; a sheim's E. H. vol. iv. pp. 314 — 316.) — Williams.
reform set on foot, in 1540, by St. Theresa, a nun of the CARPOCRATIANS, a denomination which arose to.
CAR
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CAR
vrards the iniddle of the second century ; so called from
Carpocrates. whose philosophical tenets agreed in general
wilh those of the Egyptian Gnostics. He acknowledged
the existence of a supreme God, and of the aions derived
from liim by successive generations. He maintained the
eternity of matter, and the creation of the world from
thence by angelic powers, as also the divine origin of souls
unhappily imprisoned in mortal bodies, ice. He asserted
thai Jesus was born of Joseph and Mary, according to the
ordinary course of nature, and was distinguished from
the rest of mankind by nothing but his superior fortitude
and greatness of soul. In short, his sentiments appear to
have corresponded with those of the modern Humanitari-
ans, with whom they seem also to have agreed in the doc-
trine of philosophical necessity, which, probably, gave rise
to their being charged with maintaining the innocency of
vice, as arising from passions implanted in our nature by
the Creator.
IreQDcus charges them with reducing all the essentials of
religion to two points, " faith and love," or charity : but
do not the Scriptures assert the same ? or what point of
Christian morals is not herein included ? They are also
charged with licentiousness at their love-feasts, " putting
out the candles," kc. ; but this story has been too often
repeated and refuted, to be now believed. Considering
the ignorance of the limes, there is more plausibility in
the charge of their being superstitious and inclined to
magic ; but of this there is little proof They are, how-
ever, certainly chargeable with erroneous doctrine, which
probably led to some inconsistencies of practice, though
by no means to the extent that their enemies pretended.
—(See Turner's Hist. V. pp. 38 — 40. Lardner's Heretics,
pp. 124— 110.)— m/ftams.
CARROLL, (John, D. D.) first Catholic bishop of the Uni-
ted States, was born in Maryland, in the year 1734. He was
sent at the age of thirteen to the college of St. Omer's in
Flanders, where he remained for six years, when he was
transferred to the colleges of Liege and Bruges. In 1769,
he was ordained a priest, and soon after became a Jesuit.
He returned to America in 1775, and when the Koraan
Catholic clergy in the United States requested from the
pope the establishment of a hierarchy, Mr. Carroll was
appointed vicar-general, and fixed his residence at Balti-
more. In 1789, he was named bishop, and in the ensuing
3'ear was consecrated in England. In the same year he
returned to his native country, and, from the seat of his
episcopal see, assumed the title of bishop of Baltimore.
A few years before his death he was raised to the dignity
of archbishop. He was a man of the most amiable man-
ners, and of deep evangelical piety, the American Fene-
lon. He died in 1815, much esteemed and regretted.
— Davenport.
CARSON, (Alexander,) a distinguished minister of
Edinburgh, Scotland. His early life and miii-stry were
among the Presbyterians of Ireland ; but in 1802 — ?, at the
sacrifice of his situation he embraced the views of the
Independents in relation to church government, and pub-
lished a powerful and eloquent defence of those views un-
der the title of " Reasons for separating from the Ulster
Synod." His disinterested love of truth led him to fur-
ther inquiries respecting the New Testament model of the
Christian church, the result of which was his union with
the Baptists. The writings of Rev. Mr. Ewing and Dr.
Wardlaw on Infant Baptism, brought him once more be-
fore the public in a work of singular ability. Baptism in
its mode and subjects considered ; a recent work which has
gained a high reputation.
CARSTARES, (William,) a native of Scotland, emi-
nent as a divine and a politician, was born, in 1649, at
Calhcart, near Glasgow, and completed his studies at the
universities of London and Utrecht. While in Holland,
he was introduced to the prince of Orange, who honored
him with his confidence. After his return to England, he
became connected with the party which strove to exclude
James frotr *he throne, and, on suspicion of being one of
the Rye-hqi conspirators, he was put to the torture, which
he bore witn unshrinking firmness. On his liberation, he
went back to Holland, and became one of the prince of
Orange's chaplains. He accompanied William to Eng-
land in 1688 ; was appointed king's chaplain for Scotland;
and, till the death of the monarch, v/as consulted with on
all Scotch afl'airs. Queen Anne made him principal of
the university of Edinburgh. In favor of the union, ami
of the establishment of the house of Hanover, he took an
active part. He died in 1715. Carstares was an honest,
enlightened, and patriotic man, and of such benevolent
feelings, that he delighted in succoring even those who
professed principles diametrically opposite to his own.
Nor was his charity the child of ostentation ; for much of
the good which he did was done by stealth. — Davenport.
CARTER, (Robert.) once a member of the Virginia
executive council, and hence commonly called counsellor
Carter, memorable for his philanthropy. He was one of
the richest men in Virginia, having, as some say, seven
or eight hundred negroes, besides immense bodies of land.
He professed to experience the power of renewing grace
about the year 1778, and joined the Baptist church under
the eloquent Lewis Lunsford. Some years after being
baptized, he became conscientious about the lawfulness of
hereditary slavery. In a letter written at this time to the
Rev. Dr. Rippon of London, he says, " the toleration of
slavery indicates very great depravity of mind.'' In confor-
mity to this sentiment, he gradually emancipated the whole
that he possessed. 'This was a sacrifice on the altar of
humanity of probably more than a hundred thousand dol-
lars ; and so noble and disinterested an act, flowing from
religious principle, is worthy to embalm his memory in
the remembrance of mankind. Some years afterwards,
he embraced the opinions of baron Swedenborg; and to
propagate that novel and fanciful system, the good man
moved to Baltimore, where some years ago he died. He
expended large sums of money in the republication of
Swedenborg's writings in this country. — Benedict's Hist.
Bap.
CARTER, (Mrs. Elizabeth ;) a lady of profound learn-
ing and sincere piety, was the eldest daughter of the Rev.
Dr. Nicholas Carter, a clergyman in Kent, and bom at
Deal, December IGth, 1717. In early life, her faculties
appeared dull, and her progress in knowledge very slow ;
but she afterwards became mistress of Latin, Greek, French,
German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Hebrew, and attain-
ed a partial knowledge of Arabic. At the age of seventeen,
her poetical attempts appeared in the Gentleman's Maga-
zine, and they were so eminently excellent, that the learn-
ed flocked around her with admiration ; and at the age of
twenty, the proprietor of that magazine published some
of her poems in a quarto pamphlet. In llil, she formed
an intimacy with Miss Catharine Talbot, niece of the lord
chancellor Talbot, who, distinguished for her piety and
genius, greatly improved Jlrs. Carter. To the celebrated
Seeker she also introduced her ; and owing to that ac-
quaintance may probably be traced her distinguished and
justly estimated '-Translation of Epictetus." In 1754,
Mrs. Carter renewed a long existing intiniacy with Mrs.
Montague, and at her house frequently met with persons
of elevated rank, unrivalled talenl.s, and genuine piety.
In 1756 Sir George Lyttleton visited her at Deal ; and
from that time an acquaintance commenced, which only
terminated with life. She also became intimate with Wil-
liam Pulteney, earl of Bath, who was delighted by her so-
ciety, and regarded her intellectual powers and attainments
with admiration. In 1763, she accompanied lord Eath,
Dr. Douglas, and others, to Spa, and made a short tour to
German)', and Holland. In 1768, she was greatly distress-
ed by the loss of her friend and patron, the excellent
Seeker ; and, in 1774, by that of her aged, but beloved
father. Mrs. Carter was visited by the royal familv, ca-
ressed by the great, and beloved by the good. Her learn
ing was great, but her piety was more distinguished. As
an authoress, she commands respect ; but as a Christian,
veneration and love. To the service of God she devoted
her youth, her maturer years, and her old age. Her con-
science was very scrupulous ; her morality properlj' rigid ;
and her life unblemished. Her studies were various, but
she never forgot her Bible. With that book she was inti-
mately acquainted, and spent much time in daily devotions.
A life spent in the service of God could not but end in
peace and happiness ; and those who wish to find an anti-
dote to the cold, formal, and speculative professors of thu
present day, would do well to read the life, and study th«
CAR
334 ]
CAR
charartf r of the celebrated Mrs. Carter. She lived for
many year.'!, blessing her friends by her intercourse and
her pjayers ; blessing society by her example ; and bless-
ing posterity by her writings. She expired on February
the 19th, 1806, in the eighty-eighth year of her age, and
was interred in the burial ground of Grosvenor chapel.
See Pennington's Memoirs of Mrs. Carter ; and Burder's
Pious Women, vol. iii. — Jones's Chr. Biog.
CARTESIANS; a philosophical sect, the followers of
Renes des Cartes, a celebrated French philosopher of the
seventeenth century, whose ingenious, but visionary opi-
nions, excited considerable attention (hroughout Europe.
He admitted two kinds of being,— body and mind ; the
latter of which, iu man, exercised its authority over the
body by means of the pineal gland of the brain. To other
animals he denied, not only mind and reason, but even
thought and sensation, and considered them as mere auto-
mata. He is supposed to have adopted " the notion of in-
nate ideas, and of the action of the soul upon the body,
from Plato ; the doctrine of a plenum, from Aristotle ; and
the elements of the doctrine of vortices, from the atomic
school of Democriiiis and Epicurus." Whatever opinions
he adopted, he refined, so far indeed as often to render
him obscure and inconsistent. His theories, however,
much and generally as they were admired in the schools,
have long since vanished ; and his speculative mode of
philosophizing has happily given place to the more sober
methods of Bacon, Locke, and Newton. See Descartes.
(Enfield's Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 510.) — Williams.
CARTHAGE ; a celebrated city on the coast of Africa ;
a colony from Tyre. Ezekiel says, the Carthaginians
traded to TjTe ; but the Hebrew reads Tarshish, which
rather signifies Tarsus, in Cilicia, or Tartessus, in Spain,
formerly famous for trade. See Tarshish. — Calmet.
CARTHUSIANS ; a reUgious order, founded in the year
1080, by one Bruno, a verj' learned man, of the bishopric
of Cologne, and professor of philosophy at Paris. The
occasion of its institution is related as follows : — A friend
of Bruno's, who had been looked upon as a good liver,
being dead, Bruno attended his funeral. Whilst the ser-
vice was performing in the church, the dead man, who lay
upon a bier, raised himself up and said, " By the just
judgment of God, 1 am accused." The company being as-
tonished at this unusual accident, the burial was deferred
to the next day, when the concourse of people being much
greater, the dead man again raised himself up, and said,
" By the just judgment of God, I am damned." This
miracle, it is pretended, wrought such an effect on Bruno,
and sLx more, that they immediately retired to the desert
of Chartreux, in the diocese of Grenoble, in Dauphine,
where Hugh, bishop of that diocese, assigned them a spot
of ground, and where Bruno built his first monastery, un-
der the following rigid institutes : —
His monks were to wear a hair-cloth next their body, a
white cassock, and over it a black cloak : they were never
to eat flesh ; to fast every Friday on bread and water ; to
eat alone in their chambers, except upon certain festivals ;
and to observe an almost perpetual silence : none were
allowed to go out of the monastery, except the prior and
procurator, and they only about the business of the house.
The Carthusians, so called from the place of their first
mstitution, are a very rigid order. They are not to go out
of their cells, except to church, without leave of their su-
perior. They are not to speak to any person, even their
own brother, without leave. They may not keep any part
of their portion of meat or drink till the next day, except
herbs or fruit. Their bed is of straw, covered with a felt
or coarse cloth ; their clothing, two hair-cloths, two cowls,
two pair of hose, a cloak, &c., all coarse. Every monk
has two needles, some thread, scissors, a comb, a razor, a
hone, an ink-horn, pens, chalk, two pumice-stones ; like-
wise two pots, two porringers, a basin, two spoons, a knife,
a drinking-cup, a water-pot, a salt, a dish, a towel ; and,
for fire, tinder, flint, wood, and an axe.
In the refectory, they are to keep their eyes on the meat,
their hands on the table, their attention on the reader, and
their heart fixed on God. When allowed to discourse,
they are to do it modestly, not to whisper, nor talk loud,
nor to be contentious. They confess to the prior every
Saturday. Women are not allowed to come into their
churches, that the monks may not see any thing which
may provoke them to lewdness.
It is computed there are an hundred and seventy-two
houses of Carthusians, whereof five are of nuns, who
practise the same austerities as the monks. They are di-
vided into sixteen provinces, each of which has two visi-
ters. There have been several canonized saints of this
order ; four cardinals, seventy archbishops and bishops,
and a great many very learned writers.
The story of the motive of St. Bruno's retirement into
the desert was inserted in the Roman breviary, but was
afterwards left out, when that breviary was reformed, by
order of pope Urban VIII. ; and this gave occasion to
several learned men of the seventeenth century to publish
writings on that subject, some to vindicate the truth of the
story, and others to invalidate it.
In the year 1170, pope Alexander III. took this order
under the protection of the holy see. In 1391, Boniface
IX. exempted them from the jurisdiction of the bishops.
In 1420, Martin V. exempted them from paying the tenths
of the lands belonging to them ; and Julius II., in 1508,
ordered that all the houses of the order, in whatever part
of the world they were situated, should obey the prior of
the grand Chartreuse, and the general chapter of the or-
der.
The convents of this order are generally very beautiful
and magnificent : that of Naples, though but small, sur-
passes all the rest in ornaments and riches. Nothing is to
be seen in the church and house but marble and jasper.
The apartments of the prior are rather those of a prince,
than a poor monk. There are innumerable statues, bas-
reliefs, paintings, &c. together with very fine gardens ; all
which, joined with the holy and exemplary life of the good
religious, draws the curiosity of all strangers, who visit
Naples.
The Carthusians settled in England about the year 1180.
They had several monasteries, particularly at Witham in
Somersetshire, Hinton in the same county, Beauval in
Nottinghamshire, Kingston upon Hull, Mount-Grace in
Yorkshire, Eppewort in Lincolnshire, Shene in Surrey,
and one near Coventry. In London they had a famous
monastery, since called, from the Carthusians who were
settled there, thefiharter-house.^i?enrf. Bmk.
CARTWRIGHT, (Thomas ;) an eminent divine, was
born in Hertfordshire, about 1535, and was educated at St.
John's and Trinity college, Cambridge. He was greatly
admired as a preacher ; but, being of puritan principles,
he was repeatedly persecuted by Whitgift, Grindall, and
Aylmer ; was more than once imprisoned, and was com-
pelled to reside abroad for two years. He died in 1603.
Besides controversial tracts, he wrote a Latin Harmony
of the Gospels ; a Commentary on the Proverbs ; a Con-
futation of the Rhenish Testament ; and other works. —
Davenport.
CARVER, (John,) first governor of Plymouth colony,
was a native of England, and was among the emigrants
to Leyden, who compo.sed Mr. Robinson's church in that
place. When a removal to America was contemplated,
he was appointed one of the agents to negotiate with the
Virginia company in England for a suitable territory. He
obtained a patent in 1619, and in the following year came
to New England with the first company. Two vessels
had been procured, the one called the Speedwell, and the
other the May-flower, which sailed from Southampton,
carrying one hundred and twenty passengers, August 5,
1620. As one of the vessels proved leaky, they both put
into Dartmouth for repairs. They put to sea again, Au-
gust 21 ; but the same cause, after they had sailed about
one hundred leagues, obliged them to put back to Ply-
mouth. The Speedwell was there pronounced unfit for
the voj'age. About twenty of the passengers went on
shore. The others were received on board the May-flower,
which sailed with one hundred and one passengers, be-
sides the ship's officers and crew, Sept. 6. During the
voyage the weather was unfavorable, and the ship being
leaky, the people were almost continually wet. One young
man died at sea, and a child was born, the son of Stephen
Hopkins, which was called Oceanus. November 9, they
I'.iscovered the white, sandy shores of cape Cod. As this
land was northward of Hudson's river, to which they were
CAR
[ 335 ]
CAS
iestined, the ship was immediately put ahout to the south-
ward; but the appearance of breakers and the danger
from shoals, together with the eagerness of the women
and children to be set on shore, induced them to shift their
course again to the north. The next day, the northern ex-
tremity of the cape was doubled, and the ship was safely
anchored in the harbor of cape Cod. As they were with-
out the territory of the south Virginia company, from
whom they had received the charter, which was thus ren-
dered useless, and as they perceived the absolute necessity
of government, it was thought proper before they landed,
that a political association should be formed, intrusting all
powers in the hands of the majority. Accordingly, after
solemn prayers and thanksgiving, a written instrument
was subscribed, November 11, 1620, by forty-one persons
out cif the whole number of passengers of all descriptions
on board. Mr. Carver's name stood first, and he was
unanimously elected governor for one year. Among the
other names were those of Bradford, Winslow, Brewster,
AUerton, Standish, Alden, Fuller, AVarren, Hopkins,
White, Rogers, and Cook. Government was thus regu-
larly established on a truly republican principle.
On Monday, December 11, they surveyed the bay, and
went ashore upon the main land at the place, which they
called Plymouth ; and a part of the very rock on which
they first set their feet, is now in the public square of the
town, and is distinguished by the name of the Forefathers'
rock. The day of their landing, the 22d of December in
the new style, is in the present age regarded as an annual
festival. Several of the discoiu:ses on the occasion have
been published.
After the treaty with the Indian sachem, Massasoit, was
ratified in the spring of 1621, a few laws were enacted,
and Mr. Carver was confirmed as governor for the follow-
ing year. In the beginning of April, twenty acres of land
were prepared for the reception of Indian corn, and Samo-
set and Squanto taught the emigrants how to plant, and
dress it with herrings, of which an immense quantity
came into the brooks. Six acres were sowed with barley
and peas. While they were engaged in this labor, April
5th, the governor came out of the field at noon, complain-
ing of a pain in his head, caused by the heat of the sun.
In a few hours it deprived him of his senses, and in a few
days put an end to his life, to the great grief of the infant
plantation. He was buried with all the honors which
could be paid to his memory. The men were under arms,
and fired several voUies over his grave. His wife, over-
come by her loss, survived him bat six weeks. When
he arrived, there were eight persons in his family.
Governor Carver was distinguished for hi.s prudence,
integrity, and firmness. He had a good estate in England,
which he spent in the emigration to Holland and America.
He exerted himself to promote the interests of the colony ;
he bore a large share of its sufferings; and the people
confided in him as their friend and father. Piety, humili-
ty, and benevolence, were eminent traits in his character.
In the time of the general sickness, which befell the colo-
ny, after he .had himself recovered, he was assiduous in
attending the sick, and performing the most humiliating
services for them without any distinction of persons or
characters. — Belknap's Amer. Biog. ii. 119 — 216; Prince,
66—104; Hohnes, i. 161, 168; Purchas, v. 1843—1850;
Univers. Hist, xxxix. 272 ; NeaVs N. E. i. 99 ; Davis's
Morton, 38—68 ; Allen.
CARY, (LoTT,) an African minister, was born a slave
about thirty miles below Richmond, Virginia, on the estate
of Wm. A. Christian. In 1804, he was hired out in Rich-
mond as a common laborer. He was profane and much
addicted to intoxication. But about the year 1807, it pleas-
ed God to bring him to repentance, and he became a mem-
ber of the Baptist church, of which his father was a pious
member. As yet he was not able to read. But having a
strong desire to read the third chapter of John, on which
he had heard a sermon, he procured a New Testament,
and commenced learning his letters in that chapter. He
learned to read and write. Being employed in a tobacco
warehouse, and for his singularly faithful and useful ser-
vices receiving a liberal reward, and being also assisted
by a subscription, he was able, soon after the death of his
first wife in 1813, to ransom himself and two children for
eight hundred and fifty dollars. He soon became a
preacher, and was employed every Sabbath among the
colored people on plantations near Richmond. His de-
sire to promote the cause of religion in Africa induced
him to accompany the first band of emigrants to Africa,
sent out by the Colonization society in 1821. He made
a sacrifice for this object, for in 1820 he received a salary
for his services in Richmond, of eight hundred dollars;
and this would have been continued to him. It was pro-
bably his resolution, that at an early period prevented the
abandonment of the colony of Montserado. In the battles
of November and December, 1822,he bravely participated.
He said, " there never has been a minute, no, not when
the balls were flying around my head, when I could wish
myself again in America." He was health oflicer and
general inspector. During the prevalence of the disease
of the climate, he acted as a physician, the only one at the
time, having obtained some medical information from Dr.
Ayres, and made liberal sacrifices of his property for the
poor, the sick, and afilicted. In March, 1824, he had one
hundred patients. About 1815, he had assisted in form-
ing in Richmond an African Missionary society. In Afri-
ca he did not forget its objects, but most solicitously sought
access to the native tribes, that he might instruct them in
the Christian religion. Through his agency, a school was
established about seventy miles from Monrovia. Before
he sailed for Africa, a church was formed at Richmond of
eight or nine persons, of which he became the pastor. In
September, 1826, he was elected vice-agent of the colony.
Mr. Ashmun, who had perfect confidence in his integrity,
good sense, public spirit, decision, and courage, cheerfully
committed the affairs of the colony to his hands, when ill
health compelled him to withdraw. For six months he was
the able and faithful chief of Liberia. He was killed by
a sudden explosion of powder in the agency house, No-
vember 19, 1828 ; yet will he deserve a perpetual remem-
brance in the colony, whose foundation he assisted in
laying.
" Thy meed shall be a nation's love !
Thy praise the free-man's song!
And in thy star-wrealhed home above,
Thou mayst the theme prolong:
For hymns of praise from Afric's plaius
Shall mingle wilh seraphic strains."
Some of the letters of Mr. Gary are published in the Amer.
Bap. Magazine, and in the African Repository for Sept.,
1828.— 4/"r. Repos. i. 233 ; iv. 162, 209 ; v. 10, 64 ; Allen.
CASAS, (Bartholomew Las,) bishop of Chiapa, was
born at Seville, in 1474, and was of French extraction. His
father, Antonio, who went to Hispaniola with Columbus,
in 1493, and returned rich to Seville, in 1 198, made him a
present of an Indian slave, while he was pursuing his
studies at Salamanca. All the slaves bei'ng sent back to
their country by the command of Isabella, Las Casas be-
came deeply interested in their favor. In 1502, he accom-
panied Ovando to Hispaniola, and, witnessing the cruel
treatment experienced by the natives, he devoted his whole
subsequent life, a period of more than sixty years, lo the
vindication of their cau.se, and the melioration of their
sufferings. As a missionary, he traversed the wilderness
of the new world. As the champion of the natives, he
made voyages to the court of Spain, and vindicated their
cause with his Ups and his pen. He was made bishop of
Chiapa in 1544, and returned to Spain in 1551. After a
life of apostolic intrepidity and zeal, he died in 1566, at
the age of ninety-two, and was buried at Jladrid, at the
church of the Dominican convent of Atocha, of which
fraternity he was a member. He has been justly reproach-
ed for lending his encouragement to the slavery of the
Africans in 1517. The traffic existed before that period:
in 1511, Ferdinand had ordered many Africans to be
transported from Guinea to Hispaniola, since one negro
could perform the work of four Imlians. It was to spare
the Indians, undoubtedly, that Las Casas recommended to
cardinal Ximenes the introduction of negro slaves, the
number being limited to four thousand. In this he tres-
passed on the grand rule, never to do evil for the sake of
supposed good. He published " A brief relation of the de-
struction of the Indians," about 1542. There was publish-
ed at London, in 1656, Tears of the Indians, being a trans-
lation from Las Casas. A French version of his Voyages
CAS
[ 336 J
CAS
of the Spaniards, appeared in 1697. J. A. Llorente has
published a memoir of Las Casas, prefixed to the collec-
tion of his works. The most important work of Las Ca-
sas is a general histor)' of the Indies, from their discovery
in 1520, in three volumes, in manuscript. It was com-
menced in 1527, at fifty-three years of age, and finished
in 1559, at eighty-five. This work, which v,as consulted
by Herrera and Mr. Irving, exists only in manuscript, the
publication of it never having been permitted in Spain on
account of its too faithful delineation of Spanish cruelty.
— Irving' s Columb iv.y Allen.
CASAUBON, (Isaac) a celebrated critic and Calvinist
theologian, was born at Geneva, in 1559, and made an
early and extraordinary progress in his classical studies.
After having held the chair of Greek professor at Geneva
for fourteen years, he removed to Montpellier, and thence
to Paris, where Henry IV. appointed him royal librarian.
On the death of Henry, Casaubon settled in England,
where James I. made him a prebend of Westminster and
Canterbury, and gave him a pension. He died in 1614,
and was buried in Westminster abbey. His liberality of
feeling induced many to accuse hira wrongfully of leaning
towards popery. He pubhshed editions of Strabo, Polya3-
nus, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Folybius, and several other
ancient authors ; and produced some original works,
among which are nearly one thousand two hundred letters.
— Davenport.
CASIPHIA. Ezra says, that when returning to Judea,
he sent to Iddo, who dwelt at Casiphia ; perhaps mount
Caspius, near the Caspian sea, between Media and Hyr-
cania, where were many captives. Ezra 8: 17. See Cas-
Fi.vs Mountains. — Calmet.
CASSIA. In Exodus 30: 24, Cassia is prescribed as one
of the ingredients for composing the holy anointing oil.
It is the bark of a tree of the bay tribe, which now grows
chietly in the East Indies. This bark was made known
to the ancients, and highly esteemed by them ; but, since
the use of cinnamon has been generally adopted, the cas-
sia bark has fallen into disrepute, on account of its infe-
riority. It is thicker and more coarse than cinnamon, of
weaker quality, and abounds more with a viscid mucilagi-
nous matter. For many purposes, however, cassia, as be-
ing much less expensive, is substituted for cinnamon, but
more particularly for the preparation of what is called
oil of cinnamon.
Cassia was one of the articles of merchandise in the
markets of Tyre. Ezek. 27: 19. The cassia mentioned in
P.salm 45: 8, is thought to have been an extract, or essen-
tial oil, from the b3.rk.— Abbott.
CASTE ; certain classes whose burdens and privileges
ire hereditary. The word is derived from the Portuguese
'.asta, and was originally applied, by the conquerors of the
East Indies, to the Indian families, whose occupations,
customs, privileges, and duties are hereditary. This term
has been sometimes applied to the hereditary classes in
Europe ; and we speak of the spirit or the prerogatives
a,nd usurpations of a caste, to express particularly that
unnatural constitution of society, which makes distinction
dependent on the accidents of birth or fortune. The divi-
sion into castes among the people of the old world, comes
10 us from a period to which the light of history does not
extend ; hence its origin cannot be clearly traced ; but it
is highly probable, that, wherever it exists, it was origi-
nally grounded on a difference of descent, and in the
modes of living, and that the separate castes were ori-
ginally separate races of people. This institution is found
among many nations.
Castes, or casts, the four principal classes, or tribes,
into which the Hindoos are divided, and which are said
mystically to have sprung from the head, the heart, the
thigh, and the feet of I heir great goi Bramha. 1. The
sacred, orbraminical class, including the priests, or brah-
mins, who are also their philosophers and men of letters.
2. The military, or protecting class, coniiuonly called the
Siltri, from Chatriyn, protectors from evil. 3. The Beise
tribe, (from Vaisi/as,) includes merchants, tradesmen, hus-
bandmen, &c., which are considered, according to their
derivation, as the nourishers of the state. 4. The Sudm.':,
(or Sudders,) who, as proceeding from the feet of Bramha,
%re servants to the higher orders, mechanics, &c.
Beside these orders, which are divided into families,
under a great variety of rules, there are a number of mix-
ed castes, occasioned by intermarriages, &c. ; and lastly,
the Hnri, or outcasls, which are held in utter detestation
by all the others. — (See Ward's Hindoos, vol. iii. ch. 2.
A paper on the Indian Classes, by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq.
Asiatic Researches, vol. v. quoted in Mission. Register,
1818, p. 251.) — Ency. Amer. ; Williams.
CASTELL, (Edmdtto.) a divine and lexicographer, was
born at Hatley, in Cambridgeshire, in 1606, and was edu-
cated at Iramanuel and St. John's colleges. While at the
university, he compiled his Dictionary of Seven Lan-
guages, on which he bestowed the labor of seventeen
years. The publication of it ruined him. He was, how-
ever, rescued from poverty, by being appointed king's
chaplain and Arabic professor at Cambridge, to which was
afterwards added a prebend of Canterbury and some liv-
ings. He died in 1685, rector of Higham Gobion, in Bed-
fordshire. Dr. Walton was assisted by him in the Poly-
glot Bible. — Davenport.
CASTOR and POLLUX. It is said that the vessel
which carried Paul to Rome had the sign of Castor and
Pollux. Acts 28: 11. Castor and Polltix were sea-gods,
and invoked by sailors ; and even the light balls or me-
teors which are sometimes seen on ships, were called Cas-
tor and Pollux. An inscription in Gruter proves that sea-
men implored Castor and Pollux in dangers at sea. It is
to be observed, that St. Luke does not mention the name,
but the sign, of the ship. By the word sign, the sacred
writer meant a protecting image of the deity, to whom
the vessel was in some sort consecrated ; as at present in
Catholic countries, most of their vessels were named after
some saint, St. Xa\ier, St. Andero, St. Dominique, &c.
It appears to be certain, that the figure which gave name
to the ship was at the head, and the tutelary deity was
placed on the poop. — Watson.
CASUALTY ; an event that is not foreseen or intended.
See Contingency. — Hend. Bud:.
CASUIST ; one that studies and settles cases of con-
science. The Jesuits Escobar, Sanchez, Suarez, Busen-
baum, and others, have acquired notorious celebrity by
their ingenuity in the invention of such cases, and for the
ambiguity and singularity of their solutions. Escobar
made a collection of the opinions of all the casuists before
him. M. Le Feore, preceptor of Louis XIII., called the
books of the casuists " the art of quibbling with God ;"
which does not seem far from truth, by reason of the mul-
titude of distinctions and subtleties with which they abound.
Mayer has published a bibliotheca of casuists, containing
an account of all the writers on cases of con.science, rang-
ed under three heads ; the first comprehending the Luthe-
ran, the second the Calvinist, and the thini the Romish
casuists. — He?id. Bvck.
CASUISTRY, called by Kant the diahctics of conscience,
is the doctrine and science of conscience and its cases,
with the rules and principles of resolving the same ; drawn
partly from natural reason or equity, and partly from the
authority of Scripture, the canon law, councils, fathers,
&c. To casuistry belongs the decision of all difhculties
arising about what a man may lawfully do or not do ;
what is sin or not sin ; what things a man is obliged to
do in order to discharge his duty, and what he may let
alone without breach of it.
The schoolmen delighted in this species of intellectual-
labor. They transferred their zeal for the most fanciful
and frivolous distinctions in what respected the doctrines
of religion to its precepts ; they anatomized the different
virtues ; nicely examined all the circumstances by which
our estimate of them should be influenced ; and they thus
rendered the study of morality inextricable, confounded
the natural notions of right and wrong, and so accustomed
themselves and others to weigh their actions, that they
could easily find some excuse for what was most culpable,
whilst they continued imder the impression that they were
not deviating from what, as moral beings, was incumbent
upon them. The corruption of manners which was in-
troduced into the church during the dark ages, rendered
casuistry very popular : and, accordingly, many who af-
fected to be the most enlightened writers of their age, and
perhaps really were so, tortured their tmderstanding or
CAS
f 337]
CAT
their faucy in solving cases of conscieua?, and oflen in
polluting their own imaginations and those of others, by
employing them on possible crimes, upon which, however
unlikely was their occurrence in life, they were eager to
pronounce a decision. The happy change which the Re-
formation produced upon the views of men respecting the
sacred Scriptures, tended to erect that pure standard of
duty which for ages had been laid in the dust. Yet for a
considerable time, Protestant divines occupied themselves
with the intricacies of casuistrj' ; thus in some degree
shutting out the light which they had fortunately poured
upon the world. The Lutheran theologians walked very
much in - the track which the schoolmen had opened, al-
though their decisions were much more consonant willi
Christianity ; and it was not uncommon in some countries
lor ecclesiastical assemblies to devote part of their time to
the resolution of questions which might have been safely
left unnoticed, which now are almost universally regarded
as frivolous, and about which almost the most ignorant
would be ashamed to ask an opinion. Even after much
of the sopliistrj', and much of the moral perversion con-
nected with casuistry, were exploded, the form of that
science was preserved, and many valuable moral princi-
ples in conformity to it delivered. The venerable bishop
Hall published a celebrated work, to which he gave the
appellation of " Cases of Conscience practically resolv-
ed ;" and he introduces it with the following observations
addressed to the reader : " Of all divinity, that part is
jnost useful which determines cases of conscience ; and
of all cases of conscience, the practical are most necessa-
ry, as action is of more concernment than speculation ;
and of all practical cases, those which are of most com-
mon use are of so much greater necessity and benefit to
be resolved, as the errors thereof are more universal, and
therefore more prejudicial to the society of mankind.
These I have selected out of many ; and having turned
over divers casuists, have pitched upon those decisions
which I hold most conformable to enlightened reason and
religion ; sometimes I follow them, and sometimes I leave
them for a better guide." He divides his work into four
parts, — Cases of profit and traffic ; cases of life and liber-
ty ; cases of piety and religion ; and cases matrimonial :
under each of these solving a number of que-stions, or
rather giving a number of moral dissertations.
Casuistry, as a systematic per\'ersion of Christian mo-
rality, is now, in the Protestant world, very much un-
known ; though there still is, and perhaps always will be,
that softening down of the strict rules of duty, to which
mankind are led either by self-deceit, or by ttie natural
desire of reconciling, with the hope of the divine favor,
considerable obliquity from that path of rectitude aitd vir-
tue which alone is acceptable to God. But the most stri-
king specimen of the length to which casuistry was carri-
ed, and of the dangerous consequences which resulted
from it, is furnished by the history of the maxims and
sentiments of the .Jesuits, that celebrated order, which
combined with profound literature, and the most zealous
support of popery, an ambition that perverted their under-
standings, or rather induced them to employ their rational
powers in the melancholy work of poisoning the sources
of moralitj', and of casting the name and the appearance
of virtue over a dissoluteness of principle and a profligacy
of licentiousness, which, had they not been checked by
sounder views, and by feelings and habits favorable to
morality, would have spread through the world the most
degrading misery. See Jesi'its.
Some suppose that all books of casuistry are as useless
as they are tiresome. One who is really anxious to do
his duty must be very weak, it is said, if he can imagine
that he has much occasion for them ; and with regard to one
who is negligent of it, the style of those writings is not
such as is likely to awaken him to more attention. The
frivolous accuracy which casuists attem.pt to intro-
duce into subjects which do not admit of it, almost neces-
sarily betray them into dangerous errors ; and at the same
time render their works dry and disagreeable, aboitnding
in abstruse and metaphysical distinctions, but incapable
of exciting in the heart any of those emotions which it is
the principal use of books of morality to produce.
On the other hand, we think it may be observed, tliat.
though these remarks may apply to some, they cannot apply
to ntl book's of casuistry. It must be acknowledged Iha'
nice distinctions, metaphysical reasonings, and abstnise
terms, cannot be of much service to the generality, be-
cause there are so few who can enter into Ihein ; ye-,,
when we consider how much light is thrown upon a sub-
ject by the force of good reasoning, by viewing a case in
all its bearizigs, by properly considering all the objections
that may be made to it, and by examining it in every point
of view : if we consider, also, how little some men are
accustomed to think, and yet at the same time possess that
tenderness of conscience which makes them fearful of
doing wTong ; we must conclude that such works as these,
when properly executed, may certainly be of considerable
advantage.
Although the morality of the gospel is distinguished by
its purity and by its elevation, it is necessarily exhibited
in a general form ; certain leading principles are laid
down ; but the application of these to the innumerable
cases which occur in the actual intercourse of life, is left
to the understanding and conscience of indinduals. Had
it been otherwise, the Christian code would have swelled
to an extent which would have rendered it in a great de-
gree useless ; it would have been difficult or impossible to
recollect all its provisions ; and minute as these would
have been, they would still have been defective, — new
situations or combinations of circumstances modifying
duty continually arising, which it would have been im-
practicable or hurtful to anticipate. When the principles
of duty are rightly unfolded, and when they are placed
on a sound foundation, there is, to a fair mind, no diffi-
culty in accommodating them to its o^ti particular exi-
gencies. A few cases, it is true, may occur, where it is a
matter of doubt in what way men should act : but these
are exceedingly rare, and the hves of vast numbers may
come to an end without any of them happening to occa-
sion perplexity. Every man r«ay be, and perhaps is, sen-
sible, that his errors are to be ascribed, not to his having
been at a loss to know what he should have done, but to
his deliberately or hastily violating what he saw to be
right, or to his having allowed himself to confound, by
vain and subtile distinctions, what, in the case of any one
else, would have left in his mind no room for hesitation.
The reader may consult Ames's Power and Cases of
Conscience ; bishop Taylor's Ductor Pubitantium ; Dr.
Saunderson's De Obligatione Conscientia; ; Pike and Hoy-
ward's Cases ; and Saurin's Christian Casuistry, hi the
4th vol. of his Sermons, p. 2().5, English edition ; and
Baxter's Christian Director)-. — ll'ntfrs?! ,- Htiid. Buck.
CATABAPTISTS ; opposcrs of baptism, (the Greek
preposition, kaia, being here used in the sense of against ;)
either .persons who oppose baptism as a rite allogethcr
obsolete, or as applicable only to converts from another
religion to Christianitv. See Axtibai-tists. — Wiliinms.
CATAPHRYGIAN HERESY ; the ciToncous system
of Montanus, and so called, because that hcresiai ch began
to exercise his pretended prophetical gifts in the lower or
more southerly part of Phrygia. See Montanus. — Jleml.
Buck.
C.'iTECHESIS ; the science which teaches the proper
method of instructing beginners in the principles of the
Christian religion by question and answer, which is called
the cntccjutical millwd. Hence catechisi and catfckize. The
art of the catccliist consists m being able to elicit and de-
velopc the ideas of the youtliful minds of learners. This
part of religious science was first cultivated in r.-.odiTii
times, and Rosenmiiller, Pinter, Schmid, 'Wolralh, Doltz,
GratTc, Daub, Winter, Kcnrich, Ulullcr, and others, have
particularly distinguished themselves by their writings
upon it. — Enn/. Anur.
CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS; inslilutions for the ele-
mentary instruction of Christian teachers, of which there
were many in the Eastern church, from the .second to the
fifth century. They were ditfcrent from catechumen it a I
schools, wliich were attached to almost every church, and
which were intended only for the popular instruction ol
proselytes, and of the children of Chris' iiuis ; whereas the
catechetical schcolswere intended loconimunicale a scien-
tific Icnowledge of Christianitv. The first and most re-
nowned was established about the middle of the recoml
CAT
r 338 ]
CAT
century, for the Egyptian church at Alexandria, on the
model of the famous schools of Grecian learning in that
place. (See Alexandrian School.) Teachers like Po.n-
ttenus, Clement, and Origen, gave them splendor, and se-
cured their permanence. They combined instruction in
rhetoric and oratory, in classical Grecian literature, and
the eclectic philosophy, with the principal branches of
theological study, exegesis, the doctrines of religion, and
the traditions of the church ; distinguished the popular
religious belief from the gnosis, or the thorough knowledge
of religion ; established Christian theology as a science,
and finally attacked the dreams of the Chiliasts, (believers
in a millennium ;) but by blending Greek speculations and
Gnostic fantasies with the doctrines of the church, by an
allegorical interpretation of the Bible, and the assumption
of a secret sense in the Scriptures, different from the lite-
ral, contributed to the corruption of Chnstianity. The
distraction of the Alexandrian church by the Arian con-
troversies proved the destruction of the catechetical schools
in that place, about the middle of the fourth century.
The catechetical school at Antioch appears not to have
been a permanent institution, like the Alexandrian, but
only to have been formed around distinguished teachers,
where there happened to be any in the place. There were
some distinguished teachers in Antioch, about the year
220. We have no certain information, however, of the
theological teachers in that place, such as Lucian, Diodo-
rus of Tarsus, and Theodore of Mopsuestia,' until the lat-
ter part of the fourth century. These teachers were dis-
tinguished from the Alexandrian by more sober views of
Christianity, by confining themselves to the literal inter-
pretation of the Bible, by a cautious use of the types of
the Old Testament, and by a bolder discussion of doc-
trines. The Nestorian and Eutychian controversies, in the
fifth century, drew after them the i-uin of the schools at
Antioch. Of a similar character v.-ere the catechetical
schools instituted at EdesSi, in the third century, and de-
stroyed in 489, and the school aftei-wards established at
Nisibis, by the Nestorians, in its stead ; both of which
were in Mesopotamia. To these catechetical schools,
succeeded, at a later date, the cathedral and monastic
schools, especially among the western Christians, who, as
late as the sixth century, made use of the heathen schools,
«md had never established catechetical schools even at
Some. — Eyicy. A^ner.
CATECHISING ; instructing by asking questions and
correcting the answers. Catechising is an excellent means
jf informing the mind, engaging the attention, and affect-
ing the heart, and is an important duty incumbent on all
R'ho have children under their care. Children should not
oe suffered to grow up without instruction, under the pre-
tence that the choice of religion ought to be perfectly free,
and not biassed by the influence and authority of parents,
or the power of education. As they have capacities, and
are more capable of knowledge by instmction than by the
exercise of their own reasoning powers, they should cer-
tainly be taught. This agrees both with the voice of na-
ture and the dictates of revelation. Deut. 6: 7. Prov. 22:
6. Eph. 6: 4. The propriety of this being granted, it may
next be observed, that, in order to facilit ite their know-
ledge, short summaries of religion extraced from the Bi-
Dle, in the way of question and answer, may be of con-
siderable use. 1. Hereby, says Dr. Watts, the principles
of Christianity are reduced into short sentences, and easier
to be understood by children. 2. Hereby, these principles
are not only thrown into a just and easy method, but every
part is naturally introduced by a proper question ; and the
rehearsal of the answer is made far easier to a child than
it would be if the child were required to repeat the whole
scheme of religion. 3. This way of teaching has some-
thing familiar and delightful in it, because il looks more
like conversation and dialogue. 4. The very curiosity of
the young n>ind is awakened by the question to know
what the answer will be ; and the child will take pleasure
in learning the answer by heart, to improve its own know-
ledge. (See next article.) — Ileml. Buc.li.
CATECHISM ; a form of instruction by means of
questions and answers. There have been various cate-
chisms published by different authors, but many of them
have been but ill suited to convey instruction to juvenile
minds. Catechisms for children should be so framed as
not to puzzle and confound, but to let the beams of divine
light into their minds by degrees. They should be accom-
modated as far as possible to the weakness of their under-'
standings ; for mere learning sentences by rote, without
comprehending the meaning, will be of but little use. In
this way they will know nothing but words ; it will prove
a laborious task, and not a pleasure ; confirm them in a
bad habit of dealing in sounds instead of ideas ; and, after
all, perhaps, create in them an aversion to religion itself.
Dr. Watts advises that difierent catechisms should be
composed for different ages and capacities ; the questions
and answers should be short, plain and easy ; scholastic
terms and logical distinctions should be avoided ; the
most practical points of religion should be inserted ; and
one or more well-chosen texts of Scripture should be add-
ed to support almost every answer, and to prove the seve-
ral parts of it. The doctor has admirably exemplified his
own rules in the catechism he has composed for children
at three or four years of age ; that for children at seven
or eight ; his assembly's catechism, proper for 3'oulh at
twelve or fourteen ; his presen-ative from the sins and
follies of childhood ; his catechism of Scripture names ;
and his historical catechism. These are superior to any
we know, and which we cannot but ardently recommend to
parents and all those who have the care and instruction
of children.
The catechism of the church of England is dra\\Ti up
by way of question and answer. Originally it consisted
of no more than a repetition of the baptismal vow, the
creed, and the Lord's prayer ; but king James I. ordered
the bishops to add to it a short and plain explanation of
the sacraments, which was accordingly perfonned by
bishop Overal, then dean of St. Paul's, and approved by
the rest of the bishops.
The times appointed for catechising are Sundays and
holidays. By the first book of king Edward VI. it was
not required to be done above once in six weeks. But,
upon Bucer's objecting to the interval of time as too long,
the rubric was altered, but expressed, notwithstanding, in
indefinite terms, leaving it to be done as often as occasion
requires. Indeed, the fifty-ninth canon enjoins every par-
son, vicar, or curate, upon ever)' Sunda)' and holiday, to
teach and instruct the youth and ignorant persons of his
parish, in the catechism set forth in the Book of Common
Prayer ; and that under pain of a sharp reproof for the
first omission, suspension for the second, and excommuni-
cation for the third. See Catechist and Catechising. —
Hend. Bvck.
CATECHIST ; one whose charge is to instruct by ques-
tions, or to question the uninstructed concerning religion.
The catechists of the ancient churches were usually minis-
ters, and distinct from the bishops and presbyters ; and had
their catechumena, or auditories, apart. But they did not
constitute any distinct order of the clergy, being chosen
out of any order. The bishop himself sometimes per-
formed the office ; at other times presbyters, readers, or
deacons. It was his business to expose the folly of the
pagan superstition ; to remove prejudices, and answer ob-
jections ; to discourse on behalf of the Christian doctrines ;
and to give instruction to those who had not sufficient
knowledge to qualifv them for baptism. — Hend. Buck.
CATECHUMENS ; the lowest order of Christians in
the ancient, but not primitire church. They were called
catechumens from the Greek word katecheo, which signifies
to instnict in the first rudiments of any art or science.
They had some title to the common name of Christian,
being a degree above pagans and heretics, though not con-
summated by baptism. They were admitted to the state
of catechumens in the fourth and fifth centuries, by impo-
sition of hands, and the sign of the cross. The children
of believing parents were admitted catechumens as soon
as ever they were capable of instruction ; but at what age
those born of heathen parents might be admitted, is not
so clear. As to the time of their continuance in this state,
there was no general rule fixed about it ; but the practice
varied according to the difference of times and places, and
the readiness and proficiency of the catechumens them-
selves. The council of Eliberis appointed two years' pro-
bation for new converts ; and Justinian, in one of his
CAT
[ 339 ]
CA T
Novella, prescribes the same length of time. The apostoli-
cal constitutions lengthen the term to three years. Some-
times it was limited to the forty days of lent. Socrates
observes, thai, in the conversion of the Burgundians, the
French bishop, who converted them, took only seven daj's
lo catechise them, and then baptized them. But, in case
of sickness or imminent death, the catechumens were im-
mediately baptized nith what they called clinic baptism.
There were four orders or degrees of catechumens.
The first were the exothoumenot., or those who ^^-^re instruct-
ed privately without the church, and kept at a distance from
the pri\ilege of entering into the church, for some time,
to make them the more eager and desirous of it. The
next degree above these were the akoxomenoi, audientes, or
hearers. They were so called from being admitted to
hear sermons and the Scriptures read in the church, but
M-ere not allowed to partake of the prayers. The third
sort of catechumens were the gonu-klinontes, genn-flextaites,
or kneelers ; so called because they receive imposition of
hands, kneeling upon their, knees. The fourth order was
the baptizometwi, photizomenoi, the wmpeteiitfs and ehrji^
which denote the immediate candidates of baptism, or such
.as were appointed to be baptized the ncit approaching
festival : before which strict examination was made into
their proficiency under the several stages of catechetical
exercises. After examinatioR, they were exorcised for
twenty days together, and were obliged to fasting and
confession. They were to get the creed and Lord's pray-
er by heart, and to repeat them before the bishop at their
last examination. Some days before baptism they went
veiled, or with their faces covered; and it was customary
to touch their ears, sapng, £/;Ap/io((?, '■ be opened;" as
also to anoint their ej-es with clay; both ceremonies in
imitation of our Savior's practice, and intended to shadow
out to the catechumens their condition both before and
after admission into the Christian church.
That part of divine ser\'ice which preceded the common
prayers of the communicants at the altar, thai is, the
psalmody, the reading of the Scriptures, the sermon, fee.
was called mhsa catechiimenor«m ; because the catechu-
mens had the liberty of being present only at this part of
the service.
The ancients speak of the sacrament of the catechu-
mens ; and some modern writers, by mistake, suppose,
that, though the)' were not allowed to partake of the eu-
charist, they had sotnething like it, which they call eido-
gia pnnis, or pam's bfitediOns. But it appears from St.
Augustine, that this sacrament was not the consecrated
bread, but only a little taste of salt ; intimating to them
by that symbol, that they were to purge and cleanse their
souls from sin, salt being the emblem of purity and incor-
ruption. They called this a sacrament, after the custom
of the primitive Christians, who gave that name to every
thing that was mysterious, or had a spiritual signification
in \X.—Heiid. Buck.
CATENA ; a Greek word signifying a chain, in biblical
criticism is an exposition of a portion of the Scriptures,
formed from collections from several authors. Thus we
have Catena of the Greek fathers on the Octateuch, by
Procopius ; on the book of ,Tob, by Olympiodorus ; and on
the Octateuch, the books of Samuel and Kings, by Nice-
phorus. These were Greek writers themselves. Beside
them, compilations of this sort were made from the early
fathers by many later authors, such as Francis Zephyr,
Lepomanniis, Patrick, Junius, Corderius, Ace. Poole's Sj'-
nopsis may be regarded as a catPMa of the modern inter-
pretations of the whole Scriptures, as Wolfius is of a still
more ancient class on the New Testament. — Hend. Buck.
CATERPILLAR, (clifsil.) The word occurs Dent. 28:
38 ; Psalm 68: 46 ; Isaiah 33: 4 ; 1 Kings 8: 37 ; 2 Chron.
6: 28; Joel 1: 4 ; 2: 25. In the four last cited texts, it is
distinguished from the locust, properly so called ; and in
Joel 1: 4, is mentioned as " eating up" what the other spe-
cies had left, and therefore might be called tlie consuvter,
by way of eminence. But the ancient interpreters are far
from being agreed what particular species it signifies.
^he Septuagint in Chronicles, and Aquila in Psalms, ren-
der it hrmichos : so the Vulgate in Chronicles and Isaiah,
and Jerome in Psalms, bnichus, the chafer, which is a great
devourer of leaves. From the Syriac version, however.
Michaelis is disposed to understand it Ae tanpe grdlon,
" mole cricket," which, in its grub state, is very destruc-
tive to corn and other vegetables, by feeding on their
roots. See Locust. — Watson.
CATHARINE, (Saint,) a virgin and martyr of Alex
andria, equally illustrious for her learning, eloquence, and
piety. She sulfered martyrdom in the persecution under
the emperor Maximin, in the fourth centur)'.
There are two other Catharines distinguished by the
same qualities ; one of Sienna, who died in 138!) ; and the
other at Bologna died in 1463, who wrote many religious
works in Latin and Italian. — Eetham,
CATHARI, or Catharists, i. e. PKritans, a term appli-
ed, in diflerent ages, to persons who distinguished them-
selves by aiming (or, at least, professing to aim) at great-
er purity than the mass of Christians around them. It
was especially applied to the Paulicians of the seventh
and following centuries, by way of reproach. They were
charged with the errors of the Manichfeans ; as v.-ere,
generally, all who separated from the church of Rome.
See PArLiciANs.
Spealdng of the Cathari of the twelfth century, the
learned and excellent Blr. Blilner says, " They were plain,
unassuming, harmless, and industrious Christians ; con-
demning, by their doctrine and manners, the whole appa
ratus of the reigning idolatry and superstition; placing
true religion in the faith and love of Christ, and retaining
a supreme regard for the divine word." — See Milner's
Church Hist. vol. iii. p. 385. — WUhains.
CATHEDRAL; the chief church of a disocese; a
church wherein is a bishop's see. The wor'? comes from
katlwdra, " chair :" the name seems to have taken its
rise from the manner of sitting in the ancient churches'
or assemblies of private Christians. In these the council,
i. e. the elders and priests, were called presfj^ttrmm ; at
their head was the bishop, who held the place of chair-
man, cathedralis or cathedraticus ; and the presbyters,
who sat on either side, also called by the ancient fathers
assessvre.'! episcoporvm. The episcopal authority did not re
side in the bishop alone, but in all the presbyters, whereof
the bishop was president. A cathedral, therefore, origi-
nally was different from what it is now; the Christians,
till the timeof Constantine, having no liberty to build any
temple. By their churches they only meant assemblies ;
and by cathedrals, nothing more than consistories. — Hend.
Buck.
CATHOLIC, denotes any thing that is universal or ge-
neral, r. The Epistles of James, Peter, Jude, and John,
are called the seven Catholic Epistles, either because they
were not written to any particular person, or church, but
to Christians in general, or to Christians of several coun-
tries ; or because, whatever doubts may at first have been
entertained respecting some of them, they were all ac-
knowledged by the catholic or universal church, at the
time this appellation was attached to theiu, which we find
lo have been cominon in the fourth century. 2. The rise
of heresies induced the primitive Christian church to a.s-
sume to itself the appellation of catholic, being a charac-
teristic to distinguish itself from all sects, who, though
they had party names, .sometimes sheltered themselves un-
der the name of Christians. The Romish church now dis-
tinguishes itself by Catholic, in opposition to all who have
separated from her communion, and whom she considers
as heretics and schismatics, and herself only as the true
and Christian church. In the strict sense of the word,
there is no catholic church in being ; that is, no universal
Christian communion. — Haul. Buck.
CATHOLIC, or General Epistles. • They are seven
in number; namely, one of James, two of Peter, three of
John, and one of Jude. They are called catholic, be-
cause directed to Christian converts generally, and not to
any particular church. Hug, in his " Introduction to the
New Testament," takes another view of the import of
this term, which was certainly used at an early period, as
by Origen and others : — " When the Gospels and Acts of
the Apostles constituted one peculiar division, the works
of Paul also another, there still remained writings of dif-
ferent authors, which might likewise form a collection of
themselves, to which a name must be given. It might
most aptly be called the common collection, kalhelikon st/ntag-
CAV
[ 340 J
CAV
ma, of the apostles, and the treatises contaiaed in it, foi-
nai and kathoUkai, which are commonly used by the Greeks
as synonymous. For this we find a proof even in the most
ancient ecclesiastical language. Clemens Alexandrinus
calls the epistle which was despatched by the assembly of
the apostles, (Acts 15: 23,) the "catholic epistle," as that
in which all the apostles had a share. Hence our seven
epistles are catholic, or epistles of all the apostles who
are authors." — Watson.
CATHOLICISM ; that liberality of senthnent, which
arises from an enlarged .spirit of Christian phtlanthropb)',
and which, passing beyond tlie limits of a sect, embraces
in its afleciionate regards and good opinion all who love
our Lord Jesus Christ in sinceiily. It is that noble dispo-
sition which tends to the broadest and mc«t comprehensive'
views of Christianity, and of its interests in the world ■
and which prompts a man to sympathize with ever)' por-
tion of the true church of Chri.st. whatever be its denomi-
nation, or its incidental errors. It is opposed to sectarism.
See Liberality of sentime.-?t.
The terra is sometimes used improperly to denote the be-
lief of the church of Rome.
CAVES, or Catorns. The country of Judea, being
monntDinons ami rocky, is in many parts full of caverns,
to which allusions frequently occur in the Old Testament.
At Engedi, in particular, there was a cave so large, that
David, witli six hundred men, hid themselves in the sides
of it, and Saul entei-ed the mouth of the cave without
perceiving that any one was there, 1 Sam. 24. Jose-
phus tells us of a numerous gang of banditti, who, hav-
ing infested the country, and beiitg pursued by Herod
with his array, retired into certain caverns, almost inac-
cessible, near Arbela in Galilee, where they wei-e with
great difficulty subdued. " Beyond Damascus," says Stra-
bo, " are two mountains, calletl Trachones, from which the
country has the name of Trachonitis ; and from hence, to-
wards Arabia and Iturea, are certain rugged mountains,
in which there are deep caverns ; one of which will hold
four thousand men." Tavernier, in his " Travels in Per-
sia," speaks of a grotto between Aleppo and Bir, that
would hold near three tliousand horse. And Maundrek
assures us, that "three hours distant from Sidon, about a
mile from the sea, tliere runs along a high rocky moun-
tain, in the sides of which are hcT^'ii a multitude of grot-
toes, all very little differing from each other. They have
entrances about two feet square. There are of these sub-
terraneous caverns two hundred in number. It may, with
probability", at least, be concluded that these places were
contrived for the use of the living, nni not of the dead."
These extracts may be useful in ex]T}ainiTig such passages
of Scripture as the following : " Because of the Midian-
ites, the cliildren of Israel made them dens which are in
the mountains, and caves, and strong holds,'"' Judges 6 :
2. To these they betook themselves for refuge in times of
distress and hostile invasion : — "When the men of I.srael
saw that they virere in a strait, for the people were distress-
cl, then the people did hide themselves in caves, and in
thickets, and in rocks, and in high places, and in pits," 1
Sam. 13: 0. See also Jer. 41 : 9. "To enter into the
holes of the rocks and into the caves of the earth," be-
came with the prophets a very proper and familiar image
to express a state of terror and consternation. Thus Isa.
2: 19. "They shall go into the holes of the rocks, and
into the caves of the earth, for fear of the Lord, and for
the glory of his majesty, when he ariseth to shake terribly
the earth." — Watson.
CAVE, (William ;) a learned divine, and ecclesiastical
historian of some eminence. He was the son of a clergy-
man, and bom at Pick-well, in Leicestershire, in 1637. He
received his education at St. John's college, Cambridge,
and took the degree of master of arts in lliSO. The vi-
carage of Islington was bestowed on him in 1662 ; soon
after which he was made cliaplain to Charles the Second,
f on which he took the degree of doctor of divinity ■ and
having distinguished himself by his writings, he was pro-
moted to a canonry of Windsor, with the vicarage of Isle-
worth, Middlesex. He died in 1713, and was interred in
Islington church, where a monument was erected to his
memory. Dr. Cave was a man of extensive lonrning, an
ingenious writer, and a popular preacher ; but he was
deficient in point of judgment, and was disposed (o place
too much reliance on the aulhority of the Christian fa-
thers ami early writers ; on which account Dr. Jorlin, in his
" Remarks on Ecclesiastical History," styles him " the
whitewasheT of the' ancients." Le Clerc also made a
somewhat similar complaint of Cave, in his " Bibliothe-
que Universelle," which gave occasion to a warm contrw
versy between these learned mert' ; but which of the twa
had the better in the dispute, is not to- be here decided.
His principal works are " Primitive Chfistianity ,- or, the
Religion of the Ancient Christians, in the first Ages of the
Gospel." " Antiquitates Apostolica; ; or, the History of
the Lives, Acts, and Martyrdoms of the Apostles, &c."
folio- " Ecclesiastici; or, the Lives of the Fathers of the
Fourth Century," folio. " Scriptorum Ecclesiasticoruui
Historia Literaria," two vols., folio, 1688 — 1698, republish-
ed at Geneva, and, in a posthumous, enlarged, and in>
proved edition, at Oxford, in two vols, folio, 1740, 1743.
— Joneses Cltr. Bing.
CAUCASUS, the name of a series of mountains of
which Ararat is a part ; and arvother part of which is
named TauFus ; «■ lh« names of Taurus and Ararat are
general throughout the ridge, and denote nearly, or alto-
gether, the same as Caucastis. This is not easily deter-
mined, as ancient authors seem to use the names without
sufficient precision to direct our opinion. We may, how-
ever, consider Tanrtts as a mountain forming part of Cau-
casus. Capt. Wilford gives the foltoning account of its
Hindoo appellation : " The true Sanscrit name of this
mountain is Chasa-giri, or the mountain of the Cliasas, a
most ancient and powerful tribe, who inhabited this im-
mense range, from the eastern limits of India to the con-
fines of Persia ; and most probably as far as the Euxine
and Mediterranean seas. They are often mentioned in
the sacred books of the Hindoos. Their descendants still
inhabit the same regions, and are called to this day, C'ha-
sas, and in some places, Ckasyas and Cossais. They be-
longed to the class of waniors, or Csheltris ; but now they
are considered as the lowest of the four classes, and were
thus degraded, according to the institutes of Menu, by
their omission of the holy rites, and by seeing no Brah-
mins.
If we reflect, that, after leaving the ark on mount Ara-
rat, a great part of manldnd travelled westward, (see Ara-
rat,) we shall find, that with respect to them mount Tau-
rus assumed, and preserved, an eastern bearing, of course ;
and the east being that quarter of the heavens in which
the sim rose, every rising sun would remind such westeris
migrators, that in that direclion resided their great ances-
tor.— Hence, among other causes, their idolatrous wor-
ship of the rising himinary ; wherein they paid homage
to their distant parent ; ai>d hence, tltey continued to wor-
ship the rising sun, as it reminded them of their origin,
and of him whom they peculiarly venerated. For this
reason we often find on medals a bull with a star (or sun)
between his horns, i. e. the sun om\\eheadoi moimt Tau-
rus. The same principle explains the 'standard of the
gi'eat Mogul, which is, the sun rising behind a lion ; — im-
plying, that in the original country where the royal race
was native, the sun rose behind " mount Lion." Much
the same may be thought respecting llie moon, which also
rising in the east, reminded western nations of their east-
ern connections. The idolatry of the nations east ol
mount Caucasus adopted these ideas but little, if at all,
because the course they had taken was contrary to these
principles, which are strictly geographical. That the
worship of Boodha, with other Hindoo notions, has been
carried eastward in subsequent ages, is no impeachment
of this argument. — Cahnet.
CAUSEY, a raised way, or path, 1 Chron. 26 : 16. 2
Chron. 9: 4. One of these prepared ways is no doubt
referred to in Isaiah 62: 10. which Mr. Taytor thus ren-
ders—
Pass, pas3, ttie gates ;
Level [EVEN] tlie way for tlic people j
Throw up, tlirow up, Itie causey — lit. raisr, raise, tlie raised
tmi/ ;
Clear it from every stone : •
Di.Hplay a .'?larHlarU to ttie peo^Je-
Mr. Harmer would refer the fourth member of thia sen-
tence, to the heaping up stones by the way of landmarks.
CAU
[ 341 ] C E C
to direct travellers in their way. Without impngning his
instances, Mr. Ta\'lor very properly hints that where a
causey had aU'eady levelled and fixed the road, that
further labor of raising mounts was unnecessa-y. As to
the nature of these causeys, (called in this place laese-
LfH,) George Herbert gives this information (p. 170.) " A
word of our last night's journey, [in Hyrcania, i. e. Persia ;
the country to which Isaiah alludes.] The most part of
the night we rode upon a paved causey, broad enough for
ten horses to go abreast ; built by extraordinary labor and
expense, over a part of a great desert ; which is so even
that it affords a large horizon : howbeit being of a boggy
loose ground upon the surface, it is covered with white
salt, in some places a yard deep, a miserable passage !
for, if either the wind drive the loose salt abroad, which
is like dust ; or that by accident the horse or camel for-
sake the causey, the bog is not strong enough to uphold
them, but sutlers them to sink past aU recovery." He then
compares this to the Roman via militnrcs, whose founda-
tions were laid with huge piles, or stakes, pitched into a
bog, and fastened together with branches or withfs of
wood : upon which rubbish was spread, and gravel or
stones afterward laid, to make the ground more firm and
solid.
But another purpose to which the foregoing description
of a causey may be applied, is, an attempt to illustrate
that very obscure passage, Ps. 84 : 6, 7. tinder the arti-
cle Altar, something has been said respecting the illus-
tration of the foregoing verses. To ascertain the sense
of these, Mr. Taylor thus analyzes them : Happy the man
whose source of exertion, strength, and ability for perseve-
rance in the journey of life, and duty, is in thee [God] : he
esteems it more, and it more strengthens his heart, than
meeting with a raised causey in a ditficult, boggy moor,
rejoices and accommodates the traveller : it invigorates his
mind more than travellers are invigorated who pass through
the valley of Bekaa, even at the very time when they find
overflowing water for their refreshment, in the numerous
pools with which that valley abounds." '
It is very natural, he observes, that the Psalmist, envy-
ing, as it were, the inmates in the tabernacle of God,
should direct his thoughts to those who were travelling to-
wards that holy place, and almost envy them, also, their
happy privilege. If this be admitted, the pathos of the
ode will appear very forcible, and the progressive climax
of ideas very happy, as directed to, (1.) the birds who may
build at the altar ; (2.) the residents in the holy place ; (3.)
those pious persons who were travelling towards it, though
at present far from it : —
How lovely are tliy tabernacles, O Lord of host^ !
My soul lon^elh, and desireth even lo fainting, towards the courts
of the Lord ;
Whereas, the bird hath found a dwelling, and the dove a nest for
herself,
Where she may lay her young; in thy sacrificatory, O Lord of
hosts !
Happy the resident dwellers in thy house ! they are ever praising:
thee !
Happy the man, whose power is in Ihee ! it exceeds in their
hearts the smoothest causey :
They travel, as if in the valley of Bekaa;
"Where also the rains overflow the reservoirs.
They advance from one place of refreshment to anotiier place of
refreshment,
To appear bcforcHhe God of gods in Sion !
How travellers might be accommodated by a causey,
we have seen above ; and causeys being constructed
in bogg\', wet places, the transition of thought to the val-
ley abundant in springs is easy. The value of springs in
the East, may be gathered from many expressions in
Scripture.
It remains only to hint, that the valley of Bekaa is
among the mountains of Lebanon. (See Baca.) "Was
the Psalmist at this time in a dry and thirsty land where
no water was ? and further from Zion than even Bekaa
itself, though in a different direction ?
It is usually understood that the prophet Isaiah (chap.
40: 3.) alludes lo the custom of sending persons, as we might
say, laborers, pioneers, before a great prince, to clear the
way for his passage.
The voice of htm that erielh in the wi/derneas,
" Prepare ye the way of the Lord :
(Smooth the surface of a way fur the Lord : the veiv •ord nifjrh
we have before rendered— level (kve.n) the way i.i: jie people.
Make straight in tug desert a cajtsei/fur our God ; (the word
for causey is, as before, mcsclch.>
J^vcry rallry shall tie raised ;
And every mountain atid hill shall be linrcrcd ;
And the icinding paths shall be made straight ;
Ami the broken — rough — places into a continued level."
The following is from Sir Thomas Roe's chaplain, (o.
468.) and affords a happy comment on the passage. '• i,
waiting upon my lord embassador two years, and part of
a third, and travelling with him in progress with that
king, [ihe Mogul,] in the most temperate months there,
'tvvixt September and April, was in one of our progresses
'twixt Mandoa and Amadavar, nineteen days, making but
short journeys in a wii.nERNESs, where l/ij a very great
company sent before vs, to make those passages an3 placis Jit
lo receive us, a way "was ct7t out, and made k\'en, briad
enough for our convenient passage ; and in the place where
we pitched our tents a great compa.ss of ground was ri.l,
and made plain for them, by grubbing a number of tre- s
and bushes ; yet there we went as readily to our tents as
we did when they were set up in the plains." — Calmet.
CEASE. To cease from our own works, is to leave off
obedience to our will as our rule ; forbear resting on our
own works as our righteousness before God ; and depend
on Jesus' fulfilraent of the law in our stead, and obey the
law as a rule in the strength of his grace. Heb. 4 : 10.
He that hath suffered in the flesh hath censed from sin ; he
that is held in law as .suffering with Christ, is freed from
the guilt of sin ; he that hath experienced the power of
Christ's death on his conscience, is ceased from the love
and voluntary service of sin : he that has suffered, cordi-
ally, a violent death for Christ's .sake, has entirely got rid of
sin, his worst burden. 1 Pet. 4:1. Without ceasing, fre-
quently, earnestly. 2 Tim. 1:3. IThess. 5:17. — Brown.
CECIL, (Richard, M. A.), was born in Chiswell street,
London, November 8, 1748. His father was scarlet dyer
to the East India company, and was an intelligent man.
His mother was the only child of BIr. Grosvenor, a re-
spectable merchant in London, and niece of the Rev. Dr.
Grosvenor, the celebrated author of the ■' 3Ioumer." His
father was a member of the church of England, and I x)k
his son with him regularly to church on a Sunday. His
uaother was a dissenter, and a woman of real piety ; she,
however, appears to have been not sufficiently attentive to
the cultivation of the understanding of her .son; though
for the concerns of religion she habitually displayed ajust
attention. His education was private, but his intellectual
powers were very superior. His father, intending htm
for business, placed him in two respectable mercantile
houses ; but Eis he was attacked by disease, atiu was
averse to trade, he devoted his time to literature and the
arts. At an early age, he wrote many essays, which were
inserted in the periodical publications of the day. His
father was a man of extensive reading and clas.sical edu-
cation, and was surprised and delighted at the discoveiy
which he unexpectedly made, that his son was a poet. To
painting he was also peculiarly attached ; and, unknown
to his parents, at an early age he visited France, solely
from a desire to inspect the performances of the gi-eal
inasters. On his return, his father consented that he should
visit Rome, in order that his knowledge of that art might
be improved. An unexpe;:ted circumstance, however,
prevented that plan from b.4ng carried into effect, and he
continued to reside with his father. His conduct was at
this period very bad : to the perusal of "svorks of infidelity
and irreligion he devoted much time, and soon became a
professed infidel. But his mind at length was illumined
by the Spirit of God — his conscience was arou.scd — he be-
gan to pi:iy, and to read his Bible. He consulted his
mother — aitendcj the preaching of the gospel — and w3.s
assisted, gradually to discover his own character, his ne-
cessities, his ilanger, and his remedj'. His father, v.iio
was a bigoi. now cnuiionedhim against becoming a dis-
senter, bui ]-r<>inised lo assist him, provided he became a
minister of ;ne church of England. To the advice of .'lis
father he p->id attenii.on; and on Blay the lOth, 17..!,
was entered at Queen's college, Oxford. Purin;; hi- re-
sidence at the Hniver"-iiy, he acquired much inlor-raiioii
and knowledge ; but ejpeiienced great difKcnllies mopcu-
CEC
[ 342 ]
CEL
ly and habitually making a profession of religion. On
the 22d of September, 1776, he was ordained deacon, on
the title of the Rev. Mr. Pugh, of Rauceley, in Lincoln-
shire. In the Lent term following, he took the degree of
bachelor of arts ; and on the 23d of February, 1777, was
admitted to priest's orders. With Mr. Pugh he staid but
for a short time, and, at his request, went to officiate in
the churches of Thornton, Bagworth, and I\Iarkfield, in
Leicestershire. His ministry at those places was emi-
nently useful ; and through his instrumentality a general
attention to the gospel was excited among the people ;
and at length a nourishing congregation was formed in
each church. On Mr. Cecil's return to Rauceley, he re-
ceived a letter, informing him that two small livings had
been procured by his friends for him at Lewes, in Sus-
sex. Both those Uvings, however, brought in only about
eighty poimds per annum. In 1777, he was much afilict-
ed by the death of his mother; as also, subsequently, in
1779, by that of his father. At Lewes he was attacked
by rheumatism, o^ing to the dampness of the place ; and
with that complaint was so much troubled, that he was at
length compelled to quit it, and to reside at Islington,
near London. During his residence at that place, he
preached at various churches and chapels ; and he was
singularly instrumental in the conversion of sinners, and
in the edification of saints. For some years he preached
a lecture at Lothbury, at six o'clock on the Sunday even-
ing, which was attended by many excellent persons. At
the same time he had also the whole duty to perform of
St. John's chapel, Bedford row, and an evening lecture at
Orange street chapel, which was then a chapel of ease.
His ill health, however, compelled him reluctantly to de-
cline the lecture in Lothbury. Soon after. Orange street
chapel was also resigned ; but he united with his friend
the Rev. Henry Foster, in performing the duty of Long
Acre chapel. In 1787, he accepted the oflice of lecturer
at Christ church, Spitalfields ; and zealously and afl'ec-
tionately performed his duties, not indeed for the pecuni-
ary remuneration he received, since by that lecture his
circumstances were unimproved ; but for the glory of God
and the welfare of man. In Long Acre chapel he labor-
ed for some time with eminent success to immense con-
gregations ; but his health and duties compelled him, in
1801, to resign it. His labors at St. John's were most
arduous, but from them he did not shrink, and seldom did
he allow any one to occupy his place. About the year
1800, he established an annual sermon at that chapel, to
be preached on Blay day to young persons. He actively
engaged in every institution of benevolence, and first
suggested the plan, as he afterwards assisted the estab-
lishment, of the Rupture society. In 1800, Mr. Cecil
was requested by Samuel Thornton, Esq. to accept the
livings of Cobham and Bisley ; but for a long time he de-
clined so to do, because he could not, during the winter
season, officiate as minister therein ; but he was at length
persuaded to accept them, and to perform duty there in
the summer. In 1808, he was attacked by a paralytic sei-
zure, and was compelled to visit Cliftoti. The journey
did not much, however, improve his health ; and he re-
tired in May, 1809, to Tunbridg-; wells. But all the
measures resorted to for his recovery were unattended
with success; and on the loth of August, 1810, aged sbc-
ty-two, he expired. The exertio;is of Mr. Cecil, as a
preacher, were immense : his talents were eminent ; his
eloquence was impassioned, yet solemn, and sometimes
argumentative. As a Christian, he was habitually spirit-
ually minded : modest and unassuming, he never intrud-
ed hi.- cf.pacilies on the attention of mankind. He was
contented with doing good, and getting good ; and his
works, though few, are valuable for their sterling sense
and genuine piety. No Christian student, or Christian
minister, or private Christian, should be without '■ Cecil's
Rem:iir.s." Few men have ever been so beloved by their
friend'-, or respected by the world, as Mr. CecU; and his
Lcticrs. Cssays, Sermons, and Remains, cannot but be
peru-eJ v. ith ieelingf of interest, by all who can estimate
the valu'.' of a good man, and the excellence of sincere
and unatTccti'd piety. See Memoirs of Rev. Mr. Cecil ;
prefixed to his works, collected and revised by Josijli
Pratt, B. O.— Jones' Chris, Biag.
CECILIA ; a young lady of a good family in Eome,
was married to a gentleman named Valerian. Being a
Christian herself, she soon persuaded her husband to em-
brace the same faiih ; and his conversion was speedily
followed by that of his brother Tiburtius. The.'^e things
drew upon them all, the vengeance of the civil magistrate :
the two brothers were beheaded ; and the officer who led
them to execution, becoming their convert, suffered the
same fate. Cecilia being apprehended was put to death
by being placed naked, in a scalding bath, where having
continued a considerable time, her head was struck off
with a sword, A. D. 222. — Fax.
CEDAR TREE. The cedar is a large and noble ever-
green tree. Its lofty height, and its far-extended branches,
afford spacious shelter aiid shade, Ezek. 31 : 3, 6, 8. The
wood is very valuable ; is of a reddish color, of an aro-
matic smeli, and reputed incorruptible. This is owing
to its bitter taste, which the worms cannot endure, and to
its resin, which preserves it from the injuries of the
weather. The ark of the covenant, and much of the
temple of Solomon, and that of Diana at Ephesus, were
built of cedar. The tree is much celebrated in Scripture.
It is called, "the glory of Lebanon," Isa. 40: 13. On
that mountain it must in former times have flourished in
great abundance. There are some cedars still growing
there which are prodigiously large. But the travellers
who have visited the place within these two or three cen-
turies, and who describe trees of vast size, inform us that
their number is diminished greatly ; so that, as Isaiah
says, " a child may number them," Isa. 10 ; 19. Maun-
dreU measured one of the largest size, and found it to be
twelve yards and six inches in girt, and yet sound ; and
thirty-seven yards in the spread of its boughs. Gabriel
Sionita, a very learned Syrian Maronite, who assisted in
editing the Paris Polyglot, a man worthy of all credit,
thus describes the cedars of mount Lebanon, which he
had examined on the spot ; " The cedar grows on the
most elevated part of the mountain, is taller than the
pine, and so thick, that five men together could scarcely
encompass one. It shoots out its branches at ten Or
twelve feet from the gi'ound : they are large and distant
from each other, and are perjjetually green. The wood
is of a brown color, very solid and incorruptible, if pre-
served from wet. The tree bears a small cone like that
of the pine." — Watson.
CEDRON, or Kidro.v; so called from Ke.ilar, black,
dark, gloomy. This was the memorable brook, into which
Asa, Hezekiah, and Josiah cast the ashes of the accursed
things used in idolatrous worship, (2 Chron. 15 : 16. 30 :
14. 2 Kings 23 : 1 — 4 ;) which David crossed barefoot,
and weeping, when fleeing from Absalom, (2 Sam. 15 : 30 ;)
and over which the great Redeemer passed, to enter the
garden of Gethsemane, the night before his sufferings
and death. Here, indeed, Jesus often wallced, for he loved
the sacred haunts of that hallowed ground, where he
knew his last agony, in the conflicts with Satan, was to
take place. John iS : 1, 2, See Jerusalem.
" Here," says Dr. Hawker, " would my soul take fre-
quent wing, and, by faith alight near the hallowed spot.
And if Jesus oft-times resorted thither with his disciples,
here, methinks, would my soul delight to roam and see
the place, and the memorable brook Jesus drank of by
the way." Ps. 110 : 7. See Getusemane. — Harcker's Con-
cordnnr.p..
CELESTINS ; a religious order, so called from their
founder Pelcr de JMeuron, afterwards raised to the pontifi-
cate under ihp name of Celestin V.
This Pelcr, who was born at Isernia. a little town in the
kingdom of Naples, in the year 1215, of but mean parents,
retired very young to a solitary mountain, in order to de-
dicate himself wholly to prayer and mortification. The
fame of his piety brought several, out of curiosity, to see
him ; some of whom, charmed with his virtues, renounced
the world, lo accompany him in his solitude. With the.se
he formed a kind of community, in the year 1254 ; which
was approved by pope Urban IV., in 1204, and erected
into a distinct order, called the Hermits of St. Damien.
Pelcr de Meuron governed this order till 1280, when his
love of solitude and retirement induced him to quit the
charge. In Jul)', 1294, the great reputation of his sanctity
CEL
[ 343
CEL
raised him, though much against his will, to the pontifi-
cate. He then took the name of Celesiin V., and his order
that of Celestins, from him. By his bull he approved their
constitutions, and confirmed all their monasteries, which
were to the number of twenty. But he sat too short a time
iu the chair of St. Peter to do many great things for his
order; for, having governed the church five months and
a few days, and considering the great burthen he had
taken upon him, to which he thought himself unequal, he
solemnly renounced the pontificate, in a consistory held at
Naples.
After his death, which happened in 1296, his order
made great progress, not only in Italy, but in France like-
wise ; whither the then general Peter of Tivoli sent twelve
religious, at the request of king Philip the Fair, who gave
them two monasteries — one in the forest of Orleans, and
the other in the forest of Compeigne, at mount Chartres.
This order hkev.ise passed into several provinces of Ger-
many. They have about ninety-six convents in Italy, and
twenty-one in France, under the title of priories. The
Ci'lestins of the province of France have the privilege, by
a grant of the popes Martin V. and Clement VII., of mak-
ing new statutes whenever they think proper, for the regu-
lation of their order. By virtue of this power, they drew
up new constitutions, which were received in a provincial
chapter in 16fi7. They are divided into three parts : — the
first treats of the provincial chapters, and the elections of
superiors ; the second contains the regular observances ;
and the third the visitation and correction of the monks.
The Celestins rise two hours after midnight, to say ma-
tins. They eat no flesh at any time, except when they are
sick. They fast every Wednesday and Friday, from Eas-
ter to the feast of the exaltation of the holy cross ; and,
from that feast to Easter, every day. As to their habit, it
consists of a white go\ni, a capuche, and a black scapu-
lary. In the choir, and when they go out of the monastery,
they wear a black cowl with the capuche : their shirts are
of serge.
Celestins, likewise, is the name given to certain hermits,
who, during the short pontificate of Celestin V., obtained
of the pope permission to quit the order of Friars Minors,
to which they belonged, and retire into solitude, there to
practise the rule of St. Francis, in its utmost strictness.
The superiors, being disgusted at this separation, took all
methods to reduce these hermits to the obedience of the
order ; to avoid which persecution, they retired into Greece,
and continued some time in an island of Achaia. But pope
Boniface VIII., who succeeded Celestin, being importuned
by the order of Friars Minors, revoked the grant of his
predecessor, and ordered the Celestin hermits to return to
the obedience of their superiors. Accordingly, Thomas
Sola, lord of the island where they had fixed, drove them
out ; and this he did m a time of famine, by which these
poor religious were exposed to great misery and want in
their journeys, especially as they passed through the coun-
tries of the Latins, who looked upon them as schismatics.
They were something better treated in the countries of the
Greeks, among whom they continued for two years unmo-
lested ; but the patriarch of Constantinople, being returned
from Venice, excommunicated them twice, because they
did not submit to their superiors ; nevertheless, these soli-
taries did not want for protectors ; and the archbishop of
P'^tras particularly interested himself in their cause.
Brother James du Mont, one of these hermits, returning
from Armenia, where he had resided some time, without
Icnowing what had passed in relation to his brethren, came
into Italy, and made his submission to the general, who
soon after sent him on a mission to the East. Being ar-
rived at Negropont, and hearing of the persecution raised
against the Celestine hermits, he endeavored to accommo-
date matters, and managed the affair with so much pru-
dence, that the fathers of Romania consented that all these
hermits should acknowledge him as their superior, under
the dependence of the general. This the general would
not consent to ; which obliged brother Liberatus and his
companions to come into Italy, and represent to the pope,
that he and his brethren had been always faithful to the
church, and that all the accusations against them were
mere calumnies.
A chapter general, held at Toulouse, in 1307, obtained
an order from Charles II., king of Naples, to the inquisitor
of that state, to act against brother Liberatus and his
companions. Accordingly, the inquisitor examined them,
and declared them innocent ; at the same time advising
them to retire to Anciano, where he granted them his pro-
tection against the pursuits of their enemies. But atler-
wards, being gained over by their enemies, he cited them
a second time bel'ore him, and found a pretence to condemn
them as heretics and schismatics. In consequence of
which sentence they were first imprisoned, and then ba-
nished.— Hind. Buck.
CELIBACY; the state of unmarried persons. Celibate,
or celibacy, is a word chiefly used in speaking of the sin»
gle life of the popish clergy, or the obligations they are
under to abstain from marriage. The church of Rome
imposes a universal celibacy on all her clergy, from the
pope to the lowest deacon and subdeacon. The advocates
for this usage pretend that a vow of perpetual celibacy
was required in the ancient church as a condition of ordi-
nation, even from the earliest apostolic ages. But the
contrary is evident from numerous examples of bishops
and archbishops, who lived in a state of matrimony, with-
out any prejudice to their ordination or their function.
Neither our Lord nor his apostles laid the least restraint
upon the connubial union — on the contrary, the Scriptures
speak of it as honorable in all, without the least restrictioa
as to persons. Heb. 13: 4. Matt. 19: 10, 12. 1 Cor. 7: 2,
9. Paul even assigns forbidding to marry as chaiacteris-
tic of the apostasy of the latter times. 1 Tim. 4: 3. The
fathers, without making any distinction between clergy
and laity, asserted the lawfulness of the marriage of ail
Christians. Blarriage was not forbidden to bishops in the
Eastern charch till the close of the seventh century. Ce-
libacy was not imposed on the Western clergy in general
till the end of the eleventh century, though attempts had
been made long before. Superstitious zeal for a sancti-
monious appearance in the clerg)' seems to have promoted
it at first ; and crafty policy, armed with power, no doubt
rivetea this clog on the sacerdotal order in later periods of
the church. Pope Gregory VII. appears in this business
to hav*- had a view to separate the clergy as much as pos-
sible from all other interests, and to bring them into a total
dependence upon his authority ; to the end that all tempo-
ral power might, in a high degree, be subjugated to the
papal lurisdiction. Forbidding to marr)', therefore, has
evide'ir[y the mark of the beast upon it. See Markiage.
—Htud. Buck.
CELLITES, or "Brethren and Sisters of St. Alexius;"
pious Christians, who, in the early part of the fourteenth
century, when the clergy were shamefully negligent in
their religious duties, supplied their "lack of service" by
visiting the sick and attending funerals. (See Lollakds.)
They received the name of CelUtts, from the retired man-
ner in which they lived in cells, and sequestered from the
world, though they did not (like the monks) spend their
time in religious idleness. (See Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. vol.
iii. p 357, IKote ; Haweis's Ch. Hist. vol. ii. p. 302.) —
Willi'ims.
CELSUS ; a philosopher of the second century, and of
the Epicurean school, who composed a book against
Christianity, to which he gave the title of Alethes logos,
which Origen, in his refutation of it, has, to a considera-
ble extent, rescued from oblivion. It is invaluable, on
account of the admissions of the grand facts and doctrines
of the gospel, as preached by the apostles, and contained
in their writings, by an enemy, who lived little more than
one hundred and thirty years after the ascension of our Lord.
He has nearly eighty quotations from the books of the
New Testament, which he not only appeals to as existing,
but as universally received by the Christians of that age as
credible and divine. He is most minute in his references
to the circumstances of the life of Christ and his apostles,
which shows that he was well acquainted with them, and
that no one denied them. He every where ridicules the
idea of our Lord's divinity, contrasting with it that of his
poverty, sufferings, and death ; which proves not only that
the Christians of that early age avowed their belief in the
doctrine, but that Celsus himself, though an unbeliever,
found it in the documents to which he refers, as the source
of his acquaintance with the Christian system. " Did your
CE N
[344 J
CE N
GoJ, when uikUt puuUhmeiit," he asks, "say any thing
like this?'' " You will have liini to be God," he insists,
'■who ended an infamous life with a miserable death."
"If,'- he proceeds, "he thought lit to undergo such things;
and if, in obedience to the Father, he suffered death, it is
apparent they could not be painful and grievous to him,
he being a God, and consenting to them," ifcc. See Lakd-
NEK. and Origen, am. Cels. — Ihnd. Buck.
CEMETERY ; a place set apart for the burial of the
dead. Anciently, none were buried in churches or church-
yards; it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the ee-
uiPteries were without tlie walls. Among the primitive
Christians, these were held \n great veneration. It even
appears from Eusebius and Terlullian, that in the early
ages they assembled for divine worship in the cemeteries.
Valerian seems to have confiscated the cemeteries and
other places of divine worship ; but they were restored
again by Gallicnus. As the martyrs were buried in these
places, the Christians chose them for building churches
on, when Constantine established their religion ; and hence
some derive the rule which still obtains in the church of
Rome, never to consecrate an altar without putting under
it the relics of some saint.— Haul. Bucli.
CENCHEEA; a sea|-«irl belonging to the city of Co-
rinth, in the Archipclngo. Though situated on the Saronic
gulf at the distance of nine tniles from the cilj'. it was ne-
■('ertheless considered to be a part of its suburbs. When
Paul wrote his ej)istle to the Romans, there seems to have
been a Christian church planted in it, independent of that
which existed in the city of Corinth, for in Rom. 10: 1, he
. recommends to their Christian regard at Rome, Phoebe, a
deaconess of the church which is in Cenchrea. The apos-
tle embarked from this port on his voyage to Jerusalem,
having his hair cut off at Cenchrea in. compliance with a
vow that he had made. Acts 18: 18. — Jones.
CENSER ; a vessel in which fire and incense were
carried iu certain parts of the Hebrew worship. It appears
from numerous instances, that the services of divine wor-
ship, under the Blosaic dispensation, resembled those usu-
ally addressed to monarchs and sovereigns among the Ori-
entals ; and there can be little doubt, that the Hebrews
directed them to a person midersloocl to be resident in the
sanctuary, before which, and in which, they were per-
formed. This notion of Jewish services was .so strong
among the heathen, that we find they reported the object
of worship in the temple at Jerusalem to be an old man
with a long beard. That report might possibly originate m.
the description of the Ancient o/ days, by the prophet Da-
niel. However that might be, it is generally concluded
that the attendants on the temple were nearly similar to
the attendants on royalty and dignity in general ; and
many external acts of^ worship were of the sarne appear-
ance and import. \Vc have no custom of burning per-
fumes, as a mode of doing honor ; and though the church
of Rome has adopted the use of the censer, and fumiga-
tion, it is as a part of sncrrd worship, not of civil gratula-
tion. On the contrary, in the East, fumigation forms a
part of civil entertainment, and is never omitted when it
is intended to compliment a guest. Being thus general,
and indeed indispensable, in Asiatic manners, it was re-
ceived anciently into divine worship ; and the priests in
their ordinary service, as well as the high-priest in the
most solemn acts of his public administration, used in-
cense— a cloud of incense, in approaching to the more im-
mediate presence of God.
In Lev. 16: 12, we find Aaron directed "to take a cen-
ser full of burning coals of fire from off the altar before
the Lord, and his hands full of sweet incense beaten small,
and to bring it within the vail, and to put the incense upon
the fire before the Lord, so that the cloud of the incense
might cover the mercy seat, which was over the ark of
the testimony." The apostle in Heb. 9: 4, speaks of the
golden censer as a thing which belonged to the tabernacle.
It has been observed that the original word thumiaterion,
which we translate " a censer," may as well be rendered
" the altar of incense," which was all overlaid with beaten
gold, and was one of the most important vessels of the ta-
bernacle. The high-priest was not allowed to enter the
most holy place, nor to perform any service in it, without
first taking incense with him, which he was to bring in a
censer from this altar. " The manner of the service of
this altar," says Dr. Owen, " was briefly thus : The high-
priest, once a year, namely, on the solemn day of expia-
tion, took a golden censer from this altar : after which,
going out of the sanctuary, he put fire into it, taken from
the altar of burnt-ofliirings, without the tabernacle, in the
court where the perpetual fire was preserved. Then re-
turning mto the holy place, he filled his hands with incense
taken from this altar, the place of the residence of the
spices ; which incense he put upon the fire in the censer,
and so entered the holy place with a cloud of the smoke
thereof." (Exposition on Heb. 9: 4.) See Incense.
Little is known on the fonu and nature of the ancient
Hebrew censer. What censers have been received from
heathen antiquity, and those used in the Romish worship
also, being suspended by chains, they give, not unfrequent-
ly, erroneous ideas of this sacred utensil, as employed
among the Jews. The Hebrew has two words, both ren-
dered fcHScr in our translation. The first, (mechateh, or
mechalct,) describes the censers of Aaron, and of Korah
and his company. Lev. 10: 1. Num. 16: 6.
From 2 Chron. 26: 19. we learn that king Uzziah at-
tempted to " burn incense in the house of the Xxjrd, having
a censer in his hand." The word is different from the for-
mer, {mekalheret.) and seems to import an implement of
another shape. It deserves notice, that those who used
these mckatheret, are described as holding them in their
hands : but this position is not, that we recollect, ascribed
to the mechatct, or censer of Aaron. This leads to the
conclusion, that the mekatlieret may be considered as a kind
of censer, carried in the hand ; not alone, as the heat aris-
ing from the burning eiubers it contained would be disa-
greeably great, but in a kind of dish, which dish, with the
ceuser in it, was placed on the altar of incense, and there
left, diffusing a smoke, morning and evening, during the
trimining of the lamps, kc. Ex. 30: 7, 8. Apparently,
this was regarded as an inferior kind of censer, appropri-
ate to the priests, and common to them all; but whether
the other kind (the mechalet) was peculiar to the high-
priest, is not clear : we find it used by the sons of Aaron,
(Lev. 10: 1.) but that was an irregularity, and was pu-
nished as such. It is mentioned, also, as being employed
by two hundred and fifty of the associates of Korah ; but
that was in rebellion, and proved fatal to the transgressors.
A similar distinction of censers is observed in the New
Testament ; for the twenty-four elders (Rev. 5: 8.) had
golden vials full of odors ; — but (chap. 8: 2.) the angel had
a golden censer. These vials were not small bottles, such
as we call vials; which idea arises instantly by association
in our minds ; but they were of the nature of the censers
and dishes, above spoken of, (compared by Doddridge to a
tea-cup and saucer.) This gives a very different idea to
chap. 15: 8. 16: 1. &c. of the same book, where the vials
having the wrath of God, are ponred out ; for if they con-
tained fire, that is a fit emblem of wrath ; and burning
embers may be described as povred out from a censer, with
great propriety. Nothing can be more apparent, if we
suppose, for instance, the covering of the censer to be
whoUy removed ; in which state the bowl of it, perhaps,
may be that described by the Apocalyptic writer as a vial ;
and it might conveniently contain the fire to be poured out
from it. This is perfectly agreeable to its form and ser-
vices as a censer, and to the nature and use of the ancient
mckatheret. ^
CER
[345]
CER
We ought also lo remark, that bearing censers is an of-
fice of servants, in attendance on their superiors ; — the
same office anciently, in llie temple, no doubt, denoted
Waiting on the Deity — being occupied in his service — in
attendance on him. This action, therefore, demonstrates
the devotedness to false gods, of those who worshipped
them, by bearing censers to honor their images: especial-
ly, when it is recollected, that offering incense was con-
nected with addresses and prayers. — Calmet ; Jones.
CENSURE ; the act of judging and blaming others for
their faults. Faithfulness in reproving another differs from
censoriousness : the former arises from love to truth, and
respect for the person ; the latter is a disposition that loves
to find fault. However just censure may be where there
is blame, yet a censorious spirit, or rash judging, must be
avoided. It is usurping the authority aud judgment of
God. It is unjust, uncharitable, mischievous, productive
of unhappiness to ourselves, and often the cause of disor-
der and confusion in society. See Rash Judging. — Hmd.
Buck.
CENTURIES OF MAGDEBURG ; the first compre-
hensive work of the Protestants on church history, and so
called because it was divided into centuries, each volume
containing a hundred years, and was first written at Mag-
deburg. Blatthias Flaccius formed the plan of it in 1552,
in order to prove the agreement of the Lutheran dSctrine
with that of the primitive Christians, and the difference
between the latter and that of the Catholics. John Wigand,
Matth. Judex, Basil Faber, Andrew Corvinus, and Thomas
Holzhuter, were, after Flaccius, the chief writers and edit-
ors. Some Lutheran princes and noblemen patronized it,
and many learned men assisted in the work, which was
drawn with great care and fidelity, from the original
sources, compiled with sound judgment, and written in
Latin. It was continued by the centuriatores, as the editors
were called, only to the year 1300 ; and was published at
Basle, 1559 — 1574^ in thirteen volumes, folio. A modern
edition by Baumgarten and Semler, but which reaches
only to the year 500, appeared at Nuremburg, 1757 — 1765,
in six volumes, quarto. A good abridgtnent was prepared
by Lucas Osiender ; the Tubingen edition of which (1607
— 1608) comprehends the period from the fourteenth to
the sixteenth century. The Catholics, finding themselves
attacked in this alarming way, and confuted by matters
of fact, Baronius wrote his Annals, in opposition to the
Centuriue. — Ejicy. Amer. ; Hend. Buck.
CENTURION ; an officer commanding a hundred sol-
diers, similar to our captain in modern times. In the Old
Testament, chief of a hundred men. — Calmet.
CEPHAS ; a name given to Peter, which by the Greeks
■Has rendered Petros, and by the Latins Felrus, both signi-
fying a stone, or small rock. See Peter. — Calmet.
CERASTES; a serpent so called, because it has horns
on its forehead. It hides in the sand, is of a sandy color,
crawls slanting on its side, and seems to hiss when in mo-
tion. The word occurs only in Gen. 40: 17. " Dan shall be
a serpent by the way, a cerastes (in the English text adder,
in the margin arroiv-snake, that is, the dart-snake, or jaculus)
in the path." The Hebrew shephivlton is by some inter-
preted asp, by others basilisk; but Bochart prefers the ce-
rastes. See Adder. — Calmet.
CERDONIANS; a sect in the first century, so called
from Cordon, who flourished 140 or 141, and came to Rome
from Syria. His disciples espoused most of the opinions
of Simon Magus and the Manichaians. They asserted two
jijinciples, good and bad. The first they called the Father
of Jesus Christ ; the latter the Creator of the world. They
denied the incarnation and the resurrection, and rejected
the books of the Old Testament. — Hend. Buck.
CEREMONIAL LAW. See Law.
CEREBIONY ; an assemblage of several actions, forms,
aud circumstances, serving to render a thing magnificent
and solemn. Applied to religious observances, it signifies
the external rites and manner wherein the ministers of re-
ligion perform their sacred functions. In 1646, M. Ponce
published a history of ancient ceremonies, tracing the rise,
growth, and introduction of each rite into the church, and
its gradual advancement to superstition. Many of them
were borrowed from Judaism, but more from paganism.
Dr. Middleton has given a fine discourse on the conformity
44
between the pagan and popish ceremonies, which he ex-
emplifies in the use of incense, holy water, lamps and
candles before the shrines of saints, votive gifts round the
shrines of the deceased, &c. In fact, the aUars, images,
crosses, processions, miracles, and legends, nay, even the
very hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, ice. of the
present Romans, he shows, are all copied from their hea-
then ancestors. An ample and magnificent representation
in figures of the religious ceremonies and customs of all
nations in the world, designed by Picart, is added, with
historical explanations, and many curious dissertations.
It has been a question, whether we ought to use such
rites and ceremonies, which are merely of human appoint-
ment. On the one side it has been observed, that the de-
sire of reducing religious worship to the greatest possible
simplicity, however rational it may appear in itself, and
abstractetlly considered, will be considerably moderated in
such as bestow a moment's attention upon the imperfection
and infirmities of human nature in its present state. Man-
kind, generally speaking, have too little elevation of mind
to be much affected with those forms and methods of wor-
ship in which there is nothing striking to the outward
senses. The great difficulty here lies in determining the
length which it is prudent to go in the accommodation
of religious ceremonies to human infirmity ; and the grand
point is to fix a medium in which a due regard may be
shown to the senses and imagination, without violating
the dictates of right reason, or tarnishing the purity of true
religion. It has been said, that the Romish church has
gone too far in its condescension to the infirmities of man-
kind ; and this is what the ablest defenders of its motley ■
worship have alleged in its behalf. But this observation
is not just ; the church of Home has not so much accom-
modated itself to human rveakness, as it has abused that
weakness, by taking occasion from it to establish an end-
less variety of ridiculous ceremonies, destructive of true
religion, and only adapted to promote the riches and des-
potism of the clergy, and to keep the multitude still hood-
winked in their ignorance and superstition. How far a
just antipathy to the church puppet-shows of the Papists
has unjustly driven some Protestant churches into the op-
posite extreme, is a matter that certainly deserves a seri-
ous consideration.
On the other side it has been observed, that Christ alone
is king in his church ; he hath instituted such ordinances
and forms of worship as he hath judged fit and necessary ;
and to add to them seems, at least, to carry in it an impu-
tation on his wisdom and authority, and hath this unan-
swerable objection to it, that it opens the door to a thou-
sand innovations (as the history of the church of Rome
hath sufficiently shown), which are not only indifferent in
themselves, but highly absurd, and extremely detrimental
to religion. That the ceremonies were numerous under
ihe Old Testament dispensation, is not argument ; for, say
they, 1 . We respect Jewish ceremonies, because they were
appointed of God ; and we reject human ceremonies be-
cause God hath not appointed them. 2. The Jewish cere-
monies were established by the universal consent of the na-
tion ; human ceremonies are not so. 3. The former were
fit and proper for the purposes for which they were ap-
pointed; but the latter are often the contrary. 4. The
institutor of the Jewish ceremonies provided for the ex-
pense of it ; but no provision is made by God to support
human ceremonies, or what he has not appointed. See
Mosheini's Eccl. Hist, with McLaitie's Note, vol. i. p. 203.
quarto edition ; Jones's Works, vol. iv. p. 267 ; Dr. Sten-
nett's Scr. on Conformity to the World; Robinson's Sir.
on Ceremonies ; Booth's Essay on the Kingdom of Christ.
— Hend. Buck.
CERINTHUS ; one of the earliest heretics, by birth a
Jew, who, after having studied philosophy in Egypt, went
into Asia Minor, where he disseminated his erroneous
doctrines. Various opinions have obtained respecting the
time at which he flourished, but it is now pretty generally
agreed, that it must have been in the first century. Wa-
terland, Michaelis, and others, are decided in their cou\'ic-
tion, tliat the apostle John wrote to confute his heresy ;
and, indeed, it seems impossible to entertain a doubt on the
subject, considering the direct bearing of many passages
of his writings on the principles of which it consuted ; and
CE S
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C£ S
especially the express declaration of Irenseus, who was
well acquainted with Polycarp, that " John wished, by the
puhlication of his Gospel, to remove the error which had
been sown in men's minds by Cerinthus." Some have
asserted that he was one of the Judaizers refeiTed to in the
New Testament ; but without sufficient foundation. He
was a Gnostic in his notion of the creation of the world,
which he conceived to have been formed by angels; and
his attachment to that philosophy may explain what other-
ivise seems inconsistent, that he retained some of the Mosaic
- ceremonies, such as the observance of Sabbaths and cir-
cumcision, though, like other Gnostics, he ascribed the
law and the prophets to the angel who created the world.
What gave most eminence to his name was the fresh
change which he introduced in the notion concerning
Christ, while the Gnostics had all of them been Docetae ;
Cerinthus maintained that Jesus had a real body, but that
he was a mere man, the son of Joseph and Mary. In
other points he agreed with the Gnostics, and believed that
Christ was one of the jEons who descended on Jesus at his
baptism. The notion of Jesus being born of human pa-
rents was taught by him with precision, and not without
success. He is also regarded as the first person who held
the doctrine of a mundane millennium, and is said to have
promised his followers the grossest pleasures, and the most
sensual gratifications. It is likely that it is to this part of
his views that we are to ascribe the opinion which he
maintained, contrary to the generality of the Gnostics, tha/
Christ had not yet risen, but that he would rise hereafter
viz. at the period of the millennium. It is not improbabk
that Paul is combating this very heresy in the fifteenth
chapter of first Corinthians. If he received any part of
the New Testament, it is likely it was the Gospel' of
Matthew, and that not in its pure state, but as it existed
kath' Hebraious.
According to IrenEeus, " there were some who had heard
Polycarp tell that John the disciple of our Lord, being at
Ephesus, and going to bathe, and seeing Cerinthus in the
place, hurried out of the bath without bathing, and added.
Let us flee, lest even the bath should fall to pieces, while
Cerinthus, the enemy of truth, is in it." Theodoret and
Epiphanius relate the same story, which has nevertheless
been questioned by Lampe and Oeder ; but it is credited
by Mosheim and other eminent moderns. Jerome is stated
to have added that, according to IrenEeus, the bath actually
fell ; but no such passage is to be found in the works of
Jerome. — Hend. Buck.
CERINTHIANS ; the followers of Cerinthus.
CjESAR, the name assumed by, or conferred upon, all
the Koman emperors after JuUus Cresar. In the New
Testament, the reigning emperor is generally called
Caesar, omitting any other name which might belong to
him. ' Christ calls the emperor Tiberius simply Caesar,
(Matt. 22: 21.) and Paul thus mentions Nero, " I appeal
to Caesar." — Calmet.
CJESAREA, in Palestine, formerly called Strato's
Tower, was situated on the eastern coast of the Mediter-
ranean, and had a fine harbor. It is reckoned to be
thirty-sLx miles south of Acre, thirty north of Jaffa, and
sixty-two north-west of Jerusalem. Cfesarea is often men-
tioned in the New Testament. Here king Agrippa was
smitten, for neglecting to give God the glory, when flat-
tered by the people. Cornelius the centurion, who was
baptized by Peter, resided here, Acts 10. At Cjesarea,
the prophet Agabus foretold to the apostle Paul, that he
would be bound at Jerusalem, Acts 21: 10, 11. Paul con-
tinued two years prisoner at Caesarea, till he could be
conveniently conducted to Rome, because he had appealed
to Nero. Whenever Cassarea is named, as a city of Pa-
lestine, without the addition of Philippi, we suppose this
Caesarea to be meant.
Dr. Clarke did not visit Ca;sarea ; but viewing it from
oflf the coast, he says, " By day-break the next morning
we were off the coast of Cssarea ; and so near with the
land that we could very distinctly perceive the appearance
of its numerous and extensive ruins. The remains of this
city, although still considerable, have long been resorted
to as a quarry, whenever building materials are required
at Acre. Djezzar Pasha brought from thence the columns
01 rare and beautiful marble, as well as the other orna-
ments of his palace, bath, fountain, and mosque at Acre.
The place at present is only inhabited by jackals and
beasts of prey. As we were becalmed during the night,
we heard the cries of these animals until day-break. Po-
cocke mentions the curious fact of the existence of croco-
diles in the river of Caesarea. Perhaps there has not been
in the history of the world an example of any city, that
in so short a space of time rose to such an extraordinary
height of splendor as did this of Ciesarea, or that exhibits
a more awful contrast to its former magnificence, by the
present desolate appearance of its ruins. Not a single
inhabitant remains. Its theatres, once resounding with
the shouts of multitudes, echo no other sound than the
nightly cries of animals roaming for their prey. Of its
gorgeous palaces and temples, enriched with the choicest
works of art, and decorated with the most precious mar-
bles, scarcely a trace can be discerned. Withifi the space
of ten years after laying the foundation, from an obscure
fortress, it became the most celebrated and flourishing city
of all Syria. It was named Caesarea by Herod, in honor
of Augustus, and dedicated by him to that emperor, in
the twenty-eighth year of his reign. Upon this occa-
sion, that the ceremony might be rendered illustrious,
by a degree of profusion unknown in any former instance,
Herod assembled the most skilful musicians and gladia-
tors from all parts of the world. The solemnity was to
be renewed every fifth year. But, as we viewed the ruins
of this memorable city, every other circumstance respect-
ing its history was absorbed in the consideration that we
were actually beholding the very spot where the scholar
of Tarsus, after two years' imprisonment, made that elo-
quent appeal, in the audience of the king of Judea, which
must ever be remembered with piety and delight. In the
history of the acts of the holy apostles, whether we regard
the internal evidence of the narrative, or the interest ex-
cited by a story so wonderfully appealing to our passions
and aSections, there is nothing that we call to mind with
fuller emotions of sublimity and satisfaction. 'In the
demonstration of the Spirit, and of power,' the mighty
advocate for the Christian faith had before reasoned of
righteousness, temperance, and judgment to come, tiU the
Roman governor, Felix, trembled as he spoke. Not all
the oratory of TertuUus, nor the clamor of his numerous
adversaries, not even the countenance of the most profli-
gate of tyrants, availed against the firmness and intre-
pidity of the oracle of God. The judge had trembled
before his prisoner ; and now a second occasion oflfered, in
which, for the admiration and triumph of the Christian
world, one of its bitterest persecutors, and a Jew, appeals,
in the public tribunal of a large and populous city, to all
Its chiefs and its rulers, its governor and its king, for the
truth of his conversion, founded on the highest evidence,
delivered in the most fair, open, and illustrious manner."
Caesarea Palestina was inhabited by Jews, heathen, and
Samaritans ; hence parts of it were esteemed unclean by
the Jews ; some of whom would not pass over certain
places ; others, however, were less scrupulous. Perpetual
contests were maintained between the Jews and the
Syrians, or the Greeks ; in which many thousand persons
were slain.
The Arab interpreter thinks this city was first named
Hazor, Joshua 11: 1. Rabbi Abhu says, "Caesarea was
the daughter of Edom; situated among things profane;
she was a goad to Israel in the days of the Grecians ; but
the Ashmonean family overcame her." Herod the Great
built the city to honor the name of Cssar, and adorned it
with most splendid houses. Over against the mouth of
the haven, made by Herod, was the temple of Caesar, on
a rising ground, a superb structure ; and in it a statue of
Caesar the emperor. Here was also a theatre, an amphi-
theatre, a forum, &c. all of white stone, &c. (Joseph, de
Bell. lib. i. cap. 13.)
After he had finished rebuilding the town, Herod dedi-
cated it to Augustus, and procured the most capable
workmen to execute the medals struck on the occasion, so
that these are of considerable elegance. The port was
called Sebastus, that is, Augustus. The city itself was
made a colony by Vespasian, and is described on its
medals as, colonia prima flavia augusta c^sarea ; Cae-
sarea, the first colony of the Flavian (or Vespasian) family.
CHA
L 347
CHA
CjESAEEA PHTLIPPI, (before called Paneas, and
now Banias,) was situated at the foot of mount Paneus,
near the springs of Jordan. It has been supposed, that
its ancient name was Dan, or Laish ; and that it was
called Paneas by the Phoenicians only. Eusebius, how-
ever, distinguishes Dan and Paneas as difl'erent places.
Caisarea was a day's journey from Sidon, and a day and
a half from Damascus. Philip the tetrarch built it, or, at
least, embellished and enlarged it, and named it Ca3sarea,
in honor of the emperor Tiberius ; but afterwards, in
compliment to Nero, it was called Neronias. The woman
who had been troubled mth an issue of blood, and was
healed by our Savior, (Matt. 9: 20. Luke 7: 43.) is said
to have been of Csesarea Philippi, and to have returned
thither after her cure, and erected a statue to her bene-
factor. The present town contains, according to Burck-
hardt, about one hundred and fifty houses, inhabited
mostly by Turks. The goddess Astarte was worshipped
here, as appears from the medals extant. The Greek lan-
guage was more used in this city than the Latin ; yet it
struck medals in each langaiage. It seems to have been
made a Roman colony, though not mentioned as such by
any writer. It is likely that Caesarea Libanus was among
the most forward cities to compliment Severus, since
several authors report that it was his birth-place. Lam-
pridius even says, that he was named Alexander, because
his mother was delivered of him in a temple dedicated to
Alexander the Great, on a festival in honor of that hero,
at which she had assisted with her husband. The editor
of the Modern Traveller has industriously collected and
judiciously compared the several notices of this place
which are found in modem ^Titers. Palestine, pp. 353
—3(i3.—Calmet.
CESTERTIANS ; an order of monks, founded in the
ninth century, by St. Robert, abbot of Moleme, but, after
sometime, became so far relaxed in their 'discipline, that
the founder himself forsook them, till ordered by the pope
to return and resume his government. — Nightwgale's Eel.
Car. p. 349 ; Williams.
CHAFF ; the refuse of winnowed corn. The ungodly
are represented as the chaff : a simile most forcible and
appropriate. Whatever defence they may afford to the
saints, who are the wheat, they are in themselves worth-
less and inconstant, easily driven about with false doc-
trines, and will ultimately be driven away by the blast of
God's wrath, Psalm 1: 4. Matt. 3: 12, kc. False doctrines
are called chaff; they are unproductive, and cannot abide
the trial of the word and spirit of God, Jer. 23: 28. —
Calmet.
CHAIN. With chains idols were fixed in their shrines,
(Isa. 40: 19 ;) and criminals in their prison or servitude,
Jer. 32: 11. Pride is a chni?t which keeps men under its
power ; and by a discovery of it in. their conduct, they
use it as if ornamental to them. Psalm 73: 6. Chains of
gold were worn as ornaments of the neck. Gen. 41: 42.
God's law is a chain ; it restrains from sinful liberty ; is
uneasy to corrupt men ; and is a great ornament to the
saints who obey it. Prov. 10: 9. — Brown.
CHALCEDONY; (chalkedbn, Rev. 21: 19 ;) a precious
stone. Arethas, who has written an account of Bithynia,
says that it was so called from Chalcedon, a city of that
country, opposite to Byzantium ; and it was in color like
a carbuncle. Some have supposed this also to be the
stone stranslated "emerald," Exodus 28: 18. — IFofton.
CHALDEA, or Babylonia ; the country lying on both
sides the Euphrates, of which Babylon was the capital ;
and extending southwards to the Persian gulf, and north-
wards into Jlesopotamia, at least as far as Ur, which is
called Ur of the Chaldees. This country had also the
name of Shinar. See Babvlon. — JVatsmi.
CHALDEANS ; in a more extended sense, the inhabi-
tants of Babylonia generally ; but in a more correct and
restricted sense, their priests and philosophers, who chiefly
resided in that part of the country next to Arabia Deserta,
and which was therefore called " the Land of the Chalde-
ans," and is said to have received its name from Chahd, the
fourth son of Nahor. The Chaldeans (thus understood)
were astronomers, astrologers, and soothsayers. They
boast, Idie the Chinese of their extraordinary anti-
quity and early science, pretending to carry hack their
astronomical observations, according to Cicero, four hun-
dred and seventy thousand years, or, according to Epi-
genes, in Plinj', seven hundred and twenty thousand
years ; which, even supposing their years to be only
months, extend much farther back than the creation of
our world : but no probable method of calculation will
give them a higher antiquity than two thousand years
before the Christian era, which was soon after the founda-
tion of the Assyrian monarchy.
These Chaldeans were not only astronomers and astro-
logers, but in pursuance of the latter profession, were
diviners and soothsayers, professing to predict events, to
interpret dreams, and, in short, to all the science and
learning of the East. — See Univ. Hist. vol. i. book i.
ch. 9 — Calmet ; Williams.
CHALDEAN PHILOSOPHY claims attention on ac-
count of its very high antiquity. The most ancient peo-
ple, next to the Hebrews, among the eastern nations, who
appear to have been acquainted with philosophy, in its
more general sense, were the Chaldeans ; for though the
Egyptians have pretended that the Chaldeans were an
Egyptian colony, and that they derived their learning from
Egypt, there is reason to believe that the kingdom of Ba-
bylon, of which Chaldea was a part, flourished before the
Egyptian monarchy ; and that the Egj'ptians were rather
indebted to the Chaldeans, than the Chaldeans to the
Egyptians. Nevertheless, the accounts that have been
transmitted to us by the Chaldeans themselves, of the
antiquity of their learning, are blended with fable, and
involved in considerable uncertainty. There are other
circumstances, independently of the antiquity of the Chal-
dean philosophy, which render our knowledge of it im-
perfect and uncertain. We derive our acquaintance with
it from other nations, and principally from the Greeks,
whose vanity led them to despise and misrepresent the
pretended learning of barbarous nations. The Chaldeans
also adopted a symbolical mode of instruction, and trans-
mitted their doctrines to posterity under a veil of obscu-
rity, which it is not easy to remove. To all which, we
may add that, about the commencement- of the Christian
era, a race of philosophers sprung up, who, with a view
of gaining credit to their own wild and extravagant doc-
trines, passed them upon the world as the ancient wisdom
of the Chaldeans and Persians, in spurious books, which
they ascribed to Zoroaster, or some other eastern philoso-
pher. Thus, the fictions of these impostors were con-
founded with the genuine dogmas of the ancient eastern
nations. Notwithstanding these causes of uncertainty,
which perplex the researches of modern inquirers into the
distinguishing doctrines and character of the Chaldean
philosophy, it appears probable that the philosophers of
Chaldea were the priests of the Babylonian nation, who
instructed the people in the principles of religion, inter-
preted its laws, and conducted its ceremonies. Their
character was similar to that of the Persian magi, and
they are often confounded with them by the Greek histo-
rians. Like the priests in most other nations, they em-
ployed religion in subserviency to the ruling powers, and
made use of imposture to serve the purposes of civil
policy. Accordingly, Diodorus Siculus relates, that they
pretended to predict future events by di\'ination, to ex-
plain prodigies, and interpret dreams, and to avert evils,
or confer benefits, by means of augury and incantations.
For many ages, they retained a principal place among
diviners. In the reign of Marcus Antoninus, when the
emperor and his army, who were perishing with thirst,
were suddenly relieved by a shower, the prodigy was as-
cribed to the power and skill of the Chaldean soothsayers
Thus accredited for their miraculous powers, they main-
tained their consequence in the courts of princes. The
principal instrument which they employed in support of
their superstition, was astrologj'. The Chaldeans were
probably the first people who made regular observations
upon the heavenly bodies, and hence the appellation of
Chaldean became afterwards synonymous ■nith that of
astronomer. Nevertheless, all their observations were
applied to the sole purpose of establishing the credit of
judicial astrology ; and they employed their pretended
skill inthisart,"m calculating nativities, foretelling the
weather, predicting good and bad fortune, and other prac-
CH A
[ 348]
CHA
tices usual with i mpostors of this class . While they taughi
the vulgar that all human affairs are influenced by the
stars, and professed to be acquainted with the nature and
laws_ of their influence, and consequently to possess a
power of prying into futurity, they encouraged much idle
superstition, and many fraitdulent practices. Hence other
professors of these niischievousarts were afterwards called
Chaldeans, and the arts themselves were called Babylonian
arts. Among the Romans, these impostors were so trou-
blesome, that, during the time of the republic, it became
necessary to issue an edict requiring the Chaldeans, or
mathematicians, (by which latter appellation they were
commonly known,) to depart from Rome and Italy within
ten days ; and, afterwards, under the emperors, these
soothsayers were put under the most severe interdiction.
The Chaldean philosophy, notwithstanding the obscurity
that has rendered it difficult of research, has been highly
extolled, not only by the orientals and Greeks, but by
Jewish and Christian writers : but upon recurring to au-
thorities that are unquestionable, tliere seems to be little
or nothing in this branch of the barbaric philosophy which
deserves notice. The following brief detail will include
the most interesting particulars. From the testimony of
Dioilorus, and also from other ancient authorities, collected
by Eusebius, it appears, that the Chaldeans believed in
God, the Lord and Parent of all, by wliose providence the
world is governed. From this principle sprung their re-
ligious rites, the immediate object of which was a supposed
race of spiritual beings or demons, whose e.xistence could
not have beeji imagined, without first conceiving the idea
of a supreme Being, the source of all intelligence. The
belief of a supreme Deity, the fountain of all the divini-
ties which were supposed to preside over the several parts
of the material world, was the true origin of all religious
worship, however idolatrous, not excepting even that
which consisted in paying divine honors to the memory
of dead men. Besides the supreme Being, the Chaldeans
supposed spiritual beings to exist, of several orders ; gods,
demons, heroes : these they probably distributed into sub-
ordinate classes, agreeably to their practice of theurgy or
magic. The Chaldeans, in common with the eastern
nations in general, admitted the existence of certain evil
spirits, clothed in a vehicle of grosser matter ; and in
subduing or counteracting these, they placed a great part
of the efficacy of their religious incantations. These
doctrines were the mysteries of the Chaldean religion,
-imparted only to the initiated. Their popular religion
consisted in the worship of the sun, moon, planets, and
stars, as divinities, after the general practice of the East,
Job 31: 27. From the religious system of the Chaldeans
were derived two arts, for which they were long celebrat-
ed ; namely, magic and astrology. Their magic, which
should not be confounded with witchcraft, or a supposed
intercourse with evil spirits, consisted in the performance
of certain religious ceremonies or incantations, which
w^ere supposed, by the interposition of good demons, to
produce supernatural effects. Their astrology was founded
upon the chimerical principle, that the stars have an in-
fluence, either beneficial or malignant, upon the affairs of
men, which may be discovered, and made the certain
ground of prediction, in particular eases ; and the whole
art consisted in applying astronomical observations to this
fanciful purpose, and thus imposing upon the credulity
of the vulgar. — Watson.
CHALDEAN PARAPHRASE, in the rabbinical style,
is called Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrases
in Walton's Polyglot, viz. 1, of Onkelos ; 2. of Jonathan,
son of Uzziel ; 3. of Jerusalem ; but there are seventeen
in all. — Hend. Buck.
CHALICE ; the cup used to administer the wine in the
sacrament, and by the Roman Catholics in the mass.
The use of the chalice, or communicating in both kinds,
IS by the church of Rome denied to the laity, who com-
municate only in one kind, the clergy alone being allowed
the privilege of communicating in botli kinds ; in direct
opposition to our Savior's words, — " Drink ve aU of it ''
—Hend. Buck.
CHAM ; Egypt ; but, whether so called from the pa'tri-
arch Ham may be doubted, although the English transla-
tion says "land of Ham." ll denotes kent, hcnted ; Umk,
or sun-burnt, Psalm 105: 23—27 ; 106: 22. The heathen
writers called this country Chemia, and the native Coptl
at this day call it Chemi. See Egypt. — Calmet.
CHAMBER ; an apartment of a house. Some were
inner chambers, to which, one had to go through part of the
house, and were more secret. 1 Kings 20: 30. Some were
upper chambers, or garrets, where it seems they laid their
dead, and where the Jews sometimes had idolatrous altars ;
and where the Christians, in the apostolic age, had often
their meetings for worship. Acts 9: 37. 20: 8, and 1: 13.
2 Kings 23: 12. Some were for beds, others for entertain-
ing guests, at the three solemn feasts or on other occa-
sions.^Matt. 9: 15. 2 Kings 6: 12. Mark 9: 14. God's
chambers are clouds, where he lays up his treasures of rain,
snow, hail, wind ; and where he mysteriously displays his
wisdom and power. Psalm 104: 3 — 13. To apply our-
selves to earnest prayer and suppUcation, and to depend
on God's promises, perfections, and providence for special
protection, is to enter into our chambers, that we may be
safe, as the Hebrews were in their houses, from the de-
stroying angel. Isa. 2(3: 20. The chambers of the south ■
are the constellations or clusters of stars belonging to the
southern part of the firmament, which are often hid from
us, and whose appearance is ordinarily attended with
storms. Job 9: 9. — Bronm.
CHAMBERLAIN; (1.) a keeper of the kmg's bed-
chamber ; or a steward. Esth. 1: 10. (2.) City-treasurer.
Rom. 16: 23.— Brown.
CHAMOIS. Our translators have evidently erred in
inserting the chamois in Dent. 14: 5. The Hebrew word
is tzamor, which the LXX render " Camelopardalis ;"
the Vulgate and the Arabic do the same, the latter ren-
dering " Ziraffe." The ziraffe, or giraffe, however, being
a native of the torrid zone, and of southern Africa, it is
equally unlikely that it should be abundant in Judea, and
used as an article of food, as that the chamois which in-
habits the chilly regions of mountains only, and seeks
their most retired heights, to shelter it from the warmth
of summer, preferring those cool retreats where snow and
ice prevail, should be known among the population of
Israel. We must yet wait for authorities to justify a con-
clusive opinion on this animal. The class of antelopes
bids fairest to contain it. — Calmet.
CHANCEL ; a particular part of the fabric of a church.
Eusebius, describing that of Paulinus, says, " It was di-
vided from the rest by certain rails of wood, curiously
and artificially wrought in the form of net-work, to make
it inaccessible to the multitude." These rails the Latins
call cancelli, whence comes the English word chancel.
The chancel in England is the rector's freehold, and
part of his glebe, and therefore he is obliged to repair it ;
but where the rectory is impropriate, the impropriator
must do it. — Hend. Buck.
CHANCELLOR ; a lay officer under a bishop, who is
judge of his court. In the ages after Constautine, the
bishop had those officers, who were called church la'wyers,
and were brod up in the knowledge of the civil and canon
law : their business was to assist the bishop in his di-
ocese.
We read of no chancellors in England during all the
Saxon reigns, nor after the conquest, till the reign of
Henry II., but that king requiring the attendance of the
bishops in his councils of state, and other public affairs,
it was thought necessary to substitute chancellors in their
room- for the despatch of those causes which were proper
for their jurisdiction.
A bishop's chancellor hath his authority from the law ;
and his jurisdiction is not, hke that of a commissary, li-
mited to a certain place, and certain causes, but extend.-
throughout the whole diocese, and to all ecclesiastics',
matters ; not only for reformation of manners, in punish-
ment of criminals, but in all cases concerning marriages,
last wills, administrations, &c. — Hend. Buck.
CHANDLER, (Dr. Samuel,) was born at Hungerford,
in 1693. At an early age his genius and wonderful abili-
ties were very conspicuous to his delighted and admiring
friends. His father being a dissenting minister of great
piety, young Chandler was early taught those lessons of
religion, which afterwards, when in operation, threw such
a radiance around him, as dimmed the lustre of his other
UHA
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CHA
rare and brilliant acquirements. His excellent and pious
lather, desirous tliat he should also proclaim tidings of
peace and good-will towards men, placed him at a respect-
able academy at Bridgewater, where his moral and reli-
gious character would be attended to. There, however,
he did not long remain, but was removed to Gloucester,
and placed under the judicious guidance of Mr. Samuel
Jones, a dissenting minister of very considerable attain-
ments and sound judgment. Under that excellent indi-
vidual, Chandler greatly improved his understanding ;
received serious and permanent impressions, as to the
concerns of his everlasting welfare ; studied attentively ;
read with seriousness ; and, in a few years became alike a
Christian, and a classical, biblical, and oriental scholar.
The time, however, at length arrived, when BIr. Chan-
dler was compelled to leave the instructions and guidance
of this excellent tutor, for the more trying duties of life.
'J'hen indeed he discovered, as he appreciated, the advan-
tages of those acquirements and habits and principles,
received while under his peculiar care : and in July, 1714,
.he entered on the important work of the Christian mi-
nistry. In 1716, he was chosen minister of the Presby-
terian congregation at Peckham, near London. At that
place his labors were useful and valuable. It was there
he entered into the connubial state, and was blessed with
a numerous family ; when his joys were damped, and his
prospects in some degree blighted by the South sea
scheme of 1720, in which he lost the whole of the fortune
received with his wife. This unforeseen circumstance,
united to the demands of a young family, and to the com-
parative smallness of the salarj' he received from his con-
gregation, compelled him to engage in the trade of a book-
seller ; and he continued in that business for three years.
In the course of the year 1717, a weekly lecture was
instituted at the Old Jewry, for the winter, which was to
be delivered half a year, by two of the most eminent
ministers of that day. Mr. Chandler and the famous Dr.
Lardner were appointed. The subjects given to discuss
were the evidences of natural and revealed religion ; and
they were required to answer the principal objections
made to Christianity. Those sermons he afterwards en-
larged, and published in the form of a treatise, in 1725,
under the title of '■ A Vindication of the Christian Reli-
gion, in two parts ; 1st, A Discourse of the Nature and
Use of Bliracles ; and 2nd, An Answer to a late Book,
entitled ' A Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of the
Christian Religion.' '' A copy of that work he forwarded
to archbishop Wake, who eulogized it, in a letter to Blr.
Chandler, in terms the most flattering and sincere. For
this production Mr. Chandler gained considerable and
deserved reputation ; and in consequence of it, he was
requested to become minister of the congregation in the
Old Jewry. That invitation he accepted, and there con-
tinued to labor for forty-one years. Mr. Chandler was
frequently requested to accept a diploma ; but the honor,
from modesty, he for a long time refused to accept. He,
however, some time afterwards received it, being con-
ferred on him with every mark of respect by the two
universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow. He was shortly
afterwards elected F. R. S. and A. S. S.
In the year 17(i0, he preached and pubUshed a sermon
01 ihe death of George the Second, and in it compared
that monarch with king David. This was speedily attacked
by some enemies to Christianity, who ventured impiously
to assert, that DaWd and Nero were more similar, and,
indeed, actually compared them. Conduct so wicked,
Pr. Cliaudler determined to expose ; and in the course of
the next year, he published a " Review of the History
of the Man after God's own heart ;" and which was suc-
ceeded by a larger work, in two volumes octavo, under
tli£ following title, " A Critical History of the Life of
King David ; the chief objections of Mr. Bayle, and
others, against the character of this Prince, wherein the
Scriptural Account of Him, and the Occurrences of his
Reign, are Examined and Refuted, and the Psalms which
refer to him Explained." This work was justly regarded
as far superior to all his other productions ; and posterity
has ratified the approbation of prior generations.
The health of Dr. Chandler now rapidly declined : he
liad long been the subject of a very painful disorder,
which he bore with the piety and fortitude of a Christian,
waiting to be released liom a body, which incumbered a
spirit of such dignity and purity. He expired on the
eighth of May, 17156, at the advanced age of seventy-
three, and was interred in Bunhill Fields burying-ground.
His remains were attended by many eminent ministers,
who, during his life, appreciated his merits, and at his
death paid him those honors which his virtues and piety
so justly deserved. Dr. Chandler was the first who esta-
blished the fund for the relief of the widows and orphans
of poor Protestant dissenting ministers. His charities
were as extensive as his income would admit, and as his
domestic deinands rendered prudent. See Life of Chan-
dler.— Joneses Chris. Biog.
CHANGE. Antichrist changes times and laws, when he
alters the constitutions and laws of Christ's church, and
pretends to make things holy or profane as he pleases .
Dan. 7: 25. Night is changed into day, when men can
obtain no rest or sleep therein. Job 17: 12. Changes mid
■war against men, denote afflictive alterations of their cir-
cumstances. Job 10: 17. Psalm 55: 19. Joshua the high-
priest's change of raiment, does not merely denote the
putting on a suit of fine clothes instead of his filthy ones,
but the removal of sin, through the imputation of our
Savior's finished obedience and sufl'ering, and the quali-
fying of him to be a faithful high-priest. Zech. 3: 4. The
living at the last day are changed, when their bodies are
rendered immortal. 1 Cor. 15: 51. — Brown.
CHANT, is used for the vocal music of churches. In
church history we meet with divers kinds of these ; as,
1. Chant Ambrosian, established by St. Ambrose; 2.
Chant Gregorian, introduced by pope Gregory the Great,
who established schools of chanters, and corrected the
church music. This, at first, was called the Roman song;
afterwards the plain song, as the choir and people sing in
unison. — Hend. Buck.
CHANTRY ; a little chapel, or particular altar, in a
cathedral church, built and endowed for the maintenance
of a priest to sing masses, in order to release the soul of
the donor out of purgatory. There were many of these
in England before the reformation ; and any man might
build a chantry without the leave of the bishop. In the
thirty-seventh year of Henry VIII. the chantries were
given to the king, who had power to issue commissions
to seize those endowments ; but that being the last year
of his reign, several chantries escaped being seized by
virtue of those commissions ; but they were afterwards
vested in his successor, Edward VI. — Hend. Buck.
CHAOS ; according to the signification of the word,
the vast void, or the confused mass of elements, from
which, in the opinion of certain ancient philosophers, the
world was formed. In latter times, the word is used to
denote the unformed mass of primeval matter described
in Gen. 1: 2, which was reduced to order and beauty by
the power of the Creator. — Hend. Buck.
CHAPEL ; a place of divine worship so called. The
word is derived from the Latin capeUa. In former times,
when the kings of France were engaged in war, they
always carried St. Martin's hat into the field, which was
kept in a tent as a precious relic ; from whence the place
was called capella, and the priests, who had the custody
of the tent, iiqnUani. Afterwards the word capella became
applied to private oratories.
There are various kinds of chapels in Britain. 1 . Do-
mestic chapels, built by noblemen or gentlemen for pri-
vate worship in their families. 2. Free chapels, such as
are founded by kings of England. They are free from
all episcopal jurisdiction, and only to be visited by the
founder and his successors, which is done by the lord
chancellor : yet the king may license any subject to build
and endow a chapel, and by letters patent exempt it from
the visitation of the ordinary. 3. Chapels in universities,
belonging to particular universities. 4. Chapels of ease,
built for the ease of one or more parishioners that dwell
too far from the church, and are served by inferior cu-
rates, provided for at the charge of the rector, or of such
as have benefit by it, as the composition rr custom is.
5. Parochial chapels, which differ from parish churches
only in name : they are generally small, and the inhabi-
tants within the district few. If there be a presentation
CHA
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ad ecchsiiim instead of cnpdlam, and an admission and in-
stitution upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church
for themselves and families. 6. Chapels which adjoin to
and are part of the church : such were formerly built by
honorable persons as burying places. 7. The places of
worship used by the Blethudists and Protestant dissenters,
otherwise denominated meeting-houses, are now almost
universally called chapels ; with respect to which it is re-
quired by law, that they shall be certified in the court of
quarter sessions, or to the bishop's court, when, on the
payment of a small sum, the registration takes place.
The doors are not permitted to be kept locked during the
time of worship ; and, to prevent the congregation from
being disturbed, whoever molests it, or interrupts the
worship, is, on conviction at the sessions, to forfeit twenty
pounds l3y statute 1 of William and Blary. — Hend. Buck.
CHAPELS, UNION ; places of worship in which the
church of England service is performed in the morning,
and the usual dissenting mode of worship is used in the
evening. They were designed to unite persons of both
parties : hence their name. — Hend. Buck.
CHAPITERS ; ornaments on the tops of pillars, walls,
(.Vc, somewhat resembling a human head. Exod. 36: 38.
1 Kings 7: 16.
CHAPLAIN ; a person who performs divine service
in a chapel, or is retained in the service of some family
to perform divine service.
The origin of the term is generally explained in the
following manner : — Bishop Martin is said to have worn
a hood (cnpa,) which was regarded as possessing miracu-
lous powers, and was, therefore, preserved after his death
in a separate house, called, from this hood, capdla
(chapel,) and the person staiioned in the chapel to show
it to superstitious spectators was termed chaplain. Char-
lemagne is reported to have possessed St. Martin's hood
among the relics, and to have erected a chapel, called by
the name of St. Martin, at the place in Germany where
Furth afterwards arose. He also built similar chapels at
Nuremberg and Altenfurth. Another less probable deri-
vation of the word deduces it indeed from capdla, but ex-
plains it to signify the box in which the Romish mission-
aries carried the requisites for celebrating the mass, who
were thence denominated chaplains.
According to a statute of Heniy VIII. the persons
vested with the power of retaining chaplains, together
with the number each is allowed to qualify, are as follov,' :
— an archbishop, eight ; a duke, or bishop, six ; marquis
or earl, five ; viscount, four ; baron, knight of the garter,
or lord chancellor, three : a duchess, marchioness, count-
ess, baroness, the treasurer or comptroller of the king's
house, clerk of the closet, the king's secretary, dean of
the chapel, almoner, and master of the rolls, each of them
two ; chief justice of the king's bench, and warden of
the cinque ports, each one. All these chaplains may
purchase a license or dispensation, and take two bene-
fices, with cure of souls. A chaplain must be retained by
letters testimonial under hand and seal, for it is not suffi-
cient that he serve as chaplain in the family.
In England, there are forty -eight chaplains to the king,
■who wait four each month, preach m the chapel, read the
service to the family, and to the king in his private ora-
tory, and say grace in the absence of the clerk of the
closet. While in waiting, they have a table and attend-
ance, but no salary. In Scotland, the king has six chap-
lains with a salary of fifty pounds each ; three of them
having, in addition, the deanery of the chapel royal di-
vided between them, making up above one hundred pounds
to each. Their only duty at present is to say prayers at
the election of peers for Scotland to sit in parliament. —
Hend. Buck.
CHAPLET ; a certain instrument of monkish piety,
made use of by the Roman Catholics, Greeks, Armenians,
and other eastern communions. It is a string of beads,
by which they measure, or count, the number of their
prayers. The invention of it is ascribed, by the histo-
rians of the crusades, to Peter the Hermit, who first
taught those warriors to pray by tale. St. Dominic, found-
er of the Dominicans, greatly raised the credit of this
devout instrument, by giving out that the blessed Virgin
had brought him one from heaven. If Peter the Hermit
first taught it the Roman Catholics, it is probable he him-
self borrowed it from the Turks, who to this day, make
use of a chaplet, or strings of beads, in their prayers ;
and the Turks seem to have had it from the East Indians,
who likewise make use of a kind of chaplet. It is also
used by the Lamas. — Hend. Buck.
CHAPTER ; from the Latin caput, head, signifies, —
1. One of the principal divisions of a book, and in re-
ference to the Bible, one of the larger sections into which
its bouks are divided. This division, as well as that con-
sisting of verses, was introduced to facilitate reference,
and not to indicate any natural or accurate division of the
subjects treated in the books. The invention has been by
some ascribed to Lanfranc, by others to Langton, both
archbishops of Canterburj' ; but it is now pretty generally
agreed that the real inventor was Hugo de St. Caro,or Cher,
who lived in the thirteenth century, and wrote a commen-
tary on the Scriptures, and first introduced it, when pre-
paring a concordance of the Latin vulgate.
2. A community of ecclesiastics belonging to a cathe-
dral or collegiate church. The chief or head of the chap-
ter is the dean : the body consists of canons or prebends.
In England, as elsewhere, the deans and chapters had the
right to choose the bishops ; but Henry VIII. assumed
this right as a prerogative of the crown. The chapter
has now no longer a place in the administration of the
diocese during the life of the bishop, but succeeds to the
whole episcopal jurisdiction during the vacancy of the
see. In Prussia, Protestant bishops have been lately
elected, and still more recently an archbishop, mthout the
vote of a chapter, by a mere order of government. — Hend.
Buck.
CHAPTERS. The New Testament was early por-
tioned out into certain divisions, which appear under va-
rious names. The custom of reading it publicly in the
Christian assemblies after the law and the prophets, would
soon cause such divisions to be apphed to it. The law
and the prophets were for this end already divided into
parashim and haptaroth, and the New Testament could not
long remain without being treated in the same way.
The distribution into church-lessons was indeed the
oldest that took place in it. The Christian teachers gave
the name of pericopes to the sections read as lessons by the
Jews. Justin JIartyr avails himself of this expression,
when he quotes prophetical passages. Such is the case
also in Clemens of Alexandria ; but this writer also gives
the name of perikopai to larger sections of the Gospels and
St. Paul's Epistles. Pericopes therefore were nothing else
but anagnosmata, church-lessons, or sections of the New
Testament, which were read in the assemblies after Moses
and the prophets. In the third century, another division
also into kcphalaia, or chapters, occurs. Dionysius of
Alexandria speaks of them in reference to the Apocalj'pse,
and the controversies respecting it. Some, says he, went
through tlie whole book, from chapter to chapter, to show
that it bore no sense. In the fifth century, Euthalius pro-
duced again a division into chapters, which was account-
ed his invention. He himself however lays claim to no-
thing more than having composed the summaries of the
contents of the chapters in the Acts of the Apostles and
the Catholic Epistles.
Such in older times was the practice in Asia also ; for
Justin says, that the believers there assemble themselves
for prayer and reading on Sunday only, en te tou heliou
hhnera. Since then, (he whole New Testament was distri-
buted into so few sections, these must necessarily have
been great, and apcricope iir Euthalius sometimes includes
in it four, five, and even six chapters.
Our present chapters come, as it is well known, from
cardinal Hugo de St. Cher, who in the thirteenth century
composed a concordance, and to this end distributed the
Bible according to his own discretion into smaller por-
tions. They are now moreover generally admitted in the
editions of the Hebrew and Greek texts. The verses,
however, are from Robert Stephens, who first introduced
them in his edition of the New Testament, A. D. 1551.
His son, Henry Stevens, was the first to record this for
the infonnation of posterity, in the preface to his Greek
Concordance to the New Testament ; in which he says,
that two facts connected with it equally demand our ad-
C HA
[ 351 ]
CHA
miration: "The first is, that my father, while travelling
from Paris to Lyons, finished this division of each chapter
into verses, and indeed the greater part of it (inter equi-
landum) in the course of his journey. The second fact is,
that, a short time prior to this journe}'', while he had the
matter still in contemplation, almost all those to whom he
mentioned it told him plainly that he was an indiscreet
man, as though he had a wish to spend his time and labor
on an aflair which would prove utterly useless, and which
would not obtain for him any commendation, but on the
contrary, would expose him to much ridicule. But behold
the result : in opposition to the opinion which condemned
and discountenanced my father's imdertaking, as soon as
his invention was published, every edition of the New
Testament, whether in the Greek, Latin, French, German,
or in any other language, wliich did not adopt it, was im-
mediately discarded." — Watxon.
CHAPTERS, THE THREE ; an appellation given in
tne sixth century to the following productions : — The wri-
tings of Theodore of Mopsuestia. 2. The books which
Theodoret of Cyrus wrote against the twelve anathemas
wh.cn Cyril had published against the Nestorians. 3. The
letter which Ibas of Edessa had written concerning the
council of Ephesus, and the condemnation of Nestorius.
These writings being supposed to favor the Nestorian
doctrine, Theodore, bishop of Csesarea, who was a zealous
Monophysite, prevailed on the emperor Justinian to pub-
lish an edict in the year 544, in which they were ordered
to be condemned. This edict was opposed by the African
and Western bishops, especially by Vigilius, the Roman
pontifi"; the consequence of which was that the pontiff
was ordered to appear at Constantinople, where he first
rejected, and then retracted his rejection of the chapters.
They were afterwards condemned anew by Justinian. —
Hend. Buck.
CHARGE : 1. A sermon preached by the bishop to his
clergy. 2. Among Dissenters, it is a sermon preached, or
an address delivered, to a minister at his ordination, gene-
rally by some aged or able preacher, and containing a
I'iew of the Christian ministr)' in its nature, duties, trials,
and encouragements. — Hend. Buck.
CHARIOTS OF WAR. The Scripture speaks of two
sorts of these chariots, oue for princes and generals to ride
in, the other used to break the enemy's battalions, by let-
ting them loose armed with iron, which made dreadful
havoc among the troops. The most ancient chariots of
which we have any notice are Pharaoh's, wliich were
overwhelmed in the Red sea, Exod. 14: 7. The Canaan-
ites, whom Joshua engaged at the waters of Merom, had
cavalry and a multitude of chariots, Josh. 11:4. Sisera,
the general of Jabin, king of Hazor, had nine hundred
chariots of iron in his army, Judges 4: 3. The tribe of
Judah could not get possession of all the lands of their
lot, because the ancient inhabitants of the country were
strong in chariots of iron. The Philistines, in the war
carried on by them against Saul, had thirty thousand cha-
riots, and six thousand horsemen, 1 Sam. 13: 5. David,
having taken one thousand chariots of war from Hada-
ii"z?r, king of Syria, hamstrung the horses, and burned
nine hundred chariots, reserving only one hundred to
l!i;nself, 2 Sam. 8; 4. Solomon had a considerable num-
b 'r of chariots, but we know of no military expedition in
which they were employed, 1 Kings 10; 26. As Judea
v. as a very mountainous countr)', chariots could be of no
great use there, except in the plains ; and the Hebrews
often evaded them by fighting on the mountains. The
kings of the Hebrews, when they went to war, were
themselves generally mounted in chariots, from which
they fought, and issued their orders ; and there was
always a second chariot empty, which followed each of
them, that if the first was broken, he might ascend the
other, 2 Chron. 34: 24. Chariots were sometimes conse-
crated to the sun ; and the Scripture observes, that Josiah
burned (hose which had been dedicated to the sun by his
predecessors, 2 Kings 23: 11. This superstitious citstom
was borrowed from the heathens, and principally from
the Persians. — Watson.
CHARITY ; one of the three grand theological graces,
jonsisling in the love of God and our neighbor, or the
habit or disposition of loving God with all our heart, and
our neighbor as ourselves. " Charity" says an able «Ti
ter, " consists not in speculative ideas of general benevo
lence floating in the head, and leaving the heait, e.s specu-
lations often do, untouched and cold ; neither is it confined
to that indolent good-nature which makes us rest satisfied
with being free from inveterate malice, or ill will to our
fellow-creatures, withottt prompting us to be of ser\'ice to
any. True charity is an active principle. It is not pro-
perly a single virtue, but a disposition residing in the
heart as a fountain ; whence all the virtues of benignity,
candor, forbearance, generosity, compassion, and liberali-
ty, flow as so many native streams. From general good-
will to all, it extends its influence, particularly to those
with whom we stand in nearest connexion, and who are
directly within the sphere of our good offices. From the
country' or community to which we belong, it descends 1. 1
the smaller associations of neighborhood, relations, anJ
friends, and spreads itself over the whole circle of social
and domestic life. I mean not that it imports a promis-
cuous imdistinguishing aflfection which gives even,' mo n
an equal title to our love. Charity, if ^te should endeavor
to carry it so far, woitld be rendered an impracticable
virtue, and would resolve itself into mere words, without
aflecting the heart. True charity attempts not to shut
our e3'es to the distinction between good and bad men ;
nor to warm our hearts equally to those who befriend and
those who injure us. It reserves our esteem for good
men, and our complacency for our friends. Towards our
enemies it inspires forgiveness and humanity. It breathes
universal candor and liberality of sentiment. It forms
gentleness of temper, and dictates aflability c,f manners.
It prompts corresponding sympathies with th';in who re-
joice and them who weep. It teaches us to slight and
despise no man. Charity is the comforter of the afiiicted,
the protector of the oppressed, the reconci'er of differ-
ences, the intercessor for offenders. It is faithfuirics-s in
the friend, public spirit in the magistrate, equity and pa-
tience in the judge, moderation in the sovereign, an:! loy-
alty in the subject. In parents, it is care and attention ;
in children, it is reverence and submission. In a word, it
is the soul of social life. It is the sun that enhvens and
cheers the abodes of men ; not a meteor which occasionnllv
glares, but a lurainar)', which in its orderly and regidar
course dispenses a benignant influence."
Charity, considered as a Christian grace, ought in our
translation, in order to avoid mistake, to have been trans-
lated love. It is the love of God, and the love of our
neighbor flowing from the love of God, and is described
with wonderful copiousness, felicity, and even gi-andeur,
by St. Paul, (1 Cor. 13 :) a portion of Scripture which, as
it shows the habitual temper of a true Christian, cannot
be too frequently referred to for self-examination, and
ought to be constantly present to us as our rule. In
the popular sense, charity is almsgiving; a duty of prac-
tical Christianity which is solemnly enjoined, and to 'which
special promises are annexed. See Barrow's Works, vol.
i. ser. 27, 28 ; Blair's Ser.. vol. iv. ser. 2 ; Scott's Scr.,
ser. 14 ; Tillotson's Ser., ser. 158 ; Paley's Mor. Phil.,
vol. i. p. 231 ; and article Loii;. — Hend. Biirk. ; Watson.
CHARLOTTE, (Princess,) daughter of George IV..
and heu'css apparent to the throne of Great Britain and
Ireland, was born 1795, and died Nov. 6, 1817, aged 22.
She was married to Leopold, prince of Saxe Cobourg ;
and her untimely death in connexion with that of her
infant child, clothed the nation in mourning, changed the
succession of the throne, and drew forth, among other
able funeral discourses, one by the Rev. Robert Hall,
which is a master-piece of eloquence, probably never
equalled on any similar occasion. When informed of the
death of her child a little before her own, she said, " I
feel it as a mother naturally should" — adding, " It is the
■nill of God ! praise to Him in all things!" Mr. Hall
mentions as traits of her character, " that she visited the
abodes of the poor, and learned to weep with those who
weep ; that surrounded -nith the fascinations of pleasure,
she was not inebriated by its charms ; that she resisted
the strongest temptations to pride, preservedher ears open
to truth, was impatient of the voice of flattery : in a word,
that she sought and cherished the inspirations of piety,
and rralked humbly mlh her God. This is fruit which sur-
CHA
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CHA
vives when the flower withers — the only ornaments and
treasures we can carry into eternity." — Chssold ; Works
of Sobt. Hall, vol. i. 189.
CHARM ; a kind of spell, supposed by the ignorant to
have an irresistible influence, by means of the concur-
rence of some infernal power, both on the minds, lives,
and properties of those whom it has for its object.
" Certain vain ceremonies," says Dr. Doddridge, "which
are commonly called channs, and seem to have no efficacy
at all for producing the effects proposed by them, are to
be avoided ; seeing if there be indeed any real efficacy
in them, it is generally probable they owe it to some bad
cause ; for one can hardly imagine that God should per-
mit good angels in any extraordinary manner to interpose,
or should immediately exert his own miraculous power on
trilling occasions, and upon the performance of such idle
tricks as are generally made the condition of receiving
such benefits." See Divination. — Head. Buck.
CHARNOCK, (Stephen, D. D.) was born in London,
in the year 1628. — His father, Mr. Richard Charnock,
was an eminent solicitor, descended from an ancient and
respectable family in Lancashire. He received his earliest
instructions from his father ; and, when very young, he
entered upon a course of preparatory studies in Eiimia-
nuel college, Cambridge, under the tuition of Dr. WilUam
Sancroft. Whilst pursuing his literary studies at the
university, his mind became enlightened, and his heart
regenerated ; and from that time to the cud of his life, the
consistency of his spirit and deportment, and the excel-
lence of his general character, were evident to the world.
On quitting that university, in the year celebrated for the
commencement of the civil war between the unfortunate
Charles and his parliament, Mr. Charnock commenced his
labors as a Christian minister in Southwark, and was
there, in the conversion of several persons, by means of
his preaching, honored with that decisive evidence of his
usefulness which encouraged him to persevere in his ap-
pointed course with renewed ardor and hope. South-
wark, he, however, soon quitted for New college, Oxford,
where he obtained a fellowship from the visiters appointed
by parliament ; and in the year 1652, " became senior
proctor of the university, and discharged the duties of his
office with great reputation and applause." When Mr.
Charnock left the classic reliremenls of Oxford, he visited
Ireland, and resided some time with Sir Henry Cromwell.
During that time he preached once every Lord's day, at
Dublin, with great acceptance, to large, attentive, and
improved congregations. At length, ejected by the act
of uniformity, Mr. Charnock retnrned to England, and
took up his resident in London, where he preached to
congregations of dissenters for the period of fifteen years.
Those sermons now constitute the principal part of his
works ; and whilst on the doclrines they contain, being de-
cidedly Calvinistic, a variety of opinions are entertained,
yet it is universally admitted that they are distinguished
by great originaUly and genius, and are well deserving
of the widely-spread attention they have so long received.
His reasonings are nervous, and his appeals affecting.
Ills judgment was sound ; his taste correct ; his imagina-
tion lively ; his piety undissembled. He was grave, with-
cu. being dull, and perspicuous without being wearisome.
His " Treatise on the Attributes of God," is acknowledged
to be incomparably the best in the English language.
Useful was his life ; but his usefulness has suridve'd him.
His works remain, to convince the judgment and reform
the heart. The hbraries of dirines are incomplete -ndth-
out his works ; and every theologian, controversialist, and
biblical critic consults his writings, either to refute or ad-
mire them. His days were, however, comparatively few ;
for, at the age of fifty-two, he expired in London, and was
buried in St. Michael's church, Cornhill. As a man, he
was distinguished for his learning, industry, gravity, and
amiability of temper ; and as a scholar, a theologian, and
an author, for all that is venerable in erudition, great in
learning, serious and wise in expression, and profound in
knowledge. For further account of this learned and pious
man, see his Works, and Life prefixed, by Edward Par-
sons; also Calamy's Non-conformists' Memorial.. — Tones'
Christ. Bios;.
CHASIDIM, or " Pietists," a Jewish sect, which we
must not confound with the party who took the same
name in the time of the Maccabees, and rendered them-
selves famous by the zeal with which they contended for
the national institutions. This sect dates its origin no
farther back than the year 1740, when its doctrines were
first broached by Israel Baalsham, in the small country
town of Flussty, in Poland. In the course of about twen-
ty years, his fame, as an exorcist, and master of the ca-
bala, spread to such a degree, that he obtained a great
number of followers in Poland, Moldavia, and Wallachia.
This rabbi gave out that he alone was possessed of the
true mystery of the sacred name ; that his soul at certain
times left the body, in order to receive revelations in the
world of spirits ; and that he was endowed with miracu-
lous powers, by which he was able to control events, both
in the physical and intellectual world. His followers were
taught to look to him for the absolution of every crime
they might commit ; to repress every thing like reflection
on the doctrines of religion ; to expect the immediate
appearance of the Messiah ; and, in sickness, to abstain
from the use of medicine, assured that their spiritual
guides, of whom several made their appearance on the
death of the founder, were possessed of such merits as
would procure for them instant recovery. The accusa-
tions of gross immorality brought against the members
of this sect by the Lithuanian rabbi, Israel Loebel, have
been called in question, and are supposed rather to have
originated in prejudice, than to have any foundation in
truth ; but it is aifirmed by one who has had the best op-
portunities of investigating, that their moials are most ob-
noxious, and that the representations that have been given
of them are by no means exaggerated. They are not only
at enmity with all the other Jews, but form the bitterest
and most bigoted enemies of the Cliristian religion. They
believe that the Messiah, whom they are hourly expecting,
will be a mere man, but will come with such an effulgence
of glory, as to produce a complete regeneration in the
heart of every Jew, and deliver them thenceforth from
every evil. To their rabbins, whom they honor with the
name of Zadiks, or " Righteous," they pay almost divine
homage. The extravagance of their gestures during their
public service entitles them to the appellation of the " Jew-
ish Jumpers." Working themselves up into ecstasies,
they break out into fits of laughter, clap their hands, jump
up and down the synagogite in the most frantic manner ;
and turning their faces towards heaven, they clench their
fists, and, as it were, dare the Almighty to withhold from
them the objects of their requests. This sect has so in-
creased of late years, that in Russian Poland and Euro-
pean Turkey, it is reported to exceed in number that of
the Rabbinists in these countries. — Hend. Buck.
CHASTEN ; chastise, correct. (1.) To strike or afflict one
for his advantage and correction ; and to refuse, or de-
spise chastisement, or correction, is to undervalue it, and be
not reformed by it. Jer. 2: 30, and 7: 28. Heb. 12: 5. The
overthrow of the Jewish nation by the Chaldeans, was the
chastisement of^a cruel one : it was very severe, and inflicted
by cruel instruments. Jer. 30: 14. (2.) To punish in just
wrath. Lev. 26: 28. Thus the c/(ni(/sem«i(o/o«)*j7e(7re was
laid on Christ ; that punishment by the bearing of which
our reconciliation with God is effected, was laid on him as
our surety. Isa. 53: 5. To chasten one's self, is to be exer-
cised before God, in self-abasement, fasting, and prayer.
Dan. 10: 12. The Scriptures are for correction : by their
powerful influence they pierce a man to the heart, and
make him amend his evil courses. 2 Tim. 3: 16. — Brown.
CHASTITY ; purity from fleshly lust. In men it is
termed continence. See Continence. There is a chastity
of speech, behavior, and imagination, as well as of body.
Grove gives us the following rules for the conservation of
chastity: 1. To keep ourselves fully employed in labors
either of the body or the mind : idleness is frequently the
introduction to sensuality. 2. To guard the senses, and
avoid every thing which may be an incentive to lust.
Does the free use of some meats and drinks make the
body ungovernable ? Does reading certain books debauch
the imagination and inflame the passions? Do tempta-
tions often enter by the sight ? Have public plays, dan-
cings, effeminate music, idle songs, loose habits, and the
like, the same effect? He who resolves upon chastity
CHE
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cannot be ignorant what his duty is in all these and such
hke cases. 3. To implore the Divine Spirit, which is a
spirit of purity ; and by the utmost regard to his presence
and operations to endeavor to retain him with us. — Grove's
Moral Philos. p. 2, sec. (> ; Hend. Buck.
CHAUCER, (Geoffrey,) who has been called the day-
star and the father of English poetry, is believed to have
been bom in London, in 1328, to have been educated both
at Oxford and Cambridge, and to have studied law in the
Temple. He was patronized by John of Gaunt, the sister
of whose mistress he married. He was appointed to va-
rious lucrative offices, and more than once was sent upon
missions to foreign countries. Having, however, imbibed
the doctrines of VVicklifle, he was compelled to fly to
Zealand, whence want of resources soon obliged him to
return. Imprisonment awaited him at home, and he re-
gained his liberty only bj' disclosures which drew down
upon him the indignation of his party. At length, he re-
covered the pensions of which he had been deprived, and
the remainder of his life was spent in retirement, first at
Woodstock, and next at Donnington castle. He died in
1400, in London, to which city he had journied upon
business. Considered merely with reference to his own
merits, Chaucer ranks high among poets ; compared with
his predecessors, his contemporaries, and many of his suc-
cessors, he is absolutely unrivalled. His great work. The
Canterbury Tales, was not begun till he-was far advanced
in years ; bat it displays all the freshness, vigor, and varie-
ty of youth. — Davenport.
CHAUNCEY, (Charles,) second president of Harvard
college, was born in England, in 15S9. He received his
grammar education at Westminster, and took the degi'ee
of M. D. at the university of Cambridge. He emigrated
to New England in 1638, and after serving for a number
of years in the ministry at Scituate, was appointed, in
1G54, president of Harvard college. In this office he re-
mained till his death, in ItiTl, performing all its duties
with industrious fidelity. He was eminent as a physician,
and was of opinion that there ought to be no distinction
between physic and divinity. — Davenport.
CHAZINZARIANS ; a sect which arose in Armenia,
in the seventh century. They are so called from the Ar-
• menian word chazus, which signifies a cross, because they
were charged with adoring the cross. — Hend. Buck.
CHEBAR ; a river of Assyria, which falls into the Eu-
plirates, in the upper part of Mesopotamia. Ezek. 1: 1.
— Calvtet.
CHECKER-WORK ; that in which the images of flov.--
ers, sprigs, leaves, and fruits are curiously wrought to-
gether. 1 Kings 7: 17. — Brown.
CHECKLEY, (Sajiuel,) minister in Boston, was gra-
duated at Harvard college in 1715. He was ordained the
first minister of the New South church in Summer street,
November 22, 1719, and died December 1, 1769, in the
fifty-first year of his ministry, aged seventy-three. In his
preaching he was plain and evangelical. The great sub-
ject of his discourses was Jesus Christ, as a divine person,
and as the end of the law for righteousness to all that be-
lieve. He frequently dwelt upon the fall of man, the ne-
cessity of the influences of the Spirit of God, tlie frecness
and richness of divine grace, the necessity of regenera-
tion, justification by faith, and faith as the gift of God.
He was careful also to insist upon the importance of tlie
Christian virtues. These he exhibited in his own life.
Discountenancing all parade in religion, it gave him plea-
sure to encourage the humble and diffident. As he did
not consider it of little importance what principles were
embraced, he was tenacious of his sentiments. During
his last sickness he enjoyed the supports of religion, and
anticipated the blessedness of dwelling with his Savior,
and with his pious friends, who had been called before
him into eternity. Renouncing his own righteousness, he
trusted only in the merits of Christ. He published a ser-
mon on the death of king George I., 1727 ; of Rev. Wm.
Waldron, 1727 ; of Lydia Hutchinson, 1748 ; at the elec-
tion, 1755. — Borven's Fun. Serm. ; Collect. Hist. Soc. iii. 361 ;
Allen.
CHEBORLAOMER, king of the Elymaeans, or Ela-
mites, (i. e. either the Persians, or a people bordering on
them,) was one of the four kings who confederated against
45
the five kings of the Penlapolis of Sodom, who had revolt
ed from his power, A. M. 2092. — Calmet.
CHEEVER, (Samdel,) the first minister of Marblehead,
was graduated at Harvard college in 1659. In November,
1668, he first visited the town, in which he was afterwards
settled, when the people were few. He continued preach-
ing with them sixteen years before his ordination, August
13, 1684. He received Mr. Barnard as his colleague in
1716. He died in 1724, when he was eighty-five years of
age. Mr. Cheever possessed good abilities, and was a
constant and zealous preacher, a man of peace and of a
catholic mind. Never was he sick. For fifty years he
was not taken ofl' from his labors one Sabbath. When he
died, the lamp of life fairly burned out. He felt no pain
in his expiring moments. He published the election
sermon, 1712.— CoH. Hist. Soc. viii. 65, 66; x. 168;
Allen.
CHEMARIM. This word occurs only once in our ver-
sion of the Bible : " I will cut off the remnant of Baal,
and the name of the Chemarims (Chemarlm) with the
priests," Zeph. 1: 4 ; but it frequently occurs in the He-
brew, and is generally translated " priests of the idols,"
or "priests clothed in black," because chamar signifies
blackness. By this w'ord the best commentators understand
the priests of false gods, and in particular the worshippers
of fire, because they were, it is said, dressed in black. Le
Clerc, however, declares against this last opinion. Our
translators of the Bible would seem sometimes to under-
stand by this word the idols or objects of worship, rather
than their priests. This is also the opinion of Le Clerc.
Calmet observes that camar in Arabic signifies the moon,
and that Isis is the same deity. " Among the priests of
Isis," says Calmet, " were those called melanephori, that is,
wearers of black ; but it is uncertain whether this name
was given them by reason of their dressing wholly in
black, or because they wore a black shining veil in the
processions of this goddess." — Watson.
CHEMOSH; an idol of the Moabites. Numb. 21:29.
The name is derived from a root which in Arabic signifies
to hasten. For this reason, many believe Chemosh to be
the sun, whose precipitate course might well precure il
the name of swift. Some identify Chemosh with Amraon,
and Macrobius shows that Ammon was the sun, whose
rays were denoted by his horns. Calmet is of opinion
that the god Hamanus and Apollo Chomeus, mentioned
by Strabo and Ammianus Rlarcellinus, was Chamos, or
the sun. These deities were w;orshipped in many parts
of the east. Some, from the resemblance of the Hebrew
Chamos with the Greek Comos, have thought Chamos to
signify Bacchus. Jerome and most interpreters consider
Chamosh and Peor as the same deity ; but some think that
Baal-Peor was Tammuz, or Adonis. To Chemosh, Solo-
mon erected an altar upon the mount of Olives. 1 Kings
11:7. As to the form of the idol Chemosh, the Scripture
is silent : but if, according to Jerome, it were like IJaal-
Peor, it must have been of the beeve kind, as were, pro-
bably, all the Baals, though accompanied with various in-
signia. There can be little doubt that part of the reUgious
services performed to Chemosh, as to Baal-Peor, consisted
in revelling and drunkenness, obscenities and impurities
of the grossest kinds. From Chemosh the Greeks seem
to have derived their Komos, called by the Romans Comos,
the god of feasting and revelling. — ]Vatson.
CHERESI ; (Heb.) the second sort of anathema
among the Jews. The first (called niddui) is merely
separation, or the lesser excommunication. The second,
(cherem,) or the greater excommunication, deprived 'he
excommunicated person of most of the advantages of
civil society. He could have no commerce with any one,
could neither buy nor sell, except such thiiKrs as are abso-
lutely necessary to life, nor resort to the schools, nor en-
ter into the synagogues ; and no one was permitted to eat
and drink with him. The sentence of cherem was to be pro-,
nounced by ten persons only, or at least in the presence
of ten persons. But the excommunicated person might
be absolved by three judges, or even by one, provided he
were a doctor of the law." The form oi' this excommuni-
cation was loaded with a multitude of curses and impre-
cations, taken from diflerent places of the Scripture. See
Anathema and Excommvnication. — Hend. Buck.
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CHEEETHIM. Cherethim, or Cherethites, are deno-
minations for the Pliilistines : " I will stretch out mine
hand upon the Philistines, and will cut off the Cherethim,
and destroy the remnant of the sea-coast." Ezelc. 25: 16.
Zephaniah, exclaiming against the Philistines, says, " Woe
ttnto the inhabitants of the sea-coasts, the nation of the
Cherethites " Zeph. 2: 5. It is said, (1 Sam. 30: 14,) that
the Ainaleldtes invaded the south of the Cherethites; that
is, of the Philistines David, and some of the kings, his
successors, had guards called Cherethites and Perethites.
2 Sam. 15: 18. 20: 7. Calmet thinks that they were of
the country of the Philistines ; but several expositors of
our own country are of a difl'erent opinion. " We can
hardly suppose," say the latter, " that David would em-
ploy any of these uncircumcised people as his body-guard,
or that the Israelitisli soldiers would have patiently seen
foreigners of that nation advanced to such places of honor
and trust." It may, therefore, be inferred that the guards
were called Cherethites, because they went Mith David in-
to Philislia, where they continued with him all the time he
was under the protection of Achish. These were the per-
sons who accompanied David from the first, and who re-
mained with him in his greatest distresses ; and it is no
wonder, if men of such approved fidelity should be chosen
for his body-guard. Besides, it is not uncommon for sol-
diers to derive their names, not from the place of their na-
tivity, but of their residence. — Watson.
CHERITH ; a brook beyond Jordan, which falls into
that river, below Bethsan. 1 Kings 17: 3. See Elijah. —
Calmet.
CHERUB ; plural Cherubim, vughty ones. It appears,
from Gen. 3: 29, that this is a name given to angels ; but
whether it is the name of a distinct class of celestials, or
designates the same order as the seraphim, we have no
means of determining. Bui the term chcrii/iim is also ap-
plied to those splendid figures which IMoses was command-
ed to make and place at each end of the mercy-seat, or
propitiatory, and which covered the ark with expanded
wings in the most holy place of the Jewish tabernacle and
temple. See Exodus 25: IS, 19. The original meaning
of the term, and the shape or form of these, any further
than that they were ahta animaia, " winged creatures," is
not certainly known. The opinion of Grotius that they
were figures much like that of a calf; and of Bochart and
Spencer that they were more like t'le figure of an ox than
any thing besides, is as groun<lle.'.s as it is gross. Jose-
plms says they were extraordinary creatures, of a figure
unknown to mankind. The opinion of most critics, taken,
it seems, from Ezek. 1: 9, 10. is, I'lat they were figures
composed of parts of various creatures ; as a man, a lion,
an ox, an eagle. But certainly we have no decided proof
that the figures placed in the holy of holies in the taber-
nacle, were of the same form with those symbolic repre-
sentations described by Ezekiel. The contrary, indeed,
seems "rather indicated, because they looked down upon
the mercy-seat, which is an attribute not well adapted to a
four-faced creature, like the emblematical cherubim seen
by Ezekiel.
The cherubim of the sanctuary were two in number;
one al each end of the mercy-seat ; which, with the ark,
was placeil exactly in the middle, between the north and
ihe bouth sides of the tabernacle. It was here (hat atone-
ment was made, and that God was rendered propitious by
the liigh-priest sprinkling the blood upon and before the
mercy-seat. Lev. ](i: M, 15. Here the glory of God ap-
peared, and here he met his high-priest, and by him his
people ; (Exod. 25: 22 ; Num. 7: 89 :) and from hence he
gave forth his oracles ; whence the whole holy place was
, called deMr, the oracle. These cherubim, it must be ob-
served, had feet whereon they stood, (2 Chron. 3: 13 ;) and
their feet were joined, in one continued beaten work, to
the ends of the mercy-seat which covered the ark : so that
they were wholly over or above it. Those in the taberna-
cle were of beaten gold, being but of small dimensions,
(Exod. 25: 18;) but those in the temple of Solomon were
made of the wood of the olive tree overlaid with gold ■
for they were very large, extending their wings lo the
whole breadth of the oracle, which was twenly cubits 1
Kings 6: 23—28 ; 2 Chron. 3: 10—13. They are called
" cherubim of glory," not merely or chiefly on account of
the matter or fonnalion of them, bat because they had
the glory of God, or the glorious symbol of his presence,
" the shechinah," resting between them. As this glory
abode in the invvard tabernacle, and as the figures of the
cherubim represented the angels who surround the mani-
festation of the divine presence in the world above, that
tabernacle was rendered a fit image of the court of hea-
ven, in which light it is considered every where in the
Epistle to the Hebrews. See chapters 4: 14 ; 8: 1 : 9: 8,
9,23, 24; 12: 22, 23.
The cherubim, it is true, have been considered by the
disciples of Mr. Hutchinson as designed emblems of Jeho-
vah himself, or rather of the Trinity of persons in the
godhead, with man taken into the divine essence. But
that God, who is a pure Spirit, without parts or passions,
perfectly separate and remote from all matter, should com-
mand Moses to make material and visible images or em-
blematical rejiresentations of himself, is utterly improba-
ble : especially considering that he had repeatedly, ex-
pressly, and solemnly forbidden every thing of this kind
in the second commandment of the moral law, delivered
from mount Sinai, amidst thunder and lightning, "black-
ness, darkness, and tempest," pronouncing with an audible
and awful voice, while " the whole mount quaked greatly,
and the sound of the trumpet waxed louder and louder,
Thou shall not make unto thee any graven image, nor
the likeness of any thing that is in heaven above, or in
the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth."
Hence, also, the solemn caution of IMoses, Deut. 4: 15, &c.
Add to this, that in most or all of the places where the
cherubim are mentioned in the Scriptures, God is expressly
distinguished from them. Thus, " He," the Lord, '• placed
at the east of Ihe garden cherubim, and a flaming sword."
Gen. 3: 24. "He rode on a cherub and did fly." Psalm
18: 10. "He sittelh between the cherubim." Psalm 99: 1.
" He dwelleth between the cherubim." Psalm 80: 1. We
also read of " Ihe glory of the God of Israel going up, from
the cherub whereupon he was, to the threshold of the house."
Ezek. 9: 3. And again, "The glory of the Lord went
up from the cherub, and the court was full of the bright-
ness of the Lord's glory." Ezek. 10: 4. And again, " The
glory of the Lord departed from off"the threshold, and stood
over the cherubim." Ezek. 10: 18. In all these passages, the •
glory of the Lord, that is, Iheshechinah, Ihe glorious sym-
bol of his presence, is distinguished from the chernbim ;
and not the least intimation is given in these passages, or
any others, of the Scripture, that the cherubim were ima-
ges or emblematical representations of him. Mr. Park-
hurst's laborious effort to establish Mr. Hutchinson's opi-
nion on the subject of the cherubim, in his Hebrew Lexi-
con, sub voce, is so obviously fanciful and contradictory,
that few v.'ill be converted to this strange opinion.
It seems much more probable that, as most eminent di-
vines have supposed, the cherubim represented the angels
wdio surround the divine presence in heaven. Accordingly,
they had their faces turned towards the mercy-seat, where
God was supposed to dwell, whose glory the angels in hea-
ven alwaj's behold, and upon which their eyes are continu-
ally fixed ; as they are also upon Christ, the true propitia-
toiy, which mystery of redemption they " desire," St. Peter
tells us, "to look into," 1 Peter 1: 12; a circumstance
evidently signified by the faces of the cherubim being
turned inward, and their eyes fixed on the mercy-seat.
AVe may here also observe that, allowing St. Peter in
this passage to allude to the cherubic figures, which, from
his mode of expression, can scarcely be doubted, this
amounts to a strong presumption that the cherubim repre-
sented, not so much one order, as " the angels" in general,
all of whom are said to " desire to look into" the subjects
of human redemption, and to all whose orders, " the prin-
cipalities and powers in heavenly places, the manifold
wisdom of God is made known by the church." In Eze-
kiel, the cherubic figures are evidently connected with
the dispensations of providence ; and they have there-
fore appropriate forms, emblematical of the strength, wis-
dom, swiftness, and constancy, with which Ihe holy angels
minister in carrying on God's designs : but in the sanctua-
ry they are connected with the administration of grace ;
and they are rather adoring beholders, than actors, and
probably appeared under forms more simple. As to
W
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the " Living Ones," (26a,) improperly rendered " beasts"
in our translation, (Rev. 4: 7,) some think them an hierogly-
phical representation, not oC the qualities of angels, but of
those of real Christians ; especially of those in the suffer-
ing and active periods of the church. The first, a lion,
signifying their undaunted courage, manifested in meet-
ing v.'ith confidence the greatest sufferings ; the second, a
calf or ox, emblematical of unwearied patience ; the third,
with the face of a man, representing prudence and com-
passion ; the fourth, a flying eagle, signifying activity and
vigor. The four qualities thus emblematically set forth in
these four living creatures, namely, undaunted courage,
unwearied patience under sufferings, prudence united with
kindness, and vigorous activil}', are found, more or less,
in the true membei-s of Christ's church in every age and
nation. Probably, however, Uke the " Uving creatures" in
the vision of Ezekiel, they are emblematical of the minis-
trations of angels iu what pertains to those providential
events which more particularly concern the church.
The wheels described in Ezek. 1: 15 — 21, in connection
with the cherubim, Mr. Taylor conceives to have been
representative of the throne of the Deity ; the con-
struction—wheel within wheel — being for the purpose
of their rolling every way with perfect readiness, and
■without any occasion of turning the whole machine. The
cherubim having the conducting of this throne, it is obvi-
ous to remark how well adapted their figure was to their
service ; — their faces looking every way, so that there was
no occasion for turning, (as a horse must,) in obedience to
directions, to proceed to the right, or to the left, instead of
going straight forward.
As much misapprehension respecting these appearances
has arisen from the idea of the \\heels and the cherubim
being full of tyes, (Ezek. 1:) IMr. Taylor next endeavors to
correct that mistake. It is surprising, he remarks, that
when the same Hebrew word {oin) had been rendered coior,
in verses 4, 7, 16, 22, 27, it should, in verse 18, be render-
ed eyes. It means the glittering, splendid hues — tlie fugi-
tive, reflected tints, those accidental coruscations of colors,
such as we see vibrate in some precious stones, which,
seen in some lights, show certain colors, but seen in other
lights, show other colors. This sense of the word is con-
firmed by the use of it in Numb. 11: 7 ; " the manna was
like coriander seed, itself ; but the eye of it — the reflected,
glisteningtint, which vibrated from it — was like to the eye —
the glistening tint — of the bdellium.'" It woidd not be far
from the truth, to say, that these eyes were of the nature
of those we call eyes in a peacock's feather : i. e. that they
were spots peculiarly embellished with colors ; or streaks
like those of the golden pheasant of China. — Watson;
Jones ; Cnbntt.
CHERUBICAL HYMN ; an iymn of great note in the
ancient Christian church. The original form of it, as it
stands in the constitutions, was in these words : " Holy,
holy, holy. Lord God of hosts ; heaven and earth are full
of thy glory, who art blessed forever. Amen." This thrice
repeating the word " holy" was in imitation of the sera-
phim in The vision of Isaiah. Afterwards, the church add-
ed some words to it, and sung it in this form : " Holy God,
Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have mercy upon us." This
form is ascribed to Proclus, bishop of Constantinople, and
Theodosius the yoimger, A. D. 4415. The church used
this form to declare her faith in the Holy Trinity, applying
the title of •' Holy God" to the Father, " Holy Mighty" to
the Son, and " Holy Immortal" to the Holy Ghost. Thus it
continued till the emperor Anastasius, or, as .some say,
?eter Gnapheus, bishop of Antioch, caused the words
" that was crucified for us," to be added to it : which was
done with a view to introduce the heresy of the Theopas-
chites, who asserted that the divine nature itself suffered
on the cross. To avoid this inconvenience, Calandio,
bishop of Antioch, in the time of the emperor Zeno, made
another addition to it, of the words " Christ our King,"
reading it thus : " Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immor-
tal, Christ our King, that was crucified for us, have mercy
on us." These last additions occasioned great confusions
and tumults in the eastern church, whilst the Constantino-
politan and western churches stiffiy rejected them, and
some, the better to maintain the old way of applying
it to the whole Trinity, instead of the words, " crucified
for us," expressly said, " Holy Trinity, have mercy
on us."
This hymn was chiefly sung in the middle of the com-
munion service, as it is at this day in the communion ser-
vice of the church of England. It is likewise called by
the Greek name trisagion, i. e. " thrice holy," from the
trine repetition of the word " holy." — Henri. Biuk.
CHESTNUT TREE. This tree, which is mentioned
only in Gen. 30: 37, and Ezek. 31: 8, is by the Septuagint
and Jerome rendered jilane tree ; and Drusius, Hiller, and
most of the inodern interpreters render it the same. The
name is derived from a root which signifies nakedness ; and
it is often observed of the plane tree, that the bark peals
off from the trunk, leaving it naked, which peculiarity
may have been the occasion of its Hebrew name. The
son of Sirach says, '• I grew up as a plane tree by ': e wa-
ter." Ecclesiasticus 24: 14. — Watson.
CHIDON ; the threshing-floor where Uzzah was sud-
denly struck dead. 1 Chron. 13: 9. In 2 Sam. 6: 6, it is
called " the threshing-floor of Nachon ;" but we know not
whether the names of Nachon and Chidon are those of
men or of places. — Cahnet.
CHILD. Mothers, in the earliest limes, suckled their
offspring themselves, and that from thirty to thirtj'-six
months. The day when the child was weaned was maxle
a festival. Gen. 21: 8 ; Exod. -2: 7, 9 ; 1 Sam. 1: 22—24 ;
2 Chron. 31: In ; 2 Mac. 7: 27, 28 ; Matt. 21: 16. Nurses
were employed, in case the mother died before the child
was old enough to be weaned, and when from any circum-
stances she was unable to afford a sufficient supply of milk
for its nourishment. In later ages, when matrons had be-
cothe more delicate, and thought themselves too infirm to
fulfil the duties which naturally devolved upon them, nur-
ses were employed to take their place, and were reckoned
among the principal members of the family. They are,
accordingly, in consequence of the respectable station
which they sustained, frequently mentioned in sacred his-
tory. Gen. 34 8; 2 Kings 11: 2; 2 Chron. 22: 11. The
sons remained till the fifth year in the care of the women ;
they then came into the father's hands, and were taught
not only the arts and duties of life, but were instructed in
the Mosaic law, and in all parts of their countr}''s religion.
Deut. 6: 20—25; 7: 19; 11: 19. Those who wished to
have them further instructed, provided they did not deem
it preferable to employ private teachers, sent them away
to some priest or Levite, who sometimes had a number of
other children to instruct. It appears from 1 Sam. 1: 25
— 28, that there was a school near the holy tabernacle,
dedicated to the instruction of youth. There had been
many other schools of this kind, which had fallen into de-
cay, but were restored again by the prophet Samuel ; after
whose time, the members of the seminaries in question,
who were denominated by way of distinction " the sons
of the prophets," acquired no little notoriety. Daughters
rarely departed froin the apartments appropriated to the
females, except when they went out v'xih an urn to draw
water. They spent their time in learning those domestic
and other arts, which are befitting a woman's situation
and character, till they arrived at that period in life when
they were to be sold, or, by a better fortune, given away
in marriage. Prov. 31: 13 ; 2 Sam. 13: 7.
2. In Scripture, disciples are often called children or
sons. Solomon, in his Proverbs, says to his disciple,
" Hear, my son." The descendants of a man, how remote
soever, are denominated his sons or children ; as, " the
children of Edom," " the children of Moah," " the chil-
dren of Israel." Such expressions as, "the children of
light," " the children of darkness," " the children of the
kingdom," signify those who follow truth, those who re-
main in error, and those who belong to the church. Per-
sons arrived at almost the age of maturity are sometimes
called "children." Thus, Joseph is termed '• the child,"
though he was at least sixteen years old, (Gen. 37: 30 ;) and
Benjamin, even when above thirtv, was so denominated.
44: 20. By the Jewish law, children were reckoned the
property of their parents, who could sell them for se\'en
years to pay their debts. Their creditors had also the
power of compelling them to resort to this measure. The
poor woman, whose oil Elisha increased so much as ena-
bled her to pay her husband's debts, complained to tne
CHI
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CHO
prophet, that, her husband being dead, the creditor was
come to take away her two sons to be bondmen. 2 Kings
4: 1.
"Children, or sons of God," is a name by which the
angels are sometimes described : " There was a day when
the sons of God came to present themselves before the
.^ Lord." Job 1: 6; 2: 1. Good men, in opposition to the
wiclced, are also thus denominated ; the children of Seth's
family, in opposition to those of Cain : " The sons of God
saw the daughters of men." Gen. 6: 2. Judges, magis-
trates, priests, are also termed children of God : " I have
said, Ye are gods, and all of you are the children of the
Most High." Psalm 82: 6. The Israelites are called " sons
cf God," in opposition to the gentiles. Hosea 1: 10 ; John
11: 52. In the New Testament, believers are commonly
called " children of God" by virtue of their adoption. St.
Paul, in several places, extols the advantages of being
adopted sons of God. Rom. 8: 14 ; Gal. 3; 26.
" Children, or sons of men," is a name given to Cain's
family before the deluge, and, in particular, to the giants,
vho were violent men, and had corrupted their ways.
Afterwards, the impious Israelites were thus called : "O
ye sons of men, how long will ye love vanity ?" Psalm 4:
2. " Tlie sons of men, whose teeth are spears and arrows."
57: 4. — Watsoa.
CHILD-BIRTH. In oriental countries, child-birth is not
an event of much difficulty ; and mothers at such a season
were originally the only assistants of their daughters, as
any further aid ^vas deemed unnecessary. Exod. 1: 19.
In cases of more than ordinary difficulty, those matrons
who had acquired some celebrity for skill and expertness
on occasions of this kind, were invited in ; and in this way
there eventually rose into notice that class of women de-
nominated midwives. The child was no sooner born than
it was washed in a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in
swaddling clothes. Ezek. 16: 4. It was the custom at a
very ancient period, for the father, while music in the
mean while was heard to sound, to clasp the new-born
child to his bosom, and by this ceremony was understood
to declare it to be his own. Gen. 50: 23 ; Job 3: 12 ; Psalm
22: 11. This practice was imitated by those wives who
adopted the children of their maids. Gen. 16: 2 ;. 30: 3 — 5..
The birth-day of a son, especially, was made a festival,
and on each successive year was celebrated with renewed
demonstrations of festivity and joy. Gen. 40: 20 ; Job 1:
4 ; Matt. 14: 6. The messenger, who brought the news
of tile birth of a son, was received with joy, and rewarded
with presents. Job 3: 3 ; Jer. 20: 15. This is the case at
the present day in Persia. — Watson.
CHILLINGWORTH, (William,) a divine and contro-
versial theologian, was born at Oxford, in 1622, and edu-
cated at Trinity college, of which he became a fellow in
1628; was for a w-hile a convert to the Cathohc church,
but returned to Protestantism ; obtained the chancellor-
ship of Salisbury, the prebend of Brixworth, and the mas-
tership of Wigston's Hospital ; espoused the royal cause,
and acted as engineer at the siege of Gloucester ; was
taken prisoner at Arundel ; and died, a captive, in 1644.
His principal production is, The Religion of Protestants a
safe Way to Salvation. His works, including his sermons,
form a folio volume. — Davenport.
CHILMAD; a city of Asia. Ezek. 27: 23.
CHIMHAJM, 1. a son of BarziUai, the Gileadile, and
Mie who followed David to Jerusalem, after the war with
Absalom ; and who was enriched by David, in considera-
lion of his father BaiziUai, whose generous assistance he
nad experienced. 2 Sam. 19: 37, 38. 2. A place near
Bethlehem. Jer. 41: 17 Cahnet.
CHINESE. The religion of this great and an-cient na-
tion was certainly patriarchal, and supposed to be derived
from Joktan, the brother of Peleg. Gen. 10: 26, 30. This
has degenerated to paganism, which, among their literati,
may be refined to a sort of philosophical atheism ; but
among the vulgar, is as gross idolatry as that of other
heathen nations. The gi'and Lama, (see Lama,) or pope'
of the Chinese and Tartars, Avho resides at Thibet, in Tar-
tary, is their visible deity, and treated with more distinc-
tion than the pope of Rome himself, in the zenith of his
power, and is attended by twenty thousand priests, or
lamas. In addition to this general system of religion.
which is founded on their sacred books, said to have 3ef-
scended from the skies, there are three grand sects, and
those three are again subdivided into as many as Chris
tianity itself. See Fo ; Laokium ; Contucius.
CHIOS, or Coos ; an island in the Archipelago, between
Lesbos and Samos, on the coast of Asia Minor, now call-
ed Scio. Paul passed this way as he sailed southAvard
from Mitylene to Samos. Acts 20: 15. — Calmet.
CHISLEU : the third month of the Jewish civil year,
and the ninth of their sacred, answering to our November
and December. Neh. 1:1. It contains thirty days.— irafeoii.
CHITTIM ; the country, or countries, implied by this
name in Scripture, are variously interpreted by historians
and commentators. Chittim has been taken, by Hales
and Lowth, for all the coasts and islands of the Mediter-
ranean ; which appears most consonant with the generai
use of the word by the different inspired writers. — Watsun,
CHIUN, the same as the Arabic Chevan, the planet
Saturn, which, as well as Mars, was worshipped by the
Semitish nations as the source of evil. Remphan is the
Coptic name of Saturn. Amos 5: 26. Acts 8: 43. — Eobin-
son^s Calmet.
CHLOE ; a noted Christian woman at Corinth, perhaps,
a widow, as she is represented as head of her family,
from some of which Paul received his information of the
divisions at Corinth. 1 Cor. 1: 11. — Brown.
CHOIR ; that part of a church, or cathedral, where the
singers, or choristers, chant, or sing, divine service. The
word, according to Isidore, is derived d cnronis circumstan-
tium, because, anciently, the choristers were disposed
round the altar. It is properly the chancel.
In the first common-prayer book of king Edward VI.
the rubric at the beginning of morning prayer ordered the
priest, " being in the dtoij, to begin, the Lord's prayer :"
so that it was the custom of the minister to perform divine
service at the upper end of the chancel near the altar.
Against this, Bucer, by the direction of Calvin, made a
great outcry, pretervding " it was an anti-christian prac-
tice for the priest to say prayers only in the choir, a place
peculiar to the clergy, and not in the body of the church
among the people, who had as much right to dirvine wor-
ship as the clergy." This occasioned an alteration of the
rubric, when the common -prayer book was revised in the
fifth year of king Edward, and it was ordered, that prayers-
should be said in such part of the church, " where the peo-
ple might best hear." However, at the accession of queen
Elizabeth to the throne, the ancient practice was restored,
with a dispensing power left in the ordinary of determining
it otherwise if he saw jiL^t cause. Convenience at last
prevailed, and by degrees introduced the custom of read-
ing prayers in the body of the church, so that now service
is no longer perfonned in the choir or chancel, excepting
in cathedrals. — Haid. Buck.
CHOOSE, EiEcT. (1.) To set apart a person or thing
from among others to some particular use, office, or- privi-
lege. Exod. 17: 9; Ps. 25: 12. (2.) Ts renew or mani-
fest a choice. Isa. 14: 1 ; 48: 10. (3.) To follow, imitate,
delight in, and practise. Prov. 3: 31 ; 1: 29. God chooses
men's delusions, and brings their fears vpoii them, when he
gives them up to their delusions as the just punishment
of their sins. Thus God gave up the Jews to their
vain fancies, and brought on them the destruction by the
Romans, which they, by the murder of our Savior, thought
to evade. Isa. 66: 4 ; John 12: 50. Election imports,
(1.) God's act of choosing men to everlasting life. Rom.
9: U ; 11: 5, 28. (2.) The persons chosen to eternal life.
Rom. 1 h 7. See Election-
CHOSEN, Elect ; selected among others to some hono-
rable service or station. Chosen warriors are such as are
picked out as the most vahant and skilful in an army, or
as best adapted to some special enterprise of great pith
and moment. Exod. 15: 4 ; Judg. 20: 16. The Hebrew
nation was an elect or chosen people ; God set them apart
— not for their superior excellence — but for wise and gra-
cious purposes of his own — to receive his word, preserve
his worship, and prepare for the advent of his Son. Ps.
105: 43. Isa. 14: 4. Deut. 7: 7. 9: 6—29. 10: 14, 15. Neh.
9: 7. Jerusalem was chosen, as the place where God was
pleased to fix the peculiar symbols of his presence, and
the privileges conseq_uent thereon ; as the seat of his tem-
CHO
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CHR
pie, sacrifices, &c. 1 lungs 11: 13. Christ is Ihe elect, or
chosen of God ; from eternity he was set apart in the divine
Mind as the only fit person to be our Mediator and Surety.
Isa. 43: 1. 1 Pet. 2: 4. Christ's people, saved by him, are
ekcl and chosen ; in his eternal purpose God kindly sepa-
rated them from the rest of manliind — not of merit, but
of mercy — not from faith foreseen, but in order to faith be-
stowed— that they might through Christ, and for his sake,
receive salvation ; to the praise of his glorious grace,
which prepares them afore unto glory, through sanctifica-
tion of the Spirit and belief of the truth. 1 Pet. 1: 2, 2: 9.
5: 13. 2 John 1. Rev. 17: 14. Ephes. 1: 4. 2 Thess. 2: 13.
For the sake of these, that none of them, in their persons
or progenitors, may be cut oft', are the days of vengeance
on wicked nations shortened ; no seducer can draw any
of them fully and finally from the truth of the gospel ;
none can lay any valid charge against them before God ;
no injury done them shall pass unpunished; angels shall
gather them all to Christ's right hand ; and they shall in-
iallibly obtain evcriasting happiness. Matt. 24: 22, 24, 31.
Slark 13: 20. John 15: 16, 19. Rom. 8: 33, and 11: 7.
Luke IS: 7, 8. The apostles were chosen ; fixed upon and
set apart from others to bear witness to Christ, and execute
all the functions pertaining to their high and sacred oflice.
Acts 10: 41. 0:15. 1:24. John 6: 70.— Brurvn.
CHORAZIN ; a town in Galilee, near to Capernaum,
not far distant from Bethsaida, and consequently on the
western shore of the sea of Galilee. Pococke speaks of a
village called Gerasi, among the hills west of the place
called TdJtoue, ten or twelve miles north-north-east of Tibe-
rias, and close to Capernaum. The natives, according to
Dr. Richardson, call it Chorasi. It is upbraided by Christ
for its impenitence, Matt. 11: 21. Luke 10: 13. — Calmet.
CHOREPISCOPI (tes choras episcopoi, bishops of the
country.) In the ancient church, when the dioceses be-
came enlarged by the conversions of pagans in the country
and villages at a great distance from the city church, the
bishops appointed themselves certain assistants, whom
they called chorepiscopi, because by their office they were
bishops of the country. There have been great disputes
among the learned concerning this order, some thinking
that they were mere presbyters ; .others that there were two
sorts, some that had received episcopal ordination, and
some that were presbyters only ; others think that they
were all bishops. See Campbell's Lectures on Eccl. Hist.
Lect. viii. — Hend. Buck.
CHRISM ; oil consecrated by the bishop, and used in
the Romish and Greek churches in the administration of
baptism, confirmation, ordination, and extreme unction. —
Hend. Buck.
CHRISOME, in the oflSce of baptism, was a white ves-
ture, which the priest put upon the child, saying, " Take
this white vesture for a token of innocency." — II. Buck.
CHRIST ; the Lord and Savior of mankind. He is
called Christ, or Messiah, because he is anointed, sent,
and furnished by God to execute his mediatorial office.
See Jesus Christ. — Hend. Buck.
CHRISTIAN ; a term used in a more lax and vague
sense to denote one who professes the religion of Christ, or
who does not belong to any of the other divisions of man-
kind, such as Jews, Blahometans, deists, pagans, and athe-
ists ; or, in a more strict, scriptural, and theological sense,
one who really, believes the gospel, imbibes the spirit, is
influenced by the grace, and obedient to the will of Christ.
The former is merely political and conventional ; the latter
is sacred and proper.
The disciples and followers of Christ were first denomi-
nated Christians at Antioch, A.D. 42. They distinguished
themselves, in the most remarkable manner, by their con-
duct and their virtues. The faithful, whom the preaching
of St. Peter had converted, hearkened attentively to the
exhortations of the apostles, who failed not carefully to
instruct them as persons who were entering upon an entire
new life. They attended the temple daily, doing nothing
different from the other Jews, because it was yet not time
to .separate from them. But they made a still greater pro-
gress in virtue ; for they sold all that they possessed, and
distributed their goods to the wants of their brethren. The
primitive Christians were not only remarkable for the con-
sistency of their conduct, but were also very eminently
distinguished by the many miraculous gifts and graces
bestowed by God upon them.
The Jews were the first and the most inveterate enemies
the Christians had. They put them to death as olten as
they had it in their power ; and when they revolted against
the Romans, in the time of the emperor Adrian, Barcho-
chebas, who was at the head of that revolt, employed
against the Christians the most rigorous punishments to
compel them to blaspheme and renounce Jesus Christ.
And we find that even in the third century, they endea-
vored to get into their hands Christian women, in order to
scourge and .stone them in their synagogues. They cursed
the Christians three times a day in their synagogues ; and
their rabbins would not suffer them to converse with Chris-
tians upon any occasion ; nor were they contented to hate
and detest them, but they despatched emissaries all over
the world to defame the Christians, and spread all sorts of
calumnies against them. They accused them, among
other things, of worshipping the sun, and the head- of an
ass ; they reproached them with idleness, and being a
useless set of people. They charged tliem with treason,
antkendeavoring to erect a new monarchy against that of
the Romans. They affirmed that in celebrating their mys-
teries, they used to kill a child, and eat his flesh. They
accused them of the most shocking incests, and of intem-
perance in their feasts of charity. But the lives and be-
havior of the first Christians were sufficient to refute all
that was said against them, and evidently demonstrated
that these accusations were mere calumny, and the eflTect
of inveterate malice. Pliny the younger, who was go^'er-
nor of Pontus and Bithynia between the years 103 and
105, gives a very particular account of the Christians in
that province, in a letter which he wTote to the emperor
Trajan, of which the following is an extract : " I take the
liberty, sir, to give you an account of every difficulty
which arises to me : I have never been present at the exa-
minations of the Christians ; for which reason I know not
what questions have been put to them, nor iu what man-
ner they have been punished. My behavior towards those
who have been accused to me, has been this : I have in-
terrogated them, in order to know whether they were really
Christians. When the)' have confessed it, I have repeated
the same question two or three times, threatening them
with death if they did not renounce this reUgion. Those
who have persisted iiutheir confession, have been by my
order led to punishment. I have even met with some
Roman citizens guilty of this frenzy, w-hom, in regard to
their qttality, I have set apart from the rest, in order to
send them to Rome. These persons declare that their
whole crime, if the)' are guilty, consists in this : that on
certain days they assemble before sunrise to sing alter-
nately the praises of Christ, as of God ; and to oblige them-
selves, by the performance of their religious rites, not to
be guilty of theft or adultery, to observe inviolably their
word, and to be true to their tmst. This disposition has
obliged me to endeavor to inform myself still further of
this matter, bj' putting to the torture two of their women-
servants, whom they called deaconesses ; but I could learn
nothing more from them than that the superstition of
these people is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is
astonishing."
It is easy to discover the cause of the many persecutions
to which the Christians were exposed during the first ihree
centuries. The purity of the Christian morality, directly
opposite to the corruption of the pagans. was doubtless one
of the most powerful motives of the public aversion. To
this niiay be added the many calumnies unjustly spread
about concerning them by their enemies, particulai I .■ the
Jews • and this occasioned so strong a prejudice against
them, that the pagans condemned them witliout inquiring
into their doctrine, or permitting them to defend them-
selves. Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ as God,
was contrary to one of the most ancient laws of the Roman
empire, which expressly forbade the acknowledging of any
god which had not been approved of by the senate. But,
notwithstanding the violent opposition made to the estab-
lishment of the Christian religion, it gained grouud daily,
and very soon made surprising progress in the Roman
empire. In the third century, there were Christians in the
senate, in the camp, in the palace ; in short, evciy where
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but in the temple auJ the theatres ; they filled the to-WTis,
the country, and the islands. Men and women of all ages
and conditions, and even those of the first dignities, em-
braced the faith ; insomuch that the pagans complained
that the revenues of their temples were ruined. They were
in such great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertullian
expresses it) were they to have retired into another coun-
try, they would hafe left the Komans only a frightful soli-
tude. JFor persecutions of the Christians, see the article
Persecutio:.'.
Christians are now divided into a variety of sects, the
explanation of whose sentiments forms a great part of this
volume. If it be inquired, whence arose these differences
of opinion, we beg leave to refer to Mr. Fuller's "Essay
on Truth," in the second volume of his Works, p. 681.
The numlier of Christians now in the world, of all deno-
minations, is variously calculated at from one hundred and
seventy-five to two hundred and twenty-five millions.
Christians may be considered as nominal and real. There
are vast numbers who are called Christians, not because
they possess any love for Christ, but because they happen
to be born in ti liat is called a Christian country, educated
by Christian parents, and sometimes attend Christian wor-
ship. There are also many whose minds are well In-
formed respecting the Christian system, who prefer it to
every other, and who make an open profession of it ; and
yet, after all, feel but little of the real power of Christianity .
A real Christian is one whose understanding is enlightened
by the influences of divine grace, who is convinced of the
depravity of his nature, who sees his own inability to help
himself, who is tauglit to behold God as the chief good,
the Lord Jesus as the only way to obtain felicity, and that
the Holy Spirit is the grand agent in applying the blessings
of the gospel to his soul. His heart is renovated, and in-
clined to revere, honor, worship, trust in, and live to God.
His affections are elevated above the world, and centre in
God alotie. He embraces him as his portion, loves him
supremely, and is zealous in the defence and support of
his cause. His temper is regulated, his powers roused
to vigorous action, his thoughts spiritual, and his general
deportment amiable and uniform. In fine, the true Chris-
tian character exceeds all others as much as the blaze of
the meridian sun outshines the feeble light of the glow-
worm.— Htiiil. Bvck.
CHRISTIANITY j the religion of Christians.
I. CiiRisTiAfinY, foundation of. — Most, if not all. Chris-
tians, whatever their particular tenets may be, acknow-
ledge the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as
the sole foundation of their faith and practice. But as
these boo!;s, or at least particular passages in them, have,
from the ambiguity of language, been variously interpret-
ed by different commentators, these diversities have given
birth to a mulliplicity of different sects. These, however,
or, at least, the greatest number of them, appeal to the
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the ultimate
standard — the only inl'allible rule of faith and manners.
If asked by what authority these books claim an absolute
right to determine the consciences and understandings of
men witb regard to what they should believe, and what
they should do, they answer, that all Scripture, whether
for doctrine, correction, or reproof, was given by immedi-
ate inspiration from God. If again interrogated how those
books which they call Scriptures are authenticated, they
reply, that the Old and New Testaments are proved to be
the word of God, by evidences both internal and external.
See § 2, and article Revelation.
II. CnaisTiANiTV, evidences of the truth of. — The extek-
NAL Evri^ENCES of the authenticity and divine authority of
the Scriptures have been divided into direct and collateral.
The direct evidences are such as arise from the nature,
consistency, and probability of the facts ; and from the
siijiplicily, uniformity, competency, and fidelity of the
testimonies by which they are supported. The collateral
evidences are either the same occurrences supported by
heathen testimonies, or others which concur with and
corroborate the history of Christianity. Its internal evi-
dences arise either from its exact conformity with the cha-
racter of God, from its aptitude to the frame and circum-
■stances of man, or from those supernatural convictions
end assistances which are impressed on the mind by the
immediate operation of the Divine Spirit. We shall here
chiefly follow Dr. Doddridge, and endeavor to give some
of the chief evidences wduch have been brought forward,
and which every unprejudiced mind must confess are
unanswerable.
First. Talring the matter merely in theory, it will ap-
pear highly probable that such a system as the gospel
should be, indeed, a divine revelation.
1. The case of mankind is naturally such as to need a
divine revelation, lJohn5: 19. Rom. 1. Eph. 4. 2. There
is from the light of nature considerable encouragement to
hope that God would favor his creatures with so needful a
blessing as a revelation appears. 3. We may easily con-
clude, that if a revelation were given, it would be intro-
duced and transmitted in such a manner as Christianity is
said to have been. 4. That the main doctrines of the gos-
pel are of such a nature as we might in general suppose
those of a divine revelation would be — rational, practical,
and sublime.— Heb. 11: 6. Mark 12: 20. 1 Tim. 2: 5.
Matt. 5: 48. Matt. 10: 29, 30. Phil. 4: 8. Rom. 2: 5, 40.
Secondly. It is, in fact, certain that Christianity is, in-
deed, a divine revelation : for, I. The books of the New
Testament, now in our hands, were written by the first
preachers and publishers of Christianity. In proof of
this, observe, 1.' That it is certain that Christianity is not
a new reUgidh, but that it was maintained by great multi-
tudes quickly after the time in which Jesus is said to have
appeared. 2. That there was certainly .such a person as
Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified at Jerusalem, when
Pontius Pilate was governor there. 3. The first publishers
of this religion wrote books which contained an account
of the life and doctrine of Jesus their master, and which
went by the name of those that now make up our New
Testament. 4. That the books of the New Testament have
been preserved, in the main, uncorrupted to the present
time, in the original language in which they were written.
5. That the translation of them now in our hands may be
depended upon as, in all things most material, agreeable
to the original. Now, II. From allowing the New Testa-
ment to be genuine, according to the above proof, it will
certainly follow that Christianity is a divine revelation;
for, in the first place, it is exceedingly evident that the
writers of the New Testament certainly knew whether the
facts were true or false. John 1: 3. John 19: 27, 35. Acts
27: 7 — 9. 2. That the character of these writers, so far
as we can judge by their works, seems to render them
worthy of regard, and leaves no room to imagine they in-
tended to deceive us. The manner in -which they tell their
story is most happily adapted to gain our belief. There is
no air of declamation and harangue ; nothing that looks
like artifice and design ; no apologies, no encomiums, no
characters, no reflections, no digressions ; but the facts
are recounted with great simplicity, just as they seem to
have happened ; and those facts are left to speak for
themselves. Their integrity likewise evidently appears in
the freedom with which they mention those circumstances
which might have exposed their Master and themselves to
the greatest contempt amongst prejudiced and inconside-
rate men, such as they knew they must generally expect
to meet with. John 1: 45, 46. John 7: 52. Luke 2: 4, 7.
Mark 6: 3. Matt. 8: 20. John 7: 48. It is certain that
there are in their writings the most genuine traces not only
ofaplaift and honest, but a most pious, and devout, a
most benevolent and generous disposition, as every one
must acknowledge who reads their writings. 3. The
apostles were under no temptation to forge a story of this
kind, or to publish it to the world, knowing it to be false.
4. Had they done so, humanly speaking, they must quick-
ly have perished in it, and their foolish cause must have
died with them, without ever gaining any credit in the
world. Reflect more particularly on the nature of those
grand facts, the death, resurrection, and exaltation of
Christ, which formed the great foundation of the Christian
scheme, as first exhibited by the apostles. The resurrec-
tion of a dead man, and his ascension into an abode in the
upper world, were such strange things, that a thousand
objections would immediately have been raised against
them ; and some extraordinary proof would have been
justly required as a balance to them. Consider the man-
ner in which the apostles undertook to prove the truth of
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tlielr testimony to these facts : and it will evidentlj' appear,
that, instead of contirming their scheme, it must have been
sufficient utterly to have overthrown it, had it been itself the
most probable imposture that the wit of man could ever
have contrived. See Acts 3; 9: 14: 19: &c. They did not
merely assert that they had seen miracles wrought by Je-
sus, but that he had endowed them with a variety of mira-
culous powers ; and these they undertook to display, not in
such idle and useless tricks as sleight of hand might per-
form, but in such solid and important works as appeared
worthy of divine interposition, and entirely superior to hu-
man power. Nor were these things undertaken in a cor-
ner, in a circle of friends or dependents ; nor were tliey
said to be wrought, as might be suspected, by any confe-
derates in the fraud; but they were done often in the most
public manner. Would impostors have made such pre-
tensions as these? or, if they had, must they not immedi-
ately have been exposed and ruined ? Nov.', if the New
Testament be genuine, then it is certain that the apostles
pretend to have wrought miracles in the very presence of
those to whom their writings were addressed ; nay, more,
they profess likewise to have conferred those miraculous
gifts in some considerable degrees on others, even on the
very persons to whom they write, and they appeal to their
consciences as to the truth of it. And could there possibly
be room for delusion here ? 5. It is likewise certain that
the apostles did gain early credit, and succeeded in a most
wonderful manner. This is abundantly proved by the
vast number of churches estabUshed in early ages at
Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Colosse, &:c. &,c. 6. That, ad-
mitting the facts which they testified concerning Christ to
be true, then it was reasonable for their contemporaries,
and is reasonable for us, to receive the gospel which they
have transmitted to us as a divine revelation. The great
thing they asserted was, that Jesus was the Christ, and
that he was proved to be so by prophecies accomplished
iu him, and by miracles wrought by him, and by others
in his name. If we attend to these, we shall find them to
be no contemptible arguments, but must be forced to ac-
knowledge, that, the premises being established, the con-
clusion most easily and necessarily follows ; and this con-
elusion, that Jesus is the Christ, taken in all its extent, is
an abstract of the gospel revelation, and therefore is some-
times put for the whole of it. Acts 8: 37. Acts 17: 18.
(See articles Mikacle and Pkophecy.) 7. The truth of Ihe
gospel has also received further and very considerable
confirmation from what has happened in the world since
it was first published. And here we must desire every
one to consider what God has been doing to confirm the
gospel since its first publication, and he will find it a fur-
ther evidence of its divine original. We might argue at
large from its surprising propagation in the world ; from
the miraculous powers with which not onlj' the apostles,
but succeeding preacher; of the gospel, and other converts,
were endowed ; from the accomplishment of prophecies
recorded in the New Testament ; and from the preserva-
tion of the Jews as a distinct people, notwithstanding the
various difficulties and persecutions through which they
have passed. We must not, however, forget to mention
the confirmation it receives from the methods which its
enemies have taken to destroy it ; and these have gene-
rally been cither persecution or falsehood, or cavilling at
some particulars in revelation, without entering into the
grand argument on which it is built, and fairly debating
what is ofiered in its defence. The cause has gained con-
siderably by the opposition made to it : the more it has
been tried, Ihe more it has been approved; and we are
bold to say, no honest man, unfettered by prejudice, can
examine this system in all its parts, without being con-
vinced that its origin is divine.
III. Christianity, general doctrines of. — " It must be
obvious," says an ingenious author, '' to every reflecting
mind, that, whether we attempt to form the idea of any
religion d priori, or contemplate those which have already
been exhibited, certain facts, principles, or data, must be
pre-established ; from whence will result a particular frame
of mind and course of action suitable to the character and
dignity of that Being by whom the religion is enjoined,
and adapted to the nature and situation of those agents
who are commanded to observe it. Hence Christianity
may be divided into credcnda, oi- doctrines, and (igaida, ol
precepts. As the great foundation of his religion, there
fore, the Christian believes the existence and govcrnmeni
of one eternal and infinite Essence, which forever relam;
in itself the cause ol its o-sti exi.stence, and inherently pos
sesses all those perfections which are compatible with it;
nature ; such are its almighty power, omniscient v.-isdom
infinite justice, boundless goodness, and universal y"
sence. In this indivisible essence the Christian recognise-i
three distinct subsistences, yet distinguished in such a
manner as not to be incompatible either with essential
unity, or simplicity of being, or with their personal distinc
tion ; each of them possesses the same nature and proper
ties to the same extent. This infinite Being was graciously
pleased to create a universe replete with intelligences, who
might enjoy his glory, participate his happiness, and imi-
tate his perfections. But as these beings were not immu-
table, but left to the freedom of their own will, a degene-
racy took place, and that in a rank of intelligence superujr
to man. But guilt is never stationary. Impatient of it-
self, and cursed with its own feeling*, it proceeds from
bad to worse, whilst the poignancy of its tLTinents increases
with the number of its perpetrations. Such was the situ-
ation of Satan and his apostate angels. They attempted
to transfer their turpitude and misery to man, and were,
alas, but too successful. Hence the heterogeneous and ir-
reconcilable principles which opera'e in his nature ; hence
that inexplicable medley of wisdom and folly, of rectitude
and error, of benevolence and malignity, of sincerity and
fraud, exhibited through his whole conduct ; hence the
darkness of his understanding, the depravity of his will,
the pollution of his heart, the irregularity of his afi'ections,
and the absolute subversion of his whole inicrnal economy.
The seeds of perditiop. soon ripened into overt acts of guilt
and horror. All the hostilities of nature were cunfronted,
and the whole sublunary creation became a tl^'jalre of
disorder and mischief. Here the Christian once more ap-
peals to fact and experience. If these things are so — if
man be the vessel of guilt, and the victim of misery, he
demands how this constitution of things can be accounted
for ? how can it be supposed that a being so wicked and
unhappy should be the production of an infinitely good
and infinitely perfect Creator? He, therefore, insists that
human nature must have been disarranged and contami-
nated by some violent shock, and that, of consequence,
without the light diftused over tlie face of things by Chris-
tianity, all nature must remain in inscrutable and inexph-
cable mystery. To redress these evils, to re-establish the
empire of rectitude and happiness, to restore the nature of
man to its primitive dignity, to satisfy the remonstrances
of infinite justice, to purify every original or contracted
stain, to expia:c the guilt and destroy the power of vice,
the Son of God, from whom Christianity takes its name,
and to whom it owes its origin, descended from the bosom
of his Father, assumed the human nature, became the re-
presentative of man ; endured a severe probation in that
character ; exhibited a pattern of perfect righteousness,
and at last ratified his doctrine, and fully accomplished all
Ihe ends of his mission, by a cruel, unmerited, and igno-
minious death. Before he left the world, he delivered the
doctrines of salvation, and the rules of human conduct, tc
his apostles, whom he empowered to instruct the A^'orld in
all that concerned their eternal felicity, and whom he in-
vested with miraculous gifts to ascertain the reality of
what they taught. To them he likewise promised another
comforter, even the Divine Spirit, who should remove the
darkness, console the woes, and purify the stains of human
nature. Having remained for a part of three days under
the power of death, he rose again from the grave ; appear-
ed to his disciples, and many others ; conversed with them
for some time, then re-ascended to heaven ; from whence
the Christian expects him, according to his promise, to
appear as the Sovereign Judge of the living and the dead,
from whose awards there is no appeal, and by whose sen-
tence the destiny of the righteous and the wicked shall be
eternally fixed. Soon after his departure to ihc right hand
of his Father (where in his human nature he sits supreme
of all created beings, and invested with Ihe absolute admi-
nistration of heaven and earth), the spirit of gi'ace and
consolation descended on his apostles with visible signa-
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lures of divine power and presence. Nor were his salutary
operations confined to them, but extended to all who did
not by obstinate guilt repel his influences. These, indeed,
were less conspicuous than at the glorious era wlien they
were visibly exhibited in the persons of the apo.stles. But
though his energy be less observable, it is by no means
less effectual to all the purposes of grace and mercy. The
Christian is convinced that there is and shall continue to
be a society upon earth, who worship God a.s revealed in
Jesus Christ, who believe his doctrines, who observe his
precepts, and who shall be saved by the merits of his
death, in the use of these external means of salvation
■which he hath appointed. He alio believes that the sa-
craments of baptism and the Lord's supper, the interpre-
tation and application of Scripture, the habitual exercise
nf public and private devotion, are obviously calculated to
diffuse and promote the interests of truth and religion, by
superinducing the salutary habits of faith, love, and re-
pentance. He is firmly persuaded, that, at the consumma-
tion of all things, wlien the purposes of Providence in the
various revolutions of progressive nature are accomplish-
ed, the whole human race shall once more issue from their
graves: some to immortal felicity in the actual perception
and enjoyment of their Creator's presence, and others to
everlasting shame and misery."
TV. Christianity, morality and siiperioriti/ of. — It has
been well observed, " that the two grand principles of ac-
tion, according to the Christian, are the love of God, which
is the sovereign passion in every gracious mind ; and the
love of man, which regulates our actions according to the
various relations in which we stand, whether to communi-
ties or individuals. This sacred connexion ought never to
be totally extinguished by any temporary injury- It ought
to .subsist ill .some degree even amongst enemies. It re-
quires that we should pardon the offences of others, as we
c.\pect pardon for our own ; and that we should no further
resist evil than is necessary for the preservation of personal
rights and social happiness. It dictates every relative and
reciprocal duty between parents and chikiivn, masters and
servants, governors and subjects, friends and friends, men
and men ; nor does it merely enjoin the observation of
equity, but likewise inspires the most sublime and exten-
sive charity ; a boundless and disinterested effusion of
tenderness for the whole species, which feels their distress,
and operates for their relief and improvement."
" Christianity," it has also been observed, (and with the
greatest propriety,) '• is superior to all other religions. The
disciple of Jesus not only contends, that no system of reli-
gion has ever yet been exhibited so consistent with itself,
so congruous to philosophy and the common sense of man-
kind, as Christianity, — he likewise avers that it is infi-
nitely more productive of real consolation than all other
religious or philcsophical tenets which have ever entered
into the soul, or been applied to the heart of man. For
what is death to that mind which considers eternity as the
career of its existence ? What are the frownj of men to
him who claims an eternal world as his inheritance ?
What is the loss of friends to that heart which feels, with
more than natural conviction, that it shall quickly rejoin
them in a more tender, intimate, and permanent inter-
course, than any of which the present life is susceptible ?
What are the vicissitudes of external things to a mind
which strongly and uniformly anticipates a state of endless
and immutable felicity ? What are mortifications, disap-
pointments, and in.sults, to a spirit which is conscious of
being the original offspring and adopted child of God ;
which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in proper
time, effectually assert the dignity and privileges of its
nature ? In a word, as this earth is but a speck in the
creaiion, as time is not an instant in proportion to eternity,
such are the hopes and prospects of the Christian in com-
parison of every sublunary misfortune or difficulty. It is,
therefore, in his judgment, the eternal wonder of angels,
and indelible opprobrium of man, that a religion so worthy
of God, so suitable to the frame and circumstances of our
nature, so consonant to all the dictates of reason, so friend-
ly to the dignity and improvement of intelligent beings, so
pregnant with genuine comfort and delight, should be re-
jected and despised by any of the human race."
V. Chkistmnity, (xkrna! prnpagntion of. — The first com-
rauuity of the followers of Christ was formed at Jerusalem,
soon after the death and resurrection of their Master. Ano-
ther at Antioch, in Syria, first assumed, about the year 65,
the name of Christians, which had originally been given
them by their enemies as a term of reproach ; and the
travels and ministry of the apostles, and other missionaries,
soon spread Christianity through the Roman empire. Pa-
lestine, Syria, Natolia, Greece, the islands of the Mediter-
ranean, Italy, and the northern coast of Africa, as early
as the first century, contained numerous societies of Chris-
tians. Their lives were spiritual and holy, their ecclesia-s-
tical practices simple, and conformable to the nature of
their religion and the humble circumstances in which
they were placed, and they continued to acquire strength
amidst all kinds of persecution. At the end of the second
century. Christians were to be found in all the provinces;
and at the end of the third century, almost half the inhabit-
ants of the Roman empire, and of several neighboring
countries, professed the faith of Christ. About this time,
endeavors to preserve a unity of belief, and of church dis-
cipline, occasioned numberless disputes among those of
dilferent opinions, and led to the establishment of an eccle-
siastical tyranny, than which nothing is more contrary to
the spirit and design of Christianity. At the beginning of
the fourth century, when the Christians obtained toleration
by iTieans of Constantine the Great, and their religion be-
came that of the empire, the bishops assumed to them-
selves the power of authoritatively deciding on matters of
faith, and making enactments relative to the government
of the church. Their views were promoted by the favor
of the emperors, (with slight interruptions in the reign of
Julian, and some of his successors,) by the increased
splendor and various ceremonials of public worship ; by
the decline of classical learning; the increasing supersti-
tion resulting from the increase of ignorance; and by the
establishment of convents and monks. In this form, ap-
pealing more to the senses than to the understanding,
Christianity, which had been introduced among the Goths
in the fourth century, was spread among the other Teuto-
nic nations in the west and north of Europe, and subjected
to its power, during the seventh and eighth centuries, the
rude warriors who founded new kingdoms on the ruins of
the Western empire, while it was losing ground in Asia
and Africa, before the encroachment of the Saracens, by
whose rigorous measures hundreds of thousands of pro-
fessed Christians were converted to Mahometanism ; the
heretical sects which had been disowned by the orthodox
church, being almost the only Christians who maintained
their profession in the Ea.st.
During the progress of Mahometanism, which in Europe
extended only to Spain and Sicily, the popes of Rome who
were advancing systematically to ecclesiastical domination
in the west, gained more in the north, and soon after in
the east of this quarter of the world, by the conversion of
the Sclavonic and Scandinavian nations, than they had lost
in other regions. For the Mahometans had chiefly over-
run the territory of the Eastern church, which had been
since the fifth century no longer one with the Western,
and had, by degrees, become entirely separate from it.
In the tenth century, that church received a large accession
of adherents, by the conversion of the Russians, who have
ever since continued to be its principal support. But the
crusaders who were led, partly by religious enthusiasm,
partly by the desire of conquest and adventure, to attempt
the recovery of the holy sepulchre, gained the new king-
dom of Jerusalem, not for the Greek emperor, but for
themselves and the papal hierarchy. The confusion w-hich
this finally unsuccessful undertaking introduced into the
civil and domestic affairs of the western nations, gave the
Romish church a favorable opportunity of increasing its
possessions, and asserting its pretensions to universal mo-
narchy. The intercourse of nations, however, and the
return of the crusaders, combined with more liberal views
propagated by individuals of a more philosophic turn of
mind, and above all, the indignation excited by the scan-
dalous corruptions and vices of the clergy, stood greatly
in its way. These kindled an opposition among all the
societies and sects against the hierarchy. The foundation
and multiplication of ecclesiastical orders, particularly the
Franciscans and Dominicans, professedly for the care of
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sovils and liie mjtvuction of the people, which hail been
neglected by the secular priests, did not remedy the evil,
because they labored, in general, more actively to promote
the interests of the church and the papacy, than to remove
superstition and ignorance ; and bold speculations which
■would not yield to their persuasions, were less likely
. to be extirpated by the power of the inquisition, which
I armed itself with fire aud s«'ord. The vast dilference of
( religion, as then taught and practised, from the religion of
Jesus Christ ; the utter insufliciency of what the church
taught to satisfy the mind and heart of men, in reference
to their religious wants, became obvious to numbers, part-
ly from their knowledge of Christianity derived from the
Bible, which now began to be studied in secret, in spite of
the prohibitions of the church, and partly from the bold
eloquence and undaunted appeals of individuals among
those who were disgusted with prevailing abuses. The
ecclesiastical orders were also desirous of pursuing an in-
dependent course ; offended princes forgot the services of
the papal power, in promoting ihe civilization of barbarous
' nations in the first centuries of the middle ages ; and the
popes themselves made little eflbrt to reform or conceal the
corruption of their court and of the clergy. They even af-
forded the scandalous sjiectacle of a schism in the church,
which was distracted tor more than thirty years, by the
quarrels between her candidates, who both asserted their
right to the papal chair. Nor could any thing settle this
dispute but the decrees of the council of Constance (1414 — ■
1418). which were very unfavorable to the papal power.
The doctrines of Wickliffe had already given rise to a
party opposed to the popedom ; and the secession of the
adherents of the Bohemian reformer extorted from the
council of Basle certain compacts, which being firmly
maintained, proved to the friends of reformation what
might be effected by a firm and united opposition to the
abuses of the Roman church.
At length, Luther was raised up, who in conjunction
with a noble band of witnesses for the truth, exposed the
unscriptural dogmas and corrupt practice of th'e papal hie-
rarchy, translated the Scriptures into the vernacular lan-
guages of the nations of Europe : pronounced the authority
of God, as expressed in the Bible, to be the ultimate stand-
ard of appeal, and opened and explained the divine word
in its various and important bearings on the highest inte-
rests of man. A spirit of free inquiry was thus awakened,
which has not ceased, to the present hour, to produce ef-
fects favorable to the emancipation of the human mind,
both from secular and spiritual tyranny ; and in proportion
as its legitimate influence has been felt, have been the
advantages accruing to Ihe interests of genuine Christian-
ity. Not only has Ihe light of the gospel dispelled to a
great extent the mists of ignorance and superstition, in
which the whole of Europe was enveloped ; but the reli-
gion of Christ, in its purer forms, has been conveyed by the
colonists to America, where its benign influence is exten-
siveh felt, and from which, there is reason to believe, it
will ere long be extended over the southern regions of that
vast continent, where unexampled cruelties have for centu-
ries been exercised by the votaries of Roman superstition.
Notwithstanding the obstacles which have been thrown
in the way of Christianity, partly by the abettors of infi-
delity, the apathy and divisions of Protestantism, the un-
scriptural doctrines that have been taught by many of its
ministers, and the unholy effects which have resulted from
the connexion of church and stale, that divine system has
been gradually gaining ground, and is now making rapid
progress towards universal conquest. By the exertion of
missionary, Bible, tract, and other societies, the truth is
not only being brought prominently to light throughout
Europe, but in Africa, India, and the islands of the Pacific,
its power has been extensively felt ; and the period seems
rapidly approaching when, in fulfilment of ancient prophC'
cy, the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth as the
waters do the sea.
VI. Christianity, success of. — Despised as Christianity
has been by many, yet it has had an extensive progress
through the world, and still remains to be professed by
great numbers of mankind : though it is to be lamented
many are unacquainted wilh its genuine influence. It
was early and rapidly propagated through the whole Ro-
46
man empire, which then contained almost the whole known
world ; and herein we cannot bul adii ire both the wisdom
and the power of God. " Destitute ol all human advanta-
ges," says a good writer, " protected 1 y no authority, assist-,
ed by no art ; not recommended by the reputation of its Au-*
thor, not enforced by eloquence in its adxocates, the word
of God grew mightily, and prevailed. Twelve men, poor,
artless, and illiterate, we behold triumphing over the
fiercest and most determined opposition ; over the tyranny
of the magistrate, and the subtleties of the philosopher ;
over the prejudices of the Gentile, and the bigotry of the
Jew. They established a religion which held forth high
and venerable mysteries, such as the pride of man would
induce him to suspect, because he could not perfectly com-
prehend them ; which preached doctrines pure and spirit-
ual, such as corrupt nature was prone to oppose, because
it shrank from the severity of their discipline ; which re-
quired its followers to renounce almost every opinion they
had embraced a.s sacred, and every interest they had pur-
sued as important ; which even exposed tliera to every
species of danger and infamy ; to persecution unmerited
and unpitied ; to the gloom of a prison, and to the pangs
of death. Hopeless as this prospect might appear to the
view of short-sighted man, the gospel yet emerged from
the obscurity in which it was likely to be overwhelmed by
the complicated distresses of its friends, and the unrelent-
ing cruelty of its foes. It succeeded in a pecuHar degree,
and in a peculiar manner ; it derived that success from
truth, and obtained it under circumstances where false-
hood must have been detected and crushed."
'■Although," says the elegant Porteus, "Christianity
has not always been so well understood, or so honestly
practised, as it ought to have been ; although its spirit has
been often mistaken, and its precepts misapplied, yet, un-
der all these disadvantages, it has gradually produced a
visible change in those points which most miiteiially con-
cern the peace and quiet of the world. Its beneficent spi-
rit has spread itself through all the different relations and
modifications of life, and communicated its kindly influ-
ence to almost every public and private concern of man-
kind. It has insensibly worked itself into the inmost frame
and constitution of civil states. It has given a tinge to
the complexion of their governments, to the temper and
administration of their laws. It has restrained the spirit
of the prince and the madness of the people. It has soft-
ened the rigor of despotism, and tamed the insolence of
conquest. It has, in some degree, taken away the edge
of the sword, and thrown even over the horrors of war a
veil of mercy. It has descended into families, has dimi-
nished the pressure of private tyranny ; improved every
domestic endearment ; given tenderness to the jiarent,
humanity to the master, respect to superiors, to infe-
riors ease ; so that mankind are, upon the whole, even
in a temporal view, under infinite obligations to the
mild and pacific temper of the gospel, and have reaped
from it more substantial worldly benefits than from any
other institution upon earth. As one proof of this (among
many others), consider only the shocking carnage made in
the human species by the exposure of infants, the gladia-
torial shows, which sometimes cost Europe twenty or thir-
ty thousand lives ina month ; and the exceedingly cruel
usage of slaves, allowed and practised by the ancient ]ia-
gans. These were not the accidental and temporary ex-
cesses of a sudden fury, but were ?fga/ and cstnOlislml, and
constant methods of yiurdering and ttjrinenting mankind. ■
Had Christianilj' done nothing more than brought into
disuse (as it confessedly has done) the two former of these
inhuman customs entirely, and the latter to a very great
degree, it had justly merited the title of the lieneooleiit reli-
gion ; but this is far from being all. Throughout the more
enlightened parts of Christendom there prevails a gentle-
ness of manners widely diflerent from the ferocity of the
most civilized nations of antiquity ; and that liberality
with which every species of distress is relieved, is a virtue
peculiar to the Christian name.'''
But we may a?k further, what succe.ss has it had on the
mind of man, as it respects his eternal welfare? How
many thousands have felt its power, rejoiced in its benign
influence, and under its dictates been constrained to devote
themselves to the glory and praise of God ? Burdened
CHR
[ 362 ]
CHR
with guilt, incapable of iinding relief from human re-
Bources, the mind has here found peace unspeakable, in
beholding that saci fice which alone could atone for trans-
gression. Here the hard and impenitent heart has been
softened, the impetu us passions restrained, the ferocious
temper subdued, powerful prejudices conquered, ignorance
dispelled, and the obstacles to real happiness removed.
Here the Christian, looking round on the glories and blan-
dishments of this world, has been enabled, with a noble
contempt, to despise all. Here death itself, the king of
terrors, has lost its sting ; and the soul, with a holy mag-
nanimity, has borne up in the agonies of a dying hour,
and sweetly sung itself away to everlasting bliss.
In respect to its future spread, we have reason to be-
lieve that all nations shall feel its happy effects. The
prophecies are pregnant Tvith matter as to this belief. It
seems that not only a nation or a country, but the whole
habitable globe, shall become the kingdom of our Lord and
of his Christ : and who is there that has ever known the
excellency of this system ; who is there that has ever ex-
perienced its happy efficacy ; who is there that has ever
been convinced of its divine origin, its delightful nature,
and peaceful tendency, but what must join the benevolent
and royal poet in saying, "Let the whole earth be filled
with its glory, amen and amen ?"
See the article Christianity, in Encyc. Brit, and New
Edin. Encyc. ; Taley's Evidences of Christianity, and Ho-
roe PauliniE ; Lardner's and Macknight's Credibility of the
Gospel History ; Lord Hailes on the Influence of Gibbon's
Five Causes ; Fawcett's Evidences of Christianity ; Dod-
dridge's ditto; Fell's, Hunter's, Wilson's, and M'llvaine's
Lectures on ditto; Beattie's Evidences of the Christian
Religion ; Soame Jenyns's, Verplanck's, and Alexander's
Evidences of ditto ; Saurin's Sermons ; White's Sermons ;
Bishop Porteus's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 12, 13 ; and his Es-
say on the Beneficial Effects of Christianity on the tempo-
ral Concerns of Mankind ; Gregory's Letters ; Home's
Introduction ; Chalmers on the External, and Er-skine on
the Internal Evidence; Gurney's Portable Evidence; Hal-
dane's Testimony to the Blessiah ; Fuller's Gospel its own
Witness ; Douglas's Truths of Religion, and Errors regard-
ing Religion ; Reinhard's Plan of the Founder of Chris-
tianity ; Amer. Enc, art. Christhnity. — Hend. Euck.
CHRISTIANS OF ST. JOHN, are a sort of mongrel
Christians, who profess to derive their traditions from St.
John the Baptist, but who, in fact, are hostile to Christian-
ity, and who admit the name (said to be given th^m by
the Turks) for the sake only of the toleration they enjoy
thereby. They are more properly called Mendseans, which
see. — Williams.
CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS ; a sect of Christians
on the coast of Plalabar, in the East Indies, to which re-
gion the apostle Thomas is said to have carried the gos-
pel. They belong to those Christians who, in the year 409,
united to form a Syrian and Chaldean church, in Central
and Eastern Asia, and are, like them, Nestorians ; but it
is supposed they existed much earlier, as they are believed
to be the Indian Christians from whom a bishop came to
the council of Nice, in 325. They have retained rather
more strongly than the more western Nestorians, the fea-
tures of their descent from the earliest Christian com-
munities. They celebrate the ngapa: ; portion maidens
from the properly of the church ; and jirovide for the poor.
Their ideas respecting the Lord's supper incline to those
of the Protestants ; hut in celebrating it, they nse bread with
salt and oil. At the time of baptism, they anoint the body
of the infant with oil. These two ceremonies, with that
of the consecration of priests, are the only sacraments
which they acknowledge. Their priests are distinguished
by the tonsure, are allowed to marry, and were, till the
sixteenth ccnmry, under a Nestorian patriarch at Babylon,
now at Mosul, from whom they receive their bishop, and
upon whom they are also dependent for the consecration of
their priests. Their churches conlain, except the cross, no
symbols nor pictures. Their liturgy is similar to the Syri-
an, and is performed in the Syrian language.
When the Furliignese occupied the East Indies, the
Roman Catholic cUigy endeavored to subject the Chris-
tians of St. Thomas to the government of the pope. The
archbishop of Coa succeeded, in 1599, in persuading them
to submit, and form a part of his diocese ; in consequence
of which they were obliged to renounce the Nestorian faith,
adopt a few Catholic ceremonies, and obey a Jesuit, who
became their bishop. But 5fter the Portuguese were sup-
planted by the Dutch, on the coast of Blalabar, this union
ceased, and they returned to their ancient fonns. At pre-
sent, their number amounts to nearly eighty thousand.
They are, under the British government, free from any
ecclesiastical restraint, and form among themselves a kind
of spiritual republic, under a bishop chosen by themselves,
and in which the priests and elders administer justice,
using excommunication as a means of punishment. Colo-
nel Munro, the late resident at Travancore, interested
himself much for this people, and erected a college at
Chotim, for the education both of priests and others, and
he made an endowment to support a number of teachers
and students. In their political relations to the natives, ■
they belong to the class of the Nairs, or nobility of the se-
cond rank, are allowed to ride on elephants, and to carry on
commerce and agriculture, instead of practising mechani-
cal trades, like the lower classes. Travellers describe
them as vei7 ignorant, but at the same time of very good
morals. See Monthhj Mfig.for 1804, p. 60 ; Dr. Kerr's Se-
port to lord Bentiiick, on the state of the Christiana inhabiting
the kingdom of Cochin and Travancore ; Evang. Mag. 1807,
p. i73.— Hend. Buck.
CHRISTIAN CONNEXION, or Christians, sometimes
erroneously pronounced C7im(-ians.* This is a religious
denomination of recent origin in the United States of
America, and among the last that has arisen, which,
from its numbers and character, has attained much consi-
deration and influence. Its beginning may be dated about
the year 1800 ; and the circumstances attending its rise
and progress are somewhat peculiar. This sect recognises
no individual as its leader or founder. They have no
Calvin, or Luther, or Wesley to whom they refer as an
authority for articles of faith and rules of practice. The
denomination seems to have sprung up almost simultane-
ously in different and remote parts of the country, without
any preliminary interchange of sentiments or concerted
plan of action. Their leading purposes, at first, appear to
have been, not so much to establish any peculiar and dis-
tinctive doctrines, as to assert, for individuals and church-
es, more liberty and independence in relation to matters of
faith and practice, to shake ofl" the authority of human
creeds and the shackles of prescribed modes and forms,
to make the Bible their only guide, claiming for every man
the right to be his own expositor of it, to judge, for himself,
what are its doctrines and requirements, and in practice,
to follow more strictly the simplicity of the apostles and
primitive Christians.
This, then, more than any other, appears to be the distinc-
tive principle of the Christian denomination. Holding the
behef to be indispensable, that the Scriptures were given
by inspiration, that they are of divine authority, and that
they are the only suflicient rule for the moral government
and direction of man, they maintain that every man has
the right to be his own interpreter of them, and that diver-
sity of sentiment is not a bar to church fellowship, while
the very basis of other, or most sects, and their condition
of communion, seems to be an agreement to a particular
interpretation of the Bible, a concurrence of sentiment in
relation to its doctrines. With these views, the Christian
connexion profess to deprecate what they consider an undue
influence of a mere sectarian spirit, a tenacious adliereuce
to particular dogmas, as an infringement of Christian li-
berty, as adverse to the genius of the gospel and the prac-
tical influence of true religion. They maintain that this
spirit enters too much into the principles and regulations
by which religious bodies are generally governed.
In New England, where the Christian denomination
seems first to have attracted attention by any public de-
monstration or organization as a distinct sect, it was com-
posed, principally, of individuals who separated from the
Calvinistic Baptists. Soon after the formation of their
first churches, several large churches of the Calvinistic
Baptists declared themselves independent of the Baptist
* This article was furnished by Rev. Joshua V. Himcs, of
Boston, a distinguished minister of the Connexion.
CHR
[ 363
CHR
ftssocialion and united with thera. The Free-will and
Six-principle Baptists opened their doors to their minis-
ters, and it was expected that they would ultimately amal-
gamate ; they, however, still," (1833,) continue distinct
sects with very amicable relations subsisting between them.
In the southern stales, the first associations of this sect
consisted, mostly, of seceders from the Methodists, and,
in the western states, from the Presbyterians. Prompted
by the leading motives which have been stated to the
formation of an independent organization or sect, the in-
dividuals who composed it still held many of the doctrines
and cherished a prejudice in favor of some of the usages
and practices of the sects from which they had respectively
withdrawn. Hence ■we can scarcely affirm, with justice,
that any doctrine -n-as, at first, held by them in common,
or as a body ; their distingtiishing characteristic being
universal toleration. At first, they were generally Trini-
tarians; subsequently they have, almost unanimously,
rejected the Trinitarian doctrine as unscriptural.
But though toleration is still their predominant princi-
ple, and it would be wide of the truth to say that any doc-
trine is universally held by the connexion, or is considered
indispensable to membership, still it may be asserted, with
confidence, that discussion in their periodicals and per-
sonal intercourse and conference, have produced a mani-
fest approximation to unanimity of sentiment, and that
the following are verj' generally regardetl as Scripture
doctrines : — That there is one living and true God, the Fa-
ther almightj', who is unoriginaled, independent, and eter-
nal, the Creator and Supporter of all worlds ; and that this
God is one spiritual intelligence, one infinite mind, ever
the same, never varying : That this God is the moral Go-
vernor of the world, the absolute source of all the blessings
of nature, pro\'idence and grace, in whose infinite wisdom,
goodness, mercy, benevolence and love have originated
all his moral dispensations to man ; That all :nen sia and
come short of the glory of God, consequently fall under the
curse of the law; That Christ is the Son of God, the pro-
mised Messiah and Savior of the world, the 5Ie<Uator be-
tween God and man, by wliom God has revealed his v.'ill
to mankind ; by whose sufferings, death and resurrection a
way has been provided by which sinners may obtain sal-
vation, may lay hold on eternal life ; that he is appointed
of God to raise the dead and judge the world at the last
day : That the Holy Spirit is the power and energy of Gud,
that holy influence of God by whose agencj', in the use of
means, the wicked are regenerated, converted and reco-
vered to a virtuous and holy life, sanctified and made meet
for llie inheritance of the saints in light ; and that, by the
same Spirit, the saints, in the use of means, are comforted,
strengthened and led in the path of duty ; The free for-
giveness of sins, flos\ing from the rich mercy of God,
through the labors, sufi'erings and blood of our Lord Jesus
Christ ; The necessity of repentance towards God and faith
towards our Lord Jcstis Christ: The absolute necessity of
holiness of heart and rectitude of life to enjoy the favor
and approbation of God : The doctrine of a future state of
immortality : The doctrine of a righteous retribution, in
which God will render to every man according to the deeds
done in the body : The baptism of believers by immersion :
And the open communion at the Lord's table of Christians
of every denomination having a good standing in their
respective churches.
The principles upon which their churches were at first
constituted, and upon which they still stand, are the follow-
ing : The Scriptures are taken to be the only rule of faith
and practice, each individual being at liberty to determine,
for himself, in relation to these matters, what they enjoin :
No member is subject to the loss of church fellowship on
account of his sincere and conscientious belief, so long as
he manifestly lives a pious and devout life : No member
is subject to discipUae and church censure but for disor-
derly and immoral conduct : The name Christian to be
adopted, to the exclusion of all sectarian names, as the
most appropriate designation of the body and its members:
The only condition or test of admission as a member of a
church is a personal profession of the Christian religion,
accompanied with satisfactory evidence of sincerity and
piety, anil a determination to live according to the divine
rule or the gospel of Clirist. Each church is considered
an independeftt body, possessing exclusive authority to
regulate and govern its own aflairs.
For the purpose of promoting the general interest and
prosperity of the connexion by mutual elliirts and joint
counsels, associations were formed, denominated Confe-
rences. Ministers and churches, represented by delegates,
formed themselves, in each state, into one or more confer-
ences called State Conferences, and delegates from these
conferences formed the United States General Christian
Conference. This genera! conference has been given up.
The local or state conferences are still continued, (wssess-
ing, however, no authority or control over the independence
of the churches. In twenty of the United States, there are
now, (1833,) thirty-two conferences, one in Upper Canada,
and one in the province of New Brunswick. The number
of their ministers is estimated at about 700, of churches
1000, of communicants, from 75,000 to 100,000, and from
250 to 300,000 who entertain their views and attend upoa
their ministry.
Several periodicals have been published under the pa-
tronage of the connexion ; the principal of which are, the
Christian Herald at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, the
Gos|iel Luminary at New York, the Christian JMessenger
at Georgetown, Kentucky, and the Christian Palladium .at
Rochester, New York.
A convention of ministers and private brethren, from
various parts of the countr}', was holden at Milan, Dutchess
county. New Y''ork, in October last, by which it was pro-
posed to the connexion to form an association, to be called
" the Christian Union Book Association," to be composed
of one delegate from each conference in the connexion.
The object of this association is the general supervision,
charge and direction of such matters as concern the con-
nexion at large — such as the publication of books, periodi-
cals, &c., and the disposition of such surplus funds as
may accrue from the publication and sale of books, or
otherwise, as they may think most conducive to the com-
mon interest and prosperity of the connexion. It was also
recommended by the convention, that the several periodi-
cals then published under the patronage of the connexion,
shotild be merged as soon as practicable in one to be pub-
lished and called the Gospel Palladium. In pursuance of
this recommendation, the Gospel Luminary and its pa-
tronage have already been transferred to the Gospel Palla-
dium, published at Broadalbin. iMonlgomery county, N. Y.
A charter was obtained, in lii'3'2, from the legislature of In-
diana, Ibr a Christian college, to be located in New Albany.
The education of many of the ministers of the connex-
ion, who universally preach extempore, is defective. Their
maxim has been, " Let him who undei-stands the gospel
teach it." They have considered the preparation of the
heart more important than the embellishment of the mind.
They have, notwithstanding, many preachers who appear
as scribes well instructed, who have acijuitted themselves
with credit as writers, and the sentiment is fast gaitiing
ground among them, that literature and science arc very
useful auxiliaries in the illustration and enforcement of
divine truth.
CHRIST CRUCIFIED, (the preachins of.) Cruci-
fixion was a mode of capital punishment, inflicted only
upon criminals of the lowest rank and the most aggra-
vated turpitude. Hence the words, Christ crucified, signify
the Blessiah, that is, the anointed Savior of mankind, suf-
fering a most painful and ignominious death. The phrase
combines together the two ideas of the exalted nature and
the deep humiliation of Christ Jesus. It denotes the two
leading features of the plan of redemption, which he came
upon earth to accomplish, and the development of which
constitutes the glorious gospel of the blessed God. For a
syslein is never designated otherwise than by its most pro-
minent features. We are informed by the apostle Paul,
(1 Cor. 1: 22 — 2L) that the doctrine expressed by these
terms met wdth general opposition, both from Jews and
Gentiles ; yet to those who really understood and embraced
it, it was not only rich in divine efficacy, but radiant with
divine wisdom ; and worthy therefore of unhesitating and
universal promulgation, notwithstanding all the specious
objections which were urged against it, and all the sufler-
ings and reproaches to which it subjected him and his as-
sociates.
CHR
[ 364 1
CHS
I. What is involved in this Preaching. — Some of the
most important facts alluded to in these terms, I suppose,
says Dr. Wayland, to be the following. The whole race
of man, in consequence of the sin of our first parents, hav-
ing become sinners, and being thus exposed to the punish-
ment denounced against sin, he, who was in the beginning
■with God, and who was God, by whom all things were
made, became flesh, that is, took upon him our nature ;
he died for our sins according to the Scriptures ; by his
death, or expiatory sacrifice, the obstacles to our pardon,
arising from the justice of (3od, are removed, so that God
can now be just, and yet the justitier of him that believeth
in Jesus. Hence pardon and eternal life can be freely
offered to all mankind ; for God so loved the world, that
he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever believeth
on him should not perish, but have everlasting life. And
in confirmation of the trutli of all this, the Messiah was
raised from the dead, he ascended into heaven, whence he
■will one day come to judge both the quick and the dead.
II. Objections to such Preaching. — To this doctrine
a variety of objections have been made. Thej' may all,
however, be reduced to two classes ; first, those which are
derived from the nature of the doctrine itself; and second-
ly, those which are drawn from tlie sacred Scriptures. By
the first class of objections, it is intended to show that such
doctnnes could not be true ; by the second, that they are
not revealed to us from Gotl. It is to the first of these
classes of objections, that the apostle refei-s in the text, and
it is to this class we shall here chiefly advei't.
1. It is said that such a mode of existence, as is implied
in the essential Deity of Christ, is inconceivable and im-
possible .
2. That if Christ be God, it is incredible that he should
manifest such a degree of regard to a world so- small and
insignificant as this, in comparison with the universe.
3. That the union of the divine and human natures in
the person of the iVIessiah is replete with contradictions.
4. That the substitution of the innocent for the guilty is
anjust, and derogatory to the divine character.
h. That the sufferings of Christ in human nature could
not, after all, make an atonement for sin.
III. Answers to the Objections. — To these a priori ob-
jections it is replied, without ciescending to particulars,
1. They are unphilosophicaJ. The questions to be set-
tled are matters of faci, and must be settled, not by theary,
but by evidence. The objections pro<;eed upon an. erroneous
estimate of the powers of the human understanding. They
suppose us capable of deci^ling by our own knowledge on
such subjects as the mode of existence of the Deity ; the
nature and extent of those relations which exist hcfweeu
man aaid hi.s felloAv-creatures, and man and his Creatoi- ;
the evil and the jn.st desert of .sin ; the number of modes of
possible existence ; the abstract nature of holiness in the
Deity, and the ways in which that holiness can and cannot
be exhibited before the created univei-se.
2. The facts on which the question rests liave been
proved, in our judgment, by the laws of evidence, and by
the laws of interpretation.
3. The objections are in no manner inconsistent with
the supposition that the doctrines in question are true.
For, in the first place, they are precisely such objections
as we should expect to arise if that were the fact. And
in the second place, they may be made with equaJ force
against much which is universally allowed to be incontro-
vertible fact.
4. We preach Christ crucified, notwithstanding these
objections, also, because we perceive its fundamental prin-
ciples to be in perfect hannony with the highest and most
general laws of God's moral government.
5. Because it has always been effectual to accomplish
the object which we have in view, the moral renovation
of man.
6 Lastly. We insist upon the preaching of Christ cra-
cifi.'j, because it is the only moral .system which has ever
proved effectual to the reformation of man.
"From the above considerations it will be readily per-
ceived, that objections drawn from what may be considered
the nature of things, are misapplied when urged against
the facts which claim to be revealed in the Scriptures.
The only questions to be discussed, are, first, Are the
Scriptures true? and secondly, What do the Scriptures
teach ? The one question is to be answered by the science
of evidence, and the other by the science of interpretation.
Here is the ground and the only ground for argument.
To these points let the unbeliever in these doctrines direct
his attacks, and these points let the believer be prepared
to defend. When this shall have been done, we may
hope to see this controversy brought to a definite and
decisive issue.
" Let us who profess to believe the doctrine of Christ
crucified, preach it every where, on all occasions, and
under all circumstances. This doctrine, and this only,
possesses that divine ep.ergy by which men have been
converted unto God. We may be considered illiberal,
prejudiced, obtuse of intellect; but let us not be ashamed
of the gospel of Christ, for it is the power of God unto sal-
vation. We believe it to be truth ; and if it be truth, it is
great and must prevail. With kindness and charity, and
yet in simplicity and fidelity, let us resolve to know nothing
among men but Jesus Christ and him crucified.
" Nor in all this is there any sectarianism. We believe
these doctrines to be true, and suppose ourselves able to
show them to be so. Ws este«m them vitally important
to the tempcflral and to the eternal interests of men. As
intelligent beings, we have a right to proinulgate them as
widely as we choose, and lo convince of their truth as
many as we are able. It ■will be sectarianism whenever
we underrate tiie talents, disparage th« motives, curtail
the influence, or violate in the slightest manner the right*
of those who differ from us. But if we do none of this,
it is no sectarianism by fair argument to give our senti-
ments all the influence in onr power. We cheerfully con-
cede lo others the right which v^'c claim for ourselves. If
oar claim be allowed, we rejoice ; but if not, we must be
pardoned if, as we suppose in obedience to Gott, we still
preach Christ and him crucified.'' See Dr. Wat/land's
culmirabh sermon, " Ohjtdions to the Doctrine of Christ cru-
cified considered.'' A\so, Fuller^s lVi^ks,vo\.u. pp. 350,391;
lYorh of Eobert Hall. vol. i. 2(i5. iii. 340—430.
CHRISTMAS; the day on which the nativity of .our
blessed Savior is celebrated.
The first traces that we find of the obser\'atiou of this
day, are in the second century, about the time of the em-
peror Commodus. The decretal epistles, indeed, carry it
up a little higher, and say that Telesphorus, who lived in
the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered divine service to be
celebrated, and an angelic hymn to be sung the night be-
fore the nativity of our Savior. That it was kept before
the time of Constanttne, we have a melancholy proof; for
whilst the persecution raged under Dioclesian, who then
kept his court at Nicomedia, that tyrant, among other acts
of cruelty, finding multitudes of Christians assembled' to-
gether to celebrate Christ's nati\-ity, commanded the church
doors where they were met to be shut, and fire to be put
to it, which soon reduced them and the church to ashes.
In the Roman church three masses are performed : one
at midnight, one at daybreak, and ose in the morning;
and both in the Greek and Roman churches the n'ianger,
the holy family, cVc. are sometimes represented at large.
Some convents at Rome, chiefly the Franciscans, are fa-
mous for attracting the people by snch theatrical e.^hi-
bitions.
This feast is also celebrated in the church of England,
and in the Lutheran churches, but is rejected by the
church of Scotland and the Dissenters ; though, m Eng-
land, some of the latter embrace the opportunity of having
preaching, it being a day on which little or no business is
done ; others object t(5 this as apparently symbolizing with
human inventions.
The custom of making presents on Chri.stmas eve is de-
rived from an old heathen usage, practised among the
northern nations, at the feast of the birth of Sot, on the
25th of December, to which it succeeded, and retained the
name of Yule or Inul ; i. e. the " 'WTieel," or revolution ol"
the sun.
Whether this festival was always obsen'ed on the 25th
of December, is a point which has been greatly disputed.
Dr. Cave is of opinion, that it was at first kept by the
Eastern church in January, and confounded with the Epi-
phany ; till, receiving belter information from the Western
CHR
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CHR
churches, they changdl it to that day. Chrysostoin, in an
homily on this very subject, affirms, that it was not above
ten years since, in that church (that of Antioch), it began
first to be observed upon that day ; and he offers several
reasons to prove that to be the true day of Christ's nati-
vity. Clemens Alexandrinus reckons, from the birth of
Christ to the death of Commodus, exactly one hundred
and ninety-four years, one month, and thirteen days.
These years, being taken according to the Egyptian ac-
count, and reduced to the JuUan style, make the birth
of Christ to fall on the 25th or 2fith of the month of De-
cember. Yet, notwithstanding this, the same father tells
us, in the same place, that there were some who, more
curiously searching after the year and day of Christ's na-
tivity, atfi.ved the latter to the 25th of the month Pachon.
Now, in that year in which Christ was born, the month
Pachon commenced the 20lh of April ; so that, according
to this computation, Christ was born on the 16th of May.
Hence we inay see how little certainty there is in this
matter, since, so soon after the event, the learned were
divided in opinion concerning it.
Mr. Selden, in his " Table-Talk," speaking of this festi-
val, says, " Christmas succeeds the Saturnalia ; the same
time, the same number of holidays ; then the master
■waited upon the servant like the lord oi misrule.
" Our meats and our sports (much of them) have rela-
tion to church-works. The coffin of our Christmas pies,
in shape long, is in imitation of the cratch. Our choosing
kings and queens, on Twelfth-night, hath reference to the
three kings. So likewise our eating of fritters, whipping
of tops, roasting of herrings, jack of lents, &c., they were
all in imitation of church-works, emblems of martyrdom.
Our tansies at Easter have reference to the bitter herb,
though, at the same time, it was always the fashion for a
man to have a gammon of bacon, to show himself to be no
Jew." — He/id. Buck.
CHRISTO SACRUM ; the denomination of a society
founded at Delft, in Holland, in 1801, by Onder de Win-
gaard, an aged burgomaster of that city. The object of
the society is to reconcile all denominations who admit
the divinity of Jesus Christ, and redemption by the merits
of his pjission. This societ)', originally formed of four
persons, is said to have increased to two or three thou-
sand.
A more recent account (1809) says the society is not
extinct, neither is it much augmented, although it has
been acknowledged by government, and mentioned in the
Koyal Almanac. They admit members from all Christian
societies (within the limits above mentioned), but use no
efforts to make proselytes.
Their place of worship at Delft is very elegant, having
three desks, gradually rising, for the reader, clerk, and
preacher : the latter, at least, is gratuitous. They have
published several works in defence of their own principles.
See Gregoire's Hist. vol. i. p. 261. comp. vol. ii. p. 439. —
Williams.
CHRONICLES, (books of.) This name is given to two
historical books of Scripture, which the Hebrews call Dii-
ri-Jamim, " Words of Days," that is, " Diaries," or " Jour-
nals." They are called in the Seventy, Faralipomena,
which signifies, " things omitted ;" as if these books were
a supplement of what had been omitted, or too much
abridged, in the books of Kings, and other historical books
of Scripture. And, indeed, we find in them many particu-
lars which are not extant elsewhere : but it must not be
thought that these are the records, or books of the acts, of
the kings of Judah and Israel, so often referred to. Those
ancient registers were much more extensive than these
are ; and the books of Chronicles themselves refer to those
original memoirs, and make long extracts from them.
They were compiled, and probably by Ezra, from the an-
cient chronicles of the kings of Judah and Israel just now
mentioned, and they may be considered as a kind of sup-
plement to the preceding books of Scripture. The former
part of the first book of Chronicles contains a great vaiiety
of genealogical tables, beginning with Adam ; and in par-
ticular gives a circumstantial account of the twelve tribes,
which must have been very valuable to the Jews after
their return from captivity. The descendants of Abra-
ham, Isaac, Jacob, and David, from all of whom it was
predicted that the Savior of the world should be bom, ars
here marked with precision. These genealogies occupy
the first nine chapters, and in the tenth is recorded the
death of Saul. From the eleventh chapter to the end of
the book, we have a history of the reign of David, with a
detailed statement of his preparation for the building of the
temple, of his regulations respecting the priests and Le-
vites, and his appointment of musicians for the public
service of religion. The second book of Chronicles con-
tains a brief sketch of the Jewish history, from the acces-
sion of Solomon to the return from the Babylonian captiv-
ity, being a period of four hundred and eighty years ; and
in both these books we find many particulars not noticed
in the other historical books of Scripture.
There are many variations, as well in facts as in dates,
between the books of Kings and the Chronicles, which r re
to be explained and reconciled, chielly on the pnncii.le,
that the latter are snpplemenlarij to the former : not forget-
ting that the language was slightly varied from what it had
been ; that various places had received new names, or had
undergone sundry vicissitudes ; that certain things wer':
now better known to the returned Jews, under other appel-
lations than what they formerly had been distinguished
by ; and that from the materials before him, which often
were not the same as those used by the abridgers of the
hi.stories of the kings, the author takes those passages
which seemed to him best adapted to his purpose, and
most suitable to the times in which he v.'rotc. It must be
considered too, that he often elucidates obsolete and ambi-
guous words, in former books, by a different mode of spell-
ing them, or by a different order of the words used : even
when he does not use a distinct phrascolog)' of narration,
which he sometimes does. — n'ntsoii : Calmit.
CHRONICLE, (Samakitan,) of Abul-Phathach ; a his-
tory of events, otherwise known under the name of the
"Book of Joshua," aeopy of which,no\vin the university of
Oxford, was procured by Huntington, from the Samaritans
at Naplose, and another was in the possession of the learn-
ed Schnurrer. The former extends from the creation of
the world to the year of our Lord 1492 ; the latter only to
the time of Mahomet. — Hend. Buck.
CHRONOLOGY, (Sacked,) is the science of computing
and ad-Listing periods of time, and is, necessarily, of con-
siderable importance in relation to Scripture history. See
Time.
The chroiwlug!/ adopted by the English translators, and
placed in the margin of the larger Bibles, is that of the
masorelic, or common Hebrew text ; but of the authenti-
city of this, strong doubts are entertained by several bibli-
cal critics. They observe that, compared with the more
extended chronology of the Septuagint, it is of modern
adoption ; the venerable Bede, who flourished in the eighth
century, having been the first Christian writer wdio mani-
fested a predilection for it. It has been further observed,
that prior to the reformation, the views of the celebrated
monk of Durham had made but little progress among the
clergy, and that when Luther roused the attention of Eu-
rope to the errors of the ancient communion, the authority
of the Greek version and the unanimous consent of the
pr'mitive writers were still found to regulate all the calcu-
laions concerning the age of the world. That in the
warmth of the controversy which ensued, the more rigid
Protestants were induced to rank, among the corruptions
of the "Western church, the chronology of the Samaritan
Pentateuch, of the Seventy, and of Josephus : they re..o-
Imely pronounced that the numbers of the original text
were to be preferred to those of any version ; and forthwith
bestowed the weight of their authority upon the Jewish
side of the question, and opposed that which the Christians
had maintained from the days of the apostles.
The chief difference between the.se two schemes of chro
nology, is found in those periovds which extend from the
creation to the dehigf, and from thence to the birth of Ahra-
ham. According to the Hebrew computation, the nninbcr
of years comprised in the first period, amonnts only Ij
1656, and the second to 292. But in the Septmigiiil. ilie
numbers respectively are 2262, and 1072 ; thus exlciulin?
the interval between Ihe creation and the birth ol Chri.si.
from 4000 to nearly tiOOO years. These variations hri\,,-
not yet been satislactorily accounted for, but nm--i) .ig'*'
CHU
[ 366 ]
CHU
has been thrown upon the subject by the laborious investi-
gations of Hayes, Jackson, and Hales ; and the result with
many, though not with all, has been to give an increased
degree of confidence in the larger computations of the Sep-
tuagint. We think, however, that internal probabiUty, as
well as the Hebrew text, is against it.
We need not enlarge on the different systems of ancient
and modern chronologers, concerning the years of the
world. Those who would study these matters, must con-
sult those authors who have expressly treated the subject.
We have followed Usher in the chronology of the Old Tes-
tament, with some trifling differences only ; and among
the appendices is a Chronological Table, with the dates
inserted according to Dr. Hales.
Ages of the world. The time preceding the birth
of Jesus Christ, has generally been divided into six ages :
(1.) from the beginning of the world to the deluge ;
comprehending 1656 years — (2.) from the deluge to Abra-
ham's entering the land of promise, in A. M. 2082 ; com-
prehending 426 years — (3.) from Abraham's entrance of
the promi.sed land, to the exodus, A. M. 2513, comprehend-
ing 431 years — (4.) from the exodus to the foundation of
the temple by Solomon, A. M. 2yy2, comprehending 479
years — (5.) from the foirndation of the temple to the Baby-
lonish captivity, in A, M. 34 16, comprehending 424 years—
(6.) from the captivity to the birth of Christ, A.M. 4000,
the fourth year before the vulgar era, or A. D , compre-
hending 584 years. — Calmet.
CHRYSOLITE ; a precious stone, probably the tenth
on the high-pnest's pectoral ; bearing the name of Zebu-
Ion, Exod. 28 : 20 ; 39 : 19. It is transparent, the color
of gold, with a mixture of green, which displays a fine
lustre. The Hebrew (tarshish) is translated by the LXX,
and by Jerome, sometimes, carbuncle ; by the rabbins, be-
ryl : it was the seventh foundation of the New Jerusalem,
Rev. 21: 20.— Cfl/m.'!.
CHRYSOGONUS, a worthy Christian of Aqtiileia, who
was beheaded, about the year 304, by order of Dioclesian,
Ibr having instructed a yoimg lady of that city in the
Christian Mlh.—Fux.
CHRYSOPRASUS ; the tenth of those precious .stones
which adorned the foundation of the heavenly Jerusalem ;
its color was green, inclining to gold, as its name imports,
Kev. 21 : 20.— Calmet.
CHRYSOSTOM, (Jons,) was born at Antioch, about
A. D. 344. He was of a noble family, and his father,
whose name was Secundus, was a general of cavaliy.
The na\ne of Chrysostom, which signifies golden raouih,
he acquired hy his eloquence. He has also been called
the Homer of orators, and compared to the sun. Suc-
cessful at the bar, for which he was educated, he quitted
it, to become, for sir years, an ascetic. When he emerg-
ed from his retirement, he became a preacher, and gained
such high reputation for his piety and oratorical talents,
that he was raised to be patriarch of Constantinople, A. D.
3!i8. At length he incurred the hatred of the empress
Eudoxin, and was sent into exile, in which he died, A. D.
407. There are three editions of his works in eight, ten,
and thirteen folio volumes. — Davenport.
CHUB, a word which occurs onlv in Ezek. 30 : 5. and
probably signifies the Cubians, placed by Ptolemy in the
Sl.iicotis. Bochart takes it to be P.iliurus, a city in Mar-
mcr.ca, because Ihe Syriac word denotes jjs/mras, a sort
of thorn. —Calm'.t.
CHUBR, (Thom\s,) a controversial deist, was born, in
107 :>, at Exsl Har.iham, near Salisbury, was successively
a glover, a tallow-chandler, and a sort of humble compan-
ion or depe'idanl m the family of Sir Joseph Je'f\ 11. He died
in 1717. His first work, which appeared in 171 "i was enti-
tled, Tiie Supremacy of the Father asserted, a;.d this was
foUoweil by several others. His posthumous pieces were
puulished in two volumes, in 1748. Howev-r erroneous
his o-.jiuions may be, Chubb was a wcll-mranrng and
modest man, with a respectable share o' talent ar J infor-
mal i(>r. . — Davenport.
CHiJRCH, (Scottish faVi, Danish, ft.-. '-iVAr, German
kircUt:,) is generally derived from the Greek l-urMo»,
what belongs, or is -pproprieied ') the L'^rd ( Knrio^) ■
though some think it -i fr->iia ihe German 'uren. 1 1 . ipct.
choose out, and so e- 1: • r ponding to Ihe G -eel; •/„'.'' j./
from ek, out of, and hako, I call. 1. The Greek word eh-
klesia, properly denotes an assembly called together upon
business, whether lawful or unlawful, Acts 19 : 32, 39. —
2. It is understood of the collective body of Christians,
or all those over the face of tlie earth who profess to be-
lieve in Christ, and acknowledge him to be the Savior of
mankind. Eph. 3 : 21. 1 Tim. 3 : 15. Eph. 4 : 11, 12.
— 3. By the wordc/i«rc/i, also, we are to understand the
whole body of God's chosen people, in every period of
time. Those on earth are also called the militant, and
those in heaven the triumphant church. Heb. 12:23.
Acts 20 : 28. Eph. 1 : 22. Matt. 16 : 28.-4. By Kpar-
ticular church we understand an assembly of Christians
united together, and meeting in one place for the solemn
worship of God. To this agrees the definition given by
the compilers of the thirty-nine articles of the church of
England : — " A congregation of faithful men, in which
the true word of God is preached, and the sacraments
duly administered, according to Christ's ordinances, in all
those things that of necessity are requisite to the same."
Acts 9:31. Gal. 1:2, 22. 1 Cor. 14 : 34. Acts 20 : 17.
Col. 4 : 15. — 5. The word is now used also to denote
any particular denomination of Christians distinguished
by particular doctrines, ceremonies, &c.; as the Romish
church, Greek church, EngUsh church, (tec. — 6. The
word church is also improperly used to denote the building
in which the members of the establishment meet for put>
Ue worship. The Christians of the first century worshipped
in private houses, or in the open air, in remote places, be-
cause they were not acknowledged by the state, and were
often persecuted. It was not till the third century that
they could venture to give more publicity to their service,
and build places of worship. After the fourth century,
churches became large, and, in many instances, magnifi-
cent edifices. Many heathen temples were converted in-
to churches ; and, in the middle ages, edifices ■n'ere erect-
ed for the professed worship of Him who " dwelleth not
in temples made with hands," which in loftiness and
grandeur were never surpassed. Excepting St. Paul's in
London, the Protestants have not erected any verj' splen-
did church ; and, indeed, their principal object in the con-
struction of their places of worship is, what it ever ought
to be, the accommodation of the hearers. In the Roman
Catholic and Greek communions, on the contrar}', the ef-
fect on the eye is every thing. — Hend. Duck.
CHURCH, (Congregational.) See Congregational-
ISTS.
CHURCH OF ENGLAND, is the church established
by law in that kingdom.
When and by whom Christianity was first introduced
into Britain, cannot perhaps be exactly ascertained. Eu-
sebius, indeed, positively declares that it was by the apos-
tles and their disciples. (See Claudia.) It is also said
that numbers of persons professed the Christian faith
there about the year 150 ; and according to Usher, there
was in the year 182, a school of learning, to provide the
British churches with proper teachers. Popery, however,
was established in England by Austin the monk ; (see
Austin,) and the errors of it we find every where preva-
lent, until Wickliffe was raised up by divine providence
to refute them. The church of England remained in
subjection to the pope until the time of Henry VIII. Hen-
ry, indeed, in early life, and during the former part of
his reign, was a bigoted papist. He burnt the famous
Tyndnl (who made one of the first and best translations
of the New Te.stament), and \vrote in defence of the seven
sacraments against Luther, for which the pope gave
him the title of " The Defender of the Faith." But, fall-
ing out with the po]ie about his marriage, he took the
government of ecclesiastical afl'airs into his own hand,
and, having reformed many abuses, entitled himself su-
preme head of the church. (See Reformation.)
The ihiclrines of the church of England, which are con-
tained in the thirty-nine articles, are certainly Calvinisti-
cal, though this has been denied by some modern writers,
especially by Dr. Kipling, in a tract entitled "The Arti-
cles of the church of England proved not to be Calvinis-
tic." These articles were founded, for the most part,
upon a body of articles compiled and published in the
reign of Edward VI. They were fint passed in the con-
CHU
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CHU
vocation, and confirmed by royal aulhorily iu 1562. Tbey
were afterwards ratified anew in the year 1571, and again
by Charles I. The law requires a subscription to these
articles, of all persons who are admitted into holy orders.
In the course of the last century, disputes arose among
the clergy respecting the propriety of subscribing to any
human formulary of religious sentiments. An applica-
tion for its removal was made to parliament, in 1772, by
the petitioning clergy, and received the most public dis-
cussion in the house of commons, but was rejected in
the house of lords.
The government of the church of England is episcopal.
The king is the supreme head. There are two archbish-
ops, and twenty-four bishops. The benefices of the bish-
ops were converted by "William the Conqueror into tem-
poral baronies ; so that every prelate has a seat and a
vote in the house of peers. Dr. Hoadley, however, iu a
sermon preached from this text — " My kingdom is not of
this world," insisted that the clergy had no pretensions to
temporal jurisdiction ; which gave rise to various publi-
cations, termed, by way of eminence, the Bangorian Con-
troversy, because Hoadley was then bishop of Bangor.
Dr. Wake, archbishop of Canterbury, formed a project
of peace and union between the English and GalUcan
churches, founded upon this condition, that each of the
two communities should retain the greatest part of their
respective and pecuUar doctrines ; but this project came
to nothing. In the church of England there are deans,
archdeacons, rectors, vicars, &;e. ; for an account of which
see the respective articles.
The church of England has a public form read, called
a liturg)'. It was composed in 1547, and has undergone
several alterations, the last of which was in 1601. Since
that time, several attempts have been made to amend the
liturgy, articles, and some other thmgs relating to the in-
ternal government, but without efl'ect. There are many
excellencies in the liturgy; and, in the opinion of the
most impartial Grotius (who was no member of this
church), " it comes so near the primitive pattern, that
none of the reformed churches can compare with it."
See LiTDRGY.
The greatest part of the inhabitants of England are
professedly members of this church ; but, perhaps, very
few either of her ministers or members strictly adhere to
the articles in their true sense. Those who are called
methodistic or evangelical preachers in the establishment,
are allowed to come the nearest.
See Mr. Overton's True Churchman ; Bishop Jewel's
Apology for the Church of England ; Archbishop Potter's
Treatise on Church Government ; Tucker's ditto ; Hook-
er's Ecclesiastical Polity ; Pearson on the Creed ; Burnet
on the Thirty-nine Articles ; Bishop Frettyman's Elements
of Theology ; and Sirs. H. Flore's Hints on forming the
Character of a Young Princess, vol. 2 : ch. 37. On the
subject of the first introduction of Christianity into Bri-
tain, seethe 1st vol. of Henry's History of Great Britain,
and of Ivimey's History of the Baptists. — Hend. Buck.
CHURCH, (Gallicas), denotes the ci-devant church of
France under the government of its respective bishops
and pastors. This church always enjoyed certain fran-
chises and immunities, not as grants from popes, but as
lenved to her, from her first original, and which she took
care never to relinquish. These liberties depended upon
two maxims ; the first, that the pope had no right to order
any thing in which the temporalities and civil rights of
the kingdom were concerned ; the second, that, notwith-
standing the pope's supremacy was admitted iu cases
purely spiritual, yet in France his power was limited by
the decrees of ancient councils received in that realm.
The liberties or privileges of the Galilean church are
founded upon these two maxims, and the most considera-
ble of them are as follows : —
1. The king of France has a right to convene synods,
or provincial and national councils, in which, amongst
other important matters relating to the preservation of
the state, cases of ecclesiastical discipline are likewise de-
bated.
2. The pope's legates H latere, who are empowered to
reform abuses, and to exercise the other parts of their le-
gatine olice, are never admitted into France unless at the
desire or with the consent of the king ; and whatever the
legates do there, is with the approbation and allowance of
the king.
3. The legate of Avignon carmot exercise his commis-
sion in any of the king's dominions, till after he hath ob-
tained his majesty's leave for that purpose.
4. The prelates of the Galilean church, being summoned
by the pope, cannot depart the realm upon any pretence
whatever, without the king's permission.
5. The pope has no authority to levy any tax or impo- .
sition upon the temporalities of the ecclesiastical prefer-
ments, upon any pretence, either of loan, vacancy, an-
nates, tithes, procurations, or otherwise, without the king's
order, and the consent of the clerg)'.
6. The pope has no authority to depose the king, or
grant away his dominions to any person whatever. His
holiness can neither excommunicate the king, nor absolve
his subjects from their allegiance.
7. The pope likewise has no authority to excommuni-
cate the king's oflicers, for their executing and discharg-
ing their respective offices and functions.
8. The pope has no right to take cognizance, either by
himself, or his delegates, of any pre-eminences, or privi-
leges, belonging to the crown of France, the king being not
obliged to argue his prerogatives in any court but his own.
9. Counts palaline, made by the pope, are not acknow-
ledged as such in France, nor allowed to make use of
their privileges and powers, any more than those created
by the emperor.
10. It is not lawful for the pope to gi'ant licenses to
churchmen, the king's subjects, or to any others holding
benefices in the realm of France, to bequeath the issues
and profits of their respective preferments, contrar)' to
any branch of the king's laws, or the customs of the
realm ; nor to hinder the relations of the beneficed cler-
gy, or monks, to succeed to their estates, when they enter
into religious orders, and are professed.
11. The pope cannot grant to any person a dispensa-
tion to enjoy any estate or revenues in France, without
the Icing's consent.
12. The pope cannot grant a license to ecclesiastics to
alienate church lands, situate and lying in France, with-
out the king's consent, upon any pretence whatever.
13. The king may punish his ecclesiaistical ofiicers for
misbehavior in their respective charges, notwithstanding
the privdege of their orders.
14. No person has any right to hold any benefice in
France, unless he be either a native of the country, natu-
ralized by the king, or has a royal dispensation for that
purpose.
15. The pope is not superior to an ecumenical or gene-
ral council.
16. The GalUcan church does not receive, without dis-
tinction, all the canons, and all the decretal epistles, but
keeps principally to that ancient collection, called Corpus
Canoiucum, the same which pope Adrian sent to Charle-
magne towards the end of the eighth century, and which,
in the year 860, under the pontificate of Nicolas I., the
French bishops declared to be the only canon law they
were obliged to acknowledge, maintaining that, in this
body, the liberties of the Galilean church consisted.
n . The pope has no power, for any cause whatsoever,
to dispense with the law of God, the law of nature, or
the decrees of the ancient canons.
IS. The regulations of the apostolic chamber, or court,
are not obligatory to the Galilean church, unless confirm-
ed by the king's edicts.
19. If the primates or metropolitans appeal to the pope,
his holiness is obliged to trj' the cause, by commissioners,
or delegates, in the same diocese from which the appeal
was made.
20. When a Frenchman desires the pope to give him
a benefice lying in France, his holiness is obliged to or-
der him an instrument, sealed under the faculty of his
office ; and, in case of refusal, it is lawful for the person
pretending to the benefice to apply to the parliament of
Paris, which court shall send instructions to the bishop of
the diocese to give him institution, which institution shall
be of the same validity as if he had received his title un-
der the seals of the court of Romo
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21. No mandates from the pope, enjoining a bishop or
other collator to present any person to a benefice upon a
vacancy, arc admitted in France.
22. It is only by suflcrance that the pope has what they
call a right of prevention, to collate to benefices, which
the ordinary has not disposed of.
23. It is not lawful for the pope to exempt the ordmary
of anv monastery, or any other ecclesiastical corporation,
from the jurisiliction of their respective diocesans, m or-
der to mak-e-the person so exempted immediately depen-
dent on the holy see.
These liberties are esteeijjed inviolable ; and the French
kings, at their coronation, solemnly swear to preserve and
maintain them. Tlie oath runs tlius ■.—Promitto vobis et
perdono quod unicuique de vobis et ecclesiis vobis eommissis ca-
nonicum prioilegium et dehitam legem atque jiistitiam Sirvabo.
In the established church the Janseiiists were very nu-
merous. The bishoprics and prebends were entirely in
the gift of the king ; and no other Catholic .state, except
Italy, had so numerous a clergy as France. There were
in this kingdom eighteen archbishops, one hundred and
eleven bi.shops, one hundred and sixty-six thousand cler-
gymen, and Uiree thousand four hundred convents, con-
taining two hundred thousand pei-sons devoted to a mo-
nastic life.
Since the repeal of the edict of Nantz, the Protestants
have sulieied much from persecution. A solemn law,
which did much honor to Louis XVI., late king of France,
gave to his non-Roman Catholic subjects, as they were
called, all the civil advantages and privileges of their Ro-
man Catholic brethren..
The above statement was made previously to the
French revolution : great alterations have taken place
since that period. And it may be interesting, to those
who have not the means of fuller information, to give a
sketch of the causes which gave rise to those important
events.
About the middle of the last century, a conspiracy was
formed to overthrow Christianity, without distinction of
worship, whether Protestant or Catholic. Voltaire, D'-
Alembert, Frederic 11. king of Prussia, and Diderot, were
at the head of this conspiracy. Numerous other adepts
and secondary agents were induced to join them. These
pretended philosophers used every artifice that impiety
could invent, by union and secret correspondence to
attack, to debase, and annihilate Christianity. They not
only acted in concert, sparing no political or impious art
to efip.ct the destruction of the Christian religion, but they
were the instigators, and conductors of those secondary
agents whom they had seduced, and pursued their plan
with all the ardor and constancy which denotes the most
finished conspirators.
The French clergy amounted to one hundred and thir-
ty thousand, the higher orders of whom enjoyed immense
revenues ; but the cures, or great body of acting clerg)',
seldom possessed more than twenty-eight pounds sterling
a-year, ami the vicars about half the sum. The clergy,
as a bodj-, independent of their titles, possessed a reve-
nue arising from their property in land, amounting to
five millions sterling annually ; at the same time they were
exempt from taxation. Before the levelling system had
taken place, the clerg)- signified to the commons the in-
structions of their constituents, to contribute to the exi-
gences of the state in equal proportion with the other
citizens. Not contented with this offer, the tithes and re-
venues of the clergy were taken away ; in lieu of which,
it was proposed to grant a certain stipend to the different
ministers of religion, to be payable by the nation. The
possessions of the church were then considered as nation-
al property by a decree of the constituent assembly. The
reUgious orders, viz. the communities of monks and nuns,
possessed immense landed estates ; and, after having
abolished the orders, the assembly seized the estates for
the use of the nation : the gates of the cloisters were now
thrown open. The next step of the assembly was to es-
tablish what is called the civil constitution of the clergy.
This, the Roman Catholics assert, was in direct opposition
to their religion. But though opposed with energetic elo-
quence, the decree passed, and was soon after followed by
another, obliging the clerg)' to swear to maintain their
civil constitution. Every artifice which ctinning, and
every menace which cruelty conld invent, were used to
induce them to take the oath ; great numbers, however,
refused. One hundred and thirty-eight bishops and arch-
bishops, sbcty-eight curates or vicars, were on this account
driven from their sees and parishes. Three hundred ot
the priests were massacred in one day in one city. All
the other pastors who adhered to their religion, were
either sacrificed, or banished from their country, seeking
through a thousand dangers a refuge among foreign na-
tions. A perusal of the horrid massacres of the priests*
who refused to take the oaths, and the various forms of
persecution employed by those who were attached to the
Catholic religion, must deeply wound the feelings of hu-
manity. Those readers who are desirous of further in-
formation, are referred to Abbe Barruel's " History of
the Clergy."
Some think that there was another cause of the revolu- '
tion, and which may be traced as far back at least as the
revocation of the edict of Nantz in the seventeenth centu-
ry, when the great body of French Protestants, who were
men of principle, were either murdered or banished, and
the rest in a manner silenced. The effect of this sangui-
nary measure (say they) must needs be the general preva-
lence of infidelity. Let the religious part of any nation
be banished, and a general spread of irreligion must ne-
cessaiily follow : such were the effects in France. Through
the whole of the eighteenth century, infidelity was the
fashion, and that not only among the princes and no-
blesse, but even among the greater part of the bishops and
clergy. And as they had united their influence in ba-
nishing true reUgion, and cherishing the monster which
succeeded it, so they were united in sustaining the calam-
itous effects which that monster has produced. However
unprincipled and cruel the French revolutionists were,
and however much the sufferers, as fellow-creatures, are
entitled to our pity ; yet, considering the event as the just
retribution of God, we are constrained to say, " Thou art
righteous, 0 Lord, who art, and wast, and shalt be, be-
cause thou hast judged thus ; for they have shed the blood
of saints and prophets, and thou hast given them blood to
drink ; for they are worthy."
The Catholic religion is now again established, but
with a toleration of the Protestants, under some restric-
tion. See the Concordat, or religious establishment of the
French republic, ratified Sept. lOlh, 1801. — Hend. Buck.
CHURCH, ("Greek), that portion of professing. Chris-
tians who conform in their creed, usages, and church go-
vernment to the views of Christianity introduced into the
former Greek empire, and matured, since the fifth centu-
ry, under the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerusalem. A schism between the East and
West might early have been anticipated. The foundation
of a new Rome at Constantinople ; the political partition
of the Roman empire into the Oriental or Greek, and the
Occidental or Latin ; the elevation of the bishop of Con-
stantinople to the place of second patriarch of Christen-
dom, inferior only to the patriarch of Rome, effected in
the councils of Constantinople, A. D. 3S1, and of Chalce-
don, 45 1 ; the jealousy of the latter patriarch towards the
growing power of the former, — were circumstances which,
together with the ambiguity of the edict known under the
name of the Ilenoticon, (which see), granted by the Greek
emperor, Zeno, A. D. 482, produced a formal schism in
what till then had formed the Catholic church. Felix II.,
patriarch of Rome, pronounced sentence of excommuni-
cation against the patriarchs of Constantinople and Alex-
andria, who had been the leading agents in the Henoti-
con, in A, D. 4S4, and thus cut off all ecclesiastical fellow-
ship which the congregations of the East attached to these
patriarchs. The sentiments of the imperial court being
changed, the Roman patriarch, Hormisdas, was able, in-
deed, to compel a re-union of the Greek church with the
Latin, in A. D. 519 ; but this union, never seriously in-
tended, and loosely compacted, was again dissolved by
the obstinacy of both parties, and the Roman sentence of
excommunication against the Iconoclasts among the
Greeks, in 733, and against Photius, the patriarch of Con-
stantinople in 862. The augmentation of the Greek
church, by the addition of newly-converted nations, excited
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afresh, about this time, the jealousy of the Roman
pontiff ; and bis bearing towards the Greeks was the more
haughty in consequence of his having renounced his alle-
giance to the Greek emperor, and had a sure^ protection
against him in the new Prankish Roman empire. Pho-
tius, on the other hand, charged the I,atins with arbitrary
conduct in inserting an unscfiptural addition into the
creed, respecting the procession of the Holy Ghost, and
in altering many of the usages of the ancient orthodox
church : for example, in forbidding their priests to marry,
repeating the chrism, and fasting on Saturday, as the
Jewish Sabbath. But he complained, with justice, in par-
ticular, of the assumptions of the pope, who pretended to
be the sovereign of all Christendom, and treated the Greek
patriarchs as his inferiors. The deposition of this patri-
nrcli, twice effected by the pope, did not terminate the
dispute between the Greeks and Latins : and when the
patriarch of Constantinople, Jlichael Cerularius, added
to the cliarges of Photius, against the Latins, an accusa-
tion of heresy in 1054, on account of their use of un-
leavened bread at their communion, and of the blood of
animals that had died by strangulation, as well as on ac-
count of the immorality of the Latin clergy in general,
pope Leo IX. having iir retaliation excommunicated him
in the most insulting manner, a total separation ensued
of the Greek church from the Latin. From this time,
]>ride, obstinacy, and selfishness frustrated all the attempts
which were made to re-unite the two churches, partly by
the popes, in order to annex the East to their see, partly
by the Greek emperors, in order to secure the assistance
of the princes of the "West against the Mahometans.
Neither would yield to the other in respect to the contest-
ed points, — while the Catholic religion acquired a more
complete and peculiar character under Gregory VII. ;
and, in consequence of the scholastic theology, the Greek
church retained its creed a.s arranged by John of Damas-
cus, in 730, and its ancient constitutions. The conquest of
Constantinople by the French crusades and the Venetians,
A. D. 1204, and the cruel oppressions which the Greeks
had to endure from the Latins and the papal legates, only
increased their exasperation ; and although the Greek
emperor Michael II. (Paloeologus, who had reconquered
Constantinople in 1261) consented to recognise the pope's
supremacy, and by his envoys and some of the clergy
who were devoted to him, abjured the points of separation,
at tlie assembly held at Lyons in 1274 ; and though a
joint synod was held at Constantinople in 1277, for the
purpose of strengthening the union with the Latin church,
the great body of the Greek church was nevertheless
opposed to this step ; and pope Martin IV. having excom-
municated the emperor Michael in 1281, from political
motives, the councils held at Constantinople in 1283 and
1285, by the Greek bishop, restored their old doctrines, and
the separation from the Latins. The last attempt to unite
the two churches was made by the Greek emperor, John
VII., when very hard pressed by the Turks, together with
the patriarch Joseph, in the councils held, first at Ferrara
in 1438, and the next y£ar at Florence, pope Eug:ene IV.
presiding ; but the union there concluded, having the
appearance of submission to the Roman see, was alto-
jrether rejected by the Greek clergy and the nation at
large, so that in fact the schism of the two churches con-
tinued. The efforts of the Greek emperors, who had
always had most interest in tliese attempts at union,
ceased with the overthrow of their empire and the conquest
of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 ; and the exer-
tions of the Roman Catholics to subject the Greek church
effected nothing but the acknowledgment of some few
Greek congregations in Italy, Hungaiy, Gallicia, Poland,
and Lithuania, which congregations are now known
under the name of United Greeks.
In the seventh century, the territory of the Greek church
embraced, besides East lUyria, Greece Proper, with the
Morea and the Archipelago, Asia Minor, Syria, with Pa-
lestine, Arabia, Egj'pt, and numerous congregations in
Jlesopotamia and Persia ; but the conquests of Mahomet
and his successors have deprived it, since 630, of almost
all its provinces in Asia and Africa; and even in Europe
the number of its adherents was considerably diminished
by the Turks in the ftftcenth century. On the other hand,
47
it was increased by the accession of several Sclavonic
nations, and especially by the Russians, who, under thi:
great prince Vladimir, in the year 988, embraced tlii!
creed of the Greek Christians. To this nation the Greek
church is indebted for the symbolical book, which, with
the canons of the first and second Nicene, of the first,
second, and third Constantinopolitan, of the Ephesian'
and Chalcedonian general councils, and of the Trullan
council, held at Constantinople in 692, is the sole authority
of its members in matters of doctrine. After the learned
Cyrillus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, had suffered
martyrdom for has professed approbation of the principles
of Protestantism, A. D. 1629, an exposition of the doctrines
held by the Russians was drawn up in the Greek lan-
guage, by Peter Mogislaus, bishop of Kiev, 1612, under
the title of the " Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and
Apostolic Church of Christ," signed and ratified 1643, by
all the patriarchs of the Greek church, to whom had been
added, in 1589, the patriarch of Moscow. It was printed
in Holland, in Greek and Latin, 1662, with a preface by
the patriarch Nectarius of Jerusalem. In 1696, it was;
published by the last Russian patriarch ; and in 1722, at
the command of Peter the Great, by the holy synod ; it
having been previously declared to be in all cases valid as
the standard of the Greek church, by a council held at
Jerusalem in 1672, and by the ecclesiastical rule of Peter
the Great, drawn up in 1721, by Theophanes Procoviez. «
Like the Roman Catholic, the Greek church recognises
two sources of doctrine, the Bible and tradition, under
which last it comprehends not only those doctrines which
were orally delivered by the apostles, but also those which
have been approved of by the Greek fathers, especially
John of Damascus, as well as by the seven above-named
general councils. The other councils, whose authority is
valid in the Latin communion, this church does not recog-
nise ; nor does it allow the patriarchs or synods to intro-
duce new doctrines. It holds its tenets to be so obligatory
and necessary, that they cannot be denied without the loss
of salvation. It is the only church which holds that the
Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only : thus differing
both from the Catholics and Protestants, who agree in de-
riving the third person both from the Father and the Son.
Like the Latin church, it has seven sacraments : baptism,
chrism, the eucharist, confession, penance, ordination,
marriage, and extreme unction ; it is peculiar, first, in
holding that full purification from original sin requires a
trine immersion, or aspersion, and in joining chrism with
it as the completion of baptism ; secondly, in adopting, as
to the eucharist, the doctrine of trausubstantiation, but
ordering the bread to be leavened, the wine lo be mixed
with water, and both elements to be distributed to the laity,
even to children, the communicant receiving the bread in
a spoon filled with the consecrated wine ; thirdly, all the
clergy, with the exception of the monks, and of the higher
clergy chosen from among them, down to the bishops in-
clusively, are allowed to marry a virgin, but not a widow ;
nor are they allowed to marry a second time ; and there-
fore the widowed clergy are not permitted to retain their
livings, but go into a cloister, where they are called liiero-
muimchi.
Rarely is a widowed bishop allowed to preserve his dio-
cese ; and from the maxims that marriage is not suitable
for the higher clergy in general, and that second marriage
is at least improper for the lower, there is no departure.
The Greek church does not regard the marriage of the
laity as indissoluble, and frequently grants lUvorces ; but
is as strict as the Roman church with respect to the forbid-
den degrees of relationship, especially of the ecclesiastical
relationship of god-parents ; nor does it allow the laity a
fourth marriage. It differs from the Catholic church in
anointing with the holy oil, not only the dying, but the
sick, for the restoration of their health, the forgiveness of
their sins, and the sanctification of their .souls. It rejects
the doctrine of purgatory, does not admit of predestination,
denies works of supererogation, and disallows of indul-
gences and dispensations ; only a printed form is some-
times given to the dead, at the request and for the comfort
of the survivors. It allows no carved, sculptured, or mol-
ten images of holy persons or things ; but the rcprescTila-
tions of Christ, of the wgin Marv, and the saints, whied
CHU
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are objects of religious worship, both in churches and pri-
irate houses, must be raerel)' painted, and at most inlaid
with precious stones. In the invocation of the saints, and
especially of the virgin, the Greeks are as zealous as the
Latins. They also hold relics, crosses, and graves to be
sacred ; and crossing themselves in the name of Jesus, they
consider as having a wonderful and blessed influence.
Besides fasting every Wednesday and Friday, they have
four general fasts annually.
The service of the Greek church consists almost entirely
in outward forms. Preachmg and catechizing constitute
the least part of it : indeed, in the seventeenth century,
preaching was strictly forbidden in Russia, under the czar
Alexis, to prevent the diffusion of novel doctrines. In
Turkey, it is eoufined almost exclusively to the higher
clergy, because they alone possess some deg:ree of know-
ledge. Each congregation has its own choir of singers,
instrumental music being altogether excluded from the
Greek church. Besides the mass, which is regarded as
the chief part of the service, the liturgy consists of passa-
ges of Scripture, praj'ers and legends of the saints, and in
the recitation of the creed, or of sentences which the priest
begins, and the people, officiating in a body, finish.
The convents, for the most part, conform to the strict
rule of St. Basil. The Greek abbot is termed hig-umenos ;
the abbess, higumene. The abbot of a Greek convent,
which has several others under its inspection, is termed
archimandrite, and has a rank next to that of a bishop.
The lower clergy in the Greek church consist of readers,
singers, deacons, &c. and of priests, such as the popes and
protopopes, or archpriests, who are the first clergy in the
cathedrals and metropolitan churches. The members of
the lower clergy can never rise higher than protopopes ;
since the bishops are chosen from among the monks ; and
from among the bishops, the archbishops, metropolitans,
and patriarchs.
In Russia, there are thirty-one dioceses ; with which of
them the archiepiscopal dignity shall be united, depends
on the will of the emperor. The seats of the four Russian
metropolitans are, — Petersburgh, with the jurisdiction of
Novogorod ; Kiev, with that of Galicia ; Kasan, with that
of Svijaschk ; and Tobolsk, with that of all Siberia. The
patriarchal dignity of Moscow, which the patriarch Nikon
is said to have abused, Peter the Great abolished, by pre-
senting himself unexpectedly before the bishops, who were
assembled, in 1702, to elect a new patriarch, and declar-
ing, " I am your patriarch ;" and, in 1721, the whole ec-
clesiastical government of the empire was intrusted to a
college of bishops and secular clergy, called the hoJy synod,
first at Moscow, now at Petersburgh. Under this synod
now stand, besides the metropolitans, eleven archbishops,
nineteen bishops, twelve thousand, five hundred parish
churches, and four hundred and twenty-five convents,
fifty-eight of which are connected with monastic schools
for the education of the clergy, for the better effecting of
which object, they are aided by a large annual pension
from the state.
The Greek church, under the Turkish dominion, remain-
3d, as far as was possible under such circumstances, faith-
ful to the original constitution. The dignities of patriarch
of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioeh, and Jerusalem,
still exist. The first, however, possesses the ancient au-
thority of the former archbishop of Constantinople ; takes
the lead as ecumenical patriarch in the holy synod at that
place, composed of the four patriarchs, a number of me-
tropolitans and bishops, and twelve secular Greeks ; exer-
cises the highest ecclesiastical jurisdiction over the Greeks
in the whole Turkish empire ; and is recognised as head
of the Greek church by the (not united) Greeks in Galicia,
in the Bukowina, or Sclavonia, and in the Seven Islands.
The other three patriarchs, as almost all the people in
their dioceses are Mahometans, have but a small sphere
of action (the patriarch of Alexandria has but two churches
at Cairo), and live, for the most part, on the aid afforded
them by the patriarch of Constantinople. This patriarch
has a considerable income, but is obliged to pay nearly
half of it as a tribute to the Suhan. The Greeks, under
the Turkish government, are not allowed to build any new
< hurches — have to pay dearly for permission to repair the
old ones — are not allowed to have steeples or bells to their
churches, nor even to wear the Turkish dress — generally
perform religious service by night — and are, moreover,
obliged to pay tolls, from which the Turks are exempt ;
but the males also pay to the sultan, after their fifteenth
year, a heavy poll-tax, under the name of exemption from
beheading.
The attachinent of the Greek church to the old institu-
tions has stood in the way of all attempts at improvement :
onl}' in Russia, a number of sects have sprung up, which
the government not only tolerates, but some of which it
supplies with consecration to their clergy, through the
regular bishops. As might be expected, true religion is
at the very lowest ebb in all the departments of this com-
munion ; yet strong hopes may be entertained of a revival,
from the circumstance that the free use of the holy Scrip-
tures, in the vernacular language, is not interdicted, as in
the church of Rome. — Hend. Buck.
CHURCH, HIGH. (See High Church.)
CHURCH OF IRELAND, is the same as the church
of England, and is governed by four archbishops, and
eighteen bishops. — Hend. Buck.
CHURCH, or KIRK of SCOTLAND. The word
kirk, signifying church, was used in Scotland even be-
fore the Reformation, and is still retained there, where it
is chiefly confined to the establishment, and the Relief
Synod.
The principles of the Reformation were first introduced
into Scotland about the year 1527, when they excited the
apprehensions of the priesthood, who attempted to arrest
their progress by many acts of cruelty against their pro-
fessors.
The sovereign and the priesthood combined to preserve
the dominion of error ; whilst the greater part of the no-
bility, to gain the objects which they fondly contemplated,
espoused the interests of the people, and joined in enlarg-
ing the sphere of civil and religious liberty. Thus it
happened, that the hierarchy came to be regarded in Scot-
land, by all who were partial to the Protestant faith, as
the ally of despotism and the engine of persecution.
It was not, therefore to be expected, that when the Pro-
testants gained a decided ascendency, much inclination
would be shown to uphold a system of ecclesiastical polity,
a.3S0ciated with what they most abhorred ; and the celebrat-
ed Andrew Melville, on his arrival in Scotland from Ge-
neva, in 1574, taking advantage of these feelings, and
of every political event that might facilitate his design,
was enabled to effect in 1592, the introduction of thai
Presbyterian polity which he found established in Geneva,
and which has finally been fixed in Scotland.
James VI., to whom this form of church government
was most obnoxious, was desirous that Episcopacy, as
more consonant to monarchy, should be restored. To
effect this, he made many efforts, even before his accession
to the English throne ; and after that event, he was ena-
bled to accomplish his object. His unfortimate son,
Charles I., formed the scheme of assimilating, in all re-
spects, the churches of England and Scotland. With this
view he determined to introduce a liturgy, which in Scot-
land had never been regularly used ; and he insisted upon
the reception of a set of canons, abolishing the control
over ecclesiastical measures which the inferior church
judicatories had been permitted to exercise. The violence
with which all this was resisted, is known to every reader
of the history of Britain. The zeal of the multitude was
inflamed to fury ; the clergy were insulted, and Episcopacy
was again contemplated as the engine of popery and of
despotism. The discontented in Scotland made a common
cause with those who were disaflected to prelacy in the
southern part of the island : they bound themselves by the
deed, entitled The Solemn League and Covenant, to extermi-
nate prelacy as a corruption of the gospel ; and they took
an active part in those measures which terminated in the
death of Charles and the erection of the commonwealth.
Upon the restoration of Charles II., he re-established
Episcopacy in Scotland, under circumstances little calcu-
lated to conciliate the affections, and to secure the reve-
rence of the people to that form of church polity. The
Presbyterians, undismayed, adhered to their principles ;
and, upon the abdication of James II., they looked for-
ward with confidence to the triumph of their cause. And
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[371 ]
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though the prince of Orange was eager to preserve in
both parts of the island the same form of ecclesiastical
government, the bishops conceived that they could not
conscientiously transfer their allegiance to hiiu, whereby
the way was opened for that establishment of Presbytery,
which some of his most zealous adherents had pressed
upon him, and which was ratified by act of parliament in
1690. Thus Scotland and England having been separate
kingdoms at the time of the Reformation, a difference of
circumstances in the two countries led to different senti-
ments on the subject of religion, and at last to different
religious establishments ; and when they were incorpo-
rated into one kingdom by the treaty of union in 1707,
both kingdoms gave their assent to a declaration, that
Episcopacy shall continue in England, and that the Pres-
byterian church government shall be the only government
of Christ's church in that part of Great Britain called
Scotland.
The same establishment is also guaranteed by the fifth
article of the union with Ireland.
The only confession which appears to have been legally
established before the revolution in 16S8, is that which is
published in the " History of the Refomiation in Scot-
land," attributed to John Knox. It consists of twenty-five
articles, and was the confession as well of the Episcopal
as of the Pre3b3Terian church. The Covenanters, indeed,
during the commonwealth, adopted the Westminster con-
fession. And at the revolution, this confession was re-
ceived as the standard of the national faith ; and the same
acts of parliament which settled Presbyterian church
government in Scotland, ordain, " That no person be ad-
mitted or continued hereafter to be a minister or preacher
within this church, unless that he subscribe the (i. e. this)
confession of faith, declaring the same to be the confession
of his faith." By the act of union in 1707, the same is
required of all " professors, principals, regents, masters,
and others bearing office" in any of the four universities
in Scotland.
The Westminster confession of faith, then, and what
are called the larger and shorter catechisms, which are
generally bound up with it, contain the public and avov.-ed
doctrines of this church ; and it is well known that these
formularies are strictly and properly Calvinistical.
In the church of Scotland, the public worship is ex-
tremely simple, and but few ceremonies are retained.
There is no liturgy or public form in use ; and the minis-
ter's only guide is, " The Directory for the Public Wor-
ship of God," which prescribes rather the matter than the
words of our addresses to God : nor is it thought necessary
to adhere strictly to it ; for, as in several other respects,
what it enjoins v.-ith regard to reading the holy Scriptures
in public worship is, at this day, but seldom practised.
By the ecclesiastical laws, " the sacrament of the Lord's
supper should be dispensed in every parish four times in
the year ;" but this law is now seldom adhered to, unless
in most chapels of ease. In country parishes, it is often
administered not above once a year, and in towns gene-
rally only twice a year. The people are prepared for that
holy ordinance by a fast and public worship on some day
of the preceding week, generally on Thursday, and by a
sermon on the Saturday ; and they meet again in the kirk
on the Monday morning for public thanksgiving, and
sermon.
They have no altars or chancels in the kirks, and the
communion tables are not fixed, but introduced for the
occasion ; and are sometimes two or more in number, and
of considerable length. At the first table, the minister,
immediately upon concluding what they call the conse-
cration prayer, usually proceeds to read the words of the
institution, and, without adding more, to distribute the
elements, which he does only to the two communicants
who sit nearest him on each hand. It is usual for the
elders to administer them to the rest. But before, or
during the services of the succeeding tables, addresses at
some length are made to the communicants by the minis-
ter, or by one of the ministers, (for there are generally
two, three, or more present,) standing at the head of the
communion table.
_In conducting public worship, ihi.s church has little in
common with the church of England . She has no festivals.
Days of public fasting and thanksgiving she does indeed
sometimes observe, particufarly those commanded by the
king, together with the fast previous to the celebration
of the holy communion, and the day of thanksgiving after
it ; but she has no lent fast, — no Icneeling at public prayer,
— no public worship of God without a sermon or public
in.struction, — no instrumental music, — no consecration of
churches or of burying grounds, — no funeral service or
ceremony, — no sign of the cross in baptism, — no regular
use of the Lord's prayer, — and no administration of the
holy communion in private houses, not even to the sick or
dying.
In singing, an old metrical version of the psalms is
used ; but besides the psalms of David, a collection of
translations and paraphrases in verse, of several passages
of sacred Scripture, together with some hymns, has been
introduced of late years, by permission of the general
assembly, and a new version of the psalms in metre is
now in progress.
For government and discipline, see Presbyteeianism.
The general assembly, in the present state of the
church, consists of the following members, viz. :^
200 Ministers representing Presbyteries.
89 Elders, representing Presbyteries.
67 Elders, representing royal boroughs.
5 Ministers or Elders, representing Universities.
361
The connexion of what is called the Scots kirk at
Campvere, in Holland, with the establishment in Scotland,
which had been dissolved by the Batavian republic, has
lately been restored ; and congregations joined with this
church, and represented in the general assembly, have
been established in the different presidencies of India.
In Scotland, and the islands of Scotland, she contains
within her bounds eight hundred and ninety-three parish-
es, and about one million five hundred thousand mem-
bers. The number of ministers belonging to her, who
enjoy benefices, and possess ecclesiastical authority, is
nine hundred and forty. Of this number, seventy-seven
are placed in collegiate charges, and the remaining eight
hundred and sixty-three ministers are settled in single
charges, each of them having the superintendence of a
whole parish. In very populous parishes, chapels of ease
are erected with consent of the kirk, and are supported by
voluntary subscriptions ; but the ministers who officiate
in them are not included in this number, as they are not
members of any ecclesiastical courts.
The duties of the Scotch clergy are numerous and la-
borious. They are required to oihciate regularly in the
public worship of God ; and, in general, they must gn
through this duty twice every Sunday (exclusive of other
occasional appearances,) delivering every Sunday a lee
ture and a sermon, with prayers. It is also expected,
throughout Scotland, that the prayers and discourses shall
be of the minister's own composition ; and the prayers, in
all cases, and the discourses, in most instances, are de
livered without the use of papers. They are expected to
perform the alternate duties of examining their people from
the Scriptures and catechisms of the church, and of visit-
ing them from house to house, with prayers and exhorta
tions. The charge of the poor devolves, in a very partic
ular manner, on the clergy ; and in them also is vested
the superintendence of all schools within their bounds.
The provision which has been made, by the law of
Scotland, for the support of the established clergy, consists
in a stipend, payable iir victual or money, or partly in each :
a small glebe of land ; and a manse (parsonage-house)
and office-houses.
An act of parliament passed in 1810, granting ten
thousand pounds per annum for augmenting the smaller
parish stipends in Scotland. By this act. the lowest sti-
pends assigned to a minister of the establishment, is one
hundred and fifty pounds sterling, with a small sum, gen-
erally eight pounds six shillings and eight pence, for
communion elements. Stipends, where the teinds arc
not exhausted, are, with the exclusion of communion ele-
ments, wholly paid in victual, generally oatmeal arid
barley, in equal proportions; and *ie court freqnenllv
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[ 372 ]
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allocates, as it is termed, to a minister from sixteen to
eighteen chalders. If the stipend exhaust the teind, it is
sometimes paid in money ; and there are cases hi which
(he teind was originally set apart in money, and not in
victual.
The whole church eatabhshment, as a burden on land,
may be stated in one view, as follows — viz. a glebe, of
perhaps abont six or seven acres, out of nearly twenty-one
thousand, and the grass, where it is allowed ; a stipend
of about nine pence in the pound of the land rents ; and
buildings and communion charges, amounting to four
or five pence more in the pound of these land rents. AH
these, put together, constitute the burdens of the Scottish
ecclesiastical establishment, in so far as proprietors of
land are affected by them ; and are not supposed to ex-
ceed three hundred thousand pounds per annum.
Patronage was abolished in Scotland, A. D. 1649 ; was
revived at the Kestoration ; was partly abrogated at the
Revolution ; and again revived in 1712 ; and the ranks of
dissenters there have been thronged, perhaps, from no
other cause so much as the abuse of patronage ; notwith-
standing, this church, according to Dr. Chalmers, has
still a veto, and can set aside any presentee, not merely
on the ground of his moral or hterary qualifications, but
'• generally, on tlie principle that it is not for the cause of
edification that his presentation should be sustained."
The internal state of the church of Scotland, it has
been supposed by some, has been of late years undergoing
an improvement, by the decided increase of the party
usually termed Evangelical. In the appointment of minis-
ters to vacant churches, both in town and country, much
greater attention is now paid than formerly to the wishes
of the people ; and popular candidates, as they are called,
are those whom the patrons of the present day most fre-
quently present to livings. If this party should go on
increasing in the same proportion, the reign of the made-
rates, or low-doctrine, but high-churchmen, must ere long
terminate. It is however, greatly to be deplored, that
along with this increase in the number of evangelical mi-
nisters, a spirit of intolerance and bigotry is rapidly gain-
ing ground. Individuals, for instance, carry their jealousy
so far as to dissuade their parishioners from hiring dis-
senting servants. Others, contrary to their former prac-
tice, refuse to intimate from their pulpits sermons to be
preached on pubhc occasions for common objects, by dis-
senting ministers ; and there are others who stand aloof
from societies in which they would be required to co-ope-
rate with brethren who do not belong to the established
chiirch. To the production of this spirit and state of
feeling, the controversy relating to the British and Foreign
Bible society lias greatly contributed. See Adam^s Reli-
gious World Displayed; Edin. Theolog. Mag., Nov. 1830.
- — Hend. Buck.
CHURCH, (Latin, or Western,) comprehends all the
churches of Italy, Portugal, Spain, Africa, the north and
all other countries whither the Romans carried their lan-
guage. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands, of Ger-
many, and of the north of Europe, have been separated
from it almost ever since the Reformation. — Hend. Buck.
. CHURCH, (Refoiimed,) comprehends the whole Pro-
testant churches in Europe and America, whether Luthe-
ran, Calvinistic, Independent, Qualcer, Baptist, or any
other denomination who dissent from the church of Rome.
The term reformed is now, however, employed on the
continent of Europe, to distinguish the Calvinists from
the Lutherans. — Hend. Buck.
CHURCH OF ROME, or Roman Catholic Church.
The Roman Catholics unanimously own Peter as the
founder of the church of Rome, though it is disputed by
some Protestants, whether he ever was in that city.
Those who deny it, ground their opinion upon the silence
of Luke and Paul in this matter, who, having been both
at Rome, would not have failed, say they, to have men-
tioned Peter, and the Christians converted by him, if he
had ever preached the gospel in that city. They endeavor
to confirm this opinion by the chronological history of the
Acts of the Apostles, and likewise by the first Epistle of
Peter ; from the last of which they undertake to prove,
that he executed his commission in Asia, and died at
I'.abylon.
To this it is answered, that the silence of Luke is no
good argument ; for that evangelist, in the Acts of the
Apostles, takes no notice of Paul's journey into Arabia,
and of his return, first to Damascus, and then to Jerusa-
lem. As to the argument from chronology, those who
maintain the affirmative, set up another account of time,
more agreeable, as they think, to the best ecclesiastical his-
torians and chronologers, and exactly coinciding with the
Acts of the Apostles, and the Epistles of Peter and Paul.
It is, in few words, this : —
In the thirty-fifth year of Christ, Peter and John went
to Samaria, where having preached the gospel, Peter re-
turned to Jenisalem ; whither Paul came, three years after
his conversion, to visit him, in the year of Christ, 39.
The church having rest, and being unmolested by its
enemies, Peter now took the opportunity to visit the seve-
ral churches already planted by the disciples, in which
progress he came to Antioch, the capital of the East ; and
here, being its first bishop, and having given necessary
orders for the government of that church, he returned
into Judea, where he visited the towns of Lydda, Joppa, ■]
and Cfesarea, in the years 40 and 41. After the conver
sion of the centurion Cornelius, he went to Jerusalem in
the year 42. At this time, Barnabas and Paul were sent
to Antioch, where they preached the gospel with great
success in the year 43. From thence they returned to
Jerusalem, where Peter then was, bringing with them the
contributions they had collected for the support of the
Christians of Judea, in the year -14. In the mean time,
Herod Agrippa, king of Judea, put the apostle James,
brother of John, to death, just before Easter, and soon
after, seized on Peter ; who, being miraculously released
by an angel, travelled through Antioch into Asia Minor,
where he planted new churches in Cappadocia, Galatia,
Pontus, and Bithynia ; from w'hence he embarked for
Rome, where he arrived the latter end of the year 44,
which was the second of the emperor Claudius. Here,
having converted many Jews and Gentiles, he planted a
church, of which he himself was the first bibhop, in the
year 45. He continued to govern this church till his
martyrdom, which fell out in the year 69, being the thir-
teenth of the emperor Nero ; upon which computation he
was bishop of Rome twenty-five years ; not that he was
resident all that time in Rome, for in the year 51, he was
obliged to quit the city, because of the emperor Claudius's
edict, which banished all the Jews, under which name
they included the Christians ; nor was he returned to
Rome when Paul was carried prisoner thither, in the year
59, and this may account for the silence of Paul in this
matter.
As to the Epistle of Peter, dated from Babylon to the
Christians in Asia, it is answered, that by Babylon, in
that place, is plainly meant the city of Rome ; and Euse-
bius, Jerome, and all the ancient writers, assure us that
this epistle was written at Rome.
Lastly, that Peter was at Rome, may be proved, say
they, by the concurrent testimony of all antiquity ; this
ti-uth being asserted by Papias, a disciple of John the evan-
gelist, by Caius, contemporary with TertuUian, by Clemens
Alexandrinus, Origen, Eusebius, Athanasius, &c. among
the Greeks ; and by Irenoeus, TertuUian, Cyprian, Lac-
tantius, ikc. among the Latins, and is a fact that never
was called in question till the sixteenth century.
Rome is the centre of the popish, or Roman Catholic
religion, and the pope, or bishop of the see of Rome, as
successor of St. Peter, claims the supremacy over the
universal Christian church. This claim is founded on the
words of our Savior to St. Peter: " Thou art Peter, and
upon this rock will I build my church." The best sum-
mary of the doctrines of that church, is the famous creed
of pope Pius IV. which may be considered as a true and
unquestionable body of popery. It consists of twenty-four
articles. The twelve first are the articles of the Nicene
creed, and need not be cited here. The twelve last are
the additional doctrines, which the church of Rome has
superadded to the original Catholic faith, — they are as
follows : —
XIII. I most firmly admit and embrace the apostolic
and ecclesiastical traditions, and all other obr rvations
and constittitions of the same church.
CHU
XIV. I do admit the holy Scriptures in the same sense
that holy mother church doth, whose business it is to judge
of the true sense and interpretation of them ; and I will
interpret thera according to the unanimous sense of the
fathers.
XV. I do profess and believe, that there are seven sa-
craments of the law, truly and properly so called, insti-
tuted by Jesus Christ our Lord, and necessary to the sal-
vation of raanlvind, though not all of them to every one,
viz. — Baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme
unction, orders, and marriage ; and that they do confer
grace ; and that, of these, baptism, confirmation, and
orders, may not be repeated without sacrilege. I do also
rel^eive and admit the received and approved rites of the
Catholic church in her solemn administration of the
above-said sacraments.
XVI. I do embrace and receive all and every thing,
that hath been defined and declared by the holy council
of Trent, concerning original sin and justification.
XVII. I do also profess, that in the mass, there is
offered un'o God a true, proper, and propitiatory sacrifice
for the quick and the dead ; and that in the most holy
sacrament of the eucharist, there is trulj', really, and
substantially, the body and blood, together with the soul
and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ ; and that there is
a conversion made of the whole substance of the bread
into the body, and of the whole substance of the wine into
the blood, which conversion the Catholic church calls
trnmubstantiaiion .
XVIII. I confess that, nnder one kind only, whole and
entire, Christ, and a true sacrament, is taken and
received.
XIX. I do firmly believe that there is a purgatory, and
that the souls kept prisoners there do receive help by the
suif rages of the faithful.
XX. I do likewise believe that the saints, reigning to-
gether with Christ, are to be worshipped and prayed to ;
and that they do oiTer prayers unto God for us, and that
their relics are to be had in veneration.
XXI. I do most firmly assert that the images of Christ,
of the blessed virgin (the mother of God) and of other
saints, ought to be had and retained, and due honor and
veneration ought to be paid to them.
XXII. I do affirm that the power of indulgences was
left by Christ in the church, and that the use of them is
very beneficial to Christian people.
XXIII. I do acknowledge the holy Catholic and aposto-
lic Roman church, to be the mother and mistress of all
churches ; and I do promise and swear true obedience to
the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, the prince
of the apostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ.
XXIV. I do undoubtedly receive and profess all other
things, which have been delivered, defined, and declared
by the sacred canons, and ecumenical coimcils, and espe-
cially by the holy synod of Trent ; and all other things
contrary thereto, and all heresies, condemned, rejected,
and anathematized by the church, I do likewise condemn,
reject, and anathematize.
The nonhip of this church is liturgical, and, throughout
the greatest part of its extent, the Latin language is used
in all public and authorized religious worship, although
Ibat language has for many ages ceased to be a vulgar
tongue. Her object in this practice is, we are told, "to
preserve uniformity ; to avoid the changes to which living
languages are exposed, and thereby to prevent the novel-
ties which might be thus introduced ; to facilitate the
commerce of different churches on religious matters ; and
to promote a spirit of study and learning among the min-
isters ;" nor does she admit that by this practice her
members sustain any injury or loss. She does not, how-
ever, require as a condition of communion, the adoption
of the Latin language and rite.
The Htur^)/, or order of the mass, almost universally
adopted, is that contained in the Roman missal.
Masses are divided into solemn or high mass, and plain
or low mass ; mass sung or said ; public mass, or private
mass.
A solemn mass is mass oflered up with all the due so-
lemnities, by a bishop or priest, attended by a deacon, sub-
deacon and other ininislcrs, each officiating in his part.
3 ] CHU
Such a mass is always sung ; and hence a choir of singers
accompanies it, with an organ, if possible, and, at times,
other instrumental music. IMass, when divested of all these
solemnities, and in which only the priest officiates, is a plain
or low mass. The priest, however, may either sing the mass,
attended by the choir, or say it. Hence the difference
between mass sung and said. Blass may be attended by
a crowd of people, or it may be said with few or none
present, except the clerk to attend the officiating priest.
When the mass is numerously attended, all or many of
those present may partake of the sacrifice by communion,
or none m.ay communicate but the priest. These differ-
ences make the mass public or private ; and it has been
remarked, that private masses have become more common
in latter ages.
The liturgy of the mass w ill be found in the Roman
missal, which contains, besides the calendar, the geneial
rubrics or rites of the mass, and such parts of it as are
invariably the same.
After the prayers of the liturgy or missal, those held in
the greatest veneration by Roman Catholics are the prayers
contained in the church office or canonical hours. This
office is a form of prayer and instruction combined, con-
sisting of the psalms, lessons, hymns, prayers, anthems,
versicles, &c. in an establi.shed order, separated into diffe-
rent portions, and to be said at difierent hours of the day.
These canonical hours of prayer are still regularly
observed by many religious orders, but less regularly by
the secular clergy, even in the choir. AVhen the office is
recited in private, though the observance of regular hours
may be commendable, it is thought sufficient if the whole
be gone through any time in the twenty-four hours.
The church office is contained in what is called the
breviary ; and those branches of this church who have
different liturgies from the Roman, have also breviaries
differing in language, rile, and arrangement. Even in
the Latin church, several dioceses, and several religious
bodies, have their particular breviaries. The Roman
breviary is, however, the most general in use. It is di-
vided much in the same manner as the missal as to its
parts. The psalms are so distributed, that in the weekly
office (if the festivals of saints did not interfere) the
whole psalter would be gone over, though several psalms,
viz. the one hundred and eighteenth (alias one hundred
and nineteenth,) are said every day. On the festivals of
saints, suitable psalms, are adopted. The lessons are
taken partly out of the Old and New Testament, and
partly out of the acts of the saints and writings of the
holy fathers. The Lord's prayer, the Hail Mary, or an-
gehcal salutation, the apostles' creed, and the confiteor,
are frequently said. This la,st is a prayer by which they
acknowledge themselves sinners ; beg pardon of God.
and the intercession, in their behalf, of the angels, of the
saints, and of their brethren upon earth. No prayers are
more frequently in the mouth of Roman Catholics than
these four ; to which we may add the doxolog}', repeated
in the office at the end of every psalm, and in other
places. In every canonical hour a hj-mn is also said,
composed by Prudentius or some other ancient father.
The Roman breriaiT contains also a small office in
honor of the blessed virgin, and likewise what is calle.I
the office of the dead. We there find besides, the peni-
tential and the gradual psalms, as they are called, toge-
ther with the litanies of the saints and of the virgin Mary
of Loretto, so called because used in the church of our
lady in Loretto, which are the only two that have the
sanction of the church.
In the public worship of this church, every thing is fixed
and uniform. And as the missal and breviary contain
the prayers and rites adopted in ordinary religious assem-
blies for the purpose of sacrifice or prayer, so the pontifi-
cal and ritual contains the forms and prayers with which
the sacraments are administered ; the blessing of God in-
voked upon his creatures ; the jwwer of evil spirits over
the souls and bodies of the faithful destroyed or restrain-
ed ; the inethod also of deprecating the wrath of God m
times of public calamity, and of returning him thanks for
signal public blessings ; finally, directions how to affonl
the comlbrts of religion to the' sick and dying, with the
prayers to be made'use of in the Christian interment cf
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[374
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the dead. Such of ihe above functions as belong to the
episcopal characler or ofUce are to be found in the ponti-
fical ; those which belong to simple priests; or even the
inferior clergy, are inserted in the ritual.
On the subject of Ihe administration of the sacraments,
my limits will not permit me to descend to particulars.
Of the many benedictions used in this church, some,
besides those accompanying the administration of their
sacraments of confirm-ation and holy orders, are reserved
to bishops exclusively, as the consecration of holy oil,
chrism, &c. Some are performed by priests in their own
right, and others by delegateil autliority from the bishop.
In addition to such benedictions, tins church blesses
houses, ships, springs, fields, the nuptial bed, altars, cha-
lices, sacerdotal ve.stments, salt, water, oil, palms, &c. &c.
It would be ridiculous even to recite the wonderful virtues
which her members attribute to their holy w'ater, and the
many superstitious uses to which they apply it. They
seldom go into or out of a church witliout sprinkling them-
selves Willi it. On solemn days, the priest passes down
the middle aisle, to perform that office, using a brush ; at
other times they serve themselves with it from a font
placed near the church door for that purpose. Another
of their ceremonies, connected with this and most others,
and used on most occasions and in all places, is the sign
of the cross.
Roman Catholics maintain that God lias left with his
church a power over unclean spirits, in consequence of
which they are cast out from such persons or things as,
by the permission of God, they have been able to abuse ;
or their power over them is at least restricted. The forms
of prayer which this church makes use of for that purpose
are called exorcisms, and the persons who are authorized
to use them are called e.xorcists. This function, however,
according to modem practice, is seldom discharged by any
but priests.
The prescribed forms for all benedictions, exorcisms,
and processions, &c. will be found in the " Roman Ponti-
fical and Ritual."
Those now enumerated are, properly speaking, the only
pr.ayers which can be said to have the sanction of the
church ; yet her members are furnished with many forms
for private devotion. And " when, to acquire a greater
ease in the observance of the law of God, a man makes
use of certain means which he is not obliged by any law
to use, and which others, who are not thought to neglect
their duty, do not in fact avail themselves of, he is said by
Roman Catholics to perform works of supererogation."
Of their numerous forms of private devotion, the '-Chap-
ter (or Rosary) of the blessed Virgin," and the " Angelus
Domini," may be noticed. The former was instituted,
we are told, by those who could not read, that they might
repeat the Lord's prayer, the Hail JIary, and the do.xology,
a certain number of times, in lieu of every canonical hour ;
whilst at the same time they commemorate the mysteries
of the life of Christ, and honor his virgin mother.
For above three centuries, a practice has prevailed in
this church of commemorating, at morning, noon, and
night, the incarnation of Christ, by a short form of prayer,
which, from the words with which it begins in Latin, is
called the " Angelus Domini."
In conformity with the Roman Catholic practice of
praying for the dead, " it is also very customary to offer
up for their repose, at the first hour of the night, the peni-
tential psalms, with a prayer suited to that end."
The gnvernme.tit of the church of Rome is hierarchical.
Besides those having jurisdiction, there are bishops in
parlibus irifideUum, as they are called, or, more briefly, in
pnrlibus—\. e. persons who, that they may enjoy the dignity
and honors of episcopacy, and thereby be qualified to
render some particular services to the church in general,
are named to sees " in infidel countries," of which they
cannot possibly take possession.
In Ireland, the succession of the hierarchy never having
heen interrupted, the Roman Catholic bishops there have
their sees in the country as before the Reformation, and
enjoy an ordinary jurisdiction ; whereas those in England
and Scotland, where the succession has failed, enjoy mere-
ly a delegated jurisdiction, and are called vicars-apostolic,
from their being delegates, or vicars, of the pope, who
occupies the apostolic see. He, of course, has the right
of nominating them, although, in practice, the nomination
takes place on the recommendation of the other vicars,
or of the clergy who are interested. In England, there
are four apostolic-vicars, and in Scotland, two.
A metropolitan, or an archbishop, besides the jurisdic-
tion common to him with other bishops in his own diocese,
has also a jurisdiction, defined by the canon law and cus-
toms, over all the bishops of his province, who are his
suffragans ; summons then) every third year to a provin-
cial synod, and the constitutions framed in it aiiect all
the churches in the province. In like manner, primates
and patriarchs have a jurisdiction over all the metropoli-
tans and other bishops of the kingdoms, or nations, where
they hold their dignified rank. The constitutions of the
national council convoked by the primate, bind all the
churches in that nation ; and the constitutions of the pa-
triarchal council bind all the patriarchate. But these two
titles are now, in fact, merely honorary in most of those
who enjoy them.
Above all these is the pope, who has the power (in the
opinion of all Roman Catholics, jure divino) of feeding,
ruling, and governing the whole church ; «nd exercises
his jurisdiction over all clergy as well as laity. This
power, they say, " is purely spiritual, entirely unconnected
with any temporal a\itliority."
His care and .solicitude extends to all Roman Catholic
churches throughout the world. He enacts rules of disci-
pline for the universal church, dispenses with some of
them when he sees proper, punishes those who do not obey
them, passes sentence upon ecclesiastical causes referred
to him (whicii ought to be the case with all those of great
importance,) and receive.? appeals from all Roman Catho-
lic bishops in the world.
It is he, we are told, who convokes general councils ;
invites to them all the Roman Catholic bishops dispersed
throughout the globe ; presides in them personally or by
his legates ; and confirms their decrees. He constitutes
new bishoprics, and confirms the nomination of bishops ;
deprives bishops of their sees for their crimes, and those
unjustly deprived of them he restores. The pope's domi-
nion over his brother bishops is, indeed, carried to such a
height, and so confirmed by the council of Trent, that they
are become in fact little belter than his vicars. They
swear obedience to him in as strong terras as any subject
can use towards his sovereign, and in terms but little con-
sistent with their duty to their king and country.
As all the Roman Catholic churches had always their
senate, composed of priests and deacons, w-hose counsel
and assistance the bishop used in the government of his
diocese ; so the pope had always his, composed of cardi-
nals, who assisted him m the government 9f the universal
church.
Thus all " Roman Catholics obey their bishops — the
bishops the metropoUtans — the metropolitans the primates
and patriarchs — and all of them their head, the pope ; and
of all these is composed one church, having one fnith, under
07ie head.''^
The discipline of the church of Rome is now regulated
by what is called the canon Ian; which has taken place
of the canons of the apostles, the apostolical constitutions,
and all the ancient compilations on that subject. The
canon law consists, 1. Of the decrees of Graiian ; a compi-
lation made up of the decrees of different popes and
councils, and of several passages of the holy fathers and
other reputable writers. 2. Of the (?«:«?«/.■;, in five books.
3. Of the compilation, known by the name of the sixth
book of decretals. 4. Of the Clemeyitines. 5. Of the other
decretals, known under the name of extravagantes. These,
containing besides the decrees of popes and the canons of
several councils, constitute the body of the canon law.
It is, however, only in matters of faith that she professes
to admit of no diversity ; her discipline is not every where
perfectly uniform ; nor does she consider some variety, in
matters of worship or discipline, as subversive of peace,
or as breaking the bonds of communion.
The fast of lent consists of forty days, in imitation of
our Savior's forty days' fast in the wilderness ; and it is
kept once a year " to do penance for sin," and as a pre-
paration for celebrating the great feast of Easter.
CHU
[375]
CHU
The Wednesdays, Fridays, and Saturdays, in one week
of each of the four seasons of the )'ear, are annually fast
days, called quatuor tempora, or ember days. Besides ab-
staining at least from flesh meats, it is essential to a fast
day that only one full meal, and that not before noon, be
taken in the four-and-twenty hours of the day. Every
Friday in the year is kept universally as a day of absti-
nence from flesh : and in the Latin church, Saturday, with
a few exceptions ; unless Christmas day falls upon them.
Another point of discipline in this church is clerical celi-
bacy. Her members profess that a vOw of perpetual celi-
bacy was required in the ancient church as a condition of
ordination, even from the apostolic age. But Protestants
in.sist that the contrary is evident, from numerous exam-
ples of bishops and archbishops, who lived in a state of
matrimony without any prejudice to their ordination or
their function.
'• The use of sacred vestments, as well as of various
ceremonies, has been universally adopted by the Roman
Catholic church, professedly for the greater decency of her
public worship."
Besides the Lord's day, Roman Catholics universally
keep a vast number of holidays.
There are several orders of monks in Catholic countries,
in every quarter of the globe, at this day. They have Ba-
silians, Benedictines, Augustinians, Dominicans, Francis-
cans, canons regular, and others. All these different
orders take the solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obe-
dience: and all firmly hold the Roman Catholic faith, and
only differ in their rules of discipline, in their dress, in the
particular privileges granted by the pope to each order, in
their names, which they generally take from that of their
founder, and such like distinctions pertaining merely to
discipline. In general, they are exempt from the jurisdic-
tion of the bishop, and are immediately under that of the
pope.
Of nuns, as of the monks, there are different orders,
each following their own rules, and wearing a peculiar
habit. The solemn vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi-
ence, are taken by them also ; and they are commonly
under the government of the bishops, but sometimes are
under the jurisdiction of regular clergymen of their own
order. After their profession, they are never allowed to
go without the inclosure of the convent, during life, with-
out the leave of the bishop, or some cogent reason — such
as a nunnery taking iire, &c. — and no man is allowed to
enter it without a similar permission, which may be grant-
ed for a necessary cause. Roman Catholics think that the
origin of nuns is to be found even in the primitive church.
It is an article of the discipline of the church of Rome
not to put the Old or New Testament, in the vulgar tongue,
into the hands of the children or unlearned ; and that, in
consequence, " no part whatever of the Bible in the vulgar
tongue is taught in the Roman Cathohc charity schools."
The Roman Catholic religion is very extensively dif-
fused, and is more generally professed than any other sys-
tem of Christianity.
In Europe, .it is the established and only religion in Ita-
ly, Spam, and Portugal : in the ci-devant Austrian and
French Netherlands ; in Sicily, Sardinia, and the other
I'lediterranean islands adjacent to Italy and Spain. In
France, perhaps ten to one of the inhabitants are Roman
Catholics. In Poland, and throughout the hereditary do-
minions of the house of Austria, the case is the same with
the great majority of the inhabitants, and probably with
almo.sl one half of the rest of the German population. In
Hungary alone they exceed four millions; and about the
same number are found within the dominions of Prussia.
A considerable number of his Britannic majesty's Eu-
ropean subjects profess the doctrine of the church of Rome.
In Ireland, the Roman Catholics are nearly three to one
of all other denominations ; in England, their number is
nearly two hundred and fifty thousand, and in Scotland,
about fifty thousand. The Roman Catholic religion is
rd.so established in seven of the Swiss cantons. In Hol-
land too. and in the Protestant cantons of Switzerland,
and also in Russia, many of its members may be found.
Sweden and Denmark contain a few; and in the provinces
of European Turkey they are more numerous than is ge-
nerally supposed. In that extended country there are Ro-
man Catholic archbishops, bishops, chapters, and monas-
teries, and a numerous body of laity dwelling together by
thousands.
In Asia, many of the subjects of the Grand Seigniur are
Roman Catholics. The Maronites of mount Libanus, with
their patriarch and bishops, are all of this communion.
There are besides many others throughout Syria, Slesopo-
taraia, and Armenia. Some Roman Catholics are to be
found in Persia. Throughout Hmdost.in and the other
southern parts of Asia, Siam, Cochin China, Tonquin, and
the vast empire of China itself, the number of Ruman
Catholics is very great. And in the Philippine isles and
others of the Eastern ocean, the Roman Catholic rehgion
is very generally established.
The mission to China is supplied by the college of St.
Joseph, at Macao, which is now under the direction of the
priests of the missionary congregation. From the report of
the state of the missions in 1810, it appears that there
were then in China, Tonquin, Cochin China, and Siam.
fourteen bi.shops, seven apostolical vicars, forty-three Eu-
ropean missionaries, two hundred and thirty-one native
priests, and five hundred and eighty -five thousand Roman
Catholic Christians.
The great body of Roman Catholics, from the hanks
of the Crishna to cape Comorin, aiuounting to about seven
hundred and lifty-five thousand, is intrusted to the care of
two titular archbishops, two titular bishops, and three
bishops m partibus, with the title of vicars apostolic.
In Africa, the Roman Catholic rehgion prevails in many
parts of its vast extent. Not to mention Madeira, the Ca-
nary and Cape de Verd islands, the inhabitants of which
are all Roman Catholics, a great proportion of the inhabit-
ants of Loango, Congo, and Angola adhere to the doc-
trines of the church of Rome. The same holds true of
several kingdoms on the eastern coast of that continent ;
viz. Moearanga, Mozambique, Zanguebar, and Melinda.
In Guinea too, in the Mahometan states of the North, and
in Egypt, not a few Christians of the church of Rome are
to be found.
America. — The whole of the southern continent of Ame-
rica, including the native aborigines and the descendants
of the European colonists, profess to be members of the
church of Rome, with the exception of most of the Dutch
at Surinam, and of a few wandering tiibes in the interior
towards the southern promontory. The same religion is
professed throughout the Spanish settlements in North
America, and in the Spanish and ci-ikvant French "West
Indies, as well as by three fourths of the inhabitants of
Canada, where it is the established religion.
All the clergy and members of this church throughout
the United Slates were under the superintendence of the
bishop of Baltimore, till the year 1609, when that city
(the capital of Maryland) was created a metropolitan see,
and four new dioceses were erected, viz. Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, and Bardstown, in the state of Ken-
tucky. The bishops of all these dioceses are suffragans
to the archbishop of Baltimore. And in addition to these,
two other dioceses have more lately been erected, out of
part of the archdiocese, viz. Virginia, and the Carolinas
and Georgia. The bishop of Louisiana, now one of the
United States, whose residence is St. Louis, in the new
state of Missouri, is not a suflTragan of the archbishop of
Baltimore.
The cathedral of Baltimore, which was built in 1820, is
said to be the finest church in the United States, and to
have cost upwards of fifty thousand pounds sterling. In
most of the dioceses now specified, there is one or more
colleges or seminaries, under the direction of Roman Ca-
tholic clergymen. The Jesuits also have a thriving col-
lege at Georgetown in Marjland, and the English Domini-
cans have one in Kentucky. There are, besides, five or
six seminaries for ladies in the United States : some of
these, however, are merely for the education of females ;
but in others the members are required and expected to
take the vows of poverty and continency. The Roman
Catholics are rapidly increasing in North America, by
emigration from Europe, and in other ways. Their num-
ber, some years ago, was estimated at six hundred thou-
sand. Large sums of money are annually expended in
the erection of chapels, and the support of priests. Much
C H U [ 376 ] C I R ,
of this money comes from abroad. From documents CHUECH-YAED ; a piece of gi-ound adjoining to the
pubUshed in the New York Observer, 1834, it appears church, set apart for the uiterment of the dead. In the
•hat from July, 1S29, to November, 1830, the receipts of church of Eome, church-yards are consecrated -niih great
the Austrian " Central Dn-eclion of the Leopold foundation solemnity. If a church-yard which has been thus conse-
for the support of Catholic Missions in America," amount- crated shall afterwards be polluted by any mdecent action,
ed to 49,382 florins, equal to $22,715. or profaned by the burial ol an infidel, an heretic, an ex-
According to the Eoman court calendar of 1822, the communicated or unbaptized person, it must be rfcona^ei/)
number of living cardinals was then forty -four, and the and the ceremony of the reconciliation is performed with
number of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops, scattered the same solemnity as that of the consecration ! (See
over the Christian world, amounted to five hundred and Conseckation.)— Hent/. Buck.
fifty exclusive of those in parlihus infiddium.^Brough- CILICIA ; a country of Asia Blmor, on the sea-coast,-
ton's Dktionanj ■ Adam's BeU^iuus World disjilayed; Bene- at the north of Cyprus, south of mount Taurus, and West
dkVs History of all Edigions.—Hend. Buck. of the Euphrates. Its capital was Tarsus. A synagogue
CHUECH (Fathers OF the). See Fathers. of this province is mentioned, (Acts 6 : 9.) and as Paul
CHUECh'eEVENUES. From the following table, was of this country, and of a city so considerable as Tar-
which shows the annual amount of the income of the sus, it may be thought that he was also of this synagogue >
clero-y in all parts uf the Christian world, it will be per- so that it is probable he was one of those who bad been
ceived that the revenue of tlie English clergy is greater disputing with Stephen, and were overcome by the argu^
by forty-four thousand pounds, than that of all the other ments of that proto-martyr. (See Tarscs.)— Cfl/?«c^
clergy in the world ; while the number of hearers attend- CINNABION ; one of the ingredients in the perfumed
ing on their ministry, compared with the aggregate num- oil with which the tabernacle and its vessels were anoint-
ber belonging to the churches in other nations, is as 07ie to ed, Exod. 30 : 23. The ciimamomum is a shrub, the bark
thirty-trco. °^ which has a fine scent ; several of the moderns con-
Amount. Hearers, found it with the cinnamon tree, and cassia aromatica ; but
Frcncli, Caitiolic, and Protestant Churches . I,(150,00u;. 30,000,000 others distinguish three species. It is now generally
United Suies ^ 000000 ll'ooo'ooo agreed, that the cinnamomiim, spoken of so confusedly by
Poriu''al' '.'......'.. . 'aoolooo slooo^OOO the ancients, is our cin/wiiwn: it is a long, thin bark of a
Hungary, Catholics .'..' 220,000 3.000,000 tree, rolled up, of a dark red color, of a poignant taste,
•J Calviniais ^,000 ''^|^'Jj|j|[ aromatic, and very agreeable. The finest description
Italy" ^"""""^ ■ ■ 776 000 19,39l!ooo comes from Ceylon ; but there might formerly have been
Austria . . ' . .'.......'.' 9-5o!ooo igI918',000 cinnamon in Arabia, or Ethiopia, or it might be imported
Switzerland §!'i)!?2 .i'^S'SS then into Egypt, Arabia, &c. as it is now into Europe;
Pniash .027.000 10,563,000 , . - i^, ■ ■ ,, r ^ i n 7 *
GermTn 'small States .7G.5,000 l2;765;noo SO that it might come originally from Ceylon.— CoZmc/.
Holland '.' 160,000 2,000,000 CINNEEETII, or Ceneroth, or Cenneroth, a city of
Netherlands . ' 105,000 3,000,000 Naphtali, south of which lay a great plain, which reached
|;S* .• 23I000 i;™:™ to the Dead sea, all along the river Jordan Josh. 19 : 35.
Kussia, Greeiv Churcti .'.'.'.'.'.'.'. . 510,000 31,000,000 Many believe, and with probability, that Cinnereth was
" Catholic and Protestant. ' 4.-;0,lioO 8,000,000 the same as Tiberias ; for, as the lake of Gennesareth (in
Christians in Turkey . 180,000 MOO.OOO j.jgbrew, the lake of Cinnereth) is, without doubt, that of
dispersed elsewhere _^o^ ^1^^ Tiberias, it seems reasonable tfiat Cinnereth and Tiberias
8,852,000/. 198,72,5,000 should also be the same city, Deut. 3 : 17. (See Tiberias.)
England, Wales, and Ireland 8,896,000/. 6,400,000 piprTIlMrPT T 1 AN"^ rir CinrnnrFi riONFS wanderers
Licome of all the clergy of other nations he- • 011.CUl\tl.i,l.l.lAiN&, or t^lRCONCELLIONES, wanuerers
sides a.8J2,0at) (circum rella) among the monks, &c. ; certain Donatists,
~77T7„ who being expelled from Africa, by the emperor Constan-
Balance in fayor of the English clergy . . . 44,000/. j^^^^^ wandered about, sometimes begging a subsistence,
Encijclop. Americana, and at others forcing one by their arms. They are de-
CHUECH, (States OF the ;) the pope's dominions in scribed as "rough and savage fanatics," who raised m-
[taly. They originated with the grant of Eepin, king of surrections, and commitled all sorts of excesses, daring
the Franks, in 754, who bestowed on Stephen II., bishop death and martyrdom in Ihe most heroic manner. Tak-
of Eome, some districts which the Lombards, against ing the sword, however, in defence of their religious
whom Stephen solicited Pepin's assistance, had taken principles, as our Lord predicted, and as has generally
from the exarchate. Charlemagne confirmed this grant been the case, many of them perished by the sword,
in 774, and in return received the title of Soman emperor, though the sect was not totally suppressed till the sixth
from Leo III., in 800. During succeeding centuries, the century. Their professed religious sentiments will be
popes sometimes gained accessions to their temporal do- seen under the parent term Donatists, who were, however,
minions ; at other times, encroachments were made upon compelled to disown and expel them from Iheir comrau-
ihem. At present, the states of the church cover a sur- nion — {Moshcim's E. Hist. vol. i. pp. 406, 407. Broiigh-
face of seventeen thousand, one hundred and eighty-five tons Diet.) — IVilliams.
square miles, with two million, four hundred and sixty CIRCUMCISION ; a custom prevailing among several
thousand inhabitants, ninety towns, two hundred anil eastern nations, of cutting oflf the prepuce of the virile
twelve market places, and thirty-five thousand villages, member. It was enjoined as a religious rite on Abraham
They are situated in the centre of Ilaly, between Lorn- and his posterity. The Mahometan circumcision is pro-
hardy, Tuscany, Naples, and the Tuscan and Adriatic bably an ancient Ishmaelite custom, which was receiv-
seas. The revenue is estimated at twelve millions, and ed from Abraham, the common father of the Isra.elites
Ihe national debt at two hundred millions of florins, and Ishmaelites. It was not introduced into Arabia by
There is a standing army of nine thousand men. The the Koran of Mahomet, but was already in use among
navy consists of two frigates and a few small vessels. In his nation, and was adopted, and has been introduced by
1816, these states, with the exception of Rome, Tivoli, his followers, as a sacred rite, and one of the essential
and Subjaco, which are under the immediate administra- parts of Islamism, into all countries where this religion
tion of the pope, were divided into seventeen delegations, has been received. There is also a kind of circumcision
which, when under Ihe government of cardinals, were or excision performed on the female sex. In Egypt, Ma-
called legations. — Hend. Buck. hometan maidens are frequently circumcised ; and (he
CHURCH-WARDENS ; officers chosen yearly, either Abyssinians circumcise both sexes. The iniportance at-
by the consent of the minister, or of the parishioners, or tached to this rite in the first age of Christianity, as a sav-
of both. Their business is to look to the church, church- ing ordinance, rendering it a suspicious, and eveii a
yard, and to observe the behavior of the parishioners ; to dangerous practice, occasioned the apostle of the gentiles
levy a shilling forfeiture on all such ELS do not go to church thus to address certain Galatians — "Behold, I Paul say
on Sundays, and to keep persons orderly in church time, unto you, if ye be circumcised (i. e. as the ground of jus-
icc.—Hetid. Buck. tification before God), Christ shall profit you nothing."
CI s
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CIT
Gal. 5 : 2. — (Broughton's Diet. Eobinsmi's dilto.) — Hoid.
Back ; fVaiiams.
CIRCUMCISION, (Feast of the ;) a festival celebrated
on the first of January, in commemoration of the circum-
cision of Christ. The day was anciently Icept as a fast,
in opposition to the custom of the pagans, who feasted on
it in honor of the god Janus. — He/ul. Buck.
CIRCU31SrECT; cautious, seriously attentive to every
part of the revealed will of God, and very careful not to
east stumbling-blocks in the way of others, Exod. 23: 13.
Eph. 5: 15. — Cnlmtt.
CISTERN. There were cisterns throughout Palestine,
in cities and in private hou.'ies. As the cities were mostly
built on mountains, and the rains fall in Judea at two
seasons only, (spring and autumn,) people were obliged
to keep water m vessels. There are cisterns of very
large dimensions, at this day, in Palestine. Two hours
iijitant fro.n Bethlehem are the cisterns or pools of Solo-
mon. They are three in number, situated in the sloping
hollow of a mountain, one above another ; so that the
waters of the uppermost descend into the second, and
those of the second descend into the third. The breadth
is nearly the same in all, between eighty and ninety paces,
but the length varies. The first is about one hundred and
sixty paces long ; the second two hundred ; the third two
hundred and twenty. These pools formerly supplied the
town of Bethlehem and the city of Jerusalem with water.
Wells and cisterns, fountains and springs, are seldom dis-
tinguished accurately in Scripture. Worldly enjoyments
are called " broken cisterns that can hold no water,"
(Jer. 2: 13.) from their unsatisfj'ing and unstable nature.
— Calmet.
CISTERTIAN MONKS ; a religious order, founded in
the eleventh century, by St. Robert, a Benedictine, and
abbot of Moleme. Robert, being ordered by the pope to
resume the government of the abbey of Moleme, was
succeeded in that of Citeaux, by Alberic ; and pope Pas-
cal, by a bull of the year 1100, took that monastery
under his protection. Alberic drew up the first statutes
for the monks of Citeaux, or Cistertians, in which he en-
joined the strict observance of the rule of St. Benedict.
The habit of these religious of the monastery cf Ci-
teaux was at first black ; but they pretend that the holy
virgin, appearing to St. Alberic, gave him a white habit,
from which time they changed their blaclc habit for a
white one, only retaining the black scapulary . In memory
of this change they keep a festival on the 5th of August,
which they call '-The descent of the blessed virgin at Ci-
teaux, and the miracQlous changing of the liabit from
black to white."
The number of those who embraced the Cistcrtian order
increasing, it was necessary to build more incnasteries.
Accordingly, in 1113, Stephen, abbot of Citeaux, built
that of La Ferte, in the diocese of Chalons. The next
year, he founded Pomigni, in the diocese of Auxerre.
Clairvaux, in the diocese of Langres, was built itulllo.
The order increased further in 1118, by the fotmding of
four other monasteries, which were PruUy, La Cour-Dieu,
Trois Fontaines, and Bonnevaux ; and, in the following
year, 1119, Bouras, Fontenay, Cadovin, and Mamn, were
founded. Then Stephen formed all these monasteries into
one body, and drew up the constitutions of the order,
which he called " The Charter of Charity," containing, in
five chapters, all the necessary rules for the establishment
and government of the order.
This order made a surprising progress. Fifty years
after its institution, it had five hundred abbeys, and, one
hundred years afterwards, it boasted of one thousand
eight hundred abbeys, most of which had been founded
before the year 1200. This great progress must be ascri-
Ijed to the sanctity of the Cistertians, of whom cardinal
de Vitr\-, in his Western History, says, " The whole
church of Christ was full of the high reputation and
opinion of their sanctity, as it were with the odor of some
divine balsam, and that there was no country or province
wherein this vine, loaded with blessings, had not spread
forth its branches." And, describing their observances,
he says, " They neither wore skins nor shirts, nor ever ate
flesh, except in sickness, and abstained from fish, eggs,
milk, and cheese ; they lay only upon straw beds, in their
tunics and cowls ; they rose at midnight, and sang praises
to God till break of day ; they spent the day in labor,
reading, and prayer ; and, in all their exercises, they ob-
served a strict and continual silence ; they fasted from the
feast of the exaltation of the holy cross till Ea.ster ; and
they exercised hospitality towards the poor, with extraor-
dinary charity."
The order of Cistertians became in lime so powerful,
that it governed almost all Europe, both in spirituals and
temporals. It did also great service to the church by
means of the eminent men it produced. These religious
were employed by the pope to convert the Albigenses.
Some authors say, there have been sLx popes of this order ;
but it wdl be difficult to find any more than Eugenius III.
and Benedict XII. It boasts of aboiu forty cardinals, a
great nulnber of archbishops, bishops, kc. &cc. — Heiid.
Buck.
CITIES OF REFUGE. (See Refuge.)
CITIZEN. This word denotes not only a resident in
a city, but also any person admitted to its peculiar corpo-
rate privileges, b)' birth, favor, or purchase. Acts 22; 28.
CITRON. (See Apple.)
CITY, or CITIES. By referring to some peculiarities
in the building, fortifying, (Sec, of eastern cities, we shall
the better understand several allusions and expressions of
the Old Testament. It is evident that the walls of forti-
fied cities were sometimes partly constructed of combusti-
ble materials ; for the prophet, denouncing the judgments
of God upon Syria and other countries, declares, " I will
send a fire on the wall of Gaza, which shall devour the
palaces thereof," Amos 1: 7. The walls of Tyre and
Rabbah seem to have been of the same perishable mate-
rials ; for the prophet adds, " I will send a fire upon the
wall of Tyrus, which shall devour the palaces thereof ;"
and again, '• I will kindle a fire in the walls of Rabbah,
and it shall devour the palaces thereof with shouting in
the daj' of battle," verses 10, 14. One method of securing
the gates of fortified places, among the ancients, was to
cover them with thick plates of iron ; a custom which is
still used in the East, and seems to be of great antiquity.
AVe learn from Pitts, that Algiers has five gates, and
some of these have two, some three, other gates within
them ; and some of them are plated aU over with thick
iron. The place where the apostle was imprisoned, seems
to have been secured in the same manner ; for, says the
inspired historian, " When they were past the first and
second ward, they came unto the iron gate that leadeth
unto the city; which opened to them of its own accord,"
Acts 12: 10. Pococke, speaking of a bridge not far from
Anlioch, called the iron bridge, says, there are two towers
belonging to it, the gates of which are covered with iron
piates ; which he supposes is the reason of the name it
bears. Some of their gates are plated over with brass ;
such are the enormous gates of the principal mosque at
Damascus, formerly the church of John the Baptist. To
gales like these, the psalmist probably refers in these
words : " He hath broken the gates of brass," (Psalm
107: Ifi ;) and the prophet, in that remarkable passage,
where God promises to go before Cyrus his anointed, and
" break in pieces the gates of brass, and cut in sunder the
bars of iron," Isa. 45; 2. But, conscious that all these
precautions were insufficient for their security, the orien-
tals employed watchmen to patrol the city during the night,
to suppress any disorders in the streets, or to guard the
walls against the attempts of a foreign enemy. To this
custom Solomon refers in these words : " The watchmen
that went about the city found me, they smole me, thev
wounded me ; the Iccepers of the wall took away my veil
from me," Song 5: 7. This custom may be traced to a
very remote antiquity ; so early as the departure of Israel
from the land of Eg^'pt, the morning watch is mentioned,
certainly indicating the time when the watchmen were
commonly relieved. In Persia, the watchmen were
obliged to indemnify those who were robbed in the streets ;
which accounts for the vigilance and severily wliich they
display in the discharge of their otlice, and illn.sirates the
character of watchman given to Ezekiel, and the duties
he was required to perform. If the -nicked perished in
his iniquities without warnin?. the prophet was to he ac-
countable for his blood : but if he duly pointed out his
CL A
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CL A
danger, he delivered his own soul, Ezek. 33:2. They
were also charged, as with us, to announce the progress
of the night to the slumbering city : " The burden of
Dumah ; he calls to uie out of Seir, Watchman, what of
the night ? watchman, what of the night ? The watch-
man said, The morning cometh, and also the night,"
Isa. 21: 11. This is confirmed by an observation of
Chardin upon these words of IMoses : " For a thousand
years in thy sight are but as yesterday when it is past,
and as a watch in the night :" that as the people of the
east have no clocks, the several parts of the day and of
the night, which are eight in all, are announced. In the
Indies, the parts of the night are made known, as well by
instruments of music, in great cities, as by the rounds of
the watchmen, who, with cries and small druins, give them
notice that a fourth part of the night is past. Now, as
these cries awaked those who had slept all that quarter
part of the night, it appeared to them but as a moment."
It is evident the ancient Jews knew, by some public
notice, how the night watches passed away ; but, whether
they simply announced the termination of the watch, or
made use of trumpets, or other sonorous instruments, in
making the proclamation, it may not be easy to determine ;
and still less what kind of chronometers the watchmen
used. The probability is, that the watches were an-
nounced with the sound of a trumpet ; for the prophet
Ezekiel makes it a part of the watchman's duty, at least
in time of war, to blow the truinpet, and warn the people.
The watchman, in a time of danger, seems to have taken
his station in a tower, which was built over the gate of
the city.
The fortified cities in Canaan, as in some other coun-
tries, were commonly strengthened with a citadel, to which
the inhabitants fled when they found it impossible to
defend the place. The whole inhabitants of Thebez, un-
able to resist the repeated and furious assaults of Abime-
lech, retired into one of these towers, and hid defiance to
his rage : •' But there was a strong tower within the city,
and thither fled all the men and women, and all they of
the city, and shut it to them, and gat them up to the top
of the tower." The extraordinary strength of this tower,
and the various means of defence which were accumu-
lated within its narrow walls, may he inferred from the
riolence of Abimelech's attack, and its fatal issue : " And
Abimelech came unto the tower, and fought against it,
and went hard unto the door of the tower, to burn it with
fire. And a certain woman cast a piece of a millstone
upon Abimelech's head, and all to break his skull," Judg.
9: 53. The city of Shechem had a tower of the same
kind, into which the people retired, when the same usurper
took it and sowed it with salt, Judg. 9: 4.5. These strong
towers which were built within a fortified city, were com-
monly placed on an eminence, to which they ascended by
a flight of steps. Such was the situation of the city of
David, a strong lower upon a high eminence at Jerusalem ;
and the manner of entrance, as described by the sacred
writer : " But the gate of the fountain repaired Shallum,
unto the stairs that go down from the city of David,"
Neh. 3: 15.— Wntsmi.
CLAP, (Nathamiel,) a Congregational minister of
Ne^-port, nhode Island, was born Jan. 1668, and was
graduated at Harvard college, in 1690. In 1695, he be-
gan to preach at Newport, where he preached nearly fifty
years. In 1740, when Mr. Whitefield arrived at Newport
Iroin Charleston, he called upon Mr. Clap, and he speaks
of him as the most venerable man he ever saw. " He
looked like a good old puritan, and gave me an idea
of what stamp those men were, who first settled New
England. His countenance was very heavenly, and he
prayed most afl"ectionately for a blessing on my coming to
Rhode Island. I could not but think, that I was sitting
with one of the patriarchs." Dean Berkley, who esteem-
ed lum highly for his good deeds, said, " Before I saw
father Clap, I thought the bishop of Rome had the gravest
aspect of any man I ever saw ; but really the minister of
Newport has the most venerable appearance." Mr Clan
died Oct. 30, 1745, nged 77. ' '
Jlr. Clap was eminent for sanctity, piety, and an ardent
desire to promote true godliness in others. He abounded
m acts of charity, being the father and guardian of the
poor and necessitous, and giving away all his living.
His benevolent labors also extended to the humble and
numerous class of slaves, to whom he endeavored with
unwearied care to impart the knowledge of the gospel.
Thus evincing the reality of his religion by the purity and
benevolence of liis life, he was an honor to the cause of
the Redeemer, in which he was engaged. He departed
this life in peace, without those raptures, which some ex-
press, but -nrith perfect resignation to the will of God and
with confidence in Jesus Christ, who was the sum of his
doctrine and the end of his conversation. He published
a sermon on the Lord's voice crying to the people in some
extraordinary dispensations, 1715. — Calleyider's Fun. Serm.',
Hist. Col. ix. 182, 183 ; Backus' Ahridg. 157, 168 ; White-
field's Jour, of 1749 ; 39—45 ; Eliot.— Allen.
CLAP, (Thomas,) president of Yale college, was born
at Scituate, Mass., June 26, 1703, and was graduated at
Har\'ard college in 1722. The early impressions, made
upon his mind by divine grace, inclined him to the study
of divinity. He was settled in the ministry at Windham,
Con. August 3, 1726, the successor of Samuel Whiting.
From this place he was removed in 1739, to the president-
ship of Yale college, as successor of E. Williams. This
office he resigned, Sept. 10, 1766 j and he died at Scituate,
Jan. 7, 1767, aged 63. In the higher branches of mathe-
matics, in astronomy, and in the various departments of
natural philosophy, he had probably no equal in America,
excepting professor Winthrop of Cambridge. He appears
to have been extensively and profoundly acquainted with
histoiy, theology, moral philosophy, the canon and civil
law, and with most of the objects of study in his time.
The labors of his office left a most contemplative mind
only a few hours for reading ; but he employed what
time he could devote to study in a most advantageous
method. He always pursued his researches systemati-
cally, witli an arrangement, which had respect to some
whole. A large library before him he treated as a collec-
tion of reports, books delivering the knowledge and rea-
sonings of the learned world on all subjects of literature.
He seldom read a volume through in course. Having
pre\'iously settled in his mind the particular.subjects to be
examined, he had recourse directly to the book, or the
pans of a book, which would give him the desired infor-
mation, generally passing by what did not relate to the
object of his inquiry, however attracting and interesting.
He thus amassed and digested a valuable treasure of eru-
dition, having investigated almost all the principal sub-
jects in the whole circle of literature.
As he was exemplary for piety in life, so he was re-
signed and peaceful at the hour of death. When some
one in his last illness observed to him, that he was dan-
gerously sick, he replied, that a person was not in a dan-
gerous situation who w as approaching the end of his toils.
Mr. Clap constructed the first orrery, or planetarium,
made in America. His manuscripts were plundered in
the expedition against New Haven under general Tryon.
He ha# made collections of materials for a history of
Connecticut. He published a sermon at the ordination
of Ephraim Little, Colchester, Sept. 20, 1732 ; letter to
Mr. Edwards, respecting Mr. Whitefield's design, 1745 ;
the religious constitution of colleges, 1754 ; a brief history
and vindication of the doctrines received and established
in the churches of New England, with a specimen of the
new scheme of religion, beginning to prevail, 1755 ; this
scheme he collects from the writings of Chubb, Taylor,
Foster, Hutcheson, Campbell, and Ramsay. See Holmes's
Life of Stiles, 263, 393—396 ; Amials, ii. 151 ; Miller, ii.
360 ; Daggett's Funeral Sermon ; History of Yale College.
— Allen.
CLARENDON, (Constitutions of j) sixteen articles
formed at the council held at that place, in the reign
of Henry II., bearing that all diflerences relative to the
right of patronage should be tried in the civil courts ;
that no churches, which are fees of the crown, can be
disposed of in perpetual donation wdthout the king's con-
sent ; that all clergymen, charged with crimes against the
laws, shall appear before the lord chief justice, as well
as before the ecclesiastical courts, and none of them, after
coimciion, be protected by the church ; that no clergyman
shall go out of the kingdom without his majesty's consent,
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and their giving proper security of their doing nothing to
the prejudice of him or his subjects ; that accusations of
laymen, in ecclesiastical courts, shall be proved by repu-
table mtnesses ; that excommunicated persons shall not
be compelled to reside on any particular locality ; that no
person holding immediately of the king, or any of his
barons, should be excommunicated, tVc. without first ac-
quainting the Iring or his chief justice ; that none shall
appeal from the archbishop's court without his majesty's
consent ; that bishops and abbots must perform the services
annexed to their tenures when required, be present at all
trials, except when sentences of blood, or of losing life or
limb, are to be pronounced ; that the revenues of all va-
cant bishoprics, abbeys, or priories of a royal foundation,
shall be paid into the king's exchequer ; that the king
shall have the power of convening the electors of bishops,
abbots, and priors, and the electors must do homage to
him before their consecration ; that he shall punish every
wrong done to the superior clergy, and they shall prose-
cute such as injure him ; that no goods of forfeited persons
shall be protected from his seizure, in churches or church-
yards ; that all pleas of debt shall be tried in civil courts,
(Sec. These articles were designed to abridge and curb
the power of the clergy, which, under the presidency, and
owing to the ambition and iniluence of Thomas a Becket,
had grown to an intolerable height. — Hend. Buck.
CLARISSES ; an order of nuns, so called from their
founder, St. Clara. She was of the town of Assisa, in
Italy, and, having renounced the world to dedicate herself
to religion, gave birth to this order, in the year 1212 ;
which comprehends, not only those nuns who follow the
rule of St. Francis, according to the strict letter, and
without any mitigation, but those likewise who follow the
same rule, softened and mitigated by several popes.
The reputation of St. Clara, being very great, soon
gained her a great number of followers ; for whom seve-
ral monasteries began to be erected in several parts of
Italy. In the year 1219, the order passed into Spain, and
presently after into France. In the year 1224, St. Francis,
at the request of St. Clara, prescribed rules for the gov-
ernment of the Clarisses, in which he forbade them to
have any possessions, and enjoined them silence from the
compline to the tierce of the following day. He gave
them for their habit three tunics and a mantle. The
rules of the Clarisses were approved by Gregory IX. and
Innocent IV. „
The order of St. Clara, which had made a great progress
during the life of the founder, made a still greater after
lier death, and is at present one of the most flourishing
orders of nuns in Europe.
In Italy, there are monasteries of Clarisses, some of
which take the name of " Nuns of the strict observance ;"
others that of " Solitaries of the institution of St. Peter
of Alcantara." The former had for their foundress,
Frances de Jesus-Maria, of the house of Farnese, who
built their first monastery at Albano, in the year 1631.
These nuns observe the rule of St. Clara in its utmost
rigor. The others had for their founder cardinal Barbe-
rini, who built their first monastery in the town of Farsa.
They were denominated from St. Peter of Alcantara, be-
cause, in all things, they imitated the rigorous and peni-
tent life of that saint.
After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered Mexico for the
king of Spain, Isabella of Portugal, wife of the emperor
Charles V., sent thither some nuns of the order of St.
Clara, who made several settlements there, particularly at
Zuchimilci, Tetzeuci, Quausthitlani, Telmanaci, Tapeaca,
Thevacana, and in several other places. Near their mo-
nasteries were founded communities of Indian young
women, to be instructed by the Clarisses in religion, and
such works as were suitable to persons of their sex.
These communities of Indian girls are so considerable,
that they usually consist of no less than four or five hun-
dred.— Hend. Buck.
CLARKE, (Dr. Samuel,) a celebrated divine of the
sixteenth century, was born at Norwich, on the 11th
of October, 1675, his father being an alderman of that
city. He received his first education in the free school
in that place, under the superintendence of the Rev. Mr.
Burton, but was, in a short time, removed to Caius college,
Cambridge. Whilst at that university, he devoted much
ol his time to the study of theology, and diligently culti-
vated a knowledge of the Old Testament, in the original
Hebrew ; the New, in the original Greek ; and the primi-
tive Christian writers. Before he arrived at the age of
twenty-one, he largely contributed to the Newtonian sys-
tem, a study, the knowledge of which, by application and
industry, he made himself master of. He translated Ro-
hault's Physics, for the use of young students, which has
been considered the most concise and best that has been
written. In 1699, he published " Three practical Essays
upon Baptism, Confirmation, and Repentance," containing
full instructions for a holy life, with earnest exhortations
to young persons, drawn from the consideration of the
severity of the discipline of the primitive church ; and in
1701, his " Paraphrase on the Four Gospels" was put to
press. In the year 1704, he delivered a lecture on " The
Being and Attributes of God ;" and in the following year,
on the "Evidence of Natural and Revealed Religion;"
in which he displayed a force of reasoning, a vein of piety,
and an extent of knowledge, which proved that his mind
was at once vast and comprehensive, and that he was in-
deed no ordinary man. These sermons he afterwards
enlarged on, improved, and published ; and the work is a
standard book in the English language. Dr. Hoadley,
bishop of Winchester, when speaking of this work, and
of his-writings, said, " He has in them laid the foundation
of true religion too deep and strong to be shaken, either
by the superstition of some, or the infidelity of others."
In 1706, Mr. Clarke obtained the rectory of St. Bennett's,
Paul's wharf, in London, where he executed the duties
of his ministerial office with zeal and devotion. During
this year, he translated Sir Isaac Newton's Treatise on
Optics into Latin. He enjoyed the peculiar patronage
and friendship of this great man, and it was at his request
that that admirable translation was accomplished. His
patron was so well pleased with the performance, that he
presented him with the sum of five hundred pounds as a
mark of his approbation and esteem. He also introduced
him to court, and procured him the favor of queen Anne,
who appointed him one of her chaplains. She also made
him the presentation of the rectory of St. James's, West-
minster, where he read lectures on the church catechism
tor many months in the year, on a Thursday evening ;
and which have been since pubUshed, and received, as
they merited, ver)' general approbation. In 1709, he took
his degree of doctor in divinity, at Cambridge ; and soon
afterwards became engaged in a warm controversy on
the '•' Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity," which tended
greatly to spread Arianism over the country. He seems
to have been led into the erroneous views which he
adopted and attempted to defend, by his metaphysical
turn of mind, and by pursuing improperly the language
of human creeds respecting the generation of the Son of
God. About this time he was presented by Mr. Lech-
mere, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, to the mas-
tership of Wigston's hospital, in Leicester ; and, in 1727.
the offer was made him of the place of master of tlie
mint ; but this he refused.
His death was very sudden and painful. On the morn-
ing of the day he preached before the judges at Serjeant's
Inn, he was seized mth a pain in his side, which, in
the evening, ascended to his head, and proved fatal
on the following morning, May the 17th, 1729. — Hoid.
Buck.
CLARKE, (John,) a distinguished Baptist minister,
and one of the first founders of Rhode Island, was a physi-
cian in London, before he came to this countiT- Soon
after the first settlement of Massachusetts, he was driven
from that colony with a number of others ; and March 7,
1638, they formed themselves into a body politic and pur-
chased Aquetneck of the Indian sachems, calling it the
isle of Rhodes, or Rhode Island. The settlement com-
menced at Pocasset, or Portsmouth. The Indian deed is
dated March 24, 1638. Mr. Clarke was soon employed
as a preacher, and in 1644, he fonned a church at New-
port and became its pastor. This was the second Baptist
church, which was established in America.
In 1649, he was an assistant and treasurer of Rhode
Island colonv. In !651, he went to -nsit one ot his
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brethren at Lyim, near Boston, and he preached on Sun-
day, July 20 ; but, before he had completed the services
of the forenoon, he was seized with his friends by an
officer of the government. In the afternoon, he was
compelled to attend the parish meeting, at the close of
which he spoke a few words. He was tried before the
court of assistants, and fined twenty pounds, in case of
failure iu the payment of which sum he was to be whip-
ped. In passing the sentence, judge Endicott observed,
" You secretly insinuate things into those, who are weak,
which you cannot maintain before our ministers ; you
may try and dispute with them." Mr. Clarke accordingly
wrote from prison, proposing a dispute upon the princi-
ples which he professed. He represented his principles
to be, that Jesus Christ had the sole right of prescribing
any laws respecting the worship of God, which it was
necessary to obey ; that baptism, or dipping in water, was
an ordinance to be administered only to those, who gave
some evidence of repentance towards God and faith in
Jesus Christ ; that such visible bebevers only constituted
the church ; that each of them had a right to speak in the
congregation, according as the Lord had given him ta-
lents, either to make inquiries for his own instruction, or to
prophesy for the edification of others, and that at all times
and in all places they ought to reprove folly and open
tlieir lips to justify wisdom ; and that no servant of Jesus
Christ had any authority to restrain any fellow servant in
his worship, where injury was not ofiered to others. No
dispute, however, occurred, and Mr. Clarke, his friends
paying his fine, without his consent, was soon released
from prison, and directed to leave the colony. His com-
panion, Obadiah Holmes, shared a severer fate ; for on
dechning to pay his fine of thirty pounds, which his friends
ofiered to do for him, he was publicly whipped in Boston.
In Itiol, Mr. Clarke was sent to England with Roger
Williams to promote the interests of Rhode Island, and
particularly to procure a revocation of Mr. Coddington's
commission as governor. Soon after his arrival he pub-
lished a book, giving an account of the persecutions in
New England. In Oct. Ifi52, the commission of Mr.
Coddington was annulled. After the return of Mr. Wil-
liams, Mr. Clarke was left behind, and continued in Eng-
land as agent for the colony, till he obtained tlie second
charter, July 8, 1663, to procure which he mortgaged his
estate in Newport. The petition which Mr. Clarke pre-
sented to Charles II. for this charter, was dra-OTi up in
these memorable words, " That they might be permitted
to hold forth a bvely experiment, that a most flourishing
civil state nwy stand and best be maintained, and that
among English subjects, with a full liberty in religions
concernments ; and that true piety, rightly grounded iu
gospel principles, mil give the best and greatest security
to sovereignty." Mr. Clarke returned in 1664, and con-
tinued the pastor of his church till his death. He died at
Newport, April 20, 1676, aged about 66 years, resigning
his soul to his merciful Redeemer, through faith in whose
name he enjoyed the hope of a resurrection to eternal
life.
His life was so pure, that he was never accused of any
vice, to leave a blot on his memory. His noble sentiments
respectnig religious toleration did not indeed accord with
the ifentiments of the age in which he lived, and exposed
him to trouble ; but at the present time they are almost
universally embraced. His exertions to promote the civil
prosperity of Rhode Island must endear his name to those,
who are now enjoying the fruits of his labors. He pos-
sessed the singular honor of contributing much towards
establishing the first goveriunent upon the earth, which
gave equal liberty, civil and rehgious, to all men living
under it ; although in Maryland, during the administra-
tion of Charles Calvert, appointed governor in 1662 an
act was passed, allowing all Christians to settle in the
province.
In his last will he left his farm in Newport to charitable
purposes ; the income of it to be given to the poor and to
be employed for the support of learning and religion. It
has produced about two hundred dollars a year, and has
thus been promoting the public interests ever since his
death.
He left behind him a ■writing, which expressed his re-
ligious opinions. He believed, that all things, with their
causes, effects, circumstances, and manner of being, are
decreed by God ; that this decree is the determination from
eternity of what shall come to pass in time ; that it is
most wise, just, necessary, and unchangeable, the cause
of all good, but not of any sin ; that election is the decree
of God, choosing, of his free love, grace, and mercy, some
men to faith, holiness, and eternal fife ; that sin is the
efl'ect of man's free will, and condemnation an eflect of
justice, inflicted upon man for sin and disobedience. It
was not in the.se opinions, but in his sentiments respecting
baptism, tliat he differed Irom the ministers of Massa-
chusetts.
The title of the book, which he published in London in
1652, is, 111 news from New England, or a Narrative of
New England's Persecution ; wherein it is declared, that
while Old England is becoming New, New England is
becoming Old ; also. Four Proposals to Parliament and
Four Conclusions, touching the faith and order of the
gospel of Christ out of his last w-ill and testament, 4to,
pp. 76. See Backus's Church History of New England,
iii. 227, 228; Baclais' Abridgment, 84, 86, 109—116.
Benedict, vol. i. p. 458 — 495. — Alhii.
CLARKE, (Edward Daniel,) a sou of the author
of Letters on the Spanish Nation, was bom in 1767,
and educated at Jesus college, Cambridge. In 1794,
he accompanied lord Berwick to Italy, and, in 1799, he
set out, with Mr. Cripps, on a tour which extended over
the whole of Scandinavia, and through Russia, Circassia,
Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Greece,
and was not terminated till 1802. By his exertions the
library of Cambridge was enriched with nearly a hundreti
volumes of manuscripts, and the colossal statue of the
Elensinian Ceres. He was rewarded with the degree of
JjL. D. by the university. He also obtained for his
country the sarcophagus of Alexander, on which he pub-
lished a Dissertation. His Travels form five volumes, 4to.
Shortly after his return he was instituted to the rectory
of Harlton, in Cambridgeshire. In 1806, he began, at
the university, a series of mineralogicul lectures, aird, in
1808, a pro''essorship of mineralogy being founded, he
was appointed to the chair. The lectures which he de-
livered in that capacity were highly popular, and his ex-
periments with the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe were produc-
tive of important scientific results. Dr. Clarke died in
Pall Mall, March 9, \%2\.—Va\imfort.
CLARKE, (Abraham,) a signer of the declaration of
independence, was born in New Jersey, in 1726. He was
a delegate to the continental congress, a member of the
general convention which framed the constitution, and a
representative in the second congress of the United States.
He died in 1791. He was a man of exemplary piety and
unsullied integrity. — Davenport.
CLARKE, (Adam, LL. D. F. S. A.,) the celebrated
commentator, was born in Moybeg, Ireland, in 1760. His
father was a conscientious English Episcopalian, and a
good classical school-master ; but his mother, to whom the
early part of his education is attributed, was a Scotch
Presbyterian, of the Maclean family, and of a warmer
piety than her husband, though " far from being a Calvin-
ist." Adam was their st-cond son. His infancy was
marked by hardiliood of body ; tenderness of conscience ;
a thirst for knowledge, but a singular inaptitude in acquir-
ing it. This last trait was however suddenly changed, at
the age of eight years, by the reproaches of a school-fel-
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low ; his latent energies were roused by emulation ; and
he became the admiration of the school for his rapid pro-
ficiency in every branch of study, with the exception of
arithmetic ; in which he says of himself, that he " could
never make any progress." His time was divided be-
tween classical study and labor on his father's farm.
He was designed for the ministry, and had a vague long-
ing for it ; but up ti> the year 1777, his religion was wholly
the effect of his religious education. At that period, under
the ministry of the JVIethodists, particularly of Mr. Thomas
Barber, he was led to earnest prayer, and searching of the
Scriptures, and ultimately to Christ, to the evidence of adop-
tion, and communion with God in Christ. This, which
he ever regarded as the most important era in his religions
history, occurred when he was seventeen years of age.
From this time he had rest to his soul; and could devote
himself unreservedly, and with an energy hitherto un-
known, to glorify God in his studies, and in all the duties
of life. His own language here is worthy of preservation,
and throws light upon his future history and attainments ;
" I saw from my own case that religion was the gate to
true learning and science ; and that those who went
through their studies without this, had at least double worlc
to do ; and in the end not an equal produce. My mind
became enlarged to take in every thing useful. I was now
separated from every thing that could impede my studies,
obscure or debase my mind. Learning and science I
knew came from God, because he is the fountain of all
knowledge ; and properly speaking, these things belong
to man ; God created them not for himself — not for angels —
but for man ; and he fulfils not the design of his Creator,
who does not cultivate his mind in all useful knowledge,
to the utmost of his circumstances and power."
Soon after this, in 178-!, JMr. Clarke was recommended
to the notice of Mr. Wesley, by Mr. John Bredin, and sent
to the Kingswnod school. While here, when digging in
the garden, he one day found a half-guinea, -n-ith which he
bought a Hebrew Grammar, and this apparently trifling
circumstance is said to have laid the foundation of all
his critical knowledge of the sacred writings in the Old
and New Testament. A few weeks after, he was ap-
proved by Mr, Wesley, and sent into Wiltshire as a circuit
preacher, at the age of twenty-two, though from his youth-
ful appearance he was called the " little boy." His early
ministry was equally marked by great privations, popular-
ity, persecution, perseverance, and success. In a letter to
a friend, in 1786, written from Guernsey, he says, " Here
I am determined by the grace of God to conquer or die ;
and have taken the following for a motto, and have placed
It before me on the mantel-piece, " Stand thou as a beaten
iinvil to the stroke ; for it is the property of a good warrior
to be jlnyed alive, and yet conquer."
While this motto displays the unconquerable resolution
which should characterize every preacher who aims at
extensive usefulness, there is another which he also adopt-
ed at the same time, or even earlier, from Prov. 18: 1.
which is no less worthy of commendation. " Through
desire, a vian, Imving separated himself, seeketh and inter?ned-
dleth TL'ith all rvisdom." No man, perhaps, more fully ex-
emplified the maxim ; and thus the ardor of the student
explains the rising popularity of the preacher. Up to
1815, it appears he pursued his private biblical studies in
connexion with the usual itinerant avocations of a Me-
thodist preacher, so that the foundation of his Commen-
tary may be said to have been laid as early as 1785.
That he might not lose the time which he was obliged to
spend in riding, which was several miles a day, he accus-
tomed himself to read on horseback — a practice which,
he admits, was both dangerous and injurious to the eyes.
In 1788, he was married to Miss Mary Cooke, daughter
of Mr. John Cooke, clothier, of Trowbridge, a lady of fine
disposition, deep piety, and sound judgment. Few con-
nexions of this kind were ever more opposed ; few, if anj',
were ever more happy. Thej' had six sons, and as many
daughters, one half of whom were permitted to live to
years of maturity.
The earliest mark of public distinction conferred upon
him, was his election to be a fellow of the Antiquarian
society. In 1805, he received the honorary degree of
M. A., and in 1806, that of LL. D. from the university of
St. Andrews. He was subsequently chosen to be a mem-
ber of the Royal Irish academy. He wa.s, besides, a
member of several American literary associations. He
was enrolled among the members of several other learned
bodies, whose journals contain some of his communica-
tions.
From 1805, Dr. Clarke resided in London, being closely
engaged on his Commentary ; but at the same time he
fulfilled the duties of his station as a preacher, and took a
part in the management of various associations for litera-
ly, scientific, and benevolent purposes. His health failing
in 1815, he removed to Millbrook in Lancashire, where by
the munificence of his friends an estate was purchased for
him. Here he continued his Commentary, and brought it
nearly to a close. His celebrity, his finely-cultivated farm,
his vast and valuable library, and rich museum, here at-
tracted the visits of the neighboring nobility and gentry ;
until 1823, when he disposed of his estate, and removed
again to London. Finding, however, that his health still
required the' nourishment of country air, he purchased a
mansion called Haydon Hall, about seventeen miles from
the metropolis, in the village of Eastcott. Here he finished
his Commentary, April 17, 1826, on which he had been
occupied about ibrty years.
In 1831, whether with or against his consent is unknown,
he was set down on the stations as a supernumerary. Still
he had what he called a " roving commission," and was to
have preached in fulfilment of it at Bayswater, on the
morning of the day on which he died. But this was de-
nied in the inscrutable providence of Heaven ; for being
seized with the malignant cholera, he breathed his last at
a quarter past eleven, A. M., August 26, 1832. The con-
scious ajiproach of the last enemy disturbed not his settled
confidence in his divine Savior, in whom he had long
believed, and in solemn communion with whom, the last
moments of life were evidently occupied.
" The person of Dr. Clarke," says one of his friends,
"was tall, athletic, and erect.' His florid complexion
showed him to be a man of robust health and sanguine
temperament. His features were rather expressive of
good sound sense and good humor, than of intellectual
greatness, and were illuminated by gray eyes, small, but
brilliant."
■' The style of his writing is unstudied, and in his punc-
tuation he had no system at all. But its redeeming quali-
ties are, pregnancy, force, and vigor ; a sterling and
plentiful vocabulary ; and the dexterous management of
iteration. On practical subjects he wrote, as well as spoke,
with the unction and the energy which spring out of
acute sensibiUty and intimate experience. He was, un-
doubtedly, an author of first-rate talent, in the field m
which he labored, and he evinces always the possession
of a capacious and acute understanding. Of his Icnow-
ledge it were superfluous to speak — it was only not un-
bounded. *
" His preaching had the advantage of his writing, in
the particular we have pointed out. It is no small proof
of his greatness in the pulpit, that his sermons were equal-
ly received by the rich and the poor, the learned and the
illiterate. He brought his learning to bear upon his sub-
ject, without any parade, and in the most instructive
form ; and his native fervor, joined with the clearno.-s of
his conceptions, and the vastness of his resources, never
failed to elevate and inform his hearers. There was a
sort of cordiality in his preaching that was its principal
charm."
" His intellectual and moral worth won for him the re-
spect, and honor, and reverence, which all men ha-, c con-
ceded to him. He occupied a place which nothing else
could have enabled him to acquire, and afterwards main-
tained to his djing day. And we may affirm, that among
those that can discern the things that difler — who know
how to appreciate intellectual vigor, moral worth, honest
independence, real learning, practical usefulness, disinter-
ested generosity, and indexible integrity — there never was
a man more highly and sincerely honored while he lived,
or more deepiv and deservedly lamented when he died.
His publicaliohs were— Dissertation on the Use and Abuse
of Tobacco, 1797 ; A Biographical Dictionary, l80--._ lol-
lowed bv a Supplement in 180C ; The Succession ot Sa-
CL A
[ 382 ]
CL A
cred Literature, 1807 ; The Holy Scriptures, &c. &c., wth
a Commentary and Critical Notes, eight vols. 4to. 1810-26 ;
Clavis Biblica, or a Compendium of Scripture Knowledge ;
Memoirs of the Wesley Family ; three volumes of Ser-
mons, besides several single discourses and detached
pieces ; and anonymous articles, published in various
journals.
He also edited Baxter's Christian Directory, abridged,
1804 ; Fleury's Manners of the Ancient Israelites, 1805 ;
Shuckford's Sacred and Profane History of the World con-
nected, including bishop Clayton's Strictures on the work,
1808 ; Sturm's Reflections, translated from the German,
and Harmer's Observations, four volumes, octavo, the best
edition of this valuable work which has appeared : being
newly arranged, with large additions by the editor.
In addition to the above publications. Dr. Clarke was
employed several years by government, in collecting ma-
terials for a new edition of Rymer's Fsedera in folio : of
which he saw the first volume and a part of the second
through the press. This great national work is now su-
perintended by a commission under government.
But it is upon the merits of his Commentary that the
future reputation of Dr. Clarke will chiefly rest. Many
good men have regretted that he should have inserted in
it, what had no business there, Taylor's Key to the Ro-
mans, where his own deprecative notes must fail to coun-
teract entirely, the subtle and pernicious influence of Arian
and Pelagian errors. Apart from this, " as to the few pe-
culiarities of opinion on account of which the work has
been by some attempted to be disparaged," says Beau-
mont, " they do not aflfect any essential leading doctrine
of religion : and we affirm, that no other commentator in
this or any other country, has taught and established more
clearly and pointedly, and forcefully — the fall and depra-
vity of human nature — the redemption by Jesus Christ — the
extent and efficacy of the atonement — the justification of
the sinner by faith in that atonement — the necessity and
reality of the influence of the Holy Ghost — and the entire
sanctification of the whole man — than he, who, though
dead, yet speaketh." — Arjtobiography of Dr. Clarke ; Beau-
trwnt's Sermon on his Death ; Memoir in the Lotidon Christian
Advocate.
CLARKSON, (Gen. Matthew,) a soldier of the revo-
lution, was distinguished in the war of independence for
his courage, talents, and integrity. He acted as aid-de-camp
to general Gates in the battle of Stillwater, in which, as
he was carrying an order to the officer of the left wing by
passing in front of the American line, when engaged, he
received a severe wound in his neck. In his last years he
was vice-president of the American Bible Society, and
much of his time was devoted to the meetings of the ma-
nagers. He died at New York, after an illness of five
days, April 22, 1825, aged sixty-six years. Amiable, frank,
affectionate, pure and beneficent, his character was crown-
ed by aik. exalted piety. — Allen.
CLAXJDA ; a small island toward the south-east of
Crete, Acts 27: 16.
CLAUDE, bishop of Turin, sometimes termed the first
Protestant reformer, was by birth a Spaniard. In his early
years he was chaplain to Ludovicus Pius, king of France,
and emperor of the West ; and even then he was in high
repute for his knowledge of the Scriptures, and his first-
rate talents as a preacher. The abbe Fleury, in his Eccle-
siastical History, informs us, that Louis, perceiving the
deplorable ignorance which then pervaded a great part of
Italy, and desirous of providing the churches of Piedmont
with one who might stem the torrent of image worship,
promoted Claude to the see of Turin, about the year 817.
" And in truth," says Fleury, " he began to preach and in-
struct with great application." His first efforts were directed
against the prevailing rites of the papacy ; the worship of
images ; the veneration paid to relics and crosses ; and the
practice of pilgrimage. Against these and similar supersti-
tions, Claude inveighed with such intrepidity, that, in a little
time, the monks were all up in arms against him, reviUng
him as a heretic and blasphemer, and the good man went
about in fear of his life. Supported, however, by the testimo-
ny of a good conscience, and a confidence in the divine ap-
probation, he nobly persevered, until the valleys of Pied-
jnontwere filled with his doctrine. He wrote commentaries
on several parts of the Bible, particularly on the books of
Genesis, Exodus, and Leviticus ; on the Gospel by Mat-
thew ; and on all the Apostolic Epistles. After his death,
his writings were collected into two volumes, quarto, and
placed in the abbey of Fleury, near Orleans, in France.
He continued his labors at Turin at least twenty years,
for he was alive in 839 ; but of the precise time and cir-
cumstances of his death, we find no record. He evidently
possessed a very enlightened mind in the knowledge of the
Scriptures, and was endowed M'ith extraordinary zeal in
propagating divine truth in that dark and benighted peri-
od ; and his name deserves to be handed down to ihe re-
motest posterity with honor and veneration. The reader
will find many interesting extracts from his writings in
Jones's History of the Christian Church, 7ol. :. chap. iv.
sect. 1. — Jones's Chris. Biog.
CLAUDE, (Rev. John.) This great man was bom at
Sauvetat, France, in 1618. His father, the Rev. Francu
Claude, was successively pastor of several reformed congre-
gations in Lower Guienne, and was greatly esteemed for
his pious and honorable manner of discharging the duties
of his oflice. Mr. John Claude was educated by his father,
until it was deemed proper to send him to Montauban, to
finish his studies. Having gone through his course of
natural philosophy, he studied divinity under professors
Garrisoles and Charles. The brilliancy of his imagination,
his acute judgment, and sincere piety, together with his
modest and afliible manners, procured him the friendship
of all who knew him. He was desirous of visiting other
universities ; but he gave up this intention, at the wish of
his father, who was anxious to see him in the ministerial
office. After having been examined and fully approved
by the synod of Upper Languedoc, his father was appoint-
ed to ordain him over the church at La Treyne ; an office
which he performed with great pleasure, and died soou
after, in the seventy -fourth year of his age. Mr. Claude
remained with this church but one year ; the synod ap-
pointing him to succeed Mr. Martel of St. Afrique, in Ro-
vergue. The church at this place not being numerous,
he devoted a very large portion of his time to study, and
it was soon observed that he had not studied in vain ; his
preaching was greatly improved, and gave very general
pleasure to his auditors. About two years after this, he
preached an occasional sermon at Castres ; which made
so deep an impression on the hearers, that an effort was
made by the church to obtain Mr. Claude as a minister ;
he was, however, destined for another station. At St. Af-
rique, he married Mrs. Elizabeth de Malecare, a member
of the church, by whom he had one son, named Isaac,
born in the year 1653. He continued here eight years ;
during which time he was sought after by several other
churches, and much honored by the synod of Upper Lan-
guedoc, at which he Avas annually present.
In the year 1654, the church of Nismes, one of the most
conspicuous in France, being destitute of a minister, ap'
plied to Mr. Claude, who, after consulting with his friends
at St. Afrique, accepted the invitation, and was appointed
pastor by the synod. The duties of this station were very
heavy ; preaching daily, visiting great numbers of sick
people, attending consistoines, together with church busi-
ness, required very great application ; but he not only
gave the highest satisfaction in these duties, but found
time to give lectures on divinity to a great number of stu-
dents ; some of whom possessed great merit, and did ho-
nor to Mr. Claude's instructions.
As Mr. Claude's reputation increased, the envy and
jealousy of the Romish clergy was excited ; they narrowly
watched for an opportunity to displace him ; and it was
not long before they found one. It will be necessary, in
order to give a clear detail of Mr. Claude's life at this time,
to advert to the state of things, as it regarded the Protest-
ants in France. The privileges which they had obtained
by the edict of Nantz, in 1598, were gradually undermined
by a scheme, which originated with that deceitful enemy
of the reformed churches, cardinal Richelieu : he pretended
that a union of the Protestants and Catholics was practi-
cable and desirable j that the difference of their opinions
was not so great as was imagined ; and that their incon-
sistencies might be reconciled by proper explanation.
While he was circulating these pacific doctrines, in order
CLA
[ 383 ]
CLA
lo delude the Protestants, he persuaded Louis the Thir-
teeath to depnve them successively of all their privileges.
These plans were pursued in the following reign, and
many were deceived by their apparent usefulness. Such
was the state of affairs when Mr. Claude was chosen mo-
derator of the synod of Lower Languedoc, in the year
1662. He now resolutely opposed the scheme of re-union,
and defeated aU the plans which were set on foot to for-
ward it. This conduct was very displeasing to some per-
sons ; and in a short lime he was prohibited from preach-
ing in the province of Languedoc. Upon this, he went to
Paris to endeavor to obtain a remission of this decree ; he
was, however, unsuccessful. While at Paris on this busi-
ness, he heard that marshal Turenne intended to quit the
reformed religion ; and that his change of sentiment was
occasioned by reading a hook, called " Perpetuity of the
Faith," written either by Dr. Amauld or Dr. Nicole. At
the request of some of his friends, Mr. Claude wrote a
complete answer to this work, in which he defeated the
sophistical arguments it contained, in a very able manner.
This roused the feelings of the Catholics to a very great
degree, and many attempts were made to find out the ati-
thor, but, fortunately for him, without success. Being
unable to get his suspension taken off, he visited Monlau-
ban, where he arrived on a Saturday ; and having preach-
ed the next daj', the church there requested him to settle
with them. He comphed with their invitation ; and the
synod having confirmed their choice, he again commenced
his pastoral labors. In thiS church he is said to have spent
the happiest years of his life ; for he was much attached
to the place, as well as to the people. About four years
after this time, a circumstance occurred which obliged
him to leave. Marshal Turenne had been apparently sa-
tisfied by Mr. Claude's answer to the " Perpetuity ;" but
three years after, his doubts were revived by another
book, written by the same author, in answer to Mr. Claude.
The papists talked much of the victory obtained bv this
work, and so much did its fame increase, that Mr. Claude
prepared to answer it. A report soon spread, that one of
the reformed ministers was writing an answer ; and, as
there was reason to suppose that it was at Blontauban, the
bishop was employed to find it out. He consequently
waited on Mr. Claude, informed him of the reports that
were circulating, and requested a sight of the work he was
preparing. Mr. Claude, who did not wish to conceal any
thing, showed him a part of the manuscript, and told him
that the remainder was printing at Paris. Shortly after
this, an order of council came down, prohibiting the exer-
cise of his ministry at Montauban ; on which he immedi-
ately resigned his charge and went to Paris, as before, to
get his suspension taken off; although he «'as convinced
that success was almost impossible, since, in cases of this
sort, every process was sure of being lost.
At this time the Reformed church of Paris, meeting at
Charenton, determined lo elect Mr. Claude as one of their
ministers ; and having some influence at court, they ob-
tained leave lo do so. In this charge he was associated
with Blessrs. L' Angle, Daille, and AUix.
Shortly after his settlement, he wrote another book in
answer to father Nouet, with which the Protestants were
much pleased ; particularly with the preface. The station
which he now occupied was the most important and con-
spicuous among the Reformed churches in France. Paris
was the place where all the mischief of the papists was
planned ; it, therefore, required constant vigilance to dis-
cover and counteract it : the provincial churcltes also
looked for advice and example from Charenton, as they
were well aware that it was exposed to the first attacks.
Soon after this, Mr. Claude published a fourth answer
to Dr. Arnauld, who had again attacked him on the ground
of the "Perpetuity." This was followed by a piece enti-
tled, " A Defence of the Reformation ;" one of the most
valuable works ever written on that subject. He after-
wards published five sennons on " the Parable of the
AVedding Feast," which he had preached at Charenton,
the year before.
At. this time, his son returning from his studies in order
to prepare himself for the pulpit, IMr. Claude drew up for
his improvement, the '' E.^say on the Composition of a Ser-
mon." Young Mr. Claude was examined by the synod at
Sedaj, in September, 1678, and the following month his
father ordained him pastor of the church of Clermont
Beauvoibis. This year the celebrated conference took place
between Mr. Claude and Eossuet, the bishop of Condon.
It was occasioned by mademoiselle Duras's professing to
be Undecided in her opinions ; and as she was a member
of Mr. Claude's church, she expressed a wish for this con-
ference. Great pains were taken to prevent it ; but, after
much persuasion, the request was acceded to ; and thus
began a controversy which extended over the greater part
of Europe, and at last terminated, as such things usually
do, very unsatisfactorily.
In the year 1682, when the clergy of France dispers-
ed circtjlar letters through the kingdom, professedly for
the conversion of the Reformed churches, Mr. Claude
pnnted a small work, called "Considerations on the Cir-
cular Letters of the Assembly," exposing their hypocritical
design : declaring that he did not own the spiritual autho-
rity of the prelates, and vindicating hberty of conscience
for all parlies. This work was published anonymously;
but it was well known that Mr. Claude was the author.
The letters of the assembly not answering the intended
purpose, the prelates procured an order for their notifica-
tion lo all the Protestants in the kingdom. The Reformed
churches now all looked up to Charenton ; and rel)'ingon
the prudence and finnness of Mr. Claude, and determining
to be governed by his example, Charenton was the first
consistory summoned on this business, and Mr. Claude
was in the chair. The intendant read the letter, and Mr.
Claude made a short reply, intimating that they respected
and submitted to the civil magistracy, and the prelates on
account of their rank ; but that neither he nor his church
could acknowledge their authority as an ecclesiastical tri-
bunal. This judicious answer served as a model for the
other consistories.
About this time, the university of Groningen made him
an offer of a professorship ; but flattering as the pros-
pect was to him, he would not desert his church at the
time when he saw the storm of persecution rapidly ap-
proaching ; he, therefore, declined the appointment.
As the difliculties of the Protestants now thickened on
every side, Mr. Claude exerted himself more assiduously
than ever, to prepare the church for the blow which was
about to fall upon it. The great plot of the papal ckrgj'
was now deemed ripe for execution. In IMay, 1685, an
assembly was held at Versailles, ^\■hen they presented an
address to the king, congratulating him on the success of
the design to extirpate heresy, and the oppressive measures
which had been adopted. Not content with this, they re-
commended other restrictions more tyrannical than any
which had yel been forced upon the Protestants. The
chancellor, father le Tellier, perceiving that he should not
live much longer, and wishing to see the total ruin of the
Protestant cause, obtained in the following October, the
" revocation of the edict of Nantz." This was the com-
pletion of the work in which the clergy had been so active,
the extirpation of Protestantism. The church at Charenton
obtained an order for the continuance of public worship
until the edict was published ; which time they spent in
religious exercises, and the settlement of their affairs.
An ineffectual attempt was made to embroil the church
with the civil powers, % a meeting after the publication
of the edict; but Mr. Claude's prudence, however, defeat-
ed the plan, and so much incensed the bishops that they
procured his banishment, before that of the other pastors :
lie left Paris on the 23d of Detember, 1685, and went to
reside with his son, who was pastor of the Walloon church
at the Hague. The elector of Brandenburgh invited Mr.
Claude to settle in his territories, but he declined ; the
states at the Hague provided for him handsomely, and the
prince of Orange settled a pension on him. Here he en-
joyed that quiet which had been denied him in France ;
his house being an asylum for the dispersed Protestants.
Here also he collected materials for his last work, " The
Complaints of the Protestants of France," which gives a
vivid description of their calamities. On the 25th of De-
cember, 1686, he preached one of his finest sermons, hut
it was the occa.sion of his death. He exerted himself so
much, that it brought on a fever the same night ; he daily
became worse : and on the 13th of January he expired, in
CLE
[384]
CLE
the sixty-eighth year of his age ; after spending forty-two
years in the service of the church, and in the firm defence
of the principles of the reformation. — Jones's Chr. Biog.
CLAUDIA ; a Roman lady converted by Paul, 2 Tim.
4: 21. Some think she was the wife of Priidens, who is
named immediately before her ; others conjecture that she
was a British lady, sister of Linus. (See CnKisTrANiTT.)
CLAUDIUS, (CssAR,) the emperor o{ Rome, mentioned
m the New Testament, succeeded Caius Caligula, A. D.
41, and reigned upwards of thirteen years. He gave to
Agrippa all Judea ; and to his brother Herod, the kingdom
iif Chalcis. He terminated the dispute between the Jews
and the Alexandrians, confirming the former in the free-
dom of that city, and in the free exercise of their rehgion
and laws ; but not permitting them to hold assemblies at
Rome. Agrippa dying in the fourth year of Claudius,
A. D. 44, the emperor again reduced Judea into a pro-
vince, and sent Cuspius Fadus as governor. About this
lime happened the famine, as foretold by the prophet Aga-
(lus, (Acts 11: 28, 29, 30.) and at the same period, Herod,
king of Chalcis, obtained, from the emperor, the authority
over the temple, and the money consecrated to God, with
a power of deposing and establishing the high-priests. In
the ninth year of Claudius, (A. D. 49,) he published an
order, expeUing all Jews from Rome, (Acts IS: 2.) and it
is probable, that the Christians, being confounded with the
Jews, were banished likewise. Suetonius plainly intimates
this, when he says that Claudius expelled the Jews, by rea-
son of the continual disturbances excited by them, at the
instigation cf Chrestus : — an ancient way of spelling the
title of Christ. Claudius was poistvned by his wife Agrip-
pina, and was succeeded by Nero. — Calinet.
CLAUDIUS, (LvsiAs ;) tribune of the Roman troops,
which kept guard at the temple of Jerusalem. Observing
the tumult raised on account of Paul, whom the Jews had
seized, and designed to murder, he rescued him, and (Acts
21: 27. 23: 31.) carried him to fort Antonia, and afterwards
sent him guarded to Csesarea. — Calmct.
CLAY, is often mentioned in Scripture, nor is it neces-
sary to explain the various references to what is so well
known. It may be remarked, however, that clay was used
ibr sealing doors. Norden and Pococke observe, that the
in.spectors of the granaries in Egypt, after closing the door,
put their seal upon a handful of clay, with which they co-
ver the lock. This may help to explain Job 38; 14, in
which the earth is represented as assuming form and
imagery from tlie brightness of the rising sun, as rude
clay receives a figure from the impression of a seal or sig-
net.— Watson.
CLEAN, CLEANSE. (See Purifications, and Pckify ;
also Ani.mals.)
CLEAVE. To cleave to any one is to adhere firmly,
with ardent love. To cleave to the Lord, is firmly to believe
his word, hold intimate fellowship with him in his fulness,
receive and retain his Spirit, abide faithful to his truth,
follow closely his example, and obey all his commands.
Acts 11: 23. — Bromn.
CLEMENCY; a mild, generous, and forgiving disposi-
tion. It is often falsely ascribed to princes, by flatterers.
Acts 14: 4.
CLEMENT, -whose name is in the Book of Life, Phil.
4: 3. Most interpreters conclude that this is the same
Clement who succeeded in the government of the church
ut Rome.
The church at Corinth having been disturbed by divi-
sions, Clement wrote a letter to the Corinthians, which was
so much esteemed by the anjients, that they read it pub-
licly in many churches. It is still extant, and some have
inclined to rank it among the canonical writings. It
makes a part of the Apocryphal New Testament, and
breathes a spirit of true Christian charily and simplicity.
We have no authentic accounts of what occurred to Cle-
ment during the persecution of Domitian ; we are assured,
that he lived to the third year of Trajan, A. D. 100.—
Calmet.
CLEMENT, (Titus Flavius,) known as Clemens Alex-
andrinus, or Clement of Alexandria, one of the fathers of
the church, and distinguished for learning and eloquence
was born about A. D. 217 ; was converted to Christianity ■
and succeeded Panta;nns in the catechetical school of Alex-
andria. The time and place of his death are unknown.
The best edition of his theological works is that by Potter,
in two folio volumes. — Dave?iport.
CLEMENTINES, (said to be so called after a priest of
the name of Clement, their first leader;) a considerable sect
of religious persons in France, scattered in small bodies
throughout the country, but who are most numerous in
the neighborhood of the Pyrenees, distinguished by a par-
tial separation from the church of Rome. They have al-
ways refused to acknowledge those priests who took the
oaths to the new government, (that of the revolution,) and
even disown the pope on that account. They retain the
mass, confession, &c., having a few priests of their own
sentiments among them ; but they express a strong dislike
to many of the popish ceremonies, which they account a
solemn mockery. They are far less superstitious, and
more serious and devout, than the bulk of the Catholic^.
They are strenuous in their opposition to the general body
of Catholics, and will not enter the churches ; they par-
ticularlv dislike the ringing of bells on the death or fu-
neral of any person. They incline to the doctrine of free
grace, and seem to adopt on those points the sentiments of
St. Augusline. They reject the use of images in worship,
and laugh at the pompous religious processions. Many
of them use the French language instead of the Latin in
their prayers. They are said to be generally moral in
their conduct, and strict in their observance of the Lord's
day. See the EvangeUcal Mag. 1819, p. 29.— Williams.
CLEOPAS, according to Eus^ius and Epiphanius, was
brother of Joseph, both being sons of Jacob. He was the
father of Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem, of James the Less,
of Jude, and of Joseph, or Joses. Cleopas married Mary,
sister of the Virgin ; so that he was uncle to Jesus Christ.
He, his wife, and sons, were disciples of Christ ; but Cleo-
pas did not sufficiently understand what Jesus had so often
told his disciples, that it was expedient he should die, and
return to the Father. Having beheld our Savior expire
on the cross, he lost all hope of seeing the kingdom of God
established ,by him on earth ; but going to Emmaus with
another disciple, they were joined by our Lord, who ac-
companied them, and on his breaking bread they recog-
nised him, Luke 24: 13, lo end. — Calmet.
CLERGY, (from the Greek word kJeros, heritage,) in the
general sense of the word, as used by us, signifies the body
of ecclesiastics of the Christian church, in contradistinction
to Ihe laity ; but, strictly speaking, and according to Scrip-
ture, it means the church. '• When Joshua," as one ob-
serves, "divided the Holy Land by lot among the Israel- ■
ites, it pleased God to provide for a thirteenth part of
tliem, called Levites, by assigning them a personal estate
equivalent to that provision made by real estale, which
was allotted to each of the other twelve parts. In con-
formity to the style of the transaction, the Levites were
called God's lot, inheritance, or clergy. 'This style, however,
is not always used by the Old Testament writers. Some-
times they call all the nation God's lot, Deut. 32: 9. Ps.
78:71. Ps. 28: 9, &c. The New Testament writers adopt
this term, and apply it to the whole Christian church, 1 Pet.
5: 3. Thus it is the church distinguished from the world,
and not one part of the church as distinguished from an-
other part." The word clergy, however, among us, always
refers to ecclesiastics. When a Catholic priest receives
the tonsure, he repeats a part of the sixteenth psalm ; —
" The Lord's the portion of mine inheritance," &c. Ac-
cording to the doctrine of the Rornish church, a clergyman
is endowed, in his spiritual character, with supernatural
powers, which distinguish him from the layman, such as
the power to forgive sins, and to consecrate the bread, so
as to convert it into the real body of Christ, etc.
The clergy, after the apostolic age, consisted of bishops,
priests, and deacons ; but in the fourth century, many in-
ferior orders were appointed, such as sub-deacons, acolo-
thists, readers, &c. The clergy of the church of Rome
are divided into regular and secular. The regular consists
of those monks or religious who have taken upon them
holy orders of the priesthood in their respective monas-
teries. The secular clergy are those who are not of any
religious order, and have the care and direction of parishes.
The Protestant clergy are all secular. (For archbishops,
bishops, deans, &;c. &c., see those articles.)
CLO
[ 385 ]
COA
The E ugli.sli tlef gy have large_privileges allowed lliem by
our municipal laws, and had formerly much greater, whicb
were abridged al the Reformation, on account of tlie ill
use which the po|iish clergy had endeavored to make of
ihem ; for the laws having exempted them from almost
every personal duty, they attempted a total exemption
from every secular tie. The personal exemptions, indeed,
for the most part, continue. A clergyman cannot be com-
pelled to serve on a jury, uor to appear at a court leet,
•which almost every other person is obliged to do ; but if a
layinan be summoned on a jury, and before the trial, takes
orders, he shall notwithstanding appear, and be sworn.
Neither can he be chosen to any temporal office, as baUiff,
reeve, constable, or the like, in regard of his own continual
attendance on the sacred function, though the clergy are
now often found filling the office of justice of the peace.
During his attendance on divine serWce, he is privileged
f]om arrest in civil suits. In cases of felony, also, a clerk
in orders shall have the benefit of clergy, without being
branded in the hand, and may likewise have it more thaVi
once ; in both which cases he is distinguished from a
layman.
Benefit of clergy was a privilege whereby a clergyman
claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to purge himself
of felony, and which anciently was allowed onhj to those
who were in orders ; but, by the statute of 18 Elizabeth,
every man to whom the benefit of clergy is granted, though
not in orders, is put to read at the bar, after he is found
guilty, and convicted of felony, and so burnt in the hand,
and set free for the first time, if the ordinary or deputy
standing by do say, Legit ut ckricux : otherwise he shall
suffer death. As the clergy have their privileges, so they
have also their disabilities, on account of their spiritual
avocations. Clergymen are incapable of sitting in the
house of commons; and by the statute of 21 Henry VIII.
c. 13, are not in general allowed to take any lands or tene-
ments to farm, upon pain of ten pounds per month, and
total avoidance of the lease ; nor upon like pain to keep
any tap-house or brew-liouse ; nor engage in any trade, nor
sell any merchandise, under forfeiture of the treble value ;
which prohibition is consonant with the canon law.
The number of clergy in England and Wales amount,
according to the best calculation, to eighteen thousand.
The revenues of the clergy were formerly considerable,
but since the Reformation they are comparatively small, at
least those of the inferior clergy. See the Bishop of Llan-
daff's Valuation of the Church and University Kevtnues ; or,
Cove on the Revenues of the Church, 1797, second eilition ;
Burnet's History of his own Times, conclusion. (See Benefit
ofCleeoy; Church Revenues ; Minister.) — Ilend. Buck.
CLERK. 1. A word originally used to denote a learn-
ed man, or man of letters ; but now is the common appel-
lation bv which clergymen distinguish themselves in sign-
ing anydeed or instrument. 2. Also the person who reads
the responses of the congregation in the Episcopal church,
or gives out the hvmns at a meeting.— Hoiii. Buck.
CLOTHES. (See Habits.)
CLOTILDA, queen of France, and niece of Goudebald,
king of the Burgundians, was a woman of extraordinary
beauty, sense, and virtue. Her fame made an impression
on the heart of Clovis, king of France, to whom she was
married at Soissons, A- D. 491. Clotilda was a Christian ;
but Clovis and his people were pagans. On the birth of
her first son, she gained the king's consent to his baptism ;
but the child dying, Clovis murmured loudly. The second
son, being taken ill after his baptism, the king became fu-
rious, saying it would die like its brother in consequence
of being devoted to her God. The child however recover-
ed, and the superstitious monarch began to entertain more
favorable ideas of the Christian religion. In 496, being
engaged in a bloody battle with the Germans, his troops,
gave way, when Clovis, lifting his eyes to heaven, exclaim-
ed, " God of my queen Clotilda, if thou grant me the vic-
tory, I here vow to receive baptism, and hereafter to wor-
ship no other God." He g.iiued the victory, and fulfilled
his vow ; and his nominal conversion was the means of
establishing the Christian religion in France. — Betham.
CLOUD ; a collection of vapors suspended in the at-
mosphere. When the Israelites had left Egypt, God gave
them a pillar of rloud to direct their march. Exod. 13: 21,
22. According lo Jerome, in his epistle to Fabiola, this
cloud attended them from .Succoth ; or, according to oth-
ers, from Eamases ; or, as the Hebrevi's say, only from
Ethan, till the death of Aaron ; or, as the gencialily of
commentators are of opinion, to the passage of Jordan.
This pillar was commonly in front of the Israelites ; but
at Pihahiroth, when the Egyptian army approached be-
hind them, it placed itself between Israel and the Egj'p-
tians, so that the Egyptians could not come near the Isra-
elites all night. Exod. 14: 19, 20. In the morning, the
cloud moving on over the sea, and following the Israelites
who had passed through it, the Egj'ptians pressing after
were drowned. From that time, this cloud attended the
Israelites ; it was clear and bright during night, in order to
afford them light ; but in the day it was thick and gloomy,
to defend ihem from the excessive heats of the deserts.
" The angel of God which went before the camp of Israel,
removed and went behind them ; and the pillar of the
cloud -went from before their face, and stood behind them."
Exod. 14: 19. Here we may observe, that the angel and
the cloud made the same motion, as it would seem, in
company. The cloud by its motions gave the signal ti.
the Israelites to encamp or to decamp. Where, therefore,
it staid, the people staid till it rose again; then they
broke up their camp, and followed it till it stopped. It
was called a pillar, by reason of its form, which was high
and elevated. Some interpreters suppose that there were
two clouds, one to enlighten, the other to shade, the camp.
The promise is still with the church, that the Lord will
create upon every dwelling-place of mount Zion, (let the
reader not overlook the every,) and upon all her assemblies,
a cloud and a smoke by day, and the shining of a flaming
fire by night ; for upon all the glory shall be a defence.
Isa. 4: 5. What though this overshadowing care of the
Head of the church be not visible now as of old, yet the
presence of the Lord of the cloud is equally real, and his
guiding and protecting love equally great, from the Suc-
coth of conversion to the Jordan of death. — Walscm ;
Hawker.
CLUSTER. An ancient author tells us, that the Jews
were accustomed to call such men as excelled in good
qualities, Eshcoloth ; that is, clusters. And hence they
had a saying, that after the death of Jose Ben Joezen, a
man of Tzerda, and Jose Ben Jochanan, a man of Jeru-
salem, the clusters ceased.
Nothing could lie more happily chosen to set forth the
unrivalled fertility and richness of Canaan, than the clus-
ter of its fruits which the spies brought back from Eshcol.
Num. 13: 23. It was indeed a lively earnest of the ful-
ness, sweetness, and blessedness of the promised land.
But a more glorious object is set forth, (in Canticles I: 14.)
under the image of "a cluster of camphire from the vine-
yards of Engedi." All divine, all human excellencies
concentrate in Christ, the Lord and Savior of the church.
Full of truth and full of grace, he is indeed a cluster of
all that is desirable, both in the life that now is, and in
that which is to come. — Hawlcer.
COA ; (1 Kings 10: 2-3. 2 Chron. 1: 16 ) probably a city
of Egypt, the capital of the province called Cypopolitana.
—Culmet.
COALS. Temptations to unchastity are compared to
burning coals, which cannot be approached without inllajn-
ing and fatally injuring the soul. Prov. 6; 23. The same
is true of strife and contention. Prov. 26: 21. So the
judgments of God are represented under the terrible image
of coals of juniper, (the most intense and enduring heat,)
applied to the human body. Ps. 140: 10. 120: 4. IS: &.
On the other hand, the divine promise of forgivene.ss and
grace is represented bj' a live coal taken from the celestial
altar ; because, being conveyed to us through the Re-
deemer's sacrifice, it inflames the soul with love, melts it
into godly sorrow, and purges away the dross of sinful
corruption. Isa. 6: 6. The love of saints lo their Lord and
Savior, is as coals of fire, that have a nast vehement fiame ;
it makes their hearts burn with desire after him, imparts
a resplendent lustre to their character, and resists all the
efforts of earth and hell to extinguish it. Cant. 8: 6, 7.
So also goo.I deeds and kind ollices to enemies are as
coals of fire heaped on their heads ,■ they lend te. melt down
the obdurate spinl into grief and love, or else to prepare
COG
[ 3S6 ]
coc
ihem for the more speedy and just infliction of divine
punisliment upon tlieir iaipeiiiteDce. Prov. 25; 22. Rom.
12: 20.— Bronii.
COAT. (See Habits.)
COBB, (Eeenezer,) remarijable for longevity, was born
in Plymouvli, Massacluisetts, Slarcli 22, 1694. Mr. Cobb
died at Kingston, December 8, 1801, aged one liundred
and seven years. His days were passed in cullivaiing tlie
eartli. His mode of living was simple. Only twice in
his life, and then it was to gratify his brethren on a jury,
did he substitute an enervating cup of tea in place of the
invigorating bowl of broth, or the nutritive porringer of
milk. He never used glasses ; but for several years could
not see to read. He was of a moderate stature, stooping
in attitude, having an expanded chest, and of a fair and
florid countenance. He enjoyed life in his old age, and
in his last year declared, that he had the same attachment
to life as ever. He was a professed Christian. See Cn-
luiniian Centi7id,Dcc. 16, 1801 ; jVero Fori Spectator, Dec.
Z'i.—AUm.
COBHAM, (Lord John.) See Oldcastle.
COCCEIANS ; a denomination which arose in the
seventeenth century, so called from John Cocceins, pro-
fessor of divinity in the univer.sity of Leyden. He repre-
sented the whole history of the Old Testament as a mirror,
which held forth an accurate view of the transactions and
events that were to happen in the church under the dispen-
satitm of the New Testament, and unto the end of the
world. He maintained that by far the greatest part of the
ancient prophecies foretold Chri.st's ministry and media-
tion, and the rise, progress and revolutions of the church,
not only hid under the figure of persons and transactions,
cut in a literal manner, and by the very sense of the words
used in these predictions ; and laid it down as a fundamen-
tal rule of interpretation, that the words and phrases of
Scripture are to be understood in every sense of which
they are susceptible, or, in other w'ords, that they signify
in eflect evei-y thing that they can possibly signify.
Cocceius also taught, that the covenant made between
God and the Jewish nation, by the ministry of Moses, was
of the same nature as the new covenant, obtained by the
mediation of Jesus Christ. In consequence of this gene-
ral principle, he maintained that the ten commandments
were promulgated by BIoscs, not as a rule of obedience,
but as a representation of the covenant of grace — that
W'hen the Jews had provoked the Deity by their various
transgressions, particularly by the worship of the golden
calf, the severe and servile yoke of the ceremonial Jaw
was added to the decalogue, as a punishment inflicted on
them by the Supreme Being in his righteous displeasure —
that this yoke, which was painful in itself, became doubly
so on account of its typical signification, since it admonish-
ed the Israelites, from day to day, of the imperfection and
uncertainty of their stale, filled them with anxiety, and was
a perpetual proof that they bad merited the righteous dis-
pleasure of God, and could not expect, before the coming
of the Messiah, the entire remission of their iniquities^
Ihat indeed good men. even under the Mosaic dispensation,
were, immediately after death, made partakers of ever-
lasting glory ; but that they were, nevertheless, during
the whole course of their lives, fnr removed from that
firm hope and assurance of salvation which rejoices the
faithful under the dispensation of the gospel— and that
their anxiety flowed naturally from this consideration, that
their sins, though they remained unpunished, were not
pardoned, because Christ had not as yet oiVered himself up
a sacrifice to the Father, to make an entire atonement for
them. — Hend. Hue/:.
COCK-CROWING. The cock usually crows at two
difierent times ol the night ; the first lime a little after
midnight, and a second lime about the break of day. (See
Hour.) This last season is usually called cock-c'rowiii" ;
and this was the time intended by our Lord when he stTid
to Peter, " Before the cock crow, thou shalt deny me
thrice." Matt. 20: 34. Mark and John refer to both sea-
sons, but Matlhew only to the lo,st. Mark 13: 40. John 13:
38. Compare the fulfilment of the prediction. Matt 26-
74. Mark 14: OS— 72. Luke 22: 61. John 18: 27.
These texts in;iy be satisfactorily reconciled, by observ-
ing, thai ancient authors, both Greek and Latin,' mention
two cock-crowings, the one of which was soon after mid-
night, the other about three o'clock in the morning ; and
this latter, being most noticed by men as the signal of their
approaching labors, was called by way of eminence, the
cock-crowing ; and to this alone, Matthew, giving the ge-
neral sense of our Savior's warning to Peter, refers ; but
Mark, recording his very words, mentions the two cock-
crowings.
The rabbies tell us that cocks were not permitted to be
kept in Jerusalem on account of the holiness of the place ;
and for this reason some modern Jews cavil against
this declaration of the evangelists ; but the cock is not
among the birds prohibited in the law of Moses. If there
was any restraint in the use and domestication of the ani-
mal, it must have been an arbitrary practice of the Jews,
and could not have been binding on foreigners, of whom
many resided at Jerusalem as officers or traders. Stran-
gers would not be willing to forego an innocent kind of
food in compliance with a conquered people ; and the
trafticking spirit of the Jews would induce them to supply
aliens, if it did not expressly contradict the letter of their
law. This is sufficient to account for fowl of this kind
being there, even admitting a customaiy restraint. — Brown;
Watson.
COCKATRICE. The translators of the English Bible
have variously rendered the Hebrew words Izepho and
tzephoni, by adder and cockatrice ; and we are by no
means certain of the particular kind of serpent to which
the original term is applied. In Isaiah 11: 8, " the tzepho-
ni," says Dr. Harris, " is evidently an advance in malig-
nity beyond the peten which precedes it ; and in ch. 14: 2i),
it must mean a worse kind of serpent than the nachaslt ;"
but this still leaves us ignorant of its specific character.
Mr. Taylor, who has taken extraordinary pains to identify
it, is of opinion that it is the noja, or cobra ili capello of ihe
Portuguese, which we find thus described by Goldsmith : —
"Of all others, the cobra di capello. or hooded serpent,
inflicts the most deadly and incurable wounds. Of this
formidable creature there are five or six different kinds ;
but they are all equally dangerous, and their bite followed
by speedy and certain death. It is from three to eight feet
long, with two long fangs hanging out of the upper jaw.
It has a broad neck, and a mark of dark brown on the
forehead, which, when viewed frontwise, looks like a pair
of spectacles, but behind like the head of a cat. The eyes
are fierce and full of fire ; the head is small, and the nose
flat, though covered with very large scales, of a yellowish
ash color ; the skin is white, and the large tumor on the
neck is flat, and covered \\'ilh oblong smooth scales. The
bite of this animal is said.lo he incurable, the patient dy-
ing in about an hour after the wound ; the whole frame
COD
[397 1
COK
being dissolved into one putrid mass of corruption. The
effects here attributed to the bite of this creature answer
very well to what is intimated of the tzephoni in Scripture.
Thu.s, in Isaiah 11: 9: 'They [the ^zc;)//ont immediately
preceding] shall not hurt nor destroy [corrupt] in all my
holy mountain.' And Proverbs 23: 32.: 'At the last it
biteth like a serpent, and stingelh [spreads, diffuses
its poison; so the Seventy and Vulgate,] like a cocka-
trice."
We must not omit to notice the very powerful argument
adduced in the last cited passage against the sin of intem-
perate drinking. Like the poison of the deadly cockatrice,
it paralyzes the energies both of mind and body, and
speedily diffuses corruption throughout the entire iVame.
"Who hath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath conten-
tions ? who halh babblings ? who hath wounds without
cause ? who hath redness of eyes ? They that tarj-y long
at the wine : they that go to seek mixed wine." " Wine
is a mocker, strong drink is raging; and whosoever is de-
ceived thereby is not wise," ch. 23: 29, 30. 20: 1.
The unyielding cruelty of the Chaldean armies, under
Nebuchadnezzar, and the appointed ministers of Jehovah's
vengeance on the Jewish nation, whose iniquities had made
him their enemy, is expressively alluded to in the follow-
ing passage: "For, behold, I will send serpents, cocka-
trices, among j'ou, which shall not be charmed, and they
shall bite you, saith the Lord." Jer. 8: 17.
In Egypt, and other oriental countries, a serpent was
Ihe common symbol of a powerful monarch ; it was em-
broidered on their robes, and blazoned on their diadem, to
signify their absolute power and invincible might ; and
also, that, as the wound inflicted by the basilisk is incura-
ble, so the fatal effects of their displeasure were neither to
be avoided nor endured. These, says Pa.xton, are the al-
lusions involved in the address of the prophet, to the irre-
concilable enemies of his nation : " Rejoice not thou,
whole Palestina, because the rod of him that smote thee
IS broken ; for out of the serpent's roots shall come forth
a cockatrice, and his fruit shall be a fierv flving serpent."
Isa. 14: 21). Uzziah, the king of Judah," had subdued the
Philistines ; but, taking advantage of the weak reign of
Ahab, they again invaded the kingdom of Judea, and re-
<luced some cities in the southern part of the coun-
try under their dominion. On the death of Ahab, Isaiah
delivers this prophecy, threatening them with a more s-c-
vere chastisement from the hand of Ilezcldah, the grand-
son of Josiah, by v.hose victorious arms they had been
reduced to sue for peace, which he accomplished, when
"he smote the Phihstincs, even unto Gaza, and the borders
thereof." 2 Kings 18: 8. Uzziah, therefore, must be meant
by the rod that smote them, and by the serpent from whom
should spring the tiery flying serpent, that is. Hezekiah, a
much more terrible enemy than even Uzziah had been.
But the symbol of regal power which the oriental kings
preferred to all others, was the basiiisk-
All the other species of serpents are said to acknowledge
the superiority of the basilisk, by flying from its presence,
end hiding themselves in the dust. It is also supposed to
live longer than anj' other serpent; the ancient heathens,
therefore, pronounced it to be immortal, and placed it in
ihe number of their deities ; and because it had the dan-
gerous power, in general belief, of killing with its pestife-
rous breath the strongest animals, it seemed to them in-
vested with the power of life and death. It became,
therefore, the favorite symbol of kings, and was employed
by the prophet to symbolize the great and good Hezekiah,
with strict propriety. — Abbott.
CODDINGTON, (William,) one of the founders of
Rhode Island, was a native of Lincolnshire, England.
He came to this country as an assistant, or one of the
magistrates of Massachusetts, and arrived at Salem in
the Arabella, June 12, 1630. He was several times recho-
sen to that efiice ; but in 1637, when governor Vane, to
whose interest he was attached, was superseded by Mr.
Winthrop, he also was left out of the magistracy. He re-
moved to Rhode Island, April 26, 1638, and was the prin-
cipal instrument in effecting the original settlement of that
place. His name stands first on the covenant, signed by
eighteen persons at Aquetneck, or Rhode Island, March
7, 16.3S, forming themselves into a body politic, to be
governed by the laws of the Lord Jesus Cliri.':!, the R.ng
of kings.
Mr. Coddinglon was chosen governor seven years suc-
cessively, until the charter was obtained, and the island
was incorporated with Providence plantations. In 1647,
he assisted in forming the body of laws, which has been
the basis of the government of Rhode Island ever since.
In 1652, he retired from public business ; but towards the
close of his life he was prevailed on to accept the chief
magistracy. He M'as governor in the years 1674 and
1675. He died, November 1, 1G78, aged seventy-seven.
He appears to have been prudent in his administration,
and active in promoting the welfare of the little common-
wealth, which he had assisted in founding. While he lived
in Rhode Island, he embraced the sentiraentsof the Quakers.
He was a warm advocate for liberty of conscience. See
Dedication of Callender's Historical Discourse ; Winthrop ;
Huichin.son, i. 18. — Allen.
CffiLICOL^E ; (worshippers of the heavens ;) an ob-
scure sect of African heretics, in the fil'th century, who
seem to have mixed up some parts of Judaism and pagan-
ism with Christianity, and to have used both circumcision
and baptism. It is not, however, improbable that they
ha\^ been slandered, as the pagans called the Jews them-
selves by this name. See Turner's History, p. 180 ; Bell's
AVanderings, p. 192. — W^Uiants.
CffiLO SYRIA : hoUnw or ikpressed Syria ; Syria in the
vale. 1 lilac. 13: 10. This name imports the hollow land,
or region, situated between two long ridges of mountains ;
and those mountains have been always understood to be
Libanus and Anti-iibanus. As these ridges run parallel
for many leagues, they contain between them a long, ex-
tensive, and extremely fruitful valle}'. — IVatson.
CffiNOBITES ; monks of the fourth century, who lived
in a .settled community under an abbot. See Broughton's
Dictionary. — U'dliajns.
COGAiS'', (Thomas,) a physician, was born, in 1736, at
Kibworth, in Leicestershire, and was educated under Dr.
Aikin. In conjunction with Dr. Hav,-es he founded the
Humane Society. A considerable part of his life was
spent in Holland. He died in 1818. He translated the
works of Camper, and published some original works;
among which are, The Rhine, or A Journey from Utrecht
to Frankfort ; a Philosophical Treatise on the Passions ;
Ethical Questions; and Theological Disquisitions. — Va-
vctiport.
COHORT ; a military term used by the Romans, to de-
note a company gcnerall)' composed of six hundred foot
soldiers : a legion consisted of ten cohorts, every cohort
being composed of three maniples, and every maniple of
two hundred ; a legion, consequently, contained in all six
thousand men. Others allow hut five hundred men to a
cohort, which would make five thousand in a legion. It is
probable, that cohorts among the Romans, as companies
among the moderns, often varied as to their number — •
COKE, (TnojiAs, LL. D.,) was bora at Brecon, in South
Wales, on the 9th of September, 1747. His father, Mr.
Bartholomew Coke, was an eminent surgeon, residing in
that place ; a man of great respectability, and several
times filled the ofiice of chief magistrate of the town.
Thomas was their only child ; and his affectionate parents
watched over his infant da}'s with unusual solicitude. In
early life he was, however, deprived, by death, ol his fa-
ther, and to the care of his widowed mother he was con-
signed. He received the first elements of knowledge in
the college school at Brecon, and was attentive and studi-
ous. At the age of sixteen, he was removed from Brecon
to Oxford ; and, in the Lent term of his seventeenth year,
was entered a gentleman commoner at Jesus college, in
that university. At college he became acquainted with
the vicious and profane ; and was even a captive to those
snares of infidehty which he had at first surveyed with detes-
tation and horror. His principles being thus tainted, his
conduct became infected ; but he was preserved, to a great
degree, from committing those abominable crimes which
he observed performed bV others. Jlr. Coke was however
unhappv ; and amidst all the noise and clamor, and mirth
and foll'y of his associates, he was f.eqnently pensive and
discontented. At this time he paid a visit to a cler^Tma.i
C 0 K [ 388 J CO K
m Wales; and, by the preaching of the gospel at that reception from Mr. Wesley was not krnd ; the former waa
place, by perusing the discourses and disputations of a missionary, the latter the fontbder of a sect. The latter
bishop Sherlock, and by reading rhe celebrated Treatise expected too much submission ; the former was one trf the
on Eegeneration, by Dr. Witherspoon, bis mind became last men in the world to concede to what he regarded a
gradually enlightened, though he did not at that time be- spirit of harsh legislation. In 1786, be wais employed ire
eome a Christian. visiting the Norman isTe's, and was made in.strumentaS
On June 17th, 1775, he took his degree of doctor of civil of establishing a Methodist society in Guernsey. On re-
laws, and obtained a curacy at South Pelherton, in So- turning from the Norman isles, Dr. Cske prepared for
mersetshire, where his congregation increased ; he built a another voyage across the Atlantic. He determined on
gallery to the church, at bis own expense. He evinced visiting Nova Scotia, and, with three raissionari'es, embark-
great anxiety for the improvement of his charge, and was ed at Gravesend, on the 24th of September, 178(i. The
speeiJly accused of being a Methodist. To the doctrines violence of the weather, however, retarded their voyage ,
of Mr. Wesley he became attesehed ; zealously preached and, after having been greatly inconvenienced by storms
Ihem at South Petherton ; received a reprimand for his and hnnicanes, gales and tempests, their wealher-beaten
zeal from the bishop of Bath and Wells ; and was eventu- bark cast andmr in the harbor of Antigua, in the West
ally dismissed by the rector of the parish, for his pious Indies, on December 2.5th, 1786. Dr. Coke instantly corn-
concern to promote the welfare of his parishioners. Ba- menced his labors as a missionary, and repeatedly preach-
nished from the church of South Petherton, he preached ed with a suceess proportioned to his zeal. He then- visit-
in the open air, and attracted considerable attention. In ed St. Vincent's and St. Christopaer's,.at Kingston; in the
the month of July, 1777, he met with Mr. "Wesley, con- former he stationed Mr. Clarke, o-ne of tlie missionaries ;
versed with him, received an explanation of his plans and and, in all bis t-our, received the general applause and
system, and deteiinined to become a preacher in that soci- gratitude of the negroes, arid of many intelligent inhabi-
ely. As a preacher, in London he was very popular, and tants. On February 10th, 1787, he sailed from St. Eusta-
i.is fame rapidly spread over an extensive district. In tins to Charleston, in America, where be arrived, after a
1780, Mr. Wesley appointed him to superintend the Lon- pleasant voyage of eighteen days. There he labored as 3
don circuit; and he visited the various Wesleyan societies minister of the gospel for about a month. In April, he
in Ireland. attended at the conference at Balttmore, and was rejoiceci
In 1784, Mr. Wesley executed the celebrated deed of deela- by the intelligence, that more than six thousand six huB-
ration as to all his chapels, arnt appointed Dr. Coke as one dred persons had been added to the societies through
of the trustees. In 1782, Dr. Coke held the first Irish the Uniteil States.
conference, and hisconductonthisoccasionsodelighted the Having now surveyed several islainds so the West In-
Irish, that they requested he would always preside. Mr. dies, and observed the general state of religion on the con-
Wesley, having visited America, institiMed many Christian tinen! of America, he prepared to' return to Mr. Wesley j
societies ; and, having been the instrument of converting preached his farewell, sermon at Phiiadelpbia ; and arrived
many persons, Dr. Coke privately resolved there to become in Dublra bay on the 25tli of June, 1787. He immedi-
a preacher ; and, on the 2d of September, 1781, he was ately repaired to the Irish conference, represented the con-
set apart,; by Mr. Wesley, as a presbyter of the church of dition of the heathen, and excited a general and powerful
England, and a missionary to North America. On the desire to send missionaries forthwith to the West Indies.
18th of September, 1784, the vessel weighed anchor, and From Ireland he travelled, with Mr. AVcsley, to the Eng-
Dr. Coke, with other missionaries, commenced their voy- lish conference at Manchester. At the conciiision of the
age, with confidence in God, and desires to pron>ote his conference he left Manchester, and again visited the Nor-
glory. At Ne^v York, in America, he safely arrived ; im- man islands. In those isles he preached with great success,
mediately there comtnencwl preaching; on the 6lh of No- to large and attentive congregations. On leavingthe Nor-
■Jcmber reached Philadelphia, and on the ensuing day man islands, he repaired to England, visited many of the
f/reached in one of the churches- Invmediately, in the principal towns, and employed his time in preaching anti
spirit of a Christian missionary, he commenced his labors, collecting funds to provide for the missionaries to the West
and preached in the open air. By the conference assem- Indies. Towards the close of the year 1788, he sailed.
Wed »t Baltimore, TSU. Wesley's plans and system were with three missionaries, t-o Barbadoes, where he was kind-
approvetT, and Dr. Coke there preached his celebrated ser- ly received. He travelled to the country of the Caribbs —
mon " On the Godhead of Christ," Deacons, elders, and explored the recesses of the forest, and the seclusions of
a superintendent of the Methodist Episcopal church in savage life — visited the plantations — settled a missionary
America were appointed ; and harmony, peace, and piety at St. Vincent's — sailed for Dominica — revisited Antigua —
presided over the proceeding.s.. repaired to St. Euslalius — preached daily— superintended
When the war commenced between Englarul and Ame- the temporal and spiritual affairs of the mission — and af-
iica, the Methodists were opposed by the government of forded directions, encouragement, or reproof, as circumi-
America, (m the ground of Mr. Wesley's decided attach- stances required. On departing from this island. Dr. Coke
ment to the measures of England ; but Dr. Coke and Mr. repaired to Nevis, Saba,, Tortola, Santa Cruz, and Jamai-
Asbury, m behalf of the American BJethodists, presented ca, where he landed on the I'Jth of January, X789.
to general Waslungton an address, deckratory of their This indefatigable man, having thus passed through the
loyalty and obedience to theirruiers, and of congratulatioD islands, established missionaries in several, and prepared
on his elevation. The propriety of that address has been the way for others in neariy all, once more sailed for the
questioned ; but it preserved the Methodists in America continent of America, and amved at Charieston on the
from persecution, and religion from reproach. To it, gene- 24th of February. At Georgia he at length arrived, in
ral Washington returned an afi'ectionate and pious reply. time for the conference, and then returned to Charieston,
To the cause of the gospel m the United States he now where another was held for South CaroUna. From thence
paid increased attention ; collected a consideraHe sum to- he proceeded to North Carolina, and then to Virginia. He
wards the erection of a college ; directed its commence- also attended two conferences in the state of Maryland, one
ment, and lived to witness its rising usefulness and increas- at Philadelphia, antl another at New York. Animated by
ing success; but, finally, alas ! to view its destruction by past success, he determined on introducing Christianity
fire. The conference having ended in 17S4, Dr. Coke yet more among the native Indians ; and having made the
proceeded tfirough the United Stales, on an extensive tour necessary arrangements, he sailed for England on the 5th
(o all the churches. Dr. Coke next engaged in procuring of June, and arrived at Liverpool on the lllh of July,
an address to the assembly of Virginia, for the emancipa- 1789. On his arrival in England, he repaired to the con-
tion of the negroes. In pnrsumg hts journey through the ference, to report to Sir. AVesiey, and the various preachers,
states, he^was frequently exposed to dangers. Sometimes an account of his past proceedings, and to offer personally
he was benighted in dreary forests; at other times he to plead in behalf of the negroes^in the West Indies, which
mfssed his way, and was compelled to wander through offer was cheerfully accepted, and neariy sixteen months
trackless deserts, exposed to hurricanes and dangers, as were devoted by him to this employment ; during which
appalling as they were nmnerous. time he travelled and preached through a considerable
On June 3d, 1785, Dr. Coke sailed for England. His part of the kingdom, and was more than repaid for
COL
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his exertions, by llie kindness \rilh which he was re-
ceived.
Considering this part ol' his work completed, he deter-
mined once more on visiting the West Indies ; and, ac-
cordingly, sailed from Falmouth on the Kith of October,
1790, in company with two missionaries. On the 22d of
November, he reached Barbadoes, after a delightful passage
of five weeks. After (ireaching for some time in Bridge-
town, he visited St. Vincent's, Grenada, and Antignn,
where he again preached with equal success, and found,
during his absence, much progress had been made in
tlic preaching of the gospel. He next arrived at the island
of St. Eustatius, but was there forbidden to preach, by the
governor. He consequently determined to leave the island,
and repair to Holland, to lay before the Dutch government
the situation of the inhabitants of the latter place, and of
Saba. He next sailed from Jamaica for Charleston, in
South Carolina, where he arrived on 27th of January, 1791.
From this place, after renewing his former exertions for
some time, he sailed for England. On the 1st of Septem-
ber, 1792, he again sailed from Gravesend for America,
and arrived at St. Eustatius on the 31st of December,
where he was still refused the privilege of preaching.
The tempest of persecution had not ceased ; and he left,
in the island of St. Vincent's, the only missionary, a Blr.
Lamb, who was then confined in prison for preaching to
the negroes. From thence he repaired to Antigua, Barba-
does, and Jamaica ; and, after exerting himself with his
usual benevolence, returned to England, where he arrived
on the 6th of Blarch, 1793, with a heart glowing with
gratitude to God for his mercies.
Dr. Coke, having constantly kept in view the melan-
choly situation of the inhabitants of St. Vincent's, on his
arrival in England, drew out a plain statement of the case,
to lay before the king in council ; and to give more effect
to the design, he made a personal application to some
members of the executive government. Those applica-
tions aroused the attention of the council, who forwarded
letters to the governors of the "West India islands, with
inquiries as to the general conduct of the missionaries.
Dr. Coke waited the result with laudable impatience ; and,
on the 31st of August, 1793, he had the heart-felt gratifica-
tion of hearing that the edict of St. Vincent's was disal-
lowed.
Having thus obtained the freedom of one island, this
eminent philanthropist could not be content till St. Eusta-
tius received the same blessing ; and he accordingly en-
deavored to seek for protection against the governor. He di-
rectly set sail for Holland ; presented his memorial, and soli-
cited the official interference of the Dutch government.
Actuated by a principle of conscious rectitude, he waited
personally on the stadtholder, w ho admitted hiin, and gave
him a favorable reception ; but no decided answer was
obtained till some months afterwards, when a gentleman
in the island applied to the governor, and incUned him to
depart from the spirit of intolerance manifested by his
predecessors ; and from that time preaching was allowed,
and the ardent spirit of Dr. Coke was made to rejoice at
the happy change.
On the 1st of January, 1814, he sailed for India, but
died on his passage by a sudden stroke of apoplexy. The
ocean recei'ied his mortal remains ; but his memory is
embalmed ii\ the hearts of thousands, and his happy spirit
rests with his faithful Lord till the sea shall give up her
dead. See Life of Dr. Coke, by Samuel Drew. — Jones's
Christ. Eiog.
COLD. Spiritual coldness consists in an utter, or very
great unconcern about Jesus Christ and divine things.
IMatt. 24: 12. Professors are neither cold nor hot when
Ihcy retain the profession of truth in some degree, but
have no active liveliness, zeal, or concern for the power
of it. Christ's wishing men were either cold or hot imports,
that none are more detested of him, or dishonoring to him,
than hypocritical and careless professors of the Christian
faith, ilev. 3: 15, K.—Sron-n.
COLET, (Dr. John,) a learned Enghsh divine, was
horn in London, in 1466, and was the eldest son of Sir
Henrj' Colet, knight, twice lord mayor, who had, besides
him, twenty-one children. In 1483, he was sent to Mag-
dalen college, Oxford, where he spent seven years in the
study of logic and philosophy, and look the degree* in
arts. Having laid a good foundation of le,arning at home,
he travelled abroad for further improvement, visiting
France and Italy, in whicli countries he seems to have
pas.sed the time from 1493 to 1 197. At I'aris he became ac-
quainted with several learned men, and amongolherf, wilii
the celebrated Budn?us, ami alierwards v.ilh Erasmus. On
his return, in 1497, he was ordained deacon in December,
and priest in July, 1 198. Before he entered into orders,
he was beset with great tcm|)talions, from his natural dis-
position, to lay aside study, and give liijnsclf up to gayely
and dissipation, for he was const ilutionally inclined that
way; but he mortified his propensities and passions; and,
after continuing a few months with his parents and friends
in London, he retired to Oxford.
Here he commenced his career with delivering publio
lectures on the epistles of the apostle Paul, which he did
without .stipend or reward ; and the novelty of the under-
taking drew a vast crowd of hearers, who admired him
greatly. And here began his memorable friendship witli
Erasmu.s, who came to Oxford in 1497, a friendship which
remained unshaken and inviolable to the day of their
deaths. He continued these lectures during the perioil of
three years, and in 1501 was admitted to proceed to divi-
nity, or to the reading of the sentences, as termed in the
church of Riime. In 1504, he commenced doctor in divi-
nity, and in May, 1505, was instittued a prebend in St.
Pjaul's, London. He was at the same time made dean of
that. church, quite unexpectedly ; and being raised to that
high station, he began to reform the decayed discipline of
his cathedral. He brought in a new practice of preaching
himself on Sundays and high festivals, and called to his
as.sistance other learned men, whom he appointed to read
divinity lectures. These lectures raised in the nation a
spirit of inquiry after the Holy Scriptures, w^hich had then
long been laid aside for the school divinity, and so might
be said to prepare a way for the reformation which soon
after ensued. We cannot but think that Colet was in
.some measure instrumental towards it, though he did not
live to see it effected ; for he expressed a great contempt
for religious houses, exposed the abuses that prevailed in
them, and the mischiefs attending the imposing celibacy
on the clergy. This way of thinking, together w'ith his
free and public manner of communicating his thoughts,
which were then regarded as impious and heretical, ren-
dered him ver)' obnoxious to the clerg)-. and exposed him
to a persecution from the bishop of London. Latimer
tells us in his sermons, not only was Colet brought into
trouble, but he would certainly have gone to the stake, had
not God turned the king's heart.
This state of things made him weary of the worid, and
he began to think of disposing of his effects, and retiring
into privacy. In pursuance of his design, his first object
was to found St. Paul's school, for the gratuitous educa-
tion of one hundred and fifty-three children, with suitable
masters, itc, for all of which provision was made, by
funds intrusted to the Mercers' company, under whose
auspices it has continued to flourish, and by who'n the
present handsome edifice, at the east end of St. Paul's ca-
thedral, was rebuilt from the foundation, on the original
site, and opened in the springof 1825. Dean Colet sun'ived
this noble act of his munificence only seven years. He
died, September 16, 1519, in his fifty-third j'ear. SeeBiog.
Brit. vol. i. — Jones's Chr. Biog.
COLLECT ; a short prayer. In the liturgy of the
church of England, and the mass of the Romanists, it de-
notes a prayer accommodated to any particular day, oc-
casion, or the like. In general, all the prayers in each
office are called collects, either because the priest speaks
in the name of the whole a.ssemhly, whose sentiments and
desires he sums up by the word " Oremus." " Let us pray,"
or because those prayers are offered when Ihc people are
assembled together. The popes Gelasius and Gregory iire
said to have been the first who established collects. _ Dr.
Despence. of Paris, wrote a treatise on collects, their origin,
antiquity, kc.— Hend. Buck.
COLLEGIANS, or Collegiants ; a sect formed an-^m?
the Arminians and Baptists in Holland, about ihe bejcm-
ning of the seventeenth century : so called because of
their colleges or meetings twice every week, where every
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390 ]
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one, females excepteJ, has the same hberty of expounding
the Scripture, praying, &c. They are said to be all either
Arians or Socinians : they never communicate in the col-
lege, but meet twice a year, from all parts of Holland, at
Rhinsbergh, (whence they are also called Ehinsdcrghcrs,) a
village two miles from Leyden, where they commumcale
together; admitting every one that presents himself, pro-
fessing his faith in the divinity of the Holy Scriptures, and
resolution to live suitably to their precepts and doctrines,
without regard to his sect or opinion. They have no par-
ticular ministers, but each officiates as he is disposed.
They baptize by immersion. — Heiid. Suck.
COLLIER, (Jeremy,) an eminent non-juring divine, was
born, in 1630, at Stow Qui, in Cambridgeshire. He took
his degree at Caius college, Cambridge, in 1676, and ob-
tained a living, which he resigned for the lectureship of
Gray's Inn. At the revolution, he not only refused the
oaths, but was active in behalf of the dethroned monarch.
At last, be turned his talents to belter ends, and made war
on the licentiousness of the theatre. His first work on
this subject was, A Short View of the Immorality and Pro-
faneness of the Stage. The wits in vain opposed him, for
virtue was on his side ; and, after a ten years' struggle,
lie accomplished his object. The rest of his life was spent
in various literary labors, among which were essays ; a
translation of Moreri ; an Ecclesiastical History of Eng-
land ; and Discourses on Practical Subjects. He died in
1726. Collier was a man of talents ; and, however we
may be inclined to censure his political principles, it would
be unjust to deny him the praise of having been an honest
and disinterested man. — Davenport.
COLLINS, (Anthony,) a controversial deist, of no
mean talents, was born at Heston, near Hounslow, in
1676; was educated at Eton, and King's college, Cam-
bridge, and, being a man of property, spent his life in
literary pursuits, and in performing the duties of a magis-
trate. He died in 1729. His religious principles brought
hiui into violent collision with Bentley, Chandler, and ma-
ny others. Among his works may be mentioned, Priest-
craft in Perfection ; A Discourse on Free-thinking ; A Pfii-
losophical Inquiry concerning Human Liberty ; and A
Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian
Religion . — Darenport.
COLLUTHIANS ; followers of Colluthus, a priest of
Ale.xaiidria, in the fourth century, who is said to have
taught that God was not the author of the evils and afflic-
tions of this life ; also that a presbyter might ordain. If
v>-e can forgive the latter error, which it seems he put in
practice, we may easily account for the former, which
probably originated from the strong terni.s he used in op-
posing Necessarian errors; teaching that men's sins ori-
ginated from themselves, and not from God ; and that
these were the cause of all our suflerings. He was con-
demned, however, at a council, held at Alexandria, in A.
D. 335 ; and the sect vanished soon after. See Turner's
History, p. 145 ; Broughton's Dictionary. — Williams.
COLLYRIDIANS, were so called from certain cakes or
loaves {coHyrides) which, once a year, they offered to the
virgin Mary, with some superstitious rites, and then divid-
ed them among themselves. These superstitious people
had their rise in the fourth centurv ; first in Thrace, and
afterwards they spread into Africn. cliiedy among female
devotees, who sought the protection of the Virdn. See
Broughton's Dictionary; Turner's Ilistorv, p. 160; Bell's
Wanderings, p. l^X.— WilUatns.
COLMAN, (Benjamin, D. D.,) first minister of the
church in Brattle street, Boston, was born in that town,
October If). 1673. He was distinguished by early piety
and zeal in literary pursuits, and in 1692 was graduated
at Harvard college. Beginning to preach i^oon afterwards,
his benevolent labors were enjoved for half a year by the
town of Medford. In July, 1695. he embarked fur Lou-
don.
A new society having been formed in Brattle street,
Boston, the principal gentlemen, who composed i', sent
him an invitation to return to bis nativp country, and to
be their minister. The peculiar constiliiiiim of tiii's chiiiv'b,
differing from that of the oilier chunhes in New ]:n;;l ml.
rendered the founders flesiri.us thai he sliuulil 1;.' unlninr.l
in London. Tliey apprrved of the confessiuii of lUiili,
composed by the Westminster assembly ; but they Were
averse to the public relation of experiences, then practised
previously to admission into the churches, and they wish-
ed the Scriptures to be read on the Sabbath, and the Lord's
prayer to be used. It may excite surprise at the present
day, that the practice of reading the Scripture and repeat-
ing the Lord's prayer, as a part of the services of the Sab-
bath, should have excited opposition ; but many were of-
fended, though it -ivas not long before a number of other
churches followed in the steps of Brattle street. The
ground of opposition to this new church was the strong
features of episcopacy, which it was imagined, were
to be discerned in it. These innovations, the founders
believed, would excite alarm, and to avoid difficulty,
Mr. Colman was ordained by some dissenting ministers in
London, August 4, 1699. He arrived at Boston, November
1, and December 24th, the new house of worship was open-
ed, and Mr. Colman preached in it for the first time.
He was an eininently useful and good man, and was
universally respected for his learning and talents. He
was distinguished as a preacher. Tall and erect in sta-
ture, of a benign aspect, presenting in his whole appear-
ance something amiable and venerable, and having a pe-
culiar expression in his eye, he was enabled to interest his
hearers. His voice was harmonious, and his action inimi-
table. He was ranked among the first ministers of New
England. Jesus Christ was the great subject of his
preaching. He dwelt upon the Redeemer in his person,
natures, offices, and benefits ; in his eternal Godhead ; in
the covenants of redemption and of grace ; and upon the
duties of natural religion as performed only by strength
derived from the Savior, and as acceptable only for his
sake. But his labors were not confined to what particu-
larly related to his profession. He was employed, in his
3'otinger as well as in his latter years, on weighty affiiirs
by the general court. No minister has since possessed so
great influence. His attention to civil concerns drew up-
on him censure, and at times insult ; but he thought him-
self justified in embracing every opportunity for doing
good. He knew the interest of his country, and was able
to promote it ; and he could not admit, that the circum-
stance of his being a minister ought to prevent his exer-
tions. Still there were few men more zealous and unwea-
ried in the labors of his sacred office. His character was
singularly excellent. Having imbibed the true spirit of
the gospel, he was catholic, moderate, benevolent, ever
anxious to promote the gospel of salvation. He was will-
ing to sacrifice every thing, but truth, to peace. After a
life conspicuous for sanctity and usefulness, he met the'
king of terrors without fear, August 29, 1747, at the age
of seventy-three. He published a great number of ser-
mons. His life was written by Mr. Turell, who married
his daughter, and published in 8vo, in 1749. — Alien.
COLONY. This word does not always imply that any
considerable body of citizens from Rome had left theirna-
tive city, and had founded a new town where there had
been none, as the colonies in America were founded. No
doubt, a settlement of Romans might give rise to Roman
colonies ; and many bodies of their troops, after they were
dismissed from military service, received allotments in
distant towns. But anciently many cities were favored
with the character of colonies, by which they became en-
titled to the privileges of Roman citizens, and were con-
sidered as being in a manner Koraan, in reward for ser-
vices \\-hich they had rendered tc the govern m:^7it of Rome,
or to the emperors. (See Pm; irpi.) — Calmet.
COLOSSE ; a city of Phrygia Minor, which stood on
the river Lyceus, at an eqttat distance between Laodicea
and Hierapolis. These three cities, says Eusebius, were
destroyed by an earthqualce, in the tenth of Kero, or about
two years after the date of St. Paul's Epistle to the Colos-
siaiis. Laodicea, Hierapolis, andColosse were at no great
distance from each other ; which accounts for the apostle
Paul, when writing to his Christian brethren in the latter
of these places, m.cntioiiing them all in connexion with
each other. Col. 4: 13. Of these cities, however, Laodicea
was the greatest, fcr it was the metropolis of Phrygia,
though Colosse is said to have been a .gre.Tt and wealthy
lilaci-'. The inhabitants of phrygia, says Dr. Macknight,
were famous for the worship of Bac'--hu.'^, and of Cybele,
COL
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[ 391
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the molhci- of the gods ; whence the latter was called
Phnjgia iimtcr, by way oC eminence. In her worship, as
well as in that of Bacchus, both sexes practised every
species of debauchery in speech and action, with a frantic
rage which they pretended was occasioned by the inspira-
tion of the deities whom they worshipped. These were
the orgies, from orge, rage, of Bacchus and Gybele, so
famed m antiquity, the lascivious rites of which being
perfectly adapted to the corruptions of the human heart,
were performed by both sexes without shame or remorse.
Hence, as the Son of God came into the world to destroy
the works of the devil, it appeared, in the eye of his apos-
tle, a matter of great importance to carry the light of the
gospel into countries where these abominable impurities
were not only practised, but even dignified with the honora-
ble appellation of religious worship ; especially as riothin
of the world, during which geometry, astronomy, and cos-
mography occupied much of his attention. At length, he
settled at Lisbon, where he married the orphan daughter
of Palestrello, an Italian navigator. His geographical in-
vestigat'.ons, supported by the evidence of pieces of carved
wood, trunks of trees and canes, drifted acro.ss the Atlantic,
induced him to believe that, by stretching across the ocean
in a westerly direction, the shores of Eastern Asia might
be reached, and he resolved to obtain from some sovereign
the means of making the aUempt. Years of solicitation
were spent in vain ; his proposals were not listened to at
Genua, Lisbon, or London. At length, they were tardily
accepted by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. On the
2d of August, 1492, Columbus with three small vessels
sailed on his daring adventure from the port of Palos. He
stopped at the Canaries, whence he departed on ths 6th of
but the heaven-descended hght of the gospel could dispel September, and continued his onward course for thirty-fivi'
such a pernicious infatuation. That this salutary purpose •'-••■ — --- •' ■ ■
might be effectually accomplished, Paul, accompanied by
Silas and Timothy, went at different limes into Fhrygia,
and preached the gospel in many cities of that country
ivith great success; but it is thought by many persons,
that the Epistle to the Colossians contains internal marks
of his never having been at Colosse when he wrote it. This
opinion rests principally upon the following passage : "For
I would that ye knew what great conflict I have for you,
and for them at Laodicea, and for as many as have not
seen mi/ face in the flesh," (Col. 2: 1;) but these words, if
they prove any thing upon this question, prove that St.
Paul had never been either at Laodicea or Colosse ; but
surely it is very improbable that he should have travelled
twice into Phrygia for the purpose of preaching the gospel,
and not have gone either to Laodicea or Colosse, which
were the two principal cities of that country ; especially
as in the second journey into those parts it is said, that he
"went over all the country of Galatia an"a Phn,-gia,
days, seeing nothing around him but the billows and the!
sk-y. Already daunted by the terrors of unknown seas,
the variation of the compass, which was now first observ-
ed, overpowered the courage of the sailors, and they werr
more than once on the point of breaking into open mutiny,
and steering back to Spain. The long-sought land at last
appeared, on the night of the 11th of October, 1492. It
was Guanahani, one of the Bahamas, to which he gave
the name of San Salvador. After having built a fort, and
left in it thirty-eight men, he returned to Europe, and an-
chored at Palos on the loth of JMarch, 1493. The people
received him with enthusiasm, the court heaped honors
upon him. Columbus made three more voyages to the
western world ; one in the autumn of 1493, another in
149S, and the last in 1504, and considerably enlarged the
sphere of his discoveries. His latter years, however, were
embittered by the worst arts of envy, and the jealousy of
his sovereign. He died at Valladolid, 1506, at the age of
seventy, having received little else than injuries and iu-
, . 1, , J. - ■' *"'.>!5'^) ^>-v>.ijij, miviiig iccciveti jiuie else man injuries anu in-
sirengtlienmg all the disciples ; ' and moreover, we know suits for the invaluable services rendered by him to his
that it was the apostle's practice to preach at the most cnnntrv nnd mnnl.-ln,t
considerable places of every district into which he went.
Dr. Lardner, after arguing this point, says, " From all
these considerations, it appears to me very probable that
the church at Colosse had been planted by the aposlle Paul,
and that the Christians there were his friends, disciples,
and converts."
The epistle greatly resembles that to the Ephesians,
both in sentiment and expression. After saluting the Co-
lossian Christians in his own name, and that of Timothy,
country and mankind.
Columbus was a Christian, and, though a Catholic, ap-
pears to have been habitually animated by his high moral
and religious sentiments. His faith in God never forsook
him; although in one or two instances he resorted to un-
justifiable means of securing aid from the Indians. These
cases, however were extreme. His last words were,
'■ Into thy hands, 0 Lord, I commend my spirit." — Daveit-
port ; Allen ; Life, by Ifviug.
COME, CoJiiNO. God's coming Aoes not signify Uterally
St. Paul assures them, that since he had heard of their any change of place ; for do not I JUl heaven and earth,
laitn in Christ Jesus, and of their love to all Christians, mitli the Lord? but it signifies some new manifestation of
be had not ceased to return thanks to God for them, and to his presence ; either by a resplendent and awful symbol
pray ttiat they might increase in spiritual knowledge, and as to Israel of old, or by the operations of his power in
Ph ""! "j f "^'^ ^"l^ "■°'''' ' ^^ describes the dignity of mercy or judgment, in which sense he may be said to visit
t^hrist, and declares the universality of the gospel dispensa-
tion, which was a mystery formerly bidden, but now made
manifest ; and he mentions his own appointment, through
the grace of God, to be the apostle of the gentiles ; he ex-
presses a tender concern for the Colossians and other
Chnstians of Phrygia, and cautions them against being
seduced from the simplicity of the gospel, by the subtlety
of pagan philosophers, or the superstition of judaizing
Christians ; he directs [hem to set their afiections on things
above, and forbids every species of licentiousness ; he ex-
horts to a variety of Christian virtues, to meekness, vera-
city, humility, charity, and devotion ; he enforces the duties
of wives, husbands, children, fathers, servants, and mas-
ters ; he inculcates the duty of prayer, and of prudent
behavior towards unbelievers ; and after adding the salu-
tations of several persons then at Rome, and desiring that
this epistle might be read in the church of iheir neighbors
the Laodiceaus, he concludes with a salutation from him-
self, written, as usual,wifh his own hand. fSee Adjoke.I—
Watson. ^ '
COLUMBUS, (CHRiSTOPnER.) the discoverer of the new
world, whose real name was Colombo, was born in the
Genoese territory in 1441, but whether at Genoa, Savona,
Nervi, or Cogoreo, was long a matter in dispute. That it
was at Genoa, is no longer a matter of doubt. He studied
a while at Pavia, but quilted the university at an early
period to follow a maritime life. Between thirty and
torty years were spent by him in voyages to various parts
may
men from age to age. Ps. 1: 3. and 101: 2. John 11: 23.
Men come to God when they worship and serve him ; apply
to him by prayer ; enjoy his presence ; and receive out of
his fulness. Heb. 7: 25. 11:6. John 14; 6. To come to
Christ \s to apply to him for salvation as lost sinners ; re-
nouncing all dependence on our own righteousness, wis-
dom, and strength ; and seeking by faith and prayer every
needed, provided, and promised blessing in Him. John 5:
40. fl: 37. 1 Pet. 2: 4. It may be remarked that this very
application, this movement of the heart in approaching
the unseen Savior, involves a belief in him as an omnipre-
sent, and of course, an infinite Frieml. — Brown.
COMING OF CHRIST. This is either literal or meta-
phorical. Literal/!/, it is used in reference to his first ap-
pearance in the flesh, (1 John 5: 20. 2 John 7;) or to his
future appearance at the last day to fulfil his promises, to
raise the dead, and judge the world in righteousness. Acts
1: 11. 3: 21. Heb. 9: 28. 1 Thess. 4: 15—18. 1 Cor. 15: 12
—59. Acts 10: 42. 24: 15. 2 Tim. 4: 1. Matt. 16: 27. 25:
35—41.
MeiapJiorically, Christ is said to come when his gospel is
introduced or preached in any place by his niinisters,
(John 15: 22. Ephes. 2: 17 ;) when his church or kingdom
is_ visibly and powerfully established in the world, (JIatt.
16: 28;) when he bestows upon believers the influence of
his Spirit, and the peculiar tokens of his love, (John 14:
18, 23, 28. 16: 16, 17;) when he executes his judgments
on wicked communities who reject or corrupt his gospel,
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(2 Thess. 2: 8;) anj when his providence calls us away
from the world by death, as preparatory to the judgment
or the last day. Matt. 24: 42. 25: 13. John 14: 3.
The basis of this metaphorical usage, in regard to the
coming of Christ, is the same as in relation to the coming
of God, viz. that as he governs the world, every specific
act of his providence and authority indicates his presence
in a more striking maimer to human conception; on the
])rlnciple that no agent can act where he is not.
COMFORTER, (iVrafc'tte,) one of the titles by which
the Holy Spirit is designated in the New Testament. John
14: 1(3, 2fi. 15: 26. The name has, no doubt, a reference
to his peculiar office in the economy of redemption ; name-
ly, that of imparting consolation to the hearts of Christ's
disciples, which he efl'ects by " taking of the things that
are Christ's." and explaining them ; or, in other words, by
itliiminatii. ; their minds as to the meaning of the Scrip-
tures, assuring them of the Savior's love, bringing to their
recollection his consolatory sayings, and filling their souls
with peace and joy in believing them. The word has also
been rendered adoaente, helper, monitor, teacher, &c. The
first well describes the oflice of the Spirit, as striving and
pleading wth the unconverted world, and especially as
convincing of sin; (John 16: 8—11.) but the others are
not so well supported by the connection of our Lord's dis-
course, which favors the translation, Comforter ; because,
whatever gracious offices the Holy Spirit was to perform
for the discijiles, the great end of all was to remove that
sorrow which the approach of the departure of Christ had
produced, and to render their joy full and complete. See
Heber's Bampton Lectures ; Hinton on the Spirit.— TFo^soh.
COMRIAND. God aimmands the blessing of life, or the
strength of his people, wlien by his will he furnishes it.
Ps. 133: 3. and 68: 28. Saints commani God concerning
his sons and daughters, and the works of his hands, when
in Christ's name they earnestly plead his promise, and
argue from his faithfulness, power, equity, and love, pledg-
ed therein. Isa. 45: 11.
Jesus Christ is the commander given to the people : he en-
lists men for his spiritual soldiers ; he convenes, orders,
encourages, and goes before them, in their gracious war-
fare. Isa. 55: 4. — Brown..
COMMEND. God commends his love ; he makes it ap-
pear glorious and unbounded, in that, while we were yet
sinners, Christ died for us. Rom. 5: 8. Our unrighteous-
ness commends the righteousness of God ; it gives occasion
for him clearly to manifest his justice in punishing tis, or
in forgiving us through Christ's blood : and the Jews' re-
jection of Christ demonstrates the faithfulness of God in
the ancient predictions. Rom. 3: 5. — Brown.
■ "COMMENDAM ; the trust or administration of the re-
venues of a vacant benefice, till it is provided with a regu-
lar incumbent. The practice, resorted to chiefly for the
purpose of making up the smaller incomes of some of the
bishops, has given occasion to great abuses ; the bishops
procuring several benefices, all of which they have held
under this pretext, without directly violating the canon
law. When a parson is made bishop, his parsonage be-
comes vacant ; but if the king give him power, he may
still hold it m commcndam. — Hend. Buck.
COMMENTARV*;an exposition ; book of annotations
or remarks. There are some people so wise in their own
conceit, and think human helps of so little worth, that they
despise commentaries on the Scriptures altogether ; but
every student or preacher, whose business is to explain
the sacred oracles, to make known the mind of God to
others, to settle cases of conscience, to oppose the sophis-
try of sceptics, and to confound the arguments of infidels,
would do well to avail himself of the most judicious, clear,
copious, critical, and sound commentaries on the Bible,
Nor can I suppose that commentaries can be useless to the
common people ; for though a spirit of serious inquiry,
with a little good sense, will go a great way in understand-
ing the Bible, yet as the language is often figurative, as
allusions are made to ancient customs, and some parts re-
quire more investigation than many common Christians
liave time for, a plain exposition certainly must be useful.
Expositions of the Bible, however, may be made a bad use
of. He who takes the ipse dixit of a commentator, with-
out ever examining whether the meaning given comport
• Sc-e Appendix.
with the text ; he who gives himself no trouble to investi-
gate the Scripture for himself, but takes occasion to be in-
dolent because others have labored for him, surely does
wrong. Nor can it be said that those preachers use them
properly, who, in making their sermons, form their plans
from the commentator before they have thought upon the
text. The best way is to follow our own talents ; first, by
prayer, study, and attention, to form our scheme, and then
to examine the opinions of others concerning it. We will
here present the reader with a view of some of those com-
mentaries which are the most generally approved. And,
1. in my opinion, Henry takes the lead for common utili-
ty. The sprightly notes, the just inferences, the original
thoughts, and the warm applications to the conscience,
make this work justly admired. It is true that there are
some expressions which do not agree with the evangelic
system ; but, as the late Mr. Ryland observes, " It is im-
possible for a person of piety and taste to read him with-
out wishing to be shut out from all the world, to read him
through without one moment's interruption." Mr. Henry
did not live to complete this work. He went as far as the
end of Acts. Romans was done by Dr. Evans ; the 1
Corinthians, Samuel Brown ; 2 Corinthians, Dr. Mayo ;
Galatians, Mr. Bayes ; Ephesians, Mr. Boswell ; Phihp-
plans, Mr. Harris ; Colossians, Mr. Harris ; 1 and 2 Thes-
salonians, Mr. Mayo ; 1 and 2 Timothy, Mr. Atkinson ;
Titus, Jeremiah Smith ; Philemon, Mr. Mottershead ;
Hebrews, Mr. Tong ; James, Mr. Wright ; 1 Peter, Mr.
Hill ; 2 Peter, Mr. Morril ; 1, 2, and 3 John, Mr. Rey-
nolds ; Jude, Mr. BiUingsley ; and the Revelation, by
Mr. Tong.
2. " Pooli Synopsis Criticorum," five folio volumes
This is a valuable work, and ought to be in the possession
of every student ; it is much esteemed abroad, three edi-
tions of it having been published on the continent.
3. RosenmueUer's Scholia on the Old and New Testa-
ment contain a vast fund of biblical illustration, and should
be in the library of every theological student. It is only
to be regretted that the " Scholia" of the younger Rosen-
mueller, on the Old Testament, should be strongly tinc-
tured with neology.
3. Poole's Annotations, a rich and useful work. These
were printed at London, in 1685, in 2 vols. fol. Poole
did not complete this work himself. Mr. Jackson, of
Moulsey, is the author of the annotations on the fifty-ninth
and sixtieth chapters of Isaiah. Dr. Codings drew up the
notes on the rest of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Lamentations,
as also those on the four Evangelists, the two Epistles to
the Corinthians, and that to the Galatians. 'Those to
Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and the Revelation, Ezekiel,
and the minor Prophets, were done by Mr. Hurst. Daniel,
by Mr. Cooper ; the Acts, by Mr. Vinke ; the Epistle to
the Romans, by Mr. Mayo ; the Ephesians, Mr. Veale ;
the Philippians and Colossians, Mr. Adams ; the Hebrews,
Mr. Obadiah Hughes ; the Epistle of St. James, the two
of St. Peter, and that of Jude, by Mr. Veale ; the three
Epistles of St. John, by Mr. Howe.
5. Dr. Gill's, in 9 vols. 4to. is an immense work ; and
though it contains a great deal of repetition and extraneous
matter, there is certainly a vast fund of information in it,
especially on Hebraical and rabbinical subjects.
6. Brown's Self-interpreting Bible, in 2 vols. 4to. Its
chief excellencies are the marginal references, which are
exceedingly useful to preachers ; and the close, plain, and
practical improvement to each chapter.
7. Scott's Exposition is excellent, as it abounds with
practical remarks, and the last edition contains choice
marginal references. The improvements are also very
useful for famdies.
8. Dr. Adam Clarke's Commentary, with critical notes
and marginal references, possesses considerable merit,
and will be found a valuable treasure for the biblical stu-
dent.
On the New Testament.
1. Burkitt contains many ingenious observations, fine
turns, natural plans, and pungent addresses to the con-
science. There are some expressions, however, that grate
upon the ear of the evangelical Christian.
2. Guyse's Paraphrase is deservedly held in high esti-
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Riatlon for souna doctrine, fair explication, and just sen-
timent .
3. Doddridge's Family Expositor. Tlie criticisms in
this work render it valuable. It must be owned that the
doctor labored to come as near as possible to tlie true sense
of the text.
4. Bezse Annotationes. in quibus ratio interpretationis
redditur; accessit etiam J. Caraerarii in novum foedus com-
mentarius, fol. Cantab. 1642, contains, besides the old
Latin version, Beza's own version ; and in the side mar-
gin is given a summary of the passage, and in the argu-
mentative parts the connexion.
5. Wolfii Curse Philologica; et Criticfe in Omnes Libros
Nov. Test. 5 vols. 4to. 1739. Hamb. Basil, 1741. This
is in a great measure a compilation after the manner of
Poole's Synopsis, but interspersed with his own critical
animadversions.
(). Bengelii Gnomon Nov. Test. 4to. Tubingae, 1759,
and Ulmaa, 1763, contains an instructive preface, a per-
sjiicuous analysis of each book, with short notes. It is a
perfect contrast to that of Wolfius.
7. Hammond's Paraphrase and Annotations upon all
the books of the New Testament, fol.
8. Whitby's Paraphrase and Commentary on New Tes-
tament, 2 vols. fol.
y. Wesley's Explanatory Notes, 4to. or 3 vols. 12mo.
For difTerent translations, see article Bible.
Commentators on Select Parts.
1. Ainsworth on the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Song of
Solomon.
2. Patrick's Commentaries on the Historical Parts of
the Holy Scriptures, 3 vols.
3. Lightfoot's Works, 2 vols. fol. contain a chronicle of
the times, and the order of the text of the Old Testament.
The harmony, chronicle, and order of the New Testament ;
the harmony of the four Evangelists ; a commentary on
the Acts ; Horae Hebraicas, &c. ; on the four Evangelists,
Acts, and 1 Corinthians.
4. Chrysostomi Opera, 8 vols. fol. contain expositions
of various parts.
5. Calvini Opera Omnia, 9 vols, contain commentaries
on the Pentateuch, Joshua, homilies on Samuel, sermons
on Job, commentaries on Psalms, Isaiah, Evangelists,
Acts, Paul's Epistles, and the other catholic Epistles ; and
prffilectiones on Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the minor
Prophets.
I). Lowth on the Prophets.
7. Pocock on some of the Minor Prophets.
8. Locke on Paul's Epistles.
9. Hutchcson on the Smaller Prophets.
10. Newcome on Ezekiel and Minor Prophets.
11. Macknight's Harmony of the Gospel, and literal
Translation of all the apostolical Epistles, with Commen-
tary and Notes.
12. Campbell's Translation of the Gospels, with Notes
and Dissertations.
13. Bloomfield's Critical Digest on all the books of the
New Testament, except the Apocal3rpse. It contains a
vast quantity of important critical materials.
On Select Books.
On Genesis : Andrew Fuller.
O/i Ruth : Macgowan, Lawson.
On Job : 1. Caryll, 2 vols, fol— 2. Hutchinson, 1669,
fol. — 3. Goode. — 4. Chapellow. — 5. Heath. — 6. Peter's
Critical Dissertation. — 7. Stock. — 8. Fry. — 9. Dr. J. M.
Go.od.— 10. G. Noyes.
On the Psalms : 1. Molleri Enarr. Psalm, fol. 1619.— 2.
Hammond's Paraphrase. — 3. Amesii Lectiones in Omnes
Psalmos. oct. 1636. — 4. Dickson. — 5. Home's Commenla-
ly.— 6. Bp. Horsely.— 7. Dr. Morrison.— 8. Dr. J. M. Good.
On Select Psalms: 1. Hildersham's 152 Lectures on
isalm 51: — 2. Decoetlogon's Sermon on Psalm 51: — 3.
Greenham on Psalm 119: — 4. Manton on Psalm 119: — 5.
Owen on Psalm 130: — 6. Luther on the 15 Psalms of De-
crees.— 7. Horton on Psalms 4: 42: 51: and 63: — 8. Bridges
on Psalm 119:
On Proverbs : Dr. Mayer, Taylor, lo. Trapp, Geier, Case.
Er.-'esiastes : Broughton, Jermyn, Wardlaw.
50
Canticles: Bishop Foliot, Mercier, Sanchez, Bossuet,
Cocceius, Dr. James, Ainsworth, Durham, Bishop Hall,
Bishop Patrick, Dove, Trapp. Jackson, Dr. ColUugs, Dr.
Gill, Dr. Percy, Harmer, Dr. Diirell, Dr. J. M. Good; but
perhaps the best, is Dr. Williams's new translation, with
commentary, ice. where.the reader will find a list of other
names who have translated and written on parts of this
book.
Isaiah : Vitringa, Lowth, M'CulIoch.
Jeremiah : Blaynej'.
Ezekiel: Greenhill, Newcome.
Daniel: Willet's Hexapla, fol. Sir Isaac Newton on
Prophecies of Daniel, Keith's Signs of the Times.
Hosea : Burroughs, Bishop Horsley's translation, with
explanatory notes.
Of the other minor Prophets, see Commentaries on Select
Parts.
Gospels : See above, and article Hakmony. Also, Hil-
dersham on John 4: fol. Burgess on John 17: Manton on
John 17:
Acts : Mayer, Trapp.
Pomans : Wilson, Parr, Turner, Professor Stuart.
Galatians : Luther, Ferguson, Perkins.
Ephesians: Ferguson, Goodwin.
Colossians : Byfield, Davenant, Elton.
Titus : Dr. Thomas Taylor.
Hebrews : Dr. Owen, M'Lean, Professor Stuart.
James : Manton .
1 Peter : Leighton, and N. Byefield on the first three
chapters.
2 Peter : Adam.
John : Hardy on 1 Epistle, and Hawkins on the three
Epistles of John.
Jude: Jenkins, Manton, Otes.
Revelation ; Mede, Daubuz, Brightman, Peganius, Wa-
ple, Robertson, Vitringa, Pyle, Goodwin, Lowman, Sir
Isaac Newton, Durham, Cradock, Dr. H. Moore, Bishop
Newton, Dr. Bryce, Johnston, Woodhouse, Jones, Andrew
Fuller, and Keith's Signs of the Times.
As this article may be consulted for the purpose of ob-
taining information as to the best helps for understanding
the Scriptures, we may add to the above, — Jacobi Eisner,
Observat. Sacrfe, Alberti Observ. Philolog. ; Lamberti
Bos, Exercitat. Philolog. ; Lamberti Bos, Observat. Mis-
cell. Fortuita Sacra. These, together with Wolfius and
Raphelius, before mentioned, says Dr. Doddridge, are
books which I cannot but recommend to my young friends,
as proper not only to ascertain the sense of a variety of
words and phrases which occur in the apostolic writings,
but also to form them to the most useful method of study-
mg the Greek classics ; those great masters of solid sense,
elegant expression, just and lively painting, and mascu-
line eloquence, to the neglect of which I cannot but as-
cribe that enervate, dissolute, and puerile manner of writ-
ing, which is growing so much on the present age, and
will probably consign so many of its productions to speedy
oblivion. See also books recommended under the articles
Bible, Scriptures. — Hend. Buck.
COMMERCE. Merchandise, in its various branches,
was carried on in the East at the earliest period of which
we have any account ; and it was not long before the
traffic between nations, both by sea and land, was very
considerable. Accordingly, frequent mention is made of
public roads, fords, bridges, and beasts of burden ; also of
ships for the transportation of property, of weights, mea-
sures, and coin, both in the oldest books of the Bible, and
in the most ancient profane histories. The Phoenicians
anciently held the first rank as a commercial nation.
They were in the habit of purchasing goods of various
kinds throughout all the east. They then carried them in
ships down the Mediterranean, as far as the shores of
Africa and Europe, brought back in return merchandise
and silver, and disposed of these again in the more eastern
countries. The first metropolis of the Phcenicians was Si-
don : afterwards Tyre became the principal city. Tyre
was built two hundred and forty years before the temple
of Solomon, or twelve hundred and fifty-one before Christ.
The Phoenicians had ports of their own in almost every
country ; the most distinguished of which were Carthage,
and Tarshish, or Tartessus, in Spain. The ships from the
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latter place undertook very distant voyages ; hence any
vessels that performed distant voyages were colled
" ships of Tarshish." Something is said of the commerce
of the Phoenicians in the twenty-seventh and twenty-eighth
chapters of Ezekiel, and the twenty-third chapter of Isaiah.
The inhabitants of Arabia Felix carried on a commerce
with India. They carried some of the articles which they
brought from India, through the straits of Babelmandel,
into Abyssinia and Egyjit ; some they transported to Ba-
bylon, through the Persian gulf and the Euphrates ; and
some by the way of the Red sea, to the port of Ezionge-
ber. They thus became rich ; though it is possible their
wealth may have been too much magnified by the an-
cients. Tlie eminence of the Egyptians, as a commercial
nation, commences with the reign of Necho. Their com-
merce, nevertheless, was not great, till Alexander had de-
stroyed Tyre and built Alexandria.
2. The Phoenicians sometimes received the goods of In-
dia, by way of the Persian gulf, where they had colonies
in the islands of Dedan, Arad, and Tyre. Sometimes they
received them from the Arabians, who either brought them
by land through Arabia, or up the Red sea to Ezion-geber.
In the latter case, having landed them at the port men-
tioned, tliey transported them through the country, by the
way of Gaza, to Phoenicia. The PhoJnicians increased
the amount of their foreign goods by the addition of those
which they themselves fabricated, and were thus enabled
to supply all parts of the Mediterranean. The Egyptians
at first received their goods from the Phoenicians, Ara-
bians, Africans, and Abyssinians ; in all of which coun-
tries there are still the remains of large trading towns ;
but, in a subsequent age, they imported goods from India
in their own vessels, and eventually carried on an export
trade with various ports on the Mediterranean. Oriental
commerce, however, was chiefly carried on by land : ac-
cordingly, vessels are hardly mentioned in the Bible, ex-
cept in Psalm 107: 23 — 30. and in passages where the
discoiu'se turns upon the Phoenicians, or upon the naval
affairs of Solomon and Jehoshaphat. The two principal
routes from Palestine into Egypt were, the one along the
shores of the Mediterranean, from Gaza to Pelusium, and
the alher from Gaza, by the way of mount Sinai and the
Elanitic branch of the Red sea.
3. The merchants transported their goods upon camels;
animals which are patient of thirst, and are easily support-
ed in the deserts. For the common purpose of security
against depredations, the oriental merchants travelled in
company, as is common in the East at the present day.
A large travelling company of this kind is called a cara-
van or carvan, a smaller one was called kafile or kafle. Job
6:18—20. Gen. 37: 25. Isa.21:13. Jer. 9: 2. Judges
5: 6. Luke 2: 44. The furniture carried by the indivi-
duals of a caravan consisted of a mattress, a coverlet, a
carpet for sitting upon, a round piece of leather, which
answered the purpose of a table, a few pots and kettles of
copper, covered with tin ; also a tin-plated cup, which was
suspended before the breast, under the outer garment, and
was used for drinking, (1 Sam. 26: 11, 12, 16.) leathern
bags for holding water, tents, lights, and provisions in
quality and abundance as each one could afford. Every
caravan had a leader to conduct it through the desert, who
was acquainted with the direction of its route, and with
the cisterns and fountains. These he was able to ascer-
tain, sometimes from heaps of stones, sometimes by the
character of the soil, and, when other helps failed hiiii, by
the stars. Numb. 10: 29—32. Jer. 31: 21. Isa. 21: 14.
When all things are in readiness, the individuals who
compose the caravan assemble at a distance from the city.
The commander of the caravan, who is a different person
from the conductor or leader, and is chosen from the
wealthiest of its members, appoints the day of their de-
parture. A similar arrangement was adopted amoug the
Jews, whenever they travelled in large numbers to the
city of Jerusalem. The caravans start very early, some-
times before day. They endeavor to find a stopping-place
or station to remain at during the night, which shall afford
them a supply of water. Job 6: 15—20. They arrive at
their stopping-place before the close of the day; and,
whde it is yet light, prepare every thing that is necessary
for the recommencement of their journey. In order to
prevent any one from wandering away from the caravaU)
and getting lost during the night, lamps or torches are ele-
vated upon poles and carried before it. The pillar of fire
answered this purpose for the Israelites, when wandering
in the wilderness. Sometimes the caravans lodge in
cities ; but when they do not, they pitch their tents so as
to form an encampment ; and during the night, keep
watch alternately, for the sake of security. In the cities,
there are public inns, called chan and caravanserai, in which
tlie caravans are lodged without expense. They are large
square buildings, in the centre of which is an area, or open
court. Caravanserais are denominated in the Greek of the
New Testament, p(7rtrfoc/(e;on, katalusis, and kataluma. Luke
2:7. 10:34. The first mention of one in the Old Testa-
ment is in Jer. 41: 17. It was situated near the city of
Bethlehem.
4. Moses enacted no laws in favor of commerce, al-
though there is no question that he saw the situation of
Palestine to be very favorable for it. The reason of this
was, that the Hebrews, who were designedly set apart to
preserve the true religion, could not mingle with foreign
idolatrous nations without injuiy. He therefore merely
inculcated good faith and honesty in buying and selling,
(Lev. 19: 36, 37. Deut. 25: 13—16.) and left all the other
interests of commerce to a future age. By the establish-
ment, however, of the tliree great festivals, he gave occa-
sion for some mercantile intercourse. At these festivals,
all the adult males of the nation were yearly assembled at
one place. The consequence was, that those who had
any thing to sell, brought it ; while those who wished to
buy articles, came with the expectation of having an op-
portunity. As Moses, though he did not encourage, did
not interdict foreign commerce, Solomon, at a later period,
not only carried on a traffic in horses, as already stated,
but sent ships from the port of Ezion-geber, through the
Red sea, to Ophir, probably the coast of Africa. 1 Kings
9: 26. 2 Chron. 9: 21. This traffic, although a source
of emolument, appears to have been neglected after the
death of Solomon. The attempt made by Jehoshaphat to
restore it, was frustrated by his ships being dashed upon
the rocks and destroj'ed. 1 Kings 22: 48, 49. 2 Chron.
20: 36. Joppa, though not a very convenient one, was
properly the port of Jerusalem ; and some of the large
vessels which went to Spain sailed from it. Jonah 1: 3.
In the age of Ezekiel, the commerce of Jerusalem was so
gi'eat, that it gave an occasion of envy, even to the Tyn-
ans themselves. Ezekiel 26: 2. After the captivity, a
great number of Jews became merchants, and travelled,
for the purpose of traffic, into all countries. About the
year 150 B. C, prince Simon rendered the port at Joppa
more convenient than it had hitherto been. In the time
of Pompey the Great, there were so many Jews abroad on
the ocean, even in the character of pirates, that king Anti-
gonus was accused before him of having sent them out
on purpose. A new port was built by Herod at Caesarea.
— Watson.
COMMISSARY ; an officer of the bishop, who exer.
cises spiritual jurisdiction in places of a diocese so far from
the episcopal see, that the chancellor cannot call the peo-
ple to the bishop's principal consistory court without great
inconvenience. — Hend. Buck.
COMMIT. To commit one's self, spirit, way, or saha-
tion to God, is upon the faith of his promise to intrust the
same to his care, that he may receive, uphold, direct, pre-
serve, and save us. Ps. 31 : 5. 10 : 14. and 37 : 5. Prov.
16 : 3. 2 Tim. 1 : \2.—Bronm.
COMMON ; profane, ceremonially unclean, Mark 7: 2,
5. Acts 10 : 14, 15. Rom. 14 : U.—Calmet.
COMMUNE . To coimmme with our heart is seriously to
propose to it important questions ; entertain it ■with the view
of excellent subjects, and address it with weighty charges
and directions. Ps. 4 : 4. (See Communion.) — Brmrn.
COMMUNICATING, a term made use of to denote the
act of receiving the Lord's supper. Those of the reform-
ed and of the Greek church communicate under both
kinds ; those of the Romish only under one. The orien-
tal communicants receive the species of wine by a spoon ;
and anciently they sucked it through a pipe, as has been
observed by Beat. Rheanus on TertuUian.
The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every be-
COM
[ 393 ]
COM
liever shall receive the communion, at least, at Easter ;
which seems to import a tacit desire that they should do
it oftener, as in effect they did it much oftener in the prim-
itive days. Gratian, and the master of the sentences,
prescribe it as a rule for the laity to communicate tiiree
times a year — at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Cliristmas ;
but, in the thirteenth century, the practice prevailed of
never approaching the eucharist at Easter ; and the
council thought fit to enjoin it then by a law, lest their
coldness and remissness should go farther still ; and the
council of Trent renewed the same injunction, and re-
commended frequent communion, without enforcing it by
an express decree. In the ninth century, the communion
was still received by the laity in both kinds, or rather the
species of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by
the Romanists themselves. M. de Marca observes, that
they received it at first in their hands ; and believes the
communion, under one kind alone, to have had its rise
in the West, under pope Urban II., in 1096, at the time of
the conquest of the Holy Land. It was more solemnly
enjoined by the council of Constance, in 1414. The
twenty -eighth canon of the council of Clermont enjoins the
communion to he. received under both kinds distinctlj^ ;
adding, however, two exceptions — the one of necessity,
the other of caution — the first in favor of the sick, and
the second of the abstemious, or those who had an aver-
sion for wine. It was formerly a kind of canonical pun-
ishment for clerks guilty of any crime to be reduced to
lay communion — i. e. only to receive it as the laity did —
viz., under one kind. They had another punishment of
the same nature, though under a difl'erent name, called
foreign lommvnion, to which the canons frequently con-
demned their bishops and other clerks. This punishment
was not any excommunication or deposition, hut a kind
of suspension from the function of the order, and a de-
gradation from the rank they held in the church. It had
its name because the communion was only granted to the
criminal on the foot of a foreign clerk — i. e. being reduced
to the lowest of his order, he took his place after all those
of his rank, as aU clerks, &:c. did in the churches to which
they did not belong. The second council of Agda orders
every clerk that absents himself from the church to be
reduced to foreign communion. — Hend. Jjuck.
COMMU>'IO>;. Kouwia, in its strict and proper sense,
signifies sharing something in common -n-ith another, Acts
2:42. 2Cor.l3: 14. — 2. In a more general sense, it denotes
agreement, or p.arlicipation, 2 Cor. 6:11; Eph. 5 : 11. — 3.
It signifies converse, or friendly intercourse, wherein men
contrive or consult together about matters of common con-
cern, Luke 6: 11; Ps. 4:4. — 4. Communion is also
used for the Lord's supper, because we herein make a
public profession of our conformity to Christ and his
laws ; of our spiritual participation of his body and blood ;
and of our agreement with other Christians in the spirit
and faith of the gospel. (See Lokd's Suffer.)
Church commri'iioii is fellowship with any particular
church. (See CuuFCH Fellowship.) It is sometimes ap-
plied to different churches united in doctrine and disci-
pline. The three grand communions into which the
Christian church is divided are those of the church of
Rome, the Greek church, and the Protestant church ; but
originally all Christians were in communion with each
other, having one communion, faith, and discipline. See
Co;.tMUNioN, (Terms of.) — Hend. Buch.
C03IMUNI0N SERVICE, the office (in the liturgy of
the church of England) for the administration of the eii-
c-'iarist, or sacrament of the Lord's supper.
The compilers of the Common Prayer Book extracted
this office out of several ancient liturgies — as those of St.
Basil, St. Ambrose, and St. Gregory ; but Bucer having
found great fault with it, it underwent several alterations.
The office was originally designed to be distinct, and, con-
sequently, to be used at ti different time from morning
prayer ; a custom which, bishop Overall says, was ob-
served in his time in York and Chichester ; and he im-
putes it to the negligence of the ministers, and careless-
ness of the people, that they are ever Imddled together
into one office.
By the last rubric after this office, part of it is appoint-
ed to be read on every Sunday and holiday, though there
be no commnnicants ; and the reason seems to have been,
that the church may show her readiness to administer the
sacrament upon those days, and that it is not her's, but
the people's lault, that it is not administered ; or it might
be so ordered, for the sake of reading the decalogue, or
ten commandments, the collects, epistles, and gospels,
and the Nicene creed ; together with the offertory, or
sentences of Scripture, and the prayer for Christ's church.
This service, even when there is no communion, is
generally read at the communion table, or altar ; though in
some places it is performed in the reading desk. — Hend.
Buck.
COaiMUNION WITH GOD, is that dehghtful fellow-
ship and intercourse which a believer enjoys with his
heavenly Father. Rom. 5:1—11. Eph. 2:18. Rom.
8:15. Gal. 4: 6. It is founded upon union with him, and
consists in a communication of divine graces from him, and
a return of devout affections to him. The believer holds
communion with God in his works, in his word, and in his
ordinances. There can be no communion without like-
ness, nor -without Christ as the Mediator. Some distinguish
communion with God from the sense and feeling of it —
that is, that we may hold communion with him without
raptures of joy ; and that a saint, even under desertion,
may have communion ■nith God as really, though not so
feelingly, as at any other time. This communion cannot
be interrupted by any local mutations : it is far superior
to all outward services and ordinances whatsoever; it
concerns the whole soul, all the affections, faculties, and
motions of it being under its influence ; it is only imper-
fect in this life, and will be unspeakably enlarged in a
better world. In order to keep up communion with God,
we should inform ourselves of his will, (John 5 : 39 ;) be
often in prayer, (Luke 8:1;) embrace opportunities of re-
tirement, (Ps. 4:1;) contemplate on the divine perfections,
providences, and promises, (Ps. 104 : 34 ;) watch against
a vain, trifling, and volatile spirit, (Eph. 4 : 30 ;) and be
found in the use of all the means of grace, (Ps. 27 : 4.)
The advantages of communion with God are, deadness to
the world, (Phil. 3 : 8 ;) patience under trouble, ( Job 1 : 22;)
fortitude in danger, (Ps. 27 : 1 ;) gratitude for mercies re-
ceived, (Fs. 103 : 1 ;) direction under difficulties, (Prov. 3 :
5, 6 ;) peaceandjoy in opposition, (Ps. 16 : 23 :) happiness
in death, (Ps. 23 : 4;) and an earnest desire for heaven and
glory, 2 Tim. 4 : 7, 8. See Sharv's Immanuel ; Owen and
lletiry on Communion mth God i and article Fellowship.
— Hend. Buck.
C05IMUNI0N, (Terms of.) It is admitted by all de-
nominations of Christians, with the exception of one, that
the sacrament of the Lord's supper is of perpetual obli-
gation ; and that it was designed by its Founder to be one
of the visible expressions of our faith in his blood, and
of our fraternal love to his followers. Though the com-
munion of saints, properly speaking, is of larger extent,
comprehending all those sentiments and actions by which
Christians are especially united, the joint participation
of this ordinance is universally acknowledged to consti-
tute one branch of that communion. So important a part
indeed has it been considered, that it has usurped the
name of the whole ; and when any dispute arises respect-
ing the terms of communion, it is generally understood to
relate to the terms of admission to the Lord's table.
Whether all Christians simply r<s such, are entitled to
share in this prri-ilege; or whether it being a privilege
pecuUar to the visible church of Christ, regular member-
ship in the church be a necessary prerequisite to admis-
sion ; and if the latter, what constitutes regular member-
ship in the visible church, are questions on which the
Christian world are at present of dirterent opinions.
The general opinion and practice in all ages has been,
that something more than conversion or Christian cha-
racter was necessary to this ordinance ; that baptisin,
soundness in the faith, and a regular walk of holy obedi-
ence, were scriptural and indispensable terms of commu-
nion. But of late, numbers following the steps of the il-
lustrious Robert Hall, have regarded the evidence of Chris-
tian character as alone indispensablv prerequisite to the
table of the Lord. Those of the latter opinion are termed
adherents of Aff, catholic, open, or mi.red communion; wme
those of different sentiments are denominated acUierents
C 0 M
[ 3i)6 ]
C 0 M
of strict, dose, primitive, or church communion. The ap-
pellation of Christian communion is claimed on both sides.
The opinion of Blr. Hall that baptism is not a prere-
quisite to the participation of the eucharist, runs through
all his reasonings in favor of unrestricted communion,
and is the real foundaltion on which they rest. His posi-
tions are the following : 1. The baptism of John was a
separate institution from tl.iat appointed by Christ after
his resurrection ; from which it follows lliat the Lord's
supper was anterior to Christian baptism, and that the
original communicants consisted entirely of such as had
not received that ordinance. 2. That there is no such
connexion, either in the nature of things, or by the di-
vine institution, between baptism and the eucharist, as
renders it, under all circumstances, indispensable that the
former should precede the latter. 3. That admitting this
to be the prescribed order, and to be sanctioned by the
uniform practice of the ajjostles, the case of pious Pedo-
haptists is a new case, calling for some peculiar treat-
ment, in which we ought to regard rather the spirit than
the letter of apostolic precedent. 4. That a schism in tlie
church, the mystical body of Christ, is deprecated in the
New Testament as the greatest evil. 5. That a reception
to church fellowship of all such as God has received, not-
withstanding a diversity of opinion and practice in mat-
ters not essential to salvation, is expressly enjoined in
the New Testament. Rom. 11:1—5. 15:1, 5—7. G.
That to withhold the Lord's supper from those with whom
we unite in other acts of Cliristian worship, is a palpable
inconsistency. And lastly. That it is as impolitic as it is
illiberal ; being calculated to awaken a powerful preju-
dice, and place beyond the reach of conviction our Pedo-
baptist brethren, and to engender among the Baptists
themselves a narrow and sectarian feeling, wholly op-
posed to the enlarged spirit of the present age. Complete
Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. 207—230. Also vol. i.
283—504.
The positions urged on the oppoSte side by Mr. J. G.
Fuller are these: 1. TluU all the arguments which are
used to destroy the identity of baptism as practised by
John and the apostles before the death of Christ, with
that practised afterwards, amount only to proof of a cir
cumstantial not an essential difference, and cannot tliere-
fore warrant the inferences of Blr. Hall in any one point.
—2. That the commission of our Lord, (Matt. 28 : 19, 20.)
furnishes the same evidence that baptism is an indispen-
sable prerequisite to external church fellowship, as that
faith is an indispensable prerequisite to baptism. — 3. That
the uniform examples of the apostles is an inspired ex-
planation of the commission under which they acted, and
a pattern intended for the instruction of the church in all
succeeding ages 4. That strict conformity to the com-
mission of Christ, thus explained, is not schism, but the
only possible mode of restoring and perpetuating Chris-
tian union. — 5. That the mutual forbearance enjoined on
Christians in the New Testament related to matters .jf
real indifference, not involving the surrender of any posi-
tive institution of Christ ; and is therefore inapplicable
to the present case. — 6. That to unite with Fedobaptist
brethren in all such acts of worship and benevolent effort
as do not imply an abandonment of the commission, is
not an inconsistency, but the dictate of Christian charity.
—And lastly. That to whatever imputations a strict ad-
herence to the commission of Christ may subject the Bap-
tist churches, it is better to suffer them than to sin ; and
tliat a deviation in deference to modern eiTor, however
conscientiously maintained, is neither charity nor Chris-
tian wisdom, since " whatever is right is wise." Chris-
tians may cordially unite in the evangelization of the
world, but they do not, nor can they without a change of
sentiments, unite in the constitution of their churches. —
Conversations onStrict and Mixed Communion, hif ]. G. Fuller.
It may not be improper to add, that since both parties
really desire to restore the primitive unity among Chris-
tians, but differ only as to the means best adapted to pro-
mote that desirable end, all unkind imputations should be
avoided on both sides. Instead of wasting time in mutu-
al recrimination, let it be devoted to mutual prayer to the
Father of lights. Christian charity, an apostle has snid,
" thinketh no evil," " vaunteth not' itself," " is not puffed
up," " rejoiceth not in iniquity, but rejoicelh in the truth."
Whether we seek union or edification, this undoubtedly is
the 7nore excellent way. " A larger communication of the
Spirit of truth, (as Mr. Hall justly observes in his ailmi-
rable Review of 'Zeal without Innovation,') would insen-
sibly lead Christians into a similar train of thinking; and
being more under the guidance of that inl'allible Teacher,
they would gradually tend to the same point, and settle in
the same conclusions. Without such an influence as this,
the coalescing into one communion would probably be
productive of much mischief; it certainly would do no
sort of good, since it would be the mere result of intole-
rance and pride acting upon indolence and fear.
" During the present disjointed stale of things, then,
nothing remains but for every one to whom the care of
any part of the church of Christ is intrusted, to exert
himself to the utmost in the promotion of vital religion, in
cementing the friendship of the good, and repressing, with
a firm hand, the heats and eruptions of party spirit. Ha
will find sufficient employment for his time and his ta-
lents in inculcating the great truths of the gospel, and en- ^
deavoring to " form Christ" in his hearers, without blow- •■'
ingtlie flames of contention. — Were our efforts uniformly
to take this direction, there would be an identity in the
impression made by religious instruction ; the distortion
of party features would gradually disappear ; and Chris-
tians would every where approach that ideal beauty
spoken of by painters, which is combined of the finest lines
and traits conspicuous in individual fonns." — Works oj
Robert Hall, vol. ii. 267.
The principal writers in favor of free communion have
been Mr. Jesse, Bunyan, Robert Robinson, Robert Hall —
Austin, Worcester, Mason, Brooks, Griffin. — In favor of
strict communion, 3Ir. Booth, Andrew Fuller, Kinghorn,
Newman, Ivimey, J. G. Fuller — Baldwin, Merrill, Merriam,
Cone, Foster, Ripley.
COMPACT ; a covenant, or a regular adjustment. P».
122:3. The chmch is compacted together ; every member
has his own proper station and work, and yet all are so
joined as to add to her general glory and welfare. Eph. 4 :
16. Col. 2:19.— Brown.
COMPARE ; to set things together, in order that the
likeness or difference may clearly appear. 1 Cor. 2 ; 13.
Judg. 8:2. It is not wise to compare ourselves with our
opposers or friends ; as not they, but the law of God, is
the proper standard by which we ought to judge ourselves.
2 Cor. 10 : 12.— Braon.
COMPASSION. God's being full of compassion imports
the infinite greatness of his tender mercy and love, and his
readiness to comfort and relieve such as are afflicted. Ps.
78 : 38. 86 : 15. Ill ; 4. and 145 : 8.— Brown.
COMPEL. Ministers compel sinners to come in to Christ's
house, when, with the utmost earnestness and concern,
they show them their sinfulness and danger ; the excel-
lency, love, and loveliness of Christ ; the happiness of
those who receive him ; their warrant, and the command
of God to believe in him, and beseech them, as in Christ's
stead, to be reconciled to God. Luke 14 : 23.
COMPLETE; fully finished. Lev. 23:15. Saints
are complete in Christ ; they are perfectly justified, and
have in him complete fulness of grace to render them "
perfectly holy and happy. Col. 2 : 10. They stand co/«-
plele in all the will of God, when they regard all his com-
mandments, and obey them in an eminent degree. Col.
4 : \2.—Brmrn.
COJIPREHEND. To comprehend, with all saints, the
unbounded love of Christ, is to have a clear, extensive,
and heart-ravishing knowledge of its nature and effects.
Eph. 3:18.— Brm™.
COMPREHENSION, iu English church history, de-
notes a scheme proposed by Sir Orlando Bridgman, in
1667-8, forrel.axing the terms of conformity on behalf of the
Protestant Dissenters, and admitting them into the com-
munion of the church. A bill for this purpose was drawn
up by judge Hale, but disallowed. The attempt was
renewed by Tillotson and Stillingfleet, in 1674, and the
terms were settled to the satisfaction of the non-conformists ;
but the bishops refused their assent. The scheme was
liliewise revived again immediately after tlie revolution.
The king and queen expressed their desire of a union :
CON
397
CON
however, the design failed, after two attempts, and tlie act
of toleration was obtained. — Hcnd. Buck.
CONANT, (John, D. D.) a learned and eminent Eng-
lish divine, was born, 1008, at Yeatonton in Devonshire.
At the university he was so remarkable for his perfect
mastery of the Latin and Greek languages that Dr. John
Prideanx, then rector of Exeter college, used to say of him,
" Cormnti nihil dijjicik ■" which in one sense implies ' to
him who endeavors every thing is easy,' and in another,
• there is nothihg difficult to Conant.' Upon the breaking
out of the civil War in 1(342, he was chosen one of the as-
sembly of divines, but never or seldom sat among them,
and did not take the covenant. He afterwards became
chaplain to lord Chaudos, at Haretield, to avoid the snares
of a more public life ; but in 1617, was chosen rector of
Exeter college. Dr. Conant's declaration before the com-
missioners when he took the engagement, was so drawn
up as not to bind his conscience to the existing govern-
ment any longer than he should regard it as the will of
God. He filled his office with great reputation. In De-
cember, lf)5J, he became divinity professor of Oxford uni-
versity. In 1657, he was admitted vice-chancellor of the
university, in which office Tie secured to the library Mr.
Selden's large and valuable collection of books. After
the restoration, in 1661, he was employed by Charles II.
in reviewing the book af common prayer and assisting
at the Savoy conferences. Refusing to sign the act of
conformity for eight years, he lost his preferments ; and
after his consent, was re-ordained by Dr. Reynolds, bishop
of Norwich, in 1670. He w^as afterwards rector of North-
ampton and prebendary of Worcester. In 1686, he lost
his sight, and in 1693, expired at the age of 85. He was
a man of great piety and excellence, a devoted minister,
an able casuist, and resorted to even by foreigners. His
charity was unbounded. At Northampton, for twenty
years together, he paid the schooUng of poor children,
never fewer than twenty-four, and these he placed out
with needy widows, that what he gave might contribute
to their assistance. His modesty was equal to his great
learning ; for though he was versed in most of the oriental
languages, particularly the Syriac, few people knew it,
and he never sought any thing for himself. Six volumes
of his sermons have been published. — Middhton.
CONCEPTION, (Immaculate ;) the opinion entertained
in the Roman and Greek churches, that the virgin Mary
was conceived without the stain of original sin. St. Ber-
nard, in the twelfth century, rejected this doctrine in oppo-
sition to the canons of Lyons, and it afterwards became a
subject of vehement controversy between the Scotists and
the Thomists. The Dominicans espoused the opinion of
Thomas, who impugned the dogma: the Franciscans
that of Scotus, who defended it. Sixtus IV., him.<;elf a
Franciscan, allowed of toleration on the point. In the fifth
.session of the council of Trent, it was resolved that the
doctrine of the conception of all men in original sin was
not intended to include the Virgin. The controversy was
revived in the university of Paris, towards the close of the
sixteenth century. During the pontificates of Paul V. and
Gregory XV., such was the dissension it occasioned in
Spain, that both Philip and his successor sent special em-
hassies to Rome in the vain hope that this contest might
be terminated by a bull. The dispute ran so high in that
kingdom, that, in the military orders of St. James, of the
Sword, of Calatrava, and of Alcantara, the knights, on
I'leir admission, vowed to maintain the doctrine. In 1708,
Clement XI. appointed a festival to be celebrated through-
nut the church, in honor of the immaculate conception.
Since that time, it has been received in the church of Rome
as an opinion, but not as an article of faith. It is firmly
believed in the Greek church, in which the feast is cele-
brated under the name of the Conception of St. Anne. Pe-
ter of Alva et Astorga published more than forty huge
volumes on this subject. — Hend. Buck.
CONCEPTION OF OUR LADY, (nuns of the order
OF ;) a religious order, founded by Beatrix de Sylva, sis-
ter of James, first count of Poralegro in Portugal. She
pretended that the virgin Mary had twice appeared to her,
and inspired her with the design of founding an order in
honor of her own immaculate conception. To this end,
she obtained of the queen of Castile a grant of the palace
of Galliana, where was a chapel dedicated to the honor cf
St. Faith. Beatrix, accompanied by twelve young maids
of the Dominican monastery, took possession of it in the
year 1484. The.se religious were habited in a while gown,
and scapulary, and a blue maiule, and wore on their sea-
pulary the image of the blessed Virgin. Pope Innocent
VIII. confirmed the order in 1489, and granted them per-
mission to follow the rule of the Cistertians. The foun-
dress died in the year 1490, at sixty-six years of age.
After the death of Beatrix, cardinal Ximenes put the
nuns of the Conception under the direction of the Franci.-;-
cans, as being the most zealous defenders of the immacu-
late conception ; at the same time he gave them the rule
of St. Clara to follow. The second convent of the order
was founded, in the year 1507, at Torrigo, in the diocese
of Toledo, wdiich produced seven others ; the first of vhich
was at Madrid. This order passed into Italy, and goi
footing in Rome and Milan. In the reign of Lewis XIV ,
king of France, the Clarisses of the suburb of St. Germain,
at Paris, embraced the order of the Conception. These
religious, besides the grand office of the Franciscans, re-
cite on Sundays and hclidaj's a le,sser office, called the
office of the conception of the holy Virgin. — Hend. Buck.
CONCISION; cutting ctr. Joel 3: 14. The Jews are
called the concision, because, under pretence of zealous
adherence to circumcision, they, after it was abolished by
our Savior's death, cut their bodies, rent the church, and
cut ofl" themselves from the blessings of the gospel. Phil.
3: 2.—Bron'n.
CONCLAVE ; the assembly or meeting of the cardinals
shut up for the election of a pope. Conclave also signifies
the place in w-hich the cardinals of the Romish church meet
for the above-mentioned purpose. The conclave is a range
of small cells, ten feet square, made of wainscot : these
are numbered, and drawn by lot. They stand in a line
along the galleries and hall of the Vatican, with a small
space between each. Every cell has the arms of the car-
dinal over it. The conclave is not fixed to any one deter-
minate place, for the constitutions of the church allow the
cardinals to make choice of such a place for the conclave
as they think most convenient ; yet it is generally held in
the Vatican.
The following account of the formalities which precede
the opening of the electoral college, and of the organiza-
tion of the assembly, is given in a French paper : — As
soon as a pope dies, rooms or apartments are prepared in
the Vatican, equal in number to the members of the sacred
college. These apartments or cells, formed of wood-work
in the vast halls of the palace, are very modestly furnished.
They have no separate fireplace, and the fathers must
warm themselves at fires common to all. The chambers
for the cardinals and the officers of their suite are very
gloomy ; the windows, with the exception of the highei
panes, being walled in.
The clock of the capitol announces the death of the
pope, and the vacancy of the see. It tolls for nine days
and nights without interruption. In the mean time, the
funeral ceremonies of the deceased are preparing. On the
ninth day, the body of the last pope displaces, in the church
of St. Peter, that of his predecessor. During the interreg-
num, or the time that inteiwencs between the death of one,
and the election of another pontif}', the executive power of
the state is exercised by the cardinal great chamberlain.
The legal term for the opening of the conclave is the tenth
day af^ter the death of the pope, hut it rarely happens thai
the necessary preparations can be completed by that time ;
thirteen or fourteen days are generally allowed for the
previous arrangements, and for the arrival of the foreign
cardinals in Rome. If the assembly opens before, it is
only for the sake of form. They do nothing till the arrival
of such fathers from France, Spain, Austria. Poland, or
other Catholic countries, as wish to attend. The prelimi-
nary operations are, therefore, trifling and unimportant.
When the members are assembled, and the conclave pro-
ceeds seriously to its task, three cardinals are elected every
day to be the delegates of the sacred college, and to trans-
act the affairs of the papacy with foreign ambassadors
These representatives of the Catholic powers deliver their
credential letters to the ephemeral commissioners of the si-
cred college at the grating of their temporary prison. The
CON
[ 39S ]
CON
lime of deliberation is proionged according to the number
and power of the candidates, tlie difficulty of adjusting ad-
verse pretensions, or the success of diplomatic intrigues.
Though apparently cut off from all communication with
the external world, these ghostly fathers often receive di-
rections as to tlieir choice, offers of bribes, or information
of the designs of their rivals, through the grating of their
cells, or the only part of the window which the law leaves
open. A letter sometimes is transmitted in the stuffing of
a fowl, or under the crust of a pie. — Hend. Buck.
CONCORD, (Form of.) Form of concord ; in ecclesi-
astical history, a standard hook among (he Lutherans,
composed at Torgan, in 1575, and thence called the Book
of Torgau, and reviewed at Berg, by six Lutheran doctors
of Germany, the principal of whom was James Andreas.
This book contains, in two parts, a system of doctrine, the
subscription of which was a condition of communion, and
a formal and very severe condemnation of all who dif-
fered from the compilers of it ; particularly with respect
to the majesty and omnipresence of Christ's body, and the
real manducation of his flesh and blood in the eucharist.
It was first imposed upon the Sa.f ons by Augustus, and
occasioned great opposition and disturbance. The dispute
about it was revived in Switzerland in 1718, when the
magistrates of Berne published an order for adopting it as
a rule of faith ; the consequence of which was a contest
that reduced its credit and authority. — Haul. Buck.
CONCORDANCE ; a book containing the principal
words in the Holy Scriptures, in alphabetical order, with
part of the connexion, and a designation by chapter and
verse of the places in Avhich they are to be found. This
class of books is of great importance to the interpreter of
the word of God. While the Scriptures remained in ma-
nuscript, or were not divided into sections and paragraphs,
indices of their words and phrases could neither be formed
nor used. As soon as any regular divisions began to be
made, the importance of concordances, or alphabetical in-
dices, w-as felt, and learned men devoted their labors to
form them. The following are the most important works
of this description in Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English:
I. HEBREW CONCORD.\NCES.
The first Hebrew concordance was the work of rabbi Mor-
decai Nathan, which he began in 1 f 38, and finished in 1448,
after ten years' hard labor by himself and some assistants.
It was printed at Venice in 1523, in folio, by Dan. Bom-
berg. It is entirely Hebrew, and entitled " The Light of
the Way." It was reprinted somewhat more correctly at
Basil, by Frobenius, in 1581, and translated into Latin by
Rcuchlin, in 1556 ; but both the Hebrew and Latin edi-
tions are full of errors. These were mostly corrected, and
otlicr deficiencies supplied, by Marius de Calasio, a Fran-
ciscan friar, who published " ConcordanliEe Sacrorum Bib-
liorum Hebraicorum, et Latinorum. Romas, 1521, four
vMumes, foho." This large and splendid work retains
the Hebrew text, and also the order and method of Na-
than's Concordance. It contains also lieuchlin's Latin
Translation of Rabbi Nathan's Explanation of the Hebrew
Roots, with enlargements by Calasio ; the Rabbinical,
Chaldee, Syriac, and Arabic words derived from, or agree-
ing with the Hebrew roots in signification ; a literal Ver-
sion of the Hebrew Text ; the differences between the Vul-
gate and Septuagint are marked in the margin ; proper
names of persons, places, &:c. It is a very complete, but
exceedingly heavy work. Calasio died in' 1620.
" ConcordantitE Bibliorum Ebraicae, nova et artiflciosa
methodo disposita?, &c. Basil. 1632, folio." This con-
cordance is the work of John Buxtorf, the father, but was
published by his son. The groundwork of it is the con-
cordance of Rabhi Nathan. It is much better arranged,
more correctly printed, the roots more distinctly ascertain-
ed, and the meaning more accurately given. Buxtorf be-
stowed much labor and attention on it. The references
are made by Hebrew letters to the chapters and verses of
the different books in the Hebrew Bible ; and, as so much
of the text is exhibited as is necessary to show the con-
nexion in which any word is used, it is decidedly by far
the best work of the kind extant. It only wants the pani-
cles, as given by Noldius, to render it complete. It wa.s
abridged by Christian Ravius, under the title of "Fons
Zioni.s. sive Concordanliarum Hebraicarum et Chaldaicil-
rum Jo. Buxtorfii Epitome. Eerolini, 1577, octavo." The
concordance of Calasio was republished in London, under
the direction of William Romaine, in 1747-1749, four vo-
lumes, folio. It is more accurate than its prototype ; but
it is a very prolix work ; and as only a small edition was
published, it is become scarce. All the crowned heads in
Europe, his holiness not excepted, were subscribers to
this work.
" Th,' Hebrew Concordance, adapted to the English Bi-
ble, di.-pos-ed after the manner of Buxtorf. By John Tay-
lor, London, 1754, two Volumes, folio." — This is a very
useful work of the kind, especially to the English scholar.
It was the fruit of many years' labor of the industrious
author, and was published under the patronage of all the
EngHsh and Irish bishops.
" Concordant ias Part icularum Ebrceo-Chaldaicamm, in
quibus partium indeclinabilium, qua3 occurrunt in fonti-
bus, et hactenus non expositse sunt in Lexicis aut Concor-
c!antii3,naturaet scnsunmvarietasostenditur, &c. Hafnise,
1675, folio ; 1679, quarto." — This concordance, the work
of Christian Noldius, professor of theology at Copenhagen,
where he died in 1683, supplied an important desideratum.
It contains the particles, or indeclinable words, omitted in
former concordances. It investigates their various signi-
fications ; points out the Greek particles which correspond
with the Hebrew and Chaldaic ones ; and explains the
meaning of many passages of Scripture, which depends on
the force and connective power of the indeclinable words.
The best edition of Noldius is that published at Jena, in
1734, quarto, under the care of Tympius. It contains, as an
appendix, a Lexicon of the Hebrew Particles, by John Hen-
ry Michaelis, and Christ. Koerber. It is an exceedingly va-
luable work, and has been of great service to all who have
since been employed on the critical examination of the
Bible.
II. CREEK CO.\CORP.\NUES TO THE SEPTUAGINT.
"Conradi Kircheri ConcordanlifE Veteris Testamenti
GrascEe Ebrseis vocibus respondentes, &c. Francof. 1607,
two volumes, quarto." — The author of this work was a
Lutheran minister at Augsburg. It possesses considerable
merit ; but, rather inconsistently for a Greek concordance,
follows the order of the Hebrew words, placing the corre-
sponding Greek word after it ; in consequence of which, it
is more useful in consulting the Hebrew than the Greek
Scriptures.
" Abrahami Trommii Coiicordanti* Greecse Versionis
vulgo dictEE LXX. Interpretnm, cujus voces secundum
ordinem elementorum sermonis Grteci digestae recensen-
tur, contra atque in Opere Kircheriano factum fuerat.
Amst. 1718, two volumes, folio." — The author of this
learned and most laborious work was minister of Gronin-
gen, and published the concordance in the eighty-fourth
year of his age. He was born in 1633, and died in 1719.
It is the most accurate and complete index to the Sep-
tuagint that has been, or is ever likely to be published. It
follows, as is stated in the title, the order of the Greek
words ; of which it first gives a Latin translation, and
then the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term
is used in the Seventy. Then the different places in which
they occur in the Scriptures follow in the ord'!r of he seve-
ral books and chapters ; the whole branch ol the sentence
to which they belong being inserted in the same manner
as in Cruden's English concordance. When the word
occurs in any of the ancient Greek translators, Aquila,
Symmachus, Theodotion, the places where it is found are
referred to at the end of the quotations from the Seventy.
The words of the Apocrypha are placed at the close of
each enumeration. There are two indices at the end of
the work, the one Hebrew and Chaldaic ; by examining
which, the Greek term used in the Seventy for any He-
brew or Chaldee word is at once seen, with the Latin ver-
sion, and the place where it is found in the concordance;
so that Tromm serves tolerably well for a Hebrew con-
cordance. The other index contains a lexicon to the Hexa-
pla of Origen, and comprehends the Greek words in the
fragments of the old Greek translators published by Mont
faucon.
" I wish as earntstly," says Michaelis, " that this con-
CON
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CON
Cordance were in the hands of every theologian, as that
Pasor, and other works of that nature, were banished from
the schools. By the help of it, we may discover at one
view not only the sense and construction of a word in dis-
pute, but likewise the Hebrew expression of which it is a
translation, and thus easily determine whether a phrase
be a Hebraism or not. It is true the work is incomplete ;
the Septuagint version of Daniel is totally wanting, being
at that time unknown, and several words in the remaining
books are omitted ; but these omissions are not so nume-
rous as might be expected in so many thousand words."
ni. GREEK CONCORDANCES TO THE NEW TESTAMENT.
"Xysti Betuleii Concordantise Grsecse Novi Testamenti.
Basil. 1546, folio." — This is the first Greek concordance
to the New Testament, and is exceedingly rare. The au-
thor was a German Lutheran divine, who was born in
1500, and died at Augsburg in 1554. His proper name
was Birck.
" Concordant!^ Grceeo-LatinEe Novi Testamenti ab Hen-
rico Stephano concinnatiE. Genev. 1594, fol. Ac cum
supplemenio, 1600. 2da editio, auctior, 1624." — This work
was projected, and partly executed, by Eobert Stephens,
and completed and pubUshed by his son Heni^. It is,
however, so inaccurate, that Schmidt, the compiler of the
next concordance, could scarcely admit that it was the
work of the Siephenses.
" Erasmi Schmidii Novi Testamenti Jesu Christi Greeci,
hoc est, originalis Linguae, tameion, &c. Vitemb. 1638,
folio." — This is a much more correct and valuable work
than that of the Stephenses. The author was a Lutheran
divine, and professor of the Greek language in the univer-
sity of Wittemberg, where he died in 1637. Another edi-
tion of this concordance, revised and corrected, was pub-
lished at Gotha, in 1717, with a preface by E. S. Cyprian.
Of this edition, a very beautiful reprint, in two volumes,
octavo, issued from the Glasgow university press in 1819 ;
and an abridgment of it was published by Bagster, 1830,
32mo. edited by Mr. Greenfield.
" Lexicon Anglo-Grsco-Latinum Novi Testamenti, ice. ;
or an Alphabetical Concordance of all the Greek Words
contained in the New Testament, both English, Greek,
and Latin, &c. By Andrew Symson. London, 1658, fo-
lio."— This work partakes more of the nature of a lexicon
than of a concordance. According to the author's ac-
count, "By it any word may be rendered into Greek and
Latin, EngUsh and Latin, and Greek and English."
Parkhurst says, " It is a performance which, whilst it ex-
hibits the prodigious labor of its author, can give one no
very high opinion of his genius or skill in the art of in-
struction. If, indeed, the method and ingenuity of this
writer had been proportionable to his industry, one might,
I think, almost affirm, that he would have rendered all
future Greek and Enghsh lexicons of the New Testament
in a great measure superfluous ; but by injudiciously
making the English translation the basis of his work, and
by separating the etymological part of the Greek from the
explanator)', he has rendered his book in a manner useless
to the young scholar, and in truth hardly manageable by
any but a person of uncommon application.
" A Concordance of the Greek Testament, with the
English Version to each Word, the principal Hebrew
Roots corresponding to the Greek Words of the Septua-
gint, with short critical Notes and an Index. By John
Williams, LL. D. Lond. 1767, quarto." — This is a very
useful and convenient work ; it is much more portable
than the larger concordances, and is sufficient for all com-
mon purposes, as it is in general very accurate.
IV. COJJCORDANCES TO THE LATIN VULGATE.
The compiler of the first concordance to the Bible in
any language was Hugo de St. Caro, or cardinal Hugo,
a Dominican, who died about 1262. He had engaged in
writing a commentary on the Scriptures, and in order to
facilitate this work, projected a concordance, in which he
is said to have employed nearly five hundred of his bre-
thren. From this work have been derived all the concord-
ances to the Scriptures in the original languagft. It was
improved by Conrad of Halberstadt, who flourished about
12y0, and by John of Segovia in the following century.
The first printed concordance to the Vulgate appeared un<
der the following title : —
" Concordantiaa Bibliorum et Canonum. Bononia;, Hu-
gonis de Colonia, 1479, folio."
After the revision of the Latin Vulgate by Sixtus V. a
concordance to it appeared, entitled : —
" Concordantiaa Sacr. Bibliorum Vulgate editionis, Hu-
gone Cardinali aulhore, ice. Opere et studio Francisci
LucEe Brugcnsis. Autverpiae, 1617. Genevce, 1625. Pa-
risiis, 1683." — The greater number of the concordances to
the Latin Vulgate are reprints of this edition. The best
is that printed at Avignon, in 1786, in two volumes, folio.
v. CONCORDANCES TO THE ENGLISH BIBLE,
"The Concordance of the New Testament most neces-
sary to be had in the hands of all soche as desire the com-
municaliou of any place contained in the New Testament.
Imprinted by Mr. Thomas Gybson. Cam privilegio regit-
It." — This is the first concordance to any part of the Eng-
lish Scriptures. It has no date, but must have been pub-
lished before 1540. It is probable from the epistle to ihe
reader, that it was the work of John Day, assisted by
Gybson the printer.
" A Concordace, that is to saie, a worke, wherein by the
order of the letters of the A, B, C, ye male redely finde any
worde conieigned in the whole Bible, so often as it is there
expressed or mentioned. By John Marbeck. Lond. 1550,
folio." — This is the first EngUsh concordance to the enlire
Bible. The account which the author gives of his under-
taking, when summoned before the bishops and condemn-
ed by them, is very interesting. " When Thomas Ma-
thews' Bible came first out in print, I was much desirous
to have one of them ; and being a poor man, not able to
buy one of them, determined with myself to boirow one
amongst my friends, and to write it forthe. And when I
had written out the five books of Moses in fair great pa-
per, and was entered into the book of Joshua, my friend,
Blaster Turner, chanced to steal upon me unawares, and
seeing me writing out the Bible, asked me what I meant
thereby ? And when I had told him the cause : Tush !
quoth he, thou goest about a vain and tedious tabor. But
this were a profitable work for thee, to set out a concord-
ance in EngUsh. A concordance, said I, what is that ?
Then he told me it was a book to find out any word in
the whole Bible by the letter, and that there was such a
one in Latin already. Then I told him I had no learning
to go about such a thing. Enough, quoth he, for that
matter, for it requireth not so much learning as diligence.
And seeing thou art so painful a man, and one that cannot
be unoccupied, it were a good exercise for Ihee. He ac-
cordingly borrowed a Latin concordance,, and had gone
through the letter L, when his papers were seized. When
he was set at liberty, as his papers were not restored to
to him, he had his concordance to begin again, which,
when completed, he showed to a friend, who promised to
assist him in having it presented to the king, in order to
have it published by his authority ; but Henry VIII. died
before that could be brought about. His friend, however,
to whom he could not say nay, requested a copy of u,
which he accordingly transcribed for him. AVhen Edward
VI. was settled on the throne, he renewed his thoughts of
publishing his work, and consulted Grafton, the printer,
concerning it; 'who,' saj's he in his introduction, 'seeing
the volume so houge and great, saied the charges of im-
printing thereof would not only be importunate, but the
bokes when finished would bear so excessive a price, as
few should be able to attain unto them.' Wherelbre, by
his advice, I yet once again anewe writt out the same in
such sort, as the work now appereth." (Ton-iilet/'s Bib.
Lit. vol. iii. p. 118.) The diligence and labors of such a
man deserve to be recorded. The work is necessarily
imperfect, and refers to the chapters only, not to verses.
Subsequently to this, a number of concordances, or indices
to the Bible, were pubUshed under various litle.s, and pos-
sessing different degrees of merit. The chief of these are
the following : —
" Knight's Concordance Axiomatical. Lond. 1610, fo-
ho. — Clement Cotton's Concordance. Ibid. 161S, foho. —
Newman's Large and Complete Concordance. Ibid. 1643,
folio.— Bernard's Thesaurus Biblicus. Ibid. 1644, folio.—
CON
[ 400
CON
Robert Wickens's Concordance, complete and perfect, with
a dedication to Dr. Owen. Ibid. 1655, octavo. — Powell's
New and Useful Concordance. Ibid. 1671, octavo.^The
Cambridge Concordance. Camb. 1689, folio. — And Bul-
terworlh's valuable Concordance, which followed in 1767,
octavo." — All these are surpassed by the correct and in-
valuable work of Alexander Cruden, entitled, "A com-
plete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and
New Testament." 1737, quarto. The author published
three editions during his own life, and several have been
published since his death. The London edition of 1810 is
the most correct. The work is uncommonly complete, the
definitions of leading words remarkably accurate, and the
references exceedingly correct. The work is in the hands
of every student, and requires no recommendation from
me. An edition in royal octavo, very beautifully printed,
has lately issued from the London press.
" A Concordance of Parallels collected from Bibles and
Commentaries, which have been published in Hebrew,
Latin, French, Spanish, and other Languages, with the
Authorities of each. Bv the Kev. C. Crutwell. London,
1790, quarto." This is a work of immense labor, and for
occasional consultation may be useful ; but the references
are often so numerous under a single verse, that it is
scarcely possible to examine them all, or to perceive the
design of each. The margin of Scott's Bible is in general
far preferable. — Htiid. Buck.
CONCORDATE ; a convention between the pope of
Rome, as the head of the Catholic church, and any secular
government, for the settling of ecclesiastical relations.
Treaties which the pope, as a secular sovereign, concludes
with other princes respecting political concerns, are not
called concordates. One of the most important of the ear-
lier concordates is that of Worms, called also the Calixtine
concordate, made in 1122, between Calixtus II. and Henry
v., in order to put an end to the long contest on the sub-
ject of investiture ; and which has since been considered
a fundamental ordinance in respect to the relations be-
tween the Catholic church and the government in Germa-
ny. Mo.st of the concordates have been extorted from the
popes by the diiferent civil powers. Thi.s was done as
early as the fifteenth century ; for when the council of
Constance urged a reformation of the papal court, Martin
V. saw himself obliged, in 1418, to conclude concordates
with the Germans, and soon afterwards, also, with other
nations. The popes, however, succeeded, even in the fif-
teenth and sixteenth centuries, in concluding concordates
for their own advantage. This was the case with those of
Ashaflenburg. That also which was m.ade by Leo X. and
Francis I. of France (1516), was chiefly to the advantage
of the pope. Tn later times, particularly towards the end
of the eighteenth century, the papal court could no longer
maintain a successful struggle with the spirit of the times,
and with the secular powers, and was obliged to resign
many privileges by concordates. Bonaparte, when first
consul of the French republic, concluded a concordate with
pope Pius VII., July 15, 1801, which went into operation in
.» pril, 1802. It re-established the Catholic church in France,
and has become the basis of the present ecclesiastical con-
stitution of that country. The government obtained by it
the right of appointing the clergy; the public treasury
gained by the diminution of the large number of metropo-
litan and episcopal sees to sixty ; the pope was obliged to
give up the plan of restoring the spiritual orders, and the
inlluence which he exercised by means of delegates, but
retained the right of the canonical investiture of bishops,
and the revenues connected with this right. The interests
of the papal religion suHered by this compact, inasmuch
as most of the dioceses became now too large to be pro-
perly administered ; and the lower clergy, the very soul
of the church, who were in a poor condition before, were
entirely dependent on the government. Louis XVIII.
concluded, at Rome, with Pius VII., (July 11, 1817,) a
new concordate, by which that of 1516, so injurious to the
liberties of the Gallican church, was again revived ; the
concordate of 1801, and the arlides organiques of 1802 were
abolished ; the nation subjected to an enormous tax by the
demand of endowments for forty-two new metropolitan and
episcopal sees, with their chapters and seminaries ; and
free scope afforded to the intolerance of the Roman court
by the indefinite language of article tenth, which speaks
of measures against the prevailing obstacles to religion
and the laws of the church. This revival of old abuses, this
provision for the luxury of numerous clerical dignitaries at
the expense of the nation, could please only the ultra-roy-
alist nobility, who saw in it the means of providing their
sons with benefices. The nation received the concordate
with almost universal disapprobation ; voices of the great-
est weight were raised against it ; and the new ministers
saw themselves obliged to withdraw their proposition.
The pope was more fortunate in the concordate madewilh
Naples (February 16, 1818) at Terracina, in which stipu-
lations were macfe for the exclusive establishment of Ca-
tholicism in that kingdom ; for the independence of the
theological seminaries on the secular power ; the free dis-
posal of benefices to the value of twelve thousand ducats,
in Naples, in favor of Roman subjects ; the reversion of
ancient places to the church ; unlimited liberty of appeal
to the papal chair ; the abolition of the royal permission,
formerly necessary for the pastoral letters of the bishops ;
the right of censorship over books ; besides many other
highly important privileges. The king obtained the right
to appoint bishops, to tax the clergy, to reduce the number
of episcopal sees and monasteries which existed before the
time of Murat. The quiet possession of the estates of the
church, which had been alienated, was also secureti to the
proprietors. In the concordate concluded with Bavaria,
July 5, 1817, two archbishoprics were established for the
two million, four hundred thousand Catholics in Bavaria.
Seminaries, moreover, were instituted and provided with
lands ; the nominations were left with the king, with
the reservation of the papal right of confirmation ; the li-
mits of the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction were precise-
ly seltled, and the erection of new monasteries was pro-
mised. This concordate was published in May, 181S,
together with the new political constitution, by which all
apprehensions for the Protestant church in Bavaria were
allayed. The other German princes have also formed a
plan for a common concordate with the pope. — Hend. Buck.
CONCUBINAGE ; the act of living with a woman to
whom the man is not legally married. It is also used for
a marriage with a woman of inferior condition, (performed
with less solemnity than the formal marriage,) and to
whom the husband does not convey his rank. As polyga-
my was sometimes practised by the patriarchs, it was a
common thing to see one, two, or many wives in a family ;
and, besides these, several concubines. 2 Sam. 3: 3, &c.
1 Kings 11: 3. 2 Chron. 11: 21. But ever since the abro-
gation of polygamy by Jesus Christ, and the reduction of
marriage to its primitive institution, concubinage has been
forbidden and condemned among Christians. — Hend. Buck.
CONCUPISCENCE. (1.) The corruption of our na-
ture, or inward disposition, whence all actual sin proceeds.
Rom. 7: 7. James 1: 14. (2.) Actual motions and inclina-
tions of our hearts towards sinful deeds. Rom. 7: 8. (3.)
Unchastity, especially of desire. Col. 3: 5. 1 Thess. 4: 5. —
■ — Brown.
CONDEMNATION ; a judicial declaration of guilt, ac-
companied with a sentence of punishment. In this sense,
Christ did not condemn Ihe woman taken in adultery,
(John 8: 1 — 10 ;) that is, he did not assume the oflice of a
judge, though he bid her go and sin no more. The word is
used also in reference to rash, uncharitable, unjust opi-
nions, pronounced upon others in a spirit of censorious-
ness. Luke 6: 37. Also, for a practical testimony against
sin, impenitence and unbelief, exhibited in a contrary course
of conduct. Thus the Ninevites condemned the Jews of
our Savior's time, (Matt. 12: 41.) andNoah condemned the
world before the flood. Heb. 11: 7. The condemnatmi of
Ihe devil, seems to mean a sin and punishment similar to
his. 1 Tim. 3: 6. The condemnation which all the un-
converted lie under, and from which all believers in Christ
are made free, is primarily a legal charge of iniquities,
and the sentence of the divine law adjudging them as
guilty to bear the wrath of God, or the execution of his tre-
mendous curse, (unless it be satisfied for them by Christ,)
forever and ever. Rom. 5: 16, 18. 8: 1. Gal. 3: 10—14.
comparea with Matt. 25: 41 — 46. This legal condemna-
tion is however fearfully enhanced to those who reject the
glorious gospel. John 3: 19. 2 Thess. 1: 9. Cod condemned
CON
[401 J
CON
tin in the flesh of his Son ; by executing the punishment
due to sin upon hiin in our nature, bubmitting to suffer in
our stead, he clearly demonstrated how criminal and abo-
minable it is in his sight, proviiled a full and glorious ex-
piation for its guilt, and adjudged its power in the believer's
soul to utter destruction. Rom. 8: 3. See an admirable
sermon on this text, in Wai/lntid's Discourses.
CONDER, (John, D. D.) an English divine, was born
at Wimple in Cambridgeshire, in 1714, and educated
among the Dissenters of the Independent persuasion. He
entered the ministry in 1738, and was settled over a con-
gregation in Cambridge, where he continued about sixteen
years with acceptance and usefulness. His candor, Ube-
rality, and gracious endowments made him esteemed be-
yond the circle of his own persuasion. In 1754, he became
atutorof Homerlon academy, designed to prepare others for
the ministerial office, which duty he discharged near thirty
years. In 17t)U, he was chosen co-pastor with Mr. Hall to the
Meeting on the Pavement, Moorfields, where he continued
his valuable labors in the ministry till his death in 1781, at
the age of sixty-six. His life was indeed a blessing, and
his memory is blessed. To recommend Christ in his per-
son, offices, work, and grace to perishing sinners, was the
darling theme of his ministrations ; few were more deeply
acquainted with the gospel, or could more skilfully divide
the word of truth. In his last hours he expressed a stead-
fast, unshaken confidence in the grace, faithfulness, and
love of a covenant God in Christ ; an assurance of the
truth of that gospel which he had uniformly preached ;
and a lively hope of a blessed immort.'ilily through the
mediation and intercession of the great Redeemer. Some
months before he was laid aside, he was conversing with
a friend on the great importance of evangelical doctrines,
and with a peculiar degree of emphasis and affection told
him, " he had attained the full assurance of faith ; for af-
ter searching the Scriptures with (he greatest attention and
care, he had"nol a doubt or scruple respecting the truth
of any of those grand fundamental -doctrines he had
preached and lived upon." At another time he said with
cheerfulness. " that had he his life to spend over again, he
would preach the same gospel, for it was the truth of God ;
and that he would neither change gospel nor state with
any one." On the morning of his death, hearing the bells
ringing for Restoration day, he said, " Who knows but it
may be my Restoration day?" His published works con-
sist chielly of sermons. — Middleton.
CONDESCENSION, is thai species of benevolence
which designedly waves the supposed advantages of birih,
title, or station, in order to accommodate ourselves to the
state of an inferior, and diminish that restraint which the
apparent distance is calculated to produce in him. It is
enjoined on the Christian, and is peculiarly ornamental to
the Christian character. Rom. 12: lli. The condesrensinn
of God appears every way great, when we consider his
infinite perfection, his absolute independence of his crea-
tures, his purposes of mercy toward them, and his conti-
nual care over them. The i-ncarnation of Chri.st is, how-
ever, the most wonderful example of condescension ever
known, and cannot fail to affect in a suitable manner the
s-pirit of every Christian. Phil. 2: 5 — II. See the Complete
Woyk' nf Robert Hall, vol. lii. p. SiO.—Hend. Buck.
CONDITION ; the term of a bargain to be performed.
It has been debated whether /rti?A should be called the con-
dition of our salvation. If by it we mean a valuable equi-
valent for the benefit received, or something to be per-
formed in our own strength, or that will be meritorious, it
is certainly inapplicable ; but if by it be meant, that it is
only a means n-ithout which we cannot be saved, in that
sense it is not improper. Yet as the term is often made
use of improperly by those who are mere legalists, perhaps
it would he as well to decline the use of it. — Hfnd. Buck.
CONEY, (s/'ff;)A(7«;) Lev. 11:5. Dent. 14: 7. Psalm 104:
8. and Prov. 30: 26. Boohart and others have supposed
the shnphan of the Scriptures to be the jerboa ; but Mr.
Bruce proves thai the ashkoko is intendeil. This curious
animal is found in Ethiopia, and in great numbers on
mount Lebanon, &c. Instead of holes, they seem to de-
light in more airy places, in the mouths of caves, or clefts
in the rock. They are gregarious, and frequently several
dozens of them sit^upon the great stones at the mouths of
51
caves, and warm themselves in the sun, or come out and
enjoy the freshness of the summer evening. They do not
stand upright upon their feet, but seem to steal along as in
fear, their belly being nearly close to the ground ; ad-
vancing a few steps at a time, and then pausing. They
have something very mild, feeble-like, and timid in their
deportment ; are gentle and easily tamed, though, when
roughly handled at the first, they bite very severely.
Many are the reasons to believe this to be the anim,il
called shafhaii in Hebrew, and erroneously by our trans-
lators "the coney," or rabbit. The latter are gregarious
indeed, and so far resemble the other, as also in .size ; but
they seek not the same place of retreat ; for the rabbit
burrows most generally in the sand. Nor is there any
thing in the character of rabbits that denotes excellent
wisdom, or that they supply the want of strength by any
remarkable sagacity. The shaphan, then, is not the rab-
bit ; which last, unless it was brought to him by his ships
from Europe, Solomon never saw.
Let us now apply the characters of the ashkoko to the
shaphan. " He is above all other animals so much attached
to the rocks, that I never once," says Mr. Bruce, " saw him
on the ground, or from among large stones in the mouth
of caves, where is his constant residence. He lives in
families or flocks. He is in Judea, Palestine, and Arabia,
and con.sequently must have been familiar to Solomon.
David describes him very pertinently, and joins him to
other animals perfectly known : "The hills are a refuge
for the wild goats, and the rocks for the shaphan :" and
Solomon says that " they are exceeding wise," that they
are " but a feeble folk, yet make their hou.ses in the rocks."
Now this, I think, very obviously fixes the ashkoko to be
the shaphan ; for his weakness seems 'to allude to his feet,
and how inadequate these are to dig holes in the rock,
where yet, however, he lodges. From their tenderness,
these are very liable to be excoriated or hurt; notwith-
standing which, they build houses in the rocks more inac-
cessible than those of the rabbit, and iu which they abide
in greater safety, not by exertion of strength, for they have
it. not, but are truly, as Solomon says, "a feeble folk," but
by their own sagacity and judgment; and are therefore
justly described as wise. Lastly, what leaves me thing
without doubt is, that some of the Arabs, part'julariy Da-
mir, say that the shaphan has no tail, that it ^s lessthan a
cat, that it lives in houses or nests, which it 'juilds of straw,
in contradistinction to the rabbit and 'he rat, and those
animals that burrow in the ground.— Watson.
CONFERENCE; the act of di'-,:oursing with another
in order to treat upon some .subject, or to settle some point
of dispute. Conftrtnce meetinsis, in a religious sense, are
meetings assembled for the purpose of relatiug experience,
discoursing on some religious subject, or for transacting
religious business. "Religious conference," says a di-
vine, "is one way of teaching religion. We all have lei-
sure time, and it is well spent when it is employed in set
conferences on religion. There the doubting man may
open all his suspicions, and confirmed Christians will
sti^ngtheu his belief; there the fearful may learn to be
valiant for the truth ; there the liberal may learn to devise
liberal things ; there the tongue of the stammerer may
learn to speak plainly; there Prti// may withstand Peter
to the face, because he deserves to be blamed ; there the
gospel may be communicated .severally to them of reputa-
tion ; there, in one word, ye may all prophesy one by one,
that all may learn, and all may "he comforted. One hour
in a week spent thus, will contribute much to our edifica-
ti(m, provided we abstain from the disorders that have
often disgraced, and sometimes destroyed, this excellent
Christian practice. Time should be kept, order should be
preserved, no idle questions should be asked ; freedom of
inquiry should be nourished ; immodest forwardness should
be restrained; practical, experimental, and substantial sub-
jects should be examined ; Charity, w'h all its gentle
train, should be there, for she opcneth her mouth M-ith
wisdom, and in her tongue is the law of kindness." (See
ExPEKiENCK MEETI^'GS.) — Hfnd. Buck.
CONFERENCE, (H.MirTON Corr.i :) a n ceting of
the Puritans and their opponents, appointed by James 1.
to be held at that place in January, 100-1. Archbishop
Whitgift, eight bishops, and eight or ten other learnea
cow
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dignitaries, were appointed to defend the cause of con-
formity, while onlj' Reynolds, Chatterton, and Knewstubbs,
were allowed to maintain that of the Puritans. James
himself was moderator, and his courtiers were the wit-
nesses. Reynolds, who was the principal speaker on the
side of the Non-conformists, insisted that certain alterations
should be made in the thirty-nine articles ; that confirma-
tion should be considered, plurality of benefices disallow-
ed, and preaching ministers every where settled ; that the
reading of the Apocrypha in public worship, the baptismal
interrogation of infants, the sign of the cross in baptism,
the sacerdotal vestments, the symbolical ring in marriage,
and the churching of women, should be abolished, because
they were relics of popery. Bancroft stood forth as the
champion of the other party ; and the king him.self, hav-
ing no relish for Puritanical notions, and proud of his
theological abilities, poured forth his royal dicta, and
threatened the Puritans with expatriation if they did not
;onform. — Ilcnd, Buck.
CONFERENCE, (Methodist.) See Methodist.
CONFESSION; the open and penitential acknowledg-
ment which a Christian makes of his sins. Among the
Jews, it was the custom, on the annual feast of expiation,
for the high-priest to make confession of sins to God, in
the name of the whole people : besides this general con-
fession, the Jews were enjoined, if their sins were a breach
of the first table of the law, to make confession of them to
God : but violations of the second table v.'ere to be ac-
knowledged to their brethren. Among the modern Jews,
some of them scourge themselves at the confession.
Confession, according to Dr. Watts, is the third part of
prayer, and includes, 1. A confession of the meanness of
our original, our distance from God, our subjection to him,
and constant dependence on him. 2. A confession of onr
sins, both original and actual, in thought, life, omission,
and commission. 3. A confession of our desert of punish-
ment, and our unworthiness of mercy. 4. A confession
or humble representation of our wants and sorrows of
every kind.
Confession also may be considered as a relative duty,
or the acknowledgment of any offence we have been guiliy
of against a fellow-creature.
The confession of sins, says Andrew Fuller, is of the
nature of a solemn oath— an oath of abjuration ; and it is
awful to think that we should ever use it without a desire
and determination to forsake it. Prov. 28: 13. — H. Buck.
CONFESSION, (Auriculae,) in the Romish and Greek
churches, is the disclosure of sins to the priest at the
confessional, with a view to obtain absolution from them.
The father confessor inquires of the person confess-
ing concerning the circumstances of the sins confessed,
and proportions his admonition, and the severity of the
penitence which he enjoins, to the degree of the transgres-
sion. The person confessing is allowed to conceal no sin
of consequence which he remembers to have committed \.
and the father confessor is bound to perpetual secrecy.
The absolution granted has, according to the doctrines of
the Catholic and Greek churches, sacramental efficacy. -It
was pope Leo the Great, in 450, who altered the public
confession or profession of repentance by such as had been
guilty of scandalous sins, into a secret one before the priest.
The lipurth Lateran councd (can. 21) ordains, "That every
ctic of the faithful, of both sexes, on coming to years of dis-
cretion, shall, in private, faithfully confess all their sins,
at least once a year, to their own pastor ; and fulfil, to the
best of their power, the penance enjoined them ; receiving
reverently, at least at Easter, the sacrament of the eucha-
rist, unless, by the advice of their pastor, for some reasona-
ble cause It be judged proper to abstain for a time: other-
wise, they aie to be excluded from the church white living,
and when they die. to be deprived of Christian burial."
Confession obtains, also, in the Lutheran church, only
with this difference, that v.hile the Catholic church requires
from the penitent the avovv-al of his particular and single
crimes, the Lutheran requires only a general acknowledg-
ment, leaving it, however, nt the option of its members to
reveal their particular sins to the confessor, and to relieve
the conscience by such an avowal ; for which reason, Pro-
testant clergymen, as well as the Catholic priests', are
bound to keep, under the seal of secrecy, whatever may
be intrusted to them in the confessional. The history,
both of nations and individuals, exhibits fearful examples
of the abuse of confidence thus reposed in priests. In po-
litical aflairs, especially, it has been made the means of
effecting the basest intrigues, to the ruin of stales and the
disgrace of religion. — Hend. Buck.
CONFESSION OF FAITH ; a list of the several arti-
cles of the beUef of any church. There is some dilFerence
between creeds and confessions. Creeds, in their com-
mencement, were simply expressions of faith in a few of
the leading and undisputed doctrines of the gospel. Con-
fessions were, on the contrary, the result of many a ha-
zardous and laborious effort, at the dawn of reviving lite-
rature, to recover these doctrines, and to separate them
from the enormous mass of erroneous and corrupted tenets,
which the negligence or ignorance of some, and the arti
fices of avarice and ambition in others, had conduced lii
accumulate for the space of a thousand years, under an
implicit obedience to the arrogant pretensions of an abso- -
lute and infallible authority in the church of Rome. Ob-
jecticms have been formed against all creeds or confessions
of faith, on the ground that they infringe Christian liberty,
supersede the Scriptures, exclude such as ought not to be
excluded, and admit such as ought not to be admitted ; are
often too particular and long ; are liable to be abused j
tempt men to hypocrisy ; preclude improvement ; and
have been employed as means of persecution. On the
other hand, the advocates for them observe, that all the
arts and sciences have been reduced to a system ; and
why should not the truths of rehgion, which are of greater
importance ? That a compendious view of the chief and
most necessary points of the Christian religion, which lie
scattered up and dow'n in the Scriptures, must be useful to
inform the mind, as well also to hold forth to the world
what are in general the sentiments of such a particular
church or churches ; they tend to discover the common
friends of the same faith to one another, and to unite
them ; that the Scriptures seem to authorize and counte-
nance them i such as the moral law, the Lord's prayer,
the form of doctrine mentioned by Paul, Rom. 6: 17;
and again, "the form of sound words," in 2 Tim. 1: 13,
<kc. ; that their becoming the occasion of hypocrisy is no
fault of the articles, but of those who subscribe them ;
that persecution has been raised more by the turbulent
tempers of men, than from the nature of confessions.
Some think that all articles and confessions of faith should
lie expressed in the bare words of Scripture ; but it is re-
plied, that this would destroy all exposition and interpreta-
tion of Scripture ; that it would have a tendency to make
the ministry of the word useless ; in a great measure
cramp all religious conversation ; and that the sentiments
of one man could not be distinguished from another in
.some points of importance. The following are the confes-
sions of the difierent churches : —
1. That of the Greek church, entitled "The Confession
of the True and Genuine Faith," which was presented to
Mahomet II., in 1453, but which gave place to the " Or-
thodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek
Church," composed by Mogila, metropolitan of Kiev,
in Russia, and approved in 1613, with great solemnity, by
the patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, ami
Jerasalem. It contains the standard of the principles of
the Russian Greek church.
2. The church of Rome, though she has always received
the Apostles', Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, had no fixed
public and authoritative symbol till the council of Trent.
A summary of the doctrines contained in the canons of that
council is given in the creed published by Pius IV. (1564,)
in the form of a bull. It is introduced by the Nicene creed,
to which it adds twelve articles, comprising those doctrine.*
which the church of Rome finally adopted after her contro-
versies with the reformers.
3. The Lutherans call their standard books of faith and
discipline, " Libri Symbolic! Ecclesiie Evangelicce." They
contain the three creeds above mentioned, the Augsburg
Confession, the Apology for that confession by Slelanc-
thon, the Articles of Smalcald, drawn up by Luther, the
Catechisms of Luther, and, in many churches, the Form
of Concord, or Book of Torgau. The best edition is that
by Titmann, r^eipzic, 1817. The Saxon (composed by
CON
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Melaucthon), Wiirtemburg, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mans-
fieldtian, and Copenhagen confessions, agree in general
with Ihe symbolical books of the Lutherans, but are of au-
tliority only in the countries from which they are respec-
tively called.
4. The confessions of the Calvinistic churches are nu-
merous. The following are the principal. (1.) The Hel-
vetic confessions are three — that of Basle, 1530 ; ^he Sum-
mary and Confession of the Helvetic Churches, 1536 ; and
Ihe Expositio Simplex, &c., 1566, ascribed to BuUinger.
(2.) The Tetrapolitan Confession, 1531, which derives its
uame from the four cities of Strasburg, Constance, Mem-
raengen, and Lindau, by the deputies of which it was
signed, is attributed to Bucer. (3.) The Palatine or Hei-
delberg Confession, framed by order cf the elector palatine,
John Casimir, 1575. (4.) The Confession of the Gallic
Churches, accepted at the first sjTiod of the Reformed, held
;-.t Paris, 1559. (5.) The Confession of the Reformed
Churches in Belgium, drawn up in 1559, and approved in
1-561. (6.) The Confession of Faith of the Kirk of Scot-
land, which was that composed by the assembly at West-
minster, was received as <he standard of the national faith,
in 1688. (7.) The Savoy Confession, a declaration of the
faith and order of the Independents, agreed upon at a meet-
ing of their elders and messengers at their meeting in the
Savoy, 1658. (8.) The Anglican Confession, or Thirty-nine
articles of the church of England, agreed on in the convo-
cation held, London, 1552. They were drawn up in Latin ;
but, in 1571, they were revised, and subscribed both in
Latin and Eaglish. Th«y were adopted by the Episcopal
c'hurdi, in North America, in 1801, with some alterations,
and the rejection of the Athanasian creed.
See also Corpus et Syntagma cmtfessienum fidei, qua in di-
versis regnis et nationibus ecdesiancm nomine, fucrnnt aiithen-
tice editcE, which exhibits a body of numerous confessions ;
An Harnwny ef the Confessions of Faith »/ the Christian and
Reformed Churches ; Walls^s Rational Foundation of a Chris-
tian Church, qu. 8 ; Graham on EstaiJishments, p. 265. ice;
Bishop Cleaver's Sermon on the Formation of the Articles of
the Church of England ; Palei/s Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 321.
— Htnd. Buck.
CONFESSIONAL; a cell in which the confessor sits
to hear confessions. It is erected in a church, or chapel,
and built of joinery, with a boarded back next the wall, or
against a pillar or pier, divided into three niclies, or small
cells. The centre, wbich is for the reception of tlie priest,
is closed half way up by a dwarf door, and has a seat
within it. There is a small grated aperture in each of the
partitions between the priest and the side cells, which are
for those who come to confess, and have no doors. The
numerous confessionals in St. Peter's at Rome, each with
an inscription, setting forth in what language penitents
may confess within, show to what an awful extent this
traffic in the souls of men is carried on. — Ilend. Bur.Ji.
CONFESSOR; a Christian who has made a solemn
and resolute profession of the faith, and has endured tor-
ments in its defence. A mere saint is called a confessor,
to distinguish him from the roll of dignified saints, such
as apostles, martyrs, ice. In ecclesiastical history, the
word confessor is sometimes used for martyr ; in after-
times it was confined to those who, after having been tor-
mented by the tyrants, were permitted to live and die in
peace ; and at last it was also used for those who, after
Laving lived a good life, died under an opinion of sanctity.
According to St. Cyprian, he who presented himself to
torture, or even to martyrdom, without being called to it,
iras not called a confessor, but a professor ; and if any out of
want of courage abandoned his country, and became a vo-
luntary exile for the sake of the faith, he was called ex terris.
Confessor is also a priest in the Romish church, who
has a power to hear sinners in the sacrament of penance,
and to give them absolution. The confessors of the kings
of France, from the time of Henry lY., have been con-
stantly Jesuits ; before him, the Dominicans and Cordeliers
shared the office between them. The confessors of the
house of Austria have also ordinarily been Dominicans
and Cordeliers, but the later emperors have all taken Je-
suits.— Hend. Buck.
CONFIRMATION ; the act of establishing any thing
or person. 1. Divine confirmation is a work of the Spirit
of God, strengthening, comforting, and establishing be
lievers in faith and obedience. 1 Pet. 5: 10. 1 Cor. I:
8. 2. Ecclesiastical confirmation is !>.n\ev.'\iRve\>y a. f^rsctn,
arrived to years of discretion, undertakes the performance
of every pait of the baptismal vow made for him by his
godfathers and godmqthers. It is administered only bv
bishops, and consists in the imposition ol hands on tlie
head of the person confirmed.
In the ancient church it ^vas done immediately after
baptism, if the bishop happened to be present at the so-
lemnity. Throughout the East it still accompanies bap-
tism ; but the Romanists make it a distinct independent
sacrament. Seven years is the stated time for confirma-
tion ; however, they are sometimes after that age. The
person to be confirmed has a godfather and godmother ap-
pointed him as in baptism. In the church of England,
the age of the persons to be confirmed is not fixed. —
Clarke's Essay on Confirmation ; Wood on ditto ; Hoive's
Episcopacy, p. 167, 174; IJend. Buck.
CONFLAGRATION, (Geneeal ;) a term used to denote
that grand period or catastrophe of our world, when the
face of nature is to be changed by fire as formerly it was
by water.
1 . Scripture as.sures us in general, that this earth in its
present form will not be perpetual, but shall come to au
end. 2. It further tells us, that this dissolution of the
world shall be by a general conflagration, in which all
things upon the face of the earth shall be destroyed, by
which the atmosphere shall also be sensibly affected, as in
such a case it necessarily must be, (2 Pet. 3: 5, 7, 10, 12,)
where, from the connection of the words, the opposition
between the conflagration and the deluge, as well as the
most literal and apparent import of the phrases themselves,
it is plain they cannot, as Dr. Hammond strangely sup-
poses, refer to the desolation brought on Judea when de-
stroyed by the Romans, but must refer to the dissolution
of the whole earth. 3. The Scripture represents this great
burning as a circumstance nearly connected with the day
of judgment, (2 Pet. 3: 7, compared with 2 Thess. 1: 7, 8.
Heb. 10: 27. 1 Cor. 3: 12, 13;) and it is probable there
may be an allusion to this in several passages of the
Old Testament, such as Ps. 11: 6. Ps. 50: 3. 96: 3. Isa.
34: 4, 8, 10. Isa. 66: 15. Dan. 7: 9, 10. Mai. 4: 1. Zeph.
3: 8. Deut. 32: 22, to which many parallel expressions
might be added, from the canonical and apocryphal books.
4. It is not expressly declared how this burning shall be
kindled, nor how it shall end ; which has given occasion
to various conjectures abont it, which see below.
The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonists, Epicureans, and
Stoics, appear to have had a notion of the conflagration ;
though whence they should derive it, unless from the sa-
cred books, is diflicult to conceive ; except, perhaps, from
the Phoenicians, who themselves had it from the Jews.
Mention of the conflagration is made in the books of the
Sibyls, Sophocles, Hystaspes, 0\'id, Lucan, &c. Dr. Bur-
net, after J. Tachard and others, relates that the Siamese
believe that the earth will at last be parched up «ith heat,
the mountains melted down, the earth's whole surface re-
duced to a level, and then consumed with fire. And the
Bramins of Siam do not only hold that the world shall he
destroyed by fire, but also that a new earth shall be made
out of the cinders of the old.
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Divines ordinarily account for the conflagration theo-
logically, and think it will take its rise frotn a miracle, as
a fire from heaven. Philosophers contend for its being
produced from natural causes, and will have it efl'ected
according to the laws of mechanics. Some think an erup-
tion of the central fire sufficient for the purpose ; and add,
that this may be occasioned several ways, viz. either by
having its intensity increased, which again may he efl'ect-
ed either by being driven into less space by the encroach-
ments of the superficial cold, or by an increase of the in-
llammability of the fuel whereon it is fed ; or by having
the resistance of the imprisoning earth weakened, which
may happen either from the dimintition of its matter,
by the consumption of its central parts, or by weaken-
in? the cohesion of the constituent parts of the mass by
the excess of the defect of moisture. Others look for the
cause of the conflagration in the atmosphere, and suppose
that some of the meteors there engendered in unusual
quantities, and exploded with unusual vehemence, from Rom. 9: 33. — Broivn
CONFORMITY. The saints are conformed to Christ •,
they are made like him in their covenant relation to God ,
in their privileges, graces, and holy deportment on earth ;
and they will be made like him in glory when they shall
see him as he is. Rom. 8: 29. They are conformable, or
like to him in his death ; they gradually die to their cor-
rnpt lusts ; have their old man crucified with him ; its
lusts and deeds mortified through the influence of hi.s
death, and they are exposed to suflering for his sake. Phil.
3: 10. They ought not to he conformed to this world ;
ought not to imitate or join in the vain or wicked maxims,
customs, and practices thereof Rom. 12: 2. — Brown.
CONFOUND. He that believeth shall not be cnvjound'
ed ; he shall not be disappointed of his expected salvation ;
shall not, vrith perplexity or surprise, be exposed to any
fearful destruction : nor shall he maJce hmle ; shall uol
basely catch af unlawful means of deliverance, but pa-
tiently wait till God deliver hira. 1 Pet. 2: B. Isa. 28: Ki.
the concurrence of various circumstances, may effect it
without seeking any farther. Lastly, others have recourse
to a still more eifeciual and flaming machine, and conclude
the world's to undergo its conflagration from the near ap-
proach of a comet in its return from the sun.
Various opinions are also entertained as to the renova-
tion of the earth after the conflagration. 1. Some sup-
po.se that the earth will not be entirely consumed, but that
the matter of which it consists will be fixed, purified, and
refined, which they say will be the natural consequence of
the action of the fire upon it ; though it is hard to say what
such a purification can do towards fitting it for its intended
purpose, for it is certain a mass of crystal or glass would
very ill answer the following parts of this hypothesis. 2.
They suppose that from these materials thus refined, as
from a second chaos, there will by the power of God arise
a new creation ; and then the face of the earth, and like-
wise the atmosphere, will then be so restored, as to resemble
what it originally was in the paradisaical state ; and con-
sequently to render it a more desirable abode for human
creatures than it at present is ; and they urge for this pur-
pose the following texts, viz. 2 Pet. 3: 13. (compare Isa.
(i5: 17. 06: 22.) Matt. 19: 28, 29. (compare Mark 10; 29,
30. Luke 18: 29, 30.) Ps. 102: 25, 2fi. Acts 3: 21. 1 Cor.
7: 31. Rom. 8: 21. 3. They agree in supposing that in
this new state of things there will be no sea. Rev. 21: 1.
4. They suppose that the earth, thus beautified and im-
proved, will be inhabited by those who shall inherit the
first resurrection, and shall here enjoy a very considerable
degree of happiness, though not equal to that which is to
succeed the general judgment ; which judgment shall, ac-
cording to them, open when those thousand years are expir-
ed, mentioned in Rev. 20: 4, iScc. 1 Thess. 4: 17, compare
verse 15, which passage is thought by some to contain an
insinuation that Paul expected to be alive at the appear-
ance of Christ, which must imply an expectation of being
thus raised from the dead before it ; but it is answered
that the expression, ;re that are alive, may only signify,
" those of us that are so," speaking of all Christians as one
body. 1 Cor. 15: 49—52. Dr. Hartley declared it as his
opinion, that the millennium will consist of one thousand
prophetical years, where each day is a year, i. e. three
hundred and sixty thousand; pleading that this is the lan-
guage used in other parts of the Revelation. But it seems
an invincible objection against this hypothesis, which places
the millennium after the conflagration, that the saints
inhabiting the earth after the first resurrection, are repre-
sented as distressed by the invasion of some wicked ene-
mies. Rev. 20: 7—9. Ezek. 38: 39: (See Millennium.)
Divme revelation, not human philosophy, must here be
our only guide. It is probable that the earth will survive its
fiery trial, and become the everlasting abode of righteous-
ness, as part of the holy empire of God ; but, seeing the
COJN FUCIANS i the disciples of Confucius, (Cong-tu-
tsi, or Kung-fut-si,) a celebrated Chinese philosopher, who
lived about 500 years before the Christian era. This
religion, which is professed by the literati and persons of
rank in China and Tonquin, consists in a deep inwani
veneration fur the God or King of heaven, and in the
practice of every moral virtue. They have neither temples
nor priests, nor any settled form of external worship ; every
one adores the Supreme Being in the way he likes best.
Confucius, hke Socrates, who was nearly his contempo-
rary, did not dive into abstruse notions, but confined him-
self to speak with the deepest regard of the great Author
of all beings, whom he represents as the most pure and
perfect essence and fountain of all things ; to inspire men
with greater fear, veneration, gralitude, and love of him ;
to assert his divine providence over all his creatures ; and
to represent him as a being of such infinite knowledge,
that even our most secret thoughts are not hidden from
him ; and of such boundless goodness and justice, that ha
can let no virtue go unrewarded, or vice unpunished.
So highly is Confucius esteemed in China, that there
are more than fifteen hundred and sixty temples dedicated
to him, and sixty-two thousand animals, (chiefly pigs and
rabbits,) immolated annually to his memory. This is
asserted by Dr. Milne, on the authority of their own wri-
ters.— Chinese Gleaner, p. 255.
Mr. Rlaurice asserts, that Confucius strictly forbade all
images of the Deity, and the deification of dead men ; and
that, in his dying moments, (hke Socrates in this also,) he
encouraged his disciples, by predicting that " in the West
the Holy One would appear."
The Chinese, however, still honor their deceased ances^
tors, burn incense before their images, bow themselves
before their pictures, and invoke from them all temporaj
blessings. — Maiiriceh Iiid. Antiq. vol. v. p. 468 ; Ency-.
Brit, in Confucius ; Williams.
CONFUSION OF TONGUES ; a memorable evenl
which happened in the one hundred and first year, accord
ing to the Hebrew chronology, and the four hundred and
first year by the Samaritan, after the flood, at the over-
throw of Babel. Gen. 11. Until this period there had been
but one common language, which formed a bond of union
that prevented the separation of mankind into distinct
nations. Writers have differed much as to the nature of
this confusion, and the manner in which it was eflected.
Sortie think that no new languages were formed ; but that
this event was accomplished by creating a misunderstand-
ing and variance among the builders, \rithaut any imme^
diate influence on their language ; and that a distinction
is to he made between confovnding a language and form-
ing new ones. Others account for this event by the priva-
tion of all language, and by supposing that mankind were
under a necessity of associating together, and of impos-
language used in Scripture, and especially in the book of ing new names on things by common consent. Some,
Revelation, is often to be considered as figurative rather again, ascribe the confusion to such an indistinct remem.
.v-_ ,: 1 .., .„, ... . . brance of the original language which they spoke before,
as made them speak it very differently ; but the most
common opinion is, that God caused the builders actually
to forget their former language, and each family to speak
a new tongue ; whence origmated the various languages
at present in the world. It is, however, but of little con-
than literal, it becomes us to be cautious in our conclusions
— Burnet's Theory of the Earth ; Whitby on the Millennium ;
Hartley on Man, vol. ii. p. 400 ; Fleming on the First Re-
surredion ; Rat/s Three Discourses ; IVhiston's Theory of
the Earth ; Scott, and Fvller on the Apocalypse ; Hend. Buck;
and article Dissolution in this work.
CON
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Sequence to know precisely how this was effected, as the
Scriptures are silent as to the manner of it ; and after all
that can be said, it is but conjecture still. There are some
truths, however, we may learn from this part of sacred
writ. 1. It teaches us God's sovereignty and power, by
which he can easily blast the greatest attempts of men to
aggrandize themselves. Gen. 11: 7, 8. 2. God's justice in
punishing those who, in idolizing their own fame, forget
him to whom praise is due, ver. 4. 3. God's wisdom in
overruling evil for good : for by this confusion he facili-
tated the dispersion of maakiad, in order to execute his
own purposes, ver. 8, 9. See Hairy and Gill, in loc. ;
Stillingfka's Grig. Sac, 1. iii. e. v. ^ 2—4 ; Shuckford's
Can., vol. i. p. 124 — 140 ; Vitringa's Obs., vol. i. diss. 1. c.
ijc. ; Le Clerc's 2)i.«.. No. vi. ; Hiitcltinson on the Confusion
of Tongues ; Bishop Law's Theory of Religion, p. 66 ; Hend.
Bnck.
CONGREGATIONALISTS ;* a class of Protestants,
who hold that each congregation of Christians meeting in
one place, and united by a solemn covenant, is a complete
church, with Christ for its only head, and deriving from
him the right to choose its own officers, to observe the
sacraments, to have public worship, and to discipline its
own members. They also hold to the parity of ministers
and of churches, and regard as of sacred and binding
force, the great principle of the fellowship or communion
of churches, by which all whom they regard as true
churches of Jesus Christ are bound together by ties simi-
lar in their nature and obligation to those which unite to
each other the members of a single church. The churches
are the source of all power, and councils, and other eccle-
siastical bodies, have only a delegated authority, by which
they act for and in the name of their constituents ; and
their decisions have no other force than the moral power
which united wisdom and piety give them. Still there are
certain public acts of church order and discipline, which,
from a regard to custom, and to the great and fundamen-
tal principle of the communion of churches, can be per-
formed by councils only, except in cases where it is impos-
sible for a church to avail itself of such assistance.
Thus as to church order and discipline, Congregation-
alists occupy a middle ground between Episcopalians and
Presbyterians on the one hand, and Independents on the
other. While the two former of the.se denominations
maintain that judicial and other power belongs either to
bishops or to synods, or other ecclesiastical bodies, the In-
dependents do not give the principle of the communion of
churches the high importance nor the broad extent that is
claimed for it by Congregationalists ; nor are there any
acts of church order or discipline for the validity of which
Ihey consider a council of the churches necessary.
it is a fundamental principle with Congregationalists,
that as Christ has purchased Christians with his own blood,
so he is the supreme head and lawgiver of the church,
which is spoken of as an holy temple of which he is him-
self the chief corner-stone, and as the apostle says, having
in all things the pre-eminence. In the exercise of this
power, he has himself, and by those whom he has com-
missioned, taught that men are not to forsake the assem-
bUng themselves together for the worship of God, and that
the sacraments, baptism and the Lord's supper, with holi-
ness of heart and of life, are incumbent on his followers.
Thus has Christ unfolded the distinctive peculiarities of a
Christian church, as ditfering in important respects both
from the antediluvian and the ancient Jev.'ish church. The
church of Christ then has laws, covenants, principles, and
duties, both of officers and private members, given by its
supreme head, on the due observance of which its distinc-
tive character and its continuance depends.
Every true church must receive the doctrines of the
word of God, and maintain discipline and religious in-
struction. The Bible is the supreme and only binding
code of laws for the government of the church, and no
one church has a right to force its own interpretations of
Scripture upon another, or to use other than moral means
either to advance its own views of truth and duty, or in
the discipline of its own members, While -n-e are bound
•Thii article w.-i3 prepared hv Mr. Charles Rockwell, or the Amltiver
TiiM.l. ,«>rainary, and revised by Professor Emerson and Dr, Wisner.
to follow the direction of the Scriptures in all matters of
church government where plain and explicit directions are
given, yet on those points where they are silent, we are to
be guided by the liglit of human reason. The need of this
guidance arises from the fact that the Scriptures have not
prescribed to the church a form in all respects fixed and
immutable. Hence it is that there are many denomina-
tions, who regard each other as Christians, each having
its own peculiar constitution and creed founded, it is claim-
ed, on scriptural authority, and binding its own members.
It is a fundamental principle with Congregationalists,
that it is the birthright of all men, by a vote of the ma-
jority of the community of which they are members, to
govern themselves under God, both in politics and religion.,
and that they possess an equal authority with others to
think and decide for them.selves in these matters. Thus,
with the Bible for their only code of laws, with a clergy v. ho
know no gradation of ranks, and who are chosen by, and
are dependent on the people, with whom they have a com-
mon interest, with Christ for their only head, and the
church the only executive of his laws, while they embrace
in the wide extent of their fellowship and communion all
denominations, whom they believe to be true Christians ;
they thus foster a catholic spirit, and lay broad and deep
the foundations of civil and reUgious liberty and toleration.
Thus too they etfectually guard against priestcraft and
spiritual domination, and against that unholy union of
church and state, which in ages past has proved the bane
of civil liberty, and the most deadly curse of religion. It
was from the influence of principles like these that the
Puritaus extorted from Hume the eulogy, that in Great
Britain they had kindled and preserved the precious spark
of liberty, and that the English owe to them the whole
freedom of their constitution.
The prominence which was given to the Bible as being
the great text-book of both civil and religious rights, led
in New England to the early establishment of colleges,
whose great and avowed object was to train up those who
should explain and enforce the truths of the Bible, that
men might thus not only become true Christians, but also
intelligent and enlightened citizens. Their leaders, both
civil and religious, being chosen by themselves, they re-
garded only as their " servants for good," and acknow-
ledging no superior but God, they feared only him, and
cherished a high and devoted love of freedom. These prin-
ciples of their rehgious system have given birth and vigor
to the republican habits and republican virtue and intelli-
gence of the sons of New- England,*
The importance that was attached to religious know-
ledge, and other motives growing out of their system of
faith, led the first settlers ofNew England to commence their
S)'Stem of common schools, in which all the people might at-
tain an education. This was many years before the sys-
tem of free schools in Scotland had their origin, and was
the first experiment of the kind on earth.
In the year 1602, a dissenting church was formed in
the north of England, which had for one of its pastors the
Rev. John Robinson. This church was driven by perse-
cution to Holland, in 1608, where Mr, Robinson soon fol-
lowed them. He is regarded as the father of Congregatiou-
alism, and the principles which he established in his churt h
at Leydenarethe same, in substance, as still prevail in \ew
England, Some of these principles were held by the early
Puritans, and w-ere acted upon by the Independents in
England as early as 1580, But as there were other and
distinctive principles at which they did not arrive, they
are not considered as CougregationaUsts, The younger
members of Mr. Robinson's church were the first settlers
of New England, where they landed iu 1620.
One reason why CougregationaUsts have been coniLiund-
ed with Independents, is found partly in the following
statement made by Sir. Robinson in his " Apolog)- 1" — •
"Every particular society is a complete church; and a?
• Several years betbre the American revolution, there was near the
house of Mr. Jefferson, in Virginia, a church which was governed on
Congregational principles, and whose monthly meotinijs he often at-
tended. Being aslced huw he was pleased witltttieir church ^veminent,
he replied lliat it had struck him with great force, and int«r»3ted tiim
very much : that he considered it the only form of pure democracy that
tttsn existed in the world, and had concluded that it would he ths b^^n
plan of ^vernment for the Aineric.an qolonj?''.
CON
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far as regards oilier churches, immediately and indepen-
dently under Christ alone." He here only means to assert
that no church, or body of churches, has any right to con-
trol or force the opinions of another church by means of
pains and penalties. He does not deny the right of using
such influence as may arise from knowledge and piely,
nor does he oppose the fundamental principle of the com-
munion of churches, from which arise duties of one church
to another as binding and as strictly defined, as those
which member:; of the same church owe to each other.
These duties cannot be performed where the principle on
which they rest is not admitted. The following summary
of them is abridged from the Cambridge Platform, adopt-
ed in 1648, and from the acts of the synod at Boston in
lf562. 1. Hearty care and prayer one for another. 2. By
way of relief in case of want, either temporal or spiritual.
3. By giving an account one to another of their public ac-
tions when it is orderly desired, and in upholding each
other, in inflicting censure and other acts of church go-
vernment. 4. Seeking and giving help to each other in
case of divisions, contentions, difficult questions, errors
and scandals, and also in the ordination, translation, and
deposition of ministers. 5. Giving aid to another church
in cases of error, scandal, &c., even though they should
so far neglect their duly as not to seek such aid. 6. Ad-
monishing one another when there is need and cause for
it, and after due means with patience used, withdrawing
from a church or peccant party therein, which obstinately
persists in error or scandal. These rules are carried into
effect by means of either temporary or standing councils
of the churches.
The Pilgrims had been liarassed by prelacy on one side,
and independency on the other, and strove to avoid the
evils of both. Hence the Cambridge Platform takes the
ground that the church before the law was in families ;
that under the law it was national, and since the coming
of Christ only Congregational ; and adds, " The term Inde-
pendent we approve not." Increase Mather, who knew
well the usages of the churches, says, " That the churches
of New England have been originally Congregational is
known to every one. Their platform does expressly dis-
claim the name of Independent." Samuel Mather says,
"The churches of New England are Congregational.
They do not approve the name of Independent, and are
abhorrent from such principles of independency as would
keep them from giving an account of their matters to
members of neighboring churches, regularly demanding
it of them." In speaking of those who would not act on
the principle of the communion of churches, he says that
" they" (the Congregationalists) " think it will not be safe
or prudent for any Christian to commit his soul to the
direction and conduct of such an independent church."
It were ea,sy to multiply quotations on this point were it
necessary, but enough have been adduced.
The doctrinal articles of the Congregational churches,
if we except the Unitarians, have been in general those
of Calvin, modified to some extent by the views of Hop-
kins, Emmons, and other writers. Still they admit to their
communion and fellowship all those churches which re-
quire evidence of Christian character as essential to church
membership. The Westminster and Savoy confessions
of faith, and the thirty-nine articles of the church of Eng-
land, have been repeatedly approved by synods and coun-
cils in New England, as in general agreeable to the word
of God ; but the Bible is the only standard by which to
test heresy. The churches are not bound by any one
creed ; but each church makes its owi;, and alters it at
pleasure. Other churches can admonish, and if they see
fit withdraw fellowship where any of the essential doc-
trines of the gospel have been renounced. All that synods
and councils have done has been to set forth the prevailing
behef of the churches at the time when they were held.
. Congregationalists in general hold that the word church
in the New Testament, is applied either to the whole Chris-
tian community, or to a single congregation, and that it is
used in no other sense. But some' maintain that the
whole body of Christians residing in a particular city or
vicinity were but one church, though far too numerous to
meet in a single place of worship. Hence they derive tj^p.
propriety of regarding a number of contiguous churches.
when consociated, as in certain respects but one body, and
the removal of a cause from a particular church to a con-
sociation, as a reference from a part to the whole, rather
than an appeal from a lower to a higher tribunal. The
common opinion however is, that a single church is the
highest judicial or executive tribunal known in the Scrip-
tures, and that councils of all kinds are merely human
dex'iccs. Their decisions are considered merely advisory,
having no force except as they are sanctioned and carried
into eflect by the churches. The only seeming exception
to this remark is in the consociations in Connecticut, and
it has been questioned whether they have any farther
power than that of being the final council in any disputed
case. Still the Saybrook Platform holds that any cburch
which does not regard the decisions of a consociation shall
be considered guilty of contempt, and that an act of non-
communion shall be declared. But the question whether
the churches will withhold communion, and thus sustain
the decision of the consociation, is left to their own judgment
and choice, though in ninety-nine cases in one hundred,
the decisions of councils are final, and fuUy sustained by
the churches.
It is held that where the whole body of believers in any
province or country are mentioned in the New Testament,
they are spoken of not as the church, but as the churches of
that country, and that a church is often spoken of as
meeting in one place not only for worship, but for the
choice of officers and other business. In accordance with
this, the following literal translation is given to Acts 14:
23, "They appointed elders or ministers in every church
by the lifting up of hands."
As to the churches after the time of the apostles, the
learned Dr. Owen asserts and defends the following propo-
sition : That in no approved writer for the space of two
hundred years after Christ, is there any mention of any
other organical or visibly professing church, but that only
which is parochial or congregational^ It is held that the
epistles of Clement and Polycarp contain statements which
cannot be reconciled with.any other views than those which
have been given above. Mosheim says, " All the churches
of those primitive times, until near the end of the second
century, were independent bodies, none of them subject to
the jurisdiction of any other. Each church was a little
independent republic, governed by its own laws, which
were enacted, or at least sanctioned by the people. For
though the churches founded by the apostles were often
con.sulted in different cases, yet they had no judicial au-
thority, no control, no power of giving laws. On the con-
trary, it is clear as the noon day, that all Christian churches
had ecjual rights, and were in all respects on a footing of
equality. The meeting at Jerusalem, as given in the book
of Acts, was only a conference ofa single church. The coun-
cils of delegates of the churches to consult for the common
good, were first held near the close of the second century.
This custom arose in Greece, and was an imitation of the
pohtical councils which had long been known there."
Synods in New England are those larger bodies of dele-
gates of the churches which assemble for making platforms
or other matters of -general interest. The synod of New-
town, in 1637, condemned eighty-two erroneous opinions
which had been disseminated in New England. Councils
are smaller bodies, and act on objects of less interest.
Consociations, such as exist in Connecticut, are standing
councils. There is in each county one or more of these
bodies, composed of the ministers and lay delegates of
such churches as see fit to unite for the objects proposed.
In cases of great importance, two or three adjoining con-
sociations may unite and act together, or a temporary
council, mthout regard to local limits, may be called for
the occasion. A majority of the ministers, and enough
of the lay delegates to make a majority of the whole coun-
cil, is necessary in order to a valid decision. Most of the
Congregational churches in Connecticut are consociated.
So also are those in Rho<le Island, and some in Vermont
and in the state of New York.
Associations are composed of ministers only, who meet
for their own benefit, and to consult for the good of the
churches. They examine and license candidates for the
ministry, but have no power of making laws for the
churches. Some maintain that on the general principle
CON
[ 407 J
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that a man is to be tried by his peers, a minister is ac-
countable in the first case only to the association of which
he is a member, so that until he is deposed by them, or by
the consociation, before which they bring him for trial, he
is not amenable to the church of which he is a member.
Others hold that a church has a right to try its minister in
the same way that it would one of its private members. The
principle laid down in the platforms is that in the discipline
of ministers, there is to be a council of churches where it
may be had , but where this cannot be, the church may
proceed to act. In Connecticut, a church^cannot arraign
a minister before a consociation, until the association
have first decided whether there is sufficient cause for a
trial.
Associations have been held from the first settlement of
New England, and as early as 1690 had spread throughout
the country. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Con-
necticut, have state or general associations, and Vermont
a general convention, composed of delegates from the dis-
tiict associations. In Massachusetts, some of the minor
associations are not connected with the general association.
In the state of Maine, and in the eastern part of Massa-
chusetts, conferences of churches exist. This organization
was commenced in Maine soon after the separation of that
state from Massachusetts in 1820. Conferences are com-
posed of the pastors and one or more delegates from the
churches within a convenient district, meeting at stated
times, to promote a mutual acquaintance with the state of
the churches represented, and consult and adopt measures
for the promotion of their prosperity, having no legislative
or judicial power. In Maine, the district conferences are
united, by a clerical and lay representation, in a general
conference, meeting annually, and corresponding in its
design and methods of proceeding to the general associa-
tions of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut,
and the general convention of Vermont.
In the year 1690, certain articles of union, called "Heads
of Agreement," were adopted by the Presbyterians and
Congregationalists of London and the vicinity, by which,
waving points of difference in church organization, they
agreed to act together on all matters of common interest.
This union was etfected mainly by the influence of In-
crease Mather, president of Harvard college, who was
then on a visit to England. Recently, however, they have
separated, though perfect harmony of feeling exists be-
tween them. These heads of agreement have been sanc-
tioned in New England, and contain the distinctive fea-
tures of Congregationalism.
The declaration of faith and order, as presented at the
meeting of the Congregational union in Loudon, May,
1832, enjoins the duty of communion with all churches
whose faith and godliness is undoubted, but denies to any
church or union of churches, the right of caUing to an ac-
count or disciplining another church, otherwise than to
separate from such as in faith or practice depart from the
gospel of Christ. It does not appear that the Congrega-
tionalists of Great Britain have any organized church
polity and government like what exists in New England.
Indeed, they differ but slightly from the most rigid Inde-
pendents, and are commonly ranked with them under the
same name. (See Independents.)
In the j^ear 1791, a plan was adopted by the general
assembly of ihe Presbyterian church and the general asso-
ciation of Connecticut, by which Presbyterians and Con-
gregationalists, in the new settlements of the western
states, were effectually amalgamated. This plan places
the two classes on equal terms in union churches, securing
to each a mode of discipline corresponding to their princi-
ples, and gives to the members of the standing committee
of Congregational churches the same standing and powers
in presbyteries and synods, as belong to the ruling elders
of the Presbyterians. Four hundred of these union
churches have been planted in the western states, by the
Congregationalists in Connecticut alone.
A work entitled, " The Keys of the Kingdom of Heaven,
and power thereof," by the Eev. .Tohn Cotton, of Bos-
ton, had been the principal directory in ecclesiaslical af-
fairs next to the Bible, prior to the adoption of the Cam-
bridge platform, in 1648. This platform was in force
throughout New England, until it was superseded in Con-
necticut by the Saybrook platform, in 1708. They both
contain the confessions of faith, and the rules of order and
discipline of the churches of New England, and also sanc-
tion and approve of the Westminster and Savoy confes-
sions of faith. If we except Connecticut, there is through-
out New England much practical neglect of some of the
fundamental principles laid down in these formula.s.
In Massachusetts, about one hundred and fifty churches
have become Unitarian, while in Connecticut there is but
one minister of that faith, and but few in the other New
England states. This change in Massachusetts has been
mainly attributed to the operation of what is called the
" half-way covenant," and to the neglect of congregational
usage, as to watching over and disciplining churches.
Owing to the fact, that in early times church membership
was necessary in order to become a voter, or eligible to
office, there was a strong desire on the pari of men not
pious to enter the church. Hence an act was pas.sed by
the synod of Boston, in 1663, which recognised all bapliz''d
persons as membersof the church, and their children weie
entitled to baptism. Still they made no profession of their
faith in Christ, and did not partake of the Lord's suppe; .
This is what is called the "half-way covenant." ^See
Half-way Covenant.) Thus many who were not pious
were introduced into the churches, and the pure and spiritual
character of these bodies being lost, many of them have
never recovered from the shock thus given them ; though
the "half-way covenant" has long since become a dead
letter, and the Trinitarian churches have all returned to
their old principle of admitting to their communion only
such as give evidence of piety.
" The Jews of old, (says Cotton Mather,) held lliat less
than ten men of leisure could not form a congregation."
Tertullian says, " Where there are three there is a church,
although they are laity," but as seven is the least number,
by which the rule of church discipline, in the eighteenth
chapter of Matthew, can be reduced to practice, and for
other reasons, that number has been held necessary to
form a church state ; but usually there is a larger number
expected. Thus, in the formation of the church at New
Haven, and also at other places, seven men were selected,
who were called the seven pillars, and these being united
by solemn covenant, they admitted others to Iheir commu-
nion afterwards. A consociation, or a council, of the
neighboring churches is called when a church is to be or-
ganized, who first proceed to examine into the religious
character of those who propose thus to unite, and the rea-
sons which exist for taking such a step. They then exa-
mine the confession of faith which Ihcj' purpose to adopt,
and if satisfied on these points, they organize the church
with appropriate public religious exercises. A solemn
covenant, to which the members assent, and by which they
hind themselves to perform the duties which they owe to
God and to Iheir brethren, is considered essential to the
existence of a church. The authority for this is derived
from both the Old and New Testament, and also from the
practice of the primitive churches as recorded by Justin
Martyr, Tertullian, and Pliny.
Officers are not considered as essential to the existence
of a church, but as necessary to ils completeness and pros-
perity. By the early writers of New England, and by the
Cambridge platform, the officers of the church were pas-
tors and teachers, whose duties were' distinct ; ruling
elders, like those of the Presbyterians; and deacons, who
looked to the temporal interests of the church, and provid-
ed for the poor. For all these officers they claimed the
sanction of divine authority. The duty of the pastor was
" to attend to exhortation, and therein lo administer a word
of wisdom ; and of the teacher to attend to doctrine, and
therein to administer a word of knowledge." Both might
administer the sacraments, and execute the censuresof
the church. Many of the fii-st churches of New England,
though small and poor, supported two able ministers. The
first ten towns in Connecticut enjoyed the constant labors
of ten ministers, making an uvcrage of one minister lo
fifty families, or to two hundred and sixty or seventy
souls. The offices of pastor and teacher are now united,
and that of ruling elder for the most part dropped.
Efforts were made at an early period, by Eliot and oth-
ers, to christianize the Indians, and in 1700, there were in
CON
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dON
New England thirty Indian churches under the pastoral
care of the same number of Indian preachers.
Licentiates are those who have received a commission to
preach, but have not been ordained or set apart by the
imposition of hands and other ceremonies. Evangelists
are those who have been ordained, and hence have power
to administer the sacraments, but are not put over any
particular church.
Missionaries to the heathen and those who go as pastors
to remote and isolated churches, are ordained before they
are sent forth. Ministers who have been previously or-
dained, are installed when they are placed over a church.
In this ceremony there is no imposition of hands.
Churches are by law corporate bodies ; and, in the call of
a minister to become their pastor, they act separately from
and generally prior to the society, or parish, which em-
braces both the church and tliose who worship with them.
The call of the church, however, is not valid unless the
parish assents to it. The contract of settlement is made
wholly between the parish and minister, and is obligatory
on them only. In the dismission of a minister, the church
is expected to call a council for that purpose, and by the
ilissoltition of his connexion with the church, his connex-
ron with the parish ceases also. If the church refuse to
call a council, and the parish are dissatisfied, they can vote
not to pay the minister, when he can bring his claims be-
fore a court of jaslice, who may decide whether he has
been guilty of such immorality, or neglect of pastoral du-
ties, as to amount to a violation of the contract.
The Congregationalists have founded in New England
eight colleges, two theological seminaries, and a large
number of high schools and academies. Besides this, they
have contributed liberally to establish similar institutions
in other parts of the United States.
In commencing and carrj-ing forward the various bene-
volejit operations of the present day, the Congregationalists
of New England have had a leading and prominent
agency.
The first ministers who came to New England were men
of learning and piety . Most of them had been educated in
the English universities, and they had been fully tried in
the school of adversity. Fifteen of them had received
episcopal ordination, and a number had held bene-
fices in England. " Many of the clergy (says Trumbull)
had good estates, and assisted their poor brethren and pa-
rishioners. The clergy possessed a very great proportion
of the literature of the colony. They were the principal
instructers of those who received an education for public
life. For many years they were consulted by the legisla-
ture, in all affairs of importance, civil or religious. They
were appointed committees with the governors and magis-
trates, to assist them in the most delicate concerns of the
commonwealth." They were often sent on messages of
importance to the government of Great Britain. As the
churches were republics, the people Here led to conform
their civil institutions to the same model. The clergy
taught their heaj'ers to reject with abhorrence the divine
right of kings, passive obedience and non-resistance, and to
hold that all civil power is originally with the people.
Says an able writer, " The pulpit has always been in
this land an engine of immense power. The people are
thinly scattered over a large extent of country, and accus-
tomed to meet only on the Sabbath. This strong resource
in favor of the American revolution was early seen and
faithfully applied. As a body of men, the clergy were pre-
eminent in their attachment to liberty. The pulpits of the
land rang with the notes of freedoni. The tongues of the
hoary-headed servants of .Tesus were eloquent upon the
all-inspiring theme, while the youthful soldier of the cross
girded on the whole armor of his country, and fought with
weapons that were carnal." They preached and publish-
ed sermons to excite the people, and not a few of them
left for a time their parishes, to be chaplains in the army.
The most distinguished writers among the Congrega-
tional divines of New England, are John Cotton, Increase
and Cotton Mather, Thomas Hooker, the two Edwardses,
father and son ; the former, president of Princeton, and the
latter, of Union college ; Hopkins, Trumbull, Bellamy,
Smalley and Dwight. To these might be added a list of
living authors who arc exerting a great and important in-
fluence on the theology and morals of this and other nS'
tions.
There are now nine hundred and forty-three Trinitarian
Congregational ministers in New England. A number
also of those who are born and edticated there, go abroad
every year, and are settled in other parts of the United
States, or sent as missionaries to foreign countries.
In twenty-seven years from the first settlement of New
England, forty-three churches were formed ; and in an
equal number of succeeding years, eighty churches more
rose into existe»ce. The present number is one thousand
and fifty-nine, exclusive of from one to two hundred Uni-
tarian churches. The number of communicants is about
one hundred and twenty thousand. Congregational
chnrches also exist in other parts of the United States, and
in connexion with missionary stations in various parts of
the heathen world.
The denomination styled Congregational are Fedo-bap-'
tists. The Baptist churches are in their government Con-
gregational, but with some modifications of the system as
presented in this article, approaching Independency.
See Rol/inson^s Apology ; Cotton^s Poiver of the Keys }
Hooker's Survey of the Sum of Church Discipline ; Owen's In'
quiry into the Nature of Churches ; Mather's Satio Oiscipli-
no: ; Bartlelt's Model of the Primitive Congregational Way ;
Trumbull's History of Connecticut, chs. xiii., xix. ; Neal'a
History of the Puritans ; Wise's Church's Quarrel espoused;
Cambridge a'ld Saybrooh Platforms ; Bogue's and Bennet's
History of the Dissenters, vol. i. chap. i. ; Upham's Ratio Vis-
ciplince ; Wisner's Tlistory of the Old Seiith Church, in Boston ;
Hawes' Tribute to the Memory of the Pilgrims; Bacon's Manual.
CONONITES ; the followers of Conon, bishop of Tar-
sus, in the sixth century. He was a Trinitarian, and even
a Tritheist, carrying too far the distinct personality. But
his peculiar tenet was a scholastic distinction. Philoponus,
his contemporary, (an Alexandrian philosopher and gram-
marian,) taught, (hat the form, as well as matter of all
bodies, was subject to corruption. Conon, on the contrary,
taught, that the body never lost its essential form ; that its
matter alone was subject to corruption and decay, and was
to be restored when this mortal shall put on immortality
Such was the ingenuity of these times in multiplying sects
and parties ! — Mosheim's E. H. vol. ii. p. 150 ; Williams.
CONQUERORS. In all their tribulations the saints
are m(rre than conquerors through Christ ; by his grace and
presence they overcome them most certainly, easily and
quickly ; they patiently bear them, rejoice in them, and
gain mucli advantage by them. Horn. 8: 37. — Bronni.
CONSCIENCE ; the moral sense, or that capacity of
our mental constitution, by which we irresistibly feel the
diflerence between right and wrong. As South observes,
it implies a double or joint hnowledge, namely, one of a
divine law or rule, and the other of a man's own action.
Conscience is the crowning faculty in man. Its peculiar
oflice is to arbitrate and direct all our other powers and
propensities, according to the will of God ; and there is a
certain feeling of internal violence and disorder when its
dictates in this capacity are not obeyed. Its legitimate
business is to prescribe that man shall be as he ought, and
do as he ought. And its existence within us is an evidence
for the righteousness of God, which keeps its ground amid
all the disorders and aterrations to which human nature is
liable. For as the existence of a regulator in a disordered
watch shows the design of its maker that its movements
should harmonize with time ; so conscience shows the de-
sign of our Creator that all our movements should harmo-
nize with truth and righteousness.
The rules of conscience. We must distinguish between a
rule that of itself and immediately binds the conscience,
and a rule that is occasionally of use to direct and satisfy
the conscience. Now, in the first sense, the will of God
is the only rule immediately binding the conscience. No
one has authority over the conscience but God. All penal
laws, therefore, in matters of mere conscience, or things
that do not evidently afl'ect the civil state, are certainly
unlawful ; yet, secondly, the commands of superiors, not
only natural parents, but civil, as magistrates or masters,
and every man's private engagements, are rules of con-
science in things indifferent. 3. The examples of wise
and good men may become rules of conscience ; but here
CON
[ 409
CON
it mast be ol>»crveJ, that no eianiple or judgment is of
auy authority against law ; where the law is doubtlui, and
even where there is no doubt, the si^le of example cannot
be taken till inquiry ha^ been first made concerning what
the law directs.
Conscience has been considered as, 1. Nalural, or that
common principle which instructs men of all countries
and religions in the duties to which they are all alilce
obliged. There seems to be something of this in the
minds of all men. Even in the darkest regions of the
earth, and among tlie rudest tribes of men, a distinction
has ever been made between just and unjust, a duly and
a crime.
2. A right conscience is that which decides aright, or
according to the only rule of rectitude, the law of God.
This is also called a 7vell-i?iformed conscience, which in all its
decisions proceeds upon the most evident principles of
tnuh.
3. A pnbablt conscience is that which, in cases which
admit of the brightest and fullest light, contents itself with
bare probabilities. The consciences of many are of no
higher character; and though we must not say a man
cannot be saved with such a conscience, yet such a con-
science is not so perfect as it might be.
4. An ignorant conscience is that which may declare
right, but, as it were, by chance, and without any just
ground to build oa.
5. An erroneous conscience is a conscience mistaken in
its rule or standard of judgment.
6. A doubling conscience is a conscience unresolved
about the nature of action ; on account of the equal or
nearly equal probabilities which appear for and against
each side of the question.
7. Of an evil conscience there are several kinds. Con-
science, in regard to actions in general, is evil w-hen it has
lost more or less the sense it ought to have of the natural
distinctions of moral good and evil : this is a polluted or de-
filed conscience. Conscience is evil in itself when it gives
either none or a false testimony as to past actions ; when re-
flecting upon wickedness it feels no pain, it is evil, and said
to be seared or hardened. 1 Tim. 4: 2. It is also evil when,
during the commission of sin, it lies quiet. In regard to
future actions, conscience is evil if it does not startle at
the proposal of sin, or connives at the commission of it.
For the right management of conscience, we should, 1.
Endeavor to obtain acquaintance with the law of God,
and with our own motives, tempers and lives, and frequent-
ly compare them together.
2. Furnish conscience with general principles of the most
extensive nature and strongest influence ; such as the
supreme love of God ; love to our neighbors as ourselves ;
and that the care of our souls is of the greatest impor-
tance.
3. Preserve the purity and sensibility of conscience.
4. Maintain the freedom of conscience, particularly
against interest, passion, temper, example, and the autho-
rity of great names.
5. We should accustom ourselves to cool reflection on our
past actions. See BiUler's Analog!/ and Sermons; Sten'arl and
Mackintushon Moral Philosophy; Tillotson's Sermons; South' s
Sermon' i u .i. serm. 12 ; AbercromUt on the Moral Feelings ;
dial-. ■•■■.'$ Bridgnvater Treatise on the Moral and Intellect unl
Consluution of Man ; and books under Casuistry-. — Hend.
Buck.
CONSCIOUSNESS; the perception of what passes in
a man's own mind. We must not confound the terms
crmsdoiisness and conscience ; for though the Latin be igno-
rant of any such distinction, including both in the word
conscientia, yet there is a gieat deal of difference between
them in our language. Consciousness is confined to the
actions of the mind, being nothing else but that knowledge
of itself which is inseparable from every thought and
voluntary motion of the sonl. Conscience extends to all
human actions, bodily as well as mental. Consciousness
is the knowledge of the existence ; conscience, of the mo-
ral nature of actions. Consciousness is a province of me-
taphysics ; con.'scienop, of morality. — Hcnd. Buck.
CONSECRATION'; a devoting or setting apart any
thing 10 the worship or sei-vice of God. The Slosaical law
ordained that all the first-born, both of man and beast,
52
should be sanctified «r consecrated to God. Tin.' whole
race of Abraham was in a peculiar manner ojnsccrated
to his worship ; and the tnbe of I>evi and family of Aaron
were more immediately consecrated to the service of God.
Exod. 13: 2, 12, 15. Num. 3: 12. 1 Pet. 2: 9. Besides
the consecrations ordained by the sovereign authority of
God, there w«re others which depended on the will of men,
and were either to continue forever or for a lime only.
David and Solomon devoted the Nethinims to the service
of the temple forever. Ezra 8: 20. 2: 58. Hannah, the
mother of Samuel, offered her son to the Lord, to serve all
his lifetime in the tabernacle. 1 Sam. 1: U. Luke 1: 15.
The Hebrews sometimes devoted Iheir fields and cattle to
the Lord, and the spoils taken in war. Lev. 27: 28, 2&.
1 Chron. 18: 11. The New' Testament furnishes us with
instances of consecration. Christians in general are con-
secrated to the Lord, and are a holy race, a chosen people.
1 Pet. 2: y. Ministers of the gospel are in a peculiar
manner set apart for his service, and so are places of wor-
ship ; the forms of dedication vart'ing according to the
views of different bodies of Christians; and by .some a
series of ceremonies has been introduced, savoring of su-
perstition, or at best of Judaism. — Watsun.
CONSIDER. God considers men, in general, by a per-
fect knowledge and exact observation of their works. Ps.
33: 15. He considers his people, in graciously observing
and regarding their persons, prayci^s, and troubles, in order
to deliver and bless them. Ps. 5: 1. 13: 3. 'J: 13, and 25:
ly. We consider Jesus Christ by thinking on, observing,
and admiring his person, offices, relations, undertalcing,
incarnation, life, death, resurrection, and glory, and apply-
ing him to ourselves in all these respects. Heb. 3: 1. We
consider ourselves when, with serious concern, and earnest
care, we maik and ponder our own frailty, sinfulness, and
danger of being led astra)^ Gal. 6: 1. We consider one
a/itt/Zicr when we charitably observe our brethren's tempers,
circumstances, infirmities, and temptations, that we may
accordingly excite and encourage Ihem to their duty. Heb.
10: 21.— Brown.
CONSISTENTES ; a kind of penitents, who were al-
lowed to assist at prayers, but who could not be admitted
to receive ihe sacrament. — Hcnd. Buck.
CONSISTORY ; a word commonly used for a council-
house of ecclesiastical pei-sons, or place of justice in the
spiritual court ; a session or assembly of prelates. Every
archbishop and bishop of every diocese has a consistory
court, held belbre his chaucelKir or commissary, in his
cathedral church, or other convenient place of his diocese,
for ecclesiastical causes. The bishop's ch:incellor is the
judge of this court, supposed to be skilled in the civil and
canon law ; and in places of the diocese far remote from
the bishop's consisturj', the bishop appoints a commissary
to judge in all causes within a ccrt.iiii district, ami a regis-
ter to enter his decrees, A:c. Consistory at Rome, denotes
the college of cardinals, or the pope's senate and council,
before whom judiciary cau.ses are pleaded, and all political
aff'airs of importance, the election of bishops, archbishops,
i!cc. are transacted. There is the ordinary consistory,
which the pope assembles every week in the papal palai'C,
and the extraordinary, or secret consistories, called together
on special and important occasions. Consistory is also
used among the Lutherans firt" a council or assembly of
ministers and lawyers to regulate their affairs, discipline,
&c. They are the highest Protestant ecclesiastical bodies
on ihe continent. — Hend. Bud'.
CONSOLATION. The great work of God the Holy
Ghost is consolation ; and it is most blessed to the souls
of the Iruly regenerate, in whose hearts the Lord gracious-
ly carries it on by his inward spiritual refreshments, to
watch and observe how the tendencies of his grace are
made towards them. " He takes of the things of Christ,
and showcth to ihcm." And he it is that sheds abroad
the love of God the Father in the heart, and directs the
minds of his people into " the patient waiting'' for Jesus
Christ. So that all the acting of our faith upon cither of
the persons of theGoDiiE.\D are from his sweet influences;
and all the manifestations the holy and sacred Persons
make to the believer, it is God the Holy Ghost teacheih
the soul how to receive and enjoy. And ' .y this continual
process of grace, he doth what the aiKx.'le prayed he
CON
t 410
CON
might do for the church, as " the Gtxl of hope, fill the soul
with all joy and peace in believing, that they might abound
in hope, through the power of the Holy Ghost." Rom. 15:
13. — Hcmker.
CONSTANCE, (Codnoil of ;) 1414—1418. The German
emperor, the pope, twenty princes, one hundred and forty
counts, more than twenty cardinals, seven patriarchs,
twenty archbishops, ninety-one bishops, six hundred other
clerical dignitaries, and about four thousand priests were
present at this celebrated ecclesiastical assembly, which
was occasioned by the divisions and contests that had arisen
about the affairs of the church. From 1305—77, the
popes had resided at Avignon ; but in 1378, Gregory XI.
removed ths papal seat back to Rome ; after his death, the
French and Italian cardinals could not agree upon a succes-
sor, and so each party chose its own candidate. This led to a
schism which lasted forty years. Indeed, when the empe-
ror Sigismund ascended the throne, in 1411, there were
three popes, each of whom had anathematized the two
others. To put an end to these disorders, and to stop the
diffusion of the doctrines of Huss, Sigismund went in per-
son to Italy, France, Spain, and England, and (as the em-
peror Rlajcimilian I. used to say, in jest, performing the
part of the beadleof the Roman empire,) summoned a gene-
ral council. The pretended heresies of Wicklitfe and Huss
were here condemned, and the latter, notwithstanding the
assurances of safety given him by the emperor, was burnt,
July 6, 1415; and his friend and companion, Jerome of
Prague, met with the same fate. May 30, 141fi. The three
popes were formally deposed, and Martin V. was legally
chosen to the chair of St. Peter ; hut instead of furthering
the emperor's wishes for a reformation in the affairs of the
church, he thwarted his plans, and nothing was done till
the council of Basle, which see. — Hend. Buck.
CONSTANCY, in a general sense, denotes immutabili-
ty, or invariableness. When applied to the human mind,
it is a steady adherence to those plans and- resolutions
which have been maturely formed : the effect of which is,
that a man never drops a good design out of fear, and is
consistent with himself in all his words and actions.
Constancy is more particularlv required of us, 1. In
our devotions. Luke 18: 1. 1 Thess. 5: 17, 18. 2. Under
our sufferings. Malt. 5: 12, 13. 1 Pet. 4: 12, 13. 3. In
our profession and character. Heb. 10: 23. 4. In our be-
neficence. Gal. (■>: y. 5. In our friendships. Prov. 27: 10.
—Hend. Buck.
CONST ANTINE, (surnamed the Great,) son of the
emperor Constantine Chlorus and of his wife Helena, was
bom A. D. 274. On the death of his father, he was chosen
emperor by the soldiery in 306. Galerius, however, would
not allow him the title of Augustus, and gave him that of
CcEsar only ; but having taken possession of the countries
which had been subject to his father, viz. Gaul, Spain,
and Britain, and overcome the Franks, he turned his arms
against Maxeutius, vanquished his army under the walls
of Rome, and was declared by the senate Augustus and Pon-
tifex Maximus. It was in this campaign in Italy that he
is said to have .seen a flaming cross in the heavens, be-
neath the sun, bearing this inscription : In. hoc signo vinces,
i. e. " By this sign thou shalt conquer ;" and on' the same
authority it is stated that Christ himself appeared to him
the following night, and ordered him to take for his stan-
dard an imitation of the fiery cross which he had seen.
He accordingly caused a standard to he made in this form,
which was called the laharum. In 313, he pubhshed the
memorable edict of toleration in favor of the Christians.
By this, every one was allowed to embrace the religion
most agreeable to his own mode of thinking, and all the
property that had been taken from the Christians during
the persecutions was restored to them. They were also
made eligible to public offices. This edict has accordingly
been regarded as marking the triumph of the cross, and
the downfall of paganism.
Having defeated Licinius, who showed a mortal hatred
10 the Christians, Conslantine became sole head of the
Eastern and Western empires, in 325; the year noted for
the ecumenical council which he convened at Nice in
Bithynia, and which he attended in per.son, for the purpose
of settling ihe Arian controversy. Towards the close of
his life, he favored the Arians, to which he was induced by
Eusebius, of Nicomedia, in consequence of which he ba-
nished many orthodox bishops. Though he professed
Christianity, he was not baptized till he fell sick in 337, in
which year he died in the vicinity of Nicomedia, after a
reign of thirty-one years.
Whatever may have been the true character of Con-
stantlne's conversion to the Christian faith, its consequences
were of vast importance both to the empire and to the
church of Christ. It opened the way for the nnobstructed
propagation of the gospel to a wider extent than at any
former period of its history. All impediments to an open
profession of Christianity were removed, and it became
the established religion of the empire. Numerous, how-
ever, in various points of view, as were the advantages
accruing to it from this change, it soon began to suffer
from being brought into close contact with the fostering
influence of secular power. The simplicity of the gospel
was corrupted ; pompous rites and ceremonies were intro-
duced ; worldly honors and emoluments were conferred on
the teachers of Christianity ; and the kingdom of Christ in
a great measure converted into a kingdom of this world.
— Hend. Buck.
CONSTANTINE, (called also Sylvanhs ;) an eminent
reformer and martyr of the seventh century, and the
founder of the sect of Paulicians. He was born in Ma-
nanalis, an obscure town in the vicinity of Samosata.
His conversion is thus related : A Christian deacon, who
had been a prisoner among the Mahometans, about the
year 660, returning from Syria, was entertained by Con-
stantine. From this stranger, Constantine received the
precious gift of the New Testament in its original lan-
guage, which even at this early age was so concealed from
the people, that Peter Siculus, to whom we owe most of
our information on the history of the Paulicians, tells us
the first scruples of a Catholic, when he was advised to
read the Bible, was, " It is not lawful for us, profane per-
sons, to read those sacred writings, but for the priests only."
Indeed, the gross ignorance which pervaded Europe at
that time, rendered the generality of the people incapable
of reading that or any other book ; but even those who
could read were dissuaded by their religious guides. Con-
stantine, however, made the best use of his present : he
studied the New Testament with unwearied assiduity, and
more particularly the writings of the apostle Paul, from
which he endeavored to deduce the system of doctrine and
worship divinely revealed. " He investigated the creed of
primitive Christianity," says Gibbon, " and whatever might
be the success, a Protestant reader will applaud the spirit
of the inquiry." The knowledge thus attained, Constan-
tine gladly communicated to others around him. A Chris-
tian church wa.s collected. Several individuals rose among
them qualified for the. work of the ministry, new churches
were formed, and Christianity, in its primitive simplicity
and power, was widely diffused through Armenia, Ponius,
and Cappadocia. (See Paulicians.)
Constantine, who had assumed or received the name of
Sylvanus, was at length seized at Colonia by the arm of
persecution. By a refinement of cruelty, he was placed
before a line of his disciples, who were commanded, as
the price of their own pardon and the proof of thgir re-
pentance, to massacre their spiritual father. They turned
aside from the impious office ; the stones dropped from
their filial hands, and of the whole number only one man,
named Justus, could be found base enough to become his
executioner. Thus, after the evangelical labore of twenty-
.seven years, this venerable leader of the Paulician churches
fell a martyr to the truth of the gospel. — Jones's His. Chris.
Church, p. 239.
CONSTANTINOPLE, the metropolis of the extensive
empire of European Turkey, is situated at the confluence
of the Bosphorus with the sea of Blarmora, and stands on
the site of the ancient Byzantium. Constantine, sensible
of the great advantages of its position, fixed his residence
here in 330, in preference to Rome. It became afterwards
the capital of the Greek empire, and was in the meridian
of its glory in the time of the crusades. The whole cir-
cuit of the city is about twelve miles. Its external appear-
ance is magnificent ; palaces, mosqtles, seraglios, domes,
turrets, and spires, tower one above another. The magic
of the prospect, however, disappears on entering the city,
CON
[ 111 J
CON
for ihe streets are narrow ami crooked, and the houses
small, and built of wood, bricl:, and mud. The number
of mosques here has been stated at more than three hun-
dred, many of which are composed of marble and coveted
with lead, serving to create a greater contrast to the
wretched appearance of the streets and inhabitants. The
grand mosque of St. Sophia, a view of which is here pre-
sented, is the most renowned of the public buildings. It
was formerly a Greek church, dedicated to the Holy "Wis-
dom, or Sancta Sophia, and was built by the emperor Jus-
tinian. The plague has frequently commirted great rava-
ges in Constantinople, and the germs of the malady will
remain there as long as the carelessness and fanaticism
of the people continue. The Turks commonly designate
Constantinople by the name of Siamboul, or Istamboul,
which is a Romaic appellation, signifying "the City."
CONSTELLATION-, acluSCT of stars. About three
thousand visible stars are classed into fifiy-ninc constella-
tions, twelve of which are in the zodiac, or middle region
of the firmament, twenty-lhrce in the north part, and
twenty-four in the .south. Isa- 13; 10. — tirmrr.
CONSTITUTION -, in the Koman church, a decree of
the pope in matters of doctrine. In France, however, this
name has been applied, by way of eminence, to the famous
bull Un'scnitm : which sec. — Ilcud. Bvck.
CONSTITUTIONS, ArosroLic. (See Apostolic.)
CONSUBSTANTIALISTS. This term was applied to
the orthodox, or Athanasians, who believed the Son to be
of the same substance with the Falher ; whereas the Arians
would only admit the Son to be of like .substance with the
Father. — Watson.
CONSUBSTANTIATION ; a tenet of tlie Lutheran
church respecting the presence of Christ in the Lord's sup-
per. Luther denied that the elements were changed after
lonsecration, and therefore taught that the bread and wine
indeed remain; but that together with them, there is pre-
sent the substance of the body of Christ, which is literally
received by communicants. As in red-hot iron it may be
said, two distinct substances, iron and fire, are united, so
is the body of Christ joined with the bread. Some of his
followers, who acknowledged that similes prove nothing,
contented themselves with saying that the body and blood
of Christ are really present in the sacrament in an inex-
plicable manner. (See Ix)Rd's Sitper.) — Watson.
CONTEMN. A vile person is rightly contemned when
we shun intimacy with him, and prefer the meanest of
the saints to him. Ps. 15: 4. The glory of Moab was con-
temned when their wealth, power, and honor were rendered
despicable. Isa. 16: 14. — Bronn.
CONTEMPLATION ; studious thought on any subject ;
continued attention. " Monks and mj'stics consider con-
templation as the highest degree of moral excellence ; and
with them a silent spectator is a divine man :" but it is
evident we are not placed here only to think. There is
something to be done as well as to contemplate. There
are duties to be performed, offices to be discharged ; and
if we wish to be happy in ourselves, and useful lo others,
w« must be active as well as thoughtful. — Barter's Saijit's
Ii€gt ,- Nattiral History of Enthusiasm ; Hend. Bu'.l;.
CONTENTION, is either «>/«/, when, with carnal affec-
tions, we strive with one another, (Prov. 13; 10 ;) or/«n/w.",
when WE eagerly promote that which is go<5d, notwith-
standing groat opposition. 1 Thess. 2: 2. We contend ear-
ncstltj far the faith when, ntstwithstanding manifold suffer-
ing and danger, we are strong in the faith of God's truth
contained in his ixh4 ; zealously profess and practise it,
and excite others to do so, and exert ourselx'es to promote
the censure of scandalous and heretical persons. Jude 3.
— Broint.
CONTENTMENT, is a disposition of mind in whicli
our desires are confined to what we enjoy without mur
muring at our lot, or wishing ardently for more. It standi
opposed to envy, (James 3: 16 ;) to avarice, (He b. 13: 5 ;J
to pride and ambition, (Pnav. 13: 10 ;) to anxiety of mind,
(Matt. 6. 25, 34 ;) to murmurings and repinings. 1 Cor
10: 10. Contentment does not imply unconcern about our
welfare, or that we should not have a sense of any thing
uneasy or distressing ; nor does it give any countenance
to idleness, or prevent diligent endeavors to improve out
circumstances. It implies, however, that our desires of
^"orldly good be moderate; that we do not indulge unne-
cessaiy care, or use unlawful efforts lo better ourselves j
but that we acquiesce with, and make the best of our con-
dition, whatever it be. Contentment arises not from a
man's outward condition, but from hi,s inward disposition,
and is the genuine offspring of humility, attended with a
fixed habitual sense of God's particular providence, Ihe
recollection of past mercies, and a just estimate of the
true nature of all earthly things. Motives to contentment
arise from the consideration of the lectittide of the divine
governnfeot, (Ps. ;i7: 1, 2;) the benignity of the divine
providence, (Ps. 145;) the greatness of the divine promi-
ses, (2 Pet. I: 4 5) our own unworthines.s, (Ge" - 32: 10 :)
the punishments we deserve, ( Lam. 3: 39, 40 ;) the reward
wiiich contentnveni itself brings with it, (1 Tim. 6: 6 ;) the
speedy termination of all otir troubles here, and the pros-
pect of eternal felicity in a future state, Rom. 5: 2. See
Burrow's Wurks, vol. iii. ser. 5, 6, 7, 8, it : Bvrrons on Cox-
trMtmest ; Watson's Artpf ditto ; Hale's Co«f(.^lment, p. 59 ;
Mason^s Christian Mnrah, vol. i, seT. 2 ; Dmght's Theology,
scr. cxxix. — Hend. Buck.
CONTINENCY, is that moral virtue by which we re-
strain concupiscence. There is this distinction between
cha.stity and continence : — Chastity requires no effort, be-
cause it may result from constitution ; whereas continency
appears to be the consequence of a victorj' gained over
ourselves. The term is most usually applied lo men, as
chastity is lo women. (See Chastity.)— i/fvit.'. Buck.
CONTINGENT ; any thing that happens without a
foreknown cause, commonly called accidental. An event
not come to pass is said to be contingent, which either
may or may not be ; what is already done, is said to have
been contingent, if it raiglit or might not have been.
What is contingent or casual to us, is not so with God.
As effects stand related to a second cause, they are many
times amtingr.nt ; but as they stand related to the first
cause, they "are acts of God's counsel, and directed by his
wisdom. — Hend. Btak.
CONTRADICTION. The contradiction of sinners, which
Christ endured, was the entire series of objections, evasions,
reproaches, tannts, blasphemies, and political opposition to
his doctrines and miracles. Heh. 12: 3. — Brown.
CONTRARY. Grace and corruption in the saints are
contrary ; their nature, quality, and exercise are destructive
of one another. Gal. 5: 17. We walk contrary to God. do-
ing what is abominable to his nature, and opposite to his
law ; and he walks contrary to us, in fearfully punishing
us for our sin. Lev. 26: 27,' 28. The ceremonial law was
contrary to men ; it laid heavy burdens on them, presented
their guilt to them, and of itself could do them no good,
and was a means of excluding the Gentiles from the
church of God. Col. 2: U.— Brown.
COM
[ 412 }
con
CONTRITE. This word signifies beaten of bruised, as
with hard blows, or a heavy burden ; and so in Scripture
language imports one whose hea,rt is loroken and wonrMied
for sin, in opposition lo the heart of stMie. Is. tj6: 2. Ps.
61: 17. 57: 15.
The evidences of a broken ana contrrte sptrit are,
1 Deep conviction of the evi'l of sin.— 2. Humiliation un-
der a sense of it. Job 43: 5, 6.-3. Pungent sorrow for
it. Zech. 12; 10. — 4. Ingenuoas confession of it. liohn
1.'9 _5. Prayer for deliverance from it. Ps. 51: lO. Lulte
18: 13.— (5. Susceptibility cf good impressions. Bzek. 11:
19._//CTrf. Suck. , ., ,
CONTROVERSY, (reu&ious,) is good or eviH, aceofa-
ing to the principles which it upholds, the purpose mwhreb
it originates, the object lo which it is applied, and the tem-
per with which it is condacted. If it spring !rom a mere
spirit of contention ; from desire of victory, not love ol
iruth • or from stubbornness that will not be bronght preto
captivity to the obedience of Christ, Christianily will not
acknowledge it for het own. If it be enyployed on aue.«tson*
unbefitting human disputation ; tfuestions inaccessible to
our finite understandings, unnecessary or unimportant in
JheiT issue, and only tending to perpeti>ate strife, or to
nnsettle the minds of men, then it is also unworthy of the
Christian character. Nor is it void of offence, \yhen, how-
ever sound in its principles, however iroporlant its subject,,
however irrefragable its argumem, it is made the vehicle of
personal malignity ; when it is carried en with a .spirit that
rends asunder the social ties, and exasperates, instead of
endeavoring to soften, the irritable feelings, which, even u>
its mildest aspect, it is but too apt to exeite.
But these evil consequences, which flow from the abuse
of controversy, and from cau-ses by bo means necessarily
connected with religkiue cfeeussion, ought not lo deter o«
from its proper use^ when truth requires its aid, CoBlro>
versy is worse tha-n wsefess if it l>ave no better end. in
view than a display of mental soperiority, or the self-grati-
fication which, to minds of a certain cast, it appears to
afford. For, as in secular disputes it is the legitimate end
of warfare, to produce peaeo, so, in religions polemics, the
attainment of unanjmiiy ongbt to be the main object.
War is waged, because peace cannot be oljtained without
it. Religious controversy is nmintainedr because agjfee-
ment in the troth is not otherwise to be effected. When
this necessiiv is laid ripoa ew, we do but arqntt ouT.selves
of an indispensable chity in defending the charge commit-
ted to our care by the use of those weapofis with which the
iS'riaewy of the divine %vovd supplies us. See Van Mil-
drrt's Bnwphm L'rt.; Worh of Bnhert Hall, vol. ii- p. 52,
and 447.— //(7»/. Bm!:.
CONVENT. (SeeAiiEEY; BJokas'Jksv; Monk.)
CONVENTICLE ; a private assembly, or meeting for
religious purposes. The word is a diminutive of eoovemt,
denoting properly a cabal, or secret assembly of a part ol
the monks of a convent, to make a party in the election
of an abbot. The name was first given as an appellatioii
of reproach to the religious assemblies in the time of
Wickliffe, and was afterwarits applied to the illegal meet-
ings of the Non-conformists. In some of the preceding
reigns, several statutes were made for the sappression of
conventicles ; but by 1st "William and Mary, it is ordained
that dissenters may assemble for the perfonnance of reli-
gious woTsbip, provided their doors be not locked, barred,
or bolted. The word, in strict propriety, denoting an un-
lawful assembly, cannot be justly applied to the assembling
of persons in places certified, or licensed according to law.
— Ilerid. Bmh.
CONVERSATION. Conversation was held by the
Orientals in the gate of the city. Accordingly, there was
an open space near the gate, which was fitted up with
seats for the accoromoilation of the people. Gen. J9: 1 ;
Psalm 69: 12. Those who were at leisure occupied a
position on these seats, and either amused themselves
•with iritiiessing those who came in and went out, and
with any trifling occurrences that might offer themselves
to their notice, or attended to the judicial trials, which
were commonly investigated at piiWtc places of this kind,
namely the gate of the city, (Gen. 19: I ; 34: 20 ; Psalm
26: 4,5; 69: 12; 127: 5. Ruth 4: 11; Isa. 14: 31 ;) or
held intercourse by conversation. Promenading, so fash-
ionable and so agreeable in colder latitudes, was venv
some and unpleasant in the warm climates of the East,
and this is probably one reason why the inhabitants of
those climates preferred lioldiBg intercourse with one
another, while sitting near the gate of the city, or beneath
the shade of the fig-tree and the line, 1 Sara. 22: 6 >
Micab 4: 4, The formula of assent in eonversaliem was,
Tho7i ha$t said, or. Thou hast righthj saiil. We are informed
by the traveller Aryda., that this is the prevailLug mode
of a peT.sorr's expressing his assent or affirmation to this
day, in the vicinity of mount Leban!)n, especially where
he does not wish to assert! any thing in express terms.
This explains the aiJswer of the Savior to the high-priesB
Caiaphas in Matt. 20-, 64, when he was asketl whether he
was the Christ, the Son of God, and replied, Thm hast said.
The EHglis-h word mnversation has bow a more re-
stricted sense than forraeily ; and if is to be noted that in
several passages (►f onr translation of the Bible, it is asetl
to comprehend oiu' whole csndnct.
When do modern Christians converse as SsS holy mers
of old, and especially as in the primitiivs tssBes of tike
gospel, on rhe gloriows works, wisdom and ways of God ;
on IW. lore of the Savior ; the privileges of the saints -,
Ih(? aft'ecting vicissitudes of Christian expeiience ; the
state, progress, decay, or revival of religion ; tlte diffusion
of the gospel ; and the falness of its promises and bless-
ings ? Why do they not more habitually and freely inter-
change liteirseatimentson all Ehat concerns the Christian's-
heave-Kly warfare, and is connected with his present aniS
eternal d^inatron ? The reason is, threy de not cultivate
heavenly mindedncss as they ought : they do not walk
Irambty and cteety with God. It is in secret meditation
and prayer, those graces trre to-be nourished which enrich
the soul, which sbe^ a hofy raifiance on the character, an(i
open the lips in instruction, edification, and comfort,
A good man out of the good Ireasure of his heart iringeiis
forth good thix-gs. In tlie society of such, conversation is
found'an eminent means of grace.— CTrtj. Oh. ; Watsott.
CONVERSION ; a change which consists m the reno-
vation of the heart and life, or a iimimg from the power
of sin and Satan unto God, (Acts 2fi: 18,) and is produced
by the influence of divine grace on the soul. Sometimes-
it! is pnt for nstorariov , as in the case sf Peter, Lske 22^
32'. The instrumenlal cause of conversion is nsnally the •
minisiiy of the word ; though sometimes it is produced by-
reading, by serious and appropriate conversation, sancli-
fieil afllictioDS, &c. " Conversion," says the great Char-
nock, "is to be distinguished from regeneration thus :--
Regeneration is a spiritual change ; conversion is a spi-
rit lial motion : in regeneration there is a power conferred j
conversion is the exereise of this power ; in regenci-al ion
there i« given us a principle to turn ; conversion is our
actual turning. In the covenant, God's putting his Spirit
into t»s is distinguished from onr walking in his statutes:
from the first step we lake in the way of God, and is set
down as the cause of our motion, Ezek. 36: 27. In re-
newirvg us, God gives us a power ; in converting us, he
e.-ccitcs that power. Men are natnralTy dead, and have a
stone upon them : regeneration is a rolling away the stone
from the heart, and a raising to newness of life ; and then
conversion is as natural to a regenerate man as motion is
to a lively botly. A princijile of actirity will produce
action. In regeneration, man is wholly passive ; in con-
version, he is active. The fii-st reviving us is wholly the
act of God, T\nthont any concurrence of the creature ; but
after we are revived, we doactively and voluntarily live in
his sight. Regeneration is the motion of God m the erea-
tnre ; conversion is the motion of the creature to God, by
virtue of that first principle : from this pnnaple all the
acts of believing, repenting, mortifying, qmclcenmg, do
spring. In all these a man is active ; m the other he is
merely passive." Conversion evidences itself by ardent
love to God, (Psalm 73: 25 ;) delight in his people, (Jolm
13: 35 :) attendance on his ordinances, (Psatm 27: 4 ;)
confidence in his promises, (Psalm 9: 10 ;) abhorrence of
self, and renunciation of the worid, (Job 43: 5, Jam. 4: 4 ;)
submission to his authority, and unifonn obedience to bis
word, Matt. 7: 20. See Calling, Regenekatton. — Hcnd.
Buck. , ,
CONVERT ; a person who is converted. In a monastic
CHINESE DWELLINGS.
P. 1207.
CUSTOMS IN THE EAST. ORIENTAL CONVEIISATZIONE.
P. 412.
CON
[ H3 ]
COO
sense, converts are laj- friars, or brothers admitted for the
service of the house, without orders, and not allowed to
sing in the choir. — Hend. Buck,
CO^^VICTION, in general, is the assurance of the trmh
of any proposition. In a religious sense, it is the fnsl
degree of repentance, and implies an affecting sense that
we are guilty before God ; that we can do nothing of our-
selves to gain his forfeited favor ; that we deserve and are
exposed to the \vrath of God ; that sin is very odious and
hateful, yea, the greatest of evils.
There is a natural and just conviction which arises from
natural conscience, fear of punishment, moral suasion, or
alarming providenceSj but which is not of a permanent
nature. Saving conviction is a work of the Spirit, as the
cause ; though the conscience, the law, the gospel, or af-
fliction, may be the means, John 16: 8, 9.
Convictions of sin differ very much in their degree
and pungency, in different persons. It has been observed
that those who suffer the most agonizing sensations are
such as never before enjoyed the external call of the
gospel, or were favored with the tuition of religious
parents, but have neglected or notoriously abused the
means of grace. To these, conviction is often sudden,
and produces that horror and shame which are not soon
overcome ; whereas those who have sat under the gospel
from their infancy, have not often such alarming convic-
tions, because they have already some notion of these
things, and have so much acquaintance with the gospel
as administers to a believing heart, immediate comfort.
As it is not, therefore, the constant method of the Spirit to
convince in one way, it is improper for any to distress
themselves because they are not, or have not been tor-
mented almost to despair : they should be rather thankful
that the Spirit of God has dealt tenderly Tiith them, and
opened to them the genuine source of consolation in
Christ. It is necessary, however, to observe, that, in order
to repentance and conversion to God, there must be real
and lasting conviction, which, though it may not be the
same in degree, is the same in nature.
Evangelical conviction differs from legal conviction
thus : legal arises from a consideration of the divine law,
God's justice, power, or omniscience ; evangelical, from
God's goodness and holiness as seen in the cross of Christ,
and from a disaffection to sin ; legal conviction still con-
ceits there is something remaining good ; but evangelical
is sensible there is no good at all : legal wishes freedom
from pain ; evangelical from sin : legal hardens the heart ;
evangelical softens it ; legal is only temporary ; evangeli-
cal la.sting. — Hend. Buck.
CONVOCATION ; an assembly of persons for the
worship of God. Lev. 23. Numb. 28. Exod. 22: 16.
An assembly of the clergy for consultation upon matters
ecclesiastical.
As the parliament in England consists of two distinct
bouses, so does this convocation. The one called the
upper house, where the archbishops and bishops sit seve-
rally by themselves ; the other, the lower house, where all
the rest of the clergj' are represented by their deputies.
The inferior clergy are represented by their proctors, con-
sisting of all the deans and archdeacons ; of one proctor
for every chapter, and two for the clerg}', of every diocese
— in all. one hundred and forty-three divines, viz. twenty-
two deans, fifty-three archdeacons, twenty-four prebenda-
ries, and forty-four proctors of the diocesan clergy. The
lower house chooses its prolocutor, who is to take care that
the members attend, to collect their debates and votes,
and to carrj' their resolutions to the upper house. The
convocation is summoned by the king's writ, directed to
(he archbishop of each province, requiring him to sum-
mon all bishops, deans, archdeacons, &c. The power of
the convocation is limited by a statute of Henr}' VIII.
They are not to make any canons, or ecclesiastical laws,
n'ithout the king's license ; nor, when permitted, can they
put them in execution but under several restrictions. They
have the examining and censuring all heretical and schis-
matical books and persons, &c. ; but there lies an appeal
to the king in chancer}-, or to his delegates. The clergy
in convocation, and their servants, have the same privi-
leges as members of parUament. In 1665, the convoca-
tion of the clergy gave up the privilege of taxing them-
selves to the house of commons, in consideration of their
being allowed to vote at the election of members for that
house. Since that period, they have been seldom allowed
to do any business ; and are generally prorogued from
time to time till dissolved, a new convocation being gene-
rally called along with a new parliament,— ffenrf. Buck.
CONVULSIONISTS ; a term originally applied to such
persons as were the stibjects of convulsive fits, of whicti
they were said to be cured by visiting the tomb of the
Abbe Paris, a celebrated zealot among the Jansenists ;
and afterwards given to those in France whose fanaticism
or imposture caused them to work themselves up into the
strangest agitations and convulsions, during which they
received wonderful visions and revelations, and abandoned
themselves to the most extravagant antics that ever were
exhibited by idiot or madman. They threw themse'vcs
into the most violent contortions of body, rolled about on
the ground, imitated birds, beasts, and fishes, and at last
when they had completely spent themselves, went off in
a swoon. The greater number were of the female sex,
who, like the dervishes, spun themselves round on one
heel, and frequently presented themselves to the spectators
in very indecent attitudes. Finault, an advocate, who
belonged to the Convulsionists, maintained that God had
sent him a peculiar kind of fits by which to humble his
pride. During these fits, he always barked like a dog.
Though it is now more than a century since these dis-
gusting scenes first came into notice in France, the}' have
more or less continued till the present time. It is seldom,
indeed, that they have been exhibited in Paris since the
middle of the last century ; but in country places, such as
Forez, Pontoise, &c., they occasionally occur, when the
cunning priests know how to make them tell on the credu-
lity of the vulgar, and thus render them subservient to the
interests of Roman superstition. — Hend. Buck.
COOK, (Joseph,) a minister of the gospel in South
Carolina, was born of pious parents in the city of Bath,
England, and called by divine grace at an early age
nnder the ministry of the celebrated AVhitefield. Being
introduced by him to lady Huntingdon, and giving clear
evidence both of a sound conversion and ministerial gifts,
he was placed in her college at Trevecka in South Wales.
Here he was highly esteemed, and his progress in study,
as well as usefulness in preaching, was uncommonly
great. In 1771, he was sent to Margate in company with
Mr. Aldrich, and afterwards to Dover, where his ministry
was blessed in a signal manner. Two years al'ter. he
was one among others who offered lhein.=clvcs for a
mission in North America, and was accepted. On ar-
riving in the southern colonies, he commenced his labors
as an itinerant, but soon after settled at Dorchester,
eighteen miles from Charleston. In 1776, he embraced
the sentiments of the Baptists, and was baptized at
Santee, aiid a few days afterwards ordained, and settled
over the Baptist church at Euhaw. During the war he
lost all his property. After its conclusion, he labored a
number of years -nnth much success, and fell a victim to
his self-denying exertions, in September, 17'.10 Sir.
Cook's mental powers were good and improved by educa-
tion ; his conversation was free and engaging ; his preach-
ing zealous, orthodox, and experimental. His talents
were of the persuasive kind, so that at the end of his
sermons he frequently left his audienqe in tears. He was
greatly endeared to his people, from whom he was taken
in the midst of his rising eminence and usefulness, at the
age of forty. His end was peace. "When informed, a
short time before his death, that the Lord's supper would
be administered to his people tlie next Sabbath, he replied,
" Next Sabbath, while you are feasting below, 1 shall be
at the bnnquet above." — Benedict's History of the Baptists,
vol. ii. 280.
COOPER, (William.) a minister of Buston, Mass. was
a native of that city. Being early impressed by the triillis
of religion, and delighting in the study of the Scriptures,
he passed tlirough the temptations of youth without a
blemish n;*>ii his character. Soon after he grnduated Kt
Harvard university, the eminence of his qualification.^ as
a minister attracted the attention of the church in IJranle
street, Boston, and he was invited to be colleague pastor
with Mr. Colman. At his own request, hisordinaiiou ua»
coo
[414 ]
COP
delayed for a year until May 23, 1716, when he was in-
ducted into the sacred office. From this period to that of
his death, his ministerial gifts, graces, and usefulness
seemed constantly to increase, and the more he ivas
known, the more he was esteemed, loved, and honored.
In the year 1737, he was chosen president of Harvard
college ; but he declined the honorable trust. He died
December 13, 1743, aged 49.
He was an eminent instrument and promoter of the
great revival of religion, which occurred towards the
close of his life. "With a heart overflowing with joy he
declared, that "since the year 1740, more people had
sometimes come to him in concern about their souls in one
week, than in the preceding twenty-four years of his
ministry." To these applicants he was a most judicious
and affectionate counsellor and guide. In the private
walks of life he displayed the combined excellencies of
the gentleman and Christian. He had but little warning
of the approach of death ; but in the lucid intervals of his
disease he was enabled to declare, that he rejoiced in God
his Savior. He published a number of sermons. —
Colmnn's Funeral Sermon ; Pannpiisf, ii. 537 — 549 j Col-
lect. Hist. Soc X. 157 ; Eliot ; Allen.
COOPER, (Samuel, D. D.) minister in Boston, son of
the prccedmg, was born March 28, 1725. He exhibited
early marks of genius. His mind was deeply impressed
by religious truth. He was graduated at Harvard college,
in 1743, and devoted himself to the study of divinity.
At the age of twenty years he was invited by the congre-
gation in Brattle street, Boston, to succeed his father as
colleague with Dr. Colman. In this office, he was or-
dained May 21, 1746, thirty years after the ordination of
his father. He did not disappoint the hopes of his friends.
His reputation increased, and he soon became one of the
most popular preachers in the country. After a ministry
of thlrtv-seven years, he died of the apoplexy, December
29, 1783, aged fifty-eight.
Dr. Cooper was very distinguished in the sacred office.
His sermons were evangelical and perspicuous, and une-
qualled in America for elegance and taste. Delivering
them with energy and pathos, his eloquence arrested at-
tentiDn and warmed the heart. In his prayers, which
were uttered with humility and reverence, there was a
grateful variety ; and, as they were pertinent, scriptural,
and animated with the spirit of devotion, they were admi-
rably calculated to raise the souls of his fellow worship-
pers to God. His presence in the chambers of the sick
was peculiarly acceptable, for he knew how to address
th'; conscience without offence, to impart instruction, to
sooth, and to comfort. His attention was not confined to
theology ; but he made himself acquainted with other
branches of science, and was one of the most finished
classical scholars of his day. His friendship to literature
induced him, after the destruction of the library of Har-
vard college by fire, to exert himself to procure subscrip-
tions to repair the loss. In 1767, he was elected a mem-
ber of the corporation, in which office he continued until
his death. He was an active member of the society for
propagating the gospel among the aborigines of America.
Most sincerely attached to the cause of civil and religious
liberty, he was among the first of those patriots, who took
a decided part in opposition to the arbitrary exactions of
Great Britain. He was one of the foremost in laying the
foundationof the American Acadciiy of Arts and Sciences,
an I was chosen its first vice-president in the year 1780.
In liis last illness he informed his friends, that he was
perfectly resigned to the will of heaven ; that his hopes
and consolations sprang from a firm belief of those truths,
which he had preached to others ; and that he wished not
to be detained any longer from that state of perfection and
felicity, which the gospel had opened to his view.
Besides his political writings, which appeared in the
journals of the day, he published many discourses.
Clnrlie's Fmernl Sermon : American Urrahl, Janiinn/ 19,
1781 ; ContinentalJovrnnl , Jannanj 22; Ilulmes ; Thatcher's
Cent. Vise ; Eliot ; Allen.
COOS ; an island in the Grecian Archipelago, at a short
distance from the south-west point of Lesser Asia, 1 Mac.
15: 23. Paul passed it in his voyage to Jerusalem, Acts
24: 1. It is now called Stancora or Lango. It is thought
by some to be the same as the Hebrew Koa, called by the
Greeks Coon, and Coos. The Coan vests, which probably
were not unlike our gauzes, or transparent muslins, are
alluded to by Horace and Tibullus.— •'Co^m*^.
COPINISTS ; a sort of Universnlists, who are said to
have denied the resurrection of the body. — Williams.
COPIOLjE ; (undertakers, grave-diggers, &c.,) an
order of persons instituted in the fourth century, to see to
the decent burial of the dead ; and thence entitled partly
to the same privileges as the clergy.— 5roM?A(OH's Did. ;
Williams.
COPONIUS ; the first governor of Judea, established
by Augustus, after the banishment of Archelaus to
Vienne, in France. — Calmet.
COPPER, (Heb. we/tesA.) Anciently, copper was employ-
ed for all the purposes for which we now use iron. Arms,
and tools for husbandry and the mechanic arts, were all
of this metal for many ages. Job speaks of bows of cop-
per, (Job 20: 24 ;) and when the Philistines lad Samson
in their power, they bound him with fetters of copper.
Our translators indeed say " brass ;" but under that
article their mistake is pointed out. In Ezra 8: 27, are
mentioned "two vessels of copjier, precious as gold."
The Septuagint renders it skeue chalkou ilbontos ; the Vul-
gate and Castellio, following the Arabic, " vasa aris ful-
gentis ;" and the Syriac, " vases of Corinthian brass."
It is more probable, however, that this brass was not from
Corinth, but a metal from Persia or India, which Aristotle
describes in these terms : " It is said that there is in India
a brass so shining, so pure, so free from tarnish, that its
color differs nothing from that of gold. It is even said
that among the vessels of Darius there were some re-
specting which the sense of smelling might determine
whether they were gold or brass." Bochart is of opinion
that this is the chasmal of Ezekiel 1: 27, the chalkolihanon,
of Rev. 1: 15, and the e/ertrem of the ancients.
Mr. Harmer quotes from the manuscript notes of Sir
John Chardin a reference to a mixed metal in the East,
and highly esteemed there ; and suggests that this compo-
sition might have been as old as the time of Ezra, and be
brought itom those more remote countries into Persia,
where these two basins were given to be conveyed to
Jerusalem. Ezekiel (27: 13,) speaks of the merchants of
Javan, Jubal, and Meshech, as bringing vessels of nehesh
(copper) to the markets of Tyre. According to Bochart
and Michaelis, these were people situated towards mount
Caucasus, where copper mines are worked at this day.
(See Brass.) — Watson.
COPTI, or Copts ; a name given to the natives of
Egypt belonging to the Jacobite or Monophysite sect, and
is a term of Arabic formation, manifestly a corruption of
the Greek Aignptos. The Jacobites, who were of pure
Egyptian blood, and far more numerous than their adver-
saries, the Mclkites (Greeks in faith as well as in origin,)
having been persecuted as heretics by the Greek' emperor,
were willing to submit to tlie arms of Amni-lbn-el-aas,
the Arabian commander, who granted to them immuni-
ties which they had not previously possessed, and pro-
tected their church from the encroachments of the Con-
stantinopolitan see. But the Copts soon found that their
privileges would be of little avail under oppressive or
fanatical princes. Their wealth, numbci's, and respecta-
bility rapidly declined ; and, though rarely intermarrying
with their conquerors, and preserving their features, man-
ners, and religion unaltered, they soon lost their language,
which had resisted the influence of a Grecian court for so
many ages. Though studied and used as a learned lan-
guage till the present time, it appears to have been little
or at all spoken as eariy as the tenth century.
In person and features, the Copts differ much from the
other natives of Eg>'pt, and are evidently a distinct race —
an intermediate link in the chain which connects the ne-
gro with the fairer tribes to the north and south of the
tropics, strongly resembUng the Abyssinians, who,
though extremely dark, are much paler than the genuine
negroes. Dark eyes, aquiline noses, and curled hair, are
the usual characteristics of both nations ; and the mum-
mies which have been examined, show, the resemblance
of the modern Copts to their ancestors. At the highest
calculation, they do not at present amount to more than
COR
[415 J
COR
between four hundred thousand and five hundred thou-
sand souls. They have good capacities, and generally
have the Turkish taxes, finances, &;c., in their hands.
The Copts have a patriarch, who resides at Cairo ;
but he takes his title from Alexandria. He has no arch-
bishop under hira, but eleven or twelve bishops. The
rest of the clergy, whether secular or regular, are com-
posed of the orders of St. Anthony, St. Paul, St. Macarius,
who have each their monasteries. Besides the orders of
priests, deacons, and subdeacons, the Copts have likewise
archimandrites, or abbots, the dignity whereof they con-
fer with all the prayers and ceremonies of a strict ordina-
tion. By a custom of six hundred years' standing, if a
priest elected bishop be not already archimandrite, that
dignity must be conferred on him before episcopal ordina-
tion. The second person among the clergy, after the
patriarch, is the titular patriarch of Jerusalem, who also
resides at Cairo. To him belongs the government of the
Coptic church during the vacancy of the patriarchal see.
To be elected patriarch, it is necessary the person have
lived all his life in continence. To be elected bishop, the
person must be in the celibate ; or, if he have been married,
it must not be above once. The priests and inferior mi-
nisters are allowed to be married before ordination ; but
not forced to it, as some have observed. They have a
great number of deacons, and even confer the dignity
frequently on their children. None but the lowest rank
among the people commence ecclesiastics, whence arises
that excessive ignorance found among them ; yet the re-
spect of the laity towards the clergy is very extraordinary.
The monastic life is in great esteem among them : to be
admitted into it, there is ahvays required the consent of
the bishop. The religious Copts, it is said, make a vow
of perpetual chastity ; renounce the world, and live with
great austerity in deserts ; they are obUged to sleep in
their clothes and tlieir girdle, on a mat stretched on the
ground ; and to prostrate themselves every evening one
hundred and fifty times with their face and breast on the
gi'ound. They are all, both men and won>en, of the
lowest class of the people, and live on alms. The nunne-
ries are properly hospitals, and few enter but widows re-
duced to beggary. — Hend. Bur.k.
COPTIC VERSION. (See Bible Versions.)
COR, or Chomek ; a measure equal to ten ephahs,
or seventeen thousand four hundred and sixty-eight solid
inches, which is forty-four solid inches more than the
EngUsh quarter. Ezek. 45: 14. — Brown.
CORAL ; {ramuth, Job 28: 18 ; Ezekiel 17: 16 ;) a hard,
cretaceous, marine production, resembling in figure the
stem of a plant, divided into branches. It is of difierent
colors, — black, white, and red. The latter is the sort
emphatically called coral, as being the most valuable, and
usually made into ornaments. This, though no gem, is
ranked by the author of the book of Job (28: 18,) with
the onyx and sapphire. Dr. Good observes, " It is by no
means certain what the words here rendered ' corals and
pearls,' and those immediately afterwards rendered ■ ru-
bies and topaz,' really signified. Reiske has given up
the inquiry as either hopeless or useless ; and Schultens
has generally introduced the Hebrew words themselves,
and left the reader of the translation to determine as he
may. Our common version is, in the main, concurrent
with most of the oriental renderings : and I see no reason
to deviate from it." — Watson.
CORBAN ; a gift, a present made to God, or to his
temple. The Jews sometimes swore by corban, or by
gifts offered to God, Matt. 23: 18. Theophrastus says,
that the Tyrians forbade the use of such oaths as were
peculiar to foreigners, and particularly of corban ; which,
Josephus informs us, was used only by the Jews. Our
Savior reproaches the Jews with cruelty towards their
parents, in making a corban of what should have been
appropriated to their use. Matthew expresses this reply
from children to their parents : " It is a gift — whatsoever
thou mightest be profited by me," i. e. I have already
devoted to God that which you request of me. Is not the
idea to this effect : " that succor which you request of me
is already devoted to God ; therefore I cannot profane it
by giving it to you, although you are my parent, and such
might be my duty ?" — Now, this might take place in par-
ticular articles, without the child's whole property being
so devoted ; or it might be a pretence to put off the soli-
citing parent for the time. This the Jewish doctors es-
teemed binding ; yet easily remitted. The form of the
vow is in express terms mentioned in the Talmud ; and
though such a vow is against both nature and reason, yet
the Pharisees, and the Talmudists, their successors, ap-
prove it. To facilitate the practice of these vows, so
contrary to natural duty, to charity and religion, to con-
firm and increase the superstition of their people, the
Jewish doctors did not require them to be pronounced in
a formal manner ; it was of little consequence whether
the word corban were mentioned, though this was most in
use, provided something was said which came near it.
They permitted even debtors to defraud their creditors, by
consecrating their debt to God ; as if the property were
their own, and not rather the right of their creditor.
— Calmet.
CORD. To put cords about one's reins, to gird one's
self with a cord, was a token of sorrow and humiliation,
Job 12: 18. 1 Kings 20: 31, 32. " The cords of sin,"
(Prov. 5: 22,) are the consequences of crimes and bad
habits : bad habits are, as it were, indissoluble bands,
from which it is almost impossible to extricate ourselves.
To stretch a line or cord about a city, signifies, to ruin it, to
destroy it entirely, to level it with the ground, Lam. 2: 8.
The cords extended in setting up tents furnish several
metaphors, Isa. 33: 20. Jer. 10: 20.~Calmet.
CORDELIER ; a Franciscan, or religious of the order
of St. Francis. The denomination Cordelier is said to have
been given in the war of St. Lewis against the infidels,
wherein the friars minor having repulsed the barbarians,
and that king having inquired their name, it was an-
swered, they were people cordeliez, " tied with ropes ;"
alluding to the girdle of rope or cord, tied with three
knots, which they wore as part of their habit. — Hend.
Buck.
CORDICOLES, or Cobdia-Latkas ; a society of Ca-
tholic devotees, who professed to worship " the sacred
heart of Jesus, and the heart of Mar)'," his virgin mother.
M. Gregoire (in his " Histoire des Sectes Religueses")
has written what he calls " an Historical Critique" on
this sect, which is full of blunders. M. de Fumel, a
French bishop, however, published two volumes in
twelves, on " Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus,"
which was followed by several other works in French and
Italian on the same subject, about the middle of the last
century ; and the sect spread, as might be expected, into
Naples, Sardinia, and Spain, notwithstanding several
checks from the ecclesiastical authorities, and from the
more sober and inteUigent divines of the Catholic
communion. — Gregoire's History, tome i. pp. 333 — 370 ;
— JViUiams.
CORIANDER ; rExod. 16: 31 ; Numbers 11: 7 ;) a
strongly aromatic plant. It bears a small round seed, of
a very agreeable smell and taste. The manna might be
compared to the coriander seed in respect to its form or
shape, as it was to bdellium in its color. (See Mahna.)
— Watson.
CORINTH ; a reno\iTied city, the capital of Achaia,
situated on the isthmus which separates the Peloponnesus
from Attica. This city was one of the most populous and
COR
[ 416
COR
xsiealthy of all Greece. Being destroyed by L. Mummius,
B. C. I4fi, for its ia.^oleuce to the Roman legates, it was
rebuilt by Julius Cxsar, and restored to its ancient splen-
dor. Situated about the middle of the isthmus, at the
distance of about sixty stailia from the sea, on either side,
it drew the commerce of both the East and West from
all parts. The surrounding country being mountainous
and rather barren, the inhabitants were not much addicted
to agriculture, but from their local situation they pos-
sessed singular advantages for commerce, which they
carried on to a great extent. The natural consequences
of an extensive commerce were wealth and luxury ;
fostered in this manner, Corinth rose in magnitude and
grandeur, and its elegant and magnificent temples, pala-
ces, theatres, and other public buildings adorned with,
statues, columns, capitals and bases, not only rendered it
the pride of its inhabitants, and the admiration of stran-
gers, but gave rise to that order of architecture which
still bears its name. Besides the citadel, built upon a
mountain which overlooked the c ty, and which was called
Acro-Corinthus, the works of art which principally dis-
played the opulence and taste of the Corinthians, were
the grottos raised over the fountain Pyrene, sacred to the
muses and constructed of white marble : tlie theatre and
stadium, built of the same materials, and decorated in the
most magnificent manner : the temple of Neptune, con-
taining the chariots of that fabulous deity, and of Am-
phitrite drami by horses covered over with gold, and
adorned with ivory hoofs : the avenue which led to this
edifice, decorated on the one side with the statues of those
that had been victorious at the Isthmian games, and on
the other, with rows of tall pine trees. We here give a view
of the ruins of one of many magnificent edifices erected
when the city was in its glory ; a field of wheat now
covers the spot where, in the times of the apostles, busy
crowds were wont to assemble.
Corinth was scarcely less celebrated for the learning
and ingenuity of its inhabitants than for the extent of its
commerce and the magnificence of its buildings. The
arts and sciences were here carried to such perfection
that Cicero terms it, " totius GreciiJe lumen," the light of
all Greece ; and Florus calls it, " Grecise decus," the
oriiament of Greece. Seminaries abounded in which
philosophy and rhetoric were publicly taught by learned
professors, and strangers resorted to them from all quar-
ters to perfect their education. Hence the remark of the
Roman poet, Horace, "Non cuivis homini contingit adire
Corinthum," — ■' It does not fall to the lot of every one to
visit Corinth," The lustre, however, which this famous
city derived from the nnmber and genius of its inhabit-
ants, was greatlj"" tarnished by their debauched manners.
Strabo informs us that, " in the temple of Venus at Co-
rinth, there were more than a thousand harlots, the slaves
of the temple, who, in honor of the goddess, prostituted
themselves to all comers for hire, and in consequence of
these the city was crowded and became wealthy." Lib.
8. p. 581. It is accordingly known that lasciviousness
was carried to such a pitch at Corinth, that the appellation
of a Curinthiaii, given to a woman, imported that she was
a prostitute.
Such was the state of Corinth, when the great apostle
of the Gentiles came to preach the gospel there, in the
year of Christ, 52. See Acts 18. Here he continued
nearly two years, encouraged by the divine presence
and blessing upon his ministry, converting numbers to
the faith of Christ, whom he formed into a Christian
church ; and to whom after his departure, he wrote his
two Epistles. (See Corintuians.)
About A. D. 268, the Heruli burned Corinth to ashes.
In 525, it was again almost ruined by an earthquake.
About 1180, Roger, king of Sicily, took and plundered it.
Since 1158, it was till lately under the power of the
Turks ; and is so decayed, that its inhabitants amount to
no more than about fifteen hundred, or two thousand ;
half Mahometans, and half Christians. A late French
writer, who visited this country, observes, " When the
Caesars rebuilt the walls of Corinth, and the temples of
the gods rose from their ruins more magnificent than
ever, an obscure architect was rearing in silence an edifice
which still remains standing ainidst the ruins of Greece.
This man, unknown to the great, despised by the multi-
tude, rejected as the offscouring of the world, at first
associated with himself only two companions, Crispus
and Gains, with the family of Stephanas. These
were the humble architects of an indestructible temple,
and the first believers at Corinth. The traveller surveys
the site of this celebrated city ; he discovers not a vestige
of the altars of paganism, but perceives some Christian
chapels rising from among the cottages of the Greeks.
The apostle might still, from his celestial abode, give the
salutation of peace to his children, and address them in
the words, ' Paul to the church of God, which is at Co-
rinth.'" — Jones; Watson.
CORINTHIANS, (Epistles to.) St. Paul left Corinth,
A. D. 53 or 54, and went to Jerusalem. From Ephesus
he wrote his first Epistle to the Corinthians, in the begin-
ning of A.'D. 56. In this epistle he reproves some who
disturbed the peace of the church, complains of some
disorders in their assemblies, of law-suits among them,
and of a Christian who had committed incest with his
mother-in-law, the wife of his father, and had not been
separated from the church. This letter produced in the
Corinthians great grief, vigilance against the vices re-
proved, and a very beneficial dread of God's anger. They
repaired the scandal, and expressed indignant zeal against
the crime committed. 2 Cor. 7: 9 — 11.
To form an idea of the condition of the Corinthian
church, we must examine the epistles of the apostle.
The root of the disturbance, as we shall see from the
whole, related to the obligation of Judaism. The advo-
cates of it had appealed, even in Galatia, to Cephas and
James, for the sake of opposing to Paul, who had ba-
nished Jewish ceremonies from Christianity, authorities
which were not less admitted than his own. The question
itself divided all these various parties into two principal
factions : the partisans of Cephas and James were for the
law ; the friends of Paul adopted his opinion, as well as
ApoUos, who, with his adherents, was always in heart in
favor of Paul, and never wished to take part in a separation
from him, 1 Cor. 16: 12. The leaders of the party against
Paul, who declared themselves the promulgators and de-
fenders of the doctrines of Cephas and James, were, as may
be easily conceived, converted Jews, (2 Cor. 11: 22,) who
had come from different places, — to all appearance from
Palestine, (2 Cor. 11: 4,) — and could therefore boast of
having had intercourse with the apostles at Jerusalem,
and of an acquaintance with their principles. They were
not even of the orthodox Jews, but those who adhered to
the doctrines of the Sadducees ; and though they were
even now converted to Christianity, whilst they spoke zeal-
ously in favor of the law, they were undermining the
hopes of the pious, and exciting doubts against the resur-
rection, (1 Cor. 15: 35 ;) so that Paul, from regard to the
teachers, whose disciples they professed to be, was obliged
to refute them from the testimony of James and Cephas,
1 Cor. 15: 5, 7. They, proud of their own opinions,
(1 Cor. 1: 17,) not wnthout private views deprecated
Paul's authority, and extolled their own knowledge.
COR
[417]
COR
1 Cor. 2: 12 ; 2 Cor. 11: 10, 17. Violently as the contest
was carried on, they still did not withdraw from the same
place ol" assembly lor instruction and mutual edification ;
even this, however, was the cause of too many scandalous
scenes and disorders, 1 Cor. II: 17 ; 12: 13, 14.
Each party gave to the other, as much as possible, mo-
tives for ill-will and reproach, 1 Cor. 6: 1. 7: 18. 8; 1.
10: 25—28. 11; 5—10. 7: 1—25. These were the evils,
both in his own party and in that of his opponents, which
fc't. Paul had to remedy, in his fir.st epistle.
Paul, having understood the good ell'ects of his first
letter among the Corinthians, wrote a second to them,
A. D. 57, from Macedonia, and probably from Philippi.
He expresses his satisfaction at their conduct, justifies
himself, and comforts them. He glories in his suflering,
and exhorts them to liberality. Near the end of the year
37, he came again to Corinth, where he staid about three
months, and whence he went to Jerusalem. Just before
his second departure from Corinth, lie wrote his Epistle
to the Komaus, probably in the beginning of A. D. 58.^
ll''a/so!i.
CORMORANT ; (Levit. 11: 17 ; Deut. 11: 17 ;) a large
sea bird. It is about three fset four inches in length, and
four feet two inches in breadtli from the tips of the ex-
tended wings. The bill is about five inches long, and of
a dusky color ; the base of the lower mandible is covered
\iitli a naked yellowish sldn, which extends under the
throat and forms a kind of pouch. It has a most vora-
cious appetite, and lives chiefly upon fish, which it de-
vours with unceasing gluttony. It darts down very ra-
pidly upon its prey ; and its Hebrew and Greek names
are expressive of its impetuosity. The word which in
our version of Isaiah, (34; 11,) is rendered cormormit, is
the pelican. — Watson.
CORN. The generic name for grain, in the Old Testa-
ment writings, is dagen, corn, so named for its abundant
increase. In Gen. 26: 12, and Matt. 13; 8, graiii is
spoken of as yielding a hundred-fold ; and to the ancient
fertility of Palestine all authorities bear testimony. Of
the dilTerence in quantity of produce in different parts,
Wetstein has collected many accounts.
It is evident from Ruth 2: 14. 2 Sara. 17: 28, 29, &c. that
f arched corn constituted part of the ordinary food of the
sraclites, as it still does of the Arabs resident in Syria.
— Calmet.
CORNARISTS; the disciples of Theodore Cornhert,
an enthusiastic secretary of the States of Holland. He
wrote, at the same time, against the Catholics, Lutherans,
53
and Calvinisls. He maintained that every religious com-
munion needed reformation ; but he added, that no person
had a right to engage in accomplishing it without a mis-
sion supported by miracles. He was also of opinion, that
a person might be a good Christian without being a mem-
ber of any visible church. — Hc/id. Buck.
CORNELIUS ; centurion of a cohort, belonging to the
legion surnamed Italian, Acts 10. He was a Gentile ;
one who feared God ; of constant devotion, and much
charity. His whole family sen-ed God, and it pleased
Goil to favor him in a miraculous manner with a know-
ledge of the gospel, through Peter, from whom he received
instruction. As the apostle was speaking, the Holy Spirit
fell upon Cornelius and his family, and they were added
to the Christian church, as the first-fruits of the Gentiles.
It deserves notice, that Julian the apostate reckons only
t«'o persons of consideration, who were converted to
Christianity on its fir.st promulgation ; — Sergius Paulus
the proconsul, and Cornelius the centurion. From this
reference, it is probable that Cornelius was a person of
greater distinction than he is usually supposed to be. —
Calmet.
CORNELIUS, a bishop of Rome, was beheaded on the
11th of September, 252, for refusing at the orders of the
emperor Gallus to sacrifice to the pagan deities.
CORNELIUS, (Elias,D.D. ,) secretary of the American
EducatiCn society, graduated at Yale college in 1813 ; and,
after studying theology, engaged in 1810, as an agent of the
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign JMissions,
in which capacity he was for one or two years very active
and successful. In September and October, 1817, he visited
the missions in the Cherokee nation. The subsequent
winter he spent in the employment of the Missionary society
of Connecticut, at New Orleans, where he was joined
by Sylvester Earned, and they labored together till the
congregation was organized and Mr. Earned invited to
becoine the minister ; after which he turned his attention
to the poor and sick, and others of the destitute. In the
spring, he returned to Andover; and July 21, 1819, was
installed as colleague with Dr. Worcester at Salem. In
September, 1820, he was appointed secretary of the Ameri-
can Education society. In the service of this institution,
he devised the plan of permanent scholarships, and met
with unexampled success in soliciting subscriptions. He
established also the Quarterly Register and Journal of the
American Education society, which he conducted for
some years, assisted HyMr. B. B. Edwards. In October,
1831, he was chosen secretary of the American Board of
Commissioners for Foreign Missions in the place of Mr.
Evaits deceased. But he had signified his acceptance of
this oflice only a few weeks, and had just entered the
new and wide field of toil for the enlargement of the king-
dom of Jesus Christ, when he was removed from the
world. Exhausted by a journey from Boston, he v;3i
taken sick at Hariford, Connecticut, February 7, and died
in that city of a fever on the brain, February 12, 1832,
aged thirty-seven.
Dr. Cornelius was enterprising, bold, and eloquent ;
though resolute, yet considerate and prudent. Of a vigo-
rous frame and determined spirit, he was capable of
meeting and surinounting great difficulties. He fell in
the fulness of his strength ; perhaps that the American
churches might not trust in man. Besides his labors in
the Quarterly Journal and the Annual Reports of the
Education society, he published a discourse on the doctrine
of the Trinity, reprinted as No. 185 of the Tract society.
— Memoir by B.B. Ednards ; Allen.
CORNER ; the extremity of any thing, according to
the Hebrews. " Ye shall not round the comers of your
head, neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard,
Lev. 19: 27. "Draw near, all ye chief fHeh. corners)
of the people." 1 Sam. 14: 38. " They have seduced
Egypt, even they who are the stay (comer) of the tribes
thereof," Isa. 19: 13. And, (Zeph. 3: 6,) ■' I have cut off
the nations, their corners are desolate." The corner some-
times signifies the most distinguished place, that part of
an edifice which is most in sight. Zechariah, speaknng
of Judah, after the return from captivity, says.
'Out of
him came forth the corner, out of him the nail," 10: 4.
This tribe shall afford corners, heads ; it shall rro<Iuce the
COS
[418]
COS
corner-stone, the Messiah. Cumer is taken likewise for the
.most letired part of a house, Prov. 21: 9. The comer of
a bed or duan (Amos 3; 12,) is the place of honor. (See
Bed.) — Calmet.
CORNET ; a wind instrument of horn, or shaped like
a hom for sounding in war, or at religious solemnities ;
but as sophar is commonly rendered trumpet, I know not
■why it IS ever rendered cornet, (Hos. 5: 8 ;) but keren or
karnah, is very properly rendered cornet, Dan. 3: 5. 7: 10.
— Brown.
CORPUS CHRISTI, (Feast of ;) a particular festival
instituted in the Roman church, in honor of the conse-
crated host, and with a view to its adoration. It owes its
origin to the vision of a nun of Liege, named JuUana,
in 1230, who, while looking at the full moon, saw a gap
in its orb ; and, by a peculiar revelation from heaven,
learned that the moon represented the Christian church,
and the gap the want of a certain festival, — that of the
adoration of the body of Christ in the consecrated host, —
which she was to begin to celebrate, and announce to the
world! In 1264, while a priest at Bolsena, who did not
believe in the change of the bread into the body of Christ,
was going through the ceremony of benediction, drops of
blood fell on his surplice ; and, when he endeavored to
conceal them in the folds of his garment, formed bloody
images of the host. The bloody surplice is still shown as
a relic at Civila Vecchia. Urban IV. published in the
same year, a bull, in which he appointed the Thursday
of the week after Pentecost, for the celebration of the
Corpus Christi feast throughout Christendom, and promised
absolution for a period of from forty to one hundred days
to the penitent who took part in it. Since then, the festi-
val has been kept as one of the greatest in the Roman
Catholic church. Splendid processions form an essential
part of it. The children belonging to the choir, with
flags, and the priests, with lighted tapers, move through
the streets in front of the priest, who carries the host in a
precious box, where it can be seen, under a canopy held
by four laymen of rank. A crowd of the common people
closes the procession. In Spain, it is customary for per-
sons of distinction to send their children, dressed as an-
gels, to join the procession ; the diflerent fraternities carry
their patron saints before the host ; astonishment and awe
are produced, as well as feelings of superstitious devotion,
by the splendor and magnificence of the procession,
by the brilliant appearance of the streamers, by the
clouds of smoke from the incBnse, and the solemn
sound of the music. The festival is also a general holiday,
in which bull fights, games, dances, and other amuse-
ments, are not wanting. In Sicily, all the liberties of a
masquerade are allowed, and passages from Scripture
history are theatrically exhibited in the streets. The
whole people are in a state of the utmost excitement, and
riot in the gratification of their carnal passions under the
sanction of religious license. — Hend. Buck.
CORRUPTION. (1.) The putrefaction of dead bodies.
Psalm 16: 10. (2.) The blemishes which rendered an
animal unfit for sacrifice. Lev. 22: 25. (3.) Sinful incli-
nations, habits, and practices, which are hateful in them-
selves, and defile and ruin men. Rom. 8: 21. 2 Pet. 2: 12,19.
(4.) Everlasting ruin. Gal. 6: 8. (5.) Uncomeliness as
of a dead body. Dan. 10: 8. (6.) Men in their mortal
and imperfect state. 1 Cor. 15: 50. The mount of Ohves
is called the 7?wunt of Corruption, because there Soloiuon
built high places or temples for abominable idols to gratify
his heathenish wives. 2 Kings 23: 13. — Brown.
CORRUPTICOLjE ; a party of Monophysites in the
sixth century, who maintained that the body of Christ was
corruptible, like that of other men, before his resurrection,
while Halicarnassus and others insisted that it was incor-
ruptible from the moment of his conception. (See Aph-
TUARTODOciTEs.) — Moshcim's Ecchsiastkol History, vol. ii.
pp. 147-8 ; Williams.
COSMOGONY, (from the Greek kosmos, the world, and
genos, generation), according to its etymology, should be
defined — the origin of the world ; but the term has be-
come, to a great degree, associated with the numerous
theories of different nations and individuals respecting
this event. Tliese hypotheses mav be divided into three
c.asses : —
1. That wliich represents, the world as eternal in form
as well as substance. Ocellus Lucanus is one of the most
ancient philosophers Who supposed the world to have ex
isted from eternity. Aristotle appears to have embraced
the same doctrine. His theory is, that not only the hea-
ven and earth, but also animate and inanimate beings in
general, were without beginning. His opinion rested on
the behef, that the universe was necessarily the eternal
effect of a cause equally eternal, such as the Divine Spirit,
which, being at once power and action, could not remain
idle. Yet he admitted that a spiritual substance was the
cause of the universe, of its motion and its form. He
says positively, in his Metaphysics, that God is an intelli-
gent spirit, incorporeal, immovable, indivisible, the mover
of all things. According to him, the universe is less a
creation than an emanation of the Deity. Plato says the
universe is an eternal image of the immutable Idea or
Type, united, from eternity, with changeable matter. The
followers of this philosopher both developed and distorted
this idea. Ammonius, a disciple of Proclus, taught, in
the sixth century, at Alexandria, the co-eternity of God
and the universe. Several ancient philosophers (as also
modems) have gone further, and taught that the universe
is one with Deity. Of this opinion were Xenophanes,
Parmenides, Melissus, Zeno of Elea, and the Megario
sect.
2. The theory which considers the matter oi the universe
eternal, but not its form, was the prevailing one among
the ancients, who, starting from the principle that out of
nothing nothing could be made, could not admit the crea-
tion of matter, yet did not believe that the world had al-
ways been in its present state. The prior state of the
world, subject to a constant succession of uncertain move-
ments, which chance afterwards made regular, they called
chaos. The Phoenicians, Babylonians, and also the Egyp-
tians, seem to have adhered to this theory. The ancient
poets, who have handed down to us the old mythological
traditions, represent the universe as springing irom chaos
vithout the assistance of the Deity. Hesiod feigns that
Chaos was the parent of Erebus and Night, from whose
union sprang the Air and the Day. He further relates
how the sky and the stars were separated from the earth,
&c. The system of atoms is much more famous. Leu-
cippus and Democritus of Abdera were its inventors. The
atoms, or indivisible particles, said they, existed from
eternity, moving at hazard, and producing, by their con-
stant meeting, a variety of substances. After having
given rise to an immense variety of combinations, they
produced the present organization of bodies. This system
of cosmogony was that of Epicurus, as described by Lu-
cretius. Democritus attributed to atoms form and size ;
Epicurus added weight. Many other systems have ex-
isted, which must be classed under this division. We
only mention that of the Stoics, who admitted two princi-
ples, God and matter, — in the abstract, both corporeal, for
they did not admit spiritual beings. The first was active,
the second passive.
3. The third theory of cosmogony makes God the crea-
tor of the world out of nothing. This is the doctrine of
the sacred Scriptures, in which it is taught with the great-
est simplicity and beauty. From its being more or less
held by the Etruscans, Magi, Druids, and Brahmins, it
would seem to have found its way as a tradition from the
regions in which it was possessed as a divine revelation.
Anaxagoras was the first who taught it among the Greeks ;
and it was generally adopted by the Romans, notwith-
standing the efforts of Lucretius to establish the doctrine
of Epicurus.
" The free-thinkers of our own and of former ages have
denied the possibility of creation, as being a contradiction
to reason ; and of consequence have taken the opportunity
from thence to discredit revelation. On the other hand,
many defenders of the sacred writings have asserted that
creation out of nothing, so far from being a contradiction
to reason, is not only probable, but demonstrably certain.
Nay, some have gone so far as to say, that from the very
inspection of the visible system of nature, we are able to
infer that it was once in a state of non-existence." We
cannot, however, here enter into the multiplicity of the
arguments on both sides ; it is enough for us to know
COS
[419]
cou
what God has been pleased to reveal, both concerning
himself and the works of his hands, Blen, and other ani-
mals, that inhabit the eartli and the seas; all Ihe immense
varieties of herbs and plants of which the vegetable king-
dom consists ; the globe oC the earth ; and the expanse of
the ocean, these we know to have been prodnced by his
power. Besides the terrestrial world, which we inhabit,
we see many other material bodies disposed around it in
the wide extent of space. The moon, which is in a par-
ticular manner connected with our earth, and even de-
pendent upon it ; the sun and the other planets, with iheir
satellites, which, lilce the earth, circulate round the sun,
and appear to derive from him light and heat ; those bo-
lUes which we call fixed stars, and consider as illuminat-
ing and cherishing with heat each its peculiar system of
planets : and the comets wliich, at certain periods, sur-
prise us with their appearance, and the nature of whose
connexion ^^^th the general system of nature, or with any
particular system of planets, we cannot pretend to have
fully discovered ; these are so many more of the Deity's
works, from the contemplation of which we cannot but
conceive the most awful ideas of his creative power.
'' Matter, however, whatever the varieties of form un-
der which it is made to appear, the relative disposition of
its parts, or the motions communicated to it, is but an in-
ferior part of the works of creation. We believe ourselves
to be animated with a much higher principle than brute
matter; in viewing the manners and economy of the low-
er animals, we can scarce avoid acknowledging even them
to consist of something more than various modifications
of matter and motion. The other planetary bodies, which
seem to be in circumstances nearlj' analogous to those of
our earth, are surely, as well as it, destined for the habita-
tions of rational, intelligent beings. The existence of in-
telhgences of a higher order than man, though infinitely
below the Deity, appears extremely probable. Of these
spiritual beings, called angcJs, we have express intimation
in Scripture (see the article Angel). But the limits of
the creation we must not pretend to define. How far the
regions of space extend, or how they are filled, we know
not. How the planetary worlds, the sun, and the fixed
stars are occupied, we do not pretend to have ascertained.
We are even ignorant how wide a diversity of forms, what
an infinity of living animated beings may inhabit our own
globe. So confined is our knowledge of creation, yet so
grand, so awful, that part which our narrow understand-
ings can comprehend.
'= Concerning the periods of lime at which the Deity ex-
ecuted his several works, it cannot be pretended that man-
kind have had opportunities of receiving very particular
information. Many have been tlie conjectiu'es, and curi-
ous the fancies ofleai-ned men, respecting it ; but, after
all. we must be indebted to the sacred writings for tlie
best information." Different copies, indeed, give difierent
dates. (See Chronology.) But though these difierent
systems of chronology are so inconsistent, and so slender-
Iv supported, vet the diflerences among them are so incon-
siderable, in compaiison with those which arise before us
^vUen we contemplate the chronology of the Chinese, the
Chaldeans, and the Egyptians, and they agree so well
with the general information of authentic history, and
M-ith the appearances of nature, and of society, that they
may be considered as nearly fixing the true period of the
rrcalion of the earth.
Uncertain, however, as we may be as to the exact time
of the creation, we may profitably apply ourselves to the
coniernplation of this immense fabric. Indeed, the beau-
iiful and multiform works around us must strike the mind
of every beholder with wonder and admiratiou, unless he
be enveloped in ignorance, a.nd chained down to the earth
with scnsuabty. These works every way proclaim the
•'.isdom, the power, and the goodness of the Creator.
Creation is a book which the nicest philosopher may study
with the deepest attention. Unlike the works of art, the
more it is examined, the more it opens to us sources of
admiration of its great Author ; the more it calls for our
inspection, and the more it demr.nds our praise. Here
every thing is adjusted in the exactcst order ; all answering
the wisest ends, and acting according to the appointed laws
ol Deity. Here the Christian is led into the most delight-
ful field of contemplation. To him every pebble become*
a preacher, and every atom a step by which he ascends
to his Creator. Placed in this beautiful temple, ani
looking around on all its various parts, he cannot help
joining with the psalmist in saying, " 0 Lord, how mani
fold are thy works ; in wisdom hast thou made them all <."
(See Eternity of God.) See Rmj and Blachmore on the Crea
lion; art. Creatio.n, Eiic. Brit. ; Derhani's Astro and Phy
sico-Theologij ; Hervet/s Mfditfitiuiis; I.a Pludie's Nature Bis
played; Stnrm^s Eejlcriions onthe JVorl.s of God ; Good's Bool
of Nature ; Divight's Theology, vol. i. ser. ii. — Hend. Buck.
COTTAGE. (See Tent.)
COTTON ; a white woolly or downy substance fovmi;
in a brown bud, produced by a shrub, the leaves of which
resemble those of the sycamore tree. The bud, which
grows as large as a pigeon's egg, tunis black, when ripe,
and divides at top into three parts ; the cotton is as white
as snow, and with the heat of the stui swells to the size
of a pullet's egg. Scripture speaks of cotton under the
Hebrew name shesh, Exod. 23: \. — Calmet.
COUCH. (See Bed.)
COUNCIL ; an assembly of ecclesiastical persons met
together for the purpose of consultation on ecclesiastical
matters. — Htnd. Buck.
COUNCIL, (EcniENiCAi. or General,) is an assembly
which has been supposed to represent the whole body of
the Christian church. It is obvious, however, that there
is room for considerable diversity of opinion as to what
constitutes a general council in the ecclesiastical sense of
the expression ; and it is no less clear that, in the proper
sense of the phrase, such a council has never been held.
The Eomanists reckon eighteen of them, Bullinger six.
Dr. Prideaux seven, and bishop Beveridge eight, which,
he says, are all the general councils which have ever been
held since the time of the first Christian emperor. Adopt-
ing Ihe number contended for by the Romish writers, they
must be all divided into two classes — Eastern and West-
ern— the former called by the emperors, the latter by the
popes. The following is the order : —
Eight Eastern CotrNciLS.
1. At Nice, in Bithynia, in the year 325, which sat
about two months, and was occasioned by the Arian he-
resy. Authors differ respecting the number of bishops
that were assembled ; Eusebius saying there were two
hundred and fifty, and Socrates that ihere were three hun-
dred and eighteen. The emperor himself honored it with
his presence, Hosius, bishop of Cordova, in Spain — a man
of great piety and learning — presided. It was at thii
council that the term homoousios, of the same substance, wa.'s
applied to the Son to express the identity of his nature
with that of the Father. The profession of the faith, called
the Nicene creed, was then clrawn up, ajd subscribed by
all, except a small number of Arians.
2. Constantinople (I.) in 381, convened by the emperor
Theodosius, in order to oppose the heresies of Sabellius,
Marcellus, Pholinus, and ApolUnaris, which were still
more or less privately taught; and to settle still more
definitely some points of the Nicene creed against the
Arians, especially bv making additions declaratorj- of be-
lief in the divinity of the Holy Spirit. At this council, a
hundred and fifty prelates were present.
3. Ephfsus, 431, consisting of two hundred bishops
assembled to judge of the Nestorian heresy, which they
condemned by a solemn sentence, confirmatory of the
sentence pronounced against Nestorius, the year before,
by pope Celestine I., in a synod held at Rome.
4. Chalcedon, 451, composed, according to some, of six
hundred ; and, according to others, of sb: hundred and
fifty bishops It condemned the errors of Eutychus, who
affirmed that there was hut one nature in Christ.
5. Constantinople (II.) in 553, convoked by Justinian)
and consisting of a hundred and sixty-five bishops. Its
principal transaction was the coudemnation of what is
called the " Three Chapters," bv which is meant the
writings of Theodore of Mopsuesta. Theodoret of Cvr,
and the Epistle of Ibas to Maris the Persian. It also
issued an anathema against Origcn, Arius, Macedoniiis
and others. ^ , „
6. Constantinople (III..) in 680, consisting of somewhere
cou
[ 420 1
COU
about two hundred prelates, renewed tlie condemnation
of the Monothelite lieresy, which asserted that there was
only one «-ill in Christ — a seiitence which had been pro-
nounced against its abettors, in a council held at Rome,
the preceding year.
7. Nice, ISl. This council, commonly called the Se-
cond Nicene, assembled at Constantinople the year before,
but was so disturbed by the violence of the Iconoclasts,
that the members were obliged to adjourn and meet else-
where. There were present three hundred and fifty
bishops, besides many monks and priests, who came to
the conclusion, on the subject of imnge-n-o/ship, that it was
relatively lawful ; the effect of which was its confirmation
and prevalence.
8. Constantinople (IV.,) in 8(i9 ; the principal business
of which was the deposition of Photius, who had intruded
into the see of Constantinople, and the restoration of
Ignatius, who hid been unjustly expelled.
Ten Western Councils.
1. Lateran (I.,) in the year 1123. It was convened by
pope Calixtus II.. who presided in person, and consisted
of three hundred bishops. It decreed that investiture to
ecclesiastical dignities was the exclusive right of the
church ; and that the practice of secular princes giving
such investiture was an usurpation. The celibacj' of the
clergy was also decreed.
2. Lateran (II.,) in 1 139, composed of nearly a thousand
bishops, under the presidency of pope Innocent II. It de-
cided on the due election of this pope, and condemned the
tenets of Peter de Brays, and Arnold of Brescia.
3. Lateran (III.,) in 1179. At this council, with pope
Alexander III. at their head, three hundred and two
bishops condemned what they were pleased to call the
" errors and impieties" of the Waldenses and Albigenses.
4. Lateran (IV.,) in 1215, composed of four hundred
and twelve bishops, under Innocent III., had for its ob-
jects the recovery of the Holy Land, reformation of
abuses, and the extirpation of heresy.
5. Lyons (I.,) in 1215, consisting of a hundred and
forty bishops, and convened for the purpose of promoting
the crusades, restoring ecclesiastical discipline, and de-
throning Frederic II. emperor of Gennany. It was
also decreed at this council, that cardinals should wear
red hats.
6. Lyons (11.,) in 127J. Tliere were five hundred
bishops and about a thousand inferier clergy present. Its
principal object was the re-union of the Greek and Latin
churches.
7. Vienne in Gaul, 1311, consisting of three hundred
bishops, who were convoked to suppress the Knights
Templars, condemn those who were accused of heresy,
and assist the Ch«stians in Palestine.
8. Florence, li'i'i — 42. It was composed of one hundred
and forty one bishops, the patriarch of Constantinople,
and the legates of the patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch,
and Jerusalem. It effected a renunciation of schism on
the part of the Greeks, and an abjuration of heresy on
the part of the Armenians.
9. Lateran (V.,) in 1512, convened by pope Julius II.,
to oppose another held by nine cardinals of high rank the
year before at Piza, with a view to bridle his wild ani-
mosity, turbulence, and contumacy. It declared that
council schismatic, abolished the pragmatic sanction, and
strengthened the power of the Roman see.
10. Trent, convoked and opened by Paul III. in 1545 ;
continued under Julius III., and, after numerous inter-
ruptions, brought to a close in 1563, under the pontificate
of Pius IV. Its object was professedly .to refonn eccle-
siastical abuses, but really to counteract and crush the
reformation. It arrived at the following conclusions,
which were enacted under the pain of anathema : —
[1.] All the books of Scripture, canonical and apocry-
phal, not excluding that of Baruch, though wanting in
the old catalogues, which arc contained in the Latin
church version, commonly called the Vulgate, are pos-
sessed of the same divine authority.
[2.] Tradition, whether it regards matters of faith or
practice, must be received with the same veneration, for-
asmuch it is the unwritten word of God.
[3.] The Holy Scriptures are only to be read and intef-
preted in and according to the Vulgate, which is the only
authentic version.
[4.] No person shall prestime, in reliance on his owB
insight and wisdom, to pervert the Holy Scriptures, to
make them favor his views of faith and morals, and con-i
trary to the sense which the church has received, and
slill receives, which alone can determine what is the true
meaning and interpretation ; or to explain them contrary
to the universal consent of the fathers.
[5.] Faith is the commencement, foundation, and root
of justification, but not altogether exclusive of good
works ; for persons who are justified increase in the
righteousness which they acquire through Christ, by
means of their observance of the commandments of God,
and the rules of the church. Justification does not consist
merely in the forgiveness of sins, but also in the renova-
tion and sanctification of the inner man through grace.
[6.] In the sacrament of the Lord's supper, after the
consecration of the bread and wine, the God-man, Jesus
Christ, is really and substantially present under the form
of bread and wine, which contains no contradiction ; fof
though, in accordance with his natural existence, he is
always in heaven, yet sacramentaKter he is present in
many other places in regard to his substance. The other
sacraments have only the virtue of sanctification when
they are used ; but that of the Lord's supper possesses i(
previous to the use ; for the apostles had not yet received
the supper from the hands of the Lord Jesus Christ, when
he assured them, — that it was his body that he commuui'
cated to them ; and it has always been the faith of the
church that immediately on the consecration, the true
body and the true blood of our Lord Jesus Christ are, to-
gether with his soul and his divine nature, present nnder
the form of the bread and wine. This takes place in
virtue of that natural union and concomitancy according
to which the flesh and blood of our risen Lord are con-
stantly united, so that under either of the forms as much
is contained as under both. By the consecration of the
bread and wine, a conversion of the substance of both into
the substance of the body and blood of Christ is effected ;
which conversion the church hath very properly denomi-
nated transubstantiation . It is on this account that the
bread and wine are to have (latrise cnltus) divine worship
paid to them.
On the subject of the general councils see L'Abbe, Ba-
ronius, Nat. Alexander, Berti, Fleury, Dnpin, Mosheim,
Jortin, and Grier.
Whatever may be said in favor of general councils,
their utility has been doubted by some of the wisest men.
Dr. Jortin says, " They have been too much extolled by
papists, and by some Protestants. They were a collection
of men who were frail and fallible. Some of those coun-
cils were not assemblies of pious and learned divines, but
cabals, the majority of which were quarrelsome, fanatical,
domineering, dishonest prelates, who wanted to compel
men to approve all their opinions, of which they them-
selves had no clear conceptions, and to anathematize and
oppress those who would not implicitly submit to their
determinations." Jortin^s Works, vol. vii. charge 2.
Councils, Provincial ox Occamona!, have been nnmeroi7s.
At Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816, a council was held for
regulating the canons of cathedral churches. The council
of Savonnieries, in 859, was the first which gave the title
of Most Christian King to the king of France ; but it did
not become the peculiar appellation of that sovereign till
1469. Of Troyes, in 887, to decide the disputes about
the imperial dignity. The second council of Troyes,
1107, restrains the clergy from marri,'ing. The council
of Clermont, in 1095. The first crusade was determined
in this council. The bishops had yet the precedency of
cardinals. In this assembly the name of pope was for
the first time given to the head of the church, exclusively
of the bishops, who used to assume that title. Here, also,
Hugh, archbishop of Lyons, obtained of the pope a con-
firmation of the primacy of his see over that of Sens.
The council of Rheims. summoned by Eugenius III. in
1148, called an assembly of Cisastriah Gaul, in which
advowses, or patrons of churches, are prohibited from
taking more than ancient fees, upon pain of deprivation
cou
[ 481
GOV
fthJ eeclesiaslical burial. Bishops, deacons, sub-deacons,
monks, and nuns, are restrained from marrying. In this
council the doctrine of the Trinity was decided ; but upon
separation the pope called a congregation, in which the
cardinals pretended they had no right to judge of doctrinal
points i that this was the privilege peculiar to the pope.
The council of Sutrium, in 1046, wherein three popes who
had assumed the chair were deposed. The council of
Clareildon In England, against Becket, held in 1164.
The council of Lombez, in the country of Albigeois, in
1200, occasioned by some disturbances on account of the
Albigenses ; a crusade was formed on this account, and
an army sent to extirpate them. Innocent III. spirited up
this barbarous war. Dominic was the apostle, the count
of Toulouse the victim, and Simon, count of Monlfort,
the conductor or chief. The council of Paris in 1210, in
which Aristotle's metaphysics were condemned to the
llaraes, lest the refinements of that philosopher should
have a bad tendency on men's minds, by applying those
pubjects to rehgion. The council of Piza, begun March
the 2d, 1109, in which Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII.
were deposed. Another council, sometimes called gene-
ral, held at Pisa, in 1505. Lewis Xll. of France, assem-
bled a national council at Tours (being highly disgusted
With the pope,) 1510, where was present the cardinal
Be Gurce, deputed by the emperor ; and it was then
agreed to convene a general councU at Pisa. — Murray's
Hist. Retig. ; Hold. Buck.
COUNSEL. God's counsel is, (1.) his purpose or de-
cree. Acts 4: 28. Isa. 45:10. Psalm 33: 11. (2.) His
will and doctrine, concerning the way of salvation to
sinful men. Luke 7: 30. (3.) The direction of his word,
the teaching of his Spirit, and the guidance of his provi-
dence. Psalm 73: 24. Rev. 3: 13. To stand in God's
counsel is to be familiar with him, and know his revealed
will and purpose. Jer. 23: 18, 22. — Brorvn.
COUNSELLOR. Christ is called the Coi/Hsc/fcc; with
him his Father deliberately fixed the whole plan of our
salvation ; and he, possessed of infinite wisdom and
knowledge, directs and admonishes his people in every
case. Isa. 9: 6. God's statutes are the saints' counsellors,
which they consult, and from which they receive direction
in every hard and difficult case. Psalm 119: 24. — Brcnrn.
COUNTENANCE. As by the countenance we mani-
fest our love, hatred, grief, joy, pleasure, and anger ; the
lifting up or shining of God's countenance denotes the mani-
festation of his favor and love ; and the hiding, frown, or
rebuke of his countenance, denotes the manifestation of his
anger in just judgments. Psalm 44: 3. and 80: 16.
Christ's countenatice as Lebanon, excellent as the cedars, is his
whole appearance in person, office, relations, and work,
which is ever delightful and glorious. Song 5: 15. The
saints cause Christ to see their countenance, when, in the
confident exercise of faith and hope, they come with bold-
ness to his throne of grace. Song 2: 14. Thou shah not
ountenance a poor man in his cause ; thou shalt not unjustly
pitv and favor him on account of his poverty. Exod.
23:'3.— Brra'/i.
COUNTRY. Heaven is called a country, in allusion
Id Canaan ; how extensive its limits ! how wholesome its
!iir of divine influeace ! how wide its prospect ; how nu-
merous its privileges and inhabitants! And it is a better
cmtntry, as its inhabitants, privileges, and employments
arc far more excellent than any on carlh. Heb. 11; 14, 16.
It is a far country, very distant from and unlmown in our
wn-Ul. Matt. 21: 37. and 25: U. Luke 19: 12. A state
of apostasy from God, whether of men in general, or of
the Gentile world, is called a far country ; it is distant
from that in which we ought to be, in it we are ignorant
of God, exposed to danger, and have none to pity or help
us. Luke 15: 13. A state or place of gross ignorance,
and wickedness is called the region and shadow of death.
Matt. 4: 16.—Bron-n.
COURAGE, is that quality of the mind that enables men
to encounter difficulties and dangers. Natural courage is
that which arises chiefly from constitution ; moral or spi-
ritual is that which is produced from principle, or a sense
of duty. Courage and fortitude are often used as syno-
nymous, but they may be distinguished thus : fortitude is
firmness of mind that supports pain ; courage is active
fortitude, thai meets dangers, and attempts to reiiel theuii
(See Fortitude.) Courage, says Addison, that grows
from constitution, very often forsakes a man when lie ha.s
occasion for it ; and when it is only a kind of instinct in
the soul, it breaks out on all occasions, without judgment
or discretion ; but that courage which arises from a sense
of duty, and from a fear of offending Him that made us,
always acts in a uniform manner, and according to the
dictates of right reason. — Ilend. Buck.
COURT ; an entrance into a palace or hou.se. (Sec
House,) The great courts belonging to the temple of
Jerusalem were three ; the first called the court of the
Gentiles, because the Gentiles were allowed to enter so
far, and no farther ; the second was the court of Israel,
because all the Israelites, provided they were purified,
had a right of admission into it j the third was that of the
priests, where the altar of burnt-od'erings stood, where
th.e priests and Levites exercised their ministry. Common
Israelites, who were desirous of offering sacrifices, were
at liberty to bring their victims as far as the inner part
of the court j but they could not pass a certain line of
separation, which divided it into two ; and they with-
drew as soon as they had delivered their sacrifices and
offerings to the priests, or had made their confession with
the ceremony of laying their hands upon the head of the
victim, if it were a sin-offering. Before the temple was
built, there was a court belonging to the tabernacle, but
not near so large as that of the temple, and encompassed
only with pillars, and veils hung with cords. — Hend.
Buck.
COURTS, (Chukch ;) among the Presbyterians, those
ecclesiastical associations of ministers and "elders, con-
sisting of sessions, presbyteries, synods, and the general
assembly, which in Scotland are considered as forming
the perfection of church government and disciphne.
Each subordinate court takes cognizance of ecclesiastical
matters within its own bounds ; and from each there is
an appeal to that which is above it in order, till the matter
is carried before the general assembly, which is the
supreme court, and the decision of which is final. — Hend.
Buck.
COURT, (Spiritual ;) a seat of ecclesiastical judg-
ment for the administration of justice in ecclesiastical
matters. In England there are six spiritual courts ; the
Archdeacon's court; the Consistory courts ; the Prerogative,
and the Arches court ; the court of Peculiars, and the court
of Delegates.
These courts proceed according to the civil and canon
laws, by citation, libel or articles, answer upon oath,
proofs by witnesses and presumptions, definitive sentence
without a jury, and by excommunication for contempt of
sentence. In times of intolerance, many acts of the most
cruel enormity were committed in these courts. — Hend.
Buck.
COVEL, (Lemuel,) a Baptist minister of distinguished
usefulness, was a native of the state of New York. His
life was chiefly spent in missionary labors in New Eng-
land, New York, and Canada. He commenced his mi-
nistry under great disadvantages, and most of his life
was obliged to labor, like Pattl, working with his ow n
hands ; yet such were the astonishing powers of his mind
that he became one of the most distinguished men of his
denomination. His voice was clear and majestic ; his
address, manly and engaging; his doctrine, salvation by
the cross ; and his preaching of the most solid, perspi-
cuous and interesting kind. His spirit resembled that
of the excellent Pearce. He lived the religion he pro-
fessed ; and wherever he was known was highly and
universally esteemed. He died suddenly in Upper Ca-
nada, 1806. in the meridian of life and usefulness, but in
the triumphs of holy faith. — Benedict.
COVEi>fANT ; in ordinary life, a contractoragreeme.it
between two or more parties on certain terms. In the^n
logj', it is used either in the scriptural, or in a systematic
and popular acceptation.
1. In the Scriptures, when employed to designate a
transaction between God and man, it uniformly deno'ia
an arrangement, disposition, or institution, according w
which the divine favor is dispensed to those with whom u
is made. It is represented, not as a contract or bargam,
CO V
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cov
in virtue jf which, on the ground of something done by
man, its blessings are to be communicated ; but as a free
and voluntary constitution on the part of Jehovah, con-
sisting of a deed or grant of blessings, and the particular
mode or tenure of their conveyance. Besides minor ar-
rangements of this description, the Bible exhibits two
primary covenants or dispensations, (Gal . 5 : 21 — 2(5,) which
it denominates the first and second, (Heb. 8: 7,) and the
old and new covenants, verse 13. Of these, the first or old
covenant is expressly stated to be that which God made
with the children of Israel, when he took them to be a
peculiar people to himself, and is the same that is com-
monly called the Mosaic or Sinai covenant, because
given to Moses on mount Sinai. It was a covenant of
peculiarity, by which the whole of the Israelites became
what no other nation of this world, before or since, has
been — the peculiar people of God, or a kingdom governed
immediately by God, and whose visible rulers and
judges were to have no legislative power, but were to act
merely as vicegerents of Jehovah, and execute his laws.
The great moral code, which is binding on all mankind,
at all times, and under all circumstances, and the specific
enactments of which are only so many expressions of that
love to God and man which is essential to the well-being
of creation, was laid as the basis of this constitution, and
on this account it is frequently called tlie law : regular
forms of divine worship were appointed ; a regular priest-
hood separated for its perlbrmance ; and the requisite civil
and political institutes ordained. The whole, while ad-
mirabl5' adapted to answer every purpose of existing
legislation and government, had a prospective or prefigu-
rative reference to a future and superior dispensation ; or
the second and new covenant, which was instituted by
the Lord Jesus Christ, ratified by the shedding of his
blood, and is the gracious charter or instrument according
to which God has revealed it to be his pleasure to dispense
the sovereign blessings of his mercy to sinners of all
nations under heaven. Between these two dispensations
there are several striking and important points of contrast.
The former was national : the latter docs not regard
any nation more than another. T!ie former was typical ;
the latter is anti-typical. The former was temporary;
the latter is eternal. The former could oidy .secure the
enjoyment of Canaan ; the latter secures tlie heavenly
inlieritance. The former could not bestow justification
or eternal life : this the latter was specially instituted to
do. The former did not preserve from apostasy, or
render obedience certain ; the latter does. See Heb.
8: fi— 13.
But though the Christian economy may be termed the
second or new covenant, in relation to the posteriority of
its establishment to that of the first and old covenant, it
has nevertheless a retrospective bearing and influence,
not only on those who lived under the Mosaic institution,
but even to the very period of the fall ; and according to
the plan of its constitution, formed in the divine mind
from eternity, and gradually developed in promises and
figures, sinners who believed the testimony of God, ajid
confided in his mercy, were absolved from guilt, and ad-
mitted to the enjoyment of the divine favor. Gal. 3: 15 —
17 ; Eom. 3: 25, 26 ; Heb. 9: 15.
2. Besides this view, which the Scriptures furnish of
the covenants, there is another which has been taken by
systematic div'mes, though they are not altogether agreed
wuh respect to it. Some speak of two, and others of
three covenants. The latter position, which is most ex-
tensively propagated, holds forth — 1. A covenant of
works, which, it is maintained, was made with Adam on
his creation, in virtue of which he was constituted the
federal head of the human race, and which, as the law of
nature, was to be binding on all his posterity. Of this
covenant, that made at Sinai is considered to have been
merely a republication. 2. A covenant of redemption, or
a covenant-engagement entered into by the Father and
the Son from eternity, with a view to the redemption of
the elect, agreeably to which the Father constituted the
Son their Head and Redeemer ; and the Son voluntarily
undertook their redemption, and became their sponsor or
surety. 3. A covenant of grace, which is a compact or
agreement between God and elect sinners, in which God,
on his part, declares his free good-will concerning eternal
salvation, and every thing relative thereto, freely to be
given to those in covenant, by and for the sake of the
Mediator Christ ; and man, on his part, consenting to that
goodness by a sincere faith. See Witsius, Boston, and
Strong, on the Covenants ; and RnsseVs Familiar Survey of
the did and New Covenants ; Ilend. Buck.
COVENANT, in ecclesiastical history, denotes a con-
tract or convention agreed to by the Scotch, in the year
1638, lor maintaining their religion free from innovation.
In 15a 1, the general assembly drew up a confession of
faith, or national covenant, condemning episcopal govern-
ment, which was signed by James I., and which he en-
joined on all his subjects. It was again subscribed in
1590 and 1596. The subscription was renewed in 1638,
and the subscribers engaged by oath to maintain religion
in the same state as it was in 1580, and to reject all inno-
vations introduced since that time. This oath annexed
to the confession of faith, received the name of the cove-
nant.— Hcnd. Bud,-.
COVENANT, (Solemn League and ;) a compact esta-
blished in the year 1643, which formed a bond of union
between Scotland and England. It was sworn and sub-
scribed by many in both nations, who hereby solemnly
abjured [lopery and prelacy, and combined together for
their mutual defence against the imposition of these evils.
It was approved by the parliament and assembly at West-
minster, and ratified by the general assembly of the kirk
of Scotland, in 16-15. King Charles I. disapproved of it
when he surrendered himself to the Scotch army, in 1646 ;
but in 1650, Clinrles II. declared his approbation both of
this and the national covenant by a solemn oath ; and in
August of the .'-'ame year, made a further declaration at
Dunfermline to the same purpose, v/hich was also renewed
at Scoone, in 11)51. The league was ratified by parlia-
ment in this year, and subscription to it required by
every member, without which the constitution of the
parliament was declared null and void. It produced a
serious distraction in the subsequent history of that country,
and was voted illegal by parliament, and provision made
against it. — Encyc. Brit. ; Hend. Buck.
COVENANTERS; those who subscribed to the cove-
nant of 1638. The name is still usually given in Ireland
to the Cameronians, (which see.) — Hcnd. Bvclc.
COVENANTING, (Pekson.m, ;) a solemn transaction
by which many pious and devoted Christians have dedi-
cated themselves to the service of God. Such bonds or
covenants, written and subscribed with their own hands,
have been found among their papers after their death,
and it cannot be denied, that most of them are exceedingly
edifying; but instances have also been known of persons
abusing this custom for purposes of superstition and self-
righteousness, and of some who have gone so far as to
write and sign such a document with their own blood.
—Fiend. Buck.
COVER. God covers himself nnth a cloud when he
withholds the favorable smiles of his providence and
presence, and manifests his just wrath and indignation.
Lum. 3: 44. God covered the Jewish propliets, rulers, and
seers, when he rendered them stupid, wretched and ccr.
temptible. Isa. 29: 10. God covers with a robe of right-
eousness, and covers sin, when, through the imputation of
the Savior's obedience and suffering, he fully and irre-
vocably forgives it. Isa. 61: 10. Psalm 32: 1. Rom. 4: 7.
Men coiner their own sin when they deny, excuse, ex-
tenuate, or defend it. Prov. 28: 13. Men cover the mis of
others when they forgive injuries done them, and hinder
others' faults from being publicly known. Prov. 10: 12.
One's covering his own head, face, or lips imports shame,
grief and perplexity. Jer. 14: 3. 2 Sam. 19: 4, and 15: 30.
To have one's face, covered by another, imports condemna-
tion to death. Esth. 7: 8. Seraphim covering their fate
and feet with their wings, are angels and ministers unable
to behold the divine glory that shines in the person and
office of Christ, and blushing at their best works before
him. Isa. 6: 2. To be covered ■with a cloud; anger, shame,
confusion, horror, ashes, violence, is, through the anger of
the Lord, to be reduced to a most wretched and shameful
condition, and to be punished for oppression of others.
Lam. 2: 1. Ezek. 7: 18. Hah. 2: 17. Obad. 10. Ps. 89: 45.
cow
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CRA
The Je\('s covered with a covering not of GoiTs spirit : they
depended on the assistance of the Egj'plians, contrary to
Ihe will of God. Isa. 30c 1. The face covering and veil
spread over all nations, is the gross ignorance and sen-
tence of coudemnalion wliich lay on the Gentile world.
Isa. 25: 7. — Bron-ti.
COVERDALE, (Miles,) one of the earliest English
reformers, was born in Yorkshire, in 1187, was educated
at Cambridge, and went abroad on becoming a Protestant.
He assisted Tyndal in his Version of the JBible, and in
1535, published a complete translation. In 1551, after
having been almoner to queen Catharine Parr, he Was
promoted to the sec of Exeter. In the reign of JMary, he
retired to the comment, but returned on the accession of
Elizabeth. He died in 15(58, or, according to some ac-
counts, in 1580. Bishop Coverdale was a great and good
man — Davenport.
COVERT. Jesus Christ is a covert to his people : by
his blood, his love, his power, and providence, he covers
Iheir crimes and infirmities, protects them from the
wrath of God, the dominion of sin, and the rage of devils
and men. Isa. 4: 6, and 32: 2. — Broivn.
COVETOUSNESS ; an unreasonable desire after that
we have not, with a dissatisfaction with what we have.
It may further be considered as consisting in, 1. An
anxious carking care about the things of this world. 2.
A rapacity in getting. 3. Too frequently includes sinister
and illegal ways of obtaining wealth. 4. A tenacious-
ness in keeping. It is a vice which marvellously prevails
upon and insinuates into the heart of man, and for these
reasons : it often bears a near resemblance to virtue ;
brings with it many plausible reasons ; and raises a man
to a state of reputation on account of his riches. " There
cannot be," as one observes, '■' a more unreasonable sin
than this. It is unjust ; only to covet, is to wish to be
unjust. It is cruel ; the covetous must harden themselves
against a thousand plaintive voices. It is ungrateful ;
such forget their former obligations and their present
supporters. It is foolish ; it destroys reputation, breaks
the rest, unfits for the performance of duty, and is a con-
tempt of God himself: it is unprecedented in all our
examples of virtue mentioned in the Scripture. One,
indeed, spoke unadvisedly with his lips ; another cursed
and swore ; a third was in a passion ; and a fourth com-
mitted adultery ; but which of the saints ever lived in a
habit of covetousness ? Lastly, it is idolatry, (Col. 3: 5,)
the idolatry of the heart ; where, as in a temple, the mi-
serable wretch excludes God, sets up gold instead of him,
and places that confidence in it which belongs to the
Great Supreme alone." Let those who live in the ha-
bitual practice of it consider the judgments that have been
inflicted on such characters, (Josh. 7: 21 ; Acts 5. ;) the
misery with which it is attended ; the curse such persons
are to society ; the denunciations and cautions respecting
it in the holy Scripture ; and how eflisctually it bars men
from God, from happiness, and from heaven. — Scott's
Essays, 72, 73 ; Soufh's Sermons, vol. iv. ser. 1 ; Robinson's
Moral Exercises, ex. iv. ; Saurin's Sermons, vol. v. ser. 12;
E/i <(. Trans. ; llend. Buck.
COWPER, (WiLLUM, Esq.,) the celebrated author of
the Task, was born at Berkhamstead, in Hertfordshire,
November 26, 1731, and was Ihe son of the rector of that
place. His constitution was highly delicate, and his
feelings nervously susceptible. It is no wonder, therefore,
that he endured so much from the tyranny of his seniors
at Westminster school, as to inspire him with a disgust
of all such public establishments ; a disgust which he
afterwards forcibly expressed in his poem of Tirocinium.
He was articled for three years to an attorney, and subse-
quently studied at the Temple, but seems to have acquircil
no great relish for legal knowledge. So extreme was his
dread of being placed in any conspicuous situation, that
being unexpectedly called on to attend at the bar of the
house of lords, as clerk ol' the journals, his agitation of
mind not only compelled him to resign liis post, but ter-
minated in insanity. That disorder was heightened by his
sense of sin, \rithout any clear ideas of the way of salva-
tion. In this state of mind he repeatedly attempted
suicide, but by a most merciful providence his attempts
were defeated. He was placed under the care of the
excellent Dr. Cotton, by whose tender assiduities his mind
■was soothed, and led to the Imowledge of the Savior. A
correct Understanding of Romans, 3: 25, 26, accompa-
nied with the spirit of faith, opened the heart of Cowpcr
to a flood of holy peace, hope, and joy. From this time,
his health began rapidly to improve. After he recovered,
he took up his residence, in 1765, as an inmate with the
Rev. Mr. Unwin of Huntingdon. That gentleman died
in 1767, but Cowper continued to reside with his widow,
at Olney in Buckinghamshire, and Weston in North-
amptonshire, till her death in 1796. It was at Olney, his
acquaintance commenced with the Rev. John Newton ;
whose friendship, as well as th:it of Mrs. Unwin, was the
source of great comfort to him under his distressing nervous
malady, which haunted his delicate spirit to the last.
From 1773 to 1778, and from 1794 till his decease, which
took place at Dereham in Norfolk, April 25, 1800, with
little intermission he suflered again under the scourge of
insanity.
In the mean while, however, he gained imperishable
fame by his writings. His first appearance as an author,
excepting a few papers to the Connoisseur, and some
hymns to the Olney collection, was in 1782, when he
published the first volume of his poems. Tlie second,
containing the Tasl;, appeared in 1784. Of his subse-
quent works, the principal is, a blank verse translation
of Homer, which has not become popular. It is a curious
fact, that his humorous ballad of John Gilpin was written
while he was a prey to the deepest melanclioly. His
Letters, which are models of that kind of composition,,
have been given to the world since his death. Cowper is
a poet of varied powers ; he is by turns playful and pa-
thetic, tender and sarcastic ; in some instances, he rises
to sublimity ; and in picturesque delineation he has no
rival but Thomson, and he generally surpasses him in
elegance. His other characteristics are simplicity, indi-
viduality, transparency of ideas, bold origiBality, singular
purity, and experimental Christian piety. All his poem.s
bear marks of his mature authorship, his accurate rather
than extensive scholarship, and his imwearied de- re to
benefit mankind. His Christian life, though oppressed
by disease, was pure, useful and lovely ; and even wl le
suffering under the deranged idea that he was an exception
to God's general plan of grace — a deranged idea which
hung like a cloud over his soul during the last years of
his life — it is delightful to perceive that it had no tendency
to lead him aside from the path of rectitude, or to relax in the
least his efforts to maintain the life of religion in his soul.
His last accents were those of most perfect and touching
acquiescence in the will of God, with whom, we doubt
not, his harassed spirit is now at rest. What a moment
was that which dispelled forever its gloom! — Taylor's Life
of Corvper ; Davenport.
CRABBE, (Geokge,) one of the most popular of
modern British poets, was born in 1754, at Aldborough,
in Suffolk. He displayed a taste for poetry at an early
age, and was finally induced to give up the study of
medicine and devote himself to belles lettres. He went
to London at the age of twenty-four, and gained the
friendship of Edmund Burke, at whose recommendation
he published, in 1781, his poem of The Librari". This
was quickly followed by The Village, which gained for
him the high approbation of Dr. Johnson. The study of
theology for a long time withdrew Mr. Crahbe almost
entirely from his poetic labors. After an interruption
of neariy twenty yeai-s, he published a collection of poems,
CRA
1424]
CRE
which was very successful. This was followed by The
Borough, in 1810 ; Tales, in 1815 ; and Tales of the Hall,
in 1819. He died in 1832. His works have been ex-
ceedingly popular, and have gone through many editions.
Every thing about him is simple, and characteristic ; and
although he is sadly wanting in evangelical views, and
in religious elevation, he has been described with much
felicity as the poet of nature and the anatomist of the
human soul. — Davenport.
CRACKNELS ; a sort of hard cakes or buns. 1 Kmgs
14: ■i.—Bronm.
CRAMER, (John Andrew,) a German theologian and
writer, was bom at Josephstadt, in Saxony, in 1723 ; and,
with the exception of three years, resided in Denmark
from 1754 to 1788, in which latter year he died. He was
invited to Denmark by the sovereign, and, at the time of
his decease, was chancellor of the university of Kiel. He
translated Bossuet's Universal History, the Homilies of
St. Chrysostom, and the Fsalms of David in verse ; and
wrote the Northern Spectator, three vols. ; Sermons,
'.venty-two vols. ; and Poems, three vols. Eminent in
many ways, it is as a votai7 of the muses that he is
most famous ; Germany ranks him among her best lyric
poets. — Davenport.
CRANE ; a tall and long-necked fowl, which according
to Isidore takes its name from its voice, which we imitate
in mentioning it. The prophet Jeremiah mentions this
bird as intelligent of the seasons by an instinctive and
invariable observation of their appointed times, (8: 7.)
The same thing is noticed by Aristophanes and Hesiod ;
the latter of whom says, " When thou hearest the voice
of the crane, clamoring annually from the clouds on
high, recollect that this is the signal for ploughing, and
inilicates the approach of showery winter." — Cahmt ;
Atbott ; Eiinj. Amer.
CRANMER, (Tho.mas,) a celebrated English reformer,
was the son of a country gentleman. He was bom at
Aslacton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1489, and was edu-
cated at Jesus college, Cambridge, where, in 1523, he
Decame reader of the divinity lecture. For his rise, he
was indebted to an opinion which he chanced to give to
Gardiner and Fox, that the best way to settle the ques-
tion relative to the king's divorce would be to refer it to
the universities instead of to the pope. Henry instantly
made him his chaplain, ordered him to write on the sub-
ject, and subsequently employed him in negotiations at
Rome, and in other parts of the continent.. On Cranmer's
return, the monarch raised him, in 1533, to the archbish-
opric of Canterbury. Thus elevated, and invested with
powerful influence, the archbishop pursued with vigor the
work of religious reformation. His enemies labored as "
strenuously to rain him ; but he was always upheld by
Henry. Being a member of the council of regency,
during the reign of Edward VI., he was enabled to pusli
forward an ecclesiastical reform with still more decisive
effect. But, unfortunately, he now displa3'ed a spirit
which has stained his othenvise amiable character, with
a deep and bloody spot. Besides being guilty of minor
acts of tyranny, he consigned to the flames, as heretics,
two unhappy beings, one of them a woman ! This was
Joan Bocher, the warrant for whose execution was in a
manner extorted from the youthful monarch, who signed
it in tears, and threw on Cranmer the moral responsibihty
of the barbarous deed. Having consented to the mea-
sures for placing lady Jane Grey on the throne, he be-
came one of the victims after the accession of Wary.
Lured by the promise not only of pardon but of royal
favor, he was induced to sigri six papers, by which he
recanted his Protestant principles, and avowed his sorrow
for having entertained them. In spite, however, of the
promises made to him, he was brought to the stake,
March 21, 1556. He had by this time recovered his
firmness, and he died with the utmost fortitude, holding
in the flames, till it was consumed, the hand which had
signed the recantation, and exclaiming, " This unworthy
hand! this unworthy hand!" His forgiving disposition,
which led him never to revenge an injury, his extensive
liberality, his services to the cause of ecclesiastical refonn,
and his courage at the hour of death, notwithstanding his
faults, have shed a lustre round the memory of Cranmer.
—Davenport ; Middleton ; Ency. Amer. ; Jones's Chris.
Biog. ; Life of Cranmer, by he Bas.
CRANTZ, or Kranz, (David,) a Moravian preacher,
■was born in Pomerania, in 1723, and resided for some
years as a missionary in Greenland, where he was much
respected for his virtues. He died, in 1777, minister of
Guadenfroy, in Silesia. He is the author of a valuable
history of Greenland ; and of a history of the Moravians. —
Davenport.
CREATION. (See Cosmogony, and Adam.)
CREATURE. By the creature (or, more properly, the
creation) which waits for deliverance from the bondage of
corruption into the glorious liberty of the children of God,
(Rom. 8: 19—23.) the apostle has by some been supposed
to mean the unrenewed heathen world; by others, the
new crealure in Christ, orChristians in general ; by others,
all mankind of all generations. By others still it is sup-
posed not to include mankind at all, but only the irrational
tribes of creation who are now subjected to degradation
and suflering in consequence of the sins of men. But
from the context it appears rather to mean the whole ma-
terial globe, which constitutes man's present residence ;
which is now subjected to imperfection, change, and decay,
but is to undergo at the last day a transmutation of quali-
ties similar to that of the bodies of just men, and become
forever incorruptible. 1 Cor. 15: 50—54. 2 Cor. 5: 1—8.
2 Pet. 3. Rev. 21. If any man be in Christ, he is a new
creature, (2 Cor. 5: 17.) that is, if any man becomes a
Christian, a new disposition is produced within him, which
transformshis whole character.— p!(?/er's Works, vol. ii. 322.
CREDITOR. God is represented as our creditor; to
him we, as creatures, owe our existence, and all we have ;
to him, as sinners, we owe satisfaction for our infinite of-
fences ; and the more he forgives us, the more we ought
to love him. Luke 7: 41— 43.— Brown. - „ . ,
CREED ; a form of words in which the articles of faith
are comprehended. It is derived from the Latin credo (I
believe), with which the apostles' creed begins. In the
Eastern church, a summary of this sort was called mathe-
ma (the le.sson), becaitse it was learned by the catechu-
ORE
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CRI
mens ; graphe (the writing), or kanbii (the rule). But the
most common name in the Greek church was sumbolon, or
symbol, which term has also passed into the West. Hence
creeds and confessions are commonly called symbolical
books.
The most ancient form of creeds is that which goes un-
der the name of the Apostles' creed (see below); besides
this, there are several other ancient forms and scattered
remains of creeds to be met with in the primitive records
of the church; as, 1. The form of apostolical doctrine
collected by Origen.^2. A fragment of a creed pre-
served by Tertullian. — 3. A remnant of a creed in the
works of Cyprian. — 4. A creed composed by Gregory
Thaumaturgus for the use of his own church. — 5. The
crepd of Lucian, the martyr. — 6. The creed of the apostoli-
cal constitutions. Besides these scattered remains of the
ancient creeds, there are extant some perfect forms, as
those of Jerusalem, Csesarea, Antioch, <fcc. — Hend. Buck.
CREED, (Apostles'.) is a formula or summary of the
Christian faith, drawn up, according to Euffinus, by the
apostles themselves ; who, during their stay at Jerusalem,
soon after our Lord's ascension, agreed upon this creed as
a rule of faith. Baronius and others conjecture that they
did not compose it till the second year of Claudius, a little
before their dispersion ; but there are many reasons which
induce us to question whether the apostles composed any
such creed. For, 1. Neither St. Luke, nor any other
writer before the fifth century, make any mention of an
assembly of the apostles for composing a creed. — 2. The
fathers of the first three centuries, in disputing against the
heretics, endeavor to prove that the doctrine contained in
this creed was the same which the apostles taught ; but
they never pretend that the apostles composed it. — 3. If
the apostles had made this creed, it would have been the
same in all churches and in all ages; and all authors
would have cited it after the same manner. But the case
is quite otherwise. In the second and third ages of the
church, there were as many creeds as authors ; and the
-same author sets down the creed after a difl^erent manner
in several places of his works ; which is an evidence that
there was not, at that time, any creed reputed to be the
apostles'. In the fourth century, Euffinus compares toge-
ther the three ancient creeds of the churches of Aquileia,
Rome, and the East, which differ very considerably. Be-
sides, these creeds differed not only in the terms and ex-
pressions, but even in the articles, some of which were
omitted in one or other of them ; such as those of the de-
scent into hell, the communion of the saints, and the life ever-
lasting. From all which it may be gathered, that though
this creed may be said to be that of the apostles, in regard
to the doctrines contained therein, yet it cannot be referred
to them as the authors of it. Its great antiquity, however,
may be inferred from hence, that the whole form, as it now
stands in the English liturgy, is to be found in the works
of Ambrose and Ruffinus ; the former of whom flourished
in the third, and the latter in the fovtrth century. Chris-
tians did not publicly recite the creed, except at baptisms,
which, unless in cases of necessity, were only at Easter
and Whitsuntide. The constairt 'repeating of it was not
introduced into the church till the end of the fifth century ;
about which time Peter Gnaphius, bishop of Antioch,
prescribed the recital of it every time divine service was
performed. See King's History of the Apostles' Creed ; and
Barrow's Exposition of it in his JVbrks, vol. ii. — Hend.
Buck.
CREED, (Athanasian;) a formulary or confession of
faith, long supposed to have been drawn up by Athana-
sius, bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century, to justify
himself against the caluinnies of his Arian enemies; but
it is now generally allowed not to have been his. Dr.
Waterland ascribes it to Hilary, bishop of Aries. This
creed obtained in France about A. D. 850, and was re-
ceived in Spain and Germany about one hundred and
eighty years later. We have clear proofs of its being
sung alternately in the English churches in the tenth cen-
tury. It was in common use in some parts of Italy in 960,
and was received at Rome about 1014. As to the Greek
and Oriental churches, it has been questioned whether
they have ever received it, though some writers are of a
contrary persuasion. The Episcopal churches in the United
51
States have rejected it. As to the matter of it, it is given
as a summary of the true orthodox faith. Unhappily,
however, it has proved a fruitful source of unprofitable
controversy. See Dr. Waterland's Critical History of it. —
Hend. Buck.
CREED, (NicENE ;) a formulary of Christian faith ; so
called, because it is a paraphrase of that creed which was
made at the first general council of Nice. This latter was
drawn up by the second general council of Constantinople,
A. D. 381, and therefore might be more properly styled the
Con.stantinopolitan creed. The creed was carried by a
majority, and was admitted into the church as a barrier
against Arius and his followers.
The three creeds above mentioned are used in the pub-
lic offices of the church of England, and subscription to
them is required of all the established clergy. Subscrip-
tion to these was also required of the dissenting teachers
by the toleration act ; but from which they are now re-
lieved by 19 George III.— Hend. Buck.
CRESCENS; a companion of Paul, (2 Tim. 4: 10.)
who is thought by Eusebius and others to have preached
in Gaul, and to have founded the church of Vienne, in
Dauphiny. — Calmel.
CRETE ; a large island, now called Candia, in the Me-
diterranean, (1 Mac. 10: 67.) almost opposite to Egypt ;
and it may be considered as having been originally peo-
pled from thence, probably by a branch of the Caphtorim.
The Cretans afiected the utmost antiquity as a nation, and
distinguished themselves as EteocreteiKes, " true Cretans."
Homer celebrates this island as famous for its hundred
gales, which Virgil (iEneid. iii.) seems to refer to cities;
but in the Odyssey, Homer calls it " ninety-citied." Be-
ing surrounded by the sea, its inhabitants were excellent
sailors, and its vessels visited all coasts. They were also
famous for archery, which they practised from their in-
fancy. But the glory of Crete was Minos the legislator,
the first, it is said, who reduced a wdd people to regularity
of life ; and in order to effect this the more cornpletely, he
retired during nine years into the cavern of Jupiter. Alter
nine years, Minos established reUgious rites; and these
and other usages of Crete were copied by the Greeks.
The Cretans were one of the three K's against whose
unfaithfulness the Grecian proverb cautioned: Kappado-
cia, Kilicia, and Krete. It appears, also, that the character
of this people for lying was thoroughly established in an-
cient times; for in common speech, the expression "to
cretanise," signified to tell lies ; which contributes to ac-
count for that detestable character the apostle (Titus 1:
12.) has given of the Cretans, that they are " always liars."
This was not only the opinion of Epimeuides, from whom
Paul quotes this verse, but of Callimachus, who has the
same words. AVhen Epimenides adds, that "the Cretans
are savage beasts," or fierce beasts, " and gor-bellies," —
bellies which take a long time in being filled — he completes
a most disgusting description. Polyhius represents them
as disgraced by piracy, robbery, and almost every crime,
and Paul charges Titus to rebuke them sharply, and in
strong terms, to prevent their adherence to Jewish fables,
human ordinances, and legal observances.
Crete was taken by the Romans under 3Ietellus, hence
called Creticus, after a vigorous resistance of above two
years, (A. D. 66.) and, with the small kingdom of Cj'rene,
on the coast of Libya, formed a Roman province. In the
reign of the emperor Leo, it had twelve bishops, subject to
Constantinople. In the reign of Michael II. the Saracens
seized it, and held it, until, after a hundred and twenty-
seven years, they were expelled by the emperor Phocas.
It remained under the dominion of the emperor, till Bald-
win, earl of Flanders, being raised to the throne, rewarded
Bonifacio, marquis of Blontserrat, with it, who sold it to the
Venetians, A.D. 1194. Under their government it flou-
rished greatly ; but was unexpectedly attacked by the
Turks, A. D. 1643, in the midst of peace. The siege last-
ed twenty-four years, and cost the Turks two hundred
thousand men. 'it is now subject to the Turks, and, con-
sequently, is impoverished and depopulated. In many
places it is unhealthy. — Cahntt.
CRIME; a volun'tary breach of any known law. Ejiilts
result from human weakness, being transgressions ol the
rules of duty. Crimes proceed from the wickedness ol tne
CEO
[426 ]
CRO
fleart, being actions against the rules of nature. (See Pu-
nishment, and Sin). — Hend. Buck.
CRISP, (Dr. Tobias ;) a divine of the seventeenth cen-
tury, born, 1600, died rector of Brinkvvorth, 1642. His
life was distinguished by charily, piety, humility, and puri-
ty. He was, however, fond of expressions which alarm,
and paradoxes which astonish ; and perplexed himself
much about the divine purposes. He did not distinguish,
as he ought, between God's secret will in his decrees, and
his revealed will in his covenant and promises. The root
of his error seems to be this: — he viewed the union be-
tween Christ and the believer to be of such a kind as actu-
ally to make a Savior of the sinner, and a sinner of the
Savior. He speaks as if God considered the sinner as do-
ing and suffering what Christ did and suflered ; and Christ
as having committed their sins, and as being actually
guilty of them. (See Antinomians, and Neo.to.mians.) —
Crisp's Sermons, edited by Dr. Gill ; Bogue and Beimel's
History of Dissenters, vol. i. p. 400 ; Heml. Buck.
CRISPUS, chief of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth,
was converted and baptized by Paul, (Acts 18: 8.) about
A. D. 52. 1 Cor. 1: 14. Some affirm that Crispus was
bishop of jEgina, an island near Athens. The Greeks
observe his festival, October 4. — Calmet.
CRITICISM. (See Biblical Criticism.)
CROCODILE. (See Leviathan.)
CROISADES. (See CRtisADEs.)
CROISIERS; a religious order, founded in honor of
the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress
Helena. They were, till of late, dispersed in several parts
of Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France, and
Bohemia ; those of Italy were suppressed even before the
late revolutions. These religious foUov/ the rule of St.
Augustine. They had in England the name of Crouched
Friars. — Hend. Buck.
CROOKED. A crooked nation or generation are such a.s
rebel against God, have their qualities, inclinations, and
practices quite disagreeable to the even rule of his law, and
unanswerable to their owii profession. Phil. 2: 15. Dent.
32: 5. Crooked ways are practices and customs inconstant,
uncandid, unlovely, and disagreeable to the law of God.
Prov. 2: 12. God makes men's lot or path crooked when
he inflicts on them changes from prosperity to adversity,
or from one trouble to another, and renders their condition
unsightly and disagreeable. Lam. 3: 9. Eccl. 1: 15. and
7: 12. He makes crooked places straight when he removes
every impediment, and renders a v/ork easy to his agent>;.
Isa. 45: 2. — Brown.
CROSIER ; a tall staff of silver or gold, curved at the
upper end, which is carried before bishops, abbots, and
abbesses, as an ensign expressive of their dignity, while
they are exercising the functions of their ofiSce ; and the
figure of which is also borne in their coat of arms. When
bestowing the blessing upon the people, they take the staff
into their own hands. It was originally a shepherd's crook,
the bishops being regarded as the pastors of their dioceses.
By degrees, the humble emblem became highly adorned,
and was made of costly materials. Artists, like Benveuuto
Cellini and Giovanni da Bologna, were employed to make
it. The investiture of the bisliop is indicated by the deli-
very of the crosier. Some say that the crosier was origi-
nally only a simple staff, which, from the earliest times,
has been given as an emblem of authority to judges, kings,
&c. In conformity to this explanation, St. Isidore says
that bishops bear the st.3ff because they have the right to
correct the erring, and the duty to support the weak. The
excess of splendor lavished in later times upon this instru-
ment, gave occasion to the following satirical lines : —
III ancient times, as I have been toll.
The crosier ^va3 wood, and the hishiip was gold ;
Bui now I perceive, without bein^ told,
The bistiop i^ wood, and the crosier ia gold. [fiend. Buck.
CROSS ; an ancient instrument of capital punishment.
The cross was the punishment inflicted by the Romans, on
servants who had perpetrated crimes, on robbers, assas-
sins, and rebels ; among which last .Tesus was reckoned,
on the ground of his making himself King or Messiah,
Luke 23: 1 — 5, 13 — 15. The words in which the sentence
was given were, " Thou shall go to the cross." The per-
son who was subjected to this punishment was then de-
prived of all his clothes, excepting something around tha
loins. In this stale of nudity he was beaten, sometimes
with rods, but more generally with whips. Such was the
severity of this flagellation, that numbers died under iti
Jesus was croNimed with thorns, and made the subject of
mockery ; but insults of this kind were not among the or-
dinary attendants of crucifi.xion. They were owing, in
this case, merely to the petulant spirit of the Roman sol*
diers. Matt. 27: 29. Mark 15: 17. John 19: 2, 5. The cri-
minal, having been beaten, was subjected to the further
suffering of being obliged to carry the cross himself to the
place of punishment, which was commonly a hill, near the
public way, and out of the city. The place of crucifixion
at Jerusalem was a hill to the north-west of the city. The
cross, stauros, a post, otherwise called the unpropitious or
infamous tree, consisted of a piece of wood erected perpen-
dicularly, and intersected by another at right angles near
the top, so as to resemble the letter T. The crime for
which the person suffered was inscribed on the transversa
piece near the top of the perpendicular one.
There is no mention made in ancient writers of any
thing on which the feet of the person crucified rested,
Near the middle, however, of the perpendicular beam,
there projected a piece of wood, on which he sat, and
which answered as a support to the body, since the weight
of the body might otherwise have torn away the hands
from the nails driven through them. The cross, which was
erected at the place of punishment, being there firmly
fixed in the ground, rarely exceeded ten feet in height.
The victim, perfectly naked, was elevated to the small
projection in the middle : the hands were then bound by a
rope round the transverse beam, and nailed through the
palm.
The assertion that the persons who sulTered crucifixion
were not in some instances fastened to the cross by nails
through the hands and feet, but were merely bound to it
by ropes, cannot be proved by the testimony of any an-
cient writer whatever. That the feet, as well as the hands,
were fastened to the cross by means of nails, is expressly
asserted in the play of Plautus, entitled " Mostellaria,"
compared with Tertullian against the Jews, and against
Marcion. In regard to the nailing of the feet, it may bo
furthermore observed, that Gregory Nazianzen has assert-
ed, that one nail only was driven through both of them ;
but Cyprian, (de passione,) who had been a personal wit-
ness to crucifixions, and is, consequently, in this case, the
better authority, states, on the contrary, that two nails or
spikes were driven, one through each foot. The crucified
person remained suspended in this way till he died, and
the corpse had become putrid. While he exhibited any
signs of life, he was watched by a guard ; but they left
him when it appeared that he was dead. The corpse was
not buried, except by express permission, which was some-
times granted by the emperor on his birth-day, but only to
a very few. An exception, however, to this general prac-
tice was made by the Romans in favor of the Jews, on ac-
count of Deut. 21: 22, 23; and in Judea, accordingly,
crucified persons were buried on the same day. When,
therefore, there was not a prospect that they would die on
the day of the crucifixion, the executioners hastened the
extinction of life, by kindling a fire under the cross, so as
to suffocate them with the sinoke, or by letting loose wild
beasts upon them, or by breaking their bones upon the
cross with a mallet, as upon an anvil. The Jews, in the
limes of which we are speaking, namelv, while they were
under the jurisdiction of the Romans, were in the habit of
giving the criminal, before the commencement of his suf-
ferings, a medicated drink of wine and myrrh, Prov. 31:
6. The object of this w'as to produce intoxication, and
thereby render the pains of the crucifixion less sensible to
the sufferer. This beverage was refused by the Savior,
for the obvious reason, that he chose to die with the facul-
ties of his mind undisturbed and unclouded, Matt. 27: 34.
Blark 15: 23. It should be remarked, that this sort of
drink, which was ))robably offered out of kindness, was
different from the vinegar which was subsequently offered
to the Savior by the Roman soldiers. The latter was a
mixture of vinegar and water, denominated posca, and was
a common drink for the soldiers in the Roman army, Luke
23: 35. John 19: 29.
ORO
[ 427
(J R 0
2. Crucifixion was not only the most ignominious, it was
likewise the most cruel, mode of punishment : so very
much so, that Cicero is justified in saying, in respect to
crucifixion, " Ab or.ulis, auribusqjte. et omni cogitatione homi-
num remomndum esse." The sufferings endured by a per-
son on whom this punishment is inflicted are narrated by
George Gottlieb Richter, a German physician, in a "Dis-
sertation on the Savior's Crucifixion." The position of
the body is unnatural, the arms being extended back, and
almost immovable. In case of the least motion, an ex-
tremely painful sensation is experienced in the hands and
feet, which are pierced with nails, and in the back, which
is lacerated with stripes. The nails, being driven through
the parts of the hands and feet which abound in nerves
and tendons, create the most exquisite anguish. The ex-
posure of so many wounds to the open air brings on on
inflammation, which every moment increases the poig-
nancy of the sutTering. In those parts of the body which
are distended or pressed, more blood flows through the ar-
teries than can be carried back in the veins. The conse-
quence is, that a greater quantity of blood finds its way
from the aorta into the head and stomach, than would be
carried there by a natural and undisturbed circulation.
The blood vessels of the head become pressed and swol-
len, which of course causes pain, and a redness of the
lace. The circumstance of the blood being impelled in
more than ordinary quantities into the stomach is an unfa-
vorable one also, because it is that part of the system
which not only admits of the blood being stationary, but is
peculiarly exposed to mortification. The aorta, not being
at liberty to empty in the free and undisturbed way as
formerly, the blood which it receives from the left ventri-
cle of the heart, is unable to receive its usual quantity.
The blood of the lungs, therefore, is imable to find a free
circulation. This general obstruction extends its effects
likewise to the right ventricle, and the consequence is, an
internal excitement, and exertion, and anxiety, which are
more intolerable than the anguish of death itself. All the
large vessels about the heart, and all the veins and arte-
ries in that part of the system, on account of the accumu-
lation and pressure of blood, are the source of inexpressi-
ble misery. The degree of anguish is gradual in its
increase ; and the person crucified is able to live under it
commonly till the third, and sometimes till the seventh
day. Pilate, therefore, being surprised at the speedy ter-
mination of the Savior's life, inquired in respect to the
truth of it of the centurion himself who commanded the
soldiers, Mark 15: 44. In order to bring their life to a
more speedy termination, so that they might be buried on
the same day, the bones of the two thieves were broken
with mallets, (John 19: 31 — 37 ;) and in order to ascertain
this point in respect to Jesus, namely, whether he wa^i
really dead, or whether he had merely fallen into a swoon,
a soldier thrust his lance into his side ; but no signs of life
appeared, John 19: 31 — 37.
Our Savior says, that whosoever will be his disciple
must take up his cross and follow him, (Matt. Hi: 24 ;) by
which is meant, that his disciples must be willing to sufier
for him, in any way in which God, in the course of his
providence, may call them to sutler ; even to endure mar-
tyrdom, if called to it. The cross is also often put for the
whole of Christ's sufferings, (Eph. 2: 16. Heb. 12: 2 ;)
and the doctrine of his perfect atonement. Gal. 6: 14. —
Wat SOD.
CROSS, (the sign of.) The cross was used emblema-
tically before the Christian era. Upon a multitude of me-
dals and ancient monuments are to be found crosses placed
in the bands of statues of Victory, and of figures of empe-
rors. It was also placed upon a globe, which, ever since
the days of Augustus, has been the sign of the empire of
the world, and the image of Victory. The shields, the
cuirasses, the helmets, the imperial cap, were all thus de-
corated. The cross is now the universal Christian em-
blem, being used upon the arms and banners of the soldier,
the vestments of the priest, and in the armorial bearings
of nobles. The forms of cathedrals, and often the patterns
of their pavements, are adapted to the representation of
the cross, which is also sculptured and elevated upon
tombs and sepulchres. In order to understand the mean-
ing of the sign of the cross among the first Christians, it
mu.st be kept in mind, that the cross was in their .iit o»
instrument of infaiuous punishment, like the gallows al
present, and that they assumed this sign to show that they
gloried in being the followers of Christ, notmthstandin"
the infamy which had been attempted to be thrown upon
him by the manner of his execution. When the true spirii
of Christianity began to decay, this superstition spread r.a-
pidly. The custom of making the sign of the cross in
memory of Jesus, may be traced to the third century of
our era. Constantine the Great had crosses erected in
public places, in palaces and churches. It was customary,
in his time, to paint a cross at the entrance of a house, to
denote that it belonged to a Christian. Subsequently, the
churches were, for the greater part, built in the form of
this instrument. But it did not become an object of adora-
tion until the empress Helena (Constantine's mother)
found a cross in Palestine, which was believed to be the
one on which Christ suffered, and conveyed a part of it '..)
Constantinople. This is the origin of the festival of the
finding of the cross, which the Catholic church celebrates
on the 3d of May. Standards and weapons were now or-
namented mth it; and the emperor Heraclius thought he
had recovered the palladium of his empire, when he gained
possession of a piece of the true cross, in 628, which had
fallen into the hands of the Persians in 616. In memory
of this event, the festival of the exaltation of the cross was
instituted, Heraclius having caused the cross to be erected
at Jerusalem, on mount Calvary. This festival is cele-
brated on the 14th of September. It is remarkable how
this holy relic became multiplied. Numberless churches
possessed some part of it, the miraculous power of which
was said to have been proved by the most astonishing
facts ; and many persons actually believed that it could be
infinitely divided without decreasing ! It was in vain that
the Iconoclasts, who condemned the worship of images,
attempted to overthrow the adoration of the cross. The
crucifix was considered as a principal object of worship,
in preference to the images of the saints, and in compli-
ance with the teachings of John of Damascus, was adored,
during the seventh century, in all the churches of the
East.^ That the West also 'ascribed a mysterious power
to this symbol, is evident from the use which was made
of it in the trials " by the judgment of God" in the middle
ages. There never has existed any sign which has been
so often repeated in works of art as the cross. This may
be ascribed, in part, to its form being applicable to many
more purposes tha;; those of olher emblems; such, for in-
stance, as the crescent. The distinguishing cypher of the
.Jesuits i5 rriS, which signifies In hac cnice salvs, or Jesus,
in Greek letters, and abbreviated. Crosses have been the
badge of numberless orders, military and civil. To make
the sign of the cross, is thought by many people, in Catho-
lic countries, a defence against evil spirits, evil influences,
&c. The Greeks make this sign constantly, hardly taking
a glass of raAy without signing the cross over it. In Rus-
sia, the common people never commit any act of gross
wickedness without doing the same. Catholic bishops,
archbishops, abbots, and abbesses wear a small golden
cross. The Catholic benediction is generally performed
by making the sign of the cross over the object.
In the administration of the ordinance of baptism, the
practice of making the sign of the cross on the forehead
of the person baptized, was adopted at an early period,
though not enjoined by any command, or sanctioned by
any exaiuple in Scripture. The first Christian writer Avho
mentions it, in connexion with baptism, is Tertullian, who
wrote after the middle of the second century. How melan-
choly are the effects of human superstition ! — Hend. Buck.
CROSS-BEARER, (porte-croix, cruciger ,-) in the Roman
Catholic church, the chaplain of an archbishop, or a pri-
mate, who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions.
The pope has the cross borne before him every where ; a
patriarch any where out of Rome ; and primates, metro-
politans, and those who have a right to the pallium, through-
out their respective jurisdictions. Gregory XI. forbade all
patriarchs and prelates to have it borne in the presence of
cardinals. A prelate wears a single cross, a patriarch a
double cross, and the pope a triple one on his arms. —
Hend. Bitck.
CROWN, is a term properly taken lor a cap of state
CRU
[ 428'
CRU
worn on the heads ol' sovereign princes, as a mark of regal
dignity. In Scripture there is frequent mention made of
crowns ; and the use of them seems to have been very
common among the Hebrews. The high-priest wore a
crowUj w'hich was girt about his mitre, or the lower part
of his bonnet, and was tied about his head. On the fore
part was a plate of gold, with these words engraven on it :
" Holiness to the Lord," Exod. 28: 36. 29: B. New-mar-
ried persons of both sexes wore crowns upon their wedding
day, (Cant. 3: U ;) and, alluding to this custom, it is said
that when God entered into covenant with the Jewish na-
tion, he put a beautiful crown upon their head, Ez. 1(5: 12.
The first crowns were no more than a bandelet drawn
round the head, and tied behind, as we see it still repre-
sented on medals, &c. Afterwards, they consisted of two
bandelets ; by degrees they took branches of trees of divers
k-inds, &:c.; at length they added flowers; and Claudius
Saturninus says there was not any plant of which crowns
had not been made.
There was always a difference, either in matter or form,
between the crowns of kings and great men, and those of
private persons. The crown of a king was generally a
white fillet bound about his forehead, the extremities
whereof being tied behind the head, fell back on the neck.
Sometimes they were made of gold tissue, adorned with
jewels. That of the Jewish high-priest, which is the
most ancient of which we have any description, was a fil-
let of gold placed upon his forehead, aivd iWA with a ribbon
of a hyacinth color, or azure blue. The crown, mitre, and
diadem, royal fillet and tiara, are frequently confounded.
Crowns were bestowed on kings and princes, as the prin-
cipal marks of their dignity. David took the crown of the
king of the Ammonites from oS' his head : the crown
weighed a talent of gold, and was moreover enriched with
jewels, 2 Sam. 12: 30. 1 Chron. 20: 2. The Amalekite,
who valued himself on killing Saul, brought this prince's
crown unto David, 2 Sam. 1: 10. The crown was placed
upon the head of young king Josiah, when he was present-
ed to the people, in order to be acknowledged by them, 2
Chron. 23: 1 1. Baruch says that the idols of the Babylo-
nians were golden crowns, Baruch 6: 9. Queens, too,
wore diadems among the Persians. King Ahasuerus ho-
nored Vashti with this mark of power ; and, after her di-
vorce, the same favor was granted to Esther, chap. 2: 17.
The elders, in Rev. 4: 10, are said to "cast their crowns
hefore the throne." The allusion is here to the tributary
kings dependent upon the Roman emperors. Herod took
oS his diadem in tne presence of Augustvn, till ordered to
replace it. Tiridates did homage to Nero by laying the
ensigns of royalty at the foot of his statue.
Pilate's guard platted a crown of thorns, and placed it
on the head of Jesus Christ, (Matt. 27: 29,) wilh an inten-
tion to insult him, under the character of the king of the
Jews. (See Thorn.) In a figurative sense, a crown sig-
nifies honor, splendor, or dignity, (Lam. 5: 16. Phil. 4: 1 ,)
and is also used for reward, because conquerors, in the
Grecian games, were crowned, 1 Cor. 9: 25. — Waisoit.
CRUCIFIX ; a cross, upon which the body of Christ is
fastened in elhgy, used by the Roman Catholics, to excite
in their minds a strong idea of our Savior's passion. —
Hend. Buck.
CRUCIFIXION. (See Cross.)
CRUCIGER, (Caspar,) one of the early reformers, was
born at Leipsic, in 1504, of religions parents, who took
pains with his religious as well as literary education. He
was naturally inclined to melancholy, loved retirement
and meditation, and spoke little. Collected in himself, he
was absent in company, which led his parents to suppose
him dull of understanding. This fear was soon dispelled ;
for when put under an able master, he displayed a reach
and strength of genius which surprised every one that
knew him. Nothing in human science was too difficult
for his comprehension, and his industry equalled the clear-
ness of his judgment and penetration of his mind. At the
same time he was modest, meek, and humble, patient,
chaste, and pious. He studied theology at WittenburCT
where also he became profoundly skilled in the Hebrew.
Being called to Magdeburg, he there taught with great
success and applause till 1527, when he was recalled to
Wittenburg. Here he was occupied in preaching and ex-
pounding the Scriptures with such judgment and useful-
ness, that he soon received the degree of doctor in divinity.
Botany and medicine also he studied and practised with
much pleasure. Here also he aided Luther in his trans-
lation of the Bible, and became endeared to that great
man by his probity and sound doctrine. He-was very
expert in writing, being able to write with ease and exact-
ness whatever was spoken. To this extraordinary faculty
we are indebted for many of Luther's precious remains.
His health giving way under his incessant studies and
labors, he continued to glorify God in sickness, realizing to
the last the truth of the divine promises. He died in 1548,
aged forty-four years. — Middlefon' s Evang. Biog.
CRUDEN, (Alexander,) compiler of the Concordance
to the Holy Scriptures, was born at Aberdeen, in 1704, and
educated at the Maiischal college in that city. In 1732,
he took up his stated residence in London, and engaged
as a corrector of the press, blending with this occupation
the trade of a bookseller, which he carried on in a shop
under the Royal Exchange. Here his literary attainments,
indefatigable indnstr)', and strict integrity, procured him
the esteem of several persons eminent for their wealth and
influence, through whose interference he obtained the ap-
pointment of bookseller to the queen, vacant by the death
of Mr. Matthews. His Concordance first made its appear-
ance in 1737, and was dedicated to licr majesty queen
Caroline, consort of George II,, who graciously accepted a
copy of the work at the hands of the author, expressed her
great satisfaction therewith, and declared her intention of
remembering him, but lived only sixteen days after the
presentation. Her death precluded the performance of
her promise, and was a sore disappointment to poor Cru--
den, who became embarras.sed in pecuniary difliculties,
which compelled him to dispose of his stock in trade,
abandon his shop, and he was eventually confined in an
asylum for insane persons, at Bethnal Green. Recovering
the use of his mental faculties, he returned to his formeir
occupation of correcting the press. He was a member of
the Congregational church in Great Saint Helen's, under
the pastoral care of Dr. Guyse, whom he styled his " faith-
ful and beloved pastor." He lived to see a third edition
of his valuable Concordance published, in 1769 ; after
which he visited Aberdeeii, his native place, where he
continived about a year, and then returned to London,
where he closed his days, at his lodgings in Camden street,
Islington, on the 1st of November, 1770, aged seventy,
being found dead in a praying posture. Among the many-
excellencies of his character, his hberalily was none of the
least ; and the proceeds of the second and third editions of
his Conc-ordance (amoitnting to eight hundred pounds)
enabled him to gratify it to a coirsiderable extent. " Not-
'ithslanding his natural infirmities," says Mr. Alexander
Chaimers, "we cannot but venerate his character; he
was a man whom neither infirmity nor neglect could de-
base ; who sought consolation where alone it could be
found ; whose sorrows served to instruct him in the dis-
tresses of others; ntui who employed his prosperity to
relieve those, who, in ever^' sense, were ready to perish."
Gen. Biog. Dirt. ; Hnd. Buck.
CRUEL. The tender mercies of the wicked are cruel f
even their kindness ensnares and murders men's souls.
Prov. 12: 10. To breathe ovt cnieltij is to utter threaten-
iivgs, and to. delight in want of tender sympathy, and in
doing mischief. Ps. 27: 12. — Brmvii.
CRUSADE, may be appHed to any war undertaken on
pretence of defending the cause of religion, but has been
chiefly ttsed for the expeditions of the Christians against
the infidels for the conquest of Palestine.
These expeditions commenced A. D. 1096. The founda-
tion of them was a superstitious veneration for those places
where our Savior perfonned his miracles, and accomplish-
ed the work of man's redemption. Jerusalem had been
taken and Palestine conquered by Omar. This proved a
considerable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from
all quarters to perform their devotions, at the holy sepul-
chre. They had, however, still been allowed this liberty,
on paying a small tribute to the Saracen caliphs, who were
not much inclined to molest them. But, in 1064, this city
changed its masters. The Turks took it from the Sara-
cens ; and being much more fierce and barbarouSj tli»
CRU
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C R IJ
pilgrims now found they could no longer jierform their de-
votions with the same safely. An opinion was about this
time also prevalent in Europe, which made these pilgrim-
ages ifluch more frequent than formerly : it was imagined,
that the thousand years mentioned in Rev. 20. were ful-
filled ; that Christ was soon to make his appearance in Pa-
lestine to judge the world ; and consequently that journeys
to that country were in the highest degree meritorious,
and even absolutely necessary. The multitudes of pil-
grims who now flocked to Palestine, meeting with a very
rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with
complaints against those infidels, who profaned the holy
city, and derided the sacred mysteries of Christianity even
in the place where they were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII.
had formed a design of uniting all the princes of Christen-
dom against the Mahometans ; but his exorbitant en-
croachments upon the civil power of princes had created
him so many enemies, and rendered his schemes so suspi-
cious, that he was not able to make great progress in his
undertaking. The work was reserved for a meaner in-
strument. Peter, commonly called the Hermit, a native
of Amiens, in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jeiii-
salem ; and, being deeply affected with the dangers to
which that act of piety now exposed the pilgrims, as well
as with the oppression under which the Eastern Christians
now labored, formed the bold, and, in all appearance, im-
practicable design, of leading into Asia, from the farthest
extremities of the West, armies sufficient to subdue those
potent and warlike nations that now held the Holy Land
in slavery. He proposed his scheme to pope Blartin II.,
who prudently resolving not to interpose his authority till
he saw a probability of success, summoned at Placcntia a
council of four thousand ecclesiastics and thirty thousand
seculars. As no hall could be found large enough to con-
tain such a multitude, the assembly was held in a plain.
Here the pope himself, as well as Peter, harangued the peo-
ple, representing the dismal situation of their brethren in
the East, and the indignity offered to the Christian name
in allowing the holy city to remain in the hands of the in-
fidels. These speeches were so agreeable to those who
heard them, that the whole multitude suddenly and vio-
lently declared for the war, and solemnly devoted them-
selves to perform this service, which they believed to be
meritorious in the sight of God. But though Italy seemed
to have embraced the design with ardor, Martin thought it
necessary, in order to obtain perfect success, to engage the
greater and more warlike nations in the same enterprise.
Having, therefore, exhorted Peter to \nsit the chief cities
and sovereigns of Christendom, he summoned another
council at Clermont, in Auvergne. The fame of this great
and pious design being now universally diffused, procured
the attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles, and princes ;
and when the pope and the hermit renewed their pathetic
exhortations, the whole assembly, as if impelled by imme-
diate inspiration, exclaimed with one voice, " It is the will
of God !" These words were deemed so much the effect
of a divine impulse, that they were employed as the signal
of rendezvous and battle in all future exploits of these ad-
venturers. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the
utmost ardor, and a cross was affixed to their right shoul-
der by all who enlisted in this holy enterprise. At this
time, Europe was sunk in the most profound ignorance
and superstition. The ecclesiastics had gained the great-
est ascendant over the human mind ; and the people, who
committed the most horrid crimes and disorders, knew of
no other expiation than the observances imposed on Ihem
by their spiritual pastors. But amidst the abject supersti-
tion which now prevailed, the military spirit had also uni-
versally diflfused itself; and, though not supported by art
or discipline, was become the general passion of the na-
tions governed by the feudal law. All the great lords pos-
sessed the right of peace and war. They were engaged
in continual hostilities with one another : the open coun-
try was become a scene of outrage and disorder : the cities,
BtiU mean and poor, were neither guarded by walls nor
protected by privileges. Every man was obliged to de-
pend for safety on his own force, or his private alliances ;
and valor was the only excellence which was held in es-
teem, or gave one man the pre-eminence above another.
When all the canicular suoerstitions therefore were here
united in one great object, the ardor for private hostilities
took the same direction ; " and all Europe," as the princess
Anna Comnena expresses it, " torn from its foundations,
seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body upon
Asia."
AU ranks of men now deeming the crusades the only
road to heaven, were impatient to open the way with their
.swords to the holy city. Nobles, artisans, peasants, even
priests, enrolled their names ; and to decUne this service,
was branded with the reproach of impiety or cowardice.
The nobles were moved, by the romantic .spirit of the age,
to hope for opulent establishments in the East, the chief
seat of arts and commerce at that time. In pursuit of
these chimerical projects, they sold at low prices their an-
cient castles and inheritances, which had now lost all vc-
lue in their eyes. The infirm and aged contributed to the
expedition by presents and money, and many of them
attended it in person ; being determined, if possible, to
breathe their last in sight of that city where their Savior
died for them. Even women, concealing their sex under
the disguise of armor, attended the camp ; and often for-
got their duty still more by prostituting themselves to the
army. The greatest criminals were forward in a service
which they considered as an expiation for all crimes ; and
the most enormous disorders were, during the course of
these expeditions, committed by men initred to wickedness,
encouraged by example, and impelled by necessity. The
adventurers were at last so numerous, that their sagacious
leaders became apprehensive lest the greatness of the
armament would be the cause of its own disappointment.
For this reason they permitted an undisciplined multitude,
computed at three hundred thousand men, to go before
them under the command of Peter the Hermit, and Gautier
or Walter, surnamed the Monetjless, from his being a soldier
of fortune. These took the road towards Constantinople,
through Hungary and Bulgaria ; and trusting that Hea-
ven, by supernatural assistance, would supply all their
necessities, they made no provision for subsistence in their
march. They soon found themselves obliged to obtain by
plunder what they vainly expected from miracles ; and
the enraged inhabitants of the countries through which
Ihey passed attacked the disorderly multitude, and slaugh-
tered them without resistance. The more disciplined ar-
mies followed after ; and, passing the straits of Constanti-
nople, were mustered in the plains of Asia, and amounted
in the whole to seven hundred thousand men. The princes
engaged in this first crusade were, Hugo, count of Ver-
mandois, brother to Philip I., king of France ; Robert,
duke of Normandy ; Robert, earl of Flanders ; Raymond,
earl of Toulouse and St. Giles ; the celebrated Godfrey of
Bouillon, duke of Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and
Eustace; Stephen, earl of Chartres and Blois ; Hugo,
count of St. Paul ; with many other lords. The general
rendezvous was at Constantinople. In this expedition,
Godfrey besieged and took the city of Nice. Jerusalem
was taken by the confederated army, and Godfrey chosen
king. The Christians gained the famous battle of Asca-
lon against the sultan of Egypt, which put an end to Ihe
first crusade, but not to the spirit of crusading. The rage
continued for near two centuries. The second crusade, in
1144, was headed by the emperor Conrade III., and Louis
VII., king of France. The emperor's army was either
destroyed by the enemy, or perished through the treachery
of Manuel, the Greek emperor ; and the second army,
through the unfaithfulness of the Christians of Syria, was
forced to break up the siege of Damascus. The third cru-
sade, in 1188, immediately followed the taking of Jerusa-
lem by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt. The princes engaged
in this expedition were, the emperor Frederic Barhar 'ssa ;
Frederic, duke of Suabia, his second son ; Leopold, duke
of Austria ; Berthold, duke of Moravia ; Herman, marquis
of Baden ; the counls of Nassau, Thuringia, Missen, and
Holland ; and above sixty other princes of the empire ;
with the bishops of Besancon, Cambray, Munster, Osna-
burg, Missen, Passau, Visburg, and several others. In
this expedition, the emperor Frederic defeated the sultan
of Iconium : his son Frederic, joined by Guy Lusignan,
king of Jerusalem, in vain endeavored to take Acre or
Ptolemais. During these transactions. Philip Auguslus.
kin" of France, and Richard 1. king of England, joiWd
GRU
[430 1
CUB
the crusade ; by which means the Christian army consisted
of three hundred thousand fighting men ; but great disputes
happening between the kings of France and England, the
former quitted the Holy Land, and Richard concluded a
peace with Saladin. The fourth crusade was undertaken
in 1195, by the emperor Henry VI., after Saladin's death.
In this expedition, the Christians gained several battles
• against the infidels, took a great many towns, and were in
the way of success, when the death of the emperor obliged
them to quit the Holy Land and return into Germany.
The fifth crusade was published by pope Innocent III., in
1198. Those engaged in it made fruitless efibrts for the
recovery of the Holy Land ; for, though John de Neule,
who commanded the fleet equipped in Flanders, arrived at
Ptolemais a little after Simon of Montfort, Eenard of Dam-
pierre, and others, yet the plague destroying many of them,
and the rest either returning, or engaging in the petty
quarrels of the Christian princes, there was nothing done ;
so that the sultan uf Aleppo easily defeated their troops,
in 1204. The sixth crusade began in 1228 ; in which the
Christians took the town of Damietta, but were forced to
surrender it again. In 1229, the emperor Frederic made
peace with the sultan for ten years. About 1240, Richard
earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry III. king of England,
arrived in Palestine, at the head of the English crusade ;
but finding it most advantageous to conclude a peace, he
re-embarked, and steered towards Italy. In 1244, the
Karasmians, being driven out of Turkey by the Tartars,
broke into Palestine, and gave the Christians a general
defeat near Gaza. The seventh crusade was headed, in
1249, by St. Lewis, who took the town of Damietta ; but a
sickness happening in the Christian army, the king endea-
vored a retreat ; in which, being pursued by the infidels,
most of his army were miserably butchered, and himself
and the nobility taken prisoners. A truce was agreed
upon for ten years, and the king and lords set at liberty.
The eighth crusade, in 1279, was headed by the same
prince, who made himself m.aster of the port and castle of
Carthage, in Africa ; but dying a short time after, he left
his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the king of
Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and joining Philip the
Bold, son and successor of Lewis, the king of Tunis, after
several engagements with the Christians, in which he was
always worsted, desired peace, which was granted upon
conditions advantageous to the Christians ; after which,
both princes embarked to their own kingdoms. Prince
Edward, of England, who arrived at Tunis at the time of
this treaty, sailed towards Ptolemais, where he landed a
small body of three hundred English and French, and
hindered Bendochar from laying siege to Ptolemais : but
being obliged to return to take possession of the crown of
England, this crusade ended without contributing any
thing to the recovery of the Holy Land. In 1291, the
town of Acre or Ptolemais was taken and plundered by
the sultan of Egj'pt, and the Christians quite driven out
of Syria. There has been no crusade since that period,
though several popes have attempted to stir up the Chris-
tians to such an undertaking; particularly NicholEts IV.,
in 1292, and Clement V., in 1311.
Though these crusades were efiects of the most ab-
surd superstition, they tended greatly to promote the good
cf Europe. IMultitudes, indeed, were destroyed. M.Vol-
taire computes the people who perished in the different
expeditions, at upwards of two millions. Many there
were, however, who returned ; and these having conversed
•so long with people who hved in a much more magnificent
way than themselves, began to entertain some taste for
a, refilled and polished way of Ufe. Thus the barbarism
in which Europe had been so long immersed, began to
wear off soon after. The princes, also, who remained at
home, found means to avail themselves of the frenzy of
the people. By the absence of such numbers of restless
and martial adventurers, peace was established in their
dominions. They also took the opportunity of annexing
to their crowns many considerable fiefs, either by pur-
chase, or the extinction of the heirs ; and thus the mis-
chiefs which must always attend feudal governments were
considerably lessened. With regard to the bad success of
the crusaders, it was scarcely possible that any other thing
CcflVl hanpen to them, The emuerors of Constantinonle,
instead of assisting, did all in their power to disconcert
their schemes ; they were jealous, and not without reason,
of such an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they con-
sidered their true interests, they would rather have assisted
them, or at least stood neuter, than enter into alliances
with the Turks. They followed the latter method, however,
and were often of very great disservice to the western ad-
venturers, which at last occasioned the loss of their city.
But the worst enemies the crusaders had were their own
internal feuds and dissensions. They neither could agree
while marching together in armies with a view to con-
quest, nor could they unite their conquests under one go-
vernment after they had made them. They set up three
small states, one at Jerusalem, another at Antioch, and
another at Edessa. These states, instead of assisting,
made war upon each other, and on the Greek emperors ;
and thus became an easy prey to the common enemy
The horrid cruelties they committed, too, must have in-
spired the Turks with the most invincible h_atred against
them, and made them resist with the greatest obstinacy.
They were such as could have been committed only by
barbarians inflamed with the most bigoted enthusiasm.
When Jerusalem was taken, not only the numerous garri-
son were put to the sword, but the inhabitants were mas-
sacred without mercy and without distinction. No age or
sex was spared, not even sucking children. According to
Voltaire, some Christians, who had been suffered by the
Turks to live in that city, led the conquerors into the most
private caves, where women had concealed themselves
with their children, and not one of them was snfl>;red to
escape. What eminently shows the enthusiasm by which
these conquerors were animated, is their behavior after
this terrible slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead
bodies towards the holy sepulchre, and, while their hands
were polluted with the blood of so many innocent persons,
simg anthems to the common Savior of mankind. Nay,
so far did their religious enthusiasm overcome their fu-
ry, that these ferocious conquerors now burst into tears.
If the absurdity and wickedness of their conduct can be
exceeded by any thing, it must be by what follows. la
1204, the frenzy of crusading seized the children, who are
ever ready to imitate what they see their parents engaged
in. Their childish folly was encouraged by the monks
and school-masters ; and thousands of those innocents were
conducted from the houses of their parents, on the super-
stitious interpretation of these words : — Out of the mouths
of babes and sucklings hast thou perfected praise." Their
base conductors sold a part of them to the Turks, and the
rest perished miserably. See Hume's History of England,
vol. i. p. 292, &c. and vol. ii. p. 280 : Encyclopedia Britan-
nica ; and Mosheim's EccJesiastical History. — Hend. Buck.
CRUSE ; a small vessel for holding water, and other
liquids, 1 Sam. 26: 11. Our translators have rendered by
the word cruse, no less than three words, which are offered
by the Hebrew ; and which, no doubt, describe different
utensils ; though, perhaps, all may be taken as vessels for
the purpose of containing liquid, 1 Sam. 26: 11. 1 Kings
14: 3. 2 Chron. 2: 20.— Calmet.
CRY. This word is used in several senses. " The
blood of Abel crieth from the ground," where it was spilt.
Gen. 4: 10. " The cry of Sodom a.scended up to heaven,"
18: 20. The cries of the Israelites, oppressed by the Egyp-
tians, rose up to the throne of God, Exod. 3: 9. " He
looked for judgment, but behold oppression ; for righteous-
ness, but behold a cry," Isa. 5: 7. " If my land cry against
me, or the furrows likewise thereof complain," says Job,
31: 38. The force of these expressions is such, that any
explanation would only weaken them. — Calmet.
CRYPTO-CALVINISTS ; a name given, some time
after the reformation, to the favorers of Calvinism in Sax-
ony, Denmark, Sweden, &:c.^on account of their secret at-
tachment to tiie Genevan doctrine and discipline. — Hend.
Buck.
CRYSTAL. The Hebrew kerech is rendered by our
translators, crystal, (Ezek. 1: 22.) frost, (Gen. 31: 40, &c.)
and ice, Job 6: 16, &:c. The word primarily denotes ice,
and it is given to a perfectly transparent and hyaline gem,
from its resemblance to this substance. — Calmet.
CUBIT : a measure used among the ancients. The
Hebrews call it amek the mother of other measures ; in Greek,
CUD
[ 431 )
CUM
ptclms. A cubit originally was the distance from the el-
bow to the extremity of the middle finger : this is the
fourth part of a well-proportioned man's stature. The
common cubit is eighteen inches. The Hebrew cubit, ac-
cording to bishop Cumberland and M. Pelletier, is twenty-
one inches ; but others fix it at eighteen inches. The
talmudist.s observe, that the Hebrew cubit was larger by
one quarter than the Roman. Lewis Capellus and others
have asserted that there were two sorts of cubits among
the Hebrews , one sacred, the other common ; the sacred
containing three feet, the common containing a foot and a
half Moses assigns to the Levites a thousand sacred
cubits of land round about their cities, (Num. 35: 4 ;) and
in the next verse he gives them two thousand common
ones. The opinion, however, is very probable, that the
cubit varied in different districts and cities, and at difier-
ent times, &c. — Watson.
CUCKOW ; an unclean bird. Lev. 11: 16. We are not
certain of the bird intended by Moses under this name :
Ihe strength of the versions is in favor of the sea-mfw, or
gull. Geddes renders, "the horn-owl," but we incline to
the opinion of Sliaw, who understands it of the rhnad, or
saf-snf, a granivorous and gregarious bird, which wants the
hinder toe ; though we confess we see no reason for the
exclusion of this bird bv Moses. — Calmei.
CUCUMBER, (Num'. 11: 5 ;) the fruit of a plant very
common in our gardens. Tournefort mentions six kind.s,
of which the white and green are most esteemed. They
are very plentiful in the East, especially in Egypt, and
much superior to ours. Maillet, in describing the vegeta-
bles which the modern Egyptians have for food, tells us,
that melons, cucumbers, and onions are the most common ;
and Celsius and Alpiuus describe the Egyptian cucumbers
as more agreeable to the taste and of more easy digestion
than the European. — IVatson.
CUDWORTH, (Ralph, D. D.) now best known as the
author of " The true Intellectual System of the Universe,"
was born in 1617, at AUer, in Somersetshire, of which
place his father was rector. He was admitted as a pen-
sioner of Emanuel college, Cambridge, at the a^e of thir-
teen ; and so great was his diligence as an academic8il
student, that in 1639 he took the degree of master of arts,
and was elected fellow of his college. He became so emi-
nent as a tutor, that the number of his pupils exceeded all
precedent. In 161'1, he took the degree of bachelor of
divinity, and was chosen master of Clare-hall, and in the
following year made Regius professor of Hebrew. In 1678,
he was installed prebendary of Gloucester. In the same
year, he published his grand work, entitled " The true Intel-
lectual System of the Universe," &c. in folio. This work,
which is an immense store-house of ancient literature, was
intended by the author to be a confutation of atheism. It
is a work of great power and erudition, although the at-
tachment of the author to the Platonism of the Alexandri-
an school has led him to advance some opinions which
border on incomprehensibility and myslicisni. Besides
the articles already mentioned, Dr. Cudworth published
a sermon against the doctrine of " Reprobation," and also
left behind him several unpublished manuscripts, of which
one only, "A Treatise concerning eternal and immutable
Morality," has been printed. His other unpublished ma-
nuscripts, now in the British museum, are, " A Treatise on
moral Good and Exnl ;" "A Treatise on Liberty and Ne-
cessity ;" " A Commentary on the Seventy AVeeks of Da-
niel;" " A Treatise on the Creation of the World;" "A
Treatise on the Learning of the Hebrews;" and "An Ex-
planation of the Notion of Hobbes concerning God and
Spirits."
Cudworth died at Cambridge, June 26, 1688, and was
.interred in the chapel of Christ's college. He was a man
of very extensive enidition, excellently skilled in the
learned languages and antiquity, a good mathematician,
a subtle philosopher, and a profound metaphysician. Yet,
with all his great attainments, he is said to have been
scarcely less distinguished for his piety and modesty.
According to Dr. Burnet, he considered Christianity as a
revelation from God, whose object is to elevate the heart
and affections, and sweeten human nature; and that "he
prosecuted tlvjs with a strength of genius, and a vast com-
pass of learning ; that he was a man of great conduct and
prudence ; upon which his enemies did very falsely acc'Jse
him of craft and dissimulation." Lord Shaftesbury styles
him "an e.tcellent and learned divine, of the highest au-
thority at home and abroad."— BjVcA's Gen. Biog. ; Jones's
Chris. Bios.
CULDEES; the members of a very ancient religious
fraternity, whose principal seat was the island of lona, or
Icolumkil, one of the western islands of Scotland, but
whose laborious missionary exertions were extended over
considerable portions of Scotland, England, Wales, and
Ireland, attd in whose constitution we discover a simphci-
ty of views and habits which necessarily lead us to asso-
ciate them with the men of more primitive times. They
owe their establishment to Columba, a native of Ireland,
who, after proceeding to Scotland, and succeeding in the
conversion of the northern Picts to ChristianiiV, landed at
Hii, or lona, in the year 563, and received Ihe island from
the king of that people for the purpose of founding a, mo-
nastery. Here he erected a seminary, in which he taught
his disciples the Holy Scriptures, to the study of which he
was himself devotedly attached ; and when they were duly
prepared, he sent them forth, with the holy book in their
hand, to evangelize the dark and benighted regions which
extended in every direction. They held no fellowship with
the church of Rome, and for many centuries maintained
their ground against the attempted encroachments of that
see. They rejected auricular confession, penance, and
absolution ; knew nothing of the chrism in baptism, or the
rite of confirmation ; and opposed the doctrine of the real
presence, the wor.ship of saints and angels, and the celi-
bacy of the clergy, and works of supererogation. In the
twelfth century, their influence began to be overpowered
by the force of popish superstition ; but they resisted to
the very last every effort that was made to incorporate
their secluded establishment with the dominant hierarchy.
Their form of government was essentially Pre-by terian.
To the members of their synod, or assembly, was given
the name of saiiores, or elders, to whom, in their collective
capacity, belonged the right of appointing and ordaining
those who engaged in the ministerial or missionary office.
To these, when settled in any particular place, was given
the designation of bishop— a dignity which does not ap-
pear to have been in any respect different from that of
presbyter or pastor. These bishops, to how great soever
a distance they resided from lona, were subject to the dis-
cipline of the college, with which they kept up a regular
correspondence.
It is not known in what precise year ihe Culdces be-
came extinct, but there is reason to believe that, in the
west of Scotland, they continued to exhibit a testimony on
behalf of primitive truth in opposition to the corruptions
of Rome, till '.ery near the period when the light of the
reformation \'.i'.s introduced into those northern parts of
our island. — Henri. Buck; Watson.
CUMBER. Barren sinners in the church cumber GoJ'i
ground; they offend God; they grieve ministers and
saints ; fill up room to no purpose, and hinder the spiritual
growth of others. Luke 13: 7. — Bron-n.
CUMMIN, (Isa. 28: 25, 27. Matt. 23: 23.) This is an
umbelliferous plant, in appearance re.?emb!ing fennel, but
smaller. Its seeds have a bitterish warm taste, accompa-
nied with an aromatic flavor, not of the most agreerible
Irind. An essential oil is obtained from them by distilla-
tion. The Jews sowed it in their fields, and, when ripe,
threshed out the seeds with a rod, Isa. 28: 25, 27. The
Maltese sow it, and collect the seeds in the same man-
ner.— Watson.
CUMMINGS, (Abraham,) a missionary, graduated at
Brown university, in 1776, and died at Phipsburgh, Maine,
August 31, 1827, aged seventy-two. He had never any
pastoral charge, but was strictly an itinerant preacher or
raissionar)'. He was known and respected in almost all
the towns along the coast from Rhode Island to Passama-
qiioddy, especially in the islands which had no settled
minister. In his little boat he often traversed, alone, the
waters along the whole coast of Blaine, and preached the
gospel of Jesus Christ in the islands. For these toils in
the cause of benevolence the world will not honor him, as
it honors the blood-stained hero ; but such toils will not be
tmrewarded. He published a few treatises.— .lA'fi
CUR
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CUR
CUP. This word is laken in a two-fold sense; proper,
aud figurative. In a proper sense, it signifies a vessel,
such as people drink out of at meals. Gen. 40; 13. It was
anciently the custom, at great entertainments, for the go-
vernor of the feast to appoint to each of his guests the
kind and proportion of the wine which they were to drink,
and what he had thus appointed them it was deemed a
breach of good manners either to refuse or not lo drink up ;
hence a man's cup, both in sacred and profane authors,
came to signify the portion, whether of good or evil, which
happens to him in this world. Thus, to drink " the cup of
trembling," or of " the fury of the Lord," is to be afilicted
with sore and terrible judgments, Isa. 51: 17. Jer. 25: 15 —
29. Ts. 75: 8. "What Christ means by the expression, we
cannot be at a loss to understand, since in two remarkable
passages, Luke 22: 42, and John 18: 11, he has been his
own interpreter. Leihale poailum bibere, " to drink the
deadly oup," or cup of death, was a common phrase among
the Jews ; and from them, we have reason to believe, our
Lord borrowed it.
Cup OF BLESSING, (1 Cor. 10: 16,) is that which was
blessed in entertainments of ceremony, or solemn ser-
vices ; or, rather, a cup over which God was blessed for
having furnished its contents ; that is, for giving to men
the fruit of the vine. Our Savior, in the last supper, bless-
ed God over the cup, and gave it to each of his apostles
to drink, Luke 22: 20.
Cup of Salvation, (Ps. 116: 13;) a phrase of nearly
the same import as the former, a cup of thanksgiving, of
blessing the Lord for his saving m&cies. We see, in 2
Mace. 6: 27, that the Jews of Egypt, in their festivals for
deliverance, offered cups of salvation. The Jews have at
this day cups of thanlcsgiving, which are blessed, iu their
marriage ceremonies, and in entertainments made at the
circumcision of their children. Some commentators think
that '' the cup of salvation" was a libation of wine poured
on the victim sacrificed on thanksgiving occasions, ac-
cording to the law of Moses, Ex. 2t): 40. — Watson.
CURATE ; the lowest degree in the church of England ;
he who represents the incumbent of a church, parson, or
vicar, and officiates in his stead: he is to be licensed and
admitted by the bishop of the diocese, or by an ordinary
having episcopal jurisdiction ; and when a curate hath
the apjnobation of the bishop, he usually appoints the sa-
lary .too. A curate, having no fixed estate in his curacy,
not being instituted and inducted, may be removed at
pleasure hy the bishop, or incumbent. But there are per-
petual curates as well as temporary, who are appointed
where tithes are impropriate, and no vicarage endow-
ed : these arc not removable, and the impropriators are
oWiged to find them ; some whereof have certain portions
of the tithes settled on them. Curates must subscribe the
declaration according to the act of uniformity, or are liable
In imprisonment. — Hcnd. Buck.
CUKIA, (^Papai.,) is a collective appellation of all the
authorities ui Rome, which exercise the rights and privi-
leges enjoyed by the pope, as first bishop, superintendentr
and pastor of the Roman Catholic church. The right to
grant or confirm ecclesiastical appointments is exercised
by the Dalaria, or papal chancery, which has its name
from the common subscription. Datum apud Sanctum Pc-
trum. This body receives petitions, draws up answers,
and collects the revenues of the pope, for the pallia, spo-
lia, benefices, annates, &c. It is a lucrative branch of the
papal government, and part of the receipts goes to the
apostolic chamber. In foriTier limes, the cardinal grand
}ienitentiary, as president of the penilenzieria, had a very
great inQucnce. He still issues all dispensations and ab-
solutions in respect to vows, penances, fasts, &c. ; in re-
gard to -which the pope has reserved to himself the dis-
pensing power: also with respect to marriages within the
degrees prohibited to Catholics. Besides these authorities,
whose powers extend over all Catholic Christendom, there
are in Rome several others occupied only with the govern-
ment of the Roman state ; as the sagra cousuUa, or chief
criminal court, in which the cardinal secretary of state
presides ; the signatura di gii/stizia, a court for civil cases,
consisting of twelve prelates, over which the cardinal pro-
veditom, or jiapal minister of justice, presides, and with
which the ^igtiatura di grazia concurs ; the apostolic cham-
ber, in which twelve prelates are employed under the car-
dinale camerlingo, administering the property of the church
and the papal domains, and receiving the revenue which
belongs to the pope as temporal and spiritual sovereign of
the Roman state, and also that which he derives from
other countries which stand immediately under him, and
are his fiefs. Besides these, there is a number of govern-
ors, prefects, procuratori, &c. in the different branches of
the administration. The drawing up of bulls, answers,
and decrees, which are issued by the pope himself, or by
these authorities, is done by the papal chancery, consisting
of a vice-chancellor and twelve abbrematori, assisted by se-
veral hundred secretaries : the breves only are excepted,
and are drawn up by a parlieular cardinal. All these of-
fices are filled hy clergymen ; and many Of them are so
lucrative, that considerable sums are paid for them, some-
what in the same manner as commissions are purchased
in the English army. At the death of Sixtus V. there
existed four thousand venal offices of this kind ; but this
number has since been diminished, and many abuses have
been abolished.
The highest council of the pope, corresponding in some
measure to the privy council of a monarch, is the college
of the cardinals, convened whenever the pope thinks fit.
The sessions of this senate, which presides over all the
other authorities in Rome, are called consistories. They
are of three diflTerent kinds. The secret consistory is held
generally twice a month, after the pope has given private
audience to every cardinal. In these sessions, bishops are
elected, jmllia granted, ecclesiastical and political affairs
of importance transacted, and resolutions adopted on the
reports of the congregations delegated by the consistory.
Beatifications and canonizations also originate in this
body. Different from the secret are the semi-secret consis-
tories, the deliberations of which relate principally to poli-
tical affairs, and the results of them are communicated to
the ambassadors of foreign powers. The public consistories
are seldom held, and are principally ceremonial assem-
blies : in these the pope receives ambassadors, and makes
known important resolutions, canonizations, establish-
ments of orders, &c. According to rule, all cardinals re-
siding in Rome should take part in the consistories; but,
in point of fact, no one appears without being specially
summoned by the pope ; who, if able to do so, always
presides iu person, and the cardinal secretary of slate
(who is minister of the interior and for foreign aflairs) is
always present, as are likewise the cardinals presidents of
the authorities.
At present, there are Iwenty-two congregations of cardi-
nals at Rome : 1 . The holy Roman and general inquisi-
tion, or holj' oflSce (santo officio.) 2. Visita apostolica. 3.;
Consistoriale. 4. Vescoviregolari. 5. De roncilio {TridentP
no.) 6. Jlesidenza di vescovi. 7. Inmunita ecclesiastica . 8.
Propaganda. 9. Indict (of prohibited books.) 10. Sagri
riti. 11. Ceremoniale. 12. Disciplina regolare (orders of
monks.) 13. Indulgenze e sngre reliquie. 14. Esame dei
vescovi. 15. Correzioni dei libri della chiisa Orientale. 16.
Fabbrica di S. Fietro. 17. Consvlla. 18. JBuongoverno.
19. Loretto. 20. Hydraulic works and the Pontine marshes.
21. Economica. 22. Extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs. Few,
however, of these congregations are fully supplied with
officers. — Htnd. Buck.
CURIOSITY ; a propensity or disposition of the soul
which inclines it to inquire after new objects, and lo de-
light in viewing them. Curiosity is proper, when it springs
from a desire to know our duty, to mature our judgments,
lo enlarge our minds, and lo regulate our conduct; but
improper when it wishes to know more of God, of the de-
crees, the origin of evil, the state of men, or the nature
of things, than it is designed for us lo know. The evil of
this is evident. It reproaches God's goodness ; it is a vio-
lation of Scripture, (Deut. 22: 29;) it robs us of our time;
it often makes us unhappy ; lessens our usefulness, and
produces mischief. To cure this disposition, let us consi-
der the divine command, (Phil. 4: 6,) that every thing es-
sential is revealed ; that God cannot err ; that we shall be
satisfied in a future state, John 13: 7. Curiosity concern-
ing the aflTairs of others is exceedingly reprehensible. " It
interrupts," says an elegant writer, " the order, and breaks
the peace of society. Persons of this disposition are dan-
cus
[ 433 ]
CUT
gerous troublers of ihe world. Crossing ihe lines in which
others move, Ihey create confusion, and awaken resent-
hieiit. Hence, many a friendship has been broken ; the
peace of many a family has been overthrown j and much
bitter and lasting discord has been propagated through so-
ciety. Such a disposition is entirely the reverse of that
amiable spirit of chanty our Lord inculcates. Charity,
like the sun, brightens every object on which it shines : a
censorious disposition casts every character into the dark-
est shade it will bear. It is to be further observed, that
all impertinent curiosity about the affairs of others tends
greatly lo obstruct personal reformation. They who are
so officiously occupied about their neighbors, have little lei-
sure, and less inclination, to observe their own defects, or
lo mind their own duty. From their inquisitive researches,
ihey find, or imagine they find, in the behavior of others,
an apology for their own failings ; and the favorite result
of their inquiries generally is, to rest satisfied with them-
selves. We should consider, also, that every excursion of
vain curiosity about others is a subtraction from that time
and thought which are due to ourselves, and to God. In
the great circle of human affairs, there is room for every
one to be busy and well employed in his own province,
without encroaching upon that of others. It is the province
of superiors to direct — of inferiors to obey ; of the learned
to be instructive — of the ignorant to be docile ; of the old
10 be communicative — of the young to be advisable and
diligent. In all the various relations which subsist among
us Ln life, as husband and wife, master and servants, pa-
rents and children, relations and friends, rulers and sub-
jects, innumerable duties stand ready to be performed ;
innumerable calls lo activity present themselves on every
hand, sufficient to fill up with advantage and honor the
whole time of man." See Blair's Sermons, vol. iv. ser. 8;
Clarke's Sermons, ser. on Deul. 29: 29 ; Seed's Fosthumotis
Sermons, ser. 7 ; Sprague's Poem. — Hend. Buck.
CURSE. In Scripture language, it signifies the just
and lawful seutence of God's law, condemning sinners to
suffer the full punishment of their sin, or the punishment
inflicted on account of transgression. Gal. 3: 10.
God denounced his curse against the serpent which had
seduced Eve, (Gen. 3: M.) and against Cain, who had
imbued his hands in his brother Abel's blood, 4: 11. He
also promised to bless those who should bless Abraham,
and 10 curse those who should curse him. The divine
maledictions are not merely imprecations, nor are they
impotent wishes : but they carry their effects with them,
and are attended with all the miseries they denounce or
foretell. (See Anithema.)
Holy men sometimes prophetically cursed particular
persons ; (Gen. 9; 25. 49: 7. Deut. 27: 15. Josh. 6: 26.)
and history informs us, that these imprecations had their
fulfilment ; as had those of our Savior against Ihe barren fig
tree, Slark 11; 21. But such curses are not consetiuences of
passion, impatience, or revenge j — they are predictions, and
therefore not such as God condemns. Our Lord pronounces
blessed those disciples who are (falsely) loaded with curs-
es ; and requires his followers to bless those who curse
them ; to render blessing for cursing, iScc. Matt. 5: 11. —
Watson ; Calmet.
CUSH ; the eldest son of Ham, and father of Nimrod,
Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sabtecha ; and the
grandfather of Sheba and Dedan. The posterity of Cush,
spread over great part of Asia and Africa, were called
Cushim, or Cushites ; and by the Greeks and Romans,
and in our Bible, Ethiopians.
CusH, CuTHA, CuTHEA, CusHAN, ExHioriA, Land of Cush,
the country or countries peopled by the descendants of
Cush ; whose first plantations were on the gulf of Per-
sia, in that part which still bears the name of Chuzestan,
and from whence they spread over India and great part
of Arabia ; particularly its western part, on the coast of
the Red sea ; invaded Egypt, under the name of Hyc-
Sos, or shepherd-kings ; and thence passed, as well proba-
bly as by the straits of Babelmandel, into Central Africa,
and first peopled the countries to the south of Eg)'pt, Nu-
bia, Abyssinia, and parts further to the south and west.
The indiscriminate use of the term Ethiopia in our Bible,
for all the countries peojiled by the posterity of Cush, and
the almost exclusive application of the same term by the
55
Greek and Roman writers to Ihe before-mentioned coun-
tries of Africa, have involved some portions of both sa-
cred and profane history in almost inextricable confusion.
The first country which bore this name, and ^\'hich was
doubtless the original settlement, was that w hich is de-
scribed by Bloses as encompassed by the river Gihon, or
Gyndes ; which encircles a great part of the province of
Chuzestan in Persia. In process of time, the increasing
family spread over the vast territory of India and Ara-
bia : Ihe whole of which tract, from the Ganges to the
borders of Egypt, then became the land of Cush, or Asi-
atic Ethiopia, the Cusha Drceejia n-ithin, of Hindoo geo-
graphy. Until dispossessed ol this country, or a great
part of it, by the posterity of Abraham, the IshmaeUtes
and Midianites, they, by a further dispersion, passed over
into Africa ; which, iu its turn, became the land of Cush,
or Ethiopia, the Cusha Diceepa without, of the Hindoos :
the only country so understood after the commencement
of the Christian era. Even from this last refuge, they
were compelled, by the influx of fresh settlers from Ara-
bia, Egypt, and Cana»n, to extend their migrations still
further westward, into the heart of the African continent ;
where only, in the woolly-headed negro, the genuine Cush-
ite is to be found.
Herodotus relates that Xerxes had, iu the army prepar-
ed for his Grecian expedition, both Oriental and African
Ethiopians : and adds, that they resembled each other in
every outward circumstance except their hair ; that of
the Asiatic Ethiopians being long and straight, while the
hair of those of Africa was curled.
In the time of our Savior, (and indeed from that time
forward,) by Ethiopia, was meant, in a general sense, the
countries south of Egypt, then but imperfectly known :
of one of which, that Candace was queen whose eunuch
was baptized by Philip. (See Ethiopia.) — Watson.
CUSTOM, a very comprehensive tenn, denoting the
manners, ceremonies, and fashions of a people, which
having "turned into habit, and passed into use, obtain the
force of laws. Custom and habit are often confounded.
By custom, we mean a frequent reiteration of the same
act ; and by habit, the effect that custom has on the mind
or the body. (See Habit.)
"Viewing man," says lord Kaimes, ''as a sensitive
being, and perceiving the influence of novelty upon him,
would one suspect that custom has an equal influence ?
And yet our nature is equally susceptible of both ; not
only in different objects, but frequently in the same.
When an object is new, it is enchanting; familiarity ren-
ders it indifferent ; and custom, after a longer familiarity,
makes it again desirable. Humetn nature, diversified
with many and various springs of action, is wonderful,
and, indulging the expression, intricately constructed.
Custom hath such influence upon many of our feelings, by
warping and varying them, that we must attend to its
operations if we would be acquainted with human nature.
A walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably confined,
becomes, however, so agreeable by custom, that a sailor,
in his walk on shore, confines himself commonly within
the same bounds. I knew a man who had relinquished
the sea for a country life : in the corner of his garden he
reared an artificial mount, with a level summit, resem-
bling, most accurately, a quarter-deck, not only iu shape,
but in size ; and here was his choice walk." Such, we
find, is often the power of custom. — Hend. Buck.
CUTHITES, a people who dwelt beyond the Euphra-
tes, and were from thence transplanted into Samaria, in
place of the Israelites, who had belbre inhabited it. 2
kings 1 : 17. They came from the land of Cush, or Cutba,
on the Araxes, their first settlement being in the cities ot
the Medes, subdued by Shalmaneser, and his predeces-
ors. (See Cush.) Josephus iuforms us, that they did
not build a common temple on mount Gerizim, till the
reign of Alexander the Great. (See Samaritans.) — Calmet.
CUTTINGS IN THE FLESH. There has been much
conjectiue as to the reason for which the priests of Baal
'■ cut themselves, after their manner, with knives, and
with lancets, till the blood gushed out upon them," 1 Kings
18 : 28. This seems, by the history, to have been after
Elijah had mocked them, or wlule he was mocking them,
and had worked up their fervor, and passions, to the ut-
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most height. Mr. Harmer has touched Ughtly on this
circumstance, but has not set it in so clear a view as it
seems to be capable of, nor has he given very cogent in-
stances. It may be taken as an instance of earnest en-
treaty, of conjuration, by the most powerful marks of af-
fection : q. d. " Dost thou not see, 0 Baal ! with what pas-
sion we adore thee ? — how we give thee most decisive to-
kens of our aflection ? We shrink at no pain, we dechne
no disfigurement, to demonstrate our love for thee ; and
yet thou answerest not ! By every token of our regard,
answer us. By the freely-flowiug blood we shed for thee,
answer us !" &c. They certainly demonstrated their at-
tachment to Baal ; but Baal did not testify his reciprocal
attachment to them, in proof of his divinity ; which was
the point in dispute between them and Elijah. This cus-
tom of cutting themselves, is taken in other places of
Scripture, as a mark of affection : so, Jer. 48 : 37. " Eve-
ly head shall be bald, every beard dipt, and upon all hands
cuttings; and upon the loins sackcloth:" as tokens of
excessive gi'ief, for the absence of those thus regarded.
So, chap. l():ver. 6. 41:5. «l : 5. The law says,
(Lev. 19 : 28. and Deut. 14 : 1.) "Ye are the children of
the Lord your God ; ye shall not cut yourselves, nor malce
any baldness between your eyes, for the dead," i. e. re-
strain such excessive tokens of grief : sorrow not as those
without hope — if for a dead friend ; but if for a dead
idol, eus Calmet always takes it — then it prohibits the idol-
atrous custom, of which it also manifests the antiquity.
The custom still continues among the Turks and Hin-
doos, as appears from the travels of Aaron Hill and de la
Motraye, of cutting their flesh in token of ardent affec-
tion.— Calmet.
CUTTY-STOOL, the stool or seat of repentance, in the
Scotch kirks, placed near the roof, and painted black, on
M'hich offenders against chastity sit during service, pro-
fessing repentance, and receiving the minister's rebukes.
It is somewhat remarkable that a breach of the seventh
commandment should be the only sin which subjects the
offender to this lash of ecclesiastical discipline ; drunk-
enness, lying, sabbath-breaking, &c. being suffered to
pass with impunity. — Hend. Buck.
CYAXARES. (See Darius.)
CYNICS, (kunikoi, dogs,) a philosophical sect, founded
by Antisthenes, a disciple of Socrates, who chose for his
school " the Cynosargum," or temple of the white dog,
whence many have supposed the sect derived their name,
though, in later times, it is more likely they were called
dogs from their snarling disposition. The fundamental
principle of Antisthenes was, that " virtue alone is a suf-
ficient foundation for a happy life." From this principle,
he despised all speculative and scientific studies, and af-
fected poverty of appearance and coarseness of manners.
This his master Socrates remarked, and one day observ-
ing him in a thread-bare cloak, of which he took pains
rather to display than to conceal the rags, said to him,
" Why so ostentatious ? through your vanity I see your
rags." Diogenes, however, the disciple of Antisthenes,
exceeded his master both in coarseness of manners and a
snarling disposition, which subsequent ages have consid-
ered as the characteristic of a Cynic. — (Enfield's Philos.
vol. i. p. WO, dec.)— Williams.
CYMBAL, a musical instrument, consisting of two
broad plates of brass, of a convex form, which, being
struck together, produced a shrill piercing sound. They
were used in the temple, and upon occasions of public re-
joicings, (1 Chron. 16: 19.) as they are by the Armeni-
ans, at the present day. In 1 Cor. 13 : 1. the apostle
deduces a comparison from sounding brass and titilding
cymbals : if we may suppose that in the phrase " sound-
ing brass" the apostle alluded to an instrument composed
of merely two pieces of brass, shaken one against the
other, and thereby producing a kind of rattling jingle,
void of meaning, intensity, or harmony, perhaps we should
be pretty near the true idea of the passage. Boys among
ourselves have such a kind of snappers ; and the crotahs-
tria of the ancients were no better. — Calmet.
CYPRESS, (Isaiah 44 : 14 ;) a large evergreen tree. The
wood is fragrant, very compact, and heavy. It scarcely
ever rots, decays, or is worm-eaten ; for which reason the
ancients used to make the statues of their gods with it.
The unperishable chests which contain the Egj'ptian
mummies were of cypress. The gates of St. Peter's
church at Rome, which had lasted from the time of Con-
stantine to that of pope Eugene IV., that is to say, ele-
ven hundred years, were of cypress, and had in that time
suffered no decay. But Celsius thinks that Isaiah speaks
of the ilex, a kind of oak ; and bishop Lowth, that the
pine is intended. The cypress, however, was more fre-
quently used, and more fit for the purpose which the
prophet mentions, than either of these trees. — Watson.
CYPRIAN, bishop of Carthage, was born A. D. 200,
of a respectable family, and was for some years teacher
of rhetoric, in that city. His reputation in that office
was great ; but his habits were loose and expensive. At
the age of 46, he was converted to Christianity ; upon
which he gave his property to the poor, and reduced his
living to abstemiousness. The church in Carthage soon
chose him a presbyier, and in 248, bishop. In this sta-
tion he acquired an exalted character, and became the
idol of both clergy and people. During the persecution
under Decius he fled, but still exhorted his people to con-
stancy in the faith. In 257, he was banished to Churu-
bis, and the next year was beheaded. His only crime
was preaching the gospel in his garden near Carthage.
Cyprian is an eloquent writer, though with somewhat of
the hardness of his master TertuUian. An explanation
of the Lord's prayer and eighty-one of his epistles are
extant. — Fox; Milner ; Eney. Amer.
CYPRIAN, (called by way of distinction the magi-
cian) a martyr of the fourth century, was a native of An-
tioch. He received a liberal education, which he improv-
ed by travel in Greece, Egypt, India, and Chaldea. In
Babylon, he addicted himself to the study of astrology
and magic, and employed alt his arts against female
purity and against Christianity. Being employed by a
friend to overcome the virtue of a young lady of Antioch,
named Justina, of great beauty and accomplishments, but
a decided Christian, his arts proved wholly ineffectual,
and he was thereby led to investigate the truth of Chris-
tianity. It resuUed in his conversion. His repentance
was sincere and pungent ; and it required all the efforts
of Christian tenderness and enlightened zeal to save him
from despair on account of his sins. His conduct now
became reformed ; he burnt his books of astrology, re-
ceived baptism, and became animated with a powerful
spirit of grace. His conversion led to that of his friend
and employer. Cyprian himself suffered martyrdom un-
der Dioclesian, being first lorn with pincers, and then be-
headed.— Fox.
CYPRUS ; a large island in the Mediterranean, situated
between Cilloia and Syria. Its inhabitants were plunged
in all manner of luxury and debauchery. Their princi-
pal deity was Venus. The apostles Paul and Barnabas
landed in the isle of Cyprus, A. D. 44, Acts 13 : 4. While
they continued at Salamis, they preached Jesus Christ in
the Jewish synagogues ; from thence they visited all the
cities of the island, preaching the gospel. At Paphos,
they found Bar- Jesus, a false prophet, with Sergius Paul-
us, the governor : Paul struck Bar-Jesus with blindness ;
and the proconsul embraced Christianity. Some time
after, Barnabas went again into this island with John,
surnamed Mark, Acts 15 : 39. Barnabas is considered as
the principal apostle and first bishop of Cyprus ; where
it is said he was martyred, being stoned to death by the
Jews of Salamis. — Watson.
CYRENE, was a city of Libya in Africa, which, as it
was the principal city of that province, gave to it the name
of Cyrenaica. This city was once so powerful as to
contend with Carthage for pre-eminence. In profane wri-
ters, it is mentioned as the birth-place of Eratosthenes
the mathematician, and Callimachus the poet ; and in ho-
ly writ, of Simon, whom the Jews compelled to bear our
Savior's cross. Matt. 27:32; Luke 23 : 2fi. At Cyrene,
resided many Jews, a great part of whom embraced the
Christian religion ; but others opposed it ■with much ob-
stinacy. Among the most inveterate enemies of Chris-
tianity, Luke reckons those of this province, who had a
synagogue at Jerusalem, and excited the people against
St. Stephen, Acts 11 : 20. — Watson.
CYRENAICS, a sect of philosophers, founded by Aria-
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[ 435
C YR
tippus of Cyrene, a disciple of Socrates, whose sentiments
seem to have coirespondeil with those of Epicurus, that
pleasure is the supreme good, interpreted in the grossest
sense ; for Cicero speaks of the school of Aristippus, as
fruitful in debaucheries (Enfield's Fhilos. vol. i. p. 190,
ice.)— Williams.
CYRENIUS ; governor of Syria, Luke 2:1,3. Great
difficulties have been raised on the history of the taxing
or rather enrolmeiU (apographia) under Cyrenius, for the
different solutions of which we must refer to the commen-
tators.
The narrative of St. Luke may be combined in the
following order, which is probably not far from its true
import : " In those days, Csesar Augustus," wlio was dis-
pleased with the conduct of Herod, and wished him to
feel his dependence on the Roman empire, " issued a de-
cree that the whole land" of Judea " should be enrolled,"
as well persons as possessions, that the true state of the
inhabitants, their families, and their property, might be
known and recorded. Accordingly, '' all were enrolled,"
but the taxation did not immediately follow this enrol-
ment, because Augustus was reconciled to Herod ; and
this accomits for the silence of Josephus on an assess-
ment not carried into elfect. " And this was the first as-
sessment (or enrolment) of Cyrenius, governor of Syria.
And all went to be enrolled, each to his own city;"
and, as the emperor's order was urgent,'and Cyrenius
was known to be active in the despatch of business, even
Mary, though far advanced " in her pregnancy, went with
Joseph, and while they waited" for their turn to be en-
rolled, " 3Iary was delivered of Jesus." It is not, how-
ever, improbable, that Mary had some small landed es-
tate, for which her apjiearance was necessary. Jesus,
therefore, was enrolled with Mary and Joseph, as Julian
the Apostate expressly says.
An officer being sent from Rome to enrol and assess the
subjects of a king, implied that such king was dependent
on the Roman emperor, and demonstrates that the sceptre
was departed from Judali. This occurrence, added to
the alarm of Herod on the inquiry of the Magi respecting
the birth-place of the Jlessiah, might sufficiently exaspe-
rate Herod, not merely to slay the infants of Bethlehem,
but to every act of cruelty. Hence, after such an occur-
rence, all Jerusalem might well be alarmed with Herod,
(Matt. 2:3;) and the priests, &c., sttidy caution in their
answers to him. This occurrence would quicken the at-
tention of all who expected temporal redemption in Isra-
el, as it would extremely mortify every Jewish national
feeling.
The overruling providence of God appointed that, at
the time of Christ's birth, there should be a public, au-
thentic, and general productioii of titles, pedigrees, i5cc.,
whi'jh should prove that Jesus was descended from the
house and direct family line of David ; and that this
.shoidd be proved judicially on such a scrutinizing occa-
.sion. This occurrence brought about the birth of the
Messiah, at the verj' place appointed by prophecy long
before, though the usual residence of Joseph and Mary
was at Nazareth. — Watson.
CYRIL ; bisliop of Gortyna, a martyr of the third cen-
tury. At the age of 84, being seized by order of Lucius,
the governor of the city, and exhorted to save his vene-
rable person from destruction by sacrificing to the gods,
the good man replied that he could not do it, tliat he had
long taught others to save their souls, and that he must now
think only of the salvation of his own. Upon this the
governor pronounced his sentence in the following re-
markable words : " I order and appoint that Cyril, who
has lost his senses, and is a declared enemy of our god,
shall be burnt alive." The venerable Christian heard
this sentence ^athout emotion, walked cheerfully to the
place of execution, and there patiently suffered for Christ
his Lord. — Fnx.
CYRIL ; one of the Christian fathers, was born at Jeru-
salem, A. D. 315, ordained presbyter in 345, and after
the death of Maximus in 350, became patri,arch of Jeru-
salem. Being a zealous Trinitaiian, he engaged in a
warm controversy with Acacius the Arian, bishop of Cve-
sarea. His .adversary accused him of liaving sold some
valuable church ornaments, which he had indeed done.
but for the laudable purpose of supporting the needy
during a famine. Not satisfied with this, Acacius assem-
bled a council at CiEsarea in 357, which deposed Cyril ;
but the council of Seleucia, two years after, deposed Acaci-
us, and restored Cyril. The very next year, Acacius by
his artifices succeeded in again depriving him of his dig-
nity ; but it was restored to him by the emperor Constan-
tius. Valens, the Arian emperor, on ascending the throne,
deposed Cyril the third time ; and it was not until after
the death of Valens that Cyril was allowed to return to
Jerusalem. He was confirmed in his see by the council
of Constantinople, in 381, and filled it till his death in
386. Of his writings there remain twenty-three cateche-
ses, written in a stj'le o( clearness and simplicity, which
are esteemed the oldest and best otitline of Christian doc-
trine. (Paris, 1720, folio.) — There was another Cyril,
patriarch of Alexandria, in 412, a most turbulent and ty-
rannical prelate, and a disgrace to the Christian name. —
A third Cyril, a native of Thessalonica, was a successful
missionary to the Huns, Bulgarians, Bloravians, and Bo-
hemians in the ninth century. — Moshcim ; Enaj. Amir.
CYRUS ; son of Cambyses the Persian, and of Man-
dane, daughter of Astyages, king of the Medes. At the
age of thirty, Cyrus was made general of the Persian
troops, and sent, at the head of thirty thousand men, to
assist his uncle, Cyaxares, whom the Babylonians were
preparing to attack. Cyaxares and Cyrus gave them
battle and dispersed them. After this, Cyrus carried the
war into the countries beyond the river Halys ; subdued
Cappadocia ; marched against Croesus, king of Lydia,
defeated him, and took Sardis, his capital. Having re-
duced almost all Asia, Cyrus repassed the Euphrates, and
turned his arms against the Assyrians : having defeated
them, he laid siege to Babylon, which he toolc on a festival
day, after having diverted the course of the river which
ran through it. On his return to Persia, he married his
cousin, the daughter and heiress of Cyaxares ; after which
he engaged in several wars, and subdued all the nations
between Syria and the Red sea. He died at the age of
seventy, after a reign of thirty years. Authors differ
much concerning the manner of his death.
2. We learn few particulars respecting Cyrus from
Scripture ; but they are more certain than those derived'
from other sources. He was monarch, as he speaks, " of
all the earth," (Ezra 1: 1, 2. 2 Chron. 36: 22, 23,) when
he permitted the Jews to return into their own country,
A. M. 3166, B. C. 538. He had always a particular re-
gard for Daniel, and continued him in his great employ-
ments.
3. The prophets foretold the exploits of Cyrus. Isaiah,
(44: 28,) particularly declares his name, above a century
before he was born. Josephus says, that the Jews of
Babylon sltowed this passage to Cyrus ; and that; in the
edict which he granted for their return, he aclcnowledged
that he received the empire of the world from the God of
Israel. The peculiar designation by name, which Cyrus
received, must be regarded as one of the most remarkable
circumstances in the prophetic writings. He was the
heir of a monarch who ruled over one of the poorest and
most inconsiderable kingdoms of Asia, but whose hardy
inhabitants were at that time the bravest of the brave ;
and the providential circumstances in which he was placed
precluded him from all knowledge of this oracular decla-
ration in his favor. He did not become acquainted with
the sacred books in which it was contained, nor with the
singular people in whose possession it was found, till ho
had accomplished all the purposes for which he had been
raised up, except that of sajing to Jerusalem, as the
" anointed" vicegerent of heaven, " Thou shalt be inha-
bited ;" and to the cities of Jttdah, " Ye shall be built,
and I mil raise up their ruins." The national pride of
the Jews during the days of their unhallowed prosperity,
would hinder them from divulging among other nations
such prophecies as this, which contained llie most severe
yet deserved reflections upon their wicked practices and
ungrateful conduct ; and it was only when they were
captives in Babylon that they submitted to the humiUatinj
expedient of exliibiting, to the mighty monarch whose
bondmen they had become, the prophetic record ol thcii
own apostasy and punishment, and of his still highei
C YU
destination, as tlie rebuiUler of Jerusalem. No tempta-
tion therefore could be laid before the conqueror in early
life to excite his latent ambition to accomplish this very
full and explicit prophecy ; and the facts of his life, as
recorded by historians of verj' opposite sentiments and
feelings, all concur in developing a series of consecutive
events, in which he acted noinsignilicant part ; which,
though astonishing in their results, differ greatly from
those rapid strides' perceptible in the hurried career of
other mighty men of war in the East ; and which, from
the unbroken connexion in which they are presented to
us, appear like the common occurrences of life naturally
following each other, and mutually dependent. Yet this
consideration does not preclude the presence of a mighty
Spirit working within him ; which, according to Isaiah,
said to him, " I will gird thee, though thou hast not
known me." Concerning the genius, or guardian angel,
of Socrates, many learned controversies have arisen ; but
though a few of the disputants have endeavored to ex-
plain it away, the majority of them have left the Greek
philosopher in possession of a greater portion of inspira-
tion than, with marvellous inconsistency, some of them
are willing to accord to the Jewish prophets. In this view,
it is highly interesting to recollect that the elegant histo-
rian who first informed his refined countrymen of this
moral prodigy, is he who subsequently introduced them to
an acquaintance with the noble and heroic Cyrus. The
didactic discourses and the comparatively elevated mo-
rality which Xenophon embodied in his " Memoirs of
Socrates," are generally admitted to have been purposely
illustrated in his subsequent admirable production, the
Cyropadia, or " Education of Cyrus ;" the basis of which
is true history adorned and refined by philosophy, and
exhibiting for universal imitation the life and actions of a
prince who was cradled in the ancient Persian school of
the Pischdadians, the parent of the Socratic. Isaiah de-
scribes, in fine poetic imagery, the Almighty going before
Cyrus to remove every obstruction out of his way : —
" I will go before thee, ami level l
1 will burst asunder the foliliiig-doors of brass,
And split in twain the bare of iron.
Even I will give thee the dark treasures,
And the hidden wealth of secret places :
That thou mayst know, that I the Lord,
Who call thee by thy name, am the God of Israel."
Other particulars relating to him, and the accomplishment
of prophecy in his conquest of that large city, will be
found under the article Babylon. It is the God of Israel
who, in these sublime prophecies, confounds the omens
and prognostics of the Babylonian soothsayers or diviners,
after they had predicted the stability of that empire ; and
who annoimces the restoration of Israel, and the rebuilding
of the city and temple of Jerusalem, through Cyrus his
" shepherd" and his " anointed" messenger. Chosen thus
by God to execute his high behests, he subdued and
reigned over many nations,— the Cilicians, Syrians, Paph-
lagonians, Cappadocians, Phrygians, Lydians, Carians,
Phoenicians, Arabians, Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians,
Bactrians, Ace.
"I am He who fmstratelh the tokens of the impostors.
And maketh the diviners mad ; »&c.
Who saith to the abyss. [Babylon,]
' Be desolate, and I will dry up thy rivers :'
Who saith to Cyrus, ' He is my shepherd,
And shall perform all my pleasure.'
Thus saith the Lord to liis anointed.
To Cyrus, whom I hold by the right hand.
To subdue before him nations.
And tmgird the loins of kings.
To open before him [palace] foldinjj-doors ;
Even [river] gates shall not be shut :
For Jacob my servant's sake, and Israel my chosen,
I have aurnamed thee;" &c.
4. Herodotus has painted the portrait of Cyrus in dark
colors, and has been followed in many particulars by
Ctesias, Diodonis Siculus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
Plato, Straho, Justin, and others ; in opposition to the
contrary accounts of jEschylus, Xenophon, Josephus. the
[ 43d ] C Y R
Persian historians, and apparently, the holy Scriptures.
The motive for this conduct of Herodotus is probably to
be found in his aversion to Cyrus, for having been the
enslaver of his country. Xenophon informs us, that the
seven last years of his full sovereignty, this prince spent
in peace and tranquillity at home, revered and beloved
by all classes of his subjects. In his dying moments
he was surrounded by his family, friends and children,
and delivered to them the noblest exhortations to the
practice of piety, virtue, and concord. This testimony
is in substance confirmed by the Persian historians, who
relate, that after a long and bloody war, Khosru, or
Cyrus, subdued the empire of Turan, and made the city
of Balk, in Chorasan, a royal residence, to keep in order
his new subjects ; that he repaid every family in Persia
Proper the amount of their war-taxes, out of the immense
spoils which he had acquired by his conquests ; that he
endeavored to promote peace and harmony between the
Turanians and Iranians ; that he regulated the pay of his
soldiery, reformed civil and religious abuses throughout
the provinces, and, at length, after a long and glorious
reign, resigned the crown to his son Lohorasp, and retired
to solitude, confessing that he had lived long enough for
his own glory, aiid that it was then time for him to devote
the remainder of his days to God. Saadi, in his GuUstan,
copies the wise insciiption which Cyrus ordered to be
inscribed on his crown : — " What avails a long hfe spent
in the enjoyment of worldly grandeur, since others, mor-
tal like ourselves, will one day trample under foot our
pride ! This crown, handed down to me from my pre-
decessors, must soon pass in succession upon the head of
many others."
5. Pliny notices the tomb of Cyrus at Passagardse, in
Persia. Arrian and Strabo describe it ; and they agree
with Curtius, that Alexander the Great offered funeral
honors to his shade there ; that he opened the tomb, and
found, not the treasures he expected, but a rotten shield,
two Scythian bows, and a Persian cimeter. And Plu-
tarch records the following inscription upon it, in his life
of Alexander : — " 0 man, whoever thou art, and whenever
ihoit comcst, (for come, I know, thou wilt,) I am Cyrus,
the founder of the Persian empire. Envy me not the little
earth that covers my body." Alexander was much af-
fected at this inscription, which set before him, in so
striking a light, the uncertainty and vicissitude of worldly
things. And he placed the crown of gold which he wore,
upon the tomb in which the body lay, wondering that a
prince so renowned, and possessed of such immense trea-
.sures, had not been buried more sumptuously than if he
had baen a private person. Cyrus, indeed, in his last in-
stractions to his children, desired that " his body, when he
died, might not be deposited in gold or silver, nor in any
other sumptuous monument, but committed, as soon as
possible, to the ground."
The observation which Dr. Hales here makes, is worthy
of reconl : — " This is a most signal and extraordinary epi-
taph. It seems to have been designed as a useful memento
mori, for Alexander the Great, in the full pride of conquest,
"whose coming" it predicts with a prophetic spirit, "For
come I know thou tvilt." Bui how could Cyrus know of
his coming ? — Very easily. Daniel the Archimagus, his
venerable friend, who warned the haughty Nebuchadnez-
zar, that " head of gold," or founder of the Babylonian
empire, that it should be subverted by " the breast and
arms of silver," (Dan. 2: 37, 39,) or "the Mede and the
Persian," Darius and Cyrus, as he more plainly told the
impious Belshazzar, (Dan. 5: 28,) we may rest assured,
communicated to Cyrus also, the founder of the Feif ian
empire, the symbolical vision of the goat, with the notable
horn in his forehead, Alexander of Macedon, coming swift-
ly from the west, to overturn the Persian empire, (Dan. R:
5, 8,) under the last king Codomanus, the fourth from
Darius Nothus, as afterwards more distinctly explained,
Dan. 11: 1, 4. Cyrus, therefore, decidedly addresses
the short-lived conqueror, O man, rvtwever thou art, Atc—
Watson.
DAL
f 437 1
DAM
D.
DAGON ; (from dag, a fish,) god of the Philislines. It
is the opinion of some that Dagon was represented like a
w-oman, with the lower parts of a fish, like a triton or
siren. Scripture shows clearly that the statue of Dagon
was human, at least, the upper part of it, 1 Sam. 5: 4, 5.
A temple of Dagon at Gaza was pulled down by Samson,
Judg. 115: 23, &c. In another at Ashdod, the Philistines
deposited the ark of God, 1 Sam. 5: 1 — 3. A city in
Judah was called Beth-Dagon ; that is, the house, or
temple, of Dagon, (Joshua 13: 41 ;) and another on the
frontiers of Asher, Joshua 19: 27. — Watson.
DALEITES ; the followers of David Dale, a very in-
dustrious manufacturer, a most benevolent Christian, and
the humble pastor of an Independent congregation at
Glasgow. At first, he formed a connexion with the
Glassiles, in many of whose opinions he concurred, but
was disgusted by their narrow and worldly spirit; he
Iherefore separated from them, cliieHy on the ground of
preferring practical to speculative religion, and Christian
charity to severity of church discipline. As he grew rich
by industry, he devoted all his property to doing good,
and ranks high among the philanthropists of his age. He
was founder of the celebrated institution of New Lanark,
how under Mr. Robert Owen, his son-in-law.
The Dahites now form the second class of Independents
in Scotland, the Glassites being the first ; and since the
death of Blr. Dale, they have "formed a connexion with
the Liglinmilcs, which see. — Scotch Thcol. Diet.; Jones's
Diet, of Bel. Opin. ; Williams.
DALMANUTHA. St. Mark says that Jesus Christ
embarked with his disciples on the lake of Tibeiias, and
came to Dalmanutha, (Mark 8: 10,) but St. Matthew calls
It Magdala, Matt. 15: 39. It seems that Dalmanutha
was near to Magdala, on the western side of the lake.
— Watson.
DALMATIA ; a part of Illyricum, or old lUyria, lying
along the gulf of V^enice. Titus preached here, 2 Tim.
4: W.— Watson.
DAMASCENES, (Joh.n ;) a Greek writer of great
genius and eloquence m the eighth century, who composed
a complete body of the Christian doctrine in a scientifical
method, under the title of Fonr Books concerning the
Orthodox Faith. The two kinds of theology, which the
Latins termed scholastic and didactic, were united in this
laborious performance, in which the author not only
explains the doctrines he delivers by subtle and pro-
found reasoning, but also confirms liis explications by the
authority of the ancient doctors. This work was received
among the Greeks with the highest applause, and was so
excessively admired, that at length it came to be acknow-
ledged among that people, as the only rale of divine
truth. Many, however, complain of this applauded writer,
as having consulted more in his theological system, the
conjectures of human reason and the opinions of the
ancients, than the genuine dictates of the sacred oracles,
and of having, in consequence of this method, deviated
from the true source and the essential principles of theo-
logy. To the work of Damascenus now mentioned, we
may add his Sacred Parallels, in which he has collected
with uncommon care and industry, the opinions of the
ancient doctors concerning various points of the Christian
religion. We may, therefore, look upon this writer, as
the Thomas and Lombard of the Greeks. — Mosheim.
DAMASCUS ; a celebrated city of Asia, and anciently
the capital of Syria, is forty-five leagues north of Jerusa-
lem, and may be accounted one of the most venerable
places in the world for its antiquit)-. It is supposed to
have been founded by Ux, the son of Aram ; and is, at
least, known to have subsisted in the time of Abra-
ham, Gen. 15: 2. It was the residence of the Syrian
kings, during the space of three centuries, and experi-
enced a number of vicissitudes in eveiT period of its his-
tory. Its sovereign, Hadad, whom josephus calls the
first of its kings, was conquered by David, king of Israel.
In the reign of Ahaz, it was taken by Tiglalh Pileser,
who slew its last king, Rezin, and added its provinces to
the Assyrian empire. It was taken and plundered, also,
by Sennacherib, Nebuchadnezzar, the generals of Alex-
ander the Great, Judas Maccabcpus, and at length by the
Romans in the war conducted by Pompey against Ti-
granes, in the year before Christ 65. During the time
of the emperors, it was one of tlieir principal arsenals in
Asia, and is celebrated by the emperor Julian as, even in
his day, " the eye of the whole East." About the year
634, it was taken by the Saracen princes, who made it the
place of their residence, till Bagdad was prepared for
their reception ; and, after sutTering a variety of revolu-
tions, it was taken and destroyed by Tamerlane, A. D.
1400. It was repaired by the Mamelukes, when they
gained possession of Syria, but was wrested from them
by the Turks, in 1500 ; and since that period has formed
the capital of one of their pachalics.
The modern city is delightfully situated about fifty
miles from the sea, in a fertile and extensive plain, wa-
tereil by the river which the Greeks called Chrysorrhoras,
or " Golden River," but which is known by the name of
Barrady, and of which the ancient Ahana and Pharpar
are supposed to have been branches. The city is nearly
two miles in length from its north-east to its north-west
extremity ; but of verj' inconsiderable breadth, especially
near the middle of its extent, where its width is much
contracted. It is surrounded by a circular wall, which is
strong, though not lofty ; but its suburbs are extensive
and irregular. Its streets are narrow ; and one of them,
called Straight, mentioned in Acts. (0: 11,) still runs
through the city about half a mile in length. The honses,
and especiallv those which front the streets, are very in-
differently btiilt, chiefly of mud formed into the shape of
bricks, and dried in the sun ; but those towards the gar-
dens, and in the squares, present a more handsome ap-
DAN
[ 433 J
DAN
peai'ance. In these muj walls, however, the gates and
doors are often adorned with marble portals, carved and
inlaid with great beauty and variety ; and tlie inside of
the habitation, which is generally a large square court, is
ornamented with fragrant trees and marble fountains, and
surrounded with splendid apartments, furnished and
painted in the highest style of luxury. The market-places
are well constructed, and adorned with a rich colonnade
of variegated marble. The principal public buildings are,
the castle, which is about three hundred and forty paces in
length ; the hospital, a charitable establishment for the
reception of strangers, composing a large quadrant;ie,
lined with a colonnade, and roofed insmall domes covered
with lead ; and the mosque, the entrance of which is .sup-
ported by four large columns of red granite ; the apart-
ments in it are numerous and magnificent, and the top
is covered with a cupola ornamented with two minarets.
Damascus is surrounded by a fruitful and delightful
country, forming a plain nearly eighty miles in circum-
ference ; and the lands most adjacent to the city, are
formed into gardens of great extent, which are stored
with fruit trees of every description. "No place in Ihe
world," .saj's Blr. Maundrell, '■ can promise to the beliold-
er at a distance a greater voluptuousness ;" and he
mentions a tradition of the Turks, that their prophet,
when approaching Damascus, took his station upon a
certain precipice, in order to view the city ; and after consi-
dering its ravishing beauty and delightful aspect, was
unwilling to tempt his frailty by going farther, but in-
stantly took his departure with this remark, that there
was but one paradise designed for man, and that, for his
part, he was resolved not to take his in this world. The
air or water of Damascus, or both, are supposed to have a
powerful effect in curing the leprosy, or at least, in arrest-
ing its progress, while the patient remains in the place.
The Rev. .Tames Conner visited Damascus in 1820, as
an agent of the Church Slissionary Society. He had a
letter from the archbishop of Cypms to Seraphim, patri-
arch of Antioch, the head of the Christian church in the
East, who resides at Damascus. This good man received
Mr. Conner in the most friendly manner ; and expressed
himself delighted with the system and operations of the
Bible Society . He undertook to encourage and promote,
to the utmost of his power, the sale and distribution of the
Scriptures throughout the patriarchate ; and, as a proof
of his earnestness in the cause, he ordered the next day,
a number of letters to be prepared, and sent to his arch-
bishops and bishops, urging them to promote the objects
of the Bible Society in their respective stations. — Watson.
DAMIANISTS ; disciples of Damian, bishop of Alex-
andria, in the sixth century. Their opinions were similar
to those of the Angelites, as already mentioned, and chief-
ly differed from the orthodox, in explaining the doctrine
of the Trinity in a way peculiar to themselves. They
admitted each of the Sacred Three to be God, as par-
taking of the Godhead — " a common divinity ;" but per-
haps denied the Athanasian doctrines of eternal geneia-
tion, and the procession of the Holy Spirit. — {]Slo!.htu,i s
E. H. vol. ii. p. 150.) — Williams.
DAMM, (Christian Tobias,) a Protestant theologian,
and an excellent Hellenist, was born at Leipsic in 1699,
and died m 1778. He edited and translated various
classical aiUhors, and produced a New Greek Etymologi-
cal Lexicon. — Davenport.
DAMNATION ; condemnation. This word is used to
denote the final loss of the soul ; but it is not always to
be understood in this sense in the sacred Scripture. Thus
it is said in Rom. 13 : 2, " They that resist shall receive
to themselves damnation," i. e. condemnation, " from the
rulers, who are not a terror lo good works, but to the evil."
Again, in 1 Cor. 11 : 29, " He that eateth and drinketh
unworthily, eateth and drinketh damnation to himself;"
i. e. condemnation ; exposes himself to severe temporal
judgments from God, and to the judgment and censure
of the wise and good. Again, Rom. 14 : 23, " He that doubt-
eth is damned if he eat ;" i. e. is condemned both by his
own conscience and the word of God, because he is far from
being satisfied that he is right in so doing. — Hend. Buck.
DAN ; the fifth son of Jacob, Gen. 30 : 1—6. Dan had
but one son, whose name was Hushim, (Gen. 46 : 23 ;)
yet he had a numerous posterity ; for, on leaving Egypt,
this tribe consisted of sixtj'-tv.'o thousand seven hundred
men able to beararms. Num. 1 : 38. Of Jacob's blessing
Dan, see Gen. 49 : 16, 17. They took Laish, Judges 18 :
1 ; Joshua 19 : 47. They called the ciiy Dan, after their
progenitor. The city of Dan was situated at tlie northern
extremity of the land of Israel : hence the phrase, " from
Dan to Beersheba," denoting the whole length of the land
of promise. Here Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, set up
one of his golden calves, (1 Kings 12 : 29 ;) and the other
at Belhel — Watson.
DANA, (James, D. D.) minister of New Haven, was a
native of Massachusetts, and graduated at Harvard college
in 1753. Some years afterwards lie was a resident at
Cambridge. He was ordained as the successor of Sa-
muel Whittelsey at Wallingford, Connecticut, October 12,
1758. After remaining at Wailingford thirty years, Dr.
Dana was installed the pastor of the fii st church at New
Haven, April 29, 1789, as the successor of Chauncy
Whittelsey. In the autumn of 1805, he was dismissed,
after which he occasionally preached in the pulpits of his
brethren in the vicinity. He died at New Haven, Au-
gust 18, 1812, aged seventy-seven. — Dr. Dana published,
anonymously, an Examination of Edwards' Inquiry on
the Freedom of the Will, octavo, Boston, 1770 ; and,
with his name, the Examination continued. New Haven,
1773; in all more than three hundred pages, in which he
contended that men themselves are the only eflScient cau-
ses of their own volitions ; nor do they ahvays determine
according to the greatest apparent good ; the affections
do not follow the judgment ; men sin against light, with
the wiser choice, the greater good full in their view.
Through the impetuositj' of their passions, they determine
again!:! the greatest apparent good. This is the case with
every sinner, who resolves to delay repentance to a future
time. Self-determination is the characteristic of every
moral agent. The absence of liberty he deemed incon-
sistent with moral agency ; and by liberty he meant, not
merely libert}' in regard to the external action, but liberty
of volition ; an exemption from all circumstances and
causes having a controlling influence over the ^vill, — a
self-determining power of man, as a real agent, in re-
spect to his own volitions. On the whole, he regarded
the scheme of Edwards as acquitting the creature of
blame, and impeaching the truth and justice of the Crea-
tor.— He published also many sermons. — Allen.
DANA, (Joseph, D. D.) minister of Ipswich, Massa-
chusetts, was born at Pomfret, Connecticut, 1742, and
graduated at Yale college in 1760. Having early devoted
himself to God, he studied theology, and was ordained as
the minister of the south society in Ipswich, November
7, 1765. In 1825, on the sixtieth anniversary of his or-
dination, at the age of eighty-three, he preached a dis-
course, in which he stated, that all, who were heads of
families at the time of his settlement, were deceased, ex-
cepting five ; that he had followed about nine hundred of
his parishioners to the grave ; and had received into the
chnrch the small number of one hundred and twenty-one,
being the average of two in a year Of these, fifty were
received in a revival from 1798, to 1801. He died No-
vember 16, 1827, aged eighty-five. Dr. Dana was a
firm believer in the great doctrines of Calvinism ; a
faithful preacher ; eminently a man of prayer ; and
deeply interested in all the events, which relate to the
kingdom of Jesus Christ. He was a diligent student and
laborious pastor. An unaffected humility marked his
character, and his end was peace. He published several
discourses. — Crowcll's Funeral Sermon ; Allen.
DANCERS ; a sect which sprung up about 1373, in
Flanders, and places abont. It was their custom all of a
sudden to fall a dancing, and holding each other's hands,
to continue thereat, till being suffocated with the extraor-
dinary violence, they fell down breathless together. Dur-
ing these intervals of vehement agitation, they pretended
to be favored with wonderful visions. Like the Whip-
pers, they roved from place to place, begging their vic-
tuals, holding their secret assemblies, and treating the
priesthood and worship of the church with the utmost
contempt. Thus we find, as Dr. Haweis obsen'es, that
the French Convulsionists and the Welch Jumpers have
DAN
L439]
DAN
had predecessors of the same stamp. There is nothing
new under the sun. Haweis and Mosheim's Church Hist.
Cent. U.—IIeml. Buck.
DANCING. In the oriental dances, in whicli the wo-
men engage by themselves, the lady of highest rank in
the company takes the lead, and is followed by her com-
panions, who imitate her steps, and if she sings, make up
the chorus. The tunes are extremely gay and lively, yet
■with something in tliem wonderfully soft. The steps are
varied according to the pleasure of her who leads the
dance, but always in exact time. This statement may
enable us to form a correct idea of the dance, which the
women of Israel performed under the direction of Miri-
am, on the banks of the Red sea. The prophetess, we
are told, " took a timbrel in her hand, and all the women
went out after her, with timbrels and dances." She led
the dance, while they imitated her steps, which were not
conducted according to a set, well-known form, as in this
countr)', but extemporaneously. The conjecture of j\Ir.
Harmer is extremely probable, that David did not dance
alone before the Lord, when he brought up llie ark, but,
as being the highest in rank, and more skilful than any
of the people, he led the religious dance of the men.
A time to dance. Eccles. 3:4. Ou tliis passage an in-
genious writer inquires, " 1. What is the right time ? — 2.
Is the text a command, permission, or declaration ? — 3.
What kind of dancing does the text intend ? To avoid
mistake, I have consulted every passage in the Bible. The
most important are Ex. 15 : 20. Judg. 11:24. 21:21.
1 Sam. 18:6. 2 Sam. 6 : 14— 20. Ps. 149 : 3. 30:11.
Ex. 22:19. Jer. 31:4. Matt. 11:17. 14:6. Luke
15 : 25. Job 21 : 7 — 11. From all which it appears,
1. That dancing was a religious act; both in true, and
also in idol worship.
2. That it was practised exclusively on joyful occa-
sions, such as national festivals or great victories.
3. That it was performed on such great occasions only
by one of the sexes.
4. That it was performed usually in the day time — in
the open air — in highways, fields and groves.
5. That men who perverted dancing from a sacred use
to purposes of amusement, were deemed infamous.
6. That no instances of dancing are found upon record
in the Bible, in w-hich the two sexes united in the exer-
cise, either as an act of worship or amusement.
Lastly. That there are no instances upon record in the
Bible of social dancing for amusement, except that of the
" vain fellows" void of shame, alluded to by Michal ; of
the irreligious families described by Job, which produced
increased impiety and ended in destruction ; and of He-
rodias, which terminated in the rash vow of Herod, and
the murder of John the Baptist. — Watson ; Chris. Obs.
DANFORTH, (Samuel,) minister of Roxbury, Massa-
chusetts, was born in England, 1626, and came to this
country with his father in 1634. After he was graduated
at Harvard college in 16413-, he was a tutor and fellow.
Wlien Blr. Welde returned to England, he was invited to
become the colleague of Mr. Eliot of Roxbury, and he
was accordingly ordained, September 24, 1650. He died,
November 19, 1674, aged forty-eight years. His sermons
were elaborate, judicious and methodical ; he wrote them
twice over in a fair, large hand, and in each discourse
ujually quoted forty or fifty passages of Scripture. Not-
with.standing this care and labor, he was so aflectionate
and pathetic, that he rarely finished the delivery of a
sermon without weeping. In the forenoon he usually ex-
pounded the Old Testament, and in the afternoon dis-
coursed on the body of divinity. Such was his peace in
his last moments, that Mr. Eliot used to say, " My bro-
therDanforth made the most glorious end that lever saw."
He published a number of almanacs, and an astronomi-
cal description of the comet which appeared in 1664, with
a brief theological application. He contends, that a
cornel is a heavenly body , moving according to defined laws,
and that its appearance is portentous. Mather's Magnolia,
iv. 15?,-~\51.— Allen.
DANFORTH, (Samtol.) minister of Taunton, I\Iassa-
chusetls, the son of the preceding, was born December
IS, 1666. He was graduated at Harvard college in 16S3.
He died November 14, 1727. He was one of the most
learned and eminent ministers of Jiis day. In the be-
ginning of the year 1705, by means of his benevolent la-
bors, a deep impression was made upon the minds of his
people, and a most pleasing reformation occurred. The
youth, who formerly assembled for amusement and folly,
now met for the exalted purpose of improving in Chris-
tian knowledge and virtue, and of becoming fitted for the
joys of the heavenly and eternal world, in the presence of
Jesus, the Savior. Several letters of Mr. Danforth, giv-
ing an account of this reformation, are preserved in Mr.
Prince's Christian History. He published a eulogy on
Thomas Leonard, 1713, and the election sermon, 1714.
He left behind him a manuscript Indian dictionary, a
part of which is now in the library of the Massachusetts
Historical Society. It seems to have been {brmed from
Eliot's Indian Bible, as there is a reference under every
word to a passage of Scripture. — Hist. Col. iii. 173 ; ix.
176 ; Christian Hist. i. 108. — Allen.
DANIEL, was a descendant of the kings of Judah, and
is said to have been born at Upper Bethoron, in the terri-
tory of Ephraim. He was carried away captive to Bab)';
Ion when he was about eighteen or twenty years of age,
in the year 606, before the Christian era. He was placed
in the court of Nebuchadnezzar, and was afterwards
raised to situations of great rank and power, both in the
empire of Babylon and of Persia. He lived to the end of
the captivity, but being then nearly ninety years old, it is
most probable that he did not return to Judea. It is gene-
rally believed that he died at Susa, soon after his last
vision, which is dated in the third year of the reign of
Cyrus. Daniel seems to have been the ouly prophet who
enjoyed a great share of worldly prosperity ; but amidst
the corruptions of a licentious court, he preserved his vir-
tue and integrity inviolate, and no danger or temptation
could divert him from the worship of the true God. The
book of Daniel is a mixture of history and prophecy : in
the first six chapters is recorded a variety of events which
occurred in the reigns of Nebiichadnezzar, Belshazzar,
and Darius ; and, in ]':\rticular, the second chapter con-
tains Nebuchadnezzar's prophetic dream concerning the
four great successive monarchies, and the everlasting
kingdom of the Messiah, which dream God enabled Da-
niel to interpret. In the last six chapters we have a series
of prophecies, revealed at diflerent times, extenJ.ing from
the days of Daniel to the general resurrection. The As-
syrian, the Persian, the Grecian, and the Roman empires,
are all particularly described under appropriate charac-
ters ; and it is expressly declared that the last of thenr
was to be divided into ten lesser kingdoms ; the time at
which Christ was to appear is precisely fixed ; the rise
and fall of Antichrist and the duration oi' his power, are
exactly determined ; and the future restoration of the
Jews, the victory of Christ over all his enemies, and the
universal prevalence of true religion, are distinctly fore-
told, as being to precede the- consummation of that stu-
pendous plan of God. which " was laid before the founda-
tion of the world," and reaches to its dissolution. Part
of this book is written in the Chaldaic language, namely,
from the fourth verse of the second chapter to the end of
the seventh chapter ; these chapters relate chiefly to the
afl'airs of Babylon, and it is probable that some passages
were taken from the public registers. This book abounds
with the most exalted sentiments of piety and devout gra-
titude ; its style is clear, simple, and concise ; and many
of its prophecies are delivered in terms so plain and cir-
cumstantial, that some unbelievers have asserted, in op-
position to the strongest evidence, that they were written
after the events which they describe had taken place.
With respect to the genuineness and aiuhenticity of the
book of Daniel, there is abundance both of external and
internal evidence ; indeed all that can well be had or de-
sired in a case of this nature : not only the testimony of
the whole Jewish church and nation, who have constantly
received this book as canonical, but of Josephus particu-
larly, who recommends him as the greatest of the pro-
phets ; of the Jewish targums and talmuds, which fre-
quently cite and appeal to his authority ; of St. Paul and
St. John, who have copied many of his prophecies ; and
of our Savior himself, who cites his words, and styles
him, '• Daniel the prophet." Nor is the internal less pow-
BAR
[ 440
DAT
■I
1
ei'ful and convincing than the external evidence ; for the selves pressed, endeavored to compel Darius to get uport
language, the style, the manner of writing, and all other horseback, and save himself with them ; but he refusing,
internal marks and characters, are perfectly agreeable to they stabbed him in several places, and left him expiring
that age ; and finally he appears plainly and undeniably in his chariot. He was dead when Alexander arrived,
to have been a prophet by the exact accomplishment of who could not forbear weeping at so sad a spectacle. Al-
his prophecies. Watson. exander covered Darius with his own cloak, and sent him
DARIUS, was the name of several princes in history, to Sysigambis his wife,jhat she_might bury him in the
some of whom are mentioned in Scripture.
1. Dakius the Mede, spoken of in Daniel 5 : 31. 9 : 1,
.11:1, (fee, was the sou of Astyages, king of the Medes,
tombs of the kings of Persia. Thus were verified the
symbolic prophecies of Daniel, 8 ; — Watson.
DARKNESS; the absence of light. The most terrible
and brother to Mandane, the mother of Cyrus, and to darkness was that brought on Egypt as a plague ; it was
Amyit, the mother of Evil-raerodac^h, and grandmother of so thick as to be, as it were, palpable ; so horrible, that no
Belshazzar. Darius the Slede, therefore, was uncle by the one durst stir out of his place ; and so lasting, that it en-
mother's side to Evil-nierodach and Cyrus. The Septua- dured three days and three nights, Exod. 10:21, 22;
gint, in Daniel 7 : gives him the name of Artaxerxes ; the Wisdom 17 : 2, 3. The darkness at our Savior's death
thirteenth, or apocryphal chapter of Daniel, calls him As- began at the sixth hour, or noon, and ended at the third
tyages • and Xenophon designates him by the name of hour, or three o'clock in the afternoon. Thus it lasted al-
Cyaxares. He succeeded Belshazzar, king of Babylon, most the whole time he was on the cross ; compare Matt,
his nephew's son, or his sister's grandson, in the year of 27:45, with John 19:1-4, and Mark 15:25. Origere,
the world 3148, according to Calmet, or in 3468, accord- Maldonatus, Erasmus, Vatablus, and others, were of opin-
'ing to U.sher. Daniel does not inform us of any previ- ion that this darkness covered Judea only ; which is some-
ous war between them ; but the prophets Isaiah and Je- times called the whole earth ; that is, the whole country,
remiah supply this deficiency. Isaiah 13 : 14 : 45 : 46 : 47 : Chrysostom, Euthyraius, Theophylact, and others, thouglit
Jer. 50 : 51. it extended over a hemisphere. Origen says it was caus-
2. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, has been supposed by ed by a thick mist, which precluded the sight of the sun.
some, on the authority of archbishop Usher and Calmet, That it was preternatural is certain, for, the moon being
to be the Ahasuerus of Scripture, and the husband of Es- at full, a natural eclipse of the sun was impossible,
ther. But Dr. Prideaux thinks, that Ahasuerus was Ar- Darkness is sometimes used metaphorically for death,
taxerxes Longimanus. (See Ahasuerus.) " The land of darkness" is the grave, Job 10 : 22 ; Psalm
Darius recovered Babylon after a siege of twenty 107 : 10. It is also used to denote misfortunes and ca-
months. This city, which had been formerly the capital lamities : " A day of darkness" is a day of afiliction,
of the East, revolted from Persia, taking advantage of the Esther 11:8. " Let that day be darkness j let darkness
revolutions that happened, first at the death of Cambyses, slain it,"— let it be reckoned among the unfortnnate days,
and afterwards on the massacre of the magi. The Baby-
lonians employed four years in preparations, and when
they thought that their city was furnished with provisions
for a long time, they raised the standard of rebellion.
Darius levied an army in great haste, and besieged Baby-
Job 3 : 4, 5. The expressions, " I will cover the heavens
with darkness ;" " The sun shall be turned into darkness,
and the moon into blood," fee, signify very great poUtical
calamities, involving the overthrow of kings, princes, and
nobles, represented by the luminaries of heaven. This
Ion. The Babylonians shut themselves up within their magnificent imagery is employed in allusion to the scenes
walls, whose height and thickness secured them from as- of the last day. Ps. 102 : 25—7. Isaiah 51 : 6. Matt,
sault ; and as they had nothing to fear but famine, they 24:35. 2 Pet. 3 : 1—10. In a moral sense, darkness de-
assembled all their women and children, and strangled notes unbelief, ignorance and vice ; hence " the children
them, each reserving only his most beloved wife, and one of Ught," in opposition to "the children of darkness,"
servant. Thus was fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah, 47 : are the righteous distinguished from the wicked. 1 Thess.
7 — 9. Some believe that the Jews were either expelled 5 : 1 — 8. — Watson.
by the Babylonians, as being too much in the interest of DATARY ; an officer in the pope's court. He is al-
Darius ; or that, in obedience to the frequent admonitions ways a prelate, and sometimes a cardinal, deputed by his
of the prophets, they quitted that city when they saw the holiness to receive such petitions as are presented to him,
people determined to rebel, Isaiah 48 : 20 ; Jer. 50 : 8 ; touching the provision of benefices. By his post the da-
51 : (5 — 9 ; Zech. 11 : 6, 7. Darius lay twenty months be- tary is empowered to grant, without acquainting his holi-
fore Babylon, \vithout making any considerable progress ; ness therewith, all benefices that do not produce upwards
but, at length, Zopyrus, one of his generals, obtained pos- of twenty-four ducats annually; but for such as amount
session of the city by stratagem. Darius ordered the to more, he is obliged to get the provisions signed by the
hundred gates of brass to be taken away, according to pope, who admits him to audience every day. If there
the prediction of Jeremiah, 51 : 58, " Thus saith the Lord, be several candidates for the same benefice, he has the
The broad walls of Babylon shall be utterly broken, and liberty of bestowing it on which of them he thinks proper,
her high gates shall be burnt with fire, and the people provided he has the requisite qualifications. The datary
shall labor in vain." This is related in Herodotus.
3. Darius Codomanus was of the royal family of Persia,
but j;ery remote from the crown. He was in a low condi-
tion, when Bagoas, the eunuch, who had procured the de-
has a yearly salary of two thousand crowns, exclusive of
the perquisites, which he receives from those who apply
to him for any benefice. This officer has a substitute,
named the sub-datary , who is likewise a prelate, and has
struction of tw-o kings, Ochus and Arses, placed him on a yearly pension of a thousand crowns ; biit he is not al-
the throne. His true name was Codomanus, and he did not lowed to confer any benefice, without acquainting the da-
'.ake that of Darius till he was king. He was descended tary therewith. When a person has obtained the pope's
from Darius Nothus, whose son, Ostanes, was father to consent for a benefice, the datary subscribes his petition
Arsames, that begat Codomanus. He was at first only a with an annuH sanctissimus, i.e. "the most holy father
courier to the emperor Ochus. But one day when he was consents to it." The pope's consent is subscribed in these
at this prince's army, one of their enemies challenged the words : Fiat ut petitur, i. e. " be it according to the peti-
bravest of the Persians. Codomanus olTered himself for tion." After the petition has passed the proper offices,
the combat, and overcame the challenger, and was made and is registered, it is carried to the datary, who dates it,
governor of Armenia. From this situation, Bagoas plac- and writes these words : Datum Romce apud, &c. " given
ed him on the throne of Persia. Alexander the Great in- at Rome in the pontifical palace," &c. Afterwards the
vaded the Persian empire, and defeated Darius in three pope's bull, granting the benefice, is despatched by the
successive battles. After the third battle, Darius fled to- datary, and passes through the hands of more than a
wards Jledia, in hopes of raising another army. Here thousand persons, belonging to fifteen different ofliices,
Bessus, governor of Bactria, and Narbazanes, a grandee who have all their stated fees. The reader may from
of Persia, seized him, loaded him with chains, forced him hence judge how expensive it is to procure the pope's bull
into a covered chariot, and fled, carrying him with them for a benefice, and what large sums go into tlie office of the
towards Bactria. After a precipitate march of many datary, especially when the provisions, issued from thence,
days, Alexander overtook the traitors, who seeing them- are for bishoprics, and other rich benefices. —/TfHrf. Buck.
D A V
[ 141
D A V
DATE ; llie fruit of the jialm tree. (See Pai.m.)
DATIVUS ; a noble Roinau senator, and a martyr of
the fourth century, «as arrested at Albitina in Africa in
301, under the bloody persecution of Dioclesian. He was
tried at Carthage, and condemned as a Christian. To-
gether with Saturuinus his pastor, and several other Chris-
tians, he was scourged, his flesli torn with hooks, burned
with hot irons, &c. but all these tortures failing to pro-
duce any change in their steadfast attachment to Christ,
they were remanded to prison, and there starved to death.
But they won Vie cro/vii of life. — Fox.
DAUBENY, (CuAKLES,) born in 1744, was educated at
New college, Oxford ; obtained a prebend in Salisbury
cathedral, in 1784 ; was appointed archdeacon of Sarum
in 1804 ; and died in 1S27. Besides numerous sermons
and charges, he is the author of A Guide to the Church,
two vols. ; Vindicias Ecclesise Anghcans ; Remarks on
the Unitarian Method of interpreting the Scriptures ; and
of other works : and he contributed many theological ar-
ticles to the Anti-Jacobin Review. At North Bradley,
of which he was vicar, he built alms-houses for tweli^e
poor persons, an asylum for four aged and blind individ-
uals, and a school-room ; and the church at Rode was
erected partly at his expense. — Davenport.
DAUGHTER. This word, Uke other names of rela-
tion employed in Scripture, being a noun expressing stmi-
litude, no less than kindred, is used in reference to many
subjects, which are not properly the oflspring of that
person, or that thing, of which they are said to be daugh-
ters. The following are senses in which the word daughter
is used in Scripture :
(1.) Female offspring, by natural birth. Gen. 6:1; 24 :
23, and other places. — (2.) Granddaughter ; so the servant
of .Abraham calls Rebekah " iny master's brother's daugh-
ter," (Gen. 21 : 48.) whereas she was daughter of Bethu-
el, son of Nahor, as appears from verse 24 ; consequently
granddaughter of Nahor, brother of Abraham, the mas-
ter of the speaker. — (3.) Eemote descendants, of the same
I'arady or tribe, but separated by many ages ; " daughter
of Hath," of his posterity ; daughters of Canaan, of
Moab, of Ammon ; and Luke (1 : 5.) says, Elisabeth was
of the •' daughters of Aaron," of his descendants, though
many generations had inten'ened. — (4.) Daughter bij na-
tion. Dinah went out to see the young women of She-
chim, called the "daughters of the land," Gen. 34: 1.
See also Num. 25 : 1. Deut. 23 : 17.— (5.) Daughter, by
reference to the human species ; yoimg women, of what-
ever nation. Gen. 30:13. See Prov. 31:29. Cant.
2 : 2. — (6.) Daughter, by personification, of a people, or
city, whence daughter of Jerusalem, or of Zion ; of Baby-
lon ; (Isa. 47 ; 1,5.) of Edom; (Lam. 4 : 21.)of Egvpt,
Jer. 46 : 11, 14.— (7.) Daughter by law; (Ruth 3 : 1.) and
this is common in all nations, to call a son's wife daugh-
ter ; but Boaz calls Ruth "daughter" by courtesy, as ex-
pressing kindness, aflability, affection, from a senior to a
jtmior in age, from a superior to an inferior by station,
3:10, 11. — (8.) Daughter by adoption, as Esther was to
Mordecai, (Esther 2:7.) and as God promises his people
by his grace, 2 Cor. 6: 18. — (9.) Daughter, in reference
to disposition and conduct : as we have " sons of Behal,"
so we have '• daughter of Belial," a woman of an unre-
sirainable conduct, uncontrollable ; 1 Sam. 1 : 16. (See
also Belial, and Sons.) — Calmet.
DAVENANT, (John, D. D.) bishop of Salisbury, was
born in London, 1570, and educated at Cambridge where
he took his degrees regularly. While there. Dr. Whitaker
said, " that he would in time prove the honor of the uni-
versity," a remark afterwards well fulfilled- A fellow-
ship was offered him in 1594 ; but he did not accept it till
after his father's death in 1597. Being thus settled in
college, he soon rose to distinction, so that in 1609, he was
elected Margaret professor of divinity. In 1611, he was
chosen master of his college, and in 1618, was appointed
by James \. one of the tour dirines whom he sent to the
synod of Dort. During their stay in Holland, from No-
vember 3, to April 29, they were allowed ten pounds a
day by the States, besides two hundred pounds, at their
departure, and a gold medal to each, representing the sit-
ting of the synod. Dr. Davenant returned to England in
May, 1619, after having visited the most important places
in the Neilierlauds, On the death ot Dr. T<nvii.son, his
brother-in-law, he was advanced to tlie see of Salisbury.
But in I^ent, 1630 — 1, he incurred the displeasure of Charles
L and of the court, by a sermon on predestination, "all
curious searcli into which," the king in his declaration
prefixed to the thirty-nine articles in 1628, had strictly en-
joined " to be laid aside." The bishop mildly vindicated
his conduct before the privy counsel, and was Uismissed,
altlrough he never recovered the fa\'or of the court. He
died of consumption in 1641. His death is said to have
been hastened by his foresight of the troubles coming on
the kingdom. Bishop Davenant was humble and hospi-
table, laborious and liberal. He was a man of great
learning, and an eminent divine. He published a Latin
Exposition of Colossians; Theological Prelections and
Determinations ; and a reply to S. Hoard on Reprobation.
—Middleton.
DAVENPORT, (Joh.v,) first minister of New Haven,
and one of the founders of the colony of that name, was
born in the city of Coventry in England in 1597, and edu-
cated at Oxford. Retiring to London, he became an emi-
nent preacher among the Puritans, and at length minister
of St. Stephen's church in Coleman street. As ]\Ir. Da-
venport soon became a conscientious non-conformist, the
persecutions, to which he was exposed, obliged him to re-
sign his pastoral charge in Coleman street, and to retire
into Holland at the close of the year 1633. A letter from
IMr. Cotton, giving a favorable account of the colony of
Massachusetts, induced Mr. Davenport to come to Boston,
where he arrived, June 26, 1637, in (Mmpany with Jlr.
Eaton and Mr. Hopkins. He was received with great re-
spect, and in August was a prudent and useful member of
the synod, which was occasioned by the errors of the day.
He sailed with his company, JIarch 30, 1038, for Quinni-
piack, or New Haven, to found a new colony. He preach-
ed under an oak, April 18lh. the first sahbaih after their
arrival, and he was minister there near thirty years. In
the government which was established, it was ordained,
that none but members of the church should enjoy the
privileges of freemen. This was a fatal error, lie was,
however, anxious to promote the purity of the church, and
he therefore wrote against the result of the synoil of 1662,
which recommended a more general baptism of children,
than had before that time been practised. He was scru-
pulously careful in admitting per.stins to church commu-
nion, it being a fixed principle with him, that no person
should be received into the church, who did not exhibit
satisfactory evidence, that he was truly penitent and be-
lieving. He did not think it possible to render the church
]ierfectly pure, as men could not search into the heart : but
he was persuaded, that there should be a discrimination
After the deatli of Mr. Wilscm, pastor of the fiist church
in Boston, in 1667, Mr. Davenport was invited to succeed
him. He was ordained their pastor, December 9. 1668,
and James Allen at the same time teacher. But his la-
bors in this place were of short continuance, for he died of
an apoplexy, Blarch 15, 1670, aged seventy-two. He was
a distinguished scholar, an admirable preacher, and a man
of exemplary piety and virtue. Such was his reputation,
that he was invited with Mr. Cotton and Mr. Hooker to
take a seat among the "Westminster divines. Knowing
the efficacy of prayer, he recommended with earnestness
ejaculatory addresses to heaven. His intrepidity saved
Whalley and Gofli;, the judges of king Charles, who fled
to New Haven in 1661. He concealed them in his own
house, and, when the pursuers were coming to New Ha-
ven, preached publicly from Isaiah 16: 3, 4, believing it to
be a duty to afford them protection. His portrait is in the
museum of Yale college. Jlr. Davenport's publications
were numerous. He also left behind him an expositior*
on the Canticles in a hundred sheets of small hand writing ;
but it was never published. — ]Vood;s Ath. Oxon. ii. 460 —
462, 650 ; Mather's Mag. iii. 51—57 ; Trumbull's Conn.
i. 89, 490—492; HulcJiinson, i. 84, 226; IVitnhrop ;
Holmes ; Stiles' Hisl. Judges, 32, 69. — Athn.
DAVENPORT, (Ja>ie3.) minister of Southold. Long
island, was graduated at \''ale college in 1732. He had
been esteemed for some years a sound, pious, and faithful
minister at Southold, when in the religious excitement of
1740 and 1741, he was borne away by a strange enthusi-
DAY
[442 ]
DAV
asm. He pi-eached in New Haven and other towns, and
encouraged the outcries and agitations, by which religion
was disgraced. His voice he raised to the highest pitch,
and gave it a tune, which was characteristic of the sepa-
rate preachers. In his zeal he examined ministers as to
the reality of their religion, and warned the people against
unconverted ministers. In 1742, the assembly of Con-
necticut, deeming him under the inlUience of enthusiastic
impulses, directed the governor and council to transport
him out of the colony to the place whence he came.
AVithout doubt, he was enthusiastic ; but the assembly was
equally bewildered, being arbitrary, and tyrannical. At
last, through the influence of Mr. Wheelock and Mr. Wil-
liams, he was convinced of his error and published an
ample confession and retractation in 1744. He died about
the year 1155.— Trumbull, ii. 167, 189.-^1/?™.
DAVID, the celebrated king of Israel, was the youngest
son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, and was born 1085
yeais before Chri.st. Even an abstract of his history would
be too long for this work. It may easily be collected from
the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles. A few illus-
trative remarks only will be made in this place.
1. "When David is called "the man after God's own
heart," a phrase which profane persons have often per-
verted, his general character, and not every particular of
it, is to be understood as approved by God ; and especially
his faithful and undeviating adherence to the true religion,
from which he never deviated into any act of idolatry.
2. He was chosen to accomplish, to their full extent, the
promises made to Abraham to give to his seed the whole
country from the river of Egypt to the great river Euphra-
tes. He had succeeded to a kingdom distracted with
civil dissension, environed on every side by powerful and
victorious enemies, without a capital, almost without an
army, without any bond of union between the tribes. He
left a compact and united state, stretching from the fron-
tier of Egj'pt to the foot of Lebanon, from the Euphrates to
the sea. He had crushed the power of the Philistines,
.subdued or curbed all the adjacent kingdoms: he had
formed a lasting and important alliance with the great
city of Tyre. He had organized an immense disposable
force ; for every month 24,000 men, furnished in rotation
by the tribes, appeared in arms, and were trained as the
standing militia of the country. At the head of his army
tt'ere othcers of consummate experience, and, what was
more highly esteemed hi the warfare of the lime, extraor-
dinary personal activity, strength, and valor. The He-
brew nation owed the long peace of Solomon, the son's
reign, to the bravery and wisdom of the father.
3. As a king and conqueror, he was a type of Christ,
and the countiy '■ from the river to the ends of the earth,"
was also the prophetic type of Christ's dominion over the
whole earth. On a free election, he was anointed king
over the house of Judah ; and after about a seven years'
contest, he was unanimously chosen king by all the tribes
of Israel, " according to the word of the Lord by Samuel."
As king of Israel, he administered justice and judgment
to all his people, wa,s a prince of courage and great mili-
tary prudence and conduct ; had frequent wars with the
neighboring nations, to which he was generally forced by
their invading his dominions, and plundering his subjects.
Against them he never lost a battle ; he never besieged a
city without taking it ; nor used any severities against
those he conquered, beyond what the law of arms allowed,
his own safety required, or the cruelties of his enemies
rendered just, by way of retaliation ; enriching his peo-
ple by the spoils he took, and providing large stores of
every thing necessary for the magnificent temple he in-
tended to erect, in honor of the God of Israel.
4. His inspired jisalms not only place him among the
most eminent prophets, but have rendered him the leader
of the devotions of good men, in all ages. The hymns of
David excel no less in .sublimity and tendernes.s of expres-
sion, than in loftiness and purity of religious sentiment.
In comparison with them, the sacred poetry of all other
nations sinks into mediocrity. They have embodied so
exquisitely the universal language of religious emotion,
that they have entered, with unquestioned propriety, into
the ritual of the higher and more perfect religion of Christ.
The songs which cheered the solitude of the desert caves
of Engedi, or resounded from the voice of the Hebrew pea
pie as they wound along the glens or the hill-sides of Ju-
dea, have been repeated for ages in almost every part of
the habitable world, in the remotest islands of the ocean,
among the forests of America or the sands of Africa. '
How many human hearts have these inspired songs
softened, puritied, .exalted! Of how many wretched be-
ings have they been the secret consolation ! On how many
communities have they drawn dowm the blessings of Di-
vine Providence, by bringing the affections into unison
with their deep devotional fervor, and leading to a con-
stant and explicit recognition of the government, rights,
and mercies of God ! — Watson.
DAVIDISTS, the adherents of David George, a native
of Delft, who, in 1525, began to preach a new doctrine,
publishing himself to be the true Messiah ; and that he
was sent of God to fill heaven, which was quite empty for
want of people to deserve it. He is likewise said to have
denied the existence of angels good and evil, and to have
disbelieved the doctrine of a future judgment. He rejected
marriage, with the Adamites ; held with Manes, that the
soul was not defiled by sin ; and laughed at the self-denial
so much recommended by Jesus Christ. Such were his
principal errors. He made his escape from Delft, and re- '
tired first into Friesland, and then to Basil, where he
changed his name, as.suming that of John Bruck, and died
in 1556. He left some disciples behind him, to whom he
promised that he would rise again at the end of three
years. Nor was he altogether a false prophet herein ; for
the magistrates of that city being informed, at the three
years' end, of what he had taught, ordered him to be dug
up and burnt, together with his writings, by the common
hangman. — Hend. Buck.
DAVIDSON, (LucRETiA Makia,) a remarkable instance "
of precocious genius and piety, was born at Plattsburg,
on lake Champlain, September 27, 1808, being the second
daughter of Dr. Oliver Davidson and Margaret his wife.
Her parents being in straitened circumstances, much of
her time was devoted to the cares of home ; yet she read
much, and wrote poetry at a very early age. She had a
burning thirst for knowledge. In October, 1824, a gentle-
man, on a visit to Plattsburg, saw some of her verses, and
was made acquainted with her character and circumstan-
ces. He detennined to give her the best education. On
knowing his purpose, her joy was almost greater than she
could bear. She was placed in Mrs. Willard's school at
Troy ; but her incessant application was perilous to her
health. After returning home and recovering from illness,
she was sent to Miss Gilbert's school at Albany. But
soon she was again very ill. On her return, the hectic
flush of her cheek indicated her approaching fate. The
last name she pronounced, was that of her patron. She
died August 27, 1825, aged nearly seventeen. Her per-
son was singularly beautiful. She had a high, open fore-
head, a soft, black eye, perfect symmetry of features, a fair
complexion, and luxuriant dark hair. The prevailing ex-
pression of her face was melancholy.
In her fifteenth year she wrote the following verses
"TO A STAR.
" How calmly, brightly, dost thou shine.
Like the pure lamp in Virtue's shrine ! ^
Sure, the fair world, whicli thou mayat boast jt
Was never ransomed, never lost.
There, beings, pure as heaven's own air,
Their hopes, their joys together share ;
While liovering angels touch the string,
And seraphs spread the sheltering wing ;
There, cloudless days and brilliant nights,
Illumed by heaven's refulgent lights,
There, seasons, years, uimoliccd roll,
And unregrelted by the soul.
Thou lillle, sparkling Slar of even—
Thou gem upon an azure heaven !
How swiftly will I soar to thee.
When this imprisoned soul is free !"
Her poetical writings, besides many which were burnt,
amount to two hundred seventy-eight pieces, among which
were five poems of several cantos each. She also wrote
some romances, and a tragedy. A biographical sketch,
with a collection of her poems, was published by Mr. Samu-
el F. B. Morse, in 1829, with the title of "Amir Khan, and
other Poems : the remains of L. M. Davidson." In our
DA V
[ 443
D AV
ewn language, except in the cases of Chatterton, Kirke
White, and John Urquhart, we can call to mind no in-
stance of so early, so ardent, and so fatal a pursuit of in-
tellectual advancement. By the early death of a person
of such growing power and unequalled promise, we may
well be taught th« vanity of earthly hopes, and be ied to
estimate more Mghly and lo seek more earnestly a lasting
dwelling place in the world of unclouded light, and per-
fect holiness, and purest joy. She awaited the event with
a reliance on the divine promises, hoping for salvation
through the Lord Jesus Christ. — Alhn.
DAVIES, (Samuel, D. D.,) president of Princeton col-
lege in New Jersey, born November 3, 1724. Ke was an
only son. His mother, an eminent Christian, had earnestly
besought him of heaven, and believing him to he given in
unswer to prayer, she named him Samuel. This excel-
lent woman took upon herself ihe task of teaching her son
to read, as there was no school in ihc neighborhood ; and
her efforts were rewarded by the uncommon proficiency of
her pupil. At the age of ten he was sent to a school at
some distance from home, and continued in it two years.
His mind was at this period very little impressed by re-
Sigious truth, though he was not inattentive to secret
jjrayer, especially in the evening; but it was not long be-
fore that Goi.1, to whom he had been dedicated, and who
designed him for eminent service in the gospel of his Son,
was pleased to enlighten and renew him. Having lasted
Hie joys and made a profession of religion at the age of
fifteen, he became equally desirous of imparling to his
fellow sinners the knowledge of the truth. "With this ob-
ject before him, he engaged with new ardoi' in literary and
Tneologicail pursuits, under Samncl Blair. Every obstacle
was surmounted ; and after the previotjs trials, which he
passed with distinguished approbation, he was licensed to
preach the gospel at the age of twenty-two. He was also
ordained February Ul, 1747, that he might be qualified to
perform pastoral duties.
He now applied himself to unfold and enforce those pre-
cious truths, whose power lie had experienced on his own
heart. His fervent zeal and undtssemblel piety, liis popu-
lar talents and engaging methods of address, soon excited
general admiration. He went to Hanover in April, 1747,
and soon obtained of the general court a license to ofSciate
in four meeling-'houses. After preaching assiduously fvjr
some time, and not without effect, he returned from Vir-
ginia, though earnestly invited to continue his labors. A
call for him to settle at Hanover was immediately seut to
the presbytery ; but he was about this time seized by com-
plaints, which appeared consumptive, and which brought
him to the borders of the grave. In this enfeebled slate,
he determined to spend the remainder of, his life in unre-
mitting endeavors to advance Ihe interests of religion.
Being among a people, who were destitute of a minister,
his indisposition did not repress his exertions. He still
preached in the day, while by nighl his hectic was so
severe, as sometimes to render him delirious. In the
spring of 1718, a messenger from Hanover vi.sited him,
and he thought it his duty to accept the invitation of the
people in that place. He hoped, that he might live to
organise the congregation. His health, however, gradu-
ally improved. In October, 1718, three more meeting-
houses were licensed, and among his seven assemblies,
which were in different counties, Hanover, Henrico, Caro-
line, Louisa, and Goochland, some of them forty miles
distant from each other, he divided his labors. His home
■was in Hanover, about twelve miles from Richmond. His
preaching encountered all the obstacles, which could arise
from blindness, prejudice, and bigotry, from profaneness
and immorality. He and those, who attended upon his
preaching, were denominated new lights by the more zea-
lous Episcopalians. But by his patience and perseverance,
his magnanimity and piety, in conjunction with his evan-
gelical and powerful ministry, he triumphed over opposi-
tion. Contempt and aversion were gradually turned into
reverence. !\tany were attracted by curiosity to hear a
man of such distinguished talents, and he proclaimed to
them the most solemn and impressive truths with an
energy, which they could not resist. It pleased God to
accompany these exertions with the efficacy of his Spirit.
In about three years, Mr. Davies beheld three hundred com-
municants in his congregation, whom he con.sidercd as
real Christians. He had al.so in this period baptized
about forty adult negroes, who made such a profession of
saving faith, as he judged credible. In 1753, the sj-nod of
New York, by request of the trustees of New Jersey col-
lege, chose him to accompany Gilbert Tenncnt lo Great
Britain to solicit benefactions for the college. This ser-
vice he cheerfully undertook, and he execVited it with
singular spirit and success. He arrived in London, De-
cember 25. The liberal benefactions, obtained from the
patrons of religion and learning, placed the college in a
respectable cenditinii. After his return to America, he
entered anew in 1751, or early in 1755, on his beloved ta.sk
of preaching the gospel in Hanover. Here he continued
till 1759, when he was chosen pi'esidentof the college, as
successor of Mr. Edwards. He hesitated in his accep-
tance of the appointment, for his people were endeared to
him, and he loved to be occupied in the various duties of
the ministerial office. But repeated applications and the
unanimous opinion of the synod of New York and Phila-
delphia at length determined him. He was dismissed,
May 13, and entered upon his new office, July 6, 1759.
Here the vigor and versatiUty of his genius were strikingly
displayed. The ample opportunities and demands, which
he found for the e>;ercise of his talents, gave a now spring
to his diligence ; and while his active labors were multi-
plied and arduous, his studies were intense. At the close
of January, 1761, ht; was bled for a bad cold, aud the next
day transcribed for the press his serqaon on the death of
George II. The day following he preached twice in the
chapel. His arm became inflamed, and a violent fever
succeeded, to which he fell a victim in ten days. He
died, Febraary 4, 17(51, aged 36. His venerable mother,
Martha Davies, survived him. When he was laid in the
coffin, she gazed at him a few minutes and said, '■ There
is the son of my prayers and my hopes — my only son —
my only earthly support. But there is the will of God,
and I am satisfied,"-
The Father of spirits had endued Mr. Davies with the
richest intellectual gifts ; with a vigorous understanding,
a glowing imagination, a fertile invention, united with a
correct judgment, and a retentive memor)'. He was bold
and enterprising, and destined to excel in whatever he
undertook. Yet was he divested of the pride of talents
and of science, and, being moulded into the temper of the
gospel, he consecrated all his powers to the promotion of
religion. "O, my dear brother," says he in a letter to his
friend Dr. Gibbons, " could we spend our lives in painful,
disinterested, indefatigable service for God and the world,
how serene and bright would it render the swift approach-
ing eve of life ! I am laboring to do a little to save my
country, and, which is of much more consequence, to save
souls from death, from that tremendous kind of death,
which a soul can die. I have but little success of late ;
hut, blessed be God, it surpasses my expectation, and
much more my desert." His religion was pnrelj' evan-
gelical. It broHsht him to the foot of the cross to receive
salvation as a free gift. It rendered him humble and dis-
satisfied with himself amidst his highest attainments. As
a parent, he felt all the solicitude, which nature and gi-ace
could inspire. " There is nothing," he writes, "that can
wound a parent's heart so deeplj^, as the thought, that lie
should bring up children to dishonor his God here, and le
miserable hereat'ter. I beg your prayers for mine, and yt'i;
may expect a return in the same Irind. — We have nii\i
three sons and two daughters. My dear little creaturei
sob and drop a tear now and then under my instructions ;
but I am not so happy as to see them under deep and
lasting impressions of religion; and this is the greatest
grief they afford me." As president of the college, he
possessed an admirable mode of government and in-
struction. He watched over his pupils with the tender
solicitude of a father, and secured equally their reverence
and love. He seized every opportunity to inculcate on
them the worth of their souls, and the pressing necessity
of securing immediately the blessings of salvation.
Dr. Davies was a model of the most striking oratori'.
As his personal appearance was august and venerable,
yet benevolent and mild, he could address his auditory
either tnth the most commanding authority, or with the
DA V
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most melting lenderness. When he spoke, he seemed to
have the glories and terrors of the unseen world in his
eye. He seldom preached without producing some visible
emotions in great numbers present, and without making
an impression on one or more, which was never eflaced.
His printed sermons, which exhibit his sentiments, abound
with striking thoughts, with the beauties and elegances of
expression, and with the richest imagery- They have
been collected in three vols, octavo. See his Life, Preface to
his Sennons, and Memtoir of Davies by Dr. Rice. — Allen.
DAVY, (Sir HuwrHREv,) the most eminent of che-
Kttists, was born at Penzance, in Cornwall, December 17,
J778. In his fifteenth year, he became s papil of Mr.
Barlase of Penzance, to prepare for graduating as a physi-
cian at Edinburgh. By the time that he was eighte-en-, he
acquired the rudiments of botany, anatomy, and physi-
ology, the mmor branches of mathetDatics, metaphysics,
natural philosophy and chemistry : but it was to chemistry
that his powers were principally directed. He now be-
came acquainted with Mr. Davies Gilbert and Mr. Gre-
gory Watt, and was by them introduced to Dr. Beddoes,
who prevailed on him to suspend his design of going to
Edinburgh, and to accep! the superintendence of the
Pneumatic Institution at Bristol. It was while he was at
Bristol that he made his experiments on nitrous oxide,
which be published tinder (be title of Researches Chemical
and Philosophical. Tlie fame which he thus acquired led
to his being elected, in 1800, professor of chemistry at the
Royal Institution.. As a lecturer, his popnlariSy was nn-
liounded. In 1802, he was chosen to ftU the professorship
to the Board of Agriculture; and the lectures which he
(kttvered in this capacity were subsequently embodied in
l»(s Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. Having at his
command all the '' appliances and means" fnrnished by
the powerful apparatus of the Royal Institution, Davy be-
gan and pursued that course of scientific investigation
which has immortalized his name. The discovery of the
metallic bases of the alkalies and earths, the creation of
(he science of electro-chemi.stry, the invention of the safety
lamp, and of the mode of pnsserving the copper sheathing
of ships, form only a part of his labors. In 1818, he was
created a baronet, and in 18?0, was elected president of the
Royal Society. The presidency he resigned in 1827, in
consequence of the declinmg state of his health obliging
him to travel. Unfortunatiiiy his constitution was too far
broken to be restored by a milder climate, and he died at
Geneva, Blay 30, 1829. Besides the works already
mentioned, Davy is the author of numerous papers in the
Philosophical Transactions ; and of Salmonia, or Days of
Fly-tishing ; and Consolations in Travel. They were his
last productions.
The estimation in which religion was held by this dis-
tinguished philosopher may be seen in the following
extract from Salmonia. " I envy," says Sir Humphrey,
" no quality of the mind or intellect in others.— not ge-
nius, power, wit, or fancy ,_but if I could choose what
ivould be most delightful, and I believe most nsefnl tome,
1 should prefer a firm religious belief to every other bless-
ing ; for it makes life a discipline of goodness — creates
new hopes when all earthly hopes vanish, and throws over
the decay, the destruction of existence the most gorgeous of
all lights ; awakens life even in death, and from corrup-
tion and decay calls up beauty and divinity; makes an
instrument of torture and of shame the ladder of ascent
to paradise; and, far above all combinations of earthly
hopes, calls up the most delightful visions of palms and
amaranths, the gardens of the blessed ; the security of
everlasting joys, where (he sensualist and the sceptic view
only gloom, decay, and annihilation." His last work, Con-
solations in Travel, still more fully develops this religious
tendency of his mitKi. Memoir of Sir H. Davy.— Davenport .
DAY. The day is distinguished into natural, astronomi'
cal, civil, and artificial ; and there is another distinction
which may be tenned prophetic ; the prophets being the
only persons who call year3 days ; of which there is ait
example in the explanation given of Daniel's seventy
weeks. The natural day, is one Fevolulion of the sun.
The astronomical day, is one revolution of the equator,
added to that portion of it through -n-hich the sun has pass-
ed in one natural day. The civil day is that, the begi.a-^
mng and end of which are determined by the cwslomof
any nation. The Hebrews began tliehf day in the even-
ing ; (Lev. 23: 32.) the Babylonians from sun-rising.
The artificial day is the time of the sun's continuance above '
the horizon, which is unequal according to different sea-
sons, on acconm of the obliquity of the sphere. The sa
cred writers generally divide the day and night into twelve
unequal hours. The sixth hour is always noon throughou!
the year; and the twelfth hour is the last hour of the day.
Bat in summer, the twelfth hour, as all the others were,
T.'as longer than in winter. (See Houks.^
To-Day, docs not only signify the particular day on which
we are speaking, but any definite time ; as we say, the
people of the present day, or of that day, or time. — Calmet,
DEACON ; (from the Greek, diakorKS;} a servant, a mi-
nister.
1. In the New Testament the word is usetl for any one
that ministers in the service of God : bishops or presbyters
are also styled deacons ; but more particularly and gene-
rally it is u»dersto<ffd of the secondary order of ministering
servants in the church. 1 Cor. 3 : 5. Col. 1 ; 23, 2-5. Phil,
1:1. ITim. 3.
The primitive deacons took care of the secular affairs
of the church, received and disbursed monies, kept the
church's accounts, and provided every thing necessary for
its temporal good. Thus, while the bishop attended to
the souls, the deacons attended to the bodies of the people ^
the pastor to the spiritual, and the deacons the temporaj
interests of the church. Acts 6.
2. In ecclesiastical polity, the lowest of the different
orders of the clergy. In the Roman Catholic church he
served at the altar, in the ceiebf ation of v/baS are calTec!
tlie holy mysteries. He is also allowed to baptize anci
preach, with the permission of the bishop. Formerly dea-
cons were allowed to marry, but this was prohibited to
them very early ; and at present the pope dispenses with
this prohibition only lor very important reasons. In such
cases they re-enter the condition of laymen. There are
eighteen cardinal-deacons in Rome, who have the charge of
the temporal interests and (he revenues of the church. A
person, to be consecrated deaccm, must be twenty-three
years of age. In the English church, deacons are also
ecclesiastics, who can perform all the oflices of a priest,
except the consecration of the sacramental elements, ancI
the pronouncing of the absolution. In German Protestant
churches, the assistant ministers are generally called dea-
cons. If there be two assistants, the first of therrj is called
arch-deacon. In the Presbyterian churches, the deacon's
ofllce is generally merged in thai of rating elder ; but in
some it is distinct, and simply embraces the distribution
of alms. Among Congregationalists, the deacons, besides
attending to the temporal concerns of the church, assist
the minister with their advice, take the lead at prayer-
meetings when he is absent, and preach occasionally to
smaller congregations in the contiguous villages. — Buck.
DEACONESS ; a female deacon. It is generally allow-
ed, that in the primitive church there were deaconesses,
i. e. pious women, whose particular business it was to
assist in the entertainment and care of the itinerant preach-
ers, visit the sick and imprisoned, instruct female catechu-
mens, and assist at their baptism ; then more particularly
necessary, from the peculiar customs of those countries,
the persecuted state of the church, and the speedier spread-
ing of the gospel. Such a one, it is reasonable to think,
Phebe was, (Rom. 16 : 1,) who is expressly called diakonos,
a deaconess or stated servant, as Doddridge renders it.
DE A
[ 445 ]
DE A
They were usually widows, and, to prevent scandal, gene-
rally in years, 1 Tim. 5: 9. See also Spanheim. Hist.
Christ. Send. 1. p. 5ol. The apostolic constitutions, as
they are called, mention the ordination of a deaconess,
and the form of prayer used on that occasion, lib. 8. ch.
19, 20. Pliny also, in his celebrated epistle to Trajan
(96,) is thought to refer to them ; when speaking of two fe-
male Christians whom he put to the torture, he says, qua
miiiistrce dicebmitur, i. e. " who were called deaconesses."
But as the primitive Christians seem to have been led to
this practice from the peculiarity of their circumstances,
and the Scripture is entirely silent as to any appointment
to this supposed office, or any rules about it, it is very
justly laid aside, at least as an office. — Hftul. Biirk.
DEAD. (See Embalmins ; Bukial ; Mourning.) £e((/ie
dead bury their dead ; let men dead in sin bury those natu-
ally dead j or let the dead lie unburied, rather than the
preaching of the gospel be liindered. Dead faith is that
persuasion of divine truth, which flows not from spiritual
life, and is not productive of good works. James 2 : 17 —
20. Dead marks are those that flow not from a principle
of true holiness, but from corrupt nature, which is in a
state of moral death. Heb. 9 : 14. To be dead to the law,
as a covenant, is to be delivered from the obligations of
it, and from a reigning inclination to be under it; (Rom.
7: 4.) and it is dead to us, when it, through Christ, can ex-
ercise no condemning power over our conscience. Gal.
2 : 19. Sin is dead relatively, when it lies undiscovered and
unregarded in the soul, (Rom. 7:8;) it is dead really, when
it is mortified and slain by the word, spirit, and blood of
Christ. Rom. 6:6. To die to sin, or be dead to it, is to be
freed from the dominion of it, and the curse due to it, by
the blood of Christ, and by his grace drawn from the love
and service of it. Rom. 6 : 7. The saints are dead both to
the law and to sin. Col. 3 : 3. — Brnrcn.
DEAD SEA. This was anciently called the Sea of the
Plain, (Deut. 3 : 17 ; 4 : 49,) from its situation in the great
hollow or plain of the Jordan ; the Salt Sea, (Deut. 3 : 17 ;
Joshua 15 : 5,) from the extreme saltness of its waters ; and
the East Sea, (Ezek. 47 : IS ; Joel 2 : 20,) from its situation
relative to Judea, and in contradistinction to the West Sea,
or Mediterranean. It is likewise called by Josephus, and
by the Greek and Latin writers generally, Lams Asphal-
titcs, from the bitumen found in it ; and the Dead Sea, its
more frequent modern appellation, from a tradition, com-
monly though erroneously received, that no living creature
could exist in its saline and sulphureous waters. It is at
present known in Syria by the names of Alnwtanah and
Bahar Loth ; and occupies what may be considered as the
southern extremity of the vale of Jordan ; forming, in that
direction, the western boundary to the Holy Land. The
Dead sea is about seventy miles in length, and twenty in
breadth at its broadest part ; having, lilce the Caspian, no
visible communication with the ocean. Its depth seems to
be altogether unknown ; nor does it appear that a boat has
ever navigated its surface. Towards its southern extremi-
ty, however, in a contracted part of the lake, is a ford,
about six miles over, made use of by the Arabs : in the
middle of which they report the water to be warm ; indi-
cating the presence of warm springs beneath. In general,
towards the shore, it is shallow ; aud rises and falls with
the seasons, aud the quantity of water carried into it by
seven streams, which fall into this their common recepta-
cle, the chief of which is the Jordan.
The water now covering these ruins^occupies what was
formerly the vale of Siddim ; a rich and fruitful valley,
in which stood the five cities, called the cities of the plain,
namely, Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboim, and Bela or
Zoar : the four first of which were destroyed, while the
latter, being " a little city," was preserved at the interces-
sion of Lot ; to which he fled for refuge from the impend-
ing catastrophe, and where he remained in safety during
its accomplishment.
"With regard to the agents employed in this catastrophe,
there might seem reason to suppose that volcanic phe-
nomena had some share in producing it ; but Chateanbri-
and's remark is deserving of attention. " I cannot," he
says, " coincide in opinion with those who suppose the
Dead sea to be the crater of a volcano. I have seen Vesu-
vius, Solfatara, Monte Nuovo in the lake of Fusino, the
peak of the Azores, the Blamahf opposite to Carthage, the
extinguished volcanoes of Auvergne ; and remarked in
all of them the same characters ; that is to say, moun-
tains excavated in the form of a tunnel, lava, and ashes,
which exhibited incontestable proofs of the agency of fire."
After noticing the very different shape and position of the
Dead sea, he adds : " bitumen, warm springs, and phos-
phoric stones ate found, it is true, in the mountains of
Arabia ; but then, the presence of hot springs, sulphur,
and asphaltos is not sufficient to attest the anterior existence
of a volcano." The learned Frenchman inclines to adopt
the idea of professors Mvchaelis and Biisching, that Sodom
and Gomorrah were built upon a mine of bitumen ; th:it
lightning kindled the combustible mass, and that the cities
sank in the subterraneous conflagration. M. Malte Bruii
ingeniously suggests, that the cities might themselves have
been built of bituminous stones, and thus have been sit in
flames by the fire of heaven. Captains Irby and Shin-
gles collected on the southern coast, lumps of nitre and
fine sulphur, from the size of a nutmeg up to that of a
small hen's egg, which, it was evident from their situnlicm,
had been brought down by the rain : " their great depo.-iii
must be soughtfor," they say, "in the cliff." Thc^eclifl's I'len
were probably swept by the lightnings, and ihcir Ihiiniiig
masses poured in a deluge of fire upon the plain. — Walsmi.
DEAL ; to act, to behave. Jesus deals prudcnllij in the
work of our redemption, always employing the most pro-
per means to gain the most noble end. Isa. 52 : 13. 2. To
distribute by parts, (Isa. 58 : 7. Rom. 12 : 3 ;) and a deal
signifies apart. Exod. 29:40. Num. 15:4 — 9. GoA deals
bountifully and in mercy, when he graciously bestows his
favors on men worthless and miserable. Ps. 116 : 17. 1 19 :
17, 124 ; and 142 : 7. He deals bitterly and in fury, when
he sorely afllicts and punishes men. Ruth 1:21. Ezek.
8:18. i6:59. 22 ■.2i. —Broicn.
DEAR; precious, eminently beloved. Jer. 31:20. Col.
1 : 13. Dearly beloved ; loved in the most tender manner,
and highest degree. Rom. 12 : 19. The Jewish nation
were the dearly beloved of God's soul. He had taken great
delight to do them good, and brought them into covenant
with him, as his peculiar people. Jer. 12 : 7. — Bromi.
DEATH, is generally defined to be the separation of the
soul from the body. It is styled in scripture language, a
departure oat of this world to another, (2 Tim. 4 : 7 ;) a dis-
solving of the earthly house of this tabernacle, (2 Cor. 5: 1 ;)
agoing the way of all the earth, (Jos. 23: 14 ;) a returning
to the dust, (Ecc. 13: 7;) a sleep, John 11: 11. Death may
be considered as the effect of sin. (Rom. 5: 12 ;) yet, as our
existence is from God, no man has a right to take away
his own life, or the life of another. Gen. 9; 6. Satan is said
to have the power of death, (Heb. 2: 14 ;) not that he can at
his pleasure inflict death on mankind, but as he was the
instrument of first bringing death into the world, (John 8 :
44 ;) and as he may be the executioner of God's wrath on
impenitent sinners, when God permits him. Death is but
once, (Heb. 9: 27;)certain,(Job 14: 1, 2 ;)powerful and ter-
rific, called the king of terrors, (Job 18: 1 4) uncertain as to
the time, (Prov. 28: 1 ;) universal, (Gen. 5:) necessary, that
God's justice may be displayed, and his mercy njanifcsted ;
desirable to the righteous, Luke 2: 28 — 30. The fear of
death is a source of uneasiness to the generaUty, and to a
guilty conscience it may indeed be terrible ; but to a good
man it should be obviated by the consideration that death
is the termination of every trouble ; that it puts him be-
yond the reach of sin and temptation ; that God has promis-
ed to be with the righteous, even to the end, (Heb. 13:5;)
that Jesus Christ has taken away the sting, (1 Cor. 15: 54;)
and that it introduces him to a state of endless felicity, 2
Cor. 5:8.
Preparation for death. This does not consist in bare mo
rality ; in an external reformation from gross sins ; in a.-
tention to a round of duties in our own strength ; in a- ts
ofcharitj'; in a zealous profession ; in possessing emir ont
gifts: — but in reconciliation to God; repentance of sin:
faith in Christ; obedience to his word; and all as the
effect of regeneration by the Spirit. 3 John 3: 6. i Cur.
11:3. Tit. 5. Bates's four last Things; Hopkins, DtcUn-
court, Sherlock, and Fellows, on Death; Bp. Portais's rnem
on Death ; Saurin's Sermons on the Fear of Death ; V.^atts s
World to Come ; Dwight's Tlteology, ser. clxiii.
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Spiritual death is that awful state of ignoronce, insensi-
bility, and disobedience, which mankind are in by nature,
and which excludes them from the favor and enjoyment
of God. Luke 1:79. (See Depkavity ; Sin.)
Brothers of Death, a denomination usually given to the
religious of the order of St. Paul, the first hermit. They
are called Brothers of Death, on account of the figure of a
death's head which they were always to have with them,
in order to keep perpetually before them the thoughts of
death. The order was probably suppressed by pope Ur-
ban YWl.—Hend. Buck.
DEBATE; to dispute. A man ought to debate his cause
with his neighbor ; he ought privately and meekly to rea-
son the point of difference between them. Prov. 25: 9.
God dtbates in measure with his people, when he reproves
and corrects them, as they are able to bear it. Isa. 27: 8.
Debate, signifies contention, especially in words. Rom. 1:
29. — Brown.
DEBIR, the name of a city, probably signifying, " the
ORACLE," or rather that separated part of a temple, called
the aiytum ; the most retired or secret part, from which the
oracle was understood to issue. In Joshua 10: 39, this
city is called Debira, which name appears to he that of
Debir with an emphasis, the Oracle ; and as it should
seem that is called also Kirjath-seplier, " the city of the
hook," or learning; and Kirjaihrse!W,the " city of purity,"
from the Chaldee and Arabic roots to cJeanse, Mr. Taylor
thinks we may safely conclude that it was a priestly uni-
versity of the ancient heathen inhabitants ; to which the
ideas of holiness, learning, and oracular information were
attached ; together with that of retirement. This ancient
city was near Hebron, in the south of Judah, and its first
inhabitants were giants of the race of Analc. Joshua took
it, and slew its king. Josh. 10:39, 12:13. It fell by lot to
Caleb ; and Othniel first entering the place, Caleb gave
him his daughter Achsah, 15: 16. It subsequently be-
longed to the Levites, 21: 15. 1 Chron. 6:58.
There were two other cities of this name ; one belonging
to Gad, beyond Jordan, (Josh. 13: 26.) the other to Benja-
min, though originally to Judah, Josh. 15: 7. — Calmet.
DEBORAH, a prophetess, wife of Lapidoth, judged the
Israehles, and dwelt under a palm-tree between Ramah
and Bethel, Judges 4: 4, 5. She sent for Barak, directed
him to attack Sisera, and, in the name of God, promised
him victory ; but Barak refusing to go, unless she went
with him, she told him, that the honor of this expedition
would be given to a woman, and not to him. After the
victory, Deborah and Barak sung a fine thanksgiving song,
the composition probably of Deborah alone, which is pre-
served, Judges 5. — Watsai.
DEBTS. In nothing, perhaps, do the Israelitish laws
deviate so far from our own, as in regard to matters of
debt. Imprisonment was unknown amongst the Hebrews,
who were equally free from those long and expensive
modes of procedure with which we are acquainted, for the
recovery of debts. Their laws in this respect were sim-
ple, but efficient. Where pledges were lodged with a cre-
ditor for the payment of a debt, which was not discharged,
tile creditor was allowed to appropriate the pledge to his
ovn benefit, without any interposition of amngistrate, and
tf keep it as rightfully as if it had been bought with the
6uir, which had been lent for it. But, besides the pledge,
every Israelite had various pieces of property, on which
execution for debt might readily he niarle ; as, (1.) His he-
reditary land, the nrcluce of which might be attached till
the year of jubilee. (2.) His houses, which, with the sole
exception of those of the Levites, might be sohl in perpetu-
ity. Lev. 25: 29, 30. (3.) His cattle, hou.'-.ehold furniture,
and ornaments, appear also liable to be taken in execu-
tion. See Job 24:3. Prov. 22:27. From Deut. 15: 1—11,
we see that no debt could be exacted from a poor man in
the seventh year ; because, the land lying fallow, he had
no income whence to pay i(. (4.) The person of the debtor,
who might be sold, along with his wife and children, if he
had any. See Leviticus 25: 39. Job 24: 9. 2 Kings 4: I ;
Isaiah .30: 1. Nehem. 5. We have no intimation, in the
writings of Moses, that suretiship was practised avnong
the Hebrews in cases of debt. In the Proverbs of Solo-
mon, however, there are many admonitions respoctiniMt.
Where this warranty was given, the surety was treated
with the same severity as if he had been the actual debtor j
and if he could not pay, his very bed might be taken from
under him, Prov. 22: 27. There is a reference to the cus-
tom observed in contracting this obligation in Prov. 17: 18)
" A man void of understanding striketh hands," ice. ; and
also in Prov. 22: 26, " Be not thou one of them that strike
hands," &c. It is to be observed that the hand was given,
not to the creditor, but to the debtor, in the creditor's pre-
sence. By this act the surety intimated that he became in
a legal sense one with the debtor, and rendered himself
liable to pay the debt.
2. We have above noticed the practice of lending on
pledge ; but as this was liable to considerable abuse, the
following-judicial regulations were adopted : (1.) The cre-
ditor was not allowed to enter the house of the debtor to
fetch the pledge, but was obliged to stand without the
door, and wait till it was brought to him, Deut. 24: 10, 11.
This law was wisely designed to restrain avaricious and
unprincipled persons from taking advantage of their poor
brethren in choosing their own pledges. (2.) The upper
garment, which served bv night for a blanket, (Exod. 22;
2.5, 26. Deut. 24: 12, 13,) and mdls and mill-stones, if taken
in pledge, were to be restored to the owner before sunsel.
The reason of this law was, that these articles were indis-
pensable to the comfortable subsistence of the poor ; and,
for the same reason, it is likely that it extended to all ne-
cessary utensils. Such a restoration was no loss to the
creditor ; for he had it in his power at last, by the aid of
summary justice, to lay hold of the whole property of the
debtor ; and, if he had none, of his person : and in the
event of non-payment, as before stated, to take him for a
bond slave. — Watson.
DECALOGUE ; the ten commandments given by God to
Moses.
The ten commandments were engraved by God on two
tables of stone. The Jews, by way of eminence, called
these commandments the ten words, from whence they
had afterwards the name of decalogue ; but they joined
the first and second into one, and divided the last into two.
They understand that against stealing to relate to the
stealing of men, or kidnapping ; alleging that the stealing
one another's goods or properly is forbidden in the last
commandment. The church of Rome has struck the
second commandment quite out of the decalogue, and to
make their number complete, has split the tenth into two.
The reason is obvious. — Ilend. Buck.
DECAPOLIS; (fnmi the Greek dcka, ten, and polis, a
city,) a country in Palestine, which contained leu principal
cities, on both sides of Jordan, Matt. 4: 25. Mark 5: 20.
7:31. According to Pliny, they were, 1. Scythopolis ; 2.
Philadelphia; 3. Raphani ; 4. Gadara;5. Hippos; 6.
Dios; 7. Pella; 8. Gerasa ; 9. Canatha ; 10. Damascus.
Josephus inserts Otopos, instead of Canatha. Though
within the limits of Israel, the Decapolis was probably in-
habited by foreigners ; and hence it retained a foreign
appellation. This may also contribute to account for the
numerous herds of swine kept iii,the district, (Matt . 8. 30.)
a practice which was forbidden by the Mosaic law. — Calmet.
DECEIT, consists in passing any thing upon a person
for what it is not, as when falsehood is made to pass for
trulh. (See Httocrisy.) — Hend. Buck.
DECEITFUL. Our hearts and Iheir lusts are deceitful
above nil things; they in unnumbered ways beguile multi-
tudes out of "their present and eternal happiness for mere
trifles, and render them persuaded of the innocence or
goodness of things the most abominable and wicked ; fill
them wilh views' of God, of Christ, of time, and eternity,
of themselves, the most contrary to truth. Jer. 17: 9. Heb.
3: 13. Eph. 4: 22. Men handle the word of God deceitful-
hf, when they wrest it to please the coiTupt humors of.
themselves or others ; when they mingle it with their own
inventions, and use it to promote or protract passion, pride,
covctousness, (fee. 2 Cor. 4: 2. and 2: 17.
The Lord deceives false prophets, when he gives them up
to the delusions of their own hearts, and frustrates their
expectations and predictions. Ezek. 14: 7. Lord, thou hast
deceived me, and I was deceived: thou hast, contrary to my
inclinations, persuaded me to undertake this office of pro-
phesying, and hast disappointed me of the success and
comfort I expected in H. Jer. 20: 7. Heretics deceive arid
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are deceived ; they are persuaded of the goodness or inno-
cence of error and wickedness, and endeavor to persuade
others of it. 2 Tim. 3: l3.—Bron'?i.
DECEPTION, (Self.) See Self-Deception.
DECLAMATION ; a speech made in public in the tone
and manner of an oration, uniting the expression of action
to the propriety of pronunciation, in order to give the sen-
timent its full impression on the mind. It is used also in
a derogatory sense ; as when it is said, such a speech was
mere declamation, it implies that it was deficient in point
of reasoning, or had more sound than sense. — Haid. Buck.
DECLAMATION OF THE PULPIT. The dignity
and sanctity of the place, and the importance of the sub-
ject, require the preacher to exert the utmost powers of his
voice, to produce a pronunciation that is perfectly distinct
and harmonious, and that he observe a deportment and
action which is expressive and graceful. The preacher
should not roar like a common crier, and rend the air with
a voice like thunder; for such kind of declamation is not
only without meaning and without persuasion, but highly
incongruous with the meek and gentle spirit of the gospel.
He should likewise take particular care to avoid a mono-
tony ; his voice should rise from the beginning, as it were,
by degrees, and its greatest strength should be exerted in
the application. Each inflection of the voice should be
adapted to the phrase and to the meaning of the words ;
and each remarkable expression should have its peculiar
inflexion. The dogmatic requires a plain, uniform tone
of voice only, and the menaces of God's word demand a
greater force than its promises and rewards ; but the lat-
ter should not be pronounced in the soft tone of a flute, nor
the former with the loud sound of a trumpet. The voice
should still retain its natural tone in all its various inflex-
ions. Happy is that preacher who has a voice that is at
once strong, flexible, and harmonious. An air of compla-
cency and benevolence, as well as devotion, should be
constantly visible in the countenance of the preacher ; but
every appearance of affectation must be carefully avoided ;
for nothing is so disgustful to an audience as even the
semblance of dissimulation. Eyes constantly rolling,
turned towards heaven, and streaming with tears, rather
denote a h)'pocrite than a man possessed of the real spirit
of religion, and who feels the true import of what he
preaches. An air of afiected devotion infallibly destroys
the efficacy of all that the preacher can say, however just
and important it may be. On the other hand, he must
avoid every appearance of mirth or railler)', or of that
cold, unfeeling manner, which is so apt to freeze the heart
of his hearers. The body should in general be erect, and
in a natural and ea.sy attitude. The perpetual movement
or contortion of the body has a ridiculous effect in the
pulpit, and makes the figure of a preacher and a harlequin
loo similar ; on the other hand, he ought not to remain
constantly upright and motionless, like a speaking statue.
The motions of the hands give a strong expression to a
discourse; but they should be decent, grave, noble, and
expressive. The preacher who is incessantly in action,
who is perpetually clasping his hands, or who menaces
with a clenched fist, or counts his arguments on his fingers,
wdl only excite mirth among his auditory. In a word,
declamation is an art that the sacred orator should suidy
with assiduity. The design of a sermon is to convince, to
afl'ect, and to persuade. The voice, the countenance, and
the action, which are to produce the triple efl'ecl, are there-
fore objects to which the preacher should particularly ap-
ply himself. (See Eloquence ; Sekmon.) — Hend. Biich.
DE COURCY, (Richard, B. A.) was a native of Ire-
land, and was educated at Trinity college, Dublin ; but his
acquaintance with several eminent clergymen brought
him to England. In 1770, he accepted a curacy in
Shrewsbury, the rectorship of which belonged to the
Rev. Mr. StiUingfleet. In January, 1774, he was present-
ed, by the lord chancellor, to the vicarage of St. Alkmond's,
which occasioned a considerable stir in the parish ; the theo-
logical sentiments and style of preaching of Mr. De Courcy
being of a puritanical, or, as some would term it, an evan-
gelical cast ; and this circumstance gave rise to a satirical
poem, entitled " St. Alkmond's Ghost," by one of his
parishioners. He had not been long inducted to his vicar-
age before he attacked the Anti-pedobaptists, on their dis-
criminating tenet, and thereby involved liimself in a con-
troversy which ramified and expanded on every side, and
furnished a sufficient employment for his pen for several
years. At length a little satirical poem, in Hudibrastic
verse, entitled " The Salopian Zealot ; or, the Good Vicar
in a bad Mood," written by Mr. Benjamin Francis, of
Horsley, in Gloucestershire, though totally free from scur-
rility, yet, seasoned as it was with no ordinary portion of
caustic, administered a powerful quietus to the vicar, and
put an end to the controversy. His other productions, from
the press, were, " Jehu's Looking-glass ; or. True and
False Zeal ;" " Nathan's Message to David," a sermon ;
" Two Fast Sermons, on the Profanation of the Sabbath,"
1778 ; " Seduction," a poem, 1782 ; " The Seducer con-
victed on his own Evidence," 1783 ; " Christ Crucified,
the distinguishing Topic of the Gospel," two volumes,
foolscap octavo, 1791 (afterwards reprinted in one volume,
octavo) ; and, soon after his decease, there appeared, in
one volume, octavo, " Sermons by the late Rev. Richard
De Courcy ; to which are prefixed. An Essay on the Na-
ture, tVc. of Pure and Undefiled Rehgion, and a Preface,"
&c. As a preacher, he greatly excelled, and was deser-
vedly popular. His language was highly polished ; his
elocution peculiarly graceful ; his manner dignified ; and
his addresses furnish some of the most finished specimens
of pulpit eloquence that are any where to be found. He
died at the age of sixty, and was interred, November 9,
1803, at Shawbury, having been thirty years minister of
the gospel in Shrewsbury. — Jones's Chr. Biog.
DECREES OF GOD ; a phrase rather unfortunately
used in theological writings, to express the comprehensive
and glorious designs of divine wisdom in the creation and
government of the universe. They are defined to be his
settled purposes, whereby he fore-ordains to perform, per-
mit, or suffer, whatsoever comes to pass. Dan. 4: 24. Acts
13: 18. Eph. 1: 11. This doctrine has been the subject of
one of the most perplexing controversies that has occurred
among mankind, owing chiefly to misapprehension of its
real nature and consequences. It is not, as some seem to
think, a novel doctrine. The opinion, that whatever occurs
in the world at large, or in the lot of private individuals, is
the result of a previous and unalterable arrangement by
that Supreme Power which presides over nature, has al-
ways been held, not only by many of the vulgar, but by
the vast majority of cnllivated and philosophic minds.
Traces of it in a crude form are found in the philosophy of
all nations, who have attained any just notions of the Dei-
ty. It is, in fact, but a fuller development of the admitted
doctrine of divine providence. The ancient stoics, Zeno
and Chrysippus, whom the Jewish Essenes seem to have
followed, asserted the existence of a Deity, who, acting
wisely, but, as they supposed, necessarily, contrived the
general system of the world ; from which, by a series of
causes, whatever is now done in it unavoidably results.
JMahomet introduced iuto his Koran the doctrine of an absn-
lute predestination of the course of human affairs. He
represented life and death, prosperity and adversity, and
every event that befalls a man in this world, as the una-
voidable result of a previous determination of the one God
who rules over all. Augustine, and the whole of the ear-
liest reformers, but especially Calvin, favored this doctrine
in a better digested fonn ; embracing, not excluding, hu-
man responsibility and the use of means. In this form it
was generally asserted, and publicly owned, in most of the
confessions of faith of the reformed churches, and particu-
larly in the church of England ; and to this we may add,
that it was maintained by a great,iiumber of divines in the
last two centuries.
As to the nature of these decrees, it must be observed
that they are real designs ; not indeed the result of delibe-
ration, or the Almighty's debating matters within himself,
reasoning in his own mind about the expediency or inex-
pediency of things, as creatures do ; nor are they merely
contingent and fluctuating ideas of things future, but set-
tled determinations founded on his comprehensive views,
and sovereign pleasure. Is. 40: 14. They are to be consi-
dered as eternal : this is evident ; for if God be eternal,
consequently his purposes must be of equal duration with
himself; to suppose otherwise, would be to suppose that
there was a time when he was undetermined and mutable ;
^
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whereas no newileterminalions or after-thoughls can arise
in his mind. Job 23: 13, 14. — 2. They are /«e, without
any compulsion, ami not excited by any motive out of
himself. Rom. 9: 1.5. — 3. They are infinitely «-/sc, display-
ing his glory, and promoting the general good. Rom. lb
33. — 4. They are immutahk, for this is the result of his be-
ing infinitely perl'ect ; for if there were the least change in
God's understanding, it would be an instance of imperfec-
tion. Mai. 3: G. — 5. They are extensive or universal, re-
lating to all creatures and things in heaven, earth, and
hell, Eph. 1: 11, Prov. 10: 4.— (J. They are secret, or at
least 07ihj so far knmvn as God is pleased to discover them. It
is therefore presumption for any to attempt to enter into
or judge of his secret purpose, or to decide upon what he
has not revealed. Deut. 29: 29. Nor is an unknown or
supposed decree of God at any time to be the rule of our
conduct. His revealed will alone must be considered as
the rule hy which we are to judge of the event of things,
as welhas of our conduct at large. Rom. 11: 31. — 7. Last-
ly, they arc effectual; for whether they relate to things
simply sutfered, or things executed by himself, as he is
infinitely wise to plan, so he is infinitely powerful to per-
form : his counsel shall stand, and he will do all his plea-
sure. Is. 46: 10.
A linng divine has laid down the following principles
on this profound subject of human thought.
1. God had a design in the production of the universe.
For where there is no design in action, there is no wisdom
in the agent; which, to deny to God, were no better than
blasphemy or atheism.
2. That all things which he has produced, with all their
qualities, circumstauces and connexions, are individual
parts of one great whole, one magnificent system.
3. That Jie had from the first a full view of all the par-
ticulars comprehended in this immense system, and ar-
ranged them in infinite wisdom to bring out of their com-
bined and complicated action the best result.
4. That the })lan uf infinite wisdom comprehends moral
and responsible agents, and makes ample provision for
their free agency wilh all its eternal consequences.
5. That the divine plan, of course, comprehends to a
certain extent the sufi'erance of sin, or the transgression
of the divine laws by free moral agents, not as unavoida-
ble, but incidental.
6. That if God, consistently with his glorious perfec-
tions, can comprehend in his plan the sufferance of sin, as
we know to be the fact, he can also determine to limit,
control, and punish it ; and to overrule the final result of
every sinful action, in a way worthy of his character as
the Maker and Ruler of all.
7. That the sufi'erance of sin, under such a control of
infinite wisdom, does not and cannot imply, either that
God is its author, or that sin is the object of his approba-
tion, or that it is the necessary means of the greatest good,
or that those who commit it are not worthy of punishment
such as God has threatened in his word.
8. That if we fully understand the subject, we can as
easily trace the harmony between free moral agency and
the immutability of the divine decrees, as between any
other moral cause and its legitimate effect ; and all at-
tempts to prove them at variance are equally condemned
by the Scriptures, by sound philosophy, and by human
coi-sciousness.
This doctrine should teach us — 1. Admiration. " He
is the rock, his work is perfect, for all his ways are judg-
ment ; a God of truth, and without iniquity ; just and right
is he." Deut. 32: 4. — 2. Reverence. "Who would not
fear thee, 0 King of nations ? for to thee doth it appertain."
Jer. 10: 7. — 3. Humility. " 0 the depth of the riches, both
of the wisdom and knowledge of God ! how unsearchable
are his judgments, and his ways past finding out !" Rom.
11: 33. — 4. Submission. "For he doeth according to his
wiU in the armies of heaven, and among the inhabitants
of the earth ; and none can stay his hand, or say unto
him. What doest thou?" Dan. 4: 35. — 7. Desire for hea-
ven. " What I do, thou knowest not now ; but thou shall
know hereafter." John 13: 7. (See Necessity ; Predes-
tination.)— Dwight's Theology; Hend. Buck.
DECREES OF COUNCILS, are the laws made by them
to regulate the doctrine and policy of the church. Thus
the acts of the Christian council at Jerusalem are called.
Acts 16: i. — Hend. Buck.
DECRETAL ; a letter of a pope, determining some
point of question in the ecclesiastical law. The decretals
compose the second part of the canon law. The first genu-
ine one, acknowledged by all the learned as such, is a let-
ter of pope Siricius, written in the year 385, to Himerus,
bishop of Tarragona, in Spain, concerning some disorders
which had crept into the churches of Spain. The oldest
collection of decretals was made by Isidore, of Seville,
(who died 636,) and is yet extant in manuscript. Gratian
published a collection of decretals, containing all the ordi-
nances made by the popes till the year 1150. Gregory IX.
. in 1227, following the example of Theodosius and Justini-
an, formed a constitution of his own, collecting into one
body all the decisions and all the causes which served to
advance the papal power ; which collection of decretals
was called the Pentateuch, because it contained five
\)QC)'&s.^Hend Buck.
DEDAN, or Dad an ; the son of Raamah, mentioned
Gen. 10: 7. Josephus, adverting to this text, instead of
Dedan, reads Judah ; and says, that this Judah was the
father of certain Jews inhabiting the western part of Ethi-
opia. It is not fully agreed among the learned, whether
Dedan and Dedanim, names often mentioned by the pro-
phets, (see Isa. 21: 13. Jer. 25: 23. and 49: 8. Ez. 25: 13.
27: 15, 20. and 38: 13.) are the same with Dedanim, a
person spoken of. Gen. 10: 4, among the descendants of
Japheth ; or whether he is the saiue with Dedan, mention-
ed, ver. 7, among the descendants of Ham ; or whether he
is not rather a descendant of Dedan, the son of Jokshan,
and grandson of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25: 3. Eze-
kiel speaks of the Dedanites as trading with the Tyrians
in ivory, ebony, and fine cloths for chariots ; and as he
classes them with the people of Sheba, Eden, Ashur, and
Chilmad, it is concluded that they must have dwelt in
Mesopotamia, or Syria, and it is said there exists at this
day a city which goes by the name of Dedan, situated in
Arabia Felix, on the west of the Persian gulf. — Jones.
DEDICATION ; a religious ceremony, whereby any
person or thing is solemnly consecrated, or set apart to the
service of God and the purposes of religion.
The use of dedications is very ancient, both among the
worshippers of the true God, and among the heathens. In
the Scriptures, we meet with dedications of the tabernacle,
altars, &c. Under Christianity, dedication is only applied
to a church, and is properly the consecration thereof to the
worship of God. (See Consecration.) — Hend. Buck.
DEEP. (See Abyss.)
DEER. (See Hart, and Hind.)
DEERING, (Edward, B. D.) an Eng:lish divine of the
sixteenth century, was a fellow of Christ's college, Cam-
bridge, and a very famous preacher. The volume of his
published works is full of divine learning and consolation.
Though he sought not preferment, he was appointed a
preacher at St. Paul's in London ; and he filled that ap-
pointment with a series of faithful labors in the work of
the gospel. But in his last sickness he humbly lamented
his inefficiency. "The good Lord pardon my great ne-
gligence, that while I had time, I used not the precious gift
more for the advancement of his glory, as I might have
dcme. Yet I bless God that I have not abused the gift on
ambition and vain studies." " Blessed are the)', who, while
they have tongues, use them to God's glory." " If I were
the most excellent of all creatures in the world, equal in
righteousness to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, yet would I
confess myself to be a sinner, and that I expected salva-
tion only in the righteousness of Jesus Christ ; for we all
stand in need of the grace of God. As for my death, I
bless God, I find and feel so much comfort and joy in my
soul, that if I were put to my choice whether to live or
die, I would a thousand times rather choose death than
life, if it may stand with the holy will of God." This
excellent man died in 1576. — Middleton.
DEFENCE. (See Self-defence.)
DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, {Fidei Defensor;) a
peculiar title belonging to the king of England ; as Catho-
licus to the king of Spain j Chrisiianissimus, to the king of
France ; and Apostolicus to the king of Hungary. &c.
These titles were given by the popes of Rome. That of
DEI
[ 449
DEL
Fjdei Defensor was conferred by Leo X. on king Henry
Vin. for writing against Martin Luther ; and the bull for
it bears date quinto idus, October, 1521. It was afterwards
confirmed by Clement VII. But the pope, on Henry's sup-
pressing the houses of religion, at the time of the reforma-
tion, not only deprived him of his title, but deposed him of
his crown also; though, in the thirty-fifth yearof his reign,
his title, c5cc. was confirmed by parliament, and has conti-
nued to be used by all his successors. Chamberlayne says,
Ihe title belonged to the kings of England before that time,
and for proof hereof appeals to several charters granted to
the university of Oxford : so that pope Leo's bull was only
a renovation of an ancient right. — Hend. Buck.
DEFILEMENT. Under the law, many were those
blemi,shes of person and conduct, which were considered
as defilements : some were voluntary, others involuntary;
.some were inevitable, and the effect of nature itself; others
nrose from personal transgression. Under the gospel, de-
filements are those of the heart, of the mind, the temper,
find conduct. The ceremonial uncleannesses of the law are
superseded as religious rites ; though many of them claim
attention as usages ofhealth, decency, and civility. — Watson.
DEGENERATE ; grown worse than it was originally.
The Jews were turned into the degenerate platit of a strange
vine, when, leaving the example of their pious ancestors,
they gradually became almost as wicked as heathens. Jer.
2: 21. If mankind universally were not degenerate, they
would not need regeneration. — Brown.
DEGRADATION, (Ecclesiastical,) is lhe.deprivatirin
of a priest of his dignity. We have an instance of it in
the eighth century, at Constantinople, in the person of the
patriarch Constantine, who was made to go out of the
church backwarils, stripped of his pallium, and anathema-
tized. In England, Cranmer was degraded by order of the
bloody queen Mary. They dressed him in episcopal robes,
made only of canvass ; put the mitre on his head, and the
pastoral statf in his hand, and in this attire showed him to
the people, and then stripped him piece by piece. — H. Buck.
DEGREES, (Psalms of) the name or title prefixed in
our translation to fifteen of the psalms; that is, from the
hundred and twentieth, to the hundred and thirty-fourth
inclusive. Various are the explanations that have been
given of this title, by the learned. Junius and Tremellius
translate the Hebrew word, " a song of excellencies," or
an excellent song, in reference to the subject ; as eminent
persons are called " men of high degree." 1 Chron. 17 :
11: Some call them "Psalms of elevation;" because,
say they, they were sung with an exalted voice. But the
most probable opinion is, and indeed it corresponds with
the literal translation of the Hebrew, namely, that instead
of " Psalms of degrees," the words should be translated
"Odes of ascensions," that is, odes which were sung
when the Israelites came up to worship in Jerusalem at
the annual festivals, or, perhaps, from their state of cap-
tivity at Babylon. Their return home on this latter occa-
sion is certainly called " the ascension, or coming up
from Babylon." Ezra 7:9. And the old Syriac trans-
lator, who explains the subject of the Psalms by apposite
titles, refers to this circumstance almost all the psalms
that bear this inscription ; some of them perhaps on in-
sufficient grounds, but many of them certainly have a
manifest relation to it. Theodoret indisciiminately ex-
plains them all as relating to the Babylonish capti-idty,
and thus illustrates the title : " Odes of the ascensions :"
Theodotion calls them " Songs of the ascension ;" and
Symmachus, "Odes or songs on the returns." (See
Lorrth's Ilehrem Poetry, Lect. 25, note 15.) — Jones.
DEHAVITES ; the people of Ava ; perhaps inhabitants
of that part of Assyria which was watered by the river
Diaba. See Ezra 4 : 9. 2 Kings 17 : 2 i.— Calmet.
DEISTS. This term appears to have had an honorable
origin, being of the same import as Tlicists, designating
those who believe in the existence of a supreme inteUi-
gent cause, in opposition to the Epicureans, and other
atheistical philosophers. The name, in modern times, is
said to have been first assumed about the middle of the
sixteenth centur}', b}' some persons on the continent, in
order to avoid the imputation of atheism. Peter Viret, a
divine of that century, mentions it as a new name as-
sumed by those who rejected Christianitv. Lord Edward
57
Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in the seventeenth century,
has been regarded as the first deistical writer who reduced
deism to a system ; aftirming the sufficiency of reason
and natural religion, and rejecting divine revelation as
unnecessary and superfluous. His system, however em-
braced these five articles: — 1. The being of God. 2.
That he is to be worshipped. 3. That piety and moral
virtue are the chief parts of worship. 4. That God will
pardon our faults on repentance. And, 5. That there
is a future state of rewards and punishment.
Some have divided all deists into two classes — those who
admit a future state, and those who deny it. But Dr. S.
Clarke, taking the term in the most extensive sense, ar-
ranges them under four classes: — 1. Those who admit
a Supreme Being, but deny that he concerns himself with
the conduct or affairs of men ; maintaining, with Lucre-
tius, that God
" Ne'er smilea at good, nor frowns at wicked, deeds."
2. Those who admit not only the being but the providence
of God, with respect to the natural world ; but who allow
no difference between moral good and evil, nor that God
takes any notice of our moral conduct. 3. Such as be-
lieve in the natural attributes of God, and his all-govern-
ing providence ; yet deny the immortality of the soul, or
any future state. 4. Such as admit the existence of God,
his providence, and the obligations of natural religion ;
but so far only as these things are discoverable by the
light of nature, without any divine revelation. Some of
the deists have attempted to overthrow the Christian dis-
pensation, by opposing to it what they call the absolute
perfection of natural religion. Others, as Blount, Collins,
and Morgan, have endeavored to gain the same purpose,
by attacking particular parts of the Christian scheme, by
explaining away the literal sense and meaning of certain
passages, or by placing one portion of the sacred canon
in opposition to the other. A third class, wherein we
meet with the names of Shaftesbury and Bolingbroke,
advancing farther in their progress, expunge from their
creed the doctrine of future existence, deny or controvert
all the moral perfections of the Deity, and wholly reject
the Scriptures.
The deists of the present day are distinguished by their
zealous efforts to diffuse the principles of infidelity among
the common people. Hume, Bolingbroke, and Gibbon,
addressed theinselves solely to the more polished classes
of the community ; but of late, the writings of Paine,
Palmer, Carlile, Owen, Jennings, Kneeland, and others,
have diffused infidelity among the lower orders of society,
and clothed it in the dress of \'Tilgar ridicule, the more
efl'ectually to destroy in the common people all reverence
for sacred things. Among the disciples of this school,
deism has led to the most disgusting atheism. Thus
" evil men and seducers wax worse and worse."
" Bui," as one observes, " the friends of Christianity
have no reason to regret the free and unreserved discus-
sion which their religion has undergone. Objections have
been stated and urged in their full force, and as fully
answered ; arguments and raillery have been repelled ;
and the controversy between Christians and deists has
called forth a great number of excellent writers, who
have illustrated both the doctrines and evidences of Chris-
tianity in a manner that will ever reflect honor on iheir
names, and be of lasting service to the cause of genuine
religion, and the best interests of mankind." (See arti-
cles Christianity ; Infidelitv ; Inspiration ; and Scrif-
TtiRE, in this work.) Leiand's View of Deistical Writers;
Sermons at Boyle's Lecture ; Hnlyburton's Natural Seligion
insufficient ; Leslie's Short Method with the Deists ; Bishop
Watson's Apology for the Bible; Fuller's Gospel of C/ito«
its on-n Witness ; Bishop Portats's Charge to the Clergy, for
1794; and his Summary of the Evidences of Christianity;
Faber's Difficulties of hi fidelity. — Watson ; Hend. Buck.
DEITY OF CHRIST. (See Jescts Christ.)
DELANY, (Patrick,) an Irish clergpnan of some emi-
nence, was born in the year lC8f). At Trimly college he
was distinguished for his industry, good conduct, and
learning ; obtained the usual degrees, and became a seni-
or fellow of that college. To his duties as a minister of
the gospel he paid the greatest attention, and devoted the
DE L
\ 4M]
DEL
energies of his miud lo the impvoTemeut of the pupils
committed to his care. In 1727, lord Carteret raised him
to the chancellorship of Christ church. In 1732, he dis-
tinguished himself by the publication of the first volume
of a work, entitled " Revelation examined with candor."
In 1734, he published the second volume, which was as
rapidly and generally perused as any theological work of
the day. The work passed through several editions, and
is still'held in deserved estimation. In 1738, he was en-
gaged in writing an ingenious pamphlet — " Reflections
on Polygamy, and the encouragement given to that Prac-
tice in the Scriptures of the Old Testament." In 1739,
he was engaged in composing " An historical Account of
the Life and Reign of David ;" the first volume of which
was published in 1740, and the second and third in 1742.
In that work he refuted the observations of Bayle ; vindi-
cated, in some measure, the character of David, and de-
monstrated that, whilst to his crimes all men were alive,
!o Ids virtues they were not sufficiently attentive. In
1763, he presented the world with the third volume of
" Revelation examined with candor ;" and which certain-
ly equalled the former volumes. The publication of seve-
ral volumes of valuable discourses closed the literary la-
bors of this eminent man ; and in May, 1768, he expired
at Bath, aged eighty-three. To the last moments of his
life, his faculties were sound, his energies comparatively
iiuirapaired, and his usefulness considerable : — he served
mankind in his day and generation ; — he was charitable,
generous, devout, and amiable. His sentiments on many
doctrines of Christianity were certainly peculiar ; but then
his mind was original, well infonned, and capacious. He
unquestionably must rank among the number of those
for whom posterity should be grateful that he ever lived.
^See Life and Works of Delany. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
DELILAH ; a woman who dwelt in the valley of Sorek,
belonging to Dan, near the land of the Philistines. Sam-
son abandoned himself to her, and, as some think, mar-
ried her, Judg. 1(5: I. The princes of the Philistines by
bribes prevailed on her lo betray Samson : he eluded her
first demands ; but at length she succeeded, and reduced
his strength lo weakness, by cutting off his hair. (See
Samson.) — Cahnet.
DELOS ; one of the Cyclades, a number of islands in
the jEgean sea. It was much celebrated, and held in the
higliest veneration, for its famous temple and oracle of
Apollo, 1 Mac. 15; 23.— Cahiet.
DELUGE; the flood which overflowed and destroyed
the earth. This flood makes one of the most considera-
ble epochs in chronology. Its history is given by Moses,
Genesis, ch. 6, and 7. Its time is fi.xed by the best chro-
nologers to the year from the creation 1656, answering
to the year before Christ 2293. From this flood, the
stale of the world is divided into ililmian and aiiterlihivimi .
Jlen who have not paid that regard to sacred history
it deserves, have cavilled at the account given of a uni-
versal deluge. Their objections principally turn upon
three points:— 1. The want of any direct history of that
event by the profane writers of antiquity.— 2. the appa-
rent impossibihty of acc.ounting for the quantity of water
necessarj' to overflow the whole earth to such a depth as
It is said to have bean — And, 3. There appearing no ne-
cessity for a universal deluge, as the same end might
have been accomplished by a partial one.
To the above arguments we oppose the plain declara-
tions of Scripture. God declared to Noah that he was
resolved to destroy every thing that had breath under
heaven, or hail life on the earth, by a flood of waters :
such was the threatening, such was the execution. The
waters, Moses assures us. covered the whole earth, buried
all the mountains ; every thing perished therein that had
hfe, excepting Noah and those with him in the ark. Can
a universal deluge be more clearly expressed ? If the
deluge had only been partial, there had been no necessity
to spend a hundred years in the building of an ark, and
shutting up all sorts of animals therein, in order to re-
stock the world : they had been easily and readily brought
from those parts of the world not overflowed, into those
that -were ; at least, all the birds never would have been
destroyed, as Moses says they were, so long as they had
wings to bear them to those parts where the flood did not
reach. If the waters had only overflowed the neighbor-
hood of the Euphrates and the Tigris, they could not be
fifteen cubits above the highest mountains ; there was no
rising that height, but they must spread themselves, by the
laws of gravity, over the rest of the earth ; unless, per-
haps, they had been retained there by a miracle ; in that
case, Moses, no doubt, would have related the miracle, as
he did that of the waters of the Red sea, &c. It may
also be observed, that in the regions far remote from the
Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Ilaly, France, Switzerland,
Gennany, England, the United Stares, &c. there are fre-
quently found in places many scores of leagues from the
sea, and even in the tops of high mountains, whole trees
sunk deep under ground, as also teeth and bones of ani-
mals, fishes entire, sea shells, ears of corn, &c. petrified ;
which the best naturalists are agreed could never have
come there but by the deluge. That the Greeks and west-
ern nations had some knowledge of the flood, has never
been denied ; and the Africans, Chinese, and Americans
have traditions of the deluge. The ingenious Mr. Bryant,
in his Bljthology, has pretty clearly proved that the de-
luge, so far from being unknown to the heathen world at
large, is in reality conspicuous throughout every one of
their acts of religious worship. In India, also. Sir Wil-
liam Jones has discovered, that in the oldest mythological
books of that country, there is such an account of the
deluge as corresponds suflrciently with that of Moses.
(See Ark of Noah.)
-Various have been the conjectures of learned men as to
the yiatural causes of the deluge. Some have supposed that
a quantity of water was created on purpose, and at a
proper time annihilated by Divine power. Dr. Burnet
supposes the primitive earth to have been no more than a
crust investing the water contained in the ocean ; and in
the central abyss which he and others suppose to exist in
the bowels of the earth at the time of the flood, this out-
ward cnist broke in a thousand pieces, and sunk down
among the water, which thus spouted up in vast cataracts
and overflowed the whole surface. Others, supposing a
surticient fund of water in the sea or abyss, thmk that the
shifting of the earth's centre of gravity drew after it the
water out of the channel, and overwhelmed the several
parts of the earth successively. Others ascribe it to the
shock of a comet ; and Mr. King supposes it to arise from
subterraneous fires bursting forth with great violence
under the sea. But are not most, if not all these hypothe-
ses quite arbitrary, and without foundation, from the words
of Bloses ? It is, perhaps, in vain to attempt accounting
for this event by natural causes, it being altogether mi-
raculous and supernatural, as a punishment to men for
the corruption then in the world. Let us be satisfied with
the sources which Moses gives us, namely, the fountains
of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven
opened ; that is, the waters rushed out from the hidden
abyss of the bowels of the earth, and the clouds poured
down their raiu incessantly. Let it suffice us to know,
that all the elements are under God's power ; that he can
do with them as he pleases, and frequently in ways we
are ignorant of, in order to accomplish his own purposes.
The objections once made to the fact of a general de-
luge have, indeed, been greatly weakened by the progress
of philosophical knowledge ; and may be regarded as
nearly given up, Uke the former notion of the high anti-
quity of the race of men, founded on the Chinese and
Egyptian chronologies and pretended histories. Philoso-
l>hy has even at last found out that there is sufficient
water in the ocean, if called forth, to overflow the highest
mountains to the height given by Moses, — a conclusion
which it once stoutly denied. Keill formerly computed
that twenty-eight oceans would be necessary for that pur-
pose ; but we are now informed " that a farther progress
in mathematical and physical knowledge has shown the
diH'crent seas and oceans to contain, at least, forty-eight
times more water than they were then supposed to do ;
and that the mere raising of the temperature of the whole
body of the ocean to a degree no greater than marine ani-
mals live in, in the shallow seas between the tropics,
would so expand it as more than to produce the height
above the mountains stated in the Tilosaic account." As
to the deluge of Noah, therefore, infidelity has almost en-
DEM
[451 ]
DEM
lirely lost the aid of philosophy in framing objections to
the Scriptures.
The principal writers on this subject have been Wood-
tvard, Cockhitni, Bryant, Burnet, Whiston, SlilUngfieetj King,
Calcott, Tytkr, and Gisborne in his Natural Theology. (See
also SiUwtans Journal of Science.) — Hend. Buck ; Watson.
DELUSIONS ; errors and intluences of Satan, calcu-
lated to deceive men. God chooses men^s delusions, and
sends them strong delusions, when in his righteous judgment
and infinite wisdom, he permits Satan, their own lusts,
and false teachers effectually to seduce them ; and gives
them up to the very errors and abominations which they
relish. Isa. 66:4. 2 Thess. 2 : 11.— ^ron'n.
DEMAS ; a Thessalonian mentioned by Paul, (2 Tim.
4:10.) who was at first a most zealous disciple of the
apostle, and very serviceable to him at Rome during his
imprisonment, but afterwards (about A. D. 65,) forsook
hiir, to follow a more secular life. — Calmet.
DEMETRIUS, agoldsmith of Ephesus, who made nich-
es, or little cliapels, or portable models of the famous tem-
ple, for Diana of Ephesus, which he sold to foreigners,
Acts 19: 2i.— Calmet.
DEMETRIUS, mentioned by John as an eminent
Christian, (3 John 12.) is by some beheved to be the De-
metrius of the former article, who had renounced hea-
thenism to embrace Christianity. But this wants proof.
— Calmet.
DEMONS ; (Greek, daimon and daimonion) a name given
in the New Testament to fallen angels, or, morally evil
and impure spirits, and in some instances, (such as Acts
17: 18. 1 Cor. 10: 20, 21. 1 Tim. 4: 1. Rev. 9: 20, to
heathen gods, human spirits whom the heathen deified
and worshipped, and the canonized saints of corrupt
churches. According to the heathen philosophers, demons
held a middle rank between the celestial gods and men
upon earth, and carried on all intercourse bef«-een them ;
conveying the addresses of men to the gods, and the di-
vine benefits to men. They also believed that some of
them were employed in executing the vengeance of the
gods on the impious. Agreeably to this view, they divi-
ded their demons into two kinds : agathodaimon, eudaimon,
a good demon, or tutelary genius, whom they assigned to
every one at his birth, to watch over his character, for-
tunes, fee ; and iakndaimen, a malignant demon, who
thwarts, vexes, and injures any one. — Hend. Buck.
DEMONIAC ; one possessed or afl'ected by a demon or
demons. The subject of demoniacal possession, since the
lime of Jos. Mede, has given rise to much discussion.
One class of writers have supposed that the demoniacs
were merely madmen ; others, that the bodies of human
beings were actually possessed, controlled, go^'crned, and
inhabited by wicked and impure spirits. Among the sup-
porters of the former opinion are Heinsius, Mede, Sykes,
Jlead, Farmer, Lardner, and, almost without exception,
modern Socinian and Rationalist writers. On the other
side of the question may be placed the uniform interpre-
tation of the passages in the New Testament in which
the subject is spoken of, in their literal sense by the an-
cient church, the best commentators, and those generally
bearing the name of orthodox in every age and among
all sects coming under this denomination.
The following is a brief summary of the respective argu-
ments on both sides, beginning with those which have
been advanced against actual possession. 1. The word
demon properly signifies the soul of a dead person, which,
it cannot be supposed, is referred to where speeches and
actions are imputed to the imaginary demoniac. In re-
ply to this, it has been deemed sufficient to maintain that
the word does not uniformly denote the spirits of the de-
parted.— 2. Among the heathens, lunacy and epilepsy
were ascribed to the operation of certain demons, who
were therefore called larvati and cerriti. To this it has
been answered, that it is not impossible but that the hea-
thens were right ; but that, at all events, their opinion,
whether right or wrong, is no proof that the Jews were
in error; for the demoniacs of Scripture are represented
as differing from insane and epileptic persons. Compare
Matt. 4 : 24, where the daimonizomeneus are opposed to the
ieleniazoTnerwus, the paralutikous, and the poikanis nosois, kai
basanois suneckitmeneus. And in chap. 10; L the power to
cast out demons is expressly distinguished from the power
of healing all manner of sickness, and all manner of dis-
ease. See also Luke 4: 33 — 36 : compare especially ver.
41. with ver. 40, where the contrast is most striking. 3.
It is argued that the Jews had the same idea of these dis-
eases, and the instance of Saul's madness, and Matt. 17-
14, 15. John 7: 20. 8: 48, 52. 10: 20, are adduced to
to prove the assertion. These passages certainly prove
that lunatics, epileptics, and demoniacs are sometimes
synonymous terms ; but this admission will only go to
show that they were occasionally identified ; while the ar-
gument deduced from the contrast between lunatics and
demoniacs in the passages quoted above, will not be de-
stroyed.— 4. Christ is said to have adopted the common
language of the people, which it was not necessary t<i
change. He was not sent to correct the mistakes which
existed in the popular philosophy of the day in which he
hved. This argument takes for granted the very point to
be proved. But is such an accommodation as it supposes,
for a moment to be reconciled with the character of such
a teacher as Jesus ? If the demons were simply natural
diseases, was it not of the highest importance for him to
have undeceived his contemporaries on these points, and
to have corrected the false and pernicious philosophy of
the age ? 'Were we to follow out tliis principle of accom-
modation, we might explain away most of our Lord's
doctrines, and regard them as mere Jewish notions, which
indeed has been done by the Socinians and by the Ra-
tionalists of Germany. — 5. No reason can be given why
there should be demoniacal possessions in our Lord's
time, and not at present, when we have no grounds to
suppose that any instances of this nature any where -oc-
cur. In reply to this objection, it may be observed, that
these possessions were then permitted in order to give to
the devil's hostility to man an ocular demonstration ; to
place in a clear light the power and benevolence of the
Lord Jesus in defeating the baneful purposes of this an-
cient enemy nf the human race, and to confute the error so
prevalent among the Sadducees, who affirmed that there
was neither angel nor spirit.
In addition to the arguments just produced in refuta-
tion of the anti-demonianists, the following positions may
be laid down in support of real possession : —
1. The doctrine of demoniacal possessions is consistent
with the whole tenor of Scripture. Evil is there repre-
sented as having been introduced by a being of this de-
scription, who in some wonderful manner influenced the
immaterial principle in man. The continuance of evilia
the world is frequently imputed to the continued agency
of the same being. His delight is in every possible way
to harass and injure mankind, both as to mind and out-
ward estate. (See Job passim.)
2. The doctrine is consistent with the dictates of rea-
son. If one man may cause evil to another, a thing
which is done in thousands of instances every day, is it
not possible that evils of a different kind might be pro-
duced by means of other beings, while the moral govern-
ment of God remained unimpeached?
3. The supposition that the demoniacs spoken of in
Scripture were lunatics, is fraught with numerous and in-
superable difficulties. The facts recorded of them demon-
strate that they were not merely such. Insane persons
either reason rightly on wrong grounds, or wrongly on
right grounds, or blend right and wrong together. But
these demoniacs reasoned rightly on right grounds. They
uttered proposrtions undeniably true, and such as were
always perfectly adapted to the occasions. They excelled,
in the accuracy of their knowledge, the disciples them-
selves ; at least we never find any of these applying to
our Lord the epithet of " the Holy One of God." They
were alike consistent in their knowledge and their Ian
guage. Their bodies were agitated and convulsed. The
powers of their minds were controlled in such manner,
that their actions were unreasonable : yet they addressed
our Lord in a consistent and rational, though in an ap-
palling and mysterious, manner. Our Lord answered
them, not by appealing to the individuals whose actions
had been so irrational, but to something distinct from
them, which he requires and commands to leave thein :
that is, to eyil spirits, whose mode of continumg evU in
DEN
[452]
DEP
such instances had been so fearfully displayed. These
evil spirits answer him by an intimate knowledge of his
person and character, which was hidden from the wise
and prudent of the nation. Before him, as their future
judge, they believed and trembled, saying, " Ait thou
come to torment us before the time ?"
It is an admirable observation of Jortin on the point,
that where any circumstances are added concerning the
demoniacs, they are generally such as show that there
was something preternatural in the case ; for these afflict-
ed persons unanimously joined in doing homage to Christ
and his apostles : they all knew him, and unite in con-
fessing his divinity. If, on the contrary, they had been
lunatics, some would have worshipped, and some would
have reviled him, according to the various ways in which
the disease had affected their minds.
4. The other facts recorded of the demoniacs are such
as renders it impossible, on any fair principles of inter-
pretation, to conclude that tliey were merely insane. The
principal of these is that most extraordinary event of the
possession of the herd of swine, by the same demons
■which had formerly shown their malignity in the human
form. This extraordinary event cannot be accounted for
except upon the commonly received literal interpretation
of the evangelic narrative in which it is recorded. No-
thing can be more absurd and trifling than the attempts
that have been made to explain it on other grounds.
Whatever difficulties may seem to attach to the com-
mon, simple, and ancient interpretation of the different
cases of possession, it must be regarded as most probably
correct, for this very satisfactory reason, that the difficul-
ties of the new interpretation are always greater. On
one side we have the wonderful doctrine, that it pleased
the Almighty to permit invisible and evil beings to pos-
sess themselves, in some incomprehensible manner, of
the bodies and souls of men. On the other, we have
Christ the revealer of truth, establishing falsehood, sanc-
tioning error, or encouraging deception. We have the
evangelists inconsistent with themselves, and a narrative,
which is acknowledged to be inspired, and to be intended
for the unlearned — unintelligible and false. Between such
difficulties, I prefer the former ; and if I cannot compre-
hend hom such things could be, I submit to the infinite
wisdom and power of the Supreme, and surrender my
reason to the guidance of divine revelation. The dif-
ference between Christianity and philosophy, or the mode
of speculating which assumes that title, may be said to
consist in this : In matters of philosophy, the vulgar jnay
be in error, and the speculatists may be right ; but in
Christianity, the popular opinion is generally right. The
philosopher who would fashion the statements of Scrip-
ture according to his own notions of truth and falsehood,
is sure to conclude ^vith error. — See also the admirable
treatise of Canmmus cm, the Existence and Agency of Evil
Spirits. — Hcnd. Buck.
DENARIUS ; a Roman coin, worth four sesterces,
generally valued at twelve and ahalf cents of our currency.
In the New Testament, it is taken for a piece of money,
in general ; or a shekel, which was the common coin
among the Hebrews, before they were subjected to the Ro-
mans, Matt. 22: 19. Mark 12r 15. Luke 20; 24.— t'n/mrt.
DENISA ; a Christian female of Lampsacus in Asia
Minor, who suffered martyrdom in the third century.
Nicomachus, a professed Christian, having been put on
the rack, after suffering extremely, renounced his pro-
fession, and almost immediately expired in great agony.
Denisa, who was then about sixteen years of age, was
present, and on witnessing this affecting spectacle, ex-
claimed, "O unhappy wretch! why would yon buy a
moment's ease, at the expense of a miserable eternity ?"
Optimns, the pagan proconsul, hearing this, inquired if
she was a Christian. She replied in the affirmative, and
though commanded to sacrifice to idols, absolutely refused.
She was given up as a punishment by the proconsul,
to two libertines, who, through a kind providence, being
unable to effect their diabolical purposes, and imploring
her forgiveness, Optimus ordered her to be beheaded —Fox
DENOMINATIONS, (the Three;) the designation
given to an association of dissenting ministers residing
in and about London, belonging to the Presbyterian, In-
dependent, and Baptist denominations, and Usually de-
scribed as " The General Body of Protestant Dis.senling
Ministers of London and Westminster."
This body was organized in 1727. At that period, the
members of the body were so far united in religious
sentiment, that they could join together in acts of Chris-
tian worship ; but the existence and spread of Socinian-
ism in the Presbyterian and General Baptist boards has,
for a long time, compelled them to confine their proceed-
ings to matters connected with the political rights and cir-
cumstances of Dissenters, and other topics of national inte-
rest, in reference to which they wish to express their opinion .
The general body probably includes one hundred and
fifty members, about one half of which are of the Inde-
pendent or Congregational board. The Socinians form a
very small minority of the whole body. (See Deputies.)
— Heiid. Buck.
DENY. God cannot deny himself ; he cannot possibly
act or speak unlike his own nature, or unlike the gracious
characters he has assumed, the promises he has made, or
the threatenings he has denounced, 2 Tim. 2: 13. Men
deny God, or Christ, or his name, \vhenin their profession
or practice, they disown his being the true God, Savior,
portion, ruler, and last end of their souls. Job 31: 28.
Acts 3: 13, 14. They deny the faith when they embrace
error, indulge themselves in a slothful and wicked prac-
tice, and so manifest their unbelief of, and opposition to,
the truths of Scripture. Rev. 2. 13. 1 Tim. 5: 8. Men
deny themselves when they refuse to depend on their owu
righteousness as the grouoil of their happiness ; or to be
led by their own wisdom, or ruled by their own will and
affections ; or to attempt performance of good works in
their own strength ; but receive Jesus Christ as the free
gift of God for their all and in all, and itndervalue their
own ease, profit, or pleasure, for the sake of Christ. Matt.
16: 24. ('See Self-Denial.) — Bron-n.
DEPART. God departs from men when he ceases to
bestow his favors, hides the smiles of his countenance,
and pours out his wrath on them, (Hos. 9: 12,) or when
he ceases to afflict. Job 7: 19. Blen depart from God
when they follow sinful lust instead of holiness, and seek
created enjoyment for their portion, instead of his fulness,
(Jer. 32: 40.) and especially when they break their vows
to him, and cease from serving him, as ever they did.
Hos. 1; 2. Men depcrrt from evil, or from hell, when they
cease the love and practice of sin, and so from wallring
in the way to hell. Prov. 15: 24, and 16: 6. — Braizm.
DEPRAVITY ; corruption, a change from perfection
to imperfection. (See Fau, ; Sin.) — Head. Buck.
DEPRAVITY, (Human.) This is a painful, but inter-
esting and momentous subject. Perhaps there is no one
truth in the Scriptures more strictly fundamental. The
whole scheme of Christianity presupposes and recognises
its existence, and all its provisions of grace and truth are
adapted to its relief. It may be considered therefore as
the basis of the evangelical system ; insomuch that the
practical conviction of its truth is the first step tow-ards
the reception of the mercy of the gospel. The Son of
man came to save that which was lost. " I never knew a
person," says Andrew Fuller, " verge towards the Anni-
nian, the Arian, the Socinian, or the Antinomian schemes,
without first entertaining diminutive notions Of human
depravity or blameworthiness."
Human depravity essentially consists in a state of
mind, the opposite of that which is required by the
divine law. The sum of the divine law being love, the
essence of depravity consists in the want of love to God
and our neighbor ; or, in other words, the preference of
some other object or objects, to the exclusion of those
required in the divine law. Where this preference prevails,
the creature usurps the place of the Creator, and all the
moral powers of the soul are disorganized, perverted, and
cornipted. Yet this, however awful, is the natural condi-
tion of the whole human race. For all have sitmed and
come short of the glory of God. Rom. 3: 23. By one man
sill entered into the world, and death by sin, and so death has
passed upon all men, for that all have sinned. Rom. 5: 12.
The Scripture uath concluded all under sin ; that the
PROMISE BY faith IN JeSUS ChRIST MIGHT BE GIVEN TO
THEM THAT BELIEVE. GaJ. 3: 10, 22. So decisivB indeed.
PEP
453 J
DEI'
is the language of divine revelation on this point, that St.
John does not hesitate to affirm, If we say that we have not
sinned, ive make hint a liar, and his Tvord is not in us.
i. John !: 10.
That the depravity of man is universal, may be further
confirmed and brought home to cverj' man's conscience,
by the following considerations. In all nations it has
been recognised by their forms of religion, coerced as far
as possible by laws, recorded by biography and history,
investigated by philosophy, acted in the drama, depicted
by poets, and acknowledged and reproved by moralists.
Few dare deny that ihcy are partakers of it, and those
few are evidently blinded by its power, since the best of
men have always been the most ready to confess it. No
man, Christ excepted, was ever yet produced as an ex-
ample of moral perfection. Every man who examines
himself by his own acknowledged rule of duty, finds he
is continually coming short of it. and yet who can under-
stand his errors ? No man is willing to disclose every
action of his life to his dearest friend. No one in solemn
prayer to God, dare profess his freedom from sin, or could
be informed that God would judge him according to his
deserts without alarm. Everj' one feels that, by nature,
sin is more easy to him than duty, that virtue requires
effort, while vice steals on him unawares ; whereas a dis-
position perfectly conformed to the la*- of God, would
render sin abominable and duty a delight. In fine, that
human depravity is universal, is clear from the universal
prevalence of death — the universal necessity of regenera-
tion— the impossibility of justification by the works of the
law^the death of Christ for all — and the univereal requi-
sition of repentance and faith in the Redeemer.
Although the depravity of man be in the strictest sense
mtral depravity, or the sinfulness of creatures who are in-
telligent, free, and voluntary, who sin against conscience,
and are therefore justly accountable, it is yet frequently
denominated natural, because it is found to be the univer-
sal characteristic of men by nature, that is to say, the
state in which they are born. Ephes. 2: 1 — 3. John 3: 6.
Eom. 8: 5 — 9. For the same reason it is sometimes called
constitutional ; not that it forms any essential part of the
original constitution of the species as it came from the
hands of the Creator, but because in consequence of the sin
of the first man, a predisposition to evil seems to inhere in
all his descendants, and to develop itself in a series of
voluntary transgressions, either internal or external, from
the commencement of their moral agency. Hence also
it has been called hereditary, native, innate, inbred depravity,
or original sin. Rom. 5: 12 — 19. (See Sin, and Fall
OF Man.)
In regard to the degree of human depravity ; though its
forms and stages in social life are various, yet that essen-
tial element of all depravity rvhich is common to the species,
divines of the evangelical class have united m repre-
.senting as total — meaning by that term, that unrenewed
men, imiversally, are entirely destitute of the genuine
principle of holy obedience — that is, of the love of God
and man required in the divine law. This was mani-
festly the doctrine generally embraced at the Reformation,
and which has been maintained by the advocates of
sovereign grace in every age. It has been objected to
this language, however, that the phrase, total depravity,
conveys the idea of all men being as bad as they can be.
As this is a sentiment which no one maintains, it were
well perhaps if some happier terms could be found to
express the great truth intended by total depravity. " All
I MEAN BY THE TERMS," SayS AudrCW FuUer, " IS THIS ; —
That the human heart is by nature totaixy destitute
OF the love of God, or love to man as the ckeatdke of
God, and consequently is destitute of all true virtue.
A creature may be totally destitute of good, and therefore
totally depraved, (such, it will be allowed, is Satan,) and
yet be capable of adding iniquity to iniquity without end."
To elucidate this point, and remove tiv possibility of
mistake, Dr. Dwight remarks, 1. That tie human cha-
racter is ko( rfg)race(i(o (/ie/irf/eirtoif o/i*s;)owers. 2. That
there are certain characteristics of human nature >vhic/i,
considered by themselves, are innocent. 3. That some of the
natural human characteristics are amiable ; as natural
affection, the simplicity and sweetness of childhood, the
modesty of youth, compassion, generosity, social integrity ;
to which may be added, friendship, patriotism, and the
sense of honor. 4. That these and all other qualities of
the mind are, however, means either of virtue, or sin,
accordino to the nature of that controlling disposi-
tion or energy which constitutes the .moral character.
5, That there is not in the mind by nature, or in an un-
regenerated slate, any real moral excellence, or evangeli-
cal virtue. — Lastly, That the heart of man, after all the
abatements are made, which can be made, is set to do
evil in a most affecting and dreadful manner : as is
evident from the Scriptures, from every man's examina-
tion of the state of his own heart and life, and from the
whole course of human conduct, both private and public,
especially in the family, in the place of business, in the
haunts of amusement, in insurrections, oppressions, wars,
and religious impostures in every age of the world.
Unhappily nothing is more common than misrepre-
sentations of the doctrine of total depravity by those wno
undertake to oppose it. Almost every objection advanced
by them, may be resolved into a misconception of terms,
a wrong standard of judgment, or the prejudices naturally
arising from supposed dilficidties, self-ignorance, mistaken
tenderness, pride of character, or fear of consequences .
From these causes, men refuse to give proper attention to
the decisive evidence of its truth, supplied by every page
of Scripture, and every legitimate induction of facts.
Few, indeed, are aware of the amount of eridence which
God has given in his word, for the conviction of men
that such is their ruined state by nature. 1. All those
passages of Scripture which expressly teach it, as true
not of one age only, but of all. Gen. 6; 5, 12. 8: 21.
Psalm 14: 2, 3. Eccles. 9: 3. Jer. 17: 9. Rom. 3: 9—19.
Ephes. 2: 3. 2. All those passages which declare the
utter impossibility of carnal men doing any thing to
please God. Heb. 11: 6. Rom. 8: 5—9. 3. All those
which speak of goodness and virtue as comprehended in
love, that is, the love of God and our neighbor. Matt. 22:
17. Rom. 13: 8—10. John 5: 42. 1 John 4: 10. 4. All
those which teach the necessity of regeneration in order
to love God and our neighbor, as well as to eternal Ufe.
1 John 2: 29. 3: li. 2 Cor. 5: 17. 1 John 4: 7. 2: 9.
John 3: 3—8. 1: 13. Rom. 5: 5. Gal. 5: 22. 5. All tho.se
passages which promise the blessings of salvation to
repentance, faith in Christ, love to God, or a course of
well-doing ; that is, to the existence of holiness or tnie
virtue, and not to a certain degree of it. 2 Cor. 2: 10.
Heb. 5: 9. Acts 16: 31. Rom. 8: 28. James 2: 5. John
5: 29. Rom. 2: 7. li. All those which teach that men
must love God supremely, or be his enemies ; that all are
either with Christ, or against him. Matt. 6: 24. 10: 37.
1 John 2: 15. James 4: 4. Rom. 5: 10. Lastly, All those
which represent mankind without ilie gospel, and the
cordial reception of it, as in a perishing condition. John
3: 16. Rom. 10: 1—16. 2 Thess. I: 8. 2 Cor. 2: 15.
Hence it appears, 1. That the fundamental principle
of both moral and political science, so far as it relates to
man, is his depravity. 2. That the peculiar provisions
of the gospel, in the gracious offices of Christ and of the
Holy Spirit, are indispensable to the recovery of mankind
to happiness and virtue. 3. That the doctrine of gratui-
tous personal election may be clearly demonstrated, and
proved to be not only true, but reasonable and glorious.
4. That the popular distinction between true religion and
true morality, is false and deceptive. And lastlV, That
men are either required to be spiritually holy,' or are
allowed to live in sin, since there can be no medium.
On the proper manner of treating this importait sub-
ject. Dr. Chalmers remarks : " While we assert wnU zeal
every doctrine of Christianity, let us not forget that there
is a zeal without discrimination ; and that, to bring such
a spirit to the defence of our faith, or of any one of its
pecuharities, is not to vindicate the cause, but to discredit
it. Now, there is a way of maintaining the utter de-
pravity of our nature, and of doing it in such a style of
sweeping and of vehement asseveration, as to render it
not merely obnoxious to the taste, but obnoxious to ihe
understanding. On this subject, there is often a round-
ness, and a temerity of announcement, which any inlelli-
gent man, looking at the phenomena of human character
DE P
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DER
with his own e; es, cannot go along with ; and thus it is,
that there are injudicious defenders of orthodoxy, who
liave mustered against it not merely a positive dislike,
but a positive strength of observation and argument.
Let the nature of man be a ruin, as it certainly is, it is
obvious to the most common discernment, that it does not
(jiVer one unvaried and unalleviated mass of deformity.
There are certain phases, and certain exhibitions of this
nature, which are more lovely than others — certain traits
of character, not due to the operation of Christianity at
all, and yet calling forth our admiration and our tender-
ness— certain varieties of moral complexion, far more
fair and more engaging than certain other varieties ; and
10 prove that the gospel may have had no share in the
formation of them, they, in fact, stood out to the notice
and respect of the world, before the gospel was ever
heard of. The classic page of antiquity sparkles with
repeated exemphfications of what is bright and beautiful
in the character of man ; nor do all its descriptions of
external nature waken up such an enthusiasm of plea-
sure, as when it bears testimony to some graceful or
elevated doing out of the history of the species. And
IV liether it be the kindliness of maternal affection, or the
imwcarieduess of filial piety, or the constancy of tried
and unalterable friendship, or the earnestness of devoted
patriotism, or the rigor of unbending fidelity, or any other
of the recorded virtues which shed a glory over the re-
membrance of Greece and of Rome — we fully concede it
to the admiring scholar, that they one and all of them,
were sometimes exemplified in those days of heathenism ;
and that, out of the materials of a period, crowded as it
was with moral abominations, there may also be gathered
things which are pure, and lovely, and true, and just, and
honest, and of good report.
What do we mean, then, it may be asked, by the
universal depravitj' of man ? How shall we reconcile the
admission now made, with the unqualified an^ authorita-
tive language of the Bible, when it tells us of the totaUty
and the magnitude of human corruption ? Wherein hes
that desperate wickedness, which is every where ascribed
to all the men of all the families that be on the face of the
earth ? And how can such a tribute of acknowledgment
be awarded to the sages and patriots of antiquity, who
yet, as the partakers of our fallen nature, must be out-
casts from the favor of God, and have the character of
evil stamped upon the imaginations of the thoughts of
their hearts continually ?
In reply to these questions, let ns speak to your own
experimental recollections on a subject, in which you are
aided, both by the consciousness of what passes within
you, and by your obsen'ation of the characters of others.
Might not a sense of honor elevate that heart which is
totally unfurnished \rith a sense of God? Might not an
impulse of compassionate feeling be sent into that bosom,
which is never once visited by a movement of duteous
loyalty towards the Lawgiver in heaven ? Might not
occasions of intercourse with the beings around us, deve-
lop whatever there is in our nature of generosity, and
friendship, and integrity, and patriotism ; and j'et the
unseen Being, who placed us in this theatre, be neither
loved, nor obeyed, nor listened to ? Amid the manifold
varieties of human character, and the number of constitu-
tional principles which enter into its composition, might
there not be an individual in whom the constitutional
virtues so blaze forth and have the ascendency, as to give
a general effect of gracefulness to the whole of this moral
exhibition ; and yet, mav not that individual be as un-
mindful of his God, as if the principles of his consti-
tution had been mixed up in such a different proportion,
as to make him an odious and a revolting spectacle ? In
a word, might not sensibility shed forth its tears, friend-
ship perform its services, and liberality impart of its
treasure, and patriotism earn the gratitude of its country,
and honor maintain itself entire and untainted, and all
the softenings of what is amiable, and all the glories of
what is chivalrous and manly, gather into one bright
effulgence of moral accomplishment on the person of him
who never, for a single day of his life, subordinates one
habit, or one affection to the will of the Almighty ; who is
just as careless and as unconcerned about God, as if the
native tendencies of his constitution had compounded him
into a monster of deformity ; and who just as effectually
reabzes this attribute of rebellion against his Maker, as
the most loathsome and profligate of his species, that he
■walks in the, counsel of his own heart, mid after the sight of
his onm eyes ?" — Chalmers' Works, p. 121 — 285 ; Contro-
versy of Drs. Woods and Ware; Fuller's Works, vol. i. 623
— 647 ; Wilberforce's Practical View ; Works of Hannah
More, vol. i. 260; Pike's Persuasives ; Dwight's Theology,
ser. xxviii — xxxiv ; Douglas on the Truths of Religion ,
Tyng's Lectures on the Law and the Gospel.
DEPRAVITY, (Total.) (See Deprsvitt, Human.)
DEPRECATORY ; a term applied to the manner of
performing some ceremonies in the form of prayer. The
form of absolution in the Greek church is deprecative,
thus expressed — " May God absolve you ;" whereas in
the Latin church it is declarative — "I absolve you." —
Hend. Buck.
DEPUTIES, (DissEjiTiNo ;) a committee of gentlemen
annually chosen by the several congregations of Pro-
testant Dissenters of London and its vicinity, for the
purpose of protecting their civil rights. It originated at
a general meeting held on the 9th of November, 1732.
Every congregation of Protestant Dissenters, Presbyterian,
Independents, and Baptists, in and within twelve miles
of London, appoints two deputies. Since 1737, the elec-
tion has regularly taken place, and the committee have
unremittingly watched over bills brought into parliament
in any way affecting Dissenters, — kept alive an interest
in behalf of the repeal of the test and corporation acts,
supported every measure which promised to be beneficial
in extending and consolidating religious liberty, — and
successfully exerted themselves in protecting individual
ministers and congregations against those molestations to
which they have been exposed on the part of bigoted and
persecuting churchmen. (See Denominations, the three.)
— Hend. Buck.
DERBE ; a city of Lycaonia, to which Paul and Bar-
nabas fled when expelled from Iconium, Acts 14: 6.
A. D. i\.—Calmet.
DERHAM, (William, D. D.,) distinguished alike as
a philosopher. Christian, and divine, was born November
2fith. 1657, at Stoughton, near Worcester. His parents
were respectable, virtuous, and intelligent; and from them
he received lessons of wisdom, piety, and prudence. At
the age of eighteen, Derham was admitted into Trinity
college, Cambridge, and soon distinguished himself by
the qualifications of his mind and his heart. Derham
was early distinguished for his love of nature. As a
natural philosopher he was celebrated. Fond of retire-
ment and meditation, he accepted, in 1689, the rectory of
Upminster, in Essex, that he might yet more diligently
study the principles, and laws, and secrets of nature ;
and develop to his own mind, and to the minds of others,
the truth of the holy Scriptures and of the Christian reli-
gion. As a natural philosopher, his fame rapidly spread ;
and his constant contributions to " The Philosophical
Transactions" materially promoted its extension. His
Letters and Essays on the Barometer, on Meteorology,
on the Death Watch, on the Pendulum, on Sound, on the
Migration of Birds, on Eclipses, on the Aurora BoreaUs,
on Wasps, and various other topics, demonstrate the
vastness of his mind, and the variety of his knowledge ;
and the constant vein of seriousness and piety, which
distinguishes all his performances, proves his Christianity
to have been more than doctrinal and speculative — to
have been that of the heart. But his pubUcations were
not merely scientific, or indirectly serious — they were
various. In 1712, he preached sixteen sermons, at Boyle's
lectures, on the being and attributes of God, which,
under the title of " Physico-Theology, fee," he afterwards
published. In that work, the profound and the simple
are -nasely blended; and whilst the facts which it
contains interest, and the knowledge it communicates
inform, the piety of its conclusions and reflections drawn -
from such facts, improves the heart. In 1714, he pub-
lished a similar work, entitled " Astro-Theology ; or, a
Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, from
a Survey of the Heavens." This was also ingenious and
learned ; and, according to his uniform principles, he
DER
[455 ]
DBS
made all such ingenuity and knowledge subservient to
the cause of religion and virtue. In 1726, he revised the
" Miscellanea Curiosa,'' and in 1730, he favored the
world by the publication of his last work, entitled
" Christo-Theology ; or, a Demonstration of the Divine
Authority of the Christian ReUgion." This publication
also deserves great praise. To the cause of truth, science,
and the advancement of the glory of God, Dr. Derham
devoted a protracted and useful life. He contmued long
to illumine the horizon of this world by his piety, know-
ledge, and goodness ; and when, at length, at Upminster,
on April the 5th, 1733, he e.xpired, in the seventy-eighth
year of his age, his glory was not extinguished, but only
removed to that heaven, where it should continue to
shine with increased splendor, and with perfect beauty. —
See Memoirs of Derham. — Joneses Chr. Biog^
DERVISH ; derived from two Turkish words, der, " a
door," and viih, " extended," because the wandering poor
often laid themselves down before the doors of the
wealthy — is applied to him who voluntarily embraces
poverty, and adheres to it as a religious profession. Like
fakir, in the Arabic, it signifies originally one who has
neither fire nor fixed place of abode. The first founders
of the order had considerable difficulty in effecting the
innovation into Mahometanism : they were restrained
by the popular prohibition, — uo monker)' in Islamism !
Hence they took care to leave out vows of chastity, and
of living in community ; nor did they exact a too severe
obligation to fast and pray. Like all enthusiasts, they
doubtless wished to discover some way of worshipping
that should more efficaciously obtain the favor of heaven.
But in false religion there are always as many knaves as
enthusiasts .- perhaps, indeed, the two characters are
oftener combined in the same person than we suspect.
Hence the first dervishes aimed at astonishing the multi-
tude as much as propitiating the divine favor, by their
violent exercises in dancing — by their austerities and ma-
cerations. In the latter respect, they have left Chris-
tian monks far behind. Yet, with all their foolery, — and,
we may safely add, their roguery, — the doctrines which
they taught were remarkable for their morality, and,
above all, for inculcating a constant intercourse wnth God.
The Turkish dervishes pretend that their origin may be
traced to All, and even to Abubekr — the first of the four
immediate successors of Mahomet. But Ali, the fourth
of those caliphs, was no dervish. He instituted no order :
he was merely the first Mussulman who renounced riches,
which he distributed to the poor. His example was imi-
tated by others after him ; so that, insensibly, a class
of persons arose, who, like the Sisters of Mercy, de-
voted themselves to the serWce of the indigent and the
helpless, and reduced themselves to voluntary poverty.
But things soon changed. The legacies left by the faith-
ful for the use of the poor were intrusted to the distribu-
tion of these zealous men, and thus the order became
insensibly possessed of great riches. Besides, men so
pious must necessarily have interest in heaven : hence
their prayers must be purchased — a fruitful source of
income. But human avarjce is insatiable ; and our der-
vishes, like their brethren of a purer faith, hit on another
expedient : they manufactured and sold amulets, as the
latter did relics, to which their knavery assigned miracu-
lous virtues. Thus, they acquired great consideration,
and their order daily augmented by votaries, not from
the lowest only, but from the highest ranks in society.
When one order was established, nothing could be
easier than to establish others ; for knavery is always
fertile in invention. Of these, no fewer than thirty-two
successively appeared, each endeavoring to outdo the
other in address of discipline and extravagance of man-
ner. Of course, all this was intended to iiave its effect
on spectators ; and that effect it assuredly produced. No
man will act the mountebank for nothing : superstition
has its jack-puddings as well as Bartholomew fair ; and
the object of both is in many cases the same. The der-
vishes grew rich and respected. They can say what they
like with perfect impunity, even to the highest. They
foUo^the army to the field, and, with the koran in hand,
animate the warriors of the faith (so are Slussulmen sol-
diers called) against all infidels and misbelievers.
The dervishes who live in community, and who consti-
tute by far the greater number, have their superior or
sheikh, and are subject to a noviciate and religious prac-
tices, independent of the prayers which every Mussulman
is bound to repeat. As celibacy is not strictly enjoined,
though the observance of it is encouraged, many are
married. These do not, however, live in community :
they have all their separate establishments ; but all are
expected to pass the night preceding any public exhibition,
in the religious retirement to which they belong. Besides
these, there are the travelling dervislics, who are conti-
nually rambling from one part of the Mahometan world
to the other, — some to preach, some on pilgrimage, many
to beg and plunder.
Of the ntimerous order of dervishes formerly subsisting
in Turkey, three only are deserving notice — the JMcvlevy,
the Bedevy, and the Rafai ; and even of these the Mev-
levy are the only ones who are held in any degree of
repute, at least among the higher classes. — Head. Buck.
DESATIR; a lately-discovered collection of sixteen
sacred books, consisting of the fifteen old Persian pro-
phets, together with a book of Zoroaster. This, at least,
is what the book itself pretends to be. The collection is
written in a language not spoken at present any where,
and equally diflferent from the Zend, the Pehhi, and the
modern Persian.
Erslrine, the translator, and De Sacy regard it as
spurious. Joseph von Hammer, however, another very
eminent orientalist, is said to consider it to be genuine.
At all events, it is interesting to learn, from this work,
with greater accuracy, an old religious system of the East,
in which are to be found, with Pandemonism and the
metempsychosis, the elements of the worship of the stars,
of astrology, the theurg>', the doctrine of amulets, as well
as the elements of the Hindoo religion, particularly the
system of castes. Yet no trace of any connexion \vith
the Zendavesta and the magic of the Parsees has been
found in the Desatir. — Hend. Buck.
DESCARTES, (Rexz, or Renatus ;) a phdosopher
and original thinker, eminent in various ways, was a
.native of Touraine, born at La Haye, in 1596 ; was de-
scended from an ancient family, and was educated at the
Jesuits' college at La Fleche. His progress was rapid,
particularly in mathematics. From 1616 to 1621, he
served, as' a volunteer, under the prince of Orange, the
duke of Bavaria, and count Bucquoi, in Holland, Bavaria,
and Hungary. After having travelled v.'idely, he sold his
estate, and 'settled in Holland, in 1629, to pursue his
studies undisturbed. For twenty years, he assiduously
continued his labors in metaphysics, chemistry, anatomy,
astronomy, and geometry, and during that period he pro-
duced the wor'cs which have immortalized his name.
Descartes founds his belief of the existence of a think-
ing being on the consciousness of thought : " I thinlc,
therefore, I exist." He developed his system with much
ingenuity in opposition to the empiric phUosophy of the
English, and the Aristotelian scholastics. The thinking
being or the soul, he says, eWdently differs from the body
whose existence consists in space or extension, by its
simplicity and immateriality, (whence also its inunortal-
ity) and by the freedom that pertains to it. But every
perception of the soul is not clear and distinct ; it is in a
great degree Involved in doubt, and is so far an imperfect
finite being. This imperfection of its own leads it to the
idea of an absolutely perfect being. (This mode of estab-
lishing the existence of God from nntoJogy, is hence called
the " Cartesian proof.'') Descartes placed at the head of
his system the idea of an absolutely perfect being, which
he considers as an innate idea, and deduces from it all
further knowledge of truth.
At length, some of his metaphysical opinions having
excited a persecution against him, he accepted an invita-
tion from Christina of Sweden, (o reside at her court.
He, however, died at Stockholm, Februarj' 11, 1650,
shortlj' after his arrival in that capital. His works,
among ^hich arc the Principles of Philosophy, Meta-
physical Jleditalions, a Tieatise on the Passions, a Trea-
tise on Man, and a Discourse on the Blethod of seeking
Tnith in the Sciences, occupy nine volumes in quarto.
While he lived, it was chiefly as a metaphysician thai
DES
[ 456 J
DES
Descartes was celebrated, but his metaphysics, though
strongly manifesting his genius, are now almost forgotten ;
his system of vortices, too, which once had partisans, is
completely discarded ; and it is to his geometrical and
algebraical discoveries, which he himself undervalued,
that he is indebted for the most solid part of his fame.—
Davenport ; Ency. Amer.
DESCENT OF Christ into Hell. (See Hell.)
DESERT. The Hebrews, by midhar, "a desert,"
mean an uncultivated place, particularly if mountainous.
Some deserts were entirely dry and barren ; others were
beautiful, and had good pastures ; Scripture speaks of
the beauty of the desert, Psalm 65: 12, 13. Scripture
names several deserts in the Holy Land ; and there was
scarcely a town without one belonging to it, i. e. unculti-
vated places, for woods and pastures, like our commons ;
common lands. (See Wilderness.)— Cff/»!e(.
DESERTS. Men are judged according to their deserts,
and have their deserts rendered to them, when they
receive the just punishment of their deeds. Psalm 28: 4.—
Brown. ■
DESERTION ; a term made use of to denote an un-
happy state of mind, occasioned by the sensible influences
of the divine favor being withdrawn. Some of the best
men in all ages have suffered a temporar)' suspension of
divine enjoyments, Job 29: 2. Ps. 51. Isa. 49: 14. Lam.
3: 1. Isa. 1: 10. The causes of this must not be attri-
buted to the Almighty, since he is always the same, but
must arise from ourselves. Neglect of duty, improper
views of Providence, self-confidence, a worldly spirit,
lukewarmness of mind, inattention to the means of grace,
or open transgression, may be considered as leading to
this state. The contrary opinion, which has been called
the " Sovereignty of Desertions," is liable to many ob-
jections, and has been awfully employed to lull the con-
science to sleep, and render it content to remain in a
state of spiritual darkness, instead of its being excited to
self-£xanunation, repentance, and application to the only
source of pardon, purification, and peace. As all things,
however, are under the divine control, so even desertion,
or, as it is sometimes expressed, " the hidings of God's
face," may be useful to excite humility, exercise faith
and patience, detach us from the world, prompt to more
vigorous action, bring us to look more to God as the
fountain of happiness, confirm us to his word, and in-
crease our desires for that state of blessedness which is
to come. — Hervet/'s Ther. and Asp., dial. xix. ; Watts's
Mcdit. on Job 23: 3; Lambert's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 16;
Flnvel's Works, vol. i. p. 167, folio; Goodwin's Child of
» Li^ht, walking in Darkness. — Hend. Buck.
DESIRE. In intellectual philosophy, the original
spring and fountain of all the afl'ections. It may be
directed to a great variety of objects, and is liable to a
multitude of modifications. It is often used, m popular
language, as equivalent to affection. In theology or
morals, desire is either regarded as natural, (Deut.21t 11,)
or inordinate, (Deut. 7: 25. 5: 21 ;) or maUgnant, (Micah
7: 3;) or holy, Ps. 73: 25. The desires of the flesh are
sinful lusts and inclinations, (Gen. 6: 5.) general, those
of the animal nature in distinction from those of the in-
Iflleclual. Ephes. 2: 3.
DESIRE OF ALL NATIONS ; a title of the Messiah.
Hig. 2: 7. He is altogether lovely, necessary, and valua-
ble ; all that spiritually know him, love him and long for
his presence and blessing ; and in him at last shall the
nations of the earth be blessed for the space of a thousand
years, (llcv. 20:) as well as in the heavenly world.
DESPAIR ; the loss of hope ; that distressing state of
mind, in which a person loses his confidence in the divine
mercy.
Some of the best antidotes against despair, says one,
may be taken from the consideration, 1. Of the nature
of God, his goodness, mercy, &c. 2. The testimony of
God : he hath said, he desireth not the death of the sinner.
3. From the works of God : he hath given his Son to die.
A. From his promises, Heb. 13: 5. 5. From his com-
mands : he hath commanded us to confide in his mercy,
fi. From his expostulations, &c- — Baxter on Eeligious
Melancholy ; Claude's Essays, p. 338, Robinson's edition ;
Gisborne's Snmon on Tleligious Despondency ; Buck.
DESTRUCTIONISTS -, those who believe that the
final punishment threatened in the gospel to the -n^icked
and impenitent, consists not in an eternal preservation
in misery and torment, but in a total extinction of being,
and that the sentence of annihilation shall be executed
with more or less torment, preceding or attending the
final period, in proportion to the greater or less guilt of
the criminal.
The name assumed by this denomination, like those of
many others, takes for granted the question in dispute.
Viz., that the Scripture word destruction means annihila-'
tion : in strict propriety of speech, they should be called
Annihilationists. The doctrine is largely maintained in
the sermons of Mr. Samuel Bourn, of Birmingham ; it
was held also by Mr. J. N. Scott, Mr. John Taylor, of
Nonvich, Mr. Marsom, and many others.
In defence of the system, Mr. Bourn argues as follows :
There are many passages of Scripture in which the ulti-
mate punishment to which wicked men shall be adjudged
is defined, in the most precise and intelligible terms, to
be an everlasting destruction from the power, of God,
which is equally able to destroy as to preserve. So when
our Savior is fortifying the minds of his disciples against
the power of men, and the punishment of his justice, he;
expresseth himself thus : — " Fear not them that kill tlie
body, and after that have no more that they can do ; fear
him who is able to destroy both soul and body in hell."
Here he plainly proposes the destruction of the soul (not
its endless pain and misery) as the ultimate object of the
divine displeasure, and the greatest object of our fear.
And when he says, " These shall go away into everlasting
punishment, but the righteous into life eternal," it appears
evident thut by that eternal punishment which is set in
opposition to eternal life, is not meant any kind of hfe,
however miserable, but the same which the apostle ex-
presses by everlasting destruction from the presence and
power of the Lord. The very term, death, is most fre-
quently made use of to signify the end of wicked men ia
another world, or the final effect of divine justice in their
punishment. The wages of sin (saith the apostle) is
death ; but eternal life is the gift of God, through Christ
Jesus our Lord. See also Rom. 8: 6.
To imagine that by the term death is meant an eternal
life, though in a condition of extreme misery, seems,
according to him, to be confounding all propriety and
meaning of words. Death, when applied to the end of
wicked men in a future state, he says, properly denotes a
total extinction of life and being. It may contribute, he
adds, to fix this meaning, if we observe that the state to
which temporal death reduces men is usually termed by
our Savior and his apostles sleep ; because from this death
the soul shall be raised to Ufe again : but from the other,
which is fully and properly death, and of which the
fomwr is but an image or shadow, there is no recovery ;
it is an eternal death, an everlasting destruction from the
presence of the Lord, and the glory of his power.
He next proceeds to the figures by which the eternal
punishment of wicked men isslescribed, and finds them
perfectly agreeing to establish the same doctrine. One
figure of comparison, often used, is that of combustible
materials thrown into a fire, which will consequently be
entirely consumed, if the fire be not quenched. Depart
from me, ye cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the
dei'il and his angels. The meaning is, a total, irrevocable
destruction ; for, as the tree that bringeth not forth good
fruit is hewn down and cast into the fire, and is destroyed;
as the useless chaff, when separated from the good gram,
is set on fire, and, if the fire be not quenched, is con-
sumed : so, he thinks, it plainly appears, that the miage
of unquenchable or everlasting fire is not intended to
signify the degree or duration of torment, but the absolute
certainty of destruction, beyond all possibility of recovery.
So the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are said to have
.suffered the vengeance of an eternal fire ; that is, they
were so effectually consumed, or destroyed, that they
could never be rebuilt ; the phrase, eternal fire, signifying
the irrevocable destruction of those cities, not the o§f^<^e
or duration of the misery of the inhabitants who perished.
The images of the worm that dielh not, and the fire
that is not quenched, used in Mark 9: 43, are set m oppo
DES
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DEU
sition to entering into life, and intended to denote a period
of life and existence.
Our SaviOT expressly assigns different degrees of future
miserj', in proportion to men's respective degrees of guilt,
Luke 12: 47, 48. But if all wicked men shall suffer tor-
menis without end, how can any of them be said to suffer
but a few stripes ? All degrees and distinctions of punish-
ment seem swallowed up iu the notion of never-ending or
infinite misery.
Finally, death and eternal destruction, or annihilation,
is properly styled in the New Testament, an everlasting
punishment, as it is irrevocable and unalterable forever ;
and it is most strictly and literally styled an everlasting
destruction from the presence of the Lord, and from the
glory of his power.
Dr. Edwards, in his answer to Dr. Chauncey, on the
salvation of all men, says that this scheme was provi-
sionally retained by Dr. Chauncey ; i. e. in case the
scheme of universal salvation should fail him : and there-
fore Dr. Edwards, in his examination of that work, appro-
priates a chapter to the consideration of it. Among other
reasonings against it are the following : —
1. The different degrees of punishment which the
wicked will suffer according to their works, proves that
it does not consist in annihilation, which admits of no
degrees.
2. If it be said that the punishment of the wicked,
though it will end in annihilation, 3'et shall be preceded
by torment, and that this will be of different degrees,
according to the degrees of sin ; it may be replied, this is
making it to be compounded partly of torment, and partly
of annihilation. The latter also appears to be but a small
part of future punishment, for that alone will be inflicted
on the least sinner, and on account of the least sin ; and
that all punishment which will be inflicted on any person
above that which is due to the least sin, is to consist in
tonnent. Nay, if we can form any idea in the present
state of what would be dreadful or desirable in another,
instead of its being any punishment to be annihilated
after a long series of torment, it must be a deliverance,
10 which the sinner would look forward with anxious de-
sire. And is it credible that this was the termination of
torment that our Lord held up to his disciples as an object
of dread ? Can this be the destruction of body and soul
in hell? Is it credible that everlasting destruction from
'he presence of the Lord, and from the glory of his power,
should constitute only a part, and a small part, of futiu'e
punishment ; and such too as, after a series of torment,
must, next to being made happy, be the most acceptable
thing that could befall them ? Can this be the object
Ihrealeued by such language, as recompen.sing tribulation,
and taking vengeance in flaming fire ? 2 Thess. 1. Is it
possible that God should threaten them ^ ith putting an
end to their miseries ? Moreover, this destrnction is not
described as the conclusion of a succession of torments,
but as taking place immediately after the last judgment.
When Christ shall come to be glorified in his saints, then
shall the wicked be destroyed.
3. Everlasting destruction from the presence of the
Lord, and from the glory of his power, cannot mean anni-
hilation ; for that would be no exertion of divine power,
but merely the suspension of it ; for let the upholding
power of God be withheld for one moment, and the whole
creation would sink into nothing.
4. The punishment of wicked men will be the same as
that of wicked angels. Matt. 25: 41. Depart, ye cursed,
into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and his angels.
But the punishment of wicked angels consists not in anni-
hilation, but torment. Such is their present punishment
in a degree, and such, in a greater degree, will be their
punishment hereafter. They are "cast down to hell;"
they "believe and tremble ;" they are reserved in chains
under darkness, to the judgment of the great day ; they
cried, saying, " What have we to do with thee ? Art
thou corne to torment us before our time ?" Could the
devils but persuade themselves they should be annihi-
lated, they would believe and be at ease rather than
tremble.
5. The Scriptures explain their own meaning in the
tue of such terms as death, destruction, &c. The second
58
death is expressly said to consist in being cast into the lake
of fire and brimslone, and as having a part in that lake
(Rev. 20: 14. 21:8.) which does not describe annihilation!
nor can it be made to consist with it. The phrase, cut
him asunder, (Matt. 24: 51,) is as strong as those of death
or destruction ; yet that is made to consist of having their
jTOrtion with hypocrites, where shall be weeping and
gnashing of teeth.
ti. The happiness of the righteous does not consist in
eternal being, but eternal well-being ; and as the punish-
ment of the wicked stands every where opposed to it, it
must consist, not in the loss of being, but of well-being,
and in suffering the contrary.
The great Dr. Watts may be considered in some mea-
sure, a Destructionist ; since it was his opinion that the
children of ungodly parents who die in infancy are anni-
hilated. (See Annihilation ; Hell.) — Buurn's Sermotis ;
Dr. Edwards on the Salvation of all Men strictly examined;
Adams'' s View of Religions ; Hend. Buck.
DETRACTION ; in the native importance of the word,
signifies the withdrawing or taking off from a thing; and
as it is appUed to the reputation, it denotes the impairing
or lessening a man in point of fame, rendering him less va-
lued and esteemed by others. Dr. Barrow observes (Works,
vol. i. ser. 19,) that it differs from slander, which involves
an imputation of falsehood ; from reviling, which includes
bitter and foul language; and from censuring, which is
of a more general purport, extending indifferently to all
kinds of persons, qualities and actions j but detraction
especially respects worthy persons, good qualities, and
laudable actions, the reputation of which it aimeth to
destroy. It is a fault opposed to candor.
Nothing can be more incongruous with the spirit of the
gospel, the example of Christ, the command of God, and
the lo\'e of mankind, than a spirit of detraction ; and yet
there are many who never seem happy but when they are
employed in this work : they feed and live upon the sup-
posed infirmities of others ; they allow e.xcellence to none;
they depreciate every thing that is praiseworthy ; and,
possessed of no good themselves, they think all others are
like them. " O ! my soul, come thou not into their
secret ; imto their assembly, mine honor, be not thou
united." — Hend. Butk.
DEURHOFF, (William,) a native of Amsterdam,
born in 1650, and by trade a box-maker, was the founder
of a sect, which is not yet quite extinct, under the title
of Deurholfians. He represented the divine nature under
the idea of a power or energy diffused through the whole
universe, and acting upon every part of the vast machine.
His works are, The Theology of Deurhofl", two volumes
quarto, and a first volume of The Bletaphysics of Deur-
hoff. The latter was published in 1717, in which year he
died . — Davenport .
DEUTERO-CANONICAL ; in the school theology, an
appellation given to certain books of holy Scripture, which
were added to the canon after the rest, either by reason
they were not written till after the compilation of the
canon, or by reason of some dispute as to their canonicity.
The word is Greek, being compounded of deuteros. second,
and Icanonikos, canonical. ,
The Jews, it is certain, acknowledged several books in
their canon, which were put there later than the rest.
They say that, under Esdras, or Ezra, a great assembly of
their doctors, which they call, by way of eminence, the
"great synagogue," made the collection of the sacred
books which we now have in the Hebrew Old Testament ;
and they agree that they put hooks therein which had not
been so before the Babylonish captivity ; such as those of
Daniel, Ezekiel, Haggai, &c. ; and those of Ezra and
Nehemiah. And the Romish church has since added
others to the canon, that were not, and could not be, in
the canon of the Jews, by reason some of them were not
composed till after — sucli as the book of Ecclesiasticus,
with several of the apocrj-phal books, as the JIaccabees,
\\''isdom, fee. (See Canon.) — Hend. Buck.
DEUTERONOMY ; from deuteros, second, and nomas,
law ; the last book of the Pentateuch or five books ol
Moses. As its name imports, it contains a repetition ot
the civil and moral law, which was a second time de-
livered by Moses, with some additions and explanations,
DE V
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BIA
otr well to impress it more forcibly upon the Israelites in
general, as in particular for the benefit of those who,
being -born in the wilderness, were not present at the first
promulgation of the law. It contains also a recapitulation
of the several events which had befallen the Israelites
since Iheir departure from Egypt, with severe reproaches
for their past misconduct, and earnest exhortations to
ftlture obedience. The Messiah is explicitly foretold in
this book ; and there are many remarkable predictions
interspersed in it, particularly in the twenty-eighth, thirti-
eth, thirty-second, and thirty-third chapters relative to
the future condition of the Jews. The book of Deutero-
nomy finishes with an account of the death of Moses,
which is supposed to have been added by his successor,
Joshua. — Watson.
DEVIL ; the leader of the fallen angels, and the arch-foe of
God and man. Matt. 25: 4 1 . The name, like the French dia-
ble, German ieiiffel, Latin diobolus, is only a modified form
of the Greek word diabolos, which, from diabaUcin, to ca-
lumniate, properly signifies calumniator, detractor, false
accuser, &;c. In the Syriac language, he is called acbel-
kartzo, "the devourer of calumny," which most emphati-
cally expresses the delight which he takes in every attempt
that is made to blast the character of good and holy men.
It deserves to be particularly noticed, that though the
term "devils," in the plural, occurs frequently in the
English version, in apphcation to fallen spirits, the origi-
nal word is not, in such instances, diabolm, but daimbiies,
or dmmonia. When used in the plural, diabolos never re-
fers to fallen angels, but to human beings. See 1 Tim.
3: 11. 2 Tim. 3: 43. Titus 2: 3. There is, therefore,
according to the strict propriety of Scripture language,
only one devil, who is otherwise characterized by the epi-
thets—the god and prince of this world ; the prince of
darkness ; the prince of the power of the air ; the accu-
ser J Belial ; the tempter ; an adversary, deceiver, liar,
&c. His power, though infinitely short of omnipotence,
is represented as great and extensive ; and his influence,
exerted either immediately by himself, or through the
agency of the innumerable multitude of wicked spirits
who are enlisted in his service, is set forth as fearful in
the "extreme. Yet truly appaUing as are the power and
influence of this malignant demon, it is nevertheless a
fact, substantiated no less by the testimony of Scripture
than by the experience of mankind, that they may suc-
cessfully be resisted by the weakest moral agent who
shall avail himself of the means placed at his disposal for
this end by his benevolent and merciful Creator. Nothing,
therefore, can possibly be more absurd than for sinners
to attempt to exculpate themselves by throwing the blame
of their wicked actions on the devil. Tempt them he
may, and his methods of seduction are various and well
adapted to compass his ends ; but force them to the com-
mission of one sin he cannot. " Resist the devil, and he
will flee from you." "Whom resist steadfast in the
faith." James 4: 7. 1 Peter 5: 9. The position at-
tempted to be maintained by the Socinians, that by Sa-
tan we are merely to understand " a symbolical person,"
" the^ principle of evil personified," " a fictitious person-
age, " an evil disposition," &c. cannot be reconciled
with any rational or consistent principles of Scripture in-
terpretation, and deserves to be classed with the hypothe-
sis, that our Savior himself had no real existence, but, as
described by the evangelists, is only a personification of
""l."!?,?]^^^'?^ excellence. (See SATAN.)-iy«,(Z. Buck.
lJJiVUii.h in the primary sense of the word, means
a person who ly given up to acts of piety and devotion ;
but It IS usually understood, in a bad sense, to denote a bi^
got or superstitious person-one addicted to excessive and
sell-imposed rehgious exercises. Haul Buck
DEVOTION, a fervent exercise of the private or public
offices of rebgion, or a temper and disposition of the
mind rightly aff^ected with such exercises. It is also taken
for certain religious practices which a person makes it a
rule to discharge regularly.
Wherever the vital and unadulterated spirit of Chris-
tian devotion prevails, its immediate objects will be to adore
the perfections of God ;. to entertain with reverence and
complacency the various intimations of his pleasure es-
pecially those contained in holy Writ ; to acknowledge otir
absolute dependence on and infinite obligations to liim ;
to confess and lament the disorders of our nature, and
the transgressions of our lives ; to implore his grace and
mercy through Jesus Christ ; to intercede for our brethren
of mankind ; to pray for the propagation and estabhsh'
ment of truth, righteousness, and peace on earth ; in fine,
to long for a more - entire conformity to the will of God,
and to breathe after the everlasting enjoyment of his
friendship.
The effects of such a spirit habitually cherished, and feel-
ingly expressed before him, must surely be important and
happy. Among these may be reckoned a profound hu'
mility in the sight of God, a high veneration for his pre-
sence and attributes, an ardent zeal for his Worship and
honor, a constant imitation of our Savior's divine exam-
ple, a diffusive charity for men of all denominations, a
generous and unwearied self-denial, a total resignation to
Providence, an increasing esteem for the gospel, with
clearer and firmer hopes of that immortal life which it
has brought to light. — Mrs.Barbauld; Paley ; Hend. Buck.
DE WITT, (Susan,) ihi wife of Simeon De Witt of
Albany, and the second daughter of Rev. Dr. Linn, died
at Philadelphia, while on a visit, May 5, 1824. She was
a woman of strong intellectual powers and of elevated
piety. She published a poem, which has been much
read and admired, — The Pleasures of Religion. — Allen.
DE AVITT, (John, D. D.,) professor of biblical history
in the theological seminary of the Dutch Reformed church
at New Brunswick, New Jersey, a native of Catskill,
New York, was ordained as colleague with Daniel Collins
of Lanesborough, Massachusetts, July 8, 1812, and was
dismissed December 8, 1813, and aftenvards settled as
the minister of the second Reformed Dutch church in Al-
bany. He was afterwards professor in the theological
seminary, and also one of the professors of Rutgers' col-
lege, in New Brunswick, where he died, October 12, 1831,
aged about forty-two. — Hist. Berkshire, 389 ; Allen.
DEW. Dews in Palestine are plentiful, like a small
shower of rain every morning. Gideon filled a basin
with the dew which fell on a fleece of wool, Judges 6:
38. Isaac, blessing Jacob, wished him the dew of hea-
ven, which fattens the fields, Gen. 27: 28. In those
warm countries, where it seldom rains, the night dews
supply the want of showers. Isaiah speaks of rain as if
it were a dew, Isaiah 18: 4. Some of the most beautiful
and illustrative of the images of the Hebrew poets are
taken from the dews of their country. The reviving in-
fluence of the gospel, the copiousness of its blessings, and
the multitude of Its converts, are thus set forth. — Watson.
DEXTER, (Samuei.,) a benefactor of Harvard college,
was a merchant in Boston. In the political struggles just
before the revolution, he was repeatedly elected to the
council, and negatived for his patriotic zeal by the royal
governor. In his last years he was deeply engaged in
investigating the doctrines of theology. He died at Men-
don, June 10, 1810, aged eighty-four. For the encourage-
ment of biblical criticism he bequeathed a handsome lega-
cy to Harvard college. He also bequeathed forty dollars
to a minister, whom he wished to preach a funeral ser-
mon, (without making any mention of him in the dis-
course,) from the thrilling words, (2 Cor. 4: 18.) The
THINGS, WHICH ARE SEEN, AKE TEMPORAL ; BUT THE THINGS
WHICH AKE NOT SEEN, AKE ETERNAL. Allen.
DIACONOFTCHINS, a class of Russian dissenters
form the Greek church ; so called from Alexander Deacon,
of the church of Veska, from which he separated in 1706,
on a dispute relative to some ecclesiastical ceremonies.
(See Rascolniks.) Finkerton's Greek Church, p. 302. —
Williams.
DIADEM. (See Crown.)
DIAL, is not mentioned in Scripture before the reign of
Ahaz. Interpreters diflTer concerning the form of the dial
of Ahaz, 2 Kings 20. The generality of expositors think
that it was a staircase so disposed, that the sun showed
the hours upon it by the shadow. Others suppose that it
was a pillar erected in the middle of a very level and
smooth pavement, on which the hours were engraven. Ac-
cording to these authors, the lines marked in this pave-
ment are what the Scripture calls degrees. Grotius de-
scribes it as follows : " It was a concave hemisphere, and
DIA
[ 459
DIA
in the midst was a globe, the shadow of which fell on the
different lines engraven in the concavity of the hemi-
sphere ; these lines were twenty-eight in number." This
description answers pretty nearly to that kind of dial,
which the Greeks called scapha, a boat or hemisphere, the
invention (or rather introduction) of which, Vitruvius as-
scribes to Berosus the Chaldean. It would seem, indeed,
that the most ancient sun-dial known is in the form of a
half-circle, hollowed into the stone, and the stone cut
down to an angle. This kind of dial was invented in Ba-
bylon, and was very probably the same as thatof Ahaz. —
WaUmu
DIAMOND, {jahlem.) Ex. 28: 18. 29: 11. Ez. 28: 13.
This has from remote antiquity been considered as the
Diana had many oracles in ancient limes, and man>
temples were dedicated to her worship. Of these latter,
the most celebrated was that at Ephcsus, which, on ac-
count of its size, structure, and embellishments, was es-
teemed one of the seven wonders of the world. Some
account of the construction of this famous temple has been
transmitted lo us by two ancient authors, Vitruvius and
Pliny. The former tells us, that it had eight columns in
the fore-front, and as many in the back-front ; that it had
a double range of columns round it; and that it was of the
Ionic order. Pliny states, (lib. xxxvi. cap. 11.) that two
hundred and twenty years elapsed during its construction;
that it was four hundred and twenty-five feet in length,
and two hundred and twenty in breadth ; that it was
adorned with one hundred columns, each sixty feet high,
(Sec. Of these columns, twenty-seven were very curiously
carved, and the rest polished. The architect employed ia
executing this edifice was Clesiphon, or Ctesifonte ; and
the has reliefs of one of the columns were done by Scopas,
the most celebrated sculptor of antiquity. The altar was
adorned with the masterly performances of the famous
Praxiteles. The "great Diana of the Ephesians" was,
according to Pliny, a small statue of ebony, made by one
Canitia, though believed by the vulgar to have been sent
down from heaven by Jupiter. The tetnple was several
times destroyed and rebuilt, until it was finally burnt by
the Goths, in the year 260.
Diana is said to have been worshipped in Palestine, in
the days of Isaiah and Jeremiah, under the name of Meni,
most valuable or, more properly, the most costly substance ^^^^ [^ (o say, the goddess of mmiths, or the moon. But
in nature. The reason of the high estimation in which it
was held by the ancients, v.'as its rarity, extreme hard-
ness and brilliancy. It filled the sixth place in the high-
priest's breast-plate, and on it was engraven the name of
Naphtali. The word translated diamond in Jer. 17: 1, is
shtmir. (See Adama.-<t.) — Wation.
the city of Ephesus was, beyond all other places, devoted
to the worship of Diana, and a considerable traffic was
there carried on, in making little models of the temple
with the image of the goddess inshrined in them, which
the silversmiths sold to foreigners. Hence the clamor of
the inhabitants, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." Acts
DIANA: a celebrated goddess of the heathens, to whom 19: 24, &c. (See Ernssus.)— /ones,
a magnificent temple was dedicated at Ephesus, a medal DIARY ; a private register in which are recorded the
views and experience of individuals, and their observations
on passing events.
The practice of keeping such a record it would be obvi-
ously wrong to inculcate strenuously on all Christians.
Thousands have not the education or capacity which it
requires. Many to whom it might not be otherwise im-
practicable, are so situated in providence that they cannot
command the necessary leisure. In some instances, it
has been perfonned in an unguarded manner, or inju-
dicious uses have been made of the document by surviving
relatives or friends. — On the other hand, the idea that the
record will sooner or later meet the eyes of men, and re-
commend the writer to their esteem and admiration as a
person of eminent piety, is apt, at least, to mingle itself
wth purer views, and even unconsciously to exercise a
of which is preserved. She was of the nuinber of the considerable influence on the statements, and the expres-
twelve superior deities, and was called by the several sions employed.
names of Hebe, Trivia, and Hecate. In the heavens she The published journals, however, of some exemplary
was the moon; UDon earth she was called Diana; but Christians have been so judiciously written, and have
the infernal Diana' was distinguished by the name of He- proved so highly useful for the direction and encourage-
cate, or Trivia; in which character she was invoked in mem of others in the service of God, that it is a cause of
enchantments, and represented as a fury, holding instru- lively gratitude that ever they existed, and that they were
nients of terror in her hands, and grasping cords, swords, ever given to the worid. T,ATio will say that it is WTong in
serpents, or burning torches. The appellation of trivia or any Christian, possessing the requisite abUity and leisure,
triformi: appears to have been derived from the custom of provided he observe the dictates of modesty and prudence,
representing her sometimes with three bodies, or three and strive, in dependence on divine grace, to be actuated
heads. only hy pious and honorable motives, to record from time
Diana was known under several other names, most of to time a few notices of what is most material in his own
which appear to have originated from the different places experience ? The review of such memoranda, alter months
where she was worshipped ; but she is easilv distinguished and years have passed away, may call to his recollection
in the figures which represent her, either by the crescent facts in his history important to himself, which, without
upon her head, or by her bow and arrows, or by her hunt- such help, he would have utterly forgotten ; and may serve
ing dress, or by the dogs that accompany her. Among not only to awaken fresh sentiments of humihty and grati-
the Greeks, she was considered as the goddess of chastity, tude, but to incite to renewed ardor and circumspection m
and hence virgins were given her for companions ; yet the path of righteousness.
she is represented, in the ancient fables, as by no means To ministers of the gospel, whose official character
averse from gallantry ; and is said to have bestowed her obliges them to bestow much attention on the spiritual in-
favors on Endvmion. Pan, and Priapus. The Greeks ap- terests of others, the keeping of a diary has been recom-
pear to have derived their mythological system, in a great mended as an excellent means of preventing them Irom
measure, from the Egyptians; and Diana, the sister of overlooking or neglecting their own.— i/enrf. /;«<-^-.
Apollo, is generally held lo be the same -nith Isis, the sis- DIAZIUS, (JonNp a learned and pious suflerer rn^me
ter of Osiris.
cause of God and of truth, was born and educated in Spam,
DIE u*
In the begiiming of the sixteenth century. He was sent
to Paris to complete his studies ; hot it pleased God, by
means of the boolis of Luther and of some other Protestant
divines, so to enlighten his mind in the knowledge of the
,0 I J if.
pope's nuncio, having charged Luther with heresy, the
duke of Saxony said, that Luther ought to be heard ; which
the emperor granted, and sent a pass to him, provided he
would not preach in his journey. Luther being at Worms
Scrintures that he began to see and abhor the heresies protested that he would not recant except they should
bcriptures, luai iie uc^aii i . -^ ^^.^^^ of God alone, and not by that
and abominations of the '=,^"^'=1^ ° .,^°'^';-^ J;"^^^;;^^ of men Therefore the emperor ordered him to go out of
to h.s further ""P™^^"^^"'; ^^ J f «^, «^°7„^'^™^%^ %Zmi, and a month after, bv an edict published 26tll of
Sr r't:Xrris^™M'tfsrr'a« 5iay,before all the prmces of Germany , 'ou^awed him.
Swas\o pleased wUhh,s character and talents Uiat _i- „D.bt or N.kembhk., .n^ 1^^^^^^^^^
he obtained leave of the senate to have Diazius jomed witli
him in the disputation at Ratisbon. At Ratisbon he found
Peter Malvinda, a Spaniard, the pope's agent m Germany,
who being uneasy at seeing one of his countrymen a Pro-
testant, used every nieans to persuade him to return to the
Eomish church— large proffers, threats ot severe punish-
ments, and intermingled entreaties. Diazius remaining
iirm, jSIalvinda informed his brother Alphon.sus Diazius,
one of the pope's lawyers at Rome, who instantly hastened
to Ratisbon, and thence to Newberg, (where his brother
had gone to superintend the printing of Bucer's book,) de-
termined to reclaim or destroy him. His efforts to turn
him from the Protestant faitli were ineffectual ; in conse-
quence of which he hired a ruffian to murder him, which
bloody deed was accomplished in 154(5. Alphonsus was
applauded for it by the papists ; but, stung by his own
conscience, he not long after, at Trent, put an end to his
own life. — Middletoii.
DIBON ; a city of Moab, so called from its soflly-flowing
waters; and thought to be the Dimon of Isa. 15: 9. Thi
gat, pope Adrian Vlth's nuncio, demanded the execution
of Leo Xth's bull, and of Charles Vth's edict published at
Worms against Luther. But it was answered that it was
necessary to call a council in Germany, to satisfy the na-
tion about its grievances, which were reduced to a hundred
articles, some whereof aimed at the destruction of the
pope's authority, and the discipline of the Roman church.
They added, that in the interim, the Lutherans shonld be
commanded not to write against the Roman Catholics, &c.
All these things were brought into the form of an edict
pubhshed in the emperor's name.
3. Diet of Nuremeekg, in 1524. Cardinal Campege,
pope Clement Vllth's legate, entered incognito into the
town, for fear of exasperating the people. There the Lu-
therans having the advantage, it was decreed, that, with
the emperor's consent, the pope should call a council in
Germany ; but in the interim, an assembly should be held
at Spire, to determine what was to be believed and prac-
tised ; and that, to obey the emperor, the princes ought to
order the observation of the edict of Worms as strictly as
city was given to the tribe of Gad by JMoses, and after- they could. Charles V. being angry at this, commanded
wa'rds yielded to Reuben, Numb. 32: 3, 33, 34. Josh. 13:
9. It seems to have been again occupied by the Moabites
at a later period, Isa. 15: 2. Jer. 48: 18, 22. Eusebius
says, it was a large town on the northern bank of the river
Arnon, Numb. 33: 45. Burckhardt speaks of a place called
Diban, about three miles north of the Arnon. (See Gah.)
— II. The same perhaps as Debir, or Kirjatb-sepher, Neh.
11: 25. The Seventy call that place Dibon, which in He-
brew is Deber, Josh. 13: 2(5. — Ctihnet.
DICKINSON, (JoNATUAN,) the fii-st president of New
Jersey college, was born in Hatfield, Massachusetts, April
22, 1688. He was graduated at Yale college, in 1706, and
within one or two years afterwards he was settled the mi-
nister of the first Presbyterian chnrch in Elizabethtown,
New Jersey. Of this church he was for near forty years the
joy and glory. As a friend of literature, he was also emi-
nently useful. The charter of the college of New Jersey,
which had never yet been carried into operation, was en-
larged by governor Belcher, October 22, 1746, andMr. Dick-
inson was appointed president. The institution commenced
at Elizabethtown ; but it did not long enjoy the advantages
of his superintendence, for it pleased God to call him away
from life, October 7, 1747, -aged fifty-nine. His writings
possess merit. They are designed to unfold the wonderful
method of redemption, and to excite men to that cheerful
consecration of all their talents to their Maker, to that
careful avoidance of sin and practice of godliness, which
will exalt them to glory. The most important are his Dis-
courses on the Reasonableness of Christianity, and on the
Five Points, in answer to Whitby. An octavo volume of his
works was pablLshed at Edinburgh, in 1793. See Pierson's
Sermon m his Death ; Preface to his Sermons, EtKnhttrgh edi-
tion; Miller, ii. 345; Doii<;lass, ii. 284; Brainerd's Life,
129,161; Chandler's Life of Johnson, 69; Green,2<il —Allen .
DIDRACHMA ; a Greek word, signifying a piece of
money, in value two drachmas ; about Iburteen pence
English, or twenty-five cents. The Jews were by law
obliged, every person, to pay two drachmas, that is, half a
the edict of Worms to be observed very strictly, and prohi-
bited the assembly at Spire.
4. Diet of Spike, in 1526. Charles V. being in Spain,
named his brother, the archduke Ferdinand, to preside
over that assembly, where the duke of Saxony and the
landgrave of Hesse demanded at first a free exercise of
the Lutheran religion, so that the Lutherans preached
there publicly against the pope ; and the Lutheran princes'
■servants had these five capital letters, V. D. M. I. JE.,
embroidered on their sleeves, signifying Verhum Domini
mnnet in JEternuni, to show publicly that they would follow
nothing else but the pure word of God. The archduke not
daring to oppose those courses, proposed two things : the
first, concerning the ancient religion which was to be ob-
tained in observing the edict of Worms ; and the second,
concerning the help demanded by Lewis, king of Hunga-
ry, against the Turks. About the first, the Lutherans
prevailing, it was decreed, that the emperor should be de-
sired to call a general or national council in Germany
within a year, and that, in the interim, every one was to
have liberty of conscience. And whilst they were delibe-
rating in vain about the second, the valiant king Lewis
was defeated and killed at the battle of Mohats.
5. Diet of Spihe, in 1529. There it was decreed, "that
in all places where the edict of Worms against the Luther-
ans was received, it should be lawful for nobody to change
his opinions ; but in the countries where the new religion
was received, it should be lawful to continue in it till the
next council, if the ancient religion could not be re-estab-
lished there without sedition ; nevertheless the mass- was
not to be abolished there, and no Roman Catholic was to
be allowed to tnrn Lutheran ; that the Sacramentarians
should be banished out of the empire, and the Anabaptists
put to death ; and that preachers should nowhere preach
against the doctrine of the church." This decree destroy-
ing that of the first diet, six Lutheran princes, viz. the
elector of Saxony, the marquess of Brandenburg, the two
dukes of Lunenburg, the landgrave of Hesse, and the
shekel, to the temple. To pay this, our Lord sent Peter prince of Anhalt, with the deputies of fourteen imperial
to catch a fish, which probably had just swallowed such a towns, protested in writing two days after in the assembly
coin. Matt. 17: 24 — 27. — Cnlmet. against that decree, which they would not obey, it being
DIDYMUS, (a tn-in.) This is the signification of the contrary to the gospel; and appealed to the general or
Hebrew or Syriac word Thomas. (See Thomas.) — Calmet. national council, to the emperor, and to any other unsus-
DIET, is a name given to an assembly of the States of
Germany. The following is a short notice of the principal
diets which were held in reference to the affairs of the re-
formation. They are inserted in the order of time in which
they were held.
1. Tire Diet or Worms, in 1521, where Alexander, the
pected judge. From that solemn protestation, came that
famous name of Protestants, which the LiUherans took
presently, and the Calvinists andjjther reformed Christians
afterwards. They also protested that they would contri-
bute nothing towards the war against the Turks till the
exercise of their religion was free in all Germany. This
Z)IG
461 ]
DIO
ptoleslaiion being presented to the emperor, he said that
he would settle the affairs of Germany as soon as he had
regulated those of Ital}'. The next year after, he called
the famous diet of Augsburgh spoken of before.
i5. Diet of Augsburgu, in the year 1530. It was called
Ijy the emperor Charles V. to re-unite the princes about
some matters of religion, and to join them altogether
against the Turks. The emperor appeared there with the
greatest magnificence that was ever seen in Germany ;
because so many electors and princes never met together
before. There the elector of Saxony, followed by many
princeS) presented the confession of faith, called the Con-
fession of Augsburgh. The conference about matters, of
laith and discipline being concluded, the emperor ended
the diet by a decree, that nothmg should be altered in the
doctrine and ceremonies of the Roman church, till a coun-
cil should order it otherwise.
7. Diet of Ratisbon, in 1541, for re-uniting the Protest-
ants with the Roman Catholics. The pope's legate having
altered the twenty-two articles drawn by some learned
doctors, the emperor proposed to choose some learned di-
vines that might agree peaceably upon the articles ; and
being desired by the diet to choose them himself, he named
three Roman Catholics, viz. Juliu.s Phlugius, John Grop-
perils, and John Eckius ; and three Protestants, viz. Phihp
Jlelaucthon, Martin Bucer, and John Pistorius; but after an
examination and disputation of a whole month, these di-
vines never could agree about more than five or six articles,
\\'hcrein the diet found some difficulties still. Therefore the
emperor, to end those controversies, ordered by an edict,
that the decisions of the doctors should be referred to a
general council, or to the national council of all Germany,
or to the next diet eighteen months after ; and that, in the
meanwhile, the Protestants should keep the articles agreed
upon, forbidding them to soUcit any body to change the
ancient religion, &c. But to please the Protestants, he
gave them leave by patent to keep their religion, notwith-
standing the edict.
S. Diet or Ratisbon, in 15-16, where none of the Pro-
testant confederate princes appeared ; nevertheless, it was
decreed by the plurality of votes, that the council of Trent
Mas to be followed, which the Protestant deputies opposed ;
and thus caused a war against them.
y. Diet of Aussbukgh, in 1517, about matters of reli-
gion ; the electors being divided concerning the decisions
of Ihe council of Trent, the emperor demanded that the
management of this affair should be left to him, and it
w,as resolved that every one should conform to the coun-
cif s decisions.
10. Diet of AuGSEtiiiGH, in 1548, where the commis-
sioners named to examine some memoirs about a confes-
sion of faith, not agreeing together, the emperor named
three divines, who drew the design of that famous Interim,
so v.ell known in Germany and elsewhere.
11. Diet of AuGSEur.on, in 1550, where the emperor
complained that the Interim was not observed, and de-
manded that all should submit to the council which they
were going to renew at Trent ; but duke Maurice's deputies
protested that their master did submit to the council on this
condition, that the divines of the confession of Augsburgh,
not only should be heard there, but should vote also like
the Roman Catholic bishops, and that the pope should not
preside. But by the plurality of votes, the submission to
the council was resolved upon.
12. Diet of Ratisbon, in 1557. The assembly de-
manded a conference between some famous doctors of
both parties ; which conference, held at Worms in Sep-
tember, between twelve Roman Catholic divines and
twelve Lutheran, was soon dissolved by the Lutherans
dividing among themselves. — Heiiil. Buck.
Diet, is also used, in the Scotch church, to denote the
public service which any minister has to perform. Thus,
if he ha,s to preach three times on any given Sabbath, it
is said he has three diets. — Hend. Buck.
DIGGERS; a name of reproach applied to some good
people, probably Waldenses, who, being persecuted, were
obliged to find or dig caverns, in which to hold their reli-
gious meetings. They were charged mth despising the cler-
gy and charch of Rome. — Brottghton's Dictwiiari/.
The term Diggers was also, in Cromwell's tijiie, applied
to a religiO'political party, from which the Spencean syi
tem is supposed to have been borrowed. (See Spencb
ANs . ) — Williams.
DIGIT, {etzbrth ;) a measure containing sixty-seven
eighty-ninths or about three fourths of an inch. There are
four digits in a palm, and six palms in a cubit Calma.
DIKLAH; seventh son of Joktan, (Gen. 10: 27.) whose
descendants are placed either in Arabia Felix, which
abounds in palm trees, called Dikla in Chaldee and Syri-
ac i or in Assyria, where is the town of Degia, and the
river Tigris, or Dikkel.^— Ca/meJ.
DILIGENCE, Christian, is constancy in the perform-
ance of all those duties enjoined us in God's sacred word.
It includes activity and vigor — watchfulness against intrud-
ing objects — firmness and resokuion-^patience and perse-
verance. The shortness of our time ; the importance of
our work ; the pleasure which arises from discharging
duty ; the uncertainty of the time of our dissolution ; the
consciousness we do not labor in vain ; together with ;he
example of Christ and all good men, .should excite us. 'o
the most unwearied diligence in the cause of God, of trutn,
and our own souls. — Hend. Buck.
DIMISSORY LETTER ; a letter given by a bishop
to a candidate for holy orders, having a title in his dio-
cese, directed to some other bishop, and giving leave for
the bearer to be ordained by him — Hend. Buck.
DINAH; daughter of Jacob and Leah, (Gen. 30; 21.)
born after Zebulon, and about A. M. 2250. When Jacob
returned into Canaan, Dinah, then about the age of fifteen
or sixteen, attended a festival of the Shechemites, to see
the women of the country, (Gen. 34: 1, 2.) when Shechem,
son of Hamor the Hivite, prince of the city, ravished or
seduced her, and fifterwards desired his father to procure
her for his wife. Dinah's brothers, being informed of what
had passed, were much exasperated : and having made
insidious proposals to Shechem, to his father Hamor, and
to the inhabitanis of their city, slew and plundered them,
and carried off Dinah. Jacob, when informed of the occur-
rence, cursed their anger and cruelty, 49: 5 — 7. — Cnlinet.
DIi>fAlTES; a people who opposed the rebuilding of
the temple, Ezra 4: 9. — Co/met.
DIOCESE, (Greek diokesis, administration ;) an ecclesi-
astical division, which originated in the arrangement
made by Constantine, in the fourth century, when Chris-
tianity was made the religion of the state. 'This took placj
in accordance with the new division of the empire into one
hundred and twenty provinces, governed by twelve vicars
or sub-prefects. Among the Romanists, it signifies the
territory over which Ihe jurisdiction of an archbishop or
bishop extends. With the Protestants in Germany, it
signifies all the parishes that are under the inspection of
one superintendent. In England, the province of Canter-
bury contains twenty-one dioceses, and the province of
York three ; each diocese is divided into archdeaconries,
each archdeaconry into rural deaneries, and each deanery
into parishes. In the United States, a diocese is a territory
under the jurisdiction of a single bishop of the Protestant
Episcopal or Romish church, whether comprehending one
or more states of the union. — Hend. Buck.
DIONYSIA ; a Christian female, who suffered martyr-
dom at Carthage during the Arian Vandal persecution in
the sixth century. She was a lady of fortune, and a w
dow. Being apprehended as an orthodox Christian, she
was stripped, and scourged in a cruel manner. To her
son, who, a mere lad, was placed on the rack before her,
she is said to have addressed the following words : " Re-
member, 0 ray child, that we were baptized in the name of
the ever sacred Trinity ; let us not lose the benefit thereof,
lest it should hereafter be said, Cast them into outer darkness,
where there is n-ecping and gnashing of teeth : for that pain
which never endeth.is indeed to be dreaded, and that life
which endureth to eternity, to be desired." The sufferings of
both mother and child were shortly closed by death . — Fo.r.
DIONYSIUS, the Areopagite, is said in his youth to
have been bred at Athens, and to have been instructed in
all the arts and sciences for which that seat of the muses
was renowned ; and at the age of five and twenty, to have
travelled into Egypt, there to perfect himself in the study
of astronomy. When Christ died, he is said to have been
at Heliopolis, and observing the preternatural darkness
DIS
[ 462 J
DIS
wnich accompanied his crucifixion, he remarked that ei-
ther God himself was suffering, or that he sympathized
with some one that was suffering. (See Daekniss.) Ke-
turning to Atliers, he became one of the senators of the
Areopagus, disputed with the apostle Paul, and by him
was converted to the Christian faith. Acts 17. According
to ecclesiastical history, he became a presbyter of the
church in Athens, where he labored much in the defence
and propagation of the gospel, and after saffering greatly
on account of his profession, he crowned his labors with a
glorious martyrdom, being burnt to death in that city, in
the year of Christ 95. — Jones.
DIOSPOLIS, {the city of JwpiteT,) or Thebes. Nahum
is thought to have intended it under the name of No-Am-
mon. (See Ammon-No.) — Calmet.
DIOTREPHES; a professed Christian, near Ephesu.s,
who did not receive and kindly aid those missionaries to
the heathen whom the aposlle had sent to him ; nor would
he suffer others to do so. He is a perfect representative
of the anti-missionary spirit in modem times. See 3 John
5—iO.— Ca!met.
DIRECTORY ; a kind of regulation for the performance
of religious worship, drawn up by the assembly of divines
in England, at the instance of the parliament, in 1644. It
was designed to supjily ihe place of the litnrgy, or Book of
Common Prayer, the use of which they had abolished. It
consisted of some general heads, which were to be managed
and filled up at discretion ; for it prescribed no form of
prayer, or circumstances of external worship, nor obliged
the people to any responses, excepting Amen. The sub-
.stance of it is as follows : — It forbids all salutations and
civil ceremony in ihechnrches; — the reading the Scriptures
in the congregation is declared to be a part of the pastoral
office ; — all the canonical boolcs of the Old and New Testa-
ment (but not the Apocrypha) are to be publicly read in
the vulgar tongue : how large a portion is to be read at
once, is left to the mini.ster, who has likewise the liberty
of expounding, when he judges it necessary. It prescribes
heads for the prayer before sermon ; it delivers rules for
preaching the word ; the introduction to the text must be
short and clear, drawn from the words or context, or some
parallel place of Scripture. In dividing the text, the
minister is to regard the order of the matter more than
that of the words : he is not to burden the memory of his
audience with too many divisions, nor perplex their under-
standing with logical phrases and terms of art ; he is not
to start unnecessary objections ; and he is to be very
sparing in citations from ecclesiastical or other human
writers, ancient or modern, &c. The directory recom-
mends the use of the Lord's prayer as the most perfect
model of devotion : it forbids private or lay persons to ad-
minister baptism, and enjoins it to be performed in the
face of the congregation. It orders the communion table
at the Lord's supper to be so placed, that the communi-
cants may sit about it. It also orders that the sabbath be
kept with the greatest strictness, both publicly and private-
ly ; that marriage be solemnized by a lawful minister of
the word, who is to give counsel to, and pray for the par-
ties ; that the sick be visited by the minister under whose
charge they are ; ihe dead to be buried without any prayers
or religious ceremonies ; that days of fasting are to be ob-
served when the judgments of God are abroad, or when
some important blessings are desired; that days of thanks-
giving for mercies received be also observed ; and, also, that
singing of psalms together in tlie congregation is the duty
of Christians. In an appendix to this directory it is or-
dered, that all festivals, vulgariy called holvdays, are to
be abolished ; that no day is to be kept but the Lord's
day ; and that as no place is capable of any holiness under
the pretence of consecration, so neither is it subject to pol-
lution by any superstition formeriy used ; and therefore it
is held requisite, that the places of public worship now
used should still be continued and employed. Should the
reader be desirous of perusing this directory at large, he
may find it at the end of Neal's History of the Puritans.—
Hend. Buck.
DISCERN. To discern time and judgment is to know the
season proper for such works, and the works proper for
such occasions. Eccl. 8: 5. To discern the Lord's body, is
by spiritual knowledge to take up the bread and wine in
the Lord's supper, as representing the person and right-
eousness of God in our nature. 1 Cor. 11: 29. Christ is a
discerner of the thoughts and intents of the heart ; he fully
knows and can judge of their motions, manner, and ends;
the Scripture is a discerner of them : when powerfully ap-
plied, it makes men truly to understand them. Heb. 4: 13.
Discerning of spirits was either a miraculous power of dis-
cerning men's state or secret conduct ; or a spiritual ability
to discern true apostles and ministers from false ones. 1
Cor. 12: W.— Brown.
DISCIPLE, (from the Latin word discere, to learn,) is
one who professes to receive instruction from another.
Hence the followers of a teacher, philosopher, or head of
a sect, are usually called his disciples : and in this accepta-
tion the term is used in the New Testament, where it oc-
curs as the common designation of those who, by the
preaching of the gospel, were converted to the Christian
faith, and consequently professed themselves to be the fol-
lowers of Christ. Hence we read of " the disciples of Mo-
ses," (John 9: 28,) " the disciples of John the Baptist."
(Matt, 11: 2,) and " the disciples of Christ." Luke 14: 2(5,
27, 33.
In the days of our Lord's public ministiy, it is said that
great multitudes followed him, actuated, no doubt, by va-
rious motives ; but, aware that many of them had not
hitherto counted the cost, he turned and said unto them,
"If any man come unio me, and hate not his father, and
mother, and wife, and children, and brethren, and sisters,
yea, and his own life also, he cannot be my disciple ; and
whosoever doth not bear his cross and come after me can-
not be my disciple ; and whosoever he be of you that for-
saketh not all that he hath, he cannot be my disciple."
Luke 14: 2.5—27, 33. See also Matt. 7: 21—23. These
things sufficiently show the danger that professors are in,
of deceiving themselves in this important article ; and
they suggest the necessity of carefully examining the
grounds on which men build the truth of their disciple-
ship. It is hoped, that the vital interest which every pro-
fessor has in that inquiry, will be admitted as an apology
for submitting to the reader's consideration the following
general reflections on this subject :
1. A teachable disposition is essential to the character
of a true disciple of the Lord Jesus Christ. Matt. 18: 1 — 5.
John 6: 45. Prov. 4: 18. 2 Pet. 3: 18. 1 Cor. 8: 2. Phil. 3:
8—14.
2. A genuine disciple of Christ can admit no human
teacher to be the lord of his conscience. Matt. 23: B — 10-
Luke 4: 44. John 4: 1. James 1: 18. 1 Pet. 1: 22, 23. i
Thess. 2: 13. Mark 14: 24. Luke 8: 18. James 1: 21.
Pet. 2: 1—3. John 17: 17. 2 Cor. 3: 18.
3. A disposition to obey all the will of God, so far as he
has the means of doing it, is essential to the character of a
real disciple of Christ. "Luke 6: 46. Acts 9: 6. Matt. 5: 19.
7: 26, 27. James 1: 22—26. John 15: 14. 6: 60. Luke 9;
23. Phil. 2: 14, 15. Luke 17: 10.
4. A steady, consistent, and uniform perseverance in
the ways of Christ, is another characteristic of discipleship.
Hos. 6: 4. Eph. 4: 14. Matt. 16: 24—27. Mark 8: 34—38.
Luke 9: 23—26. 10: 38. Matt. 6: 33. 1 Cor. 15: 58. Rev.
3: 21. (See Love.)— /ones.
DISCIPLES OF CHRIST,* (sometimes called Cajvip-
BELLiTEs, or REFORMERS.) As is usual in similar cases, ihe
brethren who unite under the name of Disciples of Christ,
or Christians, are nicknamed afler those who have been
prominent in gathering them together : they choose, how-
ever, to be recognised by the above simple and unassum-
ing name.
■The rise of this society, if we only look back to the
drawing of the lines of demarkation between it and other
professors, is of recent origin. About the commencement
of the present centur}', the Bible alone, mthout any human
addition in the form of creeds or confessions of faith, began
to be plead and preached by many distinguished ministers
of different denominations, both in Europe and America.
With various success, and with many of the opinions of
the various sects imperceptibly carried with them from the
denominations to which they once belonged, did the advo-
* This article was furnished by Mr. Campbell f(#the Ency,
clopedia.
DIS
[463]
UlS
cales of the Bible cause plead for the union of Christians
of every name on the broad basis of the apostles' teaching.
But it was not until the year 1823, that a restoration of
the original gospel and order of things began to be plead in
a periodical, edited by Alexander Campbell, of Bethany,
Virginia, entitled "the Christian Baptist."
He and his father, Thomas Campbell, renounced the
Presbyterian system, and were immersed in the year 1812.
They, and the congregations which they had formed, united
with the Redstone Baptist association ; protesting against
all human creeds as bonds of union, and professing sub-
jection to the Bible alone. This union took place in the
year 1813. But in pressing upon the attention of that
Society and the public the all-sufflciency of the sacred
Scriptures for every thing necessary to the perfection of
Christian character, whether in the pnvate or social re-
lations of life, in the church or in the world, they began
to be opposed by a strong creed-party in that association.
After some ten years' debating and contending for the Bi-
ble alone and the apostles' doctrine, Alexander Campbell
and the church to which he belonged, united with the Ma-
honing association, in the Western Reserve of Ohio, that
association being more favorable to his views of reform.
In his debates on the subject and action of baptism with
Mr, Walker, a seceding minister, in the year 1820, and
with Mr. M'Calla, a Presbyterian minister, of Kentucky,
in the year 1823, his views of reformation began to be
developed, and were very generally received by the Bap-
tist society, as far as these works were read.
But in his " Christian Baptist," which began July 4,
1823, his views of the need of reformation were more fully
exposed ; and as these gained ground by the pleading of
various ministers of the Baptist denomination, a party in
opposition began to exert itself, and to oppose the spread of
what they were pleased to call heterodoxy. But not till after
great numbers began to act upon these principles, was there
any attempt towards separation. After the Mahoning as-
sociation appointed Mr. Walter Scott an evangelist, in the
year 1827, and when great numbers began to be immersed
into Christ under his labors, and new churches, began to
be erected by him and other laborers in the field, did the
Baptist associations begin to declare non-fellowship with
the brethren of the reformation. Thus by constraint,
not of choice, they were obliged to form societies out of
those communities that split upon the ground of adherence
to the apostles' doctrine. Within the last seven years,
they have increased with the most unprecedented rapidity;
and during the present year, (1833,) not much less than
ten thousand have joined the standard of reformation.
They probably at this time, in the United States alone,
amount to at least one hundred thousand. The distin-
guishing characteristics of their views and practices are the
following :
They regard all the sects and parties of the Christian
world as having, in greater or less degrees, departed from
the simplicity of faith and manners of the first Christians,
and as forming what the apostle Paul calls " the aposta-
sy." This defection they attribute to the great varieties
of speculation and metaphysical dogmatism of the count-
less creeds, formularies, liturgies, and books of discipline
adopted and inculcated as bonds of union and platforms
of communion in all the parties which have sprung from
the Lutheran reformation. The effects of these synodical
covenants, conventional articles of belief, and rules of ec-
clesiastical polity, has been the introduction of a new no-
menclature, a human vocabulary of religious words, phrases
and technicalities, which has displaced the style of the Uv-
ing oracles, and atfixed to the sacred diction ideas wholly
unknown to the apostles of Christ.
To remedy and obviate these aberrations, they propose
to ascertain from the holj' Scriptures, according to the
commonly-received and well-established rules of interpre-
tation, the ideas attached to the leading terms and sen-
tences found in the holy Scriptures, and then to use the
words of the Holy Spirit in the apostoUc acceptation of
Ihern.
By thus expressing the ideas communicated by the Holy
Spirit in the terms and phrases learned from the apostles,
and by avoiding the artificial and technical language of
Bcholasiic theologj', they propose to restore a pure speech
to the household of failh ; and by accustoming the family
of God to use the language and dialect of the heavenly
Father, they expect to promote the sanctification of one
another through the truth, and to terminate those discords
and debates which have always originated from the words
which man's wisdom teaches, and from a reverential re-
gard and esteem for the style of the great masters of pole-
mic divinity ; believing that speaking the same things in
the same style, is the only certain way to thinking the
same things.
They make a very marked difference between faith and
opinion ; between the testimony of God and the reasonings
of men ; the words of the Spirit and human inferences.
Faith in the testimony of God and obedience to Ihe com-
mandments of Jesus are their bond of union ; and not an
agi'cement in any abstract views or opinions upon what is
written or spoken by divine authority. Hence all the spe-
culations, questions, debates of words, and abstract reason-
ings fuund in human creeds, have no place in their reli-
gious fellowship. Regarding Calvinism and Arminianism,
Trinitarianism and Unitarianism, and all the opposing the-
ories of religious sectaries, as extremes begotten by each
other, they cautiously avoid them, as equi-distant from the
simplicity and practical tendency of the promises and pre-
cepts, of the doctrine and facts, of the exhortations and
precedents of the Christian institution.
They look for unity of spirit and the bonds of peace in
the practical acknowledgment of one faith, one Lord, one
immersion, one hope, one hoAy, one Spirit, one God and
Father of all ; not in unity of opinions, nor in unity of
forms, ceremonies, or modes of worship.
The holy Scriptures of both Testaments they regard as
containing revelations from God, and as all necessary to
make the man of God perfect, and accomplished for every
good word and work ; the New Testament, or the living
oracles of Jesus Christ, they understand as containing the
Christian religion ; the testimonies of Matthew, Blark,
Luke, and John, they view as illustrating and proving the
great proposition on which our religion rests, viz. that Je-
sus of Nazareth is the Messiah, the only-begotten and well-
beloved Son of God, and the onhj Savior of the world ; the
Acts of the Apostles as a divinely-authorized narrative of
the beginning and progress of tiie reign or kingdom of
Jesus Christ, recording the full development of the gospel by
the Holy Spiiit sent down from heaven, and the procedure
of the apostles in setting up the church of Christ on earth ;
the Epistles as carrying out and applying the doctrine of
the apostles to the practice of individuals and congrega-
tions, and as developing the tendencies of the gospel in
the behavior of its professors ; and all as forming a com-
plete standard of Christian faith and morals, adapted to
the interval between the ascension of Christ and his return
with the kingdom which he has received from God ; the
Apocalypse, or Revelation of Jesus Christ to John in Pat-
mos, as a figurative and prospective view of all the for-
tunes of Christianity, from its date to the return of the
Savior.
Every one who sincerely believes the testimony which
God gave of Jesus of Nazareth, saying, '• This is my Son,
the beloved, in whom I delight," or, in other words, believes
what the evangelists and apostles have testified concerning
him, from his conception to his coronation in heaven as
Lord of all, and who is willing to obey him in every thing,
they regard as a proper subject of immersion, and no one
else. They consider immersion into the name of the Fa-
ther, Son, and Holy Spirit, after a public, sincere, and in-
telligent confession of the faith in Jesus, as necessar)' to
admission to the privileges of the kingdom of the Messiah,
and as a solemn pledge on the part of heaven, of the actual
remission of all past sins and of adoption into the family
of God.
The Holy Spirit is promised only to those who believe
and obey the Savior. No one is taught to expect the re-
ception of that heavenly Monitor and Comforter as a resi-
dent in his heart till he obeys the gospel.
Thus while they proclaim faith and repentance, or failh
and a change of heart, as preparatory to immersion, remis-
sion, and the Holy Spirit, they say to all penitents, or all
those who believe and repent of their sins, as Peter ^aid to
the first audience addressed after the Holy Spirit was be-
DIS
[ 464 J
DIS
slowed after the glorification of Jesus, " Be immersed,
every one of you, in the name of the Lord Jesus, for the
remission of sins, and you shall receive the gift of the
Holy Spirit." They teach sinners that God commands all
men every where to reform or to turn to God, that tlie Holy
Spirit strives with them so to do by the apostles and pro-
)>liets, that God beseeches thera to be reconciled through
Jesns Christ, and that it is the duty of all men to believe
the gospel and to turn to God.
The immersed believers are congregated into societies
according to their propinquity to each other, and taught to
meet every first day of the week in honor and comniemo-
ralion of the resurrection of Jesus, and to break the loaf
which commemorates the death of the Son of God, to
read and hear the living oracies, to teach and admonish
one another, to unite in all prayer and praise, to contribute
to the necessities of saints, and to perfect holiness in the
fear of the Lord.
Every congregation chooses its omti overseers and dea-
cons, who preside over and administer the afl^airs of the
congregations ; and every church, either from itself or in
co-operation with others, sends out, as opportunity offers,
one or more evangelists, or proclamiers of the word, to
preach the word and to immerse those who believe, to
gather congregations, and to extend the knowledge of sal-
vation where it is necessary, as far as their means extend.
But every church regards these evangelists as its servants,
and therefore they have no control over any congregation,
each congregation being subject to its own choice of presi-
dents or elders whom they have appointed. Perseverance
in all the work of I'aith, labor of love, and patience of hope
is Inculcated by all the disciples as essential to admission
into the heavenly kingdom.
Such are the prominent outlines of the faith and prac-
tices of those who wish to be known as the Disciples of
Christ : but no society among them would agree to make
the preceding items eillier a confession of faith or a stand-
ard of practice ; but, for the information of those who
wish an acquaintance with them, are willing to give at any
time a reason for their faith, hope and practice.
The views of reformation in faith and practice of "the
Disciples of Christ" may be seen at great length, by those
desiring a more particular acquaintance, in the Christian
Haplisi and Millennial Harbinger, edited by Alexander
Campbell, of Bethany, Brooke county, Virginia ; also in
the Evangelist, published by Waller Scott, Carthage, Ohio ;
and the Christian Messenger, published by Barton W. Stone
and J. T. Johnson, Georgetown, Kentucky. The Chi'istian
Baptist arid Millennial Harbinge', being the first publica-
tion ef these sentiments, contains a hislory of this reforma-
tion, as well as a full development of all things from the
beginning.
DISCIPLINARIANS ; those in Baxter's time, who ad-
vocated the cause of pure communion. " Those that plead-
ed for discipline were called by the new name of Disci-
plinarians ; as if it had been a kind of heresy to desire
discipline in the church." — Henii. Buck.
DISCIPLINE, (Chukch;) the application in a Christian
church, of those principles and rules, derived from divine
authority, which regard the purity, order, peace, and useful
efficiency of its members. Discipline is to a church what
order and regularity are to a family ; or the maintaining
of government and the administration of law to a nation.
With respect to its object, it must carefully be observed,
that it is not to pander to human domination, or to sub-
serve the political interests of any party ; to coerce the
judgment and conscience of men ; or to avenge any public
or private injury ; but it is designed to effect the obser-
vance of those means by which the holiness, comfort, and
usefulness of Christians may be preserved and improved ;
to exhibit the influence of the Christian religion in pro-
ducing all that is excellent, amiable, and beneficial ; to
secure the fulfilment of all the relative obligations of
church union ; to attract into such union persons whose
minds and characters-are governed by evangelical truth
and undissembled piety ; and to remove from the visible
ranks of the faithful such as prove themselves to be un-
worthy of a place among the followers of Christ. Malt. 18:
15—18. 1 Cor. 5. 2 Thess. 3: tj. and Tit. 3: 10, 11, and
other passages in the New Testament, clearly recognise,
or positively and authoritatively enforce, the exercise of
discipline in the church of Christ ; and it becomes all who
bow to his spiritual rule, to hear what the Spirit saith
on this point to the churches. See Lib. of Eccles. Knoml.;
Ilaldane^s Social JVbrship / Jameses Church Member^s Guide ;
James's Advice to Church Members ; Fuller's Works, vol. ii.
462, kc.—Hend. Buck.
DISCIPLINE, (Book of,) in the history of the church
of Scotland, is a common order drawn up by the assembly
of ministers in IC.'JO, for the reformation and uniformity to
be observed in the discipline and policy of the church. In
this book, the government of the church by prelates is set
aside ; kirk sessions are established ; the superstitious ob-
servation of fast days and saints' days is condemned, and
other regulations for the government of the church are
determined. This book was approved by the privy coun-
cil, and is called the first book of discipline. — Hend. Buck.
DISCONTENT ; uneasiness at our present slate.
Man never appears in a worse light than when he gives
way to this disposition. It is at once the strongest proof
of his pride, ignorance, unbelief, and rebellion against
God. Let such remember, that discontent is a redection
on God's government ; that it cannot alter the state of
things, or make them belter ; that it is the source of the
greatest misery ; that it is an absolute violation of God's
law, (Heb. 13: 5 ;) and that God has often punished it
with the most signal judgments. Num. 11. Ps. 107. (See
Contentment.) — Buck.
DISCRETION; prudent behavior, arising from a know-
ledge of and acting agreeable to the difference of things.
"There are," says Addison, (No. 225. Spectator,) "many
more shining qualities in the mind of man, but there is
none so useful as discretion : it is this, indeed, which gives
a value to all the rest ; which sets them at work in their
proper times and places, and turns them to the advantage
of the person who is possessed of them. Without it, learn-
ing is pedantry, and wit impertinence : virtue itself looks
like weakness ; the best parts only qualify a man to be
more sprightly in errors, and active to his own prejudice.
" Discretion is a very different thing from cunning :
cunning is only an accomplishment of little, mean, unge-
nerous minds. Discretion points out the noblest ends to
us, and pursues the most proper and laudable methods of
attaining them ; cunning has only private, selfish aims,
and slicks at nothing which may make them succeed. Dis-
cretion has large and extended views, and, Uke a well-
formed eye, commands a whole horizon ; cunning is a kind
of short-sightedness that discovers the minutest objects
which are near at hand, but not able to discern things at a
distance. Discretion, the more it is discovered, gives a
greater authority to the person who possesses it ; cunning,
when it is once detected, loses its force, and makes a man
incapable of bringing about even those events which he
might have done, had he passed only for a plain man.
Discretion is the perfection of reason, and a guide to us in
all the duties of life ; cunning is a kind of instinct, that
only looks out after our immediate interest and welfare.
Discretion is only found in men of strong sense and good
understandings ; cunning is often to be met with in brutes
themselves, and in persons who are but the fewest removes
from them. In short, cunning is only the mimic of discre-
tion, and may pass upon weak men, in the same manner
as vivacity is often mistaken for wit, and gravity for wis-
dom." (See Pkudence.) — Buck.
DISDAIN ; contempt, as unworthy of one's choice. It
IS distinguished from haughtiness thus : Haughtiness is
founded on the high opinion we have of ourselves ; disdain
on the low opinion we have of others. — Buck.
DISEASES. Many kinds of disease are mentioned in
Scripture. Diseases and death are consequences of sin ;
and the Hebrews, not much accustomed to recur to phy-
sical causes, often imputed them to evil spirits. (See Luke
13: 16.) If their infirmities appeared unusual, and espe-
cially if the cause were unknown to them, they concluded
it to be a stroke from the avenging hand of God ; and to
him the wisest and most religious had recourse for cure.
King Asa is blamed for placing his confidence in physi-
cians, 2 Chron. 16: 12. Job's friends ascribed all his dis-
tempers to God's justice. Paul delivers the incestuous
Corinthian to Satan "for the destruction of the flesh:"
DIS
t 465 ]
DIS
that the evil spirit might afflict him with diseases, 1 Cor.
5: 5. (See Satan.) The same apostle attributes the death
and diseases of many Corinthians to their communicating
unworthily, chap. 11: 30. He also elsewhere ascribes the
infirmities with which he was afflicted to an evil angel :
" a thorn in the flesh — an angel of Satan," 2 Cor. 12: 7.
An ang;el of death slew the first-born of the Egyptians ; a
destroying angel wasted Sennacherib's army ; an avenging
augel smote the people of Israel with a pestilence, after
David's sin. Saul fell into a fit of deep melancholy, hypo-
chondriacal depression, and it is said " an evil spirit came
upon him." Abimelech, king of Gerar, for taking Sarah,
the wife of Abraham, was threatened with death, (Gen. 20:
3, 4.) and the Philistines were smitten with an ignominious
disease, for not treating the ark with adequate respect, 1
Sam. 5; 6, 7. These diseases, and others that we read of,
were evident interpositions of Providence, by whatever
agency they were produced. (See Demoniacs.) — Calmet.
DISINTERESTED LOVE. (See Sklf-Love.)
DISPENSATION ; a particular form of the divine ad-
ministration of the church, and of the world in relation to
the church. In this view of the matter, there have been
several dispensations or forms of the revealed administra-
tion of heaven, all adapted to the purpose of God for the
time, and all tending to the same great end. The present
dispensation supposes that there may have been one or
more past dispensations, and that there may be a dispensa-
tion yet to come. It may be in itself complete, or it may
bear some relation both to a former and a future economy.
It may be the conclusion or completion of that which has
passed away, and the preparation for something that is to
come. "We cannot, therefore, ariive at correct views of
its nature, without forming some eorrect estimate of what
preceded it, and having some general notion of what is to
follow it.
That changes of dispen.sation, in the sense in which the
expression has been explained, have already occurred, and
that one more is yet to follow, cannot for a moment be
doubled by any one who is even superficially acquainted
with the Scriptures. Such changes, however, by no means
imply any fickleness or actual change on the part of God.
It is not, indeed, so much change^ as progress, we are called
to mark. The gradual development of the successive parts
of a great plan, so far from evincing alteration of purpose
on the part of the contriver, is often a proof of the contra-
ry ; aflbrds evidence of the penetrating wisdom and fore-
thought which foresees future contingencies, and effectu-
ally provides against defeating the original design. The
light of the early dawTi, by whose medium we imperfectly
see surrounding objects, and often mistake their nature,
is of the same character, and proceeds from the same
source, with that meridian brightness which converts ob-
jects of terror or disgust into a scene of surpassing and
ravishing splendor. So it is with the dispensations of God.
The morning star, which threw a faint and twinkling ray
on the once fair, but then gloomy scenes of paradise, was
the harbinger of a brighter and steadier light of a distant
period. The light which then dawned, though occasionally
dimmed, and sometimes seemingly overpowered by the
dark atmosphere through which it had to penetrate, was
never afterwards entirely withdrawn. On the contrary, it
gradually, though slowly, increased, diffusing through
many ages a pale but celestial radiance, till at last it burst
forth upon an astonished world, in the peerless splendor of
the sun of righteousness. (See Adam ; Noah ; and Abra-
ham.)
But the present dispensation stands in a peculiar rela-
tion to the covenant made with Israel at Sinai, w-hich it
has entirely superseded, and with which it is often con-
trasted in Scripture. " So important," says Dr. Henderson,
" is a right understanding of the Mosaic covenant to a
correct knowledge and due appreciation of the blessings of
the present covenant, that I believe I hazard no mistaken
observation when I say, that nine tenths of the mistakes
which have beclouded and injured Christianity, have aris-
en from the introduction into it of Jewish principles, prac-
tices, and errors. This was the early bane of the primi-
tive churches, the evil against which the apostle had to
struggle and to protest ; which was the fruitful parent of
the numerous sects and heresies into which Christianity
became early divided, and which accounts for a large pro-
portion of the difference of opinion that still prevails among
Christians. I am altogether in error if this is not the root
of many of the mistaken views of the future state of the
kingdom of Christ which are entertained by those who
consider that they have obtained more than common in-
sight into the secret things of God, and who are as familiar
with the visions of the Apocalypse as with the first princi-
ples of the gospel.
"What, then, was the dispensation of IMoses? It was
a peculiar form of administering the affairs of the church
of God while it was in a state of pupilage and servitude,
and by which both the church and the world were prepared
for the establishment of a belter and more enduring econo-
my. In it, God appeared chiefly in the character of a law-
giver, and the system of his administration was a species
of tutorage and discipline adapted to the condition of weak,
carnal, and worldly people. Under that form of God's
government, men became members of his kingdom by birth
and parentage, — entitled to its privileges by external con-
formity to its prescribed ritual, — and enjoyed, under a theo-
cracy, pecidiar immunities, while they were subject to
special and severe penalties.
" The law made nothing perfect, being intended only as
the introduction of a better hope. Its sacrifices, and the
priesthood which was founded on them, were only sha-
dows, and not even the images of the good things which
were to come. The tabernacle and vessels of the minis-
try— the temple and all its glory — the land of Canaan, and
the Jerusalem that was on earth — were but figures to the
time then being of the great transactions of the world to
come, of which we speak. Unfilled by its very nature and
enactments to he a universal and permanent dispensation,
the seeds of dissolution were implanted in its constitution,
and preparation was made for its abrogation long before it
took place. Adapted to the localilj' of Palestine, and never
designed to extend far beyond it, the spirit of propagation
and enterprise was neither recommended by its author, nor
congenial with its institutions. Limited to place, tempora-
ry in duration, and preparatory in its whole design, il gra-
dually decayed and waxed old, and was ready to vanish
away, even without a positive act of dissolution — when he,
whose voice shook Sinai to its foundation, once more shook,
not the earth only, but also heaven ; removing, by one
sweeping blow, the things that were shaken, and estab-
lishing in their place the kingdom which cannot be moved.
" This is the kingdom which we have received — the dis-
pensation to which we belong — which the apostle enjoins
us to hold fast, that thus we may have grace to serve God
acceptably, wiih reverence and godly fear. In conlrast,
therefore, with the old dispensation, its character may be
summed up in three words, — spiritual, universal, perpe-
tual. It is spiritual in its nature, universal in its adapta-
tion and design, and destined for no temporary or subordi-
nate purpose, but to last while the world itself shall endure ;
till the sufiijring kingdom on earih be exchanged for God's
unsuffering kingdom in heaven." — Hend. Buck.
DISPENSATIONS OF PROVIDENCE, are any parti-
cular or unusual modes of visible treatment to which, un-
der the divine government, mankind are subjected. They
are either merciful, or in judgment ; though what fre-
quently appear to belong to the latter class are only bless-
ings in disguise. — Hcjid. Buck.
DISPERSION OF JIANKIND. This was occasioned
by the confusion of tongues at the overthrow of Babel,
Gen. 11: 9. As to the manner of the dispersion of the
posterity of Noah from the plain of Shinar. it was un-
doubtedly conducted with the utmost regularity and order.
The sacred historian informs us, that they were divided in
their lands ; every one, according to his tongue, according
to his family, and according to his nation. Gen. 10: 5, 20,
31. The ends of this dispersion were to populate the earth,
to prevent idolatry, and to display the dinne wisdom and
power. (See Babel ; Confusion of Tongues ; and Dm-
sioN OF the Earth.) — Ileiiti. Buck.
DISPOSITION ; the settled order of the mind, or the
general tendency of its affections.
DISPUTATION. (See Controvsrsv.)
DISSENTERS ; those who separate from, or reuse to
have anv fellowship \rilh the established church.
DIS
[ 466 ]
Dl V
Their origin, in England, may be traced as far back as
the times of Wickliffe ; but it was the year 1662 which
formed the famous era of non-conformity, and laid the
foundation of that more prominent and marked separation
^^hich was afterwards eflected, and has continued ever
since. At that period, and for some time after, the Presby-
terians were the most numerous and influential section of
the dissenting body in England ; but for a century past,
their interest has been gradually declining, owing to the
introduction among them of Arian and Socinian leaven ;
and, at the present day, with the exception of some fifty
or sixty orthodox congregations in tlie north of England,
they are all Socinian. Their number amounts to little
more than two hundred ; and most of them consist only of
a few individuals. During that century, and especially
during what has passed of the present, the Congregational
churches have greatly multiplied, so that, according to a
statistic summary made in 1829, their number amounted
to twelve hundred and eighty-nine. The number of Bap-
tist congregations, at the same time, amounted to eight
hundred and eighty-eight. Add to which numerous other
congregations of dissenters, though not connected with the
bodies just mentioned, and it may safely be estimated, that
the total number of orthodox dissenting congregations in
England amounts nearly to twenty-five hundred ; contain-
ing an aggregate of between eight and nine hundred thou-
sand hearers.
The Wesleyan and Calvinistic Methodists, though ihey
do not allow themselves to be called dissenters, are also in
a state of separation from the church of England, and have
nearly three thousand places of worship, and little short of
a million hearers.
Dissenters object to the church of England on the follow-
ing, among other grounds. 1. That the church, as by law
established and governed, is the mere creature of the state,
as much as the army, the navy, the courts of justice, or
the boards of customs and excise. 2. That she professes
and asserts that the church hath power to decree rites and
ceremonies, and authority in matters of faith. 3. That
she has a multiplicity of oflices and dignities which are
utterly at variance with the simplicity of the apostolic and
primitive times. 4. That the repetitions in her liturgy are
numberless and vain ; that, in many respects, it abounds
in antiquated references and allusions, and, in others, is
miserably deficient. 5. That the Apocrypha is read as a
part of the public service. 6. That the creeds which she
acknowledges and repeats, contain unwarrantable meta-
physical representations and speculations relative to the
doctrine of the trinity. 7. That every one who is baptized
is considered to be thereby regenerated and really received
into the family of God. 8. That this rite, together with
confirmation, the visitation of the sick, and the burial ser-
vice, have a most manifest tendency to deceive and ruin
the souls of men. Lastly, and more urgently than any
other, that no distinction is made between the holy and
the profane ; the ordinances of religion being adminis-
tered, without discrimination, to all who present them-
selves to receive them. The church and the world are
thus completely amalgamated ; and, as far as the system
can be earned out, the nation is the church, and the
church the nation.
The dissenters in Scotland are chiefly Presbyterians, who
object to the established Presbyterian church on the ground
ot the exercuse of patronage, and other encroachments on
the rights and consciences of the people. They are a nu-
merous and influential body. A considerable Congrega-
tional interest has also sprung up within the last thirty
years, which at present numbers eighty-four churches, and
has been the means of effecting much good in different
parts of the country. The Baptists also are a growing
body of dissenters — Hend. Buck.
DISSIDENTS ; a term sometimes applied to dissenters
from the church of England, but more commonly and par-
ticularly used of those in Poland, who, since the year
1730, are allowed the free exercise of their respective
modes of worship, including Lutherans, Calvinists Greeks
and Armenians, but excluding Anabaptists, Socinians and
Quakers. Although the rights of the Dissidents were af-
terwards repeatedly confirmed, they were gradually re-
liealed, particulariy in 1717 and 1718, in the reign of Au-
gustus II., when they were deprived of the right of voting
in the diet. Late events in Poland have again placed them
precisely on a level with the Cathohcs. — Hend. Buck.
DISSIMULATION, the act of dissembhng. It has been
distinguished from simulation thus ; Simulation is making
a thing appear which does not exist ; dissimulation is keep-
ing that which exists from appearing. Morahsts have
observed, that all dissimulation is not hypocrisy. A vi-
cious man, who endeavors to throw a veil over his bad
conduct, that he may escape the notice of men, is not in
the strictest sense of the word a hypocrite, since a man is
no more obliged to proclaim his secret vices than any
other of his secrets. The hypocrite is one who dissembles
for a bad end, and hides the snare that he may be more
sure of his prey ; and, not content with a negative virtue,
or not appearing the ill man he is, makes a show of posi-
tive virtue, and appears the man he is not. (See Hy-
pocrisy.)— Buck.
DISSOLUTION ; death, or the separation of the body
and soul. The " dissolution of the world" is an awful
event which we have reason to believe, both from the Old
Testament and the New, will certainly take place. 1. It
is not an incredible thing, since nothing of a material na-
ture is formed for perpetual duration. 2. It will doubt-
less be under the direction of the Supreme Being, as its
creation was, 3. The soul of man will remain unhurt
amidst this general dissolution. 4. It will he an intro-
duction to a greater and nobler system in the government
of God. 2 Pet. 3: 13. 5. The consideration of it ought to
have a great influence on us while in the present state. 2
Pet. 3: 11, 12. (See Conflagiiation.) — Hend. Buck.
DIVAN. (See Beds.)
DIVERSION. (See Recreation.)
DIVINATION, is a conjecture or surmise formed con-
cerning some future event from something which is sup-
posed to be a presage of it ; but between which there is
no real connexion, only what the imagination of the di-
viner is pleased to assign in order to deceive.
Divination of all kinds being the oflisjiring of credulity,
nursed by imposture, and strengthened by superstition,
was necessarily an occult science, retained in the hands
of the priests and priestesses, the magi, the soothsayers,
the augurs, the visionaries, the priests of the oracles, the
false prophets, and other like professors, till the coming of
Jesus Christ, when the light of the gospel dissipated much
of this darkness. The vogue for these pretended sciences
and arts is nearly past, at least in the enlightened parts of
the world. There are nine diflerent kinds of divination
mentioned in Scripture, and condemned as involving an
idolatrous departure from the true God. These are, 1.
Those whom Moses calls Meonen, from Anan, a cloud.
Deut. 18: 10. — 2. Those whom the prophet calls, in the
same place, Menacheseh, which the Vulgate and generality
of interpreters render Augur. — 3. Those who in the same
place are called Mecaschcph, which the Septuagint and
Vulgate translate, " a man given to ill practices." — 4.
Those whom in the same chapter, (v. 11,) he calls i^AoJer.
— 5. Those who consult the spirits, called Python. — 6.
Witches, or magicians, called Judeoni. — 7. Necromancers,
who consult the dead. — 8. Such as consult staves, (Ho.sea
4:12;) called by some Rhabdomancy. — 9. Hepatoscopy, or
the consideration of the liver.
Different kinds of divination have passed for sciences.
We have had, 1. Aeromancy, divining by the air. — 2. As-
trology, by the heavens. — 3. Augury, by the flight and
singing of birds, &c. — 4. Chiromancy, by inspecting the
hand. — 5. Geomancy, by observing of cracks or clefts iir
the earth. — 6. Haruspicy, by inspecting the bowels of ani-
mals.— 7. Horoscopy, a branch of astrology, marking the
position of the heavens when a man is born. — 8. Hydro-
mancy, by water. — 9. Pyromancy, a divination made by
fire. Thus we see what arts have been practised to deceive,
and how designing men have made use of all the four ele-
ments to impose upon weak minds. The entire superi-
ority of the Bible fo all these forms of superstitions, is one
among the many evidences of divine inspiration, which
unbelievers will do well to consider. — Hend. Buck.
DIVINE ; something relating to God. The word is also
used figuratively for any thing that is excellent, extraordi-
nary, and that seems to go beyond the power of nature
DIV
[ 467
DIV
and the capacity of man. It also appliej to a minister or
clergyman. — Hend. Buck.
DIVINITY ; the science of theology. (See Theology,
and Analysis of Theolooy.) — Hend. Buck.
DIVISION OF THE EARTH. The prophecy of
Noah, says Dr. Hales, was tittered long after the deluge.
It evidently alludes to a divine decree for the orderly di-
vision of the earth among the three primitive families of
his sons, because it notices the " tents of Shem" and the
" enlargement of Japheth," Genesis 9: 20 — 27. This de-
cree was probably promulgated about the same time by
the venerable patriarch. The prevailing tradition of such
a decree for this three-fold division of the earth, is inti-
mated both in the Old and New Testament. Moses-refers
to it, as handed down to the IsraeUtes, " from the days of
old, and the years of many generations ; as they might
learn from their fathers and their elders," and further, as
conveying a special grant of the land of Palestine, to be
the lot of the twelve tribes of Israel : —
" Wlien tliQ Most Higti divided to tlie nations their setllemenla,
When lie separated tlio sons of Adam,
He assigned itie boundaries of the people [of Israel]
According to the number of the sons of Israel :
For the portion of the Lord is his people,
Jacob is the lot of his inheritance." Dent. 32: 7 — 9.
And this furnishes an additional proof of the justice of the
expulsion of the Canaanites, as usurpers, by the Israelites,
the rightful possessors of the land of Palestine, under Mo-
ses, Joshua, and their successors, when the original grant
was renewed to Abraham, Gen. 15: 13 — 21. And the
knowledge of this divine decree may satisfactorily account
for the panic terror with which the devoted nations of Ca-
naan were struck at the miraculous passage of the Red
sea by the Israelites and approach to their confines, so
ftnely described by Moses : —
" The nations shall hear [this] and tremble,
Sorrow shall seize the inhabitant:^ of Palestine;
Than shall the dukes of Edom be amazed.
Dismay shall possess the princes of Moab,
The inhabitants of Canaan shall melt away :
Fear and terror shall fall upon them,
By the greatness of thine arm they shall be petritied.
Till thy people pass over [Jordan! O Lord,
Till the people pass over, whom thou hast redeemed."
Exodus 15: 14—16.
St. Paul, also, addressing the Athenians, refers to the
same decree, as a well-known tradition in the heathen
world : " God made of one blood every nation of men to
dwell upon the whole face of the earth ; having appointed
the predetermined seasons and boundaries of their dwell-
ings," Acts 17: 26. Here he represents inankind as all
of " one blood," race, or stock, "the sons of Adam" and
of Noah in succession ; and the seasons and the bounda-
ries of their respective settlements, as previously regulated
by the divine appointment. And this was conformable to
their o\va geographical allegory ; that Chronus, the god
of time, or Saturn divided the universe among his three
sons, allotting the heaven to Jupiter, the sea to Neptune,
and hell to Pluto. But Chronus represented Noah, who
divided the world among his three sons, allotting the upper
regions of the north to Japheth, the maritime or middle re-
gions to Shem, and the lower regions of the south to Ham.
According to the Armenian tradition recorded by Abul-
faragi, Noah distributed the habitable earth from north to
south between his sons, and gave to Ham the region of
the blacks, to Shem the region of the tawny, /i/.sroram, and
to Japheth the region of the ruddy, ruhrornm : and he dates
the actual division of the earth in the hundred and fortieth
year of Peleg, B. C. 2614, or five hundred and forty-one
years after the deluge, and one hundred and ninety-one
years after the death of Noah, in the following order : —
" To the sons of Shem was allotted the middle of the earth,
namely, Palestine, Syria, Assyria, Samaria, Singar [or
Shinar,] Babel, [or Babylonia,1 Persia, and Hegiaz ; [Ara-
bia ;] to the sons of Ham, Teimen, [or Idiunea, Jer. 49:
7,] Africa, Nigritia, Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, Scindia, and
India; [or India west and east of the river Indus] to the
sons of Japheth, also, Garbia, [the north.] Spain, France,
the countries of the Greeks, Sclavonians, Bulgarians, Turks,
and Armenians."
In this curious and valuable geographical chart, Arme-
nia, the cradle of the human race, was allotted to Japheth,
by right of primogeniture ; and Samaria and Babel to the
sons of Shem ; the usurpation of these regions, Iherefolc,
by Nimrod, and of Palestine by Canaan, was in violation
of the divine decree. Though the migration of the primi-
tive families began at this time, B. C. 2614, or about five
hundred and ibrty-one years after the deluge, it was a
length of time before they all reached their respective des-
tinations. The " seasons," as well as the " boundaries" of
their respective settlements, were equally the appointment
of God ; the nearer countries to the original settlement
being planted first, and the remoter in succession. These
primitive settlements seem to have been scattered and de-
tached from each other, according to local convenience.
Even so late as the tenth generation after the flood, in
Abraham's days, there were considerable tracts of land in
Palestine unappropriated, on which he and his nephew.
Lot, freely pastured their cattle without hindrance or mo-
lestation. That country was not fully peopled till the
fourth generation after, at the exode of the Israelites from
Egypt. And Herodotus represents Scythia as an .tnin-
habited desert, until Targitorus planted the first colony
there, about .a thousand years, at most, before Darius Hy-
staspes invaded Scythia, or about B. C. 1508. The orderly
settlements of the three primitive families are recorded in
that most venerable and valuable geographical chart, the
tenth chapter of Genesis, in which it is curious to observe
how long the names of the first settlers have been pre-
served among their descendants, even down to the present
day : —
1. Japheth, the eldest son of Noah, (Gen. 10:21,) and
his family, are first noticed. Gen. 10: 2 — 5. The name of
the patriarch himself was preserved among his Grecian
descendants, in the proverb, older than Japetw:, denoting
the remotest antiquity. The radical part of the worA Japet,
evidently expresses Japheth. (1.) Gomer, his eldest son,
was the father of the Gomerians. These, spreading from
the regions north of Anuenia and Bactriana, (Ezek. 38: 6,)
extended themselves westward over nearly the whole con-
tinent of Europe ; still retaining their paternal denomina-
tion, with some slight variation, as Cimmerians, in Asia ;
Cimbri and Umbri, in Gaul and Italy ; and Cymri, Cam-
bri, and Cumbri, in Wales and Cumberland at the present
day. They are also identified by ancient authors with the
Galata; of Asia Minor, the Gaels, Gauls, and Celta-., of Eu-
rope, who likewise spread from the Euxine sea to the west-
ern ocean ; and from the Baltic to Italy southwards, and
first planted the British isles. Josephus remarks, that the
Galats! were called Gomariani, from their ancestor Go-
mar. See the numerous authorities adduced in sup-
port of the identity of the Gomerians and Celts by that
learned and ingenious antiquary, Faber, in his " Origin
of Pagan Idolatry." Of Gomer's sons, Ashkenaz appears
to have settled on the coasts of the Euxine sea, which
from him seems to have received its primary denomina-
tion of vlzows, nearly resembling Ashkenaz; but forget-
ting its etymology in process of time, the Greeks consider-
ed it as a compound term in their own language, A-xenos,
signifying inhospitable ; and thence metamorphosed it into
Eu-xenos, '• very hospitable." His precise settlement is
represented in Scripture as contiguous to Armenia, west-
ward ; for the kingdoms of Ararat, Minni, and Ashkenaz,
are noticed together, Jer. 51:27. Riphat, the second poa
of Gomer, seems to have given name to the Riphean
mountains of the north of Asia ; and Togarmah, the third
_ son, may be traced in the Trocrai of Strabo, the Trogmi
of Cicero, and Trogmades of the council of Chalcedon, in-
habiting the confines of Pontus and Cappadocia. (2.) Ma-
gog, Tubal, and Mesech, sons of Japhet, are noticed to-
gether by Ezekiel, as settled in the north, Ezek, 3S: 2, 14,
15, And as the ancestors of the numerous Sclavonic and
Tartar tribes, the first may be traced in the Mongogians,
Monguls, and Moguls ; the second, in the Tobolski, of Si-
beria ; and the third, Mesech, or Mosoc, in the Moschici,
Moscow, and Muscovites, (3.) Madai was the father of
the Medes, who are repeatedly so denominated in Scripture,
2 Kings 17:6; Isaiah 13: 17 ; Jer, 51: 11 ; Dan, 5: 28,
&c, (4,) From Javan was descended the Javanians, or
laones, of the Greeks, and the Yavanas of the Hindus.
Greece itself is called Javan by Daniel, (11:2;) and the
people laones. by Homer in his " Iliad," These aborigi-
nal laones, of Greece, are not to be confounded, as is usually
DI V
I 468 J
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ihe case, with ihe later laoiics, who iuvadeil anj subdued
the Javanian territories, and were of a different stoclf.
The accurate Pausanias states, that the name of Ibnes, was
comparatively modern, while that of lames is aclfiiow-
ledged to have been the primitive title of the barbarians,
who were subdued by the Ibnes. Strabo remarlcs that At-
tica was formerly called both Ionia and lag, or Ian ; while
Herodotus asserts, that the Athenians were not wiljing to
be called rb?ies ; and he derives the name from Ion, the
son of Zuth, descended from Deucalion or Noah. And
this Ion is said by Eusebius to have been the ringleader m
the building of the tower of Babel, and the first introducer
of idol worship, and Sabianism, or adoration of the sun,
moon, and stars. Thfs would identify Ion with Nimrod.
And the lonians appear to have been composed of the later
colonists, the Palli, Pelasgi, or roving tribes from Asia,
Phcenicia and Egypt, who, according to Herodotus, first
corrupted the simplicity of the primitive religion of Greece,
and who, by the Hindus, were called Yonigas, or worship-
pers of the yoni or dove. This critical distinction be-
tween the laones and the lones, the Yavanas, and the
Yonigas, we owe to the sagacity of Faber. Of Javan's
sons, Elishah'and Dodon, may be recognised in Elis and
Dodona, the oldest settlements of Greece ; Kittim, in the
Citium of Macedonia, and Chittim, or maritime coasts of
Greece and Italy, (Num. 24: 24 ;) and Tarshish, in the Tar-
sus of Cilicia, and Tartessus of Spain.
2. Ham and his family are next noticed. Gen. 10: 6 — 20.
The name of the patriarch is recorded in the title frequently
given to Egypt, '■ The land of Ham," Psalm 105 : 23, &c.
(1.) Of his sons, the first and most celebrated appears to
have been Gush, who gave name to the land of Gush, both
in Asia and Africa ; the former still called Chusistan by
the Arabian geo:;raphers, Suslana by the Greeks, and
Cusha Dwipa "Wilhin, by the Hindus ; the other, called
Gusha Dwipa Withoitt. And the enterprising Cushim or
Cuthim, of Scripture, in Asia and Europe, assumed the
title of GetEe, Guiths, and Goths ; and of Scuths, Scuits,
and Scots ; and of Sacas, Sacasenas, and Saxons. The
original family settlement of Abraham was " Ur of the
Chasdim," or Chaldees, (Gen. 11: 28,) who are repeatedly
mentioned in Scripture, Isaiah 13: 9; Daniel 9: 1, &c. Ac-
cording to Faber's ingenious remark, it may more properly
be pronounced Chus-dim, signifying god-like Cushites.
It is highly improbable that they were so named from
Ghesed, Abraham's nephew, (Gen. 22: 22,) who was a
mere hoy, if born at all, when Abraham left Ur, and was
an obscure individual, never noticed afterwards. Of
Gush's sons, Seba, Havilah, Sabtah, Sabtacha, and Raa-
mah ; and the sons of Raamah, Sheba, and Dedan, seem
to have settled in Idumea and Arabia, from the similar
names of places there ; and of his descendants, Nimrod,
the mighty hunter, first founded the kingdom of Babylon,
and afterwards of Assyria, invading the settlements of the
Shemites, contrary to the divine decree. His posterity
were probably distinguished by the title of Ghusdim, Isai-
ah 23: 13. (2.) The second son of Ham was Misr, or
Mizraim. He settled in Egypt, whence the Egvptians
were universally styled in Scripture, Mizraim, or'Mizra-
ites in the plural form. But the country is denominated
in the east, to this day, " the land of Misr ;" which, there-
fore seems to have been the name of the patriarch himself.
The children of Misr, like their father, are denominated in
Scripture by the plural number. Of these, the Ludim, and
Lehabim were probably the Copto-Libyans, (Ezek. 30: 5 ;)"
the Naphtuhim occupied the sea-coast, which, by the
Egyptians was called Nephthus : whence, probably, origi-
nated the name of the maritime god Neptune. The Path-
rusim occupied a part of Lower Egypt, called from them
Pathros, Isaiah 11:11. The Gaphtorim and the Casluhim,
whose descendants were the Philistim of Palestine, occu-
pied the district which hes between the delta of the Nile
and the southern extremity of Palestine, Deut. 2:23;
Amos 9:7. (3.) Phut is merely noticed, -nathout any
mention of his family. But the tribes of Phut and Lud
are mentioned together, with Gush, or Ethiopia, (Jer. 46:
9 ; Ezekiel 30: 5 ;) and Jerome notices a district in Libya
called Regio Phutensis, or the land of Phut. (4.) Canaan
has been noticed already ; and the original extent of the
land of Canaan is carefully marked by Moses. Its west-
ern border, along the Mediterranean sea, extended from
Sidon, southwards, to Gaza ; its southern border from
thence, eastwards, to Sodom and Gomorrah, Admah and
Zeboim, the cities of the plain, afterwards covered by the
Dead sea, or Asphaltite lake ; its eastern border extend-
ing from thence, northwards, to Laish, Dan, or the springs
of the Jordan ; and its northern border, from thence to Si-
don, westward. Of Canaan's sons, Sidon, the eldest, occu-
pied the north-west comer, and built the town of that name,
so early celebrated for her luxury and commerce in
Scripture, (Judges 18: 7 ; 1 Kings 5: 6 ;) and by Homer,
who calls the Sidonians poludaidaloi, skilled in many arts.
And Tyre, so flourishing afterwards, though boasting of
her OAvn antiquity, (Isa. 23: 7,) is styled " a daughter of
Sidon," or a colony (rom thence, Isaiah 5: 12. Heth, his
second son, and the Hittites, his descendants, appear to
have settled in the south, near Hebron, (Gen. 23:3 — 7 ;)
and next to them, at Jerusalem, the Jebusites, or descend-
ants of Jebus, both remaining in their original settlements
till David's days; 2 Sam. 11:3; 5:6—9. Beyond the
Jebusites, were settled the Emorites, or Amorites, (Num.
13: 29,) who extended themselves beyond Jordan, and
were the most powerful of the Ganaanite tribes, (Gen. 15:
16 ; Num. 21: 21,) until they were destroyed by Moses and
Joshua, with jUe rest oT the devoted nations of Canaan's
family.
3. Shem and his family are noticed last, Gen. 10: 21-^
30. His posterity were confined to middle Asia. (1.) His
son Elam appears to have been settled in Elymais, or
southern Persia, contiguous to the maritime tract of Chu-
sistan, Dan. 8: 2. (2.) His son Ashur planted the land
thence called Assyria, which soon became a province of
the Cushite, or Cuthic empire, founded by Nimrod. (3.)
Arphaxad, through his grandson, Eber, branched out into
the two houses of Peleg and Joktan. Peleg probably re-
mained in Chaldea, or southern Babj'lonia, at the time of
the dispersion ; for there we find his grandson, Terah. and
his family, settled at "Ur of the Chaldees," Gen. 11: 31.
Of the numerous children of Joktan, it is said by Moses,
that " their dwelling was from Mesha, as thou goest unto
Sephar, a mount of the east." Faber is inchned to be-
lieve that they were the ancestors of the great body of the
Hindus, who still retain a lively tradition of the patriarch
Shem, Shama, or Sharma ; and that the land of Ophir,
abounding in gold, so called from one of the sons of Jok-
tan, lay "bej'ond the Indus, eastward. (4.) Lud was pro-
bably the father of the Ludim, or Lydians, of Asia Minor ;
for this people had a tradition that they were descended
from Lud or Lydus, according to Josephus. (5.) The
children of Aram planted the fertile country north of Baby-
lonia, called Aram Naharaim, " Aram between the two
rivers," the Euphrates and the Tigris, thence called by the
Greeks, Mesopotamis, (Gen. 24: 10,) and Padan Aram,
the level country of Aram, Gen. 25: 20. This countrj' of
Aram is frequently rendered Syria in Scripture, (Judges
10: 6 ; Hosea 12: 12. &c. ;) which is not to be confounded
with Palestine Syria, into which they afterwards spread
themselves, still retaining their original name of Arimoi,
or Arameans, noticed by Homer in his " Iliad."
4. Upon this distribution of Noah's posterity we shall
only observe, that the Deity presided over all their coun-
sels and deliberations, and that he guided and settled all
mankind according to the dictates of his all-comprehending
wisdom and benevolence. To this purpose, the ancients
themselves, according to Pindar, retained some idea that
the dispersion of men was not Ihe effect of chance, but that
they had been settled in different countries by the ap-
pointment of Providence, Gen. 11: 8, 9 ; Deut. 22: 8. This
dispersion, and that confusion of languages, with which it
originated, was intended, by the counsel of an all-wise
Providence, to counteract and defeat the scheme which had
been projectfed by the descendants of Noah, for maintain-
ing their union, implied in their proposing to make them-
selves a name. By this scheme, which seems to have
been a project of state policy, for keeping all men together
under the present chiefs and their successors, a great part
of the earth must, for a long time, have been uninhabited
and overrun with wild beasts. The bad effects which this
project would have had upon the minds, the morals, and
religion of mankind, was. probably, the chief reason why
DOC
[ 469 ]
DOD
Crod interposed to frustrate it as soon as it was formed.
It had manifestly a direct tendency to tyranny, oppression,
and slavery. Wiiereas in forming several independent
governments by a small body of men, the ends of govern-
ment, and the security of liberty and property, would be
much better attended to, and more firmly established ;
which, in fact, was really the case ; if we may judge of
the rest by the constitution of one of the most eminent,
the kingdom of Egypt, Gen. 47: 15 — 27. The Egyptians
were masters of their persons and property, till they sold
them to Pharaoh for bread ; and then their servitude
amounted to no more than the fifth part of the produce of
the country, as an annual tax payable to the king.
By this event, considered as. a ^^'ise dispensation cf
Prtvidence, bounds were set to the contagion of wicked-
ness; evil example was confined, and could not extend its
influence beyond the limits of one country : nor couM
wicked projects be carried on, with universal concurrence,
by many small-colonies, separated by the natural bounda-
ries of mountains, rivers, barren deserts, and seas, and hin-
dered from associating together hy a variety of languages,
unintelligible to each other. Moreover, in this dispersed
state, they could, whenever God pleased, be made reciprocal
checks upon each other, by invasions and wars, which
would weaken the power, and humble the pride, of corrupt
and vicious comnmnities. This dispensation was, therefore,
properly calculated to prevent a second universal degenera-
cy ; God dealing in it uith men as rational agents, and adapt-
ing his scheme to their state and circumstances. — Walsoii.
DIVISIONS, (Ecclesiastical.) See Schism.
DIVORCE is the dissolution of marriage, or separation
of man and wife. Divorce a mensa et t/ioro, i. e. from bed
and board, — in this case the wife has a suitable mainte-
nance allowed her out of her husband's effects. Divorce
a vinculo viatrivionii, i. e. from the bonds of matrimony, is
strictly and properly divorce. This happens either in con-
sequence of criminality, as in the case of adultery, or
through some essential impediment ; as consanguinity, or
affinity within the degrees forbidden, pre-contract, impo-
tency, &c., of which impediments the canon law allows
no less than fourteen. In these cases, the woman receives
again only what she brought. Sentences which release
the parties n vinado matnmomi, on account of impuberty,
frigidity, consanguinity within the prohibited degrees, prior
marriage, or want of the requisite consent of parents or
guardians, are not properly dissolutions of the marriage
contract, but judicial declarations that there never was any
marriage ; suchimpediment subsisting at the time as render-
ed the celebration of the marriage rite a mere nullity. And
the rite itself contains an exception of these impediments.
The law of Moses, says Dr. Paley, for reasons of local
expediency, permitted the Jewish husband to put away his
wife ; but . whether for every cause, or for what cause,
appears to have been controverted amongst the interpre-
ters of those times. Christ, the precepts of whose religion
were calculated for more general use and observation, re-
vokes his permission as given to the Jews for their hard-
ness of heart, and promulges a law which was thencefor-
ward to confine divorces to the single cause of adultery in
the wife. Matt. 19: 9. Inferior causes may justify the
separation of husband and wife, although they will not
authorize such a dissolution of the marriage contract as
would leave either at Uberty to marry again ; for it is that
liberty in which the danger and mischief of divorces princi-
pally consist. The law of England, in conformity to our
Savior's injunction, confines the dissolution of the marriage
contract to the single case of adultery in the wife ; and a
divorce even in that case can only be brought about by an
act of parliament, founded upon a previous sentence in
the spiritual court, and a verdict against the adulterer at
common law ; which proceedings, taken together, compose
as complete an investigation of the complaint as a cause
can receive. The laws of several of the United States are
more lax on this subject. See Dwight's Theologi/, (Ser.
cxxi. ;) Paky's Mor. and Pol. Philosophy, p. 273 ; Dod-
dridge's Lectures, lect. 73. — Hend. Buck.
DOCETjE ; the advocates of an early heresy, which
taught that Christ acted and suffered, not in reality, but
in appearance. They were so denommated from dokein,
'o appear. (See Gnostics.) — Watson.
DOCTORS, or Teachers, of the law ; a cla.<;3 of men in
great repute among the Jews. Luke 2: '16. They had
studied the law of Moses in its various branches, and the
numerous interpretations which had been grafted upon it
in later times ; and, on various occasions, ihcv gave their
opinion on cases referred to them for advice. Nicodemus,
himself a doctor (didaskalos, tencher) of the law, comes to
consult Jesus, whom he compliments in the same terms as
he was accustomed to receive from his scholars : " Rabbi,
we know that thou art didaskalos, a competent teacher
from God." Doctors of the law were chiefly of the sect
of the Pharisees ; but they are sometimes distinguished
from that sect, Luke 5: 11.— Watson.
DOCTRINE ; whatsoever is taught, the principles or
positions of any master or sect. As the doctrines of the
Bible arc the first principles and the foundation of religion,
they should be carefully examined and well understood.
The Scriptures present us with a copious fund of evangeli-
cal truth, which, though it has not the form of a regUiar
system, yet its parts are such, that, when united, make
the most complete body of doctrine that we can possibly
have. Every Christian, but divines especially, should
make this their study, because all the various doctrines
should be insisted on in public, and explained to the peo-
ple. It is not, however, as some suppose, to fill up every
part of a minister's sermon, but considered as the basis
upon which the practical part is to be built. Some of the
divines of the seventeenth century overcharged their dis-
courses with doctrine, especially Dr. Owen and Dr. Gooil-
win. It was common in that day to make thirty or forty
remarks before the immediate consideration of the text,
each of which was just introduced, and which, if enlarged
on, would have afforded matter enough for a whole ser-
mon. A wise preacher will join doctrine, exjTerience, and
practice together.
Doctrines, though abused by some, yet, properly consi-
dered, lie at the very foundation of religious experience,
and will influence the heart and life. Thus the idea of
God's sovereignty excites submission ; his power and jus-
tice promote fear ; his holiness, humility and purity; his
goodness, a ground of hope ; his love excites joy; the ob-
scurity of his providence requires patience ; his faithful-
ness, confidence, e\;c. (See Fuller's Works. voI.I.C2fi)
—Hend. Buck.
DOD, (John.) This reverend man was born in Cheshire,
England, 1551. He was the youngest of seventeen children,
and much beloved by his parents. He was educated at
Cambridge, where he was afterwards a fellow, and resided
for sixteen years. While there, being accused, in conse-
quence of a mistake of the steward, of being a defi-auder
for a considerable sum, the distress occasioned by the cir-
cumstance led him to such serious reflections, as issued
through divine mercy in a sound and scriptural conversion.
His accuser, afterwards discovering, and confessing his
lault, entreated his forgiveness, when Mr. Dod assured him,
that he now considered him not as an enemy, but as (under
God) his good friend; and, indeed, a faithful friend he
proved ever after. So wonderful oft-times are the methods
of God's grace ! At the college he acquired great reputa-
tion, both as a disputant and a preacher. The former,
however, was praise he did not covet ; while in the latter
office the Lord greatly blessed him. His first settlement
was at Hanwell, in Oxfordshire, in 1581, where he re-
mained twenty years, and was the means of the convci-
sion, as well as edification of multitudes. He was, how-
ever, suspended from his ministry there by Dr. Bridges,
bishop of Oxford, and went to Cannons, Ashby, in North-
amptonshire. Afler laboring quietly in this place for some
years, he was again silenced on a complaint to king James,
by bishop Neale. His private labors were, however, little
less useful than his public had been. After the death of
king James, he gained liberty to resume his public labors,
which he did with unremitted faithfulness and success, till
his death, which took place at Fausley, in 1645, at the
advanced age of ninety-six years. Mr. Dod was an excel-
lent scholar, especially in Hebrew.
His spirit was eminently catholic and kind. He loved
and honored those who feared God, though in point of
subscription and ceremonies, they were not of his judg-
ment. As he sowed, so he reaped ; he was full of love
>^-
DOD
[470 J
DOD
himself, anJ greatly beloved of others. He Was a sort of
pas sive non-conformist ; and though he lived through the
reigns of three successive princes, s'lch was his love of
peace and holiness, that archbishop Usher said of him,
" Whatsoever some affirm of Mr. Dod's strictness, and
scrupling some ceremonies, I desire when I die, that ray
soul may rest where his doth." Indeed, he was held in
such universal esteem, that it was a discredit to any one
to speak evil of him.
His sayings are well known, and well deserve remem-
brance. They are the fruit of an eminently sagacions
and spiritual mmd, deeply read in the school of Christ.
In his last hours, he longed and thirsted to be with his
Lord. " I am not afraid to look death in the face. I can
say, Death, where is thy sting > death cannot hurt me."
His last words were, " I desire to be dissolved, and to be
with Christ." — Middleton, vol. iii. 171.
DODANIfll ; the youngest son of Javan, Gen. 10: 2.
Several Hebrew manuscripts read Rhodanim, and believe
that he peopled the island o( Rhodes. (See Dedan.) —
Calmet.
DODD, (Dk. William,) a native of Lincolnshire, was
born at Bourne, in 1729, and was educated at Clare hall,
Cambridge. While at college, he produced his version
of Callimachus. Having taken orders, he settled in
London, became a popular preacher, and obtained valua-
ble church preferment. But Dodd was vain, extravagant,
nnd not nice in his expedients to accomplish his purposes.
He endeavored to procure By bribery the living of St.
George's, Hanover square, and for this criminal attempt
he was struck olf the list of king's chaplains. Pressed by
his necessities, he next ventured on a more dangerous
step, which proved fatal. He forged a bond on his former
pupil, the earl of Chesterfield, and for this crime he suf-
fered death in 1777, notwithstanding the strenuous efforts
which were made to save him. Among his numerous
works may be mentioned. Sermons, 4 vols. ; Thoughts
in Prison ; Sermons to Young Men, 3 vols. ; a Com-
mentary on the Bible, 3 vols, folio ; Reflections on Death ;
and The Sisters, a novel. — Davenport.
DODDRIDGE, (Philip, D.D.;) the celebrated author of
^le " Rise and Progress," and of " The Family Expositor,"
was born in London, June 26, 1702. Dr. Doddridge was
the twentieth and youngest child ; all the rest, except one
daughter, having died in infancy. It is not a little sin-
gular, that when Doddridge was born, he was laid aside as
a dead child ; but a person in the room observing some
motion in him, took that care of him upon which the
flame of life depended. His parents were eminently
pious, and his earliest years were by them consecrated to
the acquisition of religious knowledge. The history of
the Old and New Testament his mother taught him before
he could read, by means of some Dutch tiles in the chim-
ney corner of the room in which they resided. In 1715
he was deprived, by death, of his father, and not long
afterwards, of his excellent mother. In the same year,
he was sent to the school of Mr. Nathaniel Wood, of St.
Albans, where he commenced his acquaintance with the
learned and excellent Mr. Samuel Clark, who not only
became to him a wise counsellor, and an affectionate
minister, but a disinterested, generous, and liberal friend
and benefactor.— February 1, 1718, he was admitted a
member of the church, under the pastoral care of Mr.
Clark. In that year, he quitted the school at St. Albansj
Wid retired to the house of his sister, there to determine
on his liiture plans. From the duchess of Bedford he
received an offer to be educated in either of the univei si-
ties, as a clergyman of the church of England ; but whilst
the proposal inspired him with gratitude, he respectfully
declined it, because he could not conform to a church from
which he conscientiously dissented. He applied to Dr.
Calamy for advice as to the profession he should follow,
who dissuaded him from becoming a minister ; and, in
consequence, he for some time reluctantly determined to
follow the profession of the law, till at length a liberal
offer of assistance and advice, which he received from
Mr. Clark, altered those determinations, and he resolved
immediately to prosecute his studies preparatory to he-
coming a dissenting minister. In October, 1719, Mr.
Clark placed him in the academy of the learned and pious
Dr. Jennings, who resided at Kibworth, in Leicestershire.
There, though young, cheerful, and devoted to the attain-
ment of knowledge, he did not, however, forget the more
important concerns of his own personal reUgion. He
formed some admirable rules for the regulation of his
conduct and the improvement of his time ; which he did
not merely form, but cheerfully and inviolably performed.
In 1723, his tutor, Mr. Jennings, died, having not long
removed from Kibworth to Hinckley. Soon after his
death, Dr. Doddridge preached his first sermon at Hinck-
ley, from the words, " If any man love not the Lord Jesus,
let him be anathema, maranatha ;'" and two persons as-
cribed their conversion to the blessing of God on that
sermon. Having received an invitation from the congre-
gation at Kibworth, he accepted their offer, and •« as there
settled in June, 1723. In that retired and obscure village,
there were no external objects to divert his attention from
the pursuit of his studies ; and his favorite authors,
Baxter, Howe, and Tillotson, he read with frequency and
attention. To his pastoral duties he was not, however,
inattentive ; but in religious conversation, and visits of
mercy, he spent a suitable portion of his valuable time.
His preaching was plain and practical ; and whilst his
mind was richly stored with knowledge, and his imagina-
tion was lively, he made all his talents subservient to the
moral and religious improvement of the people committed
to his care. During the whole year, he accustomed him-
self to rise every morning at five o'clock ; and thus, as
he would sometimes say, he had ten years more than he
otherwise would have had. In 172.5, he removed to Har-
borough, though he continued to be minister of the con-
gregation at Kibworth. With Dr. Some, the dissenting
minister at Harborough, he became acquainted ; and
from his prudence and piety derived many benefits. In
1728, he received invitations to settle at Nottingham ;
but fearful that they would interfere -nith his spiritual
welfare, he declined, and continued at Harborough ; and
in 1729, he was chosen assistant to Mr. Some. In -the
same year. Dr. Doddridge, in conjunction with Dr. Watts,
Rev. Mr. Saunders, Rev. Mr. Some, and others, established
an academy for preparing young men for the work of the
ministry among dissenters ; and to that institution he was
appointed tutor. No man was better qualified than Dr.
Doddridge for that situation, and the institution soon
acquired a just and wide-spread celebrity. The students
he instructed in every department of science and learn-
ing ; and connected with all their studies, their religious
improvement. Towards the close of the year, he received
an invitation to settle at Northampton ; and, urged by
Mr. Some and Mr. Clark to accept the call, he quitted
Harborough, and immediately entered on his more ardu-
ous and important duties. Soon after his settlement, he
became seriously ill ; but on his recover)', in March, 1730,
he was set apart to the pastoral office. In this year, he
published a tract, entitled " Free Thoughts on the most
probable means of reviving the Dissenting Interest, occa-
sioned by the late Inquiry into the Causes of its Decay,
addressed to the Author of that Inquir)'.'' He performed
the various duties of a dissenting pastor, with exemplary
diligence and affection. His sermons were well studied,
and delivered with zeal and affection. He watched over
his flock, like one who had to give an account. He
prayed -nith and for them. He visited the sick ; attended
to the wants of the poor ; admonished those who erred ;
cautioned those who wavered ; confirmed those who were
DOG
[All]
DO
imdecided ; and, in every respect, attended to the doc-
trines, discipline, and practice of his church and congre-
gation. In 1732, he published some admirable " Sermons
on the Education of Children." In 1735, he yet further
manifested his affectionate concern for the' rising genera-
tion, by his publication of " Sermons to Young People ;"
and in 1743, by his " Principles of the Christian Religion,"
in verse. In 1736, he published " Ten Sermons on the
Power and Grace of Christ, and the Evidences of the
Gospel :" the three last of which, on the " Evidences of
Christianity," have been since repeatedly printed sepa-
rately, and have received great and well-merited praise.
In 1741, he published some " Practical Discourses on
Regeneration," which were well received, and by many
have been greatly admired. In 1745, he published, in
conjunction with Dr. Watts, " The Rise and Progress of
Religion in the Soul." It has been translated into Dutch,
German, Danish, and French. But the work for which Dr.
Doddridge has been so long and deservedly celebrated, is
" The Family Expositor," containing a version and para-
phrase of the New Testament, with critical notes, and the
practical improvement of each section. Of the doctrinal
opinions contained in such Expositor, the learned and
pious have, of course, entertained various sentiments,
according to their various tenets ; but critics and scholars,
and Christians of every sect and party, have eulogized it
with a candor which did honor to themselves, and con-
ferred yet greater renown on the name of Dr. Doddi'idge.
In addition to the foregoing works, he published " The
Memoirs of Colonel Gardiner ; " A short account of the
Life of Mr. Thomas Staife ;" and prepared " A proper
and new Translation of the Minor Prophets, with a Com-
mentary on them ;" and '•' A Dissertation on the Jewish
Proselytes," which, with other pieces, have been published
since his decease. In 1748, he revised the " Expository,"
and other works of archbishop Leighton ; and translated
his Latin Prelections, consisting of two volumes printed
at Edinburgh.
Dr. Doddridge sustained all the relationships of life
with honor to himself, and advantage to his family and
the world ; so that, as he approached nearer to the eternal
world, his path, indeed, resembled that of the just, which
is as the shining light, that shineth more and more unto
the perfect day. He died at Lisbon, whither he had gone
for his health, October 26th, 1751. For fmnher account
of this eminent scholar and Christian, see Dr. Doddridge's
Works ; his Life written by Job Orton ; and also by Dr.
Kippis. — Jones's Eelig. Biog.
DODWELL, (Henev;) a critic and theologian, born
at Dublin, in 1641, and educated at Trinity college, was
chosen Camden professor of history at Oxford, in 1688 ;
but, being a non-juror, he lost his office at the Revolution.
He died in 1711. Dodwell was a learned and a virtuous
man, but addicted to paradoxes, and such a perfect ascetic
that, during three days in the week, he refrained almost
wholly from food. Of his many works, the most curious
is, an epistolary discourse, in which he labors to prove,
from the Scriptures, " that the soul is a principle naturally
mortal, but immortalized actually by the pleasure of
God.' ' — Davenport.
DOG ; a well-known doinestic animal, which was held
in great contempt among the Jews. It was worshipped
by the Egyptians. (See Anueis.)
The state of dogs among the Jews was probably much the
same as it is now in the East ; where, having no owners,
they run about the streets in troops, and are fed by cha-
rity, or by caprice ; or they live on such offal as they can
pick up. That they were numerous and voracious in
Jezreel, is evident from the history of Jezebel. (See that
article.)
To compare a person to a dog, living or dead, was a
most degrading expression ; so David uses it, (1 Sam.
24: 14.) "After whom is the king of Israel come out?
after a dead dog?" So Mephibosheth, (2 Sam. 9: 8.)
" What is thy servant, that thou shouldest look upon such
a dead dog as I am?" The name of dog sometimes ex-
presses one who has lost all modesty ; one who prostitutes
himself to abominable actions ; for so several understand
the injunction (Deut. 23; 18.) of not offering "the hire
of a whore ;" or " the price of a dog." Our Loi'i, :a
Revelation, (22: 15.) excludes " dogs, sorcerers, whore-
mongers, murderers, and idolaters," from the new Jeru-
salem. Paul says, "Beware of dogs" (Phil. 3: 2.) — of
impudent, sordid, greedy professors ; and Solomon, (Prov.
26: 11.) and Peter, (2 Epist. 2: 21.) compare sinners, who
continually relapse into sins, to dogs returning to their
vomit. — Calmet.
DOGMA ; (Greek dogma, fi'om dokeo, to seem, think,
be of opinion,) an opinion, tenet, principle, or article of
belief; what is propounded for belief, or established as a
fixed and indubitable doctrine. — Hend. Buck.
DOGMAS, (History of ;) a branch of theological
science, particularly attended to in Germany, the ob-
ject of which is to exhibit historically the origin and
changes of the various Christian systems, showing what
opinions were received by the various sects in different
ages of the church, the sources of the difTerent creeds, the
arguments by which they were attacked and supported,
what degrees of importance were attached to them iu
different ages, the circumstances by which they were
affected, and the mode in which the dogmas were com-
bined into systems. The sources of this branch of history
are the public creeds, the acts of councils, and other
ecclesiastical assemblies, letters and decrees of the heads
of churches, liturgies and books of rituals, the works of
the fathers, and of later ecclesiastical writers, as well as
the statements of contemporary historians. It is easily
seen how important and interesting a study this is, teach-
ing, as it does, modesty and forbearance in the support
of particular opinions, by showing the vast variety of
those which have afforded subjects of bitter controversy
at particular periods, and have then passed away into
oblivion ; and how much learning, industry, and critical
acuteness are often required, in order to a thorough in-
vestigation of contested points of doctrine. The distinc-
tion between this branch of history and ecclesiastical
history is obvious. It is the same as exists between poli-
tical history and the history of politics. Lectures on this
subject are deUvered in all the German universities. — •
Ilend. Buck.
DOGMATICS ; a systematic arrangement of the dog-
mas or articles of the Christian faith, with respect to
which a distinction is made between biblical dogmatics, —
the study of which goes to examine closely the doctrinal
passages of the holy Scriptures, and to derive the system
of doctrines exclusively from the Bible — and ecclesiastical
dogmatics, which consist in the systematic exhibition of
doctrines considered to be biblical by particular churches.
The first attempt to furnish a complete and coherent sys-
tem of Christian dogmas was made by Origen in the third
century : he was succeeded by Augustine in the fourth,
by Isidore &f Seville in the sixth, and by John of Damas-
cus in the eighth. In the middle ages, ingenious exami-
nations of the doctrines were made by the schoolmen ; but
agitating, as they did, subtle questions of little or no
practical importance, they loaded the science with useless
refinements. Among the Protestants, Melancthon was
the first who wrote a compendium of Christian doctrine,
which is still justly esteemed. — Hend. Buck.
DOMINICANS ; an'order of preaching friars (some-
times called Jacobins,) founded by Dominic de Gusman, a
Spaniard, early in the twelfth century. They adopted
first the rule of St. Augustine, but afterwards that of St.
Benedict, with great alterations. Preaching was professed
to be a great object with them, and from thence they were
called preaching friars. They were also called Black
friars, from their habit ; and are rendered infamous in
history, by pretended apparitions and miracles, in opposi-
tion to the Franciscans. As the tool of their impositions,
they employed a weak brother named Jetzer, whom they
afterwards attempted to poison ; but he discovered the
whole plot, and brought great disgrace upon the order.
The mother of this saint, (for he has been canonized.)
when pregnant with him, dreamed that she bore a dog
with a flambeau, or firebrand in his mouth, which re-
ceived a remarkable accomplishment ; for he has the
honor of founding that diabolical institution, the Inquisi-
tion, by which thousands, perhaps millions, of innocent
persons have been destroyed. (See iNomsiTiON.) —
Broughton's Diet. ; ButJer's Confess, p. 132. ; miliams.
^
DON
[ 472 J
DOR
DOMINICUS ; a learned soldier in Italy, and a martyr
of the twelfth century, who having read several Walden-
sian writings, became a zealous Protestant against the
corruptions of Rome, and retiring into Placentia, preached
the gospel in its purity to a very considerable congrega-
tion. One day, when jnst beginning his sermon, he was
arrested by the papal magistrate. He readily submitted
to his custody, remarking, " I wonder the devil has let
me alone so long !" When brought to examination, this
question was pui to him : Will you renounce your doc-
. trines ? To which lie replied, " My doctrines ! I maintain
no doctrines of my own ; what I preach are the doctrines
of Christ, and for those I wi\l forfeit my blood, and even
think myself happy to suffer for the sake of my Re-
deemer." Every effort was made to induce him to re-
cant, but in vain, and lie was accordingly sentenced to
death, and hung in the market place. — Fox.
DOrilNlON^OF GOD. (See Government of God.)
DONATISTS ; a body of Christians in Africa, so deno-
minated from their leader, Donatus. They had their
origin in the year 311, when, in the room of Mensurius,
wlio died in that year, on his return to Rome, Cecilian
was elected bishop of Carthage, and consecrated, without
the concurrence of the Numidian bishops, by those of
Africa alone, whom the people refused to acknowledge,
and to whom they opposed Majorinus, who accordingly
was ordained by Donatus, bishop of CastB Nigrse. They
were condemned, in a council held at Rome, two years
after their separation ; and afterwards in another at Aries,
the year following ; and again at Milan, before Constan-
tine the Great, in 31(5, who deprived them of their
churches, and sent their venerable bishops into banish-
ment, and punished some of them with death. Their
cause was espoused by another Donatus, called the Cheat,
the principal bishop of that sect, who, with numbers of
his followers, was exiled by order of Constans. Many
of them were punished with great severity. (See Cir-
cujicELLioxEs.) Howcvcr, after the accession of Julian
to the throne in 363, they were permitted to return, and
restored to their former liberty. Gratian published seve-
ral edicts against them, and, in 377, deprived them of
their churches, and prohibited all their assembUes. But,
notwithstanding the severities they suffered, it appears
that they had a very considerable number of churches
towards the close of this century ; but at this time they
began to decline on account of a schism among them-
selves, occasioned by the election of two bishops, in the
room of Parmenian, the successor of Donatus. One
party elected Primian, and were called Frimianists : and
another Maximian, and were called Maximianists. Their
decline was also precipitated by the zealous opposition of
St, Augustine, and by the violent measures which were
pursued against them by order of the emperor Honorius,
at the solicitation of two councils held at Carthage — the
orie in 404, and the other in 411. Many of them were
litied, their bishops were banished, and some put to death.
This sect revived and multiplied under the protection of
the Vandals, who invaded Africa, in 427, and took pos-
session of this province ; but it sunk again under new
severities, when their empire was ovenurned, in 534.
Nevertheless, they remained in a separate body till the
close of this century, when Gregory, the Roman pontiff,
used various methods for suppressing them : his zeal
succeeded, and there are few traces to be found of the
Donatists after this period. They were disiinguished by
other appellations, as, CiraimcdUone.s, Montenses, or Moun-
taineers, Campeles, Riipites, &c. They held three councils
—that of Cita in Numidia, and two at Carthage.
The Donatists, it is said, held that baptism conferred
out of the church, that is, out of their sect, was null ; and
accordingly they rebaptized those who joined their party
from other churches ; they also re-ordained their minis-
ters. Donatus seems likewise to have embraced the
doctrine of the Arians ; though St. Augustine affirms
that the Donatists in this point kept clear of the errors of
their leader. Jones's History of the Church. — Hend. Buck.
DONATIVE, in the ecclesiastical sense of the word
is a benefice given by the patron to a priest, without
presentation to the ordinarv, and without institution and
induction. — Hend. Buck.
DONNE, (John, D. D.,) a celebrated English poet and
divine, was born in London, of Catholic parents, in 1573.
At Oxford, where he was sent at eleven years of age, it
was observed of him, as of the famous Picus Mirandula,
tliat " he was rather born wise than made so by study."
At Cambridge and Lincoln's Inn he prosecuted his studies
still further ; in the course of which, after careful investi-
gation, he was led to embrace the Protestant faith. He
was made secretary to lord chancellor Elsmore ; but lost
his situation by a clandestine marriage, and was even
thrown into prison ; from which, however, he was soon
liberated, and reconciled to his father-in-law, Sir George
More. After this, he resided many years in Surry, with
his kinsman. Sir Francis WoUey, and subsequently in
London, with his friend Sir Robert Drury, until 1010,
when, after long solicitation, he was induced to enter into
holy orders.
" Now all his studies," says his biographer, " were concen-
tered in divinity ; now he had a new calling, new thoughts,
new employment for his wit and eloquence. Now all
his earthly affections were changed into divine love, and
all the faculties of his soul were engaged in the conver-
sion of others. To this he applied himself with all dili-
gence; and such a change was wrought in him, that he
rejoiced more to be a door-keeper hi the house of God, than
to enjoy any temporal employment ; preaching the word
so, as showed he was possessed with those joys that he
labored to instill into others ; a preacher in earnest, weep-
ing sometimes for his auditory, sometimes with them ;
always preaching to himself; like an angel from a cloud,
but in none ; exciting the affections of others, and feeling
the most lively motions of his own."
He was appointed by James 1. one of his chaplains ;
and was also chosen preacher of Lincoln's Inn, and dean
of St. Paul's. After twenty years of devoted labors in
the pulpit, he died March 31, 1031, greatly lamented. Ui
his last hours, he was favored with such views of heaven,
that he said, " I were miserable if I might not die !"
His learning was vast, and he left numerous writings
behind him. — Middleton, vol. ii. 492.
DOOLITTLE, (Thomas,) was born at Kidderminster
England, in 1030. He was converted in early youth, un-
der those discourses of Mr. Ba.\ter which were afterwards
published as the Saints' Everlasting Rest. He entered
upon the study of the law, but being required by the attor-
ney with whom he lived to copy some writings on the
Lord's day, he left the business with disgust, and deter-
mined to give himself to the work of the gospel ministry.
At the university of Cambridge, which he now entered, he
grew in grace as he advanced in learning. After taking
his degree of master of arts, he w^ent to Loudon, where he
was soon noticed as a warm and affectionate preacher.
He was soon settled over the parish of St. Alphage by
London-Wall, and applied himself to his work with great
humility, diligence, and success. Even in old age, he
was wont to remember with thankfulness the divine power
that attended his early ministrations. Nine years he la-
bored here : but on Bartholomew day, 1662, with about
two thousand of his brethren, he was silenced for non-con-
formity. Having a growing family to support, he opened
a boarding school near London, which was soon crowded.
In the time of the great plague, he retired to Woodford
Bridge, where, though many resorted to his house for the
worship of God, he had not one sick of his nuiuerous fa-
mily, consisting at that time of more than thirty. Here
he wrote an address, entitled "A Spiritual Antidote in
dying Times." After the plague ceased, he returned
to London, and, roused by the voice of providence in the
great fire, he could no longer be silent, but at the peril of
liberty and life, devoted himself again to preaching the
gospel. He had many seals to his ministry, which was
prolonged to the seventy-seventh year of his age. He died
full of peace and joy. May 24, 1707. He published twenty
pieces on practical subjects. — Middleton, vol. iv. 119.
DOORS. (See Gates.)
DOROTHEUS, high chamberlain to the household of
the Roman emperor Dioclesian, A. D. 303, was a Chris-
tian, and labored assiduously to win others to the same
holy faith. In these efforts he was aided by Gorgonius,
another Christian, who belonged to the palace. Both
^.J^j
DOR
[473]
DOU
stood high in the emperor's favor ; but they soon had an
opportunity of evincing by their behavior that worldly ho-
nors and pleasures are nothing in competition with the
joys of immortality. Being informed against, and refus-
ing to renounce their Christian profession, they were first
tortured and then strangled, willingly suffering martyrdom
for Christ. — Fox.
DORCAS. (See Tabitha.)
DORT, Synod of.* This famous synod was convoked
by the authority of the States General of Holland, and con-
sisted not only of deputies from the Belgic churches ; but
an earnest application was made to all the reformed
churches of Europe to commission pious and learned the-
ologians, lovers of peace, to attend, and assist in restoring
order and harmony to the agitated churches of Holland.
The occasion of these dissensions and disturbances was
the prevalence of the new opinions vented by James Armi-
nius and his followers. Various efforts, for ten years and
more, had been made to reconcile the contending parties
and restore peace to the disturbed churches ; but all these
efforts proved ineffectual.
At length, under the auspices of Maurice, prince of
Orange, letters of convocation were issued, and a com-
mittee appointed, selected from both parties, to settle all
the preliminaries of time, place, &c. Accordingly, in
November, 1618, the synod met at the ancient city of
Dordrecht or Dort, and sat until the end of April, 1619.
Prefixed to the published " Acts " of this synod, there is
an exact and authentic history of Arminianism from its
origin, and of all the conferences held between the parties,
and of the steps taken to bring about the meeting of the
sjTiod. This history is far more authentic than the par-
tial accounts of individuals, for it was not only approved
by the Belgic church, but also by the States General.
The character and conduct of this venerable body have
been variously represented by writers, according to their
partialities in favor of the one side or the other in the con-
troversy. The Anninians complained loudly of having
been treated with injustice. They demanded, that before
the synod, Remonstrants and Contra-reraonstrants should
be placed on the same ground ; but the synod determined,
almost unanimously, that the Arminians should appear
before them to explain and defend their peculiar opinions,
in which they had deviated from the standards of the Belgic
church, and from the doctrines of the reformed churches.
But all their efforts to induce the Remonstrants to lake
this ground were unavailing ; and accordingly they left
the synod in a body, and went home, and never returned.
The synod then resolved to proceed to the examination of
the FIVE ARTICLES, whicli had been published by the Armi-
nians, in a paper entitled a Remonstrance, from which
they took their name. These articles were taken up in
order, and the foreign divines requested first to deliver
their judgment, which they did, in writing. (The foreign
churches represented in this synod were those of England,
Scotland, Geneva, Switzerland, Embden, Bremen, the
Palatinate, and Hesse. The reformed churches of France
deputed two eminent theologians to the synod, but they
were prevented from attending by an order from the
French government.) These papers read before the synod
furnish a rich body of sound theology, and are all pre-
served in the journal or minutes of the body, the whole of
which have been published. After the foreign divines
had expressed their opinion, the deputies of the Belgic
churches, in order, delivered their judgment on the five
ARTICLES.
The proceedings of the synod, if we may judge from
their minutes, and from the testimony of such men as
bishop Hall and bishop Davenant, were characterized by
order, dignity, and a zeal for evangelical truth. Although
the Belgic churches had acknowledged standards of doc-
trine, yet they were not made the rule of judgment on the
_ points brought before this synod ; but every member, ris-
ing from his seat, took a solemn oath that he would
determine all points on which he gave a judgment by no
other authority than the word of God, contained in the
holy Scriptures.
The harmony of the sentiments of these eminent theo-
logians, from different countries, on the great vital doc-
trines of Christianity, is truly wonderful, and must be
highly satisfactory to the friends of evangelical truth. Not
that there was a perfect unanimity in the mode of explain-
ing every point ; for in regard to the extent of the atone-
ment there was a difference in their views ; for while a
majority argued in favor o( particular redemption, the Eng-
lish divines and a few others maintained that Christ died
for all men. But they all agreed in condemning the Ar-
minian doctrine on this point, as well as on all others.
And the general Confession was so drawn up that all
could subscribe it, which they did, as far as appears,
without exception. This became in consequence the pub-
Uc Confession of the Belgic churches, as it ever has been
of the Dutch Reformed Church in the United States
of America. The doctrine taught in this document is
moderate, sound Calvinism.
The intercourse between the members of the S)mod was
of the most fraternal and delightful kind. Bishop Hall
somewhere says, that the society which he there enjoyed
was more like a heaven upon earth than any thing which
he ever witnessed. — See Tlie Acts of the Synod of Dart,
and Dr. Thomas Scott's History of the Synod of Dort.
Phila. 1818.
DOSITHEANS ; an ancient sect among the Samantans.
in the first century of the Christian era, so called from
Dositheus, who endeavored to persuade the Samaritans
that he was the Btessiah foretold by Jloses. — Hend. Buck.
DOTHAN ; a town at the distance of twelve miles north-
ward of Samaria. Gen. 37: 17. — Jones.
DOUBLE, has several shades of signification in Scrip-
ture. " A double garment " may mean a lined habit, such
as the high-priest's pectoral : or a complete habit, or suit
of clothes, a cloak and a tunic, &c. Double heart, double
tongue, double mind, are opposed to a simple, honest, sin-
cere heart, tongue, mind, &c. Double, the counterpart to
a quantity, which is proposed as the exemplar. G«n. 43:
12, 15.
For the right understanding of Is. 40: 2, " She hath re-
ceived of the Lord's hand double for all her sins," BIr.
Taylor says, read, the counterpart — that which is adequate,
all things considered, as a dispensation of punishment.
But if this be the sense, how could it be said, " her ini-
quity is pardoned <*" since p^tnisknunt anApardo/i, in the very
nature of things, seem opposed to each other. Others ob-
serve, therefore, that the expression alludes to a common
•custom in the East of doubling down a leaf in an account
book, whenever an account was settled. In this sense, '■ the
double" is equivalent to the discharge. If this be correct,
we may read the passage, ''her warfare is accomplished,
her iniquity is pardoned ; for she hath received of the
Lord's hand a discharge for all her sins," that is, a com-
plete settlement has taken place. The same seems to be
the meaning of this word in other places, (Is. 61: 7.) un-
less indeed it alludes to a double portion, that is, blessings
twice as great as were enjoyed before. — Calmct ; Ev. 3Iag.
DOUBTS and Fears, are terms frequently used to de-
note the uncertainty of mind we are in respecting our
interest in the divine favor.
The causes of our doubts may be such as these : per-
sonal declension ; not knowing the exact time, place, or
means of our conversion ; improper views of the character
and decrees of God ; the fluctuation of religious experi-
ence as to the enjoyment of God in prayer, hearing, &c.;
the depth of our affliction ; relapses into sin ; the fall of
professors ; and the hidings of God's face.
" It is a sin," says one, " for a beUever to live so as not
to have his evidences clear ; but it is no sin for him to be
so earnest and impartial as to doubt, when in fact his evi-
dences are not clear."
Let the humble Christian, however, beware of an ex-
treme. Prayer, conversation with experienced Christians,
reading the promises, and consideration of the divine good-
ness, will have a tendency to remove unnecessary doubts.
— Buck on Christian Experience ; Fuller's Works.
DOUGLAS, (John,) an eminent divine and critic, was
bom in 1721, at Pittenweem, in Fife, and educated at Baliol
college, Oxford. Having for some years held the minor dig-
nities of canon and dean of Windsor, he was made bishop
DO V
L 474]
DOW
count for the stock of them stored up m the city of Sama-
ria ; and the cab would be a fit measure for this kind of
pulse, whith was the fare of the poorer class of people.—
Calmet.
DOW, (Lorenzo;) a -well-known itinerant preacher.
He was one of the most remarkable men of this age for
KeVaTeTa^Uy^ulhTsuCisSon hts zeal and labors in the cause of reUgton. He was a
mankM and'''Uen don^e st'^^'^d, butld in structures native of Coventry, Connecticut ; and in early life becam_e
1 .. .1 ■_ ].,t;^v. /loUoit "(1
himself by castigating _ , ,■ • ,
exposing Alexander Bower ; and entering the lists against
Hume, by publishing The Criterion, or a Discourse on Mi-
racles, a work of great value. He also edited Cook s
Second Voyage. — Davenport.
DOVE. This beautiful genus of birds is very numerous
in the East. In the wild state, they generally build their
nests in the holes or clefts of rocks, or m excavated trees ;
erected for their accommodation, called " dove-cotes.
They are classed by Moses among the clean birds ; and
it appears from the sacred as well as other wnters, that
doves were always held in the highest estimation among
the eastern nations. Rosenmueller, in a note upon Bocharl,
derives the name from the Arabic, where it signifies mild-
ness gentleness, &c. The dove is mentioned^m Scripture as
the svmhol of simplicity, innocence, gentleness, affection,
H M liiv Hos 7- 11 Matt 10-16 every portion ot tlie Unitea states, ne uau uccu a jjuuin.
The Saving extraci from Morier's Persian Travels il- preacher for more than thirty years, and it is P™bable that
luslrates a passage in Isaiah :-" In the environs of the more persons have_ heard the go^Pel /fom his hp^^i^^llf"
city, to the westward, near the Zainderood, are many pi-
geon-houses, erected at a distance from habitations, for the
sole purpose of collecting pigeons' dung for manure. They
are large roimd lowers, rather broader at the bottom than
the top, and cro-wned by conical spiracles, through which
the pigeons descend. Their interior resembles a honey-
deeply impressed by the truths of religion, and felt urged,
by motives irresistible, to devote his life to the preaching
of the gospel in various parts of the world. His eccentric
dress, and style of preaching, attracted great attention ;
while his shrewdness, and quick discernment of character,
gave him no inconsiderable influence over the multitudes
that attended on his ministry. He travelled extensively
in England and Ireland, and repeatedly visited almost
every portion of the United States. He had been a public
from those of any other individual since the days of White-
field. He wrote several books, particularly a history of
his own life, so singularly eventful, and full of vicissitudes.
His purity of purpose, and integrity and benevolence of
character, can hardly be questioned. He was a Methodist
the pigeons aescena. ineir interior le.se.uuic, >. uu.,.,- in principle, and thoiigh not in connexion with that society,
comb, pierced with a thousand holes, each of which forms was held in esteem by inany of that body. We died in
a snug retreat for a nest. More care appears to have been Georgetown, district of Columbia, February 2, 1834 A
bestowed upon their outside than upon that of the gene- wanderer through life it is beheved he was a sincere
rality of the dwelling-houses; for they are painted and Christian pilgrim, seeking a heavenly country, and that
-rnamented. The extraordinary flights of pigeons which lie now rests in the city of God.— Ae/. mrrator.
I have seen alight upon one of these buildings afford, per-
haps, a good illustration for the passage in Isa. 60: 8,
' Who are these that fly as a cloud, and as the doves to
their windows?' Their great numbers, and the compact-
ness of their mass, literally look like a cloud at a distance,
and obscure the sun in their passage."
The first mention of the dove in the Scripture is Gen.
8: 8, 10 12, where Noah sent one from the ark to ascer-
tain if the waters of the deluge had assuaged. She was
sent forth thrice. The first time she speedily returned ;
having, in all probability, gone but a little way from the
ark, as she must naturally be terrified at the appearance
of the waters. After seven days, being sent out a second
lime, she returned with an olive leaf plucked ofi", whereby
it became evident that the flood was considerably abated,
and had sunk below the tops of the trees ; and thus re-
lieved the fears and cheered the heart of Noah and his
family. And hence the olive branch has ever been araon.
he now rests in the city of God.-
DOWNE, (John, B. D.) This excellent man was born
in 1560, in Devonshire, England, of religious parents, and
was educated at the university of Cambridge. Bishops
Hall and Jewell were his eariy contemporaries, and the
latter of these excellent men was chosen by Mr. Downe as
a sort of model for his own life. Among mere men he
could scarce have chosen a better. He was first presented
to the vicarage of Winsford in Somerset ; but after became
rector of Instow, worth about one hundred pounds a year ;
where he was contented to spend his days in modest ob-
scurity and useful labors, and where he was divinely
blessed in turning many to righteousness. He was a man
of vigorous intellect. His skill in the languages, particu-
lariy Hebrew, Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, and Italian,
was almost unrivalled in the western part of the kingdom,
as was also his knowledge of the sciences. His moral,
civil, and religious -wisdom was in due proportion ; for the
race of God was upon him. He was so diligent m cate-
the forerunners of peace, and chief of those emblems chizing, preaching, and expounding the Scriptures, that in
- - • the course of his ministry he went through the whole body
of the Bible, from the beginning of Genesis to the end of
Revelation. His ardor often carried him beyond his
strength ; for his maxim was that of bishop Jewell, "that
a general should die in the field, and a preacher in the
pulpit." Of his preaching it has been quaintly said,
"deep it was, and yet elear; rational, and yet divine;
perspicuous, yet punctual ; artificial, yet profitable ; calm,
yet piercing ; ponderous, yet famiUar ; so that the ablest
of his hearers might always learn something, and yet the
simplest understand all." All along, in health and sick-
ness, he was a professed pilgrim and sojourner on earth ;
and in his last moments, among other things, observed,
" that though he saw death approaching, he feared it not ;
for it was but a drone, and the sting thereof taken out."
He died in IQ'iX—Middleton, vol. iii. 36.
DOWRY. Nothing distinguishes more the nature of
marriage among us and in Europe, from the same connex-
ion when formed in the East, than the different methods of
proceeding between the father-in-law and the intended
' ■ ■ Among us, the father usually gives a por-
by which a happy state of renovation and restoration to
prosperity has been signified to mankind. At the end of
other seven days, the dove, being sent out a third time,
returned no more ; from which Noah conjectured that the
earth was so far drained as to afford sustenance for the
birds and fowls ; and he therefore removed the covering
of the ark, which probably gave liberty to many of the
fowls to fly ofi"; and these circumstances aflTorded him the
greater facility for making arrangements for disembarking
the other animals. Doves might be ofliered in sacrifice,
when those who were poor could not bring a more costly
offering. — Watson.
DOVES' DUNG. It is said, (2 Kings 6: 25.) that dur-
ing the siege of Samaria, " the fourth part of a cab [little
more than half a pint] of doves' dung was sold for five pieces
of silver ;" about two and a half dollars. It is well known
that doves' dung is not a nourishment for man, even in
the most extreme famine ; and hence Josephus and Theo-
doret were of opinion, that it was bought instead of salt,
to serve as a kind of manure for the purpose of raising
esculent plants of quick vegetation. The general opinion
since Bochart is, that it was a kind of chich-pea, or tare,
Vb"eh has very much the appearance of doves' dung.
bridegroom. „ . . _ .
tion to his daughter, which becomes the property of her
.,., _„ . _.^ ____ __^^ .. ._ __ ^, husband; and which often makes a considerable part of
vSJtience it might be named ; Mr. Taylor remarks, that in his wealth ; but in the East, the bridegroom offers to the
"^'fjie Arab writers the words kali, and ugnen, signify equally father of his bride a sum of money, or value to his satisfac-
DR A
[ 175 ]
DRA
tion, before he can expect to receive his daughter in mar-
riage. Of this procedure we have instances f^rom the ear-
liest times. When Jacob had nothing which he could
immediately give for a wife, he purchased her by his ser-
vices to her father Laban, Gen. 29: 18. So we find She-
chem offers to pay any value, as a dowry for Dinah, Gen.
34: 12. In this passage is mentioned a distinction still
observed in the East : (1.) " A dowry" to the family, as
a token of honor, to engage their favorable interest in the
desired alliance. (2.) " A gift" to the bride herself, e. g.
of jewels and other decorations, a compliment of honor, as
Abraham's servant gave to Rebecca. (See Markiage.) —
Cahmt.
DOXOLOGY, (from doxa, praise, and logos, word;) a
hymn u.sed in the service of the ancient Christians. It
was only a single sentence, without a response, running
in these words, "Glory be to the Father, and to the Son,
and to the Holy Ghost, world without end. Amen." Part
of the latter clatise, " As it was in the beginning, is now,
and ever shall be," was inserted some time after the first
composition. The fourth council of Toledo, A. D. 633,
added the word honor to it, and read it, " Glory and honor
be to the Father," &c., because the prophet David says,
"Bring glory and honor to the Lord." It is not easy to
say, at what time the latter clause was inserted. Some
ascribe it to the council at Nice, and pretend it was-added
in opposition to the Arians. But the first express mention
made of it is in the second council of Vaison, A. D. 529,
above two centuries later.
There was likewise another hymn, of great note in the
ancient church, called the Great Doxology, or Angelical
Hymn, beginning 'nath those words which the angels sung
at our Savior's birth, " Glory be to God on high," &c.
This was chiefly used in the communion service. It was
also used daily in private devotions. In the Mozarabic
liturgy, it is appointed to be sung before the lessons on
Christmas day. Chrysostom often mentions it, and ob-
serves, that the Ascetics, or Christians who had retired
from the world, met together daily to sing this hymn.
V/ho first composed it, adding the remaining part to the
words sung by the angels, is uncertain. Some suppose it
to be as ancient as the time of Lucian, about the beginning
of the second century. Others take it for the " Gloria Pa-
tri ;" which is a dispute as difficult to be determined, as
it is to find out the first author and original of this hymn.
Both these doxologies have a place in the liturgy of the
church of England, and of the Protestant Episcopal church
of the United States ; the former being repeated after every
psalm, the latter used in the communion ser^ace. — Hoid.
Bud:
DRABICIANS; the followers of Nic. Drabiciiis, a pre-
tended prophet in Hungary, about A. D. 11330, who failed
in his attempt to found a permanent sect; it is said,
through the timidity of his coadjutor, Comenius ; and it is
doubtful whether he should be considered rather as an en-
thusiast, or an impostor ; and it is not certain whether he
was burned, or saved his life by a flight to Turkey. See
Morison's TlTeol. Diet. — Williams.
DRACHMA. The value of a common drachma was
seven pence English, or twelve and a half cents. A di-
drachma, or double drachma, made very near half a she-
kel ; and four drachmas made nearly a shekel, i. e. nearly
half a dollar. — Watson.
DRAGON. This word, which frequently occurs in the
English Bible, generally answers to the Hebrew tnn, tanin,
and taninim, though these words are sometimes rendered
.serpents, sea^mmisters, and whales. The Rev. J. Hurdis, in a
" Dissertation upon the true meaning of the word taninim,"
contends, that in its various forms it uniformly signifies
the crocodile ; an opinion which can be supported by no
authentic facts, and by no legitimate mode of reasoning.
Blr. Taylor, who argues at great length for restraining the
word to amphibious animals, is of opinion that it includes
the class of lizards, from the ivater-nen-t to the crocodile,
and also the seal, the manati, the morse, &c. His argu-
ments are certainly ingenious and deserving of attention;
but they have failed to convince lis of the legitimacy of
his deductions. The subject is involved in much obscuri-
ty, from the apparent latitude with which the word is
employed by the sacred writers. In Ex. 7: 9, et seq. Deut.
32: 33. and Jer. 51: 31. it seems to denote a lnr:;e serpent,
or the dragon, property .so called ; in Gen. 1: 21. "Job 7: 12
and Ez. 29: 3. a crocodile, or any large sea animal ; and in
Lam. 4: 3. and Job 30: 29. some kind of-wild beast, proba
bly the jackal or wolf, as the Arabic teenan denotes. It is
to the dragon, properly so called, that we shall now direct
our attention.
, Three kinds of dragons were formerly distingttished in
India. 1. Those of the hills and mountains. 2. Those
of the valleys and caves. 3. Those of the fens and marsh-
es. The first is the largest, and covered with scales, as
resplendent as burnished gold. They have a kind of beard
hanging from their lower jaw, their aspect is frightful,
their cry loud and shrill, their crest bright yellow, and
they have a protuberance on their heads the color of a
burning coal. 2. Those of the flat country are of a silver
color, and frequent rivers, to which the former never come.
3. Those of the marshes are black, slow, and have no
crest. Their bite is not venomous, though the creatures
be dreadful.
The following description of the boa is chiefly abstracted
and translated from De La Cepede, by Mr. "Taylor, who
considers it as the proper dragon.
The BOA is among serpents, what the lion or the ele
phant is among quadrupeds ; he usually reaches twenty
feet in length, and to this species we must refer those de-
scribed by travelleis as lengthened to forty or fifty feet, as
related by Owen. Eiuhcr mentions a serpent forty palms
in length ; and such a serpent is referred to by job Lu-
dolph, as e.xtant in Ethiopia. Jerome, in his life of Hila-
rion, denominates such a serpent, draco, or dragon ; say-
ing, that they were called l/oas, because the}' could sv.-alIow
(hopes) beeves, and waste whole provinces. Bosman says,
entire men have been frequently found in the gullets of
serpents on the gold coast. But the longest serpent I have
read of, is that mentioned by Livy, and by Pliny, which
opposed the Roman army under Regulus, at the river Ba-
grada in Africa. It devoured several of the soldiers ; and
so hard were its scales, that they resisted darts and spears :
at length it was, as it were, besieged, and the militar)' en-
gines were employed against it, as against a fortified city.
It was a hundred and twenty feet in length.
The boa is not venomous. This serpent, being a very
devouring creature, greedy of prey, leaps from among the
hedges and woods, and standing upright on its tail, wrestles
both with men and wild beasts : sometimes it leaps from
the trees upon the traveller, whom it fastens on, and beats
the breath out of his body -vvith its tail.
From this account of the boa, Mr. Taylor thinks it pro-
bable that John had it in his mind when he describes Satan
in his persecuting power under the symbol of a great red
dragon. The dragon of antiquity was a serpent of prodi-
gious size, and its most conspicuous color was red ; and
the apocalyptic dragon strikes vehemently with his tail ;
in all which particulars it perfectly agrees with the boa.
Rev. 12: 4, 15— 17.— Calmet.
DRAGON-WELL, the, (Neh. 2: 13.) by cast of Jeru-
salem.— Calmet.
DRAGOONING ; one of the methods used by papists
DRE
[ 476
DR U
after the revocation of the edict of Nantz, under Louis
XIV., for converting refractory heretics, and bringing
them -within the pale of their church. If the reader's
feelings will sufi'cr him to peruse the account of these bar-
barities, he v.'ill find it under the article Peesecution in
this work. — Bnck.
DREAD; a high degree of fear. (See Feah.)
DKEAM ; the excited stale of the imagination in sleep,_
w^hether from natural or .supernatural causes. The East-
ern people, and in particular the Jews, greatly regarded
dreams, and applied for their interpretation to those who
undertook to explain them. We see the antiquity of this
custom in the history of Pharaoh's butler and baker, (Gen.
40.1 and Pharaoh himself, and Nebuchadnezzar, are also
instances. God expressly forbade his people from observ-
ing dreams, and from consulting explainers of them. He
condemned to death all who pretended to have prophetic
dreams, and to foretell events, even though what they fore-
told came to pass, if they had any tendency to promote
idolatry. Dent. 13: 1 — 3. But they were not forbidden,
when they thought they had a significative dream, to ad-
dress the prophets of the Lord, or the high-priest in his
ephod, to have it explained. Saul, before the battle of
Gilboa, consulted a woman who had a familiar spirit,
" because the Lord would not answer him by dreams, nor
by prophets," 1 Sam. 28: 6, 7.
The Lord frequently discovered his will in dreams, and
enabled persons to explain them. The Midianiies gave
credit to dreams, as appears from that which a Midianite
related to his companion, and from whose interpretation
Gideon took a happy omen, Judg 7: 13, 15. The prophet
Jeremiah (23: 25. 28, 29.) exclaims against impostors who
pretended to have had dreams, and abused the credulity
of the people. The prophet Joel (2: 28.) promises from
God, that in the reign of the Messiah, the etfusinn of the
Holy Spirit should be so copious, that the old men should
have prophetic dreams, and the young men should receive
visions.
The word signifies, likewise, those vain images, beheld
in imagination while asleep, which have no relation to pro-
phecy,"job 20: 8. Is. 29: 7. See also Eccl. 5; 3, 7. And it
ought not to be overlooked, that we now have in the holy
Scriptures a complete revelation of divine truth ; so that
to be expecting new revelations by dreams or visions, is to
be carried away with the spirit of error and delusion, 1
John 4: 1 — 6. The wisest use Christians now can make
of dreams is to be admonished by them to attend to the
word of God, Jer. 23: 28.
Dreams should be carefully distinguished from visions :
the former occurred during sleep, and therefore were liable
to much ambiguity and uncertainty ; the latter when the
person, being awake, retained possession of his natural
powers and faculties. — Calmet.
DREAMER, is used as a word of reproach ; of Joseph
by his brethren, (Gen. 37: 19.) and of Shemaiah, Jer. 29:
24. See chapter 27: 9. and Jude 8. See also Is. 56: 10.—
Ca!mtf.
DRELINCOURT, (Chakles,) was born in the month of
July, 1595, at Sedan, a town of France. His father was a
man of piety, and great respectability, and wisely deter-
mined on giving his son H hberal education. At Saumur,
under the instruction of professor Duncan, he attained an
accurate knowledge of theology, moral philosophy, and
polite literature. In early life, his religious impressions
were deep ; and as they became permanent, he determined
on devoting his future life to the service of God, as a
Christian minister. At the age of twenty-three, he was
accordingly admitted minister of the French Protestant
Calvinistic church, and officiated near Langres. In 1620,
he was called by the church of Paris. In 1025, he was
married to the daughter of a rich merchant, residing at
Paris, by whom he had sixteen children. About that time
he published an excellent book " On the Preparation for
the Lord's Supper ;" and shortly afterwards, his " Short
View of Controversies," and "Consolations against the
Fear of Death." His justly celebrated " Charitable Visits,"
in five volumes, are of a later date. The work is inimita-
ble : into six diiferent languages it has been translated.
Many a pious heart has been cheered by its perusal ;
many a divine assisted in the discharge of his ministerial
functions, by its directions ; and many a tear of gratiluds
and delight has fallen on its pages. If he had never writ-
ten any other book, Drelincourt would not have lived in
vain. His sermons which were published, like those
which were merely preached, were pious and affecting
His religion was vital, experimental, and therefore it was
operative. It produced an evident and delightful serenity;
an amiability of disposition ; a kindness of deportment ; a
warm desire for usefulness, and for the salvation of his
species. But his writings were not exclusively practical.
Wheu what he regarded to be the cause of truth was con-
cerned, he was bold as a lion, though gentle as a lamb.
He wrote many books against the church of Rome ; but
he was not a persecutor of that church. He was a friend
to universal toleration, and only sought to extend the
cause of truth, by the influence of knowledge, the preach-
ing of the gospel, and the publication of books calculated
to "develop the absurdities of its superstitious rites, and of
its unscriptural doctrines. His character was generally
and justly esteemed ; monarchs and princes loved and
admired him, cultivated his society, and assisted in distri-
buting his writings ; posterity has ratified such approba-
tion, and the name of Drelincourt is loved by every Chris-
tian, and by all who value sincerity, candor, generosity,
and piety. Happily for the world, his life was long pro-
tracted, and that till the age of seventy-four : possessing,
to the last, all the faculties of his mind, and the feelings
of his heart, he continued to benefit the present and all
succeeding generations, by his example, his writings, and
his charities. He expired on the 3d of November, 1699,
regretted by the good, respected by the worldly, and reve-
renced by all men ; and left behind him a " good name,"
which is "better than riches." See Memoirs of Drelin-
court.— Jones's Chris. Biog.
DRESS. (See Habits.)
DROMEDARY. (See Camel.)
DRUIDS ; the priests or ministers of religion among the
ancient Gauls, Britons, and Germans, who resembled, in
many respects, the brahmins of India. They were chosen
out of the best families ; and the honors of their birth,
joined with those of their function, procured them the
highest veneration among the people. They were versed
in astrolog}', geometry, natural philosophy, politics, and
geography ; they were the interpreters of religion, and the
judges of all affairs indifferently. Whoever refused obedi-
ence to them, was declared impious and accursed. We
know but little as to their peculiar doctrines, only that they
believed the immortality of the soul, and, as is generally
also supposed, the transmigration of it to other bodies j
though a late author makes it appear highly probable they
did not believe this last, at least not in the sense of the
Pythagoreans. The chief settlement of the druids in Bri-
tain was in the isle of Anglesey, the ancient Mona, which
they might choose for this purpose, as it is well stored
with precious groves of their favorite oak. They were
divided into several classes or branches, such as the priests,
the poets, the augurs, the civil judges, and instructers of
youth. Strabo, however, does not comprehend all these
different orders under the denomination of druids. He
only distinguishes three kinds : bordi, poets ; the vates,
priests and naturalists ; and the druids, who, besides the
study of nature, applied themselves likewise to morality.
Their garments were remarkably long, and when em-
ployed in religious ceremonies, they likewise wore a white
surplice. They generally carried a wand in their hands,
and wore a kind of ornament, enchased with gold, about
their necks, called the druid's egg. They had one chief,
or arch-druid, in every nation, who acted as high-priest, or
pontifex viaximus. He had absolute authority over the rest,
and commanded, decreed, and punished at pleasure. They
worshipped the supreme Being under the name of Esus or
Hesvs, and the symbol of the oak ; and had no other temple
than a wood or a grove, where all their religious rites were
performed. Nor was any person permitted to enter that
sacred recess unless he carried with him a chain, in token
of his absolute dependence on the Deity. Indeed their
whole religion originally consisted in acknowledging that
the supreme Being, who made his abode in these sacred
groves, governed the universe ; and that every creature
ought to obey his laws, and pay him divine homage. Mr.
DRU
477 J
DRU
Bryant, however, maintains that they were idolaters, and
that the sun was the grand object of their worship. They
considered the oak as the emblem, or rather the pecu-
liar residence of the Almighty ; and accordingly chaplels
of it were worn, both by the druids and people, in their re-
ligious ceremonies ; the altars were strewed with its leaves,
and encircled with its branches. The fruit of it, especially
the misletoe, was thought to contain a divine virtue, and
to be the peculiar gift of heaven. It \vas, therefore, sought
for on the sixth day of the moon with the greatest earnest-
ness and anxiety ; and when found, was hailed with such
rapture of joy, as almost exceeds imagination to conceive.
As soon as the druids were informed of the fortunate dis-
cover}', they prepared every thing ready for the sacrifice
under the oak, (see Ezek. 6: 13.) to which they fastened
two white bulls by the horns ; then the arch-druid, attended
by a prodigious number of people, ascended the tree, dress-
ed in white ; and, with a consecrated golden knife, or
pruning hook, cropped the misletoe, which he received in
his robe, amidst the rapturous exclamations of the people.
Having secured this sacred plant, he descended the tree,
the bulls were sacrificed, and the Deity invoked to bless
his own gift, and render it efficacious in those distempers
in which it should be administered. According to Ccesar,
they in some Cixses oti'ered human victims, and that upon
ihe conviction that human blood was required to atone for
human guilt. — Hmd. Buck; IVilUatJts.
DKUiStlCENNESS; a well-known and debasing indis-
position, produced by excessive drinking. The first in-
stance of intoxication on record is that of Noah, (Gen. 9:
21.) who was probably ignorant of the effects of the ex-
pressed juice of the grape. The sin of drunkenness is
most expressly condemned in the Scriptures, Rom. 13: 13.
1 Cor. 6: 9, 10. Eph. H: 18. 1 Thess. 5: 7, S. Men are
sometimes represented as drunk with sorrow, with afflic-
tions, and with the wine of God's wrath, Isa. fiS: 6. Jer.
51: 57. Ezek. 23: 33. Persons under the influence of su-
perstition, idolatry, and delusion, are said to be drunk,
because they make no use of their natm-al reason, Isa. 28:
7. Rev. 17: 2. Drunkenness sometimes denotes abundance,
.satiety, Deut. 32: 42. Isa. 49: 26. To "add drunkenness
to thirst," (Deut. 29: 19.) is to add one sin to another.
(See Intemperance.) — Calmet.
DRUSES; a remarkable people and sect, inhabiting
different parts of Libanus and Anti-Libanus, and certain
other regions of Syria and Palestine, but whose principal
seat is Kesroan, a district on mount Lebanon, towards the
Mediterranean sea.
The Druses are divided into two classes : 1. The Dja-
hah, ignorant or uninitiated, who compose the greater part,
and even the emir himself, who is not permitted to inter-
fere in any way in matters of religion. They appear to have
no definite religion whatever, but conform to that which hap-
pens to predominate, in order to conceal the fact that they
belong to any particular sect. They make no distinction of
meats, drink wine, marry wives from among those who are
not Druses, and wear a variegated dress. 2. The Akkals,
"intelligent, initiated," form a sacred or aristocratic order,
who perform the ceremonies of their religion in their ora-
torios, but under circumstances of such profound secrecy,
that their character or nature has never been discovered.
Should any of the uninitiated happen to witness any part
of their religious service, he is instantly put to death.
They are excessively rigid as it regards their religion ;
live temperately, on food peculiar to themselves ; eat not
with strangers ; marry wives of their own order ; and ne-
ver take an oath, but confirm their declarations by the
words, " I have said it." From them the spiritual or ec-
clesiastical head, the imnm of the Druses, is chosen, whom
both the initiated and uninitiated regard with profound
veneration.
According to Malte Brun, the number of the Druses
amounts to one hundred and twenty thousand ; hut Mr.
Connor, late a missionary in those parts, rates them at
seventy thousand ; of whom ten thousand compose the
AkkaJs or sacred order.
AVith respect to their religious belief, they profess them-
selves to be Multewahedin. or Unitarians, who believe in
Hakem, to whom they give the characters, " The creator
of heaven and earth ; the only adorable God in heaven.
and the only Lord on earth ; the one, the solitary, who is
without wife and children ; who begets not and is not be-
gotten ; who acts according to his sovereign pleasure ;
who says to all things. Be, and they are ; the beginning
and the end of all things ; the powerful, the excellent,
the victorious, I am, he says, the foundation of the new
religion, the Lord, the way, the written book, the inhabit-
ed house ; I am he who knows all things of himself; the
Lord of the resurrection and the new life ; I am he who
animates the creatures, the water of life, the author of
pi'osperity ; I give laws and annul them ; I cause men to
die, and declare martyrdom to be nothing ; I am a con-
suming fire that consumes the proud," &c. They ac-
knowledge seven lawgivers : Adam, Noah, Abraham,
Moses, Jesus, Mahomet, and Said. The first being
that follows in rank to Hakem, is Hamsah, who appeared
in the time of Adam, by the name of Shalnil ; in that of
Noah by that of Fitagurus ; in Abraham's time by that
of David ; under Moses he was called Shoaib ; In the
time of Jesus his name was Lazarus ; in that of Ma-
homet, Solimau ; and in that of Said, Zalech. These
seven lawgivers were inhabited by the same soul, M'hich
went from body to body, according to the rules of the
metempsj'chosis. Though Hamsah might have prevented
Jesus from carrying his plan into execution, he permitted
him to establish his religion, partly in order that it might
be the means of overthrowing the Jewish polity, and
partly that there might be another predominant religion,
under which he and his Unitarians might live concealed.
He attempted to teach Christ ; but on his rejecting the
profl^3red tuition, he stirred up the Jews against him, and
they killed him. Christ was the false, Hamsah the true
Messiah. It is of Hamsah the four evangelists i write, so
that the Christians are completely deceived, and can onlj'
be delivered from error and all evil by becoming Unita-
rians.
Of Blahomet they entertain a worse opinion ; main-
taining that he was an evil demon, a son of whoredom,
and accursed. The Mahometans are the flood which
has deluged the world. The Druses do not practice cir-
cumcision.
According to their catechism, Hakem first became visi-
ble in the year of the Hegira 400, but did not reveal his
divinity ; in the year 408, his divine nature was mani-
fested, and continued visible for eight years ; in the ninth
he disappeared, and will not again be revealed till the day
of judgment, the time of which is unknown, but its sign
is when the Christians have subdued the Slahometans.
Judgment will be held on the four classes of men : Chris-
tians, Jews, Apostates, and Unitarians. To the Jews are
reckoned the Mahometans, and the Apostates arc those
■who desert the faith of Hakem. At the judgment, the
Unitarians shall be rewarded with empire and dominion,
treasures of gold and silver, and shall be promoted to be
emirs, pashas, and sultans. The torments of the Apos-
tates shall be dreadfully severe ; those of the Jews and
Christians more lenient. They believe in ten incarna-
tions of Hakem ; and seven revelations of Hamsah.
The Druses receive the four gospels, only apply what
is said of Christ to Hamsah ; and they profess to receive
the Koran, but only as a cloak to screen them from the
Mahometans. Owing, most probably, to their living
among the Blaronites, several appear of late to have em^
braced the outward form of Christianity. The present
emir, Beshir Shehab, and a portion of his family, have
embraced the doctrines of the Maronites. — TIend. Suck.
DRUSILLA, the third daughter of that Herod Agrippa,
who put to death the apostle James, and imprisoned Pe-
ter, and who was himself judicially smitten in the midst
of his oration at Ctesarea. She was renowned for her
beauty, but was far from being remarkable for either her
piety or chastity. She was first promised in marriage to
Epiphanes, the son of Antiochus, king of Comagenn,
upon an assurance from this prince that he would be cir-
cumcised ; but he refusing to perform the condition, the
marriage was broke oflT, and she was afterwards married
to Azizus, king of the Emissenians. In a little time,
however, she left Azizus, to marry Claudius FelLx, gover-
nor of Judea, by whom she had a son, whose name was
Agrippa. Before DrusiUa, and her husband Felix, the
DUD
[478 1
DUN
apostle Paul appeared and defended his Christian pro-
fession. Acts 24: 24 Jones.
DUALIST; a name given to those who held the two
original and opposite principles of good and evil, from
which all things have sprung. — Hend. Buck.
DUCHOBORTZl, ok '■ Wrestlers with the Spirit ■/'
a sect of Russian dissenters, inhabiting the right bank of
the river Bloloshnaia, near the sea of Azof. Their num-
ber, in the year 1818, amounted to 115.3 souls. They
have been called the Russian Qualcers ; and much as the
more enlightened members of the society of Friends
would find to object to among them, it cannot be denied
that in many points they resemble them. Their name in-
dicates the strong bearing which their system has on mys-
tical exercises, in which they place the whole of religion,
to the exclusion of all external rites and ceremonies.
All their knowledge, they pretend, is traditionary. They
profess to have the Bible in their hearts ; the light within
is sufficient, they need nothing more. Every thing with
them is mystical. They speak of Christ, and his death ;
but they explain both his person and suflerings mystically,
and build their hopes entirely on themselves. They make
no distinction of days or meats ; and marriage, so far
from being a sacrament with them, as in the Greek church,
is scarcely viewed as a civil institution. — Hend. Buck.
DUDITH, (Andrew,) one of the most learned and
eminent men of the sixteenth century. He was born at
Buda, in Hungary, in 1533, and, after having studied in
the most famous universities, and visited almost all the
countries of Europe, was raised to the bishopric of Tinia
by the empercr Ferdinand, and made privy counsellor to
that prince. He had, by the force of his genius, and
the study of the ancient orators, acquired such a masterly
and irresistible eloquence, that in all public deliberations,
he carried every thing before him. In the council of
Trent, to which he was sent in the name of the emperor,
and of the Hungarian clerg)', he spoke with such energy
against several abuses of the church of Rome, and par-
ticularly against the celibacy of the clergy, that the pope,
being informed thereof by his legates, solicited the empe-
ror to recall him. Ferdinand complied, but, having heard
Dudith's report of what passed in the council, he approved
his conduct, and rewarded him with the bishopric of Cho-
nat. Dudith afterwards married a maid of honor of the
queen of Hungary, and resigned his bishopric ; the em-
peror, however, still continued his friend and protector.
The papal excommunication was levelled at his head ; but
he treated it with contempt. Tired of the fopperies and
superstitions of the church of Rome, he retired to Cracow,
when he publicly embraced the Protestant religion, after
having been for a considerable time its secret friend. It
is said that he showed some inclination toward the Socin-
ian system ; some of his friends deny this ; others con-
fess it, but maintain that he afterwards changed his sen-
timents in that respect. He was well acquainted with
several branches of philosophy, and mathematics, Avith
physic, history, theology, and civil law. He was in early
life such an enthusiastic admirer of Cicero, that he copied
over three times, with his own hand, all the works of that
immortal author. He had something majestic in his
figure, and in the air of his countenance. Hislife was re-
gular and virtuous ; his manners were elegant and easy ;
and his benevolence warm and extensive. In the latter
years of his life, he became a member and an oec'asional
teacher of the Baptist church, in Smila, a town in Poland,
which belonged to him. He died at Breslaw in Silesia,
in 15S9, aged fifty-six.
The greatest man among the Baptists at the Reforma-
tion, says Robinson, was the celebrated, the amiable, the
incomparable Dudith ; a man to be held in everlasting
remembrance, much for his rank, more for his abilities
and virlues, most of all for his love of liberty. In this,
he was altogether in advance of his age. Persecution he
abhorred. In a letter to Beza, he observes, "You try to
justify the banishment of Ochin, and the execution of oth-
ers, and you seem to wish Poland would follow your exam-
ple. God forbid ! When you talk of your Augsburg confes-
sion, and your Helvetic creed, and your unanimity, and your
fundamental truths, I keep thinking of the sixth command-
ment, Thou shall not kill.'" — Mosheim ; Benedict's His. Bap.
DUKE. This word, being a title of honor in use among
Europeans, and signifying a higher order of nobility, is
apt to mislead the reader, who in Gen. 36: 15 — 43. finds
a long list of dukes of Edom ; but the word dvke, from
the Latin dux, merely signifies a leader or chief, and the
word chief ought rather to have been preferred in our
translation. See 1 Chron. 1 : 51. — Calmet.
DULCBIER, (Dan. 3: 5, 10.) an instrument of music,
as is usually thought ; but the original word, ^umponya,
which is Greek, renders it doubtful whether it really meaa
a musical instrument, or a musical strain, chorus, or ac-
companiment of many voices, or instruments, in concert
and harmony. The rabbins however describe it as a
sort of bagpipe ; although the real dulcimer is a triangu-
lar instrument, of fifty wires, struck by an iron key. It
is difficult to account for the introduction of a Greeli word
into the Chaldee language, unless we suppose that some
musicians from Greece, or from western Asia, had been
taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar, in his victories over
the cities on the coast of the Blediterranean, and that
these introduced certain of their own terms of art among
the king's band of music ; as we now use much of the
language of Italy in our musical entertainments. — Calmet.
DULCINISTS ; the followers of Dulcinus, a layman of
Novara in Lombardy, about the beginning of the four-
teenth century. He taught that the law of the Father,
which had continued till Moses, was a law of grace and
wisdom ; but that the law of the Holy Ghost, which be-
gan with himself, in 1307, was a law entirely of love,
which would last to the end of the world. — Hcnil. Buck,
DUMAH ; a city of Judah, Josh. 15: 52. It is also a
shortened form of speaking and writing Idtimea. Gen.
25: 14. Isa. 21:11. (See Idumea.) — Calmet.
DUMB. (1.) One unable to speak by reason of natu-
ral infirmity, Exod. 4: 11. (2.) One unable to speak by
reason of want of knowledge what to say, or how to say
it ; what proper mode of address to use, or what reasons
to allege on his own behalf, Prov. 31: 8. (3.) One un-
willing to speak, Psal. 39: 9. We have a remarkable in--
stance of this reverential dumbness, or submissive si-
lence, in the case of Aaron, (Lev. 10: 3.) after Nadab
and Abihu, his sons, were consumed by fire. "Aaron
held his peace!" did not exclaim against the justice of
God, but saw the propriety of the divine fSocedure, and
humbly acquiesced in it. — Calmet.
DU MOULIN, (Peter, D. D.) This very celebrated
French Protestant minister was born at Vixen in 1568.
He imbibed the rudiments of literature at Sedan ; but at
twenty, was sent to finish his education in England, -where
he became a member of Christ college, Cambridge. Four
years after, he went to Holland, where, being favored by
the French ambassador, he obtained from the queen
mother the professorship of philosophy at Leyden. This
he held six years, and among his scholars was the famous
Grotius. He published his "Logic" in 1596. He taught
Greek also in the divinity schools, and in his Nomtas Fa-
jiismi, he exposes cardinal Perron's ignorance of that lan-
guage. In 1599, he went to Paris to be minister of Cha-
renton, and chaplain to Catharine of Bourbon, the king's
sister, whom he confirmed in the Protestant faith, in spite
of all the eflfortsof the pope, the king, and his divines. He
was however greatly respected by Henry IV. and after
the death of that monarch, publicly charged the Jesuits
mth the plot of his assassination by Ravillac. In 1(115,
he visited England, at the request of James I. by whom
he was received with great affection, and who conferred
several honors on him. His incessant controversies with
the Jesuits often exposed his life, so that he was obliged
at length to have a guard always around him. They had
previously tried bribes, but in vain. In 1()20, he accepted
the professorship of divinity and ministry of the church
at Sedan, both which he held till his death, in 1658, at
the advanced age of ninety. His death, though full ot
the deepest christian humility, was nio.st triumphant.
Every now and then, when he seemed to slumber, he
would whisper out short sentences from an overllowing
heart ; as, " The Word was made flesh ! Death is sti-allmved
up in victor!/ ! I desire to depart and he with Christ ! O see
him! O how beautiful he is !" — Middleton, vol. iii. 3()9.
DUNG. The directions given to the prophet Ezekiel,
DUN
[479 ]
ous
(chap. 4: 12 — 16.) have been much misunderstood, and
have also given occasion fur many impertinent remarks.
Niebuhr, Tournelbrt, and Le Bruyn, however, who are
describing much the same country, deserve our marked
attention, as likely to illustrate the history of the prophet
Ezekiel. Le Brujoi assures us that in Persia, human
dung is used, to heat ovens for the purpose of baking
fyod, Cconsequently Mr. Harmer mistakes, when he says,
" no nation made use of that horrid kind of fuel,") and
against this Ezekiel remonstrates and petitions, till he
procures leave to use a fuel, which, though bad enough, is
not quite so bad. Does not the prophet's solicitation for
his personal relief from that defilement, imply his hope of
the same alleviation, in respect to those whom he typifi-
ed, i. e. the Jewish people ? — Calmet.
DUNEERS ; a denomination of Seventh-day Baptists,
which took its rise in the year 1724. It was founded by
Conrad Beissel, a Gernian, who received a regular educa-
tion at Halle, and took orders as a minister ; but being
persecuted for his opinions on some points in theology, he
left Europe, and retired to an agreeable solitude within
fifty miles of Philadelphia, for the more free exercise of
religious contemplation. Curiosity attracted followers,
and his simple and engaging manners made them prose-
lytes. They soon settled a little colony, called Euphrate,
in allusion to the Hebrews, who used to sing psalms on
the borders of the river Euphrates. This denomination
seem to have obtained their name from their baptizing
their new converts by plunging. They are also called
Tumblers, from the manner in which they performed
baptism, which is by putting the person, while kneeling,
head first under water, so as to resemble the motion of
the body in the action of tumbling. They use the trine
immersion, with laying on the hands and prayer, even
when the person baptized is in the water.
Their habit seems to be peculiar to themselves, consist-
mg of a long tunic, or coat, reaching down to their heels,
with a sash or girdle round the waist, and a cap, or hood,
hanging from the shoulders, like the dress of the Domi-
nican friars. The men do not shave the head or beard.
The men and women have separate habitations and dis-
tinct governments. For these purposes they have erected
two large wooden buildings, one of which is occupied by
the brethren, the other by the sisters of the society ; and
in each of them there is abanqueting-room, and an apart-
ment for public worship ; for the brethren and sisters do
not meet together, even at their devotions. They used to
live chiefly upon roots and other vegetables, the rules of
their society not allowing them flesh, except on particular
occasions, when they hold what they call a love feast ; at
which time the brethren and sisters dine together in a
large apartment, and eat mutton, but no other meat. In
each of their little cells, they have a bench fixed, to serve
the purpose of a bed, and a small block -of wood for a
pillow. They allow of marriage, and aid their poorer
brethren who enter the matrimonial state ; but they ne-
vertheless consider celibacy as a virtue. The principal
tenets of the Dunkers appear to be these : that future
happiness is only to be attained by penance and outward
mortification in this life ; and that as Jesus Christ, by his
meritorious suflerings, became the Redeemer of mankind
in general, so each individual of the human race, by a
life of abstinence and restraint, may work out his own
salvation. Nay, they go so far as to admit of works of
supererogation, and declare that a man may do much
more than he is in justice or equity obliged to do, and
that his superabundant works may therefore be applied
to the salvation of others. This denomination deny the
eternity of future punishments, and believe that the dead
have the gospel preached to them by our Savior, and that
the souls of the just are employed to preach the gospel to
those who have had no revelation in this life. They sup-
pose the Jewish sabbath, sabbatical year and year of ju-
bilee, are typical of certain periods, after the general
judgment, in which the souls of those who are not then
admitted into happiness are purified from their corrup-
tion. If any within those smaller periods are so far hum-
bled as to aclcnowledge the perfections of God, and to
own Christ as their only Savior, they are received to fe-
licity ; while those who continue obstinate are reserved
in torments until the grand period typified by the jubilee
arrives, in which all shall be made happy in the endless
fruition of the Deity. They also deny the imputation of
Adam's sin to his posterity. They disclaim \'iolence even
in cases of self-defence, and suffer themselves to be de-
frauded or wronged rather than go to law.
Their church government and discipline are the
same with the Baptists in general, except that every
brother is allowed to speak in the congregation ; and
their best speaker is usually ordained to be the minister.
They have deacons and deaconesses from among their
ancient widows and exhortcrs, who are all Ucensed to use
their gifts statedly. The members of the society are now
much dispersed, and the members in the adjacent country
differ in no respect from their neighbors in dress or man-
ners ; though they maintain the faith of their fathers, and
are remarked for their exemplary lives and deportment.
— Head. Buck.
DUNS, (John,) usually known as Duns Scotus, and
whose acuteness in disputation gained him the appella-
tion of the Subtle Doctor, was born at Dunstance, in
Northumberland, late in the thirteenth century ; studied
at Merton college, Oxford ; and became head of the schools
at the university at Paris. He died, at Cologne, about
the year 1309. His works, proofs of perverted talent,
form twelve folio volumes. He diflered i'rom Aquinas on
the eflicacj' of divine grace, and his followers were called
Scotists. To him is also attributed the doctrine of the
holy virgin's immaculate conception. — Davenport.
DUPIN, (Louis Ellies,) an ecclesiastical historian,
was born, in Normandy, in 1637 ; studied at Harcourt
college and the Sorbonne ; and became professor of di-
vinity in the Koyal college. The professorship, however,
he lost, in consequence of his religious moderation ; and
his papers were seized, because he had corresponded with
Wake, archbishop of Canterbury, relative to a project for
uniting the English and GaUican churches. He was also
persecuted by Bossuet and De Harlay, for the candor
which he displayed in his groii work, The Universal
Library of Ecclesiastical Authors, in fifty-eight vols.
Besides that work, Dupin wrote many others, and con-
tributed to the Journal des Savans. He died in 1719. —
Dovetiporf.
DURA ; a great plain near Babylon, where Nebuchad-
nezzar erected a colossal image of gold to be worshipped,
Dan. 3: 1. (See Babylon.) — Calntet.
DURAND, (DiviD,) a Protestant minister, was born, in
1681, at Pargoire, in Lower Languedoc. As chaplain of
a regiment of refugees, he ■^^■as present at the battle of
Almanza. Being taken prisoner by the peasants, alter
the rout of the allies, he narrowly escaped death ; and he
was, subsequent!}', in equal danger from the Inquisition.
He escaped, however, and became a minister in Holland,
whence he was invited to be preacher to the Savoj-. in
London. He died in 1763. Among his works are. Ser-
mons ; a Life of Vanini ; a History of the Sixteenth Cen-
tury'; and a Continuation of Rapin. — Davenport.
DURSIANS, or Dekuzians ; a fierce people, formerly
inhabiting the wilds of mount Libanus, and in the ele-
venth century engaged in the holy war. There is evi-
dence that they understood some of the principles, and
perhaps made a general profession, of Christianity ; but
their peculiar tenets were kept so secret, that they cannot
now be ascertained with certainty. It is probable, how-
ever, from many circumstances, that they were the de-
scendants of the early Druses. This may be inferred
from their name, residence, corresponding character, and
hatred to the Turks, which was very likely to engage
them in such an expedition, though the fact cannot be
historically traced. Dr. Mosheim suspects them to be
Manichseans ; but it seems more lUcely, they picked up
their loose and imperfect notions of Christianity from
some of the fanatics engaged in the crusades. — 3Io-
sheim's Eccl. Hist. vol. iv. p. 270 Williams.
DUST, or ashes, cast on the head was a sign of mourn-
ing, (Josh. 7: 6.) sitting in the dust, a sign of affliction,
Lam, 3: 29. Isaiah 47: 1, The dust also denotes the
grave. Gen. 3: 19. Job 7: 21. Psalm 22: 15. It is put
for a great multitude, Gen. 13: 16. Numbers 23: 10. It
signifies a low or mean condition, 1 Sam. 2: S. Nahum
DWE
[ 480 ]
DWI
1'
3: 18. To shake or wipe off the .dust of a place from
one's feet, marks the renouucing of all intercourse with
it in future. God threatens the Jews with rain of dust,
&c., Deut. 28: 24. An extract from Sir T. Roe's em-
bassy may cast light on this : " Sometimes, in India, the
wind blows very high in hot and dry seasons, raising up
into the air a very great height, thick clouds of dust and
sand. These dry showers most grievously annoy all
those among whom they fall ; enough to smite them all
with present blindness ; filling their eyes, ears, nostrils,
and mouths too, if not well guarded ; searching every
place, as well within as without, so that there is not a
little key-hole of any trunk or cabinet, if it be not cover-
ed, but receives this dust ; add to tliis, that the fields,
brooks, and gardens suffer e-xtremely from these terrible
showers."
2. In almost every part of Asia, those who demand
justice against a criminal throw dust upon him, signifying
that he deserves to lose his life, and be cast into the
grave ; and that this is the true interpretation of the ac-
tion, is evident from an imprecation in common use
among the Turks and Persians, " Be covered with earth !"
" Earth be upon thy head." We have two remarkable
instances of casting dust recorded in Scripture : the first
is that of Shimei, who gave vent to his secret hostility to
David, when he fled before his rebellious son, by throwing
stones at him, and casting dust, 2 Sam. Hi: 13. It was
an ancient custom, in those warm and arid countries, to
lay the dust before a jierson of distinction, and particularly
before Icings and princes, by sprinkling tlie ground with
water. To throw dust into the air while a person was
passing, was therefore an act of great disrespect ; to do
so before a sovereign prince, an indecent outrage. But
it is clear that Shimei meant more than disrespect and
outrage to an afllicted king, whose subject he was ; lie in-
tended to signify by tliat action, that David was unfit to
.ive, and that the time was at last arrived to offer him a
sacrifice to the ambition and vengeance of the house of
Saul. This view of his conduct is confirmed by the be-
havior of the Jews to the apostle Paul, when they seized
him in the temple, and had nearly succeeded in putting
him to death ; they cried out, " Away with such a fellow
from the earth, for it is not fit that he should live ; and as
they cried out and cast off their clothes, and threw dust
into the air, the chief captain commanded him to be
brought into the castle," Acts 22: 23. A great similarity
appears between the conduct of the Jews on this occasion,
and the behavior of the peasants in Persia, when they go
to court to complain of the governors, whose oppressions
they can no longer endure. They carry their complaints
against their governors by companies, consisting of seve-
ral hundreds, and sometimes of a thousand ; they repair
to that gate of the palace nearest to which their prince is
most likely to be, where they set themselves to make the
most horrid cries, tearing their garments, and throwing
dust into the air, and demanding justice. 'Theking, upon
hearing these cries, sends to know the occasion of them :
the people deliver their complaints in writing, upon which
he informs them tliat he will commit the cognizance of
the affair to such an one as he names ; and in consequence
of this, justice is usually obtained. — Wutstm.
DUTY ; any action, or course of actions, which flow
from the relations we stand in to God or man ; that which
a man is bound to perform by any natural or legal obli-
gation. The various moral, relative, and spiritual duties
are considered in their places in this work.— Heiid. Bud.
DUVEIL, (Charles Maria, D. D.) a divine of great
reputation in the seventeenth century, was by birth a Jew,
but became a convert to Christianity. In his quest of
divine truth, after passing through the church of Rome,
and the church of England, he embraced the views of the
Baptists, and settled as pastor of the Baptist congregation
in Grace church street, London. He was much supported,
notwithstanding the change in his sentiments, by many
of the dignified clergy, among whom were Drs. Stilling-
fleet. Sharp, Tillotson, Patrick, and Lloyd. Dr. Duveil pub-
lished a literal exposition of the gospels of Mark and
Luke ; also of the Acts of the Apostles, and of the minor
prophets. — Benedict's His. Bap.
DWELL. God divells in light, in respect of his delight
in, and independent possession of his own glorious ex-
cellences, and in respect of his glorious residence amid
rays of inexpressible glory in heaven. 1 Tim. 6: 16. 1
John 1:7. He divells in heaven, in respect of his con-
tinued and delightful residence of his presence there. Ps.
123; 1. He dwells in the tabernacle, temple, and city of
Jerusalem ; there the symbols of his presence were con-
tinued. Ps. 132: 14. and 68: 16. He rf«ie?fc in his church,
and in, and with his people, in the continued bestowal of
his ordinances, and of his gracious, supporting, and com-
forting influences. Ps. 9: 11. 1 John 4: 12. Isa. 57: 15.
The fulness of the Godlicad divells bodily in Christ ; the
divine nature personally, perpetually, and truly resides in
his human nature, by the closest union with it. Col. 2:
9. Christ divelt among men in his state of humihation
on earth. John 1: 14. He dn-ells in our heart by faith,
he is united to us as our head and husband ; his right-
eousness is imputed to us, and applied to our conscience ;
his spirit and grace are fixed in our heart ; he loves and
delights in us, and furnishes our whole soul with his ful-
ness Eph. 3: 17. The Holy Spirit divells in us by per-
sonal residence, and gracious influence. Rom. 8: and 9.
2 Tim. 1: 14. 1 Cor. 3: 16. The word of God dwells in-
ns rirlilij, when it is carefully studied, finnly believed,
closely apphed, and diligently practised. Col. 3: 16. Ps.
119: 11. The saints dwell in God, and in Christ ; they
are united to, and nourished, supported and comforted by
him, and have sweet intimacy and fellowship with him.
1 John 3: 24, and 4: 16. They dnrll in love, when they
live in the faith of God's redeeming love to them, and
in the exercise of love to him and his people". 1 John 4:
15. Wickedness, vengeance, or judgment dwells in or on
a person or land, when it long continues there. Job 11:
14, and 18: 15. Isa. 32: 16. — Brown.
DWIGHT, (Timothy, S. T. D., LL. D.) president of
Yale college, Connecticut, one of the few men who by
uncommon powers of mind, by exalted piety, by pecu-
liar incidents of life, by having exerted a commanding
influence on the interests of the public, and acquired an
unusual sliare in their affections, have given their
names as a peculiar treasure tn the Christian church, to
their country, and to posterity.
He was boni in Northampton, Massachusetts, May 14,
1752. His father was a respectable and opulent mer-
chant, a man of sincere and unaffected piety, of excellent
understanding, and unblemished character. His mother
was the third daughter of the celebrated Jonathan Ed-
wards, pastor of the church at Northampton, afterwards
president of Nassau hall. She was a woman of vigo-
rous and discriminating intellect, and for extent and va-
riety of knowledge has rarely been exceeded by any of
her sex in this country. '■ It was a maxim with her, the
soundness of which her own observation through life fully
confirmed, that- children generally lose several years in
consequence of being considered by their friends as too
young to be taught." She began, therefore, the instruc-
tion of her son almost as soon as he could speak, and
such was his eagerness and capacity for improvement,
that he learned the alphabet at a single lesson ; and at
the age of four, could read the Bible with ease and coi^
rectness. " With his father's example before him, en-
forced and recommended by the precepts of his mother,
he was sedulously instructed in the doctrines of religion,
as well as the whole circle of moral duties. She taught
him from the very dawn of his reason to fear God and to
keep his commandments, to be conscientiously just, kind,
affectionate, charitable and forgiving, to preserve, on all
occasions and under all circumstances, the most sacred
regard to truth, and to relieve the necessities, and supply
the wants of the poor and unfortunate. She also aimed
,at a very early period to enlighten his conscience, to make
"him afraid of sin, and to teach him to hope for pardon 'a
only through the righteousness of Christ. The impres-
sions thus made upon his mind in infancy were never
erased." His biographer adds, " Her school room was
the nursery. Here he had his regular hours for study
as in a school ; and tivice every day she heard him re-
peat his lessons. He was then for limited periods per-
mitted to read such books as he chose." He often, at
these times, read over the historical parts of the Bible,
E AG
[481 ]
E A G
and gave an account of them to his mother. The minu-
test incidents in them were thus deeply and distinctly
fixed in his memory ; and to this circumstance we are
probably indebted for his epic poem, " The Conquest of
Cauaan," if not for his fine " Dissertation on the History,
Eloquence and Poetry of the Bible,'' which at the age of
twenty procured him so much honor.
Froiia,the age of six to twelve, he'made such rapid and
extraordinary advances in every kind of knowledge, that
he would have been ready for admission into Yale college
at eight ; and when he actually did enter at thirteen, he
was already master of history, geography, and the
classics.
The last two years of his college life, he devoted four-
teen hours each day to close study. His acquisitions were
very great ; but his sight was irreparably injured by this
excessive application. He was graduated in 1769, among
llie first of his class. For two years afterwards he taught
a grammar school at New Haven with great reputation.
His time here was regularly divided, and occupied ; six
hours each day in school ; eight in close and secure study ;
ten in exercise and sleep.
After far outstripping his rivals in the career of litera-
ture, he was called to become a tutor in Yale college at
the age of nineteen. This office he filled with advantage
to the institution and credit to himself. Being licensed as
a preacher, he was chosen a chaplain in the American
army, in 1777. Soon after this appointment, his father,
however, died ; and he was compelled to resign his situa-
tion, and to take charge of his mother and a large family.
Thus he passed five years of his life, during which he
twice consented to serve the town as their representative in
the state legislature. In May, 1795, he was elected presi-
dent of Yale college. This was a situation eminently
adapted to him, and one in which he was enabled to ad-
vance the interests of learning and religion. "When Dr.
Dwight entered upon his arduous duties, the students were
infected with infidelity ; but in consequence of the elforts
of his wisdom, prudence, zeal, and learning, alike firm
and well principled, he succeeded to a great degree, in
expelling opinions so inimical to the best interests of
society. Afflicted by a disorder in his eyes, he was com-
pelled, in after-years, to employ an amanuensis to pen
from his lips his sermons. As a preacher, he was dis-
tinguished by the originality and copiousness of his ideas ;
the simplicity, fulness, and force of his language : and
the dignity, propriety, and seriousness of his manner.
As a professor of theology, he was equally eminent ; and
his " Theology explained and defended," in five volumes,
octavo, should he possessed by every student in divinity.
He also wrote " Travels in New England and New York,"
four volumes, octavo ; two Sermons on " The Dangers of
the Infidel Philosophy," and various other discourses.
Dr. Dwight continued to discharge the duties of his
station, both as a minister, and president of the college,
and professor of theolog)', to the age of sixty-five ;
when, after a long and painful illness, he expired, on
January the 11th, 1817. His last words were, in refe-
rence to the 8th of Romans and the 17th of John, which
had been read to him at his request, " 0 what triumphant
truths !"
Two volumes of his sermons were published after his
death. All his works are in high esteem, both in this
country and in Europe. — Memoir ; Jones's Chris. Biog.
E.
EAGLE ; (nesher,) Exod. 19: 4. Lev. 11: 13. The name
is derived from a verb which signifies to lacerate, or tear
m'S
in pieces. The eagle has always been considered as the
king of birds, on account of its great strength, rapidity
and elevation of flight, natural ferocity, and the terror it
inspires into its fellows of the air. Its voracity is so great
that a large extent of territory is requisite for the supply
of proper sustenance ; and Providence has therefore con-
stituted it a solitary animal : two pair of eagles are never
found in the same neighborhood, though the genus is
dispersed through every quarter of the world. Its sight
is quick, strong, and piercing, to a proverb. In Job
39: 27, the natural history of the eagle is finely drawn
up:—
Is it at. thy 7oice thai the eagle soara ?
And ther*,fore matcevh his nesl on high ?
The roct. is the place of his habitation.
He abii'.ea on Ihe crag, Ihe place of stron^h.
Then'"a he pounces upon his prev.
61
His eyes discern afar off.
Even his young ones drinlc down blood ;
And wherever is slaughter, there is lie.
Alluding to the popular opinion that the eagle assists
its feeble young in their flight, by bearing them up on
its own pinions, Moses represents Jehovah as saying,
" Ye have seen what I did to the Eg^^ptians, and how I
bore you on eagles' wings, and brought you unto myself,"
Exod. 19: 4. Scheuchzer has quoted from an ancient
poet, the following beautiful paraphrase on this pas-
Ac velut alHuum priitceps, fulvusque tonantis
Armiger, implnincs, et adhitc sine ribore natos
Sollicita refovet cura, pinguisque ferintE
Indulget pastits : mox lit cum viribus al(Z
Vesticipes crevere. vocat se blandior aura,
Erpansa invUat pluma, dorsoque morantes
Excipit, attolitqve humeris, plausuque secundo
Pertur in arva, timens o}i€ri, et tamen impete presso
Remigium tentans alarum, incurvaque pinnis
Vela Icgens, humiles tranat sub nubitius oras.
nine sensim supra alta petit, jam, jamque sub astra
Erigitur, ctirsusque letes citus urget in auras,
Omnia pervolitans late loca, et agntijiejtetus
Fertque rejertque suos vario, moremqne volandi
Addacet : ilti autem, longa assuetudine docti,
Paulatim incipiunt pennis se credere ccelo
Impavidi : tantum a tcneris valet addere cttram.
2. When Balaam delivered his predictions respecting
the fate that awaited the nations which he then particu-
larized, he said of the Kenites, " Strong is thy dwelling,
and thou puttest thy nest in a rock," (Num. 24: 21 )
alluding to that princely bird, the eagle, which not only
delights in soaring to the loftiest heights, hut chooses the
highest rocks, and most elevated mountains, as desirable
situations for erecting its nest, Hab. 2: 9. Obad. 4.
What Job says concerning the eagle, which is to be un-
derstood in a literal sense, " Where the slain are. there
is he,'' our Savior turns into a fine parable : '■ Whereso-
ever the carcass is. there will the eagles be gathered
together," (Matt. 24: 28.) that is. Wherever the guilty
are, and however intermingled with ihe good, divine jus-
tice, with eagle eye, will not fail to detect them, and exe-
cute vengeance upon them, Luke 17: 37.
3. The swiftness of the flight of the eagle is alluded tc
EAR I. 45
in several passages of Scripture ; as, '■ Tlie Lord shall
bring a nation against thee from afar, from the end of the
earth, as swift as the eagle ttieth," Dent. 28: 49. In the
affecting lamentation of David over Saul and Jonathan,
their impetuous and rapid career is described in forcible
terms : " They were swifter than eagles ; they were
stronger than lions," 2 Sara. 1: 23. Jeremiah, when he
beheld in vision the march of Nebuchadnezzar, cried,
" Behold, he shall come up as clouds, and his chariots
shall be as a whirlwind. His horses are swifter than
eagles. Woe unto us, for we are spoiled," Jer. 4: 13.
To the wide-expanded wings of the eagle, and the rapidity
of its flight, the same prophet beautifully alludes m a
subsequent chapter, where he describes the subversion of
Moab by the sauie ruthless conqueror : " Behold, he shall
fly as an eagle, and spread his wings over Sloab," Jer.
48: 40. In the same manner he describes the sadden
desolations of Amnion iu the next chapter ; but, when he
turns his eye to the ruins of his own country, he exclaims,
in still more energetic language, " Our persecutors are
swifter than the eagles of the heavens," Lam. 4: 19.
Under the same comparison the patriarch Job describes
the rapid flight of time : '• My days are passed away, as
the eagle that hasteth to the prey," Job 9: 26. The sur-
prising rapidity with which the blessings of common
providence sometimes vanish from the grasp of the pos-
sessor is thus described by Solomon : " Riches certainly
make themselves wings : they fly away as an eagle towards
heaven." Prov. 23: 5. The flight of this bird is as sub-
lime as it is rapid and impetuous. None of the feathered
race soar so high. In his daring excursions he is said to
leave the clouds of heaven, and regions of thunder, and
lightning and tempest, far beneath him, and to approach
the very limits of ether. There is an allusion to this
lofty soaring in the prophecy of Obadiah, concerning the
pride of Moab : " Though thou exalt thyself as the eagle,
and though thou set thy nest among the stars, thence will
I bring thee down, saith the Lord," Obad. 4. The pro-
phet Jeremiah pronounces the doom of Edom in similar
terms : " 0 thou that dwellest in the clefts of the rock,
that boldest the height of the hill ; though thou shouldest
make thy nest high as the eagle, I will bring thee down
from thence, saith the Lord," Jer. 49: 16. The eagle
lives and retains its vigor to a great age ; and, after
moulting, renews its \'igor so surprisingly, as to be said,
hyperbolically, to become young again. Psalm 103: 5, and
Isa. 40: 31. It is remarkable that Cyrus, compared, in
Isaiah 46: 11, to an eagle, (so the word translated "rave-
nous bird" should be rendered,) had an eagle for his en-
sign, according to Xenophon, who uses, without Iniowing
it, the identical word of the prophet, with onlj' a Greek
termination to it : so exact is the correspondence betwixt
the prophet and the historian, the prediction and the event.
Xenophon and other ancient historians inform us that the
golden eagle with extended wings was the ensign of the
Persian monarchs long before it was adopted by the
Romans ; and it is very probable that the Persians bor-
rowed the symbol from the ancient Assyrians, in whose
tanners it waved, till imperial Babylon bowed her head
io the yoke of Cyrus. Hos. 8: 1, Jer. 48: 40. 49: 22.
[sa. 8: 8.— Watson.
EAR ; the organ of hearing. The Scripture uses the
term figurately. Uncircumcised ears are ears inattentive
to the word of God. To signify God's regard to the
prayers of his people, the psalmist says, " His ears are
open to their cry," Psalm 34: 15. Among the Jews the
slave, who renounced the privilege of being made free
from servitude in the sabbatical year, submitted to have
his ear bored through with an awl ; which was done in
the presence of some judge, or magistrate, that it might
appear a voluntary act. The ceremony took place at his
master's door, and was the mark of servitude and bond-
age. The psalmist says, in the person of the Messiah,
" Sacrifice and offering thou didst not desire ; mine ears
hast thou opened." Heb. " Thou hast digged my ears."
This either means. Thou hast opened them, removed
impediments, and made them attentive ; or. Thou hast
pierced them, as those of such servants were pierced, who
chose to remain with their masters ; and therefore imports
the absolute and voluntary submission of Messiah to the
2 ] EAR
will of the Father. " Make the ears of this people
heavy," (Isa. 6: 10.) that is, render their minds inatten-
tive and disobedient ; the prophets being said often to do
that of which they were the innocent occasion. — Watson.
EARING ; an agricultural term. There is a passage,
(Gen. 45: 6.) which, if it has been occasionally misunder-
stood by a reader, may be pardoned :— " There remain five
years, in which shall be neither EARwe nor harvest." It
seems, that earing is an old English word for ploughing ;
the original word charish, is that usually rendered
" ploughing," and why it should not be so translated here
we cannot tell, as mnng suggests the idea of gathering
ears of corn after they are arrived at maturity ; whereas
Joseph means to say, " there shall be neither ploughing
nor harvest during five years." The reader will perceive
that this variation of import implies a totally different
course of natural phenomena in Egypt ; for the Nile must
have risen so little as to have rendered ploughing hopeless ;
or, its waters must have been so abundant, as to have
overflowed the country entirely, and to have annihilated
the use of the plough : moreover, if no ploughing, no
sowing ; that is, harvest Was not expected ; consequently
it was not prepared for, in respect of corn. No doubt but
the Nile was deficient, it did not rise ; the peasants, there-
fore, did not plough ; and to this agi-ees the account of an
ancient author, that for nine years together, the Nile did
not rise to half a harvest. See also 1 Sam. 8: 12. Exod.
34: 21. Isa. 30: 2i.—Calmet.
EARNEST ; somewhat given in hand to give assu-
rance, the what more is promised shall be given in due
time. It differs from a pledge, as it is not taken back
when full payment is made. The Holy Ghost and his
influences are the earnest of our inheritance ; are of the same
nature, though not degree of application, with our eternal
happiness ; and they give us assurance that in due time
it shall be bestowed upon us. 2 Cor. 1: 22, and 5: 5.
Eph. 1: 14. — Bron-n : Ency. Amer.
EAR-RINGS, and Nose-Jewels, were the favorite orna-
ments among the Eastern females. Both are frequently
mentioned in Scripture. Sir John Chardin says, " It is
the custom in almost all the East, for the women to wear
rings in their noses, in the left nostril, which is bored
low down in the middle. These rings are of gold, and
have commonly two pearls and one ruby between them,
placed in the ring ; I never saw a girl, or young woman
in Arabia, or in all Persia, who did not wear a ring after
this manner in her nostril." His testimony is confirmed
by that of Egraont and Dr. Russel. Two words are used
in the Scriptures to denote these ornamental rings, nezem
and agil. Mr. Harmer seems to think they properly sig-
nified ear-rings ; but this is a mistake ; the sacred writers
use them promiscuously for the rings both of the nose and
of the ears. That writer, however, is probably right in
supposing that nezem is the name of a much smaller ring
than agil. Chardin observed two sorts of rings in the
East ; one so small and close to the ear, that there is no
vacuity between them ; the other so large, as to admit the
fore-finger between it and the ear ; these last adorned
with a ruby and a pearl on each side, strung on the ring.
Some of these ear-rings had figures upon them, and
E AS
[483]
EAT
strange characters, which he believed were taUsmans or
charms ; but which were probably the names and symbols
of their false gods. We know from the testimony i:f
Pliny, that rings with the images of their gods were worn
by the Romans. The Indians say, they ?,re preservatives
against enchantment ; upon which Cliardin hazards a
very probable conjecture, that the ear-rings of Jacob's
family were perhaps of this kind, which might be the
reason of his demanding them, that he might bury
them under the oak before they went up to Bethel. —
Wtitson.
EARTH. The restriction of the term "earth" to
Judea is more co.nimon in Scripture than is usually sup-
posed ; and this acceptation of it has great effect on
several passages, in which it ought to be so understood.
Earth in a moral sense is opposed to heaven, and to
what is spiritual. '■ He that is of the earth is earthy, and
spealreth of the earth ; he that comcth from above is above
all," John 3: 31. " If ye then be risen with Christ, set
vour affections on things above, not on things on the
earth," Col. 3: 1, 2.~Wntson.
EARTHLY ; having the affections fixed on the
affairs of this life : it is opposed to heavenly-mindedness.
Jam. 3: 15. — Calmet.
EARTHQUAKE. The Scriptures speak of several
earthquakes. One happened in the twenty-seventh year
of Uzziah, king of Judah, in the year of the world 3231.
This is mentioned in Amos 1: 1, and in Zechariah 11: 5.
Josephus says tliat its laolence divided a mountain, which
lay west of Jerusalem, and drove one part of it four
furlongs. A very memorable earthquake is that which
happened at o\ir Savior's death, Matt. 27: 51. Many
have thought that this was perceived throughout the
world. Others are of opinion that it was felt only in
Judea, or even in the temple at Jerusalem. St. Cyril of
Jerusalem says, that the rocks upon mount Calvary were
shown in his time, which had been rent asunder by this
earthquake. Maundrell and Sandys testify the same,
and say that they examined the breaches in the rock, and
were convinced that they were the effects of an earth-
quake. It must have been terrible, since the centurion
and those with hira were so affected by it, as to acknow-
ledge the innocence of our Savior, Luke 23: 47. Phlegon,
Adrian's freedman, relates that, together with the eclipse,
which happened at noon-day. in the fourth year of the
two hundred and second Olympiad, or A. D. 33, a very
great earthquake was also felt, principally in Bithynia.
Tlie effects ol God's power, wrath, and vengeance are
compared to earthquakes, P.salm IS: 7. 46: 2. 114: 4.
An earthquake signifies also, in prophetic language, the
dissolution of governments and tha overthrow of states. — ,
Watson.
EAST ; one of the four cardinal points of the world ;
na-nely, that particular point of th.; horizon in which the
sun is seen to rise. The Hebrews express the east, west,
north, and south, by words which signify before, behind,
left, and right, according to the situation of a* man who
his his face turned towards the east . By the east, they fre-
quently describe, not only Arabia Deserta, and the lands
of IMoab and Ammon, which lay to the east of Palestine,
but also Assyria, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Chaldea,
l!t.)ugh they are situated rather to the north than to the
east of Judea. Balaam, C3'rus, and the wise men who
visued Bethlehem at the time Christ was born, are said to
come from the east, Num. 23: 7. Isa. 4t): 11. Matt. 2: 1.—
]Vatsnn.
EASTBURN, (Joseph ;) a preacher to seamen in Phi-
l.adelphia, who clied January 30, 182S, aged seventy-nine.
Ma^jr thousands attended his funeral. At the grave. Dr.
Green delivered an address. When he began to preach
to seamen, about 1820, " we procured," he said, " a sail
loft, and on the sabbath hung out a flag. As the sailors
came by, they hailed us, "Ship ahoy!" We answered
them. They asked us, " Where we were bound ?" We
told them to the port of New Jerusalem — and that they
would do well to go in the fleet. " Well," said they, " we
will come in and hear your terms." This was the begin-
ning of the mariners' church. Mr. Eastman was emi-
nently pious, and devoted to the salvation of seamen. —
Allen.
EASTER ; an ecclesiastical festival commemoratlre
of the resurrection of Christ. It originated in the circum-
stance that Christ was typified by the paschal lamb,
ordained by Moses to be slain at the feast of the passover ;
the feast being considered as a continuation, in its fulfil-
ment, of the Jewish festival. The English name Easter,
and the German Osteni, are derived from the name of the
Teutonic goddess Ostera (Anglo-Saxon Eostre,) whose
festival was celebrated by the ancient Saxons with pecu-
liar solemnities, in the month of April, and for which, as
in many other instances, the first Romish missionaries
substituted the paschal feast.
As early as the second century, there were keen disputes
respecting the day on which this feast should be kept :
the Eastern church persisting in observing it on the same
day with the Jews ; while the Western celebrated it on
Sunday, as the day of Christ's resurrection. The dispute
was finally settled at the council of Nice, in 325, which
ordained that it should be kept always on a Sunday ; only
as it was a movable feast, no small difficulty long con-
tinued to be felt as to its adjustment. See Bibl. Repos.
for Jan. 182i.~Hend. Buck.
EATING. The ancient Hebrews did not eat indiffe-
rently with all persons : they would have esteemed them-
selves polluted and dishonored by eating with people of
another religion, or of an odious profession. In Joseph's
day they neither ale with the Egyptians, nor the Egyptians
with them, (Gen. 43: 32,) nor, in our Savior's time, with
the Samaritans, John 4; S). 'The Jews were scandaUzed
at Christ's eating with publicans and sinners. Matt. 9: H.
As there were several sorts of meats, the use of which
v.'as prohibited, they could not conveniently eat v.-ith those
who partook of them, fearing to receive pollution by
touching such food, or if by accident any particles of it
should fall on them. The ancient Hebrews, at their
meals, had each his separate table. Joseph, entertaining
his brethren in Egypt, sealed them separately, each at his
particular table ; and he himself set down separately from
the Egyptians who ale with him ; but he sent to his
brethren portions out of the provisions which were before
him. Gen. 43: 31, &c.
The ancient manners which we see in Homer, we see
likewi.se in Scripture, with regard to eating, drinking, and
entertainments : we find great plenty, hut little delicacy ;
and great respect and honor paid to the guests by serving
thera plentifully. Joseph sent his brother Benjamin a
portion five times larger than those of his other brethren.
The women did not appear at table in entertainments with
the men : this would have been an indecency, as it is at
this day throughout the East.
The present Jews, before they sit down to table, care-
fully wash their hands : they speak of this ceremony as
essential and obligatory. After meals they wash them
again. When they sit down to table, the master of the
house, or the chief person in the company, taking bread,
breaks it, but does not wholly separate it ; then, putting
his hand on it, he lecites this blessing : " Blessed be thou,
O Lord our God, the King of the world, who produces!
the bread of the earth." Those present answer, " Amen."
Having distributed the bread among the guests, he taiies
the vessel of wine in his risht hand, saying, •' Blessed
art thou, O Lord our God, King of the world, who hast
produced the fruit of the vine." They then repeat the
twenty-third Psalm. Buxtorf and Leo of Modena, who
have given particular accounts of the Jewish ceremonies,
differ in some circumstances : the reason is, Buxtorf wrote
principally the ceremonies of the German Jews, and Leo,
those of the Italian .Tews. They take care that, after
meals, there shall be a piece of bread remaining on the
table ; the master of the house orders a glass to be
washed, fills it with wine, and, elevating it, says, '' Let
us bless him of whose benefits we have been partaking:"'
the rest answer, " Blessed be He who has heaped his
favors on us, and by his goodness has now fed us." Then
he recites a pretty long prayer, wherein he thanks God for
his many benefits vouchsafed to Israel ; beseeches him to
pitv Jerusalem and his temple, to restore the throne of
Da'rid, to send Elias and the Messiah, to deliver them out
of their long captivity, i^c. All present answer, "Amen;'
and then itcite Psalm 34: 9, 10. Then, giving the glass
E BI
484
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with the little wine iii it to he drunk round, he drinks
what is left, and the table is cleared. (See Banquets.)
Partaking of the benefits of Christ's sacrifice by faith, is
also called eating, because this is the support of our spiri-
tual life, John 6: 53, 56. Hosea reproaches the priests
of his time with eating the sins, or rather sin-oiTerings ot
the people, (Hosea 4: 8.) that is, feasting on their sacri-
fices, rather than reforming their manners. John the
Baptist is said to have dime " neither eating nor dnnk-
ing," (Matt. U: 18.) that is, as other men did; for he
lived in the wilderness, on locusts, wild honey, and water,
Matt. 3: 4. Luke 1: 15. This is expressed, in Luke 7: 33,
by his neither eating " bread," nor drinking " wine."
On the otheir hand, the Son of man is said, in Matt. 1 1: f 9,
to have come " eating and drinking;" that is, as others
did ; and that too with all sorts of persons, Pharisees,
publicans, and sinners. — Watson.
EBADIANS ; certain Arabian Christians, who settled
in Hirah, a town of Irack, and in its neighborhood, where
they built huts, and formed villages, in order to enjoy the
free exercise of their religion. The name implies, " Ser-
vants of God. — Brougli/on's Did.; Williams.
EBAL ; a celebrated mountain in the tribe of Ephraim,
near Shechem, over against mount Gerizim. These two
mountains are within two hundred paces of each other,
and separated by a deep valley, in which stood the town
of Shechem. The two mountains are much alike in
magnitude and form, being of a semi-circular figure,
'about half a league in length, and, on the sides nearest
Shechem, nearly perpendicular. One of them is barren ;
the other, covered with a beautiful verdure. Moses com-
manded the Israelites, as soon as they should have passed
the river Jordan, to go directly to Shechem, and divide
the whole multitude into two bodies, each composed of six
tribes ; one company to be placed on Ebal, and the other
on Gerizim. The s'ix tribes that were on Gerizim were
to pronounce blessings on those who should faithfully
observe the law of the Lord, and the six others on mount
Ebal were to pronounce curses against tho.se who should
violate it, Deut. 11: 29, &c. 27: and 28: Josh. 8: 30, 31.—
— Watson.
EBED-MELECH ; a eunuch or servant of king Z'jde-
kiah, who, being informed that Jeremiah was imprisoned
in a place full of mire, informed the king of it, and was
the means of his restoration to safety, though not to
liberty. For this humanity he was promised divine pro-
tection, and after the city was taken by Nebuzaradan he
was preserved, Jer. 38: 7. — Calmet.
EBENEZER; the name of that field wherein the
Israelites were defeated by the Philistines, when the ark
of the Lord was taken, (1 Sam. 4; 1.) also a memorial
stone set up by Samuel to commemorate a victory over
the Philistines. The word signifies, the stone of help ; and
it was erected by the prophet, saying, " Hitherto the Lord
hath helped us." — Watson.
EBER. (SeeHEEEi;.)
EBIONITES ; a sect of the first two or three centuries ;
but it is not certain whether they received their name from
a leader of the name of Ebion, (whom Dr. Lardner con-
siders as a disciple of Cerinthus,) or from the meaning of
the Hebrew word ebion, which implies poverty ; and if the
latter, whether they assumed the name, as affecting to be
poor, like the Founder of Christianity ; or whether it wets
conferred on them by way of reproach, as being of the
lower orders. The use of the terra, also, according to Dr.
Horsley, was various and indefinite, Sometimes it wa,s
the peculiar name of those sects that denied both the
divinity of our Lord, and his miraculous conception.
Then its meaning was extended, to take in another party ;
who admitted the miraculous conception of Jesus, but
still denied his divinity, and questioned his previous exist-
ence. At last, it seems, the Nazarites, whose error was
rather a superstitious severity in their practice, than any
deficiency in their faith, were included by Origen in the
infamy of the appellation. Dr. Priestley, claiming the
Ebionites as Jewish Unitarians, considers the ancient
Nazarenes, that is, the first Jewish converts, as the true
Ebionites ; these, he thinks, were called Nazarenes, from
their attachment to Jesus of Nazareth ; and Ebionites,
from their poor and mean condition, just as some of the
Reformers were called Beghards or beggars. The doctor ^
cites the authorities of Origen and Epiphanius, to prove
that both these denominations related to the same people,
diflfering only like the Socinians, in receiving or rejecting
the fact of the miraculous conception ; and neither, as he
assures us, were reckoned heretics by any writers of the
two first centuries. To this Dr. Horsley replies, that both
Jews and heathens called the first Christians Nazarenes,
in allusion to the mean and obscure birth-place of their
master, Jesus of Nazareth, (Matt. 2: 23. Acts 10: 38.)
but insists, and answei-s every pretended proof to the
contrary, that the term Nazarenes was never applied to
any distinct sect of Christians before the final destruction
of Jerusalem by Adrian. Dr. Semler, a German writer,
gives the following opinion : " Those who more rigidly
maintained the Mosaic observances, and who were nu-
merous in Palestine, are usually called Ebionites and
Nasarseans. Some believe that they ought not to be
reckoned heretics ; others think that they were united in
doctrine, difiering only in name ; others place them in the
second century. It is of little consequence whether we
distinguish or not the Nazarenes, or Nasaraeans, from the
Ebionites. It is certain that both these classes were te-
nacious of the Blosaic ceremonies, and more inclined to
the Jews than to the Gentiles, though they admitted the
IVIessiahship of Jesus, in a very low and judaizing man-
ner. The Ebionites held in execration the doctrine of the
apostle Paul." Dr. J. Pye Smith, who quotes this passage
from Dr. Semler, adds", " Such, it is apprehended, on
grounds of reasonable probability, was the origin of Uni-
tarianism ; the child of Judaism misunderstood, and
of Christianity imperfectly received." — Watson; Hmcl.
Buck ; Williams.
EBODA ; a town in Arabia Petra-a. Probably Oboda,
or Oboth, Num. 21: 10. 33: 43, U.— Calmet.
EBONY * an Indian wood, black, hard, heavy, and
easily taking a beautiful polish. It was anciently re-
garded as a valuable article of merchandise. Ezek. 27: 15.
ECBATANA ; a city of Media, which, according to
Herodotus, was built by Dejoces, king of the Medes. It
was .situated on a gentle declivity, distant twelve stadin
from mount Orontes, and was in compass one hundreti
and fifty stadia, and, next to Nineveh and Babylon, was
one of the strongest and most beautiful cities of the East.
After the union of Media with Persia, it was the summer
residence of the Persian kings. Here is shown the tomb
of Mordecai and Esther ; as well as that of Avicenna,
the celebrated Arabian physician. The sepulchre of#iie
former stands near the centre of Hamadan : the tombs are
covered by a dome, on which is the following inscription
in Hebrew : " This day, l5th of the month Adar, in the
year 4474 from the creation of the world, was finished
the building of this temple over the graves of Mordecai
and Esther, by the hands of the good-hearted brothers,
Elias and Samuel, the sons of the deceased Ismael of '
Kashan." This inscription, the date of which proves the '
dome to have been built eleven hundred years, was sent'
by Sir Gore Ousley to Sir John Malcolm, who has given '
it in his History of Persia ; who also says that the tombs,
which are of a black-colored wool, are evidently of very
ECO
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ECC
great antiquity, but iii good preservation, as the wood has
not perished, and the inscriptions are still very legible.
Sir R. K. Porter has given a more particular description
of this tomb. The inscription «ixin it is as follows :
" Mordecai, beloved and honored by a king, was great
and good. His garments were as those of a sovereign.
Ahasuerus covered him with this rich dress, and also
placed a golden chain around his neck. The city of Susa
rejoiced at his honors, and his high fortune became the
glory of the Jews." The inscription which encompasses
the sarcophagus of Mordecai, is to this effect : " It is said
by David, Preserve me, 0 God ! I am now in thy pre-
sence. I have cried at the gate of heaven, that thou art
ray God ; and what goodness I have received from thee,
0 Lord ! Those whose bodies are now beneath in this
earth, when animated by thy mercy, were great ; and
whatever happiness was bestowed upon them in this
world, came from thee, 0 God ! Their grief and suffer-
ings were many, at the first ; but they became happy,
because they always called upon thy holy name in their
miseries. Thou lif^edst me up, and I became powerful.
Thine enemies sought to destroy me, in the early times
of my life ; but the shadow of thy hand was upon me, and
covered me, as a tent from their wicked purposes ! —
Mordecai." The following is the corresponding inscrip-
tion on the sarcophagus of Esther:"Ipraise thee, 0 God,
that thou hast created me ! I know that my sins merit
punishment, yet I hope for mercy at thy hands ; for wlien-
ever I call upon thee, thou art with me ; thy holy presence
secures me from all evil. My heart is at ease, and my
fear of thee increases. BIy life became, through thy
goodness, at the last, full of peace. 0 God, do not shut
my soul out from thy divine presence ! Those whom thou
lovest. never feel the torments of hell. Lead me, O mer-
ciful Father, to the hfe of life ; that I may be tilled with
the heavenly fruits of paradise! — Esther." The Jews
at Hamadan have no tradition of the cause of Esther and
Mordecai having been interred at that place ; but, however
that might be, there are sufficient reasons for believing
the vahdity of their interment in this spot.
The strongest evidence we can have of the truth of
any historical fact is, its commemoration by an annual
festival. It is well known, that several important events
in Jewish history are thus celebrated ; and amongst the
rest, the feast of Purim is kept on the 13th and 14th of the
month Adar, to commemorate the deliverance obtained by
the Jews, at the intercession of Esther, from the general
massacre ordered by Ahasuerus, and the slaughter they
%vere permitted to make of their enemies. Now on this
same festival, in the same day and month, Jewish pil-
grims resort from all quarters to the sepulchre of Blordecai
and Esther; and have done so for centuries, — a strong
presumptive proof that the tradition of their burial in this
place rests on some authentic foundation.
Ecbatana was encompassed with seven walls, of une-
qual heights ; the largest, according to Herodotus, (lib. i.
cap. OS.) was equal in extent with those of Athens ; that
is, one hundred and seventy-eight furlongs, or nearly
eight leagues, Thucyd. lib. i. It still subsists, under the
name of Hamadan, in latitude, thirty-four degi'ees and
fifty-three minules north; longitude, forty degrees east.
Its inhabitants are stated by Mr. Kinnier to he about
f.)rty thousand, including about six hundred Jewish fami-
lies.— ll'^fjlson ; Cahnet,
ECCLESIASTES ; a canonical book of the Old Testa-
ment. This word is feminine in the Hebrew ; but the
• Greeks and Latins, not regarding the gender, render it
Ecdesiiistes, an orator, one who speaks in public. Solomon
(iesci-ibes himself in the first verse, " The words of Kohe-
leth, (Eng. Vers. ' the Preacher,') the son of David, king
of Jerusalem." He mentions his works, his riches, his
buildings, and his proverbs, or parables, and that he was
the wisest and happiest of all kings in Jerusalem ; which
descripiion plainly characterizes Solomon. This book is
generally thought to be the production of Solomon's re-
pentance, toward the latter end of his life. It proposes
the sentiments of the Sadducees and Epicureans in their
full force ; proves excellently by a philosophical induction
from the experience of human life, the vanity of all
earthly things, apart from the possession of the divine
favor, and the prospects of immortality ; the little benefit
of men's restless and bu.sy cares, and the unsatisfying
nature of all their knowledge ; but concludes, " Let us
hear the conclusion of the whole matter : Fear God, and
keep his commandments, for this is the whole of man."
In this, all his obligations tenninate ; this is his only
means to happiness, present and future. In reading this
book, care should be taken not to deduce opinions from
detached sentiments, but from the general scope and com-
bined force of the whole. — Cahnet.
ECCLESIASTICAL; an appellation given to i'hatevcr
belongs to the church ; thus we say, ecclesiastical polity,
jurisdiction, history, &:c. — Haul. Buck.
ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY; a narration of the
transactions, revolutions, and events that relate to
the church. As to the utility of church histoiy. Dr.
Jortin, who was an acute writer on this subject, shall
here speak for us: he observes, 1. That it will show us
the amazing progress of Christianity through the Roman
empire, through the East and West, although the powers
of the world cruelly opposed it. 2. Connected with
Jewish and Pagan history, it will show us the total de-
struction of Jerusalem, the overthrow of the Jewish church
and state ; and the continuance of that unhappy nation
for seventeen hundred j-ears, though dispersed over the
face of the earth, and oppressed at different times by
Pagans, Christians, and Mahometans. 3. It shows us that
the increase of Christianity produced, in the countries
where it was received, the overthrow and extinction of
paganism, which, after a feeble resistance, perished about
the sixth centurj-. 4. It shows us how Christianity hath
been continued and delivered down from the apostolical to
the present age. 5. It shows us the various opinions
which prevailed at different times amongst the fathers
and other Christians, and how they departed, more or
less, from the simplicity of the gospel. 0. It will enable
us to form a true judgment of the merit of the fathers,
and of the use which is to be made of them. 7. It will
show us the evil of imposing unreasonable terms of com-
munion, and requiring Christians to profess doctrines not
propounded in scriptural words, but inferred as conse-
quences from passages of Scripture, which one may call
systems of consequential divinity. 8. It will show us the
origin and progress of popery ; and, lastly, it will show
us, 9. The origin and progress of the Reformation.
Ecclesiastical history is a verj' important branch of
study, but one which is attended with many difficuhies.
The widely-spread and diversified circumstances of the
Christian church, even from the earliest period, render it
difficull to arrive at satisfactory views of many events in
which it was concerned. Those events were seldom re-
corded nt the time, or by the persons who lived on the
spot. The early writers who undertook to give the history
of the church, were not well skilled in the laws of historic
truth and evidence, nor always well fitted to apply those
laws. Opinions and statements scattered over the pages
of the fathers and their successors, are often vague, dis-
cordant, and unsatisfactory, presenting almost endless
perplexity, or matter of debate. While these and other
causes contribute to render ecclesiastical history very
difficult, they who have devoted them.selves to it in modern
times, look at the subjects of their investigation through
mediums ^\hich tend to color or distort most of the facts
passing under their review. Their associations and habits
of thinlcing lead them unconsciously to attach modern
ideas to ancient terms and usages. The word chvnh, for
mstance, almost invariably suggests the idea of a body
allied to the slate, and holding the orthodox creed. The
heretics of church history are generally regarded as
men of erroneous principles and immoral lives. Councils
are bodies representative, and clothed with something
approaching to infallible authority. Bishops are not re-
garded as pastors of particular congregations, but ecclesi-
astical rulers of proWnces. All these things tend greatly
to bewilder and perplex an inquirer into the true state of
the profession of Christianity during a long succession of
ages ; and from their distracting influence, even the
strongest minds can scarcely be protected. Impartiality
is commonly professed, and, in most instances, honestly
intended, but very rarely exercised.
ECC
[ 486 ]
ECL
See Dr. Joitin's Charge on the Use and Importance of
Ecclesiastical History, in his "Works, vol, vii. ch. 2.
For ecclesiastical historians, see Eiaebitts' Eccl. Hist,
with Valesius' mjtes ; Baronii Annates Eccl. ; Spondarii An-
nales Sacri ; Farei Universalis Hist. Eccl. ; Lampe, Dnpin,
Spanheim.anA Mosheim'sEccl. Hist. ; Fuller's and Warner's
Eccl. Hist, of England ; Jortin's Remarks on Eccl. Hist. ;
Millar's Fropagalion of ChristianHij ; Gillies' Historical
Collections ; Dr. Erskine's Sketches, and Eobiiuwi's Re-
searches. The most recent are, Dr. Campbell's, Gregory's,
Milner's, and Dr. Haweis's ; Schroek's, Jones's, and Kri,!-
der's, all of which have their excellenrips. See also S<[.i-
ther's Magnolia ; Neale's History of the Puritans ; Bogue
and Bennett's History of the Dissenters ; hiiney, and Bene-
dict's History of the Baptists.
For the history of the church under the Old Testament,
the reader may consult Millar's History of the Church ;
Frideaiix and Sliuckford's Connections ; Dr. JVatts's Scrip-
ture History ; Fleur'j's History of the Israelites ; and espe-
cially Jahn's History of the Hebren- Commonn-ealth. — Hend.
Buck.
ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY; the rules hy which
churches are governed, as lo their Sjiii ilual concerns.
It appears that all Protestants immediately after the
Reformation, with the exception of the Baptists, whilst
they abjured the papal siipreinacy. were united in holding
that the mode of administering the church might be
varied, some of them being attached to episcopacy, others
to presbytery ; but all founding this attachment upon the
judgment which they had formed as to the tendency or
utility of either of these modes of government. An idea
soon was avowed by some of the reformers, that the
whole regulation of the church pertained to the magis-
trate ; this branch of power being vested in him no less
than that of administering the civil government ;_ and to
this opinion the name of Erastianism, from Erastus, who
first defended it, was given. Cranmer, in an official
reply which he made to certain questions that had been
submitted for his consideration, declared, "that the civil
ministers under the king's majesty be those that shall
please his highness for the time to put in authority imder
him ; as, for example, the lord chancellor, lord great
master, &c. ; the ministers of God's word under his
majesty be the bishops, parsons, vicars, and such other
priests as be appointed by his highness to that ministra-
tion ; as, for example, the bishop of Canterbury, &c.
All the said officers and ministers, as well of the one sort
as the other, be appointed, assigned, and elected in every
place by the laws and orders of kings and princes." By
the great majority of Protestants, however, the tenets of
Erastus were condemned ; for they maintained that the
Lord Jesus had conveyed to liis church a spiritual power
quite distinct from the temporal ; and that it belonged to
the ministers of religion to exercise it, for promoting the
spiritual welfare of the Christian community. But, whilst
they dispiUcd as to this point, Ihey agreed in admitting
there was no model prescribed in the New Testament for
a Christian church, as there had been in the Mosaical
economy for the Jewish church ; and that it was a branch
of the liberty of the disciples of Christ, or one of their
privileges, to choose the polity which seemed to them best
adapted for extending the power and influence of re-
ligion.
From this fundamental mistake, it is needless to say
what confusion and errors have arisen in Christendom.
On this very foundation, grew up the whole mass of papal
superstitions, and almost all the divisions among Protest-
ants. Never will these divisions he healed, nor those
superstitions purged away, until the great principle is
universally and fully recognised that there is a divine
model of church government prescribed in the New Tes-
tament, and that apostolic practice under the law of Christ
is designed as a universal pattern. Did ever any man
think of a different hypothesis till he found apostolic
practice against him? Why else do we observe the first
day Sabbath ? If the apostolic churches are not a model
to us, the descriptions of them, and the directions given
to them, arc useles.s to us. Why are we called upon to
be followers of the apostles without exception or limita-
tion 7 And why are the later New Testament churches
refeiTed to the earlier as patterns ? 1 Cor. 7: 17. 14: 33.
1 Cor. 11: 1(1. Hi: 1. Titus 1: 5. — Watson; Carson.
ECCLESIASTICAL STATES. (See States of tbb
CncKCH ; also, Curia PArAi..)
ECCLESIASTICUS ; an apocryphal book, so called in
Latin, either to distinguish it from Ecclesiastes, or to
show that it contains, as well as that, precepts and exhor-
tations to wisdom and virtue. The Greeks call it " The
Wisdom of Jesus, the son of Sirach." It contains max-
ims and instructions, useful in all states and conditions
of life. Some of the ancients ascribed this work to Solo-
mon ; but the author is much more modern than Solomon,
and speaks of several persons who lived after that prince.
The translator of it into Greek came into Egj'pt in the
thirty-eighth year of Ptolemy VII. surnamed Euergetes,
the second of that name ; as he says in his preface. The
author of the Latin translation from the Greek is un-
known. Jerome says, the cliurch received Ecclesiasticus
for edification, but not to authorize any point of doctrine.
— Calmet.
ECDIPPA ; (otherwise Acnzin : which see.)
ECKING, (Sami-T.l,) author of a small but excellent
volume of essays on theological subjects, was bom at
Shrewsbury, December the 5th, 1757. He received the
rudiments of his education in his native place, at a school
kept by a BIr. Boore, who, at the age of fifteen, engaged
him in the cajiacity of usher ; a station w'hich he held for
two years, until ihe master's death put an end to the
school. He then became usher in a respectable academy,
in the s.nme town, kept by IMr. Gentleman, a dissenting mi-
nister, with whom he continued till the beginning of 1778,
when he opened a school on his own account, and met
with consider.": ble encouragement. His parents were of
the established church, and there he himself attended on
the ministry of the Rev. Richard De Courcy, from whom
he imbibed his first relish for the good word of God, and
of whom he was an ardent admirer. During the contro-
versy on baptism, however, being led to an investigation
of the subject, he embraced the views of the Baptists.
He was immersed, on a personal profession of his faith in
Christ, and became a member of the Baptist church in
Shrew.sbury. In 1781, he was invested with the suffrages
of his brethren, to preach the gospel of God.
He settled in Chester the following year, and there con-
tinued tintil the period of his death, which took place on
the 5th of February, 1785, at the early age of twenty-
seven, occasioned by typhus fever. In the preceding year,
he published "Three Essays, on Grace, Faith, and Expe-
rience ; wherein several Gospel Truths are stated and
illustrated, and their opposite errors pointed out." A se-
cond edition appeared in 1791, with some additions,
amongst which was " A .short Account of the Author ;
Considerations on the Faith of Devils ; The Confession of
Faith delivered at his Ordination ; and a few Observations
on the Sentiments of Sandeman and Cudworth." A third
edition was printed at Liverpool, about ten years after,
including " Four Sermons," transcribed, by a friend,
from his short-hand notes ; and a fourth edition, compris-
ing the whole, was printed at Berwick-upon-Tweed, in
1827. He was a young man of very promising talents ;
and, had his life been spared, certainly bid fair to become
one of the brightest ornaments of the denomination to
which he belonged — Memoir prefixed to his Essays ; Jones's
Chris. Biog.
ECLECTICS ; a sort of ancient philosophers, who
professed to select whatever was good and true from all
the other philosophical sects. The Eclectic philosophy
was in a flourishing state at Alexandria when our Savior
was upon earth. Its founders formed the design of se-
lecting from the doctrines of all former philosophers such
opinions as seemed to approach nearest ihe truth, and of
combining them into one system. They held Plato in the
highest esteem ; but did nrit scruple to join with his doc-
trines whatever they thought conformable to reason^ in
the tenets of other philosophers. Potamon, a Platonist,
appears to have been the projector of this plan.
The Eclectic system was brought to perfection by Am-
monius Saccas, who blended Christianity with his philo-
sophy, and founded the sect of the Ammouians, or New
Platonists, in the second century. The moral doctrine of
E CT
487 ]
EDE
the Alexandrian scIkjoI was as follows : — The mind of
man, originally a portion of the divine Being, haring
fallen into a state of darkness and defilement, by its union
with the body, is to be gradually emancipated from the
chains of matter, and rise by contemplation to the know-
ledge and vision of God. The end of philosophy, there-
fore, is the liberation of the soul from its corporeal impri-
sonment. For this purpose, the Eclectic philosophy re-
commends abstinence, with other voluntary mortifica-
tions and religious exercises. In the infancy of the
Alexandrian school, not a few of the profes.sors of Chris-
tianity were led by the pretensions of tlie Eclectic sect, to
imagine that a coalition might, with great advantage, be
formed between its system and that of Christianit}'. This
union appeared the more desirable, when several philoso-
phers of this sect becatse converts to the Christian faith.
The consequence was, that pagan ideas and opinions were
by degrees mixed with the pure and simple doctrines of
the gospel. (See PLaxoNisH.) — Watson; Bib. Refj.lSoi.
ECLIPSE. The word (ekleipsis) eclipse, signifies /«;7«rf,
namely, of light. An eclipse of the sun is caused by the
intervention of the moon, at new, or in conjunction with
the sun, intercepting his light from the earth, either totally
or partially. An eclipse of the moon is caused by the
intervention of the earth, intercepting the sun's light from
the moon, when full, or in opposition to the sun, either
totally or partially. A total eclipse of the moon may oc-
casion a privation of her light for an hour and a half,
during her total immersion in the shadow ; whereas, a
total eclipse of the sun can never last in any particular
place above four minutes, when the moon is nearest to
the earth, and her shadow thickest. Hence it appears,
that the darkness which " overspread the whole land of
Jadea," at the time of our Lord's crucifixion, was preter-
natural, "from the sixth until the ninth hour,'' or from
noon till three in the afternoon, in its duration, and also
in its time, about full moon, when the moon could not
possibly eclipse the sun. It was accompanied by an
earthquake, which altogether struck the spectators, and
among them the centurion and Roman guard, with great
fear, and a conviction that Jesus was the Son of God,
Matt. 27: 51—54.
Eclipses, says Dr. Hales, are justly reckoned among the
surest and most unerringcharacters of chronology ; for they
can be calculated with great exactness backwards as well
as forwards ; and there is such a variety of distinct cir-
cumstances of the time when, and the place where, they
were seen ; of the duration, or beginning, middle, or end
of every eclipse, and of the quantity, or number of digits
eclipsed ; that there is no danger of confounding any two
eclipses together, when the circumstances attending each
are noticed with any tolerable degree of precision. Thus,
to an eclipse of the moon incidentally noticed by the great
Jewish chronologer, Josephus, shortly before the death of
Herod the Great, we owe the determination of the true
year of our Savior's natiiity. During Herod's last illness,
and not many days before his death, there happened an
eclipse of the moon on the very night that he burned alive
Matthias, and the ringleaders of a sedition, in which the
golden eagle, which he had consecrated and set up over
the gate of the temple, was pulled down and broken to
pieces bv these zealots. This eclipse happened, by calcu-
lation, JIarch 13, U. C. 750, B. C. 4. But it is certain
from Scripture, that Christ was born during Herod's
reign ; and from the risit of the magi to Jerusalem " from
the East," from the Parthian empire, to inquire for the
true '• born King of the Jews," whose star they had seen
" at its rising." and also from the age of the infants ma.s-
sacred at Bethlehem, " from two years old and under."
(Matt. 2: 1 — 16.) it is no less certain, that Jesus could not
have been bom later than B. C. 5, which is the year
assigned to the nativity by Chrj'sostom, Petavius, and
Pridfiaux . — Watson.
ECSTASY, (or Extasy ;) a transport of the mind,
which suspends the functions of the senses by the in-
tense contemplation of some extraordinary object. — Hend.
Buck.
ECTHESIS ; a confession of faith, the form of an edict,
pubUshed in the year 639, by the emperor Heraclius, with
a view to pacify the troubles occasioned by the Eutychian
heresy in the Eastern church. However, the same prince
revoked it, on being informed that pope Severinus ha^l
condemned it, as favoring the Monothehtes ; declaring,
at the same time, that Sergius, patriarch of Constanti-
nople, was the author of it. (See Ectvchians.) — Ihnd.
Buck.
ED, (witness;) the name given to the aitar erected by
the two tribes and a half, who were settled beyond
Jordan, Josh. 20: 34. It was probably a copy or repetition
of that which was used among the Hebrews, their bre-
thren, and it was built to n-itness to posterity the interest of
these tribes in the altar common to the descendants of the
patriarch Israel. — Calmct.
EDAR, (Tower of ;) (Gen. 25: 21. Bticah 4: 8.) a
place of fine pasturage, a mile from Bethlehem. — Makom.
EDEN; a province in the East, on the banks of the
river Euplirales, where Paradise was situated. Gen. 2: S.
(See the article Paradise.)
There is hardly any part of the world in which it has
not been sought : in Asia, in Afi-ica, in Europe, in
America, in Tartary ; on the banks of the Ganges, in the
Indies, in China, in the island of Ceylon, in Armenia ;
under the equator ; in Mesopotamia, in Syria, in Persia,
in Babylonia, in Arabia, in Palestine, in Ethiopia, among
the mountains of the Moon ; near the mountains of Libn-
nus, Antilibanus, and Damascus. Huet places it on the
river produced by the junction of the Tigris and Euphra-
tes, now called the river of the Arabs ; below this con-
junction and the division of the same river, before it falls
into the Persian sea. He selects the eastern shore of this
river, which being considered according to the disposition
of its channel, and not according to the course of its
stream, was divided into four heads, or four ilifierent
openings, that is, two upwards, the Tigris and Euphrates,
and two below, the Pison and Gihon. The Pison, accord-
ing to him, is the western channel, and the Gihon is the
eastern channel of the Tigris, which discharges itself into
the Persian gulf. It is said th-.t Bochart was much of
the same opinion. Plialeg. lib. i. cap. 4. De Anim. Sacr.
Part ii. lib. v. cap. (i. Other skilfiil men with more pro-
bability, have placed Eden in Armenia, between the
sources of the rivers, (L) Tigris, (2.) Euphrates, (3.)
Araxis, (4.) Phasis, taken to be the four rivers described
by Moses. Euphrates is expressly mentioned ; Hiddekel
is the Tigris ; the Phasis is Pison ; the Gihon is the
A raxes.
It may be inferred from a number of circumstances,
that Paradise was placed on a mountain, or at least
in a countrj' diversified wiih hdls, because only such
country could supply the springs necessary to form four
heads of rivers ; and because all heads of rivers rise in
hills, from whence their waters descend to the sea. Such
a country has been found in Armenia, with such an ele-
vation, or assemblage of elevations, also, as appeared to
be requisite for the purpose. On these principles, the
Pilosis was the Phison of Jloses, and the similarity of
sound in the name seemed to confirm the opinion ; it was
a natural consequence, that the Araxes should be the
Gihon ; since its waters are extremely rapid, end the
Greek name Araxes, like the Hebrew Gihon, denotes the
dart, or swift.
The word Eden which, in its primary acceptation,
signifies pleasure or delight, is often used by the wri-
ters of the Old Testament to denote places which are
either more remarkably fruitful in their soil, or pleasant
in their situation. (See 2 Kings, 19: 12, 13, Isa. 37:
12. Amos 1: 5.) It IS a remarkable circumstance that
divine revelation opens and shuts with corresponding
subjects ; it opens with a view of the earthly Eden, and
shuts with a description of its glorious antitype the hea-
venly Paradise of God. Eden was remarkable for a river
which issued from it ; in hke manner, John sees in the
heavenly Eden, a pure river of water of life, clear as
crystal, issuing from the throne of God and the Lamb.
Rev. 22: 1. In each, we also find a tree of life, and
various other analogies, from which it appears evidently
the design of the Spirit of God to teach u.s. that the second
Adam, the Lord from heaven, will restore all his people
to a more perfect state of bliss, than their first parent
forfeited."— BiMortfffl Sdcra, article Eden ; J-i.ies ; Calmet.
EDI
[ 488 ]
EDO
II. EDEN. The prophet Amos (chap. 1: 5.) speaks of
the " House of Eden," or "Beth-Eden," which is thought
to have been a house of pleasure in the mountains of
Lebanon, near to the river Adonis, and about midway
between Tripoli and Baalbek. — Calmet.
EDIFICATION. This word signifies a building up ;
hence we call a building, an edifice. Applied to spiritual
things, it signifies the advancing, improving, adorning,
and comforting the mind. A Christian may be said to
be edified, when he is encouraged and animated to fresh
progress in the ways and works of the Lord. The means
to promote our own edification are, prayer, selfexamina-
tion, reading the Scriptures, hearing the gospel, medita-
tion, attendance on all appointed ordinances. To edify
others, there should be love, spiritual conversation, for-
bearance, faithfulness, benevolent exertions, and uniform-
ity of conduct.
Edify, and EdificatioTS, are terms that often occur in
the apostolic writings, and of such high import, that they
merit a much more ample illustration than has hitherto
been bestowed upon them in works of this nature.
To perceive the full force and propriety of the terms as
used by the apostles, it is quite necessary to keep in mind
the similitudes by which they generally describe a Chris-
tian church ; for, an attentive reader of the New Testa-
ment may readily observe that it is mostly with a direct
reference to that particular object that these expressive
terms occur. Thus for instance, we sometimes find them
speaking of a church under the figure of a building,
Eph. 2: 21. 1 Cor. 3: 9. At others, "a house, Heb. 3: fi.
1 Tim. 3: 15. And frequently a temple, 1 Cor. 3: 16, 17.
A habitation for God, Eph. 2: 22. Of this building, Jesus
Christ is the foundation or chief comer-stone, laid by the
doctrine of the apostles and prophets, — he is that living
stone, elect, and precious, on which Zlon is founded, — and
believers in him united together in a church capacity, are
consequently spoken of, as " lively stones, built up into a
spiritual house," (1 Pet. 2: 5.) thus constituting what
Paul calls "the household of God," (Eph. 2: 19.) or
" the household of faith," Gal. 6: 10. Now it is obvi-
lusly in reference to this view of things that the terms
under consideration are made use of by the apostles ; and
when we attempt to explain thein in any way detached
from the consideratioir of a Christian church, their mean-
ing almost vanishes into insignificance. I make this re-
mark chiefly on account of the great mistakes which
appear to prevail among professed Christians on a sub-
ject in which their present peace and immortal interests
are deeply involved. Most of our practical treatises of
religion are taken up in furnishing directions to believers,
considered as so many disconnected individuals, to press
after their own individual edification. But all this seems
in a great measure aside from the doctrine of Christ and
his apostles. The consolations of the Holy Spirit are not
promised to disjointed individuals, each taking care sepa-
rately to frame his heart, in the best manner he can, into
an obedience to the will of God ; but to brethren walking
together in unity ; to disciples joined in one body as fellow
members one of another, so as by one spirit to mourn and
rejoice togther. Christ has promised great consolation to
his disciples thus united, walking in love, and patiently
bearing the hatred of the world. Many professors, and
even teachers of religion, not greatly liking such union
and its obvious consequences, yet finding much said in
the New Testament of the attainments and comforts of the
first Christians, have studied to devise means of enjoying
these comforts separately. Instead of the objects that
chiefly drew the attention of the first believers, they have
endeavored to fix the attention of Christians on a multi-
tude of rules respecting the particular conduct of each in
his devout exercises, his attendance on ordinances and
the frame of his heart therein. But this is a scheme of
religion of mere human device. Nothing can be plainer
from the whole tenor of the Acts of the Apostles, and
their epistles to the churches, than that it is the mil of
Christ his disciples should unite together, holding fellow-
ship in the institutions of the gospel ; and also that, as he
in his infinite \visdom and grace has made abundant pro-
vision for their comfort, establishment and edification, so
these blessings can only be effectually enjoyed in propor-
tion as they obey his will in this respect. Eph. 4: 8 — 16_
See On-en on Hebrews. — Hend. Buck ; Jones.
EDOM ; a province of Arabia, which derives its name
from Edom, or Esau, who there settled in the mountains
of Seir, in the land of the Horites, south-east of the Dead
sea. His descendants afterwards extended themselves
throughout Arabia Petrtea, and south of Palestine, between
the Dead sea and the Jlediterranean. During the Baby-
lonish captivity, and when Judea was almost deserted,
they seized the south of Judah, and advanced to Hebron.
Hence that tract of Judea, which they inhabited, retained
the name of Idumea in the time of our Savior, Mark 3: 8.
Under Moses and Joshua, and even under the kings of
Judah, the Idumeans were confined to the east and soutb
of the Dead sea, in the land of Seir ; but afterwards they
extended their territories more to the south of Judah,
The capital of East Edom was Bozrah ; and that of South
Edom, Petra or Jectael.
2. The prophecies respecting Edom are numerous and
striking ; and the present state of tlie country, as described
by modern travellers, has given so remarkable an attes-
tation to the accuracy of their fulfilment, that a few ex-
tracts from Mr. Keith's work, in which this is pointed out,
may be fitly introduced.
That the Idumeans were a populous and powerful nation
long posterior to the delivery of the prophecies ; that they
possessed a tolerably good government, even in the esti-
mation of Volney ; that Idumea contained many cities ;
that these cities are now absolutely deserted ; and that
their ruins swarm with enormous scorpions ; that it was
a commercial nation, and possessed highly frequented
marts ; that it forms a shorter route than the ordinary one
to India; and yet that it had not been visited by any
traveller ; are facts all recorded, and proved by Volney
himself— in his " Travels"— able but unconscious com-
mentator !
3. A greater contrast cannot be imagined than the
ancient and present state of Idumea. It was a kingdom
previous to Israel, having been govenietl first by dukes or
princes, aflerwards by eight successive kings, and again
by dukes, before there reigned any king over the children
of Israel, Gen. 36: 3T, ke. Its fertility and early cultiva-
tion are implied not only in the blessings of Esau, whose
dwelling was to be the fatness of the earth, and of the
dew of heaven from above ; but also in the condition pro-
posed by Moses to the Edomites, when he solicited a
passage for the Israelites through their borders, that
" they would not pass through the fields nor through the
vineyards ;" and also in the great wealth, especially in
the multitudes of flocks and herds, recorded as possessed
by an individual inhabitant of that country, at a period,
in all probability even more remote. Gen. 27: 39. Num.
20: 17. Job 42: "12. The Idumeans were, without doubt,
both an opulent and a powerful people. They often con-
tended with the Israelites, and entered into a league with
their other enemies against them. In the reign of David,
they were indeed subdued and greatly oppressed, and
many of them even dispersed throughout the neighboring
countries, particularly Phoenicia and Egypt. But during
the decline of the kingdom of Judah, and for many years
previous to its extinction, they encroached upon the terri-
tories of the Jews, and extended their dominion over the
south-western part of Judea.
4. There is a prediction which, being peculiarly re-
markable as applicable to Idumea, and bearing reference
to a circumstance explanatory of the difl[iculty of access
to any knowledge respecting it, is entitled, in the first in-
stance, to notice : " None shall pass through it forever
and ever. I will cut off' from mount Seir him that passeth
out, and him that returneth," Isa. 34: 10. Ezek. 35: 7.
The ancient greatness of Idumea must, in no small de-
gree, have resulted from its commerce. Bordering with
Arabia on the east, and Egypt on the south-west, and
forming from north to south the most direct and most
commodious channel of communication between Jerusa-
lem and her dependencies on the Red sea, as well as be-
tween Syria and India, through the continuous valleys of
El Ghor, and El Araba, which terminated on the one
extremity at the borders of Judea, and on the other at
Elath and Ezion Geber on the Elanitic gulf of the Red
EDO
I 489 ]
D W
sea, Idumea may be said to have Jbmneil llie emporium ble, and in the extensive valley which reaches from the
of the commerce of the East. A Roman road passed Red to the Dead sea, the appearance of which must now
directly through [diimea, from Jerusalem to Akaba, and be totally and sadly changed from what it was, " the
another from Akaha to Moab ; and when these roads whole plain," says Burckhardt, " presented to the view an
were made, at a time long posterior to the date of the expanse of shifting sands, whose surface was broken by
predictions, the conception could not have been formed, innumerable undulations and low hills. The sand ap-
or held credible by man, that the period would ever pears to have been brought from the shores of the Red
arrive when none would pass through it. Above sea, by the southern winds ; and the Arabs told me that
seven hundred years after the date of the prophecy, the valleys continue to present the same appearance be-
Strabo relates that many Romans and other foreign- yond the latitude of Wady Mousa. In some parts of the
ers were found at Petra by his friend Athenodorus, valley the sand is very deep, and there is not the slightest
the philosopher, who visited it. The prediction is yet appearance of a road, or of any work of human art. A
more surprising when viewed in conjunction with another, few trees grow among the sandhills, but the depth of
which implies that travellers would " pass by" Idumea : sand precludes all vegetation or herbage." " If grape-
" Every one that goeth by shall be astonished." And the gatherers come to thee, would not they leave some glean-
Hadj routes (routes of the pilgrims) from Damascus and ing grapes? If thieves by night, they will destroy till
from Cairo to Jlecca, the one on the east and the other they have enough ; but I have made Esau bare. Edom
towards the south of Idumea, along the whole of its ex- shall be a desolate wilderness." " On ascending the
tent, go by it. or touch partially on its borders, without western plain," continues Mr. Burckhardt, "on a higher
passing through it. The truth of the prophecy, though level than that of Arabia, we had before us an immense
hemmed in thus by apparent impossibilities and contra- expanse of dreary country, entirely covered with black
dictions, and with extreme probability of its fallacy in flints, with here and there some hilly chain rising from the
every view that could have been visible to man, may yet plain." " I will stretch out upon Idimiea the line of co.
be tried. fusion, and the stones of emptiness." Such is the preseni
5. Let the reader now turn to Isaiah 34: 5, 10 — 17. desolate aspect of one of the most fertile countries of
Jeremiah 49: 13 — 18. and Malachi 1:3,4. and he will ancient times ! So visibly even now does the withering
find other predictions no less circumstanlially fulfilled, curse of an ofl'ended God rest upon it ! And its fate, like
" Edom shall be a desolation. From generation to gene- that of the children of Israel, I'emains a monument of the
ration it shall lie waste," &c. Judea, Ammon, and Moab divine inspiration of the Scriptures, at which infidelity
exhibit so abundantly the remains and the means of an may well turn pale. — Watson.
exuberant fertility, that the wonder arises in the reflecting EDOMITES. (See Esau; and Edom.)
mind, how the barbarity of man could have so effectually EDREI ; a town of Manasseh, east of Jordan, (Josh,
counteracted for so many generations the prodigality of 13:31.) called likewise Edrsa and Adroea, and perhaps
nature. But such is Edom's desolation, that the first Edera in Ptolemy, when speaking of the towns in the
sentiment of astonishment on the contemplation of it is, Batanaea. Eusebius places it about twenty-five miles
how a wide-extended region, now diversified by the north from Bostri. — Calmet.
strongest features of desert wildness, could ever have been EDWARDS, (John, D. D. ;) a divine of the church of
adorned with cities, or tenanted for ages by a powerful England, who flourished at the latter end of the seveii-
and opulent people. Its present aspect would belie its teenth, and beginning of the eighteenth century. He was
ancient history, were not that history corroborated by born at Hertford, February the 26th, lt)37. At Cam-
" the many vestiges of former cultivation,'.' by the remains bridge, his superior talents brought on him attain of
of walls and paved roads, and by the ruins of cities still academical honors ; he was elected fellow of the college,
existing in this ruined country. The total cessation of its admitted to the degree of master of arts, ordained deacon,
commerce ; the artificial irrigation of its valleys wholly and appointed, by bishop Saunderson, to preach a sermon
neglected ; the destruction of all the cities, and the con- at the approaching ordination of priests. ' We are told
tinned spoliation of the country by the Arabs, while aught that "in his preaching he affected not any flaunting
remained that they could destroy ; the permanent expo- eloquence, but studied to be plain, intelligible, and practi-
sure, for ages, of the soil unsheltered by its ancient groves, cal, and to edify all his hearers; yet, so as that his dis-
and unprotected by any covering from the scorching rays courses were interspersed with choice and uncommon
of the sun ; the unobstructed encroachments of the desert, remarks." He exercised his ministerial functions for
and of the drifted sands from the borders of the Red sea; several years, at Trinity church, Cambridge, where he
the consequent absorption of the water of the springs and was attended by many of the gown, and persons of consi-
streamlets during summer, — are causes which have all derable standing in the university ; I'rom thence he re-
combined their "baneful operation in rendering Edom moved to Bury St. Edmumis ; and then to Colchester.
" most desolate, the desolation of desolations." After three years, he quitted Colchester, and returned to
From the borders of Edom, Captains Irby and Mangles Cambridge ;' partly, on account of its aflVirding him access
also beheld a boundless extent of desert view, which they to the univei-sity library, and partly for other reasons,
had hardly ever seen equalled for singularity and gran- In 1699, he was created doctor of divinity, and from this
deur. And the following extract, descriptive of what
Burckhardt actually witnessed in the different parts of
Eilom, cannot be more graphically abbreviated than in
the words of the prophet. Of its eastern boundary, and
of the adjoining part of Arabia Petrasa, strictly so called, ^he period of his decease, which took place o
Burckhardt writes : " It might, with truth, be called Petrsea, •April, 1716, in the sevenly-ninth yei:r of his r
time, he became a volumir. )us writer, owing, in some
measure, to his being afflicttd with the gout and other
disorders, which detcrmineil lii.u to preach the gospel by
his pen. He prosecuted his stuilies and labors till near
the 16th of
age.
not only on account of its" rocky mountains, but also of It may be questioned whether, sinco the days of Calvin
the elevated plain already described, which is so much himself, there has existed a more decii'ed Calvinist than
covered with stones, especially flints, that it may with Dr. Edwards. He has been termed the Paul, the Augustine,
great propriety be called a stony desert, although suscep- the Bradwardine, the Calvin of his age. Such was his
tible of culture ; in many places it is overgrown with wild abhorrence of Arminianisin, that he contended, with the
herbs, and must once have been thickly inhabited ; for old Puritans, that there is a close conne.'cion between it
the traces of many towns and villages are met with on and popery. His writings are very numerous, and they
both sides of the Hadj road, between Maan and Akcba, discover extensive learning, deep thought, cogent reason-
as well as between Blaan and the plains of the Hauran, ing, and extraordinary zeal for the doctrines of divine
in which direction are also many springs. At present all grace. It is .said, th.at all imbia,sscd and impartial men
this country is a desert, and Maan (Teman) is the only voted him, by universal consent, to be one of the most
inhabited place in it : 'I will stretch out my hand against valuable writers of his time. The principal of his works
thee. 0 mount Seir, and will make thee most desolate. I are, "Veritas Redux ; or. Evangelical Truths Re-stored.^^'
will stretch out my hand upon Edom, and will make it octavo, 1707; "Inquiry into Four remarkable Texts;
desolate from Teman.'" In the interior of Idumea, "Discourse concerning the Authority, Style, and rer-
where the ruins of some of its ancient cities are still visi- feclion of the Books of the Ohl and New Testament,
62
E UW
[ 490 ]
EDW
two volumes, octavo ; " A Survey of the several Dispen-
sations of Religion," &c., two volumes, octavo ; several
distinct treatises against the Socinians ; " An Answer to
Dr. Whitby's Five Points ;" " Animadversions on Dr.
Clarke's Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity ;" " Theologia
Reformata ; or, the Substance and Body of the Christian
Religion," London, 1713, two volumes, folio, of which a
third volume was published ten years after the author's
decease ; v.'ith many other pieces too tedious to enume-
rate.— Biog. Brit. ; Jones's Chr. Bios-
EDWARDS, (Jonathan,) president of New Jersey
college, a most acute metaphysician, and distinguished
divine, was born at Windsor, Conn., Oct. 5, 1703. He
was graduated at Yale coUegs in 1720, before he was
seventeen years of age. His uncommon genius discov-
ered itself early, and while yet a boy he read Locke on
the Human Understanding with a keen relish. Though
he took much pleasure in examining the kingdom of
nature, yet moral and theological researches yielded him
the highest satisfaction. He lived in college near two
years after taking liis first degree, preparing himself for
the office of a minister of the gospel. In 1722, he went
to New York, at the request of a small society of English
Presbyterians, and preached a number of months. In
1724, he was appointed a tutor iu Yale college, and he
continued in that office, till he was invited in 1726, to
preach at Northampton, Mass. Here he was ordained as
colleague mth his grandfather, Mr. Stoddard, February
15, 1727. In 1735, his benevolent labors were attended
with very uncommon success ; a general impression was
made upon the minds of his people by the truths which
he proclaimed, and the church was much enlarged. He
continued in this place more tlian twenty-three years.
He had been instrumental in cheering many hearts with
the joys of religion, and not a few had regarded him with all
that alfectionate attacluiient, which is excited by the love
of excellence and the sense of obligations, which can
never be repaid. But a spirit of detraction had gone
forth, in consequence of his strict views of Christian disci-
pline and purity, and a few leading men of outrageous
zeal pushed forward men of less determined hostihty,
and he was dismissed by an ecclesiastical council, Jane
22, 1750.
In this -scene of trouble and abuse, when the mistakes
md the bigotry of the multitude had stopped their ears,
and their passions were without control, B'Ir. Edwards
exhibited the truly Christian spirit. His calmness, and
meekness, and humility, and yet firmnes.s and resolution,
were the subjects of admiration to his friends. More
anxious for his people, than for himself, he preached a
most solemn and afiecting farewell discourse. He after-
wards occasionally supplied the pulpit at times, when no
preacher had been procured ; but this proof of his superi-
ority to resentment or pride, and this readiness to do good
to those who had injured him, met with no return, except
a vote of the inhabitants, prohibiting him from ever again
preachmg for them. Still he was not left without excel-
lent Inends in Northampton, and his correspondents in
Scotland, having been infonned of his dismission, contri-
buted a considerable sum for the maintenance of his
family.
In August, 1751, he succeeded Mr. Sergeant as mission-
ary to the Housatonic Indians, at Stockbridge, in Berk-
shire county. Here he continued six years, preaching to'
the Indians and the white people ; and, as he found much
leistire, he prosecuted his theological and metaphysical
studies, and produced works which rendered his name
famous throughout Europe. Thus was his rala-nitous
removal from Northampton the occasion, unaei ,ne wise
providence of God, of his imparting to the world the most
important instructions, whose influence has been extend-
ing to the present time, and whose good effects may still
be felt for ages. In January, 1758, he reluctantly ac-
cepted the office of president of the college in New Jersey,
as successor of his son-in-law, Mr. Burr ; but he had not
entered fully upon the duties of this station, before the
prevalence of the small pox induced him to be inoculated,
and this disease was the cause of his death, March 22'
1758, aged fiftv fniir. A short time before he died, a.s
some of his friends, who surrounded his bed to see him
breathe his last, were lamenting the loss which the col-
lege would sustain, he said, to their astonishment, " Trust
in God, and ye need not fear." These were his last
words. He afterwards expired with as much composure,
as if he had only fallen asleep. He left three sons and
seven daughters. His wife, Sarah, daughter of Rev. J.
Pierpont, New Haven, whom he married in 1727, in her
eighteenth year, died also in 1758. She became pious at
the age of five.
President Edwards was equally distinguished by his
Christian virtues, and by the extraordinary vigor and
penetration of his mind. Though his constitution was
delicate, he commonly spent thirteen hours every day in
his study. He usually rose between four and five in the
morning, and was abstemious, living completely by rule.
All his researches were pursued with his pen in his hand,
and the number of his miscellaneous writings, which he
had left behind him, was above fourteen hundred. They
were all numbered and paged, and an index was formed
for the whole. He was peculiarly happy in his domestic
connexions, Mrs. Edwards, by taking the entire care of
his temporal concerns, gave him an opportunity of conse-
crating all his powers, without interruption, to the labors
and studies of the sacred office.
As a preacher, he was not oratorical in his manner, and
his voice was rather feeble, though he spoke with distinct-
ness ; but his discourses were rich in thought ; and, being
deeply impressed himself with the truths, which he
uttered, his preaching came home to the hearts of his
hearers.
Mr. Edwards was ui}commonly zealous and persevering
iu his search after truth. He spared no pains in procuring
the necessary aids, and he read all the books which he
could procure, that promised to afford him assistance in
his inquiries. He confined himself to no particular sect
or denomination, but studied the writings of men whose
sentiments were the most opposite to his own. But the
Bible claimed his peculiar attention. From ttiat book he
derived his religious principles, and not from any human
system. The doctrines, which he supported, were Calvin-
istic, and when these doctrines were in any degree relin-
quished, or were not embraced in their whole length and
breadth, he did not see, where a man could set his foot
down, with consistency and safety, short of deism or
atheism itself. Yet with all his strict adherence to what
he believed to be the truths of heaven, his heart was kind
and tender. When Mr. Whitefield preached for him on
the Sabbath, the acute divine, whose mighty intellect has
seldom been equalled, wept as a child during the whole
sermon .
His Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will, is considered
as one of the greatest efforts of the human mind. Those,
who embrace the Calvinistic sentiments, have been accus-
tomed to say, that he has forever settled the controvei-sy
with the Arminians by demonstrating the absurdity of
their principles. On the other hand, there are those,
attached to the general theological doctrines embraced by
Edwards, who think that the unavoidable consequences
of his metaphysical argument are so contradictory to the
common judgment of mankind, as to authorize any one
" boldly to cut asunder the knot, which he is nnalile to
unloose." However, if the argument of Edwards he a
-fallacy, " there must he some way to unravel the puzzle."
Remarks were made on the Essay on the Freedom of
the Will by James Dana and Samuel West ; the latter was
answered by Dr. Edwards. His other works, which are
most celebrated, are his book on Original Sin in answer
to Taylor, his Treatise on the Affections, his dissertation
on the Nature of true Virtue, and that on the End for
which God created the World. A splendid edition of his
works was published in England, and an edition in eight
volumes, intended to be a complete collection of his writ-
ings, edited by Dr. Austin, was published in ISOV).
Another edition, with an ample account of his life, edited
by his descendant. Sereno Edwards Dwight, was pub-
lished in ten vols^ 8vo. in IS30. — Hopkitis' Life of Ed-
wards ; Life prefixed to his Works ; Middklon's Biog. Evaiig.
iv. 294—317; Jo>m's Chris. Biog. : Allen.
EDWARDS, (Jonathan, D. D.,) president of Union
college at Schenectady, in the state of New York, son of
EUE
L lyi ]
EG Y
the preceding, was born at Northampton, June 6, 1745.
In childhood, an inflammation in his eyes prevented him
from learning to read till an uncommonly late period.
He was graduated at the college in New Jersey, in
17(55. Two years before, at a time, when the students of
the college were generally impressed by the truths of reli-
gion, he was blessed with the hope of his reconciliation to
God through Christ. This was during the presidentship
and under the impressive preaching of Dr. Finley. He
afterwards pursued the study of divinity under the in-
struction of Dr. Bellamy, and in October, 1766, wus
Ucensed to preach the gospel by the association of minis-
ters in the county of Litchfield, Conn. In 1767, he was
appointed tutor of Princeton college, and in this office he
remained two years. He was ordained pastor of the
church at Whitehaven, in the town of New Haven,
January 5, 1769, and continued there till May, 17t>5,
when he was dismissed by an ecclesiastical council,
at his own request, and at the request of his soci-
ety. In January, 1796, he was installed pastor of the
church at Colebrook, in Litchfield county. In this
retired situation, where lie was enabled to pursue his
theological studies with little interruption, he hoped to
spend the remainder of his days. But in June, 1799, he
was elected president of the college, which had been re-
cently established at Schenectady, as successor of Mr.
Smith. In July, he commepxed the duties of the office.
From this time, his attention and talents wfere devoted to
the concerns of the seminary, of which he was intrusted
with the charge. He died August 1, 1801, aged fifty-six,
unexpectedly, but w'ith Christian resignation.
There were several remarkable coincidences in the
lives of Dr. Edwards and his father. Both were tutors in
the seminaiies, in which they were educated ; were dis-
missed on account of their religious opinions ^ were settled
again in retired situations ; were elected to the pra.sident-
ship of a college ; and, in a short time after they were
inaugurated, died at near the same age. They were also
remarkably similar in persx)n and character.
Dr. Edwards was a man of uncommon powers of mind.
He has seldom been surpassed in acuteness and penetra-
tion. His answer to Dr. Chauncey, his dissertation on the
liberty of tie will in reply to Dr, West, and his sermons
OB the atonement of Christ, to say nothing of his other
ptibij cations, are considered as works of great and pecu-
liar merit. He also edited, from the manuscripts of his
father, the History of the 'Work of Ilcdemption, two
volumes of sermons, and two volumes of Observations cm
important theological subiects. — Connect. Ecaii^. Ma<i.,
ii. 377—383; Miller, ii. 453; 2 Hist. Col. x, 81—160;
lM,ms,xi.'i2i.—Ane„.
EFFECTUAL; that which actually answers the end
intended. A door for preaching the gospel is effixtuaJ,
«'hen the oppotlunity of doing it issws in the conviction
and conversion of many, 1 Cor. 16: 9. God works (ffcc-
timlly in miiiistei's when he enables them zealously to
preach the gospel, and crowns their labors with success.
Gal 2: 8. He works effectually in his chosen people, when
he converts them to himself, and causes them to bring
forth fruits of holiness to his glory, Eph. 3; 7. 4: 16.
1 Thess. 2: 13.
Christ and his cross and promise are said to be of iwtw.
effect, that is, of no saving use to men, when they do not
believe his promise, embrace his person, religion, right-
eousness, and yield themselves to Him as their Lord and
Master, Gal. 5: 1. 1 Cor. 1: 17. Rom. 4: H.—Bronm.
. EFFEONTES; a sort of heretics, in 1534, who scraped
their forehead with a knife till it bled, and then poured
oil into the wound. This ceremony served them instead
of baptism. They are likewise said to have denied the
divinity of the Holy Spirit. — Hend. Buck.
EGEDE, (Hans;) a Danish divine, born in 1686,
died in 1758, was the founder of the religious missions to
Groenlfind, in which country he resided from 1721 to
1736, displaying a piety, zeal, and benevolence which
gained the confidence of^ the natives. He wrote a de-
xcription of Greenland. — His son, Paul, who succeeded
him, and emulated his virtues, was born in 1708, and
died in 1789. He wrote an account of Greenland ; com-
posed a dictionary and grammar of the language ; and
translated into that language a part of the Bible and some
other works. — Davenport.
EGGj_ (bizim, Deut. 22; 6. Job 30: 11. Isa. 10: 14.
59; 5.) oon, Luke 11; 12. Eggs are considered as a very
great delicacy in the East, and are served up with fish
and honey at their entertainments. As a desirable article
of food, the egg is mentioned, (Luke 11: 12 :) " If a son
ask for an egg, will his father offer him a scorpion V It
has been remarked that the body of the scorpion is very
like an egg, as its head can scarcely be distinguished,
especially if it be of the white kind, which is the first
species mentioned by Julian, Avicenna, nnd olhers.
Bochart has produced testimonies to prove that the scor-
pions in Judea were about the bigness of an egg. So the
similitude is preserved between the thing asked, and the
thing given. — Watson.
EGINHARD ; a celebrated historian, a native of Ger-
many, was a pupil of Alcuin, who recommended him to
the notice of Charlemagne. The monarch made him his
secretary, and afterwards superintendent of his buildings.
He Jied in 839, abbot of Seligeustadt. The stories rela-
tive to his marrying a daughter of Charlemagne, appear
to bt fables. Eginhard is the author of a Life of Charle-
magi\e; Annals of France, from 711 to 829; and .sixty-
two 1 ".pistles. — Davenport.
EGLAIM ; the same as G.m-lim, a city beyond Jordan,
to the east of the Dead sea, in the land of Moab, Lsa. 15:
8. 1 Sam. 25: 44. — Jones.
EG LON ; a king of tlie Moabitcs, who oppressed the
Israel, ;es for eighteen yeai-s, Judg. 3: 12 — 14. Calmet
has confounded this servitude of the Hebrews with that
under Cushan-Rishathaim, making it to subsist only
eight years, viz. from 2591 to 2599 : whereas the servi-
tude under Eglon lasted eighteen years, and commenced
in the year of the world 2661, which was sixty-two years
after they had been delivered by Othniel from their sub-
jection to Cushan-Rishathaim, — Tonis.
EGYPT ; a much renowned kingdom of antiquity,
situated in tlie north of Africa. It is said to have derived
its name from Ham, the son of Noah, whence it is fre-
quently in th-e book of Psalms styled the land of Ham.
But the name by which it is generally denoted in Scrip-
ture is the land of Mizraim, who was a son of Ham ; from
whence the Arabians and other oriental nations still call
it Mesr ; but the etj'inology of the word Egi/pt is variously
accounted for.
Ancient Egypt is by some divided into two parts, the
Upper and the Lower Egypt ; by others into tiiree ; the
Upper Eg;i'i'>t, or Thebais, so called frotn its capital city
Thebes; ti-.e Middle Egypt, or Hcptaiiouiis, so called
from the seven districts it contained; and the Lower
Egypt, which included what the Greelcs called the Delta
and all the country lying upon the coasts of the Mediter-
ranean and Red sea.s.
Thebais, which in Scripttu'c is called Pathro,-:, is the
most southerly part of Egypt.
Middle Egypt comjirehended all the country on each
side of the Nile from Thebais to the point of the Delta,
where that river divides itself into those branches by
which it enters the sea. This part of Egypt was in an-
cient times full of large cities, among which was Mem-
phis, the capital, situated on the western side of the Nile,
as Grand Cairo, which seems to have succeeded Blem-
phis, is built on the eastern.
The Lower Egypt, extending from the preceding quar-
ter, to the Mediterranean sea, contained not only that
part which is encompassed by the arms of the Nile, and
from its triangular figure named Delta, but also Mareotis
and Alexandria, with some territories towards Arabia to
the east. Between these two large branches of the Nile
called the Delia, there were several celebrated cities,
Naucratis, Sais, Tanis, Canopus, Pelusium, Alexandria,
Nicopolis, (Jcc. It was in the country of Tanis that the
Israelites are thought to have dwelt. (See the article
Goshen.)
2. The fertility of Egypt, and the excellence of its pro-
ductions and fruits, are greatly celebrated by ancient
writers, and by Moses himself. Gen. 13: 10. It abounds
with grain of all kinds, but particularly rice ; insomuch
that it was formerly the granary of Rome ■ it is now the
EG Y
[492 J
EG V
country which supplies Constantinople. Its fertility de-
pends upon the periodical inundations of the Nile, which,^
as it is one of the most remarkable circumstaBces attend-
ing this country, will be spoken of tinder the article Nile.
3. Among all the nations of antiquity, there is none
more worthy of attention than Egypt. If not the birth-
place, it was the early protector of the sciences, and che-
rished every species of knowledge, which was known or
cultivated in remote times. It was the principal source
from whence the Greeks derived their information ; and
after all its wilvdings and enlargements, we may still trace
the stream of our knowledge to the banks of the Nile.
Every ancient nation lays cladm to a higher oi'igrn than
legitimate history can sanction ; and the Egyptians not
OTvly boast of being the most ancient people in the world,
but they evidently extend their claims to a fabulous period.
This proud nation, fondly conceited of its own antiquity,
as EoUin expresses it, ttought it glorious to lose itself rn an
abyss of infinite ages, as thou^i it would carry back its
pretensions to eternity. Bnt thoitgh siKh extravagant
claims are quite inadmissible, it cannot be denied that
Egypt was the cradle of the Hebrew nation. (See
Genesis.)
The invention' of alphabetical letters, and the art of
writing, is generally attributed by the ancients to the
Egyptians.
Egypt was the mother of the sciences as well as the
arts. There were four colleges in Egypt, where science
was studied and taught : Thebes, which Pythagoras
visited ; Jlemphis, where Thales and Democritus con-
sulted the Egyptian priests ; Heliopolis, where Plato
studied ; and Sais, where Solon was instructed in the
principles of legislation and government.
The first important discoveries in astronomy were made
by the Egyptians. As they were the first people of anti-
quity who lived by cultivating the ground, they were
under a necessity of studying the motions of the stars.
Arcturus, Orion, and the Pleiades marked out the several
seasons among the early Greeks ; and the rising of Sirius
with the sun, announced to the Egyptians the overflowing
of the Nile, and the cnslomar>' time of sowing their grain,
which was immediately after its retreat.
To sum up their character : Without having attained
to elegance in the arts, or perfection in the sciences, the
Egyptians struck out the models on which other nations
improved ; and philosophy owes them that respect which
an empire pays to its founders.
4. What history records of their buildings, would sur-
pass credibility, were it not attested by their monuments,
which remain to this day. Egypt is a scene of antiqui-
ties ; walking among ruins, the traveller forgets the
present, to contemplate the past, and, amid the traces of a
degenerate race, marks the remains of a mighty nation.
Their buildings are still sublime. The pyramids of Egypt
have always ranked among the wonders of the world.
Three of them still remain, at the distance of some leagues
from Grand Cairo, where Memphis formerly stood. The
largest of the three, called the Great Pyramid, forms a
square, each side of who.se base is six hundred and sixty
feet. The circumference is two thousand six hundred
and forty feet. The basis covers eleven acres of ground.
The perpendicular height is about four hundred and fifty
feet ; if measured obliquely, seven hundred feet.
The judgment of the living upon the dead would be
striking in every nation, but was calculated to make a
particular impression in Egypt, from the prejudices of the
people. The Egyptians believed that the soul hovered
about the body till putrefaction took place ; hence they
looked upon the rites of sepulture every where so sacred,
as connected with their future felicity : and they hoped,
by the secret of embalming which they discovered, to
survive for ages in the tomb. Thus the sovereigns of
Egypt were accountable to the tribunal of the people ;
and the very idea of such a solemn trial was a strong
additional motive to malfe them discharge the duty of
sovereigns. The monarch who erected a pyramid as his
future habitation, would be naturally induced to re-
spect the rights of his subjects, that they might as-
sign him a place in the pyramid which he had erected
to perpetuate his future fame. The Jews had a practice
someivhat like this. Wicked kings were not buried in the
sepulchre of their fathers. This custom prevailed to the
time of the Asmonean princes.
5, Among nations who are not blessed by divine reve-
lation, the Inminaries of heaven are the first objects of
worship. DiodoFUS Siculus, mentioning the Egyptians,,
informs us, '■ that the first men, looking up to the world
above them, and struck with admiration at the i>ature of
the universe, supposed the sun and moon to be the prin-
cipal and eternal gods." This, which may be called the
natural supevslitiors of mankind, we can tJace in (he an-
nals of the West, as well as of the East ;, among the inha-
bitants of the neiv world, as well as of the old. The sun
and moon, nnder the names of Isis and Osiris-, were the
chief objects of adoration among the Egyptians.
A superstitious reverence for certain animals, as propi'
tious or disastrous to the human race, was prevalent,
though not peculiar to the Egyptians. The cow has been
venerated in India from the most remote antiquity. The
serpent has been the object of religious respect to one
Iralf of the nations of the kaown worW. The Romans
Itad sacred animals, wlach they kept in their temjiles, anct
distinguished with peculiar honors-. We need not there^
fore be surprised, that a nation, so sraperstitious as the
Egyptians, should honor with peculiar marks- of respect,
the icbnentmon, the ibis, the dog, the talcon, the wolf, ancl
the crocodile. These they entertained at great expense,
and with much raagnrfi-cence. Lands were set apart for
their maintenance ; persons of the Irighest rank were
employed in feeding and attending them ; rich carpets
were spread in their aparrnients-; and the pomp at their
fnnerals corresponded (o the profusion and hixury -which
attended them when alive. What chiefly tended to favor
the progress of animal worship in Egypt, was the lan-
guage of hieroglyphics. In the hieroglyphic inscriptions
on their temples and public edifices, animals, and even
vegetables, were the symbols of the gods wham they
worshipped. In the midst of innnmerable svtperstitions,
the theology of Egypt contained the two great principles
of religion, the existence of a supreme Being, and the
immortality of- the soul. The first is pnn-ed by the in-
scription on the temple of Rfinerva : " I am that which is,
■which was, and shall be ; no mortal hath lifted up my
veil ; the offspring of my power is the sun ;" the second,
by the care with which dead bodies were embalmed, and
the prayer recited at the hour of death, by an Egyptian,
expressing his desire to be received to the presence of the
deities.
6. The splendid temples of Egj'pt were not built, in all
probability, till after the time of Solomon ; for the recent
progress made in the deciphering of hieroglyphics has
disappointed the antiquaries as to the antiquity of these
stupendous fabrics. It is well oKserved by Dr. Shuckford,
that temples made m> great figure in Homer's time. If
they had, he -n'ould not have lost such an opportunity of
exerting his genius on so grand a subject as VirgiJ has
done ill his description of the temple built by Dido at
Carthage. The first heathen temples were probably no-
thing more than mean buildings, -n'hich sen'ed merely as
a shelter frorn the weather : of -which kind was, probably,
the house of the Philistine god Dagon. Bnt when the
fame of Solomon's temple had reached other conntries, it
excited them to imitate its splendor ; and nation vied with
nation in the stnictures erected to their several daities.
All were, however, outdone, at least in massiveness and
durability, by the Egyptians ; the architectural design of
-n'ho.se temples, as well as that of the Grecian edifices,
-\vas borrowed from the stems and branches of the grove
temples.
7. It appears to be an unfounded notion, that the pyra-
mids were built by the Israelites : they we»e, probably,
Mr. Faber thinks, the work of the '■ Shepherds," or
Cushite invaders, who, at an early period, held possession
of Egypt for two hundred and sixty years, and reduced
the Egj-ptians to bondage, so that " a shepherd -n'as an
abomination to the Egyptians" in Joseph's time. The
Israelites labored in making bricks, not in forming stones
such as the pyramids are constructed with ; and a passage
in Mr. Jowett's " Researches," before referred to, will
throw light upon this part of their history. Mr. Jowett
EG Y
t 493
E L A
saw at one place the people making bricks, with straw
cut into small pieces, and mingled with the clay, to bind
it. Hence it is, that when villages built of these bricks
fall into rubbish, which is often the case, the roads are
full of small particles of straws, extremely offensive to the
eyes in a high wind. They were, in fact, engaged exactly
as the Israelites used to be, making bricks with straw ;
and for a similar purpose, — to build extensive granaries
for the bashaw ; " treasure-cities for Pharaoh." The
same intelligent missionary also observes : " The moUems
transact business between the bashaws and the peasants.
He punishes them if the peasants prove that they oppress ;
and yet he requires from them that the work of those who
are under them shall be fulfilled. They strikingly illus-
trate the case of the officers placed by the Egj'ptian task-
masters over the children of Israel ; and, like theirs, the
moUems often find their case is evil, Exod. 5."
8. It is not necessary to go over those parts of the
Eg)'ptian history which occur iu the Old Testament.
A part of the prophecies respecting this haughty and
idolatrous kingdom, uttered by Jeremiah and Ezekiel,
when it was in the height of its splendor and prosperity,
were fulfilled in the terrible invasions of Nebuchadnezzar,
Cambyses, and the Persian monarchs. It comes, how-
ever, again into an interesting connexion with the Jfewish
history under Alexander the Great, who invaded it as a
Persian dependence. (See Alexa.nder and Alexandria.)
Egypt, indeed, was about to see better days ; and,
during the reigns of the Ptolemies, enjoyed again, for
nearly three hundred years, something of its former re-
nown for learning and power. It formed, during this
period, and before the rapid extension of the Roman em-
pire towards the termination of these years, one of the
only two ancient kingdoms which had survived the Assy-
rian, Babylonian, Persian, and Blacedonian empires : the
other was the Syrian, where the Seleucidse, another family
of one of the successors of Alexander, reigned ; who,
having subdued Macedonia and Thrace, annexed them
to the kingdom of Syria, and there remained, out of the
four kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander was
divided, these two only ; distinguished, in the prophetic
writings of Daniel, by the titles of the kings or kingdoms
of the north and the south.
9. The prophecies respecting Eg}'pt in the Old Testa-
ment have had a wonderful fulfilment. And the literal
fulfilment of every prophecy affords as clear a demonstra-
tion as can possibly be given, that each and all of them
are the dictates of inspiration. Egj'pt was the theme of
many prophecies, which were fulfilled in ancient times ;
and it bears to the present day, as it has borne throughout
many ages, every mark with which prophecy had stamped
its destiny : " They shall be a base kingdom. It shall be
the basest of kingdoms. Neither shall it exalt itself any
more among the nations : for I will diminish them, that
they shall no more rule over the nations. I the Lord
have spoken it. And there shall be no more a prince of
the land of Eg>-pt," Ezek. 30: 5, 7, 12, 13. The sceptre
of Egypt .shall depart away," Zech. 10: 11.
Volney and Gibbon are our witnesses of the facts : " Such
is the state of Egypt. Deprived, twenty-three centuries
ago, of her natural proprietors, she has seen her fertile
fields successively a prey to the Persians, the Macedoni-
ans, the Romans, the Greeks, the Arabs, the Georgians,
and, at length, the race of Tartars distinguished by the
name of Ottoman Turks. The JIamelukes, purchased as
slaves, and introduced as soldiers, soon usurped the power
and elected a leader. If their first establishment was a
singular event, their continuance is not less extraordi-
nary. They are replaced by slaves brought from their
original country. The system of oppression is methodi-
cal. Every thing the traveller sees or hears reminds him
he is in the country of slavery and tyranny." " A more
unjust and absurd constitution cannot be de^-ised than
that which condemns the natives of a country to perpetual
servitude, under the arbitrary dominion of strangers and
slaves. Yet such has been the state of Egypt about five
hundred years. The most illustrious sultans of the
Baharite and Borgite dynasties were themselves promoted
from the Tartar and Circassian bands ; and the four-and-
twenty beys or military chiefs have ever been suc-
ceeded, not by their sons, but by their servants." ThcM
are the words of Volney and of Gibbon, scofl'ers at the
Bible, but eyeivitnesses of the facts foretold in it two
thousand four hundred years before !
10. Egypt has, indeed, lately somewhat risen, under its
present spirited but despotic pasha, to a degree of impor-
tauce and commerce. But this pasha is still a stranger,
and the dominion is foreign. Nor is yet there any thmg
hke a general advancement of the people lo order, intelli-
gence and happiness. Yet this fact, instead of militating
against the truth of prophecy, may, possibly at no distant
period, serve to illustrate other predictions. " The Lord
shall smite Egypt : he shall smite and heal it ; and they
shall return to the Lord, and he shall be entreated of them,
and shall heal them. In that day shall Israel be the third
with Egypt and with Assyria, even a blessing '.n the
midst of' the land," iScc. Isa. 19: 22 — 25. ~ Jiuth-:rfcrirs
A7icicnt History ; Nnrvtoti on the Prvj'kecies ; Keith on the
Evidence of Prophecij ; Calmet ; Jones; Wntson.
EGYPT, (Bkook, or River of.) This is frequently
mentioned as the southern limit of the land of Promise,
Gen. 15: 18. 2 Chron. 7: 8. Num.21: 5. Josh. 13: 1.
Calmet is of opinion, that this was the Nile ; but most
modern interpreters take the river of Egypt, lo be the
brook Besor, between Gaza and Khinocorura. (Sec
Josh. 15: 47.) — Calmet.
EHUD ; son of Gera : a judge of Israel, who slew
Eglon, king of Moab, Judg. 3: 15. — Calmet.
EICET^ ; a denomination in the year fiSO, who af-
firmed that, in order to make prayer acce stable ,to God, it
should be performed dancing. — Hend. Bv.k.
EICHORN, (John Godfrey;) one of the most distin-
guished German scholars in Oriental liicrature, biblical
criticism, and literary and general histoiy. He was bom
at Dorrenzimmen, in 1752; in 1772, l.e was appointed
professor at Jena ; and, in 1788, he w:is made professor
at Gottingen, where he remained till lis death, in 1831.
At Gottingen, he devoted himself chiefl\ to biblical studies.
The results of his inquiries were publisiied in his Universal
Library of Billicnl Literature ; his Repertory of Biblical
and Oriental Literature ; and his Introduction to the Old and
New Testaments — works which contain much important
and valuable information, and sound criticism, but also
much of the grossest and most offensive specimens of
German neology. His writings have had a great influ-
ence on tlie views of continental divines. — Hend. Buck.
EJACULATION ; a short prayer, in which the miml
is directed to God, on any emergency. (See Frayek.) —
Hend. Buck.
EKRON ; a city of the Philistines, and the seat of go-
vernment. It was situated near the shore of the Medi-
terranean, between Azotus and Jamnia. It fell to the tribe
of Judah by lot, when Joshua divided the land, but was
afterwards given to the tribe of Dan, Josh. 15: 45. and
19: 43. The city was strongly fortified, and it does not
appear from hisloPi' that the Jews were ever sole, peace-
able possessors of it. The idol Baalzebnb was principally
worshipped by the inhabitants of Ekron, and a famous
temple was there dedicated to him, 2 Kings 1: 2,izc. — Jonet.
ELAM ; the eldest son of Shem, who settled in a coun-
try to which he gave his name, Gen. 10: 22. It is fre-
quently mentioned iu Scripture, as lying to the south-east
of Shinar. Susiana, in later times, seems to have been
a part of this country, (Dan. 8: 2.) and before the capti-
vity, the Jews seem always to have intended Persia by
the name of Elam. Stephanus takes it lo he a part of
Assyria ; but Pliny and Josephus, more properly, of Persia,
whose inhabitants, this latter tells us, sprung from the
Elamites. — IVatson.
ELATH ; a sea-port town on the eastern coast of the
Red sea. It originally belonged to the Edomites, being
situated in the country of Idumea ; but when David made
a conquest of the latter, and began to establish a com-
mercial intercourse with distant nations, Elath became a
place of considerable note. In the reign of Solomon, it
was of still more consequence on account of the ships
which he there built and fitted out for the purpose of
importing gold from Ophir, 2 Chron. 8: 17. It remained
in the possession of the Israelites a hundred and fifty
years, when, in the reign of Jehoram, the Edomites ro
ELD
[ 494 J
EL E
covered it, 2 Kings 8: 20. It was however retaken by
Uzziah, king of Judah, in the beginning of his reign, wbo
fortified it anew, peopled it with his own subjects, and
restored the trade to Ophir, which it continued to enjoy
until the wicked reign of Ahaz, when ReZin, king of Da-
mascus, took it by surprise, and having banished the
Jews that were settled there, supplanted them witli Syri-
ans, and made preparations for carrying on the trade, by
M'hich the kings of Judah had been so enriched. The
very next year, however, Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria,
invaded Damascus, conquered Rezin, took possession of
Elath, and reserved the right of trade there to himself;
so that the Jews from that time never recovered it, which
proved very detrimental to their national interests, —
Stackhousc's History of the Bible, vol. iii. 8vo. b. vi. ch. 1. —
Jane .
£L-BETH-EL, {to the God of Bethel ;) the name given
by Jacob to an altar which he built, (Gen. 35: 7.) and
which stood, piobably, in the very spot where he had
formerly seen the prophetic dream of the ladder, chap.
28: 22.— CaJmet.
ELCESAITES, Elcesaitje, Elxians, or Sampseans ;
the followers of Elxai, or Elcesia, a sectary of the second
century, but whether Jew or Christian, is by no means
certain. They were nearly of the same opinion as the
Ebionites and Ossens. — Mosheivi's Eccl. Hist.volA.p. 216;
Lardner's Heretics, p. 424, &c. — Williams.
ELDAD and MEDAD, were appointed by Moses
among the seventy elders of Israel, who were to assist in
the government ; though not present in the general as-
sembly, they were filled with the Spirit of God, equally
with those who were there, and began to prophesy in the
camp. Joshua would have had Jloses forbid them, but
he replied, " Enviest thou for ray sake ? Would to God
that all the Lord's people were prophets, and that the
Lord would put his Spirit upon them!" Num. 11: 24 —
Z'S.—Calmet.
ELDER, (preshtteros ;) an overseer, ruler, leader.
The reverence paid to the aged in the earliest times was
doubtless the origin of this title, it being used as a name
of office both among Jews and Christians. Dr. Mack-
night thinks that in the apostolic age it was applied to
" all who exercised any sacred office in the Christian
church," Acts 20: 17—28.
Elders, or seniors, in ancient Jewish polity, were per-
sons the most considerable for age, experience, and wis-
dom. Of this sort were the seventy men whom Bloses
associated with himself in the government : such likewise
afterwards were those who held the first rank in the syna-
gogue as presidents. — Elders, in church history, were
originally those who held the first place in the assemblies
of the primitive Christians. The word presbyter is often
used in the New Testament in this signification, and as
interchangeable with episcopos ; hence the first meetings
of Christian ministers were called presbyterin, or assem-
blies of elders.
Elders, in the Presbjterian discipline, are officers who,
in conjunction with the ministers and deacons, compose
the kirk sessions, who formerly used to take cognizance
not only of all grosser immoralities, such as swearing,
drunkenness, lewdness, fighting, scolding, disobedience to
parents, absence from public worsliip. itc. but also what
are termed the levities and amusements of life — as danc-
ing, racing, card-playing, and tlie like. They were au-
thorized, on some occasions, to carry their jurisriiction
into the bosoms of families and individuals ; to disarm
private resentments, and arbitrate in cases of domestic
variance. Their principal business now is to taK'e care
of the poor's funds. They are chosen from among the
people, and are received publicly wilh some degree of
oeremtmy. In Scotland, there is an indefinite number of
elders in each parish, generally about twelve. (See
PUESPYTEraiNS.)
It has long been a matter of dispute, whether there are
any such officers as lay-elders mentioned in Scripture,
On the one side it is observed, that th.ese officers are no
where mentioned as being alone or single, but always as
being many in every congregation. They are also men-
tioned separately from the brethren. Their office, more
than once, is described as being distinct from that of
preaching, not only in Rom. 12:, where he that ruleth
is expressly distinguished from him that exhorteth or
teachcth, but also in that passage, 1 Tim. 5: 17. On the
other side it is said that, from the above-mentioned pas-
sages, nothing can be collected with certainly to establish
this opinion ; neither can it be inferred from any other
passage, that churches should be furnished with such
officers, though perhaps prudence, in some circumstances,
may raalie them expedient. " I incline to think," says
Dr. Guise, on the passage, (1 Tim. 5: 17,) "that the
apostle intends only preaching elders, when he directs
double honor to be paid to the elders that rule well, espe-
cially those who labor in the word and doctrine j and that
the distinction lies not in the order of officers, but in the
degree of their diligence, faithfulness, and eminence in
laboriously fulfilling their ministerial work ; and so the
emphasis is to be laid on the word labor in the word
and doctrine which has an especially annexed to it."—
Hend. Buck.
ELEALEH ; a town of Reuben, (Num. 32: 37.) placed
by Eusebius a mile from Heshbon. — Calmet.
ELEATICS; a philosophic sect, founded by Xeno-
phanes, at Elia, in Magna Grtecia. He was originally a
Pythagorean, but added some errors of his own to those
of his master. A few fragments only of his writings are
in existence ; but it appears that he taught the eternity
both of God and of the universe, and was a Pantheist.
— Enfield's Philosophy, vol. i, p, 413, fee, — Williams.
ELEAZER ; the third son of Aaron, and his successor
in the dignity of high-priest, Exod, 0: 23, He entered
into the land of Canaan with Joshua, and is supposed to
have lived there upwards of twenty years, 'The high-
priesthood continued in his family till the time of Eli.
He was buried in a hill that belonged to the son of Phi-
neas. Josh. 24.
II. ELEAZER ; the son of Aminadab, to whose care
the ark was committed when it was sent back by the
Philistines, 1 Sam. 7. He is thought to have been a
priest, or at least a Levite, though he is not mentioned in
the catalogue of the sons of Levi. — Watson.
ELECT, besides its scriptural and theological use, had
also an ecclesiastical meaning, and was sometimes applied
to the highest class of catechumens elected to baptism ; at
other times to the baptized, admitted to the full privileges
of their profession, and sometimes called the perfect.
The Manichojans were divided into two great classes, the
Andirntes and Elect.— Lardner's Cred., part II. vol. 6, pp.
87, 29y, itc— Williams.
ELECTA, (p.tect lady, Eng. Trans.) was, as is generally
believed, a lady of quaUly who lived near Ephesus, to
wh.om John adeUessed his second Epistle, cautioning her
and her children against heretics, who denied the divinity
of Christ, and his incarnation. Some think Electa, which
sisiiifies chosen, is not a proper name, but an honorable
epithet, and that the Epistle was directed to a church.
The same apostle salutes Electa, and her children in
his third Epistle ; but the accounts of this Electa are
as perplexed as those of the former. — Calmet.
ELECTION ; the act of choice. This word has difle-
rent applications in the Scriptures. 1. It signifies God's
taking a whole nation, community, or body of men, into
external covenant with himself, by giving them the ad-
vantage of revelation as the rule of their belief and prac-
tice, when other nations are without it. Dent. 7: ti. 2.
A temjiorary designation of some person or persons to the
filling up of some particular station in the visible church,
or office in civil life, John 6: 70. 1 Sam. 10: 21. 3. The
gracious act of the Divine Spirit, whereby God actually
and risiblv separates his people from the world by efiee-
lual calling, John 15: 19. (See Calling.) 4. That eter-
nal, gi-atuitous, sovereign, and immutable pu rpo.se of God,
whereby he selected from among all mankind, and of
every nation under heaven, all those whom he eftectually
calls to be sanctified and everlastingly saved by Christ,
Eph. 1: 4. 2 Thess. 2: 13. (See Decree ; and Pkedesti-
nation.)
With respect to this subject, it is to be observed, —
1. Thai it is no part of the doctrine if election, that God
created a part of mankijid merely to damn thew. This is of^en
said by those who wish to bring the doctrine into con^
ELE
[ 495 ]
ELE
tempt ; but it is not true. It is indeed revealed that he
mil punish multitudes of the human race " with everlast-
ing destruction from his presence ;" but lie did not bring
them into being merely for the sake of punishing them.
God is love. There is not one malevolent emotion rank-
ling in his bosom. It is one of the foulest stains that was
ever cast upon his spotless character, lo admit the thought
that he brought creatures into being merely for the pur-
pose of making them forever miserable. In itself, he
desires the salvation of every living man. We have his
oath, " that he has no pleasure in the death of him that
dieth." If he destroys the wicked, it is because their
perdition is inseparable from the preservation of his own
glory, and the highest good of his kingdom, and not be-
cause it is in itself well pleasing to his benevolent mind,
or the ultimate object of their creation.
2. It is >w part of the doctrine of election, that Christ died
exclusiveli/ for the elect. Such a representation is an un-
justifiable perversion of the doctrine, and exposes it to
unnecessar)' objections. Though there would have been
no atonement but for God's design to save the elect, and
thougli there could have been no designs of mercy toward
the elect without an atonement ; yet the doctrine of atone-
ment and election are two distinct things. Much idle
breath and illiberal crimination might have been spared,
by giving them that place in the Christian system which
they hold in the word of God.
3. It is no part of the doctrine of election, that the elect will
be saved, let ikem do what they wilt. The immutable law of
the divine kingdom has made personal holiness essential
to eternal life. It is not less certain that " no man will
see the Lord without holiness," — than that no man will
see the Lord unless he be of the " election of grace."
The elect cannot be saved unless they possess supreme
love to God, sincere contrition for all their sins, and faith
unfeigned in the Lord Jesus Christ. The elect can no
more enter heaven without being prepared for it than
others. If a man continues stupid and secure, — if he
never reads the Scriptures, — if he never attends upon the
word and ordinances, — if he is never anxious for the sal-
vation of his soul, — if he never repents and believes the
gospel, — if he never becomes a follower of the meek and
lowly Jesus ; he may rest assured there is nothing in the
doctrine of election that will save him. '' Except ye re-
pent, ye shall all likewise perish.''
4. /; is no part of election, that the non-elect mill not be
saved if they do asn-ella.^ they can. If sinners '■ repent and
believe the gospel," there is nothing in the doctrine of
election that will destroy them. If they become recon-
ciled to God, he will regard them with favor. If they
"come to Christ," they shall "in nowise be cast out.''
Not one will be lost unless he persist in impenitence,
reject the offers of mercy, and die in his sins.
5. It is no part of the doctrine of election, tliat the non-elect
cannot comply with the terms of the gospel. We are well
aware that the Scriptures represent it to be impossible for
men lo do what they are unwilling to do. Hence says
our Savior, — " No man can come to me, except the Fa-
ther which hath sent me draw him." His idea doubtless
is, that men cannot come to him because they are unwill-
ing to come ; for he had just said, in the course of the
same address. " and ye will not come unto me, that ye
might have life." He supposes that mere unwillingness
renders it impossible for them to come. This mode of
speaking not only runs through the Bible, but is agreeable
to the plainest dictates of reason and common sense.
imie, therefore, it is proper to say, that men cannot do what
they are miwillins to do, it is also proper to say, that they cnn do
what they are willing to do. They are as capable of doing
right, if so disposed, as of doing wrong. The doctrine of
election leaves them in full possession of all their powers
as moral agents, and all possible liberty to choose or
refuse the offers of mercy.
But if none of these things belong to the doctrine of
election, what is it ? For the sake of a clear understand-
ing of the subject, several things must be particularly
observed.
1. At.i, mankind are et kature ra a state of sin and
CONDEMNATION. The " imagination of man's heart is evil
from his youth." " We have before proved both Jews
and Gentiles, that they are all under sin."
2. Notwithstanding the native cor.KtJFTioN of the
human heart, and THE LOST CONDITION OF ALL MANKIND BY
NATURE, God HAS PROVIDED A FULL AND COMPLETE ATONE-
MENT FOR ALL THEIR SINS. " God SO lovcd ilic wopld, that
he gave his only-begotten Son, that whosoever believeth
on him might not perish, but have everlasting life." The
atonement of Christ is sufficient for all, adapted to all,
offered to all, and irrespective of the divine purpose as to
its efl'ectual application, made as much for one man as
another.
3. Notwithstanding the unlimited provision of the
gospel, all, when left to tnemseh-es, with one con-
sent, reject the overtures of mercy, and will not
COME UNTO Christ that they might have life. Even
when the Spirit strives, they " do always resist the Holy
Ghost." No sense of guilt and danger, no consciousness
of obligation and duty, no pressure of motives, will con-
strain a living man to lay down the armsof rebellion, and
be reconciled to God. If the Spirit of God does not put
forth the power and glory of his grace to wrest the wea-
pons of revolt from his hands, and put a new spirit within
him, and make the sinner willing in the day of his power,
all are lost, and Christ is dead in vain.
4. Tins SAD RESULT GoD UAS DETERMINED TO PREVENT.
He does not mean that all mankind shall finally perish.
He does not intend that they shall rob him of the glory of
his grace, nor his Son of the reward of his death. Some
he saves. These he rescues from themselves and from
perdition. This is a simple matter of fact. When in the
gall of bitterness and bonds of iniquity, he sends his Spirit
to convince them of their lost condition — to show them
their need of mercy — to make them feel his word to be
quick and powerful — to create them anew in Christ Jesus,
and to make them meet for the inheritance of the saints
in light. " He works in them both to will and to do."
He begins, carries on, and completes the work, and re-
ceives Ihem at last to " the glory which is to be revealed."
5. GoD DOES THIS FROM DESIGN. Hc docs uothiug with-
out. Much less any thing so great and glorious as this
of renewing and saving souls. This design is an eter-
nal design ; this delerminallon eternal, and irrevocable as
his own unchangeable nature.
6. In DOING THIS, IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMARK, THAT
God is govep.ned by a wise regard to his own good
PLEASURE. He does not have mercy on whom he will have
mercy, because they are better than others. Then il
would leave ground for boasting. Then it would not be
grace. Now it is grace. For when the design of saving
them was formed, ihey were not in being, and " had done
neither good nor evil." During the whole of their unrC'
generate state, they were opposing God and contemning
the Son of his love. The moment before their regenera-
tion, ihey were his enemies. It could not, therefore, have
been from regard to any thing in them, that they were
taken and others left, but from a regard to the mere good
pleasure and wisdom of God. It was a sovereign pur-
pose. It was that all the glory might redound to God'a
great and holj' name.
7. Nor is it less important to subjoin, that this
sovereign and eternal purpose was formed in view of
THE ATONEMENT OF Christ. Iu its practical influence, it
regarded men as already fallen by their iniquity, and
beyond the possibility of deliverance, except by atonement.
When God determined to save" a part of mankind, he
had it in prospect to provide such an expiation for the
sins of the world, as to justify him in the unlimited offer of
pardon, and in the full and complete justification of all who
accept it. He owed it to himself, in forming the purpose
to save, to devise a consistent method of salvation. It
would have been a violation of the rights of moral go-
vernment, to have received rebels into favor " without
the shedding of blood." Hence the elect are said to be
"chosen in Christ." In other places they are said lobe
" Christ's seed." In others, they are represented as
"given to him" by his Father. When, in the covenant
of peace, he engaged to lay down his life for the sins ol
the world, a stipulated number was " given him'' as his
ELE
[ 496
ELE
reward. Iji view of raankinci, as already pluaged Ln gnilt
and ruin, and of Christ as malting an adequate atonement,
(Jod "chose them to salvation, through sanctification of
the Spirit and belief of the truth."
This is what we suppose the Scriptures mean by the
doctrine of election. The apostle represents himself and
the Christians at Ephesus to be "chosen" — "chosen in
Christ" — "chosen in him before the foundation of the
world ;" and that not upon condition they would be holy,
nor because of any foreseen holiness, but " that they
should be holy and without blame before him in love,
having predestinated them unto the adoption of children
by Jesus Christ unto himself, according to the good plea-
sure of his will."
The truth of this doctrine may be evinced, among other
arguments, —
1. From the divine immutability. " Do not err, my
beloved brethren. Every good gift and every perfect gift
is frcTi above, and cometh down from the Father of
lights, with whom there is no variableness, or the shadow
of turning." He himself claims this exalted character:
' am God, and there is none else ; I am God, and there
is none like me ; declaring the end from the beginning,
and from ancient times, the things that are not yet done ;
saying, My counsel shall stand, and I will do all my plea-
sure." If we could suppose the Deity to be wiser, and
better, and mightier at some times than at others, we
might suppose, that with every accession of knowledge,
goodness, and power, he would form some new design.
But he is always the same ; and as his character never
alters, so his purposes never alter. Hence the divine
immutability secures the doctrine of election. If the
divine mind has formed any new purpose with regard to
the salvation of men, then he has altered his plans, and is
mutable ; but if he has always been of the same mind,
then, unless he actually saves the whole, he must have
formed the purpose of saving a certain part. Every indi-
vidual he saves, he must have " always meant to save,"
— he must have always chosen and determined to save.
But this is nothing more nor less than the doctrine of
election. All the objections, therefore, that are made
against the doctrine of election, are levelled equally
against the divine immutability.
2. The doctrine of election may be conclusively argued
from the divine foreknowledge.
The mere light of nature is enough to teach us that
God knows all things present, past, and to come. It is
impos.sible that a being of infinite wisdom should com-
mence a system of operations without knowing what he
is about to do. If God does not know all events before
they actually take ])lace, then his knowledge may in-
crease, and he may be wiser to-morrow than he is to-day.
In short, if he does not foreknow all things, he may not
only from day to day discover things that are new, but he
may deduce new results from them, may misjudge in his
arrangements, and be frustrated in his purposes. But the
Bible puts this queslioii bej-ond a doubt. — " Known unto
God are all his works, from the beginning of the world."
Tt is a settled point, then, that God knew from all eternity
every thing that would take place.
God, therefore, knows who will at last be saved. But
salvation is his own work in the human soul. How then
could this be known, unless it were a determined event?
If it were undetermined, it was uncertain ; and if uncertain,
it could not certainly be known. Lei any man but an
atheist look at this with an rtnprejudiced mind, and he
must receive the doctrine of election. It is just as cer-
tain, therefore, that God determined from eternity who
would be saved, as that he knew from eternity who would
be saved. " For whom he did foreknow, he also did pre-
destinate." But this is nothing more nor less than the
doctrine of election. All the objections which lie against
the doctrine of election. He with equal force against the
divine foreknowledge.
3. In proof of this doctrine, we shall make our appeal
to THE EXPRESS TESTIMONY OF THE HOLY ScRIPTURES.
We consider the doctrine unanswerably demonstrated
from the preceding considerations ; but " to the law and
the testimony." The Scriptures are the word of God, and
the infallible rule of faith and practice. Here we have a
standard to which every thing must bow. From this
oracle there is no appeal. Let us go, then, to the Bible j
and let us go — -not to alter, not to expunge, not to supply,
not to wrest from its plain and obvious meaning a single
word ; but simply to inquire what the Lord hath spoken,
and to yield our preconceived opinions to the paramount
authority of eternal truth. Here, if we are not deceived,
we find the doctrine of election revealed as plainly as
language can reveal it.
Let the reader carefully consult the following passages,
and interpret them according to just and fair principles of
exegesis, and we leave it to his own judgment to deter-
mine whether they do not teach the doctrine of a special
election of particular persons to eternal life : Matt. 24:
22, 24. Acts 13: 48. Rom. 8: 28—30. 9: 23. U: 5, 7.
Eph. 1: 4, 5. 1 Thess. 1: 4. 5: 9. 2 Thess. 2: 13. 2 Tim.
1: 9. 2: 10. 1 Pet. 1: 2. The construction which some
would force upon these passages, agreeably to which they
understand merely the election or designation of nations
or bodies of people to external religious privileges, cannot
be maintained without unsettling the whole of the New
Testament scheme of personal and individual salvafion ;
and, however favorable such an idea may be to certain
dogmas relative to the efficacy of a standing in what has
been called the visible church, and the opus operatum of its
sacraments, it cannot but prove highly prejudicial to the
interests of genuine piety, and is, indeed, found to flourish
chiefly in regions where that piety has little or no influ-
ence.— Hend. Buck.
EL-ELOHE-ISRAEL, ("To God the God of Israel,")
the name of an altar, built by Jacob in a piece of ground
which he bought of Hamor, Shechem's father. Gen. 33:
20.— Calmet.
ELEMENTS, {stoicheia ;) the elements or first princi-
ples of any art, whence the subsequent parts proceed.
The elements or first principles of the Christian doctrine,
Heb. 5: 12. ' St. Paul calls the ceremonial ordinances of
the Mosaic law, " worldly elements," (Gal. 4: 3. Col. 2:
8,20.) "weak and beggarly elements. Gal. 4: 9. Ele-
ments, as containing the rudiments of the knowledge of
Christ, to which knowledge the law, as a pedagogue,
fGal. 3: 24.) was intended, by means of those ordinances,
to bring the Jews ; worldly, as consisting in outward
worldly institutions, (Heb. 9: 1.) weak and beggarly,
when considered in themselves, and set up in opposition
to the great realities to which they were designed to lead,
But, in Col. 2: 8. the elements'or rudiments of the world
are so closely connected with philosophy and vain deceit,
or an empty and deceitful philosophy, that they must be
understood there to include the dogmas of pagan philoso-
phy ; to which, no doubt, many of the Colossians were in
their unconverted state attached, and of which the juda-
izing teachers, who also were probably themselves infect-
ed ■with them, took advantage to withdraw the Colossiau
converts from the purity of the gospel, and from Christ
their living head. And from the general tenor of this
chapter, and particularly from verses IS — 23, it appears,
that these philosophical dogmas, against which the apostle
cautioned his converts, were partly Platonic, and partly
Pythagorean ; the former teaching the worship of angels,
or demons, as mediators between God and man ; the
latter enjoining such abstinence from particular kinds of
meats and drinks, and such severe mortifications of the
body, as God had not commanded. — Watson.
ELEUTHERUS ; a river in Syria, which rises between
Libanus and Anti-libanus. After watering the valley be-
tween these two mountains, it falls into the Mediterra-
nean sea, 1 Blac. 11: 7. — Calmet.
ELEUTHEROPOLIS ; a city of Judea, which, though
not mentioned in the sacred writings, must have been
very celebrated in the time of Eusebius and Jerome. It
was an episcopal city, whence these authors estimated the
distances and positions of other cities. Josephus says it
was twenty miles from Jerusalem, and Antoninus places
it twenty-four miles from Askalon, and eighteen from
Lydda. Eusebius says five miles from Gath, six from
Lachish, twenty -five from Gerar, twenty from Jattir, and
eight from Keilah. — Calmet.
ELI
[497]
ELI
ELEPHANT, the largest of existing quadrupeds,
celebrated for his sagacity, faithfulness and prudence^
Calmet is of opinion that the behemoth of Job 11: is the
elephant ; but this notion is generally held to be untena-
ble. (See Behemoth ; and Ivory.) — Calmet.
ELI, a high-priest of the Hebrews, of the race of Itha-
mar, who succeeded Abdon, and governed the Hebrews,
both as priest and judge, during forty years. How Eli
came to the high priesthood, and how this dignity was
transferred from Eleazar's family to that of Ithamar, who
was Aaron's j'oungest son, we- know not. This much,
however, is certain, that it was not done without an ex-
press declaration of God's will, 1 Sam. 2; 27, &c. lathe
reign of Solomon, the predictions in relation to Eli's fami-
ly were fulfilled ; for the high priesthood was taken from
Abiathar, a descendant of Eli, and given to Zadok, who
was of the race of Eleazar, 1 Kings 2: 26. Eli appears
to have been a pious, but indolent man, blinded by pa-
ternal atTection, who suffered his sons to gain the ascen-
dancy over him ; and for want either of personal courage,
or zeal for the glory of God sufficient to restrain their li-
centious conduct, he permitted them to go on to their own
and his ruin. Thus he carried his indulgence to cru-
elty ; whilst a more dignified and austere conduct on his
part might have rendered them wise and virtuous, and
thereby have preserved himself and family. A striking
lesson for parents ! 1 Sam. 4: 12 — 18. — Watson.
ELIAKIBI ; son of Hilkiah, steward of the household,
or keeper of the temple under king Hezekiah, 2 Kings
18: 18. Calmet thinks, that EUakimwas son of Hilkiah,
the high-priest, that he succeeded his father, and was high-
priest under Manasseh. He is sometimes called Jehoia-
kim ; and there is great probability, that he is the Hilkiah
mentioned in the reign of Josiah, and afterwards. — Cahnet.
ELIAS. (See Elijah.)
ELIAS LEVITA, a celebrated Jewish rabbi, a native
of Germany, was born at Neustadt, in Brandenburg, in
1 172, and died at Venice, in 1519. For many years he
was professor of Hebrew at Venice and Padua. Among
his works, which are highly valuable, are, a Chaldaic,
Talmudic, and Rabbinic Lexicon ; a Hebrew Glossary ;
and a Commentary on the Grammar of Moses Kimchi. —
Davenport.
ELIEZER, a native of Damascus, and the steward of
Abratiam's house. It seems that Abraham, before the
birth of Isaac, intended to make him his heir : — " One
born in my house," a do.'nestic slave, " is mine heir,"
Genesis 15: 1 — 3. He was afterwards sent into Mesopo-
tamia, to procure a wife for Isaac, (Gen. 24: 2, 3,) (tec. ;
which business he accomplished with fidelit)' and expedi-
tion. " It is still the custom in India," says Forbes, " es-
pecially among the Mahometans, that in default of chil-
dren, and sometimes where there are lineal descendants,
the master of a family adopts a slave, frequentlj' a HafT-
shee Abyssinian, of the darkest hue, for his heir. He
educates him agreeably to his wishes, and marries him to
one of his daughters. As the reward of superior merit,
'or to suit th"^ caprice of an arbitrary despot, this honor is
also corierred on a slave recently purchased, or already
63
grown up in the family ; and to him he bequeaths hi3
wealth, in preference to his nephews, or any collateral
branches. This is a custom of great antiquity in the
East, and prevalent among the most refined and civilized
nations. In the earliest period of the patriarchal history
we find Abraham complaining for want of children ; and
declaring that either Eliezer of Damascus, or probably
one born from him in his house, was his heir, to the ex-
cUision of Lot, his favorite nephew, and all the other col-
lateral branches of his family." — Watson.
ELIHU ; one of Job's friends, a descendant of Nahor,
Job 32: 2. (See loB.)—Watsmi.
ELIJAH. Elijah or EUas, a prophet, was a native of
Tishbe beyond Jordan in Gilead. Some think that he
was a priest descended from Aaron, and say that one Sa-
baca was his father ; but this has no authority. He was
raised up by God, to be set like a wall of brass, in oppo-
sition to idolatry, and particularly to the worship of Baal,
which Jezebel and Ahab supported in Israel. His histo-
ry may be found in the first and second books of Kings.
2. The Scripture introduces Elijah saying to Ahab, (1
Kings 17: 1, 2,) A. M. 3092, " As the Lord God of Israel
liveth, before whom I stand, there shall not be dew nor
rain these years, but according to my word." It is re-
markable, that the number of years is not here specified ;
but in the New Testament we are informed that it was
three years and si.x; months. By the prohibition of dew
as well as rain, the whole vegetable kingdom was depriv-
ed of that moisture, without which neither the more hardy,
nor more delicate, kinds of plants could shoot into her-
bage, or bring that herbage to maturity. The Lord com-
manded Elijah to conceal himself beyond Jordan, near
the brook Cherith. He obeyed, and God sent ravens to
him morning and evening, which brought him flesh and
bread. Scheuzer observes, that he cannot think that the
orehim of the Hebrew, rendered "ravens," means, as some
have thought, the inhabitants of a town called Oreb, nor
a troop of Arabs called orbhim ; and contends that the
bird called the raven, or one of the same genus, is in-
tended. The word rendered raven, includes the whole ge-
nus, among which are some less impure than the raven,
as the rook. Rooks living in numerous societies are sup-
posed by some to be the kind of birds employed on this
occasion, rather than ravens, which fly only in pairs. But
upon all these explanations we may observe, that when
an event is evidently miraculous, it is quite superfluous,
and often absurd, to invent hypotheses to make it ap-
pear more easy.
3. Elijah was one of the most eminent of that illustrious
and singular race of men, the Jewish prophets. Every
part of his character is marked by a moral grandeur, which
is heightened by the obscurity thrown around his connex-
ions and his private history. He often wears the air of
a supernatural messenger suddenly issuing from another
world, to declare the commands of heaven, and to awe
the proudest mortals by the menace of fearful judgments.
His boldness in reproof; his lofty zeal for the honor of
God ; his superiority to softness, ease, and sufl^ering, are
the characters of a man filled with the Holy Spirit ; and
he was admitted to great intimacy with God, and enabled
to work miracles of a very extraordinary and unequivo-
cal character. These were called for by the stupid idola-
try of the age. and were in some instances equally calcu-
lated to demonstrate the being and power of .Tehovah, and
to punish those who had forsaken him for idols. The au-
thor of Ecclesiasticus has an encomium to his memory,
and justly describes him as a prophet '• who stood up as a
fire, and whose word burned as a lamp." In the stern-
ness and power of his reproofs, he was a striking type of
John the ISaptist, and the latter is therefore prophesied of,
under his name. Malachi (4: 5, 6,) has this passage :
" Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet, before the
coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord." Our
Savior also declares that Elijah had already come in
spirit, in the person of .lohn the Baptist. At the transfi-
guration of our Savior, Elijah and Moses both appeared
and conversed with him respecting his future passion.
Matt. 17: 3, 4. Mark 9: 4. Luke 9: 30. Many ol the
Jews in our Lord's time believed him to be Elijah, or iliat
the soul of Elijah had passed into his body. Matt. 10: 1*
ELL
[ 498 ]
ELI
Mark 6: 15. Luke 9: 8. In conclusion, we may observe,
that to assure the world of the future existence of good
men in a state of glory and felicity, and that in bodies
changed from mortality to immortality, each of the three
grand dispensations of religion had its instance of trans-
lation into heaven j the patriarchal in the person of
Enoch, the Jewish in the person of Elijah, and the Chris-
tian in the person of Christ. — JValsoii.
ELIPHAZ ; one of Job's friends, probably a descend-
ant of Eliphaz, son of Esau, Job 4: 1. He was of Te-
man, in Idumea, (Jer. 49; 7, 20. Ezek. 25: 13. Amos 1:
n, 12. Obad. 8, 9.) and in the Greek versions of the
poem, is described as king of his city. (See Job.)—
Calmet.
ELISABETH, the wife of Zachariah, and mother of
John the Baptist, was of the daughters of Aaron, or the
race of the priests, Luke 1: 5 — 63. — Calmet.
ELISABETH, (St.) of Thuringia, distinguished for
her piety and virtue, the daughter of Andrew II. king of
Hungary, was born at Presburg, 1207, and, in 1211, was
married to Louis, landgrave of Thuringia, who was then
eleven years old, and was educated at Wartburg, in all
the elegance of the court of Hermann, the abode of mu-
sic and the arts. When Germany, and especially Thu-
ringia, was oppressed with famine and pestilence, she
caused many hospitals to be erected, fed a multitude of
the poor from her own table, and supplied their wants
with money and clothing. She wandered about, in an
humble dress, relieving the sorrows of the WTetched.
Louis died on a crusade, and her own life terminated
November 19, 1231, in an hospital which she had herself
established. She was regarded as a saint by her admir-
ing contemporaries, and, four years after her death, this
canonization was approved by pope Gregory IX. A
beautiful church and a costly monument were erected
over her tomb. The latter is now one of the most splen-
did remains of Gothic architecture in Germany. — Enci/.
Amer.
ELISEUS ; the same as Elisha, in the English transla-
tion of the New Testament. — Co/met.
ELISHA, son of Shaphat, and Elijah's disciple and
successor in the prophetic office, vvas of Abelmeholah, 1
Kings 19: 16. Elijah having received God's command to
anoint Elisha as a prophet, came to Abel-meholah. and
finding Elisha ploughing with twelve pair of oxen,- he
threw his mantle over him. Elisha left his oxen, and ac-
companied Elijah, chap. 19: 19 — 21. Eli.sha was ac-
companying his master, when the Lord took him up in a
whirlwind ; and he inherited Elijah's mantle, with a
double portion of his spirit. See his history in the books
of Kings. — Calmet.
ELISHA, (the fountain of,) rises two bow-shots from
mount Quarantania, and nins through the plain of Jeri-
iho, into the Jordan ; passing south of Gilgal, and divid-
ing into, several streams. This is said to he the foun-
tain whose waters were sweetened by Elisha, 2 Kings 2:
19—22 Calmet.
ELISHAH, son of Javan, (Gen. 10: 4.) from whom
the isles of Elishah are named, (Ezek. 27: 7.) is believed
to have peopled Elis in the Peloponnesus. AVefind there
the province of Elis, and a country called Alisium, by
Homer. Ezekiel, above, speaks of the purple of Elishah,
brought to Tyre. The fish used in dyeing purple were
caught at the mouth of the Eurotas, and the ancients fre-
quently speak of the purple of Laconia. — Calmet.
ELKANAH; second son of Korah, Exod. 6: 24. 1
Chron. 6: 26. The name of his elder brother was Assir,
which imports, a dose prisoner ; this name, Elkanah, (re-
deemed by God,) appears to have been given in contra-
distinction, alluding to the approaching deliverance of Is-
rael.—Also, 2. The father of the prophet Samuel ; (1
Sani. 1: 1.) perhaps so called in reference to one of the
deliverances of Israel recorded in the book of Judges.
Several others of the same name are mentioned in 1
Chron. 6: and other places. — Cnlmct.
ELIvOTH;a village in Calilee, the birth-place of the
prophet Nahum, Nah. 1:1. It was shown in Jerome's
time, but almost in ruins. Theophylact says it is beyond
Jordan. — Calmet.
ELLASAE. There was a city (mentioned by Ste-
phanus, de Urbibus) called Ellas, in Casio-Syria, on the
borders of Arabia, where Arioch, one of the confederate
kings, (Gen. 14: 9.) perhaps, commandt I. — Calmet.
ELLERIANS, or Eonsdorfiaks, the followers of one
Eller, an enthusiast, of Ronsdorf. He pretended to be a
messenger from God, who resided in him, to form a new
church, on which account he was called " the father of
Sion," and his wife the mother. He is charged with be-
ing ambitious and luxurious, and died in 1750. — {Gre-
goire's Hist. vol. i. p. 307.)— nilliams.
ELIOT, (John,) minister of Eoxbury, Massachusetts,
usually called the apostle of the Indians, was born at Na-
sin, Essex, England, in 1004. His pious parents early
imparted to him religious instruction, and it was notmth-
out effect. After receiving his education at the university
of Cambridge, he was for some time the instructer of
youth. In 1631, he came to this country, and was set-
tled as teacher of the church in Eoxbury, November 5,
1632.
His benevolent labors were not confined to his own
people. Having imbibed the true spirit of the gospel, his
heart was touched with the wretched condition of the In-
dians, and he became eagerly desirous of making them
acquainted with the glad tidings of salvation. There
were at the time, when he began his missionary exertions,
near twenty tribes of Indians within Ihe lunits of the
English planters. But they were very similar in man-
ners, language, and religion. Having learned the bar-
barous dialect, he first preached to an assembly of Indians .
at Nonantum, in the present town of Newton, October
28, 1646. After a short prayer, he explained the com-
mandments, described the character and sufferings of
Christ, the judgment day and its consequences, and ex-
horted them to receive Christ as their Savior and to pray
to God. After the sermon was finished, he desired them
to ask any questions, which might have occurred. One
immediately inquired, whether Jesus Christ could under-
stand prayers in the Indian language. Another asked,
how all the world became full of people, if they were all
once drowned. A third question was, how there could
be the image of God, since it was forbidden in the com-
mandment. He preached to them a second time, No-
vember 11, and some of them wept while he was address-
ing them. An old man asked, with tears in his eyes,
whether it was not too late for him to repent and turn
unto God. Among the other inquiries were these, how
it came to pass, that sea water was salt, and river water
fresh ; how the English came to difler so much from the
Indians in the knowledge of God and Jesus Christ, since
they all at first had but one father ; and why, if the water
is larger than the earth, it does not overflow the earth.
He was violently opposed by the sachems and pawaws
or priests, who were apprehensive of losing their autho-
rity, if a new religion was introduced. When he was
alone with them in the wilderness, they threatened him
with every evU, if he did not desist from his labors ; but
he was a man not to be shaken in his purpose by the fear
of danger. He said to them, " I am about the work of
the great God, and my God is with me ; so that I neither
fear you, nor all the sachems in the country ; I will go
on, do }'ou touch me, if 5'ou dare." With a bodj' capable
of enduring fatigue, and a mind firm as the mountain
oaks, which surrounded his path, he went from place to
place, reljing for protection upon the great Head of the
church, and declaring the salvation of the gospel to the
children of darkness. " I have considered," said he, " the
word of God, (1 Tim. 2: 3,) Endure hardship as a good
soldier of Je.sus Christ." He made a missionary tour every
foi'tnight, planted a number of churches, and visited all
the Indians in Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies,
pursuing his way as far as cape Cod.
In 1651, an Indian town was built on a pleasant spot
on Charles' river, called Natick. A house of worship
was erected, and a form of government was established
similar to that, which is mentioned in Exodus 18: 21. He
was convinced, that in order to the most permanent suc-
cess, it was necessary to introduce with Christianity the
arts of civilized life. He accordingly made every exer-
tion to persuade the Indians to renounce their ravage cus-
toms and habits ; but he never could civilize those, who
EH
[ 499 ]
ELI
went out in hunting parlies. The first Indian church,
established by llie labors of Proteslants in America, was
formed at Natick, ia 1600, alter ihe manner of the con-
gregational churches in New England. Those, who
wished to be organized into a Christian body, were strictly
examined as to their faith and experience by a number of
the neighboring ministers, and Mr. Eliot afterwards ad-
ministered to them baptism and the Lord's supper. Other
Indian churches were planted in various parts of Massa-
chusetts, and he frequently visited them ; but his pastoral
care was more particularly over that which he first es-
tablished. He made every exertion to promote the wel-
fare of the Indian tribes ; he slimulated many servants
of Jesus to engage in the missionary work ; and, although
he mourned over the stiipidit}' of many who preferred
darkness to hght, yet he lived to see twenty-four of the
copper-colored aborigines feUow preachers of the pre-
cious gospel of Christ. In 1661, he published the New
Testament in the Indian language, and in a few years
the whole Bible, and several other books, best adapted for
the instruction of the natives.
He possessed an influence over the Indians, which no
other missionary could obtain. He was their shield in
1675, during Philip's war, when some of the people of
Massachusetts, actuated by the most infuriate spirit, had
resolved to destroy them. He suffered every abuse for
his friendship to them ; but nothing could quench the di-
vine charily which glowed in his heart. His firmness,
his zeal, his benevolence at this period increased the pure
lustre of his character.
When he reached the age of fourscore years, he offered
to give up his salarj', and desired to be liberated from the
labors of his office, as a teacher of the church at Roxbu-
ry. It was Avith joy, that he received Mr. Walter as his
colleague in 1688. When he was bending under his infir-
mities and could no longer visit the Indians, he persuad--
ed a number of famiUes to send their negro servants to
him once a week, that he might instruct them in the truths
of God. He died. May 20, 1690, aged about eighty-six
years, saying, that all his labors were poor and small, and
exhorting those, who surrounded his bed, to pray. His
last words were, " Welcome joy."
Mr. Eliot was one of the most useful preachers in New
England. No minister saw his exertions attended with
greater eflects. He spoke from the abundance of his
heart, and his sermons, being free from that labored dis-
play of learning, from the quibbles and quaint terms, with
■which most discourses were at that time infected, were ac-
ceptable in all the churches.
His moral and religious character was as excellent, as
Ills ministerial qualifications were great. He carried his
good principles with him in every situation, viewing all
things in reference to God. He habitually lifted up his
heart for a blessing upon every person whom he met, and
wlien he went into a family, he would sometimes call the
youth to him, that he might lay his hands upon them, and
give them his benediction. In his manner of living he
was very simple. One plain dish was his repast at home,
and when he dined abroad, he seldom ta.sted any of the
luxuries before him. He drank water ; and said of wine,
" It is a noble, generous liquor, and we should be humbly
thankful for it ; but, as I remember, water was made be-
fore it." Clotliing himself with humility, he actually
wore a leathern girdle about his loins. In domestic life
he was peculiarly happy. By the prudent management
of his wife, who looked well to the ways of her house-
hold, he was enabled to be generous to his friends, and
hospitable to strangers, and with a small salary to educate
four sons at Cambridge, of whom John, and Joseph, min-
isters of Newlon and Guilford, were the "best preachers of
that age.
In his principles of church government, he was attached
to the congregational order.
So i^markable was he for his charities, that the parisli
treasurer, when he once paid him the money due for his
salary, tied the ends of a handkerchief, into which he put
it, in as man)' hard knots as he could, to prevent him
from giving away the money before he should reach
home. The good man immediately went to the house of
a sick and necessitous family, and told them, that God
had sent them some relief. Being welcomed by the suf-
ferers with tears of gratitude, he began lo untie the knots.
After many fruitless eflbrts, and impatient of the perplex-
ity and delay, he gave the handkerchief and all the money
to the mother of the family, saying, " Here, my dear, take
it ; I believe the Lord designs it all for you."
Blr. Eliot published several works besides his great
ones mentioned above. At the end of his Indian Grafn-
mar he is said to have recorded this memorable sentence ;
" Prayek and pains, through faith in Christ Jesus,
CAN DO any thins." Mather's Magiialia, iii. 170 — 211 ;
Ehui's Life and Death; Neat's New England, i. 151,
2-12, 258; li. 98; Hist. Col. i. 176; iii. 177—188; Doug-
lass, ii. 113 ; Hutchinson, i. 162—169, 212 ; Holvm, i. 431.
—AUtn.
ELIOT, (Andrew, D.D.J minister in Boston, was" a
descendant of Andrew Elliott, as he wrote his name,
from Somersetshire, v.ho settled at Beverly about 1683.
His father, Andrew, was a merchant in Boston. He was
born about the year 1719, and in 1737, was graduated at
Harvard college. He early felt the impressions of reli-
gion, and was induced to devote himself to the service of
the Lord Jesus. He was ordained pastor of the New North
church in Boston, as colleague with Mr. Webb, April 11,
1742. Here he continued in high reputation till his death,
September ]3, 1778, aged fifty-nine years.
He was highly respected for his talents and virtues.
While he preached the distinguishing doctrines of the
gospel, his sermons were not filled with invectives against
those, who diflered from him. He was anxious to pro-
mote the interests of practical godliness, and, destitute of
bigoti')', he embraced all, who appeared to have an honest
regard to religious truth. He revered the constitution of
the churches of New England, and delighted in their
prosperity. In 1743, he united with many other excel-
lent ministers in giving his testimony in favor of the
very remarkable revival of reUgion in this country.
When Ihe British took possession of Boston, he sent
his family out of the town, with the intention of following
them ; but a number of the people, belonging to his soci-
ety and to other societies, being obliged to remain, re-
quested him not to leave them. After seeking divine di-
rection, he thought it his duty to comply with their re-
quest, and in no period of his life was he more eminently
useful. He was a friend to the freedom, peace, and in-
dependence of America. By liis benevolent offices he
contributed much toward alleviating the sufierings of the
inhabitants-, he ministered to his sick and wounded
countrymen in prison ; he went about doing good ; and
he a)ipeared to be more than ever disengaged from the
•norld, and attached to things heavenly and divine. He
was a friend of literature and science, and he rendered
important services lo Harvard college, both as an indi-
vidual benefactor, and as a member of Ihe board of over-
seers and of the corporation. So highly were his literary
acquirements and general character estimated, that he was
once elected president of the university ; but his attach-
ment to his people was such, that he declined the appoint-
ment. In his last sickness he expressed unshaken faith
in those doctrines of the grace of God, which he liad
preached to others, and would frequently breathe out the
pious ejaculation, " Come, Lord Jesus, come quickly."
Besides occasional discourses, he published a volume
of twenty sermons, 8vo. 1774. — 'Thachcr's Funeral Sermon ;
Memoirs of Thomas Hollis ; Hist. Col. x. 188 ; Farmer. —
Allen.
ELIOT, (John, D. D.) minister in Boston, the son of
Dr. Andrew E., was born May 31, 1754, and graduated
at Harvard college in 1772. After preaching a few years
in different places, he was ordained, as the successor of
his father, November 3, 1779, pastor of the New North
church in Boston. He died of an atfeclion of the heart
or pericardium, February 14, 1813, aged fifty-eighL Dur-
ing his ministry of thirty-four )'ears, he baptized one
thousand four hundred and fifty-four persons ; performed
the ceremony of marriage eight hundred and eleven
times ; and admitted one hundred and sixty-one to full
communion in the church.
Dr. Eliot was veiT mild, courteous, and benevolent ; as a
preacher- he was plain, familiar, and practical, avoiding
/
ELO
[ 500 ]
ELO
disputed topics, and always recommending charity and
peace. For nine years he was one of the corporation of
Harvard college. With his friend, Dr. Belknap, he co-
operated in establishing and sustaining the IMassachusetts
Historical society, to the publications of which he contri-
buted many writings. His attention was much devoted to
biographical and historical researches. He published a
JJfflW England Biographical Dictionary, 8vo. 1809 ; be-
sides various articles in the Historical Collections. 2
Hist. Col. i. 211— 248.— 4«e«.
ELLSWORTH, (Oliver, L L. D.,) chief justice of the
United States, was born at Windsor, Connecticut, April
29, 1745, and wa.s graduated at the college in New Jersey
in 1766. He soon afterwards commenced the practice of
the law, in which profession he became eminent. His
perceptions were unusually rapid, his reasoning clear and
conclusive, and his eloquence powerful. He died No-
vember 26, 1S07, aged sixty-five.
Mr. Ellsworth was an accomplished advocate, an up-
right legislator, an able and impartial judge, a wise and
incorruptible ambassador, and an ardent, uniform, and
indefatigable patriot. He moved for more than thirty
years in a most conspicuous sphere, unassailed by the
shafts of slander. His integrity was not only unim-
peached but unsuspected. The purity and excellence of
his character are rare in any station, and in the higher
walks of life are almost unknown.
If it be asked, to what cause is the uniformity of his
virtue to be attributed ? The answer is at hand. He
■was a Christian. He firmly believed the great doctrines
of the gospel. Having its spirit transfused into his own
heart, and being directed by its maxims and impelled by
its motives, he at all times pursued a course of upright
conduct. The principles, which governed hira, were not
of a kind which are liable to be weakened or destroyed
by the opportmiity of concealment, the security from dis-
honor, the authority of numbers, or the prospects of in-
terest. He made an explicit confession of Christianity
in his youth ; and in all his intercourse with the polite and
learned world, he was not ashamed of the gospel of Christ.
In the midst of multiplied engagements, he made theology
a study, and attended with unvarying punctuality on the
worship of the sanctuary. The sage, whose eloquence
had charmed the senate, and whose decisions from the
bench were regarded as almost oracular, sat \rith the sim-
pUcity of a child at the feet of Jesus, devoutly absorbed
in the mysteries of redemption. His reUgion was not
cold and heartless, but practical and vital. Meetings for
social worship and pious conference he countenanced by
his presence. He was one of the trustees of the Blission-
ary society of Connecticut, and engaged with ardor in the
benevolent design of disseminating the truths of the gos-
pel. In his last illness he was humble and tranquil. He
expressed the submission, the views, and the consolations of
a Christian. Pamplist and Miss. Mag. i. 193 — 197 ; Broiim's
Amer. Reg. ii. 95—108 ; Dmighf sTrav . i. 301— 304.— ^/?f>n.
ELM ; this word occurs but once in the English Bible j
(Hos. 4: 13 ;) but the Hebrew aleh, is in every other place
rendered oak, which see. — Calmel.
ELNATHAN, son of Achbor, and father of Nehusta,
mother of Jehoiakim, king of Judah. He opposed the
king's burning of Jeremiah's prophecies ; and was sent
into Egj'pt to bring back the prophet Uriah. Jer. 26: 22.
36: \2.~Cahnet.
ELOHIM, Elohi, or Eloi ; one of the names of God.
Angels, princes, great men, judges, and even false gods,
are sometimes called Eloliim. The connexion of the dis-
course assists us in determining the proper meaning of
this word where it occurs. It is the same as eloha : one
being singular, the other plural. Nevertheless, elohim is
often construed in the singular, particidarly when the true
God is spoken of; i\'hen false gods are spoken of, it is
rather construed in the plural.
This word, however, has been the subject of so much
controversy, and is, in fact, so important, that it may jus-
tify a few remarks in illustration of its general idea and
application.
Elohim would seem to be second in dignity only to the
name Jehovah ; as that name imports the essential being
of the Divinity, so Elohim seems to import the pomer inhe-
rent in Deity ; or the manifestation of that power on its rela-
tive subjects. Of the creation, the Deity exhibited his at-
tribute of power ; he manifested himself to be God all-
mighty. Compare Ps. 100: 3. Isa. 40: 28. 42: 5. et al.
So, on occasion of miracles : " Thou art the God that
doest wonders" by thy power. Ps. 77: 14. " Who is like
unto thee among the mighty ?" (Exod. 15: 11, marg.') im-
plying superior power in the true God above all. And
this appears to be attributed in a lower sense to angels,
spiritual beings possessing powers superior to those of
man. Judg. 13:21. Ps. 8:5. 97:7, 9. Kings have greater
power than their subjects ; magistrates greater power than
those who come before them, to obtain decision of their
suits, and application of the laws ; and princes, or men of
rank, whether in office or not, possess power and influence
by theii' wealth, station, retinue, &c. Idols, also, represent-
ed the powers of heaven ; that is, celestial influences, or ter-
restrial influences, as procreative powers, &:c. So the golden
calf is called Elohim; (Exod. 32: 31.) that is, the power
that had brought Israel out of Egypt ; so Dagon, (Judg. 16:
23, &c.) Astaroth, Chemosh, and Milcom, (1 Kings 11: 33,)
— the powers productive, whether masculine or feminine.
So Bloses was the depository of power in respect of God,
or the source whence power emanated and influenced
Aaron ; (Exod. 4: 16. 7: 1 ;) and the ark was thus es-
teemed by the Philistines ; (1 Sam. 4: 7.) that is, as the
depository of power, or the sacred symbol whence powei
might emanate to their injury. (See God, and Gods.)
It is remarkable, that the names Jehovah and Elohim
though not interchangeable, are occasionally placed one
before the other without scruple ; but, perhaps, the critical
observer would find, that according to the occasion, the
essential being of God, or the manifestative power of God,
is pre-eminent in such passages, according to the order of
the words.
The Jewish critics find great mysteries in some of these
words, Eloi, Elohi, Elohim, &c. which are always written
full, while others are written deficient. Whether the word
Elohim be singular or plural, adjective or substantive, or
whether it have any root in the Hebrew language, they
are not agreed. — Calmet.
ELOI. (See Eloiu.m.)
I. ELON ; a grove of oaks : Elon-Mamre, Elon-More,
Elon-Beth-Chanan, the grove — or oak — of Mamre, &c.
II. A citv of Dan. Josh. 19: i3.— Calmet.
ELOQUENCE, Pulpit. " The chief characteristics of
the eloquence suited to the pulpit are these two, — gravity
and warmth. The serious nature of the subjects belong-
ing to the pulpit requires gravity ; their importance to
mankind requires warmth. It is far from being either
easy or common to unite these characters of eloquence.
The grave, when it is predominant, is apt to run into a
dull, uniform solemnity. The irarm, when it wants gra-
vity, borders on the theatrical and light. The union of
the two must be studied by all preachers, as of the utmost
consequence, both in the composition of their discourses,
and in their manner of delivery. Gravity and warmth
united, form that character of preaching which the French
call onction ; the affiscting, penetrating, interesting manner,
flowing from a strong sensibiUty of heart in the preacher,
the importance of those truths which he delivers, and an
earnest desire that they may make full impression on the
hearts of his hearers." (See Declamation ; Sekmons.)
It has been justly remarked, " He who ascends the pul-
pit hopelessly and heartlessly — who expects his reasonings
to fall like the dart of Priam, ' telum imbelle sine ictu,'
on the breast of the audience — he, in short, who preaches
without faith, is not likely to give the thought, the time,
the mind to his sermons which are essential to any high
achievement in this department of his labors. But this
negUgence is extremely culpable.
Let the ministers of the gospel expect, under the divine
blessing, larger results from their sermons. Let them not
be faithless, but believing ; let them throw far from them
every suggestion which may minister to the natural and
universal sloth of our nature. Let them regard their ser-
mons, as they would the wand of the prophet, designed to
draw the waters -of contrition from the stony heart. Let
them believe that God intends to accompUsh much by
them, and anxiously labor to fit themselves for their high
EME
[ 501
E MI
purpose and destination." — Hend. Buck; Chris. Observer ;
Blair's Lectures; Campbell's Rhetoric: Griffin's Pastoral
Sermon ; Ware's Hints on Extemporaneous Preaching, and
on the Connexion of Pulpit Eloquence and the Pastoral Care;
Fenelon on Eloquence ; Porter's Homiletics and Analysis of
Rhetoric; Wliateley's Rhetoric ; Works of Robert Hall, vo\.
ii. p. 135—155. vol. Ui. p. 87 and 95—124.
ELUL ; the sixth month of the Hebrew ecclesiastical
year, and the twelfth of the civil year, answering to our
Augtist and part of September, containing twenty-nine
days. — -Watson.
ELXAITES ; ancient heretics, who made their appear-
ance in the reign of the emperor Trajan, and took their
name from tlieir leader, Elxai. They Irept a mean be-
tween the Jews, Christians, and pagans : they worshipped
but one God, observed the Jewish Sabbath, circumcision,
and the other ceremonies of the law ; yet they rejected the
pentateuch and the prophets ■ nor had they any more re-
spect for the writinss of the apostles. Some are of opinion
that Elxai ultimately joined the sect of the Ebionites. —
Hend. Buck.
ELYMAIS ; the capital of Elam, or the ancient coun-
try of the Persians. 1 Mac. 6: 1. informs us, that Antio-
chusEpiphanes, understanding there were very great trea-
sures in the temple at Elymais, determined to plunder it ;
but the citizens resisted him successfully. 2 Mac. 9: 2.
calls this city Persepolis, probably because it formerly had
been the capital of Persia ; for Persepolis and Elymais
were very different cities ; the former situated on the
Araxes, the latter on the Eulseus. The temple which An-
tiochus designed to pillage was that of the goddess Nan-
naea, according to Maccabees ; Appian says, a temple of
Venus ; Polybius, Diodorus, Josephus, and Jerome say, a
temple of Diana. (See Pakthiaks.) — Calmet.
ELYMAS. (See Bar-Jesus.)
EMANATION, Efflux ; (from the Latin emanare, to
issue, to flow out, to emanate.) Philosophical systems,
■which, lilte most of the ancient, do not adopt a spontane-
ous creationof the universe by a supreme Being, frequent-
ly explain the universe by an eternal emanation from the
supreme Being. This doctrine came from the East.
Traces of it are found in the Indian mythology, and in
the old Persian or Bactro-Median doctrine of Zoroaster.
It had a powerful influence on the ancient Greek philoso-
phy, as may be seen in Pythagoras. In theology, the doc-
trine of emanation is the doctrine of the Trinity, which re-
gards tlie Son and Holy Ghost, &c. as effluxes from the
Deity himself. — Ency. Amer.
EMBALMING ; the art of preserving dead bodies from
putrefaction. (See Burial.)
EMBER AVEEKS ; weeks of abstinence preceding the
Sundays appointed in the churcli of England for ordina-
tion, which are, the first in Lent, the Sunday after Whit-
Sunday, after the l-lth of September, and 13th of Decem-
ber.— Broughton's Dictionary ; Williams.
EMBRACE ; kindly to take into one's bosom. Gen. 29:
13. To embrace promises is to trust in them with delight
and pleasure. Heb. 11: 13. To embrace wisdom is to re-
ceive Jesus and his truth into our heart, and to take plea-
sure to follow him. Prov. 4: 8. — Brown.
EMBROIDER. (See Bkoidered.)
EMERALD. Bxod. 28: 19. Ez. 27: 16. 28: 13. Rev.
21: 19. Eccl. 32: 6. Tobit 13: 16. Judith 10: 21. It is
one of the most beautiful of all the gems, and is of a
bright green color, without the admixture of any other.
Pliny thus speaks of it: "The sight of no color is more
pleasant than green ; for we love to view green fields and
green leaves ; and are still more fond of looking at the eme-
rald, because all other greens are dull in comparison with
this. Besides, these stones seem larger at a distance, by
tinging the circumambient air. Their lustre is not chang-
ed by the sun, by the shade, nor by the light of lamps;
but they have always a sensible moderate brilliancy."
From the passage in Ezekiel we learn that the Tyrians
traded in these jewels in the marts of Syria. They pro-
bably had them from India, or the south of Persia. The
true oriental emerald is very scarce, and is only found ax
present in the kingdom of Cambay. — Watson.
EMERODS. The ark having' been taken by the Phi-
listines, and being kept at Ashdod, the hand of God afflict-
ed them with a painful disease, 1 Sam. 5: 6. Interpreters
are not agreed on the signification of the original ophclim ;
nor on the nature of tlie disease. The Hebrew properly
signifies, that which is obscure and hidden, and most in-
terpreters think, that those painful tumors in the funda-
ment are meant, which sometimes turn into ulcers. Ps.
78: 66. The Seventy and Vulgate add to verse 9, that the
Philistines made seats of skins, upon which to sit with
more ease, by reason of their indisposition. Herodotus
seems to have had some knowledge of this history, but
has assigned another cause. He says, the Scythians hav-
ing plundered the temple of Askalon, a celebrated city of
the Philistines, the goddess who was worshipped there
afflicted them with a peculiar disease. The Philistines,
perhaps, thus related the story ; but it evidently passc^
for truth, that this disease was ancient, and had been c-rtM
among them by some avenging deity. To remedy this
suffering, and to remove the ravages committed by rats,
which wasted their country, the Philistines were advised
by their priests and soothsayers to return the ark of God
with the following offerings : (1 Sam. 6: 1 — 18.) five
figures of a golden emerod, that is, of the part afflicted,
and five golden rats ; hereby acknowledging, that this
plague was the effect of divine justice. This advice was
ibllow-ed; and Josephus, (Anliq. lib. vi. c. 1.) and others,
believed that the five cities of the Philistines made each a
statue, which they consecrated to God, as votive offerings
for their deliverance. This, however, seems to have ori-
ginated from the figures of the rats. The heathen fre-
quently offered to their gods figures representing those
parts of the body which had been diseased ; and such
kinds of ex votis are still frequent in Catholic countries ;
being consecrated in honor of some saint, who is supposed
to have wrought the cure : they are images of wax, or of
metal, exhibiting those parts of the body in which the dis-
ease was seated. — Calmet.
EMERSON, (Joseph.) minister of Maiden, Massachu-
setts, the son of Edward Emerson, and the grandson of
Rev. Joseph Emerson, of Mendon, was born at Chelms-
ford, April 20, 1700 ; was graduated at Harvard college
in 1717; and ordained October 31, 1721. For near half
a century he continued his benevolent labors without being
detained from his pulpit but two Sabbaths. He died sud-
denly, July 13, 1767, aged sixty-seven. His wife was
Mary, daughter of Rev. S. Moody, of York. He had nine
sons and four daughters. Three of his sons were minis-
ters ; Joseph, of Pepperell, William, of Concord, and John,
of Conway. He was pious in early life, and his parents
witnessed the effect of their instruction and prayers. As
a teacher of religion to his fellow men, and their guide to
heaven, he searched the Scriptures with great diligence,
that he might draw his doctrines from the pure fountains
of truth. In the various relations, which he sustained, he
was just, amiable, land, and benevolent. One tenth
of his income was devoted to charitable uses. He at
stated times every day addressed himself to heaven, and
never engaged in anj' important affair without first seek-
ing the divine blessing. Such was his humility, that
^^'hen unguarded words fell from his lips, he would ask
forgiveness of his children and servants. He published,
the Importance and Duty of a timely Seeking of God, 1727 ;
Bleat out of the Eater, and Sw^eetness out of the Strong,
1735 ; Early Piety encouraged, 1738 ; at the ordination of
his son Joseph, at Groton, now Pepperell, 1747. — Funeral
Sermon by his Son; Allen.
EMESA, or Hamath. (See Hamath.)
EMLYN, (Thomas,) a native of Lincolnshire, bom at
Stamford in 1663, was brought up as a dissentinj; minis-
ter, and, in 1691, settled at Dublin, as assistnnt li) the
Rev. Joseph Boyce ; but was soon interdicted iVom his
pastoral duties, on suspicion of Arianism. His humble
inquiry into the Scripture account of Jesus Christ brought
on him a prosecution for blasphemy, and he was heavily
fined and imprisoned. On his release, he removed to
London, where he died, in 1743. Emlyn's character was
amiable and unimpeachable, and he was in habits of
friendship with Dr. Clarke, Whiston, and other eminent
men. His works have been collected into two volumes
8vo. — Davenport.
EMIMS : ancient inhabitants of the land of Canaan,
ENA
[ 502]
END
beyond Jordan, who were defeated by Chedorlaomer
and his allies. Gen. 14: 5. Moses tells us that they were
beaten at Shaveh-Kirjathaim, which was in the country
of Sihon, conquered from the Moabiles. Josh. 13: 19 — 21.
The Emims were a warlike people, of a gigantic stature,
great and numerous, tall as the Anakims, and were ac-
counted giants as well as they. Deut. 2: 10, 11. — IViiison.
EMMANUEL ; (God with us.) Isaiah, in his celebrated
-prophecy (chap. 11.) of the birth of the Messiah from a
virgin, says, this child shall be called, that is, really be,
"Emmanuel." He repeats this while speaking of the
enemy's army, which, like a torrent, was to overliow Ju-
dea : " The stretching out of his wings shall fill the breadth
of thy land, 0 Emmanuel." Matthew informs us, that
this prophecy was accomplished in Jesus Christ, born of
the virgin Mary, in whom the two natures, divine and
human, united ; so that he was reaily Emmanuel, or, God
with us. (See Almah.) — Calmet.
EMMAIIS, {hot baths,) a village seven miles and a half
north-west of Jerusalem, celebrated for our Lord's conver-
sation with two disciples who went thither on the day of
his resurrection. Jo.sephus (de Bello, lib. 8. cap. 27.) says,
that Vespasian left eight hundred soldiers in Judea, to whom
he gave the village of Emmaus, which was sixty furlongs
from Jerusalem. D'Arvieux states, (vol. vii. p. 259,) that
going from Jerusalem to Rama, he toolc the right from the
high road to jRama, at some little distance from Jerusalem,
and " travelled a good league over rocks and flint stones,
to the end of the valley of terebinthine trees," till he reach-
ed Emmaus. It seems, by the ruins which surrounded it,
that it was formerly larger than it was. in our Savior's
lime. — Calmet.
EMPTY. Persons are empty when they are poor, with-
out wealth, (Ruth 1: 21 ;) without reward, (Gen. 31: 42.)
without an offering, (Exod. 23: 15. 1 Sam. 6: 3.) and, in
fine, without any thing good. Luke 1: 53. Ruth 3: 17.
To empty, is to pour out, (Zech. 4: 12.) or to take forth.
Gen. 43: 35. Bloab had not been emptied from vessel to
vessel ; they had not been tossed from place to place, nor
their condition changed, as that of the Jews had been.
Jer. 48: II. The Medes and Chaldeans are called emptiers,
because they drained Nineveh of its inhabitants, power,
wealth, and glory. Mai. 2: 2. — Brown.
EMULATION ; a generous ardor kindled by the praise-
worthy examples of others, which impels us to imitate, to
rival, and, if possible, to excel them. This passion in-
volves in it esteem of the person whose attainments or
conduct we emulate, of the qualities and actions in which
we emulate him, and a desire of resemblance, together
with a joy springing from the hope of success. The word
comes originally from the Greelc nmilla, contest ; whence
the Latin amulus ; and thence our emulation. In Gal. 5:
20, the word zeloi, rendered " emulations," signifies jea-
lousies, and is classed among " the works of the flesh."
Plato makes emulation the daughter of envy ; if so, there
is a great difference between the mother and the offspring ;
the one being a virtue, and the other a vice. Emulation
admire? great actions, and strives to imitate them ; envy
refuses them the praises that are their due ; emulation is
generous, and only thinks of equalling or surpassing a
rival ; envy is low, and only seeks to lessen him. It
would, therefore, be more proper to suppose emulation
the daiighter of admiration ; admiration being a principal
ingredient in the composition of it. — Hend. Buck.
EN, (ain) signifies a fountain ; for which reason we find
it compounded with niany names of towns and places;
as en-dor, en-gedi, en-eglaivi, en-shemisk, q. d. the fountain of
dor — of gedi, fee. — Calmet.
ENAIM; a town of Judah, (Josh. 15: 3^,) perhaps
mentioned in Gen. 38: 14, where the Vulgate reads, that
Tamar sal in a place where two ways met, Heb. She sat
at Enaim ; LSX. She sat at Enan by theroay. English
translation. She sat in an open place which is by the rvny.
Others think Enan, or EnaiTm, signifies z. fountain or mell ;
which is most probable. Perhaps even this might be
translated, " the two wells," or " the double well ;" a very
likely place of rendezvous. — Calmet.
ENAN. Ezekiel speaks of Enan, (chap. 48: 1,) or
Hazar-Enan, as of a town well known ; the northern
boundary of the land. See also Num. 34: 9. This may
be Gaana, north of Damascus, or Ina, mentioned by Pto
lemy, or Aennos in Peutinger's tables, south of Damascus.
Possibly likewise the En-hazor of Naphtali. Josh. 19: 37
— Calmet.
ENCENAS ; a Spaniard, and a mart3rr of the twelfth
century. He was sent to Rome to be brought up in the
papal faith, but there became acquainted with the follow-
ers of Arnold of Brescia, the celebrated reformer. They
put into his hands several treatises, by means of which
he was converted to the Protestant faith. When the fact
became known, one of his own relations informed against
him, and he was burnt alive by order of the pope and a
conclave of cardinals. His brother was arrested about
the same time for having a New Testament in the Spanish
language in his possession ; but, before the day appointed
for his execution, he found means to escape from prison,
and retired to Germany. — Fox.
ENCOURAGE ; to render one hearty, hopeful, cheer-
ful, and ready for acting. Moses encouraged Joshua, by
laying before him the goodness of his work, his superna-
tural assistance and undoubted success. Deut. 1: 28. Da-
vid encouraged himself in the Lord when his warriors
threatened to stone him ; he considered God's former kind
and wonderful interpositions for him, his continued power,
wisdom, and mercy, and his faithful promise and gracious
relations lo him. 1 Sam. 30: 6. — Brown.
ENCRATITES ; a sect in the second century, who ab-
stained from marriage, wine, and animal food. — Hend.
Buck.
END. Jesus Christ is the end of the law for righteous-
ness : the law was given to cause men to seek righteous-
ness in him: he perfected the ceremonial law as he was the
scope and substance of all its types, and therefore abolish-
ed it ; through his obedience and death, he fulfilled the
moral law, in its precepts and penalty ; and in him, as
their righteousness, believers enjoy whatever the law, as a
covenant, can demand for them. Rom. 10: 4. He is the
end of ministers' conversation ; he is the scope and sub-
stance of all their ministrations, and, in all they do, thpy
ought to aim at the advancement of his glory. Heb. 13:
7. The end of the faith of the saints is what is exhibited
in the promise, and they trust to obtain even the eternal
salvation of their souls. 1 Pet. 1: 9. An oath is the end
of strife, as no further inquiry is to be made in a cause,
but all patties are to rest satisfied with the determination
made by an oath. Heb. 6: 16. — Brown.
ENDICOTT, (John,) governor of Massachusetts. He
was sent to this country by a company in England as
their agent to carry on the plantation at Naumkeag, or
Salem, and arrived in September, 1628. He continued
at Salem till 1644, when he was elected governor of Mas-
sachusetts, and removed to Boston. He died, March 15,
1665, aged seventy-five. He was a sincere and zealous
Puritan, rigid in his principles, and severe in the execu-
tion of the laws against sectaries, or those, who differed
from the religion of Massachusetts. Two Episcopalians,
who accused the members of the church of Salem of be-
ing separatists, were sent back to England by his orders.
The Quakers and the Baptists had no occasion to remem-
ber him with affection. In 1659, during his administra-
tion, four Quakers were put to death in Boston. — Neat's
New England, i. 139, 364 ; Hii.lchin.ton, i. 8—17, 38, 235 ;
Winthrop ; Hist. Col. vi. 245, 261 ; ix. 5 ; Holmes; Mor-
ton, 81, 188 ; Magn. ii. 18.— Allen.
ENDOR ; a city in the tribe of Manasseh, where the
witch resided w-hom Saul consulted a little before the
battle of Gilboa, Joshua 17: 11. 1 Sam. 28: 13. Mr
Bryant derives Endor from En-Ador, signifying /ons py
thonis, " the fountain of light," or oracle of the god Ador ;
which oracle was probably founded by the Canaanites,
and had never been totally suppressed. The ancient
world had many such oracles ; the most famous of which"
were that of Jupiter-Ammon in Lybia, and that of Delphi
in Greece ; and in all of them, the answers to those who
consulted them were given from the mouth of a female ;
who, from the priestess of Apollo at Delphi, has generally
received the name of Pythia. That many such oracles j
existed in Canaan, is evident from the number which Saul
himself is said to have suppressed ; and such an one, with |
its Pythia, was this at Endor. At these shrines, either as J
E N F
[ 503 ]
ENL
mock oracles, contrived by a crafty and avaricious priest-
hood, to impose on the credulity and superstition of its
followers ; or, otherwise, as is more generally supposed,
as the real instruments of infernal power, mankind, hav-
ing altogether departed from the true God, were permitted
to be deluded. That, in this case, the real Samuel appear-
ed, is plain both from the affright of the woman herself,
and from the fulfilment of his prophecy. It was an in-
stance of God's overruling the wicljedness of men, to
manifest his own supremacy and justice. — Walson.
ENDOWMENT, Ecclesiasthl ; a term used in Eng-
land to denote the settlement of a pension upon a minister,
or the building of a church, or the severing a sufiicient
portion of tithes for a vicar, when the benefice is appro-
priated.
Among the dissenters, endowments are benefactions
left to their place or congregation, for the support of their
ministers. Where the congregation is poor or small, these
have been found beneficial ; but in many cases they have
been detrimental. Too often has it tended to relax
ihe exertions of the people ; and when such a fund has
fallen into the hands of an unsuitable minister, it has
prevented his removal ; when, had he derived no support
from the people, necessity would have caused him to de-
part, and malce room for one more worthy. Scarcely has
it been found that any congregation turned Arian or Soci-
nian, but such as enjoyed such endowments. — Hend.
Bud:
ENDURE; to continue, to bear with. To endure, rekr-
red to God, denotes his constancy, perpetual continuance
in being, life, and greatness, (Ps. 9: 7.) or his bearing
with persons, in his long-suffering patience. Rom. 9: 22.
Referred to men, it signifies, (1.) To bear up under the
exercise of the duties of an office, (Exod. 18: 23.) or un-
der any thing that fatigues and presses. Gen. 33: 14. Job
31: 23. (2.) To bear affliction, especially for Christ, with
a sensible, calm, and afl'ectionate complacency — the will
of God. Heb. 12: 7. 2 Tim. 3: 11. The saints endure to
the end ; they persevere in their holy profession and prac-
tice, notwithstanding manifold opposition and trouble.
Malt. 24: 13. Anti-Christians, and other wicked persons,
will not endure sound doctrine ; they dislike it, they re-
proach it, persecute it, and endeavor to banish it from
them. 2 Tim. 4: 3.— Brown.
ENEMY ; one who opposes another, or thwarts his
designs. God becomes men's eitemijf when he pursues
them with his wrathful judgments. 1 Sam. 28: 16. Job
supposed him an enemy when he grievously afflicted him.
Job 33: 10. Wicked men count faithful teachers their
enemies, imagining they act from hati'ed in reproving and
opposing their wicked ways, filings 21: 20. Col. 4:10.
Satan is an enemy to God and his creatures ; he hates
them, and seeks their dishonor and ruin. Blatt. 13: 25, 28.
Wicked men are enemies to God; they hate his true cha-
racter, and do what in them lies to dishonor his name, and
ruin his interest. Rom. 5: 10. Death is called an enemy ;
it really ruins the wicked, it terrifies the saints, and for a
while detains their body from the heavenly glory. 1 Cor.
15: 2(,.— Brmvn.
EN-EGLAIM. Ezekiel (47: 10.) speaks of this plane
in opposition to En-gedi : " The fishers shall stand upon
it from En-gedi, even to En-eglaim ; they shall be a place
to spread forth nets." Jerome says, En-eglaim is at the
head of the Dead sea, where the Jordan enters it. — Cnlmet.
ENERGICI ; a denomination in the sixteenth century;
so called because they held that the eucharist was the
energy and virtue of Jesus Christ ; not his body, nor a re-
presentation thereof. — Hend. Buck.
' ENERGUMENS; persons supposed to be possessed
with the devil, concerning whom there were many regula-
tions among the primitive Christians. They were denied
baptism and the euchari.st ; at least this was the practice
of some churches; and though they were under the care
of exorcists, yet it was thought a becoming act of charity
to let them have the public praj'ers of the church, at
which they were permitted to be present. — Hend. Buck.
ENFIELD, (William,) a dissenting minister and gene-
ral writer, was born at Sudbury in 1741, and, after having
been pastor to a congregation at Liverpool, became resi-
dent tutor and lecturer on belles lettres at Warrington
academy ; a situation which he retained till the dissolu-
tion of that establishment. He died at Norwich, in 1797.
He published an abridged translation of Brucker's History
of Philosophy ; The Speaker ; E.xerci;^es on Elocution ; In-
stitutions of Natural Philosophy, and various other works,
and was one of the principal contributors to Aikin's Bio-
graphical Dictionary. — Davenport.
ENGAGE ; to bind by promise. How delightful a won-
der, that God's Son engaged his heart, or pledged his soul,
that he would approach to an offended God, in room of us,
sinful men, in order to obey the broken law, and satisfy
justice for us! Jer. 30: 21. — Bron-n.
EN-GEDI. This name is probably suggested by the
situation among lofty rocks, which, overhanging the valleys,
are very precipitous. A fountain of pure water rises near
the summit, which the inhabitants call En-gedi — the foun-
tain of the goat — because it is hardly accessible to any
other creature. It was called also Hazazon-Tamar, that
is, the city of palm trees, there being a great quantity of
palm trees around it. It stood near the lake of Sodom,
about thirty miles north-east of Jerusalem, not far from
Jericho, and the mouth of the river Jord'in. In some cave
of the -ndlderness of En-gedi, Da\id had an opportunity of
killing Saul, who was then in pursuit of him. 1 Sam. 24:
The vineyards of En-gedi are mentioned, (Cant. 1: 14,)
and the hills around it produce, at present, the best wines
of the country.— Cafcie?.
ENGLISH, (George B.,) an adventurer, the son of
Thomas English of Boston, was graduated at Harvard
college in 1807, and afterwards for a while studied theolo-
gy. He then became an officer of marine in the navy.
Embracing, as is said, Islamism, he entered tin- .-.I'rvice
of the Pasha of Egypt, and accompanied an expedition
under Ismael to Upper Egypt. He died at Washington,
in September, 1828, aged thirty-nine. He published,
Grounds of Christianity examined, 12mo. 1813, which
was answered by E. Everett and S. Cary ; Letter lo Mr.
Cary on his review ; Letter to Mr. Channing on his two
sermons on infidelity, 1813 ; Expedition to Dongola and
Sennaar, Svo. \S2'3.— Allen.
ENGRAVING. This art of cutting precious stones
and metals is frequently referred to in the Old Testament
Scriptures. Its origin and progress, as connected with
biblical inquiries, has been investigated and illustrated
\vith much ingenuity by Mr. Landseer, in his " Sabsean
Researches," passim. (See Seals, Writino.) — Calmet.
EN-HADDAH ; a town of Issachar. Josh. 19: 21. Eu-
sebius mentions a place of this name between Eleuthcro-
polis and Jerusalem ; ten miles from the foriner place. —
Calmet.
EN-HAZOR; a city of Naphtali. Josh. 19: 37. Whe-
ther this he the Atrium Ennon, or Hazar-enan of Ezekiel,
(47: 17. 48: 1,) and of Moses, (Num. 34: 9,) it is difficult
to determine (Sec Lehi.) — Calmet.
ENJOY; (1) To possess with pleasure. Josh. 1: 15.
(2.) To have in abundance. Heb. 11: 25. The land of
Canaan enjoyed her sabbaths when it lay unfilled for want
of inhabitants. Lev. 2fi: 34. God's elect long enjoy the
work of their hands, when they receive a long-continued
happiness oiT earth, and everlasting blessedness in heaven,
as the gracious reward of their good works. Isa. 65: 22.
— Brown.
ENLARGE. To enlarge nations, is to grant them delive-
rance, liberty, happiness, and increase of numbers, terri-
tory, or wealth. Esth. 4: 14. Job 12: 23. Dent. 23: 20.
Enlargement of heart imports loosing of spiritual bands,
fulness of inward joy, (Ps 119: 32.) or extensive love,
care, and joy. 2 Cor. 6: 11. Enlargement of mouth imports
readiness to answer reproaches, and to pour forth praise
to God for his kindness. 1 Sam. 2: 1. God enlargeth men
in trouble, or enlargeth their steps, when he grants them re-
markable deliverances, and liberty to go where they please.
Ps. 4: 1, and 18: 36. He enlargeth Japhcth in giving him
a numerous posterity, and a very extensive territory, viz.
the north half of Asia, all Europe, and almost all Ame
rica, to dwell in ; or the word may be rendered, God will
persuade Japheth ; by the preaching of the gospel a niuUi-
tude of his posteritv have been or shall be turned ro Christ.
Gen. 9: 26. Hell's enlarging itself, imports that the state
of the dead, and even the regions of the damned, stiould
ENO
[ 504 J
ENT
quickly receive multitudes of the sinful Jews. Isa. 5: 14.
— Bronin.
ENLIGHTEN; to give light to. God enlightens his
people's darkness when he frees them from trouble, grants
them prosperity, and gives them knowledge and joy. Ps.
18: 28. He enlightens their eyes when, by his word and
spirit, he savingly teaches them his truth, and shows them
his glory. Ps. 13: and 19: 8. Eph. 1: 18. Hypocrites are
enlightened with the speculative knowledge of divine truth,
and the miraculous though not saving influences of the
Poly Ghost. Heb. 6: 4. — Brown.
EN-MISHPAT; {fountain of judgment.) Moses says,
(Gen. 14: 7,) that Chedorlaomer, and his aUies, having
traversed the wilderness of Paran, came to the fountain
of Mishpat, otherwise Kadesh. It had not this name till
Mdscs drew from it the -waters of strife ; and God had ex-
ercised his judgments on Moses and Aaron. Num. 20:
13. 27: 14. (See Kadesh.)— Cn/nw*.
ENBIITY ; opposition ; very bitter, deep-rooted, irrecon-
cilable hatred and variance. Such a constant enmity there
is between the followers of Christ and Satan ; nay, there
is some such enmity between mankind and some serpents.
Gen. 3: 15. Friendship with this world, in its wicked
members and lusts, is enmity with God ; is opposed to the
love of him, and amounts to an actual exerting of our-
selves to dishonor and abuse him. James 4: 4. 1 John 2:
15, 16. The carnal mind, or minding of fleshly and sin-
ful things, is enmity against God ; is opposed to his nature
and will in the highest degree ; and, though it may be re-
moved, cannot be reconciled to him, nor he to it. Rom. 8:
.7,- 8- The ceremonial law is called enmity; it marked
God's enmity against sin, by demanding atonement for it ;
it occasioned men's enmity against God by its burdensome
services, and was an accidental source of standing vari-
r\nce between Jews and gentiles ; or perhaps the enmity
here meant is the state of variance between God and men,
whereby he justly loathed and hated them as sinful, and
condemned them to punishment ; and they wickedly haled
him for his holy excellence, retributive justice, and sove-
reign goodness ; both are slain and abolished by the death
of Christ. Eph. 2: 15, 16. — Brown.
ENOCH ; the son of Cain, (Gen. 4: 17,) in honor of
whom the first city noticed iu Scripture was called Enoch,
by his father Cain, who was the builder. It was situated
on the east of the province of Eden. — Watson.
ENOCH ; the son of Jared, and father of Methuselah.
He was born, A. JI. 622, and being contemporary with
Adam, more than three hundred years, he had every op-
portunity of learning from him the story of the creation,
the circumstance of the fall, the terms of the promise, and
other important truths. An ancient author affirms, that
he was the father of astronomy ; and Eusebius hence in-
fers, that he is the same with the Atlas of the Grecian
mythology.
Enoch's fame rests upon a better basis than his skill in
science. The encomium of Enoch is, that he " walked
with God." While mankind were living in open rebellion
against heaven, and provoking the divine vengeance daily
by their ungodly deeds, he obtained the exalted testimony
" that he pleased God." This he did, not only by the ex-
emplary tenor of his life, and by the attention which he
paid to the outward duties of religion, but by the sound-
ness of his faith, and the purity of his heart and life. (See
Heb. 11: 5, 6.) The intent of the apostle, in the discourse
containing this passage is, to show that there has been but
one way of obtaining the divine favor ever since the fall,
and that is, by faith. (See Abel.)
Enoch is said, by another evangelical writer, to have
spoken to the antediluvian sinners of the coming of Christ
to judgment. (See Jude 14, 15.) This prophecy is a clear,
and it is also an awful, description of the day of judgment,
when the Messiah shall sit upon his throne of justice, to
determine the final condition of mankind, according to
their works ; and it indicates that the different offices of
Messiah both to save and to judge, or as Prophet, Priest,
and King, were known to the holy patriarchs. On what
the apostle founded this prediction, has been matter of
much speculation and inquiry. Some, indeed, have pro-
duced a treatise, called " The Book of Enoch," which, as
they pretend, contains the cited passage; but its authority
is not proved, and internal evidence sufficiently marks its
spurious origin. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose
that the prophecy cited by St. Jude was either traditional-
ly handed down, or had been specially communicated to
that apostle.
In the departure of Enoch from this 'world of sin and
sorrow, the Almighty altered the ordinary course of things,
and gave him a dismissal as glorious to himself, as it was
instructive to mankind. To convince them how accepta-
ble holiness is to him, and to show that he had prepared
for those that love him a heavenly inheritance, fifty years
after Adam had been laid in the dust, he caused Enoch to
be taken from the earth into his glorious presence above,
without passing through death. (See Elijah.) — Watson ;
Calmet ; Jones.
ENON, (dove's eye, or fountain,) where John baptized,
because there was much water there, (John 3: 23,) was
eight miles south of Scythopolis, between Shalim and the
Jordan. — Calmet.
ENOS, or Enosh; the son of Seth, and father of Cai-
nan. He was born, A. M. 235. Moses tells us that then
" men began to call upon the name of the Lord," (Gen. 4:
26.) that is, such as abhorred the impiety and immorality
which prevailed among the progeny of Cain, began to
worship God in public, and to assemble together at stated
times for that purpose. Good men, to distinguish them-
selves from the wicked, began to take the name of sons
or servants of God ; for which reason Moses, (Gen. 6: 1,
2.) saj'S that " the sons of God," or the descendants of
Enos, " seeing the daughters of men," &c. The eastern
people make the following additions to his history : — -that
Seth, his father, declared him sovereign prince and high
priest of mankind, next after himself; that Enos was the
first who ordained public alms for the poor, established
public tribunals for the administration of justice, and plant-
ed, or rather cultivated, the palm tree. — Watson.
ENRAUDUS, a martyr of the thirteenth century, was
a knight of France. Being accused of embracing the
opinions of Peter Waldo, he was delivered to the secular
power, and burnt at Paris, A. D. 1201. — Fox.
EN-ROGEL ; (fuller's eye ;) the same as the fountain of
Siloam, east of Jerusalem, at the foot of mount Sion. —
Calmet.
EN-SHEMESH, was on the frontiers of Judah and
Benjamin, (Josh. 15: 7.) but whether 'it was a town or a
fountain, is questionable. The Arabians give this name
to the ancient metropolis of Egypt, which the Hebrews
called On, and the Greeks Heliopolis. — Calmet.
ENSIGN ; a military token or signal to be followed ; a
standard. The ancient Jewish ensign was a long pole,
at the end of which was a kind of chafing-dish, made of
iron bars, which held a fire, and the light, shape, fcc. of
which, denoted the party to whom it belonged. God says;
he would lift up an ensign, Isa. 5: 26. Christ was an
" ensign to the people ; and to it shall the Gentiles seek,"
chap. 11: 10. The brazen serpent was lifted up on an
ensign pole, and to this our Lord compares his own " lift-
ing up," (John 3: 14.) in consequence of which he will
draw all men to him, as men follow an ensign, chap. 12:
32. — Calmet.
ENTER. To enter at the strait gate, and into the king-
dom of God, is, by receiving Jesus Christ as our Savior,
door, and way to happiness, to become members of God's
spiritual family and kingdom in heaven and earth. Matt.
7: 13. John 3: 5. To enter into joy, peace, or rest, is to re-
ceive the earnest or the full possession thereof. Matt. 25:
21. Isa. 57: 2. Heb. 4: 3. To enter into other men's labors, ■
is to enjoy the fruit of them. John 4: 38. — Brown.
ENTHUSIASBI. To obtain just definitions of words
which are promiscuously used, it must be confessed, is no
small difficulty. This word, it seems, is used both in a
good and a bad sense. In its best sense it signifies a. di-
vine afflatus or inspiration. It is also talten for that no-
ble ardor of mind which leads us to imagine any thing
sublime, grand, or surprising. In its worse sense it sig-
nifies any impression on the fancy, or agitation of the
passions, of which a man can give no rational account.
It is generally applied to religious characters, and is said
to be derived (apo ton en thusiais mainomenon,) from the
wild gestures and speeches of ancient reUgionists, pre-
E N V
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Epn
lending to more lliau ordinary and moie than true com-
muixicatioas with the gods, and particularly m ihtifiais, in
the act or at the time of sacrilicing. In this sense, then,
it signifies that impulse of the mind which leads a man
to suppose he has^ some remarkable intercourse with the
Deity, while at the same time it is nothing more than the
eflects of a heated imagination, or a sanguine constitu-
tion.
That the Divine Being permits his people to enjoy fel-
lowship with him, and that he can work upon the minds
of his creatures when and how he pleases, cannot be de-
nied. But, then, what is the criterion by which we are to
judge, in order to distinguish it from enthusiasm ? It is
necessary there should be some rule, for without it the
greatest extravagancies would be committed, the most no-
torious impostors countenanced, and the most enormous
evils ensue. Now this criterion is the word of God ; by
which we are to try all pretences to new revelations, and
c-xiraordiiiary gifts, as in the apostles' time; (1 John 4:
1 — 6.) Whatever opinions, feelings, views, or impressions
we may have, if they are plainly inconsistent with the
Word, if they are nol accompanied with humility, if they do
.not influence our temper, regulate our lives, and make us
just, pious, honest, and uniform, they cannot come from
God, but are evidently the etfusions of an enthusiastic
brain. On the other hand, if the mind be enlightened, if
the will which was perverse be renovated, detached from
evil, and inclined to good ; if the powers be roused to ex-
ertion for the promotion of the divine glory, and the good
of men ; if the natural corruptions of the heart be sup-
pressed ; if peace and joy arise from a view of the gos-
pel of Christ, attended with a spiritual frame of mind, a
heart devoted to God, and a holy, useful life,— however
this may be branded with the name of enthusiasm, it cer-
tainly is from God, because bare human efforts, unassist-
ed by him, could never produce such eflects as these.
Theol. Misc., vol. ii. p. 43 ; Locke on Underxt., vol. ii. ch.
19; Sptct., No. 201, vol.-iii. ; Weski/'s Serm. on Enthusi-
asm ; Mrs. H. More's Hints towards forming the Character
of a young Princess, vol li. p. 346 ; Natural History of En-
tkusiasm. — Hend. Buck.
ENTICE ; cunningly to persuade and move one to
what is sinful and hazardous. Satan ejiticed Ahab to go
up and fall at Ramoth-Gilead by making the false
prophets promise liim victory. 2 Clu-on. 18: 20. Whore-
mongers entice virgins with promises of reward, and hopes
of secrecy, in uncleanness. Bxod. 22: Ifi. Our lusts
entice to sin for hopes of profit, pleasure, honor, by means
of it. Jam. 1: 14. Outward objects entice to sin, as they
are occasions of tempting our evil hearts to it. Job 31:
26, 27. False teachers, pretended friends, and wicked
compan,ions entice ; by their fair speeches and guileful ex-
amples, they persuade us to embrace error, commit sin,
or rush on snares. Col. 2: 4. Enticing words of man's
wisdom are such as please the ear and fancy of hearers,
but lead away the heart from the regard of the true mat-
ter and scope of divine ti*th. 1 Cor. 2: 4.' Col. 2; 4.
Broirn.
ENVY ; a sensation of uneasiness and disquiet, arising
from the advantages which others are supposed to possess
above us, accompanied with malignity towards those who
possess tliem. " This," says a good writer, " is univer-
sally admitted to be one of the blackest passions in the
lidinan heart. No one, indeed, is to be condemned for
defending his rights, and showing displeasure against a
malicious enemy ; but to conceive ill will at one who has
attacked none of our rights, nor done us any injury, sole-
ly because he is more prosperous than we are, is a dispo-
sition altogether unnatural. Hence t'ne character of an
envious man is universally odious. All disclaim it ; and
they who feel themselves under the influence of this pas-
sion, carefully conceal it. The chief grounds of envy
may be reduced to three : accomplishments of mind ; ad-
vantages of birth, rank, and fortune ; and superior suc-
cess in worldly pursuits. To subdue this odious disposi-
tion, let us consider its sinful and criminal nature ; the
mischiefs it occasions to the world; the unhappiness it
produces to him who possesses it ; the evil causes that
nouri2>h it, such as pride and indolence : let us, moreover,
bring often into view those religious considerations which
04
regard us as Christians ; how unwortliy wc are in the
sight of God ; how much the blessings we enjoy are
above what we deserve. Let us learn reverence and sub-
mission to that divine government which has appointed
to every one such a condition as is fittest for him to pos-
sess ; let us consider how opposite the Christian spirit is
to envy ; above all, let us ofler up our prayers to the Al-
mighty, that he would purify our hearts from a passion
which is so base and so criminal."— £ucA.
EONIANS, or Eonites ; the followers of Eon, a wild
fanatic, of the province of Bretagne, in the twellth centu-
ry : he concluded, from the resemblance between eum, in
the form lor exorcising malignant spirits, viz. per eiim qui
mnturus est judicare vivos et murtuus, and his own name Eon,
that he was the son of God, and ordained to judge the
quick and dead. Eon was, however,, solemnly condemn-
ed by the council at Rheims, in 114S, and ended his days
in a prison. He left behind him a number of followers,
whom persecution and death, so weakly and cruelly era-
ployed, could not persuade to abandon his cause, or to re-
nounce an absurdity, which, says Mosheim, one would
think could never have gained credit but in such a place
as bedlam. — Hend. Buck. '
EOQUINIANS ; a denomination in the sixteenth centu-
ry ; so called from one Eoquinus, their master, who
taught that Christ did not die for the vidcked, but for the
faithful only. — Hend. Buck.
EPAPHKAS was, it is believed, the first bishop or pas-
tor of Colosse. He was converted by Paul, and contri-
buted much to convert his fellow-citizens. He came .to
Rome while Paul was there in bonds, and was imprisoned
with the apostle. Having understood that false teachers^
taking advantage of his absence, had sown tares among
the wheat iji his church, he engaged Paul, whose name
and authority were reverenced throughout Phrt'gia, to
write to the Colossians, to correct them. lu thfs epistle
Paul calls Epaphras his " dear fellow-servant, and a faith-
ful minister of Christ," chap. 1: l.—Calmct.
EFAPHRODITUS, a minister and messenger of the
Philippians, who was sent by that church to carry money
to the apostle, then in bonds ; and to do him service, A. D.
fil. He executed this commission with such zeal, that
he brought on himself a dangerous illness, which obliged
him to remain long at Rome. The year following (A. D.
62) he returned with hasle to Philippi. having heard that
the Philippians, on receiving information of his sickness,
were very much afllicted, and Paul sent a letter to them
by him, Phil. 4: IS.— Cnlmct.
EPARCHY ; in the Greek church, the juris.diction of a
bishop, or other high ecclesiastical nx\i;r .— Hend . Buck.
EPEFANOFTSCHINS ; a small Russian sect, followers
of a monk of Kiefl', who got himself ordaiiied a bishop
through forged letters of recommendation. Being impri-
soned on a discovery of the cheat, he died in confinement,
but is by his sect esteemed a martyr. Their sentiments
are nearly the same as the Sinrol/raki. or Old Ceremoiii-
alists. Pinkertiins Greek Chiuch, p. 301.— )!'/.'/(«;«.
EPENETUS ; a disciple of Paul ; (probably one of the
first he converted in Asia ;) " the first fruits of Asia ;" in
the Greek, " first fruits of Achaia," Rom. IIJ: 5.— Calmel.
EPHAH ; the eldest son of Jlidian, who gave his name
to a city and small extent of land in the country of Jlidi-
an, situated on the eastern shore of the Dead sea, Gene-
sis 25: 4. This country abounded with camels and dro-
medaricf, Isaiah 60: 6, kd. — Watson.
EPHAH, a measure both for things dry and liquid,
in use among the Hebrews. The ephah for the former
contained three pecks and three pints. In liquid measure,
it was of the same capacity as the bath. — Watson.
EPHER ; second .son of Midian. and brother of Ephah,
1 Chron. 1: 33. He dwelt beyond Jordan, (1 Kings 4:
10.) and might people the isle "of Upher in the Red' sea,
or the city of Orpha, in the Diarbekr. Jerome cites Ale.v-
ander Polyhistor and Cleodemus, surnamed Malcc, who
aflirm, that Epher made an incui-sion into Libya, con- '
quered it, and called it after his own name. Africa. Her-
cules is said to have accompanied him. — Cahnet.
EPHESIANS, (EnsTLE to the.) (See EruEsrs.)
EPHESUS, a much celebrated city of Ionia, in Asia
Minor, forty-five mdes south east . of Smyrna, situated
EPH
I 506 ]
EPH
upon the river Caysler, and on the side of a hill five
miles from the sea. It was the principal mart, as well
as the metropolis of the Proconsular Asia, and fonnerly
in great renown among heathen authors on account of
its famous temple of Diana. (See Diana.) The city
had a fine prospect to the west, of a lovely plain, covered
with groves of tamarisk, and watered and embellished by
the mazy windings of the Cayster. It was a place ol
prodigious resort for various purposes ; but so addicted
were the inhabitants of the city to idolatry and the arts
of magic, that the prince of darkness would seem to have,
at that time, fixed his throne in it. Ephes. 2: 2. Ephe-
sus is supposed to have first invented those obscure mys-
tical spells and charms by means of which the people
pretended to heal diseases and drive away evil spirits ;
whence originated the Ephesia grammata, or Ephesian let-
ters, so often mentioned by the ancients.
2. Ephesus was greatly damaged by an earthquake -in
the reign of Tiberius, who repaired and embellished it.
Pliny slyles it "the ornament of Asia." The Jews, ac-
cording to Josephus, were very numerous, and had ob-
tained°he privileges of citizenfhip ; as Ephesus was au-
tonoiiws—guverned by its own laws. The entire popula-
tion was, it is supposed, not less than six hundred thou-
sand souls.
3. The apostle Paul first visited this populous city,
A.D.51; but beingthenonhis way to Jerusalem, he abode
there only a few weeks, Acts 18: 19—21. During his
short stay, he found a synagogue of the Jews, into which
he went, and reasoned with them upon the interesting
topics of his ministry, with which they were so pleased
that they wished him to prolong his visit. He however
declined that, for he had determined, God willing, to be
at Jerusalem at an approaching festival ; but he promised
to return, which he did a few months afterwards, and
continued there three years. Acts 19: 10. 20: 31. Such
was the success of the gospel, that magical books to the
value of more than thirty thousand dollars, were burnt by
the converted Ephesians ! While the apostle abode in
Ephesus and its neigh horhood, he gathered a numerous
Christian church, to which, at a subsequent period, he
wrote that epistle, which forms so important a part of the
apostolic writings. He was then a prisoner at Rome, and
the year in w'hich he wrote it must have been BU, or 61, of
the Christian era. It appears to have been transmitted
to them by the hands of Tychicus, one of his companions
in travel, Ephesians fi: 21. The critics have remarked
that the style of the epistle to the Ephesians is exceeding-
ly elevated ; and that it corresponds to the state of the
apostle's mind at the lime of writing. Overjoyed with
the account which their messenger brought him of the
steadfastness of their faith, and the ardency of their love
to all the saints, (Eph. 1: 15.) and, transported with the
consideration of the unsearchable wisdom of God dis-
played in the work of man's redemption, and of his amaz-
ing love towards the gentiles, in introducing them, as
fellow-heirs with the Jews, into the kingdom of Christ, he
soars into the most exalted contemplation of those sub-
lime topics, and gives utterance to his thoughts in lan-
guage at once rich and varied. The epistle, says Mack-
night, is written as it were in a rapture. Grotius remarks
that it expresses the sublime matters contained in it in
terms more sublime than are to be found in any human
language ; to which Macknight subjoins this singular but
striking observation, that no real Christian can read the
doctrinal part of the epistle to the Ephesians, witliout
being impressed and roused by it, as by the sound of a
trumpet.
4. Ephesus was one of the seven churches to which
special messages were addressed in the book of Revela-
tion. After a commendation of their first works, to
which they were commanded to return, they were accused
of having left their first love, and threatened with the
removal of their candlestick out of its place, except they
should repent. Rev. 2: 5. The contrast which its present
state presents to its former glory, is a striking fulfilment
of this prophecy. Ephesus was the metropolis of Lydia,
a great and opulent city, and, according to Strabo, the
greatest emporium of Asia Minor. Inthetimes of Christi-
anity it had been lavored with the labors of Timothy and
the apostle John, and was subsequently the seat of the pri-
mate of the Asian diocese. But now a few heaps of
stones, and some miserable mud cottages, occasionally
tenanted by Turks, without one Christian residing there,
are all the remains of ancient Ephesus. It is, as describ-
ed by different travellers, a solemn and most forlorn spot.
The epistle to the Ephesians is read throughout the world ;
but there is none in Ephesus to read it now. They left
their first love, they returned not to their first works.
Their " candlestick has been removed out of its place ;"
and not only the Chnslian churcli, but even the great citi/
of Ephesus is no more. Dr. Chandler says, " Its streets
are obscured and overgrown. A herd of goats was driven
to it for shelter from the sun at noon ; and a noisy flight
of crows from the quarries seemed to insult i!s silence.
We heard the partridge call in the area of the theatre and
the stadium. The glorious pomp of its heathen worship
is no longer remembered ; and Christianity, W'hich was
here nursed by apostles, and fostered by general councils,
until it increased to fulness of stature, barely lingers on
in an existence hardly visible." — Jmies ; Wells ; Calmet ;
Watson.
EPHOD ; an omaraental part of the dress worn by the
Hebrew priests. Ephod comes irom aphad, to tie, to
fasten, to gird ; and the use of the ephod was suitable to
this signification, being a kind of girdle, passing from be-
hind over the neck and shoulders, and hanging down be-
fore, crossing the stomach, then being carried roimd the
waist, and used as a girdle to the tunic ; it went twice
round the body, girt about the tunic, and after this the ex-
tremities of it fell before, and hung to the ground. There
were two kinds of ephod ; one plain for the priests, ano-
ther embroidered for the high-priest. As there was nothing
singular in that of the priests, Moses does not describe it ;
but that, belonging to the high-priest, (Exod. 28: 6.) which
was composed of gold, blue, purple, crimson, and twisted
cotton, was a very rich composition of diflerent colors.
On that part of the ephod, which came over the shoulders
of the high-priest, were two large precious stones, on which
were engraven the names of the twelve tribes of Israel,
■six names on each stone. Where the ephod crossed his
breast, was a square ornament called the pectoral, in
which were set twelve precious stones, with the names of
the twelve tribes of Israel engraved on them, one on each
stone. (See Beeast-plate.) Calmet is of opinion, that
the ephod was peculiar to priests, and Jerome observes,
that we find no mention of it in the Scripture, except
when priests are spoken of. But some considerations
render dubious this opinion. We fiml that David wore it
at the removal of the ark from the house of Obed-edom
to Jerusalem, and Samuel, although a Levite only, and a
child, yet wore the ephod, 1 Sam. 2: IS. The Jews held,
that no worship, true or false, could subsist without the
priesthood, or the ephod. Gideon made an ephod out of
the spoils of the Midianites, and this became an offence
in Israel. I^icah, having made an idol, did not fail to
make an ephod, Judg. 8: 27. 'l7: 5. God foretold, by the
prophet Hosea, (3: 5.) that Israel should long remain with-
out kings, princes, sacrifices, altar, ephod, and teraphim.
The ephod is often taken for the pectoral ; and for the
Urim and Thummim also ; because these were united to
it. — Calmet.
EPHRA, a city of Ephraim, and Gideon's birthplace.
Its true situation is unknown ; but it is thought to be the
same as Ophrah, Judg. 6: 11. — Calmet.
EPHRAIM; Joseph's second son, by Asenath, Poti-
pherah's daughter, born in Egypt, about A. M. 2294.
Ephraim, with his brother Manasseh, was presented by
Joseph, his father, to the patriarch Jacob on his death bed.
Jacob laid his right hand on Ephraim, the youngest, and
his left hand on Mana.'^.seh, the eldest. Joseph was desi-
rous to change this situation of his hands ; but Jacob an-
swered, " I know it, my son ; he (Manasseh) also shall
become a people, and he also shall be great : but truly his
younger brother shall be greater than he," Gen. 48: 13 — .
19. The sons of Ephraim having made an inroad on
Palestine, the inhabitants of Gath killed them, 1 Chron.
7: 20, 21, Ephraim their father mourned many days for
them, and his brethren came to comfort him. Afterwards,
he had sons named Beriah, Rephah, Resheph. and Tela,
EM
[ 607]
K P t
and a daughter named Shcrah. His poslerily muUipUeil the corriiptioHsorpo]icry. In Englaml liowpvci- ihe con-
in Egj'pt to the number of forty thousand five hundred troversy has been considered as of grealer inmirianc*
men, capable of bearing arms, Num. 2:18,19. Joshua, than on the continent. It has been strenuouslv maintain
Who was of this tribe, gave the Ephraimites their portion ed by one parly, that the episcopal order is essential to the
between the Mediterranean sea we.st, and the river Jor- constitution of the church ; and by others, thai it is a
dan east. Josh. 16: 5. (See Ca.vaan.) The ark, and the pernicious encroachment on the rights of men, for which
labernacle, remained long in this tribe, at Shiloh ; and, there is no authority in Scripture. (See article Bisuop.)
after the separation of Ihe ten tribes, the seat of the king- I- Episcopacy in the Chnrth of Rome— In the church of
dom of Israel being in Ephraim, Ephrniiii is frequently Rome, the pope has the chief right of electing bishops ;
used to signify that kingdom. Ephrata is used al.so for *nd even where sovereign princes have reserved to ihem-
Bethlehem, Mic. 5: 2. The tribe of Ephraiin was led selves a right of nominating to bishoprics, the pope sends
captive beyond the Euphrates, with all Israel, by Shalman- ^'^ approbation and bulls to the new bishop.
eser, king of Assyria, A. M. 3283, ante A. D. 721 II. A When a person hears that the pope has rai.scd him to
city of Ephraim, towards the Jordan, whither, it is proba- ''^^ episcopal dignity, he enlarges his shaven crown, and
ble, Jesus retired before his passion, John 11; 54, This dresses himself in purple. Three months after his clcc-
Ephraim Was a city in the confines of the land of Ephraim, tion, he is coiiseerated in a solemn manner. The offi-
(2 Chron. 13: 19.) and was famous for fine Hour. Jo.sephus «iating bishop sits on the episcopal seat, plact-d about the
calls Ephraim and Bethel two small cities ; and places ™'ddle of the ahar, and the bishop elect stands betn'een
the former not in the tribe of that name, but in the land of '"'" assistant bishops. Then one of the assistants ad-
Benjamin, near the wilderness of Judea, in the way to Je- <'''<'sses hims-elf to the ofliciating prelate, saying to him,
richo. III. A city of Benjamin, eight miles from Jerusa- 1''^' Ihe'Catholic church requires such an one (naming
lem, according to Eusebius, near Bethel. We believe "™) ^9 '°^ ^^i^i to the dignity of a bishop. Then the
these two cities have been confounded ; for instead of the officiating prelate demands of him the apostolical mandate ;
eight miles in Eusebius, Jerome reckons twenty.— IV. The "'h'^h being read by the notary, the officiating prelate an-
forest of Ephraim was east of the Jordan, and in it Absa- ^"''^''^ "' "^° <^'°-'^« "'' "' '' "^od be praised." This first
iom lost his life, 2 Sam. 18: (i— 8. It could not be far from ceremony concludes with the oath of the candidate, which
Mahanaim.— C(?/»«e?. '?^ '"i^*^ *"' '"'^ knee^ ; by which he obliges himself to be
EPHRATAH. (See Ephkath ) laithful to the see of Rome, and the Catholic church, &c.
EPHRATH, Caleb's second wife, who was the mothe'i- '^^'^ .="'"= '°'^ '" """^ "'' '^^ -mhrics of the pontifical, that all
of Hur, 1 Chron. 2: 19. From her. it is believed that the Pa'"archs primates, archbishops, and bishops of Italy
city of Ephratah, otherwise called IBethlehem, where our =ire obliged to renew this oath eyevy three years ; those
Lord was born, had its name; and this city is more than °' f '^"'=!' ^'"'•many, Spain, Flanders, the British islands,
once known in Scripture by the name of Ephrath, Gen. £°'^"''' ^"i 7^^"^' '^°"' y^^J^ ' '^ose of the extremities of
35. 1(5 l\r„iso!, i-urope and Africa, every five years; and, lastly, those of
EPICUREANS; the disdples of Epicnnis, a Greek A^ja/ind America every ten years,
philosopher, who flouiished about A. M 3700. This sect , ^I'Va "^ ' ^"''■date, on his knees, ki^^
.„nin,oi^,„rl ,t,„ ,1,.. „.„ri,i „.o. f„,.,„„,i „„. I,,, n„.i — naud of ihc ofhciatmg prclate. He next receives th
isses the
maintained that the world was formed not by God, nor "T'^''"" ""■';'■'""» P'"<:l'*«- ,"<= next receives the pon-
.,.:,i, j„„:„., w... I,.. .u„ I- : ., .■'. ..«■-.' tincal ornaments, and, being full habited, reads the office
of the mass at the altar, the two assistant bishops stann-
with any design, but by the fortuitous concourse of atoms
They denied that God governs the world, or in the least
condescends to interfere with creatures below; they deni-
ed the immortality of the soul, and the existence of an-
gels ; they maintained that happiness consisted in plea-
sure ; but some of them placed this pleasure in the Iran
ing on each side of him- This done, he bows to the olfi
cialing prelate, who repeals the following words to him,
which include the episcopal functions :— ''The duty of a
bishop is 10 judge, interpret, consecrate, confer orders,
sacrifice, baptize, confirm." After which words, the can-
■ir'. ■■■"^ ""'"" 7 >..,... i.i...>. ,.,..,,,...„.. „, u.u L.^„- sacrifice, baptize, confirm." Alter which words, the o
qmlUty and toy of the mind ari.smg from the practice of H;^,t^ k;=i,„„ „,J ., , i,- i.- j '""""''-'""= \'
^ 1 • , J 1, 1 ■ .1 1.1 .1, u uiaate bishop prostrates himselt, and con inues some 11
moral virtue, and «d,,ch is thought by some to have been ;„ ,,,3, .^^J ^„,.j ^^.|^.^^ „; ^^.i^,;. ^^^ „.
he true principle of Ericurus ; others understood him m his pastoral slalT, signs him with the sign of the ctr
the most eminent
conferences with the Epicurean philoso]ihers. Acts 17: 18
The word Epicurean is u.sed, at present, for an in^ilent
cfltfininate, and voluptuous person, who only consults his blesses th
ith
the gross sense^ and placed all their happiness m c.rpore- This done, the officiating prelate and the two assistants
nl pleasure. His system found many lol lowers in Rome, , , ,hcir hands on his head ; and the former, laving the
mong whom Celsus Pliny the elder, and X-"cretius w-ere book of the gosj.cls on his shoulders, says, " Receive the
When Paul was at Athens, he had Holy Gh.ist." Then a napkin is put on the neck of the
bishop elect, and Ihe officiating prelate anoints his head
with the chrism, as also the fhnlms of liis hands : next he
. , - , , . , , , blesses the pnsiornl siaff. sprinkling it with holy water,
private and particular pleasure, and particularly one who and presents it 10 ilie new bishop. The book of the gos^
IS devoted to the enjoyments of the laWe. (See Aci pels, shut, is put into his hands, with this exhortation :—
^^^Vn,'l77{^i^'i'c^f^' ,-, ■„ • ^ ■ ,. ■ " Receive the Gospel, go, and preach it to the people com-
EPIPllANES, (splendid, illustrwiis.) a.n epithet given to mttted to your charge." After this exhortation, the offi-
the gods, when apjiearingto men. Antiochus, brother of elating prelate and the assislant bishops give him the kis.-
Scleucus coming fortunately into Syria, a httle after the of peace. These ceremonies end with the mystical ofier-
<ieath of his brother, was regarded as some propitious ings of the new prelale, which are two lighted torches,
deity, and was hence called Epiphanes. the illustrious, two loaves, and two .small casks of wine.
(See Antiochus \Y.)—Calmet. The church of Rome caiiv lust many bishoprics by the
EPIPHANY ; a festival, otherwise called the manifes- conquests of the ^Mohammedans ; hence the great number
tation of Christ to the gentiles, observed on the sixth of of litulai bishops, whose bishoprics lie in partibns infide-
January, in honor of the appearance of our Savior to the hum, that is, m countries in the possession of infidels,
three magi, or wise men, who came to adore and bring The Roman see, however, only honors with this title eccle-
him presents. In Germany, this feast is called Ihe day of siastics of a high rank.
the holy three Idn^s. The Greeks term it Theophaiiy, or II. Episcopacy in England, 4-c. — The earliest account
appearance of God. — Head. Buck. we have of British bishops, is carried up no higher than
EPISCOPACY ; that form of church government in the council of Aries, assembled by the emperor Constan-
which diocesan bi.shops are established as distinct from tine, in the fourth century, at which were present the
and superior to priests or presbyters. bishops of London, York, and Caerleon.
The controversy respecting episcopacy commenced soon Before the Norman conquest, bishops were chosen by
after the Reformation, and has been agitated with great the chapters, whether monks or prebendaries. From the
warmrtl, between the Episcopalians on the one side, and Conqueror's time, to the reign of king John, it was the
the Presbyterians and Independents on the other. Among custom to choose bishops at a public meeting of the bi-
the Protestant churches abroad, those which were reform- shops and barons, the king himself being present at the
ed by Luther and his associates are in general episcopal ; solemnity, wKo claimed a right of investing the bishops,
whilst such as follow the doctrines of Calvin, have for by delivering to them the ring and pastoral siaff. It is
the most oart thrown off the order of bishoos as one of
EPI
[ 508 J
EPl
true, the popes endeavored to gain the election of bishops
to themselves ; and this occasioned great struggles and
contests between the Roman pontiffs and the kings. At
length, after various disputes between liing John and the
pope, the former, by his charter, A. D. 1215, granted the
right of election to the cathedral churches. A statute, in
the reign of Henry VIII., settles the election of bishops as
follows : — " The king, upon the vacancy of the see, was to
.send his conge iPelire to the deaa and chapter, or prior and
convent, and, in case tliey delayed the election above
twelve days, the ciown was empowered to nominate the
person by letters patent. And, after the bishop thus elect-
cd had taken an oath of fealty to the king, bis majesty,
by his letters patent under the broad seal, signified the
election to the archbisliop, with orders to confirm it, and
consecrate the elect. And, lastly, if the persons assigned
to elect and consecrate deferred the performing their re-
spective offices twenty days, they were to incur a praemu-
nire."
A bishop of England is a peer of the realm, and, as
such, sits and votes in the house of lords. He is a baron
in a three-fold manner, viz. — feudal, in regard of the tem-
poralities annexed to his bishopric ; by writ, as being
summoned by writ to parliament ; and by patent and
creation. Accurdiiigly, he has the precedence of all other
barons, and votes both as baron and bishop. But though
their peerage never was denied, it has been contested
whether the bishops have a right to vote in criminal mat-
ters. At present, the bishops have their vote in the trial
and arraignment of a peer ; but, before sentence of death,
is passed, ihey withdraw, and vote by their proxy.
The jurisdiction of a bishtip, in England, consists in
collating to benefices ; granting institijtions cm the pre-
sentation of other patrons ; commanding in<luction ; taking
care of the profits of vacant benefices for the n.se of the
successors ; visiting his diocese once in three years ; in
suspending, depriving, degrading, and excommunicating;
in granting administrations, and taking care of the pro-
bate of wills : these parts of his fnnclioas depend on the
ecclesiastical law. By the common law he is to certify
the judges touching legitimate and illegitimate births, and
marriages. And to his jurisdiction, by the statute law,
belongs the licensing of physicians, chirurgeons, and
school-masters, and the uniting small parishes ; which
last privilege is now peculiar to the bishop of Nor-
wich.
The bishops' courts have this privilege above the civil
court.s. that writs are is.sued out from them in the name
of the bishop himself, and not in the king's name, as in
other courts. The judge of the bishop's court is his
chancellor, anciently called ecdesia causidiais, the chttrck-
iaivyfr.
The Swedish bishops constitute one of the estates of the
kingdom, like the English, but have little power. The
English church has left to its bishops more authority than
the rest, and for this reason has received the name of
Episcopal. In Protestant Germany, bishoprics were abo-
lished by the leformation : but they have been restored in
Prussia within the last ten years.
In the United States bishops have no civil power. (See
Pkotestant Episcopal Chuech in nm United States.)
HI. Eptscopnnj, ImviiilrwlKced. — It is ea.sy to apprehend
t;ow episcopacy, as it was in the primitive church, with
those alterations which it a.ftenvarcls receivext, might be
gradually introduced. The apostles seem to have tanght
chietly in large cities ; they settled ministei-s there, who,
preaching in country villages, or smaller towns, increased
the number of converts : it wnnid have been most rea-
sonable that those new converts, which lay at a conside-
rable distance from the large towns, should, when they
grew numerons, have formed themselves into distinct
churches, under the c.ire of their proper pastors or bish-
ops, independently of any of their neighboi-s ; but the
reverence which would naturallv be paid to mcn'who had
conversed with the apostles, ami perhaps some desire of
influence and dominion, from which iIih henrts of very
good men might not be enlir Ij. free, and x^liich early be-
gan to work, (John 3: 9. 2 The.ss. 2: 7.) might easily ky
a foundation for such a subordination in the ministers of
new erected churches to those which were more ancient,
and much more easily might the superiority of a pastor (d
his assistant presbyters increase, till it at length came to
that great diflerence which we own was early made, and
probably soon carried to an excess. And if there were
that degree of degeneracy in the church, and defection
from the purity and vigor of religion, which the learned
Vitringa supposes lo have happened between the time of
Nero and Trajan, it would be less surprising that those
evil prineiples, which occasioned episcopal, and at length
the papal usurpation, should before that time exert some
considerable inlluence.
IV. Ejiiscopcicy, rtilvced plan of. Archbishop Usliei
projected a plan for the reduction of episcopacy, by whicli
he would have moderated it in such a manner as lo have
brought it very near the Presbyterian government of the
Scotch church, — tlie vteekVy parochial vestry answering
to their churclt session ; tire rcoathly synod lo be held by
the Cliorepisaiyi, answering to their presbyteries ; the di-
ocesan synod to their provincial, and the national to their
general assembly. The meeting of the dean and chapter,
practised in the church of England, is but a faint shadow
of the secand, the ecelesiasticail court of tlie third, and
the convocation of the fourth. Uiugham's Origines Eccltsi-
ostices ; Stilliiigjleefs Origines Siicra ; Boyse and Howe on
Epis. ; Benson's Dissertation concerning the first Set. of the
Christ. Church; King's Const, of the Church; Doddridge's
Lectures, lee. I'JO ; Clarkson and Dr. Maurice on Episcopacy ;
Enc. Brit. ; Dr. Camphcll on Church Hist. ; Controversy of
Drs. How mtci MiUer, Bowden and Wilson. Also see the
article Bisnop. — Ileml. Buck.
EPISCOPALIAN ; one who prefers the- qjiscopal go-
vernment and discipHne to all others. (See last article.
Also, Church b¥ England, and Protestant Episcopal
Church.) — //enrf. Buck.
EPISTLES ; letters written from cne party to another ;
but the term is eminently applied to those letters in the
Ne-n- Testament which were written hy the apostles, on
various occasions, to approve, cendema, or direct the con-
duct of Christian c-hnrches. It is not to be supposed that
every note, or memorandum, written by the hands of the
apostles, or by their direction, was divinely inspired, or
proper for presentation to distant ages; these only have
been preserved, by the overruling hand of Providence,
from which usei'ul directions had been drawn, and might
in after-ages be drawn, by believers, as from a perpetual
directory for faith and practice ; — always supposing that
similar circumstances require similar direciions. In read
ing an epistle, we ought to consider the occasion of it, the
cii-cumstances of the parties to whom it was addressed,
the time when written, the general scope and design of it,
as well as the intention t>f particular arguments and pas-
sages. "We ought also to obsen'e the style and manner
of the writer, his mode of expression, the peculiar effect
he designed to produce on those to ivhom he wrote, to
whose temper, manners, general principles, and actual
situation, he might address his arguments, &;c. The
epistles afford many and most powerful evidences of tlie
truth of Christianity ; they appeal to a great number of
extraordinary facts ; and alhide to principles, and opin-
ions, as admitted, cir as prevailing, or as (>pp<jsed, among
those to whom they are addressed. They mention a con-
siderable number of persons, describe their situations in
life, hint at their connexions with the churches, and by
sometimes addressing them, and .sometimes recommend-
ing them by name, they connect their testimony with that
of the writer of the epistle ; and often, no doubt, they
gave a proportionate influence to those individuals. Be-
side this, it is every way likely, that individuals mention-
ed in the epistles, would carefully procure copies of these
writings, would give them all the authority and all the
notoriety in their power, would communicate them to
other churches, and, in short, would become vouchers for
their genuineness and authenticity. We in the present day,
who possess these instructive documents, may learn from
them many things for onr advantage and our conduct ;
how to avoid those evils which formerly injured the profess-
ors of true religion; and how to rectify those errors and
abuses to which time and incident occasionally gave rise,
or to whose spread and prevalence particular occurrences
or conjunctures are favorable. (See Emu:, Canon, ice.)
ERA
[ 609
ERA
Historical books, like those of the Four Gospels, are
evidently not calculated for a full development of the
doctrines and precepts of Christianity. They were
meant for another purpose ; and in order to give a
complete view of the real nature, tendency, and scheme
of the rehgion of Christ, to explain its principles, to
enforce its injunctions, to impress it upon the hearts
and consciences of men, and to preserve the Gospels
themselves from the miserable glosses of ignorant ex-
positors, there was wanting some appeal more argu-
mentative and didactic. Such an inestimable appendix
to the evangelists is supplied in the Epistles. In them
we are faxored with a larger exposition of truths already
delivered, an exposition flowing from the high authority
of our Lord himself John 14: 25, 26. Iti; 7 — 15. 20:
21—23. 1 Cor. 2: 7—16. 1 Thess. 2: 3. 4: S.—Calmet ;
£rit. Review.
EPISTLES OF BARNABAS. (See Barnabas.)
EPOCH. (See jEra.)
EQUANIMITY is an even, uniform state of mind,
amidst all the vicissitudes of time and changes of circum-
stances to which we are subject in the present state. One
of this disposition is not dejected when under adversity,
nor elated when in the height of prosperity : he is equally
affable to others, and contented in himself. The excellen-
cy of this disposition is beyond all praise. It may be
considered as the grand remedy for all the diseases and
miseries of life, and the only way by which we can pre-
serve the dignity of our characters as men and as Chris-
tians.— Head. Buck.
EQUITY is that exact rule of righteousness or justice
which is to be observed between man and man. Our
Lord beautifully and comprehensively expresses it in these
words : " All things whatsoever ye would that men should
do unto you, do ye even so to them, for this is the law
and the prophets." Matt. 7; 12. This golden rule, says
Dr. "Watts, has many excellent properties in it. 1. It is
a rule that is easy to be understood, and easy to be appli-
ed by the meanest and weakest understanding, Isa. 35: 8.
— 2. It is a very short rule, and easy to be remembered :
the weakest memory can retain it ; and the meanest of
mankind may carry this about with them, and have it
ready upon all occasions. — 3. This excellent precept car-
ries greater evidence to the conscience, and a stronger
degree of conviction in it, than any other rule of moral
virtue. — 1. It is particularly fitted for practice, because it
includes in it a powerful motive to stir us up to do what
it enjoins. ^5. It is such a rule as, if well applied, will
almost always secure our neighbor from injury, and se-
cure us from guilt if we should chance to hurt him. — 6.
It is a rule as much fitted to awaken us to sincere repen-
tance, upon the transgression of it, as it is to direct us to
our present duty. — 7. It is a most extensive rule, with re-
gard to all the stations, ranks, and characters of mankind,
for it is perfectly suited to them all. — 8. It is a most com-
prehensive rule with regard to all the actions and duties
that concern our neighbors. It teaches us to regulate
our temper and behavior, and promote tenderness, benevo-
lence, gentleness, &c. — 9. It is also a rule of the highest
prudence with regard to ourselves, and promotes our own
interest in the best manner. — 10. This rule is fitted to
make the whole world as happy as the present state of
things will admit. See Watts's firrmons, ser. 33. vol. 1 ;
Evans's Ser., ser. 28 ; Morning Exercises at Cripplcsate,
ser. lO.—Hend. Buck. " .
EQUIVOCATION, the using a term or expression that
has a double meaning. Equivocations arc said to be ex-
pedients to save telling the truth, and yet without telling
a falsity ; but if an intention to deceive constitute the es-
sence of a lie, which in general it docs, I cannot conceive
how it can be done without incurring guilt, as it is cer-
tainly an intention to deceive. — Henil. Buck.
ERA. (See vEka.)
ERAS31US, (Desidekius,) one of the greatest scholars
of modern times, was born at Rotterdam in 1 167. He
was the natural son tf a person named Gerard That
name signifies amiable ii> German, and, after his fathers
decease, he translated i» into the equivalent Gr^eK and
Latin words, and assumed them as his appellation. He
■was educated at Deventer. Having embezzled his pro-
perty, his guardians look him from school, and, by il".
usage, drove him to enter into a convent. In 1492, he
took priest's orders. Having completed his studies nt
Montaign college, Paris, he subsisted by giving lessons to
persons of quality. Among his pupils was lord Mounijoy,
on whose invitation, in 1197, he visited England, where
he became intimate with More, Colet, and other eminent
men. From 1197 till 1510, he spent in France, the Nether-
lands, and Italy, during which period he published various
works, and acquired high reputation. In 1510, he again
came lo England ; wrote his Praise of Folly, while re.-,iil-
ing with Sir Thomas IMore ; and was appointed Margaret
profes-sor of divinity, and Greek lecturer, at Carabrid.;*:.
Returning to the continent in 1514, he vigorously continu-
ed his literary labors. Basil was chiefly the phce of his
residence. Among the numerous works which he now
produced, may be mentioned an edition of the works of St.
Jerome ; an edition of the New Testament, with a Latin
tran.slation ; his dialogue entitled Ciceronianus ; and his
celebrated Colloquies, which, attacking superstition and
church abuses, gave such offence to bigoted Catholics,
that he was branded by them as having laid the egg which
Luther hatched. AVith Luther, however, whom he had
provoked by his treatise on Free Will, he was in open
hostility. Erasmus died, July 12, 1536. A complete edi-
tion of his works, in ten voUimes folio, was published by
Le Clerc.
In Erasmus we behold a man who, in his youth, lyi ig
under no small disadvantages of birth and education, I'e-
pressed by poverty, friendless, and ill supp irted, overcame
all these obstacles, and became not only one of the most
considerable scholars of his age, but acquired the favor
and protection of princes, nobles, and prelates of the
greatest names in church and state. He has been accus-
ed of Arminianisni ; but when living he denied the charge,
and his works generally support such denial. His style
of writing was unaffected, easy, copious, fluent, and clear,
bnt not always classical. It is lo be feared, however, that
his fame resis more on his literary attainments and labors,
than upon the decision or propi'iety of his religious cha-
racter. He had slated the necessity of reformation, and
had proposed it ; but he hesitated whether it were not bet
ter lo suffer snch reformation lo be retarded, than to dis-
turb Christendom by such a zeal and spirit as were mani-
fested by Luther. His pacific scheme ended in oflending
the papists, without obtaining from them even the smallest
change, or the shadow of a compliance. — Davenport ; Ency.
Amer. ; Jones's Clir. Bios. ; Hcnd. Buck.
ERASTIANS; so called from Erastus. a Gennan di-
vine of the sixteenth century. The pastoral office, accord-
ing to him, was only persuasive, like a professor of sci-
ence over his students, withont any power of ihe keys an-
nexed. The Lord's supper and other ordinances of the
gospel were to be free and open to all. The minister
might dissuade the vicious and unqualified from the com-
munion ; bnt might not refuse it, or inflict any kind of
censure ; tlie punishment of all offences, either of a civil
or religions nature, being referred to the civil magistrate.
—Utn'd. Buck.
ERASTUS. He was chamberlain or treasurer of l he
city of Corinth. Rom. 16: 23. He resigned his enipU'V-
ment, and followed Paul to Ephesus, where he wa.s. A. D.
56, and was sf nt by Paul lo Macedonia with Timoihy,
probably 10 collect alms expected froin the brethren. T):ey
were both with him at Corinth, A. D. 58, when he wrtuc
E S A
L MO J
E SH
his epistle to the Romans, whom he salutes in both their
names ; and it is probable that Erastus afterwards accom-
panied him till his last voyage to Corinth, in the M'ay to
Rome, where he sulTered martyrdom ; for then Eraslus
remained at Corinth. 2 Tim. 4: 2ii.—Ciihmt.
ERECH ; a city of Chaldea, built by Nimrod, grandson
of Cu.sh, (Gen. 10: 10,) and probably the Aracca, placed ■
by Ptoleiny in the Susiana, on the river Tigris, below
where it joins the Euphrates. Ammianus calls it Arecha.
From this city the Arectcean fields, which abound with
naphtha, and sometimes take fire, derive their name.
The capital of the province, under the Chaldeans and A.s-
syrians, was Babylon ; unden.lhe princes named Cosrhoes,
it was Madai'n ; and under the Arabians, Bagdat. It is
tailed Chaldea, or Babylonia, by the Greeks and Latins.
— Calmet. ^
EREMITES. (See Hekmits.)
ERNESTI, (John Aubustus,) an eminent German critic,
was born, in 1707, at Tennstadt, in Thuringia, and studied
at Leipsic, wliere he ultimately became professor of an-
cient literature, rhetoric, and theology. He died in 1781.
Among his numerous publications are editions of Homer,
Callimachus, Polybius, Xenophon, Cicero, Suetonius, and
Tacitus ; and a Theological Library, ten volumes 8vo.
His nephew, Augustus William, who was born in 1753,
and died in 1801, pubhshedOpuscula ; and editions of Li vy,
Quintilian, Ammianus, and Pomponius Mela. — Davenport.
ERROR ; a mistake of our judgment, giving assent to
that which is not true. Mr. Locke reduces the causes of
error lo four. 1. "Want of proofs. 2. Want of ability to
use them. 3. Want of will to use them. 4. Wrong mea-
sures of probability. In a moral and scriptural sense it
signifies sin. (See Sm.) — Douglas on Errors regarding Re-
ligion ; Fuller's Essay on the Causes of Error — Works, vol.
ii. p. C86 ; Hend. Buck.
ERSKINE, (John, D. D.,) an eminent Scotch divine,
was born in 1721, and educated at the university of Edin-
burgh. His father, a distinguished barrister and professor
of law, wished his son to follow the same profession,
thinking his talents of an order to make him an ornament
to the bar or the bench ; but the son preferred the sacred
functions of the pulpit, that he might proclaim to perishing
sinners "the unsearchable riches of Christ," At the age
of twenty, he published an essay on the moral condition
of the heathen world, which gained him great reputation.
He maintained that their ignorance or disbelief of the di-
vine perfections and of immortality, could be owing to
nothing but negligence or perverseness, not to any insulK-
r.iency of evidence. Rom, 1: 20. In 1744, he became
minister of Kirkintilloch, In 1753, he was translated to
Culross; and in 1738, to New Grayfriars' church, Edin-
bnrgh. Nine years after, he became the colleague of Dr,
Robertson, at Old Grayfriars', where he remained for
twenty-six years. He died, January 19, 1803, at the age
of eighty-one, leaving behind him a testimony of his worth
in his character and writings ; which equally display the
scholar, the Christian, and the divine. He corresponded
with most of the literary men of the day, and among
others with Warburton, and enjoyed the friendship of the
profound Maclaurin and president Edwards, He was the
author of twenty-five different publications, and the editor
cf twenty more. His " Theological Dissertations," and
" Skitches of Church History," are the most highly valued,
—Life, hj Sir H. M. Wellwood ; Jones's Chr. Biog.
ESAR-HADDON ; son of Sennacherib, and 'his suc-
cessor in the kingdom of Assyria : cnlled Sargon, or Sara-
gon. Isa. 20: 1. He made war with the Philistine.s, and
took Azoth, by Tartan, his general : he attacked Egypt,
Cush, and Edom, (Isa, 20: and 34:) designing, probably,
to avenge the affront Sennacherib his father had received
from Tirhakah, king of Cush, and ihe king of Egypt, who
had been Hezekiah's confederates. He sent priests to the
Cutha'ans, whom Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, had plant-
ed in Samaria, instead of the Israelites : he took Jerusa-
lem, and carried king Manasseh to Babylon, of which he
had become master, perhaps, because there was no heir lo
Belesis, king of Babylon, He is said to have reigned
twenly-nine or thirty years at Nineveh, and thirteen years
at Babylon ; in all forty-two years. He died A, M. '333i),
— Watson.
ESAU ; son of Isaac and Rebekah, born A, M, 2168,
B, C, 183(5, Gen. 25: 24— 2(i, His history is found in the
book of Genesis, (See Edom,)
On the most important part of his history, the selling
of the birthright, we may observe, (1,) That although it
was always the design of God that the blessing connected
with primogeniture in the family of Abraham should be
enjoyed by Jacob, and lo exercise his sovereignty in chang-
ing the succession in which the promises of the Abrahamic
covenant might descend ; yet the conduct of Rebekah and
Jacob was reprehensible in endeavoring to bring about the
divine design by the unworthy means of contrivance and
deceit; and they were punished for their presumption by
their sufferings, (2,) That the conduct of Esau in selling
his birthright was both wanton and profane. It was wan-
ton, because he, though faint, could be in no danger of not
obtaining a supply of food in his father's house ; and was
therefore wholly influenced by his appetite, excited by the
dehcacy of Jacob's pottage. It was profane, because the
blessings of the birthright were spiritual as well as civil.
The church of God was lo be established in the line of the
first-born ; and in that line the Messiah was to appear.
These high privileges were despised by Esau, who is
therefore made by St. Paul a type of all apostates from
Christ, who, like him, profanely despise tfiteir birthright as
the sons of God. (See Birthright.) — Watson.
ESDRAELON, (Plain op ;) in the tribe of Issachar,
called, likewise, the Great Plain, the valley of Jezreel, the
plain of Esdrela, Dr„ E, D, Clarke observes, it is by far
the largest plain in the Holy Land ; extending quite across
the country, from mount Carmel and the INIediterranean
sea to the southern extremity of the ,sea of Galilee ; about
thirty miles in length, and twenty in breadth. It is also a
very fertile district, abounding in pasture ; on which ac-
coimt it has been selected for the purposes of encampment
by almost every army that has traversed the Holy Land.
Here Barak, descending with his ten thousand men from
mount Tabor, which rhses like a cone in the centre of
the plain, defeated Sisera, with his " nine hundred chariots
of iron, and all the people that were with him, gathered
from Haroshcth of the gentiles unto the river of Ifishon,"
Judges 4. Here Josiah, king of Judah, fell, fighting
against Necho, king of Egypt. 2 Kings 23: 29. And hero
the Midianiles and the Amalekites encamped when they
were defeated by Gideon. Judges 6.
This plain has likewise been used for the same purpose
by the armies of every conqueror or invader, from Nabu-
chodonosor, king of Assyria, to his imitator, Napoleon
Bonaparte, who, in the spring of 1799, with a small body
of French, defeated an army of several thousand Turks
and Mamelukes. Jews, gentiles, Saracens, Christian cru-
saders, and anti-christian Frenchmen, Egyptians, Per-
sians, Druses, Turks, and Arabs, warriors out of every na-
tion which is under heaven, have pilched their tents in the
plainof Esdraelon ; andliave beheld the various banners of
their nations wet with the dews of Tabor and of Hermon.
And it is to this day generally found to be the place of en-
campment of large parties of Arabs, — Watsnn.
ESDRAS ; the name of two apocryphal books which
were always excluded the Jewi.sh canon, and are too ab-
surd to be admitted as canonical by the papists themselves.
They are sup]iosed to have been originally written in
Greek by some Hellenistical Jews; though soine imagine
that they were first written in Chaldee, and afterwards
translated into Greek. It is uncertain when they were
composed, though it is generallyagreed that the author
wrote before Josephus, — Watson.
ESHBAAL, or Ishbosheth; the fourth son of Saul.
The Hebrews, to avoid pronouncing the word haal, " lord,"
used boshcth,, "confusion." Instead of Mephibaal, they
said Mephi-bosheth ; and instead of Esh-baal, they said
Ish-boshelh, 2 Sam, 2: 8. — Watson.
ESHCOL ; one of Abraham's allies, who dwelt with
him in the valley of Mamre, and accompanied him in the
pursuit of Chedorlaomer, and the other confederated kings,
who pillaged Sodom and Gomorrah, and carried away Lot,
Abraham's nephew. Gen, 14: 24, Also the valley or
brook of Eshcol was that in which the Hebrew messen-
gers, who went to spy the land of Canaan, cut a bunch
of grapes so large thatit was asmuch as two men could
EST
t 511 1
EST
carry. It was situated in the south part of Judah. Num.
13: 24. 32: 9.— Watson.
ESHTAOL ; a tonn of Dan. though it belongeil first to
Judah. Eusebius says, it was ten miles from Eleuthero-
polis, towards Nicopolis, (Josh. 15: 33,) between Azotus
andAslcalon. Judg. 13:2.3. 16:31. It is called by Jerome,
Asco. Eshlaol is thought to be a village, now called by
the Arabs Esdad, about fifteen miles south of Yebna.
It is a wretched place, composed of a few mud huts. —
Cn/me/.
ESHTEMOTH ; a city in the south of Judah. Euse-
bius says, it was a large town in the district of Eleuthero-
polis, north of that city. It was ceded to the priests. 1
Chron. 6: 57. — Calmel.
ESOTERIC. Something'secret, revealed only to the ini-
tiated. In the mysteries or secret societies of the ancients,
the doctrines were distinguished into the esoteric and the
etoteric; the former for the initiated, who were permitted
to enter into the sanctuary itself, (the Esoterics,) and the
latter for the uninitiated, (the Exoterics,) who remained in
the outer court. The same distinction is also made, in
philosophy, between those doctrines which belong pecu-
liarly to the initiated, and those which are adapted to the
limited capaciti^of the unlearned. — Encij. Amer.
ESPOUSAaBf a mutual binding engagement between
the two partie^Vhich usually preceded the marriage some
considerable time. (See Marriage.) The reader will do
well carefully to attend to the distinction between espou-
sals and marriage ; as espousals in the East are frequent-
ly contracted years before the parties are married, and
sometimes in very early youth. This custom is alluded
to figuratively, as between God and his people, (Jer. 2: 2,)
to whom he was a husband, (21: 32,) and the apostle says,
he acted as a kind of assistant (pronuia) on such occasion :
"I have espoused you to Christ;" (2 Cor. 11: 2,) have
drawn up the writings, settled the agreements, given
pledges, kc. of your union. See Isa. 51: 5. Matt. 25: 0.
Rev. 19.— Calmet.
ESSENES ; a very ancient sect of the Jews, that was
spread abroad through Syria, Egypt, and the neighbor-
ing countries. They ihaintained that religion consist-
ed wholly in contemplation and silence. Some of them
passed their lives in a state of celibacy ; others embraced
the state of matrimony, which they considered as lawful,
when entered into with the sole design of propagating the
species, and not to satisfy the demand of lust. Some of
them held the possibilit)^ of appeasing the Deity by sacri-
fices, though different from that of the Jews ; and others
maintained that no oftering was acceptable to God but
that of a serene and composed mind, addicted to the con-
templation of Uivine things. They looked upon the law
of Moses as an allegorical system of spiritual and myste-
rious truths, and renounced, in its explication, all regard
to the outward letter. The principal ancient writers who
give an account of this sect, are Josephus, Philo, and
Pliny. In Judea their number amounted to about four
thousand. In their mode of life they seem to have been
much like the Shakers of our time. — Calmet ; IVatson ;
Neander's Church History.
ESTABLISH. God cstablishcth the work of his people's
hands when he gives them direction, assistance, and suc-
cess in their undertakings. Ps. 90: 17. We establish our
own righteousness when we perform it, in order to found
our acceptance with God, and persuade ourselves that it
.s a proper foundation for our hopes of eternal happiness.
Rom. 10: 3. We by faith establish the law, presenting to
it as a covenant, the law — magnifying righteousness of Je-
sus Christ, as fulfilled in our stead ; and by faith deriving
virtue from Christ, we are enabled to fulfil it as a rule of
duty. Rom. 3: 31. — Brown.
ESTABLISHMENTS, (Religious.) By a religious
establishment is generally understood such an intimate
connexion between religion and civil government as sub-
sists in all national churches, and by its friends is suppos-
ed to .secure the best interests and great end of both.
The partisans for religious establishments observe, that
they have prevailed universally in every age and nation.
The ancient patriarchs formed no extensive nor permanent
associations, but such as arose from the relationships of
nature. Fv-:ry father governed his own family, and their
ofispring submitted to his jurisdiction. He presided la
their education and discipline, in ineir religious worship,
and in their general government. His knowledge and
experience handed down to them their laws and their cus
toms, both civil and religious ; and his authority enforced
them. The offices of prophet, priest, and king were thn-
united in the same patriarch. Gen. 18: It). 17: and 21
14; IS. The Jews enjoyed a religious establishment die
tated and ordained by God. In turning our attention to
the heathen nations, we shall find the same incorporation
of religious with civil government. Gen. 47: 22. 2 King."
17: 27, 29. Every one who is at all acquainted with the
history of Greece and Rome, knows that religion was al-
together blended with the policy of the .stale. The Koran
may be considered as the religious creed and civil code of
all the Mahometan tribes. Among the Celts, or the ori-
ginal inhabitants of Europe, the druids were both their
priests and their judges, and their judgment was final.
Among the Hindoos, the priests and sovereigns are of
diflerent tribes or castes, but the priests are superior in
rank ; and in China, the emperor is sovereign pontiff, and
presides in all public acts of rSligion.
Again, it is said, that, although there is no form of
church government absolutely prescribed in the New Tes-
tament, yet from the associating law, on which the gospel
lays so much stress, by the respect for civil government it
so earnestly enjoins, and by the practice which followed,
and finally prevailed, Christians cannot be said to disap-
prove, but to favor religious establishments.
Religious establishments, also, it is observed, are found-
ed in the nature of man, and interwoven with all the con-
stituent principles of human society : the knowledge and
profession of Christianity cannot be upheld without a cler-
gy ; a clergy cannot be supported without a legal provi-
sion ; and a legal provision for the clergy cannot be con-
stituted without the preference of one sect of Christians
to the rest. An established church is most likely to main-
tain clerical respectability and usefulness, by holding out
a suitable encouragement to young men to devote them-
selves early to the service of the church ; and likewise
enables them to obtain such knowledge as shall qualify
them for the important work.
They who reason on the contrary side observe, that the
patriarchs sustaining civil as well as religious offices, is
no proof at all that religion was incorporated with the
civil government, in the sense above referred to ; nor is
there the least hint of it in the sacred Scriptures. That the
ca.se of the Jews can never be considered in point, as they
were under a theocracy, and a ceremonial dispensation
that was to pass away, and consequently not designed to
be a model for Christian nations. That whatever was the
practice of heathens in this respect, this forms no argu-
ment iu favor of that system, which is the very opposite
of paganism.
The church of Christ is of a spiritual nature, and ought
not, yea, cannot, in fact, be incorporated with the stale with-
out sustaining material injury. In the three first and
purest ages of Christianity, the church was a stranger to
any alliance with temporal powers ; and, so far from need-
ing their aid, religion never flourished so much as while
they were combined to suppress it. As to the support which
Christianity, when united to civil government, yields to
the peace and good order of society, it is observed, that
this benefit will be derived from it, at least, in as great a
degree without an establishment as with it. Religion, if
it have any power, operates on the conscience of men ; and,
resting solely on the belief of invisible realities, it can de-
rive no weight or solemnity from human sanctions. Hu-
man establishments, it is said, have been, and are, produc-
tive of the greatest evils ; for in this case it is requisite to
give the preference to some particular system ; and as the
magistrate is no better judge of religion than others, the
chances are as great of his lending his sanction to the
false as the true. The thousands that have been perse-
cuted and suffered in consequence of establishments, will
always form an argument against them. Under estab-
lishments also, it is said, corruption cannot be avoided.
Emolument must be attached to the national church, which
may be a strong inducement to its ministers to defend it,
be it ever so remote from the truth. Thus, also, error be-
ETA
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£TE
0)mes permanent ; and that .set of opinions which happens
to prevail when tlie eslab'.ishmfnt is formed, continues, in
spite of superior light and improvement, to be handed
down, without alteration, from age to age. Hence the dis-
agreement between the public creed of the church and the
private sentiments of its ministers.
As to the provision made for the clergy, this may be
done without an establishment, as matter of fact shows in
hundreds of instances. Dissenting ministers, or those
%vho do not hold in establishments, it is observed, are not
without means of obtaining knowledge ; but, on the con-
trary, many of them are eqiial to their brethren in the es-
tablishment for erudition and sound learning. It is not to
be dissembled neither, that among those who, in general,
cannot agree with human establishments, there are as
pious and as useful members of society as others.
Finally, though all Christians should pay respect to
civil magistrates as such, and all magistrates ought to en-
courage the chnrch, yet no civil magistrates have any
pcw'er to establish any jiarticular form of religion binding
upon the consciences of thj subject ; nor are magistrates
ever represented in Scripture as officers or rulers of the
church. As Jlr. Coleridge observes, the Christian church
is not a Icingdom, realm, or state of the world ; nor is it
itn estate of any such kingdom, realm, or state ; but it is
the appointed opposite to them all collectively : — the sus-
taining, correcting, befriending opposite of the world! —
the compensating countcrforce to the inherent and inevi-
table evils anil defects of the state as a state, and without
reference to its better or worse construction as a particular
state : while, whatever is benefieent and humanizing in
the aims, tendencies, and pr<jper objects of the state, it
collects in itself as in a focus, to radiate them back in a
higher qualit}' ; or. to change the' metaphor, it completes
and strengthens the edifice of the state, without interfe-
rence or commixture, in the mere act of laying and secur-
ing its own foundations. And for these services the church
of Christ asks of the .state neither wages nor dignities ;
she asks only protection, and to be let alone. These, in-
deed, she demands ; but even these only on the ground
that there is nothing in her constitution, nor in her disci-
pline, inconsistent with the interests of the state ; nothing
resistant or impedimental to the state in the exercise of its
rightful powers, in the fulfilment of its appropriate duties,
or in the effectuation of its legitimate objects. (See Church,
and Chukch Revenues.) — Worh of Roll. Hall ; Henri. Buck.
ESTHER. The book of Esther is so called, because
it contains the history of E.<ther, the Jewish captive, who,
by her remarkable accomplishments, gained the affection
of king Ahasuerus, and by marriage with him was raised
to the throne of Persia ; and it relates the origin and
ceremonies of the feast of Furim, instituted in commemo-
ration of the great deliverance, which she, by her interest,
procured for the Jews, whose general destruction had been
concerted by the offended pride of Haman.
The book tjf Esther has always been esteemed ca-
nonical both by Jews and Christians ; but the authority of
those additions in the Latin editions are disputed. Cle-
mens of Alexandria, some rabbins, and many commen-
tators suppose the original author of this hook to have
been Mordecai ; and the book itself favors this opinion,
saying, that he wrote the history of this event. Others
think it was composed and placed in the canon by Ezra,
or by the great synagtjgue. The time of the history is in
the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, who is believed to
be Ahastierus. (See Ahasuekus, and Eceatana.) — Wat-
son ; Cahiiet.
ESTRANGED ; filled with dislike ; rendered like stran-
gers. The wicked are estranged from God ; destitute of the
knowledge of him or intimacy with him, and filled with
dislike of him. (Ps. 5S: 3,) hut not estranged from their
lUSts ; not filled with dislike of it, or turned from the prac-
tice of it. Ps. 78: 30. The Jews estranged Jerusalem by
turning out the worship of the true God, and bringing in
the worship of idols, and the practice of the basest wick-
edness. Jer. 19: 4. — Brown.
ETAM ; a rock to which Samson retired. Judg. 15: 8,
11. Probably near a city of Judah, built by Eehoboam,
(1 Chron. 4: 3, 32. 2 Chron. 11: 6,) which lay between
Beihlehem and Tekoah . Josephus speaks of a place of plea-
sure calleil Helhan, distant from Jerusalem five leagues,
to which Solomon frequently retired. — Calmet.
ETERNAL. (See AiOx ; Aionios.)
ETERNALS ; a name given to those in the third century
who maintained that our globe, being purified by the great
conflagration subsequent to the day of judgment, will be
regenerated and abide forever, under the form of the new
heaven and the new earth described by St. John in the
Revelation. This opinion, however, must not be confin-
ed to heretics, nor limited to the third century. — Williams.
ETERNITY, with respect to God, is a duration without
beginning or end. As it is the attribute of human natiure
it is a duration that has a beginning, but will never have
an end. " It is a duration," says a lively writer, '• that ex-
cludes all number and computation ; days, and months,
and years, yea, and ages, are lost in it, like drops in the
ocean ! Millions of millions of years; as many years as
there are sands on the sea-shore, or particles of dust in
the globe of the earth, and those multiplied to the highest
reach of number — all these are nothing to eternity. They
do not bear the least imaginable proportion to it, for these
will come to an end as certainly as a day ; but eternity
will never, never, never, come to an end ! it is a line with-
out an end ! it is an ocean without a shore ! Alas ! what
shall I say of it ; it is an infinite, unknown something, that
neither human thought can grasp, nor human language de-
scribe !" — Orton on Eternity ; Shower on ditto ; Davies's Ser-
mons, ser. 11 : Saiirinh Sermons, vol. iii. p. 370 ; Hend. Bvck.
ETERNITY OF GOD is the perpetual continuance of
his being, without beginning, end, or succession. That he
is without liegitming, says Dr. Gill, may be proved from, 1.
His necessary self-existence. Exod. 3: 14. 2. From his
attributes, several of which are said to be eternal. Rom.
1: 20. Acts 15: 18. Ps. 103: 17. Jer. 31: 3. 3. From his
purposes, which are also said to he from eternity. Isa. 25:
1. Eph. 3: 11. Rom. 9: 11. Eph. 1: 4. 4. From the cove-
nant of grace, which is eternal. 2 Sam. 23: 5. Mic. 5: 2.
That he is without end, may be proved from, 1. His spi-
rituality and simplicity. Rom. 1: 23. 2. From his inde-
pendency. Rom. 9: 5. 3. From his immutabihty. 2 Pet.
1: 24, 25. Mai. 3: 6. Ps. 3: 26,27. 4. From his dominion
and government, said never to end. Jer. 10: 10. Ps. 10:
16. Dan. 4: 3.
That he is without succession, or any distinctions of time
succeeding one to another, as moments, minutes, &c. may
be proved from, 1. His existence before such were in be-
ing. Isa. 43: 13. 2. The distinctions and differences of
time are together ascribed to him, and not as succeeding
one another : he is the same yesterday, to-day, and for-
ever. Heb. 13: 8. Rev. 1: 4. 3. If his duration were
successive, or proceeded by moments, days, and years,
then there must have been some first moment, day, and
year, when he began to exist, which is incompatible with
the idea of his eternity ; and, besides, one day woidd be
but one day with him, and not a thousand, contrary to the
express language of Scripture. 2 Pet. 3: 8. 4. He would
not be immense, immutable, and perfect, if this were
the case ; for he would be older one minute than he was
before, which cannot be said of him. 5. His knowledge
proves him without successive duration, for he knows all
things, past, present, and to come : " he sees the present
without a medium, the past without recollection, and the
future without foresight. To him all truths are but one
idea, all places but one point, and all times but one mo-
ment."
This last idea, however, Mr. Watson regards as a meta-
physical refinement. Minutes or moments, he observes,
or smaller portions, for which we have no name, may be
artificial things, adopted to aid our conceptions ; but con-
ceptions of what? Not of any thing standing still, but of
something going on. Of duration we have no other con-
ception ; and if there be nothing in nature which answers
to this conception, then is duration itself imaginary, and
we discourse about nothing. If the duration of the Di-
vine Being admits not of past, present, and future, one of.
these two consequences must follow, — that no such attri-
bute as that of eternity belongs to him, — or that there is
no power in the human mind to conceive Oi it. In either
case, the Scriptures are greatly impugned ; fo." " He who'
was, and is, and is to come," is a revelation of the ."ternity
ETH
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EUL
of God, which is then in no sense true. It is not true, if
used literally : and it is as little so, if the language be
figurative ; for the figure rests on no basis, it illustrates
nothing, it misleads. It is, however, to be remembered,
that the eternal, supreme cause must of necessity have
such a perfect, independent, unchangeable comprehension
of all things, that there can be nn one point or instant of
his eternal duration, wherein all things that are past, pre-
sent, and to come, will not be as entirely known and re-
presented to him in one single thought or view, and all
things present and future be equally entirely in his power
and direction, as if there was really no succession at all,
but all things were actually present at once.— Gill's Body
sf Divinity ; Palei/s Nat. Theology, p. 480 ; Charnock on
the Divine Perfections ; Clarice on dilto ; Walls's Ontology,
chap. 4: DivighVs Theologi/ : Head. Buck ; Watson.
ETERNITY OF THE WORLD. It was the opinion
of Arislolle and others, that the world was eternal. But
that the pre.sent system of things had a beginning, -seems
evident, if we consider the following things : — 1. We may
not only conceive of many possible alterations which
might be made in the form of it, but we see it incessantly
changing ; whereas an eternal being, forasmuch as it is
self-existent, is always the same. 2. We have no credible
history of transactions more remote than six thousand years
from the present time ; for as to the pretence that some
nations have made to histories of greater antiquity, as the
Egyptians, Chaldeans, PhcEnicians, Chinese, cVc. they are
evidently convicted of falsehood in the works referred to
at the bottom of this article. 3. We can trace the inven-
tion of the most useful arts and sciences ; which had pro-
bably been carried farther, and invented sooner, had the
world been eternal. 4. The origin of the most considera-
ble nations of the earth may be traced, i. e. the time when
they first inhabited the countries where they now dweU ;
and it appears that most of the western nations came from
the east. 5. If the world be eternal, it is hard to account
for the tradition of its beginning, which has almost every
where prevailed, though under dift'erent forms, among
both polite and barbarous nations. 6. We have a inost
ancient and credible history of the beginning of the world
— I mean the history of Moses, with which no book in the
world, in point of antiquity, can contend. — StilUng fleet's
Orig. Sacra, p. 15, 10(5 ; Winder's Hist, of Knowledge, vol.
ii. passim ; Pearson on the Creed, p. 58 ; Doddridge's Lec-
tures, i. 24 ; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 1 ; Clarke at Boyle's
Lecture.'', pp. 22, 23 ; Dr. Collyer's Scripture Facts, ser. 2 ;
Bossuet's Universal History ; Hend. Buck.
ETHAM ; the third station of the Israelites when com-
ing out of Egypt, (Num. 33: 6. Exod. 13: 20,) lay at
the extremity of the western gulf of the Red sea. — Calmel.
ETHAN, the Ezrahite, and son of Kishi, was one of
the wisest men of his time, except Solomon. 1 Kings 4: 31.
Ts. 8'J. 1 Chron. 6: 44. He was called likewise Idithun,
and appears under this name in the titles to several Psalms.
Ethan was a principal master of the temple music. 1
Chron. 15: 17, and other places. — Calmel.
ETHANIM; a Hebrew month, (1 Kings 8:2,) after
the captivity called Tizri. It is supposed to answer to our
September, O. S. (See Jewish Calendar.) — Calmet.
ETHELBERT, king of Kent,succeededhis father Her-
menric, about 560, and soon reduced all the states, except
Northumberland, to the condition of his dependants. In
' his reign, Christianity was first introduced into England,
i Elhelbert married Bertha, the daughter of Caribert, king
I of Paris, and a Christian princess, who, stipulating for the
I free exercise of her religion, brought over with her a
i French bishop. Her conduct was so exemplary as to pre-
possess the king and his court in favor of the Chiistian
religion. In consequence, pope Gregory the Great sent a
mission of forty monks, headed by Augustine, to preach
the gospel in the island. They were well received, and
numbers were converted ; and the king himself, at length,
submitted to be baptized. Civilization and knowledge fol-
lowed Christianity, and Ethelbert erected a body of laws,
which was the first written code promulgated by the
northern conquerors. He died in 616, and was succeeded
by his son Edbald. — Ency. Amer.
ETHICS ; the doctrine of manners, or the science of
moral philosophy. The word is formed from e/Ao.«, (mores,)
63
" manners," because the scope or object thereof is lo
form the manner of life. (See Morals.) — Hend. Buck.
ETHIOPIA. (See Cusn.)
ETHNOPHRONES; a sect of heretics in the seventh
century, who made a profession of Christianity, but joined
thereto all the ceremonies and follies of paganism, as judi-
cial astrology, sortileges, auguries, and other divinations.
—Hend. Buck.
EUCHARIST ; the sacrament of the Lord's supper.
The word in its original Greek (euc/iarlstia,) properly signi-
fies giving thanks; from the hymns and thanksgivings
which accompanied that holy service in the primitive
church. (See Lord's SurpiiK.) — Watson.
EUCHITES, or Euchit.b ; (from euche, pra3'er,) pray-
ing persons ; a name at different times applied to persons
who were, or at least professed to be, eminently pious. In
the early ages it was applied to the PavHcians, (which see ; )
and in the middle ages to the Waldenses, whose simple
piety was greatly disgusted with the haughty hypocrisy
of the monks and priests of the Roman church. They
were also called Massillians and Bugomtlcs, both words of
the same import. (See those articles.) — Encyc. Perth.,
Haneis's Church History, vol. ii, p. 222.
Jlr. Robinson, however, considers Euchites as a general
name lor dissenters, equivalent to Puritans and Non-confor
mists. The following is the substance of his account:
" This general parent stock, called Euchites, or dissen
lers, it should seem, was divided and subdivided b)' the
clergy, into various classes of heretics. They misrepre
sented their doctrines, blackened their characters, and, a?
often as they could, excited princes to persecute them.
Some of these dissenters dogmatized, and they became
Manichaean, Arian, and Athanasian Euchites. Others
were named after the countries where they most abounded,
as Bulgarians, Macedonians, Armenians, fee. Others
were named after some eminent teacher, as Paulicians,
and Paulianists, Novatians, and manj' more of this class.
Simple Euchite, therefore, was a mere non-conformist, in
Greece. A 3IanichcBan Euchite was a dissenter of a doc-
trinal, disputatious turn, and so of the rest ; if, indeed, the
word have any pi'ecise meaning at all, which contradictory
accounts render very doubtful." See Robinson's Eccles. Re-
searches, pp. 58 — y. — Williams.
EUD.S;M0NISjM, EuD^L-MouoLoiiV; the doctrine of hap-
piness, or that system which makes human happiness its
prime object, the highest motive of every duty, and of a
virtuous life, and consequently the whole foundation of
morals. Eudoemonism is contradistinguished to that rao-
raUfy or pure system of philosophy, which makes virtue
itself the chief object, independent of its tendency to pro-
mote human happiness. — Encij. Amcr.
EUDOXIANS; a sect in the fourth century, so called
from their leader, Eudoxuis, patriarch of Antioch and
Constantinople, a great defender of the Arian doctrine.
(See Arians.) — Hend. Buck.
EUGENIUS ; a bishop of Carthage, in the fifth centu-
ry. His eminent learning and piety, it is said, brought
upon him the hatred of the Arians in general. They took
pains 10 set the king Huncric against him and other or- _
thodox Christians, By this means five thousand of the
latter were banished into a desert, where they died. Still
bent on persecution. Huneric published an edict, convoking
a council of all the clergy in his dominions, at which the
orthodox party were shamefully abused ; each prelate re-
ceived a hundred blows, and was turned out of his oflice
unheard ; their churches were shut up, and their revenues
seized. Eugenius protested against this violence in vain.
Another device of their enemies completed the ruin of
these unhappy men. They were required to swear to the
succession of the king's sou Hildcric. Those who did
were condemned as transgressmg Malt, 5: 34, and those
who did not, as enemies to the legal succession, Eugenius
was banished to Tripob, where he was thrown into a loath-
some dungeon. He was recalled by Huneric's successor ;
but by the intrigues of the Arians was again exiled to
Languedoc, in France, where he died of his hardships,
September 6, A, D. 505.— Fox.
EULALIA; a Spanish lady of a Christian family, re-
markable in vouth for the sweetness of her temper, ami
the solidity of her understanding. Being apprehended as
EUP
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E U S
a Christian, the magistrate attempted by the mildest means
to bring her over to paganism ; but she answered him
with such irony, and ridiculed the heathen deities with
such asperity, as provoked him to consign her to the torture ;
after which she was burned to death, December, A. D. 303.
—Fox.
EULER, (Leonard,) one of the most illustrious and
fertile mathematicians of the eighteenth century, was born
at Basil in 1707, and was a pupil of John Bernouilli. He
was one of the learned men whom Catharine the First in-
vited to St. Petersburgh, and in that capital he resided, as
professor, from 1727 to 1741. In 1741, he removed to
Berlin, at the request of the king of Prussia, and he re-
mained there till 17fi6, when he returned to the Russian
capital. He died, of apople.x-y, at St. Petersburgh, in 1783.
For many years previous to his decease he had been blind ;
but the privation of sight did not put a stop to his labors.
Among the works that were produced while he was in a
state of darkness were the Elements of Algebra, and the
Theory of the Moon. His writings are so numerous, that
a mere catalogue of them fills fifty pages. Many of them
are to be found in the Memoirs of the Academies of St.
Petersburgh, Berlin, and Paris, especially in the first two.
One of them is devoted to the defence of divine revelation
against the sceptics. — Davenjiort ; Eiicij. Amer.
EULOGY, (eulogia, " blessed," or a " blessing;") a term
made use of in reference to the con.secrated bread. AVhen
the Greeks have cut a loaf or piece of bread, to consecrate
it, they break the rest into little bits, and distribute it
among the persons who have not yet communicated, "or
send it to persons that are absent ; and these pieces of
bread are what they call eulogies.
The Latin church has had something hke eulogies for a
great many ages ; and thence arose the use of their holy
bread. The name eulogy was likewise given to loaves or
cakes brought to church by the faithful to have them bless-
ed. Lastly, the use of the term passed hence to mere
presents made to a person without any benediction. —
Heiid. Evc/c.
EUNICE ; the mother of Timothy, who was a Jewess
by birth, but married to a Greek, Timothy's father. 2 Tim.
1: .5. Eunice had been converted to Christianity by some
other preacher, (Acts 16: 1, 2,) and not by St. Paul ; for
when that apostle came to Lystra, he found there Eunice
and Timothy, already far advanced in grace and virtue. —
Watson.
EUNOMIANS ; another branch of pure Arians, the
followers of Eunomius, a man, according to Mosheim, emi-
nent for his knowledge and penetration.^ JEcc/e. History,
vol. i. p. 421 ; Williams.
EUNUCH. The word signifies, one who guards the
bed. In the courts of eastern kings, the care of the beds
and apartments belonging to princes and princesses,
was generally committed to eunuchs ; but they had the
charge chiefly of the princesses, who lived secluded. The
Hebrew sans signifies a real eunuch, whether naturally
born such, or rendered such. But in Scripture this word
often denotes an officer belonging to a prince, attending
his court, and employed in the interior of his palace, as a
name of otfice and dignity. In the Persian and Turkish
courts, the principal employments are at this day possess-
ed by real eunuchs. Our Savior speaks of men who
" made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven ;"
(Matt. 19: 12,) that is, who, from a religious motive, re-
nounced marriage or carnal pleasures. — Watson.
EUPHRATES ; a river of Asiatic Turkey, which rises
from the mountains of Armenia, as some have said, in
two streams, a few miles to the norlh-east of Erzeron, the
streams uniting to the south-west near that city; and pur-
suing a south-west, south, and then south-east direction,
falls by two or three mouths into the gulf of Persia, about
fifty miles south-east of Bassora; north latitude twenty-
nine degrees fifty minutes ; east longitude sixty-six de-
grees fifty-five minutes. The comparative course of the
Euphrates may be estimated at about one thou.sand four
hundred English miles. This river is navigable for a con-
siderable distance from the sea. In its course it separates
Aladulia from Armenia, Syria from Diarbekir, and Diar-
beknr from Arabia, and passing through the Arabian Irak,
joins the Tigris The Euphrates and Tigris, the most
considerable as well as the most renowned rivers of west-
ern Asia, are remarkable for their rising within a few
miles of each other, running the same course, never being
more than a hundred and fifty miles asunder, and some-
times, before their final junction, approaching within fif-
teen miles of each other, as in the latitude of Bagdad.
The space included between the two is the ancient coun-
try of Mesopotamia. But the Euphrates is by far the
more noble river of the two. Sir R. K. Porter, describing
this river in its course through the ruins of Babylon, ob-
serves, " The whole view was particularly solemn. The
majestic stream of the Euphrates, wandering in solitude,
like a pilgriin monarch through the silent ruins of his de-
vastated kingdom, still appeared a noble river, even under
all the disadvantages of its desert-tracked course. Its
banks were hoary with reeds ; and the grey osier willows
were yet there, on which the captives of Israel hung up
their harps, and, while Jerusalem was not, refused to be
comforted." The Scripture calls it " the great river," and
assigns it for the eastern boundary of that land which
God promised to the Israelites. Deut. 1: 7. Josh. 1: 4.
(See EnEN.) — Watson.
EUPHRATESIANS, or Pek.eans ; the followers of
Euphrates of Pera, in Cilicia, said to beUeve there were
three Fathers, three Sons, and three Holy Ghosts ; against
whom was formed that clause of the Athanasian creed,
which says, that there are " not three fathers, but one Fa-
ther," &c. Query. Were they not Sabellians, who taught
that these names applied to each person of the trinity ? or,
rather, that they were all names of God in one person.
See Bell's Wanderings, p. 219. — Williams.
EUROCLYDON ; the Greek name for the north-east
wind, very dangerous at sea, of the nature of a whirlwind,
which fails of a sudden upon ships. Acts 27: 14. The
same wind is no%v called a Levanter. — Watson.
EUSEBIA, (Greek, piety;) in the modem allegorical
sense, the presiding genius of theology. — Ency. Amer.
EUSEBIANS ; a denomination given to the Arians, on
account of the favor and countenance which Eusebius,
bishop of CiEsarea, showed and procured for them at their
first rise. — Hend. Buck.
EUSEBIUS, surnamed Pampliilins, the father of eccle-
sia.stical history, born at Caesarea, in Palestine, about A.
D. 270, and died about 340, was the most learned man of
his time. He was a presb\-ter, and in 314 was appointed
bishop in his native city. He was at first opposed to the
Arians, but afterwards became their advocate, and with
them condemned the doctrines of Athanasius. His Eccle-
siastical History, written, like his other works, in Greek, is
contained in ten books, and extends from the birth of
Christ to the year 324. Of his CUronicon, with the excep-
tion of some fragments of the original, we have only an
Armenian version and the Latin version of Jerome. Be-
sides these, there are still extant fifteen books of his Pre-
paratio Evangelica, which is particularly valuable fof the
extracts which it contains from lost philosophical works.
Of the twenty books of his Demonstratio Evangelica, in
which he shows the superiority of Christianity to Judaism,
we have only ten imperfectly preserved ; and finally a life,
or rather eulogium, of Constantine. — Hend. Buck.
EUSEBIUS, bishop of Samosata, in the fourth century,
under the emperor Valens. makes a distinguished figure
in ecclesiastical history. The Arians, having advanced
Miletas to the see of Antioch, supposing him to be of their
party, deposited the public instrument in the hands of Eu-
sebius. Finding their mistake, they persuaded the empe-
ror to displace him, and to require Eusebius to deUver up
the instrument. The noble courage displayed by Euse-
bius on this occasion, surprised the emperor and won his
respect. His prudent, laborious, and successful zeal in
repressing Arianism, and building up the orthodox church-
es, at length, however, procured his banishment, much to
the grief of his attached people. He was from political
motives restored again ; but not long afterwards was killed
by a tile thrown upon his head, it is reported, from the
hand of an Arian woman . — Fox.
EUSTATHIANS ; a name given to the Catholics of
Antioch, in the fourth century, on occasion of their refus-
ing to acknowledge any other bishop beside St. Eustathius,
deposed by the Arians. — Htnd. Buck.
EVA
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EVA
EUSTATHIANS ; a rigid denomination m the fourth
century, so called from Eustathius, a monk, who prohibit-
ed marriage, the use of wine and flesh, and obliged his
followers to quit all their property, as incompatible with
the hopes of heaven. Whether this monk was the Semi-
Arian bishop of Sebastia, is uncertain. — Mnsheim's E. H.
vol. i. p. 360 ; Williams.
EUSTOCHIUM ; a Roman lady of great learning and
piety ; a disciple of St. Jerome, whom she followed in his
travels through Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, to visit places
celebrated in the Scriptures. She became a nun at Beth-
lehem, and died 419. — Bethntn.
EUSTRATIUS ; a Christian martyr under the Diocle-
sian persecution. He was secretary to the governor of
Armenia, and was thrown into a fiery furnace for exhort-
ing rome Christians who had been apprehended to perse-
vere in their faith. Several of his friends shared a similar
fate at Nicopolis. — Fox.
EUTUCHITES: (from eutuchdn. to be fortunate or
happy ;) a sort of religious stoics in the third century, who
held that we ought to rejoice equally in all events, because
to grieve would be to dishonor our Creator, as well as ren-
der ourselves miserable. — Broi/ghton's Dictionarty, vol. ii.
p. 532 ; Williams.
EUTyCHIANS; a denomination which arose in the
fifth century, and were so called from Eut^'ches, abbot of
a certain convent of monks at Constantinople. The Nes-
torians having explained the two natures in Christ in such
a manner as, in tlie opinion of many, lo make them equi-
valent to two persons, which was an evident absurdity,
Eutyches, to avoid this error, fell into the opposite extreme,
and maintained that there was only one nature in Jesus
Christ, the divine nature, which, according to him, had so
entirely swallowed up ihe human, that the latter could not
be distinguished. Hence it was inferred, that, according
to this system, our Lord had nothing of huinanity but the
appearance. — Watson.
EVANGELICAL ; agreeable lo the doctrines of Chris-
tianity. The term is frequently applied to those who do
not rely upon moral duties as to their acceptance with
God; but are influenced to a'^tirm from a sense of the love
of God, and depend upon the merits of Christ for their
everlasting .salvation. In the public documents in Prus-
sia, the word evangelical i.s now substituted in the room of
Lutheran and Cahinist ; it having been the aim of the
king for some time past lo unite the two denominations
into one body. There is, in fact, little diflerence in the
religious belief of the two parlies ; many of the Calvinists,
or the Reformed, not holding predestination and other Cal-
vinistic points, and many of Ihe Lutherans do not adhere
to the doctrine of consubstantiation.
For an admirable description of evangelical divines, see
the Complete Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. p. 274. — Hend.
Buck.
EVANGELIST; one who publishes glad tidings; a
messenger or preacher of good news. The persons deno-
minated evangelists were next in order to the apostles,
and were sent by them, not to settle in any particular
place, but to travel among the infant churches, and ordain
■rdinary oSicers, and finish what the apostles had begun.
Of this kind were Philip the deacon, IMark, Silas, Arc.
Acts 21:8. The office of a modern missionary, in some
respects, answers to that of a primitive evangelist. The
title is more particularly given to the four inspired writers
of our Savior's life. — Heiid. Buck.
EVANS, (Jon.N, D. D.,) an eminent non-conformist di-
vine, author of the "Christian Temper," was born in 1680,
at Wrexham, in Denbighshire. His father was minister
of Wrexham. His mother was one of those superior wo-
men who adorned the Christian church at that period.
This son was first placed under the care of Mr. Thomas
Eowe, near London, and studied afterwards at the semi-
nary of Jlr. Timothy Jollie. He accepted an invitation to
settle at Wrexham, where he was ordained the 18th of
August, 1702.' Dr. Daniel Williams, of London, hearing
that Mr. Evans was invited to Dublin, to prevent his leav-
ing England, sent for him to the metropolis, where he first
assisted the doctor, afterwards became co-pastor, and at
length succeeded him at his death.
Previously lo entering on his new charge, Dr. Evans
spent a whole week in devotional retirement. The time
was not lost : for the eminence of his religious and pasto-
ral character was great, and his usefulness, in many in-
stances, extraordinary. In the Arian controversy he re-
fused to subscribe to any articles, but maintained the or-
thodox sentiments. In the public services of the dissen-
ters he was often called to preside ; and was appointed to
assist in- completing Jtallhew Henry's Commentary, of
which he supplied the notes on the Epistle to the Romans
so well, that Dr. Doddridge says, " the exposition of the
Romans, begun by Henry, and finished by Dr. Evans, is
the best I ever saw." He was for some years preparing
to write a history of non-conformity, from the Reforma-
tion to the civil wars ; but, by his death, the work de-
volved on Mr. Neal. He died the 16th of May, 1730, in
his fifly-fir.st year. In his last illness, he said, '■ Though I
cannot affirm, as a late venerable minister among us, (Mr.
W. Lorimer,) a little before his death, that I have no more
doubt of my acceptance with God, than I have of my own
existence ; yet I have a good hope through grace, and
such as, I am persuaded, will never make me ashamed.
This corruptible shall put on incorruption. 0 glorious
hope !"
His discourses on the Christian Temper form one of the
best practical treatises in the English or any other lan-
guage; and will render his memory dear to many, who
will learn from his book the nature and excellence of that
spirit, which he exemplified in his life. Dr. Doddridge
speaks highly, also, of his Sermons to Young People ; and
he who renders religion intelligible and lovely to the young,
performs a valuable service to the church of God. See
Sngiie and Bennet's History of Dissenters. — Jones's Chris.
Bios-
EVANS, (Caleb, D. D.,) president of the Baptist Edu-
cation Society, at Bristol, was the son of the Rev. Hugh
Evans. He was born at Bristol about the year 1737.
In 1767, he became colleague to his father, as pastor of
the church ; and in 1770 formed '■ The Bristol Education
Society ;" the object of which was, that of furnishing the
dissenting congregations, and especially those of the Bap-
tist denomination, with a succession of able and evange-
lical ministers, as well as missionaries for propagating the
gospel in the world.
From this time to the period of his death, which took
place, August the 9th, 1791, in the fifty-fourth year of his
age. Dr. Evans continued to discharge the duties of his
high oflSce with honor to himself, and usefulness to the
body with which he was associated. He published an
answer to Dr, Priestley's Appeal, and a small volume, en-
titled " Christ Crucified," besides occasional sennons. —
Jones's Chr. Biog.
EVARTS, (Jeremiah,) secretary of the American Board
of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, was born in Sun-
derland, Vermont, February 3, 1781, and was graduated
at Yale college in 1802. During a revival of religion in
the college in the beginning of this year, he cherished the
hope, that his soul was renewed by the Spirit of God. and
became a member of ihe college church. From 1803 lo
1804, he was the instructer of the academy at Peacham,
and afterwards studied law with Judge Chauncey,of New
Haven, in which city he commenced the practice of the
law, in July, 1806. In May, 1810, he removed to Charles-
town, near Boston, in order to edit the PanopHsI, a reli-
gious and literary monthly publication, which had been
conducted by Dr. Morse and others four or five years.
He was ten years the editor of ihe Panoplist, ten years the
treasurer of the Board of Missions, and ten years corre-
sponding Secretary. In feeble health he look a voyage lo
the island of Cuba in February, 1831, and thence in April
to Charleston, where, in the house of Rev. Dr. Palmer, he
died. May 10th, aged fifty.
While Blr. Evarts was on his voyage to Cuba, fully
aware of the uncertain continuance of his life, he wrote
as follows : " Here, in this sea, I consecrate myself to
God as my chief good : — to him as my heavenly Father,
infinitely kind and tender of his children : — to him as my
kind and merciful Redeemer, by whose blood and merits
alone I do hope for salvation :— to him as the beneficent
Renewer and Sanctifier of the saved. I implore the for-
giveness of my numerous and aggravated Iransgressions :
E VI
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and I ask that my remaining time and strength may be
employed for the glory of God, nly portion, and for the
good of his creatures." In his last hours his hope of for-
giveness and salvation was undiminished and unshaken.
He said, "I^sHsh in these dying words to recognise the
great Redeemer as the Savior from sin and hell. And I
recognise the great Spirit of God as the Renovator of God's
elect." When it was said to him, "You will soon see Je-
sus," he exclaimed, '• Wonderful, wonderful, wonderful
glory ! We cannot understand — we cannot comprehend
— wonderful glory ! — I will praise, I will praise him ! Je-
sus reigns." This was no feverish excitement, nor dream
of enthusiasm, but the triumph of a dying believer.
Mr. Evarts eom.bincd with a sound judgment, the ardor
requisite for the accomplishment of great designs. Be-
sides his labors as editor of tlie Panoplist, he wrote the ten
annual reports of the American Board from 1821 to 1H.30,
the last of which contains a most weighty and valuable
discu.ssion on the future growth of this country, and the
means of preserving it from ruin. His essays, under the
signature of William Penn, on the rights and claims of
the Indians, were published in 1829. — IVood's nnd Spring's
Sermons; Miss. Herald ; Allen.
EVE ; the name of the first woman : Chava in Hebrew,
is derived from the same root as ehajim, life ; because she
was to be "the mother of all living." It is believed she
was created on the sixth day, after Adam had re\'iewed
the animals. (See Adam.) — Calmet.
EVEREST, (Soi.oMON,) a Christian physician, died at
Canton, Connecticut, in July, 1822. He bequeathed ten
thousand dollars to religious and missionar}' purposes. —
Vftvenport.
EVERLASTING ; enduring always. (See Aion, Aio-
NIOS.)
EVIDENCE, is that perception of truth which arises
either from the testimony of the senses, or from an induc-
tion of reason. The evidences of revelation, both as it
respects the authenticity and the credibility, are divided
into internal and external. That is called internal evi-
dence which is drawn from the consideration of those de-
clarations and doctrines which are contained in it : and
that is called external which arises from some other cir-
cumstances referring to it — such as predictioiis concerning
it, miracles wrought by those wlio teach it, its success in
the world, fcc. (See Evidences of Christinnitij, art. Chris-
tianity.) Some add, as a third class, the experimental evi-
dence ; meaning by the term that evidence which arises
from the healins; and happy influence of Christianity in
the soul of the true believer. See Abbott's Young Chris-
tian, and Fuller's Worls, vol. i. 103.
Moral rridtnee is that which, though it doe.s not ex-
clude a mere abstract possibility of things being other-
wise, yet shuts out every reasonable ground of suspecting
that they are so.
Evidences of grace are those dispositions and acts which
prove a person to be in a converted state ; such as an en-
lightened understanding; love to God and his people ; a
delight in God's word ; worship and dependence on him ;
spirituality of mind ; devotcdness of life to the service of
God, &c. Upltani's Intelleetual PJiilosophy ; Abercrombie'sdo.
Seed's Post. Ser., ser. 2 ; Ditton on the Hesurrection ; Bella-
my on Religion, p. 18'1 ; Gambier's Introduction, to the Study
of Moral Evidence, 163 ; Divight's Theology, ser. Ixvi. and
Ixxxvii — xc. — Ilend. Buck. — (See Affections.)
EVIL, is distinguished into natural or moral. Natural
evil is whatever destroys or any way disturbs the per-
fection of natural beings ; such as blindness, diseases,
death, iVc. Moral evil is the disagreement between the
actions of a moral agent, and the rule of those actions,
whatever it is. Applied to a choice, or acting contrar)' to
the moral or revealed laws of the Deity, it is termed
wickedness or sin. Applied to acting contrary to the
mere rule of fitness, a i^ault. (See article Sin.) Dwight's
Theology, ser. viii. — Hend. Buck.
EVIL MERODACH, {foolish Merodach.) son and suc-
cessor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. He first go--
verned the Iringdom during the indisposition of his father ;
but after seven years, the old king, having recovered his
understanding, re-ascended the throne, and Evil Jlerodach,
as some think, was imprisoned by him. In this confine-
ment, he contracted an acquaintance and friendship with
Jehoiakim, king of Judah, so that immediately after the
king's death, Evil Merodach, succeeding him, delivered
Jehoialrim out of prison, and placed him above all the
other kings, who were captives at Babylon. Evil Blero-
dach reigned but one year, according to our chronology,
and was immediately succeeded by his son Belshazzar ; but
according to Josephus and Prideaux, he reigned two years,
and was succeeded by Neriglissar, his sister's husband, then
by Laborosoarchod, and lastly by Belshazzar,^C«/»»'?.
EVIL-SPEAKING; the using language either re-
proachful or untrue respecting others, and thereby injur-
ing them. It is an express command of Scripture, " to
speak evil of no man." Titus 3: 2. James 4: 11. By
which, however, we are not to understand that there are
no occasions on which we are at liberty to speak of others
that which may be considered as evil. 1. Persons in the
administration of justice may speak words which in pri-
vate intercourse would be reproachful. 2. God's minis-
ters may inveigh against vice -nith sharpness and severi-
ty, both privately and publicly. Is. 58: 1. Tit. 1: 13. 3.
Private persons may reprove others when they commit
sin. Lev. 19: 17. 4. Some vehemence of speech may
be used in defence of truth, and impugning errors of bad
consequence. Jude 3. 5. It may be necessary, upon
some emergent occasions, with some heat of language,
to express disapprobation of notorious wickedness. Acts
6: 23. Yet, in all these, the greatest equity, moderation,
and candor should be used ; and we should take care, 1.
Never to speak in severe terms without reasonable w-ar-
rant or apparent just cause. 2. Nor beyond measure.
3. Nor out of bad principles or -i^Tong ends ; from ill will^
contempt, revenge, env}', to compass our own ends ; from
wantonness or negligence, but from pure charity for the
good of those to whom, or of whom, -we speak.
This is an evil, however, which greatly abounds, and
which is not sufficiently watched against ; for it is not
when -w'e openly speak evil of others only that we are
guilty, but even in speaking what is true, we are in dan-
ger of speaking evil of others. There is sometimes a
malignant pleasure manifested ; a studious recollection
of every thing that can be brought forward ; a delight in
hearing any thing spoken against others ; a secret rejoic-
ing in knowing that another's fall will be an occasion of
our rise. All this is base to an extreme.
The impropriety and sinfulness of evil-speaking will
appear, if we consider, 1. That it is entirely opposite to
the whole tenor of the Christian religion. 2. Expressly
condemned and prohibited as e-vil. I's. 64: 3. James 4:
11. 3. No practice hath more severe punishments de-
nounced against it. 1 Cor. 5: 11. 1 Cor. 6: 10. 4. It is
an e-vidence of a weak and distempered mind. 5. It is
even indicative of ill breeding and bad manners, fi. It
is the abhorrence of all wise and good men. Ps. 15: 3.
7. It is exceedingly injurious to society, and inconsistent
■n-ith the relation we bear to each other as Christians.
James 3: 6, 8. It is branded with the epithet of folly.
Prov. 18: 6, 7. 9. It is perverting the design of .speech
10. It is opposite to the example of Christ, whom we pro-
fess to follow. (See Slander.) Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser.
16; Tillotson's Ser. ser. 42 ; Jack's Ser. on Evil Speaking.
— Hend. Bwck.
EWING, (John, D. D.) an eminent American divine
and mathematician, was born in Maryland, in 1732. He
was graduated at the college in Princeton in 1755, an<l
afterwards served as a tutor in that seminary. In 1759-,
he undertook the pastoral charge of the first Presbyterian
church of Philadelphia, which he continued to exercise
until 1773. In 1779, he accepted the station of provost
of the university of Philadelphia, which he filled until his
death. He was elected vice-president of the American
Philosophical Society, and contributed several valuable
memoirs to their transactions. His favorite study from
an early age was mathematics, and his Lectures on Natu-
ral History have obtained considerable reputation. He
died in 1802. — Davenport.
EXALT. Men exalt God when, with care and diligence,
they advance his declarative glory, and praise his excel-
lencies and works. Exod. 15: 2. Ps. 34: 3, and 99: 5, 9.
God exalts Christ in raising him from the dead, receiving
EXA
[ 517
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him up into heaven, and giving all power and judgment
in heaven and earth Into his hand. Acts 3: 33. Anti-
christ exnlls Iiimself above every thing called God : he i;.r-
<rUi himself nbuci: magistrates, pretending to enthrone and
depose them at pleasure ; above angch, presumptuously
requiring them to carry such souls to heaven as he plea-
seth, and in ordering devils to leave the persons of the
pos.sossed ; and above the true God, ia pretending to dis-
pense with his laws, give authority to his word, and go-
vern his church by rules of his own, &c. 2 Thess, 2: 4. —
(See AxTicHKisT.) — Brown.
EXALTATION OF CHRIST, consisted in his rising
again from the dead on the third day, in ascending up
into heaven; in sitting at the right hand of God the Fa-
ther, and in coming to judge the world at the last day.
(See articles Resl'Rrection ; Ascension; Intercession;
and Jl"dgment-T)av.) — Hetiil. Buck.
KXA!\I1XATI0N, (Self.) (See Sei.f-Exashnation.)
EXAJIPLE ; a copy or pattern, in a moral sense, is
either taken for a type, instance, or precedent for our ad-
monition, that we may be cautioned against the faults or
crimes which others have committed, by the bad conse-
quences which have ensued from them ; or example is
taken for a pattern for our imitation, or a model for us to
copy after.
That gooil examphs have a peculiar power above naked
jirecepts to dispose us to the practice of virtue and holi-
ness, may appear by considering, " 1. That they most
clearly express to us the nature of our duties in their
subjects and sensible effects. General precepts form ab-
stract ideas of virtue, but in examples, virtues are most
visible in all their circumstances. — 2. Precepts instruct us
in what things are our duty, but examples assure us that
they are possible. — 3. Examples, by secret and lively
incentive, urge us to imitation. AVe are touched in
another manner by the visible practice of good men,
which reproaches our defects, and obliges us to the same
zeal, which laws, though wise and good, will not effect."
The life of Jesus Christ forms the most beautiful ex-
ample the Christian can imitate. Unlike all others, it
\vas absolutely perfect and uniform, and everj' way ac-
commodated to our present state. In him we behold all
light without a shade, all beauty without a spot, all the
purity of the law, and the excellency of the gospel. Here
v.-e see piety without superstition, and morality without
ostentation ; humility without meanness, and fortitude
■without temerity ; patience without apathy, and compas-
sion without weakness ; zeal without rashness, and bene-
ficence without prodigality. The obligation we are under
to imitate this example arises from duty, relationship,
engagement, interest, and gratitude. (See article Jesus
Christ.)
Those who set bad ezamph.s should consider, 1. That
they are the ministers of the devil's designs to destroy
souls.— 2. That they are acting in direct opposition to
Christ, who came to save, and not to destroy. — 3. That
they are adding to the misery and calamities which are
."Iready in the world. — 4. That the effects of their exam-
]ile may be incalculable on society to the end of time, and
perhaps in eternity ; for who can tell what may be the
conseoucnce of one sin on a family, a nation, or posterity ?
—5. They are acting contrary to the divine command,
an I thus exposing themselves to linal ruin. Massilhu's
S'r., vol. ii. ser. 9, Eng. Trans. ; ClarMs Looking Glass,
ch. 4S ; TiJlotso.'Cs Ser., ser. 189, 190 : Barrow's' Works,
vol. iii. ser. 2 and 3 ; Fiavel's Works,' yo\. i. p. 29, 30;
Mnsmi's Ser., vol. ii. ser. 17 ; Dwight's Theohgij, ser. liv. ;
Christ oirr Ejcnmpfe, bi/ Caroline Fry. — Tiend. Buck.
■ EXARCH ; an oflicer in the Greek church, whose busi-
ness it is to visit the provinces allotted to him, in order to
inform himself of the lives and manners of the clergy ;
take cognizance of ecclesiastical causes ; the manner of
celebrating divine service ; the administration of the sa-
craments, particularly confession ; the observance of the
canons ; mona.stic discipline ; affairs of marriages, di-
vorces, fee. ; but, above all, to take an account of the
s,i»eral revenues which the patriarch receiv'es from seve-
ral churches, and paiticularly as to what regards collect-
ini the same. The exarch, after having enriched himself
in his post, frequently rises to the patriarchate himself.
Emrch is also used, in the Eastern church antiquity, for
a general or su])erior over several monasteries, the same
that we call archimandrite ; being exempted by the patri-
arch of Constantinople from the jurisdiction of the bishop.
— Hend. Buck.
EXCELLENCY; preciousness, surpassing value or
glory, Ps. 62: 4. Job 40: 10. The e.tcellency of God is the
bright, shining, and valuable perfections of his nature,
and the glorious displays thercol', Deut. 33: 26. Isa. 35; 2.
The cxcellcHcij of Christ is in the glorious properties of his
nature, his offices, righteousness, and fulness, Phil. 3: b.
Saints are more excellent than others ; they are united to
Christ, have his righteousness on them, his grace in them,
and their good works fTowing from his i.ndwclling Spirit,
regulated by his law, and directed to his glory as their
end ; and they are more useful, being a blessing in the
land, Prov. 12: 2i'i.— Brown.
EXCISION. (See Excommuxicatio.n.)
EXCLUSION, (Bill of :) a bill proposed about the
close of the reign of Charles II., for excluding the duke
of York, the Icing's brother, from the throne, on accoimt
of his being a papist. — TTnul. Buck.
EXCOIMMUNICATION ; a penalty, or censure, where-
by persons who are guilty of any notorious crime or
offence, are separated from the communion of the church,
and deprived of all spiritual advantages.
The Jews expelled from their synagogue such as had
committed anv grievous crime. (Sec John 9: 22. 12: 42.
Iti: 2. and Joseph. Antiq. Jud., lib. 9, cap. 22, and lib. 1(5,
cap. 2.) Godwyn, in his Moses and Aaron, distinguishes
three degrees or kinds of excommunication among the
Jews. The first he finds intimated in John 9: 22. the
second in 1 Cor. 5; 5. and the third in 1 Cor. 16: 22.
Excomnmnication is founded upon a natural right
which all societies have of excluding out of their body
such as violate the laws thereof, and it was originally
instituted by our Lord (Matt. 18: 1 Cor. 5: &c.) for pre-
serving the purity of the church; but ambitious ecclesias-
tics converted it b)' degrees into an engine for promoting
their own power, and inflicted it on the most frivolous
occasions. Let the following facts speak :
The power of excommunication in the middle ages
v.'as lodged, contrary to Scripture, in the hands of the
clergy, who distinguished it into the greater and less.
The iess consisted in excluding persons from the partici-
pation of the eucharist, and the prayers of the faithful ;
but they were not expelled the church. The greater ex-
communication consisted in absolute and entire .seclusion
from the church, and the parlicipation of all its rites;
notice of which was given by circular letters to the most
eminent churches all over the world, that they might all
confirm this act of discipline, by refusing to admit the
delinquent to their communion. The consequences were
very terrible. The person so excommunicated was
avoided in all civil commerce and outward conversation.
No one was to receive him into his house, nor eat at the
same table with him ; and, when dead, he was denied the
solemn rites of burial.
The Romish pontifical takes notice of three kinds of
excommunication. 1. The minor, incurred by those who
have any correspondence with an excommunicated per-
son.— 2. The major, which falls upon those who disobey
the commands of the holy see, or refuse to submit to
certain points of discipline ; in consequence of which they
are excluded from the church militant and triumphant,
and delivered over to the devil a:id his angels. — 3. Ana-
thema, which is properly that pronounced by the pope
against heretical princes and coimtries. In former ages,
these papal fulminations were most terrible things ; but
latterly they were fonnidable to none but a few petty
states of Italy. The latest instance of the exco-nmunica-
tion of a sovereign was that of Napoleon, by Pius VII.,
in 1S09.
Excommunication, in the Greek church, cuts off the
offender from all commtinion M-ith the three hundred and
eighteen fathers of the first council of Nice, and with the
saints ; consigns him over to the devil and the traitor
Judas, and condemns his body to remain after death as
hard as a flint or piece of steel, unless he humble himself,
and make atonement for his sins by a sincere repentance.
EXE
51S ]
E XI
The form abounds with dreadful imprecations ; and the
Greeks assert, that, if a person dies excommunicated, the
devil enters into the lifeless corpse ; and, therefore, in
order to prevent it, the relations of the deceased cut his
body in pieces and boil them in wine. It is a custom with
the patriarch of Jerusalem annually to excommunicate
the pope and the church of Rome ; on which occasion,
together with a great deal of idle ceremony, he drives a
nail into the ground with a hammer, as a mark of male-
diction.
The causes of excommunication in the church of Eng-
land are, contempt of the bishops' court, heresy, neglect
of public worship and the sacraments, incoDtinency, adul-
tery, simony, A:c. It is described to be two-fold ; the less
is an ecclesiastical censure, excluding the party from the
participation of tlie sacrament ; the greater proceeds far-
ther, and excludes him not only from these, but from the
coinpany of all Christians ; but il the judge of any spiri-
tual court excommunicates a man for a cause of which he
ha? not the legal cognizance, the party may have an
action against hiur at common law, and he is also liable
to be indicted at the suit of the king.
Excommunication, in the church of Scotland, consists
only in an exclusion of openly profane and immoral per-
sons from baptism and the Lord's supper ; bnt is seldom
publicly denounced, as, indeed, such persons generally
exclude themselves from the latter ordinance at least ;
but it is attended with no civil incapacity whatever.
Among the Independents, Congregationalists and Bap-
lists, there has been a return to primitive simplicity.
Among them, the persons who are or should be excommu-
nicated, are such as are quarrelsome and litigious, (Gal.
5: 12.) such as desert their privileges, withdraw- them-
selves from the ordinances of God, and forsake his
people, (Jude 19.) such as are irregular and immoral in
their lives, railers, drunkards, extortioners, fornicators,
and covetous, Eph. 5: 5. 1 Cor. 5: II. In the United
States, these simple principles of church discipline are
very generally followed by all evangelical denominations.
" The scriptural exclusion of a person from any Chris-
tian church does not affect his temporal estate and civil
afiairs ; it does not subject him to fines or imprisonments ;
It interferes not with the business of a civil magistrate ;
it makes no change in the natural and civil relations
between husbands and wives, parents and children, mas-
ters and servants ; neither does it deprive a man of the
liberty of attending public worship ; it removes him, how-
ever, from the communion of the church, and the privileges
dependent on it : this is done that he may be ashamed
0-' his sin, and be brought to repentance ; that the honor
of Christ may be vindicated, and that stumbling-blocks
may be removed out of the way."
Though the act of exclusion be not performed exactly
in the same manner in every church, yet (according to
the Congregational plan) the power of excision lies in the
church itself. The officers take the sense of the members
assembled together ; and after the matter has been pro-
perly investigated, and all necessary steps taken to re-
claim the offender, the church proceeds to the actual ex-
clusion of the person from among them, by signifying
their judgment or opinion that the person is ttnworthy of
a place in God's house. In the conclusion of this article,
however, we must add, that loo great caution cannot be
observed in procedures of this kind; every thing should
be done with the greatest meekness, deliberation, prayer,
and a deep sense of our own unworthiness ; with a com-
passion for the offender, and a fixed design of embracing
every opportunity of doing him good, by reproving, in-
structing, and, if possible, restoring him to the enjoyment
of the privileges he has forfeited by his conduct.' (See
Ch0rch ; and Discipline.) — Hend. Buck.
EXCUSATI ; a term formerly used to denote slaves,
who flying to any church for sanctuary, were excused and
pardoned by their masters. — Hend. Buck.
EXEGESIS, or Expositio.x ; the practical part of the
science of Hermeneutics, or the art of carrying its prin-
ciples and rules into execution. (See Hermeneutics.) —
Hend. Buck.
EXERCISE. To exercise one's self, to have a con-
leience void of offence, is to be at all thought, care, and
pains to act up to the rule of God's law. Acts 24: 16.
To exercise out's self unto godliness is, with the utmost
earnestness and activity, to live by faith on Christ as our
righteousness and strength ; and, in so doing, habitually
to exert all our powers, and improve our time, opportuni-
ties and advanta*res to seek after and promote our fellow-
ship with God, and conform.ity to him in thoughts, words,
and actions, 1 Tim. 4: 7. To be exercised by trouble is
to be much afflicted therewith, and led out to a proper im-
provement of it, Heb. 12: 11. Having the senses exer-
cised to discern good and evil, is to have the powers of the
soul carefully and frequently employed till they become
skilful in distinguishing the difference between right and
■wrong, sound and unsound reasoning. Heb. 5: 14. — Bniwn.
EXHORTATION ; the act of laying such motives be-
fore a person as may excite him to the performance of any
duty. It difiers only from suasion, in that the latter prin-
cipally endeavors to convince the understanding, and the
former to work on the affections. It is considered as a
great branch of preaching, though not confined to that,
as a man may exhort, though he do not preach ; though a
man can hardly be said to preach, if he do not exhort.
There are some, who, believing the inabilit)' of man to do
any thing good, cannot reconcile the idea of exhorting
men to duty, it being, as they suppose, a contradiction to
address men who have no power to act of themselves.
But they forget. 1. That the great Author of our being
has appointed this as a means for inclining the heart to
himself, Isa. 55: 6, 7. Luke 14: 17, 23.-2. That they
who thus address men, do not suppose that there is virtue
in the exhortation itself to effect the end, but that its
energy depends on God alone, 1 Cor. 15: 10. — 3. That
the Scriptures enjoin ministers to exhort men, that is, to
rouse them to duty, by proposing suitable motives, Isa.
58: 1. 1 Tim. 0: 2. Heb. 3: 13. Rom. 12: 8.-4. That it
was the constant practice of prophets, apostles, and Christ
himself. Isa. 1: 17. Jer. 4: 14. Ezek. 37: Luke 13: 3.
3: 18. Acts 11: 23. "The express words," says a good
divine, " of scriptural invitations, exhortations, and pro-
mises, prove more effectual to encourage those who are
ready to give up their hopes, than all the consolatory topics
that can possibly be substituted in their place. It is,
therefore, much to be lamented that pious men, by adher-
ing to a supposed systematical exactness of expression,
.should clog their addresses to sinners with exceptions and
limitations, which the Spirit of God did not see good to
insert. They will not say that the omission was an over-
sight in the inspired writers ; or admit the thought lor
a moment, that they can improve on their plan ; why then
cannot they be satisfied to ' speak according to the oracles
of God,' without affecting a more entire consistency ?
Great mischief has thus been done by very different de-
scriptions of men, who undesignedly concur in giving
Satan an occasion of suggesting to the trembUng inquirer
that perhaps he may persevere in asking, seeking, and
knocking, with the greatest earnestness and importunity,
and yet finally be cast away ."^//f «/?. Buck.
EXISTENCE OF GOD. The methods usually follow-
ed in proving the existence of God are two ; the first
called argiimentum ti priori, which begiuLing .viih .lie
cause descends to the effect ; the other, argvmenlum u pos-
teriori, which, from a consideration of the effect, ascends
to the cause. The former of these hath been particula;ly
labored by Dr. Samuel Clarke ; but after all he hi.s said,
the possibility of any one's being convinced ly It hath
been questioned. The most general proofs are the fol-
lowing : 1. "All nations, heathens, Jews, Mahometans,
and Christians, harmoniously consent that there is a God
who created, preserves, and governs all things. To this
it has been objected, that there have been, at different
times and places, men who were atheists, and deniers of
a God. But these have been so few, and by their opinions
have shown that they rather denied the particular provi-
dence than the existence of God, that it can hardly be
said to be an exception to the argument stated. And even
if men were bold enough to assert it, it would not be an
absolute proof that they really beUeved what they said,
since it might proceed from a wish that there were no
God to whom they must be accountable for their sin,
rather than a belief of it, Ps. 14: 1. It has also been
E XI
[519 ]
EXO
objected, that whole nations have been found in Africa
and America that have no notion of a Deity ■ but this is
what has never been proved ; on the contrary, upon accu-
rate inspection, even the most stupid Hottentots, Salda-
niajis, Greenlander.5, Kamtschatkans, and savage Ameri-
cans, are found to have some idea of a God."
2. It is argued from the law and light of nature, or
from the general readiness of mankind arising from their
intellectual constitution, to acquiesce in the truth of his
existence, whenever tliey understand the terms in which
it is expressed. Whence could this proceed, even in the
mind,'; of such whose affections and carnal interests dis-
pose them to believe the contrary, if there were no im-
pression made by the contemplation of nature on their
hearts ? Admitting that there are no innate ideas in the
minds of men, an inspired apostle assures us that even
the gentiles, destitute of the law of Moses, have the
'work of the law written in their hearts,' Rom. 2: 15.
3. " The works of creation plainly demonstrate the
existence of a God. The innumerable alterations and
manifest dependence, every where observable in the
•world, prove that the things which exist in it neither are
nor could be from eternity. It is self-evident that they
never could form themselves out of nothing, or in any of
their respective forms ; and that chance, being nothing
but the want of design, never did nor could form or put
into order any thing ; far less such a marvellous and well-
connected system as our world is. Though we should
absurdly fancy matter to be eternal, yet" it could not
change its own form, or produce life or rea.son. IMore-
over, when we consider the diversified and wonderful
forms of creatures in the world, and how exactly those
forms and stations correspond with their respective ends
and uses ; when we consider the marvellous and exact
machinery, form and motions of our own bodies ; and
especially when we consider the powers of our soul, its
desires after an infinite good, and its close union with,
and incomprehensible operations on our bodies, we are
obliged to admit a Creator of infinite wisdom, power and
goodness.
4. " It is argued from the support and government of
the world. Who can consider the motions of the heavenly
luminaries, exactly calculated for the greatest advantage
to our earth, and its inhabitants ; the exact balancing and
regulating of the meteors, winds, rain, snow, hail, vapor,
thunder, and the like ; the regular and never-failing re-
turn of summer and winter, seed-time and harvest, day
and night ; the astonishing and diversified formation of
vegetables; the propagation of herbs, almost every where,
that are most effectual to heal the distempers of animal
bodies in that place ; the almost infinite diversification of
animals and vegetables, and their pertinents, that not-
withstanding an amazing similarity, not any two are
exactly alike, but every form, member, or even feather or
hair of animals, and every pile of grass, stalk of corn,
herb, leaf, tree, berry, or other fruit, hath something pe-
culiar to itself; the making of animals so sagaciously to
prepare their lodgings, defend themselves, provide for
their health, produce and protect and procure food for
their young ; the direction of fishes and fowls to and in
such marvellous and long peregrinations at such seasons,
and to such places, as best correspond with their own
preservation and the benefit of mankind ; the stationing
of brule animals by sea or land, at less or greater dis-
tances, as are most suited to the safety, subsistence, or
comfort of mankind, and preventing the increase of pro-
lific animals, and making the less fruitful ones, which are
used, exceedingly to abound ; the so diversifying the
countenances, voices, and hand-writings of men, as best
secures and promotes their social advantages ; the holding
of so equal a balance between males and females, while
the number of males, whose lives are peculiarly endan-
gered in war, navigation, ire, is generally greatest •
the prolonging of men's lives, when the world needed to
be peopled, and now shortening them when that necessity
hath ceased to exist ; the almost universal provision of
food, raiment, medicine, fuel, 4:c., answerable to the
nature of particular places, cold or hot, moist or dry ; the
management of human affairs relative to societies, go-
vernment, peace, war, trade, fcc, in a manner different
from, and contrary to, the carnal policy of those con-
cerned ; and especially the strangely similar but diver-
sified erection, preservation, and government of the
Jewi.sh and Christian churches ; who, I say, can consider
all these things, and not acknowledge the existence of a
wise, merciful, and good God, who governs the world
and every thing in it? '
5. '■' It is proved from the miraculous events which
have happeneil in the world ; such as the overfiowing of
the earth by a flood; the confusion of languages; the
burning of Sodom and the cities about by fire from hea-
ven ; the plagues of Egypt ; the dividing of the Red sea ;
raining manna from heaven, and bringing streams of
water from flinty rocks ; the stopping of the course of the
sun, itc. kc.
fi. " His existence no less clearly appears from the
exact fulfilment of so many and so particularly circum-
stantiated predictions, published long before the event
took place. It is impossible that these predictions, v/h'ich
were so exactly fulfilled in their respective periods, and .
of the fulfilment of which there are at present thousands
of demonstrative and sensible documents in the world,
could proceed from any but an all-seeing and infinitely-
wise God.
7. " The existence of God further appears from the
fearful punishments which have been inflicted upon per-
sons, and especially upon nations, when their immoralities
became excessive, and that by very unexpected means
and instruments ; as in the drowning of the old world ;
destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah ; plagues of Pharaoh
and his servants; overthrow of Sennacherib and his
army ; miseries and ruin of the Canaanites, Jews, Syri-
ans, Assyrians, Chaldeans, Persians, Egyptians, Greeks,
Romans, Saracens, Tartars, and others.
8. " Lastly, the existence of God may be argued from
the terror and dread which wound the consciences of men,
when guilty of crimes which otlier men do not know, or
are not able to punish or restrain, as in the case of Cali-
gula,. Nero, and Domitian, the Roman emperors ; and
this while they earnestly labor to persuade themselves or
others that there is no God. Hence their being afraid of
thunder, or to be left alone in the dark," ifcc.
Bloses began his writings by supposing the being of a
God; he did not attempt to explain it. Although many
of the inspired writers asserted his existence, and to dis-
countenance idolatry, pleaded for his perfections, yet no
one of them ever pretended to explain the manner of his
being. Our duty is clear. We are not commanded nor
expected to understand it. All that is required is this :—
"He that comelh to God must believe that he is, and that
he is a rewarder of them that diligently seek him." Heb.
11: 6. See Gill's Body of Divinity, b. i."; Chanwck's Work,
vol. 1. ; Ridglei/s Div., ques. 2. ; Brown's Si/s. of Div. ;
Pierre's Studies of Nature ; Sturm's Reflections ; Sped, de la
Nat. ; Bonnet's Philosophical Researches ; Paley and Gis-
home's Natural Theology ; Dwight's Theology ; the Bridge- .
water Treatises on the Existence, "Power, Wisdom, and Good-
ness of God; and writers enumerated under the article
Atheis.1i. — Hend. Buck.
EXODUS, (from ex, out, and odos, a way ;) the name
of the second book of Moses, and is so called in the Greek
version because it relates to the departure of the Israel-
ites out of Egypt. It comprehends the hislorv of about a
hundred and forty-five years ; and the principal events
contained in it are, the bondage of the Israelites in Eg)-pt,
and their miraculous deliverance by the hand of i^Ioses ;
their entrance into the wilderness of Sinai ; the promulga-
tion of the law, and the building of the tabernacle. (See
Pentateuch.)— IFfl/M;;.
EXORCISM ; the expelling of devils from persons pos-
sessed, by means of conjurations and prayers. The Jews
made great pretences to this power. Josephus tells seve-
ral wonderful tales of the great success of several exor-
cists. One Eleazer, a Jew, cured raanv demoniacs, he
says, b}- means of a root set in a ring. ' This root, with
the ring, was held under the patient's nose, and the devii
was forthwith evacuated. The most part of conjurors of
this class were impostors, each pretending to a secret
nostrum or charm which was an overmatch for the deril
Our Savior communicated to his disciples a real power
EXP
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EXP
over demons, or at least over the diseases said to be occa-
sioned by demons. (See Demoniac.)
Exorcism makes a considerable part of the superstition
of the church of Rome, the ritual of which forbids the exor-
cising any person without the bishop's leave. The ceremony
is performed at the lower end of the church, towards the
door. The exorcist first signs the possessed person with the
sign of the cross, makes him kneel, and sprinkles him
with holy water. Then follow the litanies, psalms, and
prayer ; after which the exorcist asks the devil his name,
and adjiitcs him by the mysteries of the Christian religion
not to afflict the person any more ; then, laying his right
hand on the demoniac's head, he repeats the form of ex-
orcism, which is this : " I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in
the name of Jesus Christ ; tremble, 0 Satan, thou enemy
of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who hast brought death
into the world ; who hast deprived men of life, and hast
rebelled against justice ; thou seducer of mankind, thou
root of all evil, thou source of avarice, discord, and envy."
The Romanists likewise exorcise houses and other places
supposed to be haunted by unclean spirits ; and the cere-
mony is nmch the same with that for a person possessed.
— Hend. Buck.
EXORDIUM. (See Sekmon.)
EXPEDIENCY ; the fitness or propriety of means to
the attainment of an end. On expediency as the founda-
tion and rule of morals, see Viviglit's Theology, ser.
xcix. ; and Complete Works of Eobert Hal!, vol. i. 96. ii.
295. (See Obligation.)— /fe«(Z. Buck.
EXPERIENCE ; knowledge accjuired by sensation,
consciousness, or trial, without a teacher. It consists in
the ideas of things we have seen and felt, and which the
judgment has reflected on, to form for itself a rule or
method of proceeding for the future.
Christian experience is that knowledge of the natiu'e and
power of Christianity, which is acquired by trial. Noth-
ing is more conunon than to ridicule and despise what is
called religious experience as mere enthusiasm. But if
religion consist essentially in love to God and man and
divine truths, we would ask how it can possibly exist
without experience. We are convinced of, and admit
the propriety of the tejin, when applied to those branches
of science which are ncrt founded on speculation or con-
jecture, but on sensible trial. Why, then, should it be
rejected, when applied to religion? It is evident, that
however beautiful religion may be in theory, its excellen-
cy and energy are only truly known and displayed as ex-
perienced. A system believed, or a mind merely inform-
ed, will produce little good except the heart be affected,
and we feel its influence. To experience, then, the re-
ligion of Christ, v.e must not only be acquainted with its
theory, but enjoy its power ; tranquillizing the conscience,
subduing our corraptions, animating our aflectious, and
exciting us to duty. Hence the Scripture calls experience
tasti7ig, Ps. 34: 8, feeling, &c. ; 1 Thess. 2: 13, &c.
That our experience is always absolutely pure in the
present state, cannot be expected. But if it be genuine,
it will not fail, through the exercise of Christian diligence,
10 become more and more pure. The main point there-
ibre is to guard well against mistaking the illusions of
the imagination, for the operation of divine truth on the
conscience and the heart, 1 Thess. 2: 13. (See Affections.)
The most valuable tilings are most apt to be counter-
feited. But Christian experience may be considered as
gunuine, — 1. When it accords with the revelation of God's
mind and will, or what he has revealed in his word.
Any thing contrary to this, however pleasing, cannot be
sound, or produced by divine agency. 2. When its ten-
dency is to promote humility in us ; that experience by
which we learn our own weakness, and to subdue pride,
must be good. 3. When it teaches us to bear with oth-
ers, and to do them good. 4. When it operates so as to
excite us to be ardent in our devotion, and sincere in our
regard in God. A powerful experience of the divine fa-
vor will lead us to acknowledge the same, and to mani-
fest our gratitude both by constant praise and genuine piety.
Christian experience, however, may be abused. There
are some good people who certainly have felt and enjoyed
the power of religion, and yet have not always acted
with prudence as to their experience. 1. Some boast of
their experiences, or talk of them as if they were very
extraordinary ; whereas, were they acquainted with oth-
ers, they would find it not so. That a man may make
mention of his experience, is no way improper, but often
useful ; but to hear persons always talking of themselves,
seems to indicate a spirit of pride, and that their experi-
ence cannot be very deep. 2. Another abuse of experi-
ence is, dependence on it. We ought certainly to take
encouragement from past circumstances, if we can ; but
if we are so dependent on past experience as to preclude
present exertions, or always expect to have exactly the
same assistance in every state, trial, or ordinance, we
shall be disappointed. God has wisely ordered it, that
though he never will leave his people, yet he will suspend
or bestow comfort in his own time ; for this very reason,
that we may rely on him, and not on the circumstance or
ordinance. 3. It is an abuse of experience, when intro-
duced at improper times, and before improper persons. It
is true, we ought never to be ashamed of our profession ;
but to be always talking to irreligious people respecting
experience, which they know nothing of, is, as our Savioi?
says, casting pearls before swine. Bnnyan's Pilgrim's
Progress ; Buck's Treatise on Experience ; Gvrnall's Chris-
tian Armour ; Dr. Owen on Psalm exxx.; Edrcards on the
Affections, and his Thoughts on the Revival of Religion in
Nero England ; Borney's Contemplations. — Hend. Buck.
EXPERIENCE MEETINGS, are assemblies of re-
ligious persons, who meet for the purpose of relating
their experience to each other. They are sometimes called
covenant and conference meetings. It has been doubted
by some, whether these meetings are of any great utility ;
and whether they do not, in some measure, force people
to say more than is true, and pufi' up those with pride
who are able to communicate their ideas with facility ;
but to this it has been answered, 1 . That the abuse of a
thing is no proof of the evil of it. 2. That the most emi-
nent saints of old did not neglect this practice, Ps. 56: 16.'
Mai. 3: 16. 3. That by a wise and prudent relation of
experience, the Christian is led to see that others have
participated of tbe same joys and sorrows with himself;
he is excited to love and serve God ; and animated to
perseverance in duty, by finding that others, of like
passions with himself, are zealous, active, and diligent.
4. That the Scriptures seem to enjoin the frequent inter-
course of Christians for the purpose of strengthening
each other in religious services, Heb. 10: 24, 25. Col. 3:
16. Matt. 18: 20. (See Conference.)— Hem/. Buck.
EXPERIMENTAL RELIGION ; the connecting
link between doctrinal and practical religion. All expe-
rimental religion bears some relation to divine truth. If
taken in the most general sense for the exercise of spi-
ritual or holy affections, trnth, especially evangelical truth,
from its interesting nature, when embraced in the spirit,
is here the cause, and these exercises are its immediate
effects. 1 Thess. 2: 13. Heb. 4: 12. Or if taken more
particularly for that proof or trial whicli we have of di-
vine things as we pass through the vicissitudes of life, it
is still, the truth respecting those divine things which is
the object of our experience. Rom. 5: 1 — 5. John 16:
33. James 1: 3, 12. 2 Cor. 1: 5. Heb. 12: 7—11. 10: 32
— 39. Nothing can be more obvious than that there are
manifold truths taught us in the Scriptures, to which
we give our assent, and in this sense may be said to
know them ; but we do not know them experimentally
and thoroughly, till we have proved them true by having
made the trial. Of this kind are those which relate to
the corruption, weakness, and blindness of the human
heart — the evil of sin — the preciousness of the Savior —
the faithfulness and mercy of God — the sweetness of his
word — his all-sufficiency as our portion and happiness,
and the like. On the intimate connexion between doctri-
nal, experimental, and practical religion, the reader will
find many valuable thoughts in Fuller's Works, vol. i. p.
626. (See Experience.)
EXPIATION ; a religious act by which satisfaction or
atonement is made for some crime, the guilt removed,
and the obligation to punishment cancelled. Lev. 16. (See
Atonement ; Propiti.\tion.) — Hend. Buck. ,
EXPOSITION ; the opening up and intei-preting larger
portions of Scripture in public discourses. In Scotland,
EYE
[521 ]
EZE
where the practice has long obtained, and stiU extensively people fat, and make their ears heavy and shut their f.vp<t
prevails, it is caUed hcluring. While the selection of lest they see with their eyes, and hear vi-ith their ears
striking and insulated texts, which furnish abundant and understand with their heart, and convert and be
matter for sermons, are calculated, when judiciously healed." (See Blindness.)
treated, to rouse and fix attention, and the discourses 4. Females in the East used to paint their eves or
founded on them may be more useful to general hearers, rather their eyelids. As large black eyes were thought
especially the careless and unconverted, expository dis- the finest, the women, to increase their lustre and to
courses furnish peculiar advantages as it regards the en- make them appear larger, tinged the corner of their eye-
largement of the Christian's views of divine truth, and Uds with the impalpable powder of antimony or of black
his consequent advancement in the ways of God. By lead. This was supposed also to give the eyes a brilliau-
judiciously expounding the Scriptures, a minister may cy and humidity, which rendered them either sparklin"
hope to give a clearer exhibition of the great principles or languishing, as suited the various passions. The
ot religion in their mutual connexions and diversified method of performing this among the women in the east-
beanngs, than could otheri;(nse be done. He will have a ern countries at the present day, as described by Russel,
better opportunity of unfoldmg the true meaning of those is by a cylindrical piece of silver or ivory, about two
parts of tlie Bible which are difficult— of bringing a vast inches long, made very smooth, and about the size of a
variety ot topics before his hearers, which may be of the common probe ; this is wet with water, and then dipped
utmost importance to them, but which he could not so into a powder finely levigated, made from what appears
conveniently have treated in preaching from detached to be a rich lead ore, and applied to the eye ; the hds are
texts— of exhibiting the doctnnes and duties of Christiani- closed upon it while it is drawn through between them
ty in their relative positions— of successfully counteract- This blacks the inside, and leaves a narrow black rim all
ing and arresting the progress of dangerous errors— and round the edge. That this was the method practised by
of storing the minds of his people with correct and influen- the Hebrew women, we infer from Isaiah 3: 22, where
tial views of divine things. (See Doddridge on Preaching.) the prophet, in his enumeration of the articles which com-
Siich a mode of public instruction cannot but prove of posed the toilets of the dehcate and luxurious daughters
great use to a minister's own mind, by rousing his ener- of Zion, mentions " the wimples and the crisping pins "
gies, habituating him to close and accurate research, and or bodkins for painting the eyes. The satirist Juvenal
saving him much of that indecision in the choice of texts describes the same practice :—
which is so much lamented. Unfortunately there exists
a strong prejudice against the introduction of expository Z':;^;:^ZuuS^;£X^^:i^
discourses m the pulpit ; but where it has been effected AttolUnfaculos. "^ ^ ^ Sat. ri.
with judgment and prudence, it has almost invariably '■ These wiiti a liring-pin tlieir eyebrows dye,
been found that the great bulk of hearers have soon be- Till the full arch give lustre to the eye."
come decidedly favorable to it. — Hend. Buck. Gifpoed.
EXTORTION ; the act or practice of gaining or ac- 5. The passage. Psalm 123: 2. derives a striking
quiring any thing by force. Extortioners are included in illustration from the customs of the East. Maundrell
the list of those who are excluded from the kingdom of observes, that the servants in Turkey stand round their
heaven, 1 Cor. 10: 6. — Hend. Buck. master and his guests in deep silence and perfect order,
EXTREME UXCTIOX; one of the sacraments of the watching every motion. Pococke savs, that in Egj-pt,
Romish church, the fifth in order, administered to people the master commands them by signs". De la Motraye
dangerously sick, by anointing them with holy oil, and says, that the eastern ladies are waited on even at the
praying over tiiam.—Hend. Buck. least wink of the eye, or motion of the fingers, and that
EYE ; the organ of sight. The eye of the soul, in the in a manner not perceptible to strangers. — (Vatson.
moral sense, is the intention. By an " evil e)'e" is usually EZEKIEL, like his contemporary Jeremiah, was of
meant envj', jealousy, grudging, ill-judged parsimony, the sacerdotal race. He was carried away captive to
To keep any thing as the apple, or pupil of the eye, is to Babylon with Jehoiachim, king of Judah, B. C. 598, and
preserve it with particular care, Deut. 32: 10. " He that was placed -nith many others of his counUymen upon
toucheth you, toucheth the apple of mine eye," (Zech. 2: the river Chebar in Mesopotamia, where he was favored
8.) attempts to injure me in the tenderest part, which with the divine revelations contained in his book. He
men instinctively defend. Eye-service is peculiar to slaves, began to prophesy in the fifth year of his captivity, and
who are governed by fear only, and is to be carefully is supposed to have prophesied about twenty-one years,
guarded against by Christians, who ought to serve from The boldness with which he censured the idolatr)- and
a principle of duty and affection, Eph. 6: 6. Col. 3: 22. wickedness of his countrymen is said to have cost him
The lust of the eyes, or the desire of the eyes, comprehends his life ; but his memory was greatly revered, not only by
every thing that curiosity, vanity, &;c., seek after ; every the Jews, but also by the Medes and' Persians,
thing that the eyes can present to men given up to their The book which bears his name may be considered
passions. 1 John 2: 16. "Cast ye away every man the under the five following divisions: the first three chap-
abommation of his eyes," (Ezek. 20: 7, 8.) let not idols ters contain the glorious appearance of God to the pro-
seduce you. phet, and his solemn appointment to his office, with in-
'-. We read, (Matt. 6: 22.) " the light of the body is structions and encouragements for the discharge of it.
the eye; if therefore thine eye be single," (o^/ohs) "thy From the fourth to the twenty-fourth chapter inclusive,
whole body shall be full of light ; but if thine eye be he describes, under a variety of visions and simihtudes.
evil, thy whole body shall be darkened." In the natural the calamities impending over Judea, and the total de-
eye, il the object of attention be single, and the humors struction of the temple and citv of Jerusalem, by Nebu-
clear, the light will act correctly ; but if there be a divid- chadnezzar, occasionally predicting another period of yet
cd aim, or a film over the cornea, or a cataract, or a skin greater desolation, and more general dispersion. From
between any of the humors, the rays of light will never the beginning of the twenty-fifth to the end of the thirty-
make any distinct impression on the internal seat of second chapter, the prophet foretells the conquest and
sight, the retina. By analogy, therefore, if the moral eye, ruin of many nations and cities, which had insulted the
the intention of the soul, be singly to serve God and to Jews in their affliction ; of the Ammonites, the Moabites,
drawn aside by improper views, and especially if it be ness of man ; and in these prophecies he not only pre-
divided between God and the world, it darkens the under- diets events which were soon to take place, but he also
standing, perverts the conduct, and suflfers a man to be describes the condition of these several countries in the
misled by his unwise and unruly passions. remote periods of the world. From ihe thirty second to
3. The practice of seahng up the eyes, and stupifving Ihe fortieth chapter, he inveighs acainst the accumulated
a criminal with drags, seems to have been contemplated sins of the Jew-s collectively, and the murmuring spirit
by the prophet Isaiah, 44: IS. " Make the heart of this of his captive brethren ■ exhorts lhera«arnestlv to repent
66
FAB
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FAC
of their h5rpocrisy aad wiekedness, upon the assurance
that God will accept sincere repentance ; and comforts
them with promises of approaching deliverance under
Cyrus ; subjoining intimations of some far more glorious,
but distant, redemption under the Blessiah, though the
manner in which it is to be eflecled is deeply involved in
mystery. The last nine chapters contain a remarkable
vision of the structure of a new temple and a new polity,
applicable in the first instance to the return from the Ba-
bylonian captivity, but in its ultimate sense referring to
the glory and prosperity of the universal church of Christ.
It ought also to be observed, that the last twelve chapters
of this book bear a very strong resemblance to the con-
cluding chapters of the Revelation.
The style of this prophet is characterized by bishop
Lowth as bold, vehement, and tragical ; as often worked
up to a kind of tremendous dignity. He is highly para-
bolical, and abounds in figures and metaphorical expres-
sions. He may be compared to the Grecian iEschylus ;
he displays a rough but majestic dignity ; an unpolished
though noble simplicity ; inferior perhaps in originality
and elegance to others of the prophets, but unequalled in
that force and grandeur for which he is particularly cele-
brated. He sometimes emphatically and indignantly re-
peats his sentiments, fully dilates his pictures, and de-
scribes the idolatrous manners of his countrymen under
the strongest and most exaggerated representations that
the license of eastern style would admit. The middle
part of the book is in some measure poetical, and con-
tains even some perfect elegies, though his thoughts are
in general too irregular and uncontrolled to be chained
down to rule, or fettered by language. — ■WalS07t; Home.
EZION-GEBER. (See Elatii.)
EZRA, the author of the book which bears his name,
was of the sacerdotal family, being a direct descendant
from Aaron, and succeeded Zerubbabel in the govern-
ment of Judea. This book begins with the repetition of
the last two verses of the second book of Chronicles, and
carries the Jewish history through a period of seventy-
nine years, commencing from the edict of Cyrus. It is
to be observed, that between the dedication of the temple
and the departure of Ezra, that is, between the sixth and
seventh chapters of this book, there was an interval cf
about fifty-eight years, during which nothing is here re-
lated concerning the Jews, except that, contrary to God's
command, they intermarried with gentiles. This book is
written in Chaldee from the eighth verse of the fourth
chapter to the twenty-seventh verse of the seventh chap-
ter. It is probable that the sacred historian used the
Chaldean language in this part of his work, because it
contains chiefly letters and decrees wTitten in that lan-
guage, the original words of which he might think it
right to record ; and indeed the people, who were recently
returned from the Babylonian captivity, were at least as
familiar with the Chaldee as they were with the Hebrew
tongue.
Till the arrival of Nehemiah, Ezra had the principal
authority in Jerusalem. Josephus says that Ezra was
buried at Jerusalem ; but the Jews believe that he died
in Persia, in a second journey to Artaxerxes. His tomb
is shown there in the city of Zamuza. He is said to have
lived nearly one hundred and twenty years.
Ezra was the restorer and publisher of the holy Scrip-
tures, after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian
captivity. 1. He corrected the errors which had crept
into the existing copies of the sacred writings by thi:
negligence or mistake of transcribers. 2. He collected
all the books of which the holy Scriptures then consisted,
disposed them in their proper order, and settled the canon
of Scripture for his time. 3. He added throughout the
books of his edition what appeared necessary for illustrat-
ing, connecting, or completing them; and of this we have
an instance in the account of the death and burial of
Moses, in the last chapter of Deuteronomy. In this work
he was assisted by the same Spirit by which they were at
first written. 4. He changed the ancient names of seve-
ral places become obsolete, and substituted for them new
names, by which they were at that time called. 5. He
wrote out the whole in the Chaldee character ; that lan-
guage having grown into use after the Babylonish capti-
vity. The Jews have an extraordinary esteem for Ezra,
and say that if the law had not been given by Moses,
Ezra deserved to have been the legislator of the Hebrews.
(See Bible; Canon.) — Watson.
F.
FABIAN ; bishop of Rome, in the middle of the third
century. He was the first person of eminence who felt
the severity of the persecution under the emperor Decius.
On account of Fabian's integrity, the deceased emperor
Philip had committed his treasure to his care. But Decius
not finding so much as his avarice led him to expect, de-
termined to wreak his vengeance on the good bishop.
He was accordingly seized, and beheaded, January 20,
A. D. 250.— Fox.
FABLE ; a fiction, destitute of truth. St. Paul e.\horts
Timothy and Titus to shun profane and Jewish fables,
(1 Tim. 4: 7. Titus 1: 14.) as having a tendency to seduce
men from the truth By these fables some understand
the reveries of the Gnostics ; but the fathers generally,
and after them most of the modern commentators, inter-
pret them of the vain traditions of the Jews ; especially
concerning meats and other things, to be abstained from
as unclean, which our Lord also styles " the doctrines of
men," Matt. 15: 9. This sense of the pnssages is con-
firmed by the context. It includes also heathen tiiythology.
In another sense, the word is taken to signify an apo-
logue, or instructive tale, intended to convey triith under
the concealment of fiction ; as Jotham's fable of the trees,
(Judges 9: 7 — 15.) no doubt by far the oldest fable extant.
(See Parable.)
FABRICIUS, (.Ton.-J Albert, D. D.) one of the most
learned and laborious men of his age, w'as born at Leipsic,
Nov. 11, l(i()3. He lost his parents at ten years of age,
but was sent to study at Quedlimburg ; where, by acci-
dentally reading Barthins' Adversaria, he was inspired
with an incredible ardor for letters. After his return from
Leipsic, he devoted himself seven years to the ancient
authors. He went to Hamburgh in 1693, and spent five
years with Mr. Mayer, dividing his time between preach-
ing and study, till he was chosen professor of eloquence
in that city. In 1719, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel
offered him the first professorship of divinity at Giessen,
and the place of superintendent over the churches of the
Augsburg confession, which he would have accepted, but
the magistrates of Hamburgh augmented his salary for
the sake of keeping him, so that no offer of prefer-
ment could afterwards prevail with him to leave them.
After a life spent in the severest application to benefit
the world, he died at Hamburgh, April 3, 1736, with
the character of the most amiable, as well as learned of
men.
His principal works are Bibliotheca Latino ; BibKotheca
G-raca ; Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti ; BibKographia
Aiitiquaria ; Delectus Argumentorum et Sijllaiiis Scriptorum,
&c. ; Salntaris Lux Eomigrjii, &c. By these, and many
other smaller works, Fabricius has laid the whole learned |
and religious world under the greatest obligations ; since
he has contributed more than perhaps any other man ever
did to abridge the drudgery of scholars. — Middkton, vol.
iv. 258.
FACE. Moses begs of God to show him his face, or to
manifest his glory ; He replies, " I will make all my •
goodness pass before thee," and I will proclaim my
name ; " but my face thou canst not see ; for there shall
no man see it and live !" The persuasion w-as very pre-
valent in the world, that no man could support the sight
of Deity, Genesis 16: 13. 32: 30. Exodus 20: 19. 24: 11.
FAI
[ 323 ]
FAI
Judges 6: 22, 23. We read that God spake mouth to
mouth with Moses, even apparently, and not in dark
speeches. Numbers 12: 8. " The Canaanites have heard
that thou art among thy people, and seen lace to face,"
Numbers 11: 14. God talked with the Hebrews "face
to face out of the midst of the fire," Deut. 5: 4. All the.se
places are to be understood simply, that God so manifest-
ed himself to the Israelites, that he made them hear his
voice as distinctly as if he had appeared to them face to
face ; but not that they actually saw more than the cloud
of glory which marked his presence.
The face of God denotes sometimes the frown of his
anger : " The face of the Lord is against them that do
evil." " As wax melteth before the fire, so let the wicked
perish before the face of God," Psalm 68: 2. To turn the
face upon any one, especially when connected with the
light or shining of the countenance, i. e. the beaming
smile, are beautiful representations of the divine kindness
and condescension. To regard the face of any one, is to
have respect of persons, Prov. 28: 21.
The apostle, speaking of the difference between our
knowledge of God here and in heaven, says, " Now we
see through a glass darkly ; but then face to face," (1 Cor.
13: 12.) by which he shows the vast difference between
our seeing or knowing God and divine things by an im-
perfect revelation to faith, and by direct vision. This ob-
servation of the apostle is rendered the more striking,
when it is recollected that the Roman glass was not fully
transparent as ours, but dull and clouded. Of this, spe-
cimens may be seen in the glass vessels taken out of
Pompeii. — WaUoii.
FAGIUS, (Pactlus,) in the German language called
Buchlin, a learned divine, was born at Reinzabern, in
1504. His studies were pursued at Heidelberg and Stras-
burgh. At the latter place he was obliged to have re-
course to teaching others to support himself He became
a great proficient in Hebrew, a branch of learning which
led him into close acquaintance with Capito, Hedio, Bucer,
Zellius, and other learned reformers. In 1537, he entered
the sacred ministry, and became a sedulous preacher.
His Hebrew learning was often employed in confutation
of the Jews, so that it was said of him, that " from Paul
to Paul, no one had appeared like this Paul."
In 1541, when the plague began to rage in Isna, he
publicly rebuked those of the wealthy classes, who forsook
the place without making provision for the relief of the
poor, and himself visited the sick in person, and adminis-
tered spiritual comfort to them day and night, and yet
escaped the distemper. Capito having fallen a victim at
Strasburgh, the senate of that city called Fagius to suc-
ceed him, which he did, until Frederic II. the elector
j palatine, intending a reformation in his churches, called
him to Heidelberg, and made him professor there. The
emperor however, prevailing against the elector, pi«t a
stop to the reformation. Fagius, however, published
many books for the promotion of Hebrew learning, which
■were highly approved, even by Scaliger, who confessed
him to be the first Hebrew scholar of his time among
Christians. He was also an excellent orator as well as
scholar.
His father djdng in 1548, and persecution being .stirred
up against him by the papists, he accepted the invitation
of Cranmer, and came over to England with Bucer. It
was intended to settle thein at Cambridge, to carry on to-
gether the translation and illustration of the Scriptures ;
bill this plan was frustrated by their sudden death. Fa-
gius died peacefully at Cambridge, November 13, 1550,
aged 45.
■ His character as a Christian was distinguished for hu-
mility, meekness, fideUty, and affection. " Pray for me,"
said he to his friends in time of persecution ; " I am but a
man, and even Peter fell." — Middhton, vol. i. 260.
FAIL ; to grow weak and inefficient ; to fall short ; to
cease ; to perish. Gen. 47: 16. Ps. 142: 4. God doth
not fail, nor forsake his people ; he alway.s directs, sup-
ports, and protects them, Josh. 1: 6. Promises would
fail if they were not accomplished to their full extent.
Josh. 21: 45. Men's hearts or spirits /«iZ, when they are
exceedingly grieved, discouraged, and filled with fear.
Psalms 40: 12. and 70: 2&.—Bronm.
FAINT; (1.) to lose vigor, courage, activity, and
hope, by reason of hunger, thirst, fear, toil, distress Ps
27: 13. Gal. 6: 9. (2.) To long with such earnestness,
that one is exhausted by the energy of his desires. Ps.
84: 2. My soul faintcth for thy salvation ; I desire it so
intensely, that I sink under the delay of it. Ps. 119: Si.
. — Bromi.
FAIR ; beautiful, lovely. Christ is fairer than the
children of men ; in his divine nature he is infinitely
lovely ; in his human he is transcendently so, it being
that My thing ; and in his whole oflice, relations, ap-
pearance, and works, he is unspeakably glorious, and in
him the perfections of God shine with unmatched lustre
and brightness. The Hebrew word is of a double form, to
mark the astonishing degree of his loveliness. Ps. 45: 2.
— Brown.
FAIR-HAVENS, (Acts 27: 8.) is called by Stephen, the
geographer, " the fair shore." It was, probably, an oj-en
kind of road, not so much a port as a bay, which did not
afford more than good anchorage for a time, on the south-
east part of Crete. Jerome and others speak of it as a
town on the open shore. — Calmei.
FAITH, is credit given to a declaration or promise, on
the authority of the person who makes it, whether it be
directly expressed or only implied. When our Lord said
to the nobleman of Capernaum, " Thy son liveih, the man
believed the word that Jesus had spoken, and went his
way," confident that he would find his son alive and
well. John 4: 50. When Jesus said to the blind man,
" Go, wash in the pool of Siloam," the man believed the
assurance implied in our Lord's injunction, that he would
by this means receive his sight ; " therefore he went his
way, and washed, and came again seeing," John 9: 7.
The teim faith is used in the same sense in common lan-
guage. Inquiring the road, I am told that the right hand
path is the safest and easiest. On the faith of this infor-
mation, that is, giving credit to my informant, I take the
road recommended to me. A friend sends me a message,
requesting me to meet him at a certain place ; on the faith
of his implied promise that he wUl meet me there, I repair
to the place appointed. A linown impostor assures me
that, by following his direction, and paying him well for
his advice, I shall enjoy long life and prosperity : I have
no faith in such assurances; that is, I give no credit to
such declarations, therefore I pay no regard to them. _
2. The greater part of our knowledge is derived from
the information of others, and depends on the credit we
give to their testimony. Hence, to believe and to know
are sometimes used indiscriminately, (see John 3: 36 —
compare with John 17; 3.) not as thougli knowledge and
faith were synonymous terms, but because knowledge
founded on testimony supposes credit given to testimony.
3. Faith is distinguished from sight or observation. It
is one way in which we become acquainted with things
"not seen," Heb. 11: 1. The testimony of another, re-
ceived and credited, is the means by which we obtain the
knowledge of things which are not the subject of our own
observation. Hwice believers are said to " walk by faith,
not by sight."
4. Faith is distinguished from presumption, which is
confidence without sufficient warrant. When the Israel-
ites travelled through the channel of the Red sea, they
believed the divine promise, that they would obtain a safe
passage, Exodus 14: 16. But the Egyptians had no such
promise given them : they had no declaration to credit ;
therefore it was not faith, but presumption, that influenced
them in adventuring to follow the Israelites through the
same route, Heb. 11: 9. While the Israelites believed the
divine promise of protection and success, they went boldly
on against their enemies. But when they ceased to be-
lieve the Lord, (Num. 14: 11.) their courage failed
them. Num. 14: 3. And when the divine promise was
withdrawn, on account of their unbelief and disobedience,
(Num. 14: 42.) it was no longer faith, for they bad now
no declaration to credit, but presumption, that induced them
to go against their enemies, Num. 14: 44.
5. Faith in God is the belief of God's declarations.
This mav refer to any thing revealed or asserted on dmne
authority; whether relating to the past, (Heh^ U: 30 t_o
the present, (Heb. 11: 6.) or to the future, Heb. II: /.
F AI
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FAI
Faith in those divine declarations which contain a promise
of future good, is the same with trust in God.
6. Faith in Jesus Christ is an exclusive reliance on Him
for salvation, founded on the belief of those declarations
of Scripture which respect the person, offices, and pro-
mises of Christ as the Savior of sinners.
7. If the thing declared and proposed to our faith be a
matter of no importance, and fitted to excite no interest, the
belief of it will produce no sensible efiect, and will admit
of no direct evidence. An observer cannot discover whe-
ther the thing reported meets with credit or not. But if
the matter asserted appear to be of importance, it will,
when believed, excite emotion, and perhaps prompt to
action. If not believed, whatever be its importance, it
will produce neither action nor emotion.
8. The unequivocal expression of the emotions, accompany-
ing the belief of an interesting declaration, or the action
prompted by such belief, is the outward evidence of faith. An
example of faith, accompanied by corresponding emotion,
and that emotion expressed in appropriate language, oc-
curs in Acts 2: 30, 37. Peter had protested to the people
of Jerusalem, " Let all the house of Israel know assuredl)',
that God hath made that same Jesus, whom ye have cru-
cified, both Lord and Christ." When the multitude heard
this declaration, believing its truth, they were " pricked in
the heart." This was the emotion that accompanied their
belief, and they cried out, " Men and brethren, what shall
we do ?" Here was the expression of their emotion, and
the evidence of their faith. Again, (Heb. 11: 7.) Noah
being warned by God of his determination to punish the
wickedness of mankind, and instructed to build an I'rk,
which God assured him would prove the means of preset v-
ing himself and his family, beheved these divine declara-
tions, and, " being moved with fear" of God's judgments ;
here was the emotion accompanying his faith ; he prepared
an ark, ice. Here was the action consequent upon his
faith ; and both the emotion and the action corresponded
to the object of his belief, and evidenced the reality of his
faith. A similar instance of faith, and its evidence, we
have in the case of the Ninevites, Jon. 3: 5, &c.
9. The want of faith, or, unbelief, is proved by the manl of
the emotion or action corresponding to the object which is pro-
posed to our belief. Thus, (Gen. 19: 14.) when Lot warn-
ed his sons-in-law of the impending destruction of their
city, and urged them to consult their safety by a timely
departure, they believed him not ; therefore they felt no
fear of the approaching c-alamity, nor used any means to
escape it. AVe have a striking example, both of faith
and of unbelief, in the same circumstances, evidenced by
corresponding, but opposite consequences, in the conduct
of the Egyptians, Ex. 9: 20, 21. When Moses had told
them that the Lord would send a grievous storm of hail,
which would destroy every creature on whom it should
fall, and warned them to gather in their servants and cat-
tle from the field, we read that " he that feared the word
of the Lord," because he believed Moses' declaration,
" made his cattle and servants flee into the houses ;"
whereas he that did not credit Moses' declaration, and,
therefore, " regarded not the word of the Lord, left his
servants and cattle in the field."
10. As God's word is true, and his promises sure, whoever
believes his word, and trusts his promises, will not be disappoint-
ed. Hence there is a constant connexion between faith
and success. Of many instances of this kind referred to
in Heb. 11: 32 — 34, we shall notice only one. Gideon
was encouraged by an assurance of success against the
enemies of his country : " Go in this thv might, and thou
Shalt save Israel from the hand of the Midianites ; have
not I sent thee?" And afterwards by a more special
promise : " By the three hundred men that lapped, will
I save you, and deliver the aiidianites into your hand."
Gideon, confiding in the divine promise, attacked and
discomfited his enemies. He believed God, and, accord-
ding to his fahh, he acted, and he succeeded, Judg. 6: 7.
11. A similar connexion subsists between unbelief and fail-
ure. The Israelites had a divine promise of conquering
and possessing the land of Canaan. Had they uniformly
pelieved this promise, and advanced boldly against the
inhabitants, as Joshua and Caleb urged them, (Num. 14:)
they would infallibly have prospered. But when they
doubted the word of the Lord, and kept back through fear,
the consequence was, that they did not attack or expel
the Canaanites, nor get possession of their territory. Thus
the apostle accounts for their failure : " So we see that
they could not enter in, because of unbelief," Heb. 3: 19.
12. They who believed God's promise of temporal bless-
ings, and ventured on it, obtained their object, Heb. 11:
33, 34. So they who believe the doctrines and promises
of the gospel, and trust their souls in the Redeemer's
hands, shall obtain eternal life, John 3: 14 — 16.
13. That faith in Christ which in the New Testament
is connected with salvation, combines assent with reliance,
belief with trust. " Whatsoever ye ask the Father in my
name," that is, in dependence upon my interest and
merits, "he shall give it yon." Christ was preached
both to Jews and Gentiles as the object of their trust,
because he was preached as the only true sacrifice for
sin ; and they were required to renounce their dependence
upon their own accustomed sacrifices, and to transfer that
dependence to his death and mediation, — and " in his
name shall the Gentiles trust." He is said to be set forth
as a propitiation, " through faith in his blood ;" which faith
can neither merely mean assent to the historical fact that
his blood was shed by a violent death ; nor mere assent to
the general doctrine thut his blood had an atoning quality ;
but as all expiatory offerings were trusted in as the means
of propitiation both among Jen's and Gentiles, faith or
trust was now to be exclusively rendered to the blood of
Christ, as the divinely appointed sacrifice for sin, and the
only refuge of the true penitent.
14. This appears to be the plain scriptural representa-
tion (rf this doctrine ; and we may infer from it, (1.) That
the faith by which we are justified is not a mere assent
to the doctrines of the gospel, which leaves the heart un-
moved and unaflfected by a sense of the evil and danger
of sin and the desire of salvation, although it supposes
tlis assent ; nor, (2.) Is it that more lively and cordial as-
sei't to, and belief in, the doctrine of the gospel, touching
our sinful and lost condition, which is wrought in the
heart by the Spirit of God, and from which springeth re-
pentance, although this must precede it ; nor, (3.) Is it
only the assent of the mind to the method by which God
justifies the ungodly by faith in the sacrifice of his Son,
although this is an elfement of it ; but it is a hearty con-
currence of the will and aflections with this plan of salva-
tion, which implies a renunciation of every other refuge,
and an actual trust in the Savior, and persona} apprehen-
sion of his merit : such a belief of the gospel by the power
of the Spirit of God as leads ns to come to Christ, to receive
Christ, to trust in Christ, and to commit the keeping of
our souls into his hands, in humble confidence of his
ability and his willingness to save ns.
15. This is that qualifying but not meritorious condi-
tion to which the promise of God annexes justification ;
that without which justification would not take place ; and
in this sense it is that we are justified by faith ; not by
the merit of faith, but by faith rnstrnmentally as this con-
dition : for its connexion with the benefit arises from the
merits of Christ, and the promise of God. If Christ had
not merited, God had not promised ; if God had not pro-
mised, justification had never followed upon this faith ; so
that the indissoluble connexion of faith and justification
is from God's institution, whereby he hath bound himself
to give the benefit upon performance of the condition.
Yet there is a fitness in this faith to be the condition ; for
no other act can receive Christ as a Priest propitiating and
pleading the propitiation, and the promise of God for his
sake to give the benefit. As receiving Christ and the
gi-acious promise in this manner, it acknowledgeth man's
guih, and so man renounceth all righteousness in himself,
and honoreth God the Father, and Christ the Son, the only
Redeemer. It glorifies God's mercy and free grace in the
highest degree. It acknowledges on earth, as it will be
perpetually acloiowledged in heaven, that the whole sal-
vation of sinful man, from the beginning to the last de-
gree thereof, whereof there shall be no end, is from God's
freest love, Christ's merit and intercession, his own gra-
cious jiromise, and the power of his own Holy Spirit.
16. Faith in Christ, in respect of its reality and efficacy,
may be called living faith ; whereas its counterfeit, which
F AI
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F AL
can have no efficacy, is properl)' called dead faith, James
2: 17. This dead or unproductive failh is not a different
kind of faith from tlie true ; it is, strictly speaking, not
faith at all, even as a counterfeit piece of money is not
money, or as a dead man is no man. Faith in Christ, in
respect of the blessings connected with it, is called justi-
fying, or saving faith, Rom. 5: 1. Eph. 2; 8. In respect
of its effects on the heart and dispositions, it is purifying
or sanctifying faith. Acts 15: 9. In respect of its ob-
ject, it is " the faith of the Son of God," or " the failh of
Christ," Gal. 2: 16, 20. In respect of its author, " it is the
gift of God," Eph. 2: S. To " hve by faith," or " walk by
faith," is to have the life regulated by an habitual prevail-
ing regard to those doctrines, and invisible realities which
are revealed to us in Scripture. A person may be said to
live a life of failh, when the influence of spiritual invisi-
ble objects prevails in regulating his judgment, his affec-
tions and his conduct.
17. There cannot be a more direct proof of the inveterate
blindness and hardness of the human heart than this, —
that rve do not believe many thiyigs. which God declares, even
icken we are convinced that it is he that speaks. Yet that
this is the fact, we are assured by him who knows what
is in man, and who cannot lie, 1 Cor. 2: 14. John 3: 11,
12. Eph. 2: 8. 4: 18. One cannot conceive more auda-
cious impiely than thus to discredit the God of truth, and,
in effect, to " make him a liar," 1 John 5: 10.
18. Though there is much guilt and depravity in uuhe-
lief, it does 7Wt follow that there is merit in faith. A man
cannot claim reward for simply believing that to be true,
which he knows God has affirmed. So that when our
justification is made to depend on our believing the truth,
nothing can more expressly preclude every plea of merit
on our part, Rom. 4: 16.
19. Faith, in Scripture, is sometimes taken for the truth
and faithfulness of God, Rom. 3: 3 j and it is also taken
for the persuasion of the mind as to the lawfulness of
things indifferent, Rom. 14: 22, 23 ; and it is likewise put
for the doctrine of the gospel, which is the object of faith.
Acts 24: 24. Phil. 1: 27. Jude 3 ; for the beUef and pro-
fession of the gospel, Rom. 1: 8; and for fidehty in the
performance of promises. — Hend. Buck ; Watson ; Buck-
minster's Sermons, I. 106 ; Fuller's IVorks, passim ; Ely's Ten
Sermons on Faith ; Scott's Nature and Warrant of Faith ;
Booth's Glad Tidings ; Romaine's Life, Walk, and Triumph of
Failh ; Erskine on Faith ; Divight's Theology, Ser. Ixv. Ixix.
Leonard's Sermons ; Remains of Rev. Charles Wolfe, p. 157.
FAITH : a Christian female of Acquitain, in France,
and a martyr of the third century. Being informed that
Dacian, the Roman governor of Gaul, in the time of Maxi-
minian, who was very active in persecuting the Christians,
designed to apprehend her, she voluntarily surrendered
herself as a prisoner. Continuing on trial inflexible in
her faith, she v/as ordered to be broiled alive on a gridi-
ron, and then beheaded. This horrible sentence was exe-
cuted, A. D. 287.— Fox.
FAITH, (Article of.) (See Articles.)
FAITH, (Confession of.) (See Confession.)
FAITH, (Fathers of the,) an ecclesiastical order
founded by Paccanari, a Tyrolese enthusiast, and former-
ly a soldier of the pope, under the patronage of the arch-
duchess Mariana. It was composed mostly of Jesuits,
and put in operation at Rome, as a new form of the soci-
ety of Jesus; but they were never recognised by the se-
cret superiors of the ancient Jesuits as their brethren. —
Hend. Buck.
FAITH, (implicit.) (See Implicit Faith.)
FAITHFUL, an appellation given in Scripture to pro-
fessing Christians, to all who had been baptized in token
of the obedience of faith ; and it is used to this day in
that application in ecclesiastical language. See 1 Cor.
4: 17. Eph. 6: 21. Col. 4: 9. 1 Pet. 5: 12. Acts 16: 1, 15.
2 Cor. 6: 15. 1 Tim. 5: 16. and many other passages. —
Calmet.
FAITHFULNESS. (See Fidelity.)
FAITHFULNESS, (ministerial.) (See Pastor.)
FAITHFULNESS OF GOD, is thai perfection of his
nature whereby he infallibly fulfils his designs, or per-
forms his word. It appears, says Dr. Gill, in the per-
formance of what he has said with re.spect to the world
in general, that it shall not be destroyed by a flood, as it
once was, and for a token of it has set his bow in the
clouds ; that the ordinances of heaven should keep their
due course, which they have done for almost COOO years,
exactly and punctually ; that all liis creatures should be
supported and provided for, and the elements all made
subservient to that end, which we find to do so according
to his sovereign pleasure. Gen. 9. Isa. 54: 9. Ps. 145.
Deut. 11: 14, 15. 2 Pet. 3.
2. It appears in the fulfilment of whathe has said with
respect to Christ. Whoever will take the pains to com-
pare the predictions of the birth, poverty, life, sufferings,
death, resurrection, and ascension of Christ, with the ac-
complishment of the same, will find a striking demon-
stration of the faithfulness of God.
3. It appears in the performance of the promises which
he has made to his people. In respect to temporal bless-
ings, 1 Tim. 4: 8. Ps. 64: 11. Is. 33: 16. 2. To spiritual,
1 Cor. 1: 9. In supporting them in temptation, 1 Cor. 10:
13. Encouraging them under persecution, 1 Pet. 4: 12,
13. Isa. 41: 10. Sanctifying afflictions, Heb. 12: 4—12.
Directing them in difficulties, 1 Thess. 5: 24. EnaWing
them to persevere, Jer. 31: 40. Bringing them to glorj',
1 John 2: 25.
4. It appears in the fulfilling of his Ihreatenings. The
curse came upon Adam according as it was threatened.
He fulfilled his threatening to the old world in destroying
it. He declared that the Israelites should be subject to
his awful displeasure, if they walked not in his ways ; it
was accordingly fulfilled, Deut. 28. (See Immutability.)
— Hend. Buck.
FALASHAS ; an independent government of Jews,
which has long existed in the west of Abyssinia. The
name signifies exiles, and the state is called Falasjan.
They have their own government, which is allowed by
the Nagush of Abyssinia, on condition of their paying a
certain tribute. Bruce found there a Jewish king, Gide-
on,— and a queen, Judith, and about one hundred thou-
sand efiective men. They have lost all knowledge of the
Hebrew, and use the Old Testament as furnished them in
the Gheez language. — He7id. Buck.
FALL OF MAN ; the loss of those perfections and that
happiness which his Maker bestowed on him at his crea-
tion. (See Adam.) In addition to what is stated on this
subject under the article Adam, it may be necessary to
establish the literal sense of the account given of man's
fall in the book of Genesis.
1. Those who have denied the literal sense entirel)',
and regarded the whole relation as an instractive mythos,
or fable, have, as might be expected, when all restraint of
authority was thus thrown ofl" from the imagination
themselves adopted very different theories. Thus we
have been taught, that this account was intended to teach
the evil of yielding to the violence of appetite and to its
control over reason ; or the introduction of vice in con-
junction with knowledge and the artificial refinements of
society ; or the necessity of keeping the great mass of
mankind from acquiring too great a degree of knowledge,
as being hurtful to society ; or to consider it as another
version of the story of the golden age, and its being suc-
ceeded by times more vicious and miserable ; or as de-
signed, enigmatically, to account for the origin of evil, or
of mankind. This catalogue of opinions might be much
enlarged : some of them have been held by mere visiona-
ries ; others by men of learning, especially by several of
the semi-infidel theologians and biblical critics of Germa-
ny ; nor has our own country been exempt from this class
of bold expositors. How to fix upon the moral if " the
fable" is, however, the difficulty; and the great variety
of opinion is a sufficient refutation of the general notion
assumed by the whole class, since scarcely can two of
them be found who adopt the same views, after they have
discarded the literal acceptation.
2. But thai the account of Moses is to he taken as a
matter of real history, and according to its Uteral import, is
established by two considerations, against which, as being
facts, nothing can successfully be urged. The first is,
that the account of the fall of Ihe first pair is a part of a
continuous history. Either then the account of the fall
must be taken as historv, or the historical character of
F A I
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FAM
t!:e whole five books of Moses must be unsettled ; and if
none but infidels will go to the latter consequence, then
no one who admits the Pentateuch to he a true history
generally, can consistently refuse to admit the story of the
fall of the first pair to be a narrative of real events, be-
cause it is written in the same style, and presents the
same character of a continuous record of events. So
conclusive has this argument been felt, that the anti-lite-
ral interpreters have endeavored to evade it, by asserting
that the part of the history of Moses in question bears
marks of being a separate fragment, more ancient than
the Pentateuch itself, and transcribed into it by Moses,
the author and compiler of the whole. This point is ex-
amined and satisfactorily refuted in Holden's learned and
excellent work, entitled, " Dissertation on the Fall of
Man ;" but it is easy to show, that it would amount to
nothing, if granted, in the mind of any who is satisfied
on the previous question of the inspiration of the holy
Scriptures. For two tilings are to be noted, first, that the
inspired character of the books of Moses is authenticated
by our Lord and his apostles, so that they must necessa-
rily, be wholly true, and free from real contradictions ;
and, secondly, whether it be an embodied tradition, or the
insertion of a more ancient document, (though there is
no foundation at all for the latter supposition,) it is obvi-
ously a narrative, and a narrative as simple as any which
precedes or follows it.
3. The other indisputable fact to which we just now ad-
vened, as establishing the literal sense of the history, is
that, as such, it is referred to and reasoned upon in vari-
ous parts of Scripture. Job 20: 4, 5. 31: 33. 15: 14.
" Eden" and " the garden of the Lord" are also fre-
quently referred to in the prophets. We have the " tree
of life" mentioned several times in the Proverbs and in
the Revelation. " God," says Solomon, " made man
upright." The enemies of Christ and his church are
spoken of, both in the Old and New Testaments, under
the names of " the serpent," and " the dragon ;" and the
habit of the serpent to lick the dust is also referred to by
Isaiah.
If the histoiy of tlie fall, as recorded by Moses, were
an allegory, or any thing but a literal history, several of
the above allusions would have no meaning ; but the
matter is put beyond all possible doubt in the New Testa-
ment, unless the same culpable liberties be taken with
the interpretation of the words of our Lord and of St.
Paul as with those of the Jewish lawgiver. Blatt. 19: 4,
5. 1 Cor. 15: 22. 2 Cor. 11: 3. 1 Tim. 2: 13, 14. Kom. 5:
12 — 19. When, therefore, it is considered, that these
passages are introduced, not for rhetorical illustration, or
in the way of classical quotation, but are made the basis
of grave and important reasonings, which embody some
of the most important doctrines of the Christian revela-
tion, and of important social duties and points of Chris-
tian order and decorum ; it would be to charge the writers
of the New Testament with the grossest absurdity, nay,
with even culpable and unworthy trifling, to suppose
them to argue from the history of the fall as a narrative,
when they Imew it to be an allegory. And if we are,
therefore, compelled to allow that it was understood as a
real history by our Lord and his inspired apostles, those
speculations of modern critics, which convert it into a
parable, stand branded with their true character of infidel
and semi-infidel temerity.
4. The effect of the sin or lapse of Adam, was to bring
him under the wrath of God ; to render him liable to
]iain, disease, and death ; to deprive him of primeval ho-
liness ; to separate him from communion with God, and
tliat spiritual life which was before imparted by God, and
on which his holiness alone depended, from tlie loss of
which a total moral disorder and depravation of his soul
resulted ; and finally to render him liable to everlasting
misery. fSee Abam, and Original Sin.)
Infidels, it is true, have treated the account of the fall
and its effects with contempt, and considered the whole
as absurd ; but their objections to the manner have been
ably answered by a variety of authors ; and as to the
elfects, one would hardly think any body could deny.
5. For that man is a fallen creature, is evident, if we
consider his misery as an inhabitant of the natural world ;
the disorders of the globe we inhabit, and the dreadful
scourges with which it is visited ; the deplorable and
shocking circumstances of our birth ; the painful and
dangerous travail of women ; our natural uncleanliness,
helplessness, ignorance, and nakedness ; the gross dark-
ness in which we naturally are, both with respect to God
and a future state ; the general rebellion of the brute
creation against us ; the various poisons that lurk in the
animal, vegetable, and mineral world, ready to destroy
us ; the heavy curse of toil and sweat to which we are
liable ; the innumerable calamities of life, and the pangs
of death. Again, it is evident, if we consider him as a
citizen of the moral world, — his commission of sin, his
omission of duty, the triumph of sensual appetites over
his intellectual faculties, the corruption of the powers
that constitute a good head, the understanding, imagina-
tion, memory, and reason ; the depravity of the powers
which form a good heart, — the will, conseience, and af-
fections; his manifest alienation from God ; his amazing
disregard even of his nearest relatives ; his unaccounta-
ble imconcern about himself ; his detestable tempers ; the
general outbreaking of human corruption ja all individu-
als ; the universal overflowing of it in air nations^ Some
striking proofs of this depravity may be seen in the general
propensity of mankind to vain, ii-rational, or cruel diver-
sions ; in the universality, of the most ridiculous, impi-
ous, inhuman, and diabolical' sins ; in the aggravating
circumstances attending tlie display of this corruption ;
in the many ineffectual endeavors to stem its torrent ; in
the obstinate resistance it makes to divine grace in the
unconverted ; the amazing struggles of good men with
it ; the testimony of the heathens concerning it ; and the
preposterous conceit which the unconverted have of their
own goodness. (See Depravity, Human.) Holden on the Fall
of Man ; Fletcher's Appeal to Matters of Fact ; Berry Street
Lectures, vol. i. 180, 189 ; South's Sermons, vol. i. 124,
150 ; Bates's Harmony of Div. Alt., p. 98 ; Boston's Fourfold
State, part i. ; Drvight's Theology. — Watson; Hend. Buck.
FALSEHOOD; untruth, deceit. (See Lying.)
FALSE CHPvISTS. (See Messiah.)
FAME, sometimes signifies common talk ; public re-
port; (Gen. 45: 16.) but ordinarily it means a widely-
spread report of one's excellence and of glorious deeds.
Zeph. 3: 19. (See Reputation.) — Bronm.
FAMILIARS OF THE INQUISITION ; persons who
assist in apprehending such as are accused, and carrj'ing
them to prison.. They are assistants to the inquisitor,
and called familiars, because they belong to his family.
In some provinces of Italy, they are called cross-bearers ;
and in others, the scholars of St. -Peter the Martyr ; and
wear a cross before them on the outside garment. They
are properly bailiffs of the Inquisition ; and the vile oflice
is esteemed so honorable, that noblemen in the kingdom
of Portugal have been ambitious of belonging to it. Nor
is this surprising, when it is considered that Innocent III.
granted very large indulgences and privileges to these
familiars ; and that the same plenary indulgence is grant-
ed by the pope to every single exercise of this office, as
was granted by the Lateran council to those who succored
the Holy Land. When several persons are to be taken
up at the same time, these familiars are commanded ro
order matters that they may know nothing of one ano-
ther's being apprehended ; and it is related, that a father
and his three sons and three daughters, who lived together
in the same house, were carried prisoners to the Inquisi-
tion, w'ithout knowing any thing of one another's bemg
there till seven years afterwards, when they that were
alive were released by an act of faith. (See article, Act
OF P'aith.) — Hend. Buck.
FAMILIAR SPIRITS. (See Divination.)
FAMILY PRAYER. (See Prayer.)
FAMILY OF LOVE, or Familists. (See Love.)
FAMINE. Scripture records several famines in Pa-
lestine, and the neighboring countries. Gen. 12: 10. 26: 1.
The most remarkable one was that of seven years in
Egypt, while Joseph was governor. It was distinguished
for continuance, extent, and severity ; particularly, as
Egypt is one of the countries least subjected to such a
calamity, by reason of its general fertility. (See Prof.
Robinson's Bibl. Repository, for Oct. 1832.)
FAR
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FAR
Famine is sometimes a natural effect, as when the Nile
does not overflow in Egypt, or rains do not fall in Judea,
at the customary seasons, spring and autumn ; or when
caterpillars, locusts, or other insects destroy the fruits.
The prophet Joel notices these last causes of famine.
He compares locusts to a numerous and terrible army
ravaging the land, Joel 1. Famine was sometimes an
effect of God's anger, 2 Kings 8: 1, 2. The prophets fre-
quently threaten Israel with the sword of famine, or with
war and famine, evils that generally go together. Amos
(8: 11.) threatens another sort of famine : " I will send a
famine in the land, not a famine of bread, nor a thirst for
water, but of hearing the words of the Lord." — Calmet.
FAN ; an instrument used in the East for winnowing
com.. Fans are of two kinds ; one having teeth, with
which they throw up the corn to the wind, that the chaff
may be blown away ; the other is formed to produce wind
when the air is calm, Isa. 30: 24. An allusion to this in-
strument is found in Matt. 3: 12. to illustrate our Lord's
discriminating character as a preacher and as a judge. —
Calmet.
FA.N'ATICS; enthusiasts, who combine the malign
emotions with the fictitious fervors of the imagination,
especially those who pretend to revelation and inspiration.
The ancients called those fanatici who passed their time in
temples (^fana,) and being often seized with a kind of en-
thusiasm, as if inspired by the divinity, burst into wild
and antic gestures, cutting and slashing their arms with
knives, shaking the head, &c. Hence the term was ap-
plied to the Quakers, &:c. at their first rise, and is now an
epithet given to modern false prophets, and enthusiasts ; but
unjustly to those persons who possess zeal and fervency
of devotion, united to Christian benevolence. (See "Fa-
naticism" hij the Author of the Natural History of Enthusi-
asm.)— Hend. Buck.
FaNINUS ; a learned Italian of the twelfth century,
who embraced the reformed religion, as taught by Peter
de Bruis, and Arnold of Brescia. AVhen first apprehend-
ed, he was so wrought upon by t'ne persuasions of his
friends and family, as to gain his release from prison by
a recantation. But the bitter reproaches of conscience he
soon found more intolerable than the chains of a prison.
He returned from his temporary apostasy to a more zea-
lous avowal and defence of the truths of the reformation,
and was again imprisoned. He was offered liberty and
life as before, but refused. Being asked why he would
persist in a course which would leave his wife and chil-
dren without a protector, he replied, " I shall not leave
them in distress. 1 have recommended them to the care
of an excellent trustee." — " What trustee ?" — " Jesus
Christ ! I think I could not commit them to the care of a
better." On the way to execution, being reproached by
his enemies for his cheerfulness, when Christ was exceed-
ing sorrowful at the approach of death, he answered,
'• Christ sustained all manner of pangs and conflicts with
death and hell on our account ; and by his sufferings
treed those who really beUeve in Him from the fear of
them." He was then strangled, his body burnt, and his
ashes scattered to the wind. — Fox.
FAR. God is far from the wicked ; he has no friend-
ship with them, is peqietually angry with, and is averse
to deliver them, Prov. 15: 29. He is far from their reins ;
he is not seriously and affectionately thought of, esteem-
ed, loved, or desired by them, Jer. 12: 2. He seems far
from his own people when he appears angry with them,
hides the comforting views of his countenance, and con-
tinues to deny them assistance or relief, Ps. 22: 1. 10: 1.
He removes our transgressions /nr from us when he fully
and finally forgives them, that they can never come into
iudgment against us, Ps. 103: 12. He set the Jewish
tf iiiple far from thsm when he permitted the Chaldeans
to carry them captives into Babylon, a place about six
hundred miles east of Jerusalem, Ezek. 7: 20. — Bruwu.
FAREL, (WiLi.iAji.) This learned minister of the
Protestant church, and most intrepid reformer, was born
in Dauphiny, in France, in 14S9. He studied at Paris
with great success, and was for some time teacher in the
college of cardinal Le IMoine. He was invited to preach
by Briconnet, bishop of Meaux, in 1521, but in 1523 per-
secution obliged him to seek his safety out of France.
He retired to Strasburg, where Bucer and Capito wel-
comed him as a brother ; as he was afterwards at Zurich
by Zuinghus, at Berne by Haller, and at Basil by Oeco-
lampadius. He was advised to carry the reformed reli-
gion into Montbellecard, and succeeded most happily, the
duke of Wittenberg giving him his support. He was a
man of the most lively zeal, which sometimes led him to
excess, and provoked Erasmus against him. In 1528, he
was successful in the city of Aigle and the baiU%vick of
Morat, and also was the means of establishing the re-
formed rehgion in Neufchatel in 1530. He was sent as a
deputy to the synod of the Waldenses, held in the valley
of Angrogne. Hence he went to Geneva and labored
with Viret, but vvas forced to retire till 1534, when he was
recalled by the inhabitants who had th.en renounced
popery. He was the great means of fixing Calvin in this
city. Both, however, were banished in 1538, and after
struggling with a thousand difficulties and dangers, Farel
returned to Neufchatel, and resumed his pastoral labors.
Here he continued till his death, Sept. 13, 1565, having
survived Calvin about one year. He was a man of in-
vincible courage, great piety, learning, innocence of Ufe,
and unassuming modesty. He was not so much a writer
as a preacher ; swords were drawn and bsUs rung while
he was preaching, but in vain ; and such was his ardor
and force of expression, that " he seemed rather to thun-
der than to speak." His ptayers also were wonderful ;
his heart seemed to lift the heart of his hearers tu heaven.
— Middleton, vol. ii. 97.
FARELISTS ; a name given by the Papists to the Re-
formed, on account of their attachment to Farel. (See
Fakei..)
FARMER, (Rev. Hugh) a learned and eminonily use-
ful minister of the Independent denomination, was born in
1714, near Shrewsbury. His ancestors, who were natives
of North Wales, were held in high estimation for their
religion and virtue. He entered upon his academical
studies, under the superintendence of the celebrated Dr.
Philip Doddridge. He was one of the doctor's first pu-
pils ; and gained his entire esteem and approbation. On
leaving Northampton, he became assistant to Mr. David
Some. His services, however, proving acceptable to the
dissenters in the neighborhood of Walthamstow, a place
of worship was soon built, and a congregation assembled,
which rapidly increased.
For many years Mr. Farmer labored at Walthamstow,
with increasing popularity ; many of the more opulent
dissenters either took houses or lodgings in the neighbor-
hood, for the purpose of attending on his ministry ; so that
it was soon found necessary to enlarge the meeting-house
in which he jiipached. JMost of this time he occupied both
parts of the day ; but, on being joined by a suitable col-
league, he gave up the afternoon service. As Mr. Farmer
declined in years, he gradually relinquished his engage-
ments as a preacher. In 1772 he resigned the afternoon lec-
ture at Baiters' Hall, and eight years after, he gave up the
Tuesday morning sermon ; but he did not leave his church
at Walthamstow till a few years later, when he gave up
pnlpit exercises entirely. He was still in full possession
of his mental faculties, and his powers of address had not
failed him ; he, however, thought some ministers continued
too long to exercise their public functions ; and through
excessive delicacy, he was so unnecessarily anxious to
avoid this fault, that he fell into the opposite error. After
his retirement from his public labors, he usually spent part
of his winters at Bath, from the waters of which he had
experienced great benefit. As Mr. Farmer lived for years
at a small expense, being never married, and received
considerable legacies from some of his deceased friends, as
well as liberal supplies from his congregation, it need not
excite wonder, that his circumstances were very easy, es-
pecially in the latter part of his life. He died on the 5th of
February, 1787, aged 72, manifesting to all around his
deep humility, lively faith, and animated hope of a bless-
ed immortality.
Mr. Farmer was the author of several M-orks, in which
he displayed much learning and critical sagacity, particu-
larly his " Dissertation on Jliracles ;'" '• An Inquiry into
the Nature and Design of Christ's Temptation in the
AVilderness ;" and ■' An Essay on the Demoniacs of the
FAS
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FAT
New Testament," in which he endeavored to prove that
these were not cases of real possession, but of persons
afflicted with disorders usually attributed to such influ-
ence. This publication was answered by the late Mr. Fell,
one of the tutors of Homerton academy ; and a contro-
versy ensued, in which much acrimony of temper was
discovered on both sides. Mr. Farmer was rather of a
high spirit and hasty temper ; but abating these defects, he
was a most estimable man. (See Memoirs of his Life
and Writings, by Michael Dodson,- Esq.) — Janes' Chris.
Biog.
FARNOVIANS ; a sect of Socinians, so called from
Stanislaus Farnovius, who separated from the other Uni-
tarians in the year 1568. He asserted that Christ had
been engendered or produced out of nothing by the Su-
preme Being, before the creation of this terrestrial globe,
and warned his disciples against paying religious worship
to the Divine Spirit. This sect did not last long ; for hav-
ing lost their chief, who died in 1015, it was scattered,
and reduced to nothing. — Hend. Buck.
FARTHING ; a piece of brass money used by the Ro-
mans. Our translators give this English to both Assa-
RioN and Qdadrans ; but these were different ; the assari-
}ii was the tenth part of a Roman penny, or about three
farthings steriing, being little more than one cent, Matt.
iO: 29. The quadrans was equal to two mites, and so is
about the fifth part of an English farthing, or half a mill,
Mark 12: i2.— Brown.
FASHION. A pattern or form, Ex. IB: 30. To fash-
ion a thing is to give it being or form. Job 10: 8. Ex. 32:
11. To fashion one's self according to former lusts, is to
live under their power, and to act according to their sin-
ful inclinations and motions, 1 Pet. 1: 14. — Brown.
FASTING- ; abstinence from food. Religious fasting
(onsists, 1. " In abstinence from every animalinduJgence,
and from food, as far as health and circumstances will
admit. — 2. In the humble conlession of our sins to God,
with contrition or sorrow for tlieni. — 3. An earnest depre-
cation of God's displeasure, and humble supplication that
he would avert his judgments. — 4. An intercession with
God for such spiritual and temporal blessings upon our-
selves and others as are needful."' It does not appear that
our Savior instituted any particular fast, but left it op-
tional. Any state of calamity and sorrow, however, natu-
rally suggests this.
2. The projpriety of it may appear, 1. From many ex-
amples recorded in Scripture. — 2. By plain and undeni-
able inferences from Scripture, Matt. 6:16. 3. From divine
commands given on some occasions, though there arc no
commands which prescribe it as a constant duly. — 4. It
may be argued from its utiUty. The end or uses of it are
Ihese, 1. A natural expression of our sorrow. — 2. A
liclp to devotional exercises. — 3. Keeping the body in
subjection. — 4. It may be rendered subservient lo charity.
3. How far or how long a person should abstain from
food, depends on circumstances. The great end .'■ be
kept in view is, humiliation for, and abstinence f:ar. .in.
" If," says Marshall, " abstinence divert our minds, by
reason of a gnawing appetite, then you had better eat
sparingly, as Daniel in his greatest fast." Dan. 10: 2, 3.
They, however, who in times of public distress, when
the judgments of God are in the earth, and when his
providence seems to call for humiliation, will not relin-
quish any of their sensual enjoyments, nor deny them-
selves in the least, cannot be justified ; since good men
in all ages, more or less, have humbled themselves on
such occasions ; and reason, as well as Scripture, evi-
dently prove it to be our duty.
4. Although the first Christians, says Dr. Neander, did
not by any means retire from the business of life, yet
lliey were accustomed to devote many separate days en-
tirely to examining their own hearts, and pouring them oUl
before God, while they dedicated their life anew to him
with uninterrupted prayers, in order that they might again
return to their ordinary occupations with a renovated spirit
of zeal and seriousness, and with renewed powers of sanc-
tification. These days of holy devotion, days of prayer
and penitence, which individual Christians appointed for
themselves, according to their individual necessities, were
often a kind of fast-days. In order that their sensual
feeUngs might less distract and impede the occupation
of their heart with its holy contemplations, they were ac-
customed on these days to limit their corporeal wants
more than usual, or to fast entirely. In the consideration
of this, we must not overlook the peculiar nature of that
hot climate in which Christianity was first promulgated.
That which was spared by their abstinence on these days
was applied to the support of the poorer brethren. Matt.
9: 15. 1 Cor. 7: 5. Bennet's Christ. Chat., vol. ii. pp. 18,
25 ; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 39 ; Simpson's Essaij on Fast-
ing ; Marshall on Sane. pp. 273, 274. — (See Rogatiokj
Lent.) — Hend. Buck ; Watson.
FAT. God forbade the Hebrews to eat the fat of beasts
offered in sacrifice : " All the fat is the Lord's. It shall be
a perpetual statute for your generations, throughout all
your dwelhngs, that ye eat neither fat nor blood," Lev.' 3: 17.
In the Hebrew style, fat signifies not only that of beasts,
but also the richer or prime part of other things : " He
should have fed them with the finest" (in Hebrew, the
fat) "of the wheat." Fat denotes abundance of good
things : " I will satiate the souls of the priests with fat-
ness," Jer. 31: 14. " My soul shall be satisfied with mar-
row and fatness," Psalm 63: 5. The fat of the earth rm-
plies its fruitfulness : "God give thee of the dew of hea-
ven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of com and
wine," Gen. 27: 28. — Watson.
FATE, (fatum) denotes an inevitable necessity depend-
ing upon a superior cause. The word is formed a fando,
" from speaking," and primarily implies the same with
effatum, viz. a word or decree pronounced by God, or a fix-
ed sentence whereby the Deity has prescribed the order of
things, and allotted to every person what shall befall him..
The Greeks called it eimarmene, as it were a chain or ne-
cessary series of things indissolubly linked together. (See
Providence ; Necessity.) — Hend. Buck.
FATHER. This word, besides its common accepta-
tion, is taken in Scripture for grandfather, great-grand-
father, or the founder of a family, how remote soever.
So the Jews in our Savior's time called Abraham, Isaac,
and Jact'b their fathers. Jesus Christ is called the Son
of David, though David was many generations distant
from him. By father is likewise understood the iustitutor,
teacher, or prime example of a certain profession. Jabal
" was father of such as dwell in tents, and such as have
cattle.'' Jubal "was father of all such as handle the harp
and organ," or flute, &:c. Gen. 4: 20, 21. On a some-
what similar principle, the devil is called the father of the
wicked, and the father of lies, John 8: 44. He deceived
Eve and Adam ; he introduced sin and falsehood; he in-
spires his followers with his spirit and sentiments. On a
like principle, Abraham is the father of the faithful, the
father of the circumcision. He is called also the " father
of many nations," because many people sprung from
him ; as the Jews, Ishmachtes, Arabs, &c. "(See Adoptiok,
Abba.) — Wa/son.
FATHERS; a term of honor applied to the first and
most eminent writers of the Christian church. Those of
the first century are called apostolical fathers ; those of the
first three centuries, and till the council of Nice, Ante-
Nicene ; and those later than that council, Post-Nicene.
Learned men are not unanimous concerning the degree
of esteem which is due to these ancient fathers. Somg
represent them as the most excellent guides, whilst others
place them in the very lowest rank of moral writers, and
treat their precepts and decisions as perfectly insipid, and,
in many respects, pernicious. It appears, however, incon-
testable, that, in the writings of the primitive fathers, are
many sublime sentiments, judicious thoughts, and several
things well adapted to form a religious temper, and to
excite pious and virtuous affections. At the same time, it
must be confessed, that, after the earliest age, they abound
still more with precepts of an excessive and unreasonable
austerity, with stoical and academical dogmas, with vague
and indeterminate notions, and, what is still worse, with
decisions absolutely false, and in evident opposition to the
commands of Christ. Though the judgment of antiquity
in some disputable points may certainly be useful, yet we
ought never to consider the writings of the fathers as of
equal authority with the Scriptures. In many cases they
may be deemed competent witnesses, but we must not
FAW
[ 529 1
FE A
confide in llieir verdict as judges. As biblical critics tlicy
are often fanciful and injudicious, and their principal
value consists in this, that the succession of their writings
enables us to prove the existence and authenticity of the
sacred books, up to the age of the apostles.
The following is a list of the entire fathers : Contempo-
raries of the apostles, Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Her-
mas, Ignatius, and Polycarp. Papias, A. D. 116; Justin
Martyr, 140, Dionysius of Corinth, 170; Tatian, 172;
Hegesippus, 173; Melito, 177; Irenaeus, 178; Athenago-
ras, 178; Miltiades, 180; Theophilus, 181 ; Clement of
Ale.xandria, 194 ; TertuUian, 200 ; Minutius Felix, 210;
Ammonius, 220 ; Origen, 230 ; Firmilian, 233 ; Diony-
sius of Alexandria, 247.; Cyprian, 248 ; Novatus, or No-
vatian, 251 ; Arnobius. 306; Lactantius, 306 ; Alexander
of Alexandria, 313 ; Eusebius, 315 ; Athanasius, 326 ;
Cyril of Jerusalem, 348 ; Hilary, 354; Epiphanius, 308 ;
Basil, 370 ; Gregory of Nazianzen, 370 ; Gregory of
Nyssa, ■370;' Optatus, 370; Ambrose, 374 ; Philaster,
380; Jerome, 392; Theodore of Mopsuestia, 394 ; Ruf-
finas, 397 ; Augustine, 398 ; Chrysostom, 398 ; Sulpitius
Severus, 401 ; Cyril of Alexandria, 412 ; Theodoret, 423 ;
and Gennadius, 494.'
Jurtin's Works, vol. vii. chap. 2 ; Kelt's Serm. at Bamp-
ton Leciure, ser. 1 ,- Warburtei^s Julian; Simpson's Strictures
vti Religious Opinions, latter end ; Dailli's Use of the Fa-
thers, p. 167 ; Law's Theory ; Dr. Clarke's View of the Succes-
sion of Sacred Literature, p. 312. — Waison ; Head. Buck.
FATHOM ; a measure of six feet length. Our sailors
have three kinds o( fatlwtns : that of war-ships is six feet ;
that of merchant-ships is live and a half; and that of fly-
boats and 4shing-vessels, it is said, is five feet, Acts 27:
28.— Brown.
FAULT; a slight defect or crime which subjects a per-
son to blame, but not to punishment ; a deviation from, or
transgression of a rule in some trifling circumstance.
FAVOR OF GOD. (See Grace.)
FAWCETT, (John, D. D.) was born at Lidget Green,
near Bradford, in Yorkshire, Jan. 6th, 1739. Having
been early initiated in the common branches of learning,
he soon manifested a fondness for reading, eagerly de-
vouring whatever came in his way. Soon after his fa-
ther's death, at the age of twelve, he was put apprentice to
a person in Bradford. The celebrated George Whitefield
was at this time in the zenith of his popularit)-, and young
Fawcett had the opportunity of hearing him preach, which
made an impression on his mind that was never oblitera-
ted. At the age of nineteen, he was baptized on a person-
al profession of his faith, March Uth, 1758, and became a
member of the Baptist church, in Bradford.
He was ordained over a church at Wainsgate, in Feb-
ruary, 1764. Here a field of usefulness presented itself,
and he made many acquaintances with persons who have
since distinguished themselves in the religious world ;
among whom were Mr. Venn, of Huddersfield ; the late
Henry Foster, of Clerkenwell ; John Thornton, Esq. of
Clapham; Dan Taylor, of Mile End, &c. kc.
In 1772, he visited London, to supply for Dr. Gill, who
then, through age and infirmities, was incapacitated for
public preaching. He continued in London about two
months, and preached fifty-eight times. The doctor dying
soon afterwards, Mr. Fawcett was invited to return to
London, with a view to a permanent settlement ; but
though his income from the church at Wainsgate was only
25/. per annum, he resisted the tempting otfer, and contin-
ued with his flock. To help out his scanty pittance of in-
come, however, he now began to take pupils ; and in a
course of time succeeded in raising a very respectable
seminary. Numbers of young ministers had recourse to
him for the purpose of improving their education, among
whom were the late Mr. Ward, of Serampore, and Mr.
Suteliff, of Olney. In 1774, Mr. Fawcett published " The
Sick Man's Friend ; or. Views of Death and Eternity rea-
lized ;" occasioned by an attack of the stone, which brought
him to the br'mk of the grave. On his recovery from this
illness, he removed his residence from Wainsgate to
Brearley Hall, a much preferable situation for his academy.
The increase of the congregation at Wainsgate also led to
the erectionof a newand more suitable place of worship at
Hebden Bridge, in 1777.
67
Mr. Fawcett had a talent for poetry.- In 1792, he pub
lished a small volume of " Hymns adapted to Public Wor
ship and Private Devotion." In 1788, he published, " An
Essay on Anger," an invaluable little volume. George III.
on being presented with a copy, was so much gratified
with its contents, that he made the amiable author an
offer of serving him in any way he might point out. Mr.
Fawcett at the time modestly declined availing himself
of the royal munificence ; but a most distressing occur-
rence some time afterwards imposed upon him the painful
task of petitioning for the life of a youth, the son of one
of his most intimate friends ; who, in an unguarded hour,
had committed a forgery, for which he was tried and con-
demned by the laws of his country. The sovereign re-
ceived the petition, recollected his ofler, and graciously
extended pardon to the unhappy youth.
BIr. Fawcett afterwards published several other valu-
able works. And it deserves recording, that most of
them were issued from a small printing-office, which he
had established in his own house ; so that, as occasion
served, he was alternately the author, the printer, and the
binder, of his literary productions. But the greatest of his
undertakings was the " Devotional Family Bible," which
he commenced in the month of November, 1807, and com-
pleted in about four years ; the work forming two large
quarto volumes. He died the 25th July, 1617.
Dr. Fawcett was, in a considerable degree, like his
brethren. Booth, M'Lean, and Fuller, self-taught. — He
could read the sacred writings in their original languages,
and criticise the force of a Greek or Hebrew term ; but
beyond this, he did not aspire. As a Christian minister,
it is scarcely possible to speak of him beyond his merits.
His doctrinal sentiments were those of moderate Calvin-
ism ; equally free trom a tendency to foster pharisaic
pride, and to encourage Antinomian licentiousness. And
if, as Cicero tells us, " true glory consists in doing what
deserves 'o be written, and in writing what deserves to be
read." this honor is due to the character of John Faw-
ceti. — Jofies' Chris. Biog.
FEAR, is that uneasiness of mind which arises from an
apprehension of danger, attended with a desire of a\oid-
ing it. "Fear," says Dr. Watts, "shows itself by pale-
ness of the cheek, sinking of the spirits, trembling of the
limbs, hurry and confusion of the inind and thoughts,
agonies of nature, and fainting. Blany a person has died
with fear. Sometimes it rouses all nature to exert itself
in speedy flight, or other methods to avoid the approaching
evil ; sudden terror has performed some almost incredibles
of this kind."
Fear is of difTerent kinds : 1. There is an idolatrous and
superstitious fear, which is called deisidaimonia, a fear of
demons, which the city of Athens was greatly addicted to.
" I perceive," says ihe apostle Paul, " that in all things ye
are too superstitious," or given to the fear and worship of
false deities. 2. There is an external fear of God, an out-
ward show and profession of it, which is taught by the
precepts of men ; as in the men of Samaria, who pretend-
ed to fear the Lord, as the priest instructed them, and yet
served their own gods; and such an external fear of God,
Job's friends supposed was all that he had, and that even
he had cast that oif. 3. There is an hypocritical fear,
when men make a profession of religion ; but only serve
him for some sinister end and selfish view, which Satan
insinuated was Job's case. '• Doth Job fear God for
nought ?" Job 1:9. 4 There is a servile fear which they
possess who serve God from fear of punishment, and not
from love to him. 5. There is a filial fear, such as that
of a son to his father. 2 Cor. 7 : 1.
Fear is sinful when — 1. It proceeds from unbelief or
distrust of God. 2. When it ascribes more lo the creature
than is due ; or when we fear our enemies without consid-
ering they are under God. 3. When we fear that in God
that is not in him, or that he will break his promise, ifcc.
4. When our fear is immoderate, so as to distract us in
our duty. (See next article.) Hend. Buck.
FEAR OF GOD, is that holy di.-;position or gracious
habit formed in the soul by the Holy Spirit, whereby we
are inclined to obey all God's commands ; and evidences
itself— 1. By a dread of his displeasure. 2. Desire of his
favor. 3. Regard for his excellencies. 4. Submission to
A
[ 630
FEL
his will. 5. Giatituile for his benefits. 6. Siacerity in
his worship, 7. Conscientious obeilience to his conamantls,
Prov. 8: 13. Job 28: 28. Bates's Works, page 913; GUI's
Body of Divinity : Divight's Theology. — Hejul. Buck.
FEAR OF DEATH. (See Death.)
FEARS. (See Doubts.)
FEARFUL. The fearful who sliall have their portion
in liell, are such as, being destitute of a holy awe of God,
have such a slavish fear of him, that they will not dare to
come boldly to a throne of grace, and receive his Son and
the blessings of the new covenant in him ; or those who fear
man more than God, Rev. 21:8. Matt. 10: 28.— ^roron.
FEAST, in a religious sense, is a ceremony of feasting
and thanksgiving.
■ The principal feasts of the Jews were the feasts of trum-
pets, of e.xpiation, of tabernacles, of the dedication, of the
passover, of Pentecost, and that of purilicalion. Feasts,
and the ceremonies tliereof, have njade great part of the
religion of almost all nations and sects ; hence the Greeks,
the Romans, Mahometans, and Christians, have not been
without them.
Feasts, in the established churches of Christendom,
are innovations upon the simplicity of the gospel, which
ordains but one Christian feast, viz. the Lord's supper.
They are either immovable or movable. Immovable
feasts are those constantly celebrated on the same day of
the year. The principal of these are Christmas-day, Cir-
cumcision, Epiphany, Candlemas, or Purification ; Lady-
day or the Annunciation, called also the Incarnation and
Conception ; All Saints and All Souls ; besides the days
of the several apostles, as St. Thomas, St. Paul. Mova-
ble feasts are those which are not confined to the same
day of the year. Of these the principal is Easter, which
gives law to all the rest, all of them following and keep-
ing their proper distances from it. Such are Palm Sun-
day, Good Friday, Ash Wednesday, Scxagesima, Ascen-
sion day, Pentecost, and Trinity Sunday.
Besides these feasts, which are general, and enjoined
by the church, there are others local and occasional, en-
joined by the magistrate, or voluntarily set on foot by the
people ; such are the days of thanksgiving for delivery
from war, plagues, &c. such also are the vigils or wakes
in commemoration of the dedication of particular churches.
The prodigious increase of feast-days in the Christian
church commenced towards the close of the fourth centu-
ry, occasioned by the discoveiy that was made of the re-
mains of martyrs, and other holy men, for the commemo-
ration of whom they were established. These, instead of
being set apart for pious exercises, were abused, in indo-
lence, voluptuousness, and criminal practices. Many of
them were instituted on a pagan model, and perverted to
similar purposes. (See Holy Day.) — He.nd. Eitck.
FEAST OF ASSES. This was a festival in the Ro-
mish church, and was celebrated at Beauvais. They
chose a young woman, the handsomest in the town ; made
her ride on an ass richly harnessed, and placed in her arms
a pretty infant. In this state, followed by the bishop and
clergy, she marched in procession from the cathedral to
the church of St. Stephen ; entered into the sanctuary,
placed herself near the altar, and then celebrated mass ;
not forgetting to explain the fine qualities of the animal,
and exhorting him to make a devout genuflexion, with a
variety of other fooleries irend. Buck
FEASTS OF LO^E. (See Agapje.)
FEAl LY, (Daniel, D. D.) a learned divine of the seven-
teenth century, was born at Charlton, upon Otmore, March,
1582. While fellow of Corpus Christi college, where he re-
ceived his education, his admirable method of preaching,
his skill in dispulalion, and other rare accomplishments,
were such, that Sir Thomas Edmunds, ambassador of king
James to France, chose him as his chaplain. There he spent
three years, and did great honor to the English nation
and the Protestant cause. His most learned papal anta-
gonists gave him the titles of aaifissimus and arerrimus.
After his return, he became successively rector of NorthiU
in Cornwall, of Lambeth in Surrey, and of All-hallows
in London, This last he soon changed for Acton in Mid-
dlesex, and then became prevost of Chelsea college.
In 1626, he published his Ancilla Pietatis, or " The Hand-
maid to Private Devotion," and soon after, " The Practice
of Extraordinary Devotion," and from that time devoted
liimself to authorship and disputation, till the civil war in
1612. He was attached to the Icing's party, and in conse-
quence narrowly escaped from the fury of the parliament
soldiers who sought his destruction.
In 1643, he was appointed one of the assembly of di-
vines, and was a witness against archbishop Laud. Dr.
Heylin has said of him, that he always was a Calvinist
in his heart, but he never showed it openly till then. He
was, however, a great opposer of the covenant, and a letter
of his to archbishop Usher on this subject, being inter-
cepted, he was regarded as a traitor, and thrown into pri-
son, where he remained six months, and where he chiefly
composed his celebrated answer to the Jesuit's challenge,
published under the name of " Kama Eiiens." Nearly at
the same time he wrote his book against the Baptists, call-
ed " The Dipper Dipt." His sufferings in prison brought
on the dropsy, of which he died, April 1, 1615. His will
begins thus, " First, for my soul I commend it to hiiu,
whose due it is by a three-fold right : My Creator, who in-
fused it into me : My Redeemer, who freely ransomed
it with his dearest blood : My Sanctifier, who assisted me
now in my greatest and latest assaults of temptation,"
ikc. He was the author of nearly forty works, chiefly
controversial, — Middkton, vol. iii. 166.
FEED, is a metaphor taken from flocks, and is express-
ive both of the eating of the flock and of the care of the
shepherd to provide their food, Christ feeds his people ;
he wisely and kindly applies to their souls his supporting,
strengthening, comforting word, blood, and spirit : he
rules and protects them, and wUl forever render them hap-
py in the enjoyment of himself and his fulne.5S, Isa. 40:
I. Rev. 7: 17. (See Pastor and Sbephekd.) — Bronm.
FEEL. Christ has ?i feeling of our infirmities; hav-
ing endured the like, he tenderly sympathizes with us in
our troubles, Heb. 4: 15. Such as keep God's com-
mandments feel no evil, meet with nothing that really
tends to their hurt. Eccl, 8; 3. The heathen feel after
God when, amid great ignorance and mistake, they search
out and perceive his existence, and some of his perfec-
tions. Acts 17: 27. They are past feeling, who have
their conscience so seared that they can commit the most
horrid crimes without the least conviction or remorse.
Eph. 4: 19,— £ra™,.
FEELINGS, (Religious,) are those sensations or
emotions of the mind produced by the views we have of
religion. While some enthusiasts boast of, depend on,
and talk mucli of their feelings, there are others who are
led to discard the term, and almost to abandon the idea of
religious feeling ; but it is evident, that however many
have been misguided and deceived by their feelings, yet
there is no such thing as religion without them. For 'in-
stance, religion consists in contrition, repentance, and de-
votion ; now what is contrition but a feeling of soiTow
for sin ? what is repentance but a feeling of hatred to it,
with a relinquishing of it .? what is devotion but a feeling
of love to God and his ways ? Who can separate the idea
of feeUng from any of these acts ? The fact is this : reli-
gious feelings, like every thing else, have been abused j
and men, to avoid the imputation of fanaticism, have run
into the opposite evil of lukewarmness, and been content
with a system without feehng its energy. (See Apf ec-
TiON ; Enthusiasm ; Experience.) — Hend. Buck.
FEET. (See Foot.)
FEIGN ; deceitfully to forge, (Neh, 6: 8.) to put on ap-
pearance of what is not real. Feigned lips are such as
utter what the heart thinks not. Ps. 17:1. Feigned obe-
dience is what proceeds not from a sincere and good will.
Ps. 80: 14. Feigned words are such as represent persons
and things otherwise than as they really are, 2 Pet. 2: 3.
Unfeigned is that which is sincere, true, and candid ; so
faith unfeigned is that whereby the heart, with sincerity
and candor, receives Christ and all his fulness, as offered
in the gospel. 1 Tim. 1: 5. — Bronm.
FELICITAS ; a lady of Lyons, and a Christian mar-
tyr of the second century, who suffered in company with
Perpetua, (See Pekpetua,)
FELICITATUS, an illustrious Roman lady, who suf-
fered martyrdom under the emperor Aurelius. She was
of noble descent, and the most shining virtues adorned
PEL
[631 ]
FEN
her Christian profession. She had seven sons, whom she
educated in the most exemplarj' piety. They were all
arrested on the charge of being Christians. Publius, the
Roman governor, sought to prevail on the mother to re-
linquish Christianity, hoping through her to intluence her
sons. She was equally inflexible to persuasion and me-
nace. The sons were then tried separately, but each wa.s
found faithful to Christ, in consequence of which the
whole family was ordered to execution. The mother, af-
ter beholding her sons put to death with various modes of
barbarity, calmly yielded her own neck to the sword of
the executioner. — Fox.
FELIX, (Claudius,) succeeded Cumanvts in the gov-
ernment of Judea, in the days of the apostles. He mar-
ried Drusilla, the sister of the young king Agrippa, having
prevailed on her to leave her former husband, Azizits, king
of the Emessenians. (See Drusili.a.) The character
of Felix as delineated by his contemporaries, is far from
reflecting any honor upon his memory. He was so oppres-
sive, says Tacitus, tliat '• he exercised the atithority com-
mitted to him with all manner of cruelty and lewdness."
He resided at the city of Csesarea, when Paul was brought
there for sal'etv under an escort of the Roman soldiers.
Acts 23; 26, 27. 21: 1, &c.
The apostle's address before him and his adulterous
paramour, has been universally admired both for its being
strikingly adapted to the characters and circurastance.s of
his audience, and for the boldness with which this illustri-
ous prisoner must have uttered it, though standing before
the tribunal of a man who might have sentenced him to
death.
Mark the impression, which the apostle's reasoning
made upon the conscience of the man to whom it was
directed. Neither the flattering harangue of TertuUus be-
fore, nor the presence of his Drusilla now. nor the con-
scious dignity of his office as Caesar's viceroy, could shield
him from that conviction, which, like a flash of lightning,
darted the evidence of truth, with an irresistible force, on
his mind. And what makes the instance before us so re-
markable is, that the inward perturbation of Felix's con-
science became so visible, thai his courage and command
of countenance apparently forsook him ; and he, at Avhose
tribunal others had been accustomed to tremble, now sat a
Irembhng spectacle ef conscious guilt, pallid and confused
at the sight of a prisoner, armed with no other weapon
than the voice of honest truth. But the voice of truth a nd
Ihe voice of God are one, whether they speak by the
mouth of an apostle, or that of an angel ; by the sound of
the gospel, or the voice of thunder.
Yet ,so unwilling V\-as Felix lo be delivered from the
tyranny of his passions, that he gave the apostle the most
abrupt dismission, saying, '' Go thy way for this time ;
when I have a convenient season, I will send for thee."
Alas! that season never arrived in a sense correspondent
with the wishes of Paul, or consistent with the feelings of
a man trembling under a sense of guilt, and solicitous
about his everlasting salvation . For, though he sent for
the apostle afterwards, from a hope that his friends would
advance a considerable sum for his release ; yet he in-
quired no more "concerning the faith in Christ," and he
trembled no more, his conscience returning to a deeper stu-
pefaction, and the sinner to a deeper guilt — the usual conse-
quence of slighting the gospel and stifling conviction, after
the terrors of a temporary impression. He returned to
his Drusilla, and threw away his honor and his salvation
in the arms of a base woman, the very name and sight of
whom, it is to be feared, he would have cause to execrate
to all eternity.
Unhappy man! to consult the favor of the world, at
the expense of truth, justice, and religion ! and to throw
away in guilty supineness and unbelief the golden oppor-
tunity which Providence afforded him of hearing the truth,
from the mouth of the chief of the apostles. See De
Comcy'i Christ Crucijkd ; Atterbury's Sermmis ; Saurins Scr-
mom.
Felix was recalled to Rome in the year of Christ 60, and
many of the Jews followed him thither to complain of the
extortion and various acts of violence by which his admi-
nistration in Judea was disgraced, the consequence of all
which would have been fatal to him, had not his brother
Pallas interceded for him with the emperor, and by his
interest rescued him from the efl"ecls of his indignation.
And as to the lascivious Drusilla, we are told by Josephus,
that, along with her son, the fruit of their ilUcit amour,
she was consumed in an eruption of mount Vesuvius.
Felix was succeeded in the government of Judea, by For-
tius Festus. Joseph. Aiitiq. b. xx. ch. 5. — .loiies.
FELL, (John, D. D.) bishop of Oxford, an eminently
learned divine, was born at Longworth, in Berks, June
23d, 1625, and graduated as master of arts in 1613.
During the protectorate, he continued in obscurity ; but
on the restoration he obtained a stall at Chichester,
whence he was preferred to a more valuable one at Christ
church, and soon alter became dean of that society. In
1666, he ser\'ed the oflice of vice-chancellor of the univer-
sity, and ten years after was raised to the see of Oxfonl,
retaining his deanery. As a prelate he was distinguished
equally by his learning and munificence. Several valua-
ble works from his pen are extant, among others, a Latin
translation of Wood's " History and Antiquities of Ox-
ford," in two volumes, folio; " A Life of Dr. Hammond,"
pubhshcd in 1060 ; another of Dr. AUestree ; an edition
of Cyprian's Works; St. Clement's two Epistles to the
Corinthians, in Greek and Latin ; " Artis Logicee Com-
pendium ;" "A Paraphrase on St. Paul's Epistles;" a new
edition of the Greek Testament with notes, and a collec-
tion of the various readings; and several sermons. His
death took place in 1686. — Biog. Brit. ; Jones.
FELLOWSHIP ; joint interest, or the having one com-
mon stock. The fellowship of the saints is two-fold : —
1. With God. 1 John 1: 3. 1 Cor. 1: 9. 1 Cor. 13: 14—2.
With one another. 1 John 1: 7.
Fellowship with God consists in knowledge of his will.
Job 22; 21. John 17; 3. Agreement in design. Amos 3: 2.
Mutual afiection. Kom. 8: 38, 39. Enjoytnent of his pre-
sence. Ps. 4: 6. Conformity to his image. 1 John 2: 6.
1 John 1: 6. Participation of his felicity. 1 John 1: 3, 4.
Ephes. 3: U— 21. 2 Cor. 13: 14.
Fellowship of I he saints may be considered as a fellow-
ship of duties. Rom. 12; 6. 1 Cor. 12: 1. 1 Thess. 5; 17,
18. James 5; 16. Of ordinances. Heb. 10; 24. Acts 2:
46. Of graces, love, jo}', &c. Heb. ]0: 24. 5Ial. 3: Hi.
2 Cor. 8: 4. Of interest spiritual, and sometimes tempo
ral. Rom. 12: 4, 13. Heb. 13: 16. Of suflerings. Rom. 1.5
1,2. Gal. 6: 1, 2. Rom. 12: 15. Of eternal glory. Rev
7: 9. (See Communion.) — Heiid. Bad:
FELTHAM, (Owen,) a valuable writer, of whom noth-
ing is known but that he was a native of Suflolk, lived
many years in the carl of Thomond's family, and died
about 1678- His only work is. Resolves, Divine. Political,
and Moral. It has passed through thirteen editions, and its
merit justifies our lamenting that Fehham wrote no more.
— Dnveupnrt.
FENCED CITIES; walled round atout ; fortified and
so made strong and dilficull to be taken or hull. 2 Chron.
11: 10. Job 10: n.—Bromi.
FENCING TABLES ; the designation of a sacramen-
tal rite among the Scotch Presbyterians, which takes place
almost immediately before the distribution of the ele-
ments, and consists in the minister's pointing out the cha-
racter of those who have, and of those who have not, a
right to sit down at the table. This address is followed up
by the reading of several passages of Scripture, descrip-
tive of the character of saints and sinners. — Hend. Bud.
FENELON, (Francis de Salisnac de la Motte,) one
of the most able of French writers and virtuous of men,
was born, in 1651, at the castle of Fenelon, in Fengord ;
FE R
[ 532 ]
FET
studied at Cahors and Paris ; and entered into holy orders
at the age of twenty-four. The archbishop of Paris ap-
pointed him superior of the newly-converted female Ca-
tholics, and his success in this office, and the merit of his
treatises on Female Education and on the Ministry of
Pastors, induced Louis XIV. to send him on a mission to
Poitou to convert the Protestants. This post Fenelon ac-
cepted only on the express condition that force should not
be employed in aid of his efforts. In 1689, he was select-
ed hy 51. de Beauvilliers to be tutor to the duke of Bur-
gundy and his younger brothers. It was for the use of
his royal pupil that he composed his Telemachus. In
1694, he was raised to the archbishopric of Cambray.
He did not, however, long enjoy in peace his «-ell-merited
preferment. Having espoused the cause of Madara Guy-
on, and published a work. The JIaxims of the Saints,
which was considered as teaching her doctrine of quie-
tism, he was bitterly attacked by Bossuet, and his book
was uUimalely censured by the pope. Fenelon himself
lead his recantation in his- own cathedral. The auger c{
Louis XIV. was still more roused against him by the ap-
pearance of Telemachus, which was surreptitiously pub-
lished by a servant, to whom it had been intrusted for
transcription. It was looked upon by the haughty and
ambitious monarch as a covert satire upon his own mis-
government and criminal love of war. Fenelon was, in
consequence, kept at a distance from the court. But,
though discountenanced by his own sovereign, a just tri-
bute was paid to his merit by foreigners. The lands of
his diocese were exempted from pillage, and his person
was treated with tlie utmost respect by the duke of Marl-
borough, and the other generals of the allies.
His conduct through life was consistent with his dw-
trines and principles. Habitually cheerful and amiable,
he endeavored to imitate his master, Jesus Christ. He
slept little ; ate little ; and allowed himself no pleasure,
but what he enjoyed in the accomplishment of duties.
The exercises of walking or riding were his only recrea-
tions during the whole time he was archbishop of Cam-
bra)': When he went out, he spent his tin»e in usefitl con-
versation with his friends, cn' in benevolent visits to the
people of his diocess ; conversing seriousl)' with the poor ;
entering their houses and admonishing, reproving, or con-
soling tl"»en>, as their several circmnstancesandcharacters
required. He gsve almost all his revenue to hospitals ;
clerg}'men whom he educated ; monasteries of nuns in
distress; decayed gei^tlemen, and persons of all ranks,
who, during the rime of war, were within the reach of his
generosity. He died in 17 15, at the age of sixty-three, leav-
ing behind him an imperishable reputation, as an eloquent
writer, a conscietitiotis prelate, and an amiable, enlight-
ened, and virtuotis man. Calm and connposed on the
verge of eternity, reposing on the Savior, his only lan-
guage amidst the severesi sufferings was, " Not my will,
but thine be done '."
His productions fonn nine volumes in quarto. The
principal of them, besides those already mentioned, are,
Dialogues on Eloquence ; Dialogues of the Dead ; I>e-
monstration of the Existence of a God ; and Spiritual
"Works.— BK^er's Life of Fenelon ,- New Edin. Ennj. ;
Enaj. Amer. ; Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
FERDINANDO ; a Protestant martyr of Seville in
Spain. He was a teacher of youth, and was apprehended
on the charge of instructing his pupils in the principles
of the Protestant faith. He was condemned to the tor-
ture and the stake. While in prison awaiting the day of
execution, a monk, who had abjured the errors of popery,
■was his fellow-prisoner. This unhappy man, through
fear of death, offeretl to return to the Romish communion.
Ferdinando on hearing this, exerted himself to show him
the guilt and danger of such a course afier being enlight-
ened ; and with such success that the monk solemnly re-
nounced his weak intention, calmly submitted to the sen-
tence of the inquisitors, and was burnt to death at the
same time with his more courageous friend. — Fox, p.'135.
FERRAR, (Robert,) bishop of St. David's, one of the
sufferers in the reign of queen Mary. He received his
education at Oxford, where he became a regular canon
and bachelor of divinity. The dnke of Somerset, lord
protector in the reign of Edward VI. was his friend and
patron, and employed him in carrying on the imporfaaf
work of reformation. He was one of. the committee
nominated to compile the English liturgy. The zeal of
Ferrar, who was consecrated bishop in 1547, .soon procur-
ed him many enemies among the papists, and after the
fall of his eminent patron, he was under a false charge
committed to prison, some time before the death of the
king. On the accession of Mary, he was tried on the
new charge of heresy as a Protestant, degraded from his
ecclesiastical functions, and, in company with Hooper,
Bradford, Rogers, Saunders, and others, delivered over to
the secular power for punishment. So misch for the vmion
of church and state !
A little before this good bishop suffered, a yoinng gen-
tlemen who visited him, lamented the severity of the kind
of death he was about to undergo, Ferrar, with all the
firmness of the primitive martyrs, immediately replied,
" If you see me once to stir, while I suffer the pains of
bttrning, then girve no credit to those doctrines for which
I die." By the grace of God he was enabled to make
good this assertion ; for so patiently he stood, says Mr,
Fox, that he never movedv until he was struck down ire
the flames by a btow on his head. Bisliop Ferrar was
burned at Carmarthen, in Wales, March 30, 1555. — Mid'
dieton, vol, i. 346,
FERRAEA, (Renata, Docitbss of,); famo«3 for her
virtues and attachment to the reformed chnrch, was the
daughter of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany. She was
Ijorn at Blois in 1510. In 1527, she was married to Her-
cules d' Este, duke of Ferrara and Modena. She is said
to have been mistress of immense erudition, excelling in
all parts of the mathematics, but especially in astronomy.
Her hasband died in 1559, and the next year she- left Italy
on account of her religion, a.n«l returned to France, where
she was permitted to profess the Protestaat faith. She re-
sided at Montargis, and there gave protection to as many
as were persecuted, till she was obliged to- do so no longer.
It was with great regret she yiekled !o so vigorous a re-
straint ; and if her courage appeared on this occasion,
her charity was no less conspicuous ; for during the trou-
bles of France, she fed and maintained a great number of
Protestants in her castle, who had fled to her for refuge.
She interceded strongly for the prince of Conde, when he
■was imprisoned at Orleans in the time of the young
king Francis ; but was afterwards displeased with him,
because neither slie nor her ministers approved of the
Protestants taking lip arms. This Christian princess
died at Montargis in 1575. — Setkam.
FERRET ; a sort of weasel, which Moses declares to
be unclean. Lev. 11: 30. The Greek miignle is composed
of rmis, a rat, and gnk, a weasel, because this animal has
something of both. The Hebrew onaca, is by some trans-
lated hedge-hog, by others leech, oi sol mxcmder; by Bochart,
lizard. — Calmet.
FERVENT; earnest, warm, burning, all in a glow.
Rom. 12: 11. 2 Cor. 7: 7. I Pel. 4: 8, and 1: 22. Col. 4:
12. James 5: 6. — Ermvn.
FESTUS, (PoRTins,) sttcci>eded FeTix in the govem-
ment of Jiidea, A. D. 60. Finding how much robbing
abounded in Judea, Festus very diligently pursued the
thieves ; and he also suppressed a magician, who drew
the people after him into the desert. To oblige the Jews,
Felix, when he resigned his government, had left Paul
in bonds at Czesarea in Palestine, (Acts 24: 27.) and when
Festus arrived, he was entreated by the principal Jews to
condemn the apostle, or to order him up to Jerusalem ;
they having consjTired to assa.s-sinale him in the way.
Festus, however, answered, that it was not customary
■with the Romans to condemn any man without hearing
him, and promised to hear their accusations at Cassarea.
But Paul appealed to Csesar ; and so secured himself
from the prosecution of the Jews, and the intentions of
Festus, whom they had corrupted. Festus died in Judea,
A. D. 62, and Albinus succeeded him. — Calmet.
FETISH ; an idol. This word, now frequently met with
in the French and German languages, was first brought
into use by De Brosses, in his work Dit Culte des Dietrx
Fetiches, (1760,) and is derived either from the Portu-
guese/rtisso, a block adored as an idol, or, according to
Winterbottom, from fetiezeira, an enchantress. The For-
FIF
[ 533
Fl G
luguese gave this name to the idols of the negroes, on
the Senegal, and afterwards the word received a more ex-
tensive meaning. The general signification now given
to fetish seems to be an object worshipped, not represent-
ing any living figure. Hence stones, arms, vessels, &:c.
a.Te fetishes. The negroes of Guinea suppose a fetish to
preside over ever)' canton or district, and one also over
every family, and each individual, which the individual
worships on the anniversary of his birth-day. Those of
the better sort have, besides this, weekly festivals, on
which they kill a cock or sheep. They believe the mate-
rial substances which they worship to be endowed with
inteUigence, and the power of doing them good or evil ;
and also that the fetishere, or priest, being of their council,
is privy to all that those divinities know, and thence ac-
quainted with the most secret thoughts and actions of
men. The household, or family /eds/i, narrowly mspects
the conduct of every individual in the house, and rewards
or punishes each according to his deserts. The rewards
consist in the multiplication of the slaves and wives of
the worshipper, and the punishment in their diminution ;
but the most terrible punishment is death. At Cape Coast
there is a public guardian fetish, supreme in power and
dignity. This is a rock which projects into the sea from
the bottom of the cliff, on which the castle is built. To
this rock annual sacrifices are presented, and the re-
sponses given through the priests are rewarded by the
blinded devotees. — Head. Biici.
FETTERS ; shackles or chains, for binding prisoners
and madmen. With such were Joseph's feet hurt in the
prison. Ps. 105: 18. The saints bind nobles with fetters
of iron, when, by prayer and the exercise of the power
that God gives them, they restrain them from accomplish-
ing their wicked designs. Ps. 119: 8. — Bron-n.
FEVER ; a well-known species of disease, consisting
in the fermentation of the blood, accompanied with a
quick pulse and excessive heat. Deut. 28: 22. — Brown.
FEUILLANTINES ; a reformed order of Cistertian
monks, who went barefoot, lived only on herbs, and prac-
tised astonishing aitsterities. Their congregation was
afterwards divided into two by pope Urban VIII. in 1630,
who separated the French from the Italians, and gave
them two generals. — Hend. Buck.
FIDELITY ; faithfulness, or the conscientious discharge
of those duties of a religious, personal, and relative na-
ture, which we are bound to perform. (See an excellent
sermon on the subject in Dr. Erskine's Sermons, vol. ii. p.
304.)— Wenrf. Buck.
FIELD. (See Fukeows.)
FIELD, (RicHARn, D. D.,) an eminent divine of the
Church of England, was born at Hampstead, Hertford-
shire, in 1561, and educated at Oxford. He continued
seven years at Magdalen hall, where he was distinguish-
ed as a great divine, a great preacher, and an acute dis-
putant. He was afterwards reader of divinity at Lincoln's
Inn, London, and rector of Burrowclere in Hampshire. Here
he refused the offer of St. Andrew's, in Holborn, London,
a much more valuable living, that he might serve God
and pursue his studies, in a more retired situation. In
1598, queen Elizabeth made him one of her chaplains,
and he formed a warm friendship with Richard Hooker,
a man of kindred spirit. In 1609, he was made dean of
Gloucester, and published an enlarged edition of his cele-
brated work, the Four Books of the Church. He was es-
teemed a perfect oracle in this kind of learning. Divines,
even of the first order, scarce ever went to him without
loading themselves with questions. Fuller calls him,
" that learned divine, whose memory smellelh like a field
which the Lord hath blessed." When king James heard
him preach the first time, he said, " This is a Field for
God to dwell in." His majesty retained so good an opi-
nion of him, that he designed to raise him to the bishopric
of Oxford ; but God was pleased, as Mr. Wood remarks,
to prefer him for a better place, for, on the twenty-first of
November, 1616, he died, aged fifty-five years, leaving
behind hira a character equally great and amiable. — j)Iid-
dleton, vol. ii. 374.
FIFTH-MONARCHY-MEN; a denomination which
arose m the seventeenth century. They derived their
name from maintaining that there will be s. fifth universal
monarchy under the personal rtign of Jesus Christ upon
earth. This sentiment is similar to that of Origen and
the Blillenarians ; but with this important difi'erence in
practice, that the latter were willing to wait till Christ
came to assume the government, whereas the former at-
tempted to take possession of it in his name. They were
equally enemies to the protector and the king. Their first
plan was to blow up Cromwell, at Whitehall ; afterwards
they plotted against his son Richard ; and, soon after the
restoration of Charles II., they raised an open rebellion
against him.
Their leader in all these attempts, was Thomas Venncr,
a wine-cooper, who was also a preacher, and had a meet-
ing-house in Coleman street. One Sunday morning,
(January 6, 1661,) having raised the passions of his hear-
ers by an inflammatory discourse, they sallied out, to the
number of fifty or sixty, with appropriate standards, cry-
ing out, " No King but Christ." Some of them were weak
enough to expect the King of Heaven would come down
to head them. The lord mayor first drew up some of the
trained bands to oppose them; and afterwards, general
Monk marched his regiment into London. At first they
fought with a desperate valor, and killed several ; but be-
ing completely subdued, after two or three days skirmish-
ing, Venner, and about twenty others, were taken, tried,
and most of them executed for high treason. — Bishop
Burnett's Own Times, vol. i. hook ii. anno 1660 ; Wilson's
Dissent. Churches, vol. ii. p. 427 ; Benedict ; Williams.
FIG-TREE. Gen.3:7. Num. 13: 23. Matt. 7: 16. 21:
19. 24:32, Mark 11: 13,20, 21. 13:28. Luke 6: 44. 13:
6, 7. 21: 29. John 1:
48, James 3: 12. Rev,
6: 13. This tree was
^^j^i^vjy /(!« very common in Pales-
^^^~^j\fvy tine. It becomes large,
■g^p-SI>^^^:^ dividing into many
— branches, ^ihich are
furnished with leaves
shaped like those of
the mulberry, and af-
fords a friendly shade.
Accordingly, we read,
in the Old Testament,
of Judah and Israel
dwelling, or sitting se-
curely, every man under his fig-tree, 1 Kings 4: 25. Micah
4: 4. Zech. 3: 10. 1 Mac. 14: 12. And, in the New Testa-
ment, we find Nalhanael vmdera fig-tree, probably for the
purposesof devotional retirement, John 1: 49 — 51. Hassel-
quist, in his journey from Nazareth to Tiberias, says,
" We refreshed ourselves under the shade of a fig-tree,
where a shepherd and his herd had their rendez^'ous ; but
without either house or hut." The fruit which it bears
is produced from the trunk and large branches, and not
from the smaller shoots, as in most other trees. It al-
ways precedes the leaves, and is soft, sweet, and ver)-
nourishing. The first ripe fig is still called bnccore in the
Levant, which is nearly its Hebrew name, Jer. 24: 2.
Thus Dr. Shaw, in giving an account of the fruits in Bar-
bary, mentions, " the black and white bocrore, or early
fig," which is produced in June, though the kfrmfs, or
kcrmouse, the " fig," properly so called, which they pre-
serve and make up into cakes, is rarely ripe before An-
gu.st." And on Nahum 3: 12, he observes, that -'the
bnrcores drop as soon as the)' are ripe, and, according to
the beautiful allusion of the prophet, fall into the month
of the eater upon being shaken." Farther, " it frequent-
ly falls out in Barbary," says he, " and we need not doubt
of the like in this hotter climate of Judea, that, according
to the quality of the preceding season, some of the more
forward and vigorous trees will now and then yield i few
ripe figs six weeks or more before the fnll season. Some-
thing like this may be alluded to by the prophet Hosea,
when he sa)-s, 'I saw your fathers as the first ripe in the
fig-tree, at her first time,' Hosea 9; 10. Such figs were
reckoned a great dainty." (See Isaiah 2S: 4.)
2. The account of our Savior's denunciation against the
baiTeu fig-tree, (Matt. 21: 19. Mark 11: 13,) has occasion-
ed some of the boldest cavils of infidelity ; and the vindi-
cation of it has needlessly exercised the ingenuity ol se-
FIL
[534 J
FIN
veral of the most learned critics and commentators. The
vhole difficulty arises from the circumstance of his disap-
pointment in not finding fruit on the tree, when it is ex-
pressly said, that " the time of figs was not yet." While
it was supposed that this expression signified, that the
time for such trees to bring forth fruit was not yet come,
it looked very unaccountable that Christ should reckon a
tree barren, though it had leaves, and curse it as such,
when he knew that the time of bearing figs was not come ;
and that he should come to seek figs, on this tree, when
he knew that figs were not used to be ripe .so soon in the
year. But the expression does not signify the time of the
coming forth of figs, but the time of the gathering in of
ripe figs, as is plain from the parallel expressions. Matt.
21:34. Mark 12: 2. Luke 20: 10. St. Mark, by saying,
"Tor the time of figs was not 3'et," does not design to
give a reason for "his finding nothing but leaves;" but he
gives a reason for what he said in the clause before, " He
came, if haply he might find any thereon ; " and it was a
good reason for our Savior's coming and seeking figs on
the tree, because the time for their being gathered was not
come. St. Matthew informs us that the tree was " in the
way," that is, in the common road, and therefore, probably,
no particular person's property.
Jesus was pleased to make use of this miracle to pre-
figure the speedy ruin of the Jewish nation, on account of
its unfruitfitlness under greater advantages than any other
people enjoyed at that day ; and, like all the rest of his
miracles, it was done with a gracious intention, namely, to
alarm his countrymen, and induce them to repent. In the
blasting of this barren fig-tree, the distant appearance of
which was so fair and promising, he delivered one more
awful lesson to a degenerate people, of whose hypocritical
exterior, and flattering but delusive pretensions, it was a
just and striking emblem. — Watson; Jones; Abbott.
FIGHT. The violent and irreconcilable struggle be-
tween the saints' inward grace and corrtiption, and their
striving against the temptations of Satan, are called a war,
or warfare. Rom. 7: 23. 1 Pet. 2: 11. Eph. (i: 11, 12.
Eoth are the good fight of faith, carried on by the exercise
of the grace of faith, or Christ's word and power ; and
in maintainance of the doctrine oi faith : and it is good
in respect of their cause, captain, and the manner and
end of their conflict. 1 Tim. ti: 12. 2 Tim. 4:7. Outward
opposition, trouble, and distress, are lilccned to a fght or
tvarfare. 2 Cor. 7: 5. Isa. 40: 2. (See Battle.) — Bronm.
FIGURES. (See Types.)
FILIAL PIETY, is the affectionate attachment of chil-
dren to their parents, inclttding in it love, reverence, obe-
dience, and relief. Justly has it been observed, that these
great duties are prompted equally by nature and by grati-
tude, independent of the injunctions of religion ; for
where shall we find the person who hath received from
any one benefits so great, or so many, as children from
their parents? And it may be truly said, that if persons
are undutiful to their parents, they seldom prove good to
any other relation. (See article Cnii.D.) — Umd. Buck.
FILIATION, OF THE Son of God. (See Son of God.)
FILL. To Jil/ lip what is behind of the sufferings of
Christ, is to bear the troubles assigned by him to his fol-
lowers, and which are borne tor his sake. Col. 1: 24. To
Ji/l up the measure of sin, is to add one iniquity to ano-
ther, till the patience of God can no longer suffer them lo
escape unpunished. Matt. 23: 32. 1 Thess. 2: 16. Satan
JUIs the heart when he strongly inclines and emboldens it
to sin. Acts. 5: 3. Sinners are filid with their own devi-
ces, with their own ways, with drunkenness, and have their
faces filled with shame, when God, to punish their wicked
acts and designs, brings dreadful and confounding calami-
lies upon them. Prov. 1:31. 14:14. 12:21. Ezek. 23: 33.
Ps. 83: 16. Christ fiVeth nil m all : he is every where
present ; is in all their churches ; and their true members ;
he is the great substance of all the blessings of the new
covenant, and of all the graces and duties of li>s people
Eph. 1: 23.— Brown.
FILIOQUE, a term signifying "and from the Son,"
which the Grejeks accuse the Latin church of introducin"
into the ancient creed, relative to the procession of the
Holy Spirit: the former maintaining that his pmcH'-^ion
is from the Father only. At what time this Intro liii;tiu:i
took place cannot be ascertained, but Augustine has the
expression, procedere ab ntroqrte; and the synod of Toledo^
in 589, declares every one to be a heretic, who does not be-
lieve, a patre fiUoque procedere Spiritum sanctum. Every at-
tempt to reconcile the two churches, with respect to this
point, has proved abortive, so that it continues lo be a
mark of distinction between them. — Hend. Buck.
FILTHY LUCRE, is gain basely and sinfully gotten;
as when ministers make their benefice their great aim in
their work. Tit. 1: 7, 11. 1 Pet. 5: 2.— Brown.
FIND, to meet wdth, is used sometimes for to attack,
to surprise one's enemies, to hght on them suddenly, &c. so
Anah, "foundthe Emim," Gen.36: 24. (SeeEiuiM.) To
find favor in the sight of any one, is an expressive form of
speech common in Scripture. — Calmct.
FINGER. The fnger of God, denotes his power, his
operation. Pharaoh's magicians discovered the finger of
God in some of the miracles of Moses, Exod. 8: 19. That
legislator gave the tables written with the finger of God, to
the Hebrews, Exod. 31: 18. The heavens were the work
of God's fingers. Psalm 8: 3.
To put forth one's finger, is a bantering gesture, or
an insulting gesture, Isa. 59: 8. Some take this for a
menacing gesture, as Nicanor stretched out his hand
against the temple, threatening to bum it, 2 Mac. 14: 33.
—Hend. Buck.
FINISH, means to bring to pass, toaccomph,sh,to perfect,
or to put an end to any thing. One of the evangelists re-
lates that when Jesus was suspended upon the cross, and
immediately prior to his giving up the ghost, "he cried
with a loud voice, It is finished ! "
1. The ministry which his heavenly Father had commit-
ted unto him, when he sanctified him and sent him into the
world to publish the glad tidings of peace to guilty men,
■was now fidfilled. John 17: 4.
2. His awful and complicated sufferings were ended.
The whole of his life had corresponded to the prophetic
delineation of his character. " He -n'as a man of sorrows
and acquainted with grief." Isa. 53: 3.
3. An end was now virtually put to the Levitical dis-
pensation. That economy, founded in divine appoint-
ment, and which had subsisted during a period of fifteen
hundred years, having answered the great purposes for
which it was instituted, now obtained its consummation.
Col. 2: 14, 15. Eph. 2: 14, 15. Heb. 9: 10. But,
4. The work of purchasing our redemption was now
finished. The justice of God obtained full satisfaction,
for the dishonor which sinners had done lo his violated
law, so that now " God is just even in justifying the un-
godly who believe in Jesus," at whose hands he hath re-
ceived ample satisfaction for all their sins. Rom. 3: 24 —
26. These are some of the important things that are indi-
cated in that memorable saying, "it is riNisnED." — Jones.
FINLEY, (Samuel, D. D.,) president of the college of
New Jersey, was born in the county of Armagh, Ireland, in
1715, of pious parents, and was one of seven sons, who
were all pious. Very early in life it pleased God to
awaken and convert him. He arrived at Philadelphia, Sept.
28, 1734. He was ordained Oct. 13th by the presbytery
of New Brunswick. The first part of his jninistry was
spent in fatiguing, itinerant labors. He conlribuled his
efi'orts with Gilbert Tennent and Mr. Whitefield in promot-
ing the revival of religion, which was at that period so rc-
maikable throughout this country. His benevolent zeal
sometimes brought him into trying circumstances. His
exertions were greatly blessed in a number of towns in
NcAV Jersey, and he preached for six months with great ac-
ceptance in Philadelphia. In June, 1744, he accepted an
invitation from Nottingham, Maryland, where he continu-
ed near seven years, faithfully and successfully discharging
the duties of his office. Here he established an academy,
which acquired great reputation. Upon the death of presi-
dent Davies, of Princeton, Mr. Finley was chosen his suc-
cessor. The college flourished under his care ; but it en-
joyed the benefit of his superintendence but a few years.
He died July 17, 1766, aged 50, and was buried by the side
of his friend, Gilbert Tennent.
During his last sickness he was perfectly resigned to the
divine will; he had a strong faith in his Savior; and he
frequently expressed an earnest desire of departing, that
PIR
[ 535 ]
FIR
he might dwell with the Lord Jesus. A short time before
his death he sat up, and prayed earnestly, that God would
enable him to endure patiently to the end, and keep him
from dishonoring the ministr}'. He then said, " Blessed be
God, eternal rest is at hand. Eternity is but long enough
to enjoy my God. This, this has animated me in my se-
verest studies ; I was ashamed to take rest here. O, that
I might be filled with the fulness of God!" He then ad-
dressed himself to all his friends in the room, " 0, that
each of you may experience what, blessed be God, I do,
when you come to die; may you have the pleasure in a
dying hour to reflect, that with faith and patience, zeal and
sincerity, you have endeavored to serve the Lord; and
may each of you be impressed, as I have been, with God's
word, looking upon it as substantial, and not only fearing
but being unwilling to offend against it." On being ask-
ed how he felt, he replied, " Full of triumph ! I triumph
through Christ ! Nothing chps my wings, but the thoughts
of my dissolution being delayed. 0, that it were to-night !
l\Iy very soul thirsts for eternal rest." When he was ask-
ed, what he so.w in eternity to excite such vehement desires,
he said, "I see the eternal love and goodness of God; I
see the fulness of the Mediator ; I see the love of Jesu.s.
O, to be dissolved, and to be with him ! 1 long to be clothed
■Hith the complete righteousness of Christ." Thus this
excellent man died in the fUU assurance of salvation.
He published a number of sermons and pamphlets.
— Allen.
FINLE Y, (Robert, D. D.,) president of the university
of Georgia, was born at Princeton in 1772, and graduated
at Princeton college in 1787 He was the minister of
Basking-Bridge, New Jersey, from June 1795 until 1817.
Deeply interested in the welfare of the free blacks, he
formed a plan of sending them to Africa and may be
considered as the father of the Colonization society. In
Dec. 1816, he went to Washington, and succeeded in call-
ing a meeting of gentlemen, Dec. 21, at which addresses
were made by Mr. Clay and Mr. Randolph. The next
week a constitution was adopted and judge Washington
chosen president. On his return. Dr. Finley caused the
establishment of an auxiliary society at Trenton. Being
at this period chosen president of Franklin college, at
Athens, Georgia, he repaired to that place in 1817, and in
a k-w months died there, Oct. 3, 1817, aged 45, leaving a
wife and nine children. He published several sermons. —
Memoirs of Finley. — Allen.
FIR, (Heb. berosh,) an evergreen tree, of beautiful ap-
pearance, -whose lofty height and dense foliage afliard a
spacious shelter and
shade. It has a very
strait trunk, and its
■wood is of great use in
furniture, &c. The
LXX have rendered it,
for want of established
principles of natural
history — cypress, fir, myr-
tle, juniper. The Chal-
dee reads fir constantly ;
and, as Mr. Taylor re-
marks, it is likely this
translator should be
quite as well acquainted
with the subject as any
foreigner.
In 2 Sam. 6: 5. it is
said, that "David and
all the house of Israel played before the Lord on all man-
ner of instruments made of fa-wood," &c. Take the fol-
low'ing passage from Dr. Burney's history of music ; " This
species of wood, so soft in its nature and sonorous in its
effects, seems to have been preferred by the ancients, as
well as the moderns, to every other kind, for the construc-
tion of musical instruments, particularly the bellies of
them, on which their tone chiefly depends. Those of the
harp, lute, guitar, harpsichord, and violin, in present use,
are constantly made of fir-wood." — Calmet.
FIRE. God, to represent to man the glory of his ma-
jesty and the terrors of his justice, hath often appeared in
are, and encompassed with fire, as when he showed him-
self in the burning bush, and descended on mount Sinai,
in the midst of flames, thunderings, and lightning; Ex.
3: 2. 19: 18. Hence fire is a symbol uf the Deity,
and of his just and jealous regard to his glory. "The
Lord thy God is a consuming fire," Deut. 4: 24. Tho
Holy Ghost is compared to fire ; " He shall baptize you
with the Holy Ghost and with fire," Matt. 3: 11. Acts 2: 3.
It is the work of the Holy Spirit to enUghten, purify, and
sanctify the soul ; and to inflame it with love to God, and
zeal for his glory. (See Baptism of the HolyGuost.)
2. The fire which came down from heaven, first upon the
altar in the tabernacle, and afterwards descended anew
upon the altar in the temple of Solomon, at its consecration,
was there constantly fed and maintained by the priests,
day and night, in the same manner as it had been in the
tabernacle. At the destruction of the temple, it was ex-
tinguished : and in the time of the second temple, nothing
was made use of for all their burnt offerings but common
fire only.
3. ThewordofGodiscomparedtofire: "Isnotmyword
like a fire?" Jer. 23: 20. It is full of life and efficacy ;
like a fire it warms, expands, and melts, and is powerful to
consume the dross, and burn up the chafi" and stubble.
Fire is likewise taken for the rage of persecution, dissen-
sion, and division ; " I am come to send fire on earth ;"
Luke 12: 49. as if he had said. Upon my coming and
publishing the gospel, there will follow, through the devil's
malice and corruption of men, fearful persecution to the
professors thereof, and manifold divisions in the world,
whereby men will be tried, whether they will be faithful
or not.
4. The torments of hell are described by fire, both in the
Old and New Testament. Our Savior makes use of this
similitude, to represent the punishment of the damned,
Blark 9: 44. He Ukewise speaks frequently of the eternal
fire prepared for the devil, his angels, and reprobate, or
wicked men. Matt. 25: 41. The sting and remorse of
conscience is generally thought to be the woim that will
never die ; and the wrath of God upon their souls and
bodies, the fire that shall never go out. There are writers,
however, who maintain, that by the worm is lo be under-
stood a living and sensible, not an allegorical and figura-
tive worm ; and by fire, a real elementary and material
fire. Among the abettors of this opinion are Austin,
Cyprian, Chrysostom, Jerome, ifcc. — JVatson.
FIRE PHILOSOPHERS. (See Theosophists.)
FIRMAMENT. It is said, (Gen. 1: 7.) that God made
the firmament in the midst of the waters, lo separate the
inferior from the superior. The word used_Dn this occa-
sion properly signifies expansion, or something expanded.
This expansion is properly the atmosphere, which encom-
passes the globe on all sides, and separates the water in
the clouds from that on the earth. — Watson.
FIRST. Our Savior required his disciples " to seek first
the kingdom of God ;" i. e. before all things ; (Matt. 6: 33.)
and Paul says, that God displayed his mercy towards him,
" who was the chief [first] of sinners," and that in him the
first, " he showed forth all long-suffering, for a pattern,"
&c. 1 Tim. 1: 15, 16.— Calmet.
FIRST-BORN. (See Bikthrisht.)
FIRST FRUITS, among the Hebrews were oblations
of part of the fruits of the harvest, consecrated to God as
an acknowledgment of his sovereign dominion. In this
sense of special consecration to God, it is, that the regene-
rate are called " a kind of first fruits of his creatures,"
James 1: 18. It may mean also that the first Christians
were converted as an earnest of the future conversion of
the whole world. There was another sort of first fruits
which was paid to God. When bread was kneaded in a
family, a portion of it was set apart, and given to the
priest or Levite who dwelt in the place. If there were
no priest or Levite there, it was cast into the oven, and
consumed by the fire. These offerings made a conside-
rable part of the revenues of the priesthood. Lev. 23:
Exod. 22: 29. Chron. 23: 19. Num. 15: 19, 20.
The fa.<:t fruits of the Spirit are such communications
of his grace on earth, as fully assure us of the full enjoy-
ment of God in heaven, Rom. S: 23. Christ is called the
first fruits of them that slept ; for as the first fruits were
earnests to the Jews of the succeeding harvest, so Chnst
Fl S
[ 536 J
FLA
,-« Ihp firbl fruits of the rcsiirrectioli, ur the earnest of a
future resurrection ; (hat as he rose, so shall believers
also rise to happiness and life, 1 Cor. 15: 20.
First fruiif are mentioned in ancient writers as one part
of the church revenue.
First fruits, in the church of England, are the profits
of every spiritual benetice for the first year, according to
the valuation thereof iji the king's book. — Heiid. Buck.
FISH, (Heb. dag, Greek icthus, Matt. 7: 10. 17: 27.
Luke 5: I). John 21: (J, 8, 11,) occurs very frequently.
This appears to be the general name in Scripture of
aquatic animals. Boothroyd, in the note upon Num. 11:
4. says, " I am inclined to think that the word here ren-
dered flesh, denotes only the flesh of fish, as it certainly
" does in Lev. 11: 11; and indeed the next verse seems to
support this explication : ' We remember how freely we
ate fish.' It was then, particularly, the flesh of fish, for
which they longed, which was more relishing than either
the beef or mutton of those regions, which, unless when
young, is dry and unpalatable. Of the great abundance
and deliciousness of the fisji of Egypt, all authors, ancient
and modern, are agreed." Hence we may see how dis-
tressing to the Egyptians was the infliction which turned
the waters of the river into blood, and occasioned the
de:ith of the fish, Exod. 7: 18—21. Their sacred stream
became so polluted as to be unfit for drink, for bathing,
and for other uses of water to which they were supersti-
tiously devoted, and themselves obliged to nauseate what
was the usual food of the common people, and held sacred
by the priests, Exod. 2: 5. 7: 15. 8: 2Q.— Watson.
FISK, (Pli.nv,) missionary to Palestine, was born at
Shelburne, Mass., June 24, 1792, became pious at 16,
and was graduated in 1814 at Middlebury college. Such
was his poverty that for two years he lived on bread and
milk, carried his corn to mill on his shoulders, and a good
woman bakeil his loaf for him. He studied theology at
Andover, was employed as an agent for the American
Board of foreign missions one year, and then sailed for
Palestine with Mr. Parsons, Nov. 3, 1819. On arriving
at Smyrna, Jan. 15, 1820, they engaged in the study of the
eastern languages ; but in a few months removed to Scio,
m order to study modern Greek under professor Bambas.
The college at Scio then had seven or eight hundred stu-
dents. But in 1821, the island was desolated by the bar-
barous Turks. In 1822, he accompanied to Egj-pt his
fellow laborer, Mr. Parsons, and witnessed his death, and
buried him in the Greek convent. From Egypt he pro-
ceded in April, 1823, through the desert to Judea, accompa-
nied by Mr. King and Mr. Wolff'. Having visited Jeru-
salem, he went to Beyroot, Balbect, Damascus, Aleppo, and
Antioch. He made a third visit to Jerusalem with Mr.
King. When he withdrew from Jerusalem, in the spring
of 1825, he retired to the mission family of Mr. Goodell
and Mr. Bird, at Beyroot, where he died of a prevailing
fever, Sabbath morning, Oct. 23, 1825, aged 33.
Mr. Fisk was eminently qualified to be a missionary iu
the East. He was a preacher in Italian, French, Modern
Greek, and Arabic. His various communications are
found m several volumes of the Missionary Herald.—
Bund s Memoir of F,sk.~AUen.
i- ^}^3^' C-^™^^) first minister of Wenham and Chelms-
ford, Mass., was born in England, in 1601, and was edu-
cated at Cambridge. He came to this country in 1637,
and being in the same ship with John Allen, they preached
two sermons almost every day during the voyage. He
was for some lime the teacher of a school at Cambridge.
As his property was large, he made considerable loans to
the province He lived almost three years at Salem, preach-
ing to the church and instructing a number of young per-
sons. When a church was gathered in Enon, or Wenham,
Oct. 8, 1614, he was sealed the minister, and here he
continued till about the year 1650, when he removed to
Chelmsford, then a new town, with the majority of his
church. Having been an able and useful preacher in this
place twenty years, he died, Jan. 14, 1677. He was a
skilful physician, as well as an excellent minister. His son
Moses, was minister of Braintree. Among the severest
afflictions, to which he was called, says Dr. Mather was
the loss of his concordance ; that is, of his wife, who was
so expert m the Scriptures, as to render any other concord-
ance unnecessary. He published a catechism, entitled
The Olive Branch Watered. — Magnalia, iii. 1 li — 143.
Hist. Col. vi. 239, 249 —Allen.
FITCHES, or VETCHES ; a kind of tare. There are
two words in Hebrew which our translators have rendered
fitches, retsaeh and resmet : the first occurs only in Isaiah
28: 25 — 27. and must be the name of some kind of seed;
but the interpreters differ much in explaining it. Jerome,
Maimonides, R. David Kimchi, and the rabbins, understand
it of the gith. The gith was called by the Greeks mdanthion,
and by the Latins /ligella ; and is thus described by Bal-
lester ; " It is a plant commonly met with in gardens, and
grows to a cubit in height, and sometimes more, according
to the richness of the soil. The leaves are small, like those
of fennel, the flower blue, which disappearing, the ovary
shows itself on the top, like that of a poppy, furnished
with litle horns, oblong, divided by membranes into several
partitions, or cells, in which are inclosed seeds of a very
black color, not unlike those of the leek, but of a very fra-
grant smell," And Ausonius observes, that its pungency
is equal to that of pepper : —
Est inter Bruges morsu piper cequiparens git.
Pliny says it is of use in bakehouses, pistrinis, and that
it aflbrds a grateful seasoning to the bread. The Jewish
rabbins also mention the seeds among condiments, and
mixed with bread. For this purpose it was probably used
in the time of Isaiah ; since the inhabitants of those
countries, to this day, have a variety of rusks and biscuits,
most of which are strewed on the top with the seeds of
sesamum, coriander, and wild garden saffron.
The other word is rendered fitches in our translation of
Ezek. 4: 9. ; but in Exod. 9: 32. and Isaiah 28: 25, " rye."
Some think it the spelt ; and this seems to be the most
probable meaning of the Hebrew word; at least it has the
greatest number of interpreters from Jerome to Celsius.
There are not, however, wanting, who think it was rye;
among whom, R. D. Kimchi, followed by Luther, and
our English translators : Dr. Geddes, too, has retained it,
though he says that he is inclined to think that the spelt is
preferable.
Dr. Shaw thinks that this word may signify rice. Has-
selquist, on the contrary, affirms that rice was brought into
cultivation in Egypt under the Caliphs. This, however,
may be doubted. One would think from the intercourse
of ancient Egypt with Babylon and with India, that this
country could not be ignorant of a grain so well suited to
its climate. — Watson.
FIVE POINTS, are the five doctrines controverted
between the Arminians and Calvinists. (See Calvinism.)
— Hend. Buck.
FIX. The heart is fixed when it is powerfully capti-
vated by love of Christ ; firmly depends on God's pro-
mises, perfections, and new covenant relations, and has
its thoughts and desires firmly settled on him. Ps. 62; 5.
112: 1.— Brown.
FLACIANS ; the followers of Matthias Flacius lUyricus,
who flourished in the sixteenth century. He taught that
original sin is the very substance of human nature ; and
that the fall of man was an event which extinguished in
the human mind every virtuous tendency, every noble
faculty, and left nothing behind it but universah darkness
and corruption. — Hend. Buck.
FLAG, (Heb. ocAk,) occurs Gen. 41: 2, 18. Job 8: 11.
and suph, weeds, Exod. 2: 3, 5. Isaiah 19: 6. John 2: 5
The word achu, in the first two instances, is translated
" meadows," and in the latter, " flag." It probably denotes
the sedge, or long grass, which grows in the meadows ol
the Nile, very grateful to the cattle.
The word suph is called by Aben Ezra, " a reed growing
on the borders of the river." Bochart, Fuller, Rivetus,
Ludolphus,and Junius and Tremellius, render it by juncus,
carex, or alga ; and Celsius thinks it the fucus or alga,
" sea-weed." Dr. Geddes says there is little doubt of its
being the sedge called sari, which, as we learn from Theo-
phrastus and Pliny, grows on the marshy banks of the
Nile, and rises to the height of almost two cubits. This,
indeed, agrees very well with Exod. 2: 3, 5. and the
thickets of arundinaceous plants, at some small distances
from the Red Sea, observed by Dr. Shaw ; but the jJace
FLA
[ 537 J
FLA
in Jonah seems to require some submarine plant. —
IValson.
FLAGELLANTS, (I'rom the Latin JlugeUarc, to beat,)
the name of a fanatical sect in the thirteenth century, who
thought that they could best expiate their sins by the severe
discipline of the scourge. Rainer, a hermit of Perugia,
is said to have been its founder, in 12li0. He soon found
followers in nearly all parts of Italy. Old and young,
great and small, ran through the cities, scourging them-
selves, and exhorting to repentance. Their number soon
amounted to ten thousand, who went about, led by priests,
bearing banners and crosses. They went in thousands
from country to country, begging alms. In 1261, they
broke over the Alps in crowds into Germany, showed them-
selves in Alcatia, Bavaria, Bohemia, and Poland ; and
found there many imitators. In 1296, a small band of
Flagellants appeared inSlrasburg, who, with covered faces,
whipped themselves through the city, and at every church.
The princes and higher clergy were little pleased with this
new fraternity, aUhoughit was favored by the people. The
shameful public exposure of the person by the Flagellants
offended good manners ; their travelling in such numbers
aiTovded opportunity for seditious commotions, and irregu-
larities of all sorts ; and their extortion of alms was a lax
upon the peaceful citizen. On this account, both in Ger-
many and in Italy, several princes forbade these expeditions
of the Flagellants. The kings of Poland and Bohemia
expelled them with violence from their states, and the
bishops strenuously opposed them. In spite of this, the
society continued under another form in some of the fra-
ternities of the Begkards, in Germany and France, and in
the beginning of the fifteenth century, among the Brothers
of the Cross, so numerous in Thuringia, (so called from
wearing on their clothes a cross on the breast and on the
back,) of whom ninety-one were burnt at once at San-
gershausen, in 1414. The council, assembled at Con-
stance, between 1414 and 1418, was obliged to take
decisive measures against them. Since this lime nothing
more has been heard of a fraternity of this sort. — Hcrul.
Buck.
FLAGELLATION, has almost always been used for
the punishment of crimes. Its application as a means of
religious penance is an old oriental custom, admitted into
corrupt churches, partly because self-torment was consider-
ed salutary as the mortifying of the flesh, and partly be-
cause both ChMst and the apostles underwent scourging.
It became general in the eleventh century, when Peter
Damiani, of Ravenna, abbot of the Benedictine monastery
near Gubbio, afterwards cardinal bishop of Ostia, zealously
recommended scourging as an atonement for sin, to
Christians generally, and in particular to the monks. His
own example, and the fame of his sanctity, rendered his
exhortations effective. Clerg)' and laity, men and women,
began to torture themselves with rods, and thongs, and
chains. They fixed certain times for the infliction of this
discipline upon themselves. Princes caused themselves
to be scourged naked by their father confessors. It was
considered as eiiuivalent to every sort of expiation for
past sins. Three thousand strokes, and the chanting of
thirt\' penitential psalms, were deemed sufficient to can-
cel the sins of a year ; thirty thousand strokes, the sins
of ton years, &c. An Italian widow, in the eleventh cen-
tury, boasted that she had made expiation by voluntary
scourging for one hundred years, for which, as the requi-
site number, she had inflicted on herself no fewer than
three hundred thousand stripes. The opinion was preva-
lent, likewise, that, however great the guilt, hell might be
escaped by self-inflicted pain, and the honor of peculiar
holiness acquired. By this means, flagellation obtained
a charm in the sight of the guilty and ambitious, which
raised them above the dread both of sinning and suffer-
ing, till these vain deceits of hypocrisy vanished before
the clearer light of the gospel, of civilization, and know-
ledge. See Fanaticism, by theauthor of the Nat. Hist, of En-
thusiasm.— Ilend. Buck.
FLAGONS. In Cant. 2: 5. the bride says, " stay me
«nth flagons ; comfort me with apples." Mr. Taylor sug-
gests that some kind of fruit seems to be intended. As
one kind of gourd is by us called flagon, so might another
kind, but of a similar gemis, be formerly called. The
68
word occurs here without the insertion "of wine," which
is added by our translators ; but in Hosea 3: 1. is added
"of grapes," — "Loving measures— fleigons of grapes."
Might these be grapes gathered into gourds ? Or do they
mean wine, as our translators have rendered them here •
and have inserted the word wine in the other places—^
thereby fixing them to this sense '. — Calmet.
FLAMINES; an order or class of priests among the
ancient Romans, instituted, according to Plutarch, by Ro-
mulus, and according to Livy, by Numa. They were
chosen by the people, and their inauguration was perform-
ed by the sovereign pontiff. Their number was originally
three, but was afterwards increased to fifteen, the three
first of whom, being taken from the senate, were called
Flamines Majorcs ; and the twelve others, taken from the
people, Flamines Minons. When the emperors were dei-
fied, they also had flamens, asflamen Augnsti. Their or-
dinary duties were to see that the ancient and customary
honors were paid to the pubhcly acknowledged deities,
and that all due respect was paid to the religion of the
state ; but, in the opinion of the superstitious, they were
invested with interest and influence with the gods, which
enabled them to maintain and exercise a powerful do-
minion over the minds of the vulgar. — Hend. Buck.
FLATTERY ; a servile and fawning behavior, attend-
ed with servile compliances and obsequiousness, in order
to gain a person's favor. — Hend. Buck.
FLAVEL, (John,) a pious and popular divine, was
born in Worcestershire, England, in 1627. He was in
early life religiously educated by his father, and complet-
ed his public education at Oxford. Having devoted him-
self to the gospel ministry, he was settled at Deptford, in
1650, as assistant to Mr. Walplate. He applied himself
here with great diligence to pastoral duties, while at the
same time his assiduity in reading, meditation, and prayer,
raised him to a high eminence in ministerial qualifica-
tions. On Mr. Walplate's death, he succeeded to the rec-
tory. His first wife dying in childbirth, he married again
a year or two afterwards, and in this connexion was very
happy ; she also being removed, he married a third, and
subsequently a fourth lime. In 1655, he accepted a unan-
imous and pressing call to remove to Dartmouth, where
he received a much smaller stipend, but had a larger field
of usefulness. In 1656, Blr. Allen Gear, was settled as
his assistant, by an order from Whitehall, with whom Blr.
Flavel lived in great harmony, the labors of the ministry
being divided between them. Of his preaching at this
time, one of his most judicious hearers remarked, " that
persons must have a very soft head, or a very hard heart,
or both, that could sit under Mr. Flavel's ministry unaf-
fected."
Mr. Flavel was master of the various controversies of the
day on all points of importance in theology. He was well
acquainted with the school divinity. In the oriental lan-
guages, he was singularly well versed and exact. He had
one way of improving his knowledge worthy of imitation :
whenever in conversation, any remarkable fact, or state-
ment was related, and he was familiar with the relater,
he would request him to repeat it again, and insert it in
his common-place book. By this method, among others,
he accumulated rich materials for the pulpit, and the
press. In prayer, his gift was excellent, and he always
brought to it, a broken heart, and moving affections.
When the act of uniformity turned him out of his situ-
ation, he did not forsake his flock, but seized every oppor-
tunity of ministering to their spiritual necessities. His
colleague dying soon after, the whole care devolved on
him. On the execution of the Oxford act, he was com-
pelled to remove five miles from Dartmouth to Slapton,
where he was out of the reach of legal disturbance, and
where many of his former flock, in spite of severity of
the laws, resorted to him, and he at times stole into the
town to visit them. He was invited to preach in a wood
near Exeter, but scarcely was the sermon begun, before
the enraged enemies broke in, and he narrowly escaped.
Many of his hearers were taken and fined, but the rest,
undismayed, took Mr, Flavel to another wood, where he
preached to them without interruption. AVhen a respite
occurred he returned to Dartmouth and preached freely ;
but persecution being renewed, he went lo London Uui-
FLE
[ 538]
FLE
ing his passage, a violent storm arose, and prevailed, so
that all hope was extinguished mthout a change of the
wind, which, while Mr. Flavel was supplicating in the ca-
bin, was granted ; for no sooner had he ceased, than one
came down from the deck exclaiming, " Deliverance ! De-
liverance I God is a God hearing prayer ! In a moment
the wind is become fair west !" Arriving safely in Lon-
don, iVIr. Flavel found many friends, much work, and
great encouragement ; but being sought after, narrowly
escaped arrest, and returned to Dartmouth. He had af-
terward urgent calls to settle in London, from two large
and wealthy congregations; but he decided to stay with
his poor people in Dartmouth.
In 1687, when James II. thought best to dispense with
the penal laws, Mr. Flavel came forth from obscurity, and
shone like a beacon of flame on the summit of a hill. He
allowed himself little recreation : for time now seemed
truly a precious jewel to be improved at any rate. But
he was equally zealous in the closet, as in the pulpit. He
was a mighty wrestler with God, especially for a blessing
on his sermons and book?, that they might be the means
of the conversion of sinners : and he frequently had let-
ters announcing the joyful fact that his labors were not
in vain. He lived to see the union between the Presby-
terian and Independent churches, in 1691, but while re-
joicing in that event, he found the hand of death upon
him, and calmly saying, " I know that it will be well with
me," expired without a groan. He is best known by his
works on " Keeping the heart," " Token for Mourners,"
" Husbandry Spiritualized," and '■ Navigation Spiritualiz-
ed."— Middlelon, vol. iv. 48.
FLAX; (Ueb. phastah, Exod. 9; 31. Levit. 13: 47, 48,
.'-',59. Deut.22: 11. Joshua2: 6. Judges 15: 14. Prov.31:
13. Isaiah 19: 9. 42: 3.
43: 17. Jer. 13: 1. Ezek.
40: 8. 44: 17, 18. Hosea
2: 5, 9. Gr. limn, Matt.
12: 20. Kev. 15: 6 ;) a
plant very common, and
I too well known to need a
description. It is a ve-
getable upon which the
industry of mankind has
been exercised with the
greatest success and uti-
lity. On passing a field
of it, one is struck with
astonishment when he
considers that this ap-
parently insignificant
plant may, by the labor
and ingenuity of man,
be made to assume an
entirely new form and
appearance, and to con-
tribute to pleasure and
health, by furnishing us
with agreeable and ornamental apparel. This word, Mr.
Parkhurst thinks, is derived from the verb phmth, to strip,
because the substance which we term/<r.r is properly the
bark or fibrous part of the vegetable, pilled or stripped
cfi the stalks. From time immemorial Egypt was cele-
brated for the production or manufacture'of flax Wrought
into garments, it constituted the principal dress of the in-
habitants, and the priests never put on any other kind of
clothing. The fine linen of Egypt is celebrated in ail
ancient author, and its superior excellence mentioned in
the sacred Scriptures. The manufacture of flax is still
carried on in that country, and many writers take notice
of It. Rabbi Benjamin Tudela mentions the manufactory
at Damiata ; and Egraont and Hey man describe the arti-
cle as being of a beautiful color, and so finely spun that
the threads are hardly discernible Watson.
FLEA; (Heb. phrosh, 1 Sam. 24: 14. 26:20.) It seems
says Mr. Parkhurst, an evident derivative (mmphra, free
and rosh, to leap, bound, or skip, on account of its a'gilitv
in leaping or skipping. David likens himself to this in-
sect ; importing that while it would cost Saul much pains
to catch him, he would obtain but very little advantaee
from It. — Watson. °
FLECHIER, (EsPKiT,) a celebrated French prelate
and preacher, was born in 1632, at Femes, near Avignon.
He first became known in the capital of France by a
Latin poem, on the famous Carousal, given by Louis XIV.
in 1662. His Sermons and Funeral Orations soon raised
him to such a pitch of reputation, that the duke of Mon-
tausier recommended him to fill the oflice of reader to
the dauphin. It was not till 1685, that he obtained the
bishopric of Lavaur. When the monarch gave it to him,
he said, " Do not be surprised that I have been so tardy
in rewarding your merit ; I was loath to be deprived of
the pleasure of hearing you preach." In 1687, he was
removed to the bishopric of Nimes. In his Episcopal
character he gained the love of even the Protestants of
his diocese, by his uniform piety, charity, and mildness.
He died in 1710. Flechier has been called the French
Isocrates ; his eloquence partakes, indeed, of the beauties
and defects of that of the Grecian orator. His principal
works are, A History of Theodosius the Great ; A Life of
Cardinal Ximenes ; Funeral Orations ; and Sermons. —
Davenport.
FLECHIERE, DE LA, (Rev. John William,) was born
at Nyon, in Switzerland, on the 12th of September, 1729.
He was very early the subject of serious impressions,
which, however, (as is too frequently the case,) impercep-
tibly wore off. His youth was marked by his great love
of learning. After spending the whole of the day in
reading and study, his nights were frequently devoted to
meditation ; and, by means of memorandums, he retained
much of what he had perused during the daj'. This mode
of proceeding gave him that classical taste, and that ac-
cumulated and extensive knowledge, for which he was so
justly celebrated. His parents, perceiving his principles
to be good, and his mind comprehensive, designed him
for a minister of the establishment of the church of Eng-
land, but he preferred a military life. When his father
refused to grant permission to his going into the army,
he set ofl" to Lisbon, accepted of a captain's commission,
and engaged to serve the king of Portugal, on board a
man of war which was going to Brazil ; but, by the in-
terposition of Providence, was prevented ; for the morn-
ing on which the vessel was to sail, the servant, on wait-
ing on him, scalded Mr. Flechiere's leg so much, that he
was unable to move from his bed for several weeks. Thus
his hopes being cut off, he gave up all idea of becoming
a soldier. In the year 1754, his views began to change,
and, as his mind became more impressed with a sense of
divine goodness, he determined on devoting his life to the
glory of God ; and accordingly, as soon as he could, he
consulted with the Rev. Mr. Wesley, and other pious men,
on that important subject, who advised him to follow the
dictates of his conscience. He therefore dedicated him-
self to the important work of the ministry ; and in March,
1757, received deacon's orders, and priest's orders on the
same month, from the hands of the bishop of Bangor.
He now began to preach both in English and French.
Three years after his ordination, Mr. Flechiere was pre-
sented to the living of Madely ; a place for which, by his
rare endowments, he was highly qualified. There he per-
formed the work of an evangelist, and lost no opportunity
of declaring the truths of the gospel. Those who en-
deavored to escape his vigilance, he pursued to every cor-
ner of his parish, warning and entreating them to flee
from the wrath to come. Some made it an excuse for not
attending the church service on a Sunday morning, that
they could not wake early enough to get their families
ready ; which inconvenience he remedied by " taking a
bell in his hand, and, at five o'clock in the morning, go-
ing round the most distant parts of the parish, and invit-
ing all the inhabitants to the house of God.'' Notwith-
standing the evident pains he took, he saw but little fruit
of his labor ; and was much persecuted by some of the
private gentlemen, by some of the neighboring clergy,
and even by magistrates. Placards were posted on the
church doors, charging him with rebellion and schism,
and of being a disturber of the public peace. Notw; h-
standing these continued revilings, he reviled not again,
but bore his persecutions with the mildness and resigna-
tion of a Christian. His daily walks were among the
fatherless, and the widows, and the oppressed.
FL
[ 539
FLI
In the summer of ITiiy, Mr. Flechiere, with Mr. Ireland,
one of his most intimate friends, visited France, Italy,
and Switzerland. Passing tlu'ough the south of France,
he went on foot to see the Protestants in the Ceveniies
mountains, whose fathers had suffered so much in the
cause of truth. Towards the close of the summer he re-
turned to England ; when, at the request of Lady Hun-
tingdon, he undertook the superintendence of her semi-
nary for educating young men for the ministry, at Tre-
vecka, in Wales. In 1770, he went there to reside, but
shortly afterwards resigned that situation, en account of
some difference with Lady Huntingdon ; and he then la-
bored with eminent success among the Wesleyan Metho-
dists. Soon after this eveiit his health became so bad as
to oblige him again to visit Switzerland. That journey
he therefore undertook ; and after finding great benefit
from the change of climate, he returned to England, when
he was introduced to the presence of a lady with whom
he had been previously acquainted, and was so much
pleased with her piety and good sense, that he offered
her hi.s hand ; and in 17S1, they were united, and soon
after returned to Jladely. Mr. Flechiere had for many
years seen, with regret and pain, the disconsolate condi-
tion of poor children who were uninstructed ; and accor-
dingly opened a school-room for them in Madely Wood,
which was the last public work in which he was employed.
The health of Mr. Flechiere now declined, and on the
14th of August, 1685, he expired, in a sure and certain
hope of a joyful resurrection. In him the world lost a
man possessed of many accomplishments ; and the Chris-
iian church a member, whose piety, lowliness of mind, and
meek and quiet spirit, entitled him to the esteem of posteri-
ty.— See Season's Life of Flechiere. — Jones's Chris. Bio^.
FLEETWOOD, (William,) an eminent prelate, and
eloquent preacher, surnamed " The silver tongued," was
born in 1656, in the Tower of London, where his father
resided ; was educated at Eton and King's college, Cam-
bridge ; and, after having held several valuable but minor
preferments, was made bishop of St. Asaph, in 1706.
From St. Asaph he was translated to Ely, in 1714. He
died in 1723. He is said to have excelled in every virtue
that constitutes a wise man, and in all the graces that
adorn the Christian. In his political sentiments he was
liberal, classing with Hoadley and Tillotson. He was
very learned, though chiefly distinguished as an antiqua-
ry. His principal works are. An Essay on Miracles ; In-
scriptionum Antiquarum Sylloge ; Chronicon Pretiosum,
or an Account of English Money ; and practical Dis-
courses.— Jones's Chris. Biog. ; Davenport.
FLEMING, (Robert.) This extraordinary man was
bom at Bathens, Scotland, in 1630, of pious parents, who
took great care of his early education. He studied phi-
losophy at the university of Edinburgh, and divinity at
St. Andrews, under the excellent Rutherford. His facul-
ties were rich and profound, and his attainments of a
correspondent order ; but all learning was valued by him
only as it conducted him to the knowledge of God ; to
whom he had at a very early age consecrated his heart.
For in the language of his biographer, " It was but a
little lime that he had dwelt in this world, before God
dwelt in him, and he in God, and that so evidently in the
exercise of Christian graces, that little more doubt was
made of his being bcrrn again from above, than of his be-
ing born of woman." His first pastoral charge was at
Cambuslang, in Clydesdale. He was one of four hundred
ministers rejected by the Glasgow act after the Restora-
tion of Charles II. He had then a wife and seven chil-
dren to support ; but he committed them with himself to
the providential care of his heavenly Master, and found
him faithful. He was imprisoned in the Tolbooth of
Edinburgh, in 1673, but after a while being liberated, he
went to Holland, where he succeeded the famous Blr.
Brown, as pastor of the Scots congregation at Rotterdam.
Here, as his activity was great, so was his success in win-
ning souls. " The sun stood still," says his biographer,
" all the time in w-hich he had no design for God's glory
on foot." He died July 15, 1694, aged sixty-three ; leav-
ing Ijehind him several works, of which the most remark-
able is "The Fulfilling of the Scriptures." — Middleton.
vol. iv. oy.
FLEMINGIANS, or Flandrians ; a set of rigid Ani
baptists, who acquired this name in the sixteenth century
because most of them were natives of Flanders, by way
of distinction from the Waterlandians. (See Water-
LANDiANS.) — Hend. Buck.
FLESH ; a term of great moment in the Scriptures
An eminent critic has enumerated no less than six dif
ferent meanings which it bears in the sacred writings, and
for which, he affirms, there will not be found a single au-
thority in any profane writer: 1. It sometimes denotes
the whole body CQpsidered as animated, as in Matt. 26:
41, " The spirit is willing, but the'flesh is weak." 2. It
sometimes means a human being, as in Luke 3: 6, " All
flesh shall see the salvation of God." 3. Sometimes a
person's kindred collectively considered, as in Rom. 11:
14, " If by any means I may provoke them which are my
flesh." 4. Sometimes any thing of an external or cere-
monial nature, as opposed to that which is internal and
moral, as in Gal. 3: 3, " Having begun in the Sp'jit,
are ye now made perfect in the flesh?" 5. The sensitive
part of our nature, or that which is the seat of appetite,
as in 2 Cor. 7: 1, " Let us cleanse ourselves from all filthi-
ness of the flesh and spirit ;" where there can be no doubt
that the pollutions of the flesh must be those of the appe-
tites, being opposed to the pollutions of the spirit, or those
of the passions. 6. It is employed to denote the inward
principle of moral pravity of whatever kind. Thus
among the works of the flesh, (Gal. 5: 19 — 21,) are num-
bered not only adultery, fornication, uncleanness, lascivi-
ousness, drunkenness, and revellings, which all relate to
criminal indulgence of appetite, but idolatry, witchcraft,
hatred, variance, emulations, wrath, strife, seditions, here-
sies, envyings, and murders, which are manifestly vices
of a diflisrent kind, and partake more of the diabolical na-
ture than of the beastly. Hence " in the flesh," is a phrase
used to denote the condition of all who are not renewed
by the Spirit of God. John 3: 6. Rom. 7: 18. 8: 1.—
IVatson ; Jones.
FLEURY, (Claude, Abbe,) a divine and historian,
born at Paris, in 1640, was an advocate, but subsequently
took orders, became preceptor to the princes of Conti, and
the count de Vermandois, and sub-preceptor to the duke
of Burgundy and his royal brothers. In his character he
greatly resembled his celebrated associate, the pious, hum
ble, and amiable Fenelon. He obtained the abbey of Loc
Dieu, and the priory of Argenteuil, and was for six year?
confessor to the youthful Louis XV. Many other prefer-
ments were offered him, but he refused them ; not wishing
to expose himself to the temptations of a more public life.
Of Fleury, it has been truly said, " Glorificavit ilium Deus
in conspectum regum." He died in 1722. His most im-
portant works are, Ecclesiastical Histor)', thirteen vols.
4to ; Manners of the Israelites ; Manners of the Chris-
tians ; and a Treatise on Public Law. — Jones's Chris. Biog ;
Davenport,
FLIES. The kinds of flies are exceedingly numerous ;
some with two, and some with four, wings. They abound
in warm and moist regions, as in Egv'pt, Chaldea, Pales-
tine, and in the middle regions of Africa ; and during the
rainy seasons are very troublesome. In the Hebrew
Scriptures, or in the ancient versions, are seven kinds of
insects, which Bochart classes among mvsca:, or flies.
2. BI. Sonnini, speaking of Eg)-pt, says, "Of insects
there the most troublesome are the flies. Both man and
beast are cruelly tormented with them. No idea can be
formed of their obstinate rapacity when they wish to fix
upon some part of the bodj'. It is in vain to drive them
away ; they return again in the self-same moment ; and
their perseverance wearies out the most patient spirit.
They like to fasten themselves in preference on the cor-
ners of the eye, .and on the edge of the e^-elid ; tender
parts, towards which a gentle moisture attracts them."
The Egyptians paid a superstitious worship to several
sorts of flies and insects. If then, such was the supersti-
tious homage of this people, nothing could be more deter-
minate than the judgment brought upon them by Moses
They were punished by the very things they revered ; aiid
though they boasted of spells and charms, yet they could
not ward off the evil.
3. How intolerable a nlngue of flies can prove, is cvi
FLO
[ 640
FLO
dent from the fact, that whole districts have been laid
waste by them. Such was the fate of Myuns in [onia,
and of AlaniEe. The inhabitants were forced to quit
these cities, not being able to stand against the flies and
gnals with which they were pestered. Trajan was oblig-
ed to raise the siege of a city in Arabia, before which
he had sat down, being driven away by the swarms of
these insects. Hence different people had deities whose
office it was to defend them against flies. Among these
may be reckoned Baalzebub, the fly-god of Ekron ; Her-
cucles muscamm abactor, " Hercules, thi^xpeller of flies ;"
and hence Jupiter hatl the titles of apamnios, muiagros,
muiochoros, because he was supposed to expel flies, and
especially to clear his temples of these insects.
4. Solomon observes, " Dead flies cause the apothecary's
ointment to stink," Eccles. 10: 1. " A fact well known,"
says Sciietichzer ; "wherefore apothecaries take care to
prevent flies from coming to their syrups and other fer-
mentable preparations. For in all insects there is an
acrid volatile salt, which, mixed with sweet or even alka-
line substances, excites them to a brisk intestine motion,
disposes them to fermentation, and to putrescence itself;
by which the more volatile principles fly ofi", leaving the
grosser behind; at the same time, the taste and odor are
changed, the agreeable to fetid, the sweet to insipid."
This verse is an illustration, by a very appropriate simili-
tude, of the concluding assertion in the preceding chapter,
that •' one sinner destroyelh much good," ^^ "'^^ dead fly
spoils a whole vessel of precious ointment, which, in east-
ern countries, was considered as very valuable, 2 Kings
20: 13. The application of this proverbial expression to a
person's good name, which is elsewhere compared to
sweet ointment, (Eccles. 7: 1. Cant. 1: 3.) is remarkably
significant. As a fly, though a diminutive creature, can
taint and corrupt much precious perfume ; io a small
mixture of folly and indiscretion will tarnish the reputa-
tion of one who, in other respects, is very wise and honor-
able ; and so much the more, because of the malignity
and ingratitude of mankind, who are disposed rather to
censure one error, than to commend many excellencies,
and from whose minds one small miscarriage is sufficient
to blot out the memory of all other deserts. It concerns
us, therefore, to conduct (jurselves unblamably, that we
may not by the least oversight or folly blemish our pro-
fession, or cause it to be oflensive to others. — Watsmi.
FLOCK. (See Shefhekd.)
FLOOD. (See Deluge ; Ark.)
FLOOR, for threshing grain, or threshing-floor, is fre-
quently mentioned in Scripture This was a place in the
open air, in which grain was threshed, by means of a cart
or sledge, or some other instrument, drawn by oxen The
threshing-floors among the Jews were only, as they are to
this day in the East, round level plats of ground in the
open air, where the grain was trodden out by oxen. Thus
Gideon's floor appears to have been in the open air
(Judges 6: 37 ;) and also that of Araunah the Jebusite) (2
Sam. 24:) otherwise it would not have been a proper place
for erecting an altar, and offering sacrifices. In llosea
13: 3, we read of the chaff which is driven by the whirl-
wind fi-om the floor. The circumstance of the threshing-
floor's being exposed to the agitation of the wind seetDS .
be the principal reason of its Hebrew name. It appears
therefore, that a threshing-floor, which is rendered in oui
textual translation, " a void place," might well be near
the entrance of the gate of Samaria, and a proper situa-
tion in which the kings of Israel and Judah might hear
the prophets, 1 Kings 22: 10. 2 Chron. 18: 9.
An instrument sometimes used in Palestine and the
East, to force the corn out of the ear, and bruise the straw,
was a heavy kind of sledge, made of thick boards, and
furnished beneath with teeth of stone or iron, Isa. 41:
15. The sheaves being laid in order, the sledge was drawn
over the straw by oxen, and at the same time threshed out
the grain, and cut or broke the straw into a kind of chafli".
An instrument in the East is still used for the same pm--
pose. This sledge is alluded to in 2 Sam. f2: 31. Isa.
28: 27. 41: 15. Amos 1: 3. Dr. Lowth. in his Notes on
Isaiah 28: 27, 28, observes, that four methods of threshing
are mentioned in this passage, by different instruments ;
the flail, the drag, the wain, and the treading of the cattle.
The staft", or flail, was used for the infirmiora semina, the .
grain that was too fender to be treated in the other me-
thods. The drag consisted of a sort of frame of strong
planks, made rough at the bottom with hard stones or
iron ; it was drawn by horses or oxen over the sheaves on
the floor, the driver sitting upon it. The wain was nearly
similar to this instrument, but had wheels with iron teetli,
or edges, like a saw. The last method is well known from
the law of Moses, which forbids the ox to be muzzled
when he treadeth out the corn.
Niebuhr, in his Travels, gives the following description
of a machine which the people of Egypt use at this day
for threshing out their grain : " This machine," says he,
" is called naiiriihj. It has three rollers, which turn on
their axles ; and each of them is furnished with some irons,
round and flat. At the beginning of June, Mr. Forskall
and I several times saw, in the environs of Dsjise, how
corn was threshed in Egypt. Every peasant chose for
himself, in the open field, a smooth plat of ground, from
eighty to a hundred paces in circumference. Hither was
brought, on camels or asses, the com in sheaves, of which
was formed a ring of six or eight feet wide, and two high.
Two oxen were made to draw over it again and again the
sledge, traiiieati, above mentioned ; and this was done
with the greatest convenience to the driver ; for he was
seated in a chair fixed on the sledge. Two such parcels
or layers of corn are threshed out in a day, and they move
each of them as many as eight times, with a wooden fork
of five prongs, which they call meddre. Afterwards they
throw the straw into the middle of the ring, where it forms
a heap, which grows bigger and bigger. When the first
layer is threshed, they replace the straw in the ring, and
thresh it as before. Thus the straw becomes every time
smaller, till at last it resembles chopped straw. After this,
with the fork just de.scribed, they cast the whole some
yards from thence, and against the wind ; which driving
back tlie straw, the corn and the ears not threshed out fall
apart from it, and make another heap. A man collects
the clods of dirt, and other impurities to which any corn
adheres, and throws them into a sieve. They afterwards
place in a ring the heaps, in which a good many entire
ears are still found, and drive over them, for four or five
hours together, ten couple of oxen joined two and two, till
by absolute trampling they have separated the grains,
which they throw into the air mth a .shovel to cleanse
them." — Wntmn.
FLOniNIANS, or Flobiniani, so called from Florinus,
a priest of Rome, said to be a disciple of Polycarp. This
sect was a branch of the Valentinians in the second cen-
tury. (See Valentinhns.) — WiUiams.
FLORUS, (Gessius,) succeeded Albinus in the govern-
ment of Judea, A. D. 54. His excesses exasperated the
Jews beyond patience, and forced them to rebel against
the Romans, A. D. fit). He is thought to have left Judea,
when Vespasian went there, A. D. 67. — Calmet.
FLOUR. (See BBEAn; Cakes; Offerings; &c.)
FLOURISH ; to bud, spiing forth ; appear beautiful
as a flower, Sol. Song 7: 12. Christ's crown flomislielJi
when his authority and glory are signally displayed, and
many become his faithful, loving, and obedient subjects,
FOH
[541 ]
FOL
Ps. 132: 18. The church Jloiirislieth when the ordinances
are pure and powerful, her ministers faithful, wise, and
diligent, and her members mightily increase, and walk
as becomes the Gospel, Sol. Song 6: 11. Men in general
flourish when they appear gay in youth, and prosper and
increase in wisdom, honor, wealth, or pleasure. Vs. 90: (5,
and 92: 7. Saints j&?tfris/i when their grace, comforts, and
good works more and more abound, Isa. 66: 14. — Brotcn.
FLOWERS. (1.) A running of blood. Lev. 15: 24.
(2.) The open, fragrant, and beautiful buds of some vege-
tables. Flowers are very delightful, but easily and quick-
ly fade, James 1: 10. Men in general are like /»n.-c« :
in youth and prosperity how blooming, delightful, and
glorious ! but how quickly does trouble or death mar
their beauty, and bereave them of wealth, honor, or life,
Job. 14: 2. Isa. 40: 6, and 28; 1. Jam. 1: 10, 11.— Browu.
FLUTE ; a musical instrument, sometimes mentioned
ia Scripture by the names Chalil, Machalath, Masrokoth,
and Huggab. The last word is generally translated or-
gan ; but Calmet thinks it was nothing more than a flute ;
tiiough liis description of it corresponds to " the Pandean
pipes," which are extremely ancient, and were perhaps
the original organ.
There is notice taken in thfe gospels, of players on the
flute, [Eng. Trans, minstrels,] who were collected at
funerals ; See Matt. 9: 23, 24. The rabbins say, that it
was not allowable to have less than two players on the
flute, at the funeral of persons of the meanest condition,
beside a professional woman hired to lament ; and Jose-
phus rela'es, that a false report of his death being spread
at Jerusalem, several persons hired players on the flute,
by way of preparation for his funeral. In the Old Testa-
ment, however, we see nothing like it. The Jews proba-
bly borrowed the custom from the Romans. When it
was an old woman who died, they used trumpets ; but
flutes when a young woman was to be buried. — Calmit.
FLUX, (Bloody,) another name for the dysentery, Acts
28: 8.
FOAM ; lo cast forth as a raging sea. Foaming al the
mouth is expressive of rage, or tormenting inward pain.
Mark 9: 16. Seducers foam out their oivn shame, when,
from a corrupt heart, and with rage against Christ and
his ways, they publish their vain and erroneous doctrines,
and indulge them.selves in shameful practices, Jude 13.
The king of Samaria was cut ofl as the /on)n of water.
Some of their last kings were basely murdered ; and
Hoshea, the last, was easily and quickly destroyed, and
reduced to abject slavery, Hos. 10: 7. — Broiru.
FOLD ; a house, or small enclosure, for flocks to rest
together in by night or at noon, Isa. 13: 20. The coun-
try which a nation possesseth and dwelleth together in, is
called their fold, Jer. 23: 3. The church and ordinances
of Christ are as a fold: there his sheep or people are ga-
thered together ; they enter by him as the door, and have
strict union, and delightful society, and pleasant refresh-
ment and rest together, and are surrounded with his pro-
tection and laws, John 10: 1. — Brown.
FOLLOW. To follon- the Lord is to choose him as our
portion, observe his laws, imitate his perfections, and
cleave to his worship, Jer. 17: 16. To follow Christ, the
Lamh of God, is, tinder the direction and influence of his
v.-ord and Spirit, to depend on his righteousness and
strength, imitate his example, and cleave close to his truth
and ordinances, (Rev. 14: 4;) or to die with him, John
13: 36. To follow false gods is idolalrously to honor and
wor.ship them, Judg. 2: 12. God's goodness and mercy
follow the saints ; in the exercise thereof he constantly at-
tends, supports, and relieves them ; forgives their sins,
protects them from danger, and bestows on them grace
and glory, Ps. 23: 6. Our good works follow us into
heaven ; though they do not go before, to purchase our
entrance, yet we there obtain the pleasant and gracious
reward of them. Rev. 13: 14. — Brown.
FO, FOE, FOHl, is revered in China as the founder of
a religion, which was introduced into China in the first
century of the Christian era. According to tradition, he
wa.s born in Ca.shmere, about the year B. C. 1027. While
his mother was in travail, the stars were darkened, and
nine dragons descended from heaven. He was born from
lier right side, and immediately after the birlh she died.
At the moment of his entrance into the world, he stood
upright on his feet, stepped forward seven paces, and
pointing one hand to heaven, and the other to the earth,
spoke distinctly these words : — " None in heaven or earth
deserves adoration besides me." In his seventeenth year
he married three wives, and became the father of a son ;
but in his nineteenth year he left his family, and went
with four wise men into the wilderness. When thirty, he
was deified ; and, confirming his doctrines by pretended
miracles, collected an immense number of disciples round
him, and spread his doctrines throughout the East. His
priests and disciples were called in China Seng, in Tarta-
ry Lamas, in Siam Talapoijis, and in Europe Bonzes. In
the seventy-ninth year of his age, perceiving that his end
was approaching, Fo declared to his disciples, " That
hitherto he had spoken only in enigmatical and figurative
language ; but that now, being about to take, leave of
them, he would unveil to them the mysteries of his doc-
trine. Know then," said he, " that there is no other prin-
ciple of all things but the void and nothing ; that from
nothing all things have sprung, and to nothing all must
return ; and there all our hopes must end." This final
declaration of Fo divided his disciples into three sects.
Some founded on it an atheistical sect ; the greater part
adhered to his ancient doctrines ; while others made a
distinction between an exoteric and an esoteric doctrine,
which they endeavored to bring into harmony.
The exoteric doctrine of Fo contains his system of mo-
rahty. It distinguishes between good and evil : he who
lias done good during his life will be rewarded after death ;
and he who has done evil will be punished. He gave his
followers only these five precepts : — Not to kill any living
creature ; not to take the property of another ; to avoid
impurity and unchastity ; not to speak falsely ; and to ab-
stain from wine. They are taught the practice of charity ;
the merit accruing from the building of temples and con-
vents; and the punishment of their souls entering into
the bodies of the vilest and most unclean animals if they
commit sin.
The principal esoteric or secret doctrines, into which
but few are initiated, are the following : — The origin and
end of all things is the void and nothing. The first hu-
man beings have sprung from nothing, and are returned
to nothing. The void constitutes our being. All things,
living and inanimate, constitute one whole ; diflTeiing
from each other not in essence, but only in form and
qualities. The original essence of all things is pure, un-
changeable, highly subtle, and simple, and, because it is
simple, the perfection of all other beings. It is perfect,
and therefore exists in an iminterrupted quiet, without
possessing virtue, power, or intelligence ; nay, its very
essence consists in the absence of intelligence, activity,
and want or desire. Whoever desires to be happy, must
constantly endeavor to conquer themselves, and become
like the original essence. To accomplish this, he must
accustom himself not to act, desire, feel, nor think. The
great precept was — endeavor to annihilate thyself ; for, as
soon as thou ceasest to be thyself, thou becomest one with
God, and returnest into his being. The other followers of
Fo adopt the doctrine of the void and nothing, and tha
transmigration of souls ; but teach that they enter ulti-
mately the class of Samanceans, and finally appear in the
bodies of perfect Samanceans, who have no more crimes
lo expiate, and need no longer to revere the gods, who are
only the servants of the Supreme God of the universe.
This Supreme iinoriginated Being cannot be represented
by any image ; neither can he be worshipped, because he
is elevated above all worship ; but his attributes may he
represented, adored, and worshipped. Hence the source
of the worship of images by the natives of India, and of
the multitude of particular tutelary deities in China. All
the elements, the changes of the weather, fcc. have each
its particular genius ; and all these gods are servants or
oflicers of the Supreme God, Sens-wang-Man.
The public worship of Fo, which became a national re-
ligion, is called, in India, Brahmmiism. — Hend. Buck.
FOLLY, according to Jlr. Locke, consists in the draw-
ing of false conclusions from just principles, by which it
is distinguished from madness, which draws just conclu-
sions from false principles. But this seems too confined
FOO
[ 542 ] F O 0
a Jeflnitioil. Folly, in its most general acceptation, de-
notes a weakness of intellect or apprehension, or some
partial absurdity in sentiment or conduct. (See Fool ;
Foolish Speaking ; Evil ; Sin.) — Hetid, Buck.
FOOD. Questions concerning meats and drinks have
occasioned much angry and bitter contention, both in the
Jewish and Christian church. Undue importance has
often, no doubt, been attached to certain distinctions in
these matters, and many have been scrupulously nice
about what they might eat and drink, while they seem lu
have forgotten that the kingdom of heaven consisted of
righteousness, and peace, and joy in the Holy Ghost.
Others, however, have erred on the other hand, by de-
spising all attention to such things, as too trifling to de-
serve regard. But it must certainly be admitted, that
the food by which man is supported and nourished, is not
in itself of small importance, fie who made all things
for the iise of man, best knows what is good for food, and
what is fitted to serve other purposes. He has an un-
doubted right to grant or to withhold the use of his crea-
tures ; and if he lias interfered in this matter, it becomes
us to bow with deference to his authority. That particular
kinds of food may be productive of certain physical and
moral effects on the hnman constitution, is not to be de-
nied ; in this point of view, therefore, the importance of
divine enactments respecting their use may be shown,
And if distinctions in the use of animals were connected
with important religious institutions, and intended to illus-
trate some interesting doctrines of morality, their pro-
priety may be still further defended. That laws and
regulations have been given by the Almighty to guide
mankind in this affair, must be obvious to every man
who looks into the Bible ; and an investigation of the na-
ture of these laws will be found interesting both to the
philosopher and the Christian.
That we may have the whole subject before us at once,
it may be proper to place, under its proper head, the se-
veral grants or laws which have been made on these
matters at different times. See Grant to Adam, Gen.
1: 29. 2: 16. Grant to Noah, Gen. 9: 3, 4. Jewish Law,
Lev. 17: 10, 11. Christian Law, Acts 15; 28, 29. Jervish
Restrictions, Lev. 11. Christian Liberty, Acts 10: 9, 15. 1
Cor. 10: 25, 26. 1 Tim. 4: 4, 5. Gen. 2: 16. 9: 3, 4. Lev.
17: 10, 11. Acts 15: 28, 29. Lev. 11. Acts 10: 9, 15. 1
Cor. 10: 25, 26. 1 Tim. 4: 4, 5.
In these passages we have a general view of the law of
Scripture on the subject of meats, from the earliest period
to the present time. It is evident there has been a con-
siderable difference in it during the several dispensations.
At first, the grant of food was very limited ; it afterwards
w IS greatly extended ; by the Mosaic law it was restricted
in a peculiar manner, and now again we enjoy a high
degree of liberty.
On THE Grant to Adam we would observe :
1. That in the state of original innocence, neither man
nor beasts seem to have been intended to live upon ani-
mals. Man was allowed lie jeteWcs anrf/rMi(; beasts were
restricted to the use of the green herb.
2. Whatever is not mentioned in the grant, must be con-
sidered as excluded from it ; for Adam could have no ex-
perience of the fitness or unfitness of any thing for food,
but what he was told by God. He would, therefore, judge
every thing improper or unlawful which he was not ex-
pressly permitted to use.
3. To the general use of fraits there was one particular
exception j—the fruit of the tree of knowledge, which was
intended to answer certain important moral purposes.
4. The first grant, we have no doubt, was fully ade-
quate to all the wants of the first race of men ; and suffi-
cient to nourish them under a genial climate, and with
the small degree of labor which they had to undergo.
5. The slaughtering of animals would perhaps have
been inconsistent with a state of innocence. The sorrows
and death of the brute creation are connected with a state
of sin, as well as onr own. Even the heathen excluded
the use of animals from their golden age. " Durin"- the
reign of Saturn, that is, the golden age," says Dictearchus
quoted by Jerome, " when the ground poured forth in
abundance, no flesh was eaten, but all lived on vegetables
and fruits, which the earth brought forth spontaneously,"
At vetus ilia ritac, ctu feciinus aurea nonUtt,
Fmtibiis ardoreis, et qitatt humun ediicat herbis
Furlunatafuit, itec imlluil ora cruore. — I.. XV.
And Plato tells us "men all then lived from fhe earth,
for they had abundance of trees and frnits ; the .soil being
so fruitful that it supplied those fruits with its own accord,
without the labor of agriculture." — Gale, C. G. p. i. 336.
6. It is impossible to say from Scripture whether the
antediluvians used animal food or not. It is by no means
improbable they transgressed this as well as other divine
precepts ; that they had not received permission so to do
is evident, both from this, and also from the Grant to
Noah ; on which we now observe :
1. That this is the first revealed grant of animals for
food. They had already been slain in sacrifice, but not
for meat. The reasons assigned by Bochart and Grotius
for being of a different opinion have little weight, and
have been repeatedly answered.
2. There is in the second grant a plain allusion to the
first, which is quite inexplicable on the ground of any
previous permission to use animal food. " Even as the
green herb have I given you all things." Had animal
food been allowed in the grant to Adam, would not a grant
to Noah have been unnecessary ?
3. The grant of animal food was now probably given
on account of the physical changes produced both on the
world and the human constitution by the flood. Men are
now subjected to a greater degree of bodily labor ; they
of course require more nourishing aliment than vegeta-
ble ; and perhaps the vegetable productions themselves
are less nutritious than they were before ; and in many
parts of the earth a sufficiency of vegetable food could not
be procured ; such are all the cold northern and southern
regions of the globe. By having a choice of food we are
enabled to suit it to our health and circumstances, and to
resist the debilitating efliects of changeable and unfriendly
atmospheres. Merciful are all the appointments of God.
4. As in the first, so also in the second grant, is there
an exception, or limitation : — " Flesh with the life thereof,
which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat." This limita-
tion we understand to contain two things ; first, it prohibits
eating the flesh of a living animal ; and, next, the blood
of a creature by itself; for this plain reason, that the
blood was the life of the animal. The first will generally
be granted, because the practice is repugnant to our feel-
ings and to humanity ; the latter, however, has been a
subject of dispute. (See Animal ; and Blood.)
On the Jewish and Christian Law upon this subject,
it appears that they both unite in prohibiting the same
thing — blood, whether in or out of the animal ; for things
strangled seem to relate to things strangled for the sake
of keeping the blood in them.
It deserves to be noticed, that the Christian prohibition
is absolute. The decree assigns neither one reason nor
another. Its language is as pointed with regaid to blood
as to fornication ; and no man has any right to add rea-
sons limiting the prohibition to particular times or cir-
cumstances, where the Holy Spirit has been silent. That
which had never before been granted, this decree undoubt-
edly does not sanction.
The Christian law prohibits also " meats offered to
idols," or " pollutions of idols." " Meats were polluted
by idolatrous worship when the whole had been previously
offered in sacrifice, and a part afterwards converted into a
feast, or when a part was taken from table and put into
the lire, with an invocation of the idol. Now, as meats
are " sanctified by the word of God and prayer," (1 Tim.
4: 3, 5 ;) so meats are polluted by the name of idols, and
prayer to them. From the first epistle to the Corinthians,
ch. 8: 10, it appears that the Gentile brethren were not
always very willing to admit this truth, but were some-
times inclined to feast with their heathen neighbors, not
only in private houses, but even in the temples of idols.
It was necessary, therefore, to write unto them to abstain
from those pollutions. This prohibition is inculcated and
defended by Paul, at great length, in the passages just
mentioned of his epistle to the Corinthians, which aflbrd
an excellent illustration of this clause in the decree, and
of the manner in which Christians are bound to observe
FOO
[543]
FOR
il. Some have thought that Paul departs from the strict
letter of this injunction, because, in ch. 8, he argues
merely from the eifect of example. But his doctrine,
when fully examined, will be found exactly the same with
that of James. It still amounts to a prohibition ; for al-
though he allows all meats to be indifferent in themselves,
he expressly condemns the practice of eating meats ofl'ered
to idols, especially in ch. 10, where he shows it to be
inconsistent witli fellowship at the table of the Lord, with
regard for the conscience of other men, and with the duty
of a Christian, whether he eats or drinks, or whatsoever
he does, to do all to the glory of God. Wherever meats,
therefore, are polluted by idolatrous worship, Christians,
when they know the fact, are to testify their abhorrence
of idolatry by abstaining from such meats." — Ewing's
Led. on Acts 15.
It is not unworthy of observation, that Mahomet pro-
hibits his followers from eating the same things which are
forbidden by the Jewish and Christian laws. — Hend. Buck.
FOOL ; one who has not the use of reason or judgment.
In Scripture, wicked persons are often called fools, or
foolish, because such act contrary to reason, trust to their
own hearts, violate the laws of God, and prefer things
vile, trifling, and temporal, to such as are important, di-
vine, and eternal.
Our Lord seems to have used the term ill a sense some-
what peculiar, in Matt. 5: 22. "Whosoever shall say to
his brother, thou fool, shall be in danger of hell fire."
But the whole verse shows the meaning to be, that when
any one of his professed disciples indulges a temper and
disposition of mind opposite to charity, or that peculiar
love which the brethren of Christ are bound by his law to
have towards each other, (John 13: 34.) not only evincing
anger against another without a cause, but also treating
him with contemptuous language, he shall be in danger
of eternal destruction. — Hend. Buck ; Jones.
FOOLISH SPEAKING; such kind of conversation as
includes folly, and can no ways be profitable and inte-
- resting, Eph. 5: 4. Facetiousness, indeed, is allowable,
when it ministers to harmless divertisement, and delight
to conversation ; when it is used for the purpose of expos-
ing things which are base and vile ; when it has for its
aim the reformation of others ; when used by way of de-
fence under unjust reproach. But all such kind of speak-
ing as includes profane jesting, loose, wanton, scurrilous,
injurious, unseasonable, vain-glorious talk, is strictly for-
bidden. See Barrow's excelhnt Sermon on this subject in his
Works, vol. i. ser. 14. — Hend. Buck.
FOOLS, (Feast of.) Festivals under this name were
regularly celebrated from the fifth to the sixteenth century, in
several countries of Europe, by the clergy and laity, with
the most absurd ceremonies, and form one of the strangest
phenomena in the history of mankind. They were an
imitation of the Saturnalia, or heathen festivals, and like
these were celebrated in December. The chief celebration
fell on New Year, or Innocents' Day ; but the feast con-
tinued from Christmas to the last Sunday of Epiphany.
At first only the boys of the choir, and young sacristans,
played the principal part in them ; but afterwards all the
inferior servants of the church, whilst the bishop, or high-
est clergymen of the place, mth the canons, formed the
audience. The young people, who played the chief parts,
chose from their own number a bishop or archbishop of fools,
as he was called, and consecrated him, with many ridicu-
lous ceremonies, in the principal church of the place.
This oflScer then took the usual seat of the bishop, and
caused high mass to be said, unless he preferred to read
it himself, and to give the people his blessing. During
this time the rest of the performers, dressed in different
kinds of masks and disguises, engaged in indecent songs
and dances, and practised all possible follies in the church.
These incongruous practices were condemned by popes
and councils, and forbidden by the Sorbonne in 1444 ; but
they continued to be stoutly defended till the time of the
reformation. — Hend. Buck.
FOOT. Anciently it was customary to wash the feet
of strangers coming ofl" a journey, because generally they
travelled barefoot, or wore sandals only, which did not
secure them from dust or dirt. Jesus Christ washed the
feet of his apostles and thereby taught them to perform
the humblest services for one another. Feet, in the sa-
cred writers, often mean inclinations, affections, propensi-
ties, actions, motions : " Guide my feet in thy paths."
"Keep thy feet at a distance from evil." "The feet of
the debauched woman go down to death." " Let not the
foot of pride come against me." "If ihou turn away thy
foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy pleasure on my
holy day," (Isa. 58: 13 ;) if thou forbear walking anil
travelling on the sabbath-day, and do not then, thine own
will. We know that journeys were forbidden on the sab-
bath-day. Matt. 24: 20. Acts 1: 12. To be at any one's feet,
signifies obeying him, listening to his instructions and
commands. Moses says that " the Lord loved his people ;
all his saints are in thy hand : and they sat down at his
feet," Deut. 33: 3. St. Paul was brought up at the feel
of Gamaliel. Blary sat at our Savior's feet, and heard
his word, Luke 10: 39.
2. To be under any one's feet, to be a footstool to him,
signifies the absolute subjection of enemies ; but not their
reconciliation or willing obedience. It is a phrase which
is illustrated by the history of the five kings of Canaan,
and is clearly an allusion to it. See Josh. 10: 24, com-
pared with Ps. HO: 1.
3. It is said that the land of Canaan is not like Egypt,
"where thou sowedst thy seed, and wateredst it with thy
foot," Deut. 11: 10. Palestine is a country which has
rains, plentiful dews, springs, rivulets, brooks, iScc, that
supply the earth with the moisture necessary to its fruit-
fulness. On the contran,', Egypt has no river except the
Nile : there it seldom rains, and the lands which are not
within reach of the inundation continue parched and bar-
ren. To suppl}' this want, ditches are dug from the river,
and water is distributed throughout the several villages
and cantons : there are great struggles who shall first ob-
tain it ; and, in this dispute, they frequently come to
blows. Notwithstanding these precautions, many places
have no water ; and, in the course of the year, those
places which are ne.irest the Nile require to be watered
again by means of art and labor. This was formerly
done by the help of machines, one of which is thus de-
scribed by Philo : It is a wheel which a man turns by the
motion of his feet, by ascending successivelj' the several
steps that are within it. This is what Moses means in
this place by saying, that, in Egypt, they water the earth
with their feet. The water is thus conveyed to cisterns ;
and when the gardens want refreshment, water is con-
ducted by trenches to the beds in little rills, which are
stopped by the foot, and turned at pleasure into different
directions. — Watson.
FOOTSTOOL. The common manner of sitting, in the
Eastern countries, is upon the ground, or floor, with the
legs crossed. People of distinction have the floors of their
chambers covered with carpels for this purpose ; ai.^i
round the chamber broad couches, r.iised a little above
the floor, spread with mattresses handsomely covered,
which are called sofas. When sitting is spoken of as a
posture of more than ordinary state, it is quite of a dilTer-
ent kind ; and means sitting on high, on a chair of state or
throne ; for which a footstool was necessar)', both in order
that the person might raise himself up to it, and for sup-
porting the legs when he was placed in it. " Chairs,'' says
Sir John Chardin, "are never used in Persia, but at the co-
ronation of their kings, when the monarch is seated in a
chair of gold set with jewels, three feet high. The chairs
which are used by the people in the East are always so
high as to make a footstool necessary ; and this proves
the propriety of the style of Scripture which always joins
the footstool to the throne, Isa. 66; 1. Ps. 110: 1." Char-
din's Travels in Persia. — Jones.
FORBEARANCE, is the act of patiently enduring pro-
vocation or oflfence. The following may be considered as
the most powerful incentives to the exercise of this disposi-
tion : — 1. The consideration that we ourselves often stand
in need of it from others. Gal. 6: 1.2. Theexpresscommand
of Scripture, Eph. 4: 2. Col. 3: 13. 3. The felicity of this
disposition. It is sure to bring happiness at last, while
resentment only increases our own miseri-. 4. That it is
one of the strongest evidences we can give of the reality
of our religion, John 13: 35. 5. The beautiful example
of Christ, Heb. 12: 3. 1 Pet. 2: 21— 25.— Hani. Buck.
FOR
[ 544 J
FOR
FORBEARANCE OF GOD. (See Patience of God.)
FORDYCE, (JiMES, D. D.) an admired Scotch divine,
was born, in 1720, at Aberdeen ; was educated at Maris-
chal college ; and was, successively, minister at Brechin,
Alloa, and Monkwell street, London. In 1782, he relin-
quished the pastoral office, and retired first to Hampshire,
and afterwards to Bath. He died at Bath, in 1796. Dr.
Fordyce is said to have been a warm hearted evangelical
Christian. His compositions are elegant, but not eminent-
ly distinguished for gospel truth, if we except his excellent
charge to his successor. Dr. Lindsay. He wrote Sermons
to Young Women ; Addresses to Young Men ; Addresses
to the Deity ; and some single Sermons. His brother,
David, torn in 1711, and died in 1750, was also in orders ;
and wrote Dialogues concerning Education ; Theodorus,
a Dialogue on the Art of Preaching ; and the Treatise
on Moral Philosophy, in Dodsley's Preceptor.— iJaucn-
port ; Jones's Chris. Biog.
FOKEHEAD, (Mark on the,) Ezekiel 9: 4. Mr.
Maurice, speaking of the religious rites of the Hindoos,
says, before they can enter the great pagoda, an indispen-
sable ceremony takes place, which can only be performed
by the hand of a brahmin ; and that is, the impression of
their foreheads with the tUuk, or mark of different colors,
as they may belong either to the sect of Veeshnu, or Seeva.
If the temple be that of Veeshnu, their foreheads are
marked with a longitudinal line, and the color used is
Vermillion. If it be the temple of Seeva, they are marked
with a parallel line, and the color used is tumeric, or
saffron. But these two grand sects being again subdivid-
ed into numerous classes, both the size and the shape of
the tihik are varied, in proportion to their superior or infe-
i-ior rank. In regard to the tiUik, I must observe, that it
was a custom of very ancient date in Asia to mark their
servants in the forehead. It is alluded to in these words
of Ezekiel, where the Almighty commands his angels to
" go through the midst of the city, and set a mark on the
foreheads of the men who sigh for the abominations com-
mitted in the midst thereof." The same idea occurs also
in Eev. 7: 3. 22: i.— Watsm.
FOREKNOWLEDGE OF GOD, is his foresight or
knowledge of every thing that is to come to pass, Acts 2:
23. This foreknowledge, says Charnock, was from eter-
nity. Seeing he knows things possible in his power, and
things future in his wiW, if his power and resolves were
from eternity, his knowledge must be so too; or else we
must make him ignorant of his own power, and ignorant
of his own will from eternity, and consequently not from
eternity blessed and perfect. His knowledge of possible
tilings must run parallel with his will. If he willed from
eternity, he knew from eternity what he willed ; but that
he did will from eternity we must grant, unless we would
render him changeable, and conceive him to be made in
time of not willing, willing. The knowledge God hath in
lime was always one and the same, because his under-
standing is his proper essence, as perfect as his essence,
and of an immutable nature.
•' To deny this (says Saurin) is to degrade the Al-
mighty ; for what, pray, is a God who created beings, and
who could not foresee what would result from their exist-
ence ? A God who formed spirits united to bodies by cer-
tain laws, and who did not know how to combine these
laws so as to foresee the effects they would produce ? A
God forced to suspend his judgment ? A God who every
day learns something new, and who doth not know to-day
what will happen to-morrow ? A God who cannot tell
whether peace will be concluded, or war continue to ra-
vage the world ; whether religion will be received in a
certain kingdom, or whether it will be banished : whether
the right heir will succeed to the crown, or whether the
crown will be set on the head of an usurper ? For accord-
ing to the diflerent determinations of the wills of men of
king, or people, the prince will make peace, or declare
war ; religion will be banished or admitted ; the tyrant or
the lawful king wall occupy the throne : for if God cannot
foresee how the volitions of men will be determined, he
cannot foresee any of these events. What is this but to
degrade God from his Deity, and to make the most perfect
of all intelligences a being involved in darkness and un-
certainty like ourselves." (See Omniscience.)
The whole plan of man's redemption resolves itself in-
to the Divine foreknowledge ; and every minute circum-
stance pertaining to it was regulated thereby, Rom. 8:
29, 30. Eph. 1: 3—12. 2 Tim. 1: 9. All the heirs of
salvation are said to have been foreknown to God ; for
" whom he did foreknow, he also did predestinate," Rom.
8: 29. To know in ScriptuFe, often includes the idea of
special favor and good will, as in Exod. 33: 17. John
10: 14, 15; and God's foreknowledge of his people is
evidently used in this sense by the apostle, when he
says, " God hath not cast away his people whom he fore-
knew," Rom. 11: 2. "He hath not appointed them to
wrath ; but to obtain salvation by our Lord Jesus Christ,
who died for them, that whether they wake or sleep
they should live together with him," 1 Thess. 5: 9, 10.
(See the articles Election and Pkedestination.) — IJeiid.
Buck; Jones.
FORE-ORDAIN, is to appoint before hand to some
specific end or purpose. Thus the apostle says, "Christ
was fore-ordained before the foundation of the world," 1
Pet. 1: 20 ; that is, he was appointed, or destined, in the
Divine eternal counsels, to the great work of redeeming
sinners, which in due time he accomplished by the shed-
ding of his own precious blood, as of a lamb without
blemish and without spot, ver. 18, 19. See also Ps. 40;
6—8. Heb. 10: 5— W.— Jones.
FORE-RUNNER, (Gr. prodromos,) precursor, denotes a
person who hastens before to some particular place, with
the view of arranging certain important concerns belong-
ing to others that are coming after. The author of the
Epistle to the Hebrews applies the title to Christ, in that
well-known passage, ch. 6: 20 : " Whither the fore-runner
is for us entered, even Jesus, made an high-priest forever
after the order of Melchisedek." There is, probably, in
this adoption of the term, an allusion to Christ's own con-
solatory words before he left the world : " I go to prepare
a place for you ; and if I go and prepare a place for you, I
will come again and receive you to myself; that where I
am, there ye may be also," John 14: 2, 3. He is gone in-
to heaven not only as the High-priest but also as the Head
of the Christian church, and as such to make way for the
entrance of all his people after him. — Jones.
FORESKIN. (See Circumcision.)
FOREST ; a woody tract of ground. There were se-
veral such tracts in Canaan, especially in the northern
parts. The chief of these were.
The Forest of Efhraim, near Mahanaim.
The Forest of Hareth, in Judah.
The Forest of Libanos. In addition to the proper
forest of Libanus, where the cedars grow. Scripture thus
calls a palace, which Solomon built at Jerusalem, contigu-
ous to the palace of the king of Egypt's daughter ; and in
which he usually resided. All the vessels of it were of
gold. It was called the house of the forest of Libanus,
probably from the great quantity of cedar used in it, 1
Kings 7: 2. 10: 27.
FORGET. Men forget God when they neglect to think
of and worship him ; when they break his laws, and pour
contempt on any thing pertaining to him, Judg. 3: 7.
Men /or^c( Jerusalem when they are thoughtless of and
unconcerned how things go in the church, Ps. 137: 5.
God's elect forget their father's house and their own peo-
ple ; in embracing Christianity, the Jews quitted their
own ceremonies and temple ; in receiving Christ, every
one quits his natural dispositions, false persuasions, self-
righteousness, and sinful customs ; and parts with natu-
ral relations so as to prefer Christ to all, Ps. 45: 10.
Sa.iMs forget the things behind when they disesteem their
works and attainments, and think of, and press after fur-
ther knowledge of, intimacy with, and conformity to,
Christ, Phil. 3: \5.— Brown.
FORGIVENESS, (Christian ;) the pardon of any of-
fence committed against us. The Christian lawgiver,
while forbidding the retaliation of injuries, hath suspend-
ed the exercise of forgiveness among his disciples,
upon the repentance of the transgressor, or on an ac-
knowledgment of having done wrong. " If he repent,
forgive him," Matt. 18: 15 — 35, comp. with Luke 17: 3, 4.
But when the sin or trespass is confessed, the forgive-
ness must be prompt and from the very heart ; free from
FOR
[ 545 ]
FOR
all mental reservation ; no grudging, no evil sunnLsiiig
must be enterlaiaed ; in their manner of forgiving, Chris-
tians must imitate that divine pattern which their heaven-
ly Father hath set them, when, " for Christ's sake he for-
gave them," Col. 3.- 12, 13. Eph. 4: 32. And he has
bound them in the most solemn manner to the exercise
of this duty under the awful penalty of not having their
own daily trespasses forgiven, and themselves rejected
in the great day of account. Matt. 6: 12, 14, 15. IS:
21 — 33. To all which tnay be added, that Christianity,
in the most pointed manner, forbids its friends to retaliate
injuries which they may sustain from the unbelieving
world ; but, on the contrary, they are to " love their ene-
mies ; to bless those that curse them ; to do good to such
as hate them ; and to pray for those who despitefuUy use
and persecute them," Matt. 5: 44. "This," says an in-
genious writer, '-was a lesson so new and utterly un-
known, till taught by his doctrines and enforced by his
example, that the wisest moralists of the wisest nations
and ages represented the desire of revenge as a mark of
a noble mind. But how much more magnanimous, how
much more beneficial to mankind, is forgiveness ! It is
more magnanimous, because ever)' generous and exalted
disposition of the human mind is requisite to the practice
of it ; and it is the most beneficial, because it puts an end
to an eternal succession of injuries and retaliations." It
has been truly said, " The feuds and animosities in fami-
lies, and between neighbors, which disturb the intercourse
of human life, and collectively compose half the misery
of it, have their foundation in the want of a forgiving
temper, and can never cease but by the exercise of this
virtue on one side, or on both." Foley's Mor. Phil. vol.
i. p. 271 ; Soame Jenyn's Int. Evid. pp. 67, 68 ; Clarke's
Ser., ser. ii. vol. x. ; Tillotson's Ser., vol. viii. p. 254. —
Massilon's Sermmis ; Hend. Buck ; Jones.
FORaiVENESS OF SINS. (See Pakdon ; Mekcy.)
FOUM, is generally taken for the figure, shape, or like-
ness of a thing. Thus one of Job's friends, alluding to
a nocturnal spectre, says, " I could not discern the form
thereof," Job 4: 16. Sometimes it is taken for a draught
or pattern of any thing. So the apostle says to Timothy,
" Hold fast the form of sound words, which thou hast
heard of me," (2 Tim. 1: 13.) that is, let all thy discourses
correspond exactly to " the faith once delivered to the
saints," and adhere closely to the original pattern. It is
also taken to denote external splendor, pomp, and dignity.
Hence the prophet says of the Messiah, " He hath no
form, nor comeliness," (Isa. 53: 2.) that is, he possessed
no such outward state and splendor as the Jews expected
in their Messiah. But the most remarkable passage in
which this term occurs is Phil. 2: 6, w-here the apostle,
speaking of Christ, says, that " being in the form of God,
he thought it no robbery to be equal with God, but made
himself of no reputation, and took upon him the form of
a servant, and was made in the likeness of man." — Jones.
FORM OF GOD. Phil. 2: 6. This remarkable expres-
sion has been made the subject of endless criticism, and
for veiy opposite purposes ; but as it is incompatible with
a work of this nature to go at large into matters of con-
troversy, we shall content ourselves with subjoining Dr.
Macknight's Note on the place. ''As the apostle is speak-
ing of what Christ was before he took the form of a ser-
vant, the form of God, of which he is said to have divest-
ed himself, (ver.7.) when he became man, cannot be any
thing which he possessed during his incarnation, or in his
divested state ; consequently, neither the opinion of Eras-
mus, that "the form of God" consisted in those sparks
of di\'inity by which Christ, during his incarnation, mani-
fested his Godhead ; nor the opinion of the Socinians,
that it consisted in the power of working miracles, is well
founded. For Christ did not divest himself either of the
one or the other, but possessed both, all the time of his
public ministry. In like manner, the opinion of those,
who by " the form of God" understand the Divine nature,
and the government of the world, cannot be admitted ;
since Christ, when he became man, could not divest him-
self of the nature of God. And with respect lo the go-
vernment of the world, we are led by what the apostle
says, (Heb. 1: 3.) to believe he did not part with that;
but in his divested state still " upheld all things by the
69
word of his power." The opinion of Whitby, therefoie,
and others, seem belter founded, who, by " the form of
God," understand that glorious slate in which the Deity i.i
said to dwell, (1 Tim. 6: 16.) and in which he manifested
himself to the patriarchs of old, (Dent. 5: 22 — 24.) and
which was commonly accompanied with a numerous re-
tinue of angels, (Ps. 68: 17.) and which in Scripture is
called the simihtude, (Num. 12: 8.) the face, (Ps. 31: 16.)
the presence, (Exod, 33: 15.) and the shape of God,
John 5: 37. This interpretation is supported by the lerm
morphe here used, which signifies a person's external ap-
pearance, and not his nature or essence, Mark 16: 12.
Matt. 17: 2. Farther, this interpretation agrees with
the fact : " The form of God," that is, the visible glory,
and the attendance of angels above described, the Son of
God enjoyed with his Father, before the world v.-as, (John
17: 5.) and on that, as on other accounts, he is " the bright-
ness of the Father's glory," Heb. 1: 3. But he divested
himself thereof when he assumed human nature. — Last-
ly, this sense of the words morphe theou is confirmed by
the meaning of morphia, doulou, (ver. 7.) which evidently
denotes the state, or appearance and behavior of a ser-
vant." See Macknight's Translation of the Apostolic Epis-
tles. Note on Phil. 2: 6. See also M'Lean's Commenta-
ry on Heb. 1: 3, in his Works, vol. v. p. 16 — 18 ; and
Works of Robert Hall, vol. iii. 24 and 310.— Jones.
FORMALIST, one who places his dependence on the
outward ceremonies of religion, or who is more tenacious
of the form of religion than the power of it, 2 Tim. 3: 5.
— Hend. Buck.
FORMS OF PRAYER. (See Pkai-er.)
FORNICATION ; whoredom, or the act of incontinency
between single persons ; for if either of the j)arties be
married, it is adultery. While the Scriptures give no
sanction lo those austerities which have been imposed on
men under the idea of reUgion, so, on the other hand, they
give no liberty for the indulgence of any propensity that
would either militate against our own interest or that of
others. It is in vain to argue the innocency of fornica-
tion from the natural passioife implanted in us, since
" marriage is honorable in all," and wisely appointed for
the prevention of those evils which would otherwise en-
sue ; and, besides, t!\e existence of any natural propensi-
ty in us, is no proof that it is to be gratified without any
restriction. That fornication is both unlawful and unrea-
sonable, may be easily inferred, if we consider, 1. That
our Savior expressly declares this to be a crime, Mark 7:
21, 23. 2. That llie Scriptures declare that fornicators
canndTinherit the kingdom of God, 1 Cor. 6: 9. Heb. 12;
16. Gal. 5: I'J — 22. 3. Fornication sinks into a mere bru-
tal commerce, a gratification which was designed to be the
cement of a sacred, generous, and tender friendship. 4.
It leaves the maintenance and education of children, as
to the father, at least, utterly unsecured. 5. It strongly
tempts the guilty mother to guard herself from infamy
by methods of procuring abortion, which not only de-
stroys the child, but often the mother. 6. It disqualifies
the deluded creatures to be either good wives or mothers,
in any future marriage, ruining that modesty which is the
guardian of nuptial happiness. 7. It absolutely disquali-
fies a man for the best satisfactions, — those of truth, vir-
tue, innocent gratifications, tender and generous friend-
ship. 8. It often propagates a disease which may be ac-
counted one of the sorest maladies of human nature, and
the effects of which are said to visit the constitution of
even distant generations. — Hend. Buck.
FORSAKE. Men /orsa/.e God and his law when they
disregard and contemn him, and disobey his law, deny
his truth, neglect his worship, and depend not on his
fulness, Jer. 17: 3. 9: 13. God seemingly forsakes his
people when he withdraws his sensible presence, and
withholds his assistance and comfort, (Ps. 71: 11. 22: 1.
Isa. 49: 14.) but he never forsakes them as to real love,
or such influence as is absolutely necessary for the sub-
sistence of their graces, Heb. iS: 5. rs.'37:28. (Sae
Desertion.) — Bron-n.
FORTITUDE, is a virtue or quality of the mind geBC-
rally considered the same with courage ; though, in a
more accurate sense, they seem to be distinguishable.
Courage resists danger, — fortitude supports pain. Cou-
FOU
[ 546 ]
FOU
rage may be a virlue or -vice, according to Ihe circuin-
dtances ; fortitude is ahva)'S a virtue : we speak of despe-
rate courage, but not of desperate fortitude. A contempt
or neglect ol^ dangers may be called courage ; but forti-
tude is the virtue of a rational and considerate mind, and
is founded in a sense of honor, and a regard to duty.
Christian fortitude may be defined that state of mind
which arises from truth and confidence in God ; enables
us to stand collected and undisturbed in the time of diffi-
culty and danger ; and is at an equal distance from rash-
ness on the one hand, and pusillanimity on the other.
Fortitude takes difli;rent names, according as it acts in
opposition to different evils; but some of those names
are applied with considerable latitude. With respect to
danger in general, Ibrtitude has been called intrepidity ;
•s'ith respect to the dangers of war, valor ; with respect
to pain of body, or distress of mind, patience ; with re-
spect to labor, activity ; with respect to injury, forbear-
ance ; with respect to our condition in general, magnani-
mity.
Christian fortitude is necessary to vigilance, patience,
self-denial, and perseverance ; and is requisite under af-
fliction, temptation, persecution, desertion, and death.
The noble cause in which the Christian is engaged, the
glorious Blaster whom he serves, the provision that is
made for his security, the illustrious examples set before
him, the approbation of a good conscience, and the grand
prospect he has in view, are all powerful motives to the
exercise of this grace. Watts's Ser., ser. 31 ; Evanses Ser.,
ser. 19. vol. i.; Steele's Christian Hero; Mason's Ser., vol.
i. ser. 5. — Hend. Buck.
FORTUNATUS. Paul calls Stephanas, Fortunatus, and
Achaicus, the first-fruits of Achaia, and set for the ser-
vice of the church and saints. They carried Paul's first
epistle to Corinth, 1 Cor. 16; 15, 17. — Calviei.
FOSTER, (Jajies, D. D.)an eloquent dissenting minister
of England, was born, in 1(397, at Exeter. He quitted the
Independent sect to become a General Baptist. He suc-
ceeded Dr. Gale as preacher at the Barbican, and was after-
wards minister at Pmner'syiall, and lecturer at the Old
Jewry. Such were his talents as a pulpit orator, that
crowds flocked to hear him, and even Pope sang his praise.
He died in 1752. He wrote an Essay on Fundamentals ;
Tracts on Heresy ; Discourses on Natural and Social Vir-
tue ; and other works. — Davenport.
FOSTER, (Be.vjami.m, D. D.) pastor of the first Baptist
church in the city of New York, was born at Danvers,
Mass. June 12th, 1750. His parents were pious mem-
bers of the Congregational church in that town, whose
cares in his Christian education were rewarded by evidence
of his early piety. At the age of eighteen, he was sent to
Yale college. Conn, where, under president Dagget, he soon
distinguished himself, no less as a Christian, than as a
scholar. While there, the subject of baptism being agi-
tated, Mr. Foster was appointed to defend infant sprink-
ling ; but after an anxious examination, he astonished the
college by avowing himself a convert to Baptist principles.
After graduating in 1772, he was baptized by the Rev. Dr.
StiUman, of Boston, with whom he afterwards pursued his
theological studies. He was settled in the ministry at
Leicester, Mass. whence he removed to Danvers, and
Newport, R. I. and in 1788. to New York. There he la-
l3ored \vith fidelity, honor, and "usefulness, till his lamented
death, during the yellow fever, in 1798, aged forty-nine
years.
As an oriental scholar, an evangelical divine, and inde-
fatigable preacher, Dr. Foster left few superiors behind
„J"', ^"i P"^''^hed a learned Dissertation on the Seventy
Weeks of Daniel ; The Divine Rite of Immersion : and
Primitive Baptism Defended.— iJenedjV/, vol ii 301
FOUNDATION ; the groundwork or lowest part of a
building, and tliat upon which the superstructure rests ■
thus we .speak of the foundation of a house, of a castle'
of a fort, or tower, &c. The word is frequently used by
the prophets and apostles, but almost always in reference
to Christ, and his church and kingdom, or the heavenly
stale Thus the prophet, " Behold I lay in Zion, for a
foundation, a stone, a tried stone, a precious corner-stone
a sure foundation," Is. 38: 16. This text is quoted by
the apostle Peter, and expressly applied to Christ, 1 Pet.
2: 6. He is the alone ground of hope to guilty Well ,
the only true foundation of peace, comfort, wisdom, and
holiness. All the great and precious promises which God
hath made to men, centre in him, for " they are all yea
and amen in Christ ;" sure and stable, being ratified by
his blood and their accomplishment infallibly secured to
the heirs of promise, 2 Cor. 1: 20.
Christ is also the foundation of the church ; the corner'
stone which unites the whole building and all its several
parts. In him there is neither Jew nor Greek, barbarian,
Scythian, bond nor free, but Christ is all, and in all. Col.
3; 11. He hath broken down the middle wall of partition
which formerly separated Jews and Gentiles, destroyed
the enmity which had so long subsisted between them,
reconciling both of them unto God and to one another, in
virtue of his death upon the cross, and by means of the
influence of the Gospel upon their minds, through the
power of the Holy Spirit ; and hence they become united
in one church, under him, their head and governor, " arc
built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets,
Jesus Christ himself being the chief corner-stone ; in
whom all the building fitly framed together, groweth un-
to an holy temple in the Lord, a habitation of God, through
the Spint," Eph. 2: 20—22. That the apostle in this
passage had the temple of Diana at Ephesus in his eye,
and intended to contrast with it the Christian church
as the temple of God, is too obvious to require proof, and
the felicity of the^ allusion has been admired even by
lord Shaftesbury.
The inhabitants of Epliesus gloried exceedingly in the
honor which their city derived from its being adorned with
so magnificent a structure, and were intoxicated with the
splendor of its worship. (See Diaka.) The apostle,
therefore, to lessen in his Christian brethren of that city,
their admiration of that famous temple, and to wean them
from the worship of the lifeless image of an idol, contrasts
with it the Christian church, which is a temple much
more magnificent and beautiful ; being built, not upon
the foundation of wooden piles driven deep into the earth,
like the temple of Diana, but upon the more sure founda-
tion of Ihe apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself be-
ing the chief corner-stone ; a temple, too, not constructed
of stones and other lifeless materials, but of living men,
whose hearts, being purified by faith, were rendered ca-
pable of offering up spiritual worship ; a temple, not de-
dicated to an idol, but to the living and true God, who
fills with his presence every part of it, Eph. 3: 19. —
Jones. The Corner Stone, by J. Abbott.
FOUNDER. God and his prophets are likened to a
founder, because, by the judgments declared by the pro-
phets, and executed by God, nations are melted with trou-
ble, to purge off their dross, and form them into a con-
formity to his will, Jer. 6: 29. — Uronm.
FOUNTAIN', is properly the source or spring-head of
waters. There were several celebrated fountains in Ju-
dea, such as that of Rogel, of Gihon, of Siloam, of Na-
zareth, &c. &c. and allusions to them are often to be met
with in both the Old and New Testament. Dr. Chand-
ler, in his travels in Asia Minor, says, " the reader, as we
proceed, will find frequent mention of fountains. Their
number is owing to the nature of the country and the
climate. The soil, parched and thirsty, demands moisture
to aid vegetation ; and a cloudless sun, which inflames
the air, requires for the people the verdure, with shade
and air, its agreeable attendants. Hence fountains are
met with not only in the towns and villages, but in the
fields and gardens, and by the sides of the roads, and of
the beaten tracks on the mountains. Many of them are
the useful donations of humane persons, while living, or
have been bequeathed as legacies on their decease."
As fountains of water were so extremely valuable to
the inhabitants of the eastern countries, it is easy to under-
stand why the inspired writers so frequently allude to
them, and thence deduce some of their most beautiful and
striking similitudes, when they would set forth the choic-
est spiritual blessings. Thus Jeremiah calls the blessed
God, "the fountain of living waters," ch. 2: 13. As
those springs or fountains of water are the moct valuable
and highly prized, which never intermit or cease to flow,
but are always sending forth their streams, such is Jehn-
FOX
[547 ]
FOX
Vah to the souls of his people ; he is a perennial source
nl' felicity, John 17: 3. Ps. 36: 7, 9. 16: 11. Rev. 7:
17. Zechariah, pointing in his days to the atonement
which was to be made in the fulness of time, by the shed-
ding of the blood of Christ, describes it as a fountain
that was to be opened, in which the inhabitants of Jeru-
salem might wash away all their impurities. " In that
day there shall be a fountain opened to the house of Da-
vid, and to the inhabitants of Jerusalem, for sin and for
tmcleanness," Zech. 13: 1. Joel. 3: 18. (See Aeodnd.)
The word fountain is sometimes taken to denote chil-
dren or posterity, as in Prov. 5: 16. " Lei thy fountains
be dispersed abroad :'' that is, may thy posterity be nu-
merous. Again, in Deut. 33: 28, it is said, " the fountain
of Jacob shall be upon a land of corn and wine^" that
is, the people that proceed from Jacob. In these and
other passages, fountains are put for streams or rivers
flowing from them, by a metonymy of the cause for the
effect. — Jonts.
FOWL. The Hebrew ouph, which we translate fm-1,
from the Saxon /con, to fly, is a word used to denote birds
in general. (See Birds.) — Calmet.
FOX, or Jackai,. This animal is called in Scripture
slmal, probably from his burrowing, or making holes in
the earth, to hide himself, or to dwell in. The LXX ren-
der it by alopei, the fox ; so the Vulgate, vulpes, and our
English translation, /(/a:. But still it is no easy matter to
determine, whether the animal intended be the common
fox, or the jackal, the little eastern fox, as Hasselquist
calls him. Several of the modern Oriental names of the
]ackal, from their resemblance to the Hebrew, favor the
latter interpretation ; and Dr. Shaw, and other travellers,
inform us, that while jackals are very numerous in Pales-
tine, the common fox is rarely to be met with.
We shall be safe, perhaps, under these circumstances,
in admitting, with Shaw, Taylor, and other critics and
writers on natural history, that the Hebrew Shual is the
jackal of the East. We shall first describe this animal,
and then notice those passages of Scripture in which he
is spoken of.
The jackal, or thaleb, as he is called in Arabia and
Egypt, is said to be of the size of a middling dog, resem-
l)ling the fox in the hinder parts, particularly the tail ; and
the wolf in the fore parts, especially the nose. Its legs
are shorter than those of the fox, and its color is of a
bright yellow. There seems to be many varieties among
them ; those of the warmest climates appear to be the
largest, and their color is rather of a reddish brown, than
of that beautiful yellow by which the smaller jackal is
chiefly distinguished.
Although the species of the wolf approaches very near
to that of the dog, yet the jackal seems to be placed be-
tween them ; to the savage fierceness of the wolf, it adds
the impudent familiarity of the dog. Its cry is a howl,
mixed with barking, and a lamentation resembling that
of human distress. It is more noisy in its pursuits even
than the dog, and more voracious than the wolf. The
jackal never goes alone, but always in a pack of forty or
fifty together. These unite regularly every day, to form
a combination against the rest of the forest. Nothing
then can escape them ; they are content to take up with
the smallest animals ; and yet, when thus united, they
have courage to face the largest. They seem very little
afraid of mankind, but pursue their game to the very
doors, testifying neither attachment or apprehension.
They enter insolently into the sheepfolds,' the yards, and
the stables, and, when they can find nothing else, devoiii
the leather harness, boots, and shoes, and run ofi w^th
what they have not time to swallow. They not only at-
tack the living, but the dead. They scratch up with their
feet the new-made graves, and devour the corpse, how
putrid soever. In those countnes, therefore, where they
abound, they are obhged to beat the earth over the grave,
and to mix it with thorns, to prevent the jackals from
scraping it away. They always assist each other as well
in this employment of exhumation as in that of the chase,
and while at their dreary work, exhort each other by a
most mournful cry, resembhng that of children under
chastisement ; and when they have thus dug up the hcij
they share it amicably between them. Like all olhei
savage animals, when they have once tasted human flesh,
they can never after refrain from pursuing mankind.
They watch the burying grounds, follow armies, and keep
in the rear of caravans. They may be considered as the
vulture of the quadruped kind ; every thing that once
had animal life seems equally agreeable to them ; the
most putrid substances are greedily devoured ; dried
leather, and any thing that has been rubbed with grease,
how insipid soever in itself, is sufficient to make the
whole go down. Such is the character which naturalists
have furnished of the jackal, or Egyptian fox : let us see
what references are made to it in Scripture. To its car-
ni\T3rous habits there is an allusion in Ps. 63: 9, 10.
" Those that seek my soul, to destroy it, shall go into the
lower parts of the earth : they shall fall by the sword j
they shall be a portion for foxes ;" and to its ravages in
the vineyard, Solomon refers in Cant. 2: 15. " Take us
the foxes, the little foxes, that spoil the vines : for oui
vines have tender grapes." In Scripture, sa)'s professor
Paxton, the church is often compared to a vineyard ; hei
members to the vines with which it is stored ; and by con-
sequence, the grapes may signify all " the fruits of right-
eousness" which those mystical vines produce. The
foxes that spoil these vines must therefore mean false
teachers, who corrupt the purity of doctrine, obscure the
simplicity of worship, overturn the beauty of appointed
order, break the unity of believers, and extinguish the
life and vigor of Christian practice.
2. At the feast of Ceres, the goddess of corn, celebrat-
ed annually at Rome about the middle of April, there was
the observance of this custom, to fix burning torches to
the tails of a number of foxes, and to let them run through
the circus till they were burnt to death. This was done
in revenge upon that species of animals, for having once
burnt up the fields of corn. The reason, indeed, assign-
ed hy Ovid, is too frivolous an origin for so solemn a
rite ; and the time of its celebration, the seventeenth of
April, it seems, was not harvest time, when the fields
were covered with com, vestitos messibus agros ; for the mid-
dle of April was seed time in Italy, as appears from Virgil's
Georgics. Hence we must infer that this rite must have
taken its rise from some other event than that by which
Ovid accounted for it ; and Samson's foxes are a proba-
ble origin of it. Thetimeof year agrees exactly. "WTieat-
harvest in Palestine happened about the middle of April ;
the very time in which the burning of foxes was observed
at Rome. — Calmet ; Watson.
FOX, (John,) author of the celebrated Book of Mar-
tyrs, was born, in 1517, at Boston, in Lincolnshire, was
educated at Oxford, and elected a fellow of JIagdalen
college. From his fellowship he was expelled in 1545,
for having espoused the doctrines of the Reformation,
and, till he was restored to it by Edward VI., he subsist-
ed by acting as a tutor, first to the family of Sir Thomas
Lucy, and afterwards to the children of the imprisoned
earl of Surrey. During the reign of Man,', he soiight an
asylum at Basil. Returning, on the accession ot Elisa-
beth, he was taken into the house of the duke of Xorlolk,
and Cecil obtained for him a prebend in the cathedral ot
Salisbur)-. His conscientious scruples as to church cere-
monies prevented his farther promotion. He died m 10^ '■
FR A
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Mr. Fox was no ordinary man. His piety was sincere
and deep, his zeal ardent, his love of truth and of man-
kind active and inextinguishable. His great work is the
Acts and Monuments of the Church, usually known by
the name of Fox's Book of Martyrs ; the merits and de-
merits of which have been a source of violent dispute be-
tween Protestant andCatholic writers. To the credit of Fox
it must be recorded, that he strenuously, though vainly, en-
deavored to prevail upon Elisabeth not to disgrace herself
by carrying into effect the sentence which condemned two
Baptists to the flames as heretics. — Davenport ; MiddJeton.
FOX, (Geokge,) the founder of the society of Friends,
or Quakers, was born, in 1624, at Drayton, in Leicester-
shire i and was the son of a weaver, a pious and virtuous
man, who gave him a religious education. Being ap-
prenticed to a grazier, he was employed in keepiiig sheep ;
an occupation, the silence and solitude of which were
well calculated to nurse his naturally enthusiastic feelings.
When he was about nineteen, he believed himself to have
received a divine command to forsake all, renounce socie-
ty, and dedicate his existence to the service of religion.
For five years he accordingly led a wandering life, fast-
ing, praying, and living secluded ; but it was not till
about 1648, that he began to preach his doctrines. Man-
chester was the place where he first promulgated them.
Thenceforth he pursued his career with untirable zeal
and activity, in spite of frequent imprisonmefit and brutal
usage. It was at Derby that his followers were first de-
nominated Quakers, either from their tremulous mode of
speaking, or from their calling on their hearers to " trem-
ble at the name of the Lord." The labors of Fox were
crowned with considerable success ; and, in 1669, he ex-
tended the sphere of them to America, where he spent
two years. He also twice visited the continent. He died
in 1690. His writings were collected in three volumes,
folio. Whatever may be thought of the tenets of Fox,
there can be no doubt that he was sincere in them, and
that he was a man of strict temperance, humility, modera-
tion, and piety. — Davenport.
FRAME OF MIND. This word is used to denote any
state of mind a man maybe in ; and, in a religious sense,
is often connected with the word feehng, or used synony-
mously with it. (See Feeling.)
" If our frames are comfortable " says one, " we may
make them the matter of our praise, but not of our pride ;
we may make them our pleasure, but not our portion ; we
may make them the matter of our encouragement, but not
the- ground of our security. Are our frames dark and
uncomfortable ? they should humble us, but not discourage
us ; they should quicken us, hut not obstruct us in our ap-
plication for necessary and suitable grace ; they should
make us see our own emptiness, but not make us suspect
the fulness of Christ ; they should make us see our own
unworthiness, but not make us suspect the willingness of
Christ ; they should make us see our own weakness, but
not cause us to suspect the strength of Christ ; they should
make us suspect our own hearts, but not the firmness and
freeness of the promises."— ffc«d. Buck.
FRANCISCANS, an order of Friars, founded in 1209
by St. Francis, of Assisi, who, having led a dissolute life'
was reclaimed by a fit of sickness, and fell into an extreme
of false devotion. Absolute poverty was his fundamental
rule, and rigorously enjoined on all his followers. Some
years afterward, this rule was relaxed, by the indulgence
of several successive Popes ; but this occasioned a schism
in the order, about the end of the thirteenth century, and di-
vided them into two parties ; many adhering strictly to their
founder's rule, and extolling him as equal to Jesus Christ
himself These were called, in ridicule, Fratricelli, or
Little Brothers ; which name Francis himself had assumed
out ol humility, and prescribed to his followers. They
were also called Spiritual, while the others were called
Brethren of the community, or Observaniine. friars • in
France they were called Cordeliers, from girding their habit
with a cord. The Franciscans maintained that the Viri^in
Mary was born without original sin, which the Dominicans
denying, occasioned a contention, which ended much to
their disgrace. (See DoMmicANS.)_il/osA«m's E H vol
">■ P_ ISf-. Ace. ; C. Butler's Confess, p. 131 ; Williams.
FRANKE, (Augustus Hermann,) founder of the Or-
phan house at Halle, and of several institutions connected
with it, distinguished in the annals of Christian philan-
thropy and zeal. He was born at Lubeck, March 23, 1663,
and studied so assiduously that, in his fourteenth year, he
was ready to enter the university. He studied theology
and the languages at Erfurt, Kiel, and Lefpsic. In 1681,
he began to lecture at the latter university, on the practi-
cal interpretation of the Scriptures, and, by the divine
blessing, met with so much success, that the enemies of
genuine and spiritual religion were roused against him,
and attacked him on all sides ; but he was defended by
the celebratetl Thomasius, then residing at Leipsic.
Franke then accepted an invitation to preach at Erfurt,
where his sermons attracted such numbers, among whom
were many Catholics, that the elector of Mentz, to whose
jurisdiction Erfurt then belonged, ordered him to leave the
city within twenty-four hours. On this he went to Halle,
as professor in the new university, at first of the oriental
languages, and afterwards of theology. At the same time
he became pastor of Glaucha, a suburb of Halle, the in-
habitants of which he found sunk in the deepest ignorance
and wretchedness, and for whose benefit he immediately
began to devise schemes of usefulness. He first instruct-
ed destitute children in his own house, and gave them
alms ; he then took into his house some orphans, the
number of whom rapidly increased. In this charitable
work he w'as aided by some benevolent citizens of Halle ;
and his charitable institutions increased from year to year.
In 1698, was laid the first stone of the buildings which
now form two rows, eight hundred feet long. Sums of
money poured in to him from all quarters ; and frequently,
when reduced to the utmost embarrassment in meeting
the expense, the providence of Gorl, in which he implicitly
trusted, appeared for his rehef. A chemist, whom he
visited on his death-bed, left him the recipe for compound-
ing several medicines, which afterwards yielded an annual
income of from twenty thousand to thirty thousand dol-
lars, by which he was enabled to prosecute his benevolent
undertakings without any assistance from government.
What is commonly called " Franke's Institution," compri-
ses, 1. An Orphan Asylum. 2. The Royal Pcedagogium.
3. The Latin School. 4. The German School. 5. The
Canstein Bible Press, founded by Baron Canstein, a pious
friend of Franke's, from which upwards of two million
copies of the whole Bible, and one million of the New
Testament, have been issued at low prices. 6. A li-
brary, and collections of natural history and philosophy.
The whole establishment forms one of the noblest monu-
ments of Christian faith, benevolence, and zeal ; and the
philological and exegetical labors of Franke are gratefully
acknowledged by biblical scholars of the present day,
whose views of the doctrines of revelation widely differ
from his. In his "Collegia Biblica," or Biblical Lectures,
delivered at Halle, there was a return from human forms
and systems to the sacred Scriptures, as the pure and
only source of faith, and the substitution of practical reli-
gion for scholastic subtleties and unfruitful speculations.
Thus Scripture interpretation again became, as among the
first refonners, the basis of theological study. After a
life of eminent usefulness, this excellent man died, June 8,
1727, at the age of sixty-four years. — Jones; Hend. Buck.
FRANKINCENSE ; an odoriferous gum, anciently
much burnt in the temples, and now used in medicine.
It exades from incisions made in the tree during the heat
of summer ; the largest and best trees are called male
incense. Some frankincense is still brought from the East
Indies, but that of Arabia or Syria is much preferred to it.
The form of the tree from which it is extracted, does not
appear to be distinctly ascertained. Frankincense is
mentioned, figuratively, no doubt, among the articles of
merchandise in which Babylon traded. Rev. 18: 13. —
Jones.
FRATERNITY, in the Roman CathoUe countries,
signifies a society for the im])rovement of devotion. Of
these there are several sorts, as — 1. The fraternity of the
Rosary, founded by St. Dominic. It is divided into two
branches, called the common rosary, and the perpetual
rosary ; the former of whom are obliged to confess and
communicate every first Sunday in the month, and the
latter to repeat Ine rosary continuallv. 2. The fraternity
FRE
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of the Scapulary, whom it is pretended, according to the
SabbatLne bull of Pope John XXU. the Blessed Virgin
has promised to deliver out of hell the first Sunday after
their death. 3. The fraternity of St. Francis's girdle are
clothed with a sack of a grey color, which they tie with
a cord ; and in processions walk barefooted, carrying in
their hands a wooden cross. 4. That of St. Austin's
leathern girdle comprehends a great many devotees.
Italy, Spain, and Portugal, are the countries where are
seen the greatest number of these fraternities, some of
which assume the name of arch-fraternity. Pope Clement
VII. instituted the arch-fraternity of charity, which distri-
butes bread every Sunday among the poor, and gives por-
tions to forty poor girls on the feast of St. Jerome, their
patron. The fraternity of death buries such dead as are
abandoned by their relations, and causes masses to be
celebrated for them. — Haul. Buck.
FRATRICELLI, or Little Brothers. Though this
name, as above observed, was originally giventothe reform-
ed and spiritual Franciscans, (not less than tv.o thousand of
whom are recorded to have been burned by the Inquisi-
tion,) it was afterwards given to a multitude of sects
which inundated Europe in the thirteenth century; and
particularly to the Carthari and Waldenses, among whom
many of the purer Frauciscans were probably incorpo-
rated.— Morison's Th. Diet.; Bell's Wanikrijigs, p. 216;
Tl^illiams.
FRAUDS, (Pious ;) artifices and falsehoods made use of
in propagating religion, under the pretence of promoting
the spiritual interests of mankind. These have been
more particularly practised in the Church of Rome, and
considered not only as innocent, but commendable. Nei-
ther the terms nor the thing signified, however, can be
justified. The terms ;)io«s and fraud form a solecism;
and the practice of doing evil that good may come, is
directly opposite to the injunction of the sacred Scriptures,
Rom. 3: 8. — Hencl. Bud;.
FREE. (1.) Without price ; out of mere favor, Rom.
5: 15, and 3: 24. (2.) Without constraint or obligation,
Ps. 54: 6. Rom. 8: 2. (3.) Without restraint or hinde-
rance, 2 Thess. 3: 1. God's spirit is free, voluntary, or
princely ; he is freely bestowed on sinners ; and, in a
princely and librt'al manner, he influences, convinces,
iristrucis, draws, and comforts men's souls, Ps. 51: 12.
God's blessings of the new covenant are free; though
purchased by Christ, yet they are given to sinful men
without money or price on our part, and are to be received
as gifts of mere grace and favor, Rom. 5: 18. Rev. 22:
17. A free heart is one disposed to bestow freely and
willingly, 2 Chron. 29; 31. Free, or free-will oflTerings,
were those given without any obligation of God's law,
Exod. 36: 3. Lev. 22: 21. Persons are free when in no
slavish bondage, or exempted from paying tribute, (Deut.
15: 13. Matt. 17: 26.) or not obliged to maintain pa-
rents, Matt. 15: 6. The saints are free, or freed from
the law, or freed from sin : they are, by the grace of God
in Christ, delivered from the yoke of the broken law, the
dominion of sin, and the slavery of Satan ; and now,
under the gospel, from the Jewish ceremonies, are enti-
tled to all the privileges of the children of God, Rom. 8: 2.
6: 22. John 8: 31, 36, and Gal. 5: 1. Sinners are free
from righteousness, quite destitute of, and no way influenc-
ed by, a holy principle, Rom. 6: 20. To be free among
ihc dead, is to be in a miserable case on earth, as if a citizen
of the grave, Ps. 88; 5. — Bronm.
FREE AGENCY, is the power of choosing betw.een
good and evil, and following one's inclination. Many and
long have been the disputes on this subject ; not that man
has been denied to be .a free agent ; but the dispute has
been in what it consists. (See articles Liberty, and Will.)
A distinction is made by writers between free agency and
what is called the Arminian notion of free will. The one
consists merely in the power of following our prevaiUng
inclination ; the other in a supposed power of acting con-
trary to it, or at least of changing it. The one predicates
freedom of the man ; the other, of a faculty in man, which
Mr. Locke, though an anti-necessarian, explodes as an ab-
surdity. The one goes merely to render us accountable
beings ; the other aiTOgantly claims a part, yea, the very
turning point of salvation. According to the latter, we
need only certain helps or assistances, granted to men in
common, to enable us to choose the path of life ; but, ac-
cording to the former, our hearts by nature being wholly
depraved, our choice, though free, is opposed to holiness,
so that we need an Almighty Power to renew them. (See
Necessity.) — Hend. Buck.
FREEDOM. (See Lieeetv.)
FREE, or FIGHTING QUAKERS. During the revolu-
tionary war in America, some Friends, less rigid than oth-
ers, took part in the contest, and fought for their indepen-
dence; among whom was the celebrated general Green.
These, being expelled by their brethren, formed a separate
congregation, which still exists in Philadelphia ; and they
are called, by way of distinction. Free, or Fighting Quakers.
— Gregoire's Hist. tom. i. p. 133 ; H. Adams's V. last ed.
under Quakers ; Williams.
FREETHINKERS; a name assumed by Deists and
Sceptics, to express their boasted freedom from religious
prejudices, and from any religious system. The term
originated in the eighteenth century, and contains a sneer
at believers, like the French esprit fort, and the German
rationalist. Free-thinking first appeared in England in the
reigns of James II. and William III. In 1718, a weekly
paper, entitled the " Freethinker," was published. Collins,
Toland, Tindal, and Blorgan, rank among the champions
of the sect ; but Botingbroke and Hume are the most dis-
tinguished. In France, Voltaire, D'Alembert, Diderot,
and Helvetius, led the opposition against revealed religion.
In Germany the same spirit became fashionable in the
reign of Frederic the Great, and obtained a most extensive
influence through the medium of the press, the itniversi-
ties, and even of the pulpit. Colton, in his " Lacoii," has
keenly observed, that in modern limes free-thinking seems
to be only another name ior freedom from thinking. (See
Atheists; Deists.) — Hend. Buck.
FREETHINKING CHRISTIANS; a name adopted by
a society which had its origin in the end of the year 1796,
and has ever since regularly assembled in London, calling
itself a Church of God, founded on the principles of free
inquiry. Their first members separated from a congrega-
tion of Trinitarian Universalists, in Parliament-court Cha-
pel, Bishopsgate-street. They rejected the doctrine of the
Trinity, the atonement, and other points of Calvinism ;
then the sacraments, and the immateriality of the soul ;
and, lastly, the inspiration of the Scriptures, and public
worship ; for they have neither singing nor prayer in their
assemblies, and regard the Bible only as an authentic
history ! — Williams.
FREE-AVILL BAPTISTS.* In North America, in the
year 1780, the first church of this denomination was or-
ganized at New Durham, in New Hampshire, under the
pastoral charge of Elder Benjamin Randall. They have
since spread into various parts of the country ; and now
have churches in twelve different states, and in the Cana-
das. From the latest accounts of their numbers, (Jan.
1834,) there are eight yearly meetings, and forty-six quar-
terly meetings : and, including about three thousand Gen-
eral Baptists, in North Carolina, who have lately taken the
name of Free-Will Baplists, about seven hundred church-
es ; five hundred and sixty preachers ; and thirty thou-
sand, five hundred communicants. The net increase m
numbers, for three years past, has been seveji and one third
per cent.
External Polity. 1. They have held the Holy Scrip-
tures to be their only rule of religious faith and practice,
to the exchision of all written creeds, covenants, rules of
discipline, or articles of organization. Some, however,
think no religious order can be maintained on the In sis of
Scripture, without, at least, an implied agreement in iheir
undcr.<itanding of the Scriptures, and believe it letter that
this understanding be definitely expressed and known ; and
they have, in some instances, adopted written articles of
organization, in the form of a constitution, 2. Government
is vested primarily in Ihe churches ; which are usually
composed of such believers as can meet together for wor-
ship. These send delegates to the quarterly meetings ;
the quarterly meetings lo the yearly meetings : the yearly
meetings to the general conference. In cases of diflicnlty,
• This article was prepared for Ihe Encyclopedia, hy tile lale Elder
Samuel Beede, one of the editors of Itie Moniin; Star
FRI
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FEI
appeals are made from one body to another, for advice and
instruction. 3. The officers in the church, supposed to be
designated in Scripture, are elders and deacons. After
having been licensed and proved, the elders are ordained,
jointly by the church to which they belong, and the quar-
terly meeting acting by a council. They are authorized
to baptize believers, administer the Lord's supper, assist
in ordinations, and to organize churches : they are ame-
nable to the church and the presbytery. In each quarterly
and yearly meeting, is an elders' conference ; which, with
the general conference, regulates the affairs of the minis-
try, so far as the presbytery is concerned. No inferiority
of rank is acknowledged in the ministry. They consider
piety, and a call to the work, to be the essential qualifica-
tions for a minister; and maintain, that one having a call
to preach, ought not to delay for want of an education, or
theological study ; nor neglect preaching to acquire litera-
ture and science.
Doctrine. The Free-Will Baptists reject the peculiari-
ties of Calvinism formerly denominated the "Five Points,"
so far as they represent the happiness or misery of man,
as resulting from a divine decree, and not influenced by
the personal actions of men ; believing them, as they have
understood them to have been lield, unscriptural. They
believe, that by the death of Christ, salvation was provid-
ed for all men ; that, through faith in Christ, and sanctifi-
calion of the Spirit, though by nature entirely sinners, all
men may, if they improve every means of grace in their
power, become new creatures in this life, and, after death,
enjoy eternal hapjJiness ; — that all, who, having actually
sinned, die in an unrenewed state, will suffer eternal mis-
ery. Respecting the divine attributes of the Father, Son,
and Holy Ghost, they in substance agree with the Calvin-
istic Baptists, and other orthodox Christians. Yet some
individuals, for want of properly knowing the Scriptures,
or from adliering to such professing Christians, and such
authors, as advocate unitarian, or Arian views of Christ,
and the Holy Spirit, have imbibed Arian notions. This is
a departure from the faith of the first Free- Will Baptists,
and of the connection as a body. From a neglect to ex-
tirpate such doctrines, by sound discipline, and from the
repeated attempts of the Christian Society to assimilate the
two denominations, the Free-Will Baptists have lost much
prosperity at home, and much reputation among others.
They are a people distinct from the Christian Society, and
ought always to l)e so distinguished. They essentially
differ from the Christians in several important points of
faith and church government.
Institutions; benevolent, literary, ice. A Foreign Mission
society has lately been incorporated, and has received
some donations. Numerous societies have been formed to
promote temperance. Sunday schools are supported in
various churches ; and in several places charitable socie-
ties have been instituted. Till lately, no literary institu-
tion existed in the connection. About a year since, an
academy, located at Parsonsfield, Me. was incorporated ;
it is now in a flourishing state. It must be understood,
however, that all these benevolent operations are yet in
their infancy. One printing press is employed by the
connection, and the Morning Star, a weekly paper, is pub-
lished at Dover, N. H. A Register, containing the statis-
tics of the denomination, is also issued annually. See the
Morning Star ; Buzzers Magazine ; and i). Mark's Narrative.
FRENCH CHURCH. (See Chdrch Gallican.)
FRENCH PROPHETS. (See Camisars.)
FRIAR, OR BROTHER ; a term common to the monks
of all orders. In a more peculiar sense, it is restrained to
such monks as are not priests ; for those in orders are
usually dignified with the appellation of father. — Hend.
Suck. '
FRIENDSHIP, is the state of minds united by mutual
aSection, and abounding in acts of reciprocal kindness.
"To live in friendship," says a heathen writer, "is to
have the same desires, and the same aversions." So ma-
ny qualities, indeed, are requisite to the possibility of
friendship among men, and so many favorable circum-
stances must concur to its rise and continuance, that the
greatest part of mankind content themselves without it,
and supply its place as they can mth interest and depend-
ence. The generahty of mankind are unqualified for a
constant and warm interchange of benevolence, as indeed
they are incapacitated for any other efevated excellence,
by perpetual attention to their own interests and unresist-
ing subjeclion to their depraved passions. An inveterate
selfishness predominates in their mind, and all their ac-
tions are tainted with a sordid love of gain. But there
are many varieties of disposition, as well as this hateful
and confirmed corruption, that may exclude friendship
from the heart. Some persons are ardent enough in their
benevolence, who nevertheless are constitutionally mu-
table and uncertain, soon attracted by new objects, dis-
gusted without offence, and alienated without enmity.
Others are soft and flexible ; easily influenced by reports
and whispers, ready to catch alarms from every dubious
cirtumstance, and to listen to every suspicion which envy
or flattery may suggest. Some are impatient of contra-
diction ; more willing to go wrong by their own judg-
ment, than to be indebted for a better or a safer way to
the sagacity of another. Too many are dark and involv-
ed, anxious to conceal their purposes, and pleased when
they can show their design only in its execution. Some
are universally communicative, alike open to every eye,
and equally profuse of their own secrets and those of
others, without the necessary vigilance of caution, ready
to accuse without malice, and to betray without treachery.
Each of these are nnfit for close and tender intimacies.
" He cannot properly be chosen for a friend, whose kind-
ness is exhaled by its own warmth, or frozen by the first
blast of slander ; nor can he bea useful counsellor who
will hear no opinion but his own ; that man will not much
invite confidence whose principal maxim is to suspect ;
nor can his candor and frankness be much esteemed, who
makes every man without distinction a denizen of his
bosom."
2. That friendship may be at once ardent and lasting,
there must not only be a congeniality of disposition, but
there must be equal virtue on each part ; not only must
the same end be proposed, but there must be a similarity
of pursuit in its attainment. We are often induced to
love those whom we cannot esteem ; we are sometimes
compelled to esteem those whom we cannot love. But
true friendship is compounded of esteem and love ; it de-
rives its tenderness from one, and its permanence from
the other. It therefore requires that its candidates should
not only gain the judgment, but attract the affection ; they
should be firm in the day of adversity, and participate in
the joy of prosperity ; their presence should communicate
cheerfulness as well as courage, and dispel alike the
gloom of fear and of melancholy.
3. Among all the honors which God conferred upon his
servant Abraham, and those were neither few nor small,
there was none equal to that of calling him his friend,
2 Chron. 20: 7, with Isa. 41: 8. " Thou art the seed of
Abraham my friend." The apostle James takes notice of
it, in this view, " Abraham believed God, and it was im-
puted to him for righteousness, and he was called the
friend of God," James 2: 23. How amazing is the con-
descension to which infinite goodness can stoop ! We
are sometimes led to express surprise when Ave see one
human being, who happens to be raised a little above the
rest of his species, descending from his elevated station
to enter into familiar converse with one that is beneath
him, and more especially to select such an one for his
friend. But how do all such acts of condescension dwin-
dle into insignificance, when we are led to think of the
majesty of heaven deigning to confer upon a guilty mor-
tal the appellation of friend ! Yet this honor was not
peculiar to Abraham. The Son of God, in the days of
his flesh, thus addressed his disciples : " Greater love
hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for
his friends ; ye are my friends if ye do whatsoever I com-
mand you : henceforth I call you not servants ; for the
servant knoweth not what his lord doeth, but I have call-
ed you Friends ; for all things that I have heard of my
Father I have made known unto you," John 15: 13 — 15.
What a fund of interesting comment would this passage
afford, were this the place to indulge in it ! It would lead
us to contemplate the friendship of Christ towards his
people, demonstrated by the highest evidence it was pos-
sible for him to afford : " He laid down his life for them."
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He redeemed them to God at the expense of his blood !
1 Pet. 1: 18, \9. And then, their friendship towards him.
" Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command
you." AVould we know what is necessary to evince our
friendship to the Savior? His next words plainly in-
form us : " These things I command you, that ye love
one another," ver. 17. AU pretensions, therefore, to be
the friends of Christ, which are not justified by love to
the brethren, must evidently be futile and vain, 1 John
4: 20, 21. And as one of the first dictates of friendship
is a concern for the honor and reputation of those who
are the objects of our esteem, it must follow that if we
iare the friends of Jesus, we shall feel deeply interested
about his character; we shall resent, with becoming in-
dignation, all the efforts of his enemies to tarnish his
honors, and degrade him to the level of a mere human
being ; to set aside his atoning sacrifice, and despoil him
of the glory which is justly due to him as the Savior of
his guilty people.
4. The book of Proverbs abounds with the praises of
friendship, and with encomiums on its value. " A friend
loveth at all times," ch. 17: 17. " There is a friend that
sticketh closer than a brother," (ch- 18: 24 ;) the meaning
of which probably is, that real friendship is more opera-
tive than natural aflection. " Faithful are the wounds of
a friend," ch. 27: 6. " As ointment and perfume rejoice
the heart, so does the sweetness of a friend by hearty
counsel," ver. 9. " As iron sharpeneth iron, so doth a man
the countenance of his friend," ver. 17.
5. The genius and injunctions of the Christian religion
also inculcate this virtue ■ for it not only commands
universal benevolence to men, but promotes the strongest
love and friendship between those whose minds are en-
lightened bv divine grace, and who behold in each other
the image of their Divine Master. As friendship, how-
ever, is not enjoyed by every one, and as the want of it
arises often from ourselves, we shall here subjoin, from
an eminent writer, a few remarks, by way of advice,
respecting it. 1. We must not expect perfection in any
with whom we contract fellowship. — 2. We must not be
hurt by differences of opinion arising in intercourse with
our friends. — 3. It is material to the preservation of
friendship, that openness of temper and obliging manners
on both hands be cultivated. — 4. We must not listen
rashly to evil reports against our friends. — 5. We must
not desert our (riends in danger or distress. Blair's Ser.
ser. 17, vol. iv. ; Bp. Porieus's Ser. vol. i. ser. 13 ; TV.
Mehwth's Translation of Cicero's Leciius, in a Note j HaWs
Sermon on the Death of Dr. Rijland. — Jones ; Hend. Buck.
FRIENDS, (Society of.) rSee Qijakers.)
FRITH, (John,) a learned divine, and protestant mar-
tyr, was born at Sevenoak, in Kent, educated at Cam-
bridge, and afterwards chosen a junior canon of Oxford.
In 1S2.5, he became acquainted with Tindal, who was the
instrument of sowing the seed of the pure gospel in his
heart. His principles becoming known, he was imprisoned
for a time with several others, some of whom died -wilh
severe usage. Being reteased, in 1528, he went to the
continent, where he spent two years, and became greatly
confirmed in the protestant faith. Two years after, leav-
ing his wife and children in a place of safety, he ventured
to visit England; where, after a while, he was arrested
by Sir Thomas JNIore, (whose work on Purgatory he had
confuted,) and committed to the tower. On the 20th of
June, 1533, he underwent a public examination at St.
Paul's, before the assembly of bishops, and for his fearless
and inflexible defence of protestant principles, was con-
demned to be burnt at Smithfield. A young man named
Andrew Hunt, suffered with him. With a courage that
astonished the spectators, Frith embraced the faggot and
the stake, smiling amidst the flames, and praying for the
forgiveness of his enemies. He suffered in the prime of
life, July 4, 1533.
It is said that there was a time when, owing to the im-
pression made by his excellent character on the servants
who had charge of him, he might have escaped ; but to
an offer of the kind, he replied, " Before I was seized, I
would fain have enjoyed my liberty, for the benefit of the
church of God ; but now being taken by the higher power,
and delivered into the hands of the bishops, to give testi-
mony to that religion and doctrine, which, under pain of
damnation, I am bound to maintain and defend ; if there-
fore I should now start aside and run away, I should run
away from my God, and from the testimony of his word."
He was, says bishop Bale, a polished scholar as well as
master of the learned languages. He was the author of
seven or eight valuable treatises, and wa.s the first man
in England that professetUy wrote against Christ's bodily
presence in the sacrament. His works were reprinted at
London, in 1753, in ioMo. —Middleton, vol. i. 123.
FRITIGILA, queen of the Marcomans, became famous
in 396. Being instructed in Christianity, by the writings
of Ambrose, she embraced it herself, and by her influence
her husband, and then the whole nation, were led to em-
brace it also. By her persuasion they entered into a du-
rable alliance with the Romans, so that in the various
irruptions of the barbarians on the empire, the Marco-
mans are never mentioned as among them, though sepa-
rated only by the Danube. — Gifford's France ; Betham.
FROG ; a small and well-known amphibious animal.
Frogs were unclean : Moses, indeed, does not name them,
but he includes them by saying. Ye shall not eat of any
thing that moves in the waters, unless it have fins or
scales. Lev. 11: 9. John (Rev. 10: 13.) says, he saw
three unclean spirits issuing out of the false prophi-t's
mouth like frogs; and Moses brought on Egypt a plague
of frogs, Exod. 8: 5, &c. — Calmet.
FRONTLETS, are thus described by Leo of Modcna :
the Jews take four pieces of parchment, and write with
an ink made on purpose, and in square letters, these four
passages, one on each piece : (1.) " Sanctify unto me all
the first born," &c. Exod. 13: to the 10th verse. (2.)
From verse 11 to 16: " And when the Lord shall bring
thee into the land of the Canaanites," &c. (3.) Deut. 6:
4, " Hear, 0 Israel, the Lord our God is one Lord," to
verse 9. (4.) Deut. 11: 13. "If you shall hearken dili-
gently unto my commandments," to verse 21. This they
do in obedience to the words of Moses ; " These command-
ments shall be for a sign unto thee upon thine hand, and
for a memorial between thine eyes." These four pieces
are fastened together, and a square formed of them, on
which the letter Shin is written ; then a little square of
hard calf's skin is put at the top, out of which come two
leathern strings an inch wide, and a cubit and a half, ot
thereabouts, in length. This square is put on the middle
of the forehead, and the strings being girt about the head,
make a knot in the form of the letter Resh : they are then
brought before, and fall on the breast. It is called Teffia-
schel-Rosch, the Tephila of the head. The most devout
Jews put it on both at morning and noon-day prayer ; but
the generality wear it only at morning prayer. Only the
chanter of the sjmagogue is obliged to put it on at noon,
as well as morning.
It has been much disputed whether the use of frontlets,
and phylacteries, was literally ordained by Moses. Be-
fore the Babylonish captivity, no traces of them appear in
the history of the Jews ; the prophets never inveigh against
the neglect of them ; nor was there any question concern-
ing them in the reformation of manners at any time among
the Hebrews. The almost general custom in the East of
wearing phylacteries and frontlets, determines nothing
for the obligation or usefulness of the practice. Christ
did not absolutely condemn them ; but he condemned the
abuse of them in the Pharisees, their wearing them with
affectation, and larger than other Jews. The Caraite
Jews, who adhere to the letter of the law, and despise
traditions, call. the rabbinical Jews " bridled asses," be-
cause they wear these tephilim and frontlets. (See Mezc-
ZOTH, and Phylicteries.) — Calmet.
FUU
[ 552
FUE
f RUGALITY, is the keeping due bounds in our expen-
ses ; the happy mean between parsimony on the one hand,
and prodigality on the other. The example of Christ,
("John 6: 12 ;) the injunctions of God's word, (Luke 15: 1.
Prov. 18:9;) the evil effects of inattention to it, (Luke 11:1,
13 ;) the peace and comfort which arise from it, together
with the good which it enables us to do to c'Jiers, should
operate as motives to excite us to the practice of it.
Wood's Serm. on Frugality, 1795 ; Robinson's Mor. Ex. ex.
3 ; Ridghy's Body of Div. p. 54t) ; Buclcminster's Sermons.
^Hend. Buck.
FRUIT. The fruit of the lips is the sacrifice of praise
or thanksgiving, Heb. 13: 15. The fruit of the righteous,
that is, the counsel, example, instruction, and reproof of
the righteous, is a tree of life, is a means of much good,
both temporal and eternal ; and that not only to himself,
but to others also, Prov. 11: 30. Solomon says, in Prov.
12: 14, "A man shall be satisfied with good by the fruit
of his mouth ;" that is, he shall receive abundant blessings
from God as the reward of that good he has done, by his
pious and profitable discourses. " Fruits meet for re-
pentance," (Matt. 3: 8,) is such a conduct as befits the
profession of penitence.
2. The fruits of the Spirit are those gracious habits
which the Holy Spirit of God produces in those in whom
he dwelleth and worketh, with those acts which flow from
them, as naturally as the tree produces its fruit. The
apostle enumerates these fruits in Galatians 5: 22, 23.
The same apostle, in Eph. 5: 9, comprehends the fruits of
the sanctifying Spirit in these lliree things ; namely,
goodness, righteousness, and truth. The fruits of right-
eousness are such good works and holy actions as spring
from a renewed heart : '• Being filled with the fruits of
righteousness," Phil. 1: 11. Fruit is taken for a charita-
ble contribution, which is the fruit or efl'ect of faith and
love : " When I have sealed unto them this fruit," (Rom.
15: 28;) when I have safely delivered this contribution.
When fruit is spoken of good men, then it is to be under-
stood of the fruits or works of holiness and righteousness ;
but when of evil men, then are meant the fruits of sin,
immorality, and wickedness. This is our Savior's doc-
trine, Matt. 7: 16— IS.— Watson.
FRUITFULNESS, in the divine hfe, stands opposed to
an empty, barren, unproductive profession of religion ;
or that state of things to which Christ adverts when ad-
dressing the church in Sardis : " I know thy works, that
thou hast a name that thou livest, and art dead," Rev.
3: 1. The writers of both the Old and New Testaments
speak much upon tliis subject ; at one time encouraging
the people of God to press after it, as the end which is to
he accomplished in them by means of their attendance on
divine ordinances ; at another, solemnly warning them
of the awful consequences of remaining unfruitful under
the advantages of religious instruction with which they
may bo privileged. See in particular relative to this, Ps.
'.12:12—15. HosealJ:.5— 9. Matt. 13:3—9. Heb. 5: 12—
11, and 6: 7, 8. But the subject is more especially in-
sisted upon, and most strikingly illustrated by our Lord,
in John, ch. 15: where he not only stales its vast impor-
tance to all his disciples, if they would promote the glory
. of God ; but, under the beautiful similitude of a vine and
its branches, points out to thetn the only possible way of
attaining it. " I am the vine," says he ; " ye are" the
branche.s ; as the branch cannot bear fruit of itself, ex-
cept it abide in the vine, no more can ye, except ye abide
in me. He that abideth in me, and I in him, the same
bringclh forth nuich fruit ; but w-ithout (or severed from]
ine, ye can do nothing," ver. 4, 5. To understand this,
it must be remembered that in Christ, the " one mediator
between God and men," it hath "pleased the Father that
all fulness should dwell," Col. 1: 19. (Sec the article
Fulness.) He is made of God unto them, " \visdom, and
righteousness, and sanciification, and redemption," 1
Cor. 1: 30. By believing the divine testimony concerning
him, as the Sun of God, who was " delivered (unto death)
for the offences of the guilty, and raised again for their
justification," they become virtually united to him, as
the branches are united to the vine, and so are said to be
" IN HIM," 1 John 5: 20. He is not only the object of
their faith, and hope, and love, but the v'erv life of their
souls also. Gal. 2: 20. Col. 3: 3, 4. And as believers
live in him, or, which is the same thing, live " by the faith
of the Son of God," and upon that fulness which is treasur-
ed up in him, so it is by means of his words, or the doctrine
concerning him, dwelling in them richly through the pow-
er of the Holy Spirit, that he lives and abides in them,
(ver. 7.) quickens them at first from a death in trespasses
and sins, to a life of obedience acceptable to God, (Eph. 2:
1, 5, 6.) and makes them fruitful in every good word and
work, John 15: 8, 16.
Fruitfulness in religion, must necessarily include in it
a growth in knowledge. Col. 1: 9, 10. It stands opposed
to that state of childhood which the apostle alludes to and
blames in many professors, Eph. 4: 14. Heb. 5: 12. But
there must also be a growth in faith, in love, and in con-
formity to the will of God, or to the image of his Son
Jesus Christ. See Eph. 4: 13 — 16. So we find the apos-
tle Peter exhorting his brethren, who had obtained like
precious faith with himself, to " give all diligence," by a
continual increase in every Christian virtue, to make their
calling and election sure — " for if these things be in you
and abound," says he, •' they make you that ye shall
neither be barren nor unfruitful in the knowledge of our
Lord and Savior Jesus Christ ;" and with this he connects
their enjoying " an abundant entrance into his everlasting
kingdom," 2. Pet. 1: 5 — 11. (See the words Add, Edifica-
tion, and Growth in Grace.) — Jones.
FRUSTRATE ; to disappoint, to render vain or abor-
tive, to annul or make void. Thus when Jehovah is said
to " frustrate the tokens of the liars, and make diviners
mad," (Isa. 44: 25.) it means, that as all events are under
his sovereign control, he renders abortive all the prog-
nostications of the soothsayers, or magicians, and disap-
points their purposes.
When the apostle said to the Galatians, " I do not frus-
trate the grace of God, for if righteousness come by the
law, then Christ is dead in vain," (Gal. 2: 21.) his language
evidently implies tV'O things ; first, that it was the express
end and purpose of the death of Christ to procure right-"
eousness or justification for his people ; and secondly,
that the teachers, who sought to impose circumcision and
other oljservances of the law of Moses upon believing
Gentiles, with a view to their obtaining acceptance with
God, virtually annulled the grace of God, rendering it of
no eflect. And his conclusion is demonstrable ; for as
justification by grace, and justification by the works of
the law, whether moral or ceremonial, are in direct oppo-
sition to each other, so in whatever proportion or degree
men seek to obtain the favor of God through the medium
of the latter, they destroy the efficacy of the former. Birt
even this is not all ; for the apostle labors to show that
such is the nature of grace that it disdains any compro-
mise, for "if the blessing be by grace, then it is no more of
works, otherwise grace is no more grace ; but if it be of
works, then it is no more of grace, otherwise work is no
more of work," Rom. 11: 6. — Junes.
FUEL. In preparing their victuals, the Orientals are,
from the extreme scarcity of wood in many countries, re-
duced to use cow-dung for fuel. At Aleppo, the inhabi-
tants use wood and charcoal in their rooms, but heat their
baths with cow-dung, the parings of fruit, and other things
of a similar kind, which they employ people to gather for
that purpose. (See Baking, and Dung.)
Wood, however, and even any other combustible sub-
stance, is preferred when it can be obtained. The in-
habitants of Aleppo, according to Russel, use thorns, and
fuel of a similar kind, for those culinary purposes which
require haste, particularly for boiling, which seems to be
the reason that Solomon mentions the "crackling of
thorns under a pot," rather than in any other way. The
same allusion to the use of thorns for boiling occurs in
other parts of the sacred volume : thus, the Psalmist
speaks of the wicked, " Before your pots can feel the
thorns, he shall take them away as with a whirlwind,
both living, and in his wrath." 'The Jews are sometimes
compared in the prophets to a " brand plucked out of the
burning," (Amos 4: 11. Zech. 3: 2,) a figure which Char-
din considers as referring to vine twigs, and other brush-
wood, which the Orientals frequently use for fuel, and
which, in a few minutes, must be consumed if they are
FUL
[553]
PUL
not snatched out uf the fire , and not to those battens, or
large branches, ivhich will lie a long time in the fire lie-
fore they are reduced to ashes. If this idea be correct, il
displays ill a stronger and more lively manner the season-
able interposition of God's mercy, than is furnished by
any other view of the phrase. The same remark applies
to the figure by which the prophet Isaiah describes the
sudden and complete destruction of Rezin, and the son of
Remaliah ; " Take heed and be quiet ; fear not, neither he
faint-hearted for the two tails of these smoking firebrands,
for the fierce anger of Rezin with Syria, and of the son of
Remaliah," Isa. 7: 4. It is not easy to conceive an image
more striking than this ; the remains of two small twigs
burning with violence at one end, as appears by the steam-
ing of the other, are soon reduced to ashes ; so shall the
kingdoms of Syria and Israel sink into ruin and disappear.
2. The scarcity of fuel in the East obliges Ihe inhabi-
tants to use, by turns, every kind of combustible matter.
The withered stalks of herbs and flowers, the tendrils of
the vine, the small branches of myrtle, rosemary, and
other plants, are all used in heating their ovens and bag-
nios. We can easily recognize this practice in these
words of our Lord : " Consider the lilies of the field, how
they grow ; they toil not, neither do they spin : and yet I
say unto you, that Solomon, in all his glory, was not
arrayed like one of these. "Wherefore, if God so clothe
the grass of the field, which to-day is, and to-morrow is
cast into the oven, shall he not much more clothe you, 0
ye of little faith ?" Matt. Cr. 28—30. The grass of the
field, in this passage, evidently includes the lilies of
which our Lori had just been speaking, and by conse-
quence, herbs in general - and in this extensive sense the
word chortos is not unfrequently taken. These beautiful
productions of nature, so richly arrayed, and so exquisitely
perfumed, that the splendor even of Solomon is not to be
compared with theirs, shall soon witlier and decay, and
be used as fuel to heat the oven and the bagnio. Has
God so adorned these flowers and plants of the field,
which retain their beauty and vigor but for a few days,
and are then applied to some of the meanest purposes of
life ; ajid will he not much more clothe you who are the
disciples of his own Son, who are capable of immortality,
and destined to the enjojonent of eternal happiness? —
Watson.
FULFIL. (See Prophecy, and Quotation.)
FULLER, (Dk. Thomas,) a learned historian and di-
vine, was the son of the minister of Aid winkle, in North-
amptonshire, at which place he was born, in 1608. He
was educated at Queen's college, Cambridge ; was ap-
pointed minister of St. Bennet's parish, Cambridge ; and
acquired great popularity as a pulpit orator. He received
further preferment in. the church, of which, however, he
was deprived during the civil war, in consequence of his
activity on the side of the monarch. Between lfi40, and
1656, he published nearly the whole of his works. In
1648, he obtained the living of Waltham, in Essex, which,
in 1658, he quitted for that of Cranford, in Middlesex.
At the restoration he recovered the prebend of Salisbury,
was made D. D. and king's chaplain, and was looking
forward to a mitre, when his prospectswere closed by death,
ill 1661. Dr. Fuller possessed a remarkably tenacious
memory. It is said among other things, that he could re-
cite a sermon verbatim, after he had heard it once. He
had also a considerable portion of wit and quaint humor,
which he sometimes allowed to run riot in his writings.
Among his chief works are, A History of tlie Holy War ;
The Church History of Britain ; The History of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge ; and The History of the Worthies
of England. — Davenport.
FULLER, (Andrew,) first secretary of the Baptist
Missionary society, and one of the most extraordinary
men of this, or any other age, was born at Wicken, in
Cambridgeshire, Feb. 6, 1751. His pious father occupied
a small farm at that place, and was the parent of three
sons, of whom Andrew was the youngest. He received
the common rudiments of an English education at the
free school of Soham ; and, till the age of twenty, was en-
gaged in husbandry. When about sixteen years of age,
his mind became enlightened ; he sincerely repented of
his past transgressions ; he forsook his former evil wavs,
70
was publicly immersed, on a profession of his faith ; and
from that lime he continued to make an honorable and
consistent iirol'ession of Christianity, For the two suc-
ceeding years, he occasionally preached at Soham. In
January, 1774, he i-eceived a unanimous invitation from
that congregation to becoine their pastor, and was ordain-
ed in May, 1775. The income of Mr. Fuller being very
small, he opened a seminary in 1779, but which, in the
succeeding year, he relinquished ; and not being able
comfortably to provide for his increasing family, and the
conduct of some of the members of the church at Soham
.being lukewarm and unsatisfactory to him, he accepted
an invitation from a Baptist congregation at Kettering, to
become their pastor.
Mr. Fuller's removal to Kettering, in 1783, formed a
new era in his life. It brought him into contact with a
number of ministers of his own denomination, to whom
he was greatly attached, and who were equally ardent
with himself in the investigation of truth. Here his la-
bore took a wider range, and ^ve^e determined towards a
more definite object. The prevailing S5'stem of doctrine
among the Baptist churches, at this period, was ullra-
calvinism — a system which denies true faith to be the duty
of every one to whom the gospel comes ; and which, con-
sequently, must paralyze the eflbrts of ministers to " go
into all the world, and preach the gospel to every crea-
ture ; commanding all men everywhere to repent" at
the peril of their souls. Mr. Fuller saw the baneful
effects of this unscriptural system, and set himself to op-
pose and refute it with all his might. Witli this view he
drew up and published a small volume, entitled, " The
Gospel of Christ worthy of all Acceptution ; or. The Obli-
gations of Men, fully to credit, and cordially to approve
whatever God makes known : wherein is considered the
Nature of Faith in Christ, and the Duty of those where
the Gospel comes in that Matter." This valuable treatise
operated pc^werfully, and set thousands upon examining
their received principles. A host of opponents presently
rose up to oppose this new doctrine, as it was termed;
and our author had to defend himself on every side,
which he did with no ordinary dexterity; taking his stand
on the word of God, with the meekness of wisdom, but
with the lion heart of Luther.
In 1790, he composed his " Dialogues anil Letters on
the Fundamental Pririciples of the Gospel ;" and a cele-
brated work " On the Calvinistic and Socinian S3slems,
Examined and Compared as to their Moral Tendency."
This work deservedly ranks among the ablest and most
useful of Mr. Fullers literary productions; having done
more to stem the torrent of Socinianism in Englo.nd, than
any one book of modern times. It consists of a series of
letters, each occupying a particular subject, and the whole
forming a storehouse of sound observations, scriptifial
principles, important facts, and logical reasonings. The
book was well received by the public, and will long main-
tain its ground.
The writings of Mr. Fuller having circulated in America,
and having been generally approved, Princeton and Yale
colleges conferred on him the title of Doctor of Divinity ;
which, however, supposing it to be incompatible with the
simplicity of the Christian characler, he declined to use.
In 1792, the Bapiist Missionary society was lir»t esta-
blished at Kettering, by Jlr. Fuller and a few of his
friends, among whom was IMr. Carey, of Leicester, now
the celebrated Dr. Carey, who volunteered his services as
a missionary. India was selected as Ihe country which
they should visit ; and, in the spring of 1793, Mr, Carey
and oilier missionaries .-^et .sail f<ir Bengal, where they
arrived in the succeeding October, In the cslublishment
of that society, Mr, Fuller had taken Ihe liveliest interest,
and he was appointed to the situation of secretary. The
society, ever afterwards, was inseparable from his mind,
and depended, under God, mainly on his exertions. The
consultations which he held, the correspondence he main-
tained, the personal soliciialions which he employed, the
contributions he collected, the management of these and
other funds, the .selection, probation, and improvement of
intended missionaries ; the works which he composed and
compiled on these subjects, the discourses he delivered,
and the journevs he accomplished, to extend the know-
FU L
[ 554 j
FUE
ledge, and to promote the welfare of the mission, required
energy almost unequalled. In 1799, he made a tour
through Scotland for the benefit of the society ; and, on
his return home, he found that he had travelled nine hun-
dred miles, and collected full nine hundred pounds. In
1804, he visited the Baptist congregations throughout Ire-
land, and collected a considerable sum for the mission. In
July, 1805, he made another lour through Scotland, to
collect for the printing of the Scriptures m the Eastern
languages, and travelled one thousand eight hundred miles
in one month, preached every day, and collected one thou-
sand eight hundred pounds. In 1807, he drew up a state-
ment of the proceedmgs of the society ; and, m fine, the
history of the last twenty-three years of his life was com-
pletely identified with that of the mission.
Besides the publications already mentioned, Mr. Fuller
was the author of a great number of treatises on various
subjects, which, since his decease, have been collected and
printed in eight volumes, octavo; recently reprinted in
this country in two large volumes ; among which we may
particularly mention, " The Gospel its own Witness ;"
" The Calvinistic and Socinian Systems compared ;"
" Expository Discourses on the Books of Genesis and the
Apocalypse ;" " Sermons on various subjects ;" "Apology
for Christian Missions to the Heathen ;" with many other
smaller works, of peculiar excellence. All his writings
bear the powerful stamp of a mind, which, for native vigor,
original research, logical acumen, profound knowledge of
the hu nan heart, and intimate acquaintance with the
Scriptures, has bad no rival since the days of president
Edwards.
On the 7th of May, 1815, in the sijty-second year of
his age, this zealous, intelligent, benevolent, and most
useful Christian minister expired ; his heart being devoted
to God, and his soul resting on Christ alone for salvation
and eternal happiness.
It has been well said, that Fuller is " the Franklin of
theology." The views entertained of him, by those best
acquainted with his wrilings, are thus eloquently express-
ed by the Rev. Robert Hall: "I cannot refrain from ex-
pressing, in a few words, the sentiments of affectionate
veneration with which I always regarded that excellent
person while hving, and cherish his memory now that he
is no more ; a man whose sagacity enabled him to pen-
etrate to the depths of every subject he explored, whose
conceptions were so powerful and luminous, that what
was recondite and original, appeared familiar ; what was
intricate, easy and perspicuous in his hands ; equally suc-
cessful in enforcing the practical, in stating the theoretical,
and discussing the polemical branches of theology. With-
out the advantages of early education, he rose to high
distinction among the religious w riters of his day, and, in
the'midst of a most active and laborious life, left monu-
ments of his piety and genius, which will survive to dis-
tant posterity. Were 1 making his eulogium, I should
necessarily dwell on the spotless integrity of his private
life, his fidelity in friendship, his neglect of self-interest,
his ardent attachment to truth, and especially the series
of unceasing labors and exertions, in superintending the
mission to India, to which he most probably fell a victim.
He had nothing feeble or undecisive in his character, but,
to every undertalring in which he engaged, he brought
all the powers of his understanding, all the energies of his
heart ; and, if he were less distinguished by the compre-
hension than the acumen and solidity of his thoughts,
less eminent for the gentler graces than for stern integrity
and native grandeur of mind, we have only to remember
the necessary limitation of human excellence. While he
endeared himself to his denomination by a long course of
most usel'ul labor, by his excellent works on the Socinian
and Deistical controversies, as well as his devotion to the
cause of missions, he laid the world under lasting obliga-
tions."
For '.nore complete details of the life of Mr. Fuller see
Morris's Life of Fuller ; Sijland's Life of Fuller ; and il/c-
moir prefixed to his Comphle Works, hy his Son ; Jones's
Chris. Biog. ; Am. Quar. Ol/s. and Bap. Mag.— Hend. Buck
FULLER'S FIELD; FULLER'S FOUNTAIN. (See
flooEL, and Siloam.)
FULLER'S SOAP. (See Soap.)
FULKE, (WiLLiAiii, D. D.) This pions and learned
divine, of the church of England, was born in London, and
educated at Cambridge, where, in 1564, he was chosen a
fellow. He had previously spent six years in the study of
law, and his father was so offended at his returning to
college, that, though he was rich, he refused him any
supplies. Fnlke, however, easily made his way by his
talents and learning. He became eminent ahke in the
mathematics, in the oriental languages, and in divinity,
and published books in them all. Cartwright, the divinity
professor, was his intimate friend, In consequence of this,
however, Fulke was suspected of puritanism, and expelled
from his college. The earl of Leicester, out of policy,
became his patron, gave him the livings of Warley and
Didington, and in 1574, sent him as chaplain of an
ambassador to France. On his return he was made
master of Pembroke-hall, and Margaret professor of divi-
nity in Cambridge, and held these offices till his death, in
1589. His works are very numerous ; written in Latin
and Enghsh ; and levelled chiefly at the Papists. The
principal one is his Confutation of the Rbemish Testameu!,
printed in 1580, by the Papists, in opposition to the Pro-
testant versions. Mr. Hervey styles this Confutation, a
valuable piece of ancient controversy and criticism, full
of sound divinity, weighty arguments, and important ob-
servations.— Middleton, vol. ii. 261.
FULNESS, means the state of being filled, so as to
have no part vacant ; it necessarily includes the idea of
completeness, such as leaves nothing more to be desired j
(compare Col. 1: 19, with ch. 2:10.) and, in scriptural style,
it sometimes imports satiety. In this last acceptation it
occurs, Isa. 1: 11, "I am full of the burnt offerings of
rams," for, it is afterwards added, " they are a trouble to
me, I am weary to bear them," ver, 14. The term fre-
quently occurs in the New Testament, and its signification
is commonly very important. Thus the apostle speaks
of "the fulness of time," when God sent tbrth his son,
(Gal. 4: 4 ;) it was the time that he himself had, in his
eternal counsels, appointed — it w"as the time promised to
the fathers, and foretold by the prophets; expected by the
Jews themselves, and earnestly longed for by all that
looked for redemption in Israel, Luke 2: 25, C6, 38.
2. The church is termed " the fulness of Christ ; because
it is that which constitutes him a complete and perfect
head. For though he has a natural and personal fulness,
as God over all and blessed forever, yet, as Mediator, he
is not full and complete without his mystical body; even
as a king is not complete without his subjects ; so Christ
receives a relative fulness from his members, Eph. 1: 23.
3. But the most important view of this subject, is that
which regards the personal fulness of Christ, considered
as Mediator ; for " it hath pleased the Father," says the
apostle, "that in him should all fulness dwell," (Col. 1: 19 ;)
and " out of his fulness," says another apostle, " have all
we received, even grace for grace," John 1: 16. The pleni-
tude here referred to, as dwelling in Christ, is a copious
and delightful theme of contemplation, for it comprehends
all spiritual and heavenly blessings, answerable to the
utmost exigencies of his guilty, helpless, and ruined peo-
ple, in their state of dependence on him, in this world,
John 1: 14. Rom. 10: 4. 2 Cor. 12: 9. Ps. 68: 18. Col.
2: 9. Cant. 5: 16. Ps. 45: 2.
4. It is said, that "the fulness of the Godhead dwells in
Christ bodily," (Col. 2: 2 ;) that is, the whole nature and
attributes of God are in Christ, and that really, essentially,
or substantially ; and also personally, by nearest union;
as the soul dwells in the body ; so that the same person
who is man is God also. — Jones ; Watson.
FUNERAL RITES. (See Burial.)
FURLONG ; a measure of length containing one hun-
dred and twenty-five paces, which made the eighth part of
an Italian mile ; but Maimonides says the Jewish furlong
contained 266 2-3 cubits, and so seven furlongs and a
half went to one mile, Luke 24: 13. — Brorvn.
FURMAN, (Richard, D. D.) an eminent minister in
Charleston, South Carolina, and president of the Baptist
General Convention of the United States, was a native ot
New York, but brought up in South Carolina, at the High
Hills of Santee. His education was conducted by his
father, a gentleman of more than ordinary intelligence,
FUR
[ 555 ]
FU T
judgmenl, and discretion, by whom the mind of his son
was early imbued with an elegant taste, the most ardent
thirst for knowledge, and profound reverence for the word
of God. He became a subject of divine grace in youth ; and
such was the soundness of his piety, as well as the extent
of his attainments, that he was admitted to the gospel
ministry al the age of eighteen. His youthful ministrations
left a deep impression upon every mind, and many of
his vicious hearers, were by the divine blessing turned to
righteousness. He at this time laid the foundation of many
of the churches afterwards embodied in the Charleston
Association. "There was a greatness in the rudiments of
his work, a majesty in the style of his youthful perform-
ances, which agreed well with the ,sedate lustre of his
subsequent life-"
During the American revolution, he retired with his
family into North Carolina and Virginia, where his patri-
«3tism, character and talents, attracted the attention of some
of the leading men of the revolution, and gained him the
friendship of the celebrated Patrick Henry. He after-
wards assi.^ted in framing the constitution of South Caro-
lina.
In 1787, he was settled as pastor of the Baptist church
in Charleston, where for nearly forty years he continued
to exemplify, by rich and affecting illustrations, both the
active and passive virtues of the Christian character,
equally esteemed in every relation, the social and civil,
humane and benevolent, religious and professional. His
mind was alive to every incident which could be thouglit
to have a bearing on the happiness of the community in
which he lived. If in a mind where every excellence
stood in the equipoise of truth and dignity, there might be
a preponderating principle, that principle was the feeling
of a humane kindness which suffering in any form elicited.
fn the hut of the unhappy slave, and in the chambers of
the sick and the dying, there was something in his manner
which partook of a divine eloquence, and was carried with
a soothing power to the heart.
His religious views coincided in the main ^inth those of
Doddridge, Fuller, and Dwight, though he called no man
on earth master. As an experimental Christian he stood
fire-eminent. The disliaguishing feature in his religion
was a keen and penetrating conviction of his own depravi-
ty. In the deep and practical knowledge of the heart he
excelled, yet he was charitable in his judgment of others.
In the general character of his preaching he was judicious,
affectionate, and instructive, but at intervals he rose to a
strain of masculine dignity and eloquence, which held his
astonished hearers, even of the highest order, in breathless
attention. But a divine unction, the love of Christ cruci-
fied, pervaded and sweetened all his character and endow-
ments. He died among his attached people, August 25,
1825.
The dying bed of this eminent man was an edifying
scene. Among other things, he said to some friends pre-
sent, "On a review of lite I see much to be thankful for ;
but 0 what cause to be humbled before my God. I am
overn'helmed mth the sense of my ingratitude, of my
neglects, of my unfaithfulness as a minister of Christ.
I am a dying man, but my trust is in the Kedeemer ; 1
preach Christ to you dying, as I have attempted to do
while living." — Brant!y\ Funeral Sermon ; Am. Bap. Mag.
FURNACE ; a place for melting gold and other metals.
" The fining pot is for silver, the furnace for gold," Prov.
J7: 3. Metaphorically, it signifies a place of cruel bond-
age and oppression, such as Egypt was to the Israelites,
who there met with much hardship, rigor and severit}', to
try and purge them, (Deut. 4: 20. Jer. 11: 4.) the sharp and
grievous afflictions and judgments, wherewith God tries
bis people, (Ezek. 22: 18. 20: 22.) also a place of capital
punishment, as Nebuchadnezzar's fiery furnace, Dan. 3:
6, 11.
On the last we may remark, that this mode of punish-
ment is not unusual in the East in modern times. After
speaking of the common modes of punishing with death
in Persia, Chardin says, " But there is still a particular
way of putting to death such as have transgressed in
civil affairs, either by causing a dearth, or by selling above
the tax by a false weight, or who have committed thera-
belves in any other manner : they are put upon a spif and
roasted over a slow fire, Jer, 29: 22. Bakers, when they
offend, are thrown into a hot oven. During the dearth in
1668, 1 saw such ovens heated in the royal square in Ispa-
han, to terrify the bakers, and deter them from deriving
advantage from the general distress. To this dreadful
mode of punishment our Lord repeatedly alludes in speak
ing of the end of the wicked, Blatt. !3: 42, 50, — Watson.
FURROWS ; openings in the ground, made by a plough,
or other instrument. The sacred writers sometimes bor-
row similitudes from the furrows of the field, Job 31: 38.
" If my land cry against me, or the furrows thereof com-
plain;" if I have employed the poor to till my ground,
without paying them lor their labor. And Hosca 11: 12,
I will make Judah plough, and Jacob shall bieak the clods,
and form the furrows. The ten tribes tujd Judah shall
one after the other endure the effects of my anger. But,
the pTfphet adds, immediately, "Sow in righteousness,
and reap in mercy." — Calmet.
FURY, is attributed to God metaphorically, or speaking
after the manner of men ; that is, God's method of punish-
ing the wicked is as feai'ful as the violent exertions of a
man in a state of fury. So that when he is said to pom
otd kis fwrij on a person, or on a people, it is a figurative
expression for dispensing afflictive pro\'idences ; but we
must be very careful not to attribute humaji infirmities,
passions, or malevolence to the Deity. — Calnift.
FUTURE STATE ; a term made use of in relation to
the existence of the soul after death. That there is such
a stale of existence, we have every reason to believe;
" for if we suppose," says a good writer, " the events of
this life to have no reference to another, the whole state of
man becomes not only inexplicable, but contradictory and
inconsistent. The powers of the inferior animals are
perfectly suited to their station. They know nothing
higher than their present condition. In gratifying their
appetites, they fulfil their destiny, and pass away, — Man,
alone, comes forth to act a part which carries no meaning,
and tends to no end. Endowed with capacities which
extend far beyond his present sphere, fitted by his rational
nature for funning the race of immortality, he is slopped
short in the very entrance of his course. He squanders
his activity on pursuits which he discerns to be vain. He
languishes for knowledge which is placed beyond his
reach. He thirsts after a happiness which he is doomed
never to enjoy. He sees and laments the disasters of his
state, and yet, upon this supposition, can find nothing to
remedy them. Has the eternal God any pleasure in sport-
ing himself with such a scene of misery and folly as this
life (if it had no connection with another) must exhibit
to his eye ? Did he call into existence this magnificent
universe, adorn it with so much beauty and splendor,
and surround it with those glorious luminaries which we
behold in the heavens, only that some generations of
mortal men might arise to behold these wonders, and then
disapjiear forever? How unsuitable in this c;ise were
the habitation to the wretched inhabitant 1 How inconsis-
tent the commencement of his being, and the mighty
preparation of his powers and faculties, with his despica-
ble end ! How contradictory, in fine, were every thing
which concents the state of man, to the wisdom and per
fection of his JIaker ! "
But that there is such a state is clear from many pas-
sages of the New Testament: John 5: 24, Acts. 7:9. Rom.
8: 10, 11. 2 Cor 5: 1, 2. Phil. 1: 21. 1 Thess. 4: 14 ;
5: 10. Luke 16: 22, &c. But though these texts prove
the point, yet some have doubted whether there be any
where in the Old Testament any reference to a future
state at all. The case, it is said, appears to be this : the
Mosaic covenant contained no promises directly relating
to a future state ; probably, as Dr. Warburton asserts, and
argues at large, because Moses was secure of an equal provi-
dence, and therefore needed not subsidian,' sanctions taken
from a ftiture state, ■without the belief of which the
doctrine of an universal providence cannot ordinarily be
vindicated, nor the general sanctions of religion secured.
But, in opposition to this sentiment, as Doddridge obsen-e,s,
"it is evident that good men, even before Moses, were
animated by views of a future state, (Heh. 11: 13, 16.)
as he himself plainly was, (24th to 26th verse:) and that
the promises of heavenly felicity were contained even m
GAD
[ 556 J
GAD
the covenant made with Abraham, •vrhtch the Mosaic
could not disannul. Succeeding providences also con-
firmed the natural arguments in its favor, as every re-
markable interposition would do ; and when general pro-
mises were made to the obedient, and an equal providence
relating to the nation established on national conformity
lo the Mosaic institution, and not merely to tlie general
precepts of virtue ; as such an equal providence would
necessarily involve many of the best men in national
ruin, at a time when, by preserving their integrity in the
midst of general apostasy, their virtue was most conspi-
cuous; such good men, in such a state, worold have vas-t
additional reasons for expecting future rewards, beyond
what could arise from principles common to the rest of
mankind ; so that we cannot wonder that we find in the
writings of the prophets many strong expressions of such
an expectation, particularly Gen. 49: 18. Ps. 16: 9—11.
Ps. 17: last verse ; Ps. 73: 17, 27. Eccl. 3: 15, 16, &c.
Eccl. 7: 12, 15. Isa. 3: 10, 11. Ezek. 18: 19, 21. Job.
19: 23, 37. Dan. 12: 2. Isa. 35i 8. Isa. 26: 19. ffce
same thing may also be inferred from the particular pro-
mises mad« tw Daniel, (Dan. 12; 13.) toZernbbabel, (Hag.
2: 23.) and to Joshua, the high priest, (Zech. 3: 7.) as
well as from those historical facts recorded in the Old
Testament, of the murder of Abel, the translation of
Enoch and Elijah, the death of Moses, and the story of
the witch of Endor, and from what is said of the appear-
ance of angels to, and their converse with, good men."
See articles Intermediate State ; IlEstiRKECTioi* j and
Soul : also Doddridge's Lectures, lee. 216 j Wfirburton's
Divine Legation of Moses, vol. ii. p. 55-3: — 568; Dr. Ad-
dingtoii's Dissertations on the Heligious Knmvledge of the
ancient Jews mid Patriarchs, C(mtaimng nn inqtrinj into the
evidences of their belief and expectation of afvtvre state.;
Blair's Sermons, ser. 15. vol. i.; Sobinson's Claude, vol. i.
p. 132 ; W. Jones's Works, vol. vi. ser. 12 ; Logan's Hei-
monSy vol. ii. p. 413. — Hetid. Buck.
G.
GAASH ; a mountain of Ephraim, north of which
stood Timnath-Serah, celebrated for Joshua's tomb, (Josh.
24: 30.) which, Eusebins says, was known in his time. —
II. A brook, or valley, (2 Sara. 23: 30.) probably at the
foot of mount Gaash. — Cahnet.
GABA ; a city at the foot of mount Carmel, between
Ptolemais and Cesarea. — Calmtt.
GABAA, (a kill.) Many places in a mountaii}OUS coun-
try like Judea, might be called Gibeah, Gibeon, Gabba-
tha, Gibelhon, Gabbath, Gabe, or Gabaa ; signifying emi-
nences.— Cahnet.
GABALA. (See Gebal.)
GABATHA ; a town in the south of Judah, twelve
miles from Eleutheropolis, where the prophet Habakkulc's
sepulchre was .^liown. — Cahnet.
GAEBATHA, (Heb. high, or elemted. In Greek, litho-
strblon, piimd n-ith stones, John 19: 13.) It was probably
an eminence, or terrace ; a gallery or balcony paved with
stone or marble, and of considerable height. — Calmct.
GABINIUS, (Aui.os ;) one of Pompey's generals, who
was sent into Judea against Alexander and Antigonus,
B. C. 60. (See Alexanhek, and III. Antigonus.) He
restored Kircanus at Jerusalem, confirmed him in the
Mgh-pviesthood, and settled governors and jadges in the
provinces, so that Judfa, from a monarchy, became an
aristocracy. lie eslriblished courts of justice at Jerusa-
lem, Gadara, (or at Dora,) Ainalha, Jericho, and Sepho-
ris ; that the people, finding judges in all parts of the coun-
liy, might not be obliged to go far from their habitations.
Some learned men arc of opinion, that the establishment
of the Sanhedrim owed its origin to Gabinius. — Calnut.
GABRES, or Guebres. (See Gaurs.) The Turks ap-
ply the term to Christians in the sense of infidels or hea-
thens.— Calmct.
GABRIE L, {the strength of God ;) a principal angel. He
was sent to the prophet Daniel to explain his visions ; also
to Zacharias, to announce to him the future birth of John
the Baptist, Dan. 8: 16. 9: 21. 10: 16. Luke 1: 11, et
seq. Six months afterwards, he was sent to Nazareth,
to the virgin Mary, Lube 1; 26, &c. (See Angel; and
Annunciation.) — Calmel.
GABRIEL, (Saint, Congregation of ;) a society of lay
gentlemen, founded by Ca?sar Bianchetti, at Boulogne,
about A. D. 1616, for improvement "in Christian know-
ledge and virtue." — Hist, des Ord. Eelig. torn. viii. c. 22
IVilliams.
GAD,,(fortunale,) son of Jacob and Zilpah, Leah's ser-
vant. Gen. 30: 9, 10, 11. Leah called him Gad, saying,
" Happy am I !" Gad had seven sons, Zipheon, Haggai,
Shuni, Ezbon, Eri, Aiodi, and Areli, Geo. 46: 16. Jacob'
blessing Gad, said, " A troop shall overcome him, but he
shall overcome at the last," Gen. 49: 19. Moses, in his
last song, mentions Gad, " as a lion which tearelh the
arm with the crown of the head," (kc. Deut. 33.
The tribe of Gad came out of Egypt, in number, fcrty-
five thousand six hundred and fifty. After the defeat of
the kings Og and Sihon, Gad and Reuben desired to have
their allotment east of Jordan, alleging their great num-
ber of cattle. Moses granted their reqnest, on condition
that they should accompany their brethren, and assist in
conquering the land west of Jordan. Gad had his inhe-
ritance between Reuben south, and Manasseh north, with
the mountains of Gilead east, and Jordan west. (See
Canaan.) — Calmet. .
GAD, David's friend, who followed him when persecut-
ed by Saul. Scripture styles him a prophet, and David's-
seer, 1 Sam. 22: 5. 2 Sam. 24: 11. 1 Chron. 21: 9— 11.
He wrote a history of David's life, which is cited 1 Chron.
2&: 29.— Calmet.
GAD, the god or goddess of fortune, a heathen deity,
mentioned in several passages of Scripture. We find a
place in Canaan, called the tower of Gad, (.Tosh. 15: 37.)
and another in the valley of Lebanon, called Baal-Gad,.
Josh. 11: 17. In Isaiah 65: 11, those who prepare the
table for Gad are allotted lo the sword ; and those who
furnish a drink-offering to Meni, to the slaughter. We
find Meni, in medals of Antioch, lo"be either male or fe-
male, without distinction ; and therefore Gad, the associ-
ate of Meni, may well be thought similar in this respect.
(See ISUm.)— Calmet.
GADAKA ; a celebrated city of Palestine, the capitaP
of Persea, situated eastward of the lake of Tiberias,
eight miles from the
.shore. It was strong-
ly fortified, had a
court of justice, and
several hot baths. It
gave name also lo a
canton, which is men-
tioned as t'ne country
of the Gadarenes,.
(Mark 5: 1. and
Luke 8: 26.) though
Matthew calls it the
country of the Gerga-
senes, ch. 8: 28. Ger-
gasa was near Gada-
ra, and therefore one
evangelist might with
as much propriety call it the country of the Gergaienes,
as another, that of the Gadarenes.
" Along the borders of this lake Tiberias," says Dr.
Clarke, " may still be seen the remains of those ancient
tombs, hewn by the earliest inhabitants of Galilee, in the
rocks which face the ^^'aler. They were deserted in the
lime of our Savior, and had become the resort of wretch-
ed men, afflicted by diseasc-ii, and made outcasls of socie-
tv : for in the account of the cure performed by our Sn
CtAL
[557]
GAL
vior upon a demoniac in the country of the Gadarenes,
these tombs are particularly alluded to ; and their exis-
tence to this day, offers strong internal evidence of the
accuracy of the evangelist who has recorded the transac-
tion ; " There met him out of the tombs a man with an
unclean spirit, who had his dwelling among the tombs," Ur.
darkens Travels in the Holy Land, part ii. p. 4ti6, tec. — Jon's.
GAIANITiE ; a denomination which derived its name
from Gaian, a bishop of Alexandria, in the sixth century,
who denied that Jesus Christ, after the hypostatical union,
was subject to any of the infirmities of human nature. —
Hend. Bitch.
GAIUS ; a Christian who accompanied Paul on his tra-
vels through some of the Gentile countries. Acts 19: 29.
20: 4. Rom. 16: 23. It is highly probable, though not
absolutely certain, that this was the same Gains who is
mentioned in such honorable terms by the apostle John in
his third epistle. — Jone:.
GALATI A ; a province in Asia Minor, having the river
Halys east, Bithynia and Paphlagonia north, Cappadocia
and Phrygia south, and fllysia and Lydia west. The
Gauls, having invaded Asia Minor, in several bodies,
conquered this country, settled in it, and called it Gallo-
Grecia, or Galatia, which, in Greek, signifies Gaul ; (per-
haps, New Gaul, or Little Gaul.)
The Galatians worshipped the mother of the gods.
Callimachus, in his hymns, calls them " a foolish people ;"
and Hilary, himself a Gaul, as well as Jerome, describes
them as Gallos itidocihs. Their inland situation cut them
off in a great degree from intercourse with more civilized
nations, and they still retained their native language in
the days of Paul. They also seem to have retained much
of the warmth and volatility of character, for which the
Gauls (French) in all ages have been remarkable.
The apostle Paul preached several times in Galatia ;
first, A. D. 51, (Acts 16: 6.) afterwards, A. D. 54, (Acts
18: 23.) and formed considerable churches there. It is
probable, he was the first who preached there to the Gen-
tiles ; but, possibly, Peter had preached there to the Jews,
since his first epistle is directed to the strangers scattered
throughout Pontus, Galatia, &c. These Jews, it has been
.vupposed by some, occasioned those differences in the
Galatian church, on account of which Paul wrote his
epistle in A. D. 53, in which he takes some pains to es-
tablish his character of apostle, which had been disputed,
with intention to place him below Peter, who preached
generally to Jews only, and who observed the law.
But his main object throughout nearly the whole of it
is, to counteract the pernicious influence of the doctrine
of those false teachers, particularly as it respected the
article of justification, or a sinner's acceptance with God.
And in no part of the apostle's writings is that important
doctrine handled in a more full ahd explicit manner; nor
does he any where display such a firm, determined, and
inflexible opposition to all who would corrupt the truth
from its simplicity.
" The erroneous doctrines of the jndaizing teachers,"
says Dr. Macknight, " and the calumnies they spread for
the purpose of discrediting St. Paul's apostlesliip, no doubt
occasioned great uneasiness of mind to him and to the
faithful in that age, and did much hurt, at least for a while,
among the Gal.itians. But in the issue these evils have
proved of no small service to the church in general ; for
by obliging the apostle to produce the evidences of his
apostleship, and to relate the history of his life, especially
after his conversion, we have obtained the fullest assur-
ance of his being a real apostle, called to the office by Je-
sus Christ himself; consequently we are assured that our
faith in the doctrines of the gospel, as taught by him,
(and it is he who hath taught the pecuUar doctrines of the
gospel most fully,) is not built on the credit of a man,
but on the authority of the Spirit of God, by whom St.
Paul was inspired in the whole of the doctrine which he
has delivered to the world." — Cahnet ; Watson.
GALATIAXS, (Epistle to.) (See G.ii.ath.)
GALBANUJI ; a gum, or sweet spice, and an ingrei'i-
ent in the incense burned at the golden altar, in the holy
place, Exo i. 30: 34. It is a juice, drawn by incision from
a plant cal.c-I melnpum, much like the large kind of fennel.
— Calmet.
GALE, (Theofhilus,) a learned non-conformist divine,
was born m 1()28, at King's Teignton, in Dcvon.shire,
and educated at Oxford, where his education commenced
under a private preceptor in his father's vicarage-house,
from whence he was removed to a grammar school in
the neighborhood, where he made great proficiency in
cla,ssical learning. In 1652, he commenced master of
arts ; and soon became an eminent tutor, fellow, and a
distinguished preacher in the university.
While engaged in the prosecution of his great under-
taking, " The Coiut of the Gentiles," Mr. Gale, however,
did not fad to discharge the duties of his ministerial ofijce
in the most conscientious manner. He preached con-
stantly ; and his discourses from the pulpit were so many
conspicuous proofs of his distinguished piety and learn-
ing. He was invited to Winchester, and became a stated
preacher there in 1(>57, in which station he continued for
several years, generally admired and esteemed, both for
his excellent sentiments, and his exemplary life, an J con-
versation. But having now, for .some considerable time
past, imbibed the principles of the non-conformists, on
the re-establi.shment of episcopacy, at the rcstoraticn of
Charles the Second, he refused to comply with the act of
uniformity, which passed in 1661 ; and rather than vio-
late his conscience he preferred suffering all the penalties
which the law could inflict.
Thus excluded from the public service of his function,
and deprived of his fellowship at Oxford, he found friends
among those of his own sentiments, and was taken into
the family of Phihp, lord Wharton, in the capacity of tu-
tor to his two sons.
In 1669, Mr. Gale published, at Oxford, in quarto, the
first part of " The Court of the Gentiles ; or, a Discourse
touching the Original of human Literature, both Philo-
logy and Philosophy, from the Scriptures and Jewish
church," iScc. This was received by the public with great
applause, and was reprinted in 1()72. The second part
was printed at Oxford in 1671, and at London in 1676.
Parts iii. and iv. were printed at London in 1677. The
whole was speedily translated into Latin, by which means
the reputation of the author wa-s spread into all parts of
Europe, but especially in Germany, where his perform-
ance was much read and admired. In the first part of
this learned work, Mr. Gale endeavors to prove, that all
languages have their origin and rise from the Hebrew ;
instancing particularly in the Oriental tongues, such as
the PhcDnician, Coptic, Chaldaic, Syriac, Arabic, Persian,
Samaritan, and Ethiopic; and then in the Euronean, es-
pecially the Greek, Latin, the ohl Gallic, and Britannic.'
To this he adds a deduction, importing that thp pagan
theology, physic, politics, poetry, history, rhetoric, are de-
duced from sacred names, persons, rites, and records ;
and showing v.'ithal, how the Jew ish traditions came to
be corrupted and mistaken by pagans. In the s'cond
part, he makes it his business to evince, that phiio-^ophy
also has its original from the Jewish church, commencing
with the Barbaric philosophy, under which he compre-
hends the Egyptian, Phcenician, Chaldean, Persian, In-
dian, Ethiopic, Scythian, and Britannic ; thence proceed-
ing to the Grecian, and chiefly to the Ionic and Italic, or
Pythagorean, where he displays extensive reading and
great learning, while he deduces this doctrine of Judaic
origin from the testimonies of heathen, Jewish, and Chris-
tian authors, passing through all the particular sects of
philosophers with great care and industry. In the third
part, the vanity of pagan philosophy is demonstrated
from its causes, pans, properties, and effects ; namely,
pagan idolatry, Judaic apostasy. Gnostic infusions, errors
among the Greek fathers, especially Origenism, Ariani-sm,
Pelagianism, and the whole system of Popery, or Aiiii-
christianism, distributed into t'nree parts, mvs'.c, .schola-
stic, and canonic theology. In the fourth pai't, he treats
of reformed philosophy, wherein Plato's moral or mcta-
physic, or prime philoso|ihy, is reduced to a useful form
or method. He divides this, which is larger than any of
the former parts, into three books, discoursing in the finn
of moral pliilosophy ; in the second, of metaphysics ; and
in the third, of ilivinc predetermination.
Mr. Gnlc . oiulnued to be an assistant fo Mr. Rowe,
of London, till the death of that gentleman, in 1677. and
GAL
[ 568
GAL
then lie was chosen to succeed him as pastor of the church.
His stated residence was at Newington, where he died in
1678.
Mr. Gale was a man of very extensive learmng, of un-
questionable piety, and animated with an ardent love of
truth. His great merit, and the irreproachableness of his
life, gained him the respect of all parties. He was a de-
cided non-conformist on principle, and evinced his zeal in
its support by bequeathing all his estate, real and person-
al, to the education of young students destined for the
dissenting ministry, and appointing trustees for its man-
agement. His valuable and well chosen library, with a
few exceptions, he bequeathed towards promoting useful
learning in New England, where those principles exten-
sively prevailed.
Besides his great work, " The Court of the Gentiles,"
he published in Latin an abridgment of it for the use of
students, under the title of " Fhilosophia Generalis," tec.
London, 1676, bvo. ; " Theophily ; or, a Discourse of the
Saints' Amity with God in Christ," London, 1671, 8vo. ;
" The true Idea of Jansenism, both historic and dogmatic,"
1669, 8vo. ; " The Anatomy of Infidelity," 1672, 8vo. ;
"A Discourse on the Coming of Christ," 1673, 8vo. ;
" Idea Theologiee," &c. 12mo. ; and '• The Life and
Death of Thomas Tregosse," &c. 1671, 8vo. — Jones's
Chris. Biog.
GALE, (Dr. John,) one of the ablest ministers of his
time among the General Baptists, was born in the year
1679, and was the sou of a respectable citizen of London,
who, perceiving in him superior talents, determined to
give him a liberal education, and to devote him to the
work of the Christian ministry. With this view he sent
young Gale to the university of Leyden, where he con-
tinued two years ; and by his rapid improvement, the re-
sult of indefatigable application, he gained the esteem of
the professors, and was honored with the degrees of mas-
ter of arts and doctor in philosophy, before he was nine-
teen years of age. He went afterwards to Amsterdam,
and spent some years among the Remonstrants, under
the tuition of Limborch and Le Clerc. On his return to
England he pursued his studies with redoubled ardor, and
treasured up in his mind a considerable portion of valua-
ble knowledge.
Dr. Gale did not begin to preach statedly till he was
thirty-five years of age. The publication which gave ce-
lebrity to his name was his " Reflections on Dr. Wall's
History of Infant Baptism ;" in which he is generally
acknowledged to have displayed considerable ability, and,
what is not so common in that controversy, mildness of
temper. He had projected several important undertak-
ings, but the execution of these plans was prevented by
the attack of a fever, which put a period to his life in De-
cember, 1721, in the forty-second year of his age. His
illness was of short duration, but " borne with that calm-
ness and patience which became a mind firmly possessed
with a belief in the superintendence of a wise and good
God, to whose providence he always resigned himself and
his affairs." He was a man who did honor to human na-
ture. Four volumes of serintms, with his Life prefixed,
were published after his decease. See Memoirs of' Dr.
John Gale. — Jones's Chris. Biog.
GALENISTS; the followers of Galen Abraham Haan,
« physician at Amsterdam, and an eloquent preacher
among the Mennonites, (which see.) He was considered
a Latitudinarian, admitting to his communion all who be-
lieved the Scriptures and led religious lives. He was op-
posed by Samuel Apostool. (See Apostoolians.) Afu-
sheim's E. H. vol. v. p. 496. — Williams.
GALILEAN ; a name of reproach first given to our Sa-
vior and his disciples by the Jews, and afterwards libe-
rally used by the pagans. Julian the Apostate constantly
employed it, and wished to have it established as the le-
gal name by which the Christians should be designated.
The Redeemer he called " the Galilean God," and with
his dying breath thus gave vent to his rage, while forced
to acknowledge his power : nenikekas Galilaie : " 0 Gali-
lean, thou hast conquered !" — Hend. Buck.
GALILEANS ; a sect of the Jews which arose in Judea
some years after the birth of our Savior. They sprang
from one Judas, a native of Gaulam, in Upper Galilee,
upon the occasion of Augustus appointing the people tO
be mustered, which they looked upon as an instance of
servitude which all true Israelites ought to oppose. They
pretended that God alone should be owned as master and
lord, and in other respects were of the opinion of the
Pharisees ; but as they judged it unlawful to pray for in-
fidel princes, they separated themselves from the rest of
the Jews, and performed their sacrifices apart. As our
Savior and his apostles were of Galilee, they were sus-
pected to be of the sect of the Galileans ; and it was on
this principle, as St. Jerome observes, that the Pharisees
laid a snare for him, asking, Whether it were lawful to
give tribute to Czesar 1 that in case he denied it, they
might have an occasion of accusing him. — Hend. Buck.
GALILEE ; one of the most extensive provinces into
which the Holy Land was divided ; but it probably varied
in its limits at different periods. It is divided by the rab-
bins into (1.) The Upper; (2.) The Nether; "and, (3.)
The Valley. Josephus limits Galilee west by the city of
Ptolemais and mount Carmel ; on the south by the coun-
try of Samaria and Scythopolis ; on the east by the can-
tons of Hippos, Gadara, and Gaulan ; on the north by
the confines of the Tyrians. Lower Galilee reaches in
length from Tiberias to Chabulon, or Zabulon, the frontier
of Ptolemais ; in width from Chaloth, in the great plain,
to Bersabee. The breadth of Upper Galilee begins at
Bersabee, and extends to Baca, which separates it from
the Tyrians. Its length reaches from Telia, a village on
the river Jordan, to Meroth. But the exact situation of
these places is not known.
This province contained four tribes ; Issachar, Zebulun,
Naphtali, and Asher; a part also of Dan ; and part of
Perea, beyond the river. Upper Galilee abounded in
mountains, and was termed " Galilee of the Gentiles,"
as the mountainous nature of the country enabled those
who possessed the fastnesses to maintain themselves
against invaders. Strabo (lib. 16.) enumerates among
its inhabitants Egyptians, Arabians, and Phoenici-ins.
Lower Galilee, which contained the tribes of Zebul^iuand
Asher, was sometimes called the Great Field, " the cham-
paign," Deut. 11: 30. The valley was adjacent to the
sea of Tiberias. Josephus describes Galil i as being very
populous, containing two hundred and four cities and
towns, the least of which contained fifteen thousand in-
habitants. It was also very rich, and paid two hundred
talents in tribute. The natives were industrious, high
spirited, brave, and made good soldiers ; they were also
seditious, and prone to insolence and rebellion. Their
language and customs ditfered considerably from those
of the Judeans, Mark U: 70. (See the two preceding
articles.) — Calmet.
GALILEE, (Sea of.) This inland sea, or more pro-
perly lake, forever dear in the imagination of the Chris-
tian, from the memorable scenes acted on its shores and
on its bosom, derives its several names, the lake of Tibe-
rias, the sea of Galilee, and the lake of Gennesareth,
from the territory which forms its western and south-wes-
tern border. It is computed to be between seventeen and
eighteen miles in length, and from five to six in breadth.
It is naturally pure and sweet, secluded in its situation,
and surrounded by elevated, and anciently fruitful decli-
vities. The mountains on the east come close to its shore,
and the country on that side has not a very agreeable as-
pect : on the west, it has the plain of Tiberias, the high
ground of the plain of Hutin, or Hottein, the plain of
Gennesareth, and the foot of those hills by which you as-
cend to the high mountain of Saphet. To the north and
south it has a plain country, or valley. There is a cur-
rent throughout the whole breadth of the lake, even to
the shore ; and the passage of the Jordan through it is
discernible by the smoothness of the surface in that part.
" The lake of Gennesareth," says Dr. Clarke, " is sur-
rounded by objects well calculated to heighten the solemn
impression made by historical recollections, and affords
one of the most striking prospects in the Holy Land. In
picturesque beauty, it comes nearest to the lake of Lo-
carno in Italy, although it is destitute of any thing simi-
lar to the islands by which that majestic piece of water
is adorned. It is inferior in magnitude, and in the height
of its surrounding mountains, to the lake Asphaltites."
GAM
[ 559 ]
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The situation of the lake, lying, as it were, in a deep
basin, between the hills which inclose it on all sides, ex-
cepting only the narrow entrance and outlets of the Jor-
dan at either end, protects its waters from long-continued
tempests ; its surface is in general as smooth as that of
the Dead sea. But the same local features render it oc-
casionally subject to whirlwinds, squalls, and sudden
gusts from the mountains, of short duration ; especially
when the strong current formed by the Jordan is opposed
by a wind of this description from the s6uth-east, sweep-
ing from the mountains with the force of a hurricane, it
may easily be conceived that a boisterous sea must be
instantly raised, which the small vessels of the country
would be unable to resist. — Watson.
GALL, (rash ;) something excessively bitter, and sup
posed to be poisonous, Deut. 29: 18. 32: 32. Psalm 69:21
Jer. 8: 14. 9: 15. 23: 15. Lam. 3: 19. Hosea 10: 4. Amos
6; 12. It is evident, from the first-mentioned place, that
some herb or plant is meant of a malignant or nauseous
kind. It is joined with wormwood, and, in the margin
of our Bibles, explained to be " a very poisonful herb."
In Psalm 69; 21, which is justly considered as a prophecy
of our Savior's sufferings, it is said, " They gave me gall
{rash) to eat." And, accordingly, it is recorded in the
history, " They gave him vinegar to drink mingled with
gall," Matt. 27: 34. But, in the parallel passage, it is
said to be " wine mingled with myrrh," (Mark 15: 23.)
a very bitter ingredient. From whence it is probable that
the word may be used as a general name for whatever is
exceedingly bitter ; and, consequently, where the sense
requires it, may be put specially for any bitter herb or
plant. — Watson.
GALLEY ; a ship rowed with oars. The enemies of
the Jews, and the Assyrian army in particular, are liken-
ed to galleys, or gallants, that is, according to ancient
ideas, large and magnificent ships, Isa. 33: 21. — Brown.
GALLICAN. (See Chukch, Gallican.)
GALLIC ; the brother of Seneca, the philosopher. He
was at first named Jlarcus Annseus Novatus ; but, being
adopted by Lucius Junius Gallio, he took the name of his
adoptive father. The emperor Claudius made him pro-
consul of Achaia. He was of a mdd and agreeable tem-
per. To him his brother Seneca dedicated his books, " Of
Anger." He shared in the fortunes of his brothers, as
well when out of favor as in their prosperity at court.
At length, Nero put him, as well as them, to death.
The Jews, enraged at St. Paul for con-eiting many
Gentiles, in A. D. 53, dragged him to the tribunal of Gal-
lio, who, as proconsul, generally resided at C'orinth, Acts
18: 12, 13. They accused him of teaching " .nen to wor-
ship God contrary to the law." Sosthenes, the chief ruler
of the synagogue, was beaten by the Greeks before Gal-
lic's seat of justice ; but this governor did not concern
hiinself about it. His abstaining from interfering in a re-
ligious controversy, perhaps did credit to his prudence ; ne-
vertheless, his name has passed into a reproachful proverb ;
and a man regardless of all piety is called " a Gallio,"
and is said, " Gallio-Uke, to care for none of these things."
Little did this Roman anticipate that his name would be
so immortalized. — Watson.
GAMALIEL ; an illustrious doctor of the Jewish law,
a Pharisee, and Paul's master. It is said he was the
grandson of the famous Hillel, (see Hillel) uncle to Nico-
demus, and for thirty-two years president of the Jewish
Sanhedrim. It is certain that the family of Gamaliel was
so distinguished as to enjoy privileges of a peculiar kind,
especially in relation to the study of Greek literature,
which was generally prohibited among the Jews. See
Robinson's Bib. Repos. 1832.
The Jews having brought Peter before the assembly of
rulers, Gamaliel moved that the apostles should retire ;
and then advised the assembly to take heed what they in-
tended to do touching these men, and to treat them with
lenity. Gamaliel's advice was followed ; and the apos-
tles were liberated. Acts 5: 34.
■WTien Paul, in Rom. 10: 1. affirms, " My heart's desire
and prayer to God for Israel is, that they might be saved,"
we should not forget how much of an interesting and af-
fecting character was connected with the personal character
of many of whom he spoke. Could he cease to feel for his
former venerated teacher, so richly cultivated, intelligent
and amiable as he was, yet, in neglecting to embrace
Christianity, so fatally mistaken! Heb. 2: 3. — Calmet ;
Brown.
GAMBA, (Francis ;) a Lombard of the Protestant per-
suasion, and a martyr of the sixteenth century. He was
apprehended and condemned to death by the senate of
Milan. At the place of execution, a monk presented a
cross to him ; to whom he said, •' My mind is so full of
the real merits and goodness of Christ, that I want not a
piece of senseless stick to put me in mind of him." For
this expression his tongue was bored through, after which
he was burnt to death. — Fox. p. 185.
GAMES (Public or Gymnastic ) Games and combats
were instituted by the ancients in honor ol their gods
and were celebrated with that view by the most polished
and enUghtened nations of antiquity. The most renown-
ed heroes, legislators, and statesmen, did not think it un-
becoming their character and dignity, to mingle with the
combatants, or contend in the race ; they even reckoned
it glorious to share in the exercises, and meritorious to
carry away the prize. The victors were crowned with a
wreath of laurel in presence of their country ; they were
celebrated in the rapturous effusions of their poets ; they
were admired, and almost adored, by the innumerable
multitudes which flocked to the games, from every part
of Greece, and many of the adjacent countries: They re-
turned to their own homes in a triumphal chariot, and
made their entrance into their native city, not through
the gates which admitted the vulgar throng, but through
a breach in the walls, which were broken down to give
them admission ; and at the same time to express the
persuasion of their fellow-citizens, that walls are of small
use to a city defended by men of such tried courage and
ability. Hence the surprising ardor which animated all
the states of Greece to imitate the ancient heroes, and en-
circle their brows with wreaths, which rendered them still
more the objects of admiration or envy to succeeding
times, than the victories they had gained, or the laws they
had enacted.
But the institutors of those games and combats had
higher and nobler objects in viewnhan veneration for the
mighty dead, or the gratification of ambition or vanity ;
it was their design to prepare the youth for the profession
of arms ; to confirm their health ; to improve their
strength, their vigor, and activity ; to enure them to fa-
tigue ; and to render them intrepid in close fight, where,
in the infancy of the art of war, muscular force commonly
decided the victory. This statement accounts for the
striking allusions which the apostle Paul makes in jiis
epistles to these celebrated exercises. Such references
were calculated to touch the heart of a Greek, and of every
one familiarly acquainted with them, in the liveliest man-
ner, as well as to place before the eye of his mind the
most glowing and correct images of spiritual and divine
things.
1. Certain persons were appointed to take care that all
things were done according to custom, to decide contro-
versies that happened amongst the antagonists, and to
adjudge the prize to the victor. Some eminent writers
are of opinion that Christ is called the '■ Author and Fin-
isher of faith," in allusion to these judges.
2. Those who were designed for the profession of atUeta,
or combatants, frequented from their earliest years the
academies maintained for that purpose at the public ei-
GAM
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GAM
pensc. Ill tbesa places, thoy were exercised under the
direction of iliffereHt iriaslers, who employed the most
effectual methods to inure Iheir bodies for the fatigues of
the public games, and to form them for*he combats. The
regimen to which they submitted was very hard and se-
vere. At first, they had no other nourishment than dried
tigs, nuts, soft cheese, and a gross, heavy sort of bread,
called maza ; they were absolutely forbidden the use of
. wine, and enjoined continence.
3. When they proposed to contend in the Olympian
games, they were obliged to repair to the public gymnasi-
um at Elis, ten months before the solemnity, where they
prepared themselves by continual exercises. No man
that had omitted to present himself at the appointed time,
was allowed to be a candidate for the prizes ; nor were
ihe accustomed rewards of victory given to such persons,
if by any means they insiimated themselves, and over-
came their antagonists ; nor would any apology, though
seemingly ever so reasonable, serve to excuse their ab-
sence. No person that was himself a notorious criminal,
or nearly related to one, was permitted to contend. Fur-
ther, to prevent underhand dealings, if any person was
convicted of bribing his adversary, a severe fine was laid
upon him ; nor was this alone thought a sufficient guard
a.-;ainst unfair contracts, and unjust practices, but the
contenders were obliged to sv.ear they had spent ten
whole months in preparatory exercises ; and, besides all
this, they, their fathers, and their brethren, took a solemn
oath, that they would not, by any sinister or unlawful
means, endeavor to stop the fair and just proceedings of
the games.
The spiritual contest, in which all true Christians aim
at obtaining a lieavenly crown, has its rules also, devised
and enacted by infinite wisdom and goodness, which re-
quire implicit and exact submission, which yield neither
to times nor circumstances, but maintain their supreme
authority, from age to age, uninterrupted and unimpaired.
The combatant who violates the.se rules forfeits the prize,
and is driven from the field with indelible disgrace, and
consigned to everlasting woe. Hence the great apostle
of the Gentiles exhorts his son Timothy strictly to observe
the precepts of the gospel, wilhout which he can no
more hope to obtain the approbation of God, and the pos-
session of the heavenly crown, than a combatant in the
public games of Greece, who disregarded the established
rules, could hope to receive from the hands of his judge
the promised reward : " And if a man also strive for
masteries, yet is he not crowned except he strive lawful-
ly," (2 Tim. 2: 5.) or according to the established laws
of the games. But the apostle intimates, that there was
this peculiar circumstance attending the Christian con-
test, that the person who proclaimed its laws and rewards
to others, was also to engage in it himself; and that there
would be a peculiar infamy and misery in his miscarry-
ing, 1 Cor, y: 27.
4. The athktiB took care to disencumber their bodies
of every article of clothing which could in any maimer
hinder or incommode them. In the race, they were anx-
ious to carry as little weight as possible, and uniformly
stripped themselves of all such clothes as, by their weight,
length, or otherwise, might entangle or retard them in the
cour.se. The Christian also must " lay aside every weight,
and the sin which doth so easily beset" him, Heb. 12: 1.
In the exercise of faith a«d self-denial, he must " cast off
the works of darkness," lay aside all malice and guile,
hypocrisies, and envyings, and evil-speakings, inordinate
affections, and worldly cares, and whatever else might
obstruct his holy profession, damp his spirits, or hinder his
progress in the paths of riv,hteousness.
5. The foot race seems to have been placed in the first
rank of public games, and cultivated with a care and in-
dustry proportioned to the estimation in which it wa,s
held. The Olympic games generally opened with races,
and were celebrated at first witli no other exercise. The
lists or course where the athleta exercised themselves in
running, was at first but one stadium in length, or about
six hundred feet ; and from this measure it took its name,
and was called the stadium, whatever might be its extent.
This, in the language of St. Paul, speaking of the Chris-
tian's course, was " the race which was set before them,"
determined by puljlic authority, and carefully raeasurSd.
On each side of the stadium and its extremity, ran an as-
cent, or kind of terrace, covered with scats and benches,
upon which the spectators were seated, — an innumerable
multitude, collected from all parts of Greece, to which the
apostle thus alludes in his figurative description of the
Christian life : " Seeing we are compassed about with so
great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every weight,"
Heb. 12: 1.
The most remarkable parts of the stadium were its en-
trance, middle, and extremity. The entrance was marked
at first only by a line drawn on the sand, from side to
side of the stadium. To prevent any unfair advantage
being taken by the more vigilant or alert candidates, a
cord was at length stretched in front of the horses or men
that were to run ; and sometimes the space was railed in
with wood. The opening of this barrier was the signal
for the racers to start. The middle of the stadium was
remarkable only by the circumstance of having the prizes ■
allotted to the victors set up there. According to some
writers, however, it was at the goal, or extremity, and not
in the middle of the course, that the prizes were exhibit-
ed ; and they were placed in a very conspicuous situation,
that the competitors might be animated by having them
always in their sight. This accords with the view which
the apostle gives of the Christian life : " Brethren, I count
not myself to have apprehended ; but this one thing I do,
forgetting those things which are behind, and reaching
forth unto those things which are before, I press toward
the mark, for the prize of the high calhng of God in Christ
Jesus," Phil. 3: 13, 14.
6. The honors and rewards granted to the victors were
of several kinds. They were animated in their course by
the rapturous applauses of the countless multitudes that
lined the stadium, and wailed the issue of the contest
with eager anxiety ; and their success was instantly fol-
lowed by reiterated and long-continued plaudits ; but
these were only a prelude to the appointed rewards, which,
though of little value in themselves, were accounted the
highest honor to which a mortal could aspire. These con-
sisted of different wreaths of wild olive, pine, parsley, or
laurel, according to the difl'erent places where the games
were celebrated. After the judges had passed sentence, a
public herald proclaimed the name of the victor ; one of
the judges put the crown upon his head, and a branch of
palm into his right hand, which he carried as a token of
victorious courage and perseverance. As he might be
victor more than once in the same games, and sometimes
on the same day, he might also receive several crowns
and palms. AVhen the victor had received his reward,
a herald, preceded by a trumpet, conducted him through
the stadium, and proclaimed aloud his name and country ;
while the delighted multitudes, at the sight of him, re-
doubled their acclamations and applauses.
The crown in the Olympic games was of wild olive ;
in the Pythian, of laurel ; in the Isthmian or Corinthian,
of pine tree ; and in the Nemaean, of smallage or parsley.
Most of these were evergreens ; yet they would soon
grow dry, and crumble into dust. '■' Now they do it to
obtain a corruptible crown, but we an incorruptible."
The Christian is called to fight the good fight of faith,
and to lay hold of eternal life ; and to this he is more
powerfully stimulated by considering, that the ancient
othlcla took all their care and pains only for the sake of
obtaining a garland of flowers, or a wreath of laurel,
which quickly fades and perishes, possessed little intrinsic
value, and only served to nourish their pride and vanity,
without imparting any solid advantage to themselves or
others ; but that which is placed in the view of the spirit-
ual combatants, to animate their exertions, and reward
their labors, is no less than a crown of glory, which never
decays ; " an inheritance incorruptible, undefiled, and
that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven for them,"* 1
Peter 1: 4. 5: 4.
7. But the victory sometimes remained doubtful ; in
consequence of which a number of competitors appeared
before the judges, and claimed the prize. The candidates
who were rejected on such occasions by the judge of the
games, as not having fairly merited the prize, were called
by the Greeks adokimoi, or disapproved, which we render
G AN
[501 ]
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castamaij, in a passage already alluded to from St. Paul's
first epistle to the Corinthians : " But I keep under my
body, and bring it into subjection, lest that by any means,
when I have preached to others, I myself should be cast
away," rejected by the Judge of all the earth, and disap-
pointed of my expected crown. The affecting passage of
the same apostle, in the .second epistle of Timothy, writ-
ten a little before his martyrdom, is beautifully allusive to
the above-mentioned race, to the crown that awaited the
victory, and to the Hellanodics, or judges, who bestowed
it : " I have fought a good fight, I have finished m.y
course, I have kept the faith. Henceforth there is laid up
for me a crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the right-
eous Judge, shall give me at that day : and not to me only,
but to all them also that love his appearing," 2 Tim. 4: 8.
— Watson.
GAMMADIM; (contracted ones ; cubit-high men.) It is
veiy uncertain what people are meant by this term, in
■ Kzek. 27; 11. The Vulgate renders the word pygmies.
• Mr. Taylor takes them to be Nubians, whom the ancient
writers describe as being of diminutive stature, contracted
proportions, but warlike, and even terrible to the neighbor-
ing nations ; all which answers very well to the Gamma-
dim. — CaJmet.
GAMJIELL, (William,) an eminent minister of New-
port, E. I. was born in Boston, in 1786. In early life
he made a profession of religion, and united with the
church, under the care of the Rev. Dr. Stillman. At the
age of nineteen, he commenced the study of theology, with
the Eev. Mr. Williams, of Wrentham, and began soon to
supply the vacant churches in the vicinity. He was set-
tled in Bellingham four years. In 1812, or 11, he remov-
ed to Med field, where his field of labor was extensive, and
where he remained until the year 1823, when he removed
to Newport, R. I. and became pastor of the second Bap-
tist church in that town. Here his commanding talents
soon replenished their capacious house, and filled it often
to overflowing. His influence was also felt with a saluta-
ry power through the whole state ; when it pleased God,
in his mysterious providence, suddenly to remove him
from the world, and to draw a dense cloud over the large
circle that was rejoicing in his light. He died May 1,
1827, in the forty-second year of his age, leaving a widow
and seven children.
Mr. Gammell published several interesting discourses,
but they give a very inade(iuate conception of the charm
of his preaching. There was a rich and spontaneous
eloijucnce, naturally adapting itself to every variety of
occasion, an unction and a pathos, accompanied with an
interesting personal appearance, which could not be trans-
ferred into his written communications, but which found
their way effectually to the heart. These appendages of
public speaking, as Campbell remarks of certain peculiari-
ties of language, are like essences which cannot be turn-
ed from one vessel to another without suffering a loss.
His piety was of an order that kept his eye continually
fixed on that better world, into which, we trust, he has
found an abundant admission. — R. I. Bel. Messenger;
Chris, Watchman.
GANG, (John,) a distinguished minister in New York,
collected the first Baptist society in that city, and was or-
dained its pastor, in 1762. He was born at Hopewell,
New Jersey, July 22, 1727. In this place he was con-
verted to God, and ordained to the ministry, in 1754. The
famous Tennant was one of his earliest friends. His
. first labors were in the southern states, where, as an itine-
rant, he was inferior to none but Whitfield. Early espous-
ing the cause of his country in the contest with Great
Britain, at the commencement of the war he joined the
standard of freedom in the capacity of chaplain. His
preaching contributed to.impart a determined spirit to the
soldiers, and he continued in the army till the conclusion
of the war. When a lieutenant, after uttering some pro-
fane expressions, accosted him, saying, " Good mornmg.
Dr. Good Man ;" he replied — " You pray early this morn-
ing." The reproved man said, "I beg your pardon."
" 0," retorted Mr. G., " I cannot pardon you ; carry your
case to God."
He left his society in New York, in 1788, and removed
to Kentucky. He died at Frankfort, Augtist 10, 1804,
'w 71
aged seventy-seven, resigned to the divine will, and in the
hope of everlasting blessedness in the presence of his Re-
deemer.
Mr. Gano, as a minister of Christ, shone as a star of
the first magnitude in the American churches. For this
office, God had endowed him with a large portion of grace
and with excellent gifts. His pulpit talents have been
rarely equalled. To the refinements of learning he did not
aspire. " He MieuerZ, and therefore s^ofe." The careless
and irreverent stood arrested and awed before him, and
the most insensible were made to feel. The seals of his
ministry were ample. Memoirs of his life, \\Titten prin-
cipally by himself, were published in 12nio. 1806. Ga-
no's Memoirs; Benedict's His. Bap. vol. ii. 306. — Allen.
GANO, (Dr. STErHE.»j,) son of the preceding, was
born in the city of New York, December 25, 1762. He
was originally destined for the medical profession, and
accordingly, after completing his studies, sert^ed some
time in the revolutionar}"^ army in the capacity of surgeon.
About this time, being enlightened and changed by divine
grace, he entered the gospel ministry, and spent a few
years in Hudson, Hillsdale, and the adjacent region, in
the slate of New York. In 1792, he was called to the
pastoral care of the First Baptist church in Providence,
R. I., and occupied this important station till his death,
August 18, 1828, a period of thirty-six years. Endowed
by nature with a noble person, a masculine understand-
ing, a heart full of the most generous sympathies, and a
voice of singular power, compass,- and melody, all improv-
ed by education, and sanctified by the spirit of Christ, it is
not surprising that he filled successfuUj' a pulpit that,
originally venerable with the memory of Roger Williams,
had been dignified with the piety of a Manning, and
graced with the eloquence of a Maxcy. Several powerful
revivals were experienced in the course of his ministry,
and he baptized not far from seven hundred souls on a
profession of vital faith in the cracified Savior. He was
the intimate friend of Backus, and Smith, and Stillman,
and Baldwin. He filled a large space in the eye of the
Christian public, and his praise is in the churches as a
man of God, whose whole life and death bore witness to
the glory of the cross. — Chris. Watchman; Am. Bap. Mag.
GAP ; a breach made in a dam, wall, or hedge. The
Jewish false prophets did not stand in the gap, or make up
the hedge ; they did nothing tending to stop the course of
wickedness, which opened a door for the vengeance of
God to break in upon their nation ; nor did they with ef-
fectual, fervent prayer, intercede with God lo turn away
his wrath, Ezek. 13: 5, and 22: 30. — Brown.
GARDENS, in the eastern countries, were objects of
particular attention ; and hence came to be frequently
spoken of by the inspired writers, in the way of illustrat-
ing subjects of a spiritual and heavenly nature.
in the hotter parts of the eastern countries, a constant
supply of water is so absolutely necessary for the cultiva-
tion, and even for the preservation and existence of a
garden, that should it want water but for a few days,
every thing in it would be burnt up with the heat, and
totally destroyed. There is therefore no garden whatever
in those countries, but what has such a certain supply,
either from some neighboring river, or from a reservoir
of water collected from springs, or filled with rain water
in the proper season, in sufficient quantity lo afford ample
provision for the rest of the year.
Mr. Maundrell, speaking of the Emir of Berytus, says,
" The best sight that the palace atibrds, and that which is
most deserving of recollection, is the orange garden. It
contains a large quadrangular plot of ground, divided in-
to sixteen lesser squares, four in a row, with walks be-
tween them. The walks are shaded with orange trees of
a large spreading size. Every one of these sixteen lesser
squares in the garden was bordered with stone, and in the
stone-work were troughs, very artificially contrived, for
conveying the water all over the garden, there being little
outlets cut at every tree, for the stream, a."! it passed by,
to flow out and water it." Travels, p. 39. Kempfer de-
scribes the royal gardens at Ispahan as being _w-atercd
exactly in the same manner. Amcrn. Ezot. p. 19->.
These extracts may enable us to form a clear i<l_ea m
what tha Psalmist means by "the rivers or di'
of
GAR
[562 ]
AS
water," mentioned Ps. 1: 3, and otlier places of Scripture ;
that is, waters distributed in artificial canals, for such is
the import of the phrase. The prophet Jeremiah has im-
itated, and elegantly amplified the passage of the Psalmist
above referred to : —
" He shall be like a tree planted by the water side,
And which sendelh forth her roots to the aqueduct;
She shall not fear when the heat conieth ;
But her leaf shall be green ;
In the year of drought she shall not be anxious,
Neither shall she ceaae from bearing fruit." ., ,„ „
Jeremialr 1/: 8.
■We may also learn from this the true meaning of the
following elegant proverb :
"The heart of the king is, in the hand of Jehovah,
Like the canals of naters. . . ,, o „, ,
Whithersoever it pleaseth liim, he mclineth it. froT. /!!: 1.
In other words, the direction of it is in the hand of the
Lord, as the distribution of the water of the reservoir,
through the garden, by difl'erent canals, is at the will of
the gardener. See Eccles. 2: 5—9. — Jones.
GARDINER, (William,) an English merchant, resid-
ing in Lisbon, in the seventeenth century, who was so
shocked with the superstitions of popery, that he delibe-
rately formed the design of making a reform in Portugal,
or perishing in the attempt. To this end. he settled all
his worldly affairs, paid his debts, closed his books, and
consigned over his merchandise. This done, he entered
the cathedral, the following Sunday, and placed himself
near the altar, with a New Testament in his hand. The
king and court soon appeared, and a cardinal began to
say mass. At that part of the ceremony at which the
people adore the wafer, the spirit of Gardiner could en-
dure no longer. Springing towards the cardinal, he
snatched the host from him, and trampled it under his
feet, to the amazement of the whole congregation. Being
arrested, and brought before the king, he was asked, who
was his abettor ; to which he replied, " My own conscience
alone. I would not hazard what I have done for any
man living, but I owe that, and all other services, to God."
He endured the tortures of the stake with firmness and
joy. — Fox, 165.
GARDINER, (Colonel James,) so justly celebrated for
his piety and valor, was born at Carriden, in Linlithgow-
shire, January 10, 1687. It was the peculiar advantage
of Gardiner, that he possessed a mother, able and willing
to implant in his young and tender mind principles of
truth and vital Christianity, which, in after life, yielded
solid and lasting pleasttre and advantage. He was, how-
ever, taken from her maternal guidance and protection,
to enter an academy at Linlithgow, where he made very
considerable progress in literature.
At a very early age he made up his mind to follow a
military life. The tears of his mother, whose judgment
and affection he much valued, opposed his wishes ; but
though such opposition was added to the entreaties of his
nearest friends, they did not operate on his mind, for it
was fixed ; and he accordingly entered the army as a ca-
det ; and, at the age of fourteen, bore an ensign's commis-
sion in a Scottish regiment in the Dutch service, in
which he continued till the year 1702, when he received
an ensign's commission from queen Anne, which he bore
in the battle of Ramillies, being at that time sixteen years
of age. In that memorable action he received a wound
in his mouth by a musket ball. On the 31st of January,
1715, he was made captain-lieutenant in colonel Ker's
regiment of dragoons. For some time he was stationed
at Pans ; and though he there entered into every scene of
dissipation and licentiousness he could, conscience, that
faithful monitor, frequently checked him ; and, in his ap-
parently happiest hours, he was often wretched. He
could not always forget the pravers, the tears, the cautions
of his mother. In the year 1719, the impressions that had
been made on the mind of colonel Gardiner were revived,
and his mind was awakened from the lethargy into which,
for so many years, it had fallen. The circumstances
were the following : on one Sunday, he had spent the
evening in some very gay and trifling company ; about
eleven, the company broke up, and he retired to his room
to loiter away an hour, when accidentally he discovered a
book lying near him, entitled "The Christian Soldier;
or. Heaven taken by Storm." This book he took up with
an intention of ridiculing the plain and simple truths it
contained ; but, while perusing, he fell into a sound slum-
ber, and dreamed that he saw a universal blaze of light
fall on the book while he was reading it, and, lifting up
his eyes, saw, suspended in the air, a visible representa-
tion of the Lord Jesus Christ upon the cross, and distinctly
heard a voice to this effect : " Oh ! sinner, did I suffer all
this for thee, and are these the returns ?" Struck with
this awful circumstance, he sank down, and awoke in a
state bordering on distraction, appearing to himself the
vilest monster in the creation. At that time he had such
a view, both of the majesty and goodness of God, as caused
deep repentance. From that time his mind was continu-
ally taken up with reflections on the divine purity and
goodness, and of his own sinfulness : he began to lead a
new life, and he now found that he had fresh battles to
fight, and joyfully took up the sword of the Spirit, and,
like a brave solilier, continued resolute and firm. He
pursued his religious dulies with the utmost strictness,
constantly rising at four o'clock in the morning, and devot-
ed two hours to the secret exercises of devotion, reading,
meditation and prayer ; in which last, he expressed him-
self with so much of fervor and spiritual devotion, that it
has seldom been equalled, and never excelled. If at any
time he was obliged to leave his room earlier than usual,
he rose an hour sooner ; so that when a journey, or a
march calleti him out at four, he rose at two ; he also retir-
ed for an hour in the evening, that his mind might not be
too wandering.
His valued and beloved mother he maintained till her
death, which event was one of the greatest domestic trials
he was ever called upon to experience, but which he bore
with the piety and resignation of a sincere Christian. In
the year 1726, he was united to lady Frances Erskine,
daughter of the late earl of Buchan, who was pious, sen-
sible, and amiable, and of whom he made the observation,
that the greatest imperfection in her character was, that
'■' she valued and loved him more than he deserved." By
this lady he had thirteen children, five only of whom sur-
vived their father.
Towards the latter end of the year 1742, he embarked
for Flanders, and spent some time at Ghent ; and, amidst
all the hurry and bustle, and fatigue of marches, and the
care of the regiment, he was tranquil and serene. In
1745, the memorable battle of Preston Pans was fought,
which proved fatal to hira. Colonel Gardiner took leave
of his beloved wife and his eldest daughter at Stirling
castle. The former being more than usually affected at their
separation, he asked her the reason ; and, on her assign-
ing the natural cause, instead of offering her consolation,
as he had generally done on such occasions, he only re-
plied, " We have an eternity to spend together!"
Eminent for his piety, gentleness, wisdom, and excel-
lence, he was beloved and respected while living, and
most deeply regretted when dead. As a husband he was
exemplary, affectionate, attentive and kind; and as a
friend, condescending and sincere. His temper was both
mild and amiable ; before he governed others, he had
learned the very difficult lesson of governing himself.
See Life of Colonel Gardiner, by Dr. Doddridge. — Jones's
Chris. Biog.
GARLANDS ; a kind of crowns made with flowers,
ribands, &c. Those brought by the priest of Jupiter, were
probably designed to crown the ox destined for sacrifice,
in like manner as the Jews crowned their victims of first-
fraits witi; olive branches, Acts 14: 13. — Brorvn.
GARLI 'K. This word occurs only in Num. 11: 5, but
the Talmudists frequently mention the use of this plant
among the Jews, and their fondness for it. That garlicks
grew plenteously in Egypt, is asserted by Dioscorides ;
there they were much esteemed, and were both eaten and
worshipped.
"Th<!n gods were recommended by their taste.
Such savory deities must needs be good,
Which served at once for worship and for food."
Watson.
GARMENTS. (See Habits.)
GASTRELL, (Francis, D. D.) bishop of Chester, was
born at Slapton, in Northamptonshire, in 1662. He was
GAT
[ 563
GAZ
educated at Oxford, where he took the degrees in arts ;
and then, devoting himself to the church, entered into
holy orders. In the year 1694, he took the decree of
bachelor of divinity ; and about the same time he was
appointed preacher to the Honorable society of Lincoln's
Inn ; in which station he acquitted himself so well, that,
in the j-ear 1697, he was appointed to preach Blr. Boyle's
lecture.
In the following year, Mr. Gastrell took the degree of
doctor in divinity ; being at this time chaplain to the
house of commons ; and, in the year 1702, queen Anne
collated him to a canonry of Christ church, in Oxford.
The ferment which had been raised by the dispute be-
tween the doctors South and Sherlock, concerning the
Trinity, being still kept up with an ill-governed zeal. Dr.
Gastrell published, this same year, " Some Considerations
concerning the Trinity,'' and " the Ways of managing
that Controversy;" which soon passed through two edi-
tions ; and coming to a third, in the year 1707, the author
subjoined to that edition a vindication of it, in answer
to some animadversion of Mr. Collins', in his " Essay
concerning the Use of Reason." In this year, hkewise,
it was that Dr. Gastrell published his excellent book, en-
tilled "The Christian Instittites; or, the sincere Word of
God ; being a plain and impartial Account of the whole
Faith and Duty of a Christian. Collected out of the Writ-
ings of the Old and New Testament : digested under pro-
per Heads, and dehvered in the Words of Scripture."
This treatise has been frequently reprinted; and is es-
teemed a very useful performance.
In 1711, he was chosen proctor in convocation for the
chapter of Oxford ; and was appointed one of the chap-
lains in ordinary to queen Anne. In 1714, he published
" Remarks on Dr. Clarke's Scripture Doctrine of the Tri-
nity." Dr. Clarke observes, that the objections in those
'• Remarks'' were set forth to particular advantage, by
the skill of a very able and learned writer, and proposed
with a reasonable and good spirit. Dr. Gastrell held the
preacher's place at Lincoln's Inn till this year ; when he
resigned it upon his promotion to the see of Chester, in
1714. He died November 24, 1725, "leaving," says Dr.
AVillis, " a sufficient monitmejit of himself in his excellent
writings." — Jones's Chris. Biog.
GATAKER, (Thomas,) was born 1574, in London,
where his father was then minister. When he was six-
teen years of age, he was placed at St. John's college, at
Cambridge ; and there proceeded to master of arts with
uncommon applause.
After various testimonies to his talents and worth,
about the year 1601, he became preacher at Lincoln's Inn,
and he held this employment, with great reputation, for
ten years. But, having entered into the matrimonial
state, in 1611, he quitted the office of preacher to that so-
ciety for the rectory of Rolherliithe, in Surrey.
He published, in 1619, his " Discourse of the Nature
and Use of Lots ; a Treatise Historical and Theological."
This treatise made a great noise in the world, and was
opposed b}' several writers. In 1620, he set out on a tour
to the Low Countries. In his travels he confuted some
of the English papists in Flanders; and, soon after, re-
turned to England.
In 1642, Jlr. Gataker was appointed one of the assembly
of divines who met at Westminster. He was employed,
together with some other members of the assembly, in
writing " Annotations upon the Bible ;" v.'herein, those
upon Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the Lamentations, were exe-
cuted by him, and have great merit. In the mean time,
on the removal of Dr. Comber, he was offered the master-
ship of Trinity college, in Cambridge, but he declined it
on accoimt of his ill state of healih. He continued, how-
ever, to publish several learned works, most of which
were printed among his " Opera Critica," at Utrecht, in
1668, folio. He also published, in 1652, an edition of the
" Meditations of Marcus Antoninus ;'' with a Latin trans-
lation, and a commentary, and a preliminary discourse on
the philosophy of the Stoics, which is much esteemed.
He died in 1654.
Echard says, " Mr. Gataker was the luost celebrated
among the assembly of divines, being highly esteemed
■by Salmasius and other foreigners; and it is hard to say
which is most remarkable, his exemplary piety and c' »n-
ty, his polite literature, or his humility and modesty in
refusing preferments." — Jones's Chris. Biog.
GATE. The gates or doors to the houses of the He-
brews, with their posts, were generally of wood ; such
were the gates of Gaza which Samson carried away on
his shoulders ; (Judg. 16: 3.) that is, the gate, bars, posts,
and locks, if there were any.
" Gate," is often used in Scripture to denote a place of
public assembly, where justice was administered, (Dent.
17: 5, 8. 21: 19. 22: 15. 25: 6, 7, &c.) because, as the
Jews mostly labored in the fields, assemblies were held at
their city gates, and justice administered there, that labor-
ers might lose no time ; and that country people, who had
affairs of justice, might not be obliged to enter the town.
See Ruth 4: 1. Gen. 23: 10, 18.
Hence, also, " gate" sometimes signifies power, domin-
ion ; almost in the same sense as the Turkish sultan's
palace is called the Porte. God promises Abrahaiu, that
his posterity shall possess the gates of their enemies, their
towns, their fortresses; (Gen. 22; 17.) and Christ says to
Peter, " Thou art Peter ; and on this rock will I build my
church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it,"
Matt. 16: 18. (See Hades, and Hell, ad fin.)
Solomon says, " He that exalteth his gate seeketh de-
struction." The Arabs are accustomed to ride into the
houses of those they design to harass. To prevent this,
Thevenot tells us that the door of the house in which the
French merchants lived at Rama was not three feet high,
and that all the doors of thai town are equally low. —
Calmet ; Wntson.
GATH, (Heb. rvinc-press ;) the fifth of the Philistine
cities. It was a place of strength in the time of the pro-
phets Amos and Jlicah, and is placed by Jerome on the
road between Eleutheropolis and Gaza, eighteen miles
south of Joppa, and thirty-two west of Jerusalem. It ap-
pears to have been the extreme boundary of the Philistine
territoiy in one direction, as Ekroii was on the other.
Hence the expression, " from Ekron even unto Gath," 1
Sam. 7: 14. — Watson.
GATHER. God gathers sinners to himself, when, by
his preached gospel and Holy Spirit, he powerfully draws
and unites them to his person, and instates and preserves
them in fellowship with him. Matt. 23: 37. Those gather
n'ith Christ that promote the true interests of rehgion and
welfareof men's souls. Matt. 12:30. Luke 11: 23. The
gatliering of the people, was to Judah, as, at the three so-
lemn feasts, the Hebrew tribes went up to Jerusalem ; and
their gathering was, and is, to Shiloh, when multitudes
attended his instructions ; multitudes, chiefly of Gentiles,
believe on, and walk in him. Gen. 49: 10. To have one's
soul gathered with sinners, and his life with bloody men, is
to be shut tip in their company, to share in their plagues,
and be carried into hell with them, Ps. 26: 9. — Bron-n.
GATH-HEPHER, the birthplace of the prophet Jonah,
was situated in Galilee, and in the canton of Opher, 2
Kings, 14: 25. Joshua makes this city to be part of the
tribe of Zebulon, (Josh. 19: 15.) and Jerome, in his pre-
face to the prophecy of Jonah, says, that it was two mUes
from Sephoris, or Diocoesarea. — Jones.
GAULAN ; a celebrated city beyond Jordan, from
which the small province of Gaulanites derived its name.
It was seated in Upper Galilee beyond Jordan, and was
given to the half tribe of Manasseh, Deut. 4: 43. It was
one of the cities of refuge, Josh. 21: 27. — Jones.
GAURS ; the supposed descendants of the ancient Par-
sees, (See Magi, and Parsees,) who still subsist in differ-
ent parts of the East.
The Mahometans denounce this people as monsters of
cruelty and iniquity ; but modern travellers describe them
as harmless and inoffensive, though very superstitious in
their devotions. For their ancient principles, said to be
derived from Zoroaster, see the articles above referred to ;
but it is diflicult to say how far they retain the same prin-
ciples. From some circumstances, it has been supposed
that they (or a part of them) have imbibed some points of
Christianity, but little certain is known respecting them.
— Ennj. Brit, in Gabres ; Ilenwai/s Travels, vol. i. p. 263;
Pinlxrton's Geogr. Persia, ch. ii. — Williajm.
GAZA ; a city of the Philistines, made by Joshua part
a K u
[ 504
GEN
of Ihe tribe of Judah. It -svas one of llie five principalities
of the Philistines, situated towards the southern extremity
of the promised land, (1 Sam. 0: 17.) between Raphia and
Askelon. The advantageous situation of Gaza was the
cause of the numerous revolutions wliich it underwent.
It first of all belonged to Ihe Philistines, and then to the
Hebrews. It recovered its liherty in the reigns ol' Jotham
and Ahaz, and was reconquered by Hezekiah, 2 Kings
18: 8. It was subject to the Chaldeans, who conquered
Syria and Phoenicia. Afterwards, it fell into the hands of
the Persians, then of the Greeks and Romans, and smce
of the Turks. Luke speaks of the old city, (Acts 8: 26.J
and Strabo also notices '■ Gaza, the desert." The new
city was built seventeen miles nearer the sea.
'■ Modern Gaza," says Dr. AVittman, "is .situaled on an
eminence, and is rendered picturesque by the number of
fine minarets which rise majesiically above the buildings,
and by tlie beautiful date-trees which are interspersed.
The suburbs are composed of wretched innd huts ; but
within side the town the buildings make a much belter
appearance than those we had generally met with in
Syria. The streets are of a motlerate breadth. Many
fragments of statues, columns, etc. of marble, are seen in
the walls and buildings in different parts of the town.
The suburbs and environs of Gaza are rendered extremely
agreeable by a number of large gardens, cnllivated with
the nicest care, which lie in a direction north and south of
the town ; while others of the same description run to a
considerable distance westward. These gardens are filled
with a great variety of choice fruit-trees, such as Ihe fig,
the mulberry, the pomegranate, tlie apricot, the peacli,
and the almond ; together with a few lemon and orange
trees. The numerous plantations of olive and date-trees
which are interspersed, rnntribute greatly to the picturesque
effect of the scene exhibited by the surrounding plains,
and Ihe view of the sea, distant about a league, tends to
diversify still more the animated features of this luxuriant
scene." This and similar descriptions of modern travel-
lers, which are occasionally inlroduced into this work, are
given both as interesting in themselves, and to show that
relics of the ancient beauty and fertilily of Ihe Holy Land
are still to be found in many pans of ii. — ^Valso?i.
GAZARES; a small party, probably, of Albigenses, in
the twelfth century, who, to enjoy their religious liberties,
had strayed as far as Gazare, in Dalmalia ; but they were
found out and condemned by pope Innocent III. Broiigh-
ton's Dkt. — Williams.
GEBA. Geba seems to have been Ihe northern limit
of the kingdom of Judah, 2 Kings 23: 8. " From Geba
to Beersheba," seems to be, \rilh respect to Judah, of the
same import as " from Dan to Beersheba" had been, with
respect to all Israel, when under one dominion. — Calmet.
GEBAL ; a district, or perhaps a sovereignty, south of
Judah, and in south Idumea. Al.so a city of Phcxnicia,
tetween Sidon and Orthosia, on the shore of the Mediter-
ranean, (Ezek. 27: !l.) written bv Stephens, Ptolcmv, and
Strabo, Gabala ; by Pliny, Ga'bale ; and by the 'LXX,
Byblus. The city of Gebal has the important office of
" calkers" to the ships of Tyre assigned to it by the pro-
phet Ezekiel ; its chiefs are also characterized as wise.
Its ruins are splendid. The modern city is called by Blr,
Maundrell, Jebilee.
This city was famous for its worship of Adonis, who
was believed to have been wounded bv a boar in mount
Libanus. The river Adonis, whose waters are at some
seasons as red as blood, passes by it ; and when this
phenomenon appeared, the inhabitants lamented Adonis,
pretending their river to be colored with his blood. (See
Adonis.) — Calmet.
GEDDES, ([ Alexander,) a learned but injudicious
Roman Catholic divine, was born, in 1737 at Ruthven,
in Banffshire; was educated at the Scotch college at Pa-
ris ; and officiated at various chapels till 1782, when he
desisted entirely from the exercise of his clerical functions.
For many years he was engaged on a new translation of
the Old and New Testament, of which he published only
two volumes. This work raised a tempest of indignation
against him, from both Protestants and Catholics. He
died in 1802. Besides the version of the Bible, he pub-
lished a translation of Horace's Satires ; Critical Remarks
on the Hebrew Scriptures : and other works of less ini-
portance. See Magee on Alunanent. — Davenport.
GEDER. This name occurs several times in the
Scriptures, and we are under the necessity of di.-itinguish-
ing the (owns so called with considerable attention ; be-
cause they have hitlierto been subject to much confusion.
They are all in the tribe of Judah ; and apparently in
the south of that tribe. They were, probably, rather forts,
or military posts, than extensive and populous towns.
Some of them were single, others, apparently, were
double ; and, perhaps, one was almost, or altogether, a
chain of fencible posts, in a military sense. — Calmet.
GEHENNA, or Gehennom, or valley of Hinnom ; or
valley of the son of Hinnom; (see Josh. 15: 8. 2 Kings
23: 10. Heb.) a valley adjacent to Jerusalem, through
which the southern limits of the tribe of Benjamin passed,
Eusebius says it lay east of Jenisalem, at the foot of lis
walls; hut we are certain it also extended south, along'
the brook Kedron. It is Ihought to have been the common
sewer belonging to Jenisalem, and that a fire was always
burning there to consume the filth of the city. In allusion .
to this circumstance, or to the fire kept up in the valley in •
honor of Moloch, the false god, to whom the Hebrews fre-
quently offered human sacrifices, and even their own
children, (Jer, 7:31.) hell is called Gehenna, in some
parts oi the New Testament. Josiah, to pollute this
place, and to render it odious, commanded all manner of
ordure, and dead men's bones, to be thrcnvn into it, 2
Kings 23: 10,
After having been the scene of much cruelty, then, Ge-
henna became the receptacle of much pollution ; so far it
coincided in character with hell ; and the perpetual fires
that were kept burning there to consume the filth of the
city, added another similarity to those evils attributed to
the place of torment. The combined ideas of wickedness,
pollution, and punishment, compose- that character which
might well justify the Syriac language in deriving its
name of hell from this valley of the sons of Hinnom,
Comp. Matt. 5: 22, and 10: 28. (See Hell.)— Cn.'m^:/.
GELDENHAUR, (Gerard,) better known by the name
of Geradus Noviomagus, a very learned German, was
bom at Nimeguen, in 1482. From his earliest j'outh he
was distinguished by his love of learning, especially of
history and poetry. He studied at Daventer and Louvain,
with great success. At the latter university he contract-
ed a close friendship with Erasmus. He served as read-
er and historian successively to Charlesof Austria, Philip,
and Maximilian, of Burgundy. In 1526, being sent to
Wittemberg to inquire into the state of the schools and
churches there, he became convinced that the doctrine of
Luther was the doctrine of Scripture, renounced popery,
and retired toward the Upper Rhine. He became an in-
structor of youth at Worms, at Augsburg, and Marpurg,
at which last place he taught divinity, as well as history.
He died of the plague, January ]0, 1542. His change
of religion, and some A^Titings which he published against
the church of Rome, occasioned a quarrel between him
and Erasmus, who, to preserve appearances with Rome,
found it necessary to abuse him. Geldenhaur was the
author of many learned works. — Middleton, vol. i. 81.
GEMARA. (See Talmud.)
GENEALOGY, signifies the line of descent, or a list
of a person's ancestors. The common Hebrew expression
for it is Seplier-Tolednth, "the Book of Generations." No
nation was ever more careful to preserve their genealogies
than the Jews. The sacred writings contain genealogies
extended three thousand five hundred years backward.
The genealogy of our Savior is deduced by the evangelists
from Adam to Joseph and Mary, through a space of four
thousand years and upwards. Matthew gives the line of
descent through Joseph, his reputed or legal father, and
Luke through Mary, his mother. In reading these genea-
logies we should remember that the Blessiah was restricted
by divine appointment, 1. To the posteriti/ of Abraham.
2. To the family of David. 3. To the existence of the
second temple. It appears that our Lord was of the direct
line, the elder branch of the royal family, in short the
very person who, had the dominion continued in the fami-
Iv of David, would have legally sat on the throne. Gen. 49:
10. Acts. 2: 25—36.
uii N
[ 505
GEN
The Jewish priests were obliged to produce an exact
genealogj' of their families, before they were admitted to
exeiciye their function. Wherever placed, the Jews were
particularly careful not to marry below themselves ; and to
prevent this, they kept tables of genealogy in their several
families, the originals of which were lodged at Jerusalem,
to be occasionally consulted. These authentic monu-
ments, during all their wars and persecutions, were taken
great care of, and from time to time renewed. But, since
Ihe last destruction of their city, and the dispersion of the
people, their ancient genealogies are lost. But to this the
Jews reply, that either Ellas, or some other inspired priest
or prophet, shall come and restore their genealogical tables
belbre the Slessiah's appearance ; a tradition, which they
ground on a passage in Nehemiah 7:64,65. — Cnlmet ;
IVatsoii.
GENERAL CALL. (See CALUNa.)
GENERATION. Besides the common acceptation of
this word, as signifying descent, it is used for the history
Bad genealogy of any individual. The ancients some-
times computed by generations ; " In the fourth generation
thy descendants shall come hither again,'' Gen. 15: 16.
Among the ancients, when the duration of generations was
not exactly described by the age of four men succeeding
one another from father to son, it was fixed by some at a
hundred years, by others at a hundred and ten, by others
at thirty-three, thirty, twenty-five, and even at twenty
years ; being neither uniform nor settled : only, it is re-
marked, that a generation is longer as it is more ancient.
GENERATION, Eter.val is a term used as de-
scriptive of the Father's communicating the divine nature
to the Son. To this mode of representing the relation of
these two persons of the Trinity, as it respects their essence,
it has been objected, that it goes to subvert the supreme
and eternal Deity of the Son, and to represent him as
essentially derived and inferior; a doctrine nowhere taught
in the Scriptures. Some prefer saying that it was not the
divine nature that was communicated to the Son, but only
distinct personality. In regard to this, and all similar
subjects which lie beyond the limits of the human faculties,
the Tvisest, and most truly philosophical, as well as the
safest way, is, to abstain from all metaphysical subtleties,
and rest satisfied with the biblical mode of representation.
That Christ is the Son of God in a sense perfectly unique,
and that he was from eternity God, are truths which the
Scriptures clearly teach ; but ivherein, in that sense, his filia-
tion consisted, is a subject on which they are entirely silent.
Every past attempt to explain it has only furnished a fresh
instance of " darkening counsel, by words without know-
ledge." (See article Son of God.) Oweti on the Spirit, and
on the Person of Christ ; Pearson on the Creed ; Ridgletfs
Body of Divinity, p. 73, 76, .3d edition ; GilVs ditto, p. 205,
vol. i. 8vo edition ; Lambert's Sermons, ser. 13, text John
1 1 : 35 ; Hodsm's Essay on the Eternal Filiation of the Son
of God ; Wctlsh Worhs, vol. v. p. 77 ; Kidd on the Trim'-
I'l ; Stuart and Miller's Letters; Fidler's Works, vol. i.
i'6, ii. 815. (See Calvinism.) — Hend. Buck.
GENEROSITY ; the disposition which prompts us to
bestow favors which are not the purchase of any particu-
lar merit. It is difierent from humanity. Humanity is
that exqnisite feeling we possess in relation to others, so
OS to grieve for their sufferings, resent their injuries, or
rejoice at their prosperity ; and as it arises from sympathy,
il requires no gieat self-denial, or self-command ; but gene-
rosity is that by which we are led to prefer some other
person to ourselves, and to sacrifice any interest of our
own to the interest of another. Generosity is peculiarly
amiable when it is spontaneous and unsolicited, when it is
di.sinterested, and when, in the distribution of its benefits,
it consults the best season and manner in conferring them.
— Hend. Buck.
GENESIS ; a canonical book of the Old Testament,
so called from the Greek genesis, or generation, because it
contains an account of the origin of all visible things, and
of the genealogy of the first patriarchs. In the Hebrew it
is called bemshit, which signifies, in the beginning, because
it begins with that word. (See Pentateuch.) — Watson.
GENIUS, in the ancient mythology, signified a good or
evil spirit, set over each person to direct his birth, accom-
pany him in his life, lo guard his person, and guide hi*
thoughts.
Genius, among the moderns, signifies that peculiar apti-
tude which some men naturally possess, to perform well
and easily that which others can do but indiflerently, and
with a great deal of pain. It is defined by Sir Joshua
Reynolds, " the power of expressing a subject as a whole j"
by others, " greater acuteness of perception and memory ;'
by others, " the predominance of the ideal faculty, or
imagination ;" by some it is resolved into " intuitive
judgment," and others still into "patient thought," study,
and application. Probably it comprehends something of
all these. — Hend. Buck.
GENNESARETH, (Land of,) or Gennesar ; so
named from Cinnereth, the ancient name of a city and
adjoining tract, extending four miles along the north-west-
ern shore of the sea of Galilee. This part of Gahlee is
described by Josephus as possessing a smgular fertiLly,
with delightful temperature of the air, and abounding in
the fruits of diflTerent climates. (See Galilee, Sea ■ F.) —
Watson.
GENTILE ; in matters of religion, a pagan, or ij-or-
shipper of false gods. The orir^in of this word is deduced
from the Jews, who called all those who were not of their
race and rehgion gojim, i. e, gcntes, which, in the Greek
translation of the Old Testament, is rendered ta elhne, in
w hich sense it frequently occurs in the New Testament ;
as in Matt. 6: 32. " AU these things the nations or Gen-
tiles seek." The prophets of the Old Testament dwell
frequently and with benevolent delight on the future call-
ing of the Gentiles to the faith of Christ. (See Nations ;
Heathen ; Paganism.) In the writings of St. Paul, the
Gentiles are generally denoted as Greeks. Rom. 1: 14, 16.
2: 9, 10. 3: 10: 12. 1 Cor. 1: 22—24. Gal. 3: 28. St.
Luke, in the Acts, expresseshimself in the same manner,
Acts 6: 1. 11: 20. 18: kc.—Hend. Buck; Watson.
GENTILES, (CoUKT of the.) Josephus says there
was in the court of the temple a wall, or balustrade, breast-
high, with pillars at particular distances, and inscriptions
on them in Greek and Latin, importing that strangers
were forbidden from entering farther ; here their offerings
were received, and sacrifices were oflered for them, they
standing at the barrier ; but they were not allowed to
approach to the altar.
From the above particulars, we learn the meaning of
what the apostle Paul calls '■ the middle wall of partition,"
between Jews and Gentiles, broken dowai by the gospel.
— Watson.
GENTILES, (Isles of the,) (Gen. 10: 5.) evidently
denote Asia Minor and the whole of Europe, -which were
peopled by the descendants of Japheth. — Calmel.
GENTLENESS; softness or mildness of disposition
and behavior. Little as Ihis disposition is thought of by
many, we find it considered in Scripture as a characteristic
of the Irue Christian. " The wisdom that is from above,"
saith St. James, " is gentle," ch. 3: 17. " This gentleness
indeed, is to be distinguished from passive lameness of
spirit, and from unlimited comphance with the manners of
others. That passive lameness, which submits without a
struggle to every encroachment of the violent and assum-
ing, forms no part of Christian duty ; but, on the contrary,
is destructive of general happiness and order. That
unlimited complaisance, which on every occasion falls in
V ith the opinions and manners of others, is so far from be-
ing a virtue, that it is itself a vice, and the parent of many
vices. It overthrows all steadiness of principle, and pro-
duces that sinful conformity with the world which taints
the whole character. In the present corrupted state of hu-
man manners, always to assent and to comply, is the very
worst maxim we can adopt. True gentleness, therefori,
is to be carefully distinguished from the mean spirit ol
cowards and the fawning assent of sycophants. Il re-
nounces no just right from fear ; it gives up no important
truth from flattery : it is, indeed, not only consistent with
a firm mind, but it necessarily requires a manly spirit and
fixed principle, in order to give it any real value. It
stands opposed to harshness "and severity, to pride and
arrogance, to violence and oppression : it is properly thai
part of charity which makes us unwilling to give pain to
any of our brethren. Compassion prompts us to relieve
GE R
[ 566
GE S
their wants ; forbearance prevents us from retaliating their
injuries ; meekness restrains our angry passions ; candor
our severe judgments ; but gentleness corrects whatever
is offensive in our manner, and, by a constant train of
humane attentions, studies to alleviate the burden of com-
mon misery." — Henil. Buck.
GENTOOS ; a term signifying mankind, assumed by
the inhabitants of Hindostan, now called Hindoos, which
see. — }VilHams.
GENUFLEXION ; the act of bowing or bending llie
knee, or rather of kneeling down. The Jews usually
prayed standing, but not always. Baronius is of opinion
that genuflexion was not established in public worship
in the year of Christ 58, from that passage in Acts 20: 36,
where St. Paul is expressly mentioned to kneel down at
prayer; but Saurin shows that nothing can be thence
poncluded. The same author remarks, also, that the pri-
mitive Christians carried the practice of genuflexion in
private so far, that some of them had worn cavities in the
Hour where they prayed; and St. Jerome relates of St.
James, that he had contracted a hardness on his knees
equal to that of camels. — Hend. Buck.
GEORGE, prince of Anhault, and bishop of Mersburg,
was born of religious parents, August 14, 1507, and edu-
cated at Leipsic, under George Forcheme. When twenty-
two years of age, his attainments were such, that he was
chosen by Albert, elector of Blentz, to be one of his coun-
cil, and gained his highest confidence.
About this time the Reformation attracted the attention
of all men ; and Luther's writings concerning the difler-
cnce between the law and gospel, &c., were dispersed and
read everywhere. Prince George was no idle spectator.
He sought truth like a philosopher, and loved it as a
Christian. He began all his investigations with prayer.
He sought truth in its fountain, the Holy Scriptures. The
result was, that he openly embraced the doctrines of the
Reformation, and renounced all connection with popery.
He put down superstition and set up seminaries of learn-
ing— the surest way under God of exterminating the
errors which superstition had engendered. All however
was done with Christian mildness, and multitudes were
soon brought by divine grace to rejoice experimentally in
the light of the gospel.
In 1515, by the persuasion of Luther, he consented to
give himself to the work of the ministry, and was made
bishop of Mersburg — an office full of danger and difiiculty,
which no worldly man would covet. His whole time was
thenceforth devoted to this holy work. Above all low
ambition and revenge himself, he endeavored to remove
i' from others. He was a peacemaker among princes.
Iii-ults he bore with Christian magnanimity. He lived
Willi God in his heart, and for God in his intercourse with
men. Luther, Justus, Jonas, and others, were his most
inliinate friends. As in life, so in death he was full of
resignation, faith, and love ; dwelling most sn^eetly on
the promises, especially John 3: 16. fO: 27, 28, and Matt.
11: 28. He died October 17, 1553, aged fort5'-six.
Melancthon %vrote two elegies on his death. He wrote
and pubUshedraany tracts and sermons. — Midcihtmu vol.
i. 292.
GERAH ; the smallest piece of money among the He-
brews, twenty of which made a shekel, Exod. 30: 13.—
Calmet.
GERAR. We find a city of this name so early as
Gen. 20: 1. 26: 1, 17, expressly slated to be a city of the
Philistines. The probability is, that some wa.udering
tribe of Palli had settled here, before the great influx of
their nation into these parts, during the captivity of the
Israelites in Egypt. As Abraham himself was a pilgrim
from a region not very distant from the original country
of these Palli, they might, perhaps, feel some kind of sym-
pathy v.-ith him and for him. Gerar was not far from
Gaza, in the south of Judah. — Calmet.
GERARD, (Alexander, D. D.) a Scotch divine and
writer, born in 1728, at Garioch, in Aberdeenshire, was
educated at Marischal college, at which, in 1752, he suc-
ceeded Fordyce, as professor of moral philosophy, and, in
1760, was appointed divinity professor. In 1771, he ob-
tained the theological professorship at King's college, Ab-
erdeen. He died in 1795. He wrote an Essay on Taste ;
an Essay on Genius ; Sermons ; and Dissertations on the
Genius and Evidences of Christianity.— JJnooi^jort.
GERGESENES, or Gikgasiutes ; a people of the land
of Canaan, who settled east of the sea of Tiberias ; and
gave name to a region and city. (See Gadara.) — Calmet.
GERIZIM ; a mount near Shechem, in Ephraim, a
province of Samaria. Shechem lay at the foot of two
mountains, Ebal and Gerizim. (See Ebal.)
As to the original of the temple upon Gerizim, we must
take Josephus's relation of it. Mauasseh, the grandson
of EUashib, the high-priest, and brother to Jaddus, high-
priest of the Jews, having been driven from Jerusalem in
the year of the world 3671, and not enduring patiently to
see himself deprived of the honor and advantages of the
priesthood, Sanballat, his father-in-law, addressing him-
self to Alexander the Great, who was then carrj'ing on
i;ie siege of Tyre, and having paid him homage for the
province of Samaria, whereof he was governor, he farther
offered him eight thousand of his best troops, which dis-
posed Alexander to grant what he desired for his son-in-
law, and for many other priests, who, being married, as
well as he, contrary to the law, chose rather to forsake
their country than their wives, and had joined Manasseh
in Samaria.
When Antiochus Epiphanes began to persecute the Jews,
A. M. 3836 ; B. C. 186, the Samaritans entreated him
that their temple upon Gerizim, which hitherto had been
dedicated to an unknown and nameless god, might be con-
secrated to Jupiter the Grecian, which was easily consent-
ed to by Antiochus. The temple of Gerizim subsisted
some time after the worship of Jupiter was introduced
into it ; but it was destroyed by John Hircanus Macca-
basus, and was not rebuilt till Gabinius was governor of
Syria ; who repaired Samaria, and called it by his own
name. It is certain, that, in our Savior's time, this tem-
ple was in being, John 4: 20. We are assured, that
Herod the Great, having rebitilt Samaria, and called it
Sebaste, in honor of Augustus, would have obliged the
Samaritans to worship in the temple which he had erected
there, but they constantly refused. — Watson.
GERMANICUS; a young man, and a Christian mar-
tyr of the second century, who, being delivered to the wild
beasts, on account of his faith, behaved with such aston-
ishing courage, that several pagans became converts to
Christianity. — Fox, p. 17.
GESENIUS, (William,) a celebrated orientahst and
biblical critic, was born 1786, at Nordhausen, where his
father, who was known as a respectable medical writer,
was engaged in the practice of his profession. He was
educated at the gymnasium of his native town, and at
the universities of Helmstadt and Gottingen. His atten-
tion, however, was almost exclusively devoted to the study
of the Oriental languages ; and the necessity which he
soon perceived of a better grammar and lexicon of the
Hebrew language, led him to devote himself entirely to
this, and to the study of the Old Testament. This he did
during a three years' residence at Gottingen, as Magister
legens and lecturer on theology, from 1806 to 1809, when
he made preparations for his Hebrew lexicon. In 1809,
he was appointed by the government of Westphaha pro-
fessor of ancient literature in the Catholic and Protestant
gymnasium, at Heihgenstadt ; afterwards, in 1810, ex
traordinary, and in 18 1 1 , ordinary professor of theology
at Halle. Here he attracted particular attention to the
study of the Old Testament ; and remaining after the re-
storation of the university in 1814, as doctor of theology,
he wrote his Commentary on the origin, character, and
authority of the Samaritan Pentateuch, which mil always
be regarded as a model in investigations of such a nature.
In the summer of 1820, he made a scientific tour to Paris
and Oxford, where he prepared coUjttions in the Semitic
languages, for lexicographical purposes, and also took a
copy of the Ethiopean book of Enoch, WMth a view to fu-
ture publication. In 1810 and 1812, appeared his Hebrew
and German Lexicon, in two volumes, and in 1815, an
abridgment of the same, a translation of which, by Mr.
Gibbs, of Andover, has been published, both in America
and England.
The chief peculiarities of these valuable works are a
just estimation of, and thorough examination of, all the
GIA
[567]
GIB
sources of lexicography, a correct apprehension of the
relation between the Hebrew and its cognate languages,
a complete statement and explanation of the construc-
tions and phrases which are derived from each word ; a
clear distinction between what belongs to the province of
the lexicon, the grammar, and the exegetical commentary
respectively, and attention to the various kinds of diction.
Some excellent remarks, •which have had no small effect
in the dissemination of right views upon these subjects,
are to be found in the prefaces to the lexicon. His ver-
sion of Isaiah, with a commentary, is one of the ablest
critical works that have ever appeared ; but unfortunately
the neological views of the author have deeply tinged
many parts of his exposition, especially such as relate to
the prophecies respecting the Messiah. The last twenty-
SLX chapters of the book he considers to have been written,
not by Isaiah, but by some later author — an hypothesis
which has been refuted by several writers, but by none
more ably than by Hengstenberg, in his Old Testament
Christology. Making deductions for these serious faults,
it may nevertheless be asserted, that more philological,
historical, and antiquarian research is to be found in this
work, than in any other commentary on the Scriptures.
The celebrity which Gesenius acquired by these labors
has attracted a vast number of students to Halle, where
he and Wegscheider take the lead of the naturalist party,
and have for a time given eclat and currency to their
principles ; but of late their popularity as theologians has
begun to decline, and the students are taught to discrimi-
nate between the speculating, unbelieving philologist, and
the profound, consistent, and pious divine. — Hend. Buck.
GESHTJKITES; a people who dwelt east of the Jordan,
north of Bashan, and within mount Hermon, Deut. 3:
14. Josh. 12: 5. They were not driven out by the Isra-
eUtes ; (Josh. 13: 13.) and after the death of Saul, Ishbo-
sheth was acknowledged king by them, [Eng. Tr. Ashu-
rites,] and by the IsraeUtes of Gilead, 2 Sam. 2: 9. The
Geshur of 2 Sara. 3: 3. 15: 8, is a different country pro-
bably.— Calmet.
GETHIN, (Lady Grace,) daughter of Sir George Nor-
ton, and wife of Sir Richard Gethin, of Gethin Grot, Ire-
land, was born 1676, and died 1697, at the early age of
twenty-one. Her mother, a lady of piety, had given her
all the advantages of a hberal education, and the rapid
advances she made were an ample recompense for the
pains bestowed. Her reading and observations were ex-
traordinary ; for she had considered the human passions
with unusual penetration and judgment ; and laid such
a foundation for her conduct as would have elevated her
to a high rank in Christian excellence ; but she was cut
off in the bloom of life, early, but not unprepared. Her
monument in Westminster Abbey is of beautiful black
and white marble ; but a more interesting monument re-
mains in a posthumous volume of her writings, entitled
Reliquim Gethiniana, celebrated by Congreve. For per-
petuating her memory, provision was made for a sermon
to be preached in Westminster Abbey on Ash Wednesday
forever. — Betham.
GETHSEMANE, (the oil press, or valley of oil ;) a vil-
lage at the foot of the mount of Olives, to which our Sa-
vioT sometimes retired ; and in a garden belonging to
which, often visited' by him for the purpose of private de-
votion, he endured his agony, and was taken by Judas,
Matt. 26: 36. et. seq. I would desire grace, says Dr.
Hawker, that by faith I might often visit Gethsemane ;
"and while traversing the hallowed ground, call to mind
that here it was Jesus entered upon that spiritual conflict
with the powers of darkness, which, when finished, com-
pleted the salvation of his people. Sacred Gethsemane !
(See AcoNY.) — Hawker ; Calmei.
GIAH ; a valley, probably not far from Gibeon, which
might be an outlet, as its name imports, from a narrow
and contracted road or country, to one more open ; or it
might be an eruption of water, as it were, from the moun-
tain. 2 Sam. 2: 24. — Calmet.
GIANT, (tiophfl; Greek, gigas;) a vumsler, a terrihh man,
a chief who beats and bears down other men. Scripture
speaks of giants before the flood: "Nephilim, mighty
men who were of old, men of renown," Gen. 6: 4. Scrip-
ture sometimes calls giants Rephaim : Chedorlaomer beat
the Rephaim at Ashteroth-Karnaim. The Emim, ancient
inhabitants of Moab, were of a gigantic stature, thai is,
Repliaim. The Rephaim and the Perizzites are connect-
ed as old inhabitants of Canaan.
2. The Rephaim, in some parts of Scripture, signify
spirits in the invisible world, in a state of misery. Jot
says that the ancient Rephaim groan under the waters ;
and Solomon, that the ways of a loose woman lead to the
Rephaim ; that he who deviates from the ways of wisdom,
shall dwell in the assembly of Rephaim, that is, in hell,
Prov. 2: 18. 4: 18. 21: 16, &c. Gen. 14: 5. Deut. 2: 11,
20. 3: 11, 13. Josh. 12: 4. 13: 12. Job 26: 5.
3. As to the existence of giants, several writer.^, both
ancient and modern, have thought that the giants of
Scripture were men famous for violence and crime, ra l;or
than for strength or stature. But it cannot be deii.ed,
tliat there liave been races of men of a stature much above
that common at present ; although their size has often
been absurdly magnified. The ancients considered per-
sons whose stature exceeded seven feet as gigantic. Liv-
ing giants have certainly been seen who were somewhat
taller ; but the existence of those who greatly surpassed
it, or were double the height, has been inferred only from
remains discovered in the earth, but not from the ocular
testimony of credible witnesses. Were we to admit what
has been reported on the subject, there would be no bounds
to the dimensions of giants ; the earth would seem un-
suitable for them to tread upon. History, however, ac-
quaints us that, in the reign of Claudius, a giant named
Galbara, ten feet high, was brought to Rome from the
coast of Africa. An instance is cited by Goropius, an
author with whom we are otherwise unacquainted, of a
female of equal stature. A certain Greek sophist, Proa?re-
sius, is said to have been nine feet in height. Julius
Capitolinus affirms that Maximiuian, the Roman emperor,
was eight feet and a half; there was a Swede, one of the
lifeguards of Frederick the Gn^at, of that size. M. Le
Cat speaks of a giant exhibited at Rouen, measuring eight
feet and some inches ; and we believe some have been
seen in England, witiiin the last thirty years, whose sta-
ture was not inferior. In Plott's " History of Stafford-
shire," there is an instance of a man of seven feet and a
half high, and another, in Thoresby's account of Leeds,
of seven feet five inches high. Examples may be found
elsewhere of several individuals seven feet in height, be-
low which, after the opinion of the ancients, we may
cease to consider men gigantic. Entire families some-
times, though rarely, occur of six feet four, or six feet six
inches high. From all this we may conclude, that there
may have possibly been seen some solitary instances of
men who were ten feet in height : that those of eight feet
are extremely uncommon, and that even six feet and a
half far exceeds the height of men in Europe. We mny
reasonably understand that the gigantic nations of Canaan
were above the average size of other people, with instan-
ces among them of several families of gigantic stature.
This is all that is necessary to suppose, in order to explain
the account of Moses ; but the notion that men have gra-
dually degenerated in size has no foundation. — Watsnn.
GIBBON, (EnwAKn,) one of the three gi-eatest of Eng-
lish historians, was born in 1737, at Putney ; was imper-
fectly educated at Westminster school, and Magdalen
college, Oxford ; and finished his studies at Lausanne,
under M. Pavillard, a Calvinistic minister. It was his
having embraced popery that occasioned his being sent to
Lausanne. Pavillard reclaimed him from popery ; but,
after having vibrated between Catholicism and Protest-
antism, Gibbon settled into a confirmed sceptic. In 1758,
he returned to England, and entered upon the duties of
active life. More than two years he subsequently spent
in visiting France, Switzerland, and Italy ; and it was
while he sat musing among the ruins of the Capitol, and
the barefooted friars were singing vespers in the temple
of Jupiter, that the idea of writing a history of the decUne
and fall of the Roman empire, first arose in his mind.
Several other historical schemes had previously occupied
his attention. Of this great work the first volume ap-
peared in 1776, the second and third in 1781, and the con-
cluding three volumes in 178S. It raised him at once to
the summit of literary fame ; but its artful attacks on
GI B
[ 568 J
GIF
Christianity excited great disgust and indignation, and
called forth several antagonists. One of them impeached
his fidelity as a historian, and thus provoked a reply,
which gave the assailant ample cause to repent his rash-
ness. The facts Gibbon has recorded are not hostile to
Christianity, when stripped, as they should be, of the
sneers and insinuations by which he pandered to the scep-
tical spirit of his age.
In 1774, he became a member of parliament, and
throughout the American war, he gave a silent support
tn the measures of lord North. In 1783, he retired to
Lausanne, whence he twice returned to his native country.
lie died, January 16, 1794, during his last visit to Eng-
land. His posthumous works were published, in two
quarto volumes, by his friend lord Sheffield.
It is lamentable' to redect, that history has fallen under
the dominion of infidelity ; that of the three eminent histo-
rians, Robertson is barely neutral, and Hume and Gibbon
are decidedly hostile to Christianity. Thus the book of
God's providence, and of the manifestations of his wisdom,
and long suffering, and justice, can scarcely be read by
the general eye, till it is blurred and partly eifaced by the
comments of scepticism and profaneiiess ; and the belief
of the unguarded reader is assailed, not by arguments
and open objections, but by continual insinuations, and by
a slight but perpetual misrepresentation of facts. Notwith-
standing his great powers. Gibbon has already sunk, and
must sink still lower, in the scale of popularity, and be-
gins to receive, even in this world, a measure of retribu-
tion for having chosen the worst side, in the great contest
for evil and for good, and for having staked his all on
Christianity being untrae— his reputation here, and his
happiness hereaftei'. Yet even Gibbon is an important
witness to the fulfilment of prophecy. — Davenport ; Doug-
las on Errors ; Keith's Evidence of Prophecy, i^-c.
GIBBONS, (Thomas, D. D.,) was born at Reek, eight
miles from Cambridge, in 1720. His father was pastor
of a Congregational church at Olney, in Bucks, who gave
him the best education his circumstances would permit.
His indefatigable application and industry enabled him to
surmount every obstacle, and he made considerable ac-
quisitions in useful and ornamental literature.
About the year 1742, he had the felicity to become ac-
quainted with Dr. Isaac Watls; and by showing him a
volume of poems in manuscript, a peculiar and intimate
friendship was formed between them, Vi^hich continued un-
abated to the close of Dr. Watts's life, which took place in
1743, and eventually led to the writing of his " Memoirs,"
which appeared in 1780, in an octavo volume.
Dr. Gibbons entered upon the work of the ministry in
1742, and in the following year he was called to the pas-
toral charge of the Independent church, meeting in Ha-
berdashers' hall. Staining lane, Cheapside, where he
continued his official labors to the period of his death,
which took place on the 22d of February, 1785, in the
sixty-fifth year of his age.
Dr. Gibbons was a man of great piety, of irreproacha-
ble manners, upright and benevolent, and of great cheer-
fulness of temper. He possessed a considerable portion
of classical literature, and distinguished himself as an
author by a variety of publications both in prose and
verse. Among these, besides his Life of Dr. Watts, we
may specify " Poems, on several Occasions," 1743 ; " Ju-
venilia ; or. Poems on various Subjects of Devotion and
Virtue," octavo, 1750 ; " Rhetoric ; or, a View of its prin-
cipal Tropes and Figures, in their Origin and Powers ;
with a variety of Rules to escape Errors and Blemishes,
and attain Propriety and Elegance in Composition,"
octavo, 1767. In 1777, he published "Lives and Me-
moirs of eminently pious Women, who were Ornaments
of their Sex, Blessings to their Fanulies, and edifying
Examples to the Church and the World," two volumes
octavo. After Dr. Gibbons's death, three volumes of ser-
mons by him were published in octavo, by subscription.
Jones's Chris. Bio^,
GIBE AH ; a city of Benjamin, about seven miles north
of Jerusalem, and the birth-place of Saul, king of Israel ;
whence it is frequently called " Gibeah of Saul," 1 Sam'.
11: 4. 15: 34. 2 Sam. 21: 6. Isa. 10: 29. Gibeah was
also famous for its sins ; particularly for that committed
by forcing the young Iicvite's wife, who went to lodge
there ; and for the war which succeeded it, to the almost
entire extermination of the tribe of Benjamin, Judges 19.
Scripture remarks, that this happened at a time when
there was no king in Israel, and when every one did what
was right in his own eyes. — Calmet.
GIBEON ; a city situated on a hill about five miles
north of Jerusalem, and belonging to the tribe of Judah.
It is spoken of as "a great city;" (Josh. 10.) and the cap-
ture of it by Joshua seems to have spread much conster-
nation, at that time, throughout the neighborhood. The
Gibeonites continued ever afterwards faithful in their at-
tachment to the Israelites, though they appear to have
suffered dreadfully under the sanguinary reign of Saul,
2 Sam. 21.
Previous to the building of the temple at Jernsalem, it
appears that the tabernacle and altar of sacrifice were
for some time stationed at Gibeon, 1 Chrou. 21: 29, 30.
1 Kings 3: 4. — Jones.
GICHTE L, (John Geokge,) a mystic and fanatic, boru
at Ratisbon, in 1638. In his sixteenth year he pretended
to have divine visions and revelations ; he afterwards
went to Holland, where he attended to certain religious
exercises, \vith a view to fit himself for the duties of a
missionary in America. After enduring several persecu-
tions in Germany, the result of the disturbances created
by his doctrines, and suffering considerable opposition
from a number of his followers, who withdrew from him
that support for which he was entirely dependent on them,
he died at Amsterdam, in 1710. He wrote several works,
which were published by himself or his disciples, who
called themselves the Angelic Brethren. These works
have recently been drawn forth from oblivion, and are
held in great esteem by the present mystics of Germany.
— Haul. Buck.
GIDEON ; the son of Joash, of the tribe of Manasseh ;
the same with Jerubbaal, the seventh judge of Israel. He
dwelt in the city of Ophra, and was chosen by God in a
very extraordinary manner to deliver the Israelites from
the oppression of the Midianites, under which they had
labored for the space of seven years. See Judges 6: 14 — •
27. S: 1—24, fcc.^Wntson.
GiDGAD ; a mountain in the wilderness of Paran, be-
tween Bene-jaakan and Jotbathah, where the Hebrews
encamped. Num. 33: 32. — Calntet.
GIER-EAGLE ; (racham, Lev. 11: 18. Deut. 14: 17.)
Bruce says, " We know from Horus Apollo, that the
rachma, or she-vulture, was sacred to Isis, and adorned the
statue of the goddess; that it was the emblem of parental
affection ; and that it was the hieroglyphic for an affec-
tionate mother."
Hasselquist says, " The appearance of the bird is as
horrid as can well be imagined. The face is naked and
wrinkled, the eyes are large and black, the beak black
and crooked, the talons large, and extended ready for
prey, and the whole body polluted with filth. These are
qualities enough to make the beholder shudder with hor-
ror. Notwithstanding this, the inhabitants of Egypt can-
not be enough thankful to Providence for this bird. All
the places round Cairo are filled with the dead bodies of
asses and camels; and thousands of these birds fly about
and devour the carcasses, before they putrefy and fill the
air with noxious exhalations." No wonder that such an
animal should be deemed unclean. — Watson.
GIFFORD, (Andrew, D. D.,) a distinguished minister
of London, and assistant librarian of the British museum,
was born at Bristol, August 17, 1700. Becoming the
subject of divine grace at an early age, he was baptized
on profession of his faith in Christ, in 1715, and united
with the Pithay church in that city, of which his father
was pastor. He finished his classical studies under the
celebrated Dr. Ward, of Gresham college, in 1723, and
commenced preaching at Nottingham and Bristol, where
his ministry attracted much attention. He removed to
London, in 1729, and became pastor of the Baptist church
in Little Wild street. He was also chaplain to the family
of Sir Richard Ellys, the learned author of the '■ Fortuita
Sacra." In 1743, he visited Edinburgh, and was honored
with the freedom of the city. In 1754, he was made D. D.
by the Marischal college, Aberdeen. In 1757, having
G IH
L 569 ]
GIL.
bten some time a member of the Antiquarian society, he
was appointed assistant librarian of the British museum,
a station which he held till his death, i. e. twenty-seven
years. In a perfect acquaintance with ancient coins and
manuscripts he is said to have eminently excelled. Many
of the nobility courted his acquaintance, and occasionally
attended his meeting, which was then in Eagle street.
The ministrv of Dr. Giflbrd was eminently useful. He
was a pathetic and powerful preacher, uniting in his
character the Barnabas and the Boanerges. His biogra-
pher, Dr. Rippon, says of him, " His heart was in the
work, and it might have been said of him, Vividus vultus,
vividi occiiU, vivida manus, denique ovinia vivida. "When
above eighty years of age, he was more zealous and ac-
tive in his Master's work than many young men of
twenty-five ; and it was truly said of him that "the doc-
tor will die popular." But popularity merely, would
have been regarded as a light thing by Dr. Gifford. He
supremely valued and sought "the honor that cometh
from God only," and the happiness springing from com-
munion with the Savior. In his last moments he said
with characteristic feeling, " I want no friend but Christ ;
I wish to see no friend but Christ. What should I do
now, were it not for an interest in Jesus Christ." Thus
affectionately recommending the Savior to all around
him, he fell asleep, June 19, 1781, aged eighty-four.
Besides other charitable legacies, Dr. Gilford bequeathed
his valuable books, pictures, and manuscripts, with a vast
variety of curiosities, to the Baptist academy at Bristol,
and caused an elegant room to be erected, which is called
" Gilford's Museum." — Memoir of Dr. Rippon ; Am. Bap.
Mag. for 1825.
GIFT OF TONGUES; an ability given by the Holy
Spirit to the apostles and others, of readily and intelligibly
speaking a variety of languages which they had never
learned. This was a glorious and decisive attestation to
the gospel, as well as a suitable, and, indeed, in their cir-
cumstances, a necessary qualification for the mission for
which the apostles and their coadjutors were designed.
Nor is there any reason, with Dr. Middleton, to under-
stand it as merely an occasional gift, so that a person
might -speak a language most fluently one hour, and be
entirely ignorant of it the next ; which neither agrees
with what is said of the abuse of it, nor would it have
been sufficient to answer the end proposed, Acts 2. Some
appear to have been gified with one tongue, others with
more. To St. Paul this endowment was vouchsafed in a
more liberal degree, than to many others ; for, as to the
Corinthians, who had received the gift of tongues, he
says, " that he spake with tongues more than they all." —
WtJt^oji.
GIFTS. The practice of making presents is very com-
mon in Oriental countries. The custom probably had its
origin among those men who first sustained the office of
kings or rulers, and who, from the novelty and perhaps
the weakness attached to their situation, chose, rather
than make the hazardous attempt of exacting taxes, to
content themselves with receiving those presents which
might be freely offered, 1 Sam 10: 27. Hence it passed
into a custom, that whoever approached the king or his
officers, should come with a gift. This was the practice
and the expectation. Gifts of this kind, that have now
been described, are not to be confounded mth those which
were presented to judges, not as a mark of esteem and
honor, but for purposes of bribery and corruption. The
former were considered an honor to the giver, but a gift of
the latter kind has been justly reprobated in every age,
Exod. 23: 8. Deut. 10: 17. 16: 19. 27: 25. Ps. 15: 5.
2ti: 10. Isa. 1: 23. 5: 23. 33: 15. The giver was not
restricted as to the kind of present which he should make.
He might present not only silver and gold, but clothes
and arms, also diffi;rent kinds of food, in a word, any thing
which could be of benefit to the recipient. Gen. 43: 11.
1 Sam. 9: 7. 16:20. Job 42: 11. It was sometimes the
case, that the king, when he made a feast, presented vest-
ments to all the guests who were invited, with which they
clothed themselves before they sat down to it, 2 Kings 10:
22. Gen. 45. 22. Rev. 3: 5. Matt. 22: 11, 12.— Watson.
GIHON; a fountain west of Jerusalem, where Solomon
was anointed king by Zadok and Nathan. Hezekiah or-
72
dered the waters of the upper channel of Gihon to be con-
veyed into Jerusalem, 1 Kings 1: 33. 2 Chron. 32: 30.
2. The name of one of the four rivers of Paradise, Gen 2-
13. (See Emii.)—Calmet.
GILBERTINES; a religious order; thus called from
St. Gilbert, of Sempringham, in the county of Lincoln,
who founded the same about the year 1148; the monks
of which observed the rule of St. Augustine, and were
accounted canons, and the nuns that of St. Benedict. —
Hmd. Buck.
GILBOA ; a ridge of mountains, memorable for the de-
feat and death of Saul and Jonathan, (1 Sam. 31.) run-
ning north of Bethshan or Scythopolis, and forming the
western boundary of that part of the plain of the Jordan.
They are said to be extremely dry and barren, and are
still called, by the Arabs, Djebel Gilbo. — Calmet.
GILEAD ; a mountainous district east of the Jordan,
and which separated the lands of Ammon, Moab, Reuben,
Gad, and Manassah, from Arabia Deserta, Gen. 31: 21.
The scenery of the mountains of Gilead is described by
Mr. Buckingham as being extremely beautiful. The
plains are covered with a fertile soil, the hills are clothed
with forests, and at every new turn the most beautiful
landscapes that can be imagined are presented. The
Scripture references to the stately oaks and herds of cat-
tle in this region are well known. — Calmet.
GILGAL ; a celebrated place situated on the west of
Jordan, one league from the river, and at an equal dis-
tance from Jericho, Josh. 5: 2 — 4. The word Gilgal sig-
nifies roHiiig. Here the ark was long stationed, and con-
sequently the place was much resorted to by the Israelites.
It seems to have been the place in which Jeroboam or
some of the kings of Israel instituted idolatrous worship ;
and hence the allusions to it by the prophets, Hosea 4:
15. Amos 4: 4. It is probable that there were idols at
Gilgal as early as the days of Ehud, who was one of the
judges ; for it is said that, having delivered his presents
fo the king, " Ehud went away, but returned again from
the quarries that were by Gilgal," Judges 3: 19. The
margin of our Bibles reads, " the graven images," or
idols set up by the Moabites, the viewing of which, it is
thought, stirred up Ehud to revenge the affront thereby
oftered to the God of Israel. — Watson.
GILL, (John, D. D.,) was born the 23d of November,
1697, at Kettering, in Northamptonshrre, where his father
was deacon of the Baptist church. He made rapid ad-
vances in classical learning, at a neighboring grammar-
school, in which he was placed while very young ; and
even then he resorted so frequently to a bookseller's, for
the purpose of reading, that it became proverbial to say,
that a thing was as certain as that John Gill was in the
bookseller's shop. Being driven from the grammar-
school, by the bigotry of the clergyman who presided
over it, his friends endeavored to procure him admission
into a seminary for the ministry, by sending specimens
of his advancement in different branches of literature.
These, however, defeated their object, for they produced
the following answer : " He is too young ; and should he
continue, as it might be expected he would, to make such
rapid advances, he would go through the common circle
before he would be capable of taking care of himself, or
of being employed in any public service." It is to be
hoped that this reply was accompanied with some expla-
nation, which made it appear more justifiable than in its
present detached slate ; or it would seem that tlie guar-
dians of this seminary felt but little solicitude to see the
GIL
[570 1
GI V
finest talents consecrated to the noblest of causes. Not
discouraged by this repulse, young Gill pursued his studies
with so much ardor, that before he was nineteen, he had
read the principal Greek and Latin classics ; had gone
through a course of logic, rhetoric, natural and moral
philosophy ; and acquired a considerable knowledge of
the Hebrew tongue. But it is supremely gratifying to
find that religion was still dearer to him than learning ;
for, instead of resembling those sciolists who suppose it a
proof of genius to disdain the study of their Jlaker's will,
he imitated Him who, in early youth, resorted to the tem-
ple as his Father's house, and there employed in sacred re-
searches that understanding at which all were astonished.
The Baptist church in his native town first received this
extraordinary youth as a member, and then called him
forth into the ministry. For this work he went to study
under Wr. Davies, at Higham Ferrers ; but was soon
invited to preach to the Baptist congregation inHorsly-
down, near London, over which he was ordained in 1719,
wlien he was in his twenty-second year.
He now applied with intense ardor to oriental litera-
ture ; and having contracted an acquaintance with one of
the most learned of the Jewish rabbles, he read the Tar-
gums, the Talmud, and every book of rabbinical lore
which he could procure. In this line it is said that he
had but few equals, and that he was not excelled by any
whose name is recorded in the annals of literature. Hav-
ing published, in 1748, " A Commentary on the New-
Testament," in three folio volumes, the immense reading
and learning which it displayed induced the university
of Aberdeen to send him the diploma of doctor of divini-
ty, with the following compliment: "On account of his
knowledge of the Scriptures, of the oriental languages,
and of Jewish antiquities ; of his learned defence of the
Scriptures against deists and infidels, and the reputation
gained by his other works, the university had, without
his privity, unanimously agreed to confer on him the de-
gree of doctor in divinity." He published also " A Com-
mentary on the Old Testament," which, together with
that of the New, forms an immense mass of nine folio
volumes. At the close of this Herculean labor, he v,-as
so far from resting satisfied, that he said, " I considered
with myself what would be next best to engage in, for the
further instruction of the people under my care, and my
thoughts led me to enter upon a scheme of doctrinal and
practical divinity ;" this he executed in three quarto
volumes. Amidst these labors of the study, and the pulpit,
he lived to a good old age, and died'1771, aged 73.
Besides the works already mentioned, he maintained
the five points of Calvinism in his "Cause of God and
Truth," with much temper and learning. He published
also " A Dissertation on the Hebrew Language ;" " Dis-
courses on the Canticles," to which considerable objections
have been made ; and many sermons, as well as smaller
controversial pieces. His private character was so ex-
cellent, that it has been said, " his learning and labors
were exceeded only by the invariable sanctity of his life
and conversation." As a divine, he was a supralapsarian
Calvinist ; but in his Body of Divinity, he is so far from
condemning sublapsarian sentiments'as heretical, or Ar-
rainianised, that he attempts to show how the two systems
r,oalesce. While his works impress the judicious reader
whh esteem for the purity of his intentions, and admira-
tion for the magnitude of his labors, they excite regret
that they had not been prepared with greater delicacy of
taste, and revised with more accurate judgment. It is,
above all, to be lamented, that they have diffused a taste
for Ultra Calvinism, which has induced many, who were
devoid of his sanctity, to profane his name, in order to
sanction their errors, or their lusts. Dr. Gill was, never-
theless, a great and good man ; and his character is highlv
esteemed by every well-inlbrmed Christian. His " Body
of Divinity," abridged by the late Dr. Staughton, was pub-
lished in Philadelphia, in 1810, in one voluine, octavo
Sec I\[.i,wlrs nf Dr. Gill; Jona's Chris. Biog.—Heml. Buck.
GILPIN, (BEnN.^r.D,) a Protestant reformer, was born
in 1517, at Kentmire, in Westmoreland : and was educated
at Queen's college, Oxford. His Catholic principles were
first shaken by Peter Martyr, against whom he had been
brought forward as the champion of the Bomish ehurrh.
After having embraced the Protestant faith, he became
rector of Houghtonle Spring, in the diocese of Durham.
In the reign of Mary, the sanguinary Bonner marked him
out for one of his victims, but the queen's death took place
before Gilpin could be brought to London. In the next
reign he refused the highest ofiers of prefennent, and he
died, deeply lamented by his parishioners, in 15S3. His
piety, benevolence to the poor, and unwearied endeavors
to spread religion, gained him the honorable appellation of
"the Northern Apostle." — Middlrion; Jones's Chris. Biog.
GILPIN, (William,) a divine and elegant writer, was
born, in 1724, at Carlisle ; received his education at
Queen's college, Oxford; for many years kept a celebrated
academy at Cheam ; and died, in 1807, vicar of Boldre,
and prebendar)' of Salisbury. He wrote Lives of Bernard
Gilpin and W'ichff'; Sermons; and various theological
works ; Remarks on Forest Scenery ; a Tour to the Lakes ;
and several volumes of Observations on the Picturesque
Beauties of many parts of England. — Davctiport.
GIPiDLE. The girdle is an indispensable article in
the dress of an Oriental. It has various uses ; but the
principal one is to tuck up their long flowing vestments,
that they may not incommode them in their work, or on a
journey. The Jews, according to some writers, wore a
double girdle, one of greater breadth, with which they
girded their tunic when they prepared for active exertions ;
the other they wore under their shirt, around their loins.
The upper girdle was sometimes
made of leather, the material of
which the girdle of John the Baptist
was made ; but it was more com-
monly fabricated of worsted, often
very artfully woven into a variety
of figures, and made to fold several
times about the body ; one end of
which being doubled back, and
sewn along the edges, serves them
for a purse, agreeably to the accept-
ation of zone in the Scriptures,
which is translated ^wcse in several
places of the New Testament, Matt.
10: 9. Mark 6: 8. The Turks make
a further u^e of these girdles, by fixing their knives and
ponards in them , -nhileihe writers and secretaries sus-
pend 111 them then ink-horns ; a custom as old as the pro-
phet Ezekiel, who mentions " a person clothed in white
linen, with an ink-horn upon his loins," Ezek. 9: 2. That
part of the ink-holder which passes between the girdle and
tlie tunic, and receives their pens, is long and flat ; but the
vessel for the ink, which rests upon the girdle, is square,
with a lid to clasp over it.
2. To loose the girdle and give it to another, was, among
the Orientals, a token of great confidence and affection.
A girdle curiously and richly wrought, was, among the
ancient Hebrews, a mark of honor, and sometimes bestow-
ed as a reward of merit, 2 Sam. 18: 11. People of rank
and fashion in the East wear very broad girdles, all of
silk, and superbly ornamented \\4tli gold and silver, and
precious stones, of which they are extremely proud, re-
garding them as the tokens of their superior station and
the proof of their riches. " To gird up the loins," is to
bring the flowing robe within the girdle, and so to prepare
for a journey, or lor some vigorous exercise. — Watson.
GIEGASHITES. (See Gergesenes.)
GITH ; a grain, by the Greeks called Melanthion, by
the Latins, Nigella, because it is black ; in our translation,
fitches or vetches, which see. — Cahnet.
GITTITES ; the inhabitants of Gath, Josh. 13: 3. Obed-
Edom and Ittai are called Gittites, (2 Sam. 6; 10. 15: 19.)
probably, because they visited David at Gath, or because
they were natives of Gittaim, a city of Benjamin, 2 Sam.
4: i.—Calmet.
GITTITH ; a Hebrew word, which occurs frequently in
the titles of the Psalms. It is generally translated wine-
presses. Calmet is of opinion, that such psalms were
given to the class of young women, or songstresses of
Gath, to be sung by them, (see Ps. 8.) remarking that
Gittith does not signify wine-presses, but a woman of Gath.
If wine-presses were meant, it should be gilteth. -^Calmet.
GIVE, properly signifies to bestow a thing freely, as in
G L A
[57i ]
G LO
alms, John 3: 16. But it is used to signify the imparting
or permitting of any thing good or bad, Ps. 16: 7. John
18: 11. Ps. 2S: 4. To give ourselves to Christ, and his
ministers and people, is solemnly to devote ourselves to the
faith, profession, worship, and obedience of Jesus Christ,
as our husband, teacher. Savior, portion, and sovereign
Lord ; and to a submissive subjection to the instruction,
government, and discipline of his ministers ; and to a
walking with his people in all the ordinances of his grace,
2 Cor. 8: 5. To be given to a thing, is to be much set
upon, earnest for, and delighted in it, 1 Tim. 3: 3. — Broivn.
GLAS, (JoHiN,) the father of Scotch independency, and
founder of a denomination vvhicli is called after him —
tliough, in England, better known by the term Sandenia-
nians — was born, 1695, in the parish of Auchterrauchty,
in the county of Fife, North Britain. At St. Andrews
and Edinburgh, he perfected his studies in philosophy and
iheologj'. In 1719, he was ordained minister of the pa-
j'ish of Tealing, near Dundee.
Mr. Glas had studied, with gi'eat diligence and care, the
doctrinal systems of Calvin and Arminius ; and being de-
cidedly fixed in the former, he held forth the doctrine of
rich, free, and sovereign grace, with extraordinary ability,
from the pulpit ; and his fame as a preacher soon spread
abroad, and drew numbers to hear him. An extraordinary
stir being made in Scotland, about the duty of covenant-
ing, Mr. Glas was put upon the task of investigating tliis
subject, and of bringing it to the touchstone of the New
Testament. The result of his inquiries was the publica-
tion of a small volume, wiiich made its first appearance
in 1729, under the title of " The Testimony of the King
of Martyrs concerning his Kingdom ;" being an explana-
tion and illustration of Christ's good confession before
Pontius Pilate, John 18: 36, 37. He could no longer offici-
ate, with a good conscience, as a clergyman of the nation-
al establishment.
Mr. Glas now took up his residence in Dundee, where
he was the means of collecting a church, which was form-
ed on Congregational principles, and of which he was
chosen a presbyter, in conjunction with Mr. Francis
Archibald, who had left the church of Scotland at the
same time as himself. From this period Sir. Glas was
busily engaged for several years in maintaining his princi-
ples against a host of opponents, who rose up in rapid
succession to defend those of the national establishment.
By the spirit of inquiry thus set on foot, the profession
spread rapidly throughout Scotland, and the formation of
churches in the various towns of Dunkeld, Perth, Edin-
burgh, Glasgow, &c. found abundant employment for Mr.
Glas for a number of years. He removed his residence
from Dundee to Edinburgh, where he officiated several
years as the pastor of a church which had been collected
there ; and when his labors were no longer required there,
he removed to Perth, where he laljored with assiduity till
the year 1737 ; when, having established the profession in
that city, he again returned to Dundee, where he continu-
ed his labors in his Master's vineyard to the termination
of his useful life, November 2d, 1773, at the advanced
age of seventy-eight. Besides his " Testimony of the
King of Blartyrs," he published a great number of differ-
ent treatises, of which a uniform edition was printed in
five volumes, octavo, Perth, 1782. — Hend. Buck.
GLASITES. See Gtis, (John ;) and Sandemanians.
GLASS, (hualos.) This word occurs Rev. 21: 18, 21.
4:6. 15:2. There seems to be no reference to glass
in the Old Testament. The art of making it was not
known. Our translators have rendered the Hebrew in
Exodus 38: 8, and Job 27: 18, " looking-glass." But the
making mirrors of glass, coated with quicksilver, is an
invention quite modern. Mirrors were then made of
polished metal. The word fsoptroTi, or mirror, occurs in
1 Cor. 13: 12, and James 1: 23. Dr. Pearce thinks that
in the former place it signifies any of those transparent
substances which the ancients used in their windows, and
through which they saw external objects obscurely. It is
certain that the specimens of Roman glass, dug up from
Pompeii, are all dull and cloudy. But others are of opin-
ion that the word denotes a mirror of polished metal ; as
this, however, was liable to many imperfections, so that
the object before it was not seen clearly or fully, the mean-
ing of the apostle is, that we see things a.s it were by
images reflected from a mirror, which shows them very
obscurely and indistinctly. In the latter place, a mirror
undoubtedly is meant. — Watson.
GLEANING. The Hebrews were not permitted to go
over their trees or fields a second time, to gather the fruit
or the grain, but were to leave the gleanings for the poor,
the fatherless, and the widow, Lev. 19: 10. 23: 22. Deut
21: 21. Ruth 2: 3. (See Harvest.)— CaZmet.
GLEDE ; a fowl of the ravenous kind. It is called
dtiah, from its swift flight ; and raah, from its quick
sight. It is impatient of cold, and so is seldom seen in
the winter ; through fear and cowardice, it seldom attacks
any but tame fowls, hens, &c. Deut. 16: 13. It is called a
vulture. Lev. 11: 14. Was this unclean bird an emblem
of persecutors, destitute of courage except to harass and
destroy the saints ? — Broivn .
GLENORCHY, (Lady "Wilbelmina Maxwell,) distiu-
guished for her benevolence and piety, was bom at Preston,
in North Britain, in the year 1742. She was the daughter
of Dr. William Blaxwell, a gentleman of great fortune
and respectability. The instructions she received were
such as to improve her heart, as well as enlighten her un-
derstanding. Her mind was strong and vigorous, yet
polished and delicate. Her memory was retentive, her
person interesting, her behavior aflable, her imagination
lively, and her temper excellent. Her juvenile years,
though sedulously watched over by her kind and intelli-
gent mother, were nevertheless too much devoted to the
follies and gayety of fashionable life. When, however, she
had attained the age of twenty-three years, her mind was
aroused by a serious illness, to reflections on her present
character and future prospects ; and musing on the first
question in the Assembly's Catechism, "What is the chief
end of man ?" — " It is to glorify God, and enjoy him for-
ever," she asked herself. Have I answered the design of
my being ? Have I glorified God ? Shall I enjoy him
forever ? Thus reflecting, she gradually felt the sinful-
ness of her nature ; perceived the total alienation of her
heart from God; and applied to her heavenly Father
through Christ for pardon and grace.
Like many young professors of religion, she endeavor-
ed at first to conceal from observation the change whici
had been wrought on her heart, and, as far as possible, to
compromise with the world ; but such conduct she soon
discovered to be incompatible with spirituality of mind,
and she therefore determined on making an open and de-
cided profession of Christianity. The remainder of her
fife was distinguished by the consistency of her deport-
ment. She employed much of her time in acts of benevo-
lence ; in wise and pious conversation ; in an extensive,
judicious, and profitable correspondence ; and in every
other means for promoting the conversion of sinners and
the edification of saints. For such benevolent actions,
the worldly and irreligious branded her with the name of
Methodist, and endeavored to represent her as a wild en-
thusiast ; but such opposition her principles enabled her
patiently to endure, and, through evil and good report, to
pursue her work of faith and labor of love. Though her
health declined, her activity and usefulness were unabat-
ed ; till, on the 17th of July, 1786, she was summoned to
her reward. She bequeathed, by her will, five thousand
pounds for the education of young men for the ministry
in England ; five thousand pounds to the society in Scot-
land for the propagation of Christian knowledge ; and the
greatest part of the residue of her property to charitable
and pious purposes.
See Memoirs of Lady Glenoreh}', in Burder's Pious
Women. — Jones's Chris. Biog.
GLORIFY ; to render glorious. God is glorified by
Christ, or by creatures, when his perfections are acknow-
ledged, or manifested by their praising, trusting in, or
serving him ; or are displayed in his favors, and judg-
ments executed on them, Jolm 17: 4. Ps. 1: 23. Rom. 4: 20.
Lev. 10:3. Isa. 44:23. Christ is ^fon/ffrf in God's receiv-
ing him into heaven, bestowing on him the highest honor,
power, and authority, as our Jlediator, (John 17: 1, 5.)
and in the Holy Ghost's declaring, and revealing his excel-
lencies, and communicating his fulness to men, (John 16:
14.) and in his people's believing on him, walking in
GNO
[572]
GNO
nim, praising, obeying and imitating hira ; and his exert-
ing, and manifesting his power and wisdom, by doing
good to them, 2 Thess. 1: 10, 12, and John 11: 4. Men
are glorified when endowed with great and shining holi-
ness, happiness, and honor, in the heavenly and eternal
state, Rom. 8; 17, 30. To glorify one's self, is to claim, or
boast of honor not due tj) one, Heb. 5: 5, and Eev. 18: 7.
— Brown.
GLORY ; splendor, magnificence ; also admiration,
praise, or honor, attributed to God, in adoration or worship.
The glory of God, is the splendid manifestation of the
divine perfections in creation, providence, and grace,
Exod. 33: 18. It is also used for the stale of future hap-
piness, Rom. 3: 23. 5: 2.
We may be said to give glory to God when we confess
our sins, when we love him supremely, when we commit
ourselves to him, are zealous in his service, improve our
talents, walk humbly, thankfully, and cheerfully, before
him, and recommend, proclaim, or set forth his excel-
knciestoothers, Jos. 7: 19. Gal. 2:20. John 15: 8. Ps.
1: 23. Matt. 5: 16. (See Glorify.) — Hend. Buck.
GLOSSARIUM, in biblical literature, is a book or writ-
ing, comprehending glosses or short explanations of dark
and difficult words or phrases in the inspired writings or
the Greek authors. Among the Greeks, glbssa meant either
an idiomatic word, peculiar to a certain dialect only, and
unknown in others, an obsolete word, or an obsfMre one. A
glossary, of course, extends only to a few of the words
and phrases of an author. It is not to be used as a lexi-
con, but as a comment on particular passages. Its value
depends on its antiquity, or on the learning of its author.
The principal ancient glossaries pubhshed are these :
Hesychius, Suidas, Phavorinus, Cyrill, Photius, Etymolo-
gicon Magnum. — Hend. Buck.
GNAT, {konops ; Matt. 23: 24.) a small winged insect,
comprehending a genus of the order of diftera. In those
hot countries, as Servius remarks, speaking of the East,
gnats and flies are very apt to fall into wine, if it be not
carefully covered ; and passing the hquor through a strain-
er, that no gnat or part of one might remain, became a
proverb for exactness about little matters. This may help
us to understand that passage, (Matt. 23: 24.) where the
proverbial expression of carefully straining out a little fly
from the liquor to be drunk, and yet swallowing a camel,
intimates, that the scribes and Pharisees affected to scruple
little things, and yet disregarded those of the greatest mo-
ment.— Watson.
GNOSIBIACHI ; a name which distinguished those in
the seventh century who were professed enemies to the
Gnosis; i. e. the studied knowledge or science of Christi-
anity. (See Gnostics.) — Hend. Buck.
GNOSTICS, from gnosis, " knowledge ;" men of science
and wisdom, illuminati ; men who, from blending the
philosophy of the East, or of Greece, with the doctrines of
the gospel, boasted of deeper knowledge in the Scriptures
and theology than others. It was, therefore, not so pro-
perly a distinct sect as a generic term, comprehending all
who, forsaking the simplicity of the gospel, pretended to
be " wise above what is written," to explain the New Tes-
tament by the dogmas of the philosophers, and to derive
from the sacred writings mysteries which never were con-
tained in them.
The origin of the Gnostic heresy, as it is called, has
been variously stated. The principles of this heresy were,
however, much older than Christianity ; and many of
the errors alluded to in the apostolic epistles are doubtless
of a character very similar to some branches of the Gnostic
system. (See Cabala.) Cerinthus, against whom St.
John wrote his gospel ; the Nicolaitans, mentioned in the
Revelation, and the Ebionites, (described under that arti-
cle,) were all early Gnostics, although the system was not
then so completely formed as afterwards. Dr. Burton in
his Bampton Lectures, says, " It was not by any means
a new and distinct philosophy, but made up of selections
Irom almost every system. Thus we find in it the Pla-
tonic doctrine of ideas, and the notion that every thin" in
this lower world has a celestial and immaterial archetype
We find in it evident traces of that mystical and cabba-
listic jargon, which, after their return from captivity de-
formed the rehgion of the Jews : and many Gnostics adopt-
ed the Oriental notion of two independent co-eternal princi-
ples, the one the author of good, the other of evil. Lastly,
we find the Gnostic theology full of ideas and terms,
which must have been taken from the gospel ; and Jesu9
Christ, under some form or other of icon, emanation, or in-
corporeal phantom, enters into all their systems, and is the
means of communicating to them that knowledge which
rai.sed them above all other mortals, and entitled them to
their peculiar name. The genius and very .soul of Gnos-
ticism was mystery : its end and object was to purify its
followers from the corruptions of matter, and to raise them
to a higher scale of being, suited only to those who were
become perfect by knowledge."
Such as would be thoroughly acquainted with all their
doctrines, reveries, and visions, may consult Irenccus,
TertuUian, Clemens Alexandrinus. Origen, and Epiphanius ;
particularly the first of these writers, wiio relates their
sentiments at large, and confutes them. Indeed he dwells
more on the Vatentinians than any other sect of Gnostics ;
but he shows the general principles whereon all their mis-
taken opinions were founded, and the method they follow-
ed in explaining Scripture. He accuses them of introduc-
ing into religion certain vain and ridiculous genealogies^
i. e. a kind of divine processions or emanations, which
had no other foundation but in their o\vn wild imagination.
The Gnostics confessed that these aons or emanations were
nowhere expressly delivered in the sacred writings ; but
insisted that Jesus Christ had intimated them in parables
to such as could understand them. They built their the-
ology not only on the gospels and the epistles of St. Paul,
but also on the law of Moses and the prophets. These
last were peculiarly serviceable to them, on account of the
allegories and allusions ■n'ith which they abound, which
are capable of different interpretations ; though their doc-
trine concerning the creation of the world by one or more
inferior beings of an evil or imperfect nature, led them
to deny the divine authority of the books of the Old Testa-
ment, which contradicted this idle fiction, and filled thera
with an abhorrence of Moses and the religion he taught ;
alleging, that he was actuated by the malignant author
of this world, who consulted his own glory and authority,
and not the real advantage of men. Their persuasion
that evil resided in matter, as its centre and source, made
them treat the body with contempt, discourage marriage, .
and reject the doctrine of the resurrection of the body,
and its reunion with the immortal spirit. Their notion,
that malevolent genii presided in nature, and occasioned
diseases and calamities, wars and desolations, induced
them to apply themselves to the study of magic, in order
to weaken the powers or suspend the influence of these
malignant agents. The Gnostics considered Jesus Christ
as the Son of God, and inferior to the Father, who came
into the world for the rescue and happiness of miserable
mortals, oppressed by matter and evil beings ; but they
rejected our Lord's humanity, on the principle that every
thing corporeal is essentially and intrinsically evil ; and
therefore the greatest part of them denied the reality of
his sufferings. They set a great value on the beginning of
the gospel of St. John, where they fancied they saw a
great deal of their (eons, or emanations, under the terms
the wmd, the life, the light, &c. They divided all nature
into three kinds of beings, viz. hylic, or material ; psychic,
or animal ; and pneumatic, or spiritual. On the like princi-
ple they also distinguished three sorts of men ; mnterial,
animal, and spiritual. The first, who were material, and
incapable of knowledge, inevitably perished, both soul and
body ; the third, such as the Gnostics themselves pretended
(0 be, were all certainly saved; the psychic, or animal,
who were the middle between the other two, were capable
either of being saved or damned, according to their good
or evil actions. With regard to their moral doctrines and
conduct, they were much divided. The greatest part of
this sect adopted very austere rules of life, recommended
rigorous abstinence, and prescribed severe bodily mortifi-
cations, with a view of purifying and exalting the mind.
However, some maintained that there was no moral differ-
ence in human actions ; and thus confounding right with
wrong, they gave a loose reign to all the passions, and
asserted the innocence of following blindly all their mq-
tions, and of living by their tumultuous dictates. They
GOA
[573]
GOD
supported Iheir opinions and practice by various authori-
ties : some referred to fictitious and apocryphal writings of
Adam, Abraham, Zoroaster, Christ, and his apostles ;
others boasted that they had deduced their sentiments
from secret doctrines of Christ, concealed from the vul-
gar ; others affirmed that they arrived at superior degrees
of wisdom by an innate vigor of mind ; and others assert-
ed that they were instructed in these mysterious parts of
theological science by Theudas, a disciple of Paul, and
by Matthias, one of the friends of our Lord. The tenets
of the ancient Gnostics were revived in Spain, in the fourth
century, by a sect called the Priscillianists. At length
the name Gnostic, which originally was glorious, became
infamous, by the idle opinions and dissolute lives of the
persons who bore it. — Watson; Hend. Buck.
GO. When God is said to go down, or up, it does not
mean, that he changes his place in respect of his essence,
but that his knowledge, or powerful operation, or the sym-
bol of his presence, bears such relation to a particular
place, Gen. 11: 5, 7, and 25: 13. His goings are the dis-
play of his perfections, and the acts of his providence
towards the world, towards Jesus, or his church ; and in
respect of this he may be said to rome or go from one, Ps.
68: 24. Christ's goings forth from everlasting, prove his
divine nature, prior to his incarnation, Mic. 5: 2. The
saints' going out and in, denotes their whole conversation,
which is by" Christ as the door ; they have great liberty
in him, and live by faith on him, Ps. 17: 5, and 121: 8.
John 10: 9. The prince in the midst of them ipJien they go
in shall go in ; and when they go forth shall go fnrtli. Jesus,
who is among his people in their heart, always present to
assist them, shall go with them when they go in to the
throne of grace, that he may present their petitions, and
render them 'accepted ; when they go in to the house of
God, he shall go in to feed them on good pasture ; when
they go in to their heart to search it, he shall go in to dis-
cover it to them, and comfort against aU grief on ever}'
side. When they go out from public ordinances he shall
go with them, to impress what they have been about on
their mind ; he shall go out with them to the world, to
keep them from the evil ; he shall go out of the world
with them at death, to introduce them to eternal glory,
Ezek. 46: 10. — Broivn.
GOAD; a long staff or wand for driving cattle, Judg.
3: 26.. It had a piece of sharply pointed iron in the small
end, and perhaps a paddle on the other, to cut up weeds.
The words. of the wise qre as 'goads; they penetrate into
men's minds, and stir them up to the practice of duty.
Eccl. 12: 11. — Brown.
GOAT, (gimv.) The goat was one of the clean beasts
which the Israehtes might both eat and offer in sacrifice.
The kid is often mentioned as a food, in a way that im-
plies that it was considered as a delicacy. The aiav, or
Tvild goat, mentioned Deut. 14: 5, and nowhere else in
the Hebrew Bible, is supposed to be the tragelaphus, or
" goat-deer." Schtiltens conjectures that tliis animal
might have its name, ob fugacitatem, from its shyness, or
running away. The word ^'o/, or ^aa/, occurs 1 Sam. 24:
3. Job 39: 1. Psalm 104: 18. Prov. 5: 19, and various
have been the sentiments of interpreters on the animal
intended by it. Bochart insists that it is the iber, or '• rock-
goat." The root whence the name is derived, signifies
to ascend, to mount ; and the ibct is famous for clamber-
ing, climbing, and leaping, on the most craggy precipices.
The Arab writers attribute to they™/ very long horns,
bending backwards ; cousequenlly it cannot be the cha-
mois. The horns of the janl are reckoned among the
valuable articles of traffic, Ezek. 27: 15. The ibex is
finely shaped, graceful in its motions, and gentle in its
manners. The female is particularly celebrated by nat-
ural historians for tender aflection to her young, and the
incessant vigilance with which she watches over their
safety ; and also for ardent attachment and fidelity to her
male. — Watson; Abbott.
GOATS' HAIR, was used by Moses in making the
curtains of the tabernacle, Exod. 25: 4, &c. The hair
of the goals of Asia, Phrygia, and Cilicia, which is cut
oli', in order to manufacture stuffs, is very bright and fine,
and hangs to the ground ; in beauty it almost equals silk,
and is never sheared, but combed off. The shepherds
carefully and frequently wash these goats in rivers. The
women of the country spin the hair, which is carried to
Angora, where it is worked and dyed, and a considerable
trade in the article carried on. The natives attribute the
quality of the hair to the soil of the country. — Calmet.
GOB ; a plain where two battles were fought between
the Hebrews and Phihstines, 2 Sam. 21: 18, 19. In 1
Chron. 20: 4, we read Gezer instead of Gob. The LXX,
in some copies, read Noh instead of Gob ; and in others
Gath. — Calmet.
GOD ; that infinitely great, intelligent, and free Being ;
of perfect goodness, wisdom, and power ; transcendently
glorious in holiness ; who made the universe, and con-
tinues to support it, as well as to govern and direct it, by
his providence and laws. The name is derived from the
Icelandic Godi, which signifies the supreme Magistrate,
and is thus perfectly characteristic of Jehovah as the
moral Governor of the universe. It also corresponds to
the Jewish and Christian sense of the Greek words Theos
and Kurios, in the. New Testament, the names usually ap
plied to the Eternal. For an account of the various at
tributes which enter into our conception of the divine
character, as revealed in the Scriptures, the reader is re
ferred to those articles. (Also, see Attkibctes.)
2. By his personality, intelligence, and freedom, God
is distinguished from Fate, Nature, Destiny, Necessity,
Chance, Anitna Mundi, and from all the other fictitious
beings acknowledged by the Stoics, Pantheists, Spinosists,
and other sorts of Atheists. (See Atheism.)
3: The knowledge of God, his nature, attributes, word,
arid works, above all, his moral character, with the rela
tions between him and his creatures, makes the subject
of the extensive science called theology, that master sci-
ence, of which all the other sciences are but subordinate
and illustrative parts. If there have been men of science,
who have failed to trace the relation of all science to the
knowledge of God, it has been owing to a bias of mind,
altogether foreign to sound philosophy.
4. " The plain argument, (says Maclaurin, in his Ac-
count of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries ) for
the existence of the Deity, obvious to all, and carrying
irresistible conviction with it, is from the erident contri-
vance and fitness of things for one another, which we
meet with throughout all parts of the universe. There is
no need of nice or subtle reasonings in this mntter; a
manifest contrivance immediately suggests a couiriver.
It strikes us like a sensation ; and artful reasonings
against it may puzzle us, but it is without shak-ing our
belief." (See Existence of God.)
5. Not only the works of creation, but the course of
divine operation in the government of the world, has from
age to age been a manifestation of the divine character ;
continually receiving new and stronger illustrations, until
the completion of the Christian revelation by the ministry
of Christ, and his inspired followers ; and still placing it-
self in brighter light, and more impressive aspects, as the
scheme of human redemption nins on to its consummauon
GOD
[ 574 j
GOD
From all the acts of God as recorded in the Scriptures,
we are taught 'hat he alone is God ; that he is present
everywhere, to sustain and govern all things ; that his wis-
dom is infinite, his counsel settled, his truth sure, and his
power irresistible ; that his character, as well as his law,
IS immutably 'holy, just, and good ; above all, that he
is rich in mercy ; that he has freely provided, whether as
Father, or Son, or Holy Ghost, the raeansof our salvation ;
that he is alike and at once the Father and Lord, the Re-
deemer and Judge, the Sanctifier and Friend of man.
6. Under these deeply awful, but consolatory views,
do the Scriptures present to us the supreme object of our
worship, love, -and trust ; and they dwell upon each of
the above particulars with inimitable sublimity and beau-
ty of language, and with an inexhaustible variety of il-
lustration. Nor can we compare these views of the di-
vine nature with the conceptions of the most enlightened
of pagans, without feeling how much reason we have for
everlasting gratitude, that a revelation so explicit, so com-
prehensive, and so joyful, should have been made to us,
in our guilty and perplexed condition. It is thus that
Christian philosophers, even when they do not use the lan-
guage of the Scriptures, are able to speak of this great
and mysterious Being, in language so clear, and with
conceptions so noble ; in a manner, too, so equable, so
different from the sages of antiquity, who, if any time
they approach the truth, never fail to mingle with it some
essentially erroneous or grovelhng conception.
7. '■ Tuc IDEA OF THE SupKEME Being," says Kobert
Hall, " has this peculiar property : that as it admits of no
substitute, so, from the first moments it is formed, it is
capable of continual growth and enlargement. God him-
self is immutable ; but our conception of his character is
continually receiving fresh accessions, is continually grow-
ing more extended and refulgent, by having transferred
to it new elements of beauty and goodness ; by attracting
to itself as a centre, whatever bears the impress of digni-
ty, urder, or happiness. It borrows splendor from ail that
is fair, subordinates to it.self all that is great, and sits en-
THKONED ON THE KICHES OF THE UNIVEESE.
8. " As the object of worship will always be in a de-
gree the object of imitation, hence arises a fixed standard
of moral excellence ; by tlie contemplation of which, the
tendencies to corruption are counteracted, the contagion
of bad example is checked, and human nature rises above
its natural level." v
Who then, as he contemplates this glorious Being in the
transcendent beauty of his revealed character, can forbear
to pray, " Thy name be hallowed ; thy kingdom come ;
THY WILL BE DONE ; AS IN HEAVEN, SO IN EARTH!" (See
Existence of God.)— ffenrf. BiicU ; Works of Robert HaJl,
vol. i. p. 30 ; Watson.
GODS, False Gods. The Hebrew name of God, (Elo-
hini,) like the English, •' Lord," is used in various appli-
cations. Tlie true God is often called Elohim ; as are
the angels, judges, princes, and sometimes idols and false
gods. (See Gen. 1:1. Exod. 22: 20. Psal. 86; 8. ; also
the following passages in the Hebrew: Exod. 21: 6.
22: 8. 1 Sam. 2:25. Exod. 22: 28.) The Israelites had so
great an aversion and contempt for strange gods, that
they would not name them ; but substituted some term
of contempt : so, instead of Elohim, they called them
eKKm ; nothings, vanities, gods of no value. Instead of
Mephi-baal, and Meri-baal, and Jeru-baal, they said, Me-
phi-bosheth, and Meri-bosheth, and Jeru-bosheth. Baal
signifies master, husband ; bosheth, a shame.
The beings, whether real or imaginary, adopted as ob-
jects of worship among men, in preference to the thrice
holy Jehovah, but too clearly display the fallen condition
of the human mind. Fear, lust, malignity or pride, evi-
dently predominate in the conception and choice of such
objects of adoration. Nothing hke pure and elevating
devotional sentiment could, or did attach to them. The
principal of the ancient gods, whom the Romans called
dii majorum gentium, and Cicero celestial gods, Varro se-
lect gods, Ovid nohihs deos, others consentcs deos, were Ju-
piter, Juno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars,
Mercury, Neptune, Vulcan, and Apollo. Jupiter is con-
sidered as the god of heaven ; Neptune, as god of the
Kea ; Mars, as the god of war ; Apollo, of eloquence.
poetry, and physic ; Mercury, of thieves ; Bacchus, of
wine ; Cupid, of love, &c. A second sort of gods, called
demi-gods, semi-dii, dii mi-norum gentium, indigetes, or gods
adopted, were men canonized and deified. As the greater
gods had possession of heaven by their own right, these
secondary deities had it by merit and donation, being
translated into heaven because they had lived as gods
upon earth.
2. The heathen gods may be all reduced to the follow-
ing classes : (1.) Created spirits, angels, or demons,
whence good and evil gods ; Genii, Lares, Lemures, Ty-
phoues, guardian gods, infernal gods, &c. (2.) Heaven-
ly bodies; as the sun, moon, and other planets; also,
the fixed stars, constellations, &;c. (3.) Elements ; as
air, earth, ocean. Ops, Vesta; the rivers, fountains, &c.
(1.) Meteors. Thus the Persians adored the wind ; thun-
der and lightning were honored under the name of Ger-
yon ; and several nations of India and America have
made themselves gods of the same. Castor, Pollux, He-
lena, and Iris, have also been preferred from meteors to
be gods ; and the like has been practised in regard to
comets : witness that which appeared at the murder of
Ceesar. (5.) They erected minerals or fossils into deities.
Such was the Bsetylus. The Finlanders adored stones ;
the Scythians, iron ; and many nations, silver and gold.
(6.) Plants have been made gods. Thus leeks and on-
ions were deities in Egypt ; the Sclavi, Lithuanians, Cel-
ts?, Vandals, and Peruvians, adored trees and forests ; the
ancient Gauls, Britons, and Druids, paid a particular de-
votion to the oak ; and it was no other than wheat, corn,
seed, Arc., that the ancients adored under the names of
Ceres and Proserpina. (7.) They took themselves gods
from among the waters. The Syrians and Egyptians
adored fishes ; and what were the Tritons, the Nereids,
Syrens, &c., but fishes ? Several nations have adored ser-
pents ; particularly the Egyptians, Prussians, Lithuani-
ans, Samogitians, &c. (8.) Insects, as flies and ants,
had their priests and votaries. (9.) Among birds, the
stork, raven, sparrowhawk, ibis, eagle, grisson, and lap-
wing, have had divine honors ; the last in Mexico, the
rest in Egypt and at Thebes. (10.) Fourfooted beasts
have had their altars ; as the bull-dog, cat, wolf, baboon,
lion, and crocodile, in Egypt and elsewhere ; the hog in
the island of Crete ; rats and mice in the Troas, and at
Tenedos ; weasels at Thebes ; and the porcupine through-
out all Zoroaster's school. (11.) Nothing was more com-
mon than to place men among the number of deities ; and
from Belus or Baal, to the Roman emperors before Con-
stantine, the instances of this kind are innumerable ; fre-
quently they did not wait so long as their deaths for the
apotheosis. Nebuchadnezzar procured his statue to be
worshipped while living ; and Virgil shows that Augus-
tus had altars and sacrifices offered to him ; as we learn
from other hands that he had priests, called Augiistahs,
and temples at Lyons, Narbona, and several other places ;
and he must be allowed the first of the Romans in whose
behalf idolatry was carried to such a pitch. The Ethio-
pians deemed all their kings gods ; the Velleda of the
Germans, the Janus of the Hungarians, and the Thaut,
"VVoden, and Assa, of the northern nations, were indisput-.
ably men. (12.) Not men only, but every thing that re-
lates to man, has also been deified ; as labor, rest, sleep,
youth, age, death, virtues, vices, occasion, time, place,
numbers, among the Pythagoreans ; the generative pow-
er, under the name of Priapus. Infancy alone had a
cloud of deities ; as Vagetanus, Levana, Rumina, Edufa,
Potina, Cuba, Cumina, Carna, Ossilago, Statulinus, Fabu-
linus, &c. They also adored the gods Health, Fever,
Fear, Love, Pain, Indignation, Shame, Impudence, Opin-
ion, Renown, Prudence, Science, Art, Fidelity, Felicity,
Calumny, Liberty, Money, War, Peace, Victory, Triumph,
(kc. Lastly, Nature, the universe, or to Pan, was re-
puted a great god.
3. Hesiod has a poem under the title of Theogonia, that
is, " The Generation of the Gods," in which he explains
their genealogy and descent, sets forth who was the first
and principal, who next descended from him, and what
issue each had ; the whole making a sort of system of
heathen theology. Beside this popular theology, each
philosopher had his system, as may be seen from the
GOD
[ 5-5 ]
GOM
"Tim^us" of Plato, and Cicero '' Dt Natura Deoriim."
Justin Martyr, TertulUan, Arnobius. Minutius Felix,
Lactantius, Eiisebius, Augustine, and Theodorel, show
the vanity of the heathen gods. It is very ditiicull to
discover the real sentiments of the heathens with respect
to their gods ; they are exceedingly intricate and confus-
ed, and even frequently contradictory. They admitted
so many superior and inferior gods, who shared the
empire, that every place was full of gods. Varro reckons
up no less than thirty thousand adored within a small ex-
tent of ground, and yet their number was every day in-
creasing. In modern Oriental paganism they amount to
many millions, and^re, in fact, innumerable.
Who that loves the true God, can realize the actual
condition of mankind at this moment, without horror and
grief! Who but must labor and pray for the success of
the missionary enterprise ! Wlio but must rejoice in the
divine assurance, that " The gods that have not made the
heavens and the earth, even they shaU perish from the earth, and
from under these heavens!" Jer. 10: II. — Calmet ; Watson.
GODFATHERS, and GODMOTHERS ; in established
churches, persons who, at the baptism of infants, answer
for their future conduct, and solemnly promise that they
will renounce the devil and all his works, and follow a
life of piety and virtue ; and by these means lay them-
selves under an indispensable obligation to instruct them,
and watch over their conduct, in the Catholic church,
the number of Godfathers and Godmothers is reduced to
two; in the church of England, to three; formerly the
number was not limited. — fiend. Buck.
GODLINESS, strictly taken, is right worship or devo-
tion ; but in general it imports the whole of practical re-
ligion, 1 Tim. 4: 8. 2 Pet. 1:6. It is difficult, as Saurin
observes, to include an adequate idea of it in what is
called a definition. '' It supposes knowledge, veneration,
afi'ection, dependence, submission, gratitude, and obedi-
ence ; or it may be reduced to these four ideas : know-
ledge in the mind, by which it is distinguished from the
visions of the superstitious ; rectitude in the conscience,
that distinguishes it from hypocrisy ; sacrifice in the life,
or renunciation of the world, by which it is distinguished
from the unmeaning obedience of him who goes as a hap-
py constitution leads him ; and, lastly, zeonn the heart,
which differs from the languishing emotions of the luke-
warm." The advantages of this disposition are honor,
peace, safety, usefulness, support in death, and prospect
of glory ; or, as tlie apostle sums up all in a few words,
" It. is profitable unto all things, having the promise of
the life that now is, and of that which is to come," 1 Tim.
4:8. Saurin's Ser. vol. V. ser. 3, Eng. trans.; Barroiv's
Works, vol. i. p. 9 ; Scott's Christian Life ; ScougaVs Life
of God in the Soul of Man. — Heinl. Buck.
GODLY ; godlike ; that which proceeds from God and is
pleasing to him. It also signifies conformity to his will,
and an assimilation to his character, P.sal. 12: 1. Mai.
2: 1.5. 2 Cor. 1: 12. Tit. 2: 12, ice— Calmet.
GODMAN, (John D., M. D.,) a man of genius, and one
ol the most distinguished naturalists and physicians
America has produced, was born at Annapolis, in Mary-
land, and having lost his parents at an early age, was
bound apprentice to a printer. He afterwards entered the
navy, and at the age of fifteen commenced the study of
medicine. On completing his studies, he settled in Phila-
delphia as a phyjician and private teacher of anatomy,
and for some time was an assistant editor of the Medical
Journal. It was at this period that he published his Nat-
ural History of American Quadrupeds, in three volumes,
8vo. Having been elected to the professorship of anato-
my in Rutgers' Medical college, he removed to N-ewYork,
where he soon acquired extensive practice as a surgeon.
Ill health, however, obliged him to relinquish his pursuits,
and he returned, in 1829, to Philadelphia, where he died
in 1830, in the thirty-second year of his age. He possess-
ed much and varied information in his profession, in nat-
ural history, and in general bterature. Besides the work
above referrerl to, lie is the author of Rambles of a Natu-
ralist, and the articles on natural history in the Encyclo-
paedia Americana, as far as the letter C.
Dr. Godman had at one time adopted the infidelity and
atheism of the French naturalists of the last century, lint
the happy death of a Christian friend, in 1827, ltd him to
the Scriptures. In them he found the words of eternal
life ; and not only did he find peace to his own soul in the
Savior, but he was the means of leading Dr. E. Judson,
(brother of the distinguished missionary,) who liad pre-
viously been an infidel, to the same blessed hope. Both
died near the same time, bearing like testimony to the
divine supports of the gospel. — Davenport; Allen; Ann-
ricana Encij. ; Amcr. Quar. Reviav ; Dr. Sev-aU's Eulogy.
GOEL, (Heb. ;) among the Hebrews, one whose nghl
and duty it was to avenge the blood ol' his relation, but
who was not allowed to brealc in upon the security of a'l
asylum or city of refuge. (See Avenger of Blood.)
Haid. Evck.
GOERING, (Jacob,) mini.stcr of the German Luthcruli
church in York, Pennsylvania, commenced the labors of
the sacred office when only twenty years of age ; and il
pleased God to give such success to his faithful exertions
at this early period of life, that a revival of religion al-
ways attended his preaching. He died in 1807, aged fifty-
two. He was a president of the synod of the German
Lutheran church in the stales of Pennsylvania, Maryland,
and Virginia. He was a man of proi-nund erudition ;
and among the languages, with which he was acquainlcd,
the Hebrew and Arabic were his favorites. Though
warmly interested in his country's welfare, he yet declined
a civil stalion, in which his fellow-citizens would gladly
have placed him, dedicating himself wholly to the uiinis-
try. He died in the full assurance of obtaining and en-
joying a perpetual happiness through the merits of his
Redeemer. Bron-n's Amtr. Heg. ii. 84, 85. — Allen.
GOG AND MAGOG ; symbolical names of the heathen
nations of northern Asia, more particularly the Tartars
and Mongolians, which the Arabic and other Oriental wri-
ters term Yajtij and Majuj. They occur in Ezek. 38: and
39: and Rev. 20.— Hoirf. Buck.
GOLD ; the most valuable of the precious mclals. It
is the heaviest of all known bodies, and the most ductile
of all the metals. It is whollj' incapable of rust, and is
not sonorous w'hen struck upon. It requires a strong fire
to melt it, remaining unaltered in the degree of heat that
fuses tin or lead, but running with a less vehement one
than is necessary to the fusing of iron or copper. It does
not retain its color till the time of melting, but becomes
ignited and white before it runs ; and when in fusion, it
appears of a pale, bluish, green color on the surface.
Common fire carried to its utmost vehemence has no far-
ther effect on gold than the fusing of it. Il will remain
ever so long in its fiercest heat, and come out at last un-
altered, and with its weight emire.
Arabia had formerly its golden mines. " The gold of
Sheba," (Psalm 72: 15.) is, in the Septuagint and Arabic
versions, " the gold of Arabia." Sheba was the ancient
name of Arabia Felix. Mr. Bruce, however, places it in
Africa, at Azab. The gold of Ophir, so often mentioned,
must be that which was procured in Arabia, on the coast
of the Red sea. We are assured by Sanchonialhon, as
quoted by Eusebius, and by Herodotus, that the Phccni-
cians carried on a considerable traffic with this gold a.ven
before the days of Job, who speaks of it, 22: 24. — Watson.
GOLGOTHA. (See Caltakv.)
GOLIATH; a famous giant of Gath, (1 Sam. 17: J,
&c. A.M. 2941. ante A. D. 1063.) who defied the Hf-
brews, and was encountered and slain by David. He was
descended from Arapha ; that is, the old Rephaim. (See
Giants ; and Arms, Military.) — Cahntt.
GOMAR, (Francis,) an eminent Calvinistic divine, was
a native of Bruges, and born 1563. He came over to
England to obtain his education, and studied awhile in
both the universities, but graduated at Cambridge, as
hachelor of divinity. On returning to the continent, he
obtained a professorship at Heidelberg, which, in 1593,
he relinquished for the theological chair at Leyden, the
celebrated Arminius being his colleague. The difl'erent
views taken by these two professors on some of the lead-
ing polemical questions, both as to doctrine and discipline,
terminated in a controversy, which was carried on \iith
much acuteness and no little acrimony. It has been re-
marked by an acute observer, that while many pens were
engaged in opposing Arminius, there were but few who
CtOO
[ 576
GOO
opposed him on ihe same footing with Gomar, who was
chiefly concerned about the ground of a sinner's accep-
tance with God, as he understood it to be affected by that
controversy. The greater part of the disputants chose to
make the controversy turn upon another hinge, contend-
ing about grace and free will, and what influence these
had in the'conversion of a sinner ; bat with Gomar the
grand inquiry was, what is necessary to the justification
of a sinner before God ; is any thing besides the work
finished upon the cross ? Any addition to this, he con-
tended, was subversive of the true grace of God. For
this doctrine he evinced great zeal, and wrote with extra-
ordinary abihty. He subsequently filled literary situa-
tions, both at Middleburgh and Saumur, but died at Gro-
ningen, in 1641, having for some short time prior to his
decease filled the chair of Hebrew professor there. His
controversial tracts were collected four years after his
deatli, and printed in one folio volume, at Amsterdam.
Aiki/i's Gen. Biog. and Gla$'s Worhs, vol. v. p. 359.—
Jones's Chris. Biog.
GOMAKISTS ; Calvinists ; so called from Francis Go-
mar, the chief antagonist of Arminius. (See Gomak.)
GOMER, the eldest son of Japheth, (Gen. 10: 2.) peo-
pled a considerable part of Asia Minor, particularly the
region of Phrygia ; the appellation of which Bochart
conceives, with great probability, to be a translation into
Greek of the Hebrew word Gomer, "a coal." Phrygia is
literally " the burnt country." (See Dispeksion.) — Calmet.
GOMORRAH ; one of the five cities of the Pentapolis,
consumed by fire, Gen. 19: 24, &c. (See Deah Sea.) —
Watson.
GOOD, in general, is whatever increases pleasure, or
diminishes pain in us. Great confusion has been intro-
duced into philosophical writings, from not distinguishing
between the three distinct senses in which this term good
is used. 1. The agreeable, or that which gives immediate
pleasure, without regard to consequences. 2. The useful,
or that which, on the whole, is best for us in the pre-
sent life. And, 3. The virtuous, or that which God ap-
proves as right, and which is productive of everlasting
happiness. If men always choose the greatest apparent
good, as metaphysicians have contended, we must never
forget to examine which kind of good it is which they pre-
fer, since this determines their character. Those who
consult only their senses, prefer the agreeable. Those
who consult their reason only, prefer the useful ; and
those who consult their conscience also, prefer the virtu-
ous. This last is the only true wisdom. For this kind
of good in the natural orde.r, as well as in the final event
of things, comprehends every other. — Hend. Buck.
GOOD, (John Mason,) a distinguished physician, poet,
and philologist, the son of a dissenting minister, was
born, in 17(51, at Epping, in Essex ; practised for some
years as a surgeon and apothecary at Coggeshal, and in
London ; took his degree, and began to practise as
a physician, in 1820 ; and died January 2, 1827. Dr.
Good was a man of vast and diversified knowledge ; was
intimately acquainted with many of the Oriental lan-
guages ; and was no contemptible poet and theologian.
He published translations of Solomon's Song, Job, and
Lucretius ; Memoirs of Alexander Geddes ; Medical Tech-
nology ; a Physiological System of Nosology ; the Book
of Nature, three vols. ; and the Study of Sledicine, five
volumes, 8vo. His life has been written by Dr. 0. Gre-
gory. Dr. Good was at one period of his life a Socinian
of the school of Priestley ; but a number of years before
his death he became a decided and experimental believer
m the orthodox faith, an active promoter of Bible and
missionary associations, and all means of advancing the
eternal happiness of man. His last moments were bright
with the faith an<l hope of the gospe] .—Memoir ; Davenport.
GOODELL, (Solomon,) a liberal-hearted Christian, who
died at Jamaica, Vermont, in September, 1815, aged se-
venty. He was a farmer, living in a rude spot in the
neighborhood of the Green mountains ; all his property
was gained by severe personal labor, and saved by strict
frugality ; yet his liberality was such as might shame
Mr. Girard, the possessor of fifteen millions of dollars.
At no time was his property worth five thousand dollars ;
yet, besides providing for his family, the amount of his
donations for missions to the heathen, besides other cha-
rities, was three thousand six hundred and eighty-six dol-
lars. He was a Baptist, yet most of his donations were
intrusted to the hands of his fellow-Christians, not Bap-
tists. In this way he proved that he was no sectarian ;
not, like Mr. Girard, by contemning all religions alike.
The power that moved him to his self-denying distribu-
tions in his life, not, like Mr. Girard, when "he could hold
and accumulate no longer, was a settled religious princi-
ple ; a conviction, that all his property was the gift of
God, and that it should be used by him as the steward of
God to promote his Master's glory, and the salvation of
mankind. — Allen. ^
GOOD FRIDAY ; a fast kept in national churches, in
memory of the sufferings and death of Jesus Christ. It
is observed on the Friday in Passion Week, and it is call-
ed, by way of eminence, good ; because of the good ef-
fects of our Savior's sufferings. Among the Saxons it
was called Long Friday ; but for what reason does not
appear, except on account of the long offices then used.
The Protestants on the continent consider this day as the
most solemn in the whole year ; by the Catholics, how-
ever, it is only celebrated as a half holiday. — Hend. Buck.
GOODNESS; philosophically, the fitnessof a thing to
produce any particular end. In morals, perfection, kind-
ness, benevolence. — Hend. Buck.
GOODNESS OF GOD relates both to the absolute per-
fection of his own nature, and his kindness manifested to
his creatures. Goodness, says Dr. Gill, is essential to God,
without which he would not be God, Exod. 33: 19. 34: 6,
7. Goodness belongs only to God, he is solely good, (Matt.
19: 17.) and all the goodness found in creatures is only an
emanation of the divine goodness. He is the chief good ;
Ihe sum and substance of all felicity, Ps. 144: 12, 15. 73:
25. 4: 6, 7. There is nothing but goodness in God, and
nothing but goodness comes from him, 1 John 1: 5. James
1: 13, 14. He is infinitely good ; finite minds cannot com-
prehend his goodness, Rom. 11: 35, 36. He is immutably
and unchangeably good, Zeph. 3: 17. The goodness of
God is communicative and diffusive, Ps. 119:68. 33:5.
With respect to the objects of it, it may be considered as
general and special. His general goodness is seen in all
his creatures ; yea, in the inanimate creation, the sun, the
earth, and all his works; and in the government, support,
and protection of the world at large, Ps. 36: 6. 145: His
special goodness relates to angels and saints. To angels,
in creating, confirming, and making them what they are.
To saints, in election, calling, justification, adoption, sanc-
tification, perseverance, and eternal glorification. Gill's
Body of Div. v. i. p. 133, 8vo ed. ; Charnock's Works, v. i.
p. 574 ; Foley's Nat. Theol., ch. 26 ; South's admiralle
Sermon on this subject, vol. viii. ser. 3 ; Tillotson's Serm.,
ser. 143 — 146 ; Ahernethy's Serm., vol. i. No. 2 ; Bwighfs
Thcohgtj.—Hend. Buck.
GOODWIN, (Thomas, D. D.) a celebrated non-confoVmist
divine of the seventeenth century, was born at Rolesby, in
Norfolk, in the year 1600. He was educated at Christ-
church college, and Catharine hall, Cambridge, of which
he afterwards became fellow. Having taken orders, he
was elected lecturer of Trinity church, in Cambridge, in
1628 ; and four years afterwards was presented by the
king to the vicarage of the same church. Becoming dis-
satisfied, however, with the terms of conformity, be relin-
quished his preferments, and, in 1634, quitted the univer-
sity.
When the Puritans were persecuted by the episcopal
consistories, he fled to Holland, where he became minister
of a congregation at Arnheim. At the beginning of the
long parhament he returned to London, and was one of
the assembly of divines, with whom, however, he did not
always agree. His attachment to the Independents render-
ed him a favorite with Cromwell, through whose influence,
in 1649, he was made one of the commissioners for licens-
ing preachers, and appointed president of Magdalen col-
lege, Oxford, where he collected a church ujion the Con-
gregational model.
Anthony Wood styles him and Dr. Owen " the two at-
lasses and patriarchs of Independency." In the common
register of Oxford he is said to be "in scriptis in re Theo-
logicif. quam plurimis orbi notus." The writer of his life,
G 0 S
I >"
prefixed to his works, tiflls us, lUat " he was niu'cli aiUlict-
ed to reiiremenl and deep coiilemplalion, had been rauch
exercised in the controversies agitated in the age in which
iie lived, and had a deep insight into the economy of divine
grace." He died on tlie 23d of February-, 1679, aged
eighty years. His works have heen pubhshed iu four
volumes, folio. Brit. Bio:;. — Jones's Ch-ris. Biog.
GOPHER-WOOD, (sie Ark.) •
GORWUS ; a Roman centurion and Christian martyr,
under the emperor Diocletian. He was a native of Cesa-
rea. For avowing his faith in Christ, he was first put to
the torture, and afterwards burnt to death, A. D. 311. —
Fox. 59.
GORTONIANS ; the followers of Samuel Gorton, of
New England, about 1613. He was charged wnth being
a Familist and Antinomian, and was banished as a com-
mon disturber from Plymouth, Rhode Island, and Massa-
chu.setts. HiUchiiuwn' s Hist, of Massachusetts, vol. i. p. 117 ;
Holmes's American Annals, in 1637. — Williams.
GOSHEN. This was the most fertile pasture ground
in the whole of Lower Egypt ; thence called Goshen, from
gush, in Arabic, signifying '• a heart," or whatsoever is
choice or precious. There was also a Goshen in the ter-
ritory of the tribe of Judah, so called for the same reason,
Josh. 10: 41. G«n. 47: 11. 45: 18. The land of Goshen
lay along the most easterly branch of the Nile, and on the
east side of it ; for it is evident that, at the lime of the
exode, the Israelites did not cro.<s the Nile. In ancient
times, the fertile land was considerably more extensive,
both in length and breadth, than at pre.sent, in consequence
of the general failure of the eastern branches of the Nile ;
the main body of the river verging more and more to the
west continually, and deepening the channels on that side.
— Watson.
GOSPEL; the revelation of the grace of God to fallen
man through a mediator. It is taken also for the history
of the life, actions, death, resurrection, ascension, and doc-
trine of Jesus Christ. The word is compounded of two
Saxon words — god, "good," and spell, a "message," or
" tidings," and thus corresponds to the Greek euanggelion,
which signifies a joyful message, or good news. It is call-
ed the gospel of his grace, because it flows from his free
love. Acts 20: 24. The gospel of the Ungdom, as it treats
of the kingdom of grace and glory. The gospel of Christ,
because he is the author and subject of it, Rom. 1: 16.
The gospel of peace and salvation, as it promotes our pre-
sent comfort, and leads to eternal glory, Eph. 1: 13. 6: 13.
The glorious gosptl, as in it the glorious perfections of Je-
hovah are displayed, 2 Cor. 4: 4. The everlasting gospel,
as it was designed from eternity, is permanent in time,
and the effects of it are eternal. Rev. 14: 6.
There are about thirty or forty apocryphal gospels — as
the gospel of St. Peter, of St. Andrew, oX St. Barnabas,
the eternal gospel, fcc. fee. c5cc. ; but they were never re-
ceived by the Christian church, being evidently fabulous
and trifling. (See Cbristianitt.) — Ilend. Buck.
GOSPEL, A Law. It has been disputed whether the
gospel consists merely of promises, or whether it can in
any sense be called a law. The answer plainly depends
upon adjusting the meaning of the words gospel and law.
If the gospel be taken for the declaration God has made
to men by Christ, concerning the manner in which he will
treat them, and the conduct he expects from them, it is
l4ain that this includes commands, and even threatenings,
as well as promises ; .but to define the gospel so, as only
to express the favorable part of that declaration, is indeed
.taking the que.stion for granted, and confining the word to
a sense much less extensive than it often has in Scripture :
(compare Rom. 2: 16. 2 Thess. 1: 8. 1 Tim. 1: 10, 11.)
and it is certain, that, if the gospel be put for all the parts
of the dispensation taken in connexion one with another,
it m^y well be called, on the whole, a good message. In
like manner the question, whether the gospel be a law or
not, is to be determined by the definition of the law and of
the gospel, as above. If law signifies, as it generally does,
the discovery of the will of a .superior, teaching what he
requires of those under hi.s government, with the intima-
tion of his intention of dispensing rewards and punish-
ments, as this rule of their conduct is observed or neglect-
ed ; in this latitude of expression it i.' plain, from the pro-
73
U 0 J
position, that the gospel, taken for the declaration made lo
men by Christ, is a latr, as in Scripture it is sometimes
called, James 1: 25. Roiii. 4: 15. 8: 2. But if law be
taken, in the greatest rigor of the expression, for such a
discovery of the will of God, and our duty, as to contain
in it no intimation of our obtaining the divine favor other-
wise than by a perfect and universal conformity to it, in
that sense the gospel is not a law. (See Neonomiass.)
mtsius on Coo., vol. iii. ch. 1 ; Doddridge's Lectvres, lect.
172 ; Watls's Orthodoxy and Charitj, essay 2. — Hend. Buck.
GOSPEL CALL. (See Calling.)
GOSPELLERS ; according to Mr. Grant, a sect of An-
tinomians, which rose about the time of the Reformation ;
but we think, with Dr. Johnson, it was rather a term of
reproach applied by the papists to all who advocated the
circulation of the Scriptures, and the doctrines of the gos-
pel, particularly to the followers of WicklifTe in England.
So Rowe uses it : —
"These Gospellers llave had Iheir golden days,
Have trodden dow.a our holy Roman faiUi."
Grant's Hist, of the English Church, vol. i. p. 40S; John-
son's Fol. Diet. — Williams.
GOUGE, (William, D. D.) This excellent divine was
born in Stratford, Bow, in 1575. He was early distinguish-
ed for piety and the love of study. His public education
was received at Cambridge, where he lived nine years.
He w'as accustomed to rise so early that he had time for
his private devotion, and to read five chapters in the Bible
regularly, before called to the chapel prayers at half past
five o'clock, A. M. He read a few chapters more after
dinner, and five before rest at night, constantly ; and often
lay awake in the night in sweet meditations on what he
had read. He entered the ministry at the age of ihiriy-
one, richly furnished for that lioly work, and w ith a heart
entirely devoted to its duties. He was minister of Black-
friars, London, forty-five years. He was often offered
places of greater profit, but always refused, sajing. " that
the height of his ambition was to go from Blackfriars to
heaven." God wonderfully honored his ministry, for
thousands have owned that they were converted and built
up under it. His doctrine was sound, his method clear,
and his expressions plain and familiar. His life was co-
incident with his doctrine, and his family of thirteen chil-
dren was trained as carefully, wisely, and relisiously as
his church. He was esteemed as the father of the London
ministers, and the spiritual oracle of his lime. In 1643, he
was called to be a member of the assembly of divines,
and though infirm in health, was constant in attendance.
In the moderator's absence he frequently filled ihe chair.
The vacancies in business he always occupied with his
Bible or other books which he carried with him. He was
appointed one of the annotators on the Scriptures, and
performed as his part, from the beginning of 1 Kings
to the book of Job, in a manner that gained hiith appro-
bation. He also published several works, the principal
of which were his ■■ Commentary on Hebrews," " Domes-
tical Duties," and "The AVhole Armor of God."
He was a man of great meekness, yet firm against
wrong doing. He utterly refused to read the " Book of
Sports," though required by royal authority, choosing
rather to suffer than to sin. He was distinguished for
his charity, keeping what he called a sacred stock for
the poor, and seemed covetous of nothing but his time.
If he heard any at -work before he got to his study at
four in the morning, he used to say, with Demosthenes,
" that he was much troubled that any should he at their
calling before he wa,s at his." He has been heard to say,
" that he took not any journej' merely for pleasure in all
his lifetime." Yea, it was his meat and his drink to be
doing the will of his heavenly Father. Yet no grace w as
more eminent in his character than humility. Even in
old age, when suffering under the asthma and stone, he
spoke of himself not as a great sufferer, but only as a
great sinner, and of Christ as a great Sm'ior. His last
days were full of calm triumph. He died December 12,
1653, aged scven'v-nine. " wornoi-.t," as was said of him,
" not w-ith rust, but with whetting."— ilii'..'aVf'i"-', ^"'■''- »"•
267— 2^ I .
GOUGE. (TnoMAS.) The following extraordinary cnar-
pcter of this extraordinary man is given by archb:snop
GO U
[578 ]
GOV
Tiliolson. After menlioning that he was born at Buvv, in
1605, educated at Cambi'idge, and after a lew years set-
tled at St. Sepulchre's, London, with various (»ther par-
ticulars of his life and character, he adds, "But that virtue,
which, of all others, shone brightest in him, and was his
peculiar character, was his cheerful and unwearied dili-
gence in acts of pious charity. In this he left behind him
all that ever I knew, and, as I said before, had a singular
sagacity and prudence in devising the most effectual ways
of doing good. For about nine or ten years last past, he
did almost wholly apply his charity to Wales, because
there he judged was most occasion for it, and because
this was a verj' great work ; he did not only lay out upon
it whatever he could spare out of his own estate, but em-
ployed his whole time and pains to excite and engage the
charity of others for his assistance in it. By the large
and bountiful contributions thus obtained, to all which he
constantly added twx) thirds of his own estate, (two hun-
dred pounds a-ycar,) there were every year eight hundred,
sometimes one tliousand poor children educated ; and by
this e-xample, several of the most considerable towns of
Wales were excited to bring up, at their own charge, the
like number of poor children, in the like manner, and un-
der his instruction and care. But, which was the great-
est work of all, and amounted indeed to a mighty charge,
he procured a new and very fair impression of the Bible,
and the liturgy of the church of England, in the Welsh
tongue, to the number of eight thousand ; the former im-
pression being spent, and not twenty of them to be had in
all London. This was a work of that charge, that it was
not likely to have been done in any other way ; and for
which this age, and perhaps the next, will have great
cause to thank God on his behalf. Once always, but usu-
ally twice a-year, at his own charge, he travelled over
a great part of Wales, none of the best countries to travel
jn. But for the love of God and man he endured all that,
iVc. So that, all things considered, there have not, since
(he primitive times of Christianity, been many among the
tons of men, to whom that glorious character of the Son
i)f God might be better applied, that he went about doing
Kood." He died Oct. 29, Ui81. Mr. Gouge wrote seve-
ral practical works, which have been held in much esteem.
'While I read his practical writings," says Mr. Rogers,
" I am, as it were, in a house well furni.shed, where there
.s every thing for convenience, and delight in life ; there
wants nothing here to compose an entire body of religion
,n its beauty, power, and extent." — Middkton, vol. iii. p.
150.
GOURD, (^kikivan ; Jonah 4: G, 7, 9, 10.) MichaSlis,
in his remaks on this subject, says, " Celsius appears to
me to have proved that it is the kild of the Egyptians."
Niebuhr says, " I saw, for the first time at Basra, the
plant el-keroa, mentioned in Michaelis's ' Questions.' It
has the form of a tree. The trunk appeared to me rather
10 resemble leaves than wood ; nevertheless, it is harder
than that which bears the Adam's fig. Each branch of
the keroa has but one large leaf, with six or seven fold-
ings in it. This plant was near to a rivulet, which water-
■ ed it amply. At the end of October, 1765, it had risen in
five months' time about eight feet, and bore at once flow-
ers and fruit, ripe and unripe. Another tree of this spe-
cies, which had not had so much water, had not grown
more in a whole year. The flowers and leaves of it which
I gathered withered in a few minutes ; as do all plants of
a rapid growth This tree is called at Aleppo, pnlma
Chrisli. An oil is made from it called u!eiim de keroa ;
oleum cicinum; oleum ficus inff.rnnjh. The Christians and
Jews of Mosul (Nineveh) say, it was not the Imoa whose
shadow refreshed Jonah, but a sort of gourd, cl-kera, which
has very large leaves, very large fruit, and lasts but about
four months."
The epithet which the prophet uses in speaking of the
plant, " son of the night it was, and, as a son of the night,
it died," does not compel us to believe that it grew in a
single night, but, either by a strong Oriental figure that it
was of rapid growth, or akin to night in the shade it
spread for his repose. The figure is not uncommon in
the East, and one of our own poets has called the rose
"child of the summer." Nor" are we bound to take the
expression " un llie morrow," as stiictly importing the
very next day, since the word has reference (o much mofe
distant time, 'Exod. 13: 14. Deut. 6: 20. Joshua 4: 6. It
might be simply taken as afterwards. But the author of
" Scripture Illustrated" justly remarks, "As the history
in Jonah expressly says, the Lord prepared this plant, no
doubt we may conceive of it as an extraordinary one of
its kind, remarkably rapid in its growth, remarkably hard
in its stem, remarkably vigorous in its branches, and re-
markable for the extensive spread of its leaves, and the
deep gloom of their shadow ; and, after a certain dura-
tion, remarkable for a sudden withering, and a total use-
lessness to the impatient prophet."
2. We read of the wild gourd in 2 Kings 4: 39. This
plant or fruit is called in Hebrewpaiorar aLuipakoim. There
have been various opinions about it. Celsius supposes
It the colocynth. The leaves of the plant are large, placed
alternate ; the flowers white, and the fruit of the gourd
kind, of the size of a large apple, which, when ripe, is yel-
low, and of a pleasant and inviting appearance, Lut to the
taste intolerably bitter, and proves a drastic purgative.
It seems that the fruit, whatever it might have been, was
early thought proper for an ornament in architecture. It
furnished a model for some of the carved work of cedar
in Solomon's temple, 1 Kings 6: 18. 7: 24. — Watson.
GOVERNMENT OF GOD, is either providential,
moral, or spiritual. His providejitial government is the
disposal of his creatures, and all events relative to them,
according to his infinite justice, power, and wisdom. His
moral government is his rendering to every man according
to his character, considered as good or evil. His spiritual
government is that which he maintains by his spirit and
word, over the hearts and lives of his saints, both indi-
vidually, and as collected into the visible church ; hence
called, in the current language of the New Testament, the
"kingdom of God," Rom. 14: 17. I Cor. 4: 20. Col. 1:
12, 13. John 3: 3 — 7. (See Dominion ; and Sovekeignty.)
— Heiul. Eiirk.
GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS. The pos-
terity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, were set apart and
destined to the great object of preserving and transmitting
the true religion, Gen. 18: 16—20. 17: 9—14. 12: 3. 22:
18. 28: 14. Having greatly increased in numbers in
Egypt, it appeared very evident that they could not live
among nations given to idolatry without running the ha-
zard of becoming infected with the saine evil. They
were, therefore, in the providence of God, assigned to a
particular country, the extent of which was so small, that
they were obliged, if they would live independently of
other nations, to give up in a great measure the life of
shepherds, and devote themselves to agriculture. Fur-
ther : very many of the Hebrews, during their residence
in Egypt, had fallen into idolatrous habits. These were
to be brought back again to the knowledge of the true
God, and all were to be excited to engage in those under-
takings which should be found necessary for the support
of the true religion. All the Blosaic institutions aim a;
the accomplishment of these objects. The fundamental
principle, therefore, of those institutions, was this, — that
the true God, the Creator and Governor of the universe,
and none other, ought to be worshipped. To secure this
end the more certainly, God became king to the Hebrews.
Accordingly, the land of Canaan, which was destined to
be occupied by them, was declared to be the land of Je-
hovah, of which he was to be the Wing, and the Hebrews
merely the hereditary occupants. God promulgated, from
the clouds of mount Sinai, the prominent laws for the go-
vernment of his people, considered as a religious commu-
nity, Exod. 20. These laws were afterwards more fully
developed and illustrated by Moses. The rewards which
should accompany the obedient, and the punishments
which should be the lot of the transgressor, were at the
same time announced, and the Hebrews promised by a
solemn oath to obey. Exodus 21: — 24. Deut. 27: — 30.
2. When we remember that God was expressly chosen
the King of the people, and that he enacted laws and de-
cided litigated points of importance ; (Num. 17: 1 — 11.
27: 1 — 11. 30: 1 — 10.) when we remember also that he
answered and solved questions proposed, (Num. 15: 32 —
41. Joshua 7: 16—22. Judges 1: 1, 2. 20: 18, 27, 28. 1
Sam. 14: 37. 23: 9—12. 30: 8. 2 Sam. 2: 1.) that he
GOV
[57?]
G'R A
tWeatened punishment, and thai, in some instances, he
actuallj' inflicted it upon the hardened and impenitent;
(Num. 11; 33—35. 12: 1 — 15. 16; 1—50. Lev. 26: 3—
46. Deut. 26;.^30.) when, finaliy, we taks into account,
that he promised prophets, who were to be, as it were, his
ambassadors, (Deut. 18.) and afterwards sent them ac-
cording <o his promise ; and thaJ, in wder to preserve the
true religion, he goverEed the whole people by a striking
and peculiar providence, we are at liberty to say, that
God was, in fact, the Rlonarch of the people, and that the
governmeat was a theocracy. But, although the govern-
ment of the Jews was a theocracy, it was not destitute of
the usual forms which exist in civil governments among
men. God, it is true, was the King, and the high-priest,
if we may be allowed so to speak, was his minister of
state ; but still the political afi'airs were in a great meas-
vire under the disposal of the elders, princes, Arc. It was
So them tliat Moses gave the divine commands, determin-
ed e.xpressly their powers, and submitted their requests
to the decision of God, Num. 14: 5, 1(5: 4, &c. 27: 5.
o7: 0, 6. It was in reference to the great power possessed
by these men, who formed the legislative assembly of the
nation, that Josephus proaounccd the government to be
aristocratical. But from the circumstance that the people
possessed so much influence, as to render it necessary to
submit laws to them for their ratiScat'ou, and that they
even took u^cin themselves sometimes to propose laws or
to resist those which were enacted; from the circumstance
also that the legislature of the nation had not the po\\'er
of laying taxes, and that the civil code was regulated and
enforced by God himself, independently of the legislature,
Lowman aad Michaelis are in favor of considering the
Hebrew government a democracy. In support of their
opinion such passages are exhibited as the following :
Exodus 19: 7, 8. 24: 3—8. Deut. 29; 9—14. Joshua 9; .
18, 19. 23: 1, &c. 24: 2, &c. 1 Samuel 10: 24. U; 14,
15. Num. 27: 1—8. 36: 1—9. The truth seems to lie
between these two opinions. The Hebrew government,
puttiog out of view its Iheocratica! feature- was of a mix-
ed form, in some respects uf^roaching to a democraicy,
in others assuming moiT, of an aristocratical character.
3. In the time of Samuel, the government, in point of
form, was changed into a monarchy. The election of a
king, however, was committed to Goil, wIk) chose one by
lot ; so that God was still the ruler, and the king the vice-
gerent- The terms of the government, as respected God,
were the same as before, and the same duties and princi-
ples were inculcated on the Israelites as had been origi-
nally, 1 Sam. 8: 7. 10: 17—23, 12: 11, 15, 20—22, 24,
25. In consequence of the fact, that Saul did not choose
at all times to obey the commands of God, the kingdom
was taken from him and given to another, 1 Sara. 13: 5 —
14. 15: 1 — 31. David, through the agency of Samuel,
was selected by Jehovah for Icing, who tints gave a proof
that he still retained, and was dis]X)sed to exercise, the
right of appointing the ruler under him, I Samuel 16: 1
— 3. David was first made king over Judah ; but as he
received his appointment from God, and acted under his
authority, the other eleven tribes submitted to him, 2 Sam.
5: 1—3. 1 Chron. 28: 4 — 6. The paramount authority
of God, as the King of the nation, and his right to ap-
point one who should act in the capacity of his vicege-
rent, are expressly recognized in the books of Kings and
Chronicles.
4. The rebuilding of Jerusalem was accomplished, and
the reformation of their ecclesiastical and civil polity was
effected, by the two divinely inspired and pious governors,
Ezra and Nehemiah ; but the theocratic government does
not appear to have been restored. The new temple was
not, as formerly, God's palace ; and the cloud of his pre-
sence did iiot take possession of it. After their death the
Jews were governed by their high-priests, in subjection
however to the Persian kings, to whom they paid tribute,
(Ezra 4: 13. 7: 24.) but with the full enjoyment of their
other magistrates, as well as their liberties, civil and re-
ligious. Nearly three centuries of uninterrupted prospe-
rity ensued, until the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes, king
of Syria, when they were most cruelly oppressed, and
compelled to take up anns in their own defence. Under
the able conduct of Judas sumamed Maccabeus, and his
valiant brothel's, the Jews maintained a rehgious war for
twenty-six years with five successive kings of Syria ; and
after destroying upwards of two hundred thousand of
their best troops, the Maccabees finally established the
independence of their own country anil the aggrandize-
ment of their family. This illustriotis House, whose prin-
ces united the regal and pontifical dignity in their own
persons, administered the affairs of the Jews during a
period of one hundred and twenty-six years ; until, dis-
putes arising between Hyrcanus II. and his brother Aris-
tobulus, th.e latter was defeated by the Romans under
PomiTey, who captured Jerusalem, and reduced Judea to
dependence, B. C. 59. (See Jews.)— Watson.
GRACE ; a term of very frequent occurrence in the
Scriptures, especially those of the New Testament, in
which the place it occupies is so important, that, without
a proper understanding of its import, we can never make
any considerable progress in the knowledge of the Scrip-
tures, or indeed comprehend the general design of divine
revelation ; and yet unhappily no stibject is more misun-
derstood.
The primary and principal sense of the word is, free
favor ; unmerited kindness. In this acceptation it is most
frequently used in the inspired volume. Grace, in the
writings of Paul, stands in direct opposition to works and
worthiness — all works and worthiness of every kind, and
of every degree. This appears from the following pas-
sages: '• Now to him that worketh, the reward is not reck-
oned of grace, but of debt ; — therefore it is of faith, that
it might be by grace. For by grace are ye saved — not
of work-s, lest any man should boast- Who hath saved
us — not according to our works, but according to his own
purpose and gi-ace," Rom, 4: 4, 16, Eph, 2: S, 2 Tim,
1:9.
As the word mercy, in its primary signification, has re-
lation to some creature, either actually in a suflieriug
state, or obnoxious to it 5 so grace, in its proper and strict
sense, always presupposes unworthiness in its object.
Hence, whenever any thing valuable is communicated by
the blessed God, it cannot be of grace, an}' further than
the person on whom it is conferred is considered as un-
worthy. For, so far as anj' degree of worth appears, the
pTO\Tnce of grace ceases, and that of equity t-al;es place,
Grace and worthiness, therefore, cannot be connected in
the same act, and for the same end. The one must ne-
cessarily give place to the other, according to that re-
markable text : " If by grace, then it is no more of
works ; other\rise grace is no more grace. But if it be
of works, then it is no more grace ; otherwise work is no
more work," Rotn. 11: 6, — Besides, when the word of
God represents the capital blessings of sahition as (low-
ing from divine grace, it describes the jiersons on whom
they are bestowed, not only as having no claim to those
benefits, but as deserving quite the reverse ; as having
incurred a tremendous curse, and as justlj' cx]X)Sed to
eternal ruin, Rom. 3: 19, 23. Gal. 3: 10.
Grace, therefore, may be thus defined : it is the favor
of God, manifested in the vouchsafement of spiritual and
eternal blessings to the guilty and the unworthy, through
our Lord Jesus Christ. Such is the eternal origin, such
the glorious basis, of our salvation ! Hence it proceeds
and is carried on to perfection. Grace shines llimugh t!ie
whole. For, as an elegant -m-iter observes, it is •' not like
a fringe of gold bordering the garment; not like an em-
broidery of gold, decorating the robe ; but like the mercy-
seat of the ancient tabernacle, which was gold — pure gold
— all gold throughout."
This is the inexhaustible source of all those inestimable
blessings which the Lord bestows on his unworthy crea-
tures, in this, or in a future world. It is this which, in
all that he does, or ever will do for sinners, he intends to
render everlastingly glorious in their eyes, and in Ihe
eyes of all holy intelligences. The indelible motto, in-
scribed by the hand of Jehovah on all blessmgs of the
evangelical covenant, is, " to the pkaise and glory of
BIS GRACE." Divine grace is in Scriptuie compared to a
sovereign. Now a sovereign, considered as such, is in-
vested with regal power, and the highest authority. Grace,
therefore, in her beneficent government, must exert and
manifest sovereisn cower — must supersede the reign, and
GRA
[ 580 J
GR.A
counteract the mi^htv and destructive operations of sin;, correct all these disorders, and teach us that a few sentew
or she cannot biing the sinner to eternal life. For the ces suited to the occasion, spoken with an audible and pro-
ti:f^r^JcX.re, Sin to a sovereign, whose rei.n P-- , a. suffiaent tor^t^ ^^P^- ^e^-^-^,-^^^
•Trnfg"cttrefore,asreign,nginoursalvation,not p^icI.,La.'sSerin^Can^.^-,See^sP,^^^
only appears, but appears -i;>^.™a,esty;^ not only shines, ^'*j,'^~™7„f ^f-^^,„,, ,^ ,:^ed.to give
v"orkin"?n'ui Kn"' n cSy to^orite^rnll 'ftt f-e gifts, Exod. 22: 27 and 34: 6 'oen. 43:^^ Christ',
wornino in us ail inin„s, neLessai;y rr ^^^^^ ^^^^ gracious: they showed the grace that was ii>
"''if we carefullv examine the Scripti>res concemiag this him ; related to the precious and h.Hiorable truths of God j
imporTantsttb^crweThallfin^ and tended to the edification ol others, Lt»ke 4: 22,
divine grace to be the following: it is /;re, fongonig
distingmsld/tg, saeereign, effectual, nch, eternal, and >^j<.--
latedbvmfiiiite wisdom ia such a way as to sabsty .justrce,
secure holiness, maintain truth, and multiply happiness.
Divines have distinguished grace intocowHroji or genera/,
Tiie word is often used for truly pious. — Bromi.
GRADMONTAINS ^ a seWre order of monks, institut-
ed by Stephen de Muret, in the eleventh century, at Mu-
ret, ia the nighbothood of Grajrtmcjnt, whence its name-
His laws enjoined poverty, obedience, and silence. They
and svecial or particdar. Common grace is what all men were interdicted all the comforts of life, and became, in
have who heai the gospel ; the illumination and strivings consequence, burdens to themselves and useless to society,
of God's Spiril convictions of sin, &c., Gen. 6: John 16. Moshiem^s E. II., vol. u. pp. 532-534 ; Brmghtonh D^ct,
SDMzftZ OTflce is that which is peculiar to the saved ; such ^IVtlhams. .
ffefectf n4 ede;ming, justifying, pardoning, adopting, GRAFTING ; the act of msertvng a shoot or scion take«
establishing, and sanaifving grace, Rom. 8: 30. This from one tree, mto the stem or some other part of another,
special -race is by some disUngnished into imputed and in such a manner that they unite, and produce fruit of the
to be cfflcacious, irresistible, and irictorims; not but that nourishment from the stocks, always produce fruit of the
there are in human nature, in the first moments of convic- same sort as the tree from which they were taken, ihis-
tion even in the saved, some straggles, opposition, or co«- process, probably from tne abundant supply of nourish-
fiict - but by these terms we are to understand, that, in the ment afforded to the graft, has the advantage of hastening,
end, victory declares for the grace of the gospel. There the period of its beanug. God grafted m the GeuUles^'hen
have been many other distinctions of grace ; but as they he brought them mto his church, and imited them to Jesus
are of too frivolous a nature, and are now obsolete, tltey Christ as their spiritual and fructifymg root, Rom 11: 17
need not a place here —2^- God's word is ingrafted, as it is put mto and plant-
Growth in grace is the progress we make in the divine ed in oar hearts, that it may bring forth the frmt of good
rife. It discovers itself by an increa.se &f spiritual light works m our life, Jam. 1: 2\..—Bromi; hnry. Arntr.
and knowledge; by our rentHincing self, and depending GRAHAM, (Mrs. Isabf.i.la.) This pious, charitable,
more upon Christ ; by growing more spiritual in duties ; and intelligent woman was born m Scotland m the coun y
bybeingmorehumble, submissive, and thankful; by ris- of Lanark, on the 29th of July, l/-t2. Her lather and
ing superior to the corruptions of our nature, and finding mother, Mr. and Mrs. John Marshall, were both religious
the power of sin more weakenetl in us ; by being less at- people, and instilled into her young and tender mmd the
tached to the world, and iwssessiDg more of a heavenly value of that religion, the truths ol winch she e.templifie(i
in Grace : IMWs Wurhs ; Ihmgltt's Theoh— Jones ; Ilend. raitted by him to the sacrament of the Lord's supper. In
^^^j; ' 1765, she was married to Dr. Graham, aiid accompanied
GRACE AT MEALS; a short prayer, imploring the him to Canada, where his regiment was stationed At
divine blessing on our food, and expressive of gratitude Niagara they spent four happy years ; but being obliged
to God for supplying our necessities. The propriety of to go to Antigua, she there lost her beloved husband, m
this act is evident from the divine command, (1 Theb. 5: 1774. She then returned to Scotland, and supported her
18. 1 Cor. 10: 31. 1 Tim. 4:5.) from the conduct of father and her four children by opening a school lor young
Chi-isl, (Mark 8: li, 7.) from reason itself ; not tr> mention ladies. . j ■ j ,
that it is a custom psactised by most nations, and even not In 1789, she left Scotland for America, and arrived at
neglected by heathens themselves. New York on the 8th of September, Where she was receiv-
As to the manner in which it ought to be performed, as ed with ihf; greate.it k-indness by Dr. Eodgers and Dr. Ma-
Dr. Watts observes, we ought to have a due regard to the son. She then again opened her seminary with as much
occasion, and the persons^ present ; the neglect of whicli success as before, and in this place became a member of
bath been attended with indecencies and indiscretions. Dr. Mason's church. But though greatly distinguished for
Some have used themselves to mutter a few words with her personal endowments, Mrs.Graham was peculiarly emi-
60 low a voice, as though by some secret charm they were nent as a public benefactor. In the year 1799, a society was
to consecrate the food alone, and there was no need of the instituted at New York, for the reUef of poor widows with
rest to join with them in the petitions. Others have broke small children ; a society which arose mto great respectabi-
out into so violent a sound, as though they were bound to lity, and has been proiluctive of very beneficial eitects. The
make a thousand people hear them. Some perform this original plan of the society was formed at the house of
part of worship with so slight and familiar an air, as Mrs.Graham; and she made, at the first anniversary, a
though they had no sense of 'the great God to whom they very pleasing report of the proceedings of the managers,
speak; others have put on an unnatural solemnity, and and of the amount of relief afforded to the poor. During
changed tlieir natural voice into so different and awkward tha winter of 1799, she was indefatigable in her attentioijs
a tone, not without some distortions of countenance, that to the poor ; she exerted herself to procure work for her
have tempted strangers to ridicule. widows, and occupied much of her time in cutting it out
It is the custom of some to hurry over a single sentence and preparing it for them. The society for the relief of
or two, and they have done, before half the company are poor widows opened a school for the instruction of their
prepared to lift up a thought to heaven. Others, again, orphans, and many of Mrs. Graham's former pupils volun-
make a long prayer, and, among a multitude of other pe- teered their services, taking upon themselves, by rotation,
litions, do not utter one that relates tothe table before them, the part of instructors. Besides establishing this school.
The general rules of prudence, together with a due ob- Mrs. Graham selected some of the widows best qualified
gervatiou of the custom of the place where we live, would for the task, and eneaged them for j small comoensation,
GR A
[ 581
G R A
to open day schools Jnr the instruction of the children in
distant parts of the cily . She also established two Sunday
schools, one of which she superintended herself, and the
other she placed under the care of her daughter. On the
15th of March, 1815, the female subscribers, in order lo
make proposals for providing an asylum for orphan chil-
dren, met at the City hotel. Mrs. Graham was called to
the chair, a society organized, and a board of direction
chosen. Mrs. Hoffman was elected the first directress of
the Orphan Asylum society. Mrs. Graham continued in
the office of first directress of the Widows' society, but
felt also much interest in the success of the Orphan Asy-
lum society ; and herself, or one of her family, taught the
orphans daily, until the friends of the in.slitutiun were
sufficient to provide a teacher and superinlendent. In the
year 1811, some gentlemen of New York established a
Magdalen society ; they elected a board of ladies, request-
ing their aid to superintend the mternal management of
the Magdalen house : this board chose Mrs. Graham their
presiding la-dy, which office she held until her decease ;
and its attending duties she discharged with fidelity and
zeal. In 1812, the trustees of the Laucasicrian school
solicited the attendance of several pious ladies, to give
catechetical Instruction to their scholars one afternoon in
every week. Mrs. Graham attended regularly to that
duty. In the spring of 1814, she was requested to unite
with some ladies in forming a society for the promotion of
industry among the poor ; and to that object she afforded
her best support. But the termination of such varied and
important labors now appeared to approach. For some
weeks previous to her last illness she was favored with
unusual health, and much enjoyment of religion. She
died on the 24th of July, 1814. See Life of Mrs. Graham,
and Funeral Sermon, by Sev. Dr. Ma.fon. — Jonts' Clir. Bio^.
GRAHAM, (Maky Jane,) author of the "Test of
Truth," was born in London, in April, 1803, and died at
Stoke Fleming, Devon, in December, 1830, at the age of
twenty-seven. She was a young la'dy of superior talents,
highly cultivated mind, and uncommon scientific attain-
ments. No one can doubt this who reads her WTitings,
especially her Essay on the Study of the Mathematics.
She was mistress of the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish,
and Italian languages, and her English style shows that
she was in an uncommon degree mistress of her own.
She was well acquainted with Music, and her published
" Letter on Miisic," while it clearly develops its principles,
is buoyant with spirit and life and beauty.
But all these attainments were consecrated by the pow-
er of Christianity to the glory of God, and the good of
mankind. She delighted in doing good. Her views of
religious truth were decidedly evangelical, litcid, consis-
tent, and practical. Her piety commenced when she was
seven years old. At seventeen she was led astray bv lite-
rary temptations, and her Christian hope was eclipsed for
a time in the gloom of infidelity. Restored by divine
grace after a severe conflict to an established faith in
God's word, she published a full account of her exerci.ses
in her " Test of Truth," with the hope of recovering others
from unbelief. It should be remarked, that it was origi-
nally written in the form of a letter to her Spanish teacher,
who was an infidel.
Miss Graham's health was very delicate from her child-
hood, and for the last few years of her life she was a great
sufferer. But hers was a religion that triumphed over
suffering, and reaped from it " the peaceable fruits of right-
eousness." '■■ Strengthened with all might, unto all long-
suffering with joyfulness," she remarked on one occasion
that her " pains were sweeter than honey or the honey-
comb." Death to her had no sting. " It is not death io
me," she would say, " for Jesus hath tasted death for me,
and hath drunk up all its bitterness." After a violent attack
of coughing and spasm, a friend said to her, " I fear you
suffer much." "Oh, no!" she replied, " I delight to t'eel
the pins of the tabernacle taking out." Yet she observed,
" It is not the cessation from pain that can make Chris-
tians view the approach of death with .satisfaction. For,
believe me, they have not one pain too many. But, oh,
to behold the King in his beauty ! and beholding, to be
transformed into his glorious likeness! and then to cease
from sin ! ihis. this is the blessed cessatior- after which real
Christians pant." She maintained the use of her ppu to the
last, and prepared for the press her valuable work on " The
Freencss of Divine Grace," and part of a series of " Let-
ters to a Governess," full of the most admirable instruc-
tions. See Menwir of her Life, bij Ktv. Charles Bridges.
GRANTHAM, (Thomas,) a distinguished minister
among the General Baptists of England in the .seventeenlli
century, was born 1(533, and died in 1092, aged fifty-eight
years. He is represented as '■ a man endowed v. ith t?verv
Christian grace and virtue," a learned scholar, a failhfiil
confessor, and laborious .servant of Christ ; who with Chris-
tian fortitude endured ten persecutions for conscience'
sake. He was selected to deliver to Charles 11. the con-
fession of faith, drawn up by the body of Chiistians lo
which he belonged, and also at a later period to present a
remonstrance against persecution, both of which were
kindly received by the king, and redress of grievance,'* pro
raised. In that disputing age he was oflen engaged in
public disputations, in which he successfully displayed his
skill as an accomplished logician. He also conducted an
epistolary dispute, in sixty letters, with the Rev. John Cnn-
nould, the learned vicar of Norwich, who afterwards fcli a
great esteem and friendship for hiin through life. Blr.
Grantham was the fourfder of the Baptist church in Nor-
wich. He was also the author of numerous publications,
which display singular merit and greatness of mind.
One of the most beautiful facts in history, of the power
of Christian love over party spirit, occurred at the death
of Mr. Grantham. Mr. Connuuld, his former antagonist,
on hearing that indecencies were threatened by the liigo!-
ed populace to the corpse of his friend, had it conveyed to
his own church, and there performed the burial service,
before a crowded audience, with many tears, adding, as
he closed the book, This day is a very ^rent man fallen in
our Israel. The remains of Mr. Grantham were then so-
lemnly interred in the middle aisle of the church. A me-
morial of Mr. Grantham, in golden capitals, is hung up in
the General Baptist chapel, in the parish of St. James, in
Norwich. — Benedict's His. Bap., vol. i. p 227.
GRAPE ; the fruit of the vine. There were fine vine-
yards and excellent grapes in the promised land. The
bunch of grapes which v.as cut in the valley of E.scb..'.,
and was brought upon a staff between two men to ihe
camp ef Israel at Kadeshbarnea, (Num. 13: 23.) may give
us some idea of the largeness of Ihe fruit in ihat counlri-.
It would he easv to produce a great number of witnesses
to prove that the grapes in those regions grow to a pio.li-
gious size. By Calmet, Scheuchzer, and Harmer, .his
subject h,as been exhausted. " At Beidldjm," says Schullx,
"a village near Ptolemais, we took our supper under a
large vine, the stem of which was nearly a fot'l and a naif
in diameter, the height about thirty feet, and covered with
its branches and shoots (for the shotils must bp supported)
a hut of more than fifty feet long and broud. The bunches
of these grapes are so large that lliey weigh from ten to
twelve pounds, and the grapes may be compared to our
plums. Such a bunch iscul off and laid on a board, ik and
which they seat themselves, and each helps himsel.' to as
many as he pleases." Forster, in his Hebrew Dictionary,
(under the word Eschol,) says, that he knew at Nnrenburg
a monk of the name of Acacius, who had resided eigh;
years in Palestine, and had also preached at Hebron, where
he had seen bunches of grapes which were as much as
two men could conveniently carry.
The wild grapes, (Isa. 5: 2 — 4.) are the fniit of the wild
or bastard vine ; sour and unpalatable, and good for no
thing but to make verjuice. Hasselquist is inclined to be
lieve that the prophet here means the soltmum incanuia,
" hoary nightshade." because it is common in Egypt and
Palestine, and [he Arabian name agrees well with it. The
Arabs call it aneb el di-b, "wolfs grapes." The propbei
could not have found a plant more opposite to the viuc
than this ; for it grows much in the vinevards. and is very
pernicious to them. It is likewise a vine. See Jer. 2:
21, and Deut. 32: 32, 33.— irn/,?(w.
GRASS, (dcsha,) or Herbage ; (Gen. 1:11.) the well
known vegetable upon which flocks and herds feed, and
which declcs our fields, and refreshes our sight wiih iif
grateful verdure. Its feeble frame and transitory duraiiun
are mentioned io "^ci-'ptixre as emblemalie of the frail con-
GRE
66a
ditbn and fleeting existence of man. The inspired poets
draw this picture %vith ?ucl) inimitable beauty as the labor-
ed elegies on mortaliiy of ancient and modern times have
never surpassed. See Ps. 90: 6. 103: and particularly
Isa. 40: 6—8. As, in their decay, the herbs of the fields
strikingly illustrate the shortness of human life, so, in the
order of Ihcir growth, from seeds dead and buried, they
give a natural testimony to the doctrine of a resurrection.
The prophet Isaiah, and the apostle Peter, both speak of
bodies rising from the dead, as of so many seeds spring-
ing from the ground to renovated existence and beauty,
although they do not, as some have absurdly supposed,
consider the resurrection as in any sense analagous to the
process of vegetation, Isa. 26: 19. 1 Pet. 1: 24, 25. (See
Hay ; Herb ; and Fuel.)
In several places. Scripture refers to grass growing on
the house-tops, but which comes to nothing. The follow-
ing quotation will show the nature of this : " In the morn-
iiia the master of the house laid in a slock of earth, which
was carried up, and spread evenly on the top of the house,
which is flat. The whole roof is thus formed of mere earth,
laid on, and rolled hard and flat. On the top of every
house is a large stone roller, for the purpose of hardening
and flattening this layer of made soil, so that the rain may
not penetrate ; but upon this surface, as may be supposed,
grass and weeds grow freely. It is to such grass that the
Psalmist alludes as useless and bad." Jowett's Christian
Eesearches in Syria, p. 89. — Watson ; Calmet.
GRASSHOPPER; {hene.d ;) Lev. 11: 22. Num. 13: 3.1.
2 Chron. 7: 13. Eccl. 12: 5. Isa. 40: 22. 2 Esdras 4: 24.
Wisdom 16: 9. Eccl. 43: 17. Our translators render the
Hebrew word locust in the prayer of Solomon at the dedi-
cation of the temple, (2 Chron. 7: 13.) and with propriety.
But it is rendered grasshopper, in Eccl. 12: 5. where Solo-
mon, describing the infelicities of old age, says, " The
grasshopper shall be a burden."
The prophet Isaiah contrasts the grandeur and power of
God, and every thing reputed great in this world, by a very
expressive reference to this insect : Jehovah sitleth on the
circle of the earth, and the inhabitants are to him as grass-
hoppers, Isa, 40: 22, What atoms and inanities are they
all before him, who sitteth on the circle of the immense
heavens, and views the potentates of the earth in the light
of grasshoppers, those poor insects that wander over the
barren heath for sustenance, spend the day in insignificant
chirpings, and take up their contemptible lodging at night
on a blade of grass! (See Locust,) — Watson.
GRATITUDE, is that pleasant aflection of the mind
which arises from a sense of favors received, and by which
the possessor is excited to make all the returns of love
and service in his power, " Gratitude," says Mr. Cogan,
in his Treatise on the Passions, " is the powerful reac-
tion of a well-disposed mind, upon whom benevolence
has conferred some important good. It is mostly connect-
ed with an impressive sense of the amiable disposition of
'.he person by whom the benefit is conferred, and it imme-
diately produces a personal aflTection towards him. We
shall not wonder at the peculiar strength and energy of
this alfection, when we consider that it is compounded of
hm placed upon the good communicated, affection for the
aoaor, and joy at the reception. Thus it has goodness for
Its object, and the most pleasing, perhaps unexpected, exer-
tions of goodness for its immediate cause. Thankfulness
refers to verbal expressions of gratitude." (See Tiiank-
rn.Niiss.) Chalmers' Works. — Hind. Buck.
GRAVE. (See Burial.)
GRAVITY, is that seriousness of mind, united with dig-
nity of behavior, that commands veneration and respect.
It is often enjoined in the New Testament as a branch of
Christian morals. See Dr. Wntts' admirable Sermon on
Gravity, ser. 23. vol. i. — Hend. Buck.
GREATNESS OF GOD, is the infinite glory and excel-
lency of all his perfections. His greatness appears by the
attributes he possesses, (Deut. 32: 3, 4.) the works he hath
made, (Ps. 19: 1.) by the awful and benign providences
he displays, (Ps. 97: 1, 2.) the great effects he produces by
his word, (Gen. 1:) the constant energy he manifests in
the existence and support of all his creatures, (Ps. 11.5:)
and the everlasting provision of glory made for his peo-
ple, 1 Thes. 4: 17. This greatness i.s of himsell", an I nut
GRE
derived ; (Ps. 21: 13.) it is infinite, (Ps, 145: 3.) not dimi-
nished by exertion, but will always remain the same, Mai.
3: 6. The considerations of his greatness should excite
veneration, (Ps. 89; 7.) admiration, (Jer. 9: 6, 7 ") humili-
ty, (Job 43: 5, 6.) dependence, (Isa. 26: 4.) submission,
(Job 1: 22.) obedience, Deut. 4: 39, 40. (See Attributes,
and books under that article.) — Hend. Buck.
GREAVES J defensive armor for the legs. (See Arms,
Military.)
GRECIA, or Greece, both names occurring in the Eng-
lish Scriptures. In the Old Testament it is often called Ja--
van. The boundaries of the country which received this
name differed under the different governments which rul-
ed over it. Thus the Greece of the Old Testament is not
exactly the same as that of the New : the former including
Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus, Hellas or Greece Proper,
and the Peloponnesus or Morea : while the latter excludes
Macedonia, Thessaly, and Epirus. But the Romans, in
the time of the apostles, had, in fact, made two divisions
of these countries. The first, which was that of Ma-
cedonia, included also Thessaly and Epirus ; and the
other, that of Achaia, all the rest of Greece, which is, pro-
perly speaking, the Greece of the New Testament. But
the term Greek admits of a larger interpretation, and ap-
plies not only to the inhabitants of Greece Proper, but to
those of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt, over nearly the
whole of the former of which countries, and great part of
the two latter, Grecian colonies and the Grecian language
had extended themselves. In fact, in the two books of the
Maccabees, and in those of the New Testament, the word
Greek commonly implies a Gentile.
2. The Scripture has but little reference to Greece till
the time of Alexander, whose conquests extended into
Asia, where Greece had hitherto been of no importance.
Yet that some intercourse was maintained with these
countries from Jerusalem, may be inferred from the desire
of Baasha to shut up all passage between Jerusalem and
Joppa, which was its port, by the building of Ramah;
and the anxiety of Asa to counteract his scheme, 1 Kings
15: 2, 17. Greece was certainly intended by the prophet
Daniel under the symbol of the single-horned goat ; (Dan.
8: 5 — 21.) and it is probable that when he calls Greece
Chittim, he spoke the language of the Hebrew nation, ra-
ther than that of the Persian court. After the establish-
ment of the Grecian dynasties in Asia, Judea could not
but be considerably affected by them ; and the books of
the Maccabees afford proofs of this. The Roman power,
superseding the Grecian establishments, yet left traces of
Greek language, customs, &c., to the days of the Herods,
when the gospel history commences. By the activity of
the apostles, and especially by that of St. Paul, the gospel
was propagated into those countries which used the Gre-
cian dialects : hence, we are interested in the study of this
language. Moreover, as Greece, like all other countries,
had its peculiar manners, and national spirit, we are not
able to estimate properly an epistle written to those who
dwell where they prevailed, without a competent acquaint-
ance with the manners themselves, with the sentiments
and reasonings of those who practised them, and with the
arguments employed in their defence by those who adher-
ed to them. (See Athens, Corintu, fcc) — Watson.
GREEK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, The cha-
racter of the New Testament diction, although pretty defi-
nitely marked, was for a long time mistaken, or was only
imperfectly and partially understood, by biblical philolo-
gist.s, and has been the subject of much dispute. From
the lime of Henry Stephens (1576) down to the middle of
last century, two parties existed among the interpreters of
the New Testament ; the one of which labored to show
that the diction of the New Testament is in all respects
conformed to the style of the Attic Greek writers ; while
the other maintained, on the contrary, and supposed them-
selves able to prove, from every verse, that the style was
altogether mixed with Hebraisms, and came very far short
of the ancient classic Greek in re.spect to purity. Though
latterly the former of these positions has been showii to
be inadmissible, yet it was not till quite lately that the im-
perfect notions of those who maintained the latter began
to be fell, and the spirit of the New Testament diction
came to be more deeply investigated
GRE
[ 583 ]
GRE
In the age which succeeded that of Alexander ihe Great,
the Greek language underwent an internal change of a
double nature. In part a prosaic language of books was
formed, (e ioiiie dialeklos,) which was built on the Atlic dia-
lect, but was intermixed with not a few provincialisms ;
and partly a language of popular intercourse was formed,
in which the various dialects of the different Grecian tribes,
heretofore separate, were more or less mingled together ;
while the Macedonian dialect was peculiarly prominent.
The latter language constittUes the basis of the diction
employed by the LXX., the writers of the Apocrypha,
and the New Testament. This popular Greek dialect was
not spoken and written by the Jews, without some foreign
intermixtures. They particularly introduced many idioms,
and the genera! complexion of their vernacular language.
Hence arose a judaizing Greek dialect. The basis of this
dialect consists of the pecuharities of the later Greek ; but
in Ihe use of all the parts of speech, the Hebrew idioms
and modes of construction are combined w^ith them.
It should further be noticed, that there occur in the New
Testament, words that express both doctrines and practices
which were utterly unknown to the Greeks ; and also words
bearing widely different interpretations from those which
are ordinarUy found in Greek writers. It contains ex-
amples of all the dialects occuring in the Greek language,
as the ^olic, Boeotic, Doric, Ionic, and especially of the
Attic ; which, being most generally in use on aecovmt of
its elegance, pervades every book of the New Testament.
2. A variety of solutions has been given to the que.stion,
why the New Testament was written in Greek. The true
reason is, that it was the language most generally under-
stood both by writers and readers ; being spoken and writ-
ten, read and understood, throughout, the Roman empire,
and particularly in the eastern provinces. Now what
should that one language be, in which it was proper to
write the Christian revelation, but the Greek, which was
then generally understood, and in which there were many
books extant ; that treated of all kinds of literature, and
on that account were likely to be preserved, and by the
reading of which Christians, in after ages, would be ena-
bled to understand the Greek of the New Testament ?
This advantage none of the provincial dialects used in the
apostles' days could pretend to. Being limited to particu-
lar countries, they were soon to be disused ; and few (if
any) books being written in them which merited to be pre-
served, the meaning of such of the apostles' letters as were
composed in the provincial languages could not easily have
been ascertained. (See Aram.san Language.)
Many Jews had two names, one Greek and the other
Hebrew ; others grecised their Hebrew name : of Jesus
they made Jason ; of Saulos, Paulos ; of Simon or Simeon,
Petros, (Sec. — Hend. Buck; Wntson.
GREEKS, were properly the inhabitants of Greece ;
but this is not the only acceptation of the name in the
New Testament. It seems to import, (1.) Those persons
of Hebrew descent who, being settled in cities where
Greek was the natural language, spoke this language ra-
ther than their parental Hebrew. They are called Greeks
to distinguish them from those Jews who spoke Hebrew,
Acts G. (2.) Such persons as were Greek settlers in the
land of Israel, or in any of its towns. After the time of
A.exander, these aliens were numerous in some places,
Mark 7: 26. Matt. 15: 21.— Calmel.
GREEK CHURCH. (See Church, Greek.)
GREEKS, (United ;) certain Greek congregations in
Italy, Hungary, Gallicia, Poland, and Lithuania, which
have acknowledged the supremacy of the pope, and are in
communion with the church of Rome. They are also to be
found in some other parts of the East, but in comparative-
ly small numbers. — Hend. Buck.
GREGORY NAZIANZEN, the son of the bishop of
Nazianzum, in Cappadocia, was born A. D. 328, and studi-
ed at Caesarea, Alexandria, and Athens. After having
displayed great theological and other talents, he was rais-
ed by Theodosius, in 380, to the archiepiscopal throne of
Constantinople. He, however, soon resigned his high
office, and retired to Nazianzum, where he died, in 389.
His works, which form two folio volumes, consist of ser-
mons, poems, and letters, and are pure in their style, and
highly eloquent. — Davenport; Murdoch's Mosheim.
GREGORY, (of Nyssa,) the younger brother of St. Ba-
sil, was born at Sebaste, about 331, and was ordained
bishop of Nyssa, in Cappadocia, in 372. The zeal of Gre
gory against the Arians induced Valens to expel him from
his see, but he was restored byGratian. The drawing up
of the Nicene creed was intrusted to him by the council
of Constantinople. He died about 396. His sermons,
funeral orations, scriptural commentaries, lives, and other
works, form two folio volumes. — Davenport ; Mosheim.
GREGORY I., (Pope,) who bears the surname of Great,
and obtained the honors of saintship, was bom, about 544,
at Rome ; was raised to the papal throne in 590 ; and died
in 604. It was by him that Augustin was commissioned
to convert the Anglo-Saxons. Gregory was pious, chari-
table, and a reformer of the clerical discipline ; but he had
lofty notions of papal authority ; could, for political pur-
poses, flatter the vicious great ; and was an inveterate ene-
my of classical literature. His works occupy four folio
volumes. — Davenport ; Jones' Church History.
GREGORY VII., (Pope,) whose real name was Hilde-
brand, is said to have been the son of a carpenter, at Soa-
no, in Tuscany. After having held various clerical pre-
ferments, he was invested with the tiara, in 1073. His
persecution of Henr)' IV. of Germany, is one of Ihe most
prominent events of his pontificate. No pope ever exceed-
ed, and very few equalled him, in ambition, daringness,
perseverance, and want of principle. The power of de
posing sovereigns, releasing subjects from their allegiance
and acting as lord paramount of kingdoms, he was the
first pope who claimed. He died in 1085. He is the au-
thor of Letters, in eleven books ; a Commentary upon the
Seven Penitential Psalms, which work has been often as-
cribed to Gregory I. ; and a Commentary upon the Gospel
of St. Blatthew. — Davenport ; Campbell's Lee. Eccles. His.
GREGORY XIII., (Pope,) whose name was Hugh Buon-
compagno, was born, in 1502, at Bologna ; acquired a con-
summate knowledge of the civil and canon law ; succeed-
ed Pius V. as pope, in 1572; and died in 1587. The
reformation of the calendar, which took place under his
auspices, in 1582, is the most remarkable event of his
pontificate- — Davenport.
GREGORY, (George, D. D.,) a divine and miscellane-
ous writer, the son of the prebendary of Ferns, in Ireland,,
was born in 1754, and completed his education at Edin-
burgh. In 1778, he took orders, and became a curate at
Liverpool ; whence, in 1782, he removed to London, where
he obtained the curacy of Cripplegate, and was chosen
evening preacher of the Foundling. Asa reward for hav
ing written in defence of the Addington administration
lord Sidmouth, in 1804, procured for him the living of
Westham, in Essex, which Dr. Gregory held till his de-
cease, in 1808. Among his works are. Essays, historical
and moral ; a Life of Chatterton ; a Church Historj' ;
Sermons ; Letters to a Daughter ; Letters on Literature ;
on the Composition of a Sermon ; and a translation ol
Lowth's Lectures on Hebrew Poetry. — Davenport.
GREY, (Lady Jane, ) whose accomplishments and
whose fate hav; rendered her an object of unijersal admi-
ration and pity, was the daughter of the marquis of Dorset,
and was born, about 1537, at Bradgate hall, in Leicester-
shire. Her talents, which were of a superior order, were
early developed, and by the time that she was fourteen she
had mastered Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic
and French aod Italian. Aylmer, who was afterwards
bishop of London, was her tutor. Bishop Burnet says,
" She was the wonder and delight of all who knew her."
In 1553, she was united to lord Guilford Dudley ; and,
shortly afterwards, reluctantly accepted the diadem which
the intrigues of her father and her father-in-law had induc-
ed Edward VI. to settle upon her. Her brief reign of nine
days ended by her being committed to the Tower with her
husband, and, in February. 1554, they were brought to the
scaffold by the relentless Mary. She refused to apostatize
from the Protestant faith, and died with the utmost firm-
ness, in the flower of youth and beauty.
Lady Jane was early instructed in the principles of the
reformed religion, for which she was so zealous. Her
great piety and concern for the reformation from popery,
and the extension of the Redeemer's kingdom, are evident-
ly displayed in her conversations and letters. The good
G n 1
[ £Si
uess auJ beuevolciice of liev heart are alsu siroiigly depict-
ed in the affectionate and tender letter which she wrote
her father, assuring him of her entire forgiveness, and
ioyful resignation to her fate; telling him, that there
'■■ could be nothing more welcome than tiom this vale ol
misery to aspire to that heavenly tlirone ot all 1"}'/!"^
pleasure xvith Christ her Savior." She read nuicli of the
holy Scriptures, and attained great knowledge in 'livinity.
She had a mind superior to the empty troubles ol tne
band was'desirous to take a long farewell of his beloved
wife; but she declined, saying "such a meeting would
rather add to his afflictions than increase that quiet where-
with they had possessed their souls for the stroke ol death ;
that he demanded a leniiv which would put fire into the
wound, and that it was to be feared hei" presence won d
rather weaken than strengthen hini ; that he would ilo
weil to remit this interview to the olher world ; that there,
indeed friendships were happy and unions indissoluble ;
and that theirs would be eternal, if they carried nothing
M'ith them of terrestrial, which might hinder them from re-
i>iicing." Her llemains were published after her death,
and some of her letters and devotional pieces are preserved
in Fox's Martyrology. — Davaiport ; Jones's Chris. Biog.
GRIESBACH, (Jon.^i James,) an eminent German the-
ologian, was born, in 1715, at Butzbach, in the duchy of
Hesse Darmstadt ;' was educated at Frankfort, Tubingen,
Halle, and Lei,osic ; and was successively professor of
theology at Halle and at Jena, rector of the itmversity of
Jena, and ecclesiastical privy counsellor to the duke of
Saxe Weimar. He died in 1812. Of his numerous and
erudite publications, one of the most celebrated is his edition
of the Greek Testament, with various readings. From
Griesbach's preface to vol. 2, of this work, we quote the
following words as expressive of the theological views of
this distinguished critic: " There are so many arguments
for the true Deity of Christ that I see not how it can be
called in question ; the divine authority of the Scriptures
being granted, and just rules of interpretation acknowledg-
ed. The exordium of John's gospel is so perspicuous, and
above all exception, that it never can be overturned by the
daring attacks of critics and interpreters." — Davenport.
GRIEVE. God is grieoiid w\\en he is higly offended
with men's sinning, and provoked to execute his judg-
ments on them. Gen. 6: 6. Heb. 3: 10. Men grieve the
Holy Ghost when they resist his persuasions, abuse his gifts
or grace, and so displease and offend him, and provoke
him to withdraw his influences, and give them up to their
corrupt lusts, Eph. 4: 30.— £ron-H.
GRIEVOUS ; that which furnishes great cause of grief.
(I.) What is very offensive ; so sin is grievous when it is
very great and aggravated, (Lam. 1:8—20. Ezek. 14: 13.)
and men are grievnns revo'te.rs when they sin exceedingly,
Jer. G: 28. (2") What is very ill-natured, outrageous, and
provoking; so griev<ms ixovis, stir up anger, Prov. 15: 1.
(3.) What is very afflicting and hard to be borne ; and so
war, visions, i!cc. are said to be grievous, Isa. 21: 15. Matt.
23: 4. (4.) What is very hurtful and destructive ; so
wolves and false teachers are called grievous, Acts. 20: 29.
Men write grievousness, which they have prescribed, when
they establish and ratify wicked and oppressive laws, Isa.
lU: 1. —Bromi.
GRIFFIN, (Ed]«und D.,) a young clergyman of distin-
guished talents, was born at Wyoming, Pennsylvania,
September 10, 1804. His parents removing to New York,
he was at the age of twelve placed under the instruction
of David Graham of that city. With unequalled ardor he
here pursued the various branches of study, gaining the
highest rank in the school. In this school it was an excel-
lent arrangement, which required frequent exercises in
composition. Young Gnffin wrote nine little volumes of
essays, and thus acquired a rich flow of language, and
remarkable copiousness and energy of thought. In 1823,
at the age of eighteen, he was graduated at Columbia col-
lege with the highest honors of his class. After prosecut-
ing the study of law about two months in the office of his
father, lie determined to "--pare for the ministry ; and
G R I
feeling a repngnauee lo Calvinislic views, entered on his
studies in the seminary of the Episcopal church. In
August, 1S26, he was admitted lo deacon's orders, and soon
became an assistant preacher in the church in Hamilton
square, and also associate with Dr. Lyell. In the hope of
promoting his ultimate usefulness, he visited Europe in
1828, from which he returned in April, 1830 ; and after
delivering an admirable course of lectures in Columbia
college, on the history of literature, died suddenly of an
inflammation of the bowels, September 1, at the age of
twenty-six. " In the midst of life, we are in death !"
He died in meek submission and joyful trust in the
Redeemer, admonishing others to pursue the course to a
blessed immortality. On reviving, after a spasm, w^hich
seemed to be fatal, he said with a smile of inexpressible
sweetness, " I did not get off that time ;" but, checking
himself, he added, " that was a rebellious thought ; I must-
wait God's time to die."
Probably America cannot boast of any young man, un-
less it be the lamented Buckminster, who at so early a
period reached such a height of learning and eloquence.
He had taste, and feeling, and enthusiasm ; and his powers
of description are unrivalled. His poetical talents also
were of a high order. Tw-o volumes of his works have
been published, with the title. Remains of Rev. Edmund
D. Griffin. See Memoir, -prefixeA to the Remains. — Allen.
GRIMSHAW, (William.) This humble, laborious,
and ardent minister of Christ, was born, in 1708, at Brin-
dle, Lancashire, and educated at Cambridge. He entered
the ministry in 1731, without any true piety ; but in 1734,
he was brought under deep conviction of sin, and embrac-
ed Christ only as his all in all. In 1742, after his preach-
ing had become evangelically clear and powerful, he came
lo Ha worth, near Bradford, in Yorkshire, where his labors
soon drew crowds of awakened hearers. So fully did he
lay himself out to do good, that for fifteen or sixteen years
together, he was accustomed, besides visiting the sick, and
performing other pastoral duties, to preach fifteen, twenty,
and often thirty times a week. During all this time he was
only once suspended from his labors by sickness ; though
he ventured upon the bleak mountains in all weathers.
His soul enjoyed large manifestations of God's love, that
he might not faint, and he drank deep into his Spirit.
His cup ran over, and at some seasons, his faith was so
strong, and his hope so abundant, that higher degrees of
spiritual delight would have overpowered his mortal frame.
At the very mention of his Savior's name he would often
pause, and then break out into some express admiration
of his love. His sublime soul was lifted above the world.
He aimed to live as a king and priest unto his God. The
employment of his life was in sermons, prayers, and praises.
His usual hour of rising was five, and the melody of his
heart rose with him. His first gratulation was constantly
that excellent doxology of Watts, " Praise God from whom
all blessings flow ;" .See. After prayer with his family he
would take an affectionate leave of them for the day, as
one who might see them no more, giving them his fervent
benediction. " May God bless you in your souls, and in
your bodies, and in all you put your hands to do this day !
Whether you live or die, may the Lord grant that you
may hve to him, and for him, and with him !" In like
manner he parted with them at night. ...
God gave him very numerous seals of his ministry. His
communicants rose to twelve hundred, most of whom he
had good evidence were in communion with Christ. He
has often preached five times in a day, rarely less than
three or four, and to do this would often travel forty or
fifty miles. When pressed by his friends to spare him-
self he would say, " Let me labor now ; I shall rest enough
by and by I cannot do enough for Christ, who has done
so much for me." He died April 7, 1763, aged fifty-five.
His last words in relation to his own labors were, " an un-
profitable SERVANT V'^Middleton, vol. iv. p. 394.
GRIND. (See Mill.) .
GRINDAL, (Archbishop Edmund,) was born in the
year 1519, in Cumberland. In his early days he studied
much ; books were his delight and recreation, and he car-
ried them habitually about with him. He was educated
at Cambridge. He was on all occasions distinguished as
a learned man at the university. He passed through
GRO
[ 5S5 ]
GRO
various preferments, but in 1553, on the death of king Ed-
ward the Sixth, apprehending the persecution of the Pro-
testants, he fled to Strasburgh, in Germany, where he was
well received. During his residence abroad he devoted
much lime to the duties of religion ; to his studies ; to
the matter of the controversies at Frankfort ; to assisting
Mr. John Fox in his celebrated martyrological histories.
In 1558, Grindal, on the accession of queen Elisabeth to
the crown, returned to England; was diligently employed
in the reformation of religion ; assisted in public disputa-
tions ; preached at the court and at St. Paul's, with great
zeal and piety ; and, in 1559, on the removal of Bonner,
bishop of London, the queen thought none so fit to suc-
ceed him as Grindal. He reluctantly accepted the office,
but nobly discharged its duties. In 1575, he wa.s nomi-
nated and appointed for the see of Canterburj', which he
retained until 1582, when, being afflicted with the loss of
sight, he resigned. In 1583, having made his will, be-
queathed most of his property to charitable objects, and
• devised means for the advancement of learning and piety,
he expired on the 6th of July, at Croydon.
Grindal was a man of sincere personal piety, and of
great firmness and resolution, though of a mild and affable
temper, and friendly disposition. In the time in which
he lived, he was celebrated for his episcopal abilities, and
admirable endowiuents for spiritual government, as well
as his singular learning. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
GRIZZLED ; having many white spots like hail stones,
Zech. 6: 3. — Brown.
GROANING, is expressive of great trouble ; and of a
vehement desire of relief, Exod. 2: 24. The saints groan
eorneslhj, and with groanings thai cannot be uttered ; they
have a deep and heart-burdening sense of their sins and
afflictions ; and with ardent desire, long, and cry for deliv-
erance, 2 Cor. 5: 2, 4. Rom. 8: 26. — Brown.
GROSSETESTE, or GREATHEAD, (Robert,) bishop
of Lincoln, was born at Stradbroke, in the county of Suf-
folk, in tbe year 1175. He was a prelate of great learn-
ing and integrity ; and, considering the age in which he
lived, must be regarded as a phoenix. Though of obscure
parentage, his studies were prosecuted at the university of
Oxford, where he acquired an intimate acquaintance with
the Greek and Hebrew languages ; afler which he went
to Paris, then the first seminary in Europe, where he be-
came a perfect master of the French language. Return-
ing to his native country, he took up his residence at
Oxford, where his reputation as a theologian procured him
many scholars ; till, having been appointed successively
archdeacon of Chester and of Wilts, he was in 1235 raised
to the mitre, and made bishop of the diocess of Lincoln.
He no sooner entered upon this high station than he began
to reform the abuses which he found to exist in the church.
He convened the clergy of his diocess at stated limes ;
to whom he preached, and inculcated upon them the
duties of their office. But as the latter had no ear to give
to these things, the bishop soon began to be involved in
litigations with the monks and other popish agents.
In the year 1253, when the pope commanded him to
prefer an Italian youth to a rich benefice in the cathedral
of Lincoln, whom Grosseteste knew to be wholly unworthy
and incompetent for the duties of the office, the noble bish-
op refused, saying, " No man can obey such mandates
with a good conscience, even though they were seconded
by the high order of angels themselves ; on the contrary,
every faithful Christian ought to oppose them with all his
might."
This venerable and courageous reformer died Oct. 9,
1253. The pope's dread of him is strikingly displayed in
the fact that when he heard of his death, he exullingly
exclaimed, " I rejoice ; and let every true son of the church
rejoice with me, that my great enemy is removed." The
following character of Grosseteste, drawn by Matthew
Paris, the monk of St. Albans, is so honorable, that it de-
serves to be recorded.
" The holy bishop, Robert," says he, " departed this
world, which he never loved : and which was always to
him a place of banishment. He was the open reprover
of my lord the pope, and of the king, as well as the pre-
lates. He was the corrector of monks, the director of
priests, the instructer of the clergy, the patron of scholars,
74
a preacher to the laity, the punisher of incontinence, the
diligent investigator of various writings, and the scourge
of lazy and selfish Romanists, whom he heartily despised.
In regard to temporal concerns, he was liberal, copious,
polite, cheerful, and affable ; in spiritual things he was
devout, humble, and contrite ; in the execution of his
episcopal office, he was diligent, venerable, and indefati-
gable." See Jones^ History of the Christian Churchy wo\. n.
chap. V. sect. 7. — Jonas'' Chris. Biog.
GROTIUS, or DE GROOT, (Hugh,) an eminent scho-
lar, was born, in 1583, at Delft, in Holland, of which place
his father was burgomaster. From his childhood he man
ifested talents, and a love of learning, which were care-
fully fostered. At Leyden, Francis Junius was his tutor,
and ScaUger also assisted to direct his studies. In his
fifteenth year he accompanied Barnevelt, the Dutch am-
bassador, to Paris ; was presented by Henry IV. with his
picture and a gold chain ; and received the most flattering
attentions from men of rank and learning. On his return
home, he began to practise as an advocate. His legal
avocations, however, did not prevent him from making an
indefatigable and effective use of his pen. The honors
conferred on him kept pace with the reputation which he
acquired. He was successively appointed historiographer,
advocate general of Holland and Zealand, pensionar)' of
Rotterdam, a member of the states general, and envoy
to England, to adjust some disputes between the two
countries. But, in 1618, his fortune changed, and, along
with Barnevelt, he was involved in the proscription of the
Arminian party by prince Maurice. He narrowly escap-
ed the fate of Barnevelt, but was sentenced to perpetual
imprisonment in the castle of Louvestein. At the expira-
tion of eighteen months, however, which he had employed
in writing his Treatise on the Truth of the Christian
ReUgion, he was delivered by the contrivance of his wife,
who sent him out of the castle concealed in a large chest.
Grotius sought an asylum in France, and it was during
his residence there that he composed his great work, De
Jure Belli et Pacis. Afler an absence of twelve years he
returned to Holland, but persecution still awaited him, and
he quitted his native land forever. In 1635, Christina of
Sweden appointed him her ambassador at Paris, and this
office he held nearly eleven years. He died at Rostock,
on his way to Sweden, in August, 1645. Two of his dpng
expressions are recorded : — " Alas ! I have spent my life
in laboriously doing nothing." " I place all my hopes in
Jesus Christ."
On his death two medals were struck, one containing
this just inscription, that he was " The Phoenix of his
country, the oracle of Delft, the great genius, the light
which enlighteneth the earth."
Grotius was master of all that is worth knowing in
sacred and profane literature. There was no art or sci-
ence with which he was not acquainted. He possessed a
clear head, an excellent judgment, universal learning,
immense reading, and a sincere and unwavering love of
truth and Christianity. In his annotations on the Old and
New Testament he discovers his amazing store of classi-
cal erudition, and the acuteness of his critical tact. He
adheres rigidly to the literal sense throughout, objects to
the double sense of prophecy, is rather hostile to the ap-
plication of the Old Testament revelation to the Messiah,
and attaches too little importance to the peculiar doctrines
of Christianity, many of which, indeed, he appears grossly
to have misapprehended. It has been remarked by pro-
fessor Gaussen, that while no commentators deserve to be
GRO
[
ptefened to Erasmus and Grotius, whoever makes use of
their wrilings should be aware that " he is treading on
fire overspread with faithless ashes." His Socinian per-
versions were ably exposed by Dr. Owen, in his " Vindi-
ciiE EvangelicEe," and by Calovius, in his "Biblia Illus-
trata." See 31. de jBitrigm/s Life of Grotiui ; Jones' Chris.
Blog. — Davenpnrl ; CKssold ; Hold. Buck.
GROSVENOR, (Benjajiin, D. D.,) was born in Lon-
don, Jan. 1, 1675. From a very early period he was
the subject of deep and abiding impressions of religion,
and resolved upon dedicating himself to the service of
God and his church . For this purpose he pursued a liberal
course of study. , . .
Mr. Grosvenor entered upon his public mmisti7 in the
year 1699. Soon after this he was chosen to succeed Mr.
Slater, as pastor of the Presbyterian congregation in Crosby
square. To this charge he was ordained July 11, 1704 ;
and the success of his ministry was apparent in raising
the church to a flourishing state, in which it continued
for many years.
Tlie popularity of Mr. Grosvenor as a preacher, his
solid judgment, added to a lively imagination, his grace-
ful elocution, and fervent devotion, occasioned his being
appointed to take a part in several important lectures
which were then carrying on in the metropolis. In 1730,
the university of Edinburgh presented him, unsoHcitedly,
with the honorary degree of doctor in divinity. He con-
tinued to discharge the ministerial functions till the year
1749, when the infirmities of age compelled him to relin-
quish his pastoral office, having been a preacher half a
century. He died on the 27th of October, 1758, at the
age of eighty-three.
A catalogue of his published pieces, amounting to about
thirty in number, may be found in Wilson's History of
Dissenting Churches. As an author, he is peculiarly ac-
ceptable, for the devotional spirit which pervades his
works, as well as for his ingenious remarks, and his ex-
tensive acquaintance with the history of the church. Prot.
Diss. Mag. vol. iv. — Junes' Chris. Biog.
GROVE. The use of groves for religious worship is
generally supposed to have been as ancient as the patri-
archal ages ; for we are informed, that '• Abraham plant-
ed a grove in Beersheba, and called there on the name of
the Lord," Gen. 21: 33. The reason and origin of plant-
ing sacred groves is variously conjectured ; some imagin-
ing it was only hereby intended to render the service more
agreeable to the worshippers, by the pleasantness of the
shade ; whereas others suppose it was to invite the pre-
sence of the gods. The one or the other of these reasons,
m the case of idolaters, seem to be intimated in Hosea :
" They burn incense under oaks, and poplars, and elms,
because the shade thereof is good," Hosea 4: 13. Others
conceive their worship was performed in the midst of
groves, because the gloom of such a place is apt to strike
a religious awe upou the mind ; or else, because such
dark concealments suited the lewd mysteries of their
idolatrous worship. Another conjecture, which seems as
probable as any, is, that this practice began with the wor-
ship of demons, or departed souls. It was an ancient
custom to bury the dead under trees, or in woods. '• De-
borah was buried under an oak, near Bethel," (Genesis
35: 8.) and the bones rf Saul and Jonathan under a tree
at Jabesh, 1 Samuel 31: 13. Now an imagination pre-
vailing among the heathen, that the souls of "the deceased
hover about their graves, or at least delight to visit their
dead bodies, the idolaters, who paid divine honors to the
souls of their departed heroes, erected images and altars
for their worship in the same groves where they were
buried ; and from thence it grew into a custom afterward
to plant groves, and build temples, near the tombs of de-
parted heroes, (2 Kings 23: 15, 16.) and to surround their
temples and altars with groves and trees ; and these sa-
cred groves being constantly furnished mth the images
of the heroes or gods that were worshipped in them, a
grove and an idol came to be used as convertible terms
2 Kings 23: 6. The use of them was therefore forbidden
of God, Deut. 16: 21. 12: 2, 3, 13, H.— Wntson.
GROVE, (Heney,) a learned cUvine among the English
Presbyterians, was born at Taunton, in Somersetshire,
January 4, 1683 ; and, at fourteen years of age, being
6 ] G R Y
possessed of a sufficient stock of classical literature, he
went through a course of academical learning under the
reverend Mr. Warren, of Taunton, who was for many
years at the head of a flourishing academy. Soon after
his beginning to preach he married; and at the age of
twenty-three, on the death of his tutor, Mr. Warren, was
chosen to succeed him in the academy at Taunton. The
province first assigned him was ethics and pneumatolo-
gy ; and he composed a system in each. His concern in
the academy obliging him to a residence in Taunton, he
preached for eighteen years to two small congregations in
the neighborhood. In 1708, he commenced author, by a
piece entitled " The Regulation of Diversions ;" drawn
up for the use of his pupils. In 1718 he published " An
Essay towards a Demonstration of the Soul's Immortal-
ity." About 1719, when those angry disputes relating to
the Trinity unhappily divided the Presbyterians, and when
the animosities were carried so high as to produce excom-
munications, &c., Mr. Grove's moderate conduct was
such as drew on him the censures and displeasure of some
of his own persuasion ; the reasons for this moderate con-
duct are mentioned in his ".Essay on the Terms of Chris-
tian Communion."
In 1725, he lost his partner in the academy, the Rev.
Mr. James ; and was now obliged to take the students in
divinity under his direction. He confined himself to no
system in divinity, but directed his pupils to the best wri-
ters on natural and revealed religion, and an impartial
consideration of the chief controversies therein. He like-
wise succeeded Mr. James in his pastoral charge at Full-
wood, near Taunton, in which he continued till his death.
In 1730, he published " The evidence of our Savior's Re-
surrection considered ;" and, the same year, " Some
Thoughts concerning the Proof of a future State, from
Reason." In 1732, he printed " A Discourse concerning
the Nature and Design of the Lord's Supper," where he
set that institution in the same light as bishop Hoadly.
In 1734, he published without his name, '■' Wisdom the
first Spring of Action in the Deity," which was animad-
verted on, as to some particulars, by Mr. Balguy, who,
however, allowed the discourse in general to abound with
solid remarks and sound reasonings. In 1736, he publish-
ed " A Discourse on saving Faith." The same year he
met with an afliiction, which gave him an opportunity of
showing the strength of his Christian patience and resig-
nation ; this was the death of his wife ; and a little more
than a year after this he died himself, February 27, 1737-8.
After his death, came out by subscription, his " Posthumous
Works," 1740, in four volumes, octavo. The character
of Mr. Grove may, in a great measure, be collected from
the account we have given of his life. It was, in every
respect, excellent and amiable. As a preacher, also, he
was admired and esteemed. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
GRYN^US, (Simon,) an eminent Protestant theolo-
gian, was born, in 1493, at Veringen, in Swabia; was pro-
fessor of Greek at Heidelberg, and theology at Basil ; was
the friend of Luther, Melancthon, and Erasmus ; and died
in 1541. The last five books which we possess of Li vy
were discovered by Grynseus, in a monastery at Lorach.
Bibliander called him " an incomparable man, in whom
every Christian grace and virtue, with all learning and
politeness, seemed to have taken up their habitation."
MiddJeton, vol. i. 149. — Davenport.
GRYN^US, (John James, D. D.,) an eminent Swiss
divine, was born at Bern, in 1540, of pious parents,
and was educated at the university. In 1559, he began
to preach. In 1564, he was made doctor in divinity, and
in 1565, succeeded his father in the pastoral charge at
Rontela. He coincided with Zuinglius in his views of
the Lord's supper, which lost him many of his Lutheran
friends. In 1575, however, he was called to Basil as the-
ological professor, where he was happily instrumental in
uniting the Lutheran and ZningUan churches, and was
exceedingly useful. Two years he lectured at Heidelberg
for prince Cassimire, but on the death of Sculcer, he suc-
ceeded him in the pastoral office at Basil, where he re-
mained the rest of his life. His great learning and worth
drew travellers from all parts to visit him. His great wit
was tempered with an amiable gi'avity. He was remark-
ably patient under wrongs, which he revenged only bv
HAB
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Christian silence, and regarded not the reproaches of men,
if his Master could by any means he glorified in his ser-
mons and writings. The number of his published works
is fourteen, among which is an Ecclesiastical History.
In his old age, having lost his wife, children, and friends,
and being a great suiferer in body, he sustained all with
admirable patience. He would often say, " To die in
Christ is .sweet, but to rise in him is sweeter. At the last
day we shall have lasting joys." — Middhton, vol. ii. 383.
GUARDIAN ANGEL. (See Ansel.)
GUEBRES. (SeeGAUR.)
GUELPHS, and Guibellines; two religio-poUtical factions
of the thirteenth century, which filled Italy with civil wars
and blood. The former took part with the pope, the latter
with the emperor. Mosheim's E. H. vol. iii. p. 180 j En-
cy. Perth. — Williams.
GUEST. Gospel hearers are likened to guests ; at
Christ's invitation by his ministers, or others, they come
to his ordinances, professing to feed with him on his full-
ness. Matt. 22: 10, 11. The Chaldeans were g-werfs bidden
to the Lord's sacrifice ; he raised them up and enabled
them to execute his vengeance ; and they satiated their
own pride and covetousness in murdering and spoiling
the Jews, and nations around, Zeph. 1: 7. — Bronn.
GUIDE. God is a guide ; he directs the motions of all
his creatures, (Job 38: 22.) and, by his word, spirit, and
providence, he directs his people in their proper course,
and comforts them under their troubles, Isa. 49: 10. A
first husband is called a guide of youth ; (Prov. 2: 17.) so
God was to the Hebrews, Jer. 3: 4. — Bron-n.
GUILT ; the state of a person justly charged with a
crime ; a consciousness of having done amiss ; liability
to punishment. — Heitd. Buck.
GUILTY ; chargeable with crimes that expose to pun-
ishment. Gen. 42: 21. He that offends in one point is
guilty of all ; of breaking all the commandments of God;
he tramples on the authority which establishes, and faUs
of that love which fulfils the whole law, James 2: 10. An
unworthy partaker of the Lord's supper is guilty of the
body and blood of the Lord ; he is chargeable with the horrid
crime of crucifying Christ afresh, and offering the highest
indignity to his person and righteousness, represented by
the symbols of that ordinance, 1 Cor. 11: 27. — Bronn.
GULF. The great gulf fixed between Abraham and the
rich man, may denote the great distance between heaven
and hell, and the irremovable hindrances of coming from
one to the other, Luke 16: 26. — Brown.
GUSTAVUSADOLPHUS,kingof Sweden, the grand-
son of Gustavus Vasa, was born in 1594, and succeeded
to the crown at the age of seventeen. The first eighteen
years of his reign were employed in ameliorating the situ-
ation of his subjects, and in bringing to a glorious con-
clusion a war iu which his country was involved with
Denmark, Russia, and Poland. In 1630, he entered upon
a still more heroic career. For the noble purpose of
rescuing the Protestants of Germany from the tyranny of
the house of Austria, he led into the empire an army of
sixty thousand men. In 1631, and 1632, he defeated TU-
ly, near Leipsic, and on the banks of the Lech ; but, in
1633, and on the 16th of November, he fell, in the mo-
ment of victor)-, at the battle of Lutzen. To the virtues
of a man Gustavus joined the talents of a consummate
general. He was a lover of learning, humane, equitable,
generous, and pious ; and even the most splendid success-
es never prompted him to deviate from his wonted sim-
plicity of manners, and moderation of conduct. — Davenport.
GUYON, (Jane Bouvier de la Motte,) a French lady
who became celebrated through her religious enthusiasm,
was born, in 1648, at Angers, and was left a widow at the
age of twenty-eight. Her mind had naturally a strong
devotional tendency. It has now heated by meditation ;
and, misled by the bishop of Geneva and two monks,
she was taught to believe that heaven destined her for an
extraordinary mission. For five years she wandered
about, preaching her doctrines. During that perio*she
published her Short and easy Method of Praying ; and
The Song of Songs interpreted according to its mystical
Sense. The system of quietism which she taught, and
which was first imagined in Spain by Michael jloli-
nos, excited the attention of the French clergy, and drew
upon her a long persecution, in which Bossuet was a prin-
cipal actor. Fenelon in vain espoused her cause. After
having been confined in the Bastile and various prisons,
she was liberated in 1702, and she died at Blois, in i7I&.
Her works occupy Ihirty-uine volumes, and art now al-
most forgotten. Some of her poems have bein translated
by Cowper. — Davenport ; Douglas ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
GUYSE, (John D. D.,) was'^born at Hertford, in leSO,
of pious parents. Being religiously educated, God was
pleased to call him early by his grace, and he became a
member of the dissenting church, in Hertford, at the age
of fourteen. His views being directed to the ministry,
he diligently studied to prepare himself for usefulness. He
entered into the holy work at the age of twenty, as assist-
ant to Blr, Haworth, who soon after dying, BIr, Guyse
was chosen to succeed him as pastor of the church at
Hertford, Here he labored with much acceptance and
usefulness, refusing many pressing invitations to remove,
and guarding his flock especially against Arian sentiments,
at that time prevalent in the west of England ; until his
health failing, his physicians recommended a change of
air and situation. He accordingly accepted an invitation
to remove to London, as successor to Rev, Jlatthew
Clarke. Here his sphere of usefulness was enlarged, and
his worth became widely known as a scholar. Christian,
and divine. In 1732, the university of Aberdeen conferred
on himthedegreeofD.D. He published many sermons, but
his great work is his Paraphrase on the New Testament,
which has been generally approved as a very judicious
work. He was much beloved by those who knew him
for the benevolence of his disposition. He made con-
science of devoting a tenth part of his income to charita-
ble uses. He died November 22, 1761, at the age of
eighty. His last words were, " Oh my God, thou who
hast always been with me, thou wilt not leave me." Bless-
ed are they whose confidence is equally evangelical. — Mid-
dleton, vol. iv. p. 374.
GYMNOSOPHISTS, i. e. naked philosophers ; so call-
ed, because they wore no more clothing than they found
needful for decency and convenience. They were of two
parties, Indian and Etliiopian. The former were a sort
of v.'dd philosophers ; some of whom were, probably,
Brahmans ; others, hermits and devotees. The Ethiopi-
ans are said to have discharged the sacred functions in the
manner of the Egj'ptian piiests. They had colleges and
disciples of different classes.
The Gymnosophists were remarkable for contempt of
death, and are said to have practised suicide in the most
deliberate manner, by casting themselves into the flames ;
it is probable this, however, was an act of devotion to
their idols, and with a view to merit immortality. En-
field's Philos. vol. i. pp. 66, 96.— TFiV/mmJ.
H.
HABADIM ; a subdivision of the Jewish sect of Chasi-
dim. founded by rabbi Solomon, in the government of
Mohilief. They may not improperly be termed the " Jew-
ish Quietists," as their distinguishing peculiarity consists
in the rejection of external forms, and the complete aban-
donment of the mind to abstraction and contemplation.
Instead of the baptisms customary among the Jews, they
go through the signs without the use of the element, and
consider it their duty to disengage themselves as much as
possible from matter, because of its tendency to clog the
mind in its ascent to the Supreme Source of Intelligence,
In prayer they make no use of words, but simply place
themselves in the attitude of supplication, and exercise
themselves in mental ejaculations. — Hend. Buck.
HAB
[ 588
HAB
HABAKKUK ; a prophet of the tribe of Simeon. He
is said to have prophecied about B. C. 60.5, and to have
been alive at the time of the destruction of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar. It is generally believed that he remam-
ed and died in Judea. The principal predictions contain-
ed in this book, are, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the
the bold figurative language of Scripture, as covered with
sackcloth and blackness, the color and dress of persons iii
affliction. In Egypt and Syria, they wore also fine linen,
cotton and byssus, probably fine muslin from India, (in
Hebrew bavats,) the finest cloth known to the ancients. In
Canaan, persons of distinction were dressed in fiiie linen
of Egypt ; and, according to some authors, in silk, and
captivity of the J««'^ ^V 'h/ fhaldeans or Babylomans - -y.^ -^^^^^^ ^-^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^, ,„,„,,_ ^ ,3 ,he Vul-
their deUverance from the oppressm at the appoimea ^^,^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ f^j^thered work, embroidered with gold.
HABERCxEON. (See Arms, Military.)
HABIT ; a peculiar power and facility of doing any
thing, acquired by frequent repetition of the same action.
It is distinguished from custom. Custom respects the ac-
tion ; habit tlie actor. By custom we mean a frequent reit-
eration of the same act ; and by habit the effect that custom
has on the mind or body. " Man," as one observes, '• is
a bundle of habits. There are habits of industry, atten-
tion, vigilance, advertency ; of a prompt obedience to the
judgment occurring, or of yielding to the first impulse of
passion j of apprehending, methodizing, reasoning ; of
vanity, melancholy, fretfulness, suspicion, covetoitsness.
In a word, there is not a quality or function, either
esteem among persons of superior station, and are particu-
larly valued in Scripture, as the emblem of knowledge
and purity, gladness and victory, grace and glory. The
priests of Baal were habited in black ; a color which ap-
pears to have been peculiar to themselves, and which few
others in those countries, except mourners, would choose
to wear. Blue was a color in great esteem among the
Jews, and other Oriental nations. The robe of the ephod,
in the gorgeous dress of the high-priest, was made all of
blue ; ?t was a prominent color in the sumptuous hangings
of the tabernacle ; and the whole people of Israel were re-
quired to put a fringe of blue upon the border of their
garments, and on the fringe a riband of the same color.
of body or mind, which does not feel the inQuence of this The palace of Ahasuerus, the king of Persia, was furnish-
y - .' , ., rr, ., , , ■._ _j -.lu 1.,:,,^ ^e tuit. n^^r,r r,r\ n nnvpment 01 red. and
great law of animated nature.'' To cure evil habits, we
should be as early as we can in our application, prindjnis
nbsta ; to cross and mortify the inclination by a frequent
and obstinate practice of the contrary virtue. To form
good habits, we should get our minds well stored with
knowledge ; associate with the wisest and best men ; re-
flect much on the pleasure good habits are productive of ;
and, above all, supplicate the Divine Being for direction
and assistance. Kaimes's El. of Crit. ch. xiv. vol. i. ;
Grove's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 143 ; Pakt/s Mor. Phil. vol.
j. p. 4(5 ; Jortin on Bad Habits, ser. 1, vol. iii. ; Eeid on the
Active Powers, p. 117; Cogan on the Passions, p. 235 ;
Bmkminster's Sermons ; Taijlor on Character ; Chalmers on
the Intellectual and Moral Constitution of Man. — Hend. Buck.
HABITATION. God is the habitation of his people ;
in him they find the most delightful rest, safety, and
comfort, Ps. 91: 9. Justice and judgment are the habita-
tion or establishment of God's throne ; all his royal acts are
founded on justice and judgment ; he takes pleasure to
execute them ; and being executed on our Redeemer, they
became the foundation of his exercise of mercy, and per-
formance of his promises to us ; by his righteous distribu-
tion of rewards and punishments, he supports the honor
of his character, Ps. 89: 14. The land of Canaan, the
city of Jerusalem, the tabernacle and temple, heaven and
the heart of the saints, are represented as the habitation of
God ; there he did or does signally show himself present,
work by his power, or bestow his favor and influence,
Jer. 25: 30. Ezra 7: 15. Exod. 15: 2. Ps. 132: 5, 13.
Eph. 2; 22. Eternity is represented as his habitation ; he
is eternal in a manner no other is, nor does his duration
increase as that of angels and men, Isa. 57: 15. He in-
habited the praises of Israel ; he dwelt in the temple when
thsy praised : he o%vns, deserves, is the object of, and
kindly accepts the praises of his people Ps. 22: 3. — Brotvn.
HABITS, (Dress.) The dress of Oriental nations, to
which the inspired writers often allude, has undergone
almost no change from the earliest times. Their stuffs
were fabricated of various materials ; but wool was gen
ed with curtains of this color, on a pavement of red, and
blue, and white marble; a proof that it was not less
esteemed in Persia than on the Jordan. And from Eze-
kiel we learn, that the Assyrian nobles were habited in
robes of this color : " She doated on the Assyrians her
neighbors, which were clothed with blue, captains and
rulers, all of them desirable young men."
2. The Jewish nobles and courtiers, upon great and
solemn occasions, appeared in scarlet robes, dyed, not as
at present with madder, with cochineal, or with any mo-
dern tincture, but with a shrub, whose red berries give an
orient tinge to the cloth. Crimson or vermilion, a color,
as the name imports, from the blood of the worm, was
used in the temple of Solomon, and by many persons of
the first quality ; sometimes tliey wore purple, the most
sublime of all earthly colors, says Mr. Harmer, having
the gaudiness of red, of which it retains a shade, softened
with the gravity of blue. This was chiefly dyed at Tyre,
and was supposed to take the tincture from the liquor of a
shell-fish, anciently found in the adjacent sea ; though
Mr. Bruce, in his Travels, incUnes to the opinion, that
the murex, or purple fish at Tyre, was only a concealment
of their knowledge of cochineal, as, if the whole city of
Tyre had applied to nothing else but fishing, they would
not have colored twenty yards of cloth in a year. The
children of wealthy and noble families were dressed in
vestments of different colors. This mark of distinction
may be traced to the patriarchal age ; for Joseph was
arrayed, by his indulgent and imprudent father, in a coat
of many colors. A robe of divers colors was anciently
reserved for the kings' daughters who were virgins ,- and
in one of these was Tamar, the virgin daughter of David,
arrayed, when she was met by her brother.
3. In our region of the world, the fashion is in a state
of almost daily fluctuation, and different fashions are not
unfrequently seen contending for the superiority ; but in
the East, where the people are by no means given to
change, the form of their garments continues neariy the
same from one age to another. The greater part of their
erally used in their finer fabrics ; and the hair of goats, clothes are long and flowing, loosely cast about the body,
camels, and even of horses, was manufactured for coarser consisting only of a large piece of cloth, in the cutting
" and sewing of which very little art or industry IS employ-.
ed. They have more dignity and gracefulness than ours,
and are better adapted to the burning climates of Asia.
From the simplicity of their form, and their loose adapta-
tion to the body, the same clothes might be worn, with
equal ease and convenience, by many different persons.
The clothes of those Philistines whom Samson slew at
purposes, especially for sackcloth, which they wore in
time of mourning and distress. Sackcloth of black goat's
hair was manufactured for mournings ; the color and the
coarseness of which being reckoned more suitable to the
circumstances of the wearer, than the finer and more
valuable texture which the hair of white goats supplied.
This is the reason why a clouded sky is represented, in
HAB
[ 589 ]
HAD
Askelon, required no altering to fit his companions ; nor
the robe of Jonathan, to answer his frii>nd. The arts of
wieaving and fulling seem to have been distinct occupa-
tions in Israel, from a very remote period, in consequence
of the various and skilful operations which were neces-
sary to bring their stuIVs to a suitable degree of perfection ;
but when the weaver and the fuller had finished their
partj the labor was nearly at an end ; no distinct artizan
was necessary to make them into clothes ; every family
seems to have made their own. Sometimes, however,
this part of the work was performed in the loom ; for they
had the art of weaving robes with sleeves all of one
piece : of this kind was the coat which our Savior wore
during his abode with men. The loose dresses of these
countries, when the arm is lifted up, expose its whole
length ; to this circumstance the prophet Isaiah refers :
" To whom is the arm of the Lord revealed ?" that is, un-
covered ; who observes that he is exerting the arm of
his power ?
■1. The chosen people were not allowed to wear clothes
of any materials or form they chose ; they were forbidden
by their law to wear a garment of woollen and linen.
This law did not prevent them from wearing many di tie-
rent .substances together, but only these two ; nor did the
prohibition extend to the wool of camels and goats, (for
the hair of these animals they called by the same name,)
but only to that of sheep. It was lawful for any man
who saw an Israelite dressed in such a garment to fall
upon him and put him to death. In the opinion of Mai-
monides, this was principally intended as a preservative
from idolatry ; for the heathen priests of those times wore
such mixed garments of woollen and linen, in the super-
stitious hope, it was imagined, of having the beneficial
influence of some lucky conjunction of the planets or
stars, to bring down a blessing upon their sheep and their
flax. The second restraint referred to the sexes, of which
one was not to wear the dress appropriated to the other.
This practice is said to be an abomination to the Lord ;
which critics suppose refers to some idolatrous custom, of
which Moses and the prophets always spoke in terms of
the utmost abhorrence. Nothing, indeed, was more com-
mon among the heathen, in the worship of some of their
false deities, than for the males to assist in women's
clothes, and the females in the dress appropriated to men ;
in the worship of Venus, in particular, the women ap-
peared before her in armor, and the men in women's ap-
parel ; and thus the words literally run in the original
Scriptures, " Women shall not put on the armor of a
man, nor a man the stole of a woman." But whatever
there may be in these observations, it is certain that, if
there were no distinction of sexes made by their habits,
there would be danger of involving mankind in all man-
ner of licentiousness and impurity.
5. The ancient Jews very seldom wore any covering
upon the head, except when they were in mourning, or
worshipping in the temple, or in the synagogue. To pray
with the head covered, was, in their estimation, a higher
mark of respect for the majesty of heaven, as it indicated
the conscious unworthiness of the suppliant to lift up
his eyes in the divine presence. To guard themselves
from the wind or the storm, or from the still more fatal
stroke of the sunbeam, to which the general custom of
walking bareheaded particularly exposed them, they
wrapped their heads in their mantles, or upper garments.
But during their long captivity in Babylon, the Jews be-
gan to wear turbans, in compliance with the customs of
their conquerors ; for Daniel informs us, th.-it his three
friends were cast into the fiery furnace with their hats,
or, as the term should be rendered, their turbans. It is
not, however, improbable, that the bulk of the nation con-
tinued to follow their ancient custom ; and that the com-
pliance prevailed only among those Jews who were con-
nected with the Babylonish court ; for many ages after
that, we find Antioclius Epiphanes introducing the habits
and fashions of the Grecians among the Jews ; and as
the history of the Maccabees relates, he brought the chief
young men under his subjection, and made them wear a
hat, or turban. Their legs, from the knee down, were ge-
nerally bare, though persons of great dignity wore long
and flowing robes ; (Rev. 1: 13.) and they never wore
any thing upon tlie feet, but .soles fastened In dlfierent
ways, according to the taste or fancy of the wearer. (See
GiEDLE ; Shoe.) — Watson; Calmet ; Junes.
HACHILAH ; a mountain about ten miles south of Je-
richo, where David concealed himself from Saul, 1 Sam.
23: 19. Jonathan Maccabseus built hero the castle of
Massada, — Calmet.
HADAD, son to the king of East Edom, was carried
into Egypt by bis father's servants, when Joab, general
of David's troops, extirpated the males of Edom. Hadad
was then a child. The king of Eg)'pt gave him a house,
lands, and every necessary subsistence, and married him
to the sister of Tahpenes, his queen. By her he had a
son, named Genubath, whom queen Tahpenes educated
in Pharaoh's house with the king's children. Hadad be-
ing informed that David was dead, and that Joab was
killed, desired leave to return into his own country. Pha-
raoh wished to detain him, but at last jiermitted his return
to Edom. Here he began to raise disturbances against
Solomon ; but the Scripture does not mention particulars.
Josephus says, that Hadad did not return to Edom till
long after the death of David, when Solomon's affairs be-
gan to decline, by reason of his impieties. He also ob-
serves, that, not being able to engage the Edomites to re-
volt, because of the strong garrisons which Solomon had
placed there, Hadad got together such people as were
willing, and carried them to Razon, then in rebellion
against Hadadezer, king of Syria. Razon received Ha-
dad with joy, and assisted him in conquering part of Sy-
ria, where he reigned, and from whence he insulted So-
lomon's territories. — Watson.
HADADEZER ; king of Zobah, a country which ex-
tended from Libanus to the Orontes, whom David defeat-
ed, 2 Sam. 8: 3. B. C. 1044.— CVmrt.
HADES, (Gr. from a, privative, and idein, to see ;) the
invisible worhl, or the place of the departed, in the inter-
mediate state, prior to the resurrection. The corresponding
term in Hebrew is Sheo!, which is derived from the root
shae, to demand, inqnhe ; and cither signifies the place
with respect to which it may be asked, " Man giveth up
the ghost, and tvhere is he ?" (Job 14: 10.) or the insatiable
receptacle which crieth Gii^c, give, and never saith, It is
enough, Prov. 30: 15, 16. Both words Sheol and Hades
are employed to express the slate of the dead, in its most
comprehensive point of view ; including .the grave as
the invisible residence of the body, and the world of spi-
rits as the invisible abode of the soul. At other times
they are used, either of the one or the other, taken sepa-
rately. Thej' are often very improperly rendered hM
in our common version ; the instances being comparative-
ly few in which the words have the accessory signification
of the place of punishment. In other passages the term
grove is too limited a rendering. The reader must judge
from the context, and all the circumstances of the case,
in which acceptation the words are to be taken.
That the Hebrews ordinarily understood something be-
yond the grave by the term Sheul, is evident from the cir-
cumstance, that the common name for that receptacle of
the human body is Keber ; so that when in any given in-
stance they did apply it in this sense, it was only designat-
ing a part for the whole. It was the state in which the
aged patriarch expected to meet his deceased son, (Gen.
37: 35.) into which the fathers had entered, and whither
their posterity were removed at death to join their societv,
Gen. 25: 8. 35: 29. 49: 29. Dent. 32: 50. In all these
passages, the being " gathered to one's people," is spoken
of as something distinct from mere burial ; and, indeed,
in the cases of Abraham and Bloses, it is ob^^ous, that, in
such a sense, no phrase can he more incongruous, since
the former had no penph in the cave of Machpelah, Sarah
being the only individual who as yet had been buried in .
it ; and of the grave of the latter, the children of Israel
were profoundly ignorant. To his people he certainly
was not gathered, if by the phrase be meant that his body
was deposited in his family grave. It has justly been ob-
served that J/nrff.?, and the "corresponding Hebrew word
Sheol, are always singular, in meaning as well as in form.
The word for grave is oflen plural. The former never ad-
mit the possessive pronouns, being the receptacle of all
the dead, and therefore incapable of appropriation to in-
HAL
[ 690
HAL
dividiials ; Ihe latter frequently does. Where the disposal
of the body or corpse is spokea of, taphos, or some equi-
valent term, is the name of its repository. When men-
tion is made of the spirit after death, its abode is called
Hades. Campbell's Dissert. No. vi. ; Dwight's Theology;
Frof. Stuart's Er.egetical Essat/s ; Whitman's Letters to a
Unioersalist ; and the Controversij of Messrs. Balfour, Hud-
son, and Cooke. — He/td. Buck. (See Hell.)
HADGEE ; the title of a Mohammedan who performs a
pilgrimage to Mecca ; a religious act which every ortliu-
dox Mussulman is directed to do 6nce in his life. It is al.io
the name of the celebration which takes place on the ar-
rival of the caravan of pilgrims at Mecca. — Hend. Buck.
HADID, or Chadid ; a city of Benjamin, (Ezra. 2: 33.
Nehem. 7: 37.) probably the Adita or Adiada of Josephu.s,
and of 1 Mac. 12: 38. 13: 3, in Sephela, or in the plain
of Jiulah. — Calmet.
HADRACH, or Adra; a city mentioned by Zechariah,
(9: 1.) who denounced dreadful threatenings against it.
Ptolemy notices a city called Adra. It could not be far
from Damascus ; for Zechariah calls Damascus the bul-
wark, defence, and confidence of Hadrach. — Calmet.
HjERETICO COMBURENDO ; a writ which, in Eng-
land, anciently lay against a heretic, who, having once
been convicted of heresy by his bishop, and having abjur-
ed it, afterwards falling into it again, or into some other,
is thereupon committed to the secular power. By 2 Henry
IV. cap. 15, the diocesan alone, without the intervention
of a synod, might convict of heretical tenets ; and unless
the convict abjured his opinions, or if after abjuration he
relapsed, the sheriff was bound ex officio, if required by
the bishop, to commit the unhappy victim to the flames,
without waiting for the consent of the crown. This writ
remained in force, and was actually executed on two
Baptists, in the seventh year of Elisabeth, and on two
Arians in the ninth of James I. — Hend. Buck.
HALF-WAY COVENANT ; a scheme adopted by the
Congregational churches of JJew England, in 1657 — 1662,
in order to extend the privileges of church membership
and infant baptism beyond the pale of actual communi-
cants at the Lord's table.
An opinion at this time began to prevail, that all persons
baptized in infancy, not scandalous in life nor formally
excommunicated, ought to be considered members of the
church, in all respects except the right of partaking
the Lord's supper, for which evidence of regeneration
■was still generally held to be a requisite qualification.
The proposal of so great an innovation on the principles
and practices of the first settlers, as would be expected,
met with a decided opposition ; and a contest arose which
ocoasioned great agitation in all the New England colo-
nies, especially in Connecticut and Massachusetts. At
length, in 1657, the court of Massachusetts advised to a
general council ; and sent letters to the other courts, sig-
nifying their opinion. The general court of Connecticut
acceded to the proposal, and appointed four delegates to
the proposed council. These with the delegates from Mas-
sachusetts convened at Boston, in June, 1657. The ques-
tions submitted to this council were seventeen in number,
most of them relating to baptism and church member-
ship. Their determination was in substance, that all bap-
tized persons ought to be considered members of the
church, under its discipUne, and to be admitted to all its
privileges except a participation of the communion.
The churches were inflamed instead of being reconciled
by this decision. The general court of Massachusetts
therefore, in 1662, appointed a synod of all the ministers
of that colony, to deliberate and decide on two questions ;
of which the most deeply interesting was, " Who are the
SUBJECTS or BAPTISM ?'' Their answer to the question con-
cerning baptism, which, as they viewed it, involved that
of church membership, was substantially the same as
that given by the conned in 1657. They were not unani-
mous however : several learned and pious men protesting
against the decision, which was drawn up in the following
propositions : —
" 1. They that according to Scripture are members of
the visible church, are the subjects of baptism.
" 2. The members of the visible church, according to
Scripture, are confederate, visible believers in particular
churches, and their infant seed, i. e. children in minority,
wdiose next parents one or both are in covenant.
" 3. The infant seed of confederate visible believers are
members of the same church with their parents, and when
grown up are personally under the watch, discipline, and
government of that church.
" 4. Those adult persons are not therefore to be admit-
ted to full communion, merely because they are and con-
tinue members, without suitable qualifications, as the word
of God requireth thereunto.
" 5. Church members who were admitted in minority,
understanding the doctrine of faith, and publicly profess-
ing their assent thereto, not scandalous of life, and so-
lemnly owning the covenant before the church wherein
they give up themselves and their children to the Lord,
and subject themselves to the government of Christ in the
church, their children are to be baptized," iScc. See Ma-
ther's Magnalia, book 5. p. 64.
Most of the New England churches after a time acqui-
esced in this decision. It has been called very commonly
since, Ihe half-wat/ covenant; "a name which itself indi-
cates," says Dr. Wisner, '■ that religion and the observance
of its sacred rites were extensively becoming, in the esti-
mation of the people, a sort of half-way business, and of
course its energy and vitality dying away. According to
the provisions of this arrangement, persons, who confess-
edly had not given their hearts to G'od, for the purpose of
obtaining access to the (in such case) mere ceremony of
baptism for their children, were permitted and encouraged
to come and ' profess before God, angels, and men, to give
themselves up to God the Father as their chief good ; to
the Son of God as their Mediator, Head, and Lord, relying
upon him as the Prophet, Priest, and King of their salva-
tion ; to the Holy Spirit of God, as their Sanctifier, Guide,
and Comforter, to be temples for him to dwell in;' were
permitted and encouraged to come and make, in the most
solemn circumstances, the most solemn of all professions,
when they did not regard themselves, and those around did
not regard them, as having at all in heart given them-
selves away to God, and trusted in Christ, and yielded
themselves up to be temples of the Holy Ghost. And as
to the promises which were annexed, of educating children
in the fear of the Lord, and submitting to the discipline of
the church, on the one hand, and of watchful care on the
other, they soon came to be alike disregarded, both by
those who exacted and by those who made them ; parents
did not, and soon were not expected to, fulfil their engage-
ments, in form so significant and solemn ; and churches
did not, and were soon not expected to fulfil theirs. Thus
the most solemn and impressive acts of religion came to
be regarded as unmeaning ceremonies ; the form only to
be thought important, while the substance was overlooked
and rapidly passing away.
" And now another and still more fatal step was taken in
this downward course. Why sliould such a difference be
made between the two Christian sacraments, which reason
infers from the nature of the case, and the Scriptures
clearly determine, require precisely the same qualifica-
tions ? And why, if persons were qualified to make, in
order to come to one ordinance, the very same profession,
both in meaning and in terms, required to come to the other,
why should they be excluded from that other ? The prac-
tical result every one sees would be, that if the innovation
already made were not abandoned, another would speedUy
be introduced. And such was the fact. Correct moral
deportment, with a profession of correct doctrinal opinions,
and a desire for regeneration, came to be regarded as the
only qualification for admission to the communion. This
innovation, though not as yet publicly advocated by any,
there is conclusive proof had become quite extensive in
practice previously to 1679. The churches soon came to
consist very considerably, in many places, of unregenerate
persons — of those who regarded themselves, and were re-
garded by others, as unregenerate.— Of all these things
the consequence was, that within thirty years after the
commencement of the eighteenth century, a large propor-
tion of the clergy— through the country — were either only
speculatively con'ect, or to some extent actually erroneous,
in their religious opinions, maintaining regularly the forms
of religion, but in some instances having well nigh lost,
H AI
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and in others, it is to be feared, having never felt, its
power.
"Thus was abandoned by the New England churches
extensively, that principle, viz. that particular churches
ousht to consist of regenerate persons — the letting go of
which soon after the apostolic age, a distinguished writer
(Dr. Owen) has affirmed and proved, ' was the occasion
and means of introducing all that corruption in doctrine,
worship, order, and rule, which ensued and ended in the
great aposlasy.' "
It should be added, that the half-way covenant is now
universally abandoned by the evangelical Congregational
churches in New England, and that if retained at all, it is
at present found only among the Unitarians. — Wisner^s
Historij of the Old South Church ; Spirit of the Pilgrims ;
Mather's Magnolia ; Hutchinson; Trumbull.
HAGAR ; an Egyptian servant belonging to Sarah, who
being barren, gave her to Abraham for a wife, that by
her, as a substitute, she might have children, Gen. 10,
and 21. The Miis.sulmen and Arabians, who are de-
scended from Ishraael, speak highly in her commendation.
They call her " Mother Hagar," and maintain that she
was Abraham's lawful wife ; the mother of Ishmael, his
eldest son, who as such possessed Arabia, which very
much exceeds, in their estimation, both in extent and
riches, the land of Canaan, which was given to his young-
er son Isaac.
Hagar, according to Paul, may symbolize the syna-
gogue, which produces only slaves — the ofl'spring always
following the condition of the mother. Gal. 4; 24. — Calmtt.
HAGAEENES; the descendants of Ishmael : called
also Ishmaelites and Saracens, or Arabians, from their
country. — Calmet.
HAGGAI, the tenth of the minor prophets, was proba-
bly born at Babylon, whence he accompanied Zerubbabel.
The captives, immediately after their return to Judea, be-
gan with ardor to rebuild the temple ; but the work was
suspended fourteen years, till after the death of Cambyses.
Darius Hystaspes succeeding to the empire, Haggai was
excited by God to exhort Zerubbabel, prince of Judah, and
the high-priest Joshua, to resume the Ai'ork of the temple,
which had been so long interrupted. (B. C. 521.) The
remonstrances of the prophet had their effect, and in the
second year of Darius, and the sixteenth year after the
return from Babylon, they resumed this work. Hag. 1: 14.
2: 1. The Lord commanded Haggai to tell the people,
that if any one recollected the temple of Solomon, and
did not think this to be so beautiful and magnificent as that
structure was, he ought not to be discouraged ; because
God would render the new temple much more august and
venerable than the former had ever been ; not in embel-
lishments of gold or silver, but by the presence of the
iMessiah, the desire of all nations, and by the glory which
his coming would add to it.
We know nothing of Haggai's death. Epiphanius as-
serts, that he was buried at JerusaJem among the priests;
which might induce us to believe, that he was of Aaron's
family: but Haggai says nothing of himself to favor this
opi nion , — ('almet.
HAGIOGRAPHA, (Gr. for holy writings ,) the name
?■ -en to ihe third division of the Jewish Scriptures, which
I jmprises the book of Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Daniel, Ez-
ra, Nehemiah, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, the Song
of Solomon, Esther, and the Chronicles. These books
appear to have received the name of " Sacred Writings,"
to intimale that, though they were not written by Moses,
nor by any of the prophets, strictly so called, they were
nevertheless to be received as of the same divine authority,
having been written or added to the canon, under the in-
fluence of that Holy Spirit by whose inspiration the other
books were composed. (See Bible.) — Hend. Buck.
HAHIROTH, whence Pi-hahiroth, as it is called in
Exod. 14: 2, 9, but simply Hahiroth, in Numb. 33: 8 ; the
gullet, or opening; but whether of a cave, or a passage
between rocks into a wider place, or of a narrow sea into a
broader, is not determined. We take it for the opening of
a gullet of water, at the present Suez, in the northern ex-
tremity of the Red sea. (See Exodus.) — Calmet.
HAICTITES ; a Musselman sect, who attempt to unite
their faith with the religion of Christ, whose second coming
they expect, as the Judge of all ; quoting these words from
the Koran — " 0 Mohammed, thou shalt see thy Lord, who
will come in the clouds." Jli/cauVs Ottoman Empire, cited
hy Broughton. — Williams.
HAIL ! a salutation, importmg a wish for the welfare
of the person addressed. It is now seldom used among
us ; but was customary among our Saxon ancestors, and
imported as much as "joy to you ;" or " health to you;"
including in the term health all kinds of prosperity. —
Calmet.
HAIL-STONES, are congealed drops of rain, formed
into ice by the power of cold in the upper regions of the
atmosphere. Hail was among the plagues of Egypt ;
(Exod. 9: 24.) and that hail, though uncommon, is not
absolutely unknown in Egypt, we have the testimony of
Volney, who mentions a hail-slorm, which he saw crossing
over mount Sinai into that country, some of whose frozen
stones he gathered; "and so," he says, "I drank iced
water in Egypt." Hail was also the means made use of
by God, for defeating an army of the kings of Canaan,
Josh. 10: 11. God's judgments are likened to a hail-storm,
in Isa. 28: 2 ; but the most tremendous hail mentioned in
Scripture, or in any writer, is that alluded to in Rev. 16:
21 : — " Every stone was about the weight of a talent."
How prodigious is this description ! in comparison with it
all accounts of hail-stones, and hail-storms, are diminutive.
We have, in the Philosophical Transactions, mention of
hail as large as pullets' eggs : but what is this to the
weight of a talent ! — Calmet.
Hair. The Eastern females wear their hair, which
the prophet emphatically calls the " instrument of their
pride," very long, and divided into a great number of
tresses. Black hair was regarded by the Hebrews as
most beautiful. Cant. 5: 11. Horace represents this also
as the taste of the Romans. In Barbary, the ladies all
affect to have their hair hang down to the ground, which,
after they have collected into one lock, they bind and plait
with ribbons. Where nature has been less liberal in its
ornaments, the defect is supp'iie^l by art, and foreign is
procured to be interwoven villi the natural hair. The
apostle's remark on this subject corresponds entirely with
the custom of the East, as well as with the original design
of the Creator : — " Does not even nature itself teach you,
that if a man have long hair, it is a shame unto him ?
But if a woman have long hair, it is a glory to her; for
her hair is given her for a covering," 1 Cor. 11: 14. The
men in the East, Chardin observes, are shaved ; the wo-
men nourish their hair with great tbndness, which Ihey
lengthen by tivsses, and tufts of silk down to the heels.
But among the Hebrews the men did not shave their
heads ; they wore their natural hair, though not long ; and
it is certain that they were, at a very remote period, ini-
tiated in the art of cherishing and beautifying the hair witlr
fragrant ointments, Exod. 30: 32,33, rs.'23:5. Eccl. 9: 8.
Matt, (i: 17. After the hair is plaited and perfumed, the
Eastern ladies proceed to dress their heads, by lying above
the lock into which they collect it, a triangular piece of
linen, adorned with various figures in needle-work. This,
among persons of better fashion, is covered with a sarmak,
as they call it, which is made in the same triangular
shape, of thin, flexible plates of gold or silver, carefully
cut through, and engraven in imitation of lace. This ex-
cessive attention to ornament is noticed and forbidden bv
the apostles, 1 Tim. 2: 9. 1 Pet. 3: 3. Cutting off the haiV
was a sign of mourning, Jer. 7:29; but sometimes in
mourning they suffered it to grow long. In ordinary sor-
rows they neglected their hair ; and in -violent paroxysms
they plucked It oft' with their hands. — Calmet ; IVatson.
HAIRETITES ; a sort of Mohammedan sceptics, who
afl'ect to doubt of every thing, while they inconsistently
consider themselves as Musselmen. They drink freely
of opiates, and cannot be supposed very strict in conform-
ing to a religion which they do not believe : yet there are
said to have been muftis (priests) of this sect. SycatU's
Ottoman Empire, cited by Broughton. — miliams.
HALAH ; a river of Media, or of Colchis.— Also, a city
or country of Media, to which the Icings of Assyria ti-ans-
planted the ten tribes. It is mentioned with Habor ; (2
Kings 17: 0.) which shows it to have been on the nvei
Gozan. Hyde supposes it to be Holwan ; Bochart thinks
HAL
[ 592 ]
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it to be the metropolis of the Calachene, admitting a per-
mutation of the first letter. — Calmet,
HALCYONS ; a name assumed, in 1802, by a small
body of Christians in the United States, whose tenets re-
sembled those now known by the name of Christians.
HALDANITES; the followers of Robert and James
Alexander Haldane, two gentlemen of fortnne, brothers,
and secedera from the church of Scotland ; who, between
twenty and thirty years since, formed the design of de-
voting themselves to the propagation of the gospel in
India ; but, being prevented by the East India company,
directed their attention to its dissemination at home, and
spent considerable sums in the erection of large places of
worship in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen ; and in
other means of circulating evangelical religion. In the
prosecution of their inquiries after truth, they adopted
many of the tenets of Sandeman, with some rigid forms
of discipline. Afterwards they became Baptists, and the
parly divided and subdivided, till they became, as a sect,
extinct ; and most of their followers have either joined the
Scotch Baptists, or Independents.
It should be observed, that though these gentlemen have
vacillated on minor points, they have always adhered to
the great and fundamental truths of revelation ; and, as
they have latterly relaxed in their zeal on inferior points,
they have become more zealous for the great essentials of
religion. Mr. Robert Haldane has recently published a
work on the Evidence of Divine Revelation, which is re-
commended by the London Christian Observer as in some
respects preferable to Paley. (See Baptists, the Scottish.)
— J. A. Haldane' s Social Worsliip ; Morisori's Theol. Diet.;
Evans' Sketch, (1817,) p. 317, ice— Williams.
HALE, (Sir Matthew,) an eminent and incorruptible
judge, born, in 1609, at Alderley, in Gloucestershire, was
the son of a retired barrister. AVith the exception of one
period, when his mind was corrupted by attending the
theatre, from which, however, he was happily recovered
by divine grace, he studied dihgeutly at Magdalen Hall,
Oxford, and Lincoln's Inn ; and was called to the bar not
long before the breaking out of the civil war. Though he
acted as counsel for Stratford, Laud, Hamilton, and many
others of the king's party, and even for Charles himself,
he conformed to the republican government, and became
a lay member of the Westminster assembly of divines.
By dint of importunity, Cromwell prevailed upon him, in
1654, to become one of the justices of the Common bench,
but he soon offended the Protector by refusing to warp the
laws, and the result was, that he thenceforth refused to try
criminal causes.. Having promoted the Restoration, he
was, in 1660, appointed chief baron of the exchequer,
and, in 1671, chief justice of the king's bench. He died
in 1676.
The seat of judgment was never more purely filled than
by Sir Matthew Hale. No influence, no power, could
turn him aside from the path of rectitude. His private
character was equally estimable. He was a Protestant,
and a most devout Christian. He delighted to encourage
youthful genius, diligence, and piety. His " Letters to
liis Children," and ''Grandchildren," are among his most
useful works.— The knowledge of judge Hale was not
confined to the law, but extended to divinity, mathematics,
md history, upon all of which subjects works of his are
oxlant. His principal religious production is, Contempla-
tions, Moral and Divine. Among his legal labors are, A
History of the Pleas of the Crown ; and A History of the
Common Law of England.— Z>fl!)e;iporf.
HALL, (Joseph, D. D.,) bishop of Norwich, a divine
and poet, was born, in 1574, at Ashby de la Zohch, in
Leicestershire, and was educated at Emanuel college,
Cambridge. His mother was a woman of uncommon pi-
ety. After having held the livings of Halsted and Wal-
iham, and (he deanery of Worcester, and been chosen as
one of the English divines deputed to the synod of Dort,
he was raised, in 1627, to the see of Exeter, whence, in
1641, he was translated to Norwich. Though he had re-
fused to persecute the Puritans, yet, having joined the other
bishops in the celebrated protest against "laws made dur-
ing their absence from the upper house, he was committed
to the Tower, and his estate was subsequently seques-
trated. To insults and affronts the most paltry, yet gall-
ing and oppressive, he was compelled to submit ; though
he deserved the respect and esteem of all men, and of all
parties. Soon after his expulsion from his bishopric, he
retired to a small place called Higham, in Norfolk,
where, notwithstanding the diminution of his income, he
was charitable to the destitute, and distributed considera-
ble sums to poor widoAvs. In that retirement he finished
his valuable life ; and on the 8th of September, 1656, in the
eighty-second year of his age, he expired, and was buried
in the churchyard of that parish, without any memorial.
Bishop Hall was a man of great wit and learning,
meekness, modesty, and piety. His writings, which are
numerous, and which are generally known by the appella-
tion of " Hall's Contemplations," are replete with fine
thoughts, excellent morality, and sincere piety : they are
a complete body of divinity. In some single pages ami
sentences, more of knowledge and information is commu-
nicated, than in volumes of modern treatises and sermons.
Few men knew so well the human heart ; and though
sometimes his expressions are coarse, his style too collo-
quial, and his manner offensive ; yet whoever can value a
diamond, though its encrustation may be coarse and uii-
pleasing, for its intrinsic excellence and value, will, on
the same principle, prize the works of this very excellent
man. They consist of five volumes quarto, or twelve
volumes octavo, and have gained their author the name of
the English Seneca. — Davenport ; Jones' Chr. Biog.
HALL, (Gordon,) first American missionary at Bom-
bay, was a native of Berjcshire county, Massachusetts, and
was graduated at Williams college in 1808. Having stu-
died theolog)', he refused an invitation to settle in Connec-
ticut, saying, " Wo is me if I preach not the gospel to the
heathen." Offering himself as a mis.sionary to the Ame-
rican Board of Commissioners for foreign missions, he was
ordained at Salem, with Judson, Newell, Nott, and Rice,
February 6, 1812, and in the same month sailed for Cal-*-
cutta. Mr. Hall arrived at Bombay in February, 1813 ;
and there spent thirteen years in his benevolent toils, with
a purpose unaltered and zeal unquenched. He had just
revised the New Testament in Mahratia, when, as he was
on a journey in the interior, he was seized with the chole-
ra, which proved fatal in eight or nine hours. He died
March 20, 1826, aged about thirty-six.
He was a inan of great force of mind and decision of
character, of ardent piety, and of entire devoledness to the
work of a missionary. His vigorous frame and habits of
life fitted him to endure the hardships of a missionary.
His qualifications of every kind for the work to which he
devoted his life, were very uncommon. He published An
Appeal to American Christians, in behalf of the Twelve
Millions speaking the Mahratta Lang;uage, 1826. He wrote
also, with Blr. Newell, The Conversion of the World, or
the Claims of Six Hundred MiUions, &c.2ded. 1818. The
New Testament, in Mahratta, was printed at the mission
press in Bombay, in 1826. Memoir. Miss. Her., Oct. 1826,
— Allen.
HALL, (Rev. Robert, A. M. ;) a name rich in sacred
as well as splendid associations. This extraordinary man,
who, in the recorded judgment of Dr. Parr, combined " the
eloquence of an orator, the fancy of a poet, the acuteness
of a schoolman, the profoitndness of a philosopher, and the
piety of a saint," was the son of the Rev. Robert Hall, of
Arnsby, (Eng.) He was born May 2, 1764. His mother
is represented as a woman of sterling sense, and distin-
guished piety. Robert was the youngest of fourteen chil-
dren, and while an infant was so delicate and feeble, that
he was not expected to reach maturity, and he could nei-
ther walk nor talk till two years old. His nurse taught
him his alphabet from the grave stones in a burial ground
near his father's dwelling. That burial ground became
afterwards, out of school hours, his favorite study, where,
reclining on the grass, he would remain with his books,
till the shades of evening deepened around him. It is not
improbable that he here contracted the injury and pain in
his back froiu which he suffered so much through his
whole life, and which led Dr. Prichard to remark, that "no
man probably ever went through more physical suffering
than Mr. Hall," and that "he was a fine example of the
triumph of the higher powers of mind, exalted by religion,
over the infirmities of the body."
HAL
[ 593 1
II A L
His intellect early ■ developed its extraordinary vigor.
Edwards on the Will, and Butler's Analogy, were the
chosen companions of his childhood, being perused and
re-perused with intense interest before he was nine years
old. At eleven, his master, Mr. Simmons, declared him-
sel£ unable any longer to keep pace with his pupil. At
the same time he manifested such unequivocal proofs of
piety, that his delighted father began to think seriously of
devoting him to the sacred office. Some friends, indeed,
inost injudiciously drew him forward repeatedly to preach,
at the age of eleven, to select companies ; a circumstance,
which from the vanity it inspired, he afterwards strongly
reprobated. He was put under the instructions of the Rev.
John Ryland, of Northampton, where he made great pro-
gress in the languages, acquired the general principles of
abstract science, a thirst for knowledge of every kind, and
the habit, as well as taste, for beautiful composition. In
1778, he entered the Bristol Institution as a student of
theology. So precocious was the development of his pul-
pit talents, that he was solemnly ordained to the work of
the ministry, in 1780, at the age of sixteen. The next
year, he entered King's college, Aberdeen, on Dr. AVard's
foundation. Here he enjoyed the instruction of Drs. Ge-
rard, Ogilvie, Beattie, and Campbell, and here also formed
that intimate friendship wifh Sir James Mackintosh, which
continued through life, and which there is reason to believe
IS now made perfect in heaven. Mr. Hall was the first
scholar in his class through his collegiate course, and was
considered by all the students a model of social, moral,
and religious excellence. Sir James said he became at-
tached to Mr. Hall, " because he could not help it." Nei-
ther their tastes nor sentiments were alike at first, yet their
cast of mind was similar, and it was not long before Sir
James became, to use his own language, " fascinated with
his brilliancy and acumen, in love with his cordiality and
ardor, and awe-struck by the transparency of his conduct
and the purity of his principles."
In 1783, Mr. Hall became assistant pastor at Broad-
mead, Bristol, with Dr. Evans, and also classical tutor in
the Baptist Academy, which offices he filled with great
popularity for five years. In 17^10, he removed to Cam-
bridge, and became successor to JMr. R. Robinson, as
pastor of the Baptist church. Here, in 1791, he published
his " Christianity consistent with the Love of Freedom,"
and, in 1793, his " Apology for the Freedom of the Press."
The death of his excellent father, in 1791, led Mr. Hall to
a deeper prayerfulness, and issued in the renunciation of
some erroneous views w'hich he had imbibed from the spe-
culations of Dr. Priestley, whom as a philosopher he early
admired and defended. Here also he revised and extended
his knowledge in every department, re-arranged the whole
furniture of his mind, and the economy of his habits, while
at the same time his piety grew in seriousness, affection,
and ardor. His labors were not only greatly admired, but
blessed to the revival of evangelical piety, and a large in-
crease of the church and congregation. Here also, iu
1799, he preached and published his celebrated sermon on
Modern Infidelity, which not only procured him the esteem
of many illustrious men of all orders, but is supposed to
have done more to check the growing scepticism of the
times than any one work, Paley's and Burke's not ex-
cepted. It is indeed a masterly expose of the unsound
principles and pernicious tendency of the atheistical
French philosophy. In 1802, appeared his " Reflections
on War." The threatened invasion of Bonaparte, in 1803,
brought him again before the public, in the discourse en-
■ titled -'Sentiments suitable to the Present Crisis," which
raised Jlr. Hall's reputation for large views and powerful
eloquence to the highest pitch.
In November, 1804, owing chiefly to the increasing
pain in his back, attended by the want of sufficient exer-
cise and rest, the exquisitely toned mind of Mr. Hall lost
its balance, and he who had so long been the theme of
universal admiration, became the subject of as extensive
a sympathy. He was placed under the care of Dr. Arnold
of Leicester, where, by the divine blessing, his health was
restored in about two months. But similar causes pro-
duced a relapse, about twelve months afterwards, from
which he was soon restored ; though it was deemed essen-
tial to the permanent establishment of his health, that he
75
should resign his pastoral charge, and remove from Cam-
bridge. This he did, though the attachment on both sides
remained undiminished until death. Two shocks of so
humiliating a calamity within the compass of a year,
deeply impressed Mr. Hall's mind. His own decided
persuasion was, that he never before experienced a tho-
rough transformation of character; and there can be no
Question that from this period his spirit was habitually
more humble, dependent, and truly devotional. It became
his custom to renew, every birthday, by a solemn act, the
dedication of himself to God, on evangelical principles,
and in the most earnest sincerity of heart.
In 1807, he became pastor of the Baptist church in
Leicester, where he soon after married, and where he
labored most successfully for nearly twenty years. At no
period was he more happy, active, and useful. The
church, when he left it, was larger than the whole congre-
gation when he took the charge of it. But his influence
was not confined to the limits of his parish. He took an
active part in all the noble charities of the age, and by his
sermons, speeches, and writings, exerted a wide influence
on society, not only in England, but on the continent of Eu-
rope, America, and in India. His Review of Zeal without
Innovation, &c. his tracts on the Terms of Communion, and
his sermons on the Advantages of Knowledge to the
Lower Classes, on the Discouragements and Supports of
the Christian Ministry, on the Character of a Christian
Missionary, on the Death of the Princess Charlotte, and
of Rev. Dr. Ryland, with several others, were given to the
public while residing here. Here also, in 1823, he deli-
vered his admirable course of lectures on the Socinian
Controversy, partially preserved in his Works.
Wherever he went, he was called to address overflowing
congregations. Churchmen and dissenters ; men of rank
and influence, individuals in lower stations ; men of sim-
ple piety, and others of deep theological knowledge ; men
who admired Christianity as a beautiful system, and those
who received it into the heart by faith ; men in doubt,
others involved in unbelief; all resorted to the place where
he was announced as the preacher.
In 1826, a sense of duty to the denomination of which
he was so distinguished an ornament, induced him to accept
of the unanimous invitation of the church in Broadmead,
Bristol, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of the
excellent Dr. Ryland. The separation from his flock at
Leicester was mutually distressing, though soothed and
sustained by Christian principles. At Bristol he was wel-
comed with enthuisiastic joy, and the same church which
enjoyed his earliest ministry, was favored with his last.
Large accessions were received during the five years
which preceded his death, and this, together with the so-
ciety of many valued friends, among whom was the Rev.
John Foster, notwithstanding his disease in the back, and
increasing infirmities, made the closing years of his life
eminently happy.
In February, 1831, the church of Christ, and the world
at large, were deprived of the services of this great man,
now in his sixty-seventh year, after an illness of ten days,
a full and affecting account of which has been given to
the public by Dr. Chandler. When he first announced
his apprehension that he should never again minister
among his people, he added, " But I am in God's hands,
and I rejoice that I am. I have not one anxious thought,
either for life or death. I think I would rather go that>.
stay ; for I have seen enough of the world, and I have an
humble hope." After one of his severe paroxysms, being
asked if he felt much pain, he replied, that his sufferings
were great ; " but what,'' he added, " are my sufferings,
to the sufferings of Christ ? His sufferings were infinitely
greater; his sufferings were complicated. God has been
very merciful to me ; very merciful." During the last
day, when the final paroxysm came on, Mrs. Hall in much
agitation exclaimed, "This can't be dying!" to which he
replied, " It is death — it is death— death ! Oh the suffer-
ings of this body !" Being asked, " But are you comfort-
able in your mind?" he immediately answered, "Very
comfortable — very comfortable !" and exclaimed, "Come,
Lord Jesus— Come." He hesitated, as if incapable of
bringing out the last word ; and one of his daughters m-
voluntarily anticipated him by saying "nn.cklv. on
• quickly !
HAL
[ 594 ]
HAL
whicli her departing father gave her a look of the most
complacent delight. There was a solemn and awful gran-
deur in this last scene. He died from a failure of the vital
powers of the heart, amidst the most vigorous exercises of
consciousness and volition. Peacefully he closed those
brilliant eyes which had so often beamed rays of benignity
and intellectual fire. Calmly, yet firmly, he sealed those
lips which had so often charmed the ears of thousands
with messages of divine mercy and grace. " I have never
before seen," says Dr. Chandler, " and scarcely shall I
again witness, a death in all its circumstances so grand
and impressive ; so hannonions with his natural charac-
ter, so consistent with his spiritual life. And when after
death, we gazed upon his countenance, combining such
peace, benevolence, and grandeur in its silent expressions,
we felt the reaction of faith on sensible objects, exhilarating
us with the consolatory conviction, that the gain of the
departed was in a sense proportioned to the loss felt by the
Christian church."
" The loss of Mr. Hall," says John Foster, " is reflected on
with a sentiment peculiar to the event, never experienced
before, nor to be expected in any future instance."
In the social circle, and in the solemn assembly, Mr.
Hall appeared as a distinguished representative, a most ex-
pressive organ of our nature, in all its more familiar sen-
timents, or in all its more sublime conceptions and aspira-
tions. Hence he was regarded by the multitudes who
sought his public or his private presence as a kind of uni-
versal property, whom all parties had a right to enjoy, and
none to monopolize : before him all forgot their denomina-
tions, as he appeared to forget his own, in the comprehen-
sive idea of the church of Christ.
There was nothing very remarkable in Mr. Hall's man-
ner of delivering his sermons. His simplicity, yet solemnity
of deportment, engaged the attention, but did not promise
any of his most rapturous effusions. His voice was feeble,
but distinct, and as he proceeded trembled beneath his
images, and conveyed the idea that the spring of sublimity
and beauty in his mind was exhaustless, and would pour
forth a more copious stream, if it had a wider channel
than could be supplied by the bodily organs. The plainest
and least inspired of his discourses were not without deli-
cate gleams of imagery, and felicitous turns of expression.
But he was ever best when be was intensest — when he
unveiled the mighty foundations of the rock of ages — or
made the hearts of his hearers vibrate with a strange joy,
which they will recognise in more exalted stages of their
being.
His excellence did not so much consist in the predomi-
nance of one of his powers, as in the exquisite proportion
and harmony of them all. The richness, variety, and
extent of his knowledge, were not so remarkable as his
absolute mastery over it. There is not the least appear-
ance of straining after greatness in his most magnifi-
cent excursions, but he rises to the loftiest heights with a
childlike ease. His style as a writer is one of the clearest
and simplest — the least encumbered with its own beauty —
of any which ever has been written. His noblest passages
do but make truth visible in the form of beauty, and ■■' clothe
upon" abstract ideas, till they become palpable in exquisite
shapes. The dullest writer would not convey the same
meaning in so few words, as he has done in the most sub-
lime of his illustrations. " Whoever wishes to see the
English language in its perfection," says Dugald Stewart,
" must read the writings of Rev. Robert Hall. He com-
bines the beauties of Johnson, Addison, and Burke, with-
out their imperfections."
His "Works" have been collected and published, with
a Memoir of his Life, by Dr. Gregory, and Observations
on his Character as a Preacher by the profound Foster.
They have been reprinted in this countrv, in three vols
octavo, and widelv circulated. See Memoir, &c
HALLELUJAH. (See Alleluia.)
HALLER, (Baron Albert Von.) a native of Smtzer-
land, who has many claims to fame, was born in 1708 at
Berne, and displayed, even in childhood, the most extra-
ordinary talents. Having chosen the medical profession
he studied at Tubingen and Leyden, after which he visit-
ed England and France, and then proceeded to Basil to
make himself master of mathematics under James Ber-
nouilli. Botany also became one of his favorite pursuits,
and he began to display those poetical powers which
eventually ranked him among the standard German poets.
For nineteen years he was professor of anatomy, sixrgery,
and botany, at Gottingen, at the expiration of which period
he returned to his native country. There he resided,
honored by his fellow citizens, for nearly a quarter of a
century ; continued to benefit science by his literary la-
bors ; filled several important offices in the state, and
adorned the gospel by his life. He died in 1777. Among
his numerous productions are the collection of Bibliotheca;,
in ten quarto volumes ; Prelections ; Elements of Physi-
ology ; Outlines of Physiology ; various works on Botany ;
and his invaluable Letters to his Daughter on the Excel-
lence of the Christian Religion. — Davenport.
HALLET, (Joseph,) a learned and celebrated minister
amongst the Protestant dissenters, was born at Exeter,
Eng. in the year 1692. His father (the venerable Joseph
Hallet) kept an academy in the same city ; where his son
went through the usual course of a learned education
amongst the dis.senters. After this he became on assis-
tant to his father in the academy ; and, in the year 1713,
he was admitted to the ministerial office. In 1715 he was
ordained at Exeter; and, soon after his ordination, he
was chosen pastor of a small congregation at Shobrook,
in the neighborhood of that city, where he continued to
preach till the year 1722, when he was called to succeed
his father as co-pastor with Mr. Peirce, in his native city.
His first appearance, as a writer, was in the year 1720,
when he published a tract, entitled, " The Unity of God
not inconsistent with the Divinity of Christ." In 1726 he
published " The Reconciler ; or, an Essay to show that
Christians are much more agreed in their notions concern-
ing the Holy Trinity, than has been commonly represent-
ed ;" and in 1729, " A collection of Notes on some Texts
of Scripture," &c.
About this time the famous treatise of Tindal, entitled,
" Christianity as Old as the Creation," made its appear-
ance ; the author of which had, amongst other things,
advanced, that miracles are no proof of any religion, be-
cause they may be performed by evil beings ; and, as
what he had said upon this subject had puzzled many,
Mr. Hallet took occasion to lay before the public " An
Essay on the nature and use of Miracles ; designed against
the assertion, that they are no proper proof of a Divine
Blission. To which is prefixed an Answer to some other
objections against Revealed Religion contained in a late
book, entitled, ' Christianity as old as the Creation.'" This
was followed, in 1731, by " A Defence of a Discourse on
the Impossibility of proving a Future State by the Light
of Nature : with an Answer to the Rev. Mr. Grove's
Thoughts on the same Subject." In the following j'car,
Sir. Hallet published, " A Second Volume of Notes and
Discourses."
Mr. Peircc's excellent Paraphrase and Notes on the Epis-
tle to the Hebrews, being left unfinished, and printed in that
imperfect state, our. author, after having waited above
five years to see whether the work would be completed
by any other person, was prevailed upon, by the importu-
nity of some of his friends, to publish " A Paraphrase and
Notes on the last Three Chapters of the Epistle to the
Hebrews ; being a Supplement to the learned Mr. Peirce'S
Paraphrase and Notes on this Epistle ; with an Essay to .
discover the Author of the Epistle, and the Language in
which it was originally \^Titten." In 1736 our author
published " A Third Volume of Notes and Discourses."
In the same year, likewise, he published a tract, entitled,
" The Truth and Importance of the Scripture Doctrine of
the Trinity and Incarnation demonstrated." In the follow-
ing year, the publication of Dr. Morgan's " Moral Philo-
sopher," making a great noise in the literary world, our
author was one of the first that entered the lists against
him. The piece which he wrote upon this occasion was
printed the same year, under the title of " The Immorality
of ' The Moral Philosopher ;' being an Answer to a Book
lately published, entitled, ' The I\Ioral Philosopher.' "
Dr. Morgan replying to this piece, our divine immediately
published " A Letter to the Moral Philosopher ; being a
Vindication of a Pamphlet, entitled, ' The Immorality of
tlie Moral Philosopher.' " This was fcllowed, some time
HAL
[ 595
HAL
after, by "A Rebulte to tha Bloral Philosopher for the
Errors and Immoralities contained in his Third Vol-
ume ;'' which closed the controversy on the part of our
author. In 1T38 Mr. Hallet published " The consistent
Christian ; being a Confutation of the Errors advanced in
Mr. Chubb's late book, entitled, ' The True Gospel of Jesus
Christ asserted,' relating to the Necessity of Faith, the Na-
ture of the Gospel, the Inspiration of the Apostles, &c. ;
with Remarks on his Dissertation on Providence." He
continued to prosecute his studies with his usual diligence ;
and faithfully discharged the duties of his profession till
his death, which happened in the year 1744.
Mr. Hallet's truly Christian behavior, and mild and
gentle temper, endeared him to all his acquaintance ; and
he enjoyed the general esteem of his contemporaries.
His various publications, and particularly his " Notes and
Discourses on several passages of the Old and New Tes-
tament," are, and \vill remain, a sufficient proof of his
having possessed the greatest critical sagacity, combined
with extensive learning. Brit Biog. — Jones^ Chris. Biog.
HALLOW ; to render sacred, set apart, consecrate.
The English word is from the Saxon, and is properly to
'uiltfy, to make holy ; hence hallowed persons, things, places,
rites, &c. ; hence also, the name, character, power,
dignity of God, is to be hallowed; that is, profoundly
reverenced as holy in eveiy human heart. Matt. 6. Luke
11. (See Sanctificatio.v ; Holy.) — Calmct.
HALT ; to go lame on the feet or legs. Many persons
who were halt, were cured by our Lord! To halt between
two opinions, (1 Kings 18: 21.) should perhaps be under-
stood to hesitate, from indecision which to embrace ; or to
stagger from one to the other, repeatedly. Some say, it
is an allusion to birds, who hop from spray to spray, for-
wards and backwards : — as the contrary influence of sup-
posed convictions vibrated in the mind in alternate af-
firmation and doubtfulness. — Calniet.
HALYBURTON, (Thomas,) profe.ssor of divinity in the
university of St. Andrews, was born at Duplin, Scotland,
in the parish of Aberdalgy, near Perth, Dec. 25, 1G74.
Both his parents were eminently pious. In 16S2 his fa-
ther died, in the fifty-fifth year of his age ; and the care
of the son's morals and education devolved on his excel-
lent mother. Never was the importance of the union of
piety and literature in the maternal character more fully
developed than in tliis instance. But for this the world
might never have heard, nor the church have felt, the
benefit of the talents and Christian virtues of Halyburton.
He was in early youth the subject of frequent, but ineffec-
tual religious convictions. In 1089 he began to be per-
plexed respecting the evidences of revealed religion, till,
after having experienced some mental relief from Robert
Bruee's " Fulfilling of the Scriptures," he received further
aid from Mr. Donaldson, an excellent old minister, who
came to preach at Perth, and paid a risit to his mother.
He inquired of his young friend, if he sought a blessing
from God on his learning ; remarking, at the same time,
with an austere look — " Sirrah, unsanctified learning has
done much mischief to the kirk of God." This led him to
seek divine direction in extraordinary difficulties; but this
exercise, he acknowledges, left him still afar off from
God." At the university of St. Andrews his rega«l for
religion increased ; and, under the ministry of Mr. Thomas
Forrester, he began to discover the more secret evils of
his heart. He formed many good resolutions. and thought
he had found peace ; but it was a structure, which had
for its foundation vows made, and sometimes fulfilled
with apparent success, rather than the aionement of Christ.
Having applied himself closely three years to the study
of philosophy, he had thought of going abroad, in search of
further improvement; but fear of the sea on the one
hand, and the pressing sohcitations of friends on the other,
prevailed with him to engage as domestic chaplain'in a
nobleman's family. Accordingly, in August, 1696, he went
to the "Wemyss. Here he met with considerable difficul-
ties, arising out of his prominent situation, and more
especially, from the debates into which he was drawn on
the truth of religion.
In resorting to the works of deists, with a view to meet
their arguments, his own mind was much perplexed ; but
the valuable fruit of his study, in reference to ethers, may
be seen in his admirable " Inquiry into the Principles of
Modern Deists," published some years after, which has
been often republished, and is still a standard work on
that subject. Nor in the issue, could he regret a research
which taught him an humble submission to the dictates of
divine revelation, notwithstanding at first he was the
subject of the most distressing doubts. He represents his
state of depression, during this conflict, as of a nature too
grave to have been long sustained. But about the close
of January, or beginning of February, 1698, he obtained
from the Scriptures that salutary relief, which was no less
necessary to his earthly existence, than to his spiritual
peace. New light broke in upon his mind. From the
doctrine of the cross he derived that consolation which he
had in vain sought elsewhere, and that purity, which i^
connected, as a principle, with the religion of Christ His
heart was expanded towards others, and for many days
together, he says, he seemed admitted into the very " se-
cret of the divine pavilion." The most overwhelming
sense of his own worthlessness pervaded his mind, and
his feelings of reverence for God were exceedingly exalted ;
— his joy, he states to have been " truly unspeakable, and
full of glory." So much was he raised above earth, that
he could scarcely bend his mind to the perusal of any
works but those of a devotional cast. His views of the
enormity of sin, he says, grew clearer as he advanced in
holiness ; his contrition under it became more pungent,
and his desire after freedom from its influence more ar-
dent. " All his former doubts, respecting the being of a
God, vanished in the clear light of an evangelical faith ;
and he had a witness to the existence of a Being, of infi-
nite love and purity, in the internal satisfaction and holi-
ness of his heart." The divine authority of the Scriptures,
which he had previously disputed, and on which his mind
could be satisfied neither by personal investigation, nor
by reading the works of others, now received sufficient
proof in the discoveries which they had enabled him to
make of his own guilt — of the being, attributes, and pur-
poses of God — and the transforming, quickening, support-
ing, and reviving influences which they had conveyed to
his own mind. In short, reason now became entirely the
disciple of revelation, and the thoughts of entering the
ministry, which he had previously laid aside, on account of
the wavering stale of his mind, now returned. He was
licensed to preach, June 22, 1699, and appointed minister
of Ceres parish, in 1700. Within a few years after Iiis
settlement at Ceres, his health began to fail ; and at length,
his indisposition so much increased, that with great diffi
culty he went through the labors incident to-- so large ?
parish. In April, 1710, he was appointed, by patent from
queen Anne, professor of divinity in the new college of St.
Andrews, through the mediation of the synod of Fife, and
delivered his inaugural oration in confutation of an athe-
istical pamphlet, entitled, " Epistola Archimedis ad Regem
Gelonem." In April, 1711, he was seized with a dan-
gerous pleurisy. This disease was removed, but he never
futly recovered his fonner strength ; and, on the 23d of
September, 1712, he depfeirted .triumphantly to his eternal
rest.
His last words are among the richest treasures which
piety ever bequeathed to the church ; and the letters
which he dictated on his dying bed, are specimens of his
unparalleled devotion and concern for the welfare of oth-
ers. He was singulai-ly fitted for the schools : he spoke
elegant Latin with fluency : he was well skilled in the
Greek, but his sickness prevented the execution of his
design to learn the Oriental languages. Few lives have
been more useful and distinguished by genuine piety ; his
death was a loss to Scotland, and the world at large. His
works, in ijdditiqn to those already mentioned, consist of —
"The Great Concern of Salvation ; in three parts, viz. — A
Discovery of INIan's Natural State ; or, the Guilty Sinner
Convicted : Blan's Recovery by Faith in Clirist'; or, the
Convinced Sinner's Case and Cure : The Christian's Duty,
with respect to both Personal and Family Religion." '■ The
Nature of Faith," in answer to Mr. Locke ; Glasgow,
octavo, 1770. Ten Sermons, preached before and after
the celebration of the Sacrament of the Lord's supper : to
which are added, Two Sermons, preached upon occasion
of the Death of a Friend. To these discourses is prefixed
HAM
HAM
an excellent preface by Dr. Watts, highly expressive both
cf their own worth, and of their author's. See the invalua-
ble Memoir of Halyburloi:. — Jones^ Chris. Biog.
HAM, or Cham, son of Noah, and brother to Shem
and Japheth, is believed to have been Noah's youngest
son. Ham, says Dr. Hales, signifies Imrnt or black, and
this name was peculiarly significant of the regions allotted
to his family. To the Cushites, or children of his eldest
son, Cush, were allotted the hot southern regions of Asia,
along the coasts of the Persian gulf, Susiana, or Chusis-
tan, Arabia, kc. ; to the sons of Canaan, Palestine and
Syria; to the sons of Misraim, Eg)'pt, and Libya, in Af-
rica. The Hamites in general, like tlie Canaanites of old,
were a sea-faring race, and sooner arrived at civilization
and the luxuries of life, than their simpler pastoral and
agricultural brethren of the other two families. The first
great empires of Assyria and Egj'pt were founded by
them ; and the republics of Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage,
were early distinguished for their commerce : but they
sooner also fell to decay ; and Egypt, which was one of
the first, became the last and " basest of the kingdoms,"
(Ezek. 29; 15.) and has been successively in subjection
to the Shemites;, and Japhethites ; as have also the settle-
ments of the other branches of the Hamites. (See Cana-
an, and Division of Mankind.) — Watson.
HAMAN, son of Hammedatha the Amalekite, of the
race of Agag ; or, according to other copies, of Hama-
dath the Buga:au or Gogaean ; that is, of tlie race of Gog,
or it may be read, Haman the son of Haraadath, which
Haman was Bagua or Bagoas, eunuch, or officer, to the
king of Persia. We have no proof of Hainan's being an
Amalekite ; but Esther 3: 1, reads, of the race of Agag.
In the apocryphal Greek, (ch. 9: 24.) and the Latin, (ch.
16: 6.) he is called a Macedonian. See the particulars of
his monitory history m the book of Esther.
There is something so entirely different from the cus-
toms of European civilization, in Hainan's proposed de-
struction of the Jewish people, (Esther ch. 3.) that tlie
mind of the reader, when perusing it, is alarmed. And,
indeed, it seems barely credible that a king should endure
a massacre of so great a proponion of his subjects — a
whole nation cut off at a stroke ! However, that such a
proposal might be made, is attested by a similar proposal
made in later times, which narrowly escaped witnessing
a catastrophe of the same nature. M. De Peysonnel, in
delineating the character of the celebrated Hassan Pacha,
(who, in the war of 1770, between Russia and Turkey,
became eminent as a seaman,) says of him, " He pre-
served the Greeks, when it tvas deliberated in the conncil [of
Ihe Grand Seignior] to exterminate them entirely as a
punishment for their defection, (i. e. of some of them,) and
to prevent their future rebellion : he obtained for them a
general amiesty, which he took care should be faithfully
observed." This account has subsequently been con-
firmed by Mr. Elton, of Smyrna. — Calmel.
HAMATH ; a celebrated city of Syria, which Ca\mel
supposes to be Emesa on the Orontes. " The entering in
of Hamath," is a narrow pass leading from Canaan to
Syria, through the valley between Libanus and Antiliba-
nus ; and is placed as the northern boundarj' of Canaan,
Judg. 3:3. 1 Kings 8: 65. 2 Kings 14: 25. 2 Chron. 7:
8. — Calmet.
HAMET, (Sect of ;) the followers of one Hamet, sup-
posed to be the same with Mahady, the head of a modern
sect of Musselmen, (A. D. 1792,) who reject the ancient
doctrine of the caliphs. See Mahady. Morse's Geog. vol.
u. Boston ed. 1796; GrSgoire's Hist. torn. ii. p. 424.—
Williams.
HAMILTON, (Patrick,) the first Scotch reformer. He
was of royal descent, a circumstance valuable as it drew
more attention to his doctrine, life, and suflferings. He
was naturally of an amiable disposition, and befng well
educated, was very eariy made abbot of Fenne. At the
age of twenty -three, he visited the continent, and at Wit-
tenberg met Luther and Mclancthon, from whom he re-
ceived instruction in the doctrine of the gospel. Relum-
ing to Scotland, he began to impart the knowledge of true
religion to his coumrymen. His fervor and boldness in
opposing the corruptions of popery alarming the clergy
he was summoned before the archbishop of St. Andrews^
in Feb. 1527, condemned, and delivered over to the secti-
lar power to be burnt. It was hoped he would be in-
duced to recant, but all endeavors proved unavailing to
shake the faith and finnness of the youthful martyr.
At the place of execution he gave his servant his gar-
ments, saying, "These are the last things yon can receive
of me, nor have I any thing now to leave you but the ex-
ample of my death, which I pray you to bear in mind : for
though it be bitter to the flesh, and fearful before men, yet
It is the entrance into eternal life, which none shall inherit
who deny Jesus Christ, before this wicked generation."
The fire burning slowly, his sufferings were long and
dreadful, bat his patience and piety were only more fully
displayed thereby ; insomuch that many were led to in-
quire into his principles, and to abjure the errors of popery.
" The smoke of Mr. Patrick Hamilton," said a papist,
" infected as many as it blew tipon ." His writings called
" Patrick's Places," have been esteemed by many, an admi-
rable and invaluable performance. — Middlcton, vol. i. p. 59.
HAMILTON, (Gen. Alexander,) first Secretary of the
Treasury of the United States, born in the island of Ne-
vis in 1757. At the age of sixteen, he accompanied his
mother to New York, and entered a student of Columbia
college, in which he continued about three years. While
a member of this institution the first buddings of his in-
tellect gave presages of his future eminence.
His brilliant military and civil career, with its melan-
choly close, is well known. He died in 1804, from a
mortal wound received in a duel with colonel Burr.
With all his pre-eminence of talents, he is yet a melan-
choly proof of the influence which intercourse with a de-
praved world has in pen'erting the judgment. In principle
he was opposed to dnelling, his conscience was not harden-
ed, and he was not indifferent to the hcsppiness of his wife
and children ; but in an evil hour he yielded to public
prejudice. His own views of usefulness were followed,
in contrariety to the injunctions of his Maker and Judge.
When afterwards, in conversaition with the Rev. Dr. Mason,
his sin was intimated to him, he assented with strong
emotion. And when the Redeemer was exhibited as the
only propitiation for sin, he said with emphasis, " I have
a tender reliance on the mercy of the Almi^lfty, through
the merits of Ihe Lord Jesus Christ." He had been for
some time convinced of the truth Of Christiainity, and it
was his intention, if his life had been spared, to have
written a work upon its evidences.
His writings were collected and published in three vols.
1810. Mason's Oral, on his Death ; Natt's Discourse ; Morris
Fun. Oration ; Otis' Eulogy ; A77ies' Sketch ; Marshall, p. 131,
350—360, 607— 611.— ^?/eH.
HAMILTON, (Elisabeth,) a female of great talents
and acquirements, was born, in 1758, at Belfast ; was
brought up by an uncle who resided near Stirling, in
Scotland ; acquired reputation by her productions, and
affection and respect by her disposition and character; and
died unmarried, at Harrowgate, July 23, 18W. Among
her works are. Letters of a Hindoo Rajah ; Memoirs of
Modem Philosophers (a satire on modem philosophism ;)
The Life of Agrippina ; The Cottagers of Glenburnie;
Popular Essays; Letters on the Elementary Principles of
Education ; and Letters on the Formation of the Religious
and Moral Principle. — Davenport.
HAMLW, (Philip ;) a French martyr of the sixteenth
century. He had been a Romish priest, but on renouncing
the errors of popery, was apprehended, and condemned to
the stake. He b?gan there earnestly toexhort the people,
when the officer commanded the fagots to be immediate-
ly lighted, and a trumpet blown while he was burning, that
none might be converted by his dying voice,— Fox, p. 117.
HAMMER. God's word is like a hammer ; with it he
breaks our hearts, Jer. 23: 29. Babylon rcas the hammer of
the whole earth ; the Chaldean armies broke in pieces and
subdued a multitude of nations, Jer. 1: 23. Neh. 1: 1. —
BroTpn .
HAMMOND, (Henry, D, D,,) a learned and eloquent
divine of the seventeenth century, was born the 18th of
August, 1605, at Ghertsey, in Surrey, His parents intend-
ing him for the church, he was sent at an early age to
Eton, whence he removed to Magdalen college, Oxford,
and became a fellow of that society in 1625. In 1633, the
HAN
[597]
11 AN
tUen earl of Leicester presented him to the rectorj'of Pens-
hurst, Kent, where he resided till 1643, haying graduated
• as doctor of divinity in the interval. During the revo-
lution he suffered much for his attachment to the royalist
cause. In 1660, he was called in to assist in restoring the
church establishment, and was nominated by Charles II.
to the bishopric of Worcester, but died before his conse-
cration, the same year. Besides his " Practical Cate-
chism,'' he was the author of a paraphrase of the New Tes-
tament, with notes, and had finished the book of Psalms,
with a view to the publication of a similar illustration of
the Old Testament, when death hindered the completion
of his design. His workswere collected after his decease,
and printed in four folio volumes, in 1684.
Dr. Hammond was in personal appearance very hand-
some,«weU made, and of a strong and vigorous constitu-
tion ; of a clear and florid complexion, his eye remarkably
quick and sprightly, and in his countenance there was
a mixture of sweetness and dignity. He possessed un-
common abilities, and his learning was great and extensive.
His eloquence was free, graceful, and commanding. His
piety was great and fervent, and much of his time was
spent in secret devotion. Bishop Burnet says that his
death was an unspeakable loss to the church. See Fell's
Life of Dr. Hammond. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
HAMONAH ; a city where Ezekiel (3!): 16.) foretold
the burial of Gog and his people would be. We know not
any tonm of this name in Palestine. Hamonah signifies
multitude : and the prophet intended to show, that the
slaughter of Gog's people would be so great, that the place
of their burial might be called Mvltitude. — Calmet.
HANANI ; the father of the prophet Jehu, 1 Kings 10:
7. Also a prophet who came to Asa, king of Judah, and
said, '■ Because thou hast put thy trust in the king of
Syria, and not in the Lord, the army of the king of Syria
is escaped out of thine hands," 2 Chron. 16: 7. We know
not on what occasion the prophet spake thus ; but Asa
ordered him to be seized and imprisoned. Some sup-
pose him to have been father to the prophet Jehu ; but
this does not appear from Scripture. Jehu prophesied
in Israel : Hanani in Judah. Jehu was put to death by
Baasha, king of Israel, who died A. M. 3075 ; but Hana-
ni reproved Asa, king of Judah, who reigned from A. M.
3049 to 2,^0.— Calmet.
HANANIAH ; one of the three young men of the tribe
of Judah and of the royal family, who, being carjied cap-
tive to Babylon, were selected for instruction in the sci-
ences of the Chaldeans, and to wait in Nebuchadnezzar's
palace. His name was changed to Shadrach ; and he be-
came celebrated for his refusal to worship the golden image
set up by Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1: 11. 3:4. (See Abeh-
NEGO.) Also a false prophet of Gibeon, who coming to Jeru-
salem in the fourth 5'ear of Zedekiah, king of Judah,
(A. M. 3409,) foretold to Jeremiah and all the people, that
within two y«ars all the vessels of the Lord's house that
Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, had carried to Babylon,
would be restored, Jer. 28. — Calmet.
HANBALLITES; a sect of Mussulmen ; so called
from their leader, Abu Hanhal, (about 323,) who pretend-
ed Mahomet was seated on the throne of God, which was
generally considered as impious. He, however, contrived
to raise a party, which occasioned an insurrection ; in
■which several thousand lives were sacrificed. D'llerbelot's
Bib. Orien. cited by Brnughton. — Williams.
HANCOCK, (Th'o.mas,) a benefactor of Harvard college,
was the son of Mr. Hancock, of Lexington, and died in
Boston, August 1, 1764. Although his nephew, governor
Hancock, inherited most of his property, yet he bequeath-
ed one thousand pounds sterling for founding a professor-
ship of the Hebrew and other Oriental languages in
Harvard college ; one thousand pounds to the society for
propagating the gospel among the Indians in North
America ; and six hundred pounds to the town of Boston,
towards erecting a hospital for the reception of such per-
sons as are deprived of their reason. Ann. Reg. for 1764,
116 ; Holmes. — Allen.
'' HAND. To kiss one's hand, is an act of adoration, 1
Kings 19: 18. "If I beheld the sun when it shined, and
my mouth hath kissed luy hand," Job 31: 27. To lift up
bfae's hand, is a way of taking an oath which has been in
use among all nations. To give one's hand, signifies to
grant peace, to swear friendship, to promise entire security,
to make alliance, 2 Kings 10: 15. The Jews say they
were obliged to give the hand to the Egyptians and Assyri-
ans, that they might procure bread ; (2 Mace. 13: 22.) that
is, to surrender to them, to submit.
To stretch out one's hand, signifies to chastise, to exer-
cise severity or justice, Ezek. 23: 7. God delivered his
people with a high hand, and arm stretched out ; by
performing many wonders, and inflicting many chastise-
ments, on the Egyptians. To stretch out one's hand,
sometimes denotes beseeching mercy : — " I have spread
out my hands,'' entreated, " all the day unto a rebellious
people," Isa. 65: 2.
To seat one on the right hand, is a token of high favor,
Ps. 16: 11. 77: 10. The Son of God is often reprecenled
as sitting at the right hand of his heavenly Father : — " The
Lord said to my Lord, sit thou at my right hand;" (Ps. 110:
1.) thou hast done thy work upon earth, now take posses-
sion of that sovereign kingdom and glory which by right
belongeth unto thee ; do thou rule with authority and
honor, as thou art Mediator.
The accuser was commonly at the right hand of the
accused : — " Let Satan stand at his right hand," Ps. 109:
6. And in Zech. 3: 1, Satan was at the right hand of
the high-priest Joshua, to accuse him. Often, in a con-
trary sense, to be at one's right hand signifies to defend,
to protect, to support him : — " I have set the Lord always
before me ; because he is at my right hand, I shall not be
moved," Ps. 16: 8.
Our Savior, in Matt. 0: 3, to show with what privacy
we should do good works, says that our left hand should
not know what our right hand does. Above all things,
we should avoid vanity and ostentation in all the good
we undertake to do, and should not think that thereby we
merit any thing.
Laying on hands, or iiuposition of hands, is understood
in different ways both in the Old and New Testament.
It is often taken for ordination and consecration of priests
and ministers, as well among the Jews as Christians, Nuin .
8: 10. Acts 6: 6. 13: 3. 1 Tim. 4: 14. Thus, when Mo-
ses constituted Joshua his successor, God appointed him
to lay his hands upon him. Num. 27: 18. Jacob laid his
hands on Ephraiin and ftlanasseh, when he gave them
his last blessing. Gen. 48: 14. The high-priest stretched
out his hands to the people, as often as he recited the
solemn form of blessing. Lev. 9: 22. The Israelites who
presented sin-offerings at the tabernacle, confessed their
sins while they laid their hands upon them. Lev. 1:4.
This testified that the person ack-nowledged himself worthy
of death, that he laid his sins upon the sacrifice, that he
trusted in Christ lor the expiation of his sins, and that he
devoted himself to God. Witnesses laid their hands upon
the head of the accused person, as it w'ere to signify that
they charged upon him the guilt of his blood, and freed
themselves from it. Dent. 13: 9. 17:7. Our Sa\nor laid
his hands upon the children that were presented to him,
and blessed them, Mark 10: 16. And the Holy Ghost
was conferred on those who were baptized by the laying on
of the hands of the apostles, Acts 8: 17. 19: 6. — Watsnn.
HANDBREADTH; a ineasure of about four inches.
Our days are as a handbreadth ; thej' are very short, and
their shortness ought to be ever before us, Ps. 39: 5. —
Brown.
HANDWRITING. The ceremonial law is called a
handwriting against us ; its rites witnessed our guilt and
desert of ieath, and it was a means of shutting out the
Gentiles from the church of God, Col. 2: 14. — Broi-.n.
HANNAH, wife of Elkanah, of Levi, and the excellent
mother of Samuel. She dweltat Kamath, or Ramalhaim,
in Ephraim, 1 Sam. 1: 2. — Calmet.
HANUN, son of Nahash, king of the Ammonites, is
known for his ruinous insult to David's ambassadors, sent
to compliment him after his father's death, 2 Sam. 10.
1 Chron. 19.— Calmet.
HANWAY, (JoNiS,) a Christian philanthropist, was
born 1712. at Portsmouth Eng. ; was engaged in mercantile
pursuits as a Russian merchant, in the course of which he
visited Persia ; and died in 1786. Hanway was a man
of great, active humanity. He w^s the chief fotmder of
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the Marine society and the Blagdalen hospital ; and con-
tributed to the establishment of Sunday schools, and to the
improvement of the condition of climbing boys. Besides
his Travels in Persia, he published many other works,
faulty in style, but benevolent in purpose. — Davenport.
HAPPINESS, absolutely taken, denotes the durable
possession of perfect good, without any mixture of evil ;
or the enjoyment of pure pleasure unalloyed with pain, or
a state in which all our wishes are satisfied ; in which
senses, happiness is only known by name on this earth.
The word happy, when applied to any state or condition
of human Hfe, will admit of no positive definition, but is
merely a relative term ; that is, when we call a man hap-
py, we mean that he is happier than some others with
whom we compare him ; than the generality of others ;
or than he himself was in some other sitnation.
Moralists justly observe, that happiness does not consist
in the pleasures of sense or imagination ; as eating, drink-
ing, music, painting, theatrical exhibitions, (Sec. &c. ; for
these pleasures continue but a lillle while, by repetition
lose their relish, and by high expectation often bring dis-
appointment. Nor does happiness consist in an exemption
from labor, care, business, &c. ; such a state being usual-
ly attended Avith depression of spirits, imaginary anxieties,
and the whole train of hypochondriacal afl'ections. Nor
is it to be found in greatness, rank, or elevated stations, as
matter of fact abundantly testifies ; but happiness consists
in the exercise of the dispositions, and the enjoyment of the
blessings, pointed out by our Lord in his sermon on the
mount, ]\Ia!t.ch.5 — 7. Eom.5:l — 10. In subordination to
these, huiuan happiness may be greatly promoted by the
exercise of the social affections ; the pursuit of some en-
gaging end, the prudent constitution of the habits, and the
enjoyment of our health. Fuller's Works, vol. i. 263 ;
MaclaurhCs Strmons and Essays ; Foster's Essays ; Tilhtson's
Sermons ; Bolton and Lnras on Happiness ; Henry's Pha-
smthiess of a Religions Life ; Grme and Foley's Mor. Fhil. ;
Barrorc's Serm., serm. 1 ; Young's Centaur, 41 — 160 ;
Wollaston's Religion of Nature, sec. 2 ; Oliver's Hints on the
Fursuit of Happiness ; Bentham ; Spurzheim ; Drvigkt's
Theology : and Memoir of Rev. Samuel Pearce. — H. Buck.
IIARA ; a city or district of Media, to which the Israel-
ites of the ten tribes were transplanted by Tiglath-Pileser,
1 Chron. 5: 26. — Cahnet.
HARADAH ; a camp station of Israel, Numb. 33: 24.
(See Exodus.) From its vicinity lo Egypt, the place of
bustle, or hasty removal. — Calmet.
HARAN ; the eldest son of Terah, and brother to Abra-
ham and Nahor. He was the father of Lot, Milcah, and
Iscah, Gen. 11: 26, Ate. Haran died before his father
Terah.
2. Haban, otherwise called Charran, in Mesopotamia;
a city celebrated for having been the place to which Abra-
ham removed first, after he left Ur, (Gen. 11: 31, 32.) and
where Terah was buried. Thither it was likewise that
Jacob repaired to Laban, when he fled from Esau, Gen.
27: 43. 28: 10, ifcc. Haran was situated in the north-
western part of Rlesopotamia, on a river of the same name,
running into the Euphrates. Mr. Kinneir says, that Ha-
ran, which is still so called, or rather Harran, is now peo-
pled by a few famihes of wandering Arabs, who have
been led thither by a plentiful supply of good water from
several small streams. It is situated in thirty-six degrees
fifty-two minutes north latitude, and thirty-nine degrees
five minutes east longitude ; in a flat and sandy plain.
Some think that it was built by Terah, or by Haran, his
eldest son. — Watsmi.
HARD. " A hard heart," denotes a mind void of holy
affections; " a hard forehead," detennined, insolent. "I
have made thy forehead hard against their foreheads ;"
(Ezek. 3: 8.) the Israelites are hardened to insensibihty,
have lost all shame ; but I will make you still harder, still
holder in reproving evil, than they are in committing it,
Isa. 50: 7.— Calmet.
HARDNESS OF HEART. (See Blindness.)
HARE, (Heb. arnabeth, Arab, arneb, Lev. 11: 6. Deut.
14: 7.) This name is derived, as Bochan and others sup-
pose, from areh, to crop, and niS, the produce of the ground ;
these animals being remarkable for devouring young plants
and herbage. This animal resembles the rabbit, but is
larger, and somewhat longer in proportion to its thickness.
The hare in Syria, says Dr. Russell, is distinguished into
two species, difiiering considerably in point of size. The
largest is the Turkinan hare, and chiefly haunts the plains ;
the other is the common hare of the desert : both are abun-
dant. The diflicully as to this animal is, that Moses says
the arnabeth chews the cud ; but Aristotle takes notice of
the same circumstance, and affirms that the structure of
its stomach is similar to that of ruminating animals.
Cowper the poet also tells us that his three hares "chewed
the cud all day till evening." The animal here mentioned
may then be a variety of the species. — Watson.
HARLOT ; literally a common prostitute ; (Prov. 29: 3.)
but the term most commonly occurs in Scripture meta-
phorically, to denote the unchaste conduct of the Israelites
in mingling the worship of the true God with the impure
and idolatrous rites of the heathen nations, in violation of
the covenant which had been ratified between God and
them, Isa. 1: 21. — Jones.
HARMER, (Thomas,) author of the " Observations on
various Passages of Scripture," was the minister of a Dis-
senting congregation at Wattesfield, near Bury St. Ed-
munds, in the county of Suffolk ; a station which he filled
with no inconsiderable degree of reputation and honor, for
more than half a century. He was much and deservedly
esteemed in the literary world, not only for his eminent
attainments in Oriental literature, but also for his skill in
the study of antiquities. Availing himself of .some manu-
scripts of the celebrated Sir John Chardin, who had tra-
velled into Persia and other Eastern countries, and in
which he described the customs and manners of the inha-
bitants of those nations, Mr. Harmer seized the idea of
applying the information thus obtained to the illustration
of many ]iortions of the prophetical writings, and of the
evangelists also ; and with so much success, that he was
considered to have poured a flood of light on several texts
which, till then, had been involved in obscurity. The
first volume of the " Observations" appeared in 1764 ; in
1776, the work again made its appearance, in two vo-
lumes, octavo ; and in 1787, were published two addi-
tional volumes ; a fourth etiition, in four volumes, was
called for in a short time afterwards ; and, since the de-
cease of the author, a fifth edition has been brought for-
ward by the learned Adam Clarke, LL. D., in four vo-
lumes, octavo, 1816, with considerable additions and cor-
rections, to which is prefixed a life of the author. JMr.
Harmer also published " Outlines of a New Commentary
on Solomon's Song," London, 1768, one volume, octavo ;
reprinted in 1775 : and a posthumous volume has recently
made its appearance, entitled, " The Miscellaneous Works
of the Rev. Thomas Harmer," with an introductory me-
moir, by William Youngman, London, 1823, octavo. Mr.
Harmer was born at Norwich, in 1715, and died in 1788,
at the advanced age of seventy -three. Watts' Bib. Brit. —
Jones' Chris. Biog.
HARMONISTS ; certain emigrants from Wurtemberg
to America, between 1803 and 1805, under Mr. George
Rapp, their pastor, being Compelled to leave their native
country, on account of the then government insisting upon
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Iheir attendance at the parish church, after some altera-
tion had been made in the pubUc service, which they did
not approve. They formed an economy on the primitive
plan of having " all thmg s in common," Acts 4: 32. They
laid out a town about a hundred and twenty miles north
of Philadelphia, where they so well succeeded, that, in
about 1814, they sold the whole concern, and removed to
form a new establishment, on an improved plan, in Indi-
ana, farther up the country. They profess the Protestant
religion, but admit of universal toleration. They cultivate
the learned languages and professions, and maintain strict
morals, with a due observation of the Sabbath. One cus-
tom is peculiar. They keep watch by turns at night ;
and, after crying the hour, add, " A day is past, and a step
made nearer our end. Our time runs away, and the joys
of heaven are our reward." (See Shakers.) Philanthro-
pist. No. XX. ; Philanthropic Gazette, 1817, p. 340 ; 1818,
p. 322; 1819, p. 61; Birkbeclc's Travels.— Williams.
HARMONY OF THE GOSPELS; a term made use
of to denote the concurrence or agreement of the writings
of the four evangelists; or the history of the four evange-
lists, digested into one continued series. By this means
each story or discourse is exhibited with all its concurrent
circj'irastances ; frequent repetitions are prevented, and a
ruH iudc of seeming oppositions reconciled. Among
soirlv> of the most valuable harmonies, are those of Cra-
dock, Le Clerc, Doddridge, Macknight, Newcome. Car-
penter ; Towson's able Harmony on the concluding part
of the Gospels ; and Thompson's Diatessaron. To the
theological student Griesbach's Synopsis of the first three
gospels, in Greek, with the various readings, is inva-
luable. An admirable harmony of both the Old and New
Testament has recently been published in England, by the
Kev. J. Townsend ; in which every book, passage, and
verse, is inserted as nearly as possible in the order of
time.
The term harmony is also used in reference to the
agreement which the gospel bears to natural religion, to
the Old Testament, to the history of other nations, and to
the works of God at large. — Hend. Buck.
HARNESS; the furniture of a horse, to render him fit
for work or war ; (Jer. 46: 4.) but it is more frequently
taken for a set of defensive armor, 1 Kings 22: 34. (See
Armor.) — Brown.
HAROD ; a well or fountain not far from Jezreel and
mount Gilboa, so called from the apprehensions and fears
of those who were here tried by Gideon, Judg. 1: 1, 3.
" Palpitation" of the heart, as a symptom of alarm and
terror. — Calme.t.
HAROSHETH OF THE GENTILES; a city sup-
posed to be situated near Hazor, in the northern parts of
Canaan, called afterwards Upper Galilee, or Galilee of the
Gentiles, for the same reason that this place probably ob-
tained that title; namely, from being less inhabited by
Jews, and being near the great resorts of the Gentiles,
Tyre and Sidon. This is said to have been the residence
of Sisera, the general of the armies of Jabin, king of Ca-
naan, who reigned at Hazor. — li'atson.
HARP; a stringed musical instrument. The Hebrew
V3rd ii«aor, which is translated "harp" in our English
version, very probably denoted all strmgcd instruments.
By the Hebrews, the harp was called the pleasant harp ;
and it was employed by them, not only in their devotions,
but also at their entertainments and pleasures. It is pro-
bable, that the harp was nearly the earliest, if not the
earliest, instrument of music. David danced when he
played on the harp : the Levites did the same. Hence it
appears, that it was light and portable, and that iis size
w-as restricted within limits which admitted of that service,
and of that manner of using it. — fVatson.
HARRIS, (Robert, D. D..) president of Trinity college,
Oxford, was born at Broad Campden, Glouco^rtershire,
1578, and educated at Oxford. There he became a .sub-
ject of divine grace, and relinquishing the law, for which
his father had designed him, devoted himself to theology.
Receiving ordination from archbishop Bancroft, he became
minister of Hanwell, where he continued forty years a la-
borious and successful pastor. God gave him so rich a
harvest, that of Hanwell it was said there was not a family
in it where God's name was not called upon, nor a person
that refused to be examined and instructed for tlie table ol
the Lord. Here he remained, blessed in himself and a
blessing to his people, till the civil war in 1642, when he
was driven by the king's soldiers to London. Here he
was appointed minister of St. Bololph, and one of the as-
sembly of divines. In 1617, he was made president of
Trinity college, Oxford, and rector of Garlington, near
Oxford, which is always annexed to it. He governed his
college with great prudence, and was beloved by the stu-
dents as a father. Here he continued till his death, in
1658, at the age of eighty. His last days were days of
great suffering and great consolation. Being asked w here
liis comfort lay, he answered, "In Christ and in the free
grace of God." One having observed tliat he might take
much comfort in the labors of his useful life, he answered,
" All is nothing without a Savior. Without him my best
worlcs would condemn me. Oh, I am ashamed of them,
as they were mixed with so much sin ! Oh, I am an unpro-
fitable servant! I have not done any thing for God, as I
ought. Loss of time sits heavify on my spirit. Work,
work apace, assuring yourselves that nothmg will more
trouble you when you come to die, than that you have
done no more for God, who hath done so much for you. I
never in all my life saw the worth of Christ, nor tasted the
sweetness of God's love in that measure that I do now."
So deeply were these sentiments impressed upon his
heart, that he wrote in his will, " I bequeath to all ray
children, and to their children's children, to each of them,
a Bible with this inscription ; None but Christ!" — Midille-
ton, vol. iii. 379.
HARRIS, (Samuel,) a Baptist minister, called the Apos-
tle of Virginia, was born of respectable parentage, in Ha-
nover county, January 12, 1724. Removing to Pittsylva-
nia county, he there sustained various offices, ns colonel
of the militia, captain of Mayo fort, and commissioner for
the fort and army. He was baptized about 1758. He
soon began to preach diligently, but was not ordained un-
til 1769. In his power over the aflections of his hearers
he was thought to be equal to Whitfield. The Virginians
say, he seemed to pour forth streams of lightning from his
eyes. His worldly offices he resigned, as he ascribed to
them the diminution of his religious enjoyments. In 1774,
the general association of Separate Baptists, thinking to
re-establish the primitive order, as mentioned Eph. 4: 11,
chose Mr. Harris apostle, and ordained him by the hands
of every minister in that body. No other instance of such
an extraordinary appointment is recollected. His pious
zeal met the usual return of persecution. He was once
pulled down from his stand, as he was preaching, and
dragged by the hair, and once knocked down. Having
much properly, he devoted the greater part to charitable
purposes.
The following anecdotes may illustrate his character.
Meeting a pardoned criminal, who showed him his pardon
leceived at the gallov.'s, he asked. " Have you shown it to
Jesus Christ!" "No, Mr. Harris, I want you to do it for
me." Accordingly the good man dismounted and kneeled,
and, with the pardon in one hand and the other on the
offender's head, rendered thanks and prayed for God's par-
don.— He once requested a debtor to pay him in wheat, as
he had a good crop ; but the man replied, that he did not
intend to pay until he was sued. Unwilling" to leave
preaching to attend a vexatious suit, he wrote a receipt in
full and presented it to the man, saying, he had sued him
in the court of heaven ; he should leave the afl'air with
the Head of the church, with whom he might settle ano-
ther day. The man soon loaded his wagon and sent
him the wheat. Bcnedid, ii. 40—58, 230— 339 .—Allen .
HARRISON, (John, A. M. ;) pastor of a congregation
at Weathersfield, Essex, (Eng.) who died in 1749. He
was educated at the university of Glasgow, and his fine
talents, sanctified bj' divine grace, well rewarded cultiva-
tion. As a minister he shone with pecuhar lustre, preach-
ing his sermons to himself in private before he delivered
them in public to others. The week before he was seized
with his last sickness he had spent in visiting his people,
and found, to his unspeakable joy, that upwards of twenty
had of late been savingly wrought upon by his minisir)'.
This powerfully affected him with humble, admmng gra-
titude and jov. He was favored in his last days with
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great spiritual happiness. Among other things he said,
" Oh, I never saw so much as I do now ! Oh the astonish-
ing, the inconceivable glory of the other world ! What
discoveries have I had of it this day. I long. I long to be
there ! I must have an eternity of praise ! Oh ihe unspeak-
able, the substantial joys I feel ! I know that my Redeemer
liveth ! This is glory begun ! I am filled with God ! My
life is hid with Christ in God." He particularly mentioned
how much Dr. Owen's work on the Person of Christ had
been blessed to him, especially the la.st chapter concerning
the exercise of the mediatory office of Christ in heaven, and
the state of the worship there. — Middhton, vol. iv. 277.
HART, (ail, Deut. 12: 15. 14: 5. Ps. 42: 1. Isa. 35: 6;)
the stag, or male deer. Dr. Shaw considers its name in
Hebrew as a generic word, including all the species of the
deer kind ; whether they arc distinguished by round horns,
as the stag ; or by Hat ones, as the fallow deer ; or by the
smallness of the branches, as the roe. Mr. Good observes
that the hind and roe, the hart and the antelope, were held,
and still continue to be, in the highest estimation in"&ll the
Eastern countries, for the voluptuous beauty of their eyes,
the delicate elegance of their form, or their graceful agility
of action. The names of these animuls were perpetually
applied, therefore, to persons, whether male or female,
who were supposed to be possessed of any of their respec-
tive qualities. In 2 Sam. 1: 19, Saul is denominated " the
roe of Israel ;" and in t)ie eighteenth verse of the ensuing
chapter, we are told that " Asahel was as light of foot as
a wild roc :" a phraseology perfectly synonymous with
the epithet swift-footed, which Homer has so frequently be-
stowed upon his hero Achilles. Thus again : " Her princes
are like harts which find no pasture ; they are fled without
strength before their pursuers," Lam. 1: 6. "The Lord
Jehovah is ray strength ; he will make my feet like hinds'
feet ; he will cause me to tread again on my own hills,"
Hab. 3:19. (See Hind.)— Tr«/.5™.
HART, (Oliver, RI. A. ;) an eminent minister of
Charieston, South Carolina. He was born in 1723, at
Warminster, Pennsylvania ; baptized in 1740, on profes-
sion of his faith ; and ordained to the gospel ministry in
1749. The same year, he succeeded Mr. Chanler at
Charleston, as pastor of the Baptist church, where he la-
bored honorably and successfully for thirty years. Many
owned him as a spiritual father, among whom was the
late Rev. Dr. Stillman, of Boston. Mr. Hart was a self-
educated man. His countenance was open and manly ;
liis voice clear, harmonious, and commanding ; the powers
of his mind were strong and capacious, enriched by a
fund of useful knowledge, classical, scientific, and theolo-
gical ; and his taste was elegant and refined. He wrote
much devotional poetry. But as a Christian and a pastor
he was most conspicuous. He walked with God. The
doctrines of free and etficacious grace were precious to
him. His desire of usefulness was ardent and incessant.
He was a prime mover in forming an Association of the
churches. He also originated a society for educating
young ministers of the gospel to enlarged usefulness.
In 1775, he was chosen by the council of safety to tra-
vel, in conjunction with Rev. William Tennent and Hon.
William H. Drayton, in the interior, to conciliate the in-
habitants of South Carolina to the measures of congress.
In consequence of his successful efibrts in this way, he
was obliged to leave Charleston, in 1780, to avoid falling
into the hands of the British.
He settled at Hopewell, New Jersey, the same year,
where he remained till his death, in 1795, at the age of
seventy-two. He died in the triumph of faith, exclaiming,
" Enough, enough I" — Benedict, vol. ii. 323.
HART, (Levi, D. D.,) minister of Preston, Connecticut,
was graduated at Yale college, in 1760, and died, October
27, 1808, aged sixty-nine. Receiving from the gift of God
a sound and vigorous mind, it was much improved by his
scientific and literary acquisitions. Many young men
were trained up by him for the ministry. He engaged
zealously in the support of missionary institntions, and
the progress of the gospel was the theme of his correspon-
dence with a number of respectable friends of religion in
Enrope. He published several sermons. Fanop. and Miss.
Mag. i. 287, 288.— ^flm.
HARVARD, (John ;) the founder of Harvard college.
He had been a minister in England ; and after his arrival
in this country, he preached a short time in Charlestown,
where he died, in lti38. He left a legacy of seven hun-
dred and seventy-nine pounds to the school at Newton, or
Cambridge, afterwards the college called by his naine.
Precisely one hundred and ninety years after his death, a
granite monument was erected to his memory, September
26, 1828, on the top of the burying hill in Charlestown.
Magnalia, iy . 126; Everett's Address; Hist. Cull. i. 242;
Neat, i. 199 ; Holmes, i. 247 ;, Hutchinson, i. 90.— .4//f«.
HARVEST. Three months intervened between the
seed-time and the first reaping, and a month between this
and the full harvest. Barley is in full ear all over the
Holy Land, in the beginning of April ; and about the
middle of the same month, it begins to tnrn yellow, parti-
cularly in the southern district ; being as forward near
Jericho in the latter end of March, as i( is in the plains of
Acre a fortnight afterwards. The reaping continues till
the middle of Sivan, or till about the end of May or begin-
ning of June, which, as the time of wheat-harvest, finishes
this part of the husbandman's labors.
2. The reapers in Palestine and Syria make use of the
sickle in cutting down their crops, and, according to the
present custom in this country, ■' fill their hand" with the
corn, and those who bind up the sheaves, their " bosom,"
Ps. 129: 7. Ruth 2: 5. When the crop is thin and short,
which is generally the case in light soils, and with their
imperfect cultivation, it is not reaped with the sickle, but
plucked up by the root with the hand. By this mode of
reaping, they leave the most fruitful fields as naked as if
nothing had ever grown on them ; and as no hay is made
in the East, this is done, that they may not lose any of the
straw, which is necessary for the sustenance of their cat-
tle. The practice of plucking up with the hand is perhaps
referred to in Ps. 129: 7. The tops of the houses in Judea
are flat, and, being covered with plaster of terrace, are
frequently grown over with grass. As it is but small and
weak, and from its elevation exposed to the scorching sun,
it is soon withered. A more beautiful and striking figure,
to display the weak and evanescent condition of wicked
men, cannot easily be conceived.
3. The reapers go to the field very early in the morning,
and return home betimes in the afternoon. They carry
provisions along with them, and leathern bottles, or dried
bottle gourds, filled with water. They are followed by
their own children, or by others, who glean with much
success ; for a great quantity of corn is scattered in
the reaping, and in their manner of carrying it. The
greater part of these circumstances are discernible in the
HAS
[601 ]
HAT
maimers of tlie ancient Israelites. Rulli liaJ not proposed
to Naomi, her mollier-in-law, to go to the field, and glean
after the reapers ; ivor had the servant of Boaz, to whom
she applied for leave, so readily granted her request, if
gleaning had not been a common practice in that country.
When Boaz inquired who she wa-s, liis overseer, after in-
forming him, observes, that she came out to the field in
the morning; aiid that the reapers left the field early in
tl*e afternoon, as Dr. Russell states, is evident from this
circumstance, that Ruth had time to beat out her glean-
ings before evening. They carried water and provisions
with them ; for Boaz invited her to come and drink of the
water which the young men had drawn ; and at meal-
time, to eat of the bread, and dip her morsel in the vine-
gar. And so great *'as the simplicity of manners in that
part of the world, and in those limes, that Boaz himself,
although a prince of high rank in Judah, sat down to din-
ner in the field with his reapers, and helped Ruth with his
own hand. Nor ought we to pass over in silence the mu-
tual salutation of Boaz and his reapers, when he came to
the field, as it strongly marks the state of religious feeling
in Israel at the time, and furnishes another proof of the
artless, the happy, and unsuspecting simplicity, which
characterized the manners of that highly favored people.
" And, behold, Boaz came from Bethlehem, and said unto
the reapers. The Lord be with you. And they answered
him, The Lord bless thee," Ruth 2: 4.
It appears from the beautiful history of Ruth, that, in
Palestine, the women lent their assistance in cutting dowa
and gathering the harvest ; for Boaz commands her to
keep fast by his maidens. The women in Syria shared
also in the labors of the harvest ; for Dr. Russell informs
us, they sang the ziraleet, or song of thanks, when the
passing stranger accepted their present of a handful of
corn, and made a suitable return. It was another custom
among the Jews to set a confidential servant over the reap
ers, to see tb*t they esecuted their work properly, that
they had suitable provisions, and to pay them their wages :
the Chaldees call him rab, the master, ruler, or governor
of the reapers. Such was the person who directed the
labors of the reapers in the field of Boaz. The right of
the poor in Israel to glean after the reapers was secured
by a positive law, couched in these words : " And when
ye reap the harvest of your land, thou shall not wholly
reap the corners of thy land ; neither shall thou gather the
gleanings of thy harvest. And thou shalt not glean thy
vineyard, neither shall thou gather every grape of thy
vineyard : thou shalt leave them to the poor and the
stranger : I am the Lord your God," Lev. 19: 9. It is the
opinion of some writers, that, although the poor were al-
lowed the liberty of gleaning, the Israelitish proprietors
were not obliged to admit them immediately into the field,
as soon as the rea))ers had cut down the corn, and bound
it up in sheaves, but when it was carried off; they might
choose, also, among the poor, whom they thought most
deserving, or most necessitous. These opinions receive
some countenance from the request which Ruth presented
to the servant of Boaz, to permit her tn glean " among the
sheaves ;" and from the charge of Boaz lo his young men,
"Let her glean even among the sheaves:" a mode of
speaking which seems to insinuate, that though they could
not legally hinder Ruth from gleaning in the field, they
had a right, if they chose to exercise it, lo prohibit her
from gleaning among the sheaves, or immediately after
the reapers. — Watson.
HASSIDE ANS, or Assiheans ; those Jews who resorted
to Blaltathias, to fight for the laws of God and the liberties
of their country. They were men of great valor and zeal,
having voluntarily devoted themselves lo a more strict ob-
servation of the law than other men. For, after the return
of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity, there were two
sorts of men in their church — those who contented them-
selves with that obedience only which was prescribed by
the law of Jloses. and who were called Zadikim, i. e. the
righteous ; and those who, over and above the laws, super-
added the constitutions and traditions of the elders, and
other rigorous observances : these latter were called the
Chasidim, i. e. the pious. From the former sprang the
Sadducees and Caraites : from the latter, the Pharisees
and Essenes, which see. — Ih)ii!. Buck.
HASTE ; Hastc.n'. To hasten righteousness is to em-
cute judgment and justice with all proper speed, Isa. Iti:
5. To htisim to the comim; of the day o/ GoiL, is earnestly
to long after and prepare for the last judgment, 2 Pet 3-
12.— Brown.
HASTINGS, (Lady Elisabeth,) was born on the 19ih
of April, in the year 1(582. She was the daughter of The,)-
philus, earl of Huntingdon. In her early years she evin'V
ed nmch prudence, united to a sound judgment, good tem-
per, and an excellent understanding. But in lady Has-
tings these were not the only gems : she shone wilh a more
resplendent lustre ; and her heart was as excellent and as
dignified, as her person was lovely. It had early been
impressed with the great importance of religion ; and
through life she discovered, that true religion imparted
solid pleasures, and, at death, yielded the most lasting and
sweetest comforts.
To piety she united a great mind, and considered that
learning, when blended with piety, was profitable and desi-
rable. At the age of twenty-seven, she was noticed by
Congreve, in the Taller, under the name of the divine As-
pasia, who remarked, that " her countenance was the lively
picture of her mind, which was the seat of honor, truth,
compa.ssion, knowledge, and innocence." Lady Hastings
chose for her companions the wise and the good ; she sought
not the adulation of the giddy and frivolous, but despised
that praise which to her appeared censure in di.sguise.
She wrote much and well ; but such was her modestj',
that she would not consent to publish many of her valua-
ble productions, though some were suffered to be commu-
nicated to the world. She began every day wilh supplica-
tions and praises to God the most ardent and sincere ; and
by such exercises she was rendered more fit for the occu-
pations and trials of her life. She much delighted in pub-
lic worship, which she very constantly attended ; to the
poor she was compassionate and kind, visiting them her-
self, and relieving every object that came within her .search.
Her ladyship's never-failing rule was, " to give the first
place \o justice, the second Xo charily, and the third to gent-
rosity." The last was exemplified in her ladyship in no
ordinary degree. Five hundred pounds a year she gave
to one relative, three thousand pounds she presented to
another relative; and to a young friend, who had very
much impaired her fortune by engaging in the South sea
scheme, she gave three hundred guineas. But her life,
though useful, at length drew to a close : disease com-
menced, " and she indeed learned that through much tribu-
lation the people of God are to enter his kingdom." She
annexed a codicil to her will, containing the devise of her
manor of Wheldale to the provost and scholars of Queen's
college, Oxford, for the education of students for the minis-
try ; and, indeed, her whole fortune was li^dicated to the
cause of truth and religion. She died December 22, 1739,
aged fifty-seven years. — Jams' Chris. Biog.
HATE. To hate is not always to be understood rigor-
ously, but frequently signifies merely a less degree of love.
" If a man have two wives, one beloved and another
hated;" (Deut. 24: IS.) that is, less beloved. Our Savior
says that he who would follow him must hate father and
mother ; that is, he must love them less than Christ, less
than his own salvation, and not prefer them to God. " Ja-
cob have I loved, and Esau have I hated;" that is, have
deprived of the privileges of his primogeniture, through
his own profaneness ; and visited him with severe judg-
ment on account of his sins. — Watson.
HATRED, is the aversion of the will to any object con-
sidered by us as evil, or lo any person or thing we suppose
can do us harm. (See A.ntipathv.) Hatred is ascribed
lo God, but it is not to be considered as a passion in him
as in man ; nor can he hate any of the creatures he has
made, as his creatures. Yet he is said to hate the wicked,
(Ps. 5.) and indignation and wrath, tribulation and an-
guish, will be upon every soul of man that does evil. Rom.
2: 9. (See Wkatu of Gov.)— Hmd. Bud;.
H ATTEMISTS ; in ecclesiastical history, the name of a
modern Dutch sect ; so called from Pontian Van Hattem,
a minister in the province of Ze.iland, towards the close
of the last century, who, being addicted to the sentiments
of Spinosa, was on that account degraded from his pasto
ral office. The Verschorists and Hattemisis resemble each
HAW
[ 602 ]
HAZ
other in their lelig.ous systems, though they never so en-
tirely agreed as to form one communioa. The founders
i)f these sects deduced from the doctrine of absohite de-
rrees a system of fatal and uncontrollable necessity ; they
denied the difference between moral good and evil, and
I he corruption of human nature ; from whence they fur-
ther concluded, that mankind were under no sort of obli-
gation to correct their manners, to improve their minds,
or to obey the divine laws ; that the whole of relision con-
sisted not in acting, but in suffering; and that all the pre-
cepts of Jesus Christ are reducible to this one,— that we
bear with cheerfulness and patience the events that happen
to us through the divine will, and make it our constant
and only study to maintain a perfect tranquilhty of mind.
Thus far they agreed : but the Hattemists further affirmed,
that Chr.st made no expiation for the sins of men by his
death ; but had only suggested to us, by his mediation,
that there was nothing in us that could offend the Deity :
this, they say, was Christ's manner of justifying his ser-
vants, and presenting them blameless before the tribunal
of God. It was one of their distinguishing tenets, that
God does not punish men for their sins, but by their sins.
These two sects, .says Mosheim, still subsist, though they
no longer bear the names of their founders. — Hend. Buck.
HAURAN. The tract of country of this name is men-
tioned only twice in Scripture, Ezek. 47: 16, 18. It was
probably of small extent in the time of the Jews ; but was
enlarged under the Romans, by whom it was called Aura-
nitis. At present it extends from about twenty miles .soulh
of Damascus to a little below Bozra, including the rocky
district of El Ledja. the ancient Tracbonilis, and the moun-
tainous one of the Djebel Haouran. Within its limits are
also included, besides Trachonilis, Itursea or Ittur, now
trailed Dejedour, and part of Batanfca or Bashan. It is
represented by Burckhardt as a volcanic region, consisting
of a porous tufa, pumice, and basalt, with the remains of
a crater on the Tel Shoba, on its eastern side. It produces,
however, crops of corn, and has many patches of luxu-
riant herbage, which are frequented in the summer by the
Arab tribes for pasturage. It abounds, also, with many
interesting remains of cities, scattered over its surface,
with Grecian inscriptions. The chief of these are Bozra,
Ezra, Medjel, Shoba, Shakka, Souerda, Kanouat, Hebran,
Zaiie, Oerman, and Aatyl; with Messema, Eerak, and
Om Ezzeitoun, in the Ledja. — Watson.
HAVEN, (Nathaniel Apfleton,) was born January
H, 1790 ; graduated at Harvard college in 1807 ; and set-
lied as a lawyer at Portsmouth, where he died of the scar-
let fever, June 3, 182(), aged thirty-six. He wrote some
fine poetr)', and many valuable articles for the Portsmouth
Journal, which he edited from 1821 to 1825. He wrote
also for the North American Review; He was a member
Df the Rev. Dr. Parker's church, in Portsmouth, and for
six years superintended a large and flourishing Sabbath
school. His Remains, with a'memoir by George Ticknor,
were published in 1827. JV. //. Hist. Col. ii. p. 229—235.
HAVILAH; the son of Cush, Gen. 10: 7. There must
have been other, and perliaps many, Havilahs besides the
original one, a part of the numerous and wide-spread
posterity of Cush. By one and the first of these, it is pro-
bable that the western shores of the Persian gulf were
peopled ; by another, the country of Colchis ; and by an-
othei, the parts ibout the southern border of the Dead sea
and the confines of Judea, the country afterwards inhabit-
ed by the Amalekites Walson.
HAVOTH-JAIR. The Hebrew and Arabic Havoth or
AwAh signifies cabms, or huts, such as belong to the Ara-
bians, and are placed in a circle ; such a collection of them
forming a hamlet or village. The district mentioned in
Num. 32: 41. Dent. 3: 1-1, were in the Batanaja, beyond
Jordan, in the land of Gilead, and belonged to the half
tribe of Manasseh. — Cabnet.
HAWK, (net.'s ;) from the root netsa, to Jly. because of
the rapidity and length of flight for which this bird is re-
markable, Lev. 11: It). Deut. 14: 15. Job 39: 26. Naz is
used generically by the Arabian writers to signify both fal-
■con and hawk ; and the term is given in both these senses by
r-.'eninski. There em be little doitbt that such is the real
meaning of ihe IJuirew word, and that it imports various
species of the falcon family, as jer-falcon, gos-hawk, and
sparrow-hawk. As this is a bird of prey, cruel in its tern-
per, and gross in its manners, it was forbidden as food,
and all others of its kind, in the Mosaic ritual. The Greeks
consecrated the hawk to Apollo ; and among the Egyp-
tians no animal was held in so high veneration as the ibis
and the hawk. Most of the species of hawk, we are told,
are birds of passage. The hawk, therefore, is produced,
in Job 39: 26, as a specimen of that astonishing instinct
which teaches birds of passage to know their times and
seasons, when to migrate out of one country into another
for the benefit of food, or a warmer climate, or both. The
common translation does not give the full force of the pas-
sage.— IVatson.
HAWLEY, (Gideon,) missionary to the Indians, was a
native of Connecticut, and was graduated at Yale college
in 1749. He commenced his missionary labors in Februa-
ry, 1752, at Stockbridge. In July, 1754, Mr. Hawley
was ordained at Boston, that his usefulness might be in-
creased by being authorized to administer the ordinances
of the gospel. In 1757, the commissioners of the society
for propagating the gospel persuaded him to visit the tribe
of Indians at Marshpee, whose pastor, Mr. Briant, had
been dismissed, and who were dissatisfied with the labors
of Mr. Smith. Here he was installed, April 10, 1758, and
passed the remainder of his life, being occupied in this
place more than half a century in benevolent exertions to
enlighten the darkened mind, and to promote the salvation
of his Indian brethren. He died October 3, 1807, aged
eighty years.
In his last sickness he observed, " I have hope of accep-
tance with God, but it is founded wholly on free and sove-
reign grace, and not at all on niy own works. It is true,
my labors have been many ; but they have been so very
imperfect, attended with so great a want of charity and
humility, that I have no hope in them as the ground of my
acceptance." Ptmoplist, iii. 431 ; Hist. Col iii. 188—193 ;
iv. 50— 67.— A!le„.
HAY. (See Grass.)
HAZAEL ; a striking example of self-deception, 2 Kings
8: 7—13. He was an officer of Benhadad, king of Syria,
who sent him to the prophet Elisha to inquire the issue of
his sickness. Looking him steadfastly in the face, Elisha
burst into tears. Surprised at this conduct, Hazael inquir-
ed the cause. " Because I know," said the prophet, " the
evil that thou w ilt do to the children of Israel : their strong
holds wilt thou set on fire, and their young men wilt thou
slay with the sword, and wilt dash their infants against
the stones, and rip up their women with child." Hazael
indignantly exclaimed, " Is thy servant a dog, that he
should do this great thing?'' Elisha merely answered,
" The Lord hath showed me that thou shalt be king over
Syria." On his return home, Hazael concealed from his
master Benhadad the prophet's answer, and inspired him
with hopes of recovery ; but, on the following day, he took
effectual means lo prevent it, by stifling the king with a
thick cloth dipped with cold water ; and, as Benhadad had
no son, and Hazael was a man much esteemed in the ar-
my, he was without difficulty declared his successor,
A. M. 3120. Mr. Taylor thinks Hazael did not intend the
death of his master, since similar applications are some-
times used in the East, in cases of fever. This seems an
HE A
I 603
HE A
Cicess of chanty. Hazael soon inflicted upon Israel all
Ihe cruelties which Elisha had foretold, 2 Kings 10: 32.
12:17,18. 13:22. 2 Chron. 24: 23.— Ca/»ie( ; Wats07i.
HAZERIM, Hazekoth, Hazor, Azerothaim, are all
names which signify villages or hamlets ; and are often
pat before the names of places. There is a town called
Hazor in Arabia PetrEpa, in all probability the same as
Hazerim, the ancient habitation of the Hivites, before
they were driven away by the Caphlorim, (Deal. 2: 23.)
who settled in Palestine. It seems also to be the Haze-
roth, where the Hebrews encamped, Num. 11: 35. 12: 16.
33: 15— Calinet.
HAZEZON-TAMAR ; a town (Gen. 14: 7.) called En-
gedi in Josh- 15; 62. 1 Sam. 24: 1. 2 Chron, 20: 2. Cant.
1: 11. Ezek. 47: 10.— Calmet.
HEAD. This word has se^'eral significations, besides
its natural one, which denotes the head of a man.
It is taken for one that hath rule and pre-eminence over
others. Thus God is the head of Christ ; as Mediator,
from him he derives all his dignity and authority. Christ
is the only spiritual head of the church, both in respect
of eminence and influence ; he communicates life, motion,
and strength to every believer. Also the husband is the
head of his wife, because by God's ordinance he is to rule
rtvev her; (Gen. 3: 16.) also in regard to pre-eminence of
se,\, (1 Peter 3: 7.) and excellency of knowledge, 1 Cor.
14: 35. The apostle mentions this subordination of per-
sons in 1 Cor. 11:3 : — •' But I would have you V:now, that
the head of everj' man is Christ, and the head of the wo-
man is the man, and the head of Christ is God." '• The
stone which the builders rejected was made the head of
the corner," Ps. 118:22. It was the first in the angle,
whether it were disposed at the top of that angle, to adorn
and crown it, or at the bottom, to support it. This, in the
New Testament, is applied to Christ, who is the strength
and beauty of the church, to unite the several parts of it,
namely, both Jews and Gentiles, together. — Walsrw.
HEAP. In early times heaps of stones were erected
to preserve the memory of events. (See Stojtes.) — t'p.liiKt.
HEAR, or Hearixu. It literally denotes the e.\erci'e
of that bodily sense, of which the ear is the organ ; to re-
ceive information by the ear ; (2 Sam. 15: 10.) and, as
hearing is a sense by which instruction is conveyed to the
mind, and the mind excited to attention and obedience, so
the ideas of attention and obedience are grafted on tht
i-xpression or sense or hearing. The caution to take heed
how we hear, or what we hear, as it inclu-des application,
reception, and practice, was never more necessary than in
the present day among ourselves ; never was the ncces.sily
greater for appealing " to the law and to the testimony."
— Crihiet.
HEARING THE ■WORD OF GOD, is an ordinance of
divine appointment, Eom. 10: 17. Prov. S: 4. Mark -1:
24.
Public reading of the Scriptures was a part of syna-
gogue wor.ship, (Acts 13: 15. 15: 21.) and was the practice
of the Christians in primitive limes. Under the former
dispensation there was a public hearing of the law at
stated seasons, Deut. 31: 10, 13. Neh. S:"2, 3. It seems,
therefore, that it is a duty incumbent on us to hear, and,
if sensible of our ignorance, we shall also consider it our
privilege. As to the mnmier of hearing, it should be cnn-
amtl^, Prov. 8: 34. Jam. 1: 24, 25. Atlentivehj, Luke 21:
33. Acts 10: 33. Luke 4: 20, 22. With reference, Ps. 89:
7. With faith, Heb. 4: 2. With an endeavor to retain
what we hear, Heb. 2: 1. Ps. 119: 11. With an humili',
donle. disposition, Luke 10: 42. With prayer, Luke 18.
Thi; advantages of hearing are, Information, 2 Tim. 3: 16.
Conviction, 1 Cor. 14: 24, 25. Acts 2. Conversion, Ps. 11:
7. Acts 4: 4. Confirmation, Acts 14; 22. 15: 5. Consnla-
linn, Phil. 1: 25. Isa.40: 1,2. 35: 3, 4. Stetmet's Parable
of the SoTper ; MassiUon's Serm. vol. ii. ; Fuckminster's do. ;
Gill's Body of Div. vol. iii. p. 340, oct. ed. ; Works of Ho-
bert Hall, vol. i. p. 249 ; Dmght's Theology.— Hend. Bvtk.
HEART. The Hebrews used this word for the soul,
^.omprehending all its feelings and faculties. Hence are
derived many modes of expression. " An honest and good
heart," (Luke 8: 15.) is a heart studious of hoUness, being
prepared by the Spirit of God to receive the word with due
affections, dispositions, and resolutions. We read of an
evil heart, a broken heart, a clean heart, a liberal heart.
To "turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the
heart of the children to their fathers," (Mai. 4: 6.) signifies
to cause them to be perfectly reconciled, on the principles
of true piety. To want heart, sometimes denotes to want
wisdom and resolution : — "Ephraim is like a silly dove,
without heart," Hosea 7: 11. "0 fools, and .slow of
heart ;" (Luke 24: 25.) that is, ignorant, and reluctant to
admit unwelcome truth. " This people's heart is viaxed
gross, lest they should understand with their hcnrt ;" (?.I.-itt.
13: 15.) their heart is through sin become incapable of un-
derstanding spiritttal things ; they resist the light, and are
proof against all impre.ssions of truth. 'The prophets
prophesy out of their own heart ;" (Ezek. 13: 2.) that i.s,
according to their own imagination, without any warrant
from God. To ivalk in the ways of one's heart, is to pre-
fer pleasures to God, Eccl. 11:9.
The heart is said to be dilated by joy, contracted by sad-
ness, broken by sorrow, to grow fat, and be hardened, by
prosperity. 'The heart melts under discouragement,
forsakes one under terror, is desolate in affliction, and
fluctuating in doubt. To speak to any one's heart is to
comfort him, to say pleasing and affecting things to him.
The heart of man is naturally depraved and inclined to
evil, Jer. 17: 9. A divine power is requisite for its reno-
vation, Deut. 30: 6. Jer. 31: 33. 32: 3S — 10. Ez. 18: 31.
John 3: 1 — 11. When thus renewed, the effects will be
seen in the temper, conversation, and conduct at large.
Hardness of heart is that state in which a sinner is in-
clined to, ami actually goes on in rebellion against God.
This stale evidences itself by light views of the evil of
sin; partial acknowledgment and confession of it ; fre-
quent commission of it; pride and conceit ; ingratitude ;
unconcern about the word and ordinances of God ; inat-
tention to divine providences; stifling convictions of con-
.science ; shunning reproof; presumjition, and general
ignorance of divine things. U''e must distinguish, how-
ever, between that hardness of heart which even a good
man complains of, and that of a jndirial nntnrc. 1. Judi-
cial hardness is very seldom perceived, and never lament-
ed ; a broken and contrite heart is the last thing such
desire ; but it is othermse with beUevers, for the hardness
they feel is always a matter of grief to them, Kom. 7: 24.
2. judicial hardness is perpetual ; or, if ever there be any
remorse or relenting, it is only at such times when the
sinner is under some outward alHiclions, or filled with the
dread of the wrath of God ; but as this wears ofi". or abates,
his stupidity returns as much as, or more ihLiu ever; (E.xod.'
9: 27.) but true believers, when no adverse dispeii.sations
trouble them, are often distressed because ihcir hearts are
no more affected in holy duties, or inflamed with love to
God, Rom. 7: 15. 3. Judicial hardness is attended with
a total neglect of duties, especially those th:!i arc secret ;
but that hardness of heart which a believer co:npl.iins oi;
though it occasions his going uncomfortably in duty, yel
does' no! keep him from it, Job. 23: 2, 3. 4. When a per-
son is judicially hardened, he makes use of i.aduecl and
unwarrantable methods to maintain that false peace winch
he thinks himself happy in the enjoyment ol_; but a be-
liever, when complaining of the hardness ot his heirt,
cannot be satisfied with any thing short of Christ, Ps. 101:
2. 5. Judicial hardness generally opposes the interest of
truth and godliness ; but a good man considers this as a
cau.ve neare.st his heart ; and although he have to laraeul
his lukewarm.ness, yet he constantly desii-es to promote it,
Ps. 72: 19. (See iiLiNnxEss ; and Hardne.ss of HEAKr.)
Keeping the heart is a duty enjoined in the sacred Scrip-
tures, if consists, says Mr. Flavel, in the diligent and
constant use and improvement of all holy means and du-
ties to preserve the soul from sin, and uiaiatain commu-
nion \rith God ; and this, he properly observes, supposes a
pre\'ious work of sanclification, which hath set the heart
right by giving it a new bent and incUnation. 1. It in-
cludes frequent observation of the frame of the heart. Ps.
77: 6. 2. Deep humiliation for heart evils and disorders,
2 Chron. 32: 26. 3. Earnest supplication lor heart puri-
fying and rectif3'ing grace, Ps. 19: 12. 4. A constant,
holy jealousy over our hearts. Prov. 27: 14. 5. It inclucles
the realizing of God's presence with us, and setting him
before us, Ps. 16: 8. Gen. 17: 1.
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This is, 1. The hardest work; heart work is hard work
indeed. 2. Coastant work, Exod. 17: 12. 3 The most
important work, Prov. 23: 2f>.
This is a duty which should be attended to, if we con-
sider it in conraejEion with^ X. The henor of God, Isa. 66:
3. 2. The sincerity of got profes.sion, 2 Kings 10: 31.
£zek. 33: 31, 32. 3. The beauty of our conversatioa,
?rov. 12: 26. P&. 45: 1. 4. The comfort of onr soul's, 2
Cor. 13: 5. &. The improvement of our graces, Ps. 63: 5,
&. 6. The stability of our souls id the hour of tempta-
tion, 1 Cor. 16: 13. , , ,
The seasons in which we should more particularly keep
our hearts are, 1. The time of prosperity, Dent. (r. Iff, 12.
2. Under afflictions, Heb. 7: 5, 6. 3. The time of Sion's
troubles, Ps. 46: 1, 4. 4. In the time of great and threat-
ening dangers, Isa. 26: 20, 21. 5. Under great wants,
Phil. 4: 6, 7. 6. In the time of duty, Lev. Iff: 3. 7. Ur>
der injuries received, Rom. 11: 17, &c. 8. In the critical
hour of temptation, Matt. 26: 41. 9. Under dark and
doubting seasons, Heb. 12: 8. Isa. 50: 10. 10. In time of
opposition and suffering, 1 Pet. 4; 12, 13. 11. The time
of sickness and death, Jer. 49: II.
The means to be made use of to keep our hearts are,-
1. Watchfulness, Mark 13: 37. 2. Examination, Prov. 4:
26. 3. Prayer, Luke 18: 1. 4. Reading God's word;,
John 5: 39. 5. Dependence on divine grace, Ps. 86: 11.
See Flavel on Keeping the Heart ; Jamiesmt's Sennons on the
Heart ; Wright on Self-jxissession ; Ridgley's Div. qu. 29 ;
Oiven on Indmelling Sia ; Fuller's Works. — Hend. Buck.
HEATH, Jer. 17: 6. Taylor and Parkhurst render it,
"a blasted tree stripped of its foliage." If it be a par-
ticular tree, the tamarisk is as likely as any. Celsius
thinks it to be the juniper ; but from the mention of it as
growing in a salt land, in parched places, the author of
'• Scripture Illustrated'' is disposetJ to seek it among the
lichens, a species of plants which are the last production
of vegetation under the frozen zone, and under the glow-
ing heat of equatorial deserts ; so that it seems best quali-
fied to endure parched places, and a salt land. Hassel-
quist mentions several kinds seen by hiin in Egypt, Ara-
bia, and Syria. The Septuagint translators render it in
Jer. 4S: 6, onm agrios, (wild o.« ;) and as this seems best
to agree with the flight recommended in the passage, it is
to be preferreil. (See Ass, Wild.) — Watson.
HEATHEN, (from /;«»(*, barren, uncultivated ;) pagans
who worship false gods, and are not acquainted either
with the doctrines of the Old Testament or the Christian
dispensation.
For many ages before Christ, the nations at large were
destitute of the true religion, and gave themselves up to
the grossest ignorance, the most absurd idolatry, and the
greatest crimes. Even the most learned men among the
heathens were in general inconsistent, and complied with,
ur promoted, the vain customs they found among their
countrymen. It was, however, divinely foretold, that in
Abraham's seed all nations should be blessed ; that the
heathen should be gathered to the Savior, and become his
people. Gen. 22: 18. 49: 10. Ps. 2: 8. Isa. 42: 6, 7. Ps.
72. Isa. 60. In order that these promises might be ac-
complished, vast numbers of the Jews, after theChaldean
captivity, were left scattered among the heathen; the
Old Testament was translated into Greek, the most com-
mon language of the heathen ; and a rumor of the Sa-
vior's appearance in the flesh was spread far and wide
among them. AVhen Christ came, he preached chiefly in
Galilee, where there were multitudes of Gentiles. He
assured the Greeks that vast numbers of the heathen
should be brought into the church, Matt. 4: 23 John 12-
20, 24.
For seventeen hundred years past the Jews have been
generally rejected, and the church of God has been com-
posed of the Gentiles. Upwards of four hundred and
eighty millions, (nearly half the globe,) however, are sup-
posed to be yet in pagan darkness. Considerable attempts
have been made of late years for the enlightening of the
heathen ; and there is every reason lo believe immense
good has been done. From the aspect of Scripture pro-
phecy, we are le.i lo expect that the kingdoms of the hea-
then at large s'lall be brought to the light of the gospel
Matt. 24: 14. Isa. 60. Ps. 22: 28, 29. 2; 7, 8,
It has been much disputed whether it be possible that
the heathen should be saved without the knowledge of
the gospel : some have absolutely denied it, npon the au'
tbority of those texts wbieh universally reejsire faitb it*
Christ ; but to this it is an-swered, that l!h£pse texts regard
only those to whom the gospel comes, and are capable of
isnderstanding the contents of it. The truth, says Dr.
Doddridge, seems to be this : that none of the heathens
will be condemned for not beiieving the gospel, but they
are liable to condemnation for the breach of God's naiturat
law ; nevertheless, if there be any of them in whom there
is a prevailing love to the Divine Being, there seems rea-
sort to- believe that, foi the strke of Christ,- rboisgh lo them
unknown, they may be accepted by God ;■ and so mucb
the rather, as the ancient Jews, and even the apostle.",,
during the time of our Savior's^ abode em eauth, seem t<v
have had but little notiei* of evangelical tnith, Rom. 2:
10—22-. Acts 10: 34, 35. Matt. 8: 11, 12. Saurin, Mr.
Grove, Dr. Watts, and Mr. Newton, favor the same opin-
ion. Still whether there are any .such where the gospel
has not penetrated, must ever be a i«atter of afleertaiuty j
and the languaige of our Lord's commission binds us to*
send them the gospel as the only known means of salva-
tion, Mark 16: 16. Rom. 1: 16. 10: 1 — 15. Nen'ton's
Messiah; Br. Wf^is' Strength and Weakness of Humait
Reason, p. 106 ; Savrim's Sermom, vol. ir. p. 314 y Groie'^
Moral Philosophy, vol. i. p. 128 ; Twret Loc, voP. i. qujest..
4, i) 1, 2, 17 ; Doddridge's Ltctures, lee. 240, vol. ii. 8vo,
edtt.f Bellamy's Religian Delineated, p. lOS-; Sidgley'^
Body of Divinity, qw. 60 ;. Gale's Court of the Gentiles ;
Considerations on the Religions Worship of the Heathen ;,
Sev. W.Jones' Works, vo\. sii;. Ward'f Letters; Waylandf
Wisner, and Tyler' ^ Missimwry Sermons; Am. Bap. Mag^
for I83i.— Hend. Bmk.
HEAVEN > the centre and metropolis of the universe,
in which the omnipresent Deity afiords aueaiisr and more
immediate view of his perfectionsy aad' a more sensibfe
manifestation of his glory, than in the other parts of the
divine kingdom, 1 Kings 8: 27. Isa. 63: 15. 66: 1. Matt. 6:9.
The Jews enumerated three heavens : the first was the
region of the air, where the birds fly, and which are:
therefore called " the fowls of heaven," Job 35: 11. Iti
is in this sense also that we read of the dew of heaven,
the clouds of heaven, and the wind of heaven. Tfeesecondl
is that part of space in which are fixed the heavenly lu-
minaries, the sun, moon, and stars, and which Moses was
instructed to call " the firmament or expanse of heaven,"'
Gen. 1:8. The third heaven, of which the Jewish holy
of holies was the interesting type, is the seat of Gorf
and of the holy angels ; the place into which Christ as-
cended after his resurrection, and into which St. Paul
was caught up, though it is not, like the other heavens, per-
ceptible to mortal view, John 3: 12, 13. Heb. 8: 1. 9: 24.
That there is a state of future happiness, both reason and
Scripture indicate; a general notion of happiness after
death has obtained among the wiser sort of heathens-,
who have only had the light of nature to guide them. If
we examine the human mind, it is also evident that there
is a natural desire after happiness in all men ; and, which
is equally evident, is not attained in this life. It is no
less observable, that in the present state there is an un-
equal distribution of things, which makes the providences
of God very intricate, and which cannot be solved without
supposing a future state, Revelation, however, puts it
beyond all doubt. The Divine Being hath promised it,
(1 John 2: 25. 5: 11. James 1: 12.) hath given us some
intimation of its glory, (1 Pet. 3: 4, 22. Rev. 3: 4.) de-
clares Christ hath taken possession of it for us, (John 14:
2, 3.) and informs us of some already there, both as to
their bodies and souls. Gen. 5: 24. 2 Kings 2.
Heaven is to be considered as a place as well as a state ; it
is expressly so termed in Scripture ; (John 14: 2, 3.) and
the existence of the body of Christ, and those of Enoch
and Elijah, is a further proof of it. For if it be not a
place, where can these bodies be ? and where will the
bodies of the saints exist after the resurrection ? Where
this place is, however, cannot be determined. Supposi-
tions are more curious than edifying, and il becomes us
to be silent where divine revelation is so.
Heaven, hon-ever, itc are assured, is n place nf inerpressihh
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felicity. The names given to it are proofs of this : it is
called " paradise," (Luke 23: 43.) " light," (Rev. 21: 23.)
"a building and mansion of God," (2 Cor. 5: 1. John 11:
2.) " a city," (Heb. U: 10, 16.) " a better country," (Heb.
11: 16.) " an inheritance," (Acts 20: 32.) " a kingdom,"
(Matt. 25: 34.) "a crown," (2 Tim. 4: 8.) " glory," (Ps.
81: 11. 2 Cor. 4; 17.) " peace, rest, and joy of the Lord,"
Isa. 57: 2. Heb. 4: 9. fllalt. 25: 21, 23. The felicity of
Heaven will consist in freedom from all evil, both of soul
and body ; (Kev. 7- 17.) in the enjojnnent of God as the
chief good ; in the company of angels and saints ; in per-
fect holiness, and extensive knowledge, 1 Cor. 13: 10—12.
It has been disputed whether there are degrees of ghri/ in
Heaven. The arguments against degrees are, that all the
people of God are loved by him with the same love, all
chosen together in Christ, equally interested in the same
covenant of grace, equally redeemed with the same price,
and all predestinated to the same adoption of children ;
to suppose the contrary, it is said, is to eclipse the glory
of divine grace, and carries with it the legal idea of being
rewarded for our works. On the other side it is observed,
that if the above reasoning would prove any thing, it
would prove too much, viz. that we should all be upon an
equality in the present world, as well as that which is to
come ; for we are now as much ihe objects of the same
love, purchased by the same blood, kc, as we shall be
hereafter. That rewards contain nothing inconsistent
with the doctrine of grace, because those very works
which it pleaseth God to honor are the eflects of his own
operation. That all rewards to a guilty creature have re-
spect to the mediation of Christ. That God's graciously
connecting blessings nnth the obedience of his people,
serves to show not only his love to Christ and to them,
but his regard to righteousness. That the Scriptures ex-
pressly declare for degrees, Dan. 12: 3. Blatt 10-41 4''
19: 28, 29. Luke 19: 16, 19. Rom. 2: 6. 1 Cor. 3: 8. 15:
41, 42. 2 Cor. 5: 10. Gal. 6: 9.
Another question has sometimes been proposed, viz.
Whether the saints shall know each other in Heaven.
The arguments in favor of it, are taken from those
instances recorded in Scripture, in which persons, who
have never seen one another before, have immediately
known each other in this world, by a special, immediate,
divine revelation given to them, in like manner that Adam
knew Eve, Gen. 2: 23. Sloreover, we read that Peter,
James, and John knewMo.ses and Elias, Matt. 17. Christ
also represents the redeemed from all nations as sitting
down with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of
heaven. Matt. 8: 11. Luke 13: 28—30. From such like
arguments, it may be inferred that the saints shall know
one another in Heaven, when joined together in the same
assembly.
Moreover, this may be proved from the apostle's words,
in 2 Cor. 1: 11. Phil. 4: 1, and especially 1 Thess. 2: 19,
20. " What is our hope, or joy, or crown of rejoicing ?
Are not even ye in the presence of our Lord Jesus Christ
at his coming? for ye are our glory and joy." Therefore
it follows that they shall know one another ; and conse-
quently they who have walked together in the ways of
God, and have been useful to one another as relations
and intimate friends, in what respects more especially
their spiritual concerns, shall bless God for the mutual ad-
vantages which they have received, and consequently
shall know one another. To which may be added that
expression of our Savior, in Luke 16: 9, " Blake to your-
selves friends of the mammon of unrighteousness, that,
when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting habi-
tations ;" especially if by these " everlasting habitations"
be meant Heaven, as many suppose it is; and then the
meaning is, that they whom you have relieved, and shown
kindness to in this world, shall express a particular joy
upon your being admitted into Heaven ; and consequently
they shall know you, and bless God for your having been
so useful and beneficial to them.
It has been objected, that if the saints .shall know one
another in Heaven, they shall know that several of those
who were their intimate friends here on eaiih. whom they
loved with very great affection, are not there ; and this
will have a tendency to give them some uneasiness, and
a diminution of their joy and happiness.
To this it may be replied, that if it be allowed that the
saints shall know that some whom they loved on earth
are not in Heaven, this will give them no uneasiness :
since that aflection which took its rise principally from the
natural relation which we stood in to persons on earth, or
the domestic intimacy that we have contracted with them,
will cease in another world, Matt. 22: 29, 30. Our aflec'
tions will there be excited by superior motives : namely,
their relation to Christ ; that perfect holiness with which
they are adorned ; their being joined in the same blessed
society, and engaged in the same employment : together
with their former usefnlness one to another in promoting
their spiritual welfare, as made subsenient to the happi-
ness they enjoy there. And as for others, who are ex-;lnd-
ed from their society, they will think iheni.selves obliged,
out of a due regard to the justice and holiness of God >.o
acquiesce in his righteous judgments. Thus, the inhabit-
ants of Heaven are represented as adoring the divine per
fections, when the vials of God's Avralh ivere poured ont
upon his enemies, and saying, '■ Thou art righteous, O
Lord, because thou hast judged thus : true and righleous
are thy judgments," Rom. 16: 5, 7.
We have reason to believe then, thnt Heaven will be a st>-
cial state, and that its happiness will, in some measure,
arise from mutual communion and converse, and the ex-
pressions and exercises of mutual benevolence. All the
views presented tons of this eternal residence of good men
are pure and noble ; and form a striking contrast to the low-
hopes, and the gross and sensual conceptions of a fuiurc
stale, which distinguish the pagan and Mahometan sy.-.-
tems. The Christian heaven may be described to be a
state of eternal communion with Go<l, and consecration
to hallowed, devotional and active ser\-ices ; from which
will result an uninterrupted increase of knowledge, holi-
ness, and joy to the glorified and immortalized assembly
of the redeemed.
However inadequate may be our conceptions as to this
and some other circumstances, this we may be assured of,
that the happiness of Heaven will be perfect and eternal. That
it will be progressive, and that the saints shall always be
increasing in their knowledge, joy. Arc, is almqst equally
clear. Some indeed have supposed that this indicates an
imperfection in the felicity of the saints for any addition
to be made ; but when we reflect that it is perfectly ana-
logous to the dealings of God with us here ; and that it
corresponds with the language of Scripture, and the na-
ture of the mind itself, it mav be concluded certain, Isa.
9: 7. 2 Cor. 3: 18. 4: 17. Rev. 7: 17. 1 Pet. 1: 12. 5: 4,
10. Heb. 11: 10. Wirtts' Death and Heaven ; Gill's Body
of Divinity, vol. ii. p. 495; Sauna's Serin., vol. iii. p. 321 ;
Toplady'i IVorks, vol. iii. p. 471 ; Botes' JVurls ; Ridghi/s
Body of Divinity ; Fuller's Essays : Dnight's Theology and
Strnu, L-i ; Works of Rohtrt Hall.—Htnd'. Buck.
HEAVINESS, of heart and ears. (See Bli.nd.vess.)
HEBER, or Ebek, the father of Pelcg, and ifte son of
Salah, who was the grandson of Slioni, one of Noah's
sons, was born A. SI. 1723 ; B. C. 22R1. From him some
have supposed that Ab-aham and his descendants derived
the appellation of Hebrews. But o'hers have suggested, *
with greater probability, that Abraham and his family
were thus called, because tl.ey came from the other side
of the Euphrates into Cr.r.ian ; Heber signifying in the
Hebrew language ont ih-.l parses, or a pilgnm. According
to this opinion, Hebrew signifies much the same as for-
eigner among us, or one 'hat comes from beyond sea.
Suth were Abraham and his family among the Canaan-
iles ; and his posteri'y, learning and using the language
of the country, still retained the appellation originafly
given them, even when they became possessors and set-
tled inhabitants as far as dying men ever can be.
2. Hebf.r the Kenile, of Jethro's familv. husband to
Jael, who killed Sisera, Judges 4: 17. itc— Uff/.wn.
HEBER, (Bp. Regixald, D. D.,) adistinguished poet and
divine, was born, in 1783, at Malpas, in Shropshire ; re-
ceived his education at Brazennose college, Oxford, where
he distinguished himself by his poeticaland other talents;
travelled in Germany, Russia, and the Crimea : was I'-t
some years rector of Hodnet, in Shropshire ; was appoint-
ed bishop of Calcutta in 1823 ; and had already accom-
nlished much in his high office, and projected the accora-
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[ 606
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phshment of more, when his career was suddenly closed
by apoplexy, at Trichinopoly, April 1, J826.
' Bishop Heber was a man of high attainments and bril-
liant genius ; but the qualities of his heart far transcend-
ed the talents of his mind. His disposition was sweet and
afl'able, his temper most conciUating, and his piety fervent,
humble, and sincere ; he pursued the path of duly with
cheerful alacrity, steadfast devotedness, and incessant ac-
tivity ; making every sacrifice to duty, even of those lite-
rary projects which his ardent spirit had once fondly che-
rished, and for the realization of which the circumstances
and events of his life seemed to aQbrd every facility.
From the moment that he devoted himself to the ministry
of the gospel among the heathen, he gave his heart to the
T,-ork ; and some of the latest and sweetest efforts of his
muse breathe a missionary spirit of the most apostolic
order. To the distinguishing doctrines of Christianity he
was ardently attached ; he felt their value, and was de-
sirous to spread the knowledge of them, laboring in sea-
son and out of season, and exhibiting a bright example
of faith and love, humility and meekness, gentleness and
compassion for the necessities and miseries of his fellow
men, both temporal and spiritual.
He is the author of Poems, full of spirit and elegance ;
(one of the best of which, his Palestine, gained the prize
at Oxford ;) Hymns ; Bampton Lectures, for 1815 ; a
Life of Bishop Taylor ; and a Narrative of a Journey in
Upper India. The last was a posthumous work, as is
also the volume of his Sermons. — Life of Bishop Heber ;
Davenport ; Jones^ Chris. Biog.
HEBREWS. (See Jews; and Government of the
Hebrews.)
HEBREW OF THE HEBREWS; an appellation
which the apostle Paul applies to himself, (Phil. 3: 5.)
concerning the meaning of which there has been some
difference of opinion. It is not likely that St. Paul would
have mentioned it as a distinguishing privilege and hon-
or, that neither of his parents were proselytes. It is more
probable that a Hebrew of the Hebrews signifies a He-
brew both by nation and language, which many of Abra-
ham's posterity, in those days, were not ; or one of the
Hebrew Jews who perfprmed their public worship in the
Hebrew tongue ; for such were reckoned more honorable
than the Jews born out of Judea, and who spolce the Rrcck
tongue. (See Hellenists.) — Wnison.
HEBREW BIBLE. (See Bible.)
HEBREW LANGUAGE ; one of the branches of an
extensive linguistical family, which, besides Palestine,
originally comprehended Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia,
Babylon, Arabia, and Ethiopia, and extending even to
Carthage and other places along the Blediterraiiean sea.
It is confessedly one of the oldest of the Oriental or Semi-
tic dialects, and is deserving of particular regard, not only
as containing the most ancient written documents in ex-
istence, some of which are upwards of three thousand two
hundred and eighty years old, but as being the deposi-
tory of the ancient divine revelations to mankind. Proofs
that the Hebrew was the primitive language, have been
drawn froni the names of individuals, nations, and places ;
from the names of the heathen gods : from the traces of it
in all languages ; and from its gi-e'at ]nirity and simplicity.
Its principal characteristics, which apply, however, more
or less to the kindred Semitic dialects, are stated by Ge-
senius to be the following : — 1. It is fonl of gutturals,
which appear to have been pronounce 1 with considerable
force, but which our organscannot enunciate. 2. The roots,
from which other words are derived, generallv consist of
two syllables, and are more frequently verbs than nouns.
H. The verb has only twotempoial forms, the past and the
future. 4. The oblique ca.ses of the pronouns are always
affixed to the verb, the substantive, or the particle, ■n'ith
which they stand connected. 5. The genders are only
two,— masculine and feminine. 6. The only way of
distinguishing the cases is by prepositions, onlv i'le geni-
tive is formed by a noun being placed in consti-iiction with
another noun, by which it is governed. 7. The compini-
tive and superlative have distinct or separate forms. ?.
The language exhibits few compounds, except in proper
n.imes. fl. The syntax is extremely simp)-, and th-' di'--
tiin is in the'highest degree unneriolica!.
The Hebrew language is found in its greatest punty in
the writings of Moses. It was in a very flourishing state
in the time of David and Solomon ; but towards the reign
of Hezekiah it began to decline, was subjected to an in-
termixture of foreign words, principally AraniEean, and
gradually deteriorated till the captivity, during which it
became in a great measure forgotten, the Jews adopting
the eastern Aramsan in Babylon ; and on their return to
their native land they spoke a mixed dialect, composed
principally of the dialects Just mentioned, and otherwise
made up of Syriacisms, or western Aramaan materials.
Some knowledge, however, of the ancient language con-
tinued to exist among the learned of the nation : but they
no longer spoke it in purity, and mixed it up with a num-
ber of Persic, Greek, and Latin words, and thus formed
the Talmndic dialect, which exhibits the language as pre-
served in the Talmud. The rabbinical Hebrew, which \ !
that of a still later age, contains a further mixture from
the diflerent languages with which the rabbins were ,;on-
versant. See Rubinsmi's Biblical Bepository. — Hend. Bvck.
HEBREW PHILOLOGY. In no department of sacred
learning have the wild vagaries of a playful imagination,
or the stubborn hardihood of preconceived opinions, and
favorite theological theories, produced greater confusion,
and thrown more formidable obstacles in the way of the
youthful student, than that of Hebrew philology. The
very facts, that some of the documents comprised in the
sacred volume are upwards of three thousand years old,
and were penned several centuries before the Greeks be-
came acquainted with the use of letters; and, that a period
of not fewer than twelve centuries intervened between the
composition of the earUest and the most recent of its re-
cords, together ^\^'l\h the wide diflerence which is known
to exist between the forms and structure of the Oriental
languages and those of western Europe, present conside-
rations which are of themselves sufficiently intimidating,
and calculated to make a beginner despair of ever acquir-
ing a satisfactory knowledge of the language in which it
is written : but when, in addition to these facts, we reflect
on the various conflicting systems of Hebrew grammar
and lexicography, the high-pretending, but contradictorv
hypotheses of divines eminent for their erudition and piety,
and the circnmstance that few years elapse without some
prodnctiou of novel and original claims being obtruded on
the attention of the theological world in reference to this
subject, it cannot be matter of surprise, that numbers even
of those whose sacred engagements would naturally lead
them to cultivate the study of Hebrew, are induced to
abandon it as altogether unprofitable and vain.
Such as have never particidarly directed their attention
to the subject, can scarcely form any idea of the widely
diversified views that have been entertained respecting the
only proper and legitimate methods by which to determine
the true meaning of the words constituting the ancient
language of the Hebrews. We shall, therefore, here at-
tempt a brief slcetch of the different schools of Helirew
philology.
1. The BnMnnical. This school, which is properly in-
digenous among the Jews, derives its acquaintance with
the Hebrew fro.m the tradition of the synagogue ; from
the Chaldee Targums ; from the Talmud-; from the Ara-
bic, which was the language of some of the most leurned
rabbins ; anl from conjectural interpretation. In this
school, at one of its earlier perio<.!s, .Terome acquired his
knowledge of the language; and, on the revival of Icani-
ing, our first Chris'iaii Hebraists in the West were also
educated in it, having hail none but rabbins for their
teachers. In consequence of this, the Jewish system of
interpretation wns introduced into the Christian church by
Reuchlin, Sebastian Blunster, Sanctes Pagninus, and the
elder Buxtorf ; and its principles still continue to exert a
powerful and extensive influence through the medium of
the grammatical and lexicographical works of the last-
mentioned author, and the tinge which they gave to many
parts of the biblical translations executed immediately
after the Refoi-mation.
2. The Fiirsterian school, founded about the middle of
the sixteenth century, by John Forster, a scholar of
Reuchlin's, and professor in Tubingen and Wittenberg.
This author entirely rejected the authority of the rabbins;
HEB
[ 607
HEB
and, not being aware of the use to be made of the versions
and cognate dialects, laid it dowii as an incontrovertible
principle of Hebrew philology, that a perfect knowledge
of the language is to be derived from the sacred text
alone, by consulting the connexion, comparing the parallel
passages, and transposing.and changing the Hebrew let-
ters, especially such as are similar in figure. His system
was either wholly adopted and extended, or, in part, fol-
lowed by Bohl, Gusset, Driessen, Stock and others, whose
lexicons all proceed on this self-interpreting principle ; but
its insufficiency has been shown by J. D. Michaslis, in his
'■ Investigation of the .Means to be employed in order to
attain to a Knowledge of the Dead Language of the He-
brews," and by Bauer, in his ''Hermeneut. V. T."
3. The Avenarian school, which proceeds on the princi-
ple that the Hebrew, being the primitive language from
which all others have been derived, may be explained by
aid of the Greek, Latin, German, English, ice. Its fotm-
(!er, John Avenarius, professor at Wittenberg, has had but
few followers ; but among these we may reckon the ec-
centric Hermann van der Hardt, wdio attempted to derive
the Hebrew from the Greek, which he regarded as the
most ancient of all tongues.
4. The Hieroglyphic, or cabalistic system, long in vogue
among the Jews, but first introduced into Christendom by
Caspar Neumann, professor at Breslau. It consists in at-
taching certain mystical and hieroglyphical powers to the
diiferent letters of the Hebrew alphabet, and determining
the signification of the words according to the position
occupied by each letter. This ridiculously absurd hypo-
thesis was ably refuted b}' the learned Christ. Bened.
Michaelis, in a dissertation printed at Halle, 1709, in 4to.
and has scarcely had any abettors : but recently it has
been revived by a French academician, whose work on
the subject exhibits a perfect anomaly in modern litera-
ture. Its title is, " La Langue Hebraique Restituee, et le
veritable sens des mots Hebreux retabli et prouve par
leur analyse radicale. Par Fabre D'Olivet, a Paris, 1815;"
quarto.
5. The Hntdiinsonian school, founded by John Hutchin-
son, originally steward to the duke of Somerset, and
afterwards master of the horse to George I., who main-
tained, that the Hebrew Scriptures contain the true prin-
ciples of philosophy and natural history : and that, as
natural objects are representative of such as are spiritual
and invisible, the Hebrew words are to be explained in
reference to these sublime objects. His principles per-
vade the lexicons of Bates and Parkhurst ; but though
they have been embraced by several learned men in Eng-
land, they are now generally scouted, and have never
been adopted, as far as we know, by any of the conti-
nental philologists. The disciples of this school are vio-
lent anti-punctists.
6. The Cocreian, or polydunamic hypothesis, according
to which the Hebrew words are to be interpreted in every
way consistent with their etymological import, or, as it
has been expressed, in every sense of xvhich they are ca-
pable. Its author, John Cocceius, a learned Dutch divine,
regarded every thing in the Old Testament as typical of
Christ, or of his church and her enemies ; and the lengths
to which he carried his views on this subject, considerably
influenced the interpretations given in his Hebrew lexi-
con, which is. nevertheless, a work of no ordinary merit.
This system has been recently followed by Mr. Von Mey-
er, o( Fiankfort, in his improved Version of the Holy
Scriptures, with short Notes.
7. The Schulteinian school, by which, to a certain
extent, a new epoch was formed in Hebrew philology.
Albert Schultens, professor of the Oriental languages at
Leyden, was enabled, by his prolbund knowledge of Ara-
bic, to throw light on many obscure passages of Scripture,
especially on the book of Job ; but, carrying his theory
so far as to maintain, that the only sure method of fixing
the primitive significations of the Hebrew words, is to de-
termine what are t!ie radical ideas attaching to the same
words, or words made up of the same letters in Arabic,
and then to transfer the meaning from the latter to the
former, a wide door was opened for speculative and fan-
ciful interpretation ; and the greater number of the deri-
rations proposed by this celebrated philologist and his
admirers, have been rejected as altogether untenalile, hf
the first Hebrew scholars, both in England and on the
continent. The great faults of the system consisted in the
disproportionate use of the Arabic, to the neglect of the
other cognate dialects, especially the Syriac, which, being
the most closely related, ought to have the primary place
allotted to it ; want of due attention to the context ; an
inordinate fondness for emphases ; and far-fetched etymo-
logical hj'potheses and combinations.
8. The last school of Hebrew philology is that of Halle,
so called from the German university of this name, where
most of the Hebrew scholars have received their educa-
tion, or resided, by whom its distinguishing principles
have been originated, and brought to their present ad-
vanced state of maturity. Its foundation was laid by
J. H. and Ch. B. Michaelis, and the superstrncture has
been carried up by J. D. Michffilis, Simon, Eichhorn, Din-
doif, Schnurrer, Rosenraiiller, and Gesenius, who is
allowed to be one of the first Hebraists of the present day.
The grand object of this school is to combine all the
diflerent methods by which it is possible to arrive at a
correct and indubitable knowledge of the Hebrew lan-
guage, as contained in the Scriptures of the Old Testa-
ment : — allotting to each of the subsidiary means its
relative value and authority, and proceeding, in the
application of the whole, according to sober and well-ma-
tured principles of interpretation.
The first of these means is the study of the language itself,
as contained in the books of the Old Testament. Though
by some carried to an unwarrantable length, it cannot
admit of a doubt, that this must ever form the grand basis
of Scripture interpretation. Difficulties may be encoun-
tered at the commencement ; but when, as we proceed, we
find from the subject-matter, from the design of the
speaker or writer, and from other adjuncts, that the sense
we have been taught to aflSx to the words must be the
true one, we feel ourselves possessed of a key, which, as
far as it goes, we may safely and confidently apply to un-
lock the sacred writings. When, however, the significa-
tion of a word cannot be determined by the simple study
of the original Hebrew, recourse must then be had to the
ancient versions, the authors of most of which, living near
the time when the language was spoken in its purity, and
being necessarily familiar with Oriental scenes and cus-
toms, must be regarded as having furnished us with
the most important and valuable of all the subsidiary
means by which to ascertain the sense in cases of apax
legomcna, words or phrases of rare occurrence, or connex-
ions which throw no light on the meaning. Yet, in the
use of these versions, care must be taken not to employ
them exclusively, nor merely to consult one or two of
them to the neglect of the rest. It must also be ascer-
tained, that their text is critically correct in so far as the
passage to be consulted is concerned ; and the biblical
student must not be satisfied with simply guessing at their
meaning, or supposing that they either confirm or desert
what he may have been led to regard as the sense of the
original ; but must be practically acquainted with the esta-
blished usage obtaining in each version, and the particular
character of their different renderings.
The rabbinical Lexicons and Commentaries furnish the
next source of Hebrew interpretation. Not that this
source is to be admitted as a prinripiunt cognoscendi, or an
infallible criterion, by which to judge of the true signifi-
cation of Hebrew words ; but, considering that the rab-
bins of the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth centuries, whose
works alone are here taken into account, possessed a
knowledge of the Arabic as their vernacular language, or
in which, at least, they were well versed ; that they were
familiar mth the traditional interpretation of the syna-
gogue, as contained in the Talmud and other ancient
Jewish writings, or transmitted through the medium of
oral communication ; and, that they were mostly men of
great learning, who rose superior to the trammels of tradi-
tion, and did not scruple to give their own \'iews respect-
ing the meaning of certain words and phrases in opposition
to the voice of antiquity ; it must be conceded, that no
small degree of philological aid may reasonably be ex-
pected from their writings.
The last means consists in a proper use of the cosrnale
HE B
[ 608
HEB
iiakdS. These arc tlie Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic,
Samaritan, Phoenician, and the TalmiuUcal Hebrew. All
these dialects possess, to a great extent, in common with
the Hebrew, the same radical words, the same derivatives,
the same mode of derivation, the same forms, the same
erammatical structure, the same phrases, or modes of ex-
pression, and the same, or nearly the same, signification
of words. They chiefly differ in regard to accentuation,
the use of the vowels, the transmutation of consonants of
the same class, the extent of signification in which certain
words are used, and the peculiar appropriation of certain
words, significations, and modes of speech, which are cx-
hibittJ in one dialect to the exclusion of the rest.
These languages, when judiciously applied to the illus-
tration of the Hebrew Scriptures, are useful in many
ways. They confirm the precise signification of words,
both radicals and derivatives, already ascertained and
aiopled from other sources. They discover many roots
or primitives, the derivatii'es only of which occur in the
Hebrew Bible. They are of eminent service in helping
to a knowledge of such words as occur but once, or at
least but seldom, in the sacred writings, and they throw
much light on the meaning of phrases, or idiom'atical com-
binations of words ; such combinations being natural to
thein all as branches of the same stock, or to some of
them in common, in consequence of certain more remote
affinities.
The best Hebrew grammars are those of Vater, Wekher-
lin, Jahn, Gesenius, and Ewald, in German ; and those
of Marcus, Seixas, and Profs. Lee and Stuart, in Enghsh.
—Hend. Buck.
HEBREWS, rEnsTLE to the.) Though the author-
ship of this epistle has been disputed both in ancient and
modern times, its antiquity has never been questioned.
It is generally allowed that there are references to it,
although the author is not mentioned, in the remaining
works of Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Polycarp, and Justin
Martyr; and that it contains, as was first noticed by
Chrysostom and Theodoret, internal evidence of having
been written before the destruction of Jerusalem, Heb.
8: 4. 9: 25. 10: 11, 37. 13: 10. The earliest writer now
extant who quotes this epistle as the work of St. Paul, is
Clement of Alexandria, towards the end of the second
century ; but, as he ascribes it to Si. Paul repeatedly and
without hesitation, we may conclude that in his time no
doubt had been entertained upon the subject, or, at least,
that the common tradition of the church attributed it
to St. Paul. Clement is followed by Origen, by Dionysius
and Alexander, both bishops of Alexandria, by Ambrose,
Athanasius, Hilary of Poitiers, Jerome, Chrysostom, and
Cyril, all of whom consider this epistle as written by St.
Paul ; and it is also ascribed to him in the ancient Syriac
version, supposed to have been made at the end of the
first century. Ensebius says, " Of St. Paul there are-
fourteen epistles manifest and well known ; but yet there
are some who reject that to the Hebrews, itrging for their
opinion that it is contradicted by the church of the Ro-
mans, as not being St. Paul's." In Dr. Lardner we find
the following remark : " It is evident that this epistle was
generally received in ancient times by those Christians
who used the Greek language, and lived in the eastern
parts of the Roman empire." And in another place he
says, " It was received as an epistle of St. Paul by many
Latin writers in the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries."
The earlier Latin writers take no notice of this epistle,
except TertuUian, who ascribes it to Barnabas. It ap-
pears, indeed, from the following expression of Jerome,
that this epistle was not generally received as canonical
Scripture by the Latin church in his time : " Licet earn
Latijia conntctudo inter canonicas Srripturas non recipiat.^'
The same thing is mentioned in other parts of his works.
But many individuals of the Latin church acknowledged
,t to be written by St. Paul, as Jerome himself, Ambrose,
Hilary, and Philaster ; and the per.sons who doubted its
Pauline origin were those the least likely to have been
acquainted with the epistle at an early period, from the
nature of its contents not being so interesting to the Latin
churches, which consisted almost entirely of gentile Chris-
tians, ignorant, probably, of the Mosaic law, and holding
but little intercourse with Jews.
2. The moderns, who, upon grounds of internal eri-
dence, contend against the Pauline origin of this epistle,
lest principally upon the two following arguments ; the
omi.^sion of the writer's name, and the superior elegance
of the style in which it is written. It is indeed certain
that all the acknowledged epistles of St. Paul begin with
a salutation in his own name, and that, in the epistle to
the Hebrews, there is nothing of that kind ; but this omis-
sion can scarcely be considered as conclusive against
positive testimony. St. Paul might have reasons for de-
parting, upon this occasion, from his usual mode of salu-
tation, which we at this distant period cannot discover.
Some have imagined that he omitted his name, because
he knew that it would not have much weight with the
Hebrew Christians, to whom he was in general obnoxious,
on account of his zeal in converting the Gentiles, and in
maintaining, that the observance of the Mosaic law was
not essential to salvation : it is, however, clear, that the
persons to whom this epistle was addressed knew from
whom it came, as the writer refers to some acts of kind-
ness which he had received from them, and also expresses
a hope of seeing them soon, Heb. 10: 34. 13: 18, 19, 23.
As to the other argument, it must be owned that there
does not appear to be such superiority in the style of this
epistle, as should lead to the conclusion that it was not
written by St. Paul. Those who have thought differently
have mentioned Barnabas, St. Luke, and Clement, as
authors or translators of this epistle. But surely the
writings of St. Paul, like those of other authors, may not
all have the same precise degree of merit ; and if, upon a
careful perusal and comparison, it should be thought that
the epistle to the Hebrews is written with greater elegance
than the acknowledged compositions of this apostle, it
should also be remembered that the apparent design and
contents of this epistle suggest the idea of more studied
composition. And yet, there is nothing in it which
amounts to a marked difference of style : on the other
hand, there is the same concise, abrupt, and elliptical
mode of expression, and it contains many phrases and
sentiments which are found in no part of Scripture, except
in St. Paul's epistles. We may further observe, that the
manner in which Timothy is mentioned in this epistle
makes it probable that it wcs written by St. Paul. Com-
pare Heb. 13: 23. with 2 Cc. 1: 1. and Col. 1: 1. It was
certainly written by a person who had suffered imprison-
ment in the cause of Christianity ; and this is known to
have been the case of St. Paul, but of no other person to
whom this epistle has been attributed. Upon the whole,
both the external and internal evidence appear to prepon-
derate so greatly in favor of St. Paul's being the author
of this epistle, that it cannot but be considered as written
by that apostle.
3. " They of Italy salute you," is the only expression
in the epistle which can assist us in determining from
whence it was written ; and the only inference to be
drawn from these words, seems to be, that St. Paul, when
he wrote this epistle, was at a place where some Italian
converts were. This inference is not incompatible with
the common opinion, that this epistle was written from
Rome, and therefore we consider it as written from that
city. It is supposed to have been written towards the end
of St. Paul's first imprisonment at Rome, or immediately
after it, because the apostle expresses an intention of
visiting the Hebrews shortly ; we therefore place the date
of this epistle in the year 63.
4. Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius, and Jerome,
thought that this epistle was originally written in the
Hebrew language ; but all the other ancient fathers who
have mentioned this subject speak of the Greek as the
original work ; and as no one pretends to have seen this
epistle in Hebrew, as there are no internal marks of the
Greek being a translation, and as we know that the Greek
language was at this time very generally understood at
Jerusalem, we may accede to the more common opinion,
both among the ancients and moderns, and consider the
present Greek as the original text. It is no small satis-
faction to reflect, that those who have denied either the
Pauline origin or the Greek original of this epistle, have
always supposed it to have been written or translated by
some fellow-laborer or assistant of St. Paul, and that
HEB
[ 609 ]
HE E
almost every one admits that it carries with it the sanction
and authority of the inspired apostle.
5. There has been some little doubt concerning the per-
sons to whom this epistle was addressed ; but by far the
most general and most probable opinion is, that it was
written to those Cliristians of Judea who had been con-
verted to the gospel from Judaism. That it was written,
notwithstanding its general title, to the Cliristians of one
certain place or country, is evident from the foIlo%ving
passages : " I beseech you the rather to do this, that I
may be restored to you the sooner," Heb. 13: 19. " Know
ye that our brother Timothy is set at hberty, with whom,
if he come shortly, I will see you," Heb. 13: 23. And it
appears from the following passage in the Acts, " When
the number of the disciples was multiplied, there arose a
murmuring of the Grecians against the Hebrews," (Acts
C>: 1.) that certain persons were at this time known at
.Terusalem by the name of Hebrews. They seem to have
been native Jews, inhabitants of Judea, the language of
which country was Hebrew, and therefore they were call-
ed Hebrews, in contradistinction to those Jews who, resid-
ing commonly in other countries, although they occasion-
ally came to Jerusalem, used the Greek language, and
were therefore called Grecians, or Hellenists.
ft. The general design of this epistle was to confirm the
Jewish Christians in the faith and practice of the gospel,
which they might be in danger of deserting, either through
the persuasion or persecution of the unbelieving Jews,
who were very numerous and powerful in Judea. We
may naturally suppose, that the zealous adher^ts to the
law would insist upon the majesty and glory which at-
tended its first promulgation, upon the distinguished cha-
racter of their legislator, Moses, and upon the divine autho-
rity of the ancient Scriptures ; and they might likewise
urge the humihation and death of Christ as an argument
against the truth of his religion. To obviate the impres-
sion which any reasoning of this sort might make upon
the converts to Christianity, the writer of this epistle be-
gins with declaring to the Hebrews, that the same God
who had formerly, upon a variety of occasions, spoken to
their fathers by means of his prophets, had now sent his
only Son for the purpose of revealing his will ; he then
describes, in most sublime language, the divine dignity
of the person of Christ, (Heb. 1.) and thence infers the
duty of obeymg his commands, the divine authority of
which was established by the performance of miracles,
and by the gifts of the Holy Ghost ; he points out the ne-
cessity of Christ's incarnation and passion ; (Heb. 2.) he
shows the superiority of Christ to Moses, and warns the
Hebrews against the sin of unbelief; (Heb. 3.) he exhorts
to steadfastness in the proliession of the gospel, and gives
an animated description of Christ as our perpetual High-
Friest ; (Heb. 4 — 7.) he shows that the Levilical priesthood
and the old covenant were abolished by the priesthood of
Christ, and by the new covenant ; (Heb. 8.) he points out
the inefiicacy of the ceremonies and sacrifices of the law,
and the sufficiency of the atonement made by the sacrifice
of Christ; (Heb. 9, 10.) he fully explains the nature,
value, and effects of faith; (Heb. 11.) and in the last
two chapters he gives a variety of exhortations and adiuo-
nitions, all calculated to encourage the Hebrews to bear
with patience and constancy any trials to which they
might be exposed. He concludes with the valedictory
benediction usual in St. Paul's epistles : — " Grace be "nith
you all. Amen." The most important articles of our
iauh are explained, and the most material objections to
the gospel are answered with great force, in this celebrated
epistle. The arguments used in it, as being addressed to
persons who had been educated in the Jewish religion, are
principally taken from the ancient Scriptures ; and the
connexion between former revelations and the gospel of
Christ, is pointed out in the most perspicuous and satis-
factory manner.
For a more ample discussion of the above points, see
Prof. Stuart's Commentary on Hebrews; second edition.
The Reviews of the first edition of this admirable work,
in the Christian Examiner, and the Spirit of the Pilgrims,
together with the Notes to the Letters of Canonicus, may
be consulted with advantage. — Watson.
HEBROCI, or Chebron; one of the most ancient
cities of Canaan, being built seven years before Tanis,
the capital of Lower Egypt, Num. 13: 22. It is thought
to have been founded by Arba, an ancient giant of Pales-
tine, and hence to have been called Kirjath-arba, Arba's
city, (Josh. 11: 15.) which name was afterwards changed
into Hebron. The Anakim dwelt at Hebron when Joshua
conquered Canaan, Josh. 15: 13.
Hebron, which was given to Judah, and became a city
of refuge, was situated on an eminence, twenty miles
south of Jerusalem, and about the same distance north
of Beersheba. Abraham, Sarah, and Isaac were buried
near the city, in the cave of Wachpelah, Gen. 23: 7, 8, 9.
After the death of Saul, David fixed his residence at He-
bron, and it was for some time the metropolis of his king-
dom, 2 Sam. 2: 2—5. It is now called El lllialil, and
contains a population of about four hundred Arabs.
" They are so mutinous," says D'Arvieux, " that they
rarely pay [the duties] without force, and commonly a
reinforcement from Jerusalem is necessary. The people
are brave, and when in revolt extend their incursions as
far as Bethlehem, and make amends by their pillage for
what is exacted from them. They are so well acquainted
with the windings of the mountains, and know so well
how to post themselves to advantage, that they close all
the passages, and exclude every assistance from reaching
the Soubachi. The Turks dare not dwell here, believing
that they could not live a week if they attempted it. The
Greeks have a church in the village." The mutinous
character of this people, one would think, was but a
continuation of their ancient disposition ; which might
render them fit instruments for serving David against
Saul, and Absalom against David. ' The advantage they
possessed in their knowledge of the passes, may account
also for the protracted resistance which David made to
Saul, and the necessity of the latter employing a conside-
rable force in order to dislodge his adversary. David was
so well aware of this advantage of station, that when Ab-
salom had possessed himself of Hebron, he did not think
of attacking him there, but fled in all haste from Jerusa-
lem northward. — Calmci.
HECATOMB, (Jcekatoii bous ; a himdredoxen ;) the sacri-
fice of a hundred oxen, or, in a large sense, of a hundred
animals of any sort. Such sacrifices were oflTered by the
ancient heathen on extraordinary occasions. — Hend. Buck.
HECKEWELDER, (John,) many years employed by
the Bloravian brethren as a missionary to the Delaware
Indians, was a native of England. In 1819, he published
at Philadelphia a history of the Manners and Customs of
the Indian nations, who once inhabited Pennsylvania ;
and in 1820, a narrative of the Moravian mission among
the Delaware Indians, &c. from 1740 to 1808. He died
at Bethlehem, in 1823, in the seventy-ninth year of his
age. — Davenport ; Allen.
HEDGE, for protecting fields, gardens, fcc. IChron.
4: 13. God's protecting providence, magistrates, govern-
ment, or whatever defends from hurt and danger, is called
a hedge, Job 1: 10. Isa. 5: 2. Ezek. 13: 6, Troubles
and hinderances are called hedges, as they stop our way,
and prevent our doing and obtaining what we please,
Lara. 3: 7. Job IP: 8. Hos. 2: 6. The ivai/ of the slothful
is a hedge of thorns : he always apprehends great difficul-
ties in the way of doing any good, and often he entangles
himself in inextricable difficulties, Prov. 15: 19. — Bron-n
HEDIO, (Caspar, D. D. ;) one of the reformers of the
sixteenth century, the intimate friend of Capito, Bucer,
and Oecolampadius. This truly excellent, learned, and
useful man, was born at Etting, and studied at Friburg
and Basil. He preached successively at ftlentz, Stras-
burg, Borin ; and returning to Strasburg, there died in
1552. He published many works. — Middleton, vol. i. 291.
HEEL. As heels are the lowest parts of the body,
Christ's heel bruised by Satan is his humble manhood, and
his people who are suliject to him, Gen. 3: 15. To have
the heels bare, denotes shame, contempt, captirity, or dis-
tress, Jer. 13: 22. To lift up the heel, or kick, is to render
eifll for good to a superior, as a beast when it strikes its
master. So Judas acted in betraying our Lord, Ps. 41: 8
John 13: 18. Blen are taken by the heels in a snare, when
they suddenly fall into some calamity, from winch iher
cannot free themselves. Job. 18: 19. — Bron-n.
II EL
[ 610
HEL
HEGIRAH; an Arabic word, signifying //g-W, and
specially used to mark the flight ol' Mohammed from Mec-
ca to Medina. As from that event, which took place A. D.
622, the Mohammedans date their computations, the term
is employed to denote their era or period. — Tlaid. Buck.
HEIDELBERG CATECHISM ; a \vork of great cele-
brity in the history of the Reformation. Frederic III.,
elector of the palatinate, belonging to the Calvinistic
church, caused it to be written, for the purpose of having
an uniform rule of faith. The principal contributors were
Ursinu.s, professor of theology at Heidelberg, and Olevi-
anus, minister and public teacher at the same place. The
catechism was first published in 1563, under the title,
'■ Catechism, or Short System of Christian Faith, as it is
taught in the Churches and Schools in the Palatinate."
It has been translated into many languages. — Hend. Buck.
HEIFER; a young cow, used in sacrifice at the tem-
ple. Num. 19: 1 — 10. Moses and Aaron were instructed
to deliver the divine command to the children of Israel
that they should procure " a red heifer, without spot," that
is, one that was entirely red, without one spot of any other
color ; " free from blemish, and on which the yoke had
never yet come," that is, which had never yet been em-
ployed in ploughing the ground or in any other work ; for,
according to the common sense of all mankind, those ani-
mals which had been made to serve other uses, became
unfit to be offered to God, — a sentiment which we find in
Homer and other heathen writers. The animal was to
be delivered to the priest, who was lo lead her forth out
of the camp, and there to slay her ; the priest was then to
take of the blood with his finger, and sprinkle it seven
times before the tabernacle, and afterwards to burn the
•larcass : then to take cedar wood and hyssop, and scarlet
wood, and cast them into the flames. The ashes were to
be gathered up, and preserved in a secure and clean place,
for the use of the congregation, by the sprinkling of which
ashes in water, it became a water of separation, by
means of which a typical or ceremonial purification for
sin was effected, Heb. 9: 13.^TVatsoii.
HEIR ; a person who succeeds by right of inheritance
to an estate, property, &c. But the principles of heirship
in the East differ from those among ns ; so that children
do not always wait till their parents are dead, before they
receive their portions. Hence, when Christ is called
" heir of all things," it does not imply the death of any
former possessor of all things ; and when saints are called
heirs of the promise, of righteousness, of the kingdom, of
the world, of God, " joint heirs" with Christ, it implies
merely participants in such or such advantages, but no
decease of any party in possession would be understood
by those to whom these passages were addressed ; though
among ourselves there is no actual heirship till the parent,
or proprietor, is departed. (See Adoption ; Bikthrigut ;
Inhekitance.)— Ca?raei.
HELBON, or Heeah ; (Judg. 1: 31.) a city of Syria
famous for its wines, (Ezek. 27: 18.) and supposed to be
the present Haleb, or as called in Europe, Aleppo. It is
situated, according to Russell, who has given a very full
description of it, in lat. 36 deg. 11 min. 25 sec. north ; lon-
gitude, 37 deg. 9 min. east ; abotit one hundred and eighty
miles north of Damascus, and about eighty inland from
the coast of the Mediterranean sea. In i822, Aleppo was
visited by a dreadful earthquake, by which it was almost
entirelv destroyed.— Ca^mrt.
HELIOPOLIS. (See On.)
HELL. Four distinct words in the Hebrew and Greek
Scriptures, ShenI, Harks. Tartaros, and Gehenna, are in
our common version translated Hell. The two first sig-
nify, like the Hindoo Padahn, or Pata!a. the Egyptian
Amenti, and the Latin Pl„t„, Onus, and Infernus, the
world of departed souls in general ; without any distinc-
iion, m ordinary cases, between the good and the bad,
(he happy or the miserable. (See Hades.) But the two
last are more specific in their character, and strictly sig-
nify, (as our English word Hell does now, in the language
of theology,) the place of divine punishment after dekh.
As aU religions have supposed a future state of existence
after this life, so all have their hell, or place of torment,
m which the wicked are to be punished. Ancient and
modern heathens, the Jews, and the Mahometans, we
find believe in a future state of retribution ; it is not, there-
fore, a sentiment peculiar to Christianity.
We have already shown under the word Hades, that
neither Sheol nor Hades usually denote Hell in the strict
.sense, but the regions of the dead in general ; including
both Paradise and Gehenna, the world of bliss, and the
world of woe. To denote this latter, the New Testament
writers make use of the Greek word Gehenna, which i'
compounded of two Hebrew words, Ge Hinnom, that is,
" The Valley of Hinnom," a place near Jerusalem, in
which children were cruelly sacrificed by fire to Moloch,
the idol of the Ammonites, 2 Chron. 33: 6. This place was
also called Tophet, (2 Kings 23: 10. J alluding, as is suppos-
ed, to the noise of drums, (toph signifying a drum,) there
raised to drown the cries of helpless infants. (See Ge-
henna.) As in process of time this place came to be con-
sidered an emblem of Hell, or the place of torment re-
served for the punishment of the wicked in a future
state, (see Dr. Campbell's sixth Dissertation ;) the name
Tophet came gradually to be used in this sense, and at
length to be confined to it. In this sense, also, the word
Gehenna, a synonymous term, is always to be understood
in the New Testament, where it occurs twelve times ;
always in addressing Jews, to whom the analogical sense
was easily intelligible. Matt. 5: 22, 29, 30. 10: 88. 18: 9.
23: 15, 33. Mark 9: 43, 45, 47. Luke 12: 5. James 3: 6.
Mr. Balfour, of Charlestown, in an " Inquiry into the
scriptural import of Sheol, Hades, &c." has undertaken to
set aside the received meaning of Gehenna. He strenu-
ously defiles that it has the signification of the place of fu-
ture punishment. This position is more bold than wise ;
since his arguments and expositions in support of it are
founded in a total misapprehension of the context of the
New Testament, of the philosophy and laws of language,
and in the most serious perversion of the Scriptures. See
Campbell's Dissertations ; Spirit of the Pilgrims, 1828 ; Bal-
four's Inquiry and Essays ; Hudson's Reply ; Whitman's
Letters ; but especially Cooke's Examijiation of the Writings
of Rev. Walt£r Balfour.
There have been many curious and useless conjectures
respecting the location of Hell. But, as Dr. Doddridge ob-
serves, we must here confess our ignorance ; and shall be
much better employed in studying how we may avoid this
place of horror, than in laboring to discover where it is.
Of the nature of this punishment we may form some idea
from the expressions made use of in Scripture. It is call-
ed a place of torment. (Luke 16: 21.) the bottomless pit,
(Rev. 20: 3—6.) a prison, (1 Pet. 3: 19.) darkness, (Matt.
8: 12. Jud. 13.) fire, (Matt. 13: 42, 50.) the worm that
never dies, (Mark 9: 44, 48.) the second death, (Rev. 21:
8.) the wrath of God, Rom. 2: 5. It has been debated
whether there will be a material fire in Hell. On the affir-
mative side it is observed, that fire and brimstone are
represented as ingredients in the torment of the wick-
ed. Rev. 14: 10, 11. 20: 10. That as the body is to
be raised, and the whole man to be condemned, it is rea-
sonable to believe there will be some corporeal punish-
ment provided, and, therefore, probably material fire. On
the negative side it is alleged, that the terras above men-
tioned are metaphorical, and signify no more than the vio-
lence of raging desire or acute pain ; and that the Divine
Being can sufficiently punish the wicked, by immediately
acting on their minds, or even by delivering them up to
their guilty passions and the stings of their own consciences.
According to several passages, it seems there will be
different degrees of punishment in Hell, Luke 12: 47, Rom,
2: 12. Matt. 10: 20, 21. Matt. 12: 25, 32. Heb. 10:28, 29.
God will regard the measure of men's works.
As to its duration, it has been alleged that it cannot be
eternal, because there is no proportion between tempora. y
crimes and eternal punishments ; that the word everlast-
ing is not to be taken in its utmost extent ; and that it sig-
nifies no more than a long time, or a time whose precise
boundary is unknown. But in answer to this it is observ-
ed, that the same word is used, and that sometimes in the
very same place, to express the eternity of the happiness
of the righteous, and the eternity of the misery of the wick-
ed ; and that there is no reason to believe that the words
express two such different ideas, as standing in the same
connexion. (See Aion, and Aionios.) Besides, it is iiot
HEL
[611 ]
HEN
trae, it is observed, that temporary crimes do not deserve
eternal punishment, because the length of punishment is
never measured by the time occupied in the commission
of crimes, and because the infinite majesty of an offended
God and the endless future existence of man, justly ex-
pose the sinner to an endless punishment ; and that hereby
God vindicates his injured majesty, and glorifies his jus-
tice. (See articles Destructionists, and Universalists.)
Berry St. Lee. vol. ii. p. 559, 562 ; Dmves on Hell, ser. x. ;
Wliiston on ditto ; Swindat, Drexehus, Saurin, and Edwards
on ditto ; Tillotsnn's Sermons, ser. 25 ; Fuller's IVbr/cs ;
Dn-ighVs Theology. — Hend. Buck ; Watson.
HELL, Christ's descent into. That Christ locally
descended into hell, is a doctrine believed not only by the
papists, but by many among the reformed. The text
chiefly brought forward in support of this doctrine, is 1
Pet. 3: 19 : — " By which he went and preached to the spi-
rits in prison." But it evidently appears, 1. That the
" Spirit " there mentioned was not Christ's human soul, but
ihe Holy Spirit, (by which he was quickened, and raised
from the dead ;) and by the inspiration of which, granted
to Noah, he preached to those notorious sinners who are
now in the prison of hell for their disobedience. See a
similar form of expres.sion, in Ephes. 2: 17 : "And came
and preached peace," iScc. where it is certain that the per-
sonal presence of Ciirist is not intended. 2. Christ, when
on the cross, promised the penitent thief his presence that
day in paradise ; and accordingly, when he died, he com-
mitted his soul into his heavenly Father's hand : in hea-
ven, therefore, and not in hell, we are to seek the sepa-
rate spirit of our Redeemer in this period, Luke 23: 43, 46.
That his soul was in Hades, or the unseen world, is how-
ever admitted ; for this state includes both heaven and
hell. 3. Had our Lord descended to preach to the damn-
ed, there is no supposable reason why the unbelievers
in Noah's time only should be mentioned rather than
those of Sodom, and the unhappy multitudes that died in
sin, Ps. 16: 10. Acts 2: 21, 31. (See Hades.) Bishop Pear-
son and Dr. Barrow on the Creed ; Edn-ards' Hist, of Re-
demption, notes, pp. 351, 377 ; Sidgley's Body of Div. p.
308, 3d ed. ; Doddridge and Guise on i Pet. 3: 19 ; Camp-
belVs Dissertations ; Stuart's Exegetieal Essays. — Hend. Buck.
HELLENISTS ; a term occurring in the Greek text of
the New Testament, and which, in the English version,
is rendered Grecians, Acts 6: 1. The authors of the Vul-
gate version render it like ours, Graci ; but the Messieurs
Du Port Royal, more accurately, Juifs Grecs, Greek or
Grecian Jews, it being the Jews who spoke Greek that are
here treated of, and are hereby distinguished from the
Jews called H brews — that is, who spoke the Hebrew
tongue of that time.
The Hellenists, or Grecian Jews, were those who lived
in Egypt, and other parts where the Greek tongue pre-
vailed. These Hellenists first settled in Egypt about six
hundred years before Christ. Their number was increas-
ed by the numerous colonies of Jews planted there by
Alexander the Great, B. C. 336, and still later by Ptolemy
Lagus. Under the reign of Augustus, they amounted to
nearly a million. The mixture of the Jewish and Egyp-
tian national characters, and the influence of the Greek
language and philosophy, whiclt were adopted by these
Jews, laid the foundation of a new epoch of Grtsco- Jewish
literature, which, from its prevailing character, received
the name of the Hellenistic. The systems of Pythagoras
and Plato were strangely combined with those Oriental
phantasies, which had been reduced to a system in Egypt,
and with which the mystical doctrines of the Gnostics
were imbued. The most noted of the Jewish Hellenistic
philosophers was Philo of Alexandria ; and the principal
of the learned labors of the Alexandrian Jews was the
Greek translation of the Old Testament. The Hellenists,
(Acts 6: 1, 11. 19: 20.) are properly distinguished from
the Hellenes, or Greeks, mentioned John 12: 20, who
were Greeks by birth and nation, and yet proselytes to
the Jewish religion.
The term Hellenists is also given to those who main-
tained the classical purity of the New Testament Greek.
Their opponents were called Hebraists. — Hend. Buck.
HELMET ; a piece of defensive armor for the head.
(See Arms, and Armor.) — Calmet.
HEMERO-BAPTISTS; a sect among the ancient Jews,
thus called from their washing and bathing every day, in
all seasons ; and performing this custom with the greatest
solemnity, as a religious rite necessary to salvation.
Epiphanius, who mentions this as the fourth heresy
among the Jews, observes, that in other points these here-
tics had much the same opinion as the scribes and Phari-
sees ; only that they denied the resurrection of the dead,
in common with the Sadducees, and retained a few other
of the improprieties of these last. (See Christians of St.
John.) — Hend. Buck.
HEMLOCK, {rush and rash ;) Deut.29: 18. 32: 32. Ps.
69: 21. Jer. 8: 14. 9: 15. 23: 15. Lam. 3. 5, 19. Hos.
10: 4. Amos 6: 12. In the two latter places our transla-
tors have rendered the word hendock, in the others, gall.
Hiller supposes it the centaureum, described by Pliny ; but
Celsius shows it to be the hemlock. It is evident, from
Deut. 29: 18, that some herb or plant is meant of a ma-
lignant or nauseous kind, being there joined with worm-
wood, and in the margin of our Bibles explained to be " a
poisonful herb." In like manner see Jer. 8: 14. 9: 15,
and 23: 15. In Hosea 10: 4, the comparison is to a bitter
herb, which, growing among grain, overpowers the useful
vegetable, and substitutes a pernicious weed. The pro-
phet appears to mean a vegetable which should appear
wholesome, and resemble those known to be salutary,
as judgment, when just, properly is ; but experiencr-
would demonstrate its malignity, as unjust judgment is
when enforced. Hemlock is poisonous, and water-hem-
lock especially ; yet either of these may be mistaken, and
some of their parts, the root particularly, may deceive but
too fatally. — Watson.
HESEVIENWAY, (Moses, D. D.,) minister of "Wells,
Jlaine, was born in Framingham, and graduated at Har-
vard college, in 1755 ; was ordained Aug. 8, 1759 ; and
died April 5, 1811, aged about seventy-five, having been
a minister fifty-one years.
Dr. Hemmenway was a faithful preacher, and a learn-
ed theologian. His controversies were conducted with
fairness and candor. He published seven sermons on the
obligation of the unregenerate to strive for eternal life,
1767 ; a pamphlet on the same subject, against Dr. Hop-
kins, pp. 127, 1772 ; remarks on Hopkins' answer, pp.
166, 1774; at the election, 1784; discourse concerning the
church, 1792; at the ordination of M. Calef, 1795. Green-
leaf's Sketches, ap. i— 9.— Allen.
HEN, (ornis ;) 2 Esdras 1: 30. Matt. 23: 37. Luke 13:
34. The aflfection of the hen to her brood is so strong as
to have become proverbial. There is a beautiful Greek
epigram in the Anthologia, which affords a very fine illus-
tration of the affection of this bird in another view. It
has been thus translated : —
" Beneath lier fwlerlng wing tlie hen defends
Her darling offspring, while the snow descends;
And through the winter's day unmoved defies
The cliilling fleeces and inclement skies ;
Till vanquish'd by the cold and piercing blast,
True to her charge, she perishes at lasl."
Plutarch, in his book De Philostorgid, represents this pa-
rental attachment and care in a very pleasing manner : —
" Do we not daily observe with what care the hen protects
her chickens ; giving some shelter under her wings, sup-
porting others upon her back, calling them around her,
and picking out their food ; and if any animal approaches
that terrifies them, driving it away with a coitrage and
strength truly wonderful.'' — Watson.
HENA ; an idol, (2 Kings 18: 34.) thought to be the
Anais of the Persians ; or the deity Nansea, Venus, the
star of Venus, or Lucifer. — Watsmi.
HENOTICON, (Gr. uniting into one ;) a famous edict or
decree of the Greek emperor Zeno, issued in the year 482,
with a view to reconcile all the different parties in religion
to the profession of one faith. It is generally agreed that
Peter, the false patriarch of Alexandria, and Acacius, pa-
triarch of Constantinople, were the authors of this decree,
and that their design was to compliment the emperor with
the right of prescribing regulations in matters of faith.
Zeno was caught bv their flattery, and the Henoticon was
drawn up. It soon appeared that the emperor, by this de-
cree, arrogated to himself the right of being head ol the
11 K N
[ bl2
HE N
church, and that it covertly fa voreil the E ijtyehiaa here-
tics, who approved the council of Chalcedon. Accordingly,
pope Simplicius condemned it in the year 483, and cited
Acacius, who had been the chief promoter of it, to appear
before him at Rome. But it was not till the year 518,
that it was entirely suppressed, when, in the reign of Jus-
tinian, and tlie pontificate of Hormisdas, the name of Zeno
was struck out of the diptyebs, or sacred registers, of such
deceased persons for whom particular prayers were offered
up. — Hmd. Buck.
HENRICIANS ; a sect so called from Henry, its foun-
der, who, though a monk and hermit, undertook to reform
the superstition and vices of Ihe clergy. For this purpose
he left Lausanne, in Switzerland, and removing from dif-
ferent places, at length settled at Thoulouse, in the year
1147, and there exercised his ministerial function; till,
being overcome by the opposition of Bernard, abbot of
Clairval, and condemned by pope EugeniuslII. at a coun-
cil assembled at Eheims, he was committed to a close pri-
son, in 1148, where he soon ended his days. This re-
former rejected the baptism of infants, severely censured
the corrupt manners of the clergy, treated the festivals
and ceremonies of the church with the utmost contempt,
and held private assemblies for inculcating his peculiar
doctrines. — Hani. Buck.
HENRY, (PiHLip, A. fll.,) was born at Whitehall, Eng.
August 24, 1631. Mr. Philip Henry's mother was a very
pious woman, and took great pains to bring up her chil-
dren in the fear of the Lord : but of her, in early life, he
was deprived. The celebrated Dr. Busby became his tu-
tor, and under him he became eminent for his attainments
in the learned languages. To him he was much attached,
as from him he received the Irindest attention. When
5Ir. Henry was ejected from the establishment, the doctor
meeting him, said, "Who made you a non-conformist?"
"You, Sir," replied he. "I made you a non-conform-
ist?" " Yes, Sir; you taught me those principles which
forbade me to violate my conscience." While at West-
minster school, in compliance with the request of his fa-
ther, he was allowed to attend the ministry of Mr. Mar-
shall, who then preached in Westminster, at seven o'clock
in the morning, and under whose ministration he derived
his first serious impressions. From that establishment he
removed to Christ church, Oxford, where he was soon
after called to yield to the parliamentary visitation, which
he did in these words : — " I submit to the power of the
parhament, in the present visitation, as far as I may
with a safe conscience and without purjury." Dr. Owen,
when vice-chancellor, noticed the college exercises of
young Henry with high approbation. Some of his Latin
verses were among the poems which the university pul>
lished in the year 1654, on the peace with Holland. But
when he afterwards visited Oxford, he inserted in his book,
" A tear dropped over my university sins."
On leaving college, he first settled at Worthenbury, in
Flintshire, where he was ordained by Presbyters, and la-
bored with so much ardor and piety, that through all the
.surrotmding country he was known by tlio name of hea-
venly Henry. There he married Miss Catharine Mat-
thews, of Broad Oak. She was heiress to a good estate,
which promoted the temporal comfort of her husband, and
enabled him not only to preach the gospel, but also to re-
lieve many ministers in the day of perseciuion, while the
personal excellencies of his wife were with him a constant
theme of praise to God. By her he had two sons, John
and Matthew, and four daughters : John died young, but
his son Matthew, whose praise is in all the churches, was
his father's biographer, and records, with interesting and
instructive minuteness, the beautiful order of religion
which was established in his paternal abode.
At the restoration, Mr. Philip Henry was first deprived,
by his enemies, of his useful sphere of labor, and after-
wards entirely expelled from the establishment by the act
of uniformity. He says, " Our sins have made Bartholo-
mew-day, in the year 1662, the saddest day for England
smce the death of Edward the Sixth, but even this for
good." By the operation of the conventicle and five-mile
acts, he was driven from his house, and compelled to seek
the retirements of seclusion or imprisonment, for safety.
In the year 1687, when king James promulgated his
celebrated declaration for liberty of conscience, Mr. Henry
immediately availed himself of it. He now fitted up an
out-building of his own, and held constant worship there,
according to the forms used by dissenters, and with great
zeal and piety. He also preached with the same ardor
around the country on every day, riding, after having de-
livered one sermon, six or eight miles to preach another ;
and the next day repeating the same laborious exercise.
The joy which he felt in this opportunity for labor, the
success which attended his efforts, and the happy settle-
ment of all his children, crowned his latter end with glad-
ness. But his labors hastened his rest ; for when writing
to a friend, who anxiously inquired after his health, he
says, " I am always habitually weary, and expect no oth-
er till I lie down in the bed of spices.'' After preaching
one Lord's day, with his usual vivacity and energy, he
was seized mth a fatal sickness. He expired June 24,
1696, exclaiming, "O death, where is thy sting ?" His
" Sayings," which constitute a chapter in his biography,
resemble those of Holy Writ. (See Ins Life by his Son.) —
Ju7ies^ Chris. Biog.
HENRY, (Matthew,) author of the celebrated " Com-
mentary," bearing his name, was born on the 18th of Oc-
tober, 1662, at Broad Oak, in Flintshire. He was the son
of the celebrated Philip Henry. Matthew, like many oth-
er eminent persons, was a child of infirm health, and early
displayed a mind too vigorous and active for the frame
which it inspired. At the early age of ten years he was
deeply aflected by convictions of the evil of sin, in conse-
quence of hearing his father preach on Ps. 51: 7. —
" Purge me with hyssop, and I shall be clean ; wash me,
and I shall be whiter than snow." When he was thirteen
years of age, his diary indicates decided piety. That the
child of Philip Henry should early love to imitate preach-
ing, and wish to be a minister, is not surprising ; but of
those who observed his puerile essays, some wondered at
the wisdom aod gravity which they displayed, and many
expressed their fears lest he should be too forward ; but
the father replied, "Let him go on: he fears God, and
designs well ; and I hope God will keep him and bless
him."
After having been at the seminary of Mr. Thomas
Doolittle, young Henry was , induced, by the influence of
friends, to remove to Gray's Inn, in order to study the law.
But, true to his original purpose, keeping his eye on the
advancement of Christianity as his polar star, he quickly
returned to the work of the ministry. His first public ser-
vices were at his father's residence, where he received the
most pleasing testimonies of his usefulness. Being after-
wards invited to spend a few days with a friend at Nant-
wich, in Cheshire, he preached on the words of Job,
" With God is terrible majesty," which produced the most
striking and delightful effects. He was now invited to
Chester, where he preached at the house of Mr. Hen-
thorne, a sugar-baker, which laid the foundation of the
church of which he was many years the faithful and be-
loved pastor. But having been called back to London, in
1687, he found that the king, James It., was issuing out
licences to empower non-conformists to preach. This led
him to prepare seriously for his future office ; and, in a
private paper, entitled " Serious Self Examination before
Ordination," he expresses his determination to be zealous
and faithful in the discharge of his ministerial duties.
By the dissenters, he was ordained with great privacy,
on the 9th of May, 1687. Mr. Henry was well received
at Chester, and was successful in raising a large congre-
gation. Of his ministry, it may be truly said, that, like
the apostle, he was in labors more abundant ; for his con-
stant work, on the Lord's day, was to pray six times in
public, to expound twice, and preach twice. His two pub-
lic services seem to have been fully equal to three in the
present day. He went through the whole Bible, by way
of exposition, more than once. The list of subjects on
which he preached is in print, and displays a comprehen-
sive mind, anxious to declare the whole counsel of God ;
but, in his private notes, he says, "I find myself most in
my element when preaching Christ, and him crucified ;
for the more I think and speak of him, the more I love
him."
Eager to seize eyery opportunity of usefulness, he dili
HEN
I i^l^i J
IIK iS
gently visiled the prisoners in the caslle of Chester, wliere
his benevolent compassion and zeal introduced him to
some very affecting scenes. But he never confined his
hibors to "Chester, lor he was the life of the dissenting com-
munion through all that country ; and constantly preach-
ed in the adjoining to«iis and villages every week. After
having refused several invitations from churches in Lon-
don, he at length consented to leave Chester, in order to
take the pastoral charge of a congregation at Hackney,
fir.st collected by Dr. IBaies. He has left on record his
reasons for quitting the first scene of his labors, where he
had preached nearly five-and-twenty years, where he had
lliree hundred and fifty communicants, and probably a
thousand hearers ; a people of whom he said, with a
heavy heart at parting, "They love me too well."
He commenced the ISth day of May, in the year 1712,
his pastoral care at Hackney, expounding the first chapter
of Genesis in the morning ; and in the afternoon, the first
of Matthew, as if begirming life anew. That he removed
to the vicinity of London to enjo)', not ease, but labor,
v,-as evident ; for his unexhausted zeal blazed forth with
greater ardor, to fill his new and enlarged sphere. He
devised additional modes of usefulness ; preaching not
only at Hackney, but in London also, early and late on
the same Sabbath. He often preached lectures every
evening in the week, and sometimes two or three on the
same day ; so that his biographer says, " If ever any mi-
nister, in our days, erred in excess of labors, he was the
person." But one of the principal motives which led him
to London, was to be able to print the remaining volumes
of his " Exposition."
He now drew near to the goal for which he panted.
Having alleviated the pains of separation from his friends
at Chester, by promising to visit them every year, he made
his last journey to them in the month of June, 1714. On
his return, he was taken ill at Nantwich, where he said to
his friend Mr. lUidge, You have been used to tahe notice of
the sayings of dying men ; this is mine : that a life spent in
the service of God, and communion with him, is the most plea-
sant life that any one can live in this world. On the 22d of
June, 1714, he expired, in the fifty-second year of his
age.
The death of Henry was universally lamented ; even
those who loved not the communion to which he belong-
ed, owned that it had lost its brightest ornament. He has
left behind him, in his works, a library of divinity, which
supersedes all eulogium on his character. His mind was
not, indeed, formed for metaphysical abstraction, or ele-
gant sublimity ; nor was his pen celebrated for those
splendid ornaments which feast the fancy, nor those vig-
orous strokes which thrill through the soul ; but he pos-
sessed a peculiar faculty, which may be called a religious
naivete, which introduced well-known sentiments in an
enchanting air of novel simplicity, while his style abound-
ed with antitheses, which Attic taste would sometimes
refuse, but which human nature will ever feel and admire.
The mere plans of his sermons and expositions contain
more vivid, lucid instruction, and less deserve the name
of skeletons, than the finished discourses of many other
divines. Life of M. Henry ; Jones' Chris. Biog Hend.
Enrk.
HENRY, (Patrick,) an American orator and states-
man, was born in Virginia, in 1736, and, after receiving
a common school education, and spending some time in
trade and agriculture, commenced the practice of the law,
after only six weeks of preparatory study. After several
years of poverty, with the incumbrance of a family, he
first rose to distinction in managing the popular cause in
the controversy between the legislature and the clergy,
louching the stipend which was claimed by the latter.
In 176.5, he was elected member of the hottseof burgesses,
with express reference to an opposition to the British
stamp act. In this assembly he obtained the honor of
being the first to commence the opposition to the measures
of the British government, which terminated in the revo-
lution. He was one of the delegates sent by Virginia to
the first general congress of the colonies, in 1774, and in
that body distinguished himself by hLs boldness and elo-
tjuence. In 177(), he was appointed the first governor of
the commonwealth, and to this office was repeatedly re-
elected. In 1791, he retired from the bar, and died la
1799.
Without extensive information upon legal or political
topics, Patrick Henry was a natural orator of the highest
order, possessing great powers of imagination, sarcasm,
and humor, united with great force and energy of man-
ner, and a deep knowledge of human nature.
His principles of liberty and regard to Christianity led
him to deplore the practice of slavery. On this subject,
in a letter written in 1773, he inquires, " Is it not amaz-
ing, that at a time when the rights of humanity are
defined and understood with precision, in a country above
all others fond of liberty ; that in such an age, and such
a country we find men, professing a reUgion the mo^i
humane, mild, gentle, and generous, adopting a princi-
ple as repugnant to humanity as it is inconsistent with
the Bible, and destructive to liberty ? — Would any one be-
lieve, that I am master of slaves of my own purchase i
I am drawn along by the general inconvenience of liv
ing here without them. I will not^I cannot justify
it."
He was not a member of any church. He said to a
friend, just before his death, who found him reading the
Bible, " Here is a book worth more than all the other
books that were ever printed ; yet it is my misfortune
never to have found time to read it, with the proper atten-
tion and feeling, till lately. I trust in the mercy of hea-
ven, that it is not yet too late." Mr. Wirt's very inter-
esting life of Heiiry was published, 3d ed. 8vo. 1818. —
Davuiport ; Allen.
HENRY, (TuoMAS Charlton, D. D..) author of the
Letters to an Anxious Inquirer, was bom in Philadelphia,
Sept. 22, 1790. He was the eldest son of Alexander Hen-
ry, Esq. president of the Am. Sunday School Union, who
originally intended him for enlarged mercantile pursuits,
on which account he went through an unusually extended
course of literature. Immediately after his graduation at
Middlehury college, in Aug. 1814, the most templing and
splendid prospects of affluence and distinction, invited his
entrance on a secular career ; but having felt the power
of renewing grace while at college, he conferred not with
flesh and blood, but cordially embraced the laborious and
self-denying duties of the Christian ministry. He went
through his theological course at Princeton, N. J., and in
1816, entered on his great work with such rare endow-
ments and pohshed eloquence, as attracted uncommon at-
tention. In Nov. 1818, he became pastor of the Presby-
terian church in Columbia, S. C, where he labored
faithfully for five years, with great success.
In Jan. 1824, he accepted the invitation of the second
Presbyterian church in Charleston. In this new and
more ample field, his full soul was poured forth into his
work, and a rich harvest of souls was gathered home to
God. Ilis health becoming impaired, he visited Europe,
in 1S2(), and after spending six months in Great Britain
and France, returned in the fall of the same year with re-
newed vigor and zeal to b.is pastoral duties. At the same
time, he began to devote himself with inconceivable ardor
to laborious study and composition, with a view to extend
his ministerial usefulness. But, alas, on the 1st of Oc-
tober, of the next year, he was seized with the yellow
fever, and in four days fell a victim to its ravages, at the
age of thirty-seven ; leaving his beloved family and flock
to mourn the loss of such a husband, father, and pastor,
as few ever had to lose.
Pr. ITcnry possessed as to person, manners, mind, voice,
look and action, the attributes of a finished orator. In
classical and theological learning he had few equals, of
his own age and country. To a critical acquaintance
with the ancient languages, he added a correct knowledge
of several modern ones. Especially with the original
Scriptures, and the writings of the Fathers, he was quite
familiar. But the cromiing excellence of his character
was his entire self-consecration to the blessed Redeemer,
and his deep experience of the power of rehgion. This it
was which made him a rich blessing in life, and so richly
blessed in death. His last hours afford one of the most
beautiful scenes in the history of Christianity.
On the evening of his seizure, he said to a friend, " I
know not what the Lord intends, but if my T?ork is done,
HER I 614 J
1 shall be glad to go home ;" and then repeated the fol-
lowing lines :
" Sweet to rejoice in lively hope,
Thai, when my cliange shall come,
Angels shall hover round my bed,
And waft my spirit home."
" And can you leave me," said Mrs. Henry, " and the
dear little children, and the church, in God's hands?" —
" Yes," he replied, " I know he can provide for you all,
and I can rely on his promises and grace. I can lea-.-e
you all — my work is done." Having expressed his \iill,
as to the disposal of his affairs, he requested that he might
be left alone with his wife. Afterwards he called for his
children, spoke to them affectionately, and gave them his
last embrace. He then said, " I shall soon know more of
eternity than I now do. Eternity ! there is my exalt-
ed, GLORioDS, H03IE ! Oh, how Vain, how httle, how tri-
fling, does every thing appear in the light of a nearing
eternity." " You have chosen," it was said, " the good
part." " Oh ! I have won it," he replied ; " I have not the
shadow of a doubt, or a fear, upon my mind. I have not
a wish, desire, hope, or thought on earth ; they are all
above; nothing can turn my thoughts." Some time after
l)e exclaimed, " Come, Lord Jesus, come quickly, come
now, come immediately, this moment, just as suits thy
holy will." Observing the grief of his wife, he said, " Is
that right, my dear, is that right ? we shall soon meet in
heaven." " I hope so," she replied. " Hope so," he an-
swered, " we must, we shall — how could it be otherwise."
He afterwards remarked, " God has been very merciful
in sparing me so long, and making me an instrument of
good. We have often conversed together about heaven ;
I shall know and love you there." He concluded a short,
but comprehensive, and fervent prayer, by saying very
emphatically, " for the Redeemer's sake ; for the Redeem-
er's— Amen." In his last moments, being asked, " Do
you find that gloom in death which some apprehend?"
he replied, though with difficulty from the shortness of his
breathing, " A sweet, falling of the soul in Jesus. Oh!
what mercy ! what mercy ! — I don't understand it !" A
friend addressing him near the close of this scene of tri-
umphant grace, when apparently lost to all earthly sounds,
he exclaimed, " Oh ! you interrupted me ; I had a beau-
tiful train of thought then." In a little while after, that
thinking mind, which thus asserted its indestructibleness,
by continuing its functions active and vigorous in the very
juncture of separation from the body, went rejoicing from
this stage of trial, to commingle with pure spirits before
the throne of God. He died at the South, the same year
w;th Dr. Payson at the North.
Dr. Henry's published works are. An Inquiry into the
Consistency of Popular Amusements with a Profession
of Christianity ; Letters to an Anxious Inquirer ; and
Moral Etchings. — Memoir prefixed to his Letters.
HERACLEONITES : a seclof Christians, the followers
of Heracleon, who refined upon the Gnostic divinity, and
maintained that the world was not the immediate produc-
tion of the Son of God, but that he was only the occasional
cause of its being created by the demiurgus. The Hera-
cleonites denied the authority of the prophecies of the Old
Testament; maintained that they were mere random
sounds in the air ; and that John the Baptist was the only
true voice that directed to the Messiah.— HcnfZ. Buck.
HERBERT, (Edward,) lord of Cherbury, was born, in
1581, at Montgomery castle ; was sent at the early age
of twelve years to University college, Oxford ; was made
a knight of the Bath soon after the accession of James I. ;
travelled on the continent in 1608, and attracted much at-
tention by his manners and accompUshments ; served in
the Netherlands in llilO and 1614, and displayed consum-
mate bravery ; was twice sent ambassador to France,
where he distinguished himself by resenting the insolence
of the worthless favorite de Luynes ; was made an Irish
peer, in 1625, and, soon after, an English baron ; espous-
ed the parliamentary cause during the civil wars ; and
died in 1648. Herbert was one of the most chivalrous
characters of his time, with considerable talents, and some
vanity. He was a deist, and was one of the first who re-
duced deism into a system. His principles are expounded
in bin works De Veritate, and De Religione Laici, which
HER
he belie-yfed God miraculously bid him publish. Lord
Herbert also wrote his own Memoirs; a Life of Henry
VIII.; and a Treatise on the Religion of the Heathens. —
Davenport.
HERBERT, (George,) brother to lord Herbert of Cher-
bury, was born April 3, 1593, and received a religious
education under the eye and care of his prudent mother.
His lovely behavior, even in childhood, with the evident
marks of genius and piety, endeared him to all that knew
him. He entered Cambridge at sixteen, and the same
year composed a volume of poems, which he terms his
first fruits unto God, and which he pub'ished oartly, as he
T\Tites to his mother, " to reprove the vanity of those
many love-poems that are daily writ and consecrated to
Venus, and to bewail that so few are writ that look to-
wards God and heaven."
In the year 1619, he was made orator of the university,
and a letter of thanks which he wrote in that capacity to
James I. excited the monarch's attention, who declared
him to be the jewel of that university, and gave him a sin-
ecure of one hundred and twenty pounds per annum. He
became intimate with tlie great Bacon, Wotton, Andrews,
and Donne, was much caressed by the most eminent nobili-
ty, and it was supposed would be made secretary of state.
The death of his two principal friends, the duke of Rich-
mond, and the marquis of Hamilton, followed by that of
king James, frustrated these expectations, and Mr. Herbert
determined to devote his fine powers to a holier employ-
ment. No sooner was this determination known, than his
court friends endeavored to dissuade him from it, urg-
ing among other things that the office of a clergyman
was too mean, too much below his high birth and abili-
ties, to which he replied, " It has been formerly judged
that the domestic servants of the King of heaven, should
be of the noblest families on earth ; and though the in-
iquity of the late times has luade clergymen meanly valu-
ed, and the sacred name of priest contemptible, yet I will
labor to make it honorable, by consecrating all my learn-
ing, and all my poor abilities to advance the glory of that
God who gave them ; knowing that I can never do too
much for him who hath done so much for me, as to make
me a Curistian. And I will labor to be like my Savior, by
making humility lovely in the eyes of all men, aod by fol-
lowing the merciful and meek example of my dear Jesus."
After much jireparatiou of heart, he was accordingly
ordained, and in 1626, was made prebend of Layton
church, in the diocese of Lincoln. In 1(J30, he was trans-
ferred to the living of Bemerton near Salisbury. Here he
wrote, " I now look back upon my aspiring thoughts, and
think myself more happy than if I had attained what I so
ambitiously thirsted for. I can now behold the court with
an impartial eye, and see plainly that it is made up of
frauds, and titles, and flattery, and other such empty, im-
aginary pleasures ; but in God and his service is a fulness
of all joy, and pleasure, and no satiety ; and I will now
use all my endeavors to bring my relations and depend-
ants to a love and reliance on him, who never fails those
who trust him." — " I know the ways of learning ; I know
what nature does willingly, and what, when it is forced
by fire ; I know the ways of honor, and when glory it;-
ciines the soul to noble expressions ; I know the court ;
I know the ways of pleasure, of love, of wit, of music, and
upon what terms I declined all these for the service of my
Master Jesus." Here he faithfully, humbly, and success-
fully labored in his Master's work till his happy death, in
1635, at the age of forty-two.
His poems entitled " The Temple," and his " Priest to
the Temple, or the Country Parson's Character and Rules
of Holy Life," are still admired for their beautiful and holy
simplicity. His works have been published in one vol-
ume.— Middleton, vol. iii. 48.
HERDER, (John Godfrey,) a Gei-man divine, philoso-
pher, and writer, was born, in 1744, of poor parents, at
Mohrungen, in Prussia ; was educated for the church,
became court preacher, ecclesiastical counsellor, and vice
president of the consistory to the duke of Saxe "Weimar;
and died, beloved and venerated by all who knew him, in
1803. At the moment when he expired he was writing a
hymn to the Deity, and the pen was found on the unfi-
nished line. Though a model of virtue and piety, to
HER
[ 615 ]
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■whom Germany is deep!)' indebted for valuable works in
almost every branch of literature and taste, as well as
theology, yet he often exclaimed, in moments of melan-
choly reflection, " 0, my profitless hfe !" His beautiful
work on the Spirit of the Hebrew Poetry is well Icnown
and highly valued. " In many respects," says Degerando,
" Herder is the Fenelon of Germany, and of the re-
formed religion." His works, philological, philosophical,
and poetical, form forty-fix e volumes, octavo. — Davenport.
HERESIARCH; one who introduces or fotmds any
particular heresy : a leader of any body of heretics. —
Hend. Buck.
HERESY; a term borrowed from the Greek word hai-
resis, which, in its primary signification, implies a choice or
election, whether of good or evil. It seems to have been
principally applied to what we would call moral choice,
or the adoption of one opinion in preference to another.
Philosophy was in Greece the great object which divided
the opinions and judgments of men ; and hence the term
hairesis, (heresy.) being most frequently applied to the
adoption of this or that particular dogma, came by an easy
transition to signify the sect or school in which that dogma
was maintained. Thus, though the heresy of the acade-
my, or of Epicurus, would sound strange to our ears, and
though the expression was not common with the early
Greek writers, yet in later times it became familiar, and
we find Cicero speaking of the heresy to wliich Cato be-
longed, when he described him as a perfect Stoic. The
Hellenistic Jews made us? of the same term to express
the leading sects which divided their countrymen. Thus
Josephus speaks of the three heresies of the Pharisees, Sad-
ducees, and Essenes ; and since he was himself a Phari-
see, he could only have used the term as equivalent to sect
or party. Luke also, in the Acts of the Apostles, (5: 17.
15: 5.) speaks of the heresy of the Pharisees and Saddu-
cees ; and we learn from the same book, (24: 5, 14.) that
the Christians were called by the Jews the heresy of the
Nazarenes. With this opprobrious addition, the term was
undoubtedly used as one of insult and contempt ; and the
Jews were more likely than the Greeks to speak reproach-
fully of those who differed from them, particularly in mat-
ters of religion. The three Jewish .sects already men-
tioned were of long standing, and none of them were con-
sidered to be at variance with the national creed ; but the
Christians differed from all of them ; and in every sen.se
of the word, whether ancient or modern, they formed a
distinct heresy.
The apostles would be likely to use the term with a
mixture of Jewish and Gentile feelings ; but there weis one
obvious reason why they should employ it in a new sense,
and why at length it should acquire a signification invari-
ably expressive of reproach. The Jews, as we have seen,
allowed of three, or perhaps more, heresies among their
countrymen. In Greece, opinions were much more di-
vided ,• and twelve different sects have been enumerated,
which, by divisions and subdivisions, might be multi-
plied into many more. The shades of difference between
lhe.se diverging sects were often extremely small ; and
llierc were many bonds of union, which kept them toge-
ther, as members of the same family, or links of the same
chain. In addition to which we must remember, that these
differences were not always or necessarily connected with
:Aigion. Persons might dispute concerning the skmotk??!
bonum, and yet they might worship, or at least profess to
worship, the same God. But the doctrine of the gospel
was distinct, uncompromising, and of such a nature that
a person must believe the whole of it, and to the very let-
ter, or he could not be admitted to be a Christian. There
is one body, and one Spirit, one Lord, one faith, one baptism,
&c.; (Eph. 4: 4, 5.) which words, if rightly understood, evi-
dently mean, that the faith of the gospel is one and imdi-
vided. Hence arose the distinction between orthodox and
heterodox. He who believed the gospel, as the apostles
preached it, was orthodox ; he who did not so believe it,
was heterodox. He embraced an opinion, — it mattered
not whether his own, or that of another, but he made it his
own choice, and in the strict sense of the term he was an
heretic. It was no longer necessar)' to qualify the term
by the addition of the sect or party which he chose : he
was not a true Christian, and tlierefore he was an heretic.
It was in this sense that it was applied by the early fa-
thers. If a man admitted a part, or even the whole of
Christianity, and added to it something of his own ; or if
he rejected the whole of it, he was equally designated as
an heretic. Thus, by degrees, it came to be restricted to
tho.se who professed Christianity, but professed it errone-
ously ; and in later times, the doctrine of the Trinilj', as
defined by the council of Nice, was almost the only test
which decided the orthodoxy or the heresy of a Christian.
Differences upon minor points were then described by the
milder term of scJiisJii ; and the distinction seems to have
been made, that unity of faith might be maintained, though
schism existed ; but if the unity of faith was violated, the
violator of it was an heretic : a distinction which appears
hardly to have been observed in the apostolic age ; and
Paul has been thought to use the tenn heresy, where later
ViiTters would have spoken of schisms. (See Hjeeetico
CuMBURENDO.) Eiuy. Brit.; Dr. Foster and Sttbbins on
Heresy ; Hallett's Discourses, vol. iii. No. 9. p. 358, 408;
Dr. Campbell's Prel. Diss, to the Gospels ; Dr. Burton on the
Heresies of the Apostolic Age, p. 8. — Hend. Buck.
HERETIC ; a general name for all such persons under
any religion, but especially the Christian, as profess or
teach opinions contrary to the established faith, or to what
is made the standard of orthodoxy. (See the preceding
article, and Lardnir's History of the Heretics of the first trvo
Centuries.)^Hend. Buck.
HERMAS, a disciple mentioned Rom. 16: 14, was, ac-
cording to several of the ancients, and many learned mo-
dern interpreters, the same as Hermas, whose works are
said to be still extant ; but this is doubtful. — Calmet.
HERMENIGILDUS ; a Gothic prince of the sixth cen-
tury, the eldest son of Leovigildus, king of the Goths in
Spain. He was originally an Arian, but, by means of his
wife Ingonda, became a convert to the orthodox faith. His
father, enraged at the change, stripped him of the com-
mand of Seville, and threatened him with death. The
prince put himself and the city in the posture of defence ;
on which his exasperated father commenced a severe per-
secution against the orthodox, and did all in his power to
detach them from his son, who in vain sought assistance
from Rome and Constantinople. Being driven, after a
siege of twelve months, from Seville to Asseto, he was
compelled to surrender, and depending on a promise of
pardon, threw himself at his father's feet. The king,
however, loaded him with chains, and finding him inflexi-
ble in his opposition to Arianism, in a fit of rage ordered
his guards to cut him in pieces, which was done, April 13,
A. D. 586.—Fv.r, p. 78.
HERMENEUTICS, (from the Greek hermeneuo, to inter-
pret ;) the science or theory of interpretation, comprising
and exhibiting the principles and rules according to which
the meaning of an author may be judiciously and accurate-
ly ascertained. It consists of two parts : the theoretical,
which includes the general principles which respect the
meaning of words and the kinds of them ; and the pre-
ceptive, which embraces the rules founded on these princi-
ples, by which we are to be guided in our philological in-
quiries, and all our attempts to investigate the meaning
of any writer. Sacred hermeneutics comprise the principles
and rules of this science as made to bear on the interpre-
tation of the holy Scriptures. (See Biblical I.vtekpketa-
TION.) — Hend. Buck.
HERMES ; a Christian deacon and martyr, of the
fourth century, under Diocletian. (See Philip of Hera-
CLEA.)
HERMIANI; a sect in the second centurj', so called
from their leader Hermias. One of their distinguishing
tenets was, that God is corporeal ; another, that Jesus
Christ did not ascend into heaven with his body, but left
it in the sun. — Hend. Buck.
HERMIT ; a person who retires into solitude for the
purpose of devotion. "WIio were the first hermits cannot
easily be known ; though Paul, surnamed the Hermit, is
generally reckoned the first. The persecutions of Decius
and Valerian were supposed to have occasioned their first
rise. See Natural History of Enthusiasm. — Hend. Bud.
HERMOGENIANS ; a sect of ancient heretics, deno-
minated from their leader Hermogenes. wdio lived towards
the close of the second century. Hermogenes established
HER
[616]
HER
matter as his first principle ; and regarding matter as the
fountain of all evil, he mantained, that the ^vorld, and
every thing contained in it, as also the souls of men and
other spirits, were formed by the Deity from an uncreated
and eternal mass of corrupt matter. The opinions of Her-
mogenes with regard to the origin of the world, and the
nature of the soul, were warmly opposed by Tertullian.
(See Gnostics.) — Hend. Buck.
HERMON ; a celebrated mountain in the Holy Land,
often spoken of in Scripture. It was in the northern
boundary of the country, beyond Jordan, and in the terri-
tories which originally belonged to Og, king of Bashan,
Josh. 12: 5. 13: 5. The Psalmist connects Tabor and
Hermon together, upon more than one occasion ; (Ps. 89:
12. 133: 3.) from which it may be inferred that they lay
contiguous to each other. This is agreeable to the ac-
count that is given us by travellers. BIr. Maundrell, in
his journey from Aleppo, says that in three hours and a
lulf from the river Kishon, he came to a small brook, near
'.» hich was an old village and a good kane, called Legune ;
not far liom which his company took up their quarters for
the night, and from whence they had an extensive pros-
pect of the plain of Esdraelon. At about six or seven
hours' distance eastward, stood, within view, Nazareth,
and the two mountains Tabor and Hermon. He adds,
that they were sufficiently instructed by experience what
the holy Psalmist means by the dew of Hermon ; their
tents being as wet with it as if it had rained all night, Ps.
133: 3.— Watson.
HERNHUTERS. (See Moravians.)
HEROD, surnamed the Great ; king of the Jews, second
son of Antipater the Idumcan, born B. C. 71. At the age
of twenty-five he was made by his father governor of Ga-
lilee, and distinguished himself by the suppression of a
band of robbers, with the execution of their leader, Heze-
kiah, and several of his comrades. In the civil war be-
tween the republican and Cjesarian parties, Herod joined
Cassius, and was made governor of Coelo-Syria ; and
when Mark Antony arrived victorious in Syria, Herod
and his brother found means to ingratiate themselves with
him, and were appointed as tetrarchs in Judea ; but in a
short time an invasion of Antigonus, who was aided by
the Jews, obliged Herod to make his escape from Jerusa-
lem, and retire first to Idumea, and then to Egypt. He at
length arrived at Rome, and obtained the crown of Judea
upon occasion of a diflerence between the two branches
of the Asmodean family. Having met with this unex-
pected success, he returned without delay to Judea, and in
about three years got possession of the whole country.
Antigonus was taken prisoner and put to death, which
opened the way to Herod's quiet possession of the kingdom.
His first cares were to replenish his coffers, and to repress
the faction still attached to the Asmodean race, and which
regarded him as a usurper. He was guilty of many ex-
tortions and cruelties in the pursuit of these objects.
2. In the war between Antony and Octavius, Herod raised
an army for the purpose of joining the former ; but he was
obliged first to engage Malchus, king of Arabia, whom he
1 I'feated and obliged to sue for peace. After the battle of
Actium, his great object was to make terms with Octavius
the conqneror ; and, as a preliminary step, he put to death
Hyrcanus, the only surviving male of the Asm^odeans ;
and, having secured his family, he embarked for Rhodes,
where Augustus at that lime was. He appeared before
the master of the Roman world in all the regal ornaments
excepting his diadem, and related the faithful services he
had performed for his benefactor, Antony, adding, that he
was ready to transfer the same gratitude to a new patron,
from whom he should hold his crown and kingdom. Au-
gustus was struck with the magnanimity of the defence,
and replaced the diadem on the head of Herod, who re-
mained the most favored of the tributary sovereigns.
"When the emperor afterwards travelled through Syria, in
his way to and from Egypt, he was entertained with the
utmost magnificence by Herod; in recompense for which
he restored to him all his revenues and dominions, and
even considerably augmented them. His good fortune as
a prince, however, was poisoned by domestic broils, and
especially by the insuperable aversion of his wife Mariam-
ne, whom at length he brought to trial, convicted, and
executed. She submitted to her fate with all the intrepi-
dity of innocence, and was sufficiently avenged by the re-
morse of her husband, who seems never after to have
enjoyed a tranquil hour. At times he would fly from the
sight of men, and on his return from solitude, which was
ill suited to a mind conscious of the most ferocious deeds,
he became more brutal than ever, and in fits of fury
spared neither foes nor friends.
3. At length he recovered some portion of self-possession,
and employed himself in projects of i-egal magnificence.
Besides building Sebaste and Cesarea, and many fortress-
es, he erected at Jerusalem a stately theatre and amphi-
theatre, in which he celebrated games in honor of Augus-
tus, to the great displeasure of the zealous Jews, who dis-
covered an idolatrous profanation in the theatrical orna-
ments and spectacles. Nothing, it is said, gave them so
much offence as soine trophies which he had set round his
theatre in honor of Augustus, and in commemoration of
his victories, but which the Jews regarded as images de-
voted to the purposes of idol worship. For this and other
acts of the king a most serious conspiracy was formed
against him, which he, fortunately for himself, discovered ;
and he exercised the most brutal revenge on all the parties
concerned in it.
4. To acquire popularity among the Jews, and to exhi-
bit an attachment to their religion, he undertook the vast
enterprise of rebuilding the temple of Jerusalem, which he
finished in a noble style of magnificence in about a year
and a half, although it received splendor by new additions
for more than forty years. During the progress of this
work he visited Rome, and brought back his sons, who
had attained to man's estate. These at length conspired
against their father's person and government, and were
tried, convicted, and executed. Notwithstanding the exe-
cution of his sons, he was still a slave to conspiracies from
his other near relations.
In the thirty-third year of his reign, our Savior was
born. This event was followed, according to the _gospel
of St. Matthew, by the massacre of the children at Bethle-
hem. About this time, Antipater, returning from Rome,
was arrested by his father's orders, charged with treasona-
ble practices, and was found guilty of conspiring against
the life of the king. This and other calamities, joined to
a guilty conscience, preying upon a broken constitution,
threw the wretched monarch into a mortal disease, which
was doubtless a just judgment of heaven on the many foul
enormities and impieties of which he had been guilty.
His disorder was attended with the most loathsome cir-
cumstances that can be imagined. A premature report of
his death caused a tumult in Jerusaleiu, excited by the
zealots, who were impatient to demolish a golden eagle
which he had placed over the gate of the temple. The
perpetrators of this rash act were seized, and, by order of
the dying king, put to death. He also caused his son An-
tipater to be slain in prison, and his remains to be treated
with every species of ignominy. He bequeathed his
kingdom to his son Archelaus, with tetrarchies to his two
other sons.
Herod, on his dying bed, planned a scheme of horri-
ble cruelty, which was to take place at the instant of his
own death. He had summoned the chief persons among
the Jews to Jericho, and caused them to be shut up in the
hippodrome, or circus, and gave strict orders to his sister
Salome to have them all massacred as soon as he should
have dra'mi his last breath; "for this," said he, "will
provide mourners for my funeral all over the land, and
make the Jews in every family lament my death, who
would otherwise exhibit no signs of concern." Salome
and her husband, Alexas, chose rather to break their oath
extorted by the tyrant, than be implicated in so cruel a
deed ; and accordingly, as soon as Herod was dead, they
opened the doors of the circus, and permitted every one to
return to his own home. Herod died in the sixty-eighth
year of his age. His memory has been consigned to me-
rited detestation, while his great talents, and the active
enterprise of his reign, have placed him high in the rank
of sovereigns. — Watson.
HEROD ANTIPAS. (See Antifas.)
HERODIANS ; a sect among the Jews, at the lime of
our Savior, Matt. 22: IR. Mark 3: 6. The critics and
HfiR
[ 617]
HE ft
commentators are very much divided with Regard to the
Herodianf . St. Jerome, in his dialogue against the Luci-
ferians, takes the name to have been given lo such as
owned Herod I'or the Messiali ; and Terlullian and Epi-
phanius are ol' the same opinion. But the same Jerome,
in his comment on Matthew, treats this opinion as ridicu-
lous ; and maintains that the Pharisees gave this appella-
tion, by way of ridicule, lo Herod's soldiers, who paid
tribute to the Romans ; agreeable to wdiich the Syrian
interpreters render the word by the domestics of Herod, i. e.
" his courtiers." M. Simon, in his notes on the 22d chap-
ter of Matthew, advances a more probable opinion : the
name Herodian he imagines to have been given to such as
adhered to Herod's party and interest, and were for pre-
serving the government in his family, about which were
great divisions among the Jews. F. Hardouin will have
the Herodians and Sadducees to have been the same. Dr.
Trideaux is of opinion that they derived their name from
Herod the Great; and that they were distinguished from
the other Jews by their concurrence with Herod's scheme
l'(ir subjecting himself and his dominions to the Romans,
and likewise by complying with many of their heathen
usages and customs. This symboUzing with idolatry upon
views of interest and worldly policy, was probably that lea-
ven of Herod, against which our Savior cautioned his dis-
ciples. It is further probable that they were chiefly of the
sect of the Sadducees : because the leaven of Herod is also
denominated the leaven of the Sadducees. — Jiend. Buck.
HERODIAS ; daughter of Aristobulus and Berenice,
and grandaughter of Herod the Great. Her first bus-
band was her uncle Philip, by whom she had Salome ; but
he falling into disgrace, and being obliged to live in pri-
vate, she left him, and married his brother Herod, tetrarch
of Galilee, who offered her a palace and a crown. As
John the Baptist censured this incestuous marriage, (Matt.
14: 3. Mark 6: 17.) Antipas ordered him to be imprisoned.
Some time afterwards, Herodias Sjuggested to her dancing
daughter, Salome, to ask John the Baptist's head, which
she procured. (See Ajjtipas.) Mortified to see her hus-
band tetrarch only, while her brother Agrippa, whom
she had known in a state of indigence, was honored
with the title of king, Herodias persuaded Antipas to visit
Rome, and procure from the emperor Caius the royal title.
Agrippa, however, sent letters to the emperor, informing
him that Herod had arms in his arsenals for seventy thou-
sand men, and by this means procured his banishment to
Lyons. Herodias, who accompanied her husband, fol-
lowed him in the calamity she had brought upon him, —
Cabnet,
HERON, (anaph, Lev. U: 19. Deut. 14: 18.) This word
has been variously understood. Some have rendered it
the kite, others the woodcock others tl e curie v some the
peacock, others th \ arrot an 1 o he s the c ane Tl e
root, anap, signifies to bieathe short through the nostuls, to
snuff, as in anger ; hence to be angry ; and it is supposed
that the word is sufficiently descnptive of the heron, from
its very irritable dispositiim. Bochart, however, thinks it
the mountain falcon ; the same that the Greeks call aiio-
78
pain, mentioned by Homer ; and this bears a strong re-
semblance to the Hebrew name. — JVatson.
HERRING, (TuoMAS,) archbishop of Canterbury, an
eminent prelate, was born, in llJ93, at Walsoken, in Nor-
folk, of which his father was rector ; studied at Cam-
bridge ; and, after having possessed various livings, was
raised, in 1737, to the see of Bangor, whence, in 1743, he
was translated to York. After the defeat of the king's
troops at Preston Pans, in 1745, the archbishop exerted
himself in his diocese with so much patriotism and zeal,
that he repressed the disaffected, inspirited the desponding,
and procured, at a county meeting, a subscription of forty
thousand pounds, towards the defence of the country. In
1747, he was removed to the see of Canterbury ; and he
died at Croydon, in 175(j. Herring was a man of learn-
ing, piety, and tolerant principles. Dr. Jortin, who knew
him well, tells us, that he had piety without superstition,
and moderation without meanness ; an open and liberal
way of thinking, and a constant attachment lo the cause
of sober and rational libertj", both civil and religious ; that
he was a prelate of uncommon virtues, a man of extraor-
dinary accomplishments, a candid divine, a polite scholar,
a warm lover of his country, one whose memory can never
cease to be revered. In short, " he was," says the earl of
Corke, " what a bishop ought to be ; and is, I doubt not,
where all bishops ought to be." His Sermons and Letters
were published after his death. — Biog. Brit, and Monthly
Review, vols. 28. and 57. — Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
HERVEY, (James, M. A.,) the distinguished author of
"Meditations," bearing his name, was born at Harding-
stone, near Northamton, February 26, 1713. His father
was a clergyman, then residing at Collingtree ; and Mr.
Hervey received from him, and his excellent mother, his
early education. At the age of eighteen he was sent to
the university of Oxford ; and there, becoming acquainted
with the distinguished John Wesley, he devoted himself
with great zeal to various studies, and became seriously
impressed with the importance of religion. For some
years afterwards he felt a peculiar attachment to the doc-
trinal sentiments of Mr. Wesley ; but subsequently con-
ceiving such sentiments to be erroneous, he attached him-
self to the Calvinists.
At the age of twenty-two, his father appointed him to
the situation of curate of Weston Favel, ami he discharged
the duties of his office with piety and integrity. In a few
years he was curate at Biddeford, and several other places
in the west of England ; and, during that time, he wrote
his celebrated "Meditations and Contemplations," which
he published in 1746, and which have been universally
read, and very generally admired. In 1750. on the death
of his father, he succeeded to the livings of Weston and
Collingtree, and he devoted most of his time in attention
to the duties of his profession. In 1753, he published
"Remarks on Lord Bolingbroke's I^etters on the Study
and Use of History, so far as they relate to the History of
the Old Testament, iVc. ; in a Letter to a Lady of Quali-
ty ;" and a recommendatory Preface to Buruham's Pious
Memorials. In 1755, he published his "Thcron and As-
pasio," which is regarded as decidedly the best eflbrt of
his genius ; biU it was attackeii by Mr. Robert Sanderaan,
of Edinburgh, with extraordinary'abi!ity,on the nature of
justifying faith, and other points connected with it, in a
work, entitled, " Letters on Theron and Aspasio," two vo-
lumes. (See Sandf.ma.v.) This attack threw Mr. Hervey
into the arms of Mr. W. Cudworth, a dissenting minister
in London, in whom he found a powerful coadjutor ; but
Mr. Hervey docs not appear to have underslood Cud-
worth's system, which, in some important points, was
very different from his own. though they were agreed in
making appropriation cs.sential to the nature of true failh.
The health of Mr. Hervey was generally imperfect, and
for many years he was the subject of affliction ; till, at
length, on December the 25th, 1758, his labors were ter-
minated by death, and his spirit, emancipated from the
burdens of mortality, was conducted to regions of purity
and peace.
Mr. Hervev's writings have had an extensive circula-
tion ; for maiiv vears the press could with difficulty supply
the demand for them. Yet his style has been severely
censured by Dr. Blair, and others, for its turgid qualities.
HEX
f 618]
HEY
Of his character, however, there is Utile difference of opi-
nion. He was eminently pious, though not deeply learn-
ed • habitually spiritually minded; zealous for the doc-
triiies of divine grace ; animated with ardent love to the
Savior; and his humility, meekness, submission to the
will of God, and patience under his afflicting hand, exem-
plified the Christian character, and adorned his profession.
His writings were collected and published after his death,
in six volumes, octavo and duodecimo, and have olten
been reprinted in both sizes. See Ryland s Life of Her-
vey ; Letters of Hervey, and Life prefixed.— Jones thns.
*HESHBON • a celebrated city of the Ammonites, twenty
miles east of Jordan, Josh. 13: 17. It was given to Reu-
ben • but was afterwards transferred to Gad, and then to
the Leviies. It had been conquered from the Moabiles,
bv Sihon, and was taken by the Israelites a little before
the death of Moses. After the ten tribes were transplanted
into the country beyond Jordan, the Moabites recovered
it Pliny and Jerome assign it to Arabia. Solomon speaks
of the pool of Heshbon, Cant. 7: 4. The town still subsists
under its ancient name, and is situated, according to
Burckhardt, on a hill .— Calmet.
HESYCASTS, or Quietists ; certain eastern monks,
so called from the Greek word hlsuchazo, which signifies
to be quiet. Their distinguishing tenet was that of the
Messalians, who maintained that, abandoning all labor,
we should give ourselves wholly to religious exercises,
especially to contemplation. They appeared about Con-
stantinople in the year 1340 ; and because they fixed their
eyes upon their belly, while engaged in prayer, regarding
the navel as the seat of the soul, they were likewise called
Omphalopsychi or Umbilici. They were joined by Gregory
Palamas, archbishop of Thessalonica, who was attacked
by the monk Barlaam, and the order was condemned in a
synod held at Constantinople, in the year 1342.— ff. Buck.
HESYCHIUS, a lexicographer, appears to have been a
native of Alexandria ; but whether he existed in the fourth
or the sixth century is doubtful. He compiled a lexicon,
■which is considered as one of the most valuable treasures
of the Greek language. — Davenport.
HETEKODOX, {ihinUng othenvise ;) something contra-
ry to the faith or doctrine established in what has been ac-
counted the true church. (See OKTHonox.) — Hetid. Buck.
HETEROUSII, Hetekousians, (of other essence ;) a sect
or branch of Arians, the followers of Aetius, and from
him denominated Aetians. (See Aetians.) They were
called the Heleronsii, because they held, not that the Son
of God was of a substance like, or similar to, that of the
Father, which was the doctrine of another branch of Ari-
ans, thence called Homoousians, Homoousii; but that
he was of another substance different from that of the
Father. — Watson.
HETH, father of the Hittites, was eldest son of Canaan,
and dwelt south of the promised land, at or near Hebron.
Ephron, or Hebron, was of the race of Heth ; and that
city, in Abraham's time, was peopled by the children of
Heth. Some think there was a city called Heth ; but we
find no traces of it in Scripture. — Calmet.
HEXAPLA ; a Bible disposed in six columns, contain-
ing the text, and divers versions thereof, compiled and
published by Origen, with a view to secure the sacred text
tiom future corruptions, and to correct those that had been
already introduced. Eusebius relates that Origen, after
his return from Rome under Caracalla, applied himself
to learn Hebrew, and began to collect the several versions
that had been made of the sacred writings, and of these to
compose his Tetrapla and Hexapla ; others, however, will
not allow him to have begun till the time of Alexander,
after he had retired into Palestine, about the year 213.
To conceive what this Hexapla was, it must be observed,
that, besides the translation of the sacred writings, called
the Septuagint, made under Ptolemy Philadelphus, above
280 years before Christ, the Scripture had been since
translated into Greek by other interpreters. The first
of these versions, or (reckoning the Septuagint) the se-
cond, was that of Aquila, a proselyte Jew, the first edi-
tion of which he published in the 12th year of the emperor
Adrian, or about the year of Christ 128 ; the third was
that of Sj'mmachus, published, as is commonly supposed,
under Marcus Aurelius, but as some say, under Septiinins
Severus, about the year 200 ; the fourth was that of Theo-
dolian, prior to that of Symmachus, under Commodus, or
about the year 175. These Greek versions, says Dr. Ken-
nicott, were made by the Jews from their corrupted copies
of the Hebrew, and were designed to stand in the place of
the Seventy, against which they were prejudiced, because
it seemed to favor the Christians. The fifth was found at
Jericho, in the reign of Caracalla, about the year 217 ;
and the sixth was discovered at Nicopolis, in the reign of
Alexander Severus, about the year 228 ; lastly, Origen
himself recovered part of a seventh, containing only the
Psalms. Now, Origen, who had held frequent disputations
with the Jews in Egypt and Palestine, observing that they
always objected to those passages of Scripture quoted
against them, appealed to the Hebrew text, the better to
vindicate those pa.ssages, and confound the Jews, by show-
ing that the Seventy had given the sense of the Hebrew ;
or rather to show, by a number of different versions, what
the real sense of the Hebrew was, undertook to reduce all
these several versions into a body, along with the Hebrew
text, 90 as they might be easily confronted, and aflbrd a
mutual light to each other. He made the Hebrew text
his standard ; and allowing that corruptions might have
happened, and that the old Hebrew copies might and did
read differently, he contented himself with marking such
words or sentences as were not in his Hebrew text, nor the
later Greek versions, and adding such words or sentences as
were omitted in the Seventy, prefixing an asterisk to the
additions, and an obelisk to the others. In order to this, he
made choice of eight columns ; in the first he made the
Hebrew text, in Hebrew characters ; in the second, the
same text in Greek characters; the rest were filled with
the several versions above mentioned ; all the columns
answering verse for verse, and phrase for phrase ; and in
the Psalms there was a ninth column for the seventh ver-
sion. This work Origen called Hexapla, or work of six
columns, as only regarding the first si!s Greek versions.
Epiphanius, taking in likewise the two columns of the
text, calls the work Octapla, as consisting of eight columns.
This celebrated work, which Montfaucon imagines con-
sisted of sixty large volumes, perished long ago ; probably
with the library at Cesarea, where it was preserved in the
year 653 ; though several of the ancient writers have pre-
served us pieces thereof, particulariy Chrysostom on the
Psalms, Phileponus in his Hexameron, &c. Some modern
writers have earnestly endeavored to collect fragments of
the Hexapla, particularly Flaminius, Nobilius, Drusius,
and F. Montfaucon, in two foUo volumes, printed at Pans,
in 1713. An edition was also published by Bahrdt, in
two volumes octavo, which is convenient for reference. —
Hend. Buck. ■ ,rnr< .
HEYLIN, (Peteb,) a divine, was born, m 1600, at
Burford, in Oxfordshire ; was educated at Hart Hall and
Magdalen college, Oxford ; obtained various hvings and
cler'ical offices through the patronage of Laud, from which
he was e.xpelled by the republicans ; was the editor of the
Slercurius Aulicus, the royalist paper ; recovered his pre-
ferments at the restoration ; and died in 1662. Among
his works are. Lives of Laud, and of Charies I. ; Histories
of the Presbyterians, and of the Reformation of the Church
of England; and a Help to English History.— Z>fli'e«^orf.
HEYWOOD, (Oliver,) an eminent minister among the
non-conformists of the seventeenth century, was born in
March, 1629, at Little Lever, in the parish of Bolton, Lan-
cashire. Soon after leaving the university, he began to
preach occasionally in his own neighborhood, and received
an invitation to Coley chapel, in the parish of Hahfax,
which he accepted, and on the 23d of June, 1652, he was
solemnly invested with the pastoral office. This was the
period of Oliver Cromwell's protectorate, and it was a most
trying time to many of the fearers of God, and to Mr. Hey-
wood among the rest. He, however, continued his minis-
terial functions for about ten years, and kept his station
amidst the turbulence of those distracted times. The pru-
dence of Mr. Heywood led him studiously to avoid, as
much as possible, all meddling with the political disputes
which were agitated in his day; but he was involved with
the rest of his brethren in the act of uniformity, passed m
August, 1662, and ejected from his living. In 1664, a
rtic
[619 ]
HIE
writ was issued for his apprehension as an excommuni-
catod person, but he evaded his pursuers, and found safety
in the bosom of his friends. During this trying period he
was reduced to great straits and difficulties to provide for
his family, consisting of a wife and several children, the
means of subsistence; but he who feeds the ravens, and
clothes the lilies of the field, wonderfully interposed for
Ihem, and sent them relief from unexpected quarters. It
would carry us much too far into detail to trace the history
of this good man, in his sufferings for conscience' sake, the
privations and hardships to which he was exposed, to the
period of his death, which took place on the 4th of May,
1702, in the seventy-third year of his age. He was the
author of numerous detached publications, which have
recently been carefully collected and reprinted, with a
memoir of his life, in five volumes, octavo, by the Rev.
Mr. Vmt, master of a dissenting academy at Bradford, in
Yorkshire — /o/res' Chris. Bteg.
HEZEKIAH, the virtuous king of Judah, was the son
of Ahaz, and bom in the )'ear of the world 32.5 1 . At the
age of five-and-twenty he succeeded his father in the go-
vernment of the kingdom of Judah, and i^eigned twenty-
nine years in Jerusalem, namely, from the year of the
world 3277 to 3306, 2 Kings 18: 1,2. 2 Chron. 29: 1. His
reign is distinguished by the glorious reformation from
idolatry — the rapid progress of public improvements — the
overthrow of the Assyrian power in Judea — Hezekiah's
miraculous recovery from sickness— his weakness when
left of God to his own heart — and the prophetic declara-
tion of its fatal consequences in the Babylonish captivity.
Hezekiah bowed submissively to the will of God, and
acknowledged vae divine goodness towards him, in ordain-
ing peace and truth to continue during the remainder of
his reign, 2 Chron- 32: 31. He accordingly passed the
• alter years of his life in tranquillity, and contributed
greatly to the prosperity of his people and kingdom. He
died in the year of the world 3306, leaving behind him a
SOB, Maiiasseh, who succeeded him in the throne : a son
<?veiy way unworthy of such a father. — Watson.
HIACOOMES, the first Indian in New England who
was converted to Christianity, and a minister at Slartha's
Vineyard, lived upon this island when a few English fti-
milies first settled there, in 1642. Under the instruction
of Thomas Mayhew, he eagerly received the truths of the
gospel. Having learned to read, h« in l64o began to
teach his brethren the Christian docliines, and lie did not
labor in vais. A number of them were soon impressed
with a sense of their guilt in living as they had lived, and
scnaght J'or pardon froiu him who is the propitiation for the
sins of the world-
The sachems and pawaws, or priests, did not observe this
progress of Christianity with indiflerence. While the latter
threatened to destroy all the praying Indians with witch-
craft, their menaces were particularly directed against
Hiacoomes ; but he said to them, " I believe in God, and
put my truiit in him, and therefore all the pawaws can do
me no hurt." In 1650, when he lost a young child, the
funeral was performed in the English manner. The
mourners did not di«;olor their faces, nor deposit any
utensils or goods in the grave, nor hoAvl over the dead.
After the death of Mr. Mayhew, in 16.57, he continued his
benevolent labors, though he greatly lamented the loss of
that good man, by whom he had been enlightened in the
knowledge of the truth, and whose instructions gave him
the power of instructing others. August 22, 1670, an Indian
church was regularly formed on Martha's Vineyard, and
Hiacoomes and Tackanash were ordained its pastor and
teacher by Eliot and Cotton. Hiacoomes survived his
colleague, and died about the year 1690, aged near eighty.
In hii last sickness he expressed the hopes of a Christian,
and gave exhortations to those around ; and at his death
he without doubt entered into that rest, from which many
of the learned and refined, who love not the Lord Jesus
Christ, will be excluded. Mayken'^s Indian Conv.; Ma-
ther's Magnalia, iii. 199. — Alien.
HICKS, (Euis,) a Quaker, died at Jericho, Long Island,
February 27, 1830, aged eighty-one. His wife, Jemima,
with whom he had lived in harmony fifty.eight years, died
in 1829. In the last }'ears of his life he was the cause, by
some new doctrines of a Socinian cast, which he advanced,
of a great discord and division among the Friends.—
Allen.
HIDDEKEL. (See Eden.)
HIDE ; (1.) To cover, to keep secret: so God hides his
commandments, when -he shows not their meaning, Ps.
119: 19. To hidt his righteousness in our heart, is sin-
fully to neglect the due publishing and declaring of it, Ps.
40: 10. (2.) To lay up : so saints hidt. God's word in their
heart when they lay it up in their memories, judgments,
consciences, and aflections, that it may influence and re-
gulate their whole exercise in heart and life, Ps. 119: 11.
(3.) To protect. OoAhidts his peopk in his pavilion, in
the secret of his presence, and under the shadow of his
wings ; and is their hiding-place when, in the exercise of
his perfections, he gives them the most safe and refresn-
ing protection from danger and hurt, Ps. 27: 3, and 32: 7.
Jesvs Christ is a hiding-plaee ; under the covert of his right-
eousness are we secured from the vengeance of God : and
by his providence^ power, and love, are we secured from
the danger of sin. Satan, and the world, Isa. 32: 2. Gad
hides himself, hides his face, when he forbears kindly to
show his favor in his word, ordinances and providence,
Ps. 89: 46. Whatever is secret, hard to be known, or
found, is called hid or hidden: saints are God's hidden
ones ; their state and happy privileges are unknown to Ihe
world, and they are protected of God, Ps. S3: 3. The
gospel and Christ are a hidden treasure, and hidden tvisdom,
unknown to natural men. Matt. 13: 44. 1 Cor. 2: 7. — Bronn.
HIEL, of Bethel, rebuilt Jericho, notwithstanding the
predictive curse <}f Joshua against the person who should
attempt it, and of which he experienced the effects, by
losing his eldest son Abiram, while laying the foundations,
and his youngest son Segub, when hanging up the gates.
(See .\niR.\M : and Jericho.) — C/ilmet.
HIERACITES ; heretics in the third century, so called
from their leader, Hierax, a philosopher of Egypt, who
taught that Melchisedec was the Holy Ghost, denied the
resurrection, and condemned marriage. — Haid. Buck.
HIER APOLIS ; a city of Phrygia, not far from Colossc
and Laodicea, Colos. 4: 13. "Hierapolis, (now called by.
the Turks Pamlmck-Kulasi, or the Cotton Torcer, by reason
of the white cliffs lying thereabouts,) a city of the greater-
Phrygia, lies untler a high hill to the north, having to the
southward of it a fair and large plain about five miles
over, almost directly opposite to Laodicea, the river Lycus
running between, but nearer the latter; now utterly for-
saken and desolate, but whose ruins are so glorious and
magnificent, that they strike one with horror at the first
view of them, and with admiration too; soch walls, and
arches, and pillars of co vast a height, and so curiously
wrought, being still to be found there, that one may well
judge, that when it stood, it was one of the most glorious
cities not only in the East, but of the world. The nuir.c-
rousness of the temples there erected in the times of idola-
try with so much art and cost, might sulhciently confirm
the title of the holy cily, which it at first derived from the
hot waters flowing from several springs, to -nhich they
ascribed a divine healing virtue, and which made the city
so famous ; and for this cause Apollo, whom both Greeks
and Romans adored as the god of medicine, had his vota-
ries and altars here, and was very probably their chief
deity. Several tombs still remain ; some of them almost
entire, ver)' stately and glorious, as if it had been accounted
a kind of sacrilege to injure the dead, and upon that account
they had abstained from defacing their monuments ; en-
tire stones of a great length and height, some covered with
stone shaped into the form of a cube, others ridge-wise.
On the 14th in the morning, we set forward for Colosse,
where \nthin an hour and a half we arrived." Travels
by T. Smith. B. D. l(>18.—Calmet.
HIERARCHY; an ecclesiastical establishment, or a
church governed by priests, from hiern, (sacred,) and ar-
chl, (government.) Though elders, called presbyters and
bishops, stood at the head of the primitive churches, yet
their constitution was democratic, each of the members
having a share in all the concerns of the association, and
voting in the election of office-bearers, the admission of
new members, and the expulsion of offenders. Soon,
however, the government was transferred into the hands
of the officers, or, more properly speaking, was assumed
HIG
[ 620 ]
HIO
by them ; and, in the second century, some of their num-
ber, arrogating to themselves exclusively the title of bi-
shops, acquired a superiority over the other presbyters,
though these, and, in many cases, all the members of the
churches, retained some share in the government. The
bishops residing in the capitals of provinces soon acquired
a superiority over the provincial bishops, and were called
metropoUtajis. They, in their turn, became subject to a still
higher order, termed patrianhs ; and thus a complete aris-
tocratic constitution was formed, which continues in the
Greek church to this day ; but in the Latin it was speedily
transformed into a monarchy, centring in the person of
the pope.
Besides thus designating the internal government O'f the
church, the term hierarchy is sometimes used to denote
the dominion of tlie church over the stale. In the first
aenturies the church had no connexion with the state, and
was for the most part persecuted by it. After its amalga-
mation with it, under Constantine the Great, it obtained
protection, but was dependent on the temporal niler, who
asserted the right of convoking general conncils, and no-
minating the metropolitans, and otherwise frequently mter-
fered in the internal aflairs of the church. It was the
same in the Gothic, Lombard, and prankish states. The
hierarchical power, however, was incessantly at work ;
Gregory VII. especially, exerted himself to enforce its
claims. It was greatly promoted by the crusades; and
thus, from the end of the eleventh to the middle of the
thirteenth century, the hierarchical influence was rendered
predominant. The church became an institution elevated
above the stale, and stood, in public opinion, above all
secular princes. The papal tiara was the sun ; the impe-
rial crown the moon. From the fourteenth century the
hierarchy began gradually to decline ; it was shaken al-
most to its foundations by the attacks of the reformers ;
and the remains of its principles, as sliH existing in the
different Protestant establishments, as well as in the Ro-
man, are daily becoming more and more weakened by the
influence of public opinion, and a firm determination, on
the part of the people, to obtain the full enjoyment of
those civil and religious rights, which have been arrogant-
ly and wantonly wrested from them.
The word is also used in reference to the subordination
some .appose there is among the angels; bat whether
they are to he considered as having a government or hie-
rarchy among themselves, so that one is superior in office
and dignity to others ; or whether they have a kind of
dominion over one another; or whether some are made
partakers of privileges others are deprived of, cannot be
determined, since Scripture is silent as to this matter.
Col. 1: 16, kc.—Hetul. Buck.
HIERONYMITES, or Jeeomites ; hermits of the order
of St. Jerome, established in 1373, which wears a white
habit with a black scapulary. In the Netherlands, and in
Spain, where it was devoted to a contemplative life, and
possessed among other convents the splendid one of St.
Laurence, in the Escurial, the sepulchre of the kings, this
order became one of the luost opulent and considerable.
In Sicily, the ^Vest Indies, and Spanish America, it pos-
sesses convents. — Hend. Bud:
HIGGAION signifies mulitatitm, and imports that what
is said deserves to be carefully and frequently thought up-
on, Ps. 9: \6.—B/on-n.
HIGGINSON, (Fkancis,) first minister of Salem, Mas-
sachusetts, after receiving his education at Emanuel col-
lege, in Cambridge, became the minister of a church at
Leicester, in England. While his popular talents filled his
church with attentive hearers, such was the divine bless-
ing upon his labors, that a deep attention to religious sub-
jects was cxctted among his people. Becoming at length
a conscientious non-conformist to the riles of the English
church, some of which he thought not only were unsup-
ported by Scripture, but corrupted the purity of Christian
worship and discipline, he was excluded from the parish
church, and became obnoxious to the high commission
court. One day two messengers came io his house, aad
with loud knocks cried out, " Where is Mr. Higginson ?
We must speak with Mr. Higginson !" His wife ran to
his chamber and entreated him to conceal himself ; but he
replied, that he should acquiesce in the will of God. He
went down, and as the messengers entered the hall ihejf
presented him with some papers, saying in a rough man-
ner, " Sir, we came from London, and our business is to
convey you to London, as you may see by those papers."
"I thought so," exclaimed Mrs. Higginson, weeping ; but
a woman's tears could have but little eflicct upon hard"
hearted pursuivants. Mr. Higginson opened the packet'
to read the form of his arrest, but, instead of an order
from bishop Laud for bis seizure, he found a copy of the
charter of Massachusetts, and letters from the governoif
and company, inviting him to embark with them for New
England. The sudden transition of feeling from despon-
dence to joy, may be heller imagined than described-
Having sought advice and implored the divine direc-'
tion, he resolved to accept the invitation. In his farewelt
sermon, preached before a va.^t assembly, he declared bisi
persnasion, that England would be chastised by war, and
that Leicester would have more than an ordinary share of
sufl^erings. It was not long before his prediction was veri-
fied. It is not meant, that he claimed the power of fore-
telling future events ; but he could reason with considera-
ble accuracy from cause to effect, knowing that iniquity
is generally followed by its punishment ; and he lived in
an age, when it was usual for ministers to speak with
more confidence, and authority, and efficacy, than at pre-
sent. He sailed from Gravesend, April 25, 1629, accom-
panied by Mr. Skelton, whose principles accorded withhis
own. When he came to the land's end, he called his chil-
dren and the other passengers on deck to take the last riew
of their native country; and he now exclaimed, "Fare-
well England, farewell the church of God in England,
and all the Christian friends there. We do not go to Ame-
rica as separatists from the church of England, though
we cannot but separate from its con'uptions." He then
concluded with a fervent prayer for the king, church, and
state in England. He arrived at Cape Ann, June 27,
1629, and having spent the next day there, which was
Sunday, on the 29th he entered the harbor of Salem. Ju-
ly the 20th was observed as a day of fasting by the ap-
pointment of governor Endicott, and the church then made
choice of Mr. Higginson to be. their teacher, and Mr. Skel-
ton their pastor.
Thus auspicious was the commencement of the settle-
ment of Naumkeak, or Salem ; but the scene was soon
changed. During the first winter about one hundred per-
sons died, and Mr. Higginson was soon seized with a hec-
lic, which terminated his days in August, 1630, aged forty-
two. In his last sickness he was reminded of liis benevo-
lent exertions in the service of the Lord Jesus Christ. To
consoling suggestions of this kind he replied, " I have
been an unprofitable servant, and all my desire is to win
Christ, and be found in him, not having my own righteous-
ness." Magnalia. i. 18, 19 ; iii. 70 — 75 ; Collect. Hist. Soc.
i. 117—124 ; vi. 231, 242—241 ; ix. 2, 2.— Allen.
HIGH CHURCHMEN ; a term first given to the non-
jurors, who refused to acknowledge William III. as their
lawful king, and who had very proud notions of church
power ; but it is now commonly used in a more extensive
signification, and is applied to all those who, though far
from being non-jurors, yet form pompous and ambitious
conceptions of the authority and jurisdiction of the churcli.
It has generally been found that, both in the Episcopal
and Presbyterian establishments, those who have been
most violent in their efforts to uphold and vindicate hie-
rarchical power, and the exclusive claims of the church,
have been the most indifferent to the interests of evange-
lical truth, and the practice of scriptural piety ; but within
these few years many of those who are in repute as the
advocates of gospel-doctrine, have gradually been con-
tracting in their liberality, and assuming an air and tone
of high churchmanship, approximating to those of the
party who regard them as a kind of half dissenters or
schismatics. — Hend- Buck.
HIGH MASS, is that mass which is read before the
high altar on Sundays, feast days, and particular occa-
sions, such as the celebration of a victory, &c. (See
MhSs.y^Hend. Buck.
HIGH PLACES, (hnmolli.) The prophets reproach the
Israelites for nothing with more zeal than for worshipping
upon the high places. The destroying of these high places
HIL
[ 621
HI N
is a commendation given only lo few princes in Scripture;
and many, though zealous for the ohscrvance of the law,
had not courage to prevent the people from sacrificing
upon these eminences. Before the temple was built, the
high places were not absolutely contrary to the law, pro-
vided God only was there adored, and not idols. They
seem to have been tolerated under the judges ; and Samuel
offered sacrifices in several places where the ark was not
present. Even in David's time they sacrificed lo the Lord
at Shiloh, Jerusalem, and Giheon. But after the temple
was built at Jerusalem, and the ark had a fixed settlement,
it was no longer allowed to sacrifice out of Jerusalem.
The high places were much frequented in the kingdom of
Israel. The people sometimes went upon those mountains
which had been sanctified by the presence of patriarchs
and prophets, and by appearances of God, to worship the
true God there. This worship was lawful, except as to its
being exercised where the Lord had not chosen. But they
frequently adored idols upon these hiUs, and committed a
thousand abominations in groves, and caves, and tents ;
and hence arose the zeal of pious kings and prophets to
suppress the high places. — Watson.
HILDERSHAM, (Akthuk,) a Puritan divine, was born
at Stechworth, Cambridgeshire, October 6, 15fi3, of an
honorable family. He was brought up a papist ; but while
at Cambridge university avowed himself a Protestant, and
was in consequence cast off by his father. The earl of
Huntingdon, a distant kinsman, on hearing of the circum-
stance, became his patron, and carried him through the
university, where he gained great esteem and love by his
uncommon piety, learning, ingenuousness and affabiiity,
and -was chosen divine of Trinity hall. In 1587, he was
settled as preacher at Ashby de la Zuuch, in Leicestershire,
where (though often persecuted, and forced to change his
dwelling) he lived for the most part of forty-three years,
with great success in his ministry, and love and reverence
of all sorts. He suffered for conscience' sake in 1398,
l605, 1611, 1612, 1616, and 1630, being repeatedly silenc-
ed, deprived, censured, and fined to the amount of two
thousand pounds. This was the result of the high com-
mission court in the time of James I. and Charles I. He
died March 4, 1631, ageo sixty-eight. His last words were
in reference to 1 Tim. 3: S, addressing himself to his son,
" O son, son, that care of ihe flock is the main thing."
His character was rich in Christian excellence. His
unwearied delight was to go good. He was a close stu-
dent, frequent in ejaculations, and fervent in prayer. His
published works were widely lead, and highly esteemed,
especially by Dr. Preston, and the celebrated John Cotton.
They consist of one hundred at d eight lectures on John
IV. ; eight sermons on Ps. XXXV. ; one hundred and fifly-
two sermons on Ps. LT., and a Treatise on the Doctrine of
the Lord's Supper. — Miihlleton, vol. iii. p. 25.
HILL, (Gr.oRGE, D. D.,) a divine of the church of Scot-
land, was born at St. Andrews, in 1748. He was educat-
ed in his native place, where he obtained the Greek pro-
fessorship of St. Salvedcr's college, and that of divinity in
succession. He subsequently became principal of St.
Mar)''s, chaplain to ih- king for Scotland, and fellow of
the Royal society of Edinburgh. He first appeared as an
author in a volume of oeimons, London, 1795. In 1803
was published an octave volume, entitled " Theological In-
stitutes," by the Rev. George Hill, D. D. ; and m 1812,
" Lectures on portions of the Old Testament, illustrative
of the Jewish History." one volume, octavo. But his
greatest work, and thai by which he will live in the recol-
lection of posterity, is his " Lectures in Divinity," deliver-
ed to the students, while principal of St. Mary's college, St.
Andrews. These leclu/es were given to the public, in
1821, in three volumes, octavo, with a short preface by
his son. The plan is stfliciently comprehensive, and the
execution everywhere discovers the hand of a master.
Dr. Hill's doctrinal sentlinents were in strict consonance
with the standards of the church of Scotland j that is, they
corresponded with those of Calvin and Knox. A second
edition of this valuable work was published in 1825.
Gem's. Mag. and Watt'i Dib. Brit. ; Prcf. tu Author's Ltc-
tures. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
HILL, (RowLANn, M. A. ;) author cf the Village Dia-
loguesi. Few men have been more known and honored
among Christians of the present age than Rowland Hill, the
Whitfield of his time. Few, in any age, have had so long a
ministry, or so fruitful in conversions to God. He was
born at Hawkstone, in 1714, ond educated at Eton and
Cambridge. While at Eton he embraced the views of the
Calvinistic Methodists, and at Cambridge, before entering
into holy orders, he preached in the prison and in private
houses ; he also preached in the tabernacle and chapel of
Whitfield, in London. In imitation of his illustrious pa-
tron and pattern, he, soon after entering into orders, be-
gan to Hft up his voice in a wider sphere of labor — to
proclaim the gospel to listening crowds in barns, meeting-
houses, and when they were too small, or too distant, or
not to be procured, in streets and fields, by the highways
and hedges. In 17S3, he laid the foundation of Surry
chapel, in ihe Blackfriar's rood, London, in the duties of
•which he afterwards spent about the half of each 3'ear,
employing the re.st of the time in provincial excursions
He died in 1833, aged eightj'-nine, after a ministry of
seventy years.
Mr. Hill was a wonderful, and, with all his eccentrici-
ties, an excellent man. His manner only v.as eccenirir.
and occasionally facetious ; but this never appeared in the
subject-matter of his preaching. The propensity to be hu-
morous exceedingly decreased with growing years and e.\-
perience. A thousand things too of this kind reported of
him were false or exaggerated, to point a story or to raise
a laugh. His real improprieties were only such as he W3s
led into by the peculiarity of his genius, and his ardent
desire to attract and strike, in order that he might save,
the neglected multitudes of the lower orders.
Never was there, says Mr. Jay, a preacher who more
entirely adhered to the determination lo -'know nothing
save Jesus Christ and him crucified." He was never
higher or lower in his sentiments. Truths were always
duly balanced in his mind ; and his heart was established
with grace. He always blended together doctrine, expe-
rience, and practice. He fell into no errors. He embrac-
ed no whims. He made no new discoveries in religion.
He never supposed any were to be made. He never pre-
tended to speak with new tongues : and was never found
neglecting his work, to break open the seals and blow the
trumpels of the Apocalypse. — Jai/s Strmon on Sensibilili/
to the Fall of Eminence ; Ency. Amer. ; Christian Gazette,
May, 1834.
HILLEL, surnamed Hassaken ; a famous Jewish rab-
bi, who lived a liltle before the time of Christ. He was
"born at Babylon, B. C. 112, and was the disciple of Sham-
mai. At the age of forty he went to .Terusalem, where he
applied himself to the study of the law, and. at the age of
fourscore, was made head of the sanhedrim. Of all their
ancient doctors, he is unanimously regarded as the most
learned in the Jewish laws and traditions. Differing in
opinion from his master Shammai, Iheir disciples engaged
in the quarrel, and several persons were killed on both
sides. By the Jews, Hillel is extv.lled to the skies, and is
said to have educated upwards of a thousand pupils in the
knowledge of the law, among whom were thirty who were
worthy that the Spirit of God should have rested on (hem
as he did on Moses ; thirty who, like Joshna, were worthy
to stop the sun in his course ; and twenty liltle inferior to
the first, and superior to the second. Rabbi Hillel was
one of the compilers of the Talmud, and was the grand-
father of Gamaliel, Paul's teacher. — Hcnd. Bvck.
HIN ; a Hebi6w measure containing half a scab, or
Ihe sixth part of a bath : one gallon and two pinls. The
hin was a liquid measure ; as of oil, (Exod. 30. Ezck. 45:
46.) or of wine, Exod. 2il. Lev. 23. The prophet Ezekiel
was commanded to drink an allowance of water to the
quantity of the sixth part of a hin, ihat is, one pint, nine
teen thousand six hundred and seventy-two solid inches.—
Cuhnet.
HIND, {aUth; Gen. 49: 21. 2 Sam. 22: 34. Job 39: 1.
Ps. 18: 33. 29: 9. Prov. 5: 19. Cant. 2: 7. 3: 5. Jer. 14:
5. Hab. 3: 19.) the mate or female of the stag. It is »
lovely creature, and of an elegant shape. It i.s uoiea fcir
its swiftness and the soreness of its step as it jumps amon^
the rocks. David and Habakkuk both allude to this chs-
racter of the hind : '• The Lord makelh my feet like hind's
feet, and causeth me to stand on the high p!r,.:es," Fs. 18:
HIN
[ 622
33. Hab. 3: 19. The circumstance of their standing on
the high places or mountains is applied to these animals
by Xenophon. Our translators make .Tacob, prophesying
of the tribe of Naphtali, say, " Naphtali is a hind let loose :
he giveth goodly words," Gen. 49: 21. There is a difficul-
ty and incoherence here, which the learned Bochart re-
moves by altering a little the punctuation of the original ;
and it then reads, "Naphtali is a spreading tree, shooting
forth beautiful branches." This, indeed, renders the simile
uniform ; but another critic has remarked, that " the allu-
sion to a tree seems to be purposely reserved by the vene-
rable patriarch for his son Joseph, who is compared to the
boughs of a tree ; and the repetition of the idea m refer-
ence to Naphtah is every way unlikely. For these rea-
sons he proposes to read the passage, " Naphtali is a deer
roaming at liberty : heshootelh forth spreading branches,"
or " majestic antlers." Here the distinction of imagery is
preserved, and the fecundity of the tribe and the fertility
of their lot inlimaled. In our version of Ps. 29: 9, we
read. " The voice of the Lord raaketh the hinds to calve,
and discovereth the forests." Mr. Merriclc, in an inge-
nious note on the place, attempts to justify the rendering j
but bishop Lowth, in his " Lectures on the Sacred Poetry
of the Hebrews," observes that this agrees very little with
the rest of the imagery, either in nature or dignity ; and
that he does not feel himself persuaded, even by the rea-
sonings of the learned Bochart on this subject : whereas
the oak, struck with lightning, admirably agrees with the
context. The Syriac seems, for ailveh, hinds, to have read
alveh, oalis, or rather, perhaps, terebinths. The passage
may be thus versified : —
*' Hark ! his voice in thunder breaks,
And the Jofty mountain quakes ;
Mighty trees llie tempests tear,
And lay the spreading forests bare !"
Watson ; Harris ; Carpenter ; Abbott.
HINDOOISM, or Brahminism. "The Hindoo religion,
in one form or other, (says Mr. "Ward, the missionary,) it
is highly probable, is professed by more than half the hu-
man race : the doctrines of the Vedu, it is well known,
are acknowledged all over India ; the religion of Boodh,
a Hindoo incarnation, prevails throughout the Btirman
empire, Siam, Ceylon, &c. Lamaism, spread throughout
Tartary, m^ also be traced to a Hindoo origin ; and if,
as is conjectured, the Fo of the Chinese be the Boodh of
India, then it will be evident, that far more than half the
population of the nvrld remain under the injiuence of the
superstitions taught in the Vedu." (See Buddhists ; Fo,
&c.)
Mr. Maurice, in his elaborate work, entitled, " A Histo-
ry of the Antiquities of India," (6 vols. 8vo.) traced the
origin of the Hindoo nation, and developed their religious
system. The following imperfect sketch of the religion
of Hindostan, is chiefly taken from that author.
He supposes that the first migration of mankind took
place before the confusion of tongues at Babel, from the
region of Ararat, where the ark rested. By the time the
earth became sufficiently dry, either Noah himself, or some
descendant of Shem, gradually led on the first journey to
the western frontiers of India ; that this increasing colony
flourished for a long succession of ages in primitive hap-
piness and innocence ; practised the purest rites of the
patriarchal religion, without images and temples, till at
length the descendants of Ham invnded and conquered
India, and corrupted their ancient religion.
According to the Hindoo theology, Brahme, the great
Being, is the supreme, eternal, uncreated God. Brama,
the first created bekig, by whom he made and governs the
world, is the prince of the beneficent spii-its. He is as-
sisted by Veeshnu, the great preserver of men, who, nine
several times, appeared upon earth, and under a human
form, for the most beneficent purposes. Veeshnu is often
styled Creeshna, the Indian Apollo, and in his character
greatly resembles the Slithra of Persia. This prince of
benevolent Dewtas, (or demons,) has for a coadjutor Ma-
hadeo, or Seeva, the destroying power of God. And this
threefold divinity, armed with the terrors of almighty
power, pursue through the whole extent of creation ths
HIN ■ "
rebellious Dewtas, headed by Mahasoor, ths great malig-
nant spirit who seduced them, and dart upon their flying
bands the fiery .■shafts of divine vengeance.
According to Sir William Jones, the supreme god
Brahme. in his triple form, is the only self-existent divinity
acknowledged by the philosophical Hindoos. When they
consider the divine power as exerted in giving existencfi
to that which existed not before, they call the deity Brahme.
When they view him in the light of destroyer, or rather
changer of forms, he is called Mahadeo, Seeva, and by
various other names. WJien they consider him as the
preserver of created things, they give him the name of
Veeshnu ; for since the power of preserving creation by a
superintending providence belongs eminently to the god-
head, they hold that power to exist transcendently in the
preserving member of the triad, whom they suppose to be
always everywhere ; not in substance, but in spirit and
energy.
Following the leading ideeis of Sir WUliam Jones, Mr.
Jlaurice asserts, that there is a perpetual recurrence of
the sacred triad in the Asiatic mythology ; that the doc-
trine of a trinity was promulgated in India, in tlie geeta,
fiftee 1 hnndrtd \ears 1 ef re fhe birth of Plato ; for of that
remote dale aie tlit El jhinia ca\ein of which we pre-
sent an engraving, and the Indian history of Mahabharat,
in which a triad of deity is alluded to and designated.
Hence he supposes that the doctrine of a trinity was de-
livered from the ancient patriarchs, and difl^used over the
East during the migration and dispersion of their Hebrew
posterit)'.
But to return to Hindooism, we are told the nine incar-
nations of Veeshnu, represent the deity descending in a
human shape to accomplish certain awful and importani
/
HIN
[ 623 ]
HIN
events, as in the instance of the three first ; to confound
blaspheming vice, to subvert gigantic tyranny, and to
avenge oppressed innocence, as in the five following; or
finally, as in the ninth, to abolish human sacrifices.
The Hindoo system teaches the existence of good and
evil genii, or, in the language of Hindostan, deltas, dewtas,
or devitas. These are represented as eternally conflicting
together ; and the incessant conflict which subsisted be-
tween them, filled creation with uproar, and all its subor-
dinate classes with dismay.
The doctrine of the metempsychosis, or transmigration
of souls, is universally believed in India, from which
country it is supposed to have originated many centuries
before the birth of Plato, and was first promulgated in the
geeta of Uyasa, the Plato of India. This doctrine teaches
that degenerate spirits, fallen from their original rectitude,
migrate through various spheres, in the bodies of different
animals.
The Hindoos suppose that there are fourteen bobuns, or
spheres ; seven below, and seven above the earth. The
spheres above the earth are gradually ascending. The
highest is the residence of Brama and his particular fa-
vorites. After the soul transmigrates through various
animal mansions, it ascends up the great sideral ladder of
seven gates, and through the revolving spheres, which are
called in India the hobwn of purification.
It is the invariable belief of the Bramms, that man is a
fallen creature. Their doctrine of the transmigration of
the soul is built upon this foundation. The professed de-
sign of the metempsychosis was to restore the fallen soul
to its pristine state of perfection and blessedness. The
Hindoos represent the deity as punishing only to reform
his creatures. Nature itself exhibits one vast field of pur-
gator)' for the classes of existence. Their sacred writings
represent the whole universe as an ample and august
theatre for the probationary exertion of millions of beings,
who are supposed to be so many spirits degraded from the
high honors of angelical distinction, and condemned to as-
cend, through various gradations of toil and suflTering, to
that exalted sphere of perfection and happiness which 4hey
enjoyed before their defection.
It is supposed that Pythagoras derived his doctrine of
transmigration from the Indian Bramins ; for in the Insti-
tutes of Menu, said to be compiled many centuries before
Pythagoras was born, there is a long chapter on transmi-
gration and final beatitude. It is there asserted, that so
far as vital souls, addicted to sensuality, indulge them-
selves in forbidden pleasures, even to the same degree
shall the acuteness of their senses be raised in their future
bodies, that they may sufler analogous pain.
This doctrine, so universally prevalent in Asia, that
man is a fallen creature, gave birth to the persuasion, that
by severe sufferings, and a long series of probationary
discipline, the soul might be restored to its primitive puri-
ty. Hence, oblations the most costly, and sacrifices the
most sanguinary, in the hope of propitiating the angiy
powers, forever loaded the altars of the pagan deities.
They had even sacrifices denominated those of regenera-
tion, and those sacrifices were always profusely stained
with blood.
The Hindoos suppose that the vicious are consigned to
^lerpetual punishment in the animation of successive ani-
mal fcrms, till, at the stated period, another renovation of
the four jugs, or grand astronomical periods, shall com-
mence upon the dissolution of the present. Then they
are called to begin anew the probationary journey of souls,
and all will be finally happy.
The destruction of the existing world by fire is another
tenet of the Bramins.
Besides their various and frequent ablutions, and the
daily oflerings of rice, fruits, and ghee, at the pagodas,
the Hindoos have a grand annual sacrifice, not very unlike
that of the scape-goat among the Hebrews, only that it is a
horse, and not a goat, which they ofier with great cere-
mony.
The temples, or pagodas, for divine worship in India,
are magnificent ; and their religious rites are pompous
and splendid. Since the Hindoos admit that the deity oc-
casionally assumes an elementary form, without defiling
his purity, they make
ols to assist their :magi-
nations, when they offer up their prayers to the invisible
deity.
From the same conviction of human depravity, and the
necessity of atonement, arises the practice of voluntary
torture which they inflict upon themselves. Mr. Swartz,
one of the Malabarian missionaries, who was instrumental
in converting two thousand persons to the Christian reli-
gion, relates, that a certain man on the JMalabar coast had
inquired of various devotees and priests how he might
make atonement ; and at last he was directed to drive iron
spikes, sufficiently blunted, through his sandals ; and on
these spikes he was to place his naked feet, and walk
about four hundred and eighty miles. If, through loss of
blood, or weakness of body, he was necessitated to halt,
he was obliged to wait for healing and strength. He un-
dertook his journey ; and while he halted under a large
shady tree, where the gospel was sometimes preached, one
of the missionaries came and preached in his hearing from
these words : " The blood of Jesus Christ cleanseth from all
sin." While he was preaching, the man rose up, threw
off his torturing sandals, and cried out aloud. This is nhat
II I N
[ G24
HiN
t want ; and he became a living: witness of tlie truth of
tlj^it passage of Scripture, which had such a hapjiy ef-
fect upon his Biir.it. See Baptist Animal Register for 170 1.
Mr. War<l, one of the Baptist missionaries at Seranipore,
has published an ehiborate worli on "the Religion, Histo-
ry, and Literature of the Hindoos," which it would be un-
pardonable not to notice ; and we shall avail ourselves of a
sumraar)' of their principles, as given in his " Farewell
Letters, on returning to India."
We have already mentioned, under the term Caxles, the va-
rious tribes into which the nation is divided. As to the num-
ber of their gods, it is sta.ed by Mr. Ward at three hundred
and thirty millions ; and their representative idols are diver-
r.ified into almost every form the imagination could suggest ;
some highly ridiculous, (as the monkey gods,) and others
grossly obscene, as the Lingu, tlie Phallus of Hindostan.
This is worshipped by the women to promote fruitfulness.
Karlikeya, the god of war, is represented as riding on a
peacock, with six faces and twelve arms, and presents a
singular specimen of the curious manner in which the Hin-
doos portray their deities.
Their sects were numerously diversified, but the follow-
ing three arc stated as the principal : —
1. The Soivus, the worshippers of Shivu, who is repre-
Shivu and his wife Doorga.
sented as a white man, with five faces and four arms,
riding on a bull. In one hand he holds an axe to destroy
the wicked ; in a second, a deer, alluding to one said to
have fled from sacrifice, and taken refuge under his pro-
tection, &c. He resembles the Greek Bacchus, both in
his form, and the obscenity of his rites.
2. The Voisnumis, or worshippers of Vishnu, who is
drawn as a black man with four arms, sitting on a mon-
ster called Gurooru. He bears in his hands the sacred
shell, the chukru, the lotus, and a club. Vishnu is called
the preserver, and though without temples, has the great-
est number of worshippers.
3. The Sliaklus, or worshippers of Doorga, the wife of Shi-
vu, who is represented as a yellow female, with arms, (hold-
ing weapons,) and sitting on a bier. She is the Minerva
of India, and her festivals are numerously attended. The
Brahmins are chiefly worshippers of ShiVu and Doorga.
Beside these, there are two other sects of some celebrity.
1. The Sourus, or worshippers of Sooryu, or the sun;
and, 2. The Ganuputyus, or worshippers of Guneshu, a
fat, short, red man, with four arms and an elephant's head,
sitting on a rat ; a very popular and common idol.
But these are merely images to amuse the vulgar : the
Brahmins have a secret doctrine, as well as the Greek phi-
losophers ; and that doctrine, according to Mr. Ward, is a
specious atheism : — ,
" Three of the six schools of philosophy once famous
in India, were atheistical. The doctrines of these atheists
were established, for a considerable period, in India ; and
they are still taught in the Boodhist system which prevails
throughout China, Japan, the Burman empire, Siam, Cey-
lon, &c. What an awful thought, that three hundred
millions of the human race are, to this hour, under a sys-
tem of avowed atheism ! (See Budhism.)
" A view of the speculations of the Hindoo theists, or
Brahminism, will unfold a system little better, I presume,
than atheism.
" These philosophers, of whom Vedras, the compiler of
the Vedu, was one of the most distinguished, taught that
every thing we can see, or form any conception of, is to
be referred to one or the other of these two principles : it
is either spirit or matter ; since, besides these, nothing else
exists : that all spirit is God ; that God exists, without at-
tributes, in a state of eternal repose, intangible, unconnect-
ed with any foniis of matter. A state of profound sleep, in
which the individual has no mental exercise whatever, and
the state of the unruffled ocean, are alluded to by this philo-
sopher as emblems of the state and blessedness of spirit.
Speculations, like these, tnaking known a being without at-
tributes, and having no connexion with creatures, is surely
nothing better than pure atheism ; nor is the practical sys-
tem founded on these theories an atom beUer than the theory.
" These philosophers further teach, that the spirit in man
is individuated deity ; that, in this connexion with matter,
spirit is degraded and imprisoned ; that the great and only
business of man on earth is to seek emancipation, and re-
turn to the blessed source from which he (that is, spirit ;
for I, thou, and he, are referable only to spirit) has been
severed. (See P.intheism.)
" The mode of obtaining einancipation, is by the practice
of the ceremonies denominated jogue, all which ceremo-
nies are connected with bodily austerities, having for their
object the annihilation of all conscious connexion with the
body, and with material things. Deliverance from the influ-
ence of the body, and all material things, will leave spirit,
even while in the body, in a state of divine tranquillity,
resembling that of God ; (for the passions alone are the
sources of pain ;) and will fit the individuated spirit for re-
union to God ; for the passions are the sources of life and
death, and confine the individuated spirit to a continued
course of transmigration, and rivet its union to matter.
" And now comes a long list of these jogees, exhibited
to us as practising these austerities, which are intended to
extinguish all attachments, all desires, all cherished union
between the spirit and the body, and between the spirit
and the material existences with which it is surrounded.
We see these jogees retiring to forests, renouncing all com-
munion with other beings, hving in solitude and silence, in-
flicting on the body the most shocking austerities, and in-
creasing them as the body is able to bear them, till the
poor wretches sink under the experiment."
This, however, is still not the worst part of Hindooism :
«
HIN
[
the following is a slietch of its farther cruellies, from lUe
same pen as the above : —
" One tribe puts to death its female offspring ! A few
were saved by the benevolent efforts of colonel Walker,
when in India ; but, since his return, the very families
among whom the horrible practice had ceased, have again
returned to the work of murder ; not one survives. In and
around Benares, infanticide is practised to a horrible extent.
" Instigated by the demon of superstition, many mo-
thers, in fulfilment of a vow entered into for the purpose
of procuring the blessing of children, drown Iheir first-
born ! When the child is two or three years old, the mo-
ther takes it to the river, encourages it to enter, as though
about to bathe it, but sutlers it to pass into the midst of
the current, when she abandons it, and stands an inactive
spectator, beholding the struggles, and hearing the screams,
of her perishing infant ! At Saugur island, formerly,
motliers were seen casting their living offspring among a
number of alligators, and standing to gaze on these mon-
sters quarrelling for their prey; beholding the writhing
infant in the jaws of the successful animal, and standing
motionless while it was breaking the bones, and sucking
the blood, of the poor innocent ! What must be that su-
perstition, which can thus transform a being, whose distin-
guishing quality is tenderness, into a monster, more unnatu-
ral than the tiger prowling through the forests for its prey ?
" The Hindoo writings encourage persons, afflicted with
ii'curable distempers, to cast themselves under the wheels
of the car of Juggernaut, or into some sacred river, or in-
to a fire prepared for Ihe purpose; promising such self-
murderers, that Ihey shall rise to birth again in a healthful
body ; whereas, by dying a natural death, they would be
liable to have the disease perpetuated in the next and suc-
ceeding births. Multitudes of lepers, and other children
of sorrow, perish annually in these prescribed modes.
Mr. W. Carey was one morning informed that some peo-
ple had dug a deep hole in the earth, not far from his own
liouse, and had begun to kindle a fire at the bottom. He
immediately proceeded to the spot, and saw a poor leper,
who had been deprived of the use of his limbs by the
disease, roll himself over and over, till at last he fell into
the flames. Smarting with agony, his screams became
most dreadful. He called upon his family, who surround-
ed the pit, and entreated them to deliver him from the
liames. But he called in vain. His own sister, seeing
him lift his hands to the side, and make a dreadful effort
to escape, pushed him back again : when (these relations
still coolly gazing upon the sufferer) he perished, enduring
indescribable agonies.
"Human sacrifices are enjoined in the sacred books,
and made a part of the Hindoo superstitions in very early
times. They describe the rites to be observed at Ihe sacri-
fice of a man ; and declare the degree of merit attached
to such a sacrifice, compared wilh the offering of a goat, a
buffalo, Ace. The Hindoos speak of an instrument used in
times not very remote, by which, with the jerk of his foot,
a man, lying prostrate before an image, might cut off" his
TO
5 1 HIN
o\'.:i head. An English officer as.sured a friend of mine,
that he sav/ a Hindoo sacrifice himself in a boat in the
Ganges : laying his head over tlie side of the boat, with a
scimitar he aimed a dreadful blow at his own neck; and
though he failed to sever the head from the body, he fell
senseless into the river, and perished !
"Human sacrifices, not very different from these, are
still very common, especially at A llahabad. While the late
Dr. Robinson, of Calcutta, resided at that place, twelve
men were immolated at once, as sixteen females had been.
Earthen pans were fastened to a stick tied to the waist.
As long as these pans remained empty, Ihey kept the men
afloat ; but each man with a cup continued filling the pans
from the river ; and, as soon as filled, they dragged the
victim to the bottom.
" But the most horrible of all the immolations among
the Hindoos, is the burning alive of widows : between
eight and nine hundred, in the presidency of Bengal alone,
every yeai ' This is the official statement, signed by the
English magistrates. How many in the presidencies of
Madras and Bombay ? And then how many more, where
the British power does not extend ? AVhere shall we find
any thing like this in all the annals of time > Let us sup-
pose, that in each of the other presidencies four hundred
each year are immolated, and five hundred in all the other
parts of Judia ; and then we have the awful spectacle of two
thou.sand widows burnt or buried alive annually, in India !
Search every human record, and bring forward every
thing that has ever been practised by the scalping Indian,
the cannibals in the South seas, fee, and all is civilization
and the most refined benevolence, compareil wilh this."
Among other happy fruits of missionary labors in India,
may be mentioned the recent abolition of this last horrid cus-
tom, by the British government. The public honor of sup
pressing the suttees, as they are termed, belongs to lord Ben-
tick, governor-general of British India. It took place in 1831.
But the burying alive of widows manifests, if that
were possible, a still more abominable
HIT
[ 626 ]
HOB
towards women, than even burning them ahve, as the
process of burying is more deliberate— more diabolical.
In this kind of sacriftce, the children and relations dig
the grave. This horrid practice, we believe, is not yet
abohshed. Ward's 'Farewell Letters, nos. vi. and vu. ;
Ward's Hindoos, vol. i. book i., vol. ii. book vii.— Tn/-
'"hINNOM, (ViLLLEY OF ;) called also Tophet, and by
the Greeks (or rather Grecian Jews) Gehenna ; a small
valley on the south-east of Jerusalem, at the foot of mount
Zion where the Canaanites, and afterwards the Israelites,
sacrificed their children to the idol Moloch, by making
them " pass through the fire," or burning them. (See
Gehenna, and Hell.) — Watson. , ■ u
HIFPOLITUS ; a Christian bishop of Cappadocia, Who
suffered martyrdom in the persecution under Maximinus,
A D 235. He was tied to a wild horse, and dragged throngh
fields stony places, bushes, &c. till he expired.— R)z, 25.
HIRASI; a king of Tyre, distinguished in profane au-
thors for his magnificence, and for adorning the city of
Tyre. When David was acknowledged king by Israel,
Hiram sent ambassadors with artificers, and cedar, to
build his palace. He also sent ambassadors to Solomon,
to congratulate him on his accession to the crown ; and
subsequently supplied him with limber, stones, and labor-
ers for building the temple. These two princes lived in
mutual friendship for many years. It is said that in Jo-
seplius' time, their letters, with certain riddles, which they
proposed one to the other, were extant.— Cfl/rnc?.
HIRELING. Moses requires that the hireling should
be paid as soon as his work is over : " The wages of him
that is hired shall not abide with thee all night unto the
morning," Lev. 19: 19. An hireling's days, or year, is a
kind of proverb, signifying a full year, without abating
any thing of it : " His days are like the days of an hire-
ling;" (Job 7: 1.) the days of man are like those of an
hireling ; as nothing is deducted from them, so nothing,
likewise, is added to them. And again : " Till he shall
accomplish as an hireling his day ;" (Job 14; C.) to the
time of death, which he waits for as the hireling for the
end of the day.
The following passage from Morier's Travels m Persia,
Illustrates one of our Lord's parables ;_"The most conspi-
cuous building in Hamadan is the Mesjid Jumah, a large
mosque now falling into decay, and before it a maidan
or square, which serves as a market-place. Here we ob-
served, every morning before the sun ro.se, that a, nume-
rous band of peasants were collected with spades in their
hands, waiting, as they informed us, to be hired for the
day to work in the surrounding fields. This custom,
which I have never seen in any other part of Asia, forcibly
struck me as a most happy illustration of our Savior's para-
ble of the laborers in the vineyard, in Matt. 20 ; partial
care of his education Was early blessed to lead his soul to
God. His fine understanding was early devoted to the
Christian ministry. He was a dissenter of most catholic
and unbigoled spirit. He was settled as an assistant to
Mr. Richard Rawlin, to whom, as well as to the flock of
their common charge, he was highly acceptable. He was
chosen successor to Mr. Andrews, and continued with the
congregation till his death, in 1774, in the forty-eighth
year of his age. It was pleasing to witness the cheerful
resignation, and firm trust which he manifested in his last
sickness, while committing his family to the care of a
covenant God, and desiring to depart and be with Christ.
— Middleton, vol. iv. p. 466.
HITTITES; the descendants of Heth, Gen. 15: 20.
(See Heth.)
HIVITES ; a people descended from Canaan, Gen. 10:
17. They are also mentioned, Deut. 2: 23. The inhabi-
tants of Shechem, and the Gibeonites, were Hivites, Josh.
11; 19. Gen. 34: 2. Mr. Bryant supposes the Hivites to
be the same as the Ophites, or ancient worshippers of the
sun under the figure of a serpent ; which was, in all pro-
bability, the deity worshipped at Baal-Hermon. — Watson.
HOADLEY, (Benjamin, D. D.,) an eminent prelate, dis-
tinguished equally for learning, liberality, piety, and useful-
ness, was born, 'in 1676, at Westerham, in Kent; was
educated partly by his father, and partly at Catharine hall,
Cambridge ; was for some years lecturer of St. Mildred's ;
and, in 1704, was made rector of St. Peter le Poor, Broad
street. He soOn distinguished himself as a champion of
freedom, in his controversy with Calamy and Atterbury ;
and the commons addressed the queen to promote him,
but, as may be supposed, no favor was dispensed to him
by a tory government. The accession of George I., how-
ever, brightened his prospects. In 1715 he was raised to
the see of Bangor ; whence he was translated to Hereford,
Salisbury, and Winchester, in 1720, 1723, and 1734. He
died in 1761. It was in 1717 that he preached the cele-
brated sermon which drove the high church party almost
to madness, and gave rise to the Bangorian controversy.
His works form three folio volumes. (See Bangorian Con-
TKovERSY.)— /owes' Cliris. Biog. ; Davenport.
HOBAB ; son of Jethro, and brother-in-law of Moses.
The inspired legislator prevailed upon him to accompany
Israel when departing from mount Sinai for the promised
land, Num. 10; 29. Some think that the Kenites, who
dwelt south of Judah, were the descendants of Hbbab,
Judg. 1; Hi. 1 Sam. 15: 6.—Calmet.
HOBAH, (Gen. 14: 15.) is thought by Calmet to be
Abila, in the valley between Libanus and Antilibanus.
Mr. Taylor takes it for the present Habaya, west of Da-
mascus. It is, probably, some hollow, between mountains,
which effectually secludes those who occupy it.— Calmet.
HOBART, (John Henry, D. D.,) was born in Philadel-
D e 01 tne laoorers in me vineyaiu, ui mau. ^u , ^.u.iui^.- .*„„... ^.-, ^. — „ V . V -.-'ni: xio „,„c oHnr-itorl
larly when, passing by the same place late in the day, we phia, on the 14th of September, 1 /7d. He was educated
still found others sramUng idle, and remembered his words, at the college m Princeton, New Jep'^y- '^"f^/^.^, ""['f'^
' Why stand ye here all the day idle?' as most applicable early life for his industry and P™fi<^'«f V '" '''?,/'"f.'^=^
to their situation; for, in putting the very same question On leavmg this institution he was engaged a short Mie
to them, they answered us, 'Because no man hath hired in mercantile pursuits, was_ su^sequently^a^tmor at Nas-
us.' " — Watson.
HISS, usually expresses insult and contempt ; " All
they, who shall see the destruction of this temple, shall be
astonished and shall hiss, and say. How comes it that the
Lord hath thus treated this city ?" 1 Kings 9: 8. Job 27;
23. Jer. 19; 8. 49: 17. 51; 13. Lam. 2; 15, 16. Ezek. 28;
36. Zeph. 2; 15.
To call any one with hissing, is a mark of power and
authority, Isa.5: 26. 7: 18.. Theodore! and Cyril of Alex-
andria, writing on Isaiah, remark, that in Syria and Pales-
tine, those who looked after bees drew them out of their
hives, carried them into the fields, nnd brought them back
again with the sound of a flute, and the noise of hissing.
Zechariah, (10: 8.) speaking of the return from Babylon,
says, that the Lord will gather the house of Judah, as it
were, with a hiss, and bring them back into their own
country • which shows the ease and authority with which
he would perform that great work. — Calmet.
HISTORY, Ecclesiastical. (See Ecclesiastical His-
tory.)
HITCHIN, (Edward, B. D.,) an excellent minister and so-
lid divine, of London, was bom 1726, of pious parents,whose
sau hall, and after two years service in this capacity, he
determined upon the studv of theology. In 1798, he was
admitted into orders, and was first settled in the two
chnrches at Perkiomen, near Philadelphia, but soon after
accepted a call to Christ church, New Brunswick. In
about a year he removed from this place to become an as-
sistant minister of the largest spiritual cure in the countrj',
comprising three associated congregations in the city of
New York. In 1811, he was elected assistant bishop, and
in 1816 became diocesan of New York ; and in performing
the severe duties of the office, his labors were indefatiga-
ble From 1818 to 1823, he was employed in editing the
American edition of D'Oyley and Mant's Bible, with notes.
In September, 1823, the state of his health required a
visit to Europe, where he remained about two years. He
died in 1830. He was incessantly active in performing
his religious offices, and made several valuable compila-
tions fo° the use of the charch.— Davenport.
HOBBES, (Thomas,) a celebrated philosopher, was born,
in 1588, at Malmesbury, in Wiltshire, and was educated
at Magdalen hall, Oxford. In 1608, he became tutor to
lord Hardwick, who was subsequently earl of Devonshire ;
HOH
[ 627]
HOL
and, after their return from travelling, he resided in the
family for many years, during which period he translated
Thucydides, and made a Latin version of some of lord
Bacon's works. In 1640 he retired to Paris, to avoid be-
ing involved in the contest which was about to take place
in his country. It was during this voluntary exile that he
produced his celebrated works, De Give ; Human Nature ;
De Corpore Politico ; and the still more famous and ob-
noxious Leviathan. About U)52 he returned to England,
and in 1654 published a Letter on Liberty and Necessity,
which led to a controversy with bishop Bramhall. He
now again resided in the Devonshire family, and continu-
ed to do so for the remainder of his days. Charles II.
gave him a pension of one hundred pounds a-year. Among
his later works are, Decameron Physiologicum ; a Dia-
logue between a Philosopher and a Student of the Com-
mon Law ; Behemoth, or a History of the Civil Wars ;
and translations of the Iliad and Odyssey. He died in
lli79. The charge of atheism, which has been urged
against him, is undoubtedly groundless ; but it seems to
require no small share of hardihood to maintain, that his
doctrines, religious and political, do not lead to consequen-
ces of the most pernicious nature. — Davenport.
IIOFFMANIANS, or Hoffmanists ; those that espous-
ed the sentiments of Daniel Hoffman, professor of theology
in the university of Helmstadt, who, in 1598, distinguish-
ed him,self-by his opposition to the philosophy of Plato
and Aristotle. They appear to have been Lutheran dis-
senters ; nor is it unlikely that they imbibed the dread of
philosophical inquiry, lest it should lead them to that ra-
tional theology (so called) which reasons away the great
principles of the Reformation. There seems no doubt,
but these Hoflmanians, by all that we can learn, were
offended by some alterations in the established liturgy, in-
tended to gratify the Socinian party ; such as, in baptism,
the omission of the words, "renouncing the devil," &c.
Their being called Pietists and Enthusiasts, looks the
same way ; and it is not unlikely, that observing how
inuch these philosophical divines leaned towards Socini-
anism, might lead them to abjure all philosophical inquiries.
See Philanthropic Gazette, 1819, pp. 237—8; and see Har-
monists above, p. 598. — \Vllliams.
HOHENLOHE, (Prince ;) the eighteenth son of Charles
Albert, the crown prince of Austria, who was disqualified
for taking the reins of government by mental derange-
ment. At the wish of his mother, he determined to study
for the clerical profession, and an ex-Jesuit was his first
instructer. He studied in Vienna and Berne, and finished
his studies at Ellwangen, under the care of his uncle, the
suffragan bishop, and was ordained deacon by the chapter
of Olmutz. At this time he was fond of conversing with
such as believed in wonders ; and after visiting Rome,
where he lived in a Jesuits' college, he returned to Germa-
ny, where lie was considered by his colleagues as devoted
to the interests of Jesuitism, and the inveterate enemy of
knowledge.
In 1820 he wrote a pamphlet, dedicated to the emperors
Francis and Alexander, and the king of Prussia, in which
he attempts to prove that none but a true Chiistian, by
which he means a Roruan Catholic, can be a faithful sub-
ject of government. Having become acquainted with a
Baden peasant, Martin Michel, who for several years had
the repute of working miraculous cures, he w-as persuaded
by this pretended thaumaturgist, that, being a priest, it
would be much easier for him to perform miracles ! The
experiment was made^ The princess Matilda, of Schwart-
yenberg, who had been grievously afflicted with a distor-
tion of the spine, from which she had been partially cured
by a skilful physician, was called on by the priest and the
peasant to walk, and she succeeded.
He now tried his powers alone, and multitudes flocked
to him for- cures. Many were in fact benefited ; many
believed that they were ; but many went away in despair,
because they could not believe. His attempts in the hos-
pitals of '^'irtzburg and Bamberg failed, and the police
were ordered not to allow him to try his experiments, ex-
cept in their presence. A prince of Hildburghausen call-
ed in his aid ; but his suffering eyes soon became worse in
consequence of his exchanging the use of medicine for
faith in the miraculous energies of Hohenlohe. In 1821
he laid a statement of his miracles before the pope, the
answer to which is not known ; only it is rumored that his
Holiness expressed much doubt respecting them, and hints
w-ere received from Rome, that the process should no lon-
ger be called the working nf miracles, but priestly prayers for
healing. Since then he has pretended to cure persons at a
distance, and cases have been published of cures perform
ed, in one instance at Marseilles, and in another in Ireland,
and several others, by appointing an hour in which the
individuals should unite their prayers with his. Much has
been done by Mr. Hornthal, an officer of Bamberg, towards
checking the progress of this delusion. The prince is a
person of fine exterior, gentle manners, a most insinuating
voice, and good pulpit talents. — Huid. Buck.
HOLD. To take hold of God and his covenant is to em-
brace him as given in the gospel, and by faith to plead his
promises and relations, Isa. 64: 7, and 56: 4. Christians
hold forth the nord of life ; they, by practising it in their
lives, give light and instruction to others, Phil 2: 16. Not
holding of Christ the head, is neglecting to draw gracious
influence from him, and to yield due subjection to him ;
and admitting saints and angels as mediators in his stead,
Col. 2: 18.— J?ro?cn.
HOLINESS; devotedness to the great end, of being and
doing good ; hence, consequentially, freedom from sin, or
the conformity of the heart to God. It does not consist in
knowledge, talents, nor outward ceremonies of religion,
but hath its seat in the heart, and is the effect of the love
of God shed abroad in the heart by the Holy Spirit, Eph.
2: 8, 10. John 3: 5. Rom. 5: 5. 6: 22. It is the essence of
happiness and the basis of true dignity, Prov. 3: 17. 4: 8.
It will manifest itself by the propriety of our conversation,
regularity of our temper, and uniformity of our lives. It
is a principle progressive in its operation, (Prov. 4: 18.)
and absolutely essential to the enjoyment of God here and
hereafter, Heb. 12: 14. (See Sanctification ; Works.) —
Hend. Buck.
HOLINESS OF GOD, is the purity and rectitude of his
character, or the consecration of all his high attributes to
promote the highest good of the universe. It is an essential
attribute of God, and the glory, lustre, and harmony of all
his other perfections, Ps. 27: 4. Exod. 15: 11. He could
not he God without it, Deut. 32: 4. It is infinite and vn-
bounded ; it cannot be increased or diminished. Immutable
and invariable, Mai. 3: 6. God is originally holy; he is so
of and in himself, and the author and promoter of all holi-
ness among his creatures. The holiness of God is visible
by his works; he made all things holy. Gen. 1: 31. By
his providences, all which are to promote holiness in the
end, Heb. 12: 10. By his grace, which influences the sub-
jects of it to be holy, Tit. 2: 10, 12. By his nord, which
commands it, 1 Pet. 1: 15. By his ordinances, which he
hath appointed for that end, Jer. 44: 4, 5. By Ihe pu7tish-
ment of sin in the death of Christ, (Isa. 53.) and by the eter-
nal punishment of it in wicked men, Matt. 25, last verse.
(See Attkibotes.) — Hend. Buck.
HOLLAND, (Thomas, D. D.) This excellent man was
born in Shropshire, 1539, and graduated at Exeter college,
Oxford, (where he received his education,) with great ap-
plause. But he valited knowledge only as the nutriment
and instrument of piety. In process of time he was cho-
sen master of his college, and afterward Regius professor
of divinity. He was esteemed and admired in this station
for every kind of attainment, divine and human, and his
fame extended to foreign universities. Like the eloquent
ApoUcs, he was mighty in the Scriptures ; like the illumi-
nated Paul, he was faithful in explaining them. His
example answered to his doctrine ; he lived himself
what he preached to others. Such was his zeal for the
reformed religion, that whenever he left his college on a
journey, he used to call the society together, and commend
them to the love of God and the abhorrence of popery.
Nor was this perpetual caution at that time unnecessary.
Thus for twenty years he filled his high office with honor
and usefulness. And as age and death drew near, his
ardor increased for the presence and enjoyment of God.
His soul was framed for heaven, and could find no rest till
it came there. All the comforts he found on earth resulted
from heaven, or related to it. In the solemn moments
of dissolution, he often prayed, " Come, O come, Lord
HOL
[ 628 ]
HOL
Jesus, Ihou morning star ! Come, Lord Jesus ; I desire to
be dissolved, and to be with thee." He died in 1612, aged
sevenly-three. — Middkton, vol. ii. 372.
HOLDEN, (Samuel,) a benevolent Christian, died in
London, in 1740. Mr. Holden was at the head of the
dissenters in England, and at the head of the bank of
England. Such was his benevolence and regard to reli-
gion, that he sent to Dr. Colman, of Boston, thirty-nine sets
of Baxter's Practical Works, in four massy folios, to be
di.stributed among the churches of Massachusetts. The
amount cf these charities for promoting the gospel and
other useful purposes, was four thousand eight hundred
and forty-seven pounds. After his death his widow and
daughters gave, in the same liberal and benevolent spirit,
five thousand five hundred and eighty-five pounds. Holden
chapel for the college at Cambridge was built by their
donation .
3Ir. Holden was a man of unfeigned piety. He says in
a letter, " I hope my treasure is in heaven, and would to
God my heart were more there. Abstract from God and
futurity, I would not accept of an eternity here in any
given circumstances whatever." CoJman's Serm. — Allen.
HOLLEY, (Horace, LL. D.,) a distinguished pulpit
orator, and president of Transylvania university, Ken-
tucky, was born in Salisbury, Connecticut, February 13,
1781 • was graduated at Yale college in 1803 ; in 1805
was ordained as the minister of Greenfield hill, Fairfield,
and in 1809, installed the minister of HoUis .street, Boston.
In 1818, he became the president of the university of
Kentucky, in Lexington ; but his Unitarian views giving
offence, he was induced to resign his office in 1827. On
his voyage to New York, he died of the yellow fever, July
31, 1827, aged forty-six He published a discourse on the
death of Col. James Morrison, 1823. Interesting Memoirs
of his Life were written by his widow.— ^toi.
HO LLIS, (Thomas,) of London, a most liberal bene-
factor of Harvard college, was born in lli59, of pious
parents. At the age of twenty he became pious, and
having embraceil the principles of the Baptists, was bap-
tized in 1679. He died in February, 173], aged about
seventy-two.
Mr. HoUis was for many years an eminent merchant,
and, while success attended his exertions, it pleased God to
incline him also to charitable and benevolent deeds in
proportion to his wealth. He founded two professorships
in Harvard college, the professorship of divinity and mathe-
matics. He also presented a valuable apparatus for
mathematical and philosophical experiments, and at difier-
ent times augmented the library with many valuable
books. In 1727, the net produce of his donation, exclusive
of gifts not vendible, amounted to four thousand nine
hundred pounds, the interest of which he directed to be
appropriated to the support of the two professors, to the
treasurer of the college, and to ten poor students in divinity
of suitable quahfications.
The liberality of Mr. HoUis flowed from a Christian
heart. He says in a letter, after speaking of some of his
efforts to do good. " I think not hereby to be justified. BIy
rejoicing is in Christ, my God and Savior." He also
ascribes all his virtues and hopes " to rich, free, and sove-
reign, electing love."
Being a Calvinist in his sentiments, he required his pro-
fessor of divinity to be "of sounder orthodox principles."
Still he was not governed by a sectarian spirit ; he did not
require the preference of his own denomination, the Bap-
. list ; but the professorship was open to every one, who, in
his view, embraced the important and fundamental doc-
trines of the gospel. Column's and Wigglesnviilis Sermons,
Greenwood's Discourse, and Rndd's Poem on his Death ; Me-
vioirsof T. HolHs, i. 1 ; ii. 598—601 ; Morse's trueBcnsons,
(K-c. ; Holmes ; Backus ; Benedict ; Ivimey, — Allen.
HOLLIS, (Thomas,) nephew of the above, born in
London, in 1720, was in his principles a dissenter and a
warm advocate for liberty. He was a man of large for-
tune, and devoted above half of it to charitable purposes.
He presented to the library of Harvard college, works to
the value of fourteen hundred pounds sterling. He died
in 1774. — Davenport.
HOLMES, (Oeadiah.) This noble suflerer for con-
science' sake was born in Preston Lancashire, (Eng.) in
1006, of highly respectable parents, from whom he re-
ceived a good education. He became pious at an early
age, and came to America in 1639. He was a member
of the Congregational church first at Salem, and then at
Eehoboth, about eleven years ; when he became a Bap-
tist, and on joining the church in Nev^'port, in 1650, like
Roger Williams, was excommunicated from that at Sa-
lem. In 1651, in company with Messrs. Clark and Cran-
dal, he was arrested at Lynn, on a charge of heresy, for
denying infant baptism, and sent to prison in Boston.
The sentence of the court on these worthy men was, that
they should pay, Mr. Crandal five, Mr. Clark twenty,
and Mr. Holmes thirty pounds, or be publicly whipped.
All declined paying the fine, but Mr. Clark's friends paid
his fine without his consent, and Mr. Crandal was re-
leased on his promise of appearing at the next court. On
Mr. Holmes the sentence was executed with such sevc-
ritj', (thirty strokes with a three-corded whip,) "that for
many days," governor Jenks remarks, " he could take no
rest, but as he lay upon his knees and elbows, not being
able to suffer any part of his body to touch the bed where-
on he lay."
Nothing can be more touching than his own simple
narrative of the whole transaction, as preserved by Bene-
dict, or more honorable to his Christian character. On
hearing his sentence pronounced, the good man said, " I
bless God I am counted worthy to suffer for the name of
Jesus." While in private, seeking strength of God, he
was strongly tempted with this thought, "Eemember thy-
self, thy birth, breeding, and friends ; thy wife, children,
name, and credit;" but, he adds, " as this was sudden,
so there came in sweetly from the Lord as sudden an an-
swer : ' Tis for my Lord ; I must not deny him before
the sons of men, (for thai were to set men above him,)
but rather lose all, yea, wife, children, and mine own life
also.' " And at the place of execution, his supports w-ere
such as to illustrate the source of the astonishing fortitude
of the early martjTS. " It pleased the Lord," he observes,
" to come in, and so to fill my heart and tongue as a ves-
sel full, that with an audible voice I broke forth, praying
unto the Lord not to lay this sin to their charge ; and
telling the people that now I found he did not fail me,
and therefore now I should trust him forever who failed
me not ; for in truth as the strokes fell on me, I had such
a spiritual manifestation of God's presence as I never
had, nor felt, nor can with fleshly tongue express, and
the outward pain was now so removed from me that in a
manner I felt it not. I told the magistrates. You have
struck me as with roses. I pray God, (who hath made it
easy to me,) that it may not be laid to your charge." On
his recovery and return home, he observes, " the brethren
of our town and Providence, having taken pains to meet
me four miles in the woods, we there rejoiced together in
the Lord."
When Mr. Clark went to England, in 1652, Mr. Holmes
was invested with the pastoral office of the first Baptist
church in Newport, which he filled thirty years, till his
death in 1682, at the age of seventy-six. He left eight
children, and his descendants in 1790 were estimated at
five thousand. At the same ratio, the second centenary
of his sufferings, 1851, will find eighty thousand descend-
ants of this venerable patriarch spread abroad in the
United States.— v47/eM j Farmer ; Benedict, vol. i. 496, and
364—376.
HOLOCAUST, formed from holos, " whole," and Mo,
" I consume with fire ;" a kind of sacrifice, wherein the
whole burnt-offering was burnt or consumed by fire, as an
acknowledgment that God, the Creator, Preserver, and
Lord of aU, was worthy of all honor and worship, and as
a token of men's giving themselves entirely up to him.
It is called in Scripture a burnt-offering. Sacrifices of
this sort are often mentioned by the heathens as well as
Jews. They appear to have been in use long before the
institution of the other Jewish sacrifices by the law of
Moses, Job 1: 5. 42; 8. Gen. 22: 13. 8:20. On this .
account, the Jews, who would not allow the Gentiles
to ofler on their altar any other sacrifices peculiarly
enjoined by the law of Moses, admitted them by thg
Jewish piiests to offer holocausts, because these were a
sort of sacrifice prior to the law, and common to all na-
HOL
[ 629
HOM
lions. During their subjection to the Romans, it was no
uncommon thing for those Gentiles to offer sacrifices to
the God of Israel at Jerusalem. Holocausts were deemed
by the Jews the most excellent of all their sacrifices. (See
Sacrifice.) — Hend. Buck.
HOLY ; set apart from a common to a special use ; de-
voted to God. (See Holiness.)
HOLY ALLIANCE ; a misnomer used for — 1. A con-
federation formed by Heldo, vice-chancellor of the empe-
ror, in the year 1538, to counteract the privileges derived
by the Protestants from the league of Smalcald, and sup-
port and further the Catholic faith. It was acceded to by
the archbishops of Bletz and Salzburg, by William and
Lewis, dukes of Bavaria, George, duke of Saxony, and
Eric and Henry, dukes of Brunswick. It was to have
remained a profound secret, but the rumor of it soon got
abroad, and the Protestants were greatly alarmed ; it was
feared that their rights and liberties would be suppressed ;
and they concerted how to raise a suflicient force to defend
themselves. But the convention of Frankfort, in 1539,
allayed their fears, and effectually presented the evils that
had been apprehended.
2. Holy Alliance ; the league entered into by the em-
peror Alexander of Russia, the emperor Francis of Aus-
tria, and Frederic William king of Prussia, after the de-
feat of Napoleon in 1815, consisting of a declaration
signed by them personally, that, in accordance with the
precepts of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the principles of
justice, charity, and peace, should be the basis of the in-
ternal administration of their empires, and of their inter-
national relations ; and that the happiness and religious
welfare of their subjects should be the great objects they
should ever keep in view. It originated with Alexander,
■who, it is said, imagined that it would introduce a new
era of Christian government ; but whatever may have
been the original intentions, it soon became, in the hands
of the wily Metternich, an instrument for the support of
tyranny and oppression, and laid the foundation of the
congressional system of politics, which, while it professes
to have for its object the-support of hgilimacy, is a horrid
conspiracy against the rights and privileges of the sub-
ject.— Henri. Buck.
HOLY DAY; a day set apart by the church for the
commemoration of some saint, or some remarkable par-
ticular in the life of Christ. It has been a question agi-
tated by divines, whether it be proper to appoint or keep
any holy days, (the Sabbath excepted.) The advocates
for holy days suppose that they have a tendency to im-
press the minds of the people with a greater sense of re-
ligion ; that if the acquisitions and victories of men be
celebrated with the highest joy, ' how much more those
events which relate to the salvation of man, such as the
birth, death, and resurrection of Christ, &c. On the other
side it is observed, that if holy days had been necessary
under the present dispensation, Jesus Christ would have
ordained something respecting them, whereas he was si-
lent about them ; that it is bringing us again into that
bondage to ceremonial laws from which Christ freed us ;
that it is a tacit reflection on the head of the church in
not appointing them ; that such days, on the whole, are
more pernicious than useful to society, as they open a
iioor for indolence and profaneness ; yea, that Scripture
speaks against such days, Gal. 4: 9 — 11. Cave's Prim.
Christ. : Nelson's Fasts and Feasts ; Robinson's History and
Mijstenj of Good Friday, and Lectures on Non-conformity ; A
Country Vicar's Sermon on Christmas Day, 1753 ; Bron^n's
Nat. and Fev. Eel. p. 535 ; Neal's Hist, of the Puritans,
vol. ii. p. llfi, qu. — Hend. Buck.
HOLY GHOST; the third person in the Trinity, the
comforter of the church of Christ. (See Procession.)
I. The Holy Ghost is a real and distinct person in the
Godhead. 1. Personal powers of rational understanding
and will are ascribed to him, 1 Cor. 2: 10, 11. 12: 11.
Eph. 4: 3. 2. He is joined with the other two divine per-
sons, as the object of divine worship and fountain of bless,
ings, Matt. 28: 19. 2 Cor. 13: 14. 3. In the Greek, a
masculine article or epithet is joined to his name, Pneuma,
which is naturally of the neuter gender, John 14: 26.
15:26. 16: 13. Eph. 1: 13. 4. He appeared under the
emblem of a dove, and of cloven tongues of fire, Matt.
3. Acts 2. 5. Personal offices of an intercessor belong
to him, Rom. 8: 26. 6. He is represented as performing
a multitude of personal acts, — as teaching, speaking, wit-
nessing, &;c., Mark 13: 11. Acts 20: 23. Rom. 8: 15, 16.
1 Cor. 6: 19. Acts 15: 28. 16: 6, 7, &c. &c.
II. It is no less evident that the Holy Ghost is a divine
person, equal in power and glory with the Father and
Son. 1. Names proper only to the Most High God are
ascribed to him ; as Jehovali, Acts 28: 25, with Is. 6: 9,
and Hebrews 3: 7, 9, with Exod. 17: 7. Jer. 31: 31, 34.
Heb. 10: 15, 16. God, Acts 5: 3, 4. Lord, 2 Cor. 3: 17,
19. " The Lord, the Spirit." 2. Attributes proper only
to the Most High God are ascribed to him ; as omnis-
cience, 1 Cor. 2: 10, 11. Is. 40: 13, 14. Omnipresence,
Ps, 139: 7. Eph. 2: 17, 18. Rom. 8: 20, 27. Omnipo-
tence, Luke 1: 35. Eternity, Heb. 9: 14. 3. Divine
works are evidently ascribed to him, Gen. 2: 2. Job 20:
13. Ps. 32: 6. 104: 30. 4. Worship, proper only to God.
is required and ascribed to him. Is. 0: 3. Acts 28: 25.
Rom. 9: 1. Rev. 1: 4. 2 Cor. 13: 14. Matt. 28: 19.
III. The agency or work of the Holy Ghost is divided
by some into extraordinary and ordinary. The formei
by immediate inspiration, making men prophets ; the lat-
ter by his regenerating and sanctifying influences, making
men saints. It is only the latter which is now to be ex-
pected. This is more particularly displayed in — 1. Con-
viction of sin, John 16: 8, 9. 2. Conversion, 1 Cor. 12.
2: 10, 12. Eph. 1: 17, IS. John 3: 5, 6. 3. Sancttfication ,
2 Thess. 2: 13. 1 Cor. 6: 11. Rom. 15: 16. 4. Consola-
tion, John 14: 16, 26. 5. Direction, John 14: 17. Rom.
8: 14. 6. Confirmation, Rom. 8: 16, 26. 1 John 2: 24.
Eph. 1: 13, 14.
As to the gift of the Holy Spirit, though bestowed in an-
swer to our prayers, it is not expected. 1. To inform us im-
mediately, as by a whisper, when either awake or asleep,
that we are the children of God ; or in any other way
than by enabling us to e.xercise repentance and faith and
love to God and our neighbor. 2. We are not to suppose
that he reveals any thing contrary to the written word,
or more than is contained in it, or through any other me-
dium. 3. We are not so led by, or operated upon by the
Spirh, as to neglect the means of grace. 4. The Holy
Spirit is not promised nor given to render us infallible.
5. Nor is the Holy Spirit given in order that we may do
any thing, which was not before our duty. See Trinity ;
and Scott's Four Sermons on Repentance, the Evil of Sm,
Love to God, and the Promise of the Holy Spirit, pp. 86 —
89 ; Honker's Sermons on the Holy Ghost ; Pearson on the
Creed, eighth article; Dr. Oiren on the Spirit; Hurrions
Sixteen Sermons on the Spirit ; Wardlaw's Lectures ; He-
ber's Bampton Lectures ; Hinton on the Holy Spirit ; Robert
Hall on the Work of the Spirit ; Wardlam on Prayer. —
Watson ; Jones : Hend. Buck.
HOLY WATER : in the Greek and Roman Catholic
churches, water which has been consecrated by prayer,
exorcism, and other ceremonies, for the purpose of sprink-
ling the faithful, and things used in the church. It is
placed, in vases, at the doors of churches, and also \%ithiii
them at certain places, from which the CathoUcs sprinkle
themselves before prayer. Holy water is also often found
in their chambers, and is used before prayer, particularly
before going to bed. The RoHianists consider it an ef-
fectual exorcism. In Rome, animals are also sprinkled,
on a certain feast, with holy water, to keep them healthy
and thriving. The same thing is done at Moscow, where
there is a particular church, to which the horses are an-
nually driven on purpose. It does not appear that vessels
were placed at the doors of churches, for washing the
hands, till the fourth century, or that the water was bless-
ed or consecrated till the sixth. — Hend. Buck.
HOMER, the same as the Con, a Hebrew measure of
ten baths, or six hundred and five pints, our measure,
Isa. 5: 10. It is about seventy-six gallons. (See Cor.)
HOMILETICS ; the technical term for the art of
preaching ; or rather of composing sermons. (See Ser-
mons.) Dr. Porter's Lectures on Homiletics.
HOMILY, (Gr. homilia ;) a sermon or discourse upon
some point of religion delivered in a plain manner, so as to
be easily understood by tlie common people. The Greek,
says M . Fleury, signifies a familiar discourse, like the Latin
HON
icmo ; and discourses delivered in the church took these de-
nominations, to intimate that they were not harangues, or
matters of ostentation and flourish, like those of profane
orators, but familiar and useful discourses, as of a master
to his disciples, or a father to his children. All the homilies
of the Greek and Latin fathers are composed by bishops.
The practice of compiling homilies which were to be
committed to memory, and recited by ignorantor indolent
priests, commenced towards the close of the eighth cen-
tury ; when Charlemagne ordered Paul the deacon, and
Alcuin, to form homilies or discourses upon the gospols
and epistles from the ancient doctors of the church. This
gave rise to that famous collection entitled the " Homilia-
rium of Charlemagne ;" and which, being follow-ed as a
model by many productions of the same kind, composed
by private persons, from a principle of pious zeal, con-
tributed much (says IMosheim) to nourish the indolence
and to perpetuate the ignorance of a worthless clergy.
There are still extant several fine homilies composed by
the ancient fathers, particularly St. Chrysostom and St.
Gregory. The •' Clementine HomiUes" are forgeries.
"Homilies of the church of England," are those which
were composed at the Reformation, to be read in churches,
in order to supply the defect of sermons. See the quarto
edition of the HomiUes, with notes, by a divine of the
church of England. — Hend. Buck.
HOMOIOUSIANS ; a branch of the high Arians, who
maintained that the nature of the Son, though not the
same, was very similar to that of the Father. (See Ari-
ans.)— Williams.
HOMOOUSIANS, or Homoitsiasts, was, on the other
hand, a name applied to the Athanasians, who held the
Son to be hommtisias, or consubstantial, with the Father.
(See Athanasians.) — Williams.
HONESTY, is that principle which makes a person
prefer his promise or duty to his passion or interest. (See
Justice.)— Hewrf. BucU.
HONEY, was formerly very plentiful in Palestine ;
and hence frequent expressions of Scripture, which import
that that country was a land flowing with milk and honey.
Moses says, that the Lord brought his people into a land
whose rocks drop oil, and whose stones produce honey,
Deut. 32: 13. See also Psal. 81; 16. Blodern travellers
observe, that it is still very common there, arid that the
inhabitants mix it in all their sauces. Forskal says, the
caravans of Blecca bring honey from Arabia to Cairo ;
and often in the woods in Arabia has he seen honey flow-
ing. It would seem that this flowing honey is bee-honey,
which may illustrate the story of Jonathan, 1 Sam. 1-1:
27. John the Baptist, too, fed on wild honey, Matt. 3: 4.
Tliere is, however, a vegetable honey that is very plen-
tiful in the East. Burckhardt, speaking of the produc-
tions of the Ghor, or valley of the Jordan, says, one of
the most interesting productions of this place is the Bey-
rouk honey, or as the Arabs call it, Assal Eeyrouk. It
was described to him as a juice dropping from the leaves
and twigs of a tree called gharrab, of the size of an olive
tree, with leaves like those of the poplar, but somewhat
broader. The honey collects upon the leaves like dew,
and is gathered from them, or from the ground under the
tree, which is often found completely covered with it. It
is very sweet when fresh, but turns sour after being kept
for two days. The Arabs eat it with butter ; they also
put it into' their gruel, and use it in rubbing their water-
skins, for the purpose of excluding the air. Travels in
Syria, p. 392.
Children were fed with milk, cream, and honey, (Isa.
7: 15.) which was the sweetest substance in use before
sugar was manufactured. The following extracts will
give a diflerent idea of this mixture from that generally
entertained ; — D'Arvieux, (p. 20S.) speaking of the Arabs,
says, " One of their chief breakfasts is cream, or fresh but-
ter, MIXED IN A MESS OF HONEY : thcse^do not seem to suit
very well together, but experience teaches that this is no
bad mixture, nor disagreeable in its taste, if one is ever
so little accustomed to it." " Honey and milk are under
thy tongue," says the spouse. Cant. 4; 11. Perhaps this
mixture was not merely a refreshment, but an elegant re-
freshment ; which heightens the inference from the pre-
dictions of Isaiah, and the description of Zophar, who
630 J HOP
speak of its abundance ; and it increases the respect paid
to David, by his faithful and loyal subjects at Mahanaim.
—Calmct.
HONOR ; a testimony of esteem or submission, express-
ed by words and an exterior behavior, by which we make
known the veneration and respect we entertain for any
one, on account of his dignity or merit. The word is also
used in general for the esteem due to virtue, glory, repu-
tation, and probity ; as also, for an exactness in perform-
ing whatever we have promised ; and in this last sense
we use the term, a man of honor. It is also applied to two
difi'erent kinds of virtue ; bravery ill men, and chastity in
women. In every situation of life, religion only forms
the true honor and happiness of man. " It cannot," as
one observes, " arise from riches, dignity of rank or office,
nor from what are often called splendid actions of heroes,
or civil accomplishments ; these may be found among
men of no real integrity, and may create considerable
fame ; but a distinction must be made between fame and .
true honor. The former is a loud and noisy applause ;
the latter is a mqje silent and internal homage. Fame
floats on the breath of the multitude ; honor rests on the
judgment of the thinking. In order, then, to discern
where true honor lies, we must not look to any adventi-
tious circumstance, not to any single sparkling quality,
but to the whole of what forms a man ; in a word, we
must look to the soul. It will discover itself by a mind
superior to fear, to selfish interest, and corruption ; by an
ardent love to the Supreme Being, and by a principle of
uniform rectitude. It will make us neither afraid nor
ashamed to discharge our duty, as it relates both to God
and man. It will influence us to be magnanimous with-
out being proud ; humble without being mean ; just with-
out being harsh ; simple in our manners, but manly in
our feelings. This honor, thus formed by rehgion, or the
love of God, is more independent, and more complete,
than what can be acquired by any other means. It is
productive of higher felicity, and will be commensurate
with eternity itself; while that honor, so called, which
arises from any other principle, will resemble the feeble
and twinkling flame of a taper, which is often clouded by
the smoke it sends forth, but is always wasting, and soon
dies totally away." Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser. 4; Blair s
Sermons, vol. iii. ser. 1 ; Walts s Servwns, ser. 30, vol. ii. ;
Eyiond's Cont., vol. i. p. 343 ; Jortins Sermons, vol. iii.
ser. 6 ; Thatcher's Sermons.— Hend. Buck.
HOODS ; another name for turbans, which see, Isa.
HOOKER, (Richard,) an eminent divine, of the church
of England, was born, in 1553, at Heavilree, near Exeter ;
and, under ihe patronage of bishop Jewel, was educated
at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, where he was distin-
guished for his piety and exemplary conduct. An unhap-
py marriage, which he contracted before he was thirty,
with a scold who had neither beauty, money, nor man-
ners, lost him his college fellowship, and was a fertile
source of annoyance to him. In 1585, he was made mas-
ter of the Temple ; but, weary of disputes with the after-
noon lecturer, a violent Presbyterian, and longing lor ru-
ral retirement, he relinquished this preferment, and ob-
tained the rectory of Bishop's Bourne, in Kent, at which
he resided till his decease, in 1600. His great work is
the treatise on Ecclesiastical Polity ; of which pope Cle-
ment VIII. said, " there are in it such seeds of eternity as
will continue till the last fire shall devour all learning. —
Davenport. ,
HOOPER, (John,) an English bishop and martyr, was
a native of Somersetshire, born in 1495 ; was educated at
Merton college, Oxford ; and, having embraced the re-
formed faith, was made bishop of Gloucester and Worces-
ter by Edward Vl. In the reign of the sanguinary Jlary
he was brought to the stake. He firmly relused the ol-
fered pardon, and though, the wood being green, he suf-
fered for nearly an hour the severest torments, his lower
parts being consumed, and one of his hands dropping off
before he expired, he manifested unshaken fortittide. be
died in 1555. Hooper wrote some sermons and contro-
versial pieces.— SacCHport. -.u ,u-
HOPE is the desire of some good, attended with llie
possibility, at least, of obtaining it ; and is enUvened with
HOP
[631 ]
HOP
joy, greater or less, according to the probability there is of
possessing the object of our hope. Scarce any passion
seems to be more natural to man than hope, and, consi-
dering the many troubles he is encompassed \idth, none is
more necessary ; for life, void of all hope, would be a
heavy and spiritless thing, very little desirable, perhaps
hardly to be borne ; whereas hope infuses strength into
the mind, and, by so doing, lessens the burdens of life.
If our condition be not the best in the world, yet we hope
it wdl be better, and this helps us to support it with pa-
tience. The hope of the Christian is an expectation of all
necessary good Ijoth in time and eternity, founded on the
promises, relations, and perfections of God, and on the
offices, righteousness, and intercession of Christ. It is a
compound of desire, expectation, patience, and joy, Rom.
S: 24. 25. It may be considered, 1. As pure, (1 John 3:
2, 3.) as it is resident in that heart which is cleansed from
sin. 2. As good, (2 Thess. 2. 16, in distinction from the
hope of the hypocrite) as deriving its origin from God,
and centering in him. 3. It is called Hvebj, (1 Pet. 1: 3.)
as it proceeds from spiritual life, and renders one active
and lively in good works. 4. It is courageous, (Rom. 5:
5. 1 Thess. 5: 8.) because it excites fortitude in all the
troubles of life, and yields support in the hour of death,
Prov. 14: 32. 5. Sure, (Heb. fi: 19. J because it will not
disappoint us, and is fixed on a sure foundation. 6. Joy-
ful, (Rom. 5: 2.) as it produces the greatest felicity in the
anticipation of complete deliverance from all evil. Grove's
Moral Phil., vol. i. p. 381 ; GiWs Body of Die. p. 82. vol.
iii. ; No. 471, Sped. ; Jay's Sermons, vol. ii. ser. 2. — Herid.
Buck.
HOPHNI, and PHINEHAS, sons of EU, the high-
priest, were sons of Belial ; that is, wicked and dissolute
persons, 1 Sam. 2; 12. They knew not the Lord, nor per-
formed the functions of their ministry, as they ought, but
disgraced their office by the most odious rapacity and im-
purity. The Lord threatened them and their father by
the young prophet Samuel, (1 Sam. 3: 11, 12.) and soon
afterwards Hophni and Phinehas were slain in battle
by the Philistines, together with thirty thousand men of
Israel. (See Eli.) — Calmet.
HOPHRAH. (See Apkies.)
HOPKINS, (EzEKiEL, D. D.,) bishop of Londonderry,
the son of an English clergyman, of Standford, in Devon-
shire, was born in 1663. His father got him admitted
into the choir of Magdalen college, Oxford, of which soci-
ety he afterwards became chaplain. Being presented to
the rectory of St. IMarj' Woolnoth, in the city of London,
the bishop of that diocess made some difficulty of insti-
tuting him, on account of his opinions, which leaned to-
wards Preshyterianism. This circumstance, and the
breaking out of the plague, induced him to remove to Ex-
eter ; where, forming an acquaintance with the family of
lord Robartes, afterwards earl of Truro, he married Ara-
minta, a daughter of that nobleman ; and, on the appoint-
ment of his father-in-law to the lord lieutenancy of Ire-
land, accompanied him to his seat of government. Before
his patron's recall, he had already obtained the deanery
of Raphoe ; and, in 1671, the new lord lieutenant, the earl
of Berkley, raised him, on the strong jiersonal recommen-
dation of his predecessor, to the bishopric of the same
diocess. In this see he continued ten years, when he was
translated to that of Londonderry. On the city's being
besieged in 1688, he came to London, and the following
year was made minister of St. Mary, Aldermanbury, and
continued so till his death, in June, 1690. Three editions
of his works, among which are " Expositions of the Deca-
logue and the Lord's Prayer," besides Sermons, &c.
have been printed in folio, quarto, and octavo.
He was a pious and learned prelate, of excellent doctrinal
sentiments, richly impregnated with evangelical truth ;
and his elaborate •' Discourse on the Vanity of the World"
should be read by every one who woukl form a just esti-
mate of human life. An edition of his works was pub-
lished a few years ago, in four volumes, octavo, to which
was prefixed" a Memoir, by the Bev. Josiah Pratt. — Jones'
Chris. Biog.
HOPKINSIANS, so called from the Rev. Samuel Hop-
kins, D. D., an American di-vine, who, in his sermons and
tracts, has made several additions to tlie sentiments first ad-
vanced by the celebrated Jonathan Edwards, late president
of New Jersey college. Dr. Hopkins was born at Water-
bury, in Connecticut, 172], and graduated at Yale college,
in 1741. Soon after, he engaged in theological studies,
at Northampton, Massachusetts, under the superintend-
ence of Jonathan Edwards, and, in 1743, was ordained at
Housatonic, now Great Barrjngton, Massachusetts, where
he continued till he removed to Newport, Rhode Island,
in consequence of the diminution of his congregation, and
his want of support. When he had resided some time in
this place, the people became dissatisfied with his senti-
ments, and resolved, at a meeting, to intimate to him
their disinclination to his continuance among them. On
the ensuing Sabbath, he preached his farewell discourse,
which was so interesting and impressive, that they be
sought him to remain, which he did till his death, in 1803.
He was a pious and zealous man, of considerable talents,
and almost incredible powers of application. He is said
to have been sometimes engaged during eighteen hours in
his studies. His doctrinal views are contained in his
"System of Divinity," published in a second edition at
Boston, in 1811, in two vols. 8vo.
The following is a summary of the distinguishing ten-
els of the Hopkinsians, together with a few of the reasons
they bring forward in support of their sentiments.
I. That all true virtue, or real holiness, consists in dis-
interested benevolence. The object of benevolence is uni-
versal being, including God, and all intelligent creatures.
It wishes and seeks the good of every individual, so far
as is consistent with the greatest good of the whole, which
is comprised in the gloiy of God and the perfwction and
happiness of his kingdom. The law of God is the stand-
ard of all moral rectitude or holiness. This is reduced
into love to God, and our neighbor as ourselves ; and
universal good-will comprehends all the love to God, our
neighbor, and ourselves, required in the divine law, and
therefore must be the whole of holy obedience. Let any
serious person think what are lli.' particular branches of
true piety ; when he has viewed each one by itself, he
will find that disinterested frienlly aflection is its distin-
guishing characteristic. For instance, all the holiness in
pious fear, which distinguishes it from the fear of the
wicked, consists in love. Again ; holy gratitude is no-
thing but good-'n'ill to God and our neighbor, in which
we ourselves are included ; and correspondent affection,
excited by a view of the good-will and kindness of God.
Universal good-mil also implies the whole of the duty we
owe to our neighbor, for justice, truth, and faithfulness, are
comprised in universal benevolence ; so are temperance
and chastity. For an undue indulgence of our appetites
and passions is contrary to benevolence, as tending to hurt
ourselves or others ; and so opposite to the general good,
and the divine command, in which all the crime of such ir.-
dulgence consists. In short, all virtue is nothing but bene-
volence acted out in its proper nature and perfection ; or
love to God and our neighbor, made perfect in all its gen-
uine exercises and expressions.
II. That all sin consists in selfishness. By this is meant
an interested, selfish affection, by which a person sets
himself up as supreme, and the only object of regard :
and nothing is good or lovely in his view, unless suited to
promote his own private interest. This self-love is, in its
whole nature, and every degree of it, enmity against God ;
it is not subject to the law of God, and is the only affec-
tion that can oppose it. It is the foundation of all spiritual
blindness, and therefore the source of all the open idolatry
in the heathen world, and false religion under the fight of
the gospel ; all this is agreeable to that selfdove which
opposes God's true character. Under the influence of this
principle, men depart from truth ; it being itself the great-
est practical lie in nature, as it sets up that which is
comparatively nothing above universal existence. Self-
love is the source of all profaneness and impiety in the
world, and of all pride and ambition among men, which
is nothing but selfishness, acted out in this particular way.
This is the foundation of all covetousness and sensuaUly,
as it blinds people's eyes, contracts their hearts, and sinks
them down, so that they look upon earthly enjoyments as
the greatest good. This is the source of all falsehood, in-
justice, and oppression, as it excites mankind by undue
HOP
[ 632 ]
HOR
uiethods to invade the property of others. Self-love pro-
duces all the violent passions — envy, wrath, clamor, and
evil speaking : and every thing contrary to the divine law
is briefly comprehended in this fruitful source of all ini-
quity— supreme self-love.
III. That there are no promises of regenerating grace
made to the doings of the unregenerate. For as far as
men act from self-love, they act from a bad end ; for those
who have n® true love to God, really do no duty when
they attend on the externals of religion. And as the un-
regenerate act from a selfish principle, they do nothing
M'hich is commanded : their impenitent doings are wholly
opposed to repentance and conversion ; therefore not im-
plied in the command to repent, kc. : so far from this,
they are altogether disobedient to the command. Hence
it appears that there are no promises of salvation to the
doings of the unregenerate.
IV. That the impotency of sinners, with respect to be-
li-ving in Christ, is not natural, but moral; for it is a
plain dictate of common sense, that natural impossibility
excludes all blame. But an unwilling mind is universally
considered as a crime, and not as an excuse, and is the
very thingwherein our wickedness consists. That the im-
potence of the sinner is owing to a disaffection of heart, is
evident from the promises of the gospel. When any ob-
ject of good is proposed and promised to us upon asking,
it clearly evinces that there can be no impotence in us
with respect to obtaining it, beside the disapprobation of
the will ; and that inability, which consists in disinclina-
tion, never renders any thing improperly the subject of
precept or command.
V. That, in order to faith in Christ, a sinner must ap-
prove in his heart of the divine conduct, even though God
should cast him off forever ; which, however, neither im-
plies love of misery, nor hatred of happiness. For if the
law is good, death is due to those who have broken it.
The Judge of all the earth cannot but do right. It would
bring everlasting reproach upon his government to spare
us, considered merely as in ourselves. When this is felt
in our hearts, and not till then, we shall be prepared to
look to the free grace of God. through the redemption
which is in Christ, and to exercise faith in his blood, who
is set forth to be a propitiation to declare God's righteous-
ness, that he might be just, and yet be the justifier of him
who believeth in Jesus.
VI. That the infinitely wise and holy God has exerted
his omnipotent power in such a manner as he purposed
should be followed with the existence and entrance of
moral evil into the system. For it must be admitted on
all hands, that God has a perfect knowledge, foresight,
and view of all possible existences and events. If that
ijystem and scene of operation, in which moral evil should
never have existed, was actually preferred in the divine
mind, certainly the Deity is infinitely disappointed in the
issue of his own operations. Nothing can be more dis-
honorable to God than to imagine that the system which
is actually formed by the divine hand, and which was
made for his pleasure and glory, is yet not the fruit of
wise contrivance and design.
VII. That the introduction of sin is, upon the whole,
for the general good. For the wisdom and power of the
Deity are displayed in carrying on designs of the greatest
good ; and the existence of moral evil has undoubtedly
occasioned a more full, perfect, and' glorious discovery of
•the infinite perfections of the divine nature than could
otherwise have been made to the view of creatures. If
the extensive manifestation of the pure and holy nature
of God, and his infinite aversion to sin, and all his inhe-
rent perfections, in their genuine fruits and effects, is
either itself the greatest good, or necessarily contains it,
it must necessarily follow that the introduction of sin is
for the greatest good.
VIII. That repentance is before faith in Christ. By
this is not intended, that repentance is before a specula-
tive belief of the being and perfections of God, and of the
person and character of Christ ; but only that true repen-
tance is previous to a saving faith in Christ, in which the
believer is united to Christ, and entitled to the benefits of
his mediation and atonement. That rep^mtance is before
feith in this sense, appears from several considerations.
1. As repentance and faith respect different objects, so
they are distinct exercises of the heart ; and therefore one
not only may, but must be prior to the other. 2. There
may be genuine repentance of sin withoot faith in Christ,
but there cannot be true faith in Christ without repentance
of sin ; and since repentance is necessary in order to faith
in Christ, it must necessarily be prior to faith in Christ.
3. John the Baptist, Christ and his apostles, taught that
repentance is before faith. John cried, " Repent, for the
kingdom of heaven is at hand ;" intimating, that true re-
pentance was necessary in order to embrace the gospel of
the kingdoin. Christ commanded, " Repent ye, and be-
lieve the gospel." And Paul preached " repentance to-
ward God, and faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ."
IX. That though men became sinners by Adam, accord-
ing to a divine constitution, yet they have, and are
accountable for no sins but personal ; for, 1. Adam's act,
in eating the forbidden fruit, was not the act of his pos-
terity ; therefore they did not sin at the same time he did.
2. The sinfulness of that act could not be transferred to
them aftem'ards, because the sinfulness of an act can no
more be transferred from one person to another than an
act itself 3. Therefore Adam's act, in eating the forbid-
den fruit, was not the cause, but only the occasion of his
posterity's being sinners. God was pleased to make a
constitution, that, if Adam remained holy through his
state of trial, his posterity should in consequence be holy
also : but if he sinned, his posterity should in consequence
be sinners likewise. Adam sinned, and now God brings
his posterity into the world sinners. Btj Adam's sin we
are become sinners, not for it ; his sin being only the
occasion, not the cause of our committing sins.
X. That though believers are justified through Christ's
righteousness, yet his righteousness is not transferred to
them. For, 1. Personal righteousness can no more be
transferred from one person to another, than personal sin.
2. If Christ's personal righteousness were transferred to
beUevers, they would be as perfectly holy as Christ ; and
so stand in no need of forgiveness. 3. But believers are
not conscious of having Christ's personal righteousness,
but feel and bewail much indwelling sin and corruption.
4. The Scripture represents behevers as receiving only
the benefits of Christ's righteousness in justification, or
their being pardoned and accepted for Christ's righteous-
ness' sake, and this is the proper Scripture notion of im-
putation. Jonathan's righteousness was imputed to Me-
phibosheth when David showed kindness to him for his
father Jonathan's sake.
The Hopkinsians warmly contend for the doctrine of
the divine decrees, that of particular election, total depra-
vity, the special influences of the Spirit of God in regene-
ration, justification by faith alone, the final perseverance
of the saints, and the consistency between entire freedom
and absolute dependence ; and therefore claim it as their
just due, since the world will make distinctions, to be
called Hopkinsian Calvinists. Adam's View of Religions ;
Hopkins on Holiness ; Edwards on the Will, p. 234, 282 ;
Edmards an Virtue ; West's Essay on Moral Agency, p. 170,
181 ; Spring's Nature of Duty, 23 : Moral Disquisitions, p.
40.—Hend. Buck.
HOR ; a mountain in Arabia Petrsea, on the confines
of Idumea, and probably the same with mount Seir. One
particular mountain of this tract, however, seems to be
particularly intended in Sciipture. Here Aaron died and
was buried, in the fortieth year after the departure from
Egypt, Deut. 33: 50. Num. 20; 26. 27: 13. A small
building is shown in mount Hor, which is said to be the
tomb of Aaron. It is a white building, surmounted by a
cupola, and liaving a descent of several steps into a cham-
ber excavated in a rock. — Calmet.
HORITES ; an ancient people, who dwelt in the moun-
tains of Seir, Gen. 14: 6. They had princes, and were
powerful before Esau conquered their country. The Ho-
rites and the Edomites seem afterwards to have composed
but one people, Deut. 2: 1. 23: 2. Judg. 5: 4, — Calmet.
HORN ; an eminence or angle, a corner or rising, Isa.
5: 1. By horns of the altar of burnt-offerings, many un-
derstand the angles of that altar ; but there were also
horns or eminences at these angles, Exod. 27, 2. 30: 2.
(See Altak.) As the ancients frequently used horns to
HOR
[ 633 ]
HOR
hold liqaors, vessels containing oil, and perfumes, are
often so called, whether made of horn or not, 1 Sam. 16:
1. 1 Kings 1: 39.
" Horns " also signify, by a natural metaphor, rays of
light ; the face of Moses was encompassed with horns,
that is, it was radiant, or, as it were, horns of light issued
from it. This illustrates the true sense of Heb. 3: 4.
The principal defence and strength of many animals
are in their horns ; and hence the horn is often a symbol
of power. The Lord exalted the horn of David, and the
horn of his people ; he breakeih the horn of the ungodly ;
he cutteth off the horn of Moab ; be cutteth off, in his
fierce anger, all the horn of Israel. He promises to make
the horn of Israel to bud forth ; to re-establish its honor,
and restore its vigor. Kingdoms and great powers are
also described by the symbol of horns, 1 Mac. 7: 46. In
Dan. 7, 8, horns represent the power of the Persians, of
the Greeks, of Syria, and of Egypt. The prophet de-
scribes these animals as having many horns, one of which
grew from another. In 1 Mac. 9: 1, the wings of an army
are called its horns. — Calmet.
HORNE, (George, D. D.,) a pious and learned pre-
late, was born, in 1730, at Otham, in Kent, and was edu-
cated at Maidstone grammar-school, and at University
college, Oxford. He took orders in 1753, and his grace-
ful elocution and excellent style rendered him a popular
preacher. He was successively president of Magdalen
college, chaplain to the king, vice-chancellor of the uni-
versity, and dean of Canterbury. In 1790, he was raised
to the see of Norwich, which, however, he held less than
two years : he dying in January, 1792. In early life he
was a strenuous Hutchinsonian, and attacked the system
of Newton with a violence which he subsequently regret-
ted. Of his numerous works the principal is, a Commen-
tary on the Book of Psalms, on the composition of which
he bestowed nearly twenty years.
He was a prelate of no inconsiderable learning, and uni-
versally respected for his excellent qualities as a man and
a Christian. His writings, which are invariably charac-
terized by their pious and evangelical tendency, have been
held in high repute, and as deservedly esteemed by the
friends of piety and virtue. They were published in six
volumes, octavo, London, 1795, with a life of the author
prefixed, by the Rev. W. Jones, of Nayland. Aikin's
Gen. Biosi- — Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
HORNET; a kind of large wasp, which has a power-
ful sting. The Lord drove out the Canaanites before
Israel by means of this insect, Deut. 7; 20. Josh. 24: 12.
(See Fly.) For an illustration of the manner in which
this might be «ffected, it should be remarked, that the
Israelites, in the sandy wilderness, would escape this crea-
ture.— Calmet.
HORROR ; a passion excited by an object which
:auses a high degree of fear and detestation. It is a com-
pound of wonder and fear. Sometimes it has a mixture
of pleasure, from which, if predommant, it is denominat-
ed a pleasing horror. Such a horror seizes us at the view
of vast and hanging precipices, a tempestuous ocean, or
wild and solitary places. This passion is the original of
superstition, as a wise and well-tempered awe is of re-
ligion. Horror and terror seem almost to be synony-
mous ; but the former refers more to what disgusts ; the
Iziier to that which alarms us. — Hend. Buck.
HORROX, (Jeremiah,) a young and religious astrono-
mer, was bom, about 1619, at Toxteth, near Liverpool;
was educated at Emanuel college, Cambridge ; and died
prematurely, to the great loss of science, in 1640-1, aged
twenty-one. Horrox was the first who observed the
transit of Venus over the solar disk ; and he formed a
theory of lunar motion, which Newton did not disdain to
adopt. He is the author of Venus in Sole visu ; and of
astronomical papers, which were published by Dr. WaUis
under the title of Opera Posthuma. — Davenport.
HORSE, (mum.) Horses were very rare among the
Hebrews in the early ages. The iialriarchs had none ;
and after the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, God
expressly forbade their ruler to procure them : — " He
shall not multiply horses to himself, nor cause the people
to return to Egj'pt, to the end that he should multiply
horses ; forasmuch as the Lord hath said, Ye shall hence-
forth return no more that way," Deut. 17: 16. As horses
appear to have been generally furnished by Egypt, God
prohibits these, 1. Lest there should be such commerce
with Egypt as might lead to idolatry. 2. Lest the people
might depend on a well-appointed cavalr)', as a means of
security, and so cease from trusting in the promised aid
and protection of Jehovah. 3. That they might not be
tempted to extend their dominion by means of cavalry,
and so get scattered among the surrounding idolatrous
nations, and thus cease, in process of time, to be that dis-
tinct and separate people which God intended they should
be, and without which the prophecies relative to the Mes-
siah could not be known to have their due and full ac-
complishment.
In the time of the judges we find horses and war cha-
riots among the Canaanites, but still the Israelites had
none ; and hence they were generally too timid to venture
down into the plains, confining their conquests to the
mountainous parts of the country. David's enemies
brought against him a strong force of cavalry into the
field : and in the book of Psalms the horse commonly
appears onl)' on the side of the enemies of the people of
God, 2 Sam. 8: 4. Solomon, having married a daughter
of Pharaoh, procured a breed of horses from Eg)-pt ; and
so greatly did he multiply them, that he had four hundred
stables, forty thousand stalls, and twelve thousand horse-
men, 1 Kings 4: 20. 2 Chron. 9: 25. It seems that the
Egj'ptian horses were in high repute, and were much
used in war. When the Israelites were disposed to place
too implicit confidence in the assistance of cavalry, the
prophet remonstrated in these terms : — " The Egyptians
are men, and not God ; and their horses are flesh, not
spirit," Isaiah 31: 3.
Josiah took away the horses which the kings of Judah,
his predecessors, had consecrated to the sun, 2 Kings 23:
11. This luminarj' was worshipped over all the East,
and was represented as riding in a chariot, drawn by the
most beautiful and swiftest horses in t^e world, and per-
forming ever}' day his journey from cast to west, to en-
lighten the earth. In Persia, and among the IMassagetre,
horses were sacrificed to the sun, (Herodot. lib. i. cap.
55. Ovid. Fast. lib. viii. Xenoph. Cyropoed. lib. viii.)
It is thought that those which Josiah removed from the
court of the temple, were appointed for a similar purpose.
— Watson : Cahnel.
HORSE-LEECH, (ohtkfh ,) from a root which signi-
fies to adhere, stick close, or hang fast, Prov. 30: 15. A sort
of worm that lives in the water, of a black or brown color,
which fattens upon the flesh, and does not quit it till it is
entirely full of blood. Solomon says, " The horse-leech
hath two daughters, Give, give." This is so apt an cm
blem of an insatiable rapacity and avarice, that it has
been generally used by diflTerent writers to express it.
Thus Plautus makes one say, speaking of the determina-
tion to get money, " I will turn myself into a horse-leech,
and suck out their blood ;" and Cicero, in one of his let-
ters to Atticus, calls the common people of Rome horse-
leeches of the treasury. Solomon. ha\ing mentioned
those that devoured the property of the poor as the worst
of all the generations which he had specified, proceeds to
state the insatiable cupidity with which they prosecuted
their schemes of rapine and plunder. As the horseleech
had two daughters, cruehv and thirst of blood, which can-
not be satisfied, so the oppressor of the poor has two dis-
positions, rapacity and avarice, which never say they
HO S
[634]
HOS
have enough, hut continually demand additional gratifi-
cations.— Calmet.
HORSLEY, (Samuel, D. D.,) a celebrated prelate and
mathematician, was bom in 1733 ; was educated at
Westminster, and Trinity college, Cambridge ; and be-
came curate to his father. After having held the livings
of Albury, Newington, Thorley, and South Weald, the
archdeaconry of St. Alban's. and prebends of St. Paul's
and of Gloucester, he was raised, in 1788, to the see of
St. David's, whence, in 1793, he was removed to Roches-
ter, and, in 1802, to St. Asaph. For a part of this prefer-
ment he was indebted lo his controversy with Dr. Priestly,
on the subject of the divmity of Christ ; his tracts relating
to which he collected and published in an 8vo volume.
While he was thus rising in the church, he was not neg-
lectful of science. In 1769, he printed an edition of Apol-
lonius, and in 1775, an edition of Newton's worlis, in five
4to volumes. From 1773 till the election of Sir Joseph
Banlcs, he was secretary of the Koyal society ; when,
deeming the dignity of the society lessened by the choice
of a man who was ignorant of the higher sciences, he re-
signed his office. Bishop Horsley died at Brighton, in
1800. He was a very eloquent preacher, and perform-
ed all his episcopal duties in an admirable manner.
Besides the works already mentioned, he produced many
others, biblical, theological, classical, and scientific.
He was the author of " Critical Disquisitions on Ihe
Eighteenth Chapter of Isaiah," 4to ; " Hosea, a new
Translation, with Notes," 4lo ; a " Translation of the
Psalms," 2 vols.; " EibUcal Criticisms," 4 vols. 6vo; Ser-
mons ; Charges ; elementary Treatises on the Mathematics,
on the Prosodies of the Greek and Latin Languages ; and
papers in the Philosophical Transactions. Nkhol's Lit.
Atiec.
Dr. Horsley has been, not inaptly, described as the last
of the race of epi.scopal giants of the Warburtonian school.
He was a man of an original and powerful mind, of very
extensive learning, and profoundly versed in the article
of ecclesiastical liistory, of which he gave ample evidence
in his controversy with Dr. Priestly, while archdeacon of
St. Alban's. Even Gibbon says, "his spear pierced the So-
cinian's shield. His sermons and critical disquisitions fre-
quently displaj' a rich fund of theological acumen, and of
successful illustration of the sacred writings ; but his tem-
per did not exhibit much of the meekness and gentleness
of his divine Master; and he was too fond ofmeddUng in po-
litical discussions, for which he did not escape the censure
of Mr. Pitt. Jones' Chris. Biog. — Davenport ; Hend. Buck.
HOSAI ; a prophet or seer, in the time of Manasseh,
king of Judah, 2 Chron. 33: 19, margin. The Jews are
of opinion, that Hosai and Isaiah are the same person ;
the LSX take Hosai in a general sense for prophets and
seers: the Syriac calls him Hanan ; the Arabic Saphan.
— Cahnet. -•
HOSANNA ; "Save, I beseech thee," or; "Give sal-
vation ;" a well-known Jewish form of blessing, Matt. 21:
9, l.l. Mark 11: 9, 10. John 12: 13.— TfodoH.
HOSEA ; son of Beeri. the first of the minor prophets.
He is generally considered as a native and inhabitant of
the kingdom of Israel, and is supposed to have begTin to
prophecy about B. C. 800. He exercised his ofiice sixty
years ; but it is not known at what periods his different
prophecies now remaining were delivered. Most of them
are directed against the people of Israel, whom he re-
proves and threatens f.>r their idolatry and wickedness,
and exhorts to repentance, with the greatest earnestness,
as the only means of averting the evils impending over
their country. The principal predictions contained in this
book, are the captivity and dispersion of the kingdom of
Israel; the deliverance of Judah from Sennacherib; the
present state of tire Jews; their future restoration,' and
imion with the Gentiles in the kingdom of the Messiah ;
the call of our Savior out of Egypt, and his resurrection
on the third day. The style of Hosea i.s peculiarly ob-
scure ; it is sententious, concise, and abrupt ; the transi-
tions of persons are sudden ; and the connexive and ad-
^'ersative particles are frequently omitted. The prophe-
cies are in one continued series, without any distinction
as to the times when they were delivered, or the different
subjects to which thev relate. Thev are not so clear and
detailed, as the predictions of those prophets who lived in
succeeding ages. When, however, we have surmounted
these difficulties, we shall see abundant reason to admire
the force and energy with which this prophet writes, and
the boldness of the figures and similitudes which he uses.
As the circumstances recorded in the third chapter ap-
pear sulficiently strange to us, it may be worth while to
add Baron du Tott's account of marriages by Capin ; — ■
which agrees with the relations of other travellers into the
East : " There is another kind of marriage, which, stipulating
the return to be made, fixes likewise the time when the divorce
is to takeplace. This contract iscalled Capin ; and, properly
speaking, is only an agreement made between th» }iarties
to live together, /or such a price, during stick a time." (Pre-
liminary Discourse, p. 23.) It is scarcely possible to ex-
pect more direct illustration of the prophet's conduct than
this extract afford.^. We learn from it that this contract
is a regular form of marriage, and that it is so regarded,
generally, in the East ; consequently, such a connexion
and agreement could give no scandal, in the days of Ho-
sea, though it w-ould not be justifiable under Christian
manners. It may easily be imagined that this kind of
marriage was liable to be abused ; and that it was glanc-
ed at, and included, in our Lord's prohibition of hasty
divorces, need not be doubted. — Watson ; Calmet.
HOSPINIAN, (Ralph,) a learned Swiss writer, who
did eminent service to the Protestant cause, was born at
Altorf, in 1547, and stttdied at Zurich, Marpurg, and
Heidelberg. He was settled in the ministry, in 1568, at
Zurich, obtained the freedom of the city, and was made
provisor of the Abbey school, in 1571. It was here he un-
dertook his great work, a History of the Errors of Popery,
to which he was led by accidentally hearing the landlord
of a country ale-house express the silly idea that the mo-
nastic life came immediately from paradise. He publish-
ed it in six parts, fobo, from 1587 to 1602, enlarging each
succeeding edition, and adding confutations of Bellarmine,
Baromus, and Gretser. He pubUshed besides several
works, the most important being a History of the Jesuits,
from their origin to 1619, in which he fully exposes the
abominable maxims and intrigues of the order. These
works gave him the very highes* reputation. In 1623,
his powers of intellect began to fail, and in 1626, he rested
from his labor, at the age of seventy-nine. — Middleton, vol.
u. 443.
HOSPITALITY ; kindness exercised in the entertain-
ment of strangers. This virtue, we find, is explicitly
commanded by, and makes a part of the moraUty of the
New Testament. Indeed, that religion which breathes
nothing but charity, and whose tendency is to expand the
heart, and call forth the benevolent exertions of mankind,
must evidently embrace the practice.
If it he asked, of whom is this required ? it is answered,
that the principle is required of all, though the duty itself
can only be practised by those whose circumstances will
admit of it. Dr. Stennet, in his discourse on this subject,
(Domestic Duties, ser. 10.) justly observes, that hospitahty
is a species of charity to which every one is not compe-
tent. But the temper from which it proceeds, I mean a
humane, generous, benevolent temper, that ought to pre-
vail in every breast. Some are miserably poor, and it is
not to be expected that their doors should be thrown open
lo entertain strangers ; yet the cottage of the peasant
may exhibit noble specimens of hospitality. Here dis-
tress has often met with pity, and the persecuted an asy-
lum. Nor is there a man who has a house to sleep in,
but may be benevolent to strangers. But there are per-
sons of certain characters and stations who are more
especially obliged to it ; as, particularly, magistrates and
others in civil offices, who would forfeit the esteem of the
public, and greatly injure their usefulness, were they not
to observe the rites of hospitality. Ministers also, and
such Christians as are qualified by their particular offices
in the church, and their affluent circumstances, may be
eminently useful in this way. The two grand virtues
which ought to be studied by every one, in order that he
may have it in his power to be hospitable, are industry
and economy.
But it may be asked oc- 'n, to whom is this duty to be
practised ? lo strangers : but here it is
HOU
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HOU
necessary to observe, that the term strangers hath two
acceptations. It is to be understood of travellers, or per-
sons who come from a distance, and with whom we have
little or no acquaintance ; and more generally of all who
are not of our house, — strangers, as opposed to domestics.
Hospitality is especially to be practised to the poor ; they
who have no houses of their own, or possess few of the
conveniences of life, should occasionally be invited to our
houses, and refreshed at our tables, Luke 14: 13, 14.
Hospitality also may be practised to those who are of the
same character and of the same community with our-
selves. As to the various offices of hospitality, and the
manner in which they should be rendered, it must be
observed, that the entertainments should be plentiful,
frugal, and cordial. Gen. 18: 6, 8. John 12: 3. Luke 15: 17.
The obligations to this duty arise from- the fitness and
reasonableness of it ; it brings its own reward, Acts 20:
35. It is expresslv commanded by God, Lev. 25: 35, 38.
Luke 16: 19. 14: 13, 14. Kom. 12. Heb. 13: 1, 2. 1 Pet.
4: 9. We have many striking examples of hospitality on
divine record: Abraham, Gen. 18: 1, 8. Lot, Gen. 19: 1,
3. Job. 31: 17, 22. Shunamite, 2 Kings 4: 8, 10. The
hospitable man mentioned in Judges, 19: Ifi, 21. David,
2 Sam. 6: 19. Obadiah, 1 Kings 18: 4. Nehemiah, Neh.
5: 17, 18. Martha, Luke 10: 38. Mary, Matt. 26: 6, 13.
The primitive Christians, Acts 2: 45. 46. Priscilla and
Aquila, Acts 18: 26. Lydia, Acts 16: 15, &c. &c.
Lastly, what should have a powerful effect on our minds,
is the consideration of divine hospitality. God is good to
all, and his tender mercies are over all his works. His
sun shines and his rain falls on the evil as well as the
good. His very enemies share of his bounty. He gives
liberally to all men, and upbraids not ; but especially
we should remember the exceeding riches of his grace,
in his kindness towards us through Christ Jesus. Let
"js lay aJl these considerations together, and then ask our-
selves whether we can find it in our hearts to be selfish,
parsimonious, and inhospitable — Htnd. Buck.
HOST, (from the Latin hostia, in the church of Rome,
a victim or sacrifice ,■) a name given to the elements used in
the eucharist, or rather to the consecrated wafer, which
they pretend to offer up every day, as a new host or sacri-
fice for the sins of mankind . They pay adoration to the
host upon a false presumption that the elements are no
longer bread and wine, but transubstantiated into the real
body and blood of Christ. (See Transubstantiation.)
Pope Gregory IX. first decreed a bell to be rung, as a sig-
nal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration
of the host. The vessel wherein the hosts are kept is
called the cibory, being a large kind of covered chalice. —
Ucnd. Muck.
HOSTAGE ; a person delivered into the hand of ano-
ther as the secuiity for the performance of some angage-
roent. Conquered kings or nations often gave hostages
for the payment of their tribute, or continuance of sub-
jection, 2 Kings 14: 14. — Brait-n.
HOTTENTOTS ; the native inhabitants of South Afri-
ca, who are gross pagans, having no idea of a Supreme
Being, though they pay a superstitious regard to evil de-
mons. Their only object of worship worthy of mention,
is a peculiar insect, called the Mantis, or walking-leaf,
from its resemblance to the leaf of a tree in the path-way.
The Hottentots call it " the Child of Heaven ;" and, when
it alights on any person, consider it as a celestial visitant,
and a token of great good fortune. — IVilliams.
HOURS. (See Day; Dial; and Watch.)
HOUSE ; a place of residence. The purpose of a
house being for dwelling, and that of tents being the
same, they are called by one name (fttf/i) in the Hebrew.
On the same principle, the tabernacle of God, though only
a tent, is sometimes called the temple ; that is, the resi-
dence of God.
The general method of building, in the East, seems to
have continued the same, from the earliest ages, without
the least alteration or improvement. Large doors, spa-
cious chambers, marble pavements, cloistered courts, with
fountains sometimes playing in the midst, are certainly
conveniences very well adapted to the circumstances of
the chmate, where the summer heats are generally so in-
tense. The jealousy likewise of the people is less apt to
be alarmed, whilst all the windows open into their respec-
tive courts, if we except a latticed window or balcony
which sometimes looks into the streets.
The streets of the cities, the better to shade them from
the sun, are usually narrow, with sometimes a range of
shops on each side. If from these we enter into one of
the principal houses, we shall first pass through a porch
or gateway, with benches on each side, where the master
of the family receives visits and despatches business ; few
persons, not even the nearest relations, having a further
admission, except upon extraordinary occasions Fiom
hence we are received into the court, oi quidi angle, which
lying open to the weather, is, according to the abilitj' of
the owner, paved with marble, or such materials as will
immediately carry ofl" the water into the common sewers.
There is something very analagous betwixt this open
space in these buildings, and the Impbiviiim, or Cava ^di-
vm, of the Romans ; both of them being alike exposed to
the weather, and giving light to the house.
For the accommodation of the guests, the pavement is
covered with mats or carjiets ; and as it is secured against
all interruption from the street, is well adapted to public
entertainments. It is called, says Dr. Shaw, the middle
of the house, and literally answers to the (to meson) " the
midst" of the evangelist, into which the man afflicted with
the palsy was let down through the ceiling, with his
couch, before Jesus, Luke 5: 19. Hence, he conjectures
that our Lord was at this time instructing the people in
the court of one of these houses ; and it is by no means
improbable, that the quadrangle was to him and his
apostles a favorite situation, while they were engaged in
disclosing the mysteries of redemption. To defend the
company from the scorching sun-beams, or "windy
storm and tempest," an awning or canopy was expanded
upon ropes from one side of the parapet wall to the other,
which might be unfolded or folded afcpleasiire. This is
the covering which was removed on the occasion above
referred to ; though our translation conveys a different
idea. The court is for the most part surrounded mth a
cloister, over which, when the house has a number of
stories, a gallerj- is erected of the same dimensions \vith
the cloister, having a balustrade, or else a piece of
carved or latticed work, going I'ound about, to prevent
people from falling from it into the court.
The doors of the inclosure round the house are made
very small ; but the dooi-s of the houses very large, for the
purpose of admitting a copious stream of fresh air into
their apartments. The windows which look into the
street are very high and narrow, and defended by lattice
work ; as they are only intended to allow the cloistered
inmate a peep of what is passing without, while he remains
concealed behind the casement. This kind of window the
ancient Hebrews called anibah, which is the same term
that they used to express those small openings through
which pigeons passed into the cavities of the rocks, or
into those buildings which were raised for their reception.
Irwin describes the windows in Upper Egypt as baring
the same form and dimensions ; and says expressly, that
one of the windows of the house in which they lodged,
and through which they looked into the street, more re-
sembled a pigeon-hole than any thing else. But u»e
sacred writers mention another kind of window, whicb
HOU
[ 636
HOW
was large and airy ; it was called hciun, and was large
enough to admit a person of mature age being cast out
of it ; a punishment which that profligate woman Jezebel
suffered by the command of Jehu, the authorized exter-
minator of her family. These large windows admit the
light and the breeze into spacious apartments of the same
length with the court, but which seldom or never commu-
nicate with one another.
In the houses of the fashionable and the gay, the lower
part of the walls is adorned with rich hangings of velvet
or damask, tinged with the liveliest colors, suspended on
hooks, or taken down at pleasure, Esther 1: 6. The up-
per part of the walls is adorned with the most ingenious
wreathings and devices, in stucco and fret-work. The
ceiling is generally of wainscot, painted with great art, or
else thrown into a variety of pannels with gilded mould-
ings. In the days of Jeremiah the prophet, when the
profusion and luxury of all ranks in Judea were at their
height, their chambers were ceiled with fragrant and
costly wood, and painted with the richest colors, Jer. 22:
14. The floors of these splendid apartments were laid
with painted tiles, or slabs of the most beautiful marble.
Plaster of terrace is often used for the same purpose ; and
the floor is always covered with carpets, which are for the
most part of the richest materials.
Upon these carpets, a range of narrow beds, or mat-
tresses, is often placed along the sides of the wall, with
velvet or damask bolsters, for the greater ease and con-
venience of the company. To these luxurious indul-
gences the prophets occasionally seem to allude, Ezek.
13:18. Amos 0: 4. At one end of each chamber is a little
gallery, raised three or four feet above the floor, with a
balustrade in front, to which they go up by a few steps.
Here they place their beds ; a situation frequently alluded
to in the Holy Scriptures, Gen. 49: 4. 2 Kings 1: 4, 16.
Ps. 132: 3.
The roof of the honse is always flat, and often com-
posed of branches of wood laid across rude beams ; and,
to defend it from the injuries of the weather, to which it
is peculiarly exposed in the rainy season, it is covered
with a strong terrace of plaster. It is surrounded by a
wall breast high, which forms the partition mth the con-
tiguous houses, and prevents one from falling into the
street on the one side, or into the court on the other,
2 Kings 1: 2. This answers to the battlements which
Moses commanded the people of Israel to make for the
roof of their houses, for the same reason, Deut. 22: 8.
" When thou buildest a new house, tlten thou shalt make
a battlement for thy roof, that thou bring not blood upon
thine house, if any man fall from thence," Deut. 22: 8.
Instead of the parapet wall, some terraces are guarded,
like the galleries, with balustrades only, or latticed work.
In Judea, the inhabitants sleep upon the tops of their
houses during the ^eats of summer, in arbors made of
the branches of trees, or in tents of rushes. When Dr.
Pococke was at Tiberias in Galilee, he was entertained by
the sheik's steward, and with his company supped upon
the top of the house for coolness, according to their cus-
tom, and lodged there likewise, in a sort of closet of
about eight feet square, formed of wicker work, plastered
round towards the bottom, but without any door, each
person having his cell. In like manner, the Persians
take refuge during the day in subterraneous chambers,
and pass the night on the flat roofs of their houses.
The houses of the poorer class of people in the East
are very bad constructions, consisting of mud walls,
reeds and rushes ; whence they become apt comparisons
to the fragility of human life. Niebuhr describes and
represents an Arabian hut, in Yemen, composed of
stakes, and plastered with clay. To such a one Job seems
to allude, (chap. 4: 19.) "God putteth no confidence in
his angels ; how much jess in them who dwell in houses
of clay, whose foundation is in the dust ; who are crushed
by a moth striking against them !" He compares the
human body and constitution to one of these tenements
of clay, by reason of its speedy dissolution under any one
accident of the many to which it is exposed. How uncer-
tain is health, strength, favor ! a breeze of wind too
strong, a shower of rain loo heavy, often produces disor-
ders which demolish the tenement.
The expression, " to dig through houses," occurs. Job
24: 16. " Thieves," says Mr. Ward, " in Bengal very fre-
quently dig through the mud walls, and under the clay
floors of houses, and, entering unperceived, plunder them
while the inhabitants are asleep."
Our Lord's parable of the foolish man who built his
house on the sand, derives illustration from the following
passage in Ward's valuable " View of the Hindoos."
'•' The fishermen in Bengal build their huts in the dry
season on the beds of sand, from which the river has
retired. When the rains set in, which they often do very
suddenly, accompanied by violent north-we.st winds, the
water pours down in torrents from the mountains. In
one night multitudes of these huts are frequently swept
away, and the place where they stood is the next morning
undiscoverable,"
Heaven is considered as the house of God : (John 14:
2.) " In my Father's house are many mansions f where
we observe a remarkable implicaticm — mansions are great,
noble, hereditary ''wellings, among men, abounding with
conveniences, (kc -"My Father's house — his ordinary
residence — contains many of what the sons of men esteem
capital residences — mansions."
2. House is taken for household, or family : " The Lord
plagued Pharaoh and his house," Gen, 12: 17. "What
is my house, that thou hast brought me hitherto?" 2 Sam.
7: 18. So Joseph was of the house of David, (Luke 1: 27.
2: 4.) but more especially he was of his royal lineage, or
family ; and, as we conceive, in the direct line or eldest
branch of the family ; so that he was next of kin to the
throne, if the government had still continued in possession
of the descendants of David. House is taken for kindred ;
it is a Christian's duty to provide first for those of his own
house, (1 Tim. 5: 8.) bis family, his relatives. — Calmet ;
Watson.
HOUSEHOLD. (See House.)
HOWARD, (John,) the celebrated philanthropist, was
bom, in 1726, at Hackney, and was bound apprentice to a
grocer i»y his guarchans ; but, being possessed of a for-
tune, he purchased his indentures, and made two tours on
the continent ; one of them for the purpose of viewing the
ruins of Lisbon. Having lost his first wife, who was
much older than himself, and whom he married out of
gratitude for her attention during sickness, he made a
second choice in 1758. For several years he resided on
his estate at Cardington, near Bedford, occupied in edu-
cating his son, and in executing plans to render comforta-
ble the situation of his tenants and laborers. Nor was his
kindriess limited to worldly benefits ; it extended to eter-
nity ; watching over their morals, and inculcating the
principles of vital Christianity in their hearts ; in short,
he was a universal blessing. He had already obtained
experimentally some knowledge of a prison, having been
captured on his return to; Lisbon, and confined in France ;
but his appointment, in 1773, to the office of high sheriff
of Bedford, induced him to look more narrowly into the
subject, with the hope of amehorating the condition of the
captive. Here, then, commenced that philanthropical ca-
reer which closed but with his life. Not only were all the
prisons of his own country repeatedly visited, but, in
several journeys, he examined minutely those of the con-
tinent, "to remember (as Mr. Burke beautifully expresses
it) the forgotten, to attend to the neglected, to visit the
forsaken, and to compare and collate the distresses of all
men in all countries." His glorious course was termi-
nated, by fever, at Cherson, in Russia, January 20, 179(1,
HOW
[ 637
HUG
The numanity and the benevolence of a man, who, at
the expense of thirty thousand pounds, travelled between
fifty and sixty thousand miles, enduring the fatigues, and
dangers, and changes of heat and cold, rain and snow, is
indeed above all praise. Yet it was unstained by pride.
The love of Christ which ruled his heart in life, led him
to request that no other inscription might be put on his
grave than this : " Christ is my hope."
He wrote the State of the Prisons in England and
Wales ; and an Account of the principal Lazarettos in
Europe. See his Life, by J. B. Brown, Esq., of the Inner
Temple. — Davenport ; Jones^ Chris. Biog;.
HOWE, (JoH.v, A. BI.,) was born at Lougborough, in
the year I60O. His father was minister of that place,
who, having lost his benefice for strong attachment to the
Puritans, settled in Lancashire. There his son acquired
his classical knowledge, and was sent early to Cambridge.
After continuing some years in that university, and taking
his first degree, he removed to Oxford ; where he made
considerable progress in literature, obtained the degree of
master of arts, and w^then elected fellow of Magdalen
college, Oxford. Soon^fter taking his second degree, he
was ordained by Blr. Herle, of Winwick, assisted by the
ministers of the chapels in this very extensive parish.
The field of ministerial labor, to which he afterwards re-
moved, was Great Torrington, in Devon ; and his eminent
services were crowned with considerable success. Busi-
ness calling him to London, he had the curiosity to go to
the chapel at Whitehall. Cromwell observing him, thought
that he saw something extraordinary in him, and after
hearing him two or three times, insisted that Mr. Howe
should come to Whitehall, and be his domestic chaplain.
With very great reluctance he was compelled to gratify a
man who would have his own way ; as Howe felt that it
did not appear disinterested so to act. Such, however,
really was his disinterestedness, that once, when he was
applying for a favor, the Protector said, " Mr. Howe, you
often come to me in behalf of others, but you never have
asked one benefit for your own family : how comes it
that you do not rather seek to advance their interest ?"
He was a man of unalterable fidelity, and nothing could
move him from the path of duty. After Cromwell's death,
he continued about three months in the service of his son
Richard, and then returned to his old people at Torring-
ton, and labored among them till the act of uniformity
passed. Soon after the restoration, he was unjustly
accused of having uttered something seditious, if not
treasonable, in his sermon ; but by the testimony of more
than twenty of his most judicious hearers, he was cleared
from the malicious charge. Nothing, however, could free
him from the effects of the Bartholomew act ; and he
retired from the station of a parish minister to be a si-
lenced non-conformist.
He was now compelled to steal opportunities of useful-
ness, and to preach the gospel in secret. For several
years he was an itinerant preacher in the habitations of
his friends. Seeing no prospect of extensive usefulness at
home, he accepted an offer from lord Mazarene, to be his
chaplain; and in the year 1671, went over with his fa-
mily to Ireland. The mansion of his patron was in the
neighborhood of Antrim. There Mr. Howe statedly offi-
ciated in the church of that city, and was admitted into
the churches in the neighboring towns.
From this situation he was, in the j-ear 1675, called to
be pastor of a church, formed of persons who had belonged
to his congregation ; and he returned to London to exer-
cise the office of the ministry. For ten years he labored
with extraordinary acceptance in the service of his people,
among whom were not a few eminently distinguished, not
only for their piety, but their talents, their education, and
their respectability in social life.
In the year 1685, he complied with an invitation from
lord Wharton, to travel «-ith him to the continent ; and
after visiting many foreign parts, as it was still unsafe for
him to return to England, he took up his residence at
Utrecht, and continued there some time, greatly respected
by all ranks of people, preaching statedly at his own
house, and frequently in the English church. In the year
1687, when king James afforded to the dis.senters in Eng-
land more enlarged toleration, Mr. Howe returned with
pleasure to his flock, and took the benefit of the indul-
gence. After the revolution, Mr. Howe continued to labor
among his people in Silver street, who are said to have
been a society peculiarly select. He took an active part
in every thing relating to the concerns of religion ; and
ever appeared the powerful advocate of truth, of piety, of
moderation, and liberality. In every part of his conduct,
his entire devotedness to the service %f God shone forth ;
and in the end, he exhibited the resemblance of the sun
in a summer evening, setting in mildness of glory. He
died on the 2d of April, 1705, in the seventy-fifth year of
his age.
Mr. Howe's person was the index of his mind. He was
above the common size ; there was a dignity in his coun
tenance, and something unusually great and venerable in
his whole deportment. His talents were of the highest
order. His application to study was close and unremit-
ting ; and his faculties were roused with their utmost
energies, in order to attain every branch of knowledge
which could conduce to improve, and aid the researches
and pursuits of a divine.
Unfeigned and exalted piety filled the soul of John
Howe : the great end of his life was to please God, and to
advance his glory ; and it would not be easy to find a man
equal to him in universal benevolence, and in that purity
and humihty which adorn the Christian character. He
had his sentiments as to lesser points in religion, and as
to church government ; he acted according to his own
judgment, and would be guided by no other man's opinion.
But his soul appears to have been filled Avith the great
things of Christianity, and with them alone. His works,
in the estimation of the public, have deserved a high place
in the theological library. They have lately been collected
into eight octavo volumes, and published, in both the
demy and royal size, with his Life prefixed ; also in one
royal octavo volume. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
HUGUENOTS ; a term of uncertain origin, which was
given, by way of contempt to the French Protestants.
Though Francis I. used every eflbrt to prevent the princi-
ples of the Reformation from spreading in France, and
persecuted the Calvinists, by whom they were most zea-
lously propagated, yet they took root, in the same propor-
tion as they were attempted to be suppressed. The perse-
cutions of such as professed them, were frequently most
cruel and bloody ; owing to the cupidity of certain parties
at court, who thought to enrich themselves by seizing on
the estates of the heretics. Under Francis II. the Hugue-
nots were made a hand-ball to gratify ' e political Intrigues
of the day. They were dreadfully harassed by the princes
of the house of Guise, through whose influence a chamber
of parliament was established, called the burning chamber,
the duty of which was to convict and burn heretics.
Still they suffered in a most exemplary manner; and
would not have thought of a rebellion, had they not been
encouraged to it, in 1560, by a prince of the blood, Louis
of Conde, to whom they leagued themselves, having
previously consulted lawyers and theologians, both in
France and Germany, as to the legality of such a measure.
In pursuance of their plan, it was determined, that on an
appointed day, a certain number of Calvinists should appear
before the king at Blois, to present a petition for the free
exercise of their religion ; and in case this request was
denied, as it was foreseen it would be, a chosen band of
armed Protestants were to make themselves masters ol
the city at Blois, seize the Guises, and compel the king to
name the prince of Conde regent of the realm. The plot,
however, was betrayed, and most of the armed conspira-
tors were executed or imprisoned. The contest between
the two parties became yet more violent, in the reign of
Charles IX., but, from motives of policy, the Protestants
were allowed the privilege of toleration, chiefly owing to
the influence of the queen mother ; but her instability and
intrigues, at last, only rendered their case the more deplo-
rable, and produced the horrible St. Bartholomew massa-
cre, in 1572. (See Baktholomew's Day.) After many
struggles, they hatl their civil rights secured to them
under Henry IV., by the edict of Nantes, in 159S, which
gave them equal claims with the Catholics to all offices
and dignities, and left them in possession of the fortre.sses
which had been ceded to them. In the reign of Lotiis
HUM
[ 638 ]
HUN
Xin. they were again molested, again took to arms, but
were again worsted, and ultimately obliged to surrender
all their strong holds. They were now left at the mercy
of the monarch ; but were not disturbed till Louis XIV.,
led on by his confessor and Madame de Maintenon, was
induced to persecute them, with a view to bring them
back to the true church. In 16B1, he deprived them of
most of their civil rfght.s, and sent large bodies of dra-
goons into the provinces to compel them to renounce their
principles. Though the frontiers were vigilantly guarded,
upwards of five hundred thousand Huguenots made
their escape to Switzerland, Germany, Holland, and
England. Supposing them either to be extirpated or con-
verted to Catholicism, Louis revoked the edict of Nantes
in 1685. Since that time, at which there were still half a
million of them in France, they have alternately enjoyed
repose, and been the subjects of alarm and persecution.
In 1746, they ventured to appear publicly in Languedoc
and Dauphiny ; and as the principles of toleration and
general liberty matured, they gradually recovered their
place in society, till at last the revolution placed them on
the same footing with their fellow-citizens. The troubles,
attended with bloodshed, which occurred at Nismes, soon
after the restoration, were merely accidental, and were
suppressed by the judicious measures of government. —
Hend. Buck.
HUMANITARIANS ; those who believe in the simple
humanity of Christ, or that he was nothing more than a
mere man, bom according to the usual course of nature,
and who lived and died according to the ordinary
circumstances of mankind. (See Socinians.) — Hend.
Buck.
HUMANITY ; llie exercise of the social and benevo-
lent virtues ; a fellow-feeling for the distresses of another.
It is properly called humanity, because there is little or
nothing of it in bnues. The .social atfections are con-
ceived by all to be more refined than the selfish. Sym-
pathy and humanity are universally esteemed the finest
temper of mind ; and for that reason the prevalence of the
social aflections in the progress of society is held to be a
refinement of our nature. Kaime's El. of Crit., p. 104,
vol. i. ; Robinson's Sermon on Chrhtimnly a System of Hu-
manity ; Pratt's Poem on Humanity. — Hend. Buck,
HUMANITY OF CHRIST, is his possessing a true
human body, and a true human soul, and which he as-
sumed for the purpose of rendering his mediation effectual
to our salvation. (See Jesds Christ.) — Hend. Buck.
HUMANITY, (- !fFui. ;) a term recently introduced by
Mr. Irving, late of the Scotch church, London, in reference
to the human nature of our Lord ; respecting which he
maintains, in opposition to the express statements of
Scripture, that it possessed sinful properties, dispositions,
and inclinations, till the period of his resurrection ; when,
having condemned sin in his flesh, he entered into glory
in flesh free from sin, and consequently free from death
and corruption. — Hend. Buck.
HUMILIATION OF CHRIST, is that state of mean-
ness and distress to which he voluntarily descended for
the purpose of executing his mediatorial work. This
appears, 1. In lis birth. He was born of a woman — a
sinful woman ; though lie was without sin. Gal. 4: 4. A
]Mor woman, Luke 2: 7, 24. In a poor country village,
John 1: 46. In a stable, an abject place. Of a nature
subject to infirmities, (Heb, 2; 9.) hunger, thirst, weari-
ness, pain, &c. 2. In his circumstances: — laid in a man-
ger when he was born ; lived in obscurity for a long time ;
probably worked at the trade of a carpenter ; had not a
place where to lay his head ; and was oppressed with po-
verty while he went about preaching the gospel. 3. It
appeared in his reputation : — he was loaded with the most
abusive railing and calumny ; (Is. 53.) the most false ac-
cusations ; (Matt. 26: 59, 67.) and the most ignominious
ridicule ; Ps. 22: 6. Malt. 22: 68. John 7: 35. 4. In his
soul he was often tempted ; (Malt. 4: 1, &c. Heb. 2: 17, 18.
1: 15.) grieved with the reproaches cast on himself, and
vith the sins and miseries of others ; (Heb. 12: 3. Malt.
11: 19. John 11: 35.) was burdened with Ihe hidings of
his Father's face, and the fears and impressions of his
Avrath, Ps. 22: 1. Luke 22: 43. Heb. 5:7. 5. In his death :
—scourged, crowned with thorns, received gall and vine-
gar to drink, and was crucified between two thieves, Luke
23. John 19. Mark 15: 24, 25. 6. In his burial: — not only
was he born in another man's house, but he was buried in
another man's tomb ; for he had no tomb of his own, or
family vault to be interred in, Isa. 53: 10, &c. Matt. 13:
46. The humiliation of Christ was necessary, 1. To exe-
cute the purpose of God, and covenant engagements of
Christ, Acts 2: 23, 24. Ps. 40: 6, 7, 8. 2. To fulfil the
manifold types and predictions of the Old Testament. 3.
To satisfy the broken law of God, and procure eternal re-
demption for us. Is. 53. Heb. 9: 12, 15. 4. To leave us an
unspotted pattern of holiness and patience under suflering.
TiUotson's Sermo7is ; Gill's Body of Divinity, p. 66. vol. ii. ;
Brown's Natural and Revealed Religion, p. 357 ; Ridgley's
Body of Divinity, qu. 48 ; Madaurin's Sermons ; Works of
Robtrt Hall, vol. iii.—Hend. Buck.
HUMILITY ; a lovely disposition of mind, wherein a
person has a low opinion of himself in comparison with
God and good men. It is a branch of internal worship,
or of experimental religion and godliness. It is the efiect
of divine grace operating on the soul, and always charac-
terizes the true Christian. The heathen philbsophei's were
so little acquainted with this virtue, that they had no name
for it : what they meant by the word we use, was mean-
ness and baseness of mind.
To consider this grace a little more particularly, it may
be observed, 1. That humility does not oblige a man to
wrong the truth or himself, by entertaining a meaner or
worse opinion of himself than he deserves. 2. Nor does it
oblige a man, right or wrong, to give every body else the
preference to himself. A wise man cannot believe him-
self inferior to the ignorant multitude ; nor the virtuous
man that he is not so good as those whose lives are vi-
cious. 3. Nor does it oblige a man to treat himself with
contempt in his words or actions : it looks more like afiiec-
lation than humihty, when a man says such things in his
own dispraise as others know, or he himself believes, to
be false ; and it is plain, also, that this is often done merely
as a bait to catch the praises of others.
Humility consists, 1. In not attributing to ourselves any
excellence or good which we have not. 2. In not over-
rating any thing we do. 3. In not taking an immoderate
delight in ourselves. 4. In not assuming more of the
praise of a quality or action than belongs to us. 5. In an
inward sense of our many imperfections and sins. 6. In
ascribing all we have and are to the grace of God.
True humility will express itself, 1. By the modesty of
our appearance. The humble man will consider his age,
abilities, character, function, &c., and act accordingly. 2.
By the modesty of our pursuits. We shall not aim at any
thing above our strength, but prefer a good to a great
name. 3. It will express itself by the modesty of our
conversation and behavior : we shall not be loquacious,
obstinate, forward, envious, discontented, or ambitious.
The advantages of humility are numerous : 1. It is well-
pleasing to God, 1 Pet. 3: 4. 2. It has great influence on
us in the performance of all other duties, praying, hearing,
converse, &c. 3. It indicates that more grace shall be
given, James 4: 6. Ps. 25: 9. 4. It preserves the soul in
great tranquillity and contentment, Ps. 69: 32, 33. 5. It
makes us patient and resigned under afflictions. Job 1: 22.
6. It enables us to exercise moderation in every thing.
To obtain this excel'cnt spirit, we should remember, 1.
The example of Christ, Phil. 2: 6, 7, 8. 2. That heaven
is a plaee of humility. Rev. 5: 8. 3. That our sins are
numerous, and deserve the greatest punishment, Lam. 3;
39. 4. That humility is the way to honor, Prov. 16: 18.
5. That the greatest promises of good are made to the
humble, Isa. 57: 15. 56: 2. 1 Pet. 5: 5. Ps. 147: 6. Matt.
5:5. Grove's Mar. Phil., vol. u. p. 2S(i; Evans' Christian
Temper, vol. i. ser. 1 ; IVatts on Humility ; Baxter's Chris-
tian Directory, vol. i. p. 496; Hale's Cont.,p- HO; Gill's
Body of Div., vol. iii. p. 151 ; Walker's Sermons, iv. ser. 3 ;
Dniighi's Theology; Fuller's Works; Works of Robert Hall.
.—Hend. Buck.
HUNGER. Spiritual desire after Jesus and bis right-
eousness is called hunger ; how it pains men till the bless-
ings desired are obtained! Matt. 5: 6. Luke 1: 53. Such
as feed on Christ never hunger nor thirst : finding enough in
him, they never desire any thing else as the chief portioo
ttUN
t 639 1
HUN
of their soul, John 5; 35. A jnan's strength is hutiger-bitten
when it decays for want of food, Job 18: 12. — Brown.
HUNTER, (Henry, D. D.;) an eloquent Presbyterian
divine, bora ai Culross, in Perthshire, in 1741. At the
age of thirteen he was sent to the university of Edinburgh,
where his hterary acquirements were such, that when but
seventeen he became tutor to a gentleman who was af-
terwards one of the lords of the session. The illness and
death of his father having prevented him from retaining
that Sihiation, he next accepted one of the same descrip-
tion ia the famUy of lord Dundonald, at Culross Abbey.
In 1764. he obtained a license to preach, and in 1766, was
ordained minister of South Leith. In 1771, he removed
to London, to become pastor to the Scottish congregation
at London Wall; and about the same time, he was admit-
ted to the degree of doctor in divinity by the university of
Edinburgh. His most popular literary production, the
" Sacred Biography," a series of discourses on the lives of
the most eminent persons mentioned in the Bible, was
commenced in 1783, and was subsequently extended to
seven volumes, octavo. During the progress of this work,
Dr. Hunter became a convert to the physiognomical sys-
tem of Lavater, and in 1787 he made a visit to Switzer-
land, for the purpose of procuring intelligence from the
author, pi'eparatory to an English translation of his works,
which he executed and published, with splendid graphic
illustrations, by Mr. Thomas HoUoway, the engraver. In
1790, he was chosen secretary to the corresponding board
of the Society for Propagating Christian Knowledge in the
Highlands of Scotland. In 1795, he published " Sermons
preached on various Occasions," to which were subjoined
Illustrative Memoirs and Anecdotes ; and in 1798, ap-
peared his "Lectures on the Evidences of Christianity,"
in conjunction with those of the Rev. John Fell. He died
at Bristol hot wells, October 27, 1802.
Besides his original Uterary performances, he translated
from the French, Euler's Letters on Natural Philosophy,
two volumes ; St. Pierre's Studies of Nature, four vo-
lumes ; a volume of Saurin's Sermons, additional to those
translated by Mr. Robinson ; Sonnini's Travels, two vo-
lumes ; and Castera's Memoirs of Catharine the Second
of Russia, two volumes. Two volumes of his Sermons,
&c., with a biographical memoir, were published posthu-
mously. Aikin's Gen. Biog. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
HUNTING. Hunting is a kind of apprenticeship to
war, and an imitation of the hazards and occurrences of
the chase. Nimrod was a mighty hunter (persecutor)
before God, Gen. 10: 9. He was a warrior, a conqueror,
a tyrant, who subdued free people, and who put lo death
those who would not submit to his dominion. The pro-
phets sometimes depict war under the idea of hunting : " I
will send for many hunters," says Jeremiah, " and they
shall hunt them from ever)' mountain, and from every hill,
and out of the holes of the rocks," ch. 16: 16. He speaks
of the Chaldeans or Persians, who hunted or subdued the
Jews, and held them under their dominion. — Calmtt.
HUNTINGDON, (Countess of,) the founder of the de-
nomination of Christians bearing her name, was the
daughter of Washington, earl of Ferrers, and was born
August 24, 1707. When very young, her mind was im-
pressed with the importance of religion, and she frequently
retired to her chamber to supplicate the favor and blessing
of God. At the age of twenty-one she was married to
Theophilus, earl of Huntingdon, and was thus connected
with a family distinguished alike for piety and respecta-
bility. She attended on the ministry of the celebrated
George Whitfield; and although lord Huntingdon enter-
tained different opinions, he did not oppose such attend-
ance, deeming the rights of conscience as sacred and una-
lienable. To Mr. Whitfield she was particularly attached,
and warmly supported the erection of chapels, and the
diffusion of those principles and opinions which he pro-
fessed and inculcated.
Lady Huntingdon, after the death of lord Huntingdon,
devoted a great part of her large property to the building
of chapels in London and throughout Wales ; and for the
supply of which she first confined herself to the ministers
of the established church, as her preachers, many of whom
accepted her invitation, and labored in the places which
she had opened ; but finding that the ministers, who be-
fore labored for her, were unequal to the task, she deter-
mined on erecting a college in South Wales, for the pur-
pose of providing, successively, able and pious teachers.
That college, and an accompanying chapel, in the parish
of Talgarth, in Brecknockshire, was erected in the year
1768. From that seminary many students emanated, not
indeed celebrated for their learning, but many of them
for their piety and devotedness to God. They were itine-
rant— moved from congregation to congregation, in an
established rotation ; and she alone maintained a corre-
spondence with them, by which she regulated and provided
a constant supply.
In 1769, she erected a chapel at Tunbridge Wells ; and
a large building at Spa-fields, London, called the Pantheon,
which had been erected for the entertainment of parties
of pleasure, especially on the Sabbath day, she purchased
for religious worship, and it ts-as first opened in the year
1777. In that chapel, the Rev. Herbert Jones and Wil-
liam Taylor officiated as clergymen ; and as some altera-
tions had been made by the countess in the liturgy, al-
though the Episcopalian mode of worship was used, a suit
was instituted against them, by the minister of the parish
of Clerkenwell, in the consistorial court of the bishop of
London. That court detenr.ined, that if they proceeded
in preaching there any longer, they should be expelled
from the church. The threatened expulsion did not inti-
midate them; and they, with several other clergymen,
seceded from the establishment, and put themselves under
the protection of the toleration act. Those clergymen
drew up, and subscribed the Confession of Faith, which
was afterwards signed by all the ministers of her la-
dyship's connexion, and by candidates for ordination.
The first six were ordained at Spa-fields chapel, in 1783.
Some years after-n-ards, .she purchased another large place
in Whitechapel, which had been intended for a theatre,
but which, with a few alterations, she converted into a
place of worship, and which is now called Sion chapel.
The companions of lady Huntingdon, for many years,
were Sliss Scutt and lady Ann Erskine, who co-operated
with her for several years in ail her exertions. Notwith-
standing the prodigious efforts of this lady, she lived to
the age of eighty-four, and died at her house in Spa-fields,
on June 17, 1791 : her body was buried in the family
vault, at Ashby de la Zouch, in Leicestershire. The semi-
nary in Wales ceased at her death, the lease being just
expired ; but a new college has been erected at Cheshunt,
in Hertfordshire, in which a number of students are yearly
educated. The temper of lady Huntingdon was warm
and sanguine ; her predilections and prejudices were too
hastily adopted, and she therefore frequently formed con-
clusions not correspondent with truth and wisdom. Not-
withstanding such failings, she was distinguished for a
fervent zeal to propagate the gospel of Jesus Christ ; and
multitudes have, doubtless, through her instrumentality,
been converted. — Hend. Buck.
HUNTINGDON, (William, S. S., Sinmr Saved;) a no-
torious Antinomian preacher in London, towards the end
of the eighteenth century. He was the son of a farmer's
laborer in Kent, and passed the eariy part of his life in
menial service, and in the occupation of a coal-heaver.
Having been reclaimed from dissipated and irreligious
courses, he became a zealous preacher ; and, though a
man of little education, he possessed considerable natural
talent, and soon succeeded in drawing together a large
body of followers ; to whom, in the most familiar and
popular, but frequently in the most absurd, eccentric,
and unwarrantable manner, he expounded the Scrip-
tures; crying down all other ministers as unsound in the
faith, and exalting his own system as the paragon of gos-
pel divinity. Travelling tliroughout the countrv, he col-
lected disciples wherever he went ; and there still exist a
considerable number of chapels, especially in Sussex, in
which his Antinomian tenets continue to be taught. After
having lost his first wife by death, Mr. Huntingdon mar-
ried the wealthy relict of Sir James SaundcrsonJ^a London
alderman, and passed the latter part of his life in atliuence.
His publications are very numerous, and some of them
contain curious details relative to his pei-sonal history and
experience. — Hend. Buck.
HUNTINGTON, (Joseph, D. D.,) minister of Coventry,
HUR
[ 640 ]
HUS
Connecticut, was graduated at Yale college, in 1762, and
died in the year 1795. He is well known as the author of
a work, entitled, "Calvinism Improved, or the Gospel il-
lustrated as a System of real Grace, issuing in the Salva-
tion of all Men," which was published, after his death, in
1796. It was answered, in the same year, by Dr. Strong.
Setting out with the grand error of an absolute decree of
sin, and the consequent denial of human responsibleness,
Dr. Himtington founds his argument for universal salva-
tion on another error in regard to the atonement of Christ,
which, he thought, included the endurance of all the pu-
nishment threatened the sinner, and thus a satisfaction of
the law, so that all sinful men are released from its curse.
Hence he says, by a wild perversion of the plain language
of Scripture, that sinners, " in their surtty, vicar, or substi-
tute, i. e. in Christ, the Head of every man, go away into
emrlasting punishment, in a true gospel sense. In him they
suffer infinite punishment, i. e. he suflers for them, in their
room and stead." By another strange perversion, revolt-
ing to common sense, he represents that in the day of
judgment, not men of all nations, but " characters shall
be separated one Irom another, as a shepherd divideth the
sheep from the goats." "The character of sinners was
always at God's left hand, and always \vill be." In the
resurrection, he maintains that our sins, will arise, " in the
holy voice of the law," and that this will be the only resur-
rection to condemnation and everlasting shame and con-
tempt, while all meti will arise to everlasting life. It is
by such strange departure from Scripture and common
sense, that error is built up and miserable men are de-
luded.— Alien.
HUNTINGTON, (Joshoa,) minister of Boston, son of
the excellent Gen. Huntington, of New London, (Conn.,)
was born January 31, 1786, and graduated at Yale college,
in 1804. During a revival, in 1802, he became pious. He
was ordained colleague with Dr. Eckley, May 18, 1808,
and on his return from a journey for his health to Canada,
died at Groton, September 11, 1819, aged Ihirty-three. He
was a very faithful and useful minister, and an humble,
disinterested, excellent Christian. AVhen, in his sickness,
told that he was about to meet his father, he replied,
" Yes ; it will be a glorious meeting." He published Me-
moirs of the Life of Abigail Waters, 1817. Panoplist, xvi.
529— 535.— Allen.
HUNTINGTON, (Scsan,) wife of the preceding, the
daughter of Achilles Mansfield, minister of Killingworth,
Connecticut, was born January 27, 1791. At the age of
sixteen she made a profession of religion. She was mar-
ried May 18, 1809. After surviving her husband four
years, she died in Boston, December 4, 1823, aged thirty-
two. Her four surviving children have become partakers
of the same grace, in which their parents rejoiced.
Mrs. Htintington was a very intelligent and remarkably
pious woman. She wrote a letter to a friend recovered
from sickness, which is tract No. 88 of the American
Tractsociety, and the story of Little Lucy. Her Memoirs
by B. B. Wisner, with an introductory essay and poem
by James Montgomery, were published, third edition,
1829, containing her letters, journal, and some pieces of
poetry. Five editions have been published in Scotland.
—Alien.
HUR, son of Caleb, of Esron, and, according to Jose-
phus, husband of Miriam, sister of Moses. We know
hut few particulars concerning his life ; but by the little
which Scripture relates, we see that Moses had a great
affection for him, Exod. 17: 10. 24: 14. — Cnlmet.
HURD, (RicHAKD, D. D.,) an eminent prelate and wri-
ter, the son of a farmer, was born, in 1720, at Congreve,
in Staffordshire ; was educated at Emanuel college, Cam-
bridge ; and, afier having been rector of Hurcaston,
preacher of Lincoln's Inn, and archdeacon of Gloucester,
was raised, in 1757, to the bishopric of Litchfield and
Coventry, and, soon after, was appointed preceptor to the
prince of Wales and duke of York. In 1781, he was
translated to Worcester, and in 1783, he declined the see
of Canterbury. He died in 1808. Among his works are.
Sermons ; Commentaries on Horace's Art of Poetry ; Di-
alogues ; and Letters on Chivalry and Romance. He
was the bosom friend of Warbtu'ton ; and his friendship
for that eminent man (which has been censured as of
somewhat too subservient a nature) led him to attack Dr.
Jortin in a pamphlet. He also wrote a biographical
sketch of Warburton, edited an edition of his writings,
and published a volume of his Correspondence. — Daven-
port.
HUSBAND, (DttTiEs of.) (See Marriage State.)
HUSBANDMAN ; one whose profession and labor is to
cultivate the earth ; to dress it, to render it fertile, and
generally to manage it. This is the most noble as well
as the most ancient of all professions ; it was be^u by
Adam, resumed by Noah, and has been always the most
comfortable state of human life. (See Agriculture.)
God is compared to a husbandman ; (John 15: 1. ICor.
3: 9.) and the simile of land carefully cultivated, or of a
vineyard carefully dressed, is often used in the sacred
writings. — Cnlmet.
HUSBANDRY. (See Agriculture.)
HUSHAI, the Archite, David's friend, 2 Sam. 15: 32,
&c. Hushai, by defeating the counsel of Ahilhophel, and
gaining time for David, to whom he sent advices, was the
cause of Ahithophel's suicide, and of Absalom's miscar-
riage, ch. 16: 16—19. 18: 5, Icc.—Calmet.
HUSKS, (Iceratia ; siliquce ;) shells, as of peas or beans.
The prodigal son, oppressed by want, and pinched by hun-
ger, desired to feed on the husks given to the hogs, Luke 15:
16. The most learned interpreters are of opinion, that
the Greek word signifies carob-beans, the fruit of a tree
of the same name. There was a sort of wine or liquor
much used in Syria drawn from it, and the lees of it were
given to the hogs. The Greeks and Latins both name
carob-beans Ceratia ; and Pliny, as well as the Vulgate,
calls them Siliqua. This fruit is common in Palestine,
Greece, Italy, Provence, and Barbary : it is suffered to
ripen and grow dry on the tree ; the poor eat it, and cattle
are fattened with it. The tree is of a middle size, full of
branches, and abounding with round leaves, an inch or
two in diameter. The blossoms are little red clusters,
with abundance of yellowish stalks. The fruits are flat
pods, from half a foot to fourteen inches long, and an inch
and a half broad ; they are brown at the top, sometimes
crooked, composed of two husks, separated by membranes
into several cells, and containing flat seeds, something
like those of cassia. The substance of these husks is
filled with a sweetish, honey-like kind of juice, not unlike
that of the pith of cassia. In all probability its crooked
figure occasioned its being called in Greek Keratia, which
signifies little liorns. — Calmet.
HUSS, (John,) the celebrated Bohemian reformer, was
born near Prague, in Bohemia, about the 3'ear 1376, at a
village called Hussinez, upon the borders of the Black
forest. His parents were not aflluent, but his father paid
great attention to his education, which he improved by
his strong mental capacities, and by close application to
his studies in the university of Prague, where he obtained
the degree of bachelor of arts in 1393, master of arts in
1395, and bachelor in divinity in 1408. During the course
of his university honors, he" obtained also a benefice.
John Mulheym, a person of large fortune in Prague,
erected a chapel, which he called Bethlehem ; and, having
amply endowed it, appointed Huss as minister. Huss
was at this time a Catholic. The opinions of Wickliffe,
though then extending, had not reached Bohemia. Hav-
ing, about the year 1382, perused, through the medium
of a young Bohemian nobleman, the writings of Wick-
liffe, his mind was greatly impressed by them ; and he
would call him an angel sent from heaven to enlighten
mankind. He would mention, among his friends, his
meeting with the works of that reformer, as the most for-
tunate circumstance of his life. From this time, both in
the schools and in the pulpit, he would inveigh with great
warmth against ecclesiastical abuses ; point out the bad
government of the church, and the bad lives of the cler-
gy ; and lament the state of the people who were under
the government of the one, and the influence of the other.
The state of religion in Bohemia was, indeed, at that time,
very low ; it was the subject of barter, and the clergy
were most corrupt ; Huss, therefore, attracted not only
notice, but attention. The followers of Huss became nu-
merous ; many members of the university followed him.
The works of Wickliffe were translated into the Sclavo-
HUS
t 641
HUT
flian tongue, and read with great attention in every part
of Bohemia j and as soon as pope Alexander V. was seat-
ed in the chair, observing the diffusion of Protestant prin-
ciples and writings, he issued a bull, directed to the arch-
bishop of Prague, ordering him to collect the writings of
Wickliffe, and to apprehend and imprison his followers.
By virtue of that bull, the archbishop condemned the
writings of Wickliffe. proceeded against four doctors who
had not delivered up their copies of his writings, and pro-
hibited them from again preaching. Pope John XXIII.
soon after followed it up by the excommunications of
Huss and his followers.
This treatment had no tendency to lessen the popularity
of Huss. His sufferings increased his influence; and
multitudes of all ranks, either impelled by gratitude or by
compassion, hastened to enlist themselves in his cause.
Thus supported, he did not despond ; and, although he
was prohibited from preaching, he continued to discharge
every other branch of the pastoral office ; and, among
other plans adopled b)' him, he gave out questions, which
he encouraged the people to discuss in private, and to
come to him with their difficulties. Thus disappointed
and chagrined in his attempts to suppress the reformed,
the new archbishop convened a council of doctors, who
drew up and published some articles against Huss and
his adherents. But to them he wrote a spirited and judi-
cious reply. Soon after this performance, Huss published
another piece against the usurpations of the court of
Rome ; and to this the archbishop and council replied.
But with writing alone they were dissatisfied, and there-
fore applied to the pope for assistance, who merely re-
commended the subject to the king of Bohemia. The
letters which Huss wrote at this time are very numerous.
He justified Wickliffe's book on the Trinity, and defended
the character of that reformer against a charge brought
by a man of the name of Stokes, and others, who accused
him of disobedience. He also wrote many discourses
against the peculiar doctrines of the Catholic church.
About this time Peter of Dresden was obliged to fly from
Saxony, and seek a refuge at Prague, where he encour-
aged a priest of St. Michael's chapel to preach up the esta-
blishment of the communion under the species of wine.
Huss embraced these sentiments, for which he was
exposed to persecution ; but eventually the Hussites were
permitted to continue their sermons, and their sentiments
became general. In 1412, Huss left his retirement, and
returned to Prague. Pope John XXIII. at this time pub-
lished his bulls against the king of Naples, ordering a
crusade against him, and granting indulgences to all who
engaged in that war. Huss declaimed against such bulls,
crusades, and indulgences. The populace espoused the
opinions of Huss : the magistrates imprisoned and perse-
cuted them, and a massacre ensued ; but through the
whole affair he displayed a true Christian spirit. Imme-
diately after that melancholy affair, Huss retired to his
native place, where he lived protected by the principal
persons of the country. Thither some of the most emi-
nent men of every country resorted, to obtain his direc-
tions, his assistance, and his advice. During his retreat
at Hussinez, he spent much of his time in writing. There
he wrote his treatise " Upon the Church ;" his paper en-
titled " The Six Errors," levelled against indulgences,
simony, excommunication, ice. These treatises were
much opposed, and Huss defended them. Huss, soon
after, once more returned to Prague, and engaged in oth-
er controversies. At Constance, at this time, the famous
council was held, at which it was determined, that a re-
formation was necessary ; and pope John was deposed
and imprisoned. But against Huss and his followers, it
also directed its thunderbolts. Wicklitfe was now dead ;
but they reviled his memory, burnt his books, and even
ordered his bones to be dug up and consumed to ashes.
To Constance Huss travelled, there determined to defend
his principles, and support the cause of truth. On his
journey he was received with acclamations, and in three
weeks arrived at that place. He was nominally examin-
ed before the pope and the cardinals ; and, after remain-
ing there some time, he was one day suddenly seized by
a party of guards, in the gallery of the council, although
the pope had assured him of liberty and protection. At
81
such perfidy the assembly was surprised ; and the pope,
confounded and alarmed, could only say that it was iho
act of the cardinals.
In a lonely monastery im the banks of the Kliine be
longing to the Franciscans, who, as an order, were bitterly
opposed to him, Huss was now confined. Yet even there
he composed some interesting tracts, among which was
one entitled, " A Comment upon the Commaudments ■'
another, " Upon the Lord's Prayer ;" a third, " On the
Knowledge and Love of God ;" and a fourth, " On the
Three great Enemies of Mankind." For a long time
Huss remained in prison. Catholics of more liberal prin-
ciples interceded for his acquittal, but in vain. Many
sessions elapsed prior to the exhibition of articles against
him ; but on the 5th and 6th of June, 1415, after a pre-
vious examination, he was tried for maintaining the doc-
trines afterwards professed in the Kefoniied church, and
was advised to abjure his books and recant. But he mag-
nanimously refused : and on the 7th of July, the coun-
cil censured him for being obstinate and incorrigible, and
ordered " that he should be degraded from the priesthood,
his books publicly burnt, and himself delivered to the se-
cular power." That sentence he heard without emotion.
He immediately prayed for the pardon of his enemies.
The bishops appointed by the council stripped him of his
priestly garments, and put a mitre of paper on his head,
on which devils were painted, with this inscription : " A
Ringleader of Heretics." The bishops delivered him to
the emperor, and he delivered him to the duke of Bavaria.
His books were burnt at the gate of the church, and he
was led to the suburbs to be burnt alive. Prior to his ex-
ecution, he made a solemn, public appeal to God, from
the judgment of the pope and council, which was fervent
and energetic. He was then surrounded with fagots, his
mind all the while composed and happy. The flames
were then applied to the fagots ; when the martyr sang a
hymn, with so loud and cheerful a voice, that he was dis-
tinctly heard through all the noise of the combustibles
and of the multitude. At last he uttered, '• Jesus Christ,
thou Son of the living God, have mercy upon me !" and
he was consumed ; after which, his ashes were carefully
collected and cast into the Rhine. Huss was a true eccle-
siastic, and a real Christian. Gentle and c<indescending
to the opinions of others, this amiable pattern of virtue
was strict only in his principles. His great contest was
with vice. His piety was calm, rational, and manly ;
his fortitude was undaunted. " From his infancy," said
the university of Prague, " he was of such excellent mo-
rals, that during his stay here, we may venture to chal-
lenge any one to produce a single fault against him."
His writings were simple, pious, afl'ectionale, and intelli
gent. Luther said he was the most rational expounder
of Scripture he ever met with Henil. Buck.
HUSSITES; the followers of John Huss. (See Tabo-
RITES.)
HUTCHESON, (Dr. Francis,) a Christian divine, philo-
sopher and writer, was born, in 1694, in the north of Ire-
land ; studied at the university of Glasgow; and, after
having for many years kept an academy at Dublin, was
invited, in 1729, to Glasgow, to fill the chair of professor
of philosophy ; a situation which he held till his decease,
in 1747. He is the author of an Inquiry into the Ideas
of Beauty and Virtue ; a Treatise on the Passions ; and a
System of Moral Philosophy. Hutcheson is an elegant
writer; his metaphysics are of the school of Shaftes-
bury.
According to professor Dugald Stuart, his fame rests
on the taste that his works and lectures contributed
to diffuse for analytical discussion in Scotland, which
led to the production of some of the most valuable writ-
ings of the eighteenth century. Biog. Brit, and Stiiv-
art's Life of Dr. Adam Smith. — Davenport ; Joim' Chris.
Biog.
HUTCHINSONIANS; the followers of John Hutchin-
son, who was born in Yorkshire, in lfi74. In the early part
of his life he served the duke of Somerset in the capacity
of steward ; and in the course of his travels from place
to place employed himself in collecting fossils. We axe
told that the large and noble collection bequeathed by Dr.
Woodward lo the university ..;' Cambridge was actually
H U T
(342
II Y A
rious revelalions which he in all succeeding limes shoali!
ra iJe by hiin, and even unfairly obtained from him.
•4, he published Ihe "- ■ - ' "•- "-'■""' ^""^'
ed''Moses'PnndiMa/Mnwmcn ,,erKi>.u..u X.. ...^^^ arilTeljeity, during the Old Testament dispensation,
ward;s Namral_H,s,ory of the Eanh a^nd ex,^^^^^ as the^ ^^^'make known to Ihe sons of >.eJ Farther
ni.Kuc uj ....... ■...-- ■•• -• — -jf , • . „„,.:„„= tinnl- rail- make in that language ; consequently, that its words must
1724, he published the/-lJJ^U^of^h,s^cui,ous bool^^^^ S^l^e most proper and cletermma^ m cc^yey.such tnrtb.
Frmn this time to his death he published a volume every
year or two, which, with the manuscripts he lelt behmd;
the Old Testament, if the language be rightly under-
stood, is the most determinate in its meaning of any
meanini ..w . , — -- . ,,t wi-
the literal sense, answered in a muttering tone, " I believe,
doctor, you will;" and was so displeased, that he dis-
missed him for anotlier physician ; but he died in a tew
daj's after, August 28, 1737. r u- j- ■ 1
It appears to be a leading sentiment of his disciples,
tl at all our idens of divinity are formed from the ideas in
nature ■ that nature is a standing picture, and Scripture
an application of the several parts of the picture, to draw
out to us the great things of God, in order to reform our
mental conceptions. To prove this point, they allege, that
the Scriptures declare the invisible things of God from the
formation of the world are clearly seen, being un-lerstooil .. „,, , . ,■
by rhethrgs which are made ; even his eternal power secondary end of his revelation to unfold the secrets oi
and Godheld, Rom. 1:20. The heavens must declare his works; as the primary was to make known the mys^
ing contrary to truth is accommodated to vulgar apprehen-
sions.
In proof of this the Hutchinsonians argue in this man-
ner : The primary and ultimate design of revelation is
indeed to teach men divinity ; but in subserviency to that,
geography, history, and chronology, are occasionally in-
troduced ; all which are allowed to be just and authentic.
There are also innumerable references to things of nature,
and descriptions of them. If, then, the former are just,
and to be depended on, for the same reason the latter
ought to be esteemed philosophically true. Farther: they
think it not unworthy of God, that he should make it a
God's righteousness and truth in the congregation of the
saints, Ps. 89: 5. And, in short, the whole system of na-
ture, in one voice of analogy, declares and gives us ideas
of his glory, and shows us his handy work. We cannot
have any ideas of invisible things tUl they are pointed out
to us by' revelation : and as we cannot know them imme-
diately, such as thiy are in themselves, after the manner
in which we know sen.sible objects, they must be commu-
nicated to us by the mediation of such things as we al
teries of his nature, and the designs of his grace, that
men might thereby be led to admire and adore the wisdom
and goodness which the great Author of the universe has
displayed throughout all his works. And as our minds
are often referred to natural things for ideas of spiritual
truths, it is of great importance, in order to conceive
aright of divine matters, that our ideas of the natural
things referred to be strictly just and true.
Mr. Hutchinson imagined he found that the Hebrew
nicateu to us Dy me iiieuiauuu ui suun 1111115^ u.o ,.,. ".. — .. , : ^., , , ,■ . , ,1, ^,,„k» u.*,!
ready comprehend. For this reason the Scnpture is found ?o.inures had some capital ^^^^^^^^^^^
to have a language of its own, which does not consist of
words, but of signs or Ggures taken from visible things :
ih consequence of which the world which we now see be-
comes a sort of commentary oil the mind of God, and ex-
plains the world in which we believe. The doctrines of
the Christian faith are attested by the whole natural world :
they are recorded in a language which has never been
confounded ; they are written in a text which shall never
be corrupted.
The Hutchinsonians maintain that the great mystery
of the Trinity is conveyed to our understandings by ideas
of sense ; and that ihe created substance of the air, or
heaven, in its threefold, agency of fire, light, and spirit,
is the enigma of the one essence or one Jehovah in three
persons. The unity of essence is exhibited by its unity
of substance ; the trinity of conditions, fire, light, and
spirit. Thus the one substance of the air, or heaven in
its three conditions, shows the unity in trinity ; and its
three conditions in or of one substance, the trinity in uni-
ty. For (says this denomination) if we consult the writ-
ings of the Old and New Testament, we shall find the
persons of the Deity represented under the names and
characters of the three material agents, fire, light, and
spirit, and their actions expressed by the actions of these
their emblems. The Father is called a consuming fire ; and
his judicial proceedings are spoken of in words which de-
note the several actions of fire : Jehovah is a consuming
fire ; our God is a consuming fire, Deut. 4: 21. Heb. 12: 29.
The Son has the name of light, and his purifying actions and
offices are described by words which denote the actions and
ofiices of light. He is the true light, which lighteth every
man that Cometh into the world, John 1: 9. Mai. 4: 2. The
Comforter has the name of Spirit ; and his animating and
not been duly considered and understood ; and which, he
has endeavored to prove, contain in their radical meaning
the greatest and most comfortable truths. The cherubim
he explains to be a hieroglyphic of divine construction,
or a sacred image, to describe, as far as figures could go,
the humanity united to Deity : and so he treats of several
other words of similar import. From all which he con-
cluded, that the rites and ceremonies of the Jevvish dis-
pensation were so many delineations of Christ, in what
he was to be, to do, and to suft'er ; that the early Jews
knew them to be types of his actions and sufferings ; and,
by performing them as such, were so far Chrislians bath
in faith and practice. .
The Hutchinsonians, how fanciful soever many of theur
views of philosophy, and how utterly untenable their sys-
tem of Hebrew philology, have, for the most part, been
men of devout minds, zealous in the cause of Christiani-
ty, and untainted with heterodox opinions, which have so
often divided the church of Christ. The names of Ro-
maiiie, bishop Home, Parkhurst, and others of this de-
nomination, will be long esteemed, both for the piety they
possessed, and the good they have been the instruments
of promoting amongst mankind. ShouM the reader wish
to know more of the philosophical and theological opinions
of Mr. Hutchinson, he may consult a work, entitled " An
Abstract of the Works of John Hutchinson, Esq., Edin-
burgh, 1753." See also Jones' Life of Bistmp Home, se-
cond edition. ; Times' Works ; Spearman's Imiuiry, pp. 260,
21-i.~Hend. Burk.
HYACINTH. By this word we understand, (1.) a pre-
cious stone ; (2.) a sort of flower ; and, (3.) a particular
color. The flower hyacinth is not spoken of in Scripture,,
but the color and the stone of this name are. The spouse
sustainingofficesai-edescribedhy words, fortheactionsand compares her beloved's hands to gold rings set with hya-
oflices of the material spirit. His actions in the spiritual
economy are agreeable to his type in the natural econo-
my; such as inspiring, impelling, driving, leading, Matt.
2: 1. The philosophic system of the Hutchinsonians is
derived from their views of the Hebrew Scriptures. It
rests on these suppositions: — 1. That the Hebrew lan-
guage was formed under divine inspiration, either all at
once, or at dilTen'nt limes, as occasion required ; and that
the Divine Bcini:^ In 1 a view, in con=.triirtin? it, to the va-
..nth; (Cant. 5: 14.) [Eng. Tr. beryl;] and John (Rev.
21 : 20.) says, that the eleventh foundation of the heavenly
Jerusalem is of a hyacinth. There are four sorts of hya-
cinths. The first is something of the color of a ruby;
the second is of a gilded yellow ; the third cif a citron
yellow ; the fourth the color of a granite. The Hebrew
of Canticles, instead of hyacinth, reads the stone of Tar-
sldsh. mentioned also in'Exod. 28: 20. [Eng. Tr. beryl.]
We do not certainly know what stone it is, but interpreters
HYM
I t543 J
U y P
genevj.lly explain il of the chrysolite ; or the yellow topaz
of modern travellei-s.
Of the hyacinth color — according lo the most learned
interpreters, an azure blue, or very deep purple, like a
violet color — Most?s often siwaks. It was dyed with the
Wood of a shell-fish, in Latin, murex, in Hebrew, tliihon,
—Calmf).
HYDE, (Thomas, D. D.,) an eminent orientalist, ^iTis
horn, in 1636, at BiUingsley, in Shropshire, and studied at
King's college, Oxford. Before he was eighteen he as-
sisted Walton in the Polj'^lot Bible. He was successively
Hebrew reader, keeper of the Bodleian library, prebendary
of Salisbury, archdeacon of &loacesler, and Arabic and
Hebrew professor. He died in 1703. Of his numerous
Searned works the principal is, a History of the Religion
eflhe Ancient Persians. — Davenport; Jones' Cliris. Bios;.
HY^NA; a wild beast. The Hebrew, Lev. U^lfi,
and Job 30: 29, ice. reads, " the daughter of the kiemi,"
(lieth-hdiana ; Eng. Tr. " owl,") instead of slmthio, as \he
Vulgate. The same in several other places of the Hebrew,
where it is generally translated strutkio, the eslmh ; though
it is not clear that this is its true .signification. (See Os-
TKicH.) The animal known to us as the hyo?nn, is a
qiuadruped almost as large as a wolf; whose hair is rough,
and its skin spotted or streaked. It has no length of neck,
but i-s fcrced to turn itself quite round, when it would look
behind. It is very cruel and voracious; drags dead bodies
out of their graves, and devours tSiem : instead of teeth,
has one continued bone iti the jaw. It is said to imitate
the voice of a man, and by this it often deceives travellers.
Hysenas were formerly prcxlnced at Rome in the public
games, and Ihey are represented ou ancient medals. —
CalrneA.
HYMEN.iEUS, was probably a citizen of Ephesus,
converted by some of the early discourses of Paul. He
fell afterwanls into the heresy which denied the resurrec-
tion of the body, and said it was already accomplished, 2
Tim. 2: 17. Augustine thinks, that the error of such opin-
ions consisted in saying, there was no resurrection be-
side that of the soul, which by faith, profession, and bap-
tism is revived from sin to grace. Paul informs Timo-
thy, that he had excommunicated Hymenfeus, and given
him over to Satan, 1 Tim. 1: 20. Two years afterwards
Hymena!us engaged with Philetus in some new error, 2
. Tim. 2: 17. We know nothing of the end of HymeuEeus.
— CalrMt.
HYMN ; a song, or ode, composed in honor of God.
The Jewish hymns were accompanied with trumpets,
drums, and cymbals, to assist the voices of the Levites
and people. The word is used as synonymous with can-
ticle, song, or psalm, which the Hebrews scarcely distin-
guish, having no particular term for a hymn, as distinct
from a psalm or canticle. St. Paul requires Christians to
edify themselves and one another with "psalms, and
hymns, and spiritual songs." St. Matthew says, that
Christ, having supped, sung a hymn, and went out. It is
supposed he recited the hj'mns or psalms which the Jews
were used to sing after the passover ; which they called
the Ha il ; that is, the Hallelujah Psalms. — Wahon.
HYPERBOLE. Hyperbolic language is among the
loftiest flights of poetic composition — of unrestrained ima-
gination ; and it prevails principally among those who are
in the habit of associating combinations of fanciful image-
ry ; or those who, being well acquainted with the ideas
drawn from natural things, which it means to convey,
readily admit such exalted phraseolog}', because Ihey un-
derstand its import, and the intention of the author who
employs it. On the contrary, those who have little or no
acquaintance with the natural ideas meant to be conveyed
by hyperbolical e.ttraragai»ces, are alwaj's surprised, and
sometimes shocked, when th-ey meet with them in works
where simple truth is the object of the readers reseaix:hes.
Hyperbolic expressions are but rare in Scripture, though
figurative or poetic expressions are abiindant; rare us
they3re, however, they have been severely commented on
by infidels, and have occasionally embarrassed bclievci's.
Ther« is certainly some force in the reflection, " What
would infidels have said, had it pleased God to have
chosen eastern Asia, instead of western Asia, fw the seat
of revelaliim ? V/hat v,ould they have thought of the most
correct truth, had it happened, under the influence of such
locality, to ha-.-e been arrayed in the hyiscrbolic attire of
that countrj'?"
It is hoped (hat the style -of the fojlowing extracts may
moderate the surprise of some at certain jKictJc plirases
which occur in Holy Writ. They are transcribed from
tlve Asimic Researches. " Gospaat, king of the world,
possessed matchless good fortune : he was lord of two
brides, the earth and her wealth. When his innumerable
army marched, Ihe heavens n-erc so filed n-ilh the dnstaj their
feel, thai the birds ef the air could rest upon it." " At Mood-
goghreree, where is encamped his victorious amiy ; a-civ5ss
whose river a bridge of boats is constructed for a road,
which is mistaken for a chain of mountair«s ; where im-
mense herds of elephants, like thick black clouds, .so
darlien the face of day, the people think it (he season of
llie rains; whither the princes of the north send so many
troops of- horse, that the dust of their hoofs spreads dark-
ness on all sides ; whither resort so many mighty chiefs
of lumbodv.ei'p to pay their respect.s that the earth sinks
beneath the weight of their aWendants." — Kf\ex lliis, liow
fiat and low is the fulsome boast of the haughty Senna-
cherib ! 2 Kings Ul; 21.
By making western Asia the seat of i'evclation, a medi-
um is obtained between European frigi><i!y, as Asiatics
would think it, and Asiatic hyperbole, as Europeans
would think it ; .so that the Asiatic may find some simi-
larity lo his own metaphorical manner, and isuiied lo ox-
cite HIS attention ; while the European, who pnilt'sscs to
l>e ch.ormed with the simplicity of truth, may find iu Scrip-
ture abundance of that simplicity, most hapjiily adapted
lo HIS more sober judgment, his more correct and belter
regulated taste. — Cabwl.
HYPOCRISY, is a seeming or profes.sing lo be what in
truth and reality we are not. It consists in assuming a
character which v.-e are conscious does not belong to us,
and by which we intentionally impose upon the jiidgment
and opinion of mankind concerning us. The name is
borrowed from ihe Greek tongue, in which it primarily
signifies the profession of a stage-player, which is to ex-
press in speech, habit, and actioti, not his own [wrson arid
manners, but his whom he undertakes lo represent. And
so it is ; for the very essence of hypocrisy lies in apt imi-
tation and deceit ; in acting the part of a member of Christ
without any saving grace. The hypocrite is a double per-
son ; he has one person, which is natural ; another, which
is artificial: the first he keeps to himself; the other he
puts on as he doth his clothes, to make his appearance in
before men. It was ingeniously said by Basil, " ihat the
hypocrite has not put off the old man, but put on the uew
upon it."
Hypocrites have been divided into four sorts : — 1. The
worldly hypocrite, who makes a profession of religion, and
pretends to be religious, merely from worldly considera-
tions. Matt. 23: 5.-2. The legal hypocrite, who relin-
quishes his vicious practices, in order thereby to merit
heaven, while at the same time he has no real love <o
God, Rom. 10: 3.-3, The emmelical hypoenle, whose
religion is nothing more than a bare conviction ol sin ,
f BI
[ 644 J
ICO
■who rejoices nnder Ihe idea that Christ died for him, and
yet has no desire to live a holy life, Matt. 13: 20. 2 Pet. 2:
20. — -4. The enthusiastic hypocrite, who has an imaginary
sight of his sin, and of Christ ; talks of remarkable im-
pulses and high feelings ; and thinks himself very wise
and good while he lives in the most scandalous practices,
Matt. 13: 39. 2 Cor. 11: 14. Crook on Hypocrisy ; Decoet-
legon's Sermon on Ps. 51:6; Grcme's Moral philosophy, vol.
ii. p. 253 ; Soutk's Sermon on Job 8: 13, vol. x. ; Bdlarm/s
Belig. Ddin. p. 166; R. Walker's Sermons. — Hend. Buck.
HYPOSTASIS : a term literally signifying SEfbstance
or subsistence, or that which is put and stands under ano-
ther thing, and supports it, being its base, grotind, or
foundation. Thus faith is the substantial foundation of
, things hoped for, Heb. 1 1 ; 1 . The word is Greek, htrposta-
sis, compounded of hupo, under, and isthni, I stand, I exist,
q. d. subsistentia. It hence likewise signifies confidence,
stability, firmness, 2 Cor. 9: 4. It is also used for person,
Heb. 1: 3. Thus we hold that there is but one nature or
essence in God, but three hypostases or persons. The
word has occasioned great cfissensions in the ancient
church, first among the Greeks, and afterwards among
the Latins ; bm an end was put to them by a synod held
at Alexandria, about the year 362, at which Athanasins
assisted ; from which time the Latins made do great
scruple of saying three hypostases, nor the Greeks of three
persons. The hypostatical union is the union of the hu-
man nature of Christ with the divine ; constituting two na-
tures in one person, and not two persons in one natttre,
as the Nestorians believe. (See Jesus Cbbist.) — Hend.
Buck.
HYPSISTARII ; the same as Ca-Lico^LM, whttcJi see.
HYSSOP, is an herb generally known, and often men-
tioned in Scripture. It was commonly nsed in purifica-
tions as a sprinkler. God commanded
the Hebrew.s, when they came out of
Egypt, to take a bunch of hyssop, to
dip it in the blood of the paschal lamb,
and sprinkle Ihe lintel and the two
side-posts of the door-way with it.
Sometimes ibey added a little scarlet
wool fo it, as in the purification of le-
pers. Hyssop is mentioned as one of
the smallest of herbs, 1 Kings 4; 33.
It js of a bitter taste, and grows OQ the
mountaiES near Jerusalem. The hys-
sop of John 19: 29 is probably what
is called a reed, or cane, in Mark 15:
36. Matt, 27: 48; or else this hyssop was like a sponge
imbued with the drrnft ; it was perhaps a batKffn!- gathered
of the nearest herbs to the spot, which might be mostly
hyssop. Hassetquist says, there grows oat of Jerusalem,
near the fomitain of Siloam, a Tery minnfe moss ; and he
asks, " Is not this the hyssop ? It is at least as diminutive
as the cedar is tall and majestic." i«»er, Sept. 22, 1751.
— Calmet.
I.
I, is often used emphatically in Scripture. When it
relates to God, it is expressive of his dignity; (Ps. 81:
14.) his power; (Gen. 17: 1.) his self-e.^istence and nn-
changeableness ; (Exod. 3: 14.) or the certainty of his
promises and threatenings, Exod. 6: 2. Numb. 14: 35.
When used with reference to men it expresses their pride;
(Isa. 47: 8.) or the certainty of what they say ; (Gal. 5:
2. Pl>il. 3: 19.) and their readiness to perform their duty,
Wic.3; 8. Matt. 21: SO.—Brmm.
IBERIANS ; a denomination of Eastern Chrisrians,
who derive their name from Iberia, a province of Asia,
now called Georgia : hence ihey are also called Georgians.
Tlieir tenets are nearly the same with those of the Greek
church; which see. — Heiid. Suck.
IBEX ; a wild goat. (See Goat.)
IBIS, (Heb. fjairshuph ; Eng. Trans, awt ;) an tmclean
bird, common ira Egypt, Lev. 11: 17. Strabo describes it
as being like a stork; some are black, and others white.
The Egyptians worshipped them because they devour the
serpents, which otherwise would overran the country. >'8
was a capital crime to kill an ibis, though inadvertently.
Cambyses, king of Persia, being acquainted with this,
placed some of them before his army, while he besiegedi
Damietta. The Egyptians, not daring, tc shoot against
them, suffered the town to be taken. Blr. Taylor is of
opinion that the yanshuph is not the ancient ibis, but
the ardea ibis, described by Hasselquist. (See Egypt.) —
Calmei.
ICHABOD; son of Fhineiias, and grandson of Eli, thff
high-priest. He was bom at the moment when his mother
heard the fatal news of the ark being taken ; whence he
obtained his name — " mhere is the glory ?" 1 Sam. 4: 19 —
21.— Calmet.
ICHTHUS, (a fish ;) a word found on marty seaBs,
rings, lamps, urns, and tombstones, belonging to the ear-
liest Christian times. Each character forms an initial
letter in the following Greek words : lesous Christos Theou
Ui&s Soter ; i. e. Jesas Christ, the Son of God, the Savior.
The picture of a fish is sometimes engraved on similar
objects, bearing doubtless the same mystical meaning.
By whom, on what occasion, and for what particular put-
pose, this symbol was introduced, has never beeni detest
mined.— ff«!(f. Bmilr.
ICONIUM ; formerly the chief city of Lycaonia, in Asi-a
Minor. It is sitnaled about a hundred and twenty miles
inland from the MetliteiTanean, on the lake Trogilis. Mr.
Kinneir says, Iconmm, the capital of Lycaonia, is men-
tioned by Xenophon, and afterwards by Cicero and Strabo'.
It is represented as enjoying a fine climate, and pleasantly
situated among gardens and meadows; while it is nearly
surrounded, at some distance, with mountains which rise
to the regions of perpetual snow. Here St. Paul miracu-
lously escaped with his life, Acts 14. The church planted
at this place by St. Paul (Acts 13.) A. D. 4.'i, and visited
by him again A.D. 51, continued to flourish, until, by the
persecutions of the Saracens, and afterwards of the Sel-
jnkian Turks, who made it the capital of one of their sul-
tanies, it was nearly extinguished. But some Christians
of the Greek and Armenian churches, with a Greek arch-
bishop, are yet found in the suburbs of this city, who are
not permitted to reside within the walls.
Iconium is now called Cogni, and is still a considerable
city ; being the capital of the extensive province of Cara-
mania, as it was formerly of Lycaonia, and the seat of a
Turkish beglerberg, or viceroy. It is the place of chief
IDL
[ 645]
I DO
strength and importance in the central parts of Asiatic
Turkey, being surrounded by a strong wall of four miles
in circumference ; but, as is the case with most Eastern
cities, much of the inclosed space is waste. The modern
city has an imposing appearance from the number and
size of its mosques, colleges, and other pubUc buildings ;
but these stately edifices are crumbling into ruins, whilst
the houses of the inhabitants consist of a mixture of small
huts built of sun-dried bricks, and wretched hovels thatched
with reeds. The city contains about eighty thousand in-
habitants, principally Turks, with only a small proportion
of Christians. — Watson.
ICONOCLASTES, image-breakers ; or Iconomachi,
image-opposers, were names given to those who rejected
the use of images in churches, and, on certaiu occasions,
vented their zeal in destroying them. The word is Greek,
formed from eikon, an image, and klastein, to break. The
great opposition to images began under Bardanes, a Greek
emperor, in the beginning of the eighth century ; and was
revived again, a few years after, under Leo the Isaurian,
who issued an edict against image-worship, which occa-
sioned a civil war in the islands of the Archipelago, and
afterwards in Italy ; the Roman pontiffs and Greek coun-
cils alternately supporting it. At length images were re-
jected by the Greek church, which however retains pictures
in churches, though her members do not worship them ;
but the Latin church, more corrupt, not only retained
images, but made them the medium, if not the object, of
their worship, and are therefore Iconoiluli, or Iconolatras,
iinage-worshi|ipers.
The worship of images was disapproved, and opposed
by several considerable parties, as the Petrobussians, Al-
bigenses, Waldenses, &c. ; till at length this idolatrous
practice was abolished in many parts of the Christian
world by the Reformation. (See Image.) — Watson ; Hend.
Buck.
ICONOLATRY, (from eikhi, an image, and latria, wor-
ship;) the worship or adoration of images. Hence image-
worshippers are called Iconolatra, or konolattrs. — H. Buck.
IDDG ; a prophet of Judah, who wrote the history of
Rehoboam and Abijah. It seems by 2 Chron. 13: 22, that
he had entitled his work Midrash, or Inquiries. Probably
he also wrote prophecies against Jeroboam, son of Nebat,
chap. 10: 2. Josephus and others are of opinion, that he
was sent to Jeroboam, at Bethel, and that it was he who
was killed by a hon, 1 Kings 13. — Calmet. ■
IDLENESS ; a reluctancy to be employed in any kind
of work. The idle man is in every view both foolish and
criminal. He neither lives to God, to the world, nor to
himself.
" He does not live to God, for he answers not the end for
which he was brought into being. Existence is a sacred
trust ; hut he who misemploys and squanders it away,
thus becomes treacherous to its Author. Those powers
which should be employed in his service, and for the pro-
motion of his glory, lie dormant. The time which should
be sacred to Jehovah is lost ; and thus he enjoys no fel-
lowship with God, nor any way devotes himself to his
praise.
" He lives not to the world, nor for the benefit of his fel-
low-creatures around him. While all creation is full of
hfe and activity, and nothing stands still in the universe,
he remains idle, forgetting that mankind are connected by
various relations and mutual dependencies, and that the
order of the world cannot be maintained without perpetual
circulation of active duties.
''He lives not to himself. Thongh he imagines that he
leaves to others the drudgery of life, and betakes himself
to enjoyment and ease, yet, in fact, he has no true plea-
sure. While he is a blank in society, he is no less a tor-
ment to himself; for he who knows not what it is to labor,
knows not what it is to enjoy. He shuts the door against
improvement of every kind, whether of mind, body, or
fortune. Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental
powers. His character falls into contempt. Disorder,
confusion, and embarrassment, mark his whole situation.
Idleness is the inlet to a variety of other vices. It under-
mines every virtue in the soul. Violent passions, like
rapid torrents, run their course; but after having over-
flowed their banks, their impetuosity subsides : but sloth,
especially when it is habitual, is like the slowly-flowing
putrid stream, which stagnates in the marsh, breeds ve-
nomous animals, and poisonous plants, and infects wlh
pestilential vapors the whole country round it. Having
once tainted the soul, it leaves no part of it sound ; and at
the same time gives not those alarms to conscience which
the eruptions of bolder and fiercer emotions often occa-
sion." Logan's Sermmu, vol. i. ser. 4 ; Blair's Sermons,
vol. iii. ser. 4; Idler, vol. i. p. 5, 171, 172 ; Con-per's Po-
ems, 228, vol. i. duod.; Johnson's Handler, vol. ii. p. 162,
163— Hend. Buck.
IDOLATRY, (Gr. eidolon, an idol, and latria, worship;)
the worship of idols, or the act of ascribing to things and
persons, properties which are peculiar to God alone. The
principal sources of idolatry seem to be the extrav.igant
veneration for creatures and beings from which benefits
accrue to men. Dr. Jortin says, that idolatry had four
privileges to boast of. The first was a venerable antiqui-
ty, more ancient than the Jewish religion ; and idolaters
might have said to the Israelites, *' Where was your reli-
gion before Moses and Abraham? Go, and inquire in
Chaldea, and there you will find that your fathers served
other gods." 2. It was wider in its spread than the Jewish
religion. It was the religion of the greatest, the wisest,
and the poUtest nations of the Chaldeans, Egyptians, and
Phoenicians — the parents of civil government, and of
arts and sciences. 3. It was more adapted to the Lent
which men have towards visible and sensible objects.
Men want gods who shall go before them, and be among
them. God, who is everywhere in power, and nowhere in
appearance, is hard to be conceived. 4. It favored human
passions ; it required no morality ; its religious ritual con-
sisted of splendid ceremonies, revelling, dancing, noctur-
nal assemblies, impure and scandalous mysteries, de-
bauched priests, and gods, who were both slaves and
patrons to all sorts of vices. (See Gods.)
"All the more remarkable false religions that have been
or are in the world, recommend themselves by one or other
of these four privileges and characters."
The first objects of idolatrous worship are thought to
have been the sun, moon, and stars. Others ihink that
angels were first worshipped. Soon after the flood, we
find idolatry greatly prevailing in the world. Abraham's
father's family served other gods beyond the river Eu-
phrates ; and LaBan had idols which Rachel brought
along with her. In process of time, noted patriots, or
kings deceased, animals of various kinds, plants, stones,
and, in fine, whatever people took a fancy to, they idol-
ized. The Egyptians, though high pretendere to wisdom,
worshipped pied bulls, snipes, leeks, onions, tec. The
Greeks had about thirty thousand gods. The Gomeriaus
deified their ancient kings ; nor were the Chaldeans, Ro-
mans, Chinese, Ace. a whit less absurd. Some violated
the most natural atlections by murdering multitudt;; of
their neighbors and children, under pretence of sacrificing
them to their god. Some nations of Germany, Scandina-
via, and Tartar)', imagined that violent death in war, or
by self-murder, was the proper method of access to the
future enjoyment of their gods. In far later times, about
sixty-four thousand and eighty per.sons were sacrificed at
the dedication of one idolatrous temple in the space of four
days in America. The Hebrews never had any idols of
their own, but they adopted those of the nations around.
The veneration which the papists pay to the virgin
Mary, and other saints and angels, and to the bread in the
sacrament, the cross, relics, and images, lays a foundation
for the Protestants to charge them with idolatry, though
they deny the charge. It is evident that they worship
them, and that they justify the worship, but deny the idol-
atry of it, by distinguishing subordinate from supreme wor-
ship : the one they call latria, the other dulia ; but this
distinction is thought by many of the Protestants to be
vain, futile, and nugatory.
Idolatry has been divided into metofhorieal and proper.
By metaphorical idolatry is meant that inoniinate love of
riches, honors, and bodily pleasures, whereby the pa.ssions
and appetites of men are made superior to the will of Gosi ;
man, by so doing, making a god of himself and his sensual
temper. Proper idolatry is giving the divine honor to
another. The objects or idols of that honor which are
I G N [6
given, are either fcrsonnl, i. e. the Idolatrous themselves,
who become their own idols ; or internal, such as fancying
God to be a light, Hame, matter, fee, or which is perhaps
more common, entertaining and admiring false ideas of
his moral character ; or externa!, as worshipping angels,
the sun, stars, animals, tVc, instead of God. Tenison on
IiMatry ; A. Young on Idolatrous Corruptions ; Ridgki/s
Body of Divinity, qu. 106 ; Fell's Idolatry of Greece and
Rome; Stillitigfleef s Idolatry of the Church of Rome; Jortin's
Sermons, vol. vi. ser. 18. — Hend. Suck.
IDUMEA, or Edom. (See Edom.)
IGNATIUS, (bishop of Aniioch,) an illustrious martyr
of the second century, was educated under the apostle
John, and intimately acquainted in early life -nith St. Peter
and St. Paul. Being chosen bishop of Antioch (see Anti-
och) about the time of the destruction of Jerusalem, (A. D.
70,) he continued to fill it for upwards of forty years, in
the face of persecution, being from the excellence of his
character at once an honor and a safeguard to the Chris-
tian religion. AVIien the emperor Trajan came to Antioch,
in A.D. 107, (or, as some say, A.D. llrt,)tocarry on.his war
against the Parthians and Armenians, Ignatius was sum-
moned before him, and avowing his Christian faith, was
cast into prison, and sentenced to be sent to Rome, and
there be devoured by wild beasts. The venerable man
received his sentence with joy. " I thank thee, 0 Lord,"
he exclaimed, " that thou hast condescended to honor me
■nnth thy love, and hast thought me worthy, with thy apos-
tle Paul, to be bound in iron chains." With these words
he cheerfully embraced his chains, and commending the
church by fervent prayer to the care of the Savior, em-
barked for Rome. From Smyrna he wrote to the churches
at Ephesus, Magnesia, Trallia, Rome, and Philadelphia,
and on his voyage, to Polycarp and the church at Smyrna.
These letters are still extant, though the genuineness of
the three first is doubted by some learned men.
In the letter to Rome, he says, "Now I begin to be a
disciple ; nor shall any thing move me, whether visible or
invisible, that I may attain to Christ Jesus. Let fire and
the cross ; let the companies of wild beasts ; let break-
ing of bones, and tearing of members ; let the shattering
in )iieces of the whole body, and all the wicked torments
of the devil come upon me ; only let me enjoy Jesus
Chri.st. All the ends of the world and the kingdoms of it,
will profit me nothing ; I would rather die for Jesus Christ,
than rule to the utmost ends of the earth. Him I .seek who
died for us ; him I desire that rose again for us. This
is the gain that is laid up for me. My love is crucified."
The Christians at Rome received Ignatius with an equal
mixture of joy and sorrow. The interval of a few months,
before his martyrdcjm, was spent in prayers for the peace
and prosperity of the church. December 20, he was
brought out into the amphitheatre, and the lions, being
let loose upon him, quickly despatched him ; leaving no-
thing but a few bones, which being gathered up by the
two deacons who had been the companions of his journey,
were transported to Antioch, and there interred in the
cemetery without the gate. They were afterwards, by
command of the emperor Theodotius, removed to the Ty-
chion, a temple within the city, now consecrated to the
memory of St. IgnaAwi^.— Chalmers ; Cane; Fox; Clissold.
IGNATIUS DE LOYOLA, the founder of the order of
the Je.suits, was born, in 1491, of a noble famdy, in the
Spanish province of Guipuscoa. In 1521, he was •. vercly
wounded at the siege of Pampchuia. The result i>f his
16 1 ILL
meditations on a bed of pain was, .sorrow for his past de-
bauched life, and a determination to devote himself to
works of piety. He began by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem ;
after which he studieu at Alcala, Salamanca, and Paris ;
and began to preach and to make disciples. At first he
was opposed, and even imprisoned; but at length the
pope, in 1540, gave his sanction to the new order which
Loyola had established, and appointed him its first gene-
ral. He died in 1556, and was canonized in 1622. (See
Jesuits.) — Davenport.
IGNORANCE ; the want of knowledge or instruction.
It is often used to denote illiteracy. Mr. Locke observes,
that the causes of ignorance are chiefly three : — 1. Want
of ideas. 2. Want of a discoverable connexion between
the ideas we have. 3. Want of tracing and examining
our ideas. As it respects religion, ignorance has been
distinguished into three sorts : — 1. An invincible ignorance,
in which the will has no part. It is an insult upon jii.stice
to suppose it -n-ill punish men because they were ignorant
of things which they were physically incapable of knowing,
2. There is a wilful and obstinate ignorance ; such an igno-
rance, far from exculpating, aggravates a man's crimes,
3. A sort of voluntary ignorance, which is neither entirely
miful, nor entirely invincible ; as when a man has the
means of knowledge, and does not nse them. (See Know-
ledge ; and Sin.) Locke on the Understanding, vol. ii, p,
178 ; Grove's Moral Philosophy, vol, ii, p, 26, 29, 64 ; Watts
on the Mind. — Hend. Buck.
ILLUMINATI ; a term anciently applied to such as
had received baptism. The name was occasioned by a
ceremony in the baptism of adults, which consisted in put-
ting a lighted taper in the hand of the person baptized, as
a symbol of the faith and grace he had received in the
sacrament. This was unknown in primitive times,
ILLUMINATI, was also the name of a sect which ap-
peared in Spain about the year 1575, They were charged
with maintaining that mental prayer and contemplation
had so intimately united them to God, that they were ar-
rived to such a state of perfection, as to stand in no need
of good works, or the sacraments of the church, and that
they might commit the grossest crimes without sin.
After the suppression of the Illuminati in Spain, there
appeared a denomination in France which took the same
name. They maintained that one Anthony Buckuet had
a system of belief and practice revealed to him, which
exceeded every thing Christianity had yet been acquainted
with : that by this metliod persons might in a short time
arrive at the same degrees of perfection and glory to which
the saints and the Blessed Virgin have attained ; and this
improvement might be carried on till our actions became
divine, and our minds wholly given up to the influence of
the Almighly. They said further, that none of the doctors
of the church knew any thing of religion ; that Paul and
Peter were well-meaning men, but knew nothing of devo-
tion ; that the whole church lay in darkness and unbelief;
that every one was at liberty to follow the suggestions of
his conscience ; that God regarded nothing bnt himself;
and that within ten years their doctrine would be received
all over the world ; then there v.'ould be no more occasion
for priests, monks, and such other religious distinctions,
ILLUMINATI ; a name assumed hy a secret society,
founded on the 1st of May, 1776, by Dr, Adam Wtishaupt,
professor of canon law in the university of Ingolstadt.
The avowed object of this order was, ■'■ to diffuse from se-
cret societies, as from so many centres, the light of science
over the world ; to propagate the purest principles of vir-
tue, anil to reinstate mankind in the happiness which they
enjoyed during the golden age fabled by the poets." Such
a philanthropic object \\-as doubtless well adapted to make
a deep impression on the minds of ingenious j'oung men;
and to such alone did Dr. Weishaupt at first address him-
self. But "the real object," we are assured by professor
Robison and abbe Banuel, "was, by clandestine arts, to
overturn every government and every religion ; to bring
the sciences of civil life into contempt; and to reduce
mankind to that imaginarj' stale of nature, when they
lived independent of each other on the spontaneous pro-
ductions of the earth." Freemasonrv being in high repu-
tation all over Europe when Weishaupt first formed the
plan of his society, he availed himself of its .secrecy to
ILL
[ 647
IMA
introdoce his new order ; of which he constituted himself
general, after initialing some of his pupils, whom he styled
areopagites, into its mysteries. And when report spread
the news throughout Germany of the institution of the
order of lUuminees, it was generally considered as a
mere college lodge, which could interest the students no
longer than during the period of their studies. Weishaupt's
character, too, which at this time was respectable for mo-
rality as well as erudition, prevented all suspicion of his
harboring any such dark designs as have since come to
light.
But it would far exceed the limits to which this work is
restricted, to give even an outline of the nature and con-
stitution of this extraordinary society — of its secrets and
mysteries — of the deep dL-^simulation, consummate hypo-
crisy, and shocking impiety of its founder and his asso-
ciates— of their Jesuitical art in conceahng their real
objects, and their incredible industry and astonishing ex-
ertions in making converts — of the absolute despotism and
tomplete system of espionage established throughout the
order— of its different degrees of novices, minervals, minor
and major Ilhnninees, epopts, or priests, regents, magi, and
man-kings — of the recruiters or insinuators, with their vari-
ous subtle methods of insinuating into all characters and
companies — of the blind obedience exacted of the novices,
and the absolute power of life and death assumed by the
order, and conceded by the novices- — of the dictionary, geo-
graphy, calendar, and cipher of the order — of the new
names assumed by the members, such as Spartaais by
Weishaupt, because he pretended to wage war against
oppressors; Cato by Zvvfack ; j4y(7.r by Massenhausen, &c.
— of the Minerval academy and library — of the questions
proposed to the candidates for degrees, and the various
ceremonies of admission to each — and of the pretended
morality, real blasphemies, and absolute atheism, of the
founder and his tried friends. Such of our readers as
wish to be fully informed of these matters, we must refer
to the abbe Barruel's works, and to professor Robison's
'■ Proofs of a Conspiracy against all the Religions and
Governments of Europe."
But while credit may be given to the general facts re-
lated in these works, some doubts respecting the ultimate
object of Dr. Weishaupt and liis associates in this conspi-
racy may be expressed. That men of their principles
should secretly conspire to overthrow all the religions and
governments at present in Europe, is by no means incre-
dible ; that they should even prevail on many well-mean-
ing philanthropists, who are no enemies to rational religion
or good government to join them, is also very credible ; —
but that a set of men of learning and abilities, such as Weis-
haupt and his associates are allowed to be, should form a
conspiracy to overturn, and -n-ith more than Gothic rage
utterly abolish the arts and sciences, and to restore the sup-
posed original savage state of man, appears to us a phenome-
non in the history of the human heart totally unaccounta-
ble. That " the heart of man is deceitful abore all things,
and desperately wicked," is a melancholy truth, which not
Scripture alone, but the history of mankind in all ages
and nations, affords full proof of as well as the shocking
history of the lUuminati ; but while pride and vanity have
a place in the human heart, to say nothing of our other
passions, which are more or less interested in the preser-
vation of the discoveries and improvements in arts, sci-
ences, and their inseparable concomitant, luxury, we are
persuaded no man, or body of men, who have enjoyed the
sweets of civilized life, ever formed a serious wish'for the
total abolition of the arts and sciences. In the fury and
rage of war, Goths, Vandals, and Turks, may burii and
destroy monuments of art and repositories of science ; but
when the wars are over, instead of returning to the savage
state, the barbarous conquerors mix and amalgamate with
the conquered, and become themselves more or less civi-
lized. Dr. Weishaupt is allowed to have been influenced
by a high degree of vanity ; as an evidence of which he
communicated as the last secret to his most favored adepts,
that the mysteries of Illuminism, which, in going through
the inferior degrees, had been successively attributed to
the most ancient patriarchs and philosophers, and even to
Christ himself, owed its origin to no other than Adam
Weishaupt, known in the order hy the name of Sparlacus,
The same vanity which led the doctor lo take llii.s tradi-
tional method, (while secrecy is deemed necessary,) of se-
curing to himself the honor of having founded the society,
would lead him, were the Illuminati actually victorioua
over all religions and governments, to wish to have his
memory recorded in a more durable manner by writing or
printing. But if these and all the other arts were to perish
in a mass, then the memory of the doctor, and the impor-
tant services he had done to the order and to savagism,
must, within a century at the utmost, perish along with
them. But if, in fact, the total annihilation of the arts
and sciences, as well as of all religion and governmrnt,
had been really the object of Weishaupt and his Illumi-
nees, then we may agree with the celebrated Mandeville,
that '• human nature is the true Libyan desert, daily pro-
ducing new monsters," and that of these monsters the doc-
tor and his associates were beyond a doubt the most extra-
ordinarj'.
Professor Robison informs us, that the order of the lUu-
minati was abolished in 1786 by the elector of Bavaria,
but revived immediately after, under another name, and
in a different form, all over Germany. It was again de-
tected, and seemingly broken up; but it had by this time
taken so deep a root, that it still subsists in some degree
in different countries of Europe. — Hend. Buck.
ILLYRICUM ; a province lying to the north and north-
west of Macedonia, along the eastern coast of the Adiiatic
gulf, or gulf of Venice. It was distinguished into two
parts : Liburnia to the north, where is now Croatia ; and
Dalmatia to the south, which still retains the same name,
and to which, as St. Paul informs Timothy, Titus went,
2 Tim. 4: 10. St. Panl says, that he preached the gospel
from Jerusalem round about to lUyricum, Rom. 15: 19.
Hence it appears that this single missionary had evange-
lized Syria, Phcenicia, Arabia, Cihcia, Pamphyha, Pisidia,
Lycaonia, Galatia, Pontus, Paphlagonia, Phrygia, Troas,
Asia, Caria, Lycia, Ionia, Lydia, the isles of Cyprus and
Crete, Thracia, Macedonia, Thessalia, and Achaia ; and
this in less than twenty years! — Watson; Cnlmet.
IMAGE, in a religious sense, is an artificial representa-
tion of some person or thing used as an object of adora-
tion ; in which sense it is used synonymously with idol.
Professor MichEelis, in his " Commentaries on the Laws
of Moses," has marked a distinction between idols and
images, or rather between idolatry and image-worship,
which merits attention.
Micah, an Ephraimite, made an image of the deity, and,
without doubt, of the true God ; for it was not only made
of silver which had been consecrated to Jehovah, (Judg.
17: 3.) but Micah expressed the greatest joy in having got
a Lcvite to become its priest, in the expectation that Jeho-
vah would thus do him good, and bless him, Judg. 17: 13.
This image, so far from being kept in concealment in his
house, was actually consulted as an oracle, and soon after,
publicly set up by the Danites. The grandson of Sloses,
from poverty, became its priest ; and that office descended
hereditarily to his posterity for a long period, Judg. IS; 4
— fi, 14—17,30, 31.
Gideon was an enemy of the worship of Baal ; cut
down the groves of that false god, and demolished his al-
tars ; but this same Gideon, from a mistaken idea of grati-
tude to Jehovah, as the author of his victories, made an
image of the Deity, with the gold he had got in plunder
from the Midianites, and set it up publicly in Ophra, Judg.
6: 25—33. 8: 24—27.
Jeroboam, who, from political reasons, wished to pre-
vent his subjects from frequenting the high festivals at Je-
rusalem, set up in Dan and Bethel two golden calves, in
which the God who had conducted the Israelites out of
Egypt, was to he worshipped, 1 Kings 12: 2t) — 31. This
worship of the calves, which continued under the kings of
the ten tribes, until the Assyrian captivity, and is, in the
books of Kings, termed the sin of Jeroboam, the son of
Nebat, difi'ered very materially from idolatry, properly so
called, and is represented as a less heinous sin. When
Ahab first allowed himself to be led astray by his super-
stitious consort, Jezebel, and introduced the worship of
Baal, we find the historian making use of the following
langtiage : — " And as if it had not been enough that he
continued the sin of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat. he mar-
I M A
[ 64S ]
I MM
ried Jezebel, the daugliler of Echaal, king of Sidon, serv-
ed Baal, adored him, and erected to him an image in the
temple, which he had built to him in Samaria. And Ahab
did more to provoke the wrath of Jehovah, than all the kings
of Israel who had reigned before him," 1 Kings 1(5: 31 — 33.
Concerning hi.s son Joram, on the other hand, it is said,
that "he did what was displeasing to Jehovah, though not
in the same measure as his father and mother; for he
caused the image of Baal, which his father had made, to
be removed ; only he still hankered after the sin of Jero-
boam, the son of Nebat, and departed not from it," 2 Kings
3: 3. In the ninth and tenth chapters of the same book,
we find Jehu showing himself a mortal enemy and violent
persecutor of the worship of Baal, which had been intro-
duced in opposition to the fundamental laws ; and as he
himself expresses it, a zealot for Jehovah; on which ac-
count he was commended, and obtained a promise from God,
that his descendants, down to his great great grandchil-
dren, should fill the Israelitish throne, i! Kings 10: 16, 30.
At the same time, however, it is remarked, that from the
sin of Jeroboam, the son of Nebat, he had not abstained ;
and the very same thing is repeated of his posterity ; of
his son, (ch. 13: 6.) his grandson, (ch. 13: 11.) his great
grandson, (ch. 14: 21.) and his great great grandson,
ch. 13: 9. In the prophecies, also, of the lesser prophets,
as they are called, we see the same distinction between
calf-worship and Baal-worship duly observed.
All manner of image-worship, not excepting that which
was paid to the true God, is, however, prohibited in Exod.
20: 4, 5 ; or if any doubt remain as to the extent of the
prohibition in that passage, it is completely removed by
the decision in ch. 32 ; where we find that the worship of
a golden calf, set up, certainly not as the image of an
Egyptian idol, but of Jehovah, the true God, is imputed to
the Israelites as a great crime.
The use and adoration of images have been long con-
troverted in Christendom. It is plain, from the practice of
the primitive church, recorded by the earlier fathers, that
Christians, during the first three centuries, and the greater
part of the fourth, neither worshipped images, nor used
them in their worship. The primitive Christians abstain-
ed from the worship of images, not, as the papists pretend,
from tenderness to heathen idolaters, but because they
thought it unlawful in itself to make any images of the
Deity. Tertullian, Clemens Alexandrinus, and Origen,
were even of opinion, that, by the second commandment,
painting and engraving were unlawful to a Christian, styl-
ing them evil and wicked arts. Tert. de Idol., cap. 3 ; Clem.
Alex. Admon. ad Gcnl. p. il ■ Origen contra Cekum, lib.
vi. p. 182. This opinion however is untenable.
The use of images in churches, as ornaments, was first
introduced by some Christians in Spain, in the beginning
of the fourth century ; but the practice was condemned as
a dangerous innovation, in a council held at Eliberis, in
305. Epiphanius, in a letter preserved by Jerome, (torn,
ii. ep. 6.) bears strong testimony against images ; and he
may be considered as one of the first iconoclasts. The
custom of admitting pictures of saints and martyrs into
■ churches, (for this was the first source of image-worship,)
was rare in the end of the fourth century, but became
common in the fifth. But they were still considered only
as ornaments, and, even in this view, they met with very
considerable opposition. In the following century, the cus-
toin of thus adorning churches became almost ixniversal,
both in the East and West. Petavius expressly says, (de
Incar., lib. xv. cap. 14.) that no statues were yet allowed
in the churches, because they bore too near a resemblance
to the idols of the Gentiles. Towards the close of the
fourth, or beginning of the fifth century, images, which
were introduced by way of ornament, and then used as an
aid to devotion, began to be actually worshipped. How-
ever, it continued to be the doctrine of the church in the
sixth and in the beginning of the seventh century, that
images were to be used only as helps to devotion, and not
as objects of worship. The worship of them was con-
demned in the strongest terms by Gregory the Great, as
appears by two of his letters written in 601. From this
time to the beginning of the eighth century, there occurs
no instance of any worship given, or allowed to be given,
to any images, by any council or assembly of bishops
whatever. But they were commonly worshipped by the
monks and populace in the beginning of the eighth centu-
ry ; insomuch, that in 726, when Leo published his famous
edict, it had already spread ibto all the provinces subject
to the empire. The Lutherans condemn the Calvinists for
breaking the images in the churches of the Catholics,
looking on it as a Irind of sacrilege ; and yet they condemn
the Romanists (who are professed image-worshippers) as
idolaters ; nor can these last keep pace with the Greeks, who
go far beyond them in this point, which has occasioned
abundance of disputes among them. (See Iconoclastes.)
The Jews absolutely condemn all images, and do
not so much as suffer any statues or figures in theii
houses, much less in their synagogues, or places of
worship. The Mohammedans have an equal aversion to
images ; which led them to destroy most of the beautiful
monuments of antiquity, both sacred and profane, at Con-
stantinople. Bingham's Orig. EccL, b. viii. c. 8 ; Middle-
ton's Letters from Rome, p. 21 ; Burnet on the Art., p. 209,
219; Doddridge's Led., lect. 193; Tenison on Idolatry, p.
269, 275 ; Ridgley's Body of Div., qu. 110 ; Dnight's The-
ology ; Douglas on Errors ; Ward's History of the Hindoos.
— Jones ; Hend. Buck.
IMAGE OF GOD, in the soul, is distinguished into
natural and moral. By natural is meant the understand-
ing, reason, will, and other imellectual faculties. By the
moral image, the right use of those faculties, or what we
term holiness. (See Adam.) — Hend. Buck.
IMAGE OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR. (See Babylon.)
IMAGINATION, is the facuUy of the mind, by which it
conceives and combines anew ideas of things originally
communicated to it by the outward organs of sense. The
cause of the pleasures of the imagination in whatever is
great, uncommon, or beautiful, is this : that God has an-
nexed a secret pleasure to the idea of any thing that is
new or rare, that he might encourage and stimulate us in
the eager and keen pursuit after knowledge, and inflame
our best passions to search into the wonders of creation
and revelation ; for every new idea brings such a pleasure
along with it, as rewards any pains we have taken in its
acquisition, and consequently serves as a striking and
powerful motive to put us upon fresh discoveries in learn-
ing and science, as well as in the word and works of God.
See Rev. W. Jones' Works, vol. vi. ser. 17; Ryland's Con-
templations, vol. i. p. 64 ; Akenside's Pleasures of Imagina-
tion ; Addison's beautiful Papers on the Imagination, vol. vi.
Spect. p. 64, fee. ; Grove's Mor. Phil., vol. i. pp. 354, 355,
410 Hend. Buck.
IMAN ; a Mohammedan priest, or minister, who super-
intends the service and concerns of the mosques, reads
prayers, and instructs the people. The term is also given,
by way of eminence, to the chiefs or founders of the prin-
cipal sects among the Mohammedans ; and this dignity,
or what is commonly called the Imanate, is hereditary,
and possessed by the chief members of particular families
in succession. — Hend. Buck.
IMMANUEL. (See Emmanoel.)
IMMATERIALISM ; the belief that the soul is a spiri-
tual substance distinct from the body. (See Materialism,
and Soul.) — Hend. Buck.
IMMENSITY; unbounded or incomprehensible great-
ness ; an unlimited extension, which no finite and deter-
minate space, repeated ever so often, can equal. (See In-
finity OF God.) — Hend. Buck.
IMMORALITY ; an action inconsistent with our duty
towards men, and consequently a sin against God, who
hath commanded us to do justly, and love mercy. (See
Morality.) — Hend. Buck.
IMMORTALITY ; a state which has no end ; the im-
possibility of dying. It is applied to God, who is abso-
lutely immortal, or incorruptible, (1 Tim. 1: 17.) and the hu-
man soul, which is only immortal by the will of God; as
God, who at first gave it, could, if he please, deprive us of
existence. Matt. 10: 28. (See Soul, and Intermediate
State.) — Hend. Buck.
IMMUTABILITY OF GOD, is his unchangeableness.
He is immutable in his essence. Jam. 1: 17. In his attri-
butes, Ps. 102: 27. In his purposes, Isa. 25: 1. Ps. 33. 11.
In his promises, Mai. 3: 6. 2 Tim. 2: 12. And in hif
threatenings. Matt. 25: 41.
IMP
[ C19
IMP
"This is a peifection," says Dr. Blair, "wbich, perhaps,
more than any other, distinguishes the divine nature from
the human, gives complete energy to all its attributes, and
entitles it to the highest adoration. From hence are de-
rived the regular order of nature, and the steadfastness
of the universe. Hence flows the unchanging tenor of
those laws which from age to age regulate the conduct of
mankind. Hence the uniformity of that government, and
the certainty oi cnose promises, which are the ground of
our trust and security. An objection, however, may be
raised against this doctrine from the commands given us
10 prayer, and other religious exercises. To what purpose,
it may be urged, is homage addressed to a being whose plan
is unalterably fixed ? This objection would have weight,
if our religious addresses were designed to work any alte-
ration in God, either by giving him information of what
he did not know, or by exciting affections which he did not
possess ; or by inducing him to change measures which
he had previously formed : hut they are only crude and
imperfect notions of religion which can suggest such
ideas." The change which our devotions actually make
is upon ourselves, in order to bring us within the range
of the divine promises, which are always in harmony
with the plan of God. By pouring out our sentiments
and desires before God ; by adoring his perfections, and
confessing our unworthiness ; by expressing our depend-
ence on his aid, our gratitude for his past favors, our sub-
mission to his known will, and our trust in his promised
mercy, we cultivate such affections as suit our place and
station in the universe, and are to be exercised by us as
men and as Christians. God is immutably determined to
give or withhold blessings accordingly.
The contemplation of this divine perfection should raise
in our minds admiration ; should teach us to imitate, as
far as our frailty will permit, that constancy and stead-
fastness which we adore ; (2 Cor. 3: 18.) and, lastly, should
excite trust and confidence in the Divine Being, amidst all
the revolutions of this uncertain world. Blair's Sermons,
ser. 4. vol. ii. ; Charnock'sWorks, vol. i. p. 203 ; Gill's Body
of Div., vol. i. p. 50 ; Lamberts Sermons, ser. on Mai. 3: 6 ;
Magee on Atonement ; Dmight's Theology. — Hend. Buck.
IMPANATION ; a term used by divines to signify the
opinion of the Lutherans with regard to the eucharist,
who believe that the species of bread and wine remain to-
gether with the body of our Savior after consecration. —
IJend. Buck.
IMPECCABILES ; a name given to those heretics who
boasted that they were impeccable, that is, incapable of
sin, and that there was no need of repentance ; such were
the Gnostics, Priscillianists, &c. — Hend. Buck.
IMPECCABILITY; the state of a person who cannot
sin ; or a grace, privilege, or principle, which puts him out
of a possibility of sinning. Divines have distinguished
several kinds of impeccability ; that of God belongs to
him by nature ; that of Jesus Christ, considered as man,
belongs to him by the hypostatical union ; that of the
blessed, in consequence of their condition, &c. — Iletid.
Buck.
IJIPLICIT FAITH, is that by which we take up any
system or opinion of another, without examination. This
has been one of the chief sources of ignorance and error
in the church of Rome. The divines of that coinmunity
teach, '• that we are to observe, not how the church proves
any thing, but what she says : that the will of God is, that
we should believe and confide in his ministers in the same
manner as himself." Cardinal Toletus, in his instructions
for priests, asserts, " that if a rustic believes his bishop,
proposing an heretical tenet for an article of faith, such
belief is meritorious." Cardinal Cusanus tells us, " that
irrational obedience is the most consummate and perfect
obedience, when we obey without attending to reason, as
a beast obeys his driver." In an epistle to the Bohemians
he has these words : " I assert, that there are no precepts
of Christ but those which are received as such by the
church, fthe church of Rome.) When the church changes
her judgment, God changes his judgment likewise."
What madness ! What blasphemy ! For a church to
demand belief of what she teaches, and a submission to
what she enjoins, merely upon her assumed authority,
must appear, to unprejudiced minds, the height of unrea-
82
.sonableness and spiritual despotism. We could wish this
doctrine had been confined to this church ; but, alas! it
has been two prevalent in other communities. A theolo-
gical system, says Dr. Jortin, is too often no more than a
temple consecrated to implicit faith ; and he who enters in
there to worship, instead of leaving his shoes, after the
Eastern manner, must leave his understanding at the door ;
and it will be well if he find it when he comes out again
— Hend. Buck.
IMPOSITION OF HANDS ; an ecclesiastical action,
by which a bishop lays his hand on the head of a person
in ordination, confirmation, or in uttering a blessing. This
practice is also usually observed by the Dissenters at the
ordination of their preachers ; when the ministers present
place their hands on the head of him whom they are or-
daining, while one of them praj's for a blessing on him,
and on his future labors. They are not agreed, however,
as to the propriety of this ceremony. Some suppose it to
be confined to those who received extraordinary gifts in
the primitive times : others think it ought to be retained,
as it was an ancient practice used where no extraordinary
gifts were conveyed, Gen. 48: 14. Matt. 19: 15. They do
not suppose it to be of such an important and essential
nature, that the validity and usefulness of a man's future
ministry depend upon it in any degree.
Imposition of hands was a Jewish ceremony, introduced
not by any divine authority, but by custom ; it being the
practice among those people, whenever they pray to God
for any person, to lay their hands on his head. Our Sa-
vior observed the same custom, both when he conferred
his blessing on children, and when he healed the sick, add-
ing prayer to the ceremony. The apostles, likewise, laid
hands on those upon whom they bestowed the Holy Ghost.
The priests observed the same custom when any one was
received into their body. And the apostles themselves un-
derwent the imposition of hands afresh every time they
entered upon any new design. In the ancient church, im-
position of hands was even practised on persons when they
married, which custom the Abyssinians still observe.
Maurice's Dial, on Soc. Eelig. pp. 103, 168 ; TVatts's Ra-
tional Foundalim of a Christian Ch., p. 31 ; Turner on Church
Gov., p. 70 : lung's Primitive Christian Ch., p. 49 ; Fullers
Works.— Buck. Buck. (See Hand.)
IMPOSTORS, Religious, are such as pretend to an ex-
traordinary commission from heaven, and who terrify the
people with false denunciations of judgments. Too many
of these have abounded in almost all ages. They are
punishable in the temporal courts of England, with fine,
imprisonment, and corporeal punishment. (See False
Messiaus.) — Hend. Buck.
IMPROPRIATION ; a parsonage or ecclesiastical liv-
ing, the profits of which are in the hands of a lajTnan ;
in which case it stands distinguished from appropriation,
which is where the profits of a benefice are in the hands
of a bishop, college, Sec, though the terms are now used
promiscuously. There are computed to be, in England,
three thousand eight hundred and forty-five impropriations,
which, on the dissolution of the monasteries, were granted
by the king's letters-patent to lay persons.
IMPULSE ; an influence, idea, or motive acting upon
the mimi. We must be careful how we are guided by
impulses in religion. " There are many," as one observes,
" who frequently feel singular impressions upon heir
minds, and are inclined to pay a very strict regard unto
them. Yea, some carry this point so far, as to make it
almost the only rule of their judgment, and will not deter-
mine any thing until they find it in their hearts to do it, as
their phrase is. Others take it for granted, that the divine
mind is notified to them by sweet or powerful impressions
of some passages of sacred writ. "There are others who
are determined by visionary manifestations, or by the im-
pressions made in dreams, and the interpretations they
put upon them. All these things being of the same gene-
ral nature, may very justly be considered together ; and it
is a matter of doubt with many how far these things are
to be regarded, or attended to by us ; and how we may
distinguish any divine impressions of this kind from the
delusions of the tempter, or of our own evil hearts. But,
whoever makes any of these things his rale and standard,
he forsakes the divine word ; and nothing tends more to
IMP
650 ]
IN A
make persons unhappj' in themselves, nnsleajy in their
Mnduct, or more dangerously deluded in their practice,
ban paying a random regard to these impulses, as notifi-
■.ations of the divine will." (See Enthusiasm; Pkovi-
lENcE.) — Jlend. Buck.
IMPURITY ; want of that regard to decency, chastity,
)r holiness, which our duty requires. Impurity, in the
aw of Moses, is any legal defilement. Of the,se there
were several sorts : some were voluntary, as the touching
I dead body, or any animal that died of itself; or any
rreature that was esteemed unclean ; or touching things
holy hy one who was not clean, or was not a priest ; the
touching one who had a leprosy, one who had a gonor-
rhoea, or who was polluted by a dead carcass, &c. Some-
limes these impurities were involuntary ; as when any one
inadvertently touched bones, or a sepulchre, or any thing
polluted ; or fell into such diseases as pollute, as the le-
prosy, &'.'.
The bd.'.j, clothes, and movables, which had touched
any thing unclear:, contracted also a kind of impurity, and
in some cases communicated it to others.
These legal pollutions were generally removed by bath-
ing, and lasted no longer than the evening. The person
polluted plunged over head in the water; and either had
his clothes on when he did so, or washed himself and his
clothes separately. Other pollutions continued seven days ;
as that which was contracted by touching a dead body.
Some impurities lasted forty or fifty days ; as that of wo-
men who were lately delivered, who were unclean forty
days after the birth of a boy, and fifty after the birth of a
girl. Others, again, lasted till the person was cured.
Many of these pollutions were expiated by sacrifices,
and others by a certain water or lye made with the ashes
of a red heifer, sacrificed on the great day of expiation.
When the leper was cured, he went to the temple, and of-
fered a sacrifice of two birds, one of which was killed,
and the other set at liberty. He who had touched a dead
body, or had been present at a funeral, was to be purified
with the water of expiation, and this upon pain of death.
The woman who had been delivered, offered a turtle and
a lamb for her expiation; or if she was poor, two turtles,
or two young pigeons.
These impurities, which the law of Moses has expressed
with the greatest accuracy and care, were only figures of
other more important impurities, such as the sins and ini-
quities committed against God, or faults committed against
our neighbor. The saints and prophets of the Old Testa-
ment were sensible of this ; and our Savior, in the gospel,
has strongly inculcated, that they are not outward and
corporeal pollutions which render us unacceptable to God,
but such inward pollutions as infect the soul, and are vio-
lations of justice, truth, and charity. — Hend. Buck.
IMPUTATION, is the attributing of any matter, quality,
or character, whether good or evil, to any person as his
own ; or the treating of him according to the character
which he thus sustains. It may refer to what was origi-
nally his, antecedently to such imputation ; or to what was
not antecedently his, but becomes so bj' virtue of such im-
putation only, 2 Sam. 19: 19. Ps. 106: 31.
The imputation that respects our justification before God
is of the latter Irind, and may be defined thus : it is God's
gracious :p koning of the righteousness of Christ to be-
lievers, and his acceptance of their persons as righteous
on the account thereof. Their sins being imputed to him,
and his obedience being imputed to them, they are, in vir-
tue hereof, both acquitted from guilt, and accepted as
righteous before God, Rom. 4: 6, 7. 5: 18, 19. 2 Cor.
5: 21.
When we speak of sin being imputed to Christ, it is not
meant that there was such a transfer of it as actually to
constitute him a sinner ; such an idea being at once infi-
nitely derogatory to the holy character whick the Redeem-
er is ever represented as sustaining, and utterly repugnant
to the moral principles of the divine government; but the
meaning is, that sin was charged to his account, as a
voluntary responsible agent, acting in the rooiu of the
guilty, in order that, in virtue of his expiating its guilt,
such of them as should avail themselves of his atonement
might he freed from their liability to suflTer in their own
persons the punishment they had merited. In like man-
ner, the imputation of the righteousness of Christ does not
consist in a transfer of his personal acts and sufferings in
such a sense as would imply that they were really the acts
and sufferings of those to whom they are imputed, but
in a dealing with them on the ground of that righteous-
ness, so as that they shall reap all the benefits resulting
from it. Neither sin nor righteousness can ever be imput-
ed so as to become the act and deed of any but the indivi-
dual by whom it was performed. As our sins never were,
and never could become Christ's sins, so his righteousness,
strictly speaking, always continues his own, and can onl
be said to be ours in the sense of our enjoying its benefits
or effects ; a mode of speech, however, which receives no
countenance from Scripture. He himself is spoken of as
" our righteousness," and ite are said to be made " the
righteousness of God" in him ; but these forms do not
warrant the use of the phraseology to which we have ad-
verted. (See Righteousness ; Sm.) Dickinson's Letters,
p. 156 ; Hervafs Theron and Aspasio, vol. ii. p. 43 ; Dod'
dridge's Works, vol. iv. p. 562; Watts' Works, vol. iii. p.
532 ; Works of Prts. Edwards ; Fuller's Works.— Hend.
Buck.
IMPUTED RIGHTEOUSNESS. (See Justification.)
IN. The accurate consideration of the sense of this
preposition in, is often of great use to lead to the true
meaning of many texts of Scripture. God is in Christ;
is one with him as God; has the closest connexion, is
well-pleased with, and reconciled to men in him ; and
Christ is in him ; has the same nature as his Father, John
14: 10. 2 Cor. 5: 19. The truth is in Christ ; he is the
substance and exemplification of it ; by his death it is
ratified ; and in beholding and receiving of him, its light
and glory are perceived, and its power felt, Eph. 4: 21.
2 Cor. 1:21. The law of the Spirit of life is in Christ ; the
new covenant is established with him ; he is the great
agent in it, and the means of its operation. The Holy
Ghost, as the spirit of Christ, operates in us, by uniting us
to, and maintaining our fellowship with Christ, Rom. 8: 2.
We are blessed, chosen, called, justified, adopted, sancti-
fied, and obtain an inheritance in Christ ; our whole sal-
vation was concerted with him as our Surety, purchased
by him as our Ransomer, is lodged in him as our Trea-
sury, and in a state of union to him we share of it ; and
the enjoyment of him as the Lord over wisdom, righteous-
ness, sanctification, and redemption, is the sum of it, Eph.
1: 3, 4, 6, (kc. We are in Christ, and he in us. He dwells
in our hearts by faith, and we are closely united to him as
our Surety, our Head, Husband, and root of spiritual in-
fluence, .Tohn 17:26. Rom. 16: 7. But persons are said
to be in Christ, if they are members of his visible church,
and in outward profession joined to him, John 15: 6. To
believe or trust in Christ, or in God, or in his name, is,
in a way of receiving Christ, and God in him, as the Hus-
band and Savior of our souls, offered in the promises, to
expect from his perfections, relations, and work, what-
ever is good and necessary for us, John 14: 1. To be
strong in the Lord, faithful in the Lord, to labor in the
Lord, and salute others in the Lord, is, in a state of union
to Christ's person, and exercise of daily receiving out of
his fulness, to study faithfulness and diligence in the work
of preaching the gospel, or practising holiness, and to
salute others from love to the Lord, and on account of
their bearing his image, Eph. 6: 10. 1 Cor. 4: 17. Rom.
16: 12— 22.— Brorvn.
INABILITY ; want of power sufficient for the per-
formance of any particular action or design. It has been
divided into natural and moral. We are said to be natu-
rally unable to do a thing when we cannot do it if we
wish, because of some impeding defect or obstacle that is
extrinsic to the will, either in the understanding, constitu-
tion of the body, or external objects. Moral inability con-
sists not in any of these things, but either in the want of
inclination, or the strength of a contrary inclination ; or
the want of sufficient motives in view to induce and excite
the act of the will, or the strength of apparent motives to
the contrary.
Infants and idiots are under a natural incapaciiy of
knowledge ; and every one of weak mental powers, though
he should be neither infant nor idiot, yet in proportion to
that weakness, is the subject of a natural inability. The
INC
f 651 ]
INC
same may be said of a defect of bodily powers ; and a
want of opportunities or external advantages constitutes
the same thing. A man, for instance, in the perfect pos-
session of all his faculties, may be cast upon an island,
where there may be no Bible, nor any of the means of
grace to be obtained : in which case he will be under a
natural incapacity to read and hear God's word, just as
much as if he were blind and deaf. In this point of view,
that part of the heathen world who never heard the gos-
pel are under a natural inability to believe it. By a moral
ability to do good, is meant a disposition to use our natu-
ral abiUty to right purposes. It consists in a heart to
know and love God, to devote all the powers of our souls
and members of our bodies to be intruments of righteous-
ness to serve him, to improve every opportunity that offers
to glorify his name. Every wicked man is destitute of
this, and consequently under the dominion of a moral in-
ability.
Natural inability, so far as it prevails, excuses from all
obligation and blame. It may be, and often is, an effect
of sin ; but it is not sin itself. But moral inability is so
far from excusing men from blame, that it is itself that
in which blame consists. Whatever good thing any per-
son could do, not being hindered by any natural impedi-
ment ; but will not ; the common sense of mankind crimi-
nates him for not performing it.
It has been questioned whether the tenn inability, in the
moral view of it, should be used at all, since it has been
so fearfully abused, to the lulling of sinners asleep in car-
nal security, and the preventing of them from viewing
and feeling the responsibility under which they lie, as
God's rational creatures, if they do not render an imme-
diate and unreserved compliance with his will. The sub-
stitution of the word indisposition is certainly to be ap-
proved ; and there is reason to hope that the time is not
distant, when preachers and theological writers will entire-
ly banish from their vocabulary every phrase which in
the smallest degree goes to diminish the sinner's crimi-
nality, and abate his sense of obligation. See Fuller's
Gospel Worthy of All Acceptation ; and Hintoii on the Work
of Ike Spirit in Conversion. — Hend. Buck.
INCARNATION; the^act whereby the Son of God
assumed the human nature ; or the mystery by which
Jesus Christ, the Eternal Word, was made man, in order
to accomplish the work of our salvation. See N.\tivity ;
Tillotsons Seniuj?jSf and Mcldriim on the Incarnation ;
Divight's Theology ; Works of Robert Hall. — Hend. Buck.
INCENSE, (thur ;) so called by the dealers of drugs in
Egypt, from tliiir, or thor, the nam^ of a harbor in the
north bay of the Red sea, near mount Sinai ; thereby dis-
tinguishing it from the gum arable, which is brought from
Suez, another port in the Red sea, not far from Cairo. It
diifers also in being more pellucid and white. This
gum is said to distil from incisions made in the tree dur-
; ing the heat of summer. At the present day it is brought
from the East Indies, but not of so good a quality as
that from Arabia. It burns with a bright and strong
llime, not easily extinguished. It was used in the temple
service as an emblem of prayer, Ps. 141: 2. Rev. 8: 3, 4.
The "sweet incense," mentioned Exodus 30: 7, and
elsewhere, was a compound of several spices, agreeably
to ihe direction in the thirtj'-fourth verse. To offer in-
ceiue was an office peculiar to the priests. They went
twice a day into the holy place ; namely, morning and
evening, to burn incense there. Upon the great day of
expiation, the high-priest took incense, or perfume, pound-
" el and ready for being put into the censer, and threw it
upon the fire, the moment he went into the sanctuary.
One reason of this was, that so the smoke which rose from
the censer might prevent his looking with too much curi-
osity on the ark and mercy-seat. God threatened him
with death upon failing to perform this ceremony. Lev.
10: 13. Generally, incense is to be considered as an
emblem of the " prayers of the saints," and is so used
by the sacred writers. — Watson.
INCEST ; the crime of criminal and unnatural com-
merce with kindred v.-ithin the degrees forbidden by the
law of God. By the rules of the church, incest was for-
merly very absurdly extended even to the seventh degree ;
but it is now restricted to the third or fourth.
Most nations look on incest with horror, Persia and Egypt
excepted. In the history of the ancient kings of those
countries we meet with instances of brothers marrj'ing
their own sisters, because they thought it too mean to join
in alliance with their own subjects, and still more so to
marry into any foreign family. Vortigern. king of South
Britain, equalled, or rather excelled them in wickedness,
by marrying his own daughter. The queen of Portugal
was married to her uncle ; and the prince of Brazil, the
son of that incestuous marriage, was wedded to his aunt.
But they had dispensations for lhe.se unnatural marriages
from his holiness.
" In order," says Dr. Paley, " to preserve chastity in
fainilies, and between persons of different sexes brought
up and living together in a state of unreserved intimacy,
it is necessary, by every method possible, to inculcate an
abhorrence oi' incestuous conjunctions ; which abhorrence
can only be upheld by the absolute reprobation of all com-
merce of the sexes between near relations. Upon this
principle the marriage, as well as other cohabitation of
brothers and sisters of lineal kindred, and of all who
usually live in the same family, may be said to be forbid-
den by the law of nature. Restrictions which extend to
remoter degrees of kindred than what this reason makes
it necessary to prohibit from inter-marriage, are founded
in the authority of the positive law which ordains them,
and can only be justified by their tendency to diffuse
wealth, to connect families, or to promote some politiccl
advantage.
" The Levitical law, which is received in this country,
and from which the rule of the Roman law differs very
little, prohibits marriage between relations within thra
degrees of kindred ; computing the generations not from,
but through the common ancestor, and accounting affinity
the same as consanguinity. The issue, however, of such
marriages are not bastardized, unless the parents be di-
vorced during their lifetime." Patty's Mor. Phil. vol. i.
p. 316.— fffW. Buck.
INCEST, (Spiritual;) an ideal crime, committed
between two persons who have a spiritual alliance, by
means of baptism or confirmation. This ridiculous fancy
was made use of as an instrument of great tyranny in
times when the power of the pope was unlimited, even
queens being sometimes divorced upon this pretence.
Incest Spiritual is also understood of a vicar, or other bene-
ficiary, who enjoys both the mother and daughter ; that
is, holds two benefices, one whereof depends upon the col-
lation of the other. Such spiritual incest renders both the
one and the other of these benefices vacant. — Hend. Buck.
INCHANTSIENTS. The law of God condemns in-
chantments and inchanters. Several terms are used in
Scripture to denote inchantments : — 1. Lehcsh, which sig-
nifies to mutter, to speak with a low voice, like magicians iu
their evocations and magical operations. Psalm 58: 0. 2.
Letim, secrets, whence Jloses speaks of the inchantment.s
wrought by Pharaoh's magicians. 3. Kashaph, meaning
those who practice juggling, legerdemain, tricks, and
witchery, deluding people's eyes and senses, 2 Chron. 33:
6. 4. Ilebar. which signifies, properly, to bind, assemble,
associate, re-unite: this occurs principally among those who
charm serpents, who tame them, and make them gentle
and sociable, which before were fierce, dangerous, and
untractable, Dtut. 18; 11. We have examples of each of
these ways of inchanting. It was common for magicians,
sorcerers, and inchanters, to speak in a low voice, to whis-
per : they are called vcnlriloqvi, because they spake, as
one would suppose, from the bottom of their stomachs.
They affected secrecy and mysterious ways, to conceal the
vanity, folly, or infamy of their pernicious art. Their
pretended magic often consisted in cunning tricks only,
in sleight of hand, or some natural secrets, unknown to
the ignorant. They affected obscurity and night, -or
would show their skill only before the uninformed, or
mean persons, and feared nothing so much as serious ex-
aminations, broad day-light, and the inspection of the in-
telligent. Respecting the inchantments practised by Pha-
raoh's magicians, (see Exod. 8: IS, X'?.) in order to imiwte
the miracles wliich were wrought by JIoscs, it must be
said, either that they were mere illusions, whereby ihey
imposed on the spectators ; or that, if they performed such
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miracles, and produced real changes of their rods, and the
other things said to be performed by them, it must have
been by a supernatural power which God had permitted
Satan to give them, but the further operation of which he
afterwards thought proper to preveut. — Watson.
INCLINATION, is the propensity of the raind to any
particular object or action ; or a kind of bias upon nature,
by the force of which it is carried towards certain actions
previously to the exercise of thought and reasoning about
the nature and consequences of them. Inclinations are
of two kinds— natural or acquired, 1 . Natural are such
as we often see in children, who from their earliest years
differ in their tempers and dispositions. In one you
see the dawnings of a liberal, diffusive soul ; another gives
us cause to fear he will be altogether as narrow and sor-
did. Of one we may say he is naturally revengeful ; of
another, that he is patient and forgiving.
2, Acquired inclinations are such as are superinduced
by custom, which are called habits ; and these are either
good or evil. (See Habit.) — Heml. Buck.
IN C(E.\A DOMINI; the most remarkable of all the
papal bulls, on account of the proofs which it furnishes
of the arrogance of the popes, and their pretensions as ab-
solute rulers of the church, and the authority which they
claimed over temporal princes. It is founded on more
ancient papal decrees, which declared all heretics, and
favorers of heretics, without distinction, and those who
imposed taxes on the clergy to supply the wants of the
state, solemnly excommunicated. After the fourteenth
century, it was modified and extended by several popes,
and received its latest form from Urban VIII. in 1627.
This pope, in behalf of God, and by virtue of the power
comraittedto the apostles Peter and Paul, and himself, ex-
communicated and anathematized all Hussites, Wick-
liffites, Lutherans, Zuinglians, Calvinists, Huguenots,
Ana-baptists, &c. ; all who had apostatized from the Cath-
olic faith ; all who trusted, received, favored, or defended
them ; all who read heretical books without permission
from the pope ; all who possessed or printed such books, or
defended them in any way, either in public or private, or
on any pretence whatever ; and, finally, all schismatics
who obstinately avoided communion with the Roirian
church. It also goes on to denounce all who in any way
shall injure the temporal possession or rights of the pope,
the clergy, papal ambassadors, &c. This awful anathe-
ma the pope alone can remove, and that only at the hour
of death, when the excommunicated person has satisfied
the claims of the church. The bull was publicly posted
up at Rome ; and once a year, or oftener, every bishop
was to read it to the assembled people. This was done
till the middle of the eighteenth century, every Maundy
Thursday, in all the principal churches. — Hend. Buck.
INCOMPREHENSIBILITY OF GOD. This is a rela-
tive term, and indicates a relation between an object and
a faculty ; between God and a erpated understanding ; so
that the meaning of it is this, that no created understand-
ing can comprehend God ; that is, have a perfect and ex-
act knowledge of him, such a knowledge as is adequate
to the perfection of the object. Job 11: 7. Isa. 40.
God is incomprehensible, 1. As to the nature of his es-
sence. 2. The excellency of his attributes. 3. The depth
of his counsels. 4. The works of his providence. 5. The
dispensationof his grace, Eph. 3: 8. Job 37: 2.5. Rom. 11.
The incomprehensibility of God follows, 1. From his
being a spirit endued with perfections greatly superior to
our own. 2. There may be (for any thing we certainly
know) attributes and perfections in God of which we have
not the least idea. 3. In those perfections of the divine
nature of which we have some idea, there are many things
to us inexplicable, and with which, the more deeply and
attentively we think of them, the more we find our
thoughts swallowed up : such as his selfexisteuce, eterni-
ty, omnipresence, itc.
This should teach us, therefore, 1. To admire and rev-
erence the Divine Being, Zech. 9: 17. Neh. 9. 5. 2. To
be humble and modest, Ps. 8: 1, 4. Eccl. 5: 2, 3. Job
37: 19. 3. To be serious in our addresses, and sincere in
our behavior towards him. Carijl on Job 27: 25 ; Tillut-
snn's Sermons, sermon 156 ; Abernethy's Sermons, vol. ii.
nos. fi, 7 ; Doddridge's Lect., lect. 59. — Hend. Buck.
INCONTINENCY , not abstaining from unlawful de-
sires. (See CoNTiiNENCT.) — Hend. Buck.
INCORPOREALITY OF GOD, is his being without a
body. That God is incorporeal is evident ; for 1. Mate-
riality is incompatible with self-existence, and God being
self-existent, must be incorporeal. 2. If God were corpo-
real, he could not be present in any part of the world
where body is ; yet his presence is necessary for the sup-
port and motion of body. 3. A body cannot be in two
places at the same time ; yet he is everywhere, and fill3
heaven and earth. 4. A body is to be seen and felt, but
God is invisible and impalpable, John 1: 18. Charnock's
IForA:s, vol. i. p. 117; Doddridge's Lect., \ect. iT ; Gill's
Body of Div. vol. i. p. 45, Svo.—Hcnd. Buck.
INCORRUPTIBLES, or iNcoKRtn-TiEiLES ; the name
of a sect which sprang out of the Eutychians. Their
distinguishing tenet was, that the body of Jesus Christ
was incorruptible ; by which they meant, that, after
and from the time wherein he was formed in the
womb of his mother, he was not susceptible of any
change or alteration ; not even of any natural or inno-
cent passion, as of hunger, thirst, &c. ; so that he ate
without occasion before his death, as well as after his re-
surrection.— Hend. Buck.
INCREDULITY; the withholding our assent to any
proposition, notwithstanding arguments sufficient to de-
mand assent. See Duncan Forbes' piece, entitled, Re-
flections on the Sources of Incredulity with regard to He-
ligion, and Casaubon on Credulity and Incredulity. Also,
Gambles on Moral Evidence. — Hend. Buck.
INCUMBENT ; a clergyman holding a living ; and
so called, because he does, or at least ought to, bend his
whole study to discharge the cure of his church. — Hend.
Buck.
INDEED. 1. Truly; assuredly, Deut. 2: 15. 2. Emi-
nently ; in a very singular manner. So Christ makes free
indeed, with a glorious liberty which can never be taken
away, John 8: 35, 36. His flesh and blood are meat in-
deed, suited to every necessity, and quickening to the
soul ; secure everlasting life and strength ; and are infi-
nitely sweet and substantial, John 6: 55. And an Israel-
ite indeed is one truly and eminently holy, and noted for
wrestUng with God, John 1: 47, "Widows indeed are such
as behave gravely and piously, suitably to their condition,
and are really poor and destitute, 1 Tim. 5: 3, 5, 16.—
Broirn.
INDEPENDENCE OF GOD, is his existence in and
of himself, without depending on any other. '■ His being
and perfections," as Dr. Kidgley observes (Body of Div.
qu. 7,) " are underived, and not communicated to him, as
all finite perfections are by him to the creature. This at-
tribute of independence belongs to all his perfections. 1.
He is independent as to his knowledge. He doth not re-
ceive ideas from any object out of himself, as intelligent
creatures do. This is elegantly described by the prophet,
Tsa. 60: 13, 14. 2. He is independent in power. As he
receives strength from no one, so he doth not act depend-
ently on the will of the creature. Job 36: 23. 3. He is in-
dependent as to his holiness, hating sin necessarily, and
not barely depending on some reasons out of himself in-
ducing him thereto ; for it is essential to the divine na-
ture to be infinitely opposite to sin, and, therefore, to be
independeiitly holy. 4. He is independent as to his
bounty and goodness. He communicates blessings not by
constraint, but according to his so\'ereign will. Thus he
gave being to the world, and all things therein, which
was the first instance of bounty and goodness ; and this
not by constraint, but by his free will ; " for his pleasure
they are and were created." In like manner, whatever
instances of mercy he extends to miserable creatures, he
acts independently, and not by force. He shows mercy,
because it is his pleasure to do so, Rom. 9: 18.
That God is independent, let it farther be considered,
1 . That all things depend on his power, which brought
them into and preserves them in being. If, therefore, all
things depend on God, then it would be absurdity to say
that God depends on any thing, for this would be to sup-
pose the cause and the effect to be mutually dependent on
and derived from each other, which infers a coritradiction..
2. If God be infinitely above the highest creatures, he can-
IND
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IND
not depend on any of them, for dependence argues inferi-
ority, isa. 40: 15, 17. 3. If God depend on any creature,
he does not exist necessarily ; and if so, then he might
not have been ; for the same will by which he is supposed
to exist, might liave determined that he should not have
existed, which is altogether inconsistent with the idea of a
God.
From God's being independent, we infer, 1. That we
ought to conclude that the creature cannot lay any obli-
gation on him, Rom. 11: 35. Job 22: 2, 3. 2. If inde-
pendence be a divine perfection, then let it not in any in-
stance, or by any consequence, be attributed to the crea-
ture ; let us conclude tliat all our springs are in him ; and
that all we enjoy and hope for is from him, who is the au-
thor and finisher of our faith, and the fountain of all our
blessedness." — Hend. Buck.
INDEPENDENTS ; a denomination of Protestants, in
England and Holland, originally called Brownists. They
derive their name from their maintaining that every par-
ticular congregation of Christians has, according to the
New Testament, a full po^-er of ecclesiastical jurisdiction
over its members, independent of the authority of bishops,
synods, presbyteries, or any other ecclesiastical assem-
blies.
This denomination appeared in England, in the year
1516. John Robinson, a Norfolk divine, who, being ban-
ished from his native country for non-conformity, after-
wards settled at Leyden, was considered as their founder
and father. He possessed sincere piety, and no inconsid-
erable share of learning. Perceiving defects in the de-
nomination of tlie Brownists, to which he belonged, he
employed his zeal and diligence in correcting them, and
in new modelling the society. Though the Independents
considered their own form of ecclesiastical government as
of di^ane institution, and as originally introduced by the
authority of the apostles, nay, by the apostles themselves ;
yet they did not always think it necessary to condemn
other denominations, but often acknowdedged that true
religion might flourish in those communities which were
under the jurisdiction of bishops, or the government of
presbyteries. They approved, also, of a regular and edu-
cated ministry ; nor is any person among them now per-
mitted to spealr in public before he has submitted to a
proper examination of his capacity and talents, and has
been approved of by the church to which he belonged.
Their grounds of separation from the established church
are different from those of other Puritans. Blany of the
latter objected chiefly to certain rites, ceremonies, vest-
ments, or forms, or to the government of the church ;
while yet they were disposed to arm the magistrate in
support of the truth, and regretted and complained that
they could not on these accounts conform to it. But Rob-
inson and his companions not only rejected the appoint-
ments of the church on these heads, but denied its authori-
ty to enact them ; contending, that every single congre-
gation of Christians was a church, and independent of all
legislation, save that of Chiist ; .standing in need of no
such provision or establishment as the state can bestow,
and incapable of soliciting or receiving it. Hence they
sought not to reform the church, but chose to dissent from
it. They admitted there were many godly men in its
communion, and that it was reformed from the grossest
errors of the man of sin ; but thought it still wanted soine
things essential to a true church of Christ ; in particular,
a power of choosing its own ministers, and a stricter dis-
cipline among its members.
The creed of the Independents is uniformly Calvinistic,
though with considerable shades of difference ; and many
in Scotland and Ireland have symbolized with the Sande-
raanians, or the Scottish Baptist denominations. Con-
gregationalist and Independent have been generally con-
sidered as convertible and synonymous : many, however,
in the present day. prefer the former appellation, consider-
ing it desirable, in many cases, to unite, for mutual advice
and support, more closely than the term indepentteiit seems
to warrant. (See Congkegationalists.) — Walsnn.
INDEX, ExFCRGATORS ; a catalogue of prohibited
books in the church of Rome. The first catalogues of
this kind were made by the inquisitors, and these were
afterwards approved of by the council of Trent, after some
alteration was made in ihem by way of retrenchment 01
addition. Thus an index of heretical books being formed,
it was confirmed by a bull of Clement VIU., in 1595, and
printed with several introductory rules ; by the fourth of
which, the use of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue is
forbidden to all persons w-ithout a particular licen.se ; and
by the tenth rule it is ordained, that no book shall be
printed at Rome without the approbation of the pope's
vicar, or some person delegated by the pope ; nor in any
other places, unless allowed by the bishop of the diocese,
or some person deputed by him, or by the inquisitor of
heretical pravity. The Trent Index being thus published,
Philip II. of Spain ordered another to be printed at Ant-
werp in 1571, with considerable enlargements. Another
index was published in Spain, in 1584, a copy of which
was snatched out of the fire when the English plundered
Cadiz. Afterwards there were several expurgatory in-
dexes printed at Rome and Naples, and particularly in
Spain. — Hend. Buck.
INDIA ; the appellation wliich the ancients appear to
have given to that vast region of Asia, stretching east of
Persia and Bactria, as far as the country of Shicc, or Chi-
nese ; its northern boundary being the Scythian desert,
and its southern limit the ocean. The name is generally
supposed to have been derived from the river Indus, which
waters its western extremity, and which signifies, the
Blue or Black river. Mr. Conder thinks, however, that
the extensive application of the word renders it more pro-
bable, that it was employed to denote the country of the
Indi, or Asiatic Ethiops ; answering to the Persian Hin-
dostan, or the country of the Hindoos. In support of the
idea that there are several allusions to this country in the
Old Testament, Blr. Taylor has some remarks that are
not without interest and weight, in support of the former
opinion.
It is said in E.sth. 1: 1, that Ahasuerus reigned from In-
dia to Ethiopia. This fixes the extent of the Persian do-
minions eastward to the original station of the Hindoos,
at the head of the Indus. There is not, we beheve, any
memorial of the Persian power having permanently main-
tained itself east of the Indus, Alexander the Great only
having ever thought of establishing a dominion in those
countries. The JIahometans, indeed, have so done ; tut
then they have renounced the west. Nadir Shah pene-
trated to Delhi, but he returned to Persia, and did not at-
tempt to retain both regions under his rule. The Hin-
doos-could not have adopted religious rites from the Ro-
mans, the Greeks, the Egyptians, or the Persians. Who-
ever has bestowed a moment's attention on this people,
must know, that it would be in utter violation of their
most sacred tenets to do so ; and whoever recollects that
the sages of Greece travelled into India to learn wisdom,
will be confirmed in the persuasion, that others derived
information from them, not they from others. In fact, all
testimony brings letters, learning, and knowledge from
the East. — Calmct.
INDIANS ; the term is alike applicable to the natives of
India and America ; but as we have considered the former
under the article Hindooism, we shall confine this article
to the latter, and begin with the natives of North Ame-
rica, noticing some striking peculiarities of their ancient
pagan notions and idolatries.
The Aborigines of Xen' Eyi^hnd not only believed a
plurality of gods, who made and govern the several na-
tions of the world, but they made deities of every thing
they imagined to be great, powerful, beneficial, or hurtful
to mankind ; yet they conceived an almighty being, who
dwells in the south-west regions of the heavens, to be su-
perior to all the rest. This almighty being they called
Kichtan, who at first, according to iheir tradition, made a
man and woman out of a stone ; but upon some dislike
destroyed them again, and then made another couple out
of a tree, from whom descended all the nations of the
earth ; but how they came to he scattered and dispersed
into countries so remote from one anolher, they cannot
tell. They believed their supreme god to be a good be-
ing, and paid a sort of acknowledgment to him for plenty,
victory, and other benefits : but there is anolher power,
which they call hohamocko. {i. e. the devil,) of whom they
stood in greater awe. and worshipped merely from a prin-
IN D
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ciple of fear. The immortality of the soul was in some
sorj universally believed among them. When good men
die, they said, their spirits go to ICichtan, where they meet
their friends, and enjoy all manner of pleasures. When
wicked men die, they go to Kichtan also ; but are com-
manded to walk away, and to wander about in restless
discontent and darkness forever.^
Mr. Braiuerd, in 1744, gives, in his journal, the follow-
ing account of their religious sentiments : — " After the
coming of the white people, the Indians in New Jers,?y
who once held a variety of deities, supposed there were
only three, because they saw people of three kinds of com-
plexion ; viz. English, negroes, and themselves. It is a
notion pretty generally prevailing among them, that it
was not the same god that made them who made us, but
that they were created after the white people ; and it is
probable, they suppose, their god gained some special skill
by seeing the white people made, and so made them belter.
With regard to a future state of existence, many of them
imagine that the chichting, i. e. the shadow, or what sur-
vives the body, will at death go southward, to some un-
known place, and enjoy some kind of happiness — such as
hunting, feasting, dancing, or the like ; and never be
weary of these entertainments. They beheve that most
will be happy ; and that those who are not so will be pu-
nished only with privation, being excluded from the walls
of the good world, where happy spirits reside. These
rewards and punishments they suppose to depend entirely
on their behavior towards mankind ; and to have no refe-
rence to any thing which relates to the worship of the
Supreme Being."
The original inhabitants of Canada, like other heathen,
had an idea of a Supreme Being, whom they considered
as the creator and governor of the world. It is said that
most of the nations of the Algonquin language give this
being the appellation of the Great Hare, but some call him
Michaboii, and others Atahoran. They believe that he was
born upon the waters, together with his whole court, who
were composed of four-footed animals, like himself; that
he formed the earth of a grain of sand taken from the
bottom of the ocean, and that he created men of the bo-
dies of the dead animals. Some mention a god of the wa-
ters, who opposed the designs of the Great Hare, who is
called the G-reat Tiger. They have a third, called 3Iat-
comek, whom they invoke in the winter season.
The Agreskoui of the Hurons, and the Agreskouse of the
Iroquois, is, in the opinion of these nations, the sovereign
being, and god of war. These Indians do not give the
same original to mankind with the Algonquins ; for they
do not ascend so high as the first creation. According to
tliem, there were in the beginning six men in the world ;
but they cannot tell who placed them there.
The gods of the Indians are supposed to have bodies,
and to live much in the same manner as themselves ; but
without any of the inconveniences to which they are sub-
ject. The word spirit, among them, signifies only a be-
ing of a more excellent nature than others.
According to the Iroquois, in the third generation there
came a deluge, in which not a soul was saved ; so that,
in order to re-people the earth, it was necessary to change
beasts into men. Beside the First Being or Great Spirit,
they admit an infinite number of genii, or inferior spirits,
both good and evil, who have each their peculiar fonn of
v/orship. They ascribe to these beings a kind of immen-
sity and omnipresence, and constantly invoke them as the
guardians of mankind ; and they only address themselves
to the evil genii, to beg of them to do them no hurt. They
lielieve the immortality of the soul, and say that the re-
gion of their everlasting abode lies so far westward, that
the souls are several months in arriving at it, and have
vast difficulties to surmount. The happiness that they
hope to enjoy is not believed to be the recompense of vir-
tue only ; but to have been a good hunter, brave in war,
fee, are the chief merits which entitle them to their para-
dise : this they, and other American natives, describe as
a delightful country, blessed with perpetual spring, whose
forests abound with game, whose rivers swarm with fish ;
where famine is never felt, but uninterrupted plenty shall
be enjoyed without labor or fatigue.
The number of native Indians within the United States
is, by a recent census, staled within a half a million ; and
the most active measures are using by the government,
and benevolent societies, for their civilization and instruc-
tion. See Report of the Seaetari/ of War, and Dr. Horse's
Tour ; New Haven, 1822.
IMost of tlie natives of South America have an idea of
a Supreme Being, whom they call the Great Spirit, by way
of excellence ; and whose perfections are as much supe-
rior to other beings, as the fire of the sun is to elementary
fire. They believe this omnipotent Being is so good, that
he could not do evil to any one, if he were even inclined.
That though he created all things by his will, yet he had
under him spirits of an inferior order, who, by his assist-
ance, formed the beauties of the universe ; but that man
was the work of the Creator's own hands. These spirits
are, by the Natches, termed free servants or agents ; but at
the same time they are as submissive as slaves : they are
constantly in the presence of God, and prompt to execute
his will. The air, according to them, is full of other spi-
rits of more mischievous dispositions ; and these have a
chief, who was so eminently mischievous, that God Al-
mighty was obliged to confine him ; and ever since, those
aerial spirits do not commit so much mischief as they did
before, especially if they are intreated to be favorable.
For this reason, the savages always invoke them when
they want either rain or fair weather. They give this
account of the creation of the world, viz. that God first
formed a little man of clay, and breathed on his work ;
and that he walked about, grew up, and became a per-
fect man : but they are silent as to the creation of
women.
The greatest part of the natives of Louisiana had for-
merly their temples, as well as the Natches ; and in all
these temples a perpetual fire was preserved.
The Aborigines of East and West Florida own a su-
preme benevolent Deity, and a subordinate one, who is
malevolent : neglecting the good god, who does no harm,
they bend their whole attention to soften the latter, who,
they say, torments them day and night.
The Apalachians, bordering on Florida, worship the sun,
but sacrifice nothing to hira which has life : they hold
him to be the parent of life, and think he can take no
pleasure in the destruction of any living creature. Their
devotion is exerted in perfumes and songs.
The divinities of the ancient inhabitants of Mexico were
clothed with terror, and delighted in vengeance. The fig-
ures of serpents, of tigers, and of other destructive ani-
mals, decorated their temples. Fasts, mortifications, and
penances, all rigid, and many of them excruciating to an
extreme degree, were the means which they employed to
appease the wrath of the gods : but of all offerings, hu-
man sacrifices were deemed the most acceptable; At the
dedication of the great temple at Mexico, it is reported
there were sixty or seventy thousand human sacri-
fices. The usual amount of them was about twenty
thousand.
The city of Slexico is said to have contained nearly
two thousand small temples, and three hundred and
sixty which \vere adorned with steeples. The whole em-
pire of Blexico contained above forty thousand temples,
endowed with very considerable revenues.- For the ser-
vice in the grand temple of Mexico itself, above five thou-
sand priests were appointed ; and the number in the
whole empire is said to have amounted to nearly a mil-
jion. The whole priesthood, except that of the conquered
nations, was governed by two high-priests, who were also
the oracles of the kings. Beside the service in the tem-
ple, their clergy were to instruct youth, to compose the
calenders, antl to paint the mythological pictures. The
Blexicans had al.so priestesses, but they were not allow-
ed to offer up sacrifices. They likewise had monastic
orders, especially one, into which no person was admitted
under sixty years of age.
Notwithstanding the vast depopulation of America, a
very considerable number of the native race still remains
both in Blexico and Peru. Their settlements in some
places are so populous, as to merit the name of cities. In
the three audiences into which New Spain is divided,
there are at least two millions of Indians ; a pitiful rem-
nant indeed of its ancient population : but such as still
IN D
[ 655 ]
IND
forms a body of people, superior in number lo all the
other inhabitants of this vast country.
The sun, as the great source of light, of joy, and fertility
in the creation, attracted the principal homage of the na-
tive Peruvians. The moon and stars, as co-operating
with him, were entitled to secondary honors. They offer-
ed to the sun a part of those productions which his genial
warmth had called forth from the bosom of the earth, and
reared to maturity. They sacrificed, as an oblation of
gratitude, some of the animals who were indebted to his
influence for nourishment. They presented to him choice
specimens of those works of ingenuity which his light had
guided the heart of man in forming. But the Incas never
stained his altars with human blood ; nor could they con-
ceive that their beneficent father, the sun, would be de-
lighted with such horrid victims.
The savage tribes of Guiana believe the existence of
one supreme Deity, whose chief attribute is benevolence j
and to him they ascribe every good which happens. But
as it is against his nature to do ill, they believe in subor-
dinate malevolent beings, like our devil, who occasion
thunders, hurricanes, and earthquakes ; and who are the
authors of death and diseases, and of every misfortune.
The natives of Amazonia have a vast variety of idols,
whom they consider as subordinate to one Supreme Be-
ing ; but of that Being they have ver)' confused notions.
They stand in great awe of their priests, and hold them
in the utmost veneration. The}' have a particular house,
or rather hut, for the celebration of their ceremonies ; and
this is to them what others call a church, or temple.
Here the priests address themselves to their gods, and re-
ceive answers from their oracles. When they go to war,
they apply to their priests for assistance against their
enemies ; and the first thing the priests do, is to curse
them. Upon their going out to war, they hoist at the
prow of their canoes that idol, under whose auspices they
look for victory ; but, like too many called Christians,
they never pray to their gods, except in cases of difficulty,
when they feel their need of divine assistance or support
Neal's History of Ntw England, vol. i. pp. 33 — 4 ; Dr
TrumbuU's Hist, of the United States, vol. i. ch. 1. (N
York, 1810 ;) Charlevoix's Voyage to N. Amer. vol. ii. pp
141—156, 273 ; Dr. Robertson's Hist, of S. Amer. vol. i. p
3S7, &c. vol. ii. pp. 309, 310, 384, 385; Lord Kaime's
Sketches, vol. iv. pp. 155, 216; Dr. Priestley's Lectures on
History, p. 440. Ency. Am.; Miss. Herald; Am. Bap.
Mag. — Williams.
INDIGNATION ; a strong disapprobation of mind, ex-
cited by something flagitious in the conduct of another.
It does not, as Mr. Cogan observes, always suppose that
excess of depravity which alone is capable of committing
deeds of horror. Indignation always refers to culpability
of conduct, and cannot, like the passion of horror, be ex-
tended to distress either of body or mind. It is produced by
acts of treachery, abuse of confidence, base ingratitude,
fee, which we cannot contemplate without being provoked
to anger, and feeling a generous resentment. ^J/isni. Buck.
INDUCTION, (Ecclesiastical ;) the act of giving a
clergyman formal possession of his church, to which he
has been appointed by institution ; which see. It is per-
formed by the archdeacon, or some person appointed by
him for the purpose, who takes the clergyman to be in-
ducted by the hand, lays it upon the key of the church,
the ring of the door, the latch of the church gate, or on
the church wall, and pronounces these words : — " By vir-
tue of this commission, I induct you into the real and ac-
tual possession of the rectory of ," &c. He then
opens the church door, and puts the parson in possession
of it, who commonly tolls a bell to give notice to the peo-
ple that he has taken possession. Induction may like-
wise be made by simply delivering a clod or turf of the
glebe. — Hend. Buck.
INDULGENCES, in the Komish church, are a remis-
sion of the punishment due to sin, gi'anted by the church,
and supposed to save the sinner from purgatory.
According to the doctrine of the Romish church, all the
good works of the saints, over and above those which
were necessary towards their own justification, are depo-
.sited, together with the infinite merits of Jesus Christ, in
one inexhaustible treasury. The keys cff this were com-
mitted to St. Peter, and to his successors, the popes, who
may open it at pleasure ; and, by transferring a portion of
this superabundant merit to any particular person for a
sum of money, may convey lo him either the pardon of
his own sins, or a release for any one in whom he is in-
terested, from the pains of purgatory. Such indulgences
were first invented in the el.-venth century, by Urban II.,
as a recompense for those «lio went in person upon the
glorious enterprise of conquering the Holy Land. They
were afterwards granted to those who hired a soldier for
that purpose; and in process of time were bestowed on
such as gave money for accomplishing any pious work
enjoined by the pope. The power rf granting indulgences
has been greatly abused in the church of Rome. Pope
Leo X., in order to carry on (he magnificent structure of
St. Peter's at Rome, published indulgences and a plenary
remission to all such as should contribute money towards
il. Finding the project take, he granted to Albert, elector
of Mentz, and archbishop of Magdeburg, the benefit of
the indulgences of Saxony, and the neighboring parts,
and farmed out those of other countries to the highest bid-
ders ; who, to make the best of their bargain, procured
the ablest preachers to cry up the value of the ware. The
form of these indulgences was as follows : — '• Slay our
Lord Jesus Christ have mercy upon thee, and absolve thee
by the merits of his most holy passion. And I, by his
authority, that of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul,
and of the most holy pope, granted and committed lo me
in these parts, do absolve thee, first from all ecclesiastical
censures, in whatever manner they have been incurred ;
then from all thy sins, transgressions, and excesses, how
enormous soever they may he : even from such as are re-
served for the cognizance of the holy see, and as far as
the keys of the holy church extend. I remit to you all
punishment which you deserve in purgatory on their ac-
count ; and I restore you to tlu' holy sacraments of the
church, to the unity of the faithful, and to that innocence
and purity which you possessed at baptism : so that when
you die, the gates of punishimciit shall be shut, and the
gates of the paradise of delights shall be opened ; and if
you shall not die at present, this grace shall remain in full
force when you are at the point of death. In the name
of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost." According
to a book, called the " Tax of the sacred Roman Chance-
ry," in which are contained the exact sums to be levied
for the pardon of each particular sin, we find some of the
fees to be thus : —
s. d.
For procuring abortion . . . . 7 6
For simony 10 6
For sacrilege . . . . . . 10 6
For taking a false oath in a criminal case . 9 0
For robbing 12 0
For burning a neighbor's house . . . 12 0
For defiling a virgin .... 9 0
For lying with a mother, sister, &c. . . 7 6
For murdering a layman .... 7 6
For keeping a concubine . . . . 10 6
For laying violent hands on a clergj'man . 10 6
And so on.
The terms in which the retailers of indulgences describ-
ed their benefits, and the necessity of purchasing them,
were so extravagant, they they appear almost incredible.
If any man, said they, purchase letters of indulgence, his
soul may rest secure with respect to its salvation. The
souls confined in purgatory, for whose redemption indul-
gences are purchased, as soon as the money tinkles in the
chest, instantly escape from that place of torment, and as-
cend into heaven. That the eflicacy of indulgences was
so great, that the most heinous sins, even if one should
violate (which was impossible) the Mother of God, would
be remitted and expiated by Ihem, and the person be freed
both from punishment and guilt. That this was the un-
speakable gift of God, in order to reconcile man to him-
self. That the cross erected by tlie preachers of indulgen-
ces was equally eflicacious wilh the cross of Christ itself.
" Lo," said they. " the heavens are open : if you enter
not now, when will you enter ? For twelve pence you may
redeem the soul of your father out of purgiiiorj- ; and are
INF
[656,
INF
you so ungrateful that you will not rescue the soul of your
parent from torment ? If you had but one coat, you ought
to strip yourself instantly and sell it, in order to purchase
such benefit," &:c. It was this great abuse of indulgences
that contributed not a little to the reformation of religion
in Germany, where Martin Luther began first to declaim
against the preachers of indulgences, and afterwards
against indulgences themselves. Since that time the
popes have been more sparing in the exercise of this power ;
although it is said they still carry on a great trade with
them to the Indies, where they are purchased at two rials
a piece, and sometimes more. We are (old, also, that a
gentleman not long since being at Naples, in order that he
might be fully ascertained respecting indulgences, went
to the ofiice, and for two sequins purchased a plenary re-
mission of all sins for himself, and any two other persons
of his friends or relations, whose names he was empow-
ered to insert. Hameis' Church Hist., vol. iii. p. 147 ;
Smith's Errors of the Church of Borne ; Watson's Theol.
Tracts, V. p. 274 ; Moshfim's Ecd. Hist., vol. i. p. 594, 4to.
Ency. Amer. — Hend. Buck.
IlNfDUSTRY ; diligence ; constant application of the
mind, or exercise of the body. (See Diligence, and Idle-
ness.)— Hend. Buck.
INDWELLING SCHEME ; a scheme which derives
its name from that passage in Col. 2: SI : " In him dwell-
eth all the fulness of the Godhead bodily ;" which, accord-
ing to some, asserts the doctrine of Chiist's consisting of
two beings ; one the self-existent Creator, and the other a
creature, made into one person by an ineffable union and
indivelling, which renders the same attributes and honors
equally applicable to both. (See Pee-existence.) Dr.
Owen's Ghry of Christ, pp. 3fi8, 369, London ed., 1679 ; a
Sermon entitled. The true Christ of God above the false
Christ of men, Ipswich, 1799 ; Watts' Glory of Christ, p.
6—203 ; Adams' View of Religions, p. 201.— Hend. Buck.
INFALLIBILITY ; the qtiality of not being able to be
deceived or mistaken.
The infallibility of the church of Rome has been one
of the great controversies between the Protestants and
papists. By this infallibility, it is understood, that she
cannot at any time cease to be orthodox in her doctrine, or
fall into any pernicious errors ; but that she is constituted,
by divine authority, the judge of all controversies of re-
ligion, and that all Christians arc obliged to acquiesce in
her decisions. This is the chain which keeps its mem-
bers fast bound to its communion ; the charm which re-
tains them within its magic circle ; the opiate which lays
asleep all their doubts and diffictilties : it is likewise the
magnet which attracts the desultory and unstable in other
persuasions Avithin the sphere of popery ; the foundation
of its whole superstructure, the cement of all its parts,
and its fence and fortress against all inroads and attacks.
Under the idea of this infallibility, the church of Rome
claims, 1. To determine what books are and what are not
canonical, and to oblige all Christians to receive or reject
them accordingly. 2. To communicate authority to the
Scripture ; or, in other words, that the Scripture, (quoad
I OS,) as to us, receives its authority from her. 3. To as-
>ign and fix the sense of Scripture, which all Christians
i'.re submissively to receive. 4. To decree as necessary
to salvation whatever she judges so, although not contain-
ed in Scripture. 5. To decide all controversies respecting
matters of faith. These are the claims to which the
church of Rome pretends, but which we shall not here
attempt to refute, because any man with the Bible in his
hand, and a little common sense, will easily see that they
are all founded upon ignorance, superstition, and error.
It is not a little remarkable, however, that the Roman
Catholics themselves are much divided as to the seat of
this infallibility, and which, indeed, may be considered as
a satisfactory proof that no such privilege exists in the
church. For is it consistent with reason to think that
God would have imparted so Extraordinary a gift to pre-
vent errors and dissensions in the church, and yet have
left an additional cause of error and dissension, viz. the
uncertainty of the place of its abode? No, surely. — Some
place this infallibility Xn the pope or bishop of Rome ;
some in a general council ; others in neither pope nor
council separately, but in both conjointly ; whilst others
are said to place it in the church diffusive, or in all
churches throughout the world. But that it could not be
deposited in the pope, is evident, for many popes have
been heretics, and on that account censured and deposed,
and therefore could not have been infallible. That it could
not be placed in a general council, is as evident ; for ge-
neral councils have actually erred. Neither could it be
placed in the pope and council conjointly ; for two falli-
bles could not make one infallible, any more than two
ciphers could make an integer. To say that it is lodged
in the church universal or diffusive, is equally as errone-
ous ; for this would be useless and insignificant, because
it could never be exercised. The whole church could not
meet to make decrees, or to choose representatives, or to
deliver their sentiments on any question started ; and, less
than all would not be the whole church, and so could not
claim that privilege.
The most general opinion, however, it is said, is that
of its being seated in a pope and general council. The
advocates for this opinion consider the pope as the vicar
of Christ, head of the church, and centre of unity j and
therefore conclude that his concurrence with and approba-
tion of the decrees of a general council are necessary,
and sufficient to afford it an indispensable sanction and
plenary authority. A general council they regard as the
church representative, and suppose that nothing can be
wanting to ascertain the truth of any controversial point,
when the pretended head of the church and its members,
assembled in their supposed representatives, mutually
concur and coincide in judicial definitions and decrees, but
that infallibility attends their coalition and conjunction in
all their determinations.
Every impartial person who considers this subject with
the least degree of attention, must clearly perceive that
neither any individual nor body of Christians have any
ground, from reason or Scripture, for pretending to infal-
libility. It is evidently the attribute of the Supreme Being
alone, which we have all the foundation imaginable to
conclude he has not communicated to any mortal, or as-
sociations of mortals. The huinan being who challenges
infallibilitjr, seems to imitate the pride and presumption
of Lucifer, when he said, '■' I will ascend, and will be
like the Most High." A claim to it was unheard of in
the primitive and purest ages of the church ; but became,
after that period, the arrogant pretension of papal ambi-
tion. History plainly informs us that the bishops of Rome,
on the declension of the western Roman empire, began
to put in their claim of being the supreme and infallible
heads of the Christian church, which they at length esta-
bUshed by their deep policy and unremitting efforts ; by
the concurrence of fortunate circumstances ; by the ad-
vantages which they reaped from the necessities of some
princes, and the superstition of others ; and by the general
and excessive credulity of the people. However, when
they had grossly abused this absurd pretension, and com-
mitted various acts of injustice, tyrannj', and cruelty ;
when the blind veneration for the papal dignity had been
greatly diminished by the long and scandalous schism oc-
casioned by contending popes ; when these had been for
a considei'able time roaming about Europe, fawning on
princes, squeezing their adherents, and cursing their ri-
vals ; and when the councils of Constance and Basil had
challenged and exercised the right of deposing and electing
the bishops of Rome, then their pretensions to infallibility
were called in question, and the world discovered that
councils were a jurisdiction superior to that of the tow-
ering pontiffs. Then it was that this infallibility was
transferred by many divines from popes to general coun-
cils ; and the opinion of the superior authority of a council
above that of a pope spread vastly, especially under the
profligate pontificate of Alexander VI., and the martial
one of Julius II. The popes were thought by numbers to
be too unworthy possessors of so rich a jewel ; at the same
time it appeared to be of too great a value, and of too ex-
tensive consequence, to be parted with entirely. It was,
therefore, by the major part of the Roman church, depo-
sited with, or made the property of general councils, either
solely or conjointly with the pope. See S7nith's Errors of
the Church of Rome detected ; and a list of writers under
article Popert. — Hend. Buck.
IN F
|Cg7 1
INF
IN r ANT BAPTISM. (See Baptism.)
INFANT COMMUNION ; the admission of infants to
the ordinance of the Lord's supper. It has been debated
by some, whether or not infants should be admitted to this
ordinance. One of the greatest advocates for this practice
was Mr. Pierce. He pleads the use of it even unto this
day among the Greeks, and in the Bohemian churches till
near the time of the Reformation ; but especially from the
custom of the ancient churches, as it appears from many
passages in Photius, Augustin, and Cyprian. But Dr.
Doddridge observes, that Mr. Pierce's proof from the more
ancient fathers is very defective. His arguments from
Scripture chiefly depend upon this general medium ; that
Christians succeeding to the Jews as God's people, and
being grafted upon that stock, their infants have a right
to all the privileges of which they are capable, till forfeit-
ed by some immoralities ; and consequently have a right
lo partake of this ordinance, as the Jewish children had
to eat of the passover, and other sacrifices : besides this,
he pleads those texts which speak of the Lord's supper as
received by all Christians.
The most obvious answer to all this, is that which is
taken from the incapacity of infants to examine them-
selves, and discern the Lord's body ; but he answers
that this precept is only given to persons capable of un-
derstanding and complying with it, as those which require
faith in order to baptism are interpreted by the Pcedo-bap-
lists. As for his argument from the Jewish children eat-
ing the sacrifice, it is to be cimsidered that this was not
required as circumcision was : the males were not neces-
sarily brought to the temple till they were twelve years
old, (Luke 2: 42.) and the sacrifices they ate of were chiefly
peace-offerings, which became the common food to all that
were clean in the family, and were not looked upon as
?.cts of devotion to such a degree as our eucharist is :
though, indeed, they were a token of their acknowledging
the divinity of that God to whom they had been offered ;
(1 Cor. 10: 18.) and even the passover was a commemo-
ration of a temporal deliverance ; nor is there any reason
to believe that its reference to the Messiah was generally
understood by the Jews.
On the whole, it is certain there would be more danger
of a contempt arising to the Lord's supper from the ad-
mission of infants, and of confusion and trouble to other
communicants; so that not being required in Scripture, it
is much the best to omit it. When children are grown up
to a capacity of behaving decently, they may soon be in-
structed in the nature and design of tlie ordinance ; and
if the}- appear to understand it, and behave for some com-
petent time of trial in a manner suitable to that profession,
it would probably be advisable to admit tliem to commu-
nion, though very young ; which, by the way, might be a
good security against many of the snares to which youth
are exposed. Dodilridge's Lectures, lect. 207 ; Pierce's Es-
say on the Eucharist, p. 76, &c. ; TVitsius on Cov. b. 4. c.
17. ^ .30, 32 ; /. Frid. Mmjer, Diss, de Euchmistia Infnn-
turn ; Zomius, Hist. Enrharist. Infantum, p. 18 ; Theol. and
Bib. Mag. January and April, 1806. — Haid. Buck.
INFANTS, Saltation of. '■ Various opinions," says
an acute writer, "concerning the future state of in-
fants have been adopted. Some think, all dying in infan-
cy are annihilated ; for, say they, infants, being incapable
of moral good or evil, are not proper objects of reward
or punishment. Others think that they share a fate simi-
lar to adults ; a part saved and a part perish. Others
affirm all are saved because all are immortal, and all are
innocent. Others, perplexed with these divers sentiments,
think best to leave the subject untouched ; — cold comfort
to parents who bury their families in infancy ! The most
probable opinion seems to be that they are all saved,
through the merits of the Jlediator, with an everlasting
salvation. This has nothing in it contrary to the perfec-
tions of God, or to any declaration of the Holy Scriptures ;
and it is highly agreeable to all those passages which
affirm where sin hath abounded, grace hath much more
■loounded. On these principles, the death of Christ saves
more than the fall of Adam lost." If the reader be desi-
rous of examining the subject, we refer him to p. 415, v.
ii. Roliimon's Claude ; Gillard and IVilliams' Essay on In-
fant Salvation ; An attempt to elucidate Sam. 5: 12, by an
83
anonymous writer ; Watts' Ridn and Recovery, pp. 3i!4,
327; Edwards on Original S/n, pp. 431, 434 ; Doddridfe's
Lect lect. 168; Ridgley's Body of Dii'. v. i. p. 330—336,
Harris and Russell on the Salvation of Infants. — Hend. Buck.
INFIDELS, or unbelievers in divine revelation, and
consequently in Christianity, may be divided into two great
classes — Atheists and Deists, which see.
INFIDELITY ; absolute want of faith in God, or the '
disbelief of the truths of revelation, and the great princi-
ples of religion. If we inquire into the source of infidelitj',
we shall find it is not in ordinary cases the result of
sober inquiry, close investigation, or full conviction ; but
it is rather, as one observes, " the slow production of a
careless and irrehgious life, operating together with pre-
judices and erroneous conceptions concerning the nature
of the leading doctrines of Christianity. It may, there-
fore, be laid down as an axiom, that ' infidelity is, in gene-
ral, a disease of the heart more than of the understanding :'
for we always find that infidelity increases in proportion
as the general morals decline."
As to its progress, it has ever been from bad to worse.
Lord Herbert did not. indeed, so much impugn the doc-
trine or the morality of the Scriptures, as to attempt to su-
persede their necessity, by endeavoring to show that the
great principles of the unity of God, a moral government,
and a future world, are taught with sufficient clearness
by the light of nature. Bolingbroke, and others of his
successors, advanced much farther, and attempted to in-
validate the proofs of the moral character of the Deity,
and consequently all expectation of rewards and punish-
ments, leaving the Supreme Being no other perfections
than those which belong to a first cause, or Almighty con-
triver. After him, at a considerable distance, followed
Hurne, the most subtle of all. who boldly aimed to intro-
duce an universal scepticism, and to pour a more than
Egyptian darkness into the whole region of morals. Since
his time, meaner writers have sprung up in abundance,
and infidelity has allured multitudes to its standard ; the
young and superficial, by its dexterous sophistry ; the
vain, by the literary fame of a few of its champions ; and
the profligate, by the licentiousness of its principles.
If we consider the nature and effects of infidelity, we
shall find that it subverts the whole foundation of morals ;
it tends directly to the destrnction of a taste for moral ex-
cellence, and promotes the growth of those vices which
are the most hostile to social happiness, especially vanity,
ferocity, and unbridled sensuality. Facts have recently
come to light in this country, illustrating its connexion
with licentiousness, of a most astounding character.
Still it is destined to be banished from the earth. Its
inconsistency with reason ; its incongruity with the na-
ture of man ; its cloudy and obscure prospects ; its un-
satisfj-ing nature ; its opposition to the dictates of con-
science ; its pernicious lendency to cflace every just
principle from the breast of man, and to lead the way to
every species of vice and immorality, show that it can-
not flourish, but must finally fall. See HalVs admirable
Ser. on Modern Infidelity ; Fuller's Gospel of Christ its own
Witness ; Bishop Watson's Apology for the Bible ; Wilber-
force's Practical Vicir, ^ 3. ch. 7 ; Bp. Home's Letters on
Infidelity; M'lh'aine's Lectures; Christian Watchman,
1833-4. and books under articles Atheists and Deists.
— Hend. Buck.
INFIRMITY, applied to the mind, denotes frailty,
weakness. It has been a question what may properly be
denominated sins of infirmity.
1. Nothing, it is said, can be excused under that name
which at the time of its commission is knnn-n to be a sin.
— 2. Nothing can be called a sin of infirmity which is
contrary to the express letter of any of the command-
ments.— 3. Nothing will admit of a just and sufficient
excuse upon the account of infirmity, which a man before-
hand considers and deliberates with himself, whether it be
a sin or not. A sin of infirmity is, 1. Such a failing as
proceeds from excusable ignorance. — 2. Or unavoidable
surprise. — 3. Or want of courage and strength, Rom. 15: 1-
By infirmity also we understand the corruptions that
are still left in the heart, (noiwithstan.ling a pet^ )n may
be sanctified in part.) and which sometimes b.-e-xlc oiu.
These may be permitted to humble us ; to annnato our vi-
I N F
65Sj
] NG
',llt.a:e ; pcrliapj ihat newly-con vinceJ sinners might not
be discouraged by a sight of such perfection they might
despair of ever attaining to ; to lieep us prayerful and de-
pendent ; to prevent those honors which some would be
ready to give to human nature rather than to God ; and,
lastly, to excite in us a continual desire for heaven. Let
lis be cautious and watchful, however, against sin in all
Its forms : for it argues a deplorable state of mind when
men love to practise sin, and then lay it upon constitution,
the infirmity of nature, the decree of God, the influence
Df Satan, and thus attempt lo excuse themselves by say-
ing they could not avoid it. Clarke'z Serm., ser. 12. vol.
IX. ; Madaimii and Massilloii's Serm.—Hend. Buck.
INFINITE ; without bounds or limits. Many have ob-
jected to the common opinion that sin is an infinite evil,
but without suflicicnt grounds, since every sin is commit-
ted against a God of infinite excellence, in violation of in-
finite obligations, and in its natural results leads to the
perpetuation of innumerable, inconceivable, and intermi-
nable mi.series. Objectors usually confound the finite act
with the infinite evil — the metaphysical or physical qmn-
iiUj, with the moral quality ; which is an absurdity found-
"d on a double sophism. — Hend. Buck.
INFINITy OF GOD. Infinity is taken in two senses
entirely different, i. e. in a positive and a negative one.
Positive infinity is a quality being perfect in itself, or capa-
ble of receiving no addition. Negative is the quality of
being boundless, unlimited, or endless. That God is in-
finite is evident; for, as Doddridge observes, 1. If he be
limited, it must either be by himself, or by another ; but
no wise being would abridge himself, and there could be
no other being to limit God. — 2. Infinity follows from self-
existence ; for a necessity that is not universal must de-
pend on some external cause, which a self-existent Being
does not. — 3. Creation is so great an act of power, that
we can imagine nothing impossible to that Being who has
performed it, but must therefore ascribe to him infinite
power. — 4. It is more honorable to the Divine Being to
conceive of him as infinite than finite. — 5. The Scriptures
represent all his attributes as infinite. His understanding
is infinite, Psal. 147: 5. His linowledge and wisdom,
Rom. 11: 33. His power, Rom. 1: 20. Heb. 11: 3. His
goodness, Psal. Il3: 2. His pm-ity, holiness, and justice.
Job 4: 17, 18. Isa. 6: 2, 3. — ti. His omnipotence and eter-
nity prove his infinity ; for were he not infinite, he would
be bounded by space and by time, which he is not. — Dod-
dridge's Led; lect. 49 ; Watts' Ontology, ch. 17; Locke on
Underst., vol. i. ch. 17; Howe's Works, vol. i. pp. 63, 61,
67 ; Saurin's Sermons. — Hend. Ruck.
INFLUENCE, Divi.ve ; a term made use of to de-
note the operations of the Divine Being npon the mind.
This doctrine of divine influence has been much called
in question of late ; but we may ask, 1. What doctrine
can be more rensonabh ? " The operations which the pow-
er of God carries on in the natural world are no less mys-
terious than those which the Spirit performs in the moral
world. If men, by their counsels and suggestions, can in-
fluence the minds of one another, must not divine sugges-
tion produce a much greater effect ? Surely the Father
of Spirits, by a thousand ways, has access to tlie spirits
he has made, so as in give them what determination, or
impart to them what assistance he thinks proper, without
injuring their frame or disturbing their rational powers."
We may observe, 2. Nothing can be more scriptural.
Eminent men from the patriarchal age down lo St. John,
the latest writer, believed in this doctrine, and ascribed
their religious feelings to this source. Our Lord strongly
and repeatedly incidcated this truth; and that he did not
mean miraculous, but moral influences of the Spirit, is
evident, John 3: 3. Matt. 7: 22, 23. John 6: 44, 46; see
also John 12: 32,40. Rom. 8: 9. 1 Cor. 2: 14. And we may
add, 3. Nothing can be more necessary, if we consider
the natural depravity of the heart, and the insufficiency
of all human means to render ourselves either holy or
happy without a supernatural power. See WilUnms' His-
tor:- Defence of Experimental Sdigion ; Williams' Answer
to Belsham, let. 13 ; Hurrion's Sermons on the Spirit ; Owen
Hall, andHinton on the Spirit ; Divight's Theology ; and es-
pecially Letters on the Christian Religion, by Olinthus Gregory,
LL D. and Natural History of Enthusiasm.— Hend. Buck.
INGATHERING, (the feast of,j after ail Ih-" irn-ts
of fields and vineyards were gathered in, was the same
with the feast of tabernacles, Exod. 23: 16. — Bromn.
INGHAM, (Benjamin, Esq.,) was born at Ossett,York,
June 11, 1712. He received a liberal education, first at Bat-
ley school, and afterwards at Queen's college, Oxford, where,
in 1733, he became acquainted with Messrs. Charles and
John Wesley, the founders of Methodism, and, for a time,
was somewhat attached to them, partly from witnessing ^
their exemplary moral conduct and zeal to do good, and
partly from a spirit of sympathy which be felt towards
them, on hearing them ridiculed and reproached for what,
he thought, merited commendation. Mr. Ingham, in 1735,
received episcopal ordination. He received a pressing in-
vitation from Mr. John Wesley to accompany him across
the Atlantic, which he accepted, and they embarked for
Georgia, in October, 1735. He remained in Georgia about
two years, visited Carolina and Pennsylvania, and then
returned to England, where, on his arrival, he began to
preach, in the established church, the doctrines of the go^
pel, according to the best light he then had into them.
Numbers tiocked to hear him ; the clergy became jealous,
and took the alarm, and in about two years, he found him-
self entirely excluded from their pulpits, which drove him
into the fields, where he often had large congregations.
When the schism took place between Messrs. Whitfield
and Wesley, Mr. Ingham stood aloof from both, and was
inclined rather to unite with the Moravians, who about
this period began to form their establishment at Fulneck,
near Leeds.
In 1741, Mr. Ingham married lady Margaret Hastings,
sister to the earl of Huntingdon ; on which he removed
his residence from Ossett to Abberford, where he continu-
ed to reside till his death. After forming this connexion,
he was so far from relaxing in his exertions to preach the
gospel, that he greatly extended the sphere of his opera-
tions, and, in process of time, may be said to have evan-
gelized all the surrounding country. Ministers rose up to
co-operate with him ; many societies were collected ; and,
though amidst much opposition from the high church party,
the cause went forward, and '• the little one became a thou-
sand." About the year 1760, Mr. Ingham, having pe-
rused Mr. Glas' Testimony of the King of Martyrs, and
obtained much information from it, concerning the nature
of Christ's kingdom, the order of gospel churches, and
its peculiar laws, precepts, and institutions, together with
his friends resolved on constituting their churches on the
same model. Two years afterwards, he published his
"Treatise on the Faith and Hope of the Gospel," in which
these important subjects are discussed with much simpli-
city and regard to the New Testament. Mr. Ingham died
in llie year 1772. The churches formerly in connexion
with Mr. Ingham, and commonly known by the appella-
tion of Inghamites, have lately united with the second
class of Scotch Independents, known by the name of Dale-
ites, after the late Mr. David Dale, of Glasgow, who was
an elder among them. Mr. Ingham's character and con-
duct were highly exemplary, and in all respects becoming
the gospel of Christ ; and at his death lie left behind him
" a good name," which is better than precious ointment.
See New Evang. Mag. 1819 ; Jones' Chris. Biog. — Hend.
Buck.
INGHAMITES. (See the preceding Article.)
INGLIS, (Henry David, Esq.,) was born 1757, proba-
bly in the city of Edinburgh. Young Inglis, having re-
ceived the rudiments of education, and discovering unu-
sual quickness of parts, was destined by his father for the
bar ; but at the age of .seventeen, his mind became awa-
kened to the concerns of eternity, in consequence of a
sermon which he heard, preached by his honored relative,
Dr. John Erskine ; and, after a time, he resolved upon ex-
changing the profession of the law for the ministry of the
gospel of peace, having his views at that moment directed,
probably by Dr. Erskine, to a station in the church of
Scotland. His design, however, in this respect, was frus-
trated, in consequence of the light which, in a little time,
poured into his mind, respecting the nature of Christ's
kingdom, as not of this world ; and, in 1777, he was bap-
tized by the late Mr. M'Lean, and added to the church
under his pastoral care. In the yenr 1781, he became
INI
[ 659 J
INK
one of its elders or pastors, in conjunction with Blessrs.
M'Lean and Bradwood, and a first-rate preacher of the
gospel. His labors in this respect were not confined to
the church under his charge : but he went out "into the
highways and hedges," explored the streets and lanes of
the city ; and wherever the Lord opened a door for him,
he was ready to testify the gospel of the grace of God, and
show unto perishing sinners the way of salvation. And
in this way his labors were crowned with wonderful suc-
cess ; many, by his means, were made acquainted with
the saving truth ; the church greatly increased, and he
had the satisfaction of seeing numerous seals to his
ministrj'.
From the lime that Mr. Inglis abandoned all thoughts
of being a clergyman of the establishment, he resumed
the study and practice of the law ; and, in the year 1794,
he was admitted advocate, and took his seat at the bar,
where he continued to plead as a barrister for ten or
twelve years, with considerable repute : his powers of
elocution, combined with a clear understanding, and the
most inflexible integrity, procured him considerable busi-
ness. But, about the close of the year 1805, his health
began visibly to decline ; and on the twelfth of May, 1S06,
he was removed from the scene of his labors and suffer-
ings, at the age of forty-nine, to the great grief of the
church, and a large circle of friends, to whom he was
much endeared by his amiable deportment, his unostenta-
tious manners, and by his learning, piety, and zeal for the
cause of the Redeemer. His friends published, in 1812,
an octavo volume, entitled " Letters, Sermons, and
Tracts, on various important Subjects, by the late Henry
David Inglis, Esq., to which is prefixed an Account of
the Author." — Jones' Chris. Biog.
INGRATITUDE ; the vice of being insensible to fa-
vors received, without any endeavor to acknowledge and
repay '.hem. It is sometimes applied to the act of
returning evil for good. Ingratitude, it is said, is
no passion : for the God of nature has appointed no
Motion of the spirits whereby it might be excited ; it is,
therefore, a mere vice, arising from pride, stupidity, or
narrowness of soul. — Hend. Buck.
INHERITANCE ; a portion which appertains to ano-
ther, after some particular event. As the principles of
inheritance differ in the East, from those which are esta-
blished among ourselves, it is necessary to notice them
particularly. The reader will observe, that there is no
aeed of the death of the parent in these countries, as there
is among us, before the children possessed their inheri-
tance. (See Heir.)
Among the Hindoos, the rights of inherifance are laid
down with great precision, and with the strictest attention
to the natural claim of the inheritor in the several degrees
of affinity. A man is considered but as tenant for fife in
his own property ; and, as all opportunity of distributing
his effects by will, after his death, is precluded, hardly any
mention is made of such kind of bequest. By these ordi-
nances also, he is hindered from dispossessing his children
of his property in favor of aliens, and from making a
blind and partial allotment in behalf of a favorite child, to
the prejudice of the rest ; by which the weakness of pa-
rental affection, or of a misguided mind in its dotage, is
admirably remedied. These laws strongly elucidate the
story of the prodigal son in the Scriptures, since it appears
from hence to have been an immemorial custom in the
East for sons to demand their portion of inheritance
during their father's fifetime, and that the parent, how-
ever aware of the dissipated inclinations of his child,
could not legally refuse to comply with the application. —
Calmet.
INIQUITY. This word means not only sin, but by a
melonomy, the punishment of sin, and the expiation of it :
" Aaron will bear the iniquities of the people ;" he will
atone for them, Exod. 28: 38. The Lord " visits the ini-
quities of the fathers upon the children ;" (Exod. 20: 5.)
he sometimes causes visible effects of his wrath to fall on
the children of criminal parents.
" To bear iniquity," is to endure the punishment of it,
to be obliged to expiate it. The priests bear the iniquity
of the people ; that is, they are charged with the expiation
< f it, Exod. 28: 38. Lev. 10: IT.— Calmet.
INJURY ; a violation of the rights of another. Some,
says Grove, distinguish between injuslitia and injuria.
Injustice is opposed to justice in general, whether negative
or positive ; an injUry, to negative justice alone. (See
Justice.) An injury is, wilfully doing to another what
ought not to be done . This is injustice, loo, but not the
whole idea of it ; for it is injustice, also, to refuse or ne-
glect doing what ought to be done. An injury must be
wilfully committed ; whereas it is enough to make a
thing unjust, that it happens through a culpable negh-
gence.
1. We may injure a person in his soul, hy misleading
his judgment ; by corrupting the imagination ; perverting
the will, and wounding the soul with grief. Persecutors
who succeed in their compulsive measures, though they
cannot alter the real sentiments by external violence, yet
sometimes injure the soul by making the man a hypocrite.
2. AVe may injure another in his body, by homicide,
murder, preventing life, dismembering the body ; hy
wounds, blows, slavery, and imprisonment, or any unjust
restraint upon its liberty : by robbing it <rf' its chastity, or
prejudicing its health.
3. We may injure another in his name and character,
by our own false and rash judgments of him ; by false
witness ; by charging a man to his face with a crime
which either we ourselves have forged, or which we know
to have been forged by some other person ; by detraction
or backbiting ; by reproach, or exposing another for some
natural imbecility either in body or mind ; or for some
calamity into which he is fallen, or some miscarriage of
which he has been guilty ; byinnuendos,or indirect accu-
sations that are not true. Now if we consider the value
of character, the resentment which the injurious person
has of such treatment when it comes to his own turn to
suffer it, the consequence of a man's losing his good
name, and finally, the difficulty of making reparation, we
must at once see the injustice of lessening another's good
character. There are these two considerations which
should sometimes restrain us from speaking the whole
truth of our neighbor, when it is to his disadvantage : —
(1.) That he may possibly live to see his folly, and re-
pent and grow better. — (2.) Admitting that we speak the
truth, yet it is a thousand to one but, when it is handed
about for some time, it will contract a deal of falsehood.
4. We may injure a person in his relations and depen-
dencies. In his servants, by corrupting them ; in his
children, by drawing them into evil courses ; in his wife,
by so\ving strife, or attempting to alienate her affections.
5. We may be guilty of injuring another in his worldly
goods or possessions. (1.) By doing him a mischief,
without any advantage to ourselves, through envy and
malice. — (2.) By taking what is another's, which is theft.
See Grove's Mar. Phil. ch. 8. p. 2 ; Watts' Sermons, vol. ii.
ser. 33 ; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 42. — He-nd. Buck.
INJURIES. (FoKGivENEss OF.) (See Fobgivekess.)
INJUSTICE. (See INJDRT.)
INK. The ink of the ancients was not so fluid as
otirs. Demosthenes reproaches jEschines with laboring
in the grinding of ink, as painters do in the grinding of
their colors. The substance also found in an ink-stand at
Herculaneum, looks like a thick oil or paint, with which
the manuscripts there have been written in a relievo visi-
ble in the letters, when you hold a leaf to the light in a
horizontal direction. Such vitriolic ink as has been used
on the old parchment manuscripts would have corroded
the delicate leaves of the papyrus, as it has done the skins
of the most ancient manuscripts of Virgil and Terence,
in the Vatican librar)' ; the letters are sunk into the parch-
ment, and some have eaten quite through it, in conse-
quence of the corrosive acid of the vitriolic ink, -n-ith
which they were written. — Watson.
INKHORN. The modern inhabitants of Egypt appear
to make use of ink in their sealing, as well as the Arabs of
the desert, who may be supposed not to have such conve-
niences as those that live in such a place as Egypt ■; for
Dr. Pococke says, that " they make the impression of
their name with their seal, generallv of cornelian, which
they wear on their finger, and which is blacked when
they have occasion to seal with it." This may serve to
show us, that there is a closer connexion between me
IN N
[ 660
IN Q
vision of Jolia, (Rev. 7; 2.) and that of Ezekiel, (chap. 9:
2.) than commentators appear to have apprehended.
T)iey must be joined, we imagine, to have a complete view
of either. John saw an angel with the seal of the Uving
God, and therewitli multitudes were sealed in their foi-e-
heads ; but, to understand jvhat sort of mark was made
there, you must have recourse to the inkhorn of Ezekiel.
On the other hand, Ezekiel sav/ a person with an inkhorn,
who was to mark the servants of God on their foreheads,
that is, with ink ; but how the ink was to be applied is not
expressed ; nor was there any need that it should be, if
in those times iidc was applied with a seal ; a seal being
in the one case plainly supposed ; as in the Apocalypse,
the mention of a seal made it needless to take any notice
of any inkhorn by his side. (See GiRDi.T..)—Calmet.
INN. The inns or caravansaries of the East, in which
travellers are accommodated, are not all alike, .some being
simply places of rest, by the side of a fountain, if possible,
and at a proper distance on the road. Many of these
places are nothing more than naked walls ; others have
an attendant, who subsists either by some charitable dona-
tion, or the benevolence of passengers ; others are more
considerable establishments, where families reside, and
take care of them, and fiuruish the necessary provisions.
" Caravansaries," says Campbell, "were originally intended
for, and are now pretty generally applied to, the accommo-
dation of strangers and travellers, though, like every good
institution, sometimes perverted to the purposes of private
emolument, or public job. They are built at proper dis-
tances through the roads of the Turkish dominions, and
afford to the indigent or weary traveller an asylum from
the inclemency of the weather ; are in general built of the
most solid and durable materials, have commonly one
story above the ground floor, the lower of which is arched,
and serves for warehouses to store goods, for lodgings,
and for stables, while the upper is- used merely for lodg-
ings ; besides which they are always accommodated with
a lountam, and have cooks' shops and other conveniences
to supply the wants of lodgers. In Aleppo, the caravan-
saries are almost exclusively occupied by merchants, to
whom they are, like other houses, rented." The Orientals,
tjays Volney, " contrive their equipage in the most simple
and portable form. The baggage of a man who mshes
to be completely provided, consists in a carpet, a mattress,
a blanket, two sauce-pans with lids contained within each
other, two dishes, two plates, and a coftee-pot, all of cop-
per, well tinned ; a small wooden box for salt and pepper
a round leathern table, which he suspends from the saddle
of his horse, small leathern bottles or bags for oil melted
butter, water and brandy ; if the traveller be a Christian
a tinder-box, a cup of cocoa-nut, some rice, dried raisins'
dates, Cyprus chees", and, above all.coflee-berries, with a
roaster and wooden mortar to pound them." The Scrip-
tures use two words to express a caravansary, in both
instances translated inn : katalumati, (Luke 2- 7 ) " the
place of untying," that is, of beasts for rest : paiulocheion,
Vr, ® ^^■' " °- receptacle open to all comers."—
Calmet; IVatsori.
INNOCENT , Innocem'-e. The signification of these
words is well known. The Hebrews considered inriocence
as consisting chiefly in an exemption from external faults
committed contrary to the law ; hence they often join in-
nocent with hands. Gen. 37: 22. Ps. 24: 4. 26: 6. "I wilt
wash my hands in innocency." And, (Ps. 73: 13.) " Then
have I cleansed my heart in vain, and washed my hands
in innocency." Josephus admits of no other sins than
those actions which are put in execution. Sins in thought,
in his account, are not punished by God. To be innocent,
is used sometimes for being exempt from punishment.
'• I will not treat you as one innocent ;" (Jer. 46: 28.) lite-
rally, I will not make thee innocent. — Calmet,
INQUISITION ; in the church of Rome, a tribunal, in
several Roman Catholic countries, erected by the popes
for the examination and punishment of heretics. Its first
objects and victims were more especially the WaldMises.
This court was founded in the twelfth century, under the
patronage of pope Innocent, who issued out orders to ex-
cite the Catholic princes and people to extirpate heretics,
to search into their number and quality, and to transmit a
faithful account thereof to Rome. Hence they were called
inquisitors, and gave birth to this formidable tribunal,
called the inquisition. That nothing might be wanting to
render this .spiritual court formidable and tremendous, the
Roman pontiti's persuaded the European princes, and
more especially the emperor Frederick II. and Louis IX.,
king of France, not only to enact the most barbarous laws
against heretics, and to commit to the flames, by the mi-
nistry of pubhc justice, those who were pronounced such
by the inquisitors, but also to maintain the inquisitors in
their office, and grant them their protection m the most
open and and solemn manner. The edicts to this purpose
issued out by Frederick II. are well known ; edicts ^ufl^l'
cient to have excited the greatest horror, and which ren-
dered the most illustrious piety and virtue incapabli of
saving from the most cruel death such as had the misfor-
tune to be disagreeable to the inquisitors. These abomi-
nable laws were not, however, sufficient to restrain the
just indignation of the people against those inhuman
judges, whose barbarity was accompanied with supersti-
tion and arrogance, with a spirit of suspicion and perfidy ,
nay, even with temerity and imprudence. Accordingly,
they were insulted by the multitude in many places, were
driven in an ignominious manner out of some cities, and
were put to death in others : and Conrad, of Blarpurg,
the first German inquisitor who derived his commission
from Gregory IX., was one of the many victims that were
sacrificed on this occasion to the vengeance of the public,
which his incredible barbarities had raised to a dreadful
degree of vehemence and fury.
This diabolical tribunal takes cognizance of heresy,
Judaism, Blahometanism, sodomy, and polygamy ; and
the people stand in so much fear of it, that parents deliver
up their children, husbands their wives, and masters their
servants, to its officers, without daring in the least to
murmur. The prisoners are kept for a long time, till they
themselves turn their own accusers, and declare the cause
of their imprisonment, for which tbey are neither told
their crime, nor confronted with witnesses. As soon as
they are imprisoned, their friends go into mourning, and
speak of them as dead, not daring to solicit their pardon,
lest they should be brought in as accomplices. When
there is no shadow of proof against the pretended crimi-
nal, he is discharged, after suffering the most cruel tor-
tures, a tedious and dreadful imprisonment, and the loss
of the greatest part of his effects. The senteace against
prisoners is pronounced publicly, and with extraordinauy
solemnity. In Portugal they erect a theatre capable of
holding three thousand persons, in which they place a
rich altar, and raise seats on each side, in the form of an
amphitheatre. There the prisoners are placed, and over
against them is a high chair, whither they are called one
by one to hear their doom from one of the inquisitors.
These unhappy persons know what they are to sufler by
the clothes they wear that day : those who appear in their
own clothes are discharged on paying a fine ; those who
have a satito henito, or strait yellow coat without sleeves,
charged with St. Andrew's cross, have their lives, but for.
feit all their effects ; those who have the resemblance of
llames made of red serge sewed upon their sartto benit'i,
INS
[ 661
INS
without any cross, are pardoned, but threatened to be
burnt if ever they relapse ; but those who, besides those
flames, have on their sauto benito their own picture sur-
rounded wilK d'-vils, arc L-'jiidijiiiiird lo expire in the
flames. We have here given a representation of the
procession of inquisitors and the condemned. For the
conclusion of this horrid scene, see Act of Faith.
The Inquisition was put down by Napoleon in 1S08 ;
though restored at Rome over the clergy by Pius.VII. In
1820, it condemned to death Casehiur, a pupil of the Pro-
paganda, who was appointed patriarch of Memphis, but
not accepted by the viceroy of Egypt. His crime is un-
known ; but the pope com.rauted his punishment into
imprisonment for life. Works on the Inquisition have
been published by Baker, Liinborcli, Geddes, Lavnlle, Lh-
rente, and Puisllanch, The Secords of the Inquisition,
from the original manuscripts taken from the inquisitorial
palace at Barcelona, when it was stormed in 1819, were
published at Boston, (Mass.) Ln 1828. In Spain alone near
half a million have suffered as its victims. — Hfnd. Buck.
INSPIRATION ; divine dictation ; the communication
by the Holy Spirit of certain supernatural ideas and
emotions to the human soul ; or any supernatural influ-
ence of God upon the mind of a rational creature, where-
by he is raised to a degree of information or excellence,
to n-hiJh he could not, or would not, in fact,, have attained
in his present circumstances in a natural way. By the
IjBspiration of the Scriptures we are to understand, that
the sacred writers composed their \vorks under so plenary
and immediate an influence of the Holy Spirit, that God
may be said to speak lij those writers to Aen, and not
merely that they spoke to men in the name of God, and
by his authority. There is a considerable di-^jerence be-
tween the two propositions. Each supposes ail authentic
revelation from God ; but the former secures the Scrip-
tures from all error, both as to the subjects spoken, and the
manner of expressing them. This too is the doctrine taught
in the Scriptures themselves, Heb. l: 1. d: 12, 13. Acts
4: 24—28. 28: 25.
It is generally allowed that the Scriptures were written
by dlviue inspiration. That they claim this, in every va-
riety of form, implied and express, is certain. See for
example, 2 Tim. 3: 16, 17. John 10: 35. 5: 39, 46. Rom.
3 1, 2. 2 Sam. 23: 2. Acts 1: 16. 3: 21. 26: 22. Ps. 119:
Hi. Luke 16: 29—31. 1 Pet. 1: 10—12. Acts 11: 14.
Rom. 3: 4. Prov. 30: 5, 6. Rev. 22: IS, 19. John 17: IT.
Rom. 2: 12. John 12: 47, 48. 1 Cor. 4: 3, 4. Luke 10: 10—
16. 12: 47, 48. Phil. 3: 16. 1 John 4: 1—6. Isa. 8: 20.
Acts 17: 10, 11. Gal. 1: 11, 12. Eph. 3: 3—5. 1 Cor 2:
10—16. 1 Thes. 2: 13. 4: 8. 5: 27. The celestial ideas
in them ; the spirituality and elevation of their design ; the
majesty and simplicity of their style ■ the candor, disinter-
estedness, and uprightness of the penmen; the harmonious
agreement of their various parts ; their wonderful efiicacy
on the consciences and character of mankind ; their asto-
nishing preservation ; the multitude of miracles wrought
in confirmation of the doctrines they contain, and the
exact fulfilment of all their predictions up to this hour,
sufliciently prove this.
The inspiration of the Old Testament Scriptures is so
expressly attested by our Lord and his apostles, that
among those who receive their authority the only question
relates to the inspiration of the New Testament. It is
true we do not find the claim to inspiration formally ad-
vanced in the Four Gospels. This omission has sometimes
been stated by those superficial critics, whose prejudices
serve to account for their haste, as an objection against
the existence of inspiration. But if we attend to the reason
of the omission, we shall perceive that it is only an in-
stance" of that delicale propriety which pervades all the
New Testament. The gospels are the records of the
great facts wliich vouch the truth of Christianity.
These facts are to be received upon the testimony of
men who had been eye-witnesses of them. Tlie founda-
tion of Christian faith being laid in an assent to these
facts, it would have been preposterous to have introduced
in support of them that influence of the Sjiirit which pre-
served the minds of the apostles from error. For there
can be no proof of the inspiration of the apostles unless
the truth of the facts be previously admitted. The apos-
tles therefore bring forward the evidence of Christianity
in its natural order, when they speak in the gospels as the
companions and eye-witnesses of Jesus, claiming that
credit which is due to honest men who had the best op-
portunities of knowing what they declared. But after the
respect which their character and conduct procured to
their testimony, and the visible confirmation which it re-
ceived from heaven by miracles, ifcc. had established the
truth of the facts they testified, no room was left to doubt of
their inspiration. Without it they were indeed credible
witnesses of facts, but without it they were not qualified
to execute the higher office of apostles, Luke 24: 49. And
therefore whenever the circumstances of the church re-
quired the execution of that office, we find the claim which
had been conveyed to them by the promise of their Mas-
ter, (John 14 — 17. Acts 1 — 2.) and which is implied in
the apostolical character, asserted in their history and
writings. They uniformly demanded from all who had
received the faith of Christ, submission to the doctrines
and commandments of his apostles, as the inspired mes-
sengers of heaven, 1 John 4: 6. 1 Cor. 14: 37. 1 Thess. 4: 8.
It has been disputed, however, whether this inspiration
is, in the most absolute sense, plenary or entire. As this
is a subject of importance, and ought to be carefully stu-
died by every Christian, in order that he may render
a reason of the hope that is Ln him, we shall here subjoin
the remarks of an able writer, who, though he may difler
from some others, as to the terms made use of, yet we are
persuaded his arguments will be found weighty and pow-
erful. They express also the latest and best views.
" There are many things in the Scriptures, which the
writers might have known, and probably did know, by
ordinary means. As persons possessed of memory, judg-
ment, and other intellectual faculties which are common
to men, they were able to relate certain events in whiclt
they had been personally concerned, and to make such
occasional reflections as were suggested by particular
subjects and occurrences. In these cases no supernatural
influence was necessary to invigorate their minds ; it was
only necessary that they should be infallibly preserved
from error. It is with respect to such passages of Scrip-
ture alone, as did not exceed the natural ability of the
writers to compose, that I would admit the notion of su-
perintendence, if it should be admitted at all. Perhaps this
word, though of established use and almost undisputed
authority, should be entirely laid aside, as jnsuflicient to
express even the lowest degree of inspiration. In the
passages of Scripture which we are now considering, I
conceive the writers to have been not merely superin-
tended, that they might commit no error, but likewise to
have been moved or excited by the Holy Ghost to record
particular events, and set down particular observations.
The passages written in consequence of the direction and
under the care of the Divine Spirit, may be said, in an
irtferior sense, to be inspired ; whereas if the men had
written them at the suggestion of their own spirit, they
would not have possessed any more authority, though they
had been free from error, than those parts of profane writ
ings which are agreeable to truth.
2. " There are other parts of the Scriptures in which
the faculties of the writers were supernaturally invigo-
rated and elevated. It is impossible for us, and perhaps
it was not possible for the inspired person himself, 13 i.c-
IN S
[ 662 ]
INS
termine where nature ended, and inspiration began. It is
enough to know, that there are many parts of Scripture in
which, tliough the unassisted mind might have proceeded
some steps, a divine impulse was necessary to enable it to
advance. I think, for example, that the evangelists could
not have written the history of Christ if they had rot en-
joyed miraculous aid. Two of them, Matthew and John,
accompanied our Savior during the space of three years
and a half. At the close of this period, or rather several
years after it, when they wrote their gospels, we may be
certain that they had forgotten many of his discourses
and miracles ; that they recollected others indistinctly ;
and that they would have been in danger of producing an
inaccurate and unfair account, by confounding one thing
with another. Besides, from so large a mass of particu-
lars, men of uncultivated minds, who were not in the
habit of distinguishing and classifying, could not have
made a proper selection ; nor would persons unskilled in
the art of composition have been able to express them-
selves in such terms as should insure a faithful represen-
tation of doctrines and facts, and with such dignity as the
nature of the subject required. A divine influence, there-
fore, must have been exerted on their minds, by which
their memories and judgments were strengthened, and
they were enabled to relate the doctrines and miracles of
their Master, in a manner the best fitted to impress the
readers of their histories. The promise of the Holy
Ghost to bring to their remembrance all things whatso-
ever Christ had said to them, proves that, in writing their
histories, their mental powers were endowed, by his agen-
cy, with more than usual vigor, John 14: 16 — 26. 16: 12 — 15.
" Further, it must be allowed that in several passages
of Scripture there is found such elevation of thought and
of style, as clearly shows that the powers of the writers
were raised above their ordinary pitch. If a person of
moderate talents should give as elevated a description of
the majesty and attributes of God, or reason as profoundly
on the mysterious doctrines of religion, as a man of the
most exalted genius and extensive learning, we could not
fail to be convinced that he was supernaturally assisted ;
and the conviction would be still stronger, if his composi-
tion should far transcend the highest efforts of the human
mind. Some of the sacred writers Avere taken from the
lowest ranks of life ; and yet sentiments so dignified, and
representations of divine things so grand and majestic,
occur in their writings, that the noblest flights of human
genius, when compared with them, appear cold and insipid.
3. " It is manifest, with respect, to many passages of
Scripture, that the subjects of which they treat must have
been directly revealed to the writers. They could not
have been known by any natural means, nor was the
knowledge of them attainable by a simple elevation of
the faculties. "With the faculties of an angel we could
not discover the purposes of the divine mind. This
degree of inspiration we attribute to those who were
empowered to reveal heavenly mysteries, ' which eye
had not seen, and ear had not heard ;' to those who were
sent with particular messages from God to his people, and
to those who were employed to predict future events.
The plan of redemption being an effect of the sovereign
counsels of heaven, it could not have been known but by
acomnriunication from the Father of Lights, 1 Cor. 2: 6—16.
" This kind of inspiration has been called the inspiration
of suggestion. It is needless to dispute about a word;
bvit suggestion seeming to express an operation on the
mind, by which ideas are excited in it, is of too limited
signification to denote the various modes in which the
prophets and apostles were made acquainted Avith su-
pernatural truths. God revealed himself to them not
only by suggestion, but by dreams, visions, voices, and
the ministry of angels. This degree of inspiration, in
strict propriety of speech, should be called revelation ; a
word preferable to suggestion, because it is expressive
of all the ways in which God communicated new ideas to
the minds of his servants. It is a word, too, chosen by
the Holy Ghost himself, to signify the discovery of truths
formerly unknown to the apostles. The last book of the
New Testament, which is a collection of prophecies,
is called the Revelation of Jesus Christ. Paul says, that
he '-ecaivedtho g'rspel by revelaticn; that 'by revelation
the mystery was made known to him, which in other ages
was not made known unto the sons of men, as it was
then revealed unto his holy apostles and prophets by the
Spirit ;' and, in another place, having observed that ' eye
had not seen, nor ear heard, neither had entered into the
heart of man the things which God had prepared for them
that love him,' he adds, ' But God hath revealed them
unto us by his Spirit,' Rev. 1: 1. Gal. 1: 12. £ph.3: 5.
1 Cor. 2: 9, 10.
" I have not names to designate the other two kinds of
inspiration. The names used by Doddridge, and others,
superintendeuce, elevation, and suggestion, do not convey
the ideas stated in the three preceding particulars, and are
liable to other objections, besides those which have been
mentioned. This account of the inspiration of the Scrip-
tures has, I think, these two recommendations : that there
is no part of Scripture which does not fall under one or
other of the foregoing heads ; and that the different de-
grees of the agency of the Divine Spirit on the minds of
the different writers are carefully discriminated."
Some men have adopted very strange and dangerous
notions respecting the inspiration of the Scriptures. Dr.
Priestley denies that they were written by a particular divine
inspiration ; and asserts that the writers, though men of
the greatest probity, were fallible, and have actually com-
mitted mistakes in their narrations and their reasonings.
But Dr. Priestley and his followers find it necessary to
weaken and set aside the authority of the Scriptures, as
they have adopted a system of religion from which all
the distinguishing doctrines of revelation are excluded.
Others consider the Scriptures as inspired in those j&ces
where they profess to deliver the word of God ; but in
other places, especially in the historical parts, they ascribe
to them only the same authority which is due to the wit-
ings of well-informed and upright men. But as this dis-
tinction is perfectly arbitrary, having no foundation in
any thing said by the sacred writers themselves, so it is
liable to very material objections. It represents our Lord
and his apostles, when they speak of the Old Testament,
as having attested, without any exception or limitation, a
number of books as divinely inspired, while some of them
were partly, and some were almost entirely, humaa com-
positions : it supposes the writers of both Testaments to
have profanely mixed their own productions with the dic-
tates of the Spirit, and to have passed the unhallowed
compound on the world as genuine. In fact, by denying
that they were constantly under infallible guidance, it
leaves us utterly at a loss to know when we should or
should not believe them. If they could blend their own
stories with the revelations made to them, how can I be
certain that they have not, on some occasions, published,
in the name of God, sentiments of their own, to which
they were desirous to gain credit and authority ? Who will
assure me of their perfect fidehty in drawing a line of dis-
tinction between the divine and the human parts of their
writings ? The denial of the plenary inspiration of the
Scripture tends to unsettle the foundations of our faith,
involves us in doubt and perplexity, and leaves us no
other method of ascertaining how much we should believe,
but by an appeal to reason. But when reason is invested
with the authority of a judge, not only is revelation dis
honored, and its Author insulted, but the end for which it
was given is completely defeated.
A question of very great importance demands our
attention, while we are endeavoring to settle, with preci-
sion, the notion of the inspiration of the Scriptures : it
relates to the words in which the sacred writers have ex-
pressed their ideas. Some think, that in the choice of
words they were left to their own discretion, and that the
language is human, though the matter be divine ; while
others believe, that in their expressions, as well as in
their sentiments, they were under the infallible direction
of the Spirit. The last opinion has been supported by the
following reasoning : —
" Every man, who hath attended to the operations of his
own mind, knows that we think in words, or that, when
we form a train or combination of ideas, we clothe them
vnth words j and that the ideas which are not thus clothed,
are indistinct and confused. Let a man try to think upon
any subject, moral or religious, without the aid of Ian
1 Nw'?
663
1 N
guigo. aiij ae will either experience a total cessation of
tiiought, or, as this seems impossible, at least while we
are awake, he will feel himself constrained, notwithstand-
ing his utmost endeavors, to have recourse to words as
the instrument of his mental operations. As a great part
of the Scriptures was suggested or revealed to the writers;
as the thoughts or sentiments, which were perfectly new
to them, were conveyed into their minds by the Spirit, it
is plain that they must have been accompanied with words
proper to express them ; and, consequently, that the words
were dictated by the same influences on the mind which
commimicated the ideas. The ideas could not have come
without the words, because without them they could not
have been conceived. A notion of the form and qualities
of a material object may be produced by subjecting it to
our senses ; but there is no conceivable method of making
ns acquainted with new abstract truths, or with things
which do not lie within the sphere of sensation, but by
conveying to the mind, in some way or other, the words
significant of them. In all those passages of Scripture,
therefore, which were written by revelation, it is manifest
that the words were inspired ; and this is still more evi-
dent with respect to those passages which the writers
themselves did not understand. No man could write an
intelligible discourse on a subject which he does not un-
derstand, unless he were furnished with the words as well
as the sentiments : and that the penmen of the Scriptures
did not always understand what they wrote, might be
safely inferred from the comparative darkness of the dis-
pensation under which some of them lived ; and is inti-
mated by Peter, when be says, that the prophets ' in-
quired and searched diligently what, and what manner of
time the Spirit of Christ which was in them did signify,
■when it testified beforehand tlie sufTerings of Christ, and
the glory that should follow,' 1 Pet. 1: 10, 11.
" In other passages of Scripture, those not excepted in
which the writers relate such things as had fallen within
the compass of their own knowledge, we shall be disposed
to believe that the words are inspired, if we calmly and
seriously weigh the following considerations. If Christ
promised to his disciples, that, when they were brought
before kings and governors for his sake, ' it should be
given them in that same hour what they should speak,
and that the spirit of their Father should speak in them,'
(Matt. 10: 19, 20. Luke 12: 11, 12.)— a promise which
cannot be reasonably understood to signify less than that
both words and sentiments should be dictated to them, —
it is fully as credible that they should be assisted in the
same manner when they wrote, especially as the record
w£is to last through all ages, and to be a rule of faith to
all the nations of the earth. Paul affirms, that he and
the other apostles spoke ■ not in the words which man's
wisdom teacheth, but which the Holy Ghost taught ;'
(1 Cor. 2: I'J.) and this general assertion may be applied
to their writings as well as to their sermons. Besides,
every person who hath reflected upon the subject, is aware
of the importance of a proper selection of words in ex-
pressing our sentiments ; and knows how easy it is for a
heedless or unskilful person, not only to injure the beauty
and weaken the efficacy of a discourse by the impropriety
of his language, but, by substituting one word for another,
to which it seems to be equivalent, to alter the meaning,
and perhaps render it totally different, ff, then, the sacred
writers had not been directed in the choice of words,' how
could we have been assured that those which they have
chosen were the most proper ? Is it not possible, nay, is
it not certain, that they would hftve sometimes expressed
themselves inaccurately, and, as many of them were
illiterate, by consequence, would have obscured and mis-
represented the truth? In this case, how could our faith
have securel}' rested on their testimony ? Would not the
suspicion of error in their writings have rendered it ne-
cessary, before we received them, to try them by the stan-
dard of reason? and would not the authority and the de-
sign of revelation have thus been overthrown ? We must
conclude, therefore, that the words of Scripture are from
God, as well as the matter ; or we shall charge him with
a want of -nnsdom in transmitting his truths through a
channel by which they might have been, and most pro-
bably have been pclluted.
" To the inspiration of the words, ine uiij-. • i^i il l' P
style of the sacred writers seems to be an objeclioii ; ' ^-
cause if the Holy Ghost were the author of the words, the
style might be expected to be uniformly the same. But in
answer to tliis objection it may be observed, that the Divine
Spirit, whose operations are various, might act diflijrently
on different persons, according to the natural turn of their
minds. He might enable one man, for instance, to write
more sublimely than another, because he was naturally of
a more exalted genius than the other, and the subject as-
signed to him demanded more elevated language : or he
might produce a difference in the style of the same man,
by raising, at one time, his faculties above their ordinary
state, and by leaving them, at anoUier, to act according to
their native energy, under his insjt ction and control. We
should not suppose that inspiration, even in its higher de-
grees, deprived those who were the subjects of it of the use
of their facnlties. They were, indeed, the organs of the
Spirit ; but they were conscious, intelligent organs. They
were dependent, hut distinct agents ; and the operatioiL
of their mental powers, though elevated and directed by
superior influence, was analogous to their ordinary mode
of procedure. It is easy, therefore, to conceive that the
style of the writers of the Scriptures should differ, just as
it would have differed if they had not been inspired. A
perfect uniformity of style could not have taken place, un-
less they had been all inspired in the same degree, and by
inspiration their faculties had been completely suspended,
so that divine truths were conveyed by them in the same
passive manner in which a pipe affords a passage to wa-
ter, or a trumpet to the breath."
A more serious objection to plenary verbal inspiration
is founded on the indisputable fact, that there are nume-
rous passages of Scripture containing a repetition or new
representation of what is found in other passages, ^etweea
which there are many verbal discrepancies, though it be
expressly stated before each, that the Lord made the com-
munications i?i these wards. It is sufficient, however, to
say that the Holy Spirit, the Author of all wisdom, should
here be allowed the same latitude in the use of language,
universally allowed to men in like cases. As the words
were spoken only once, it is obvious they could not be
communicated exactly under both the forms in which they
now appear, and therefore the words now exhibited in
the original text are not, in every respect, though to every
useful purpose, the identical words spoken on the occasion.
See Dick's Essay on !he Inspiration of the Scriptures ; Harrker
on Plenary Inspiration ; Appendix to the third volume of
Doddridge's Expositor ; Calamy and Bennett on Inspiration ;
Dr. Stennett on the Authority and Use of Scripture ; Parry's
Inquiry into the Nature and Extent of the Inspiration of the
Apostles ; Lroivn's Natural and Revealed Religion, p. 78 ;
Oiren on Hebreics ; Macknight on the Epistles ; Haldane's
Evidence of Divine Revelation ; Divight's Theology ; Fullers
Works ; Scott's Essays an Important Sufijecis ; Christian Ob-
server; Spirit of the Pilgrims; but especially Dr. Woods
on Inspiration ; and articles Chkistianity and Sckifture,
in this work. — Jones; Watson; Hend. Buck.
INSTINCT ; that power which acts on and impels any
creature to any particular manner of conduct, not by a
view of the beneficial consequences, but merely fronr a
strong impulse, supposed necessary in its effects, and to
be given them to supply the place of reason. — Hend. Buck.
INSTITUTE; Institution; an established custom or
law; a precept, maxim, or principle. Institutions may
be considered as positive, moral, and human. 1. Those
are called positive institutions or precepts which are not
founded upon any reasons known to those to whom they
are given, or discoverable by them, but which are obsen'ed
merely because some superior has commanded them. 2.
Moral are those, the reasons of which we see, and the du-
ties of which arise out of the nature of the case itself, prior
to extenial command. 3. Human, are generally applied
to those inventions of men, or means of honoring God,
which are not appointed by him, and which are numerous
in the church of Eome, and too many of them in Protes-
tant churches. Butler's AnaJogy, -p. 2li; Doddridge's Lec-
tures, lect. 158; Robinson's Claude, 217, vol. i., and 2^S,
vol. ii.; Burrough's tivo Diss, on Positive Institutions ; Jsp.
Hoadlry's Plain Account, p. 3. — Hend. Buck.
T N 'I'
064
I NT
'Ak riTlj"liUi>< ; an act in the church ol England, by
tt'uicn a clergyman is approved as a fit person for a living,
and is preparatory to his induction into it. The former
renders him complete as to spiritual rights : the latter
gives him a right to the temporalities. The words used
by the bishop on the occasion are, "I instilule you rector
of such a church, with cure of souls, and receive your care
and mine." — Head. Buck.
INSTRUBIENT. The second causes whereby God exe-
cutes his works of mercy or judgment are his instruments,
Isa. 41: 15. Sword, famine, pestilence, and diseases, are
his instruments of death, Vs. 7: 13. The evil instruments of
the churl are the sinful methods which he uses to in-
crease his wealth, Isa. 32: 7. Men's bodies or members,
are instruments of righteousness or unrighteousness ; are,
as it were, tools by which they work the one or the other
in outward acts, Rom. (3: 13. — Brown.
INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC; music produced by in-
straments, in contradistinction from vocal music. (See
Music.) — Ilcnd. Buck.
INTANGLE ; to bring into trouble or danger, that one
can hardly escape. The Hebrews were intangled at the
Red sea, the sea being before them, the Egyptians behind
ihem, and rocks on each side of them, Exod. 14: 3. The
Tews thought to intangle Christ in his talk, by decoy-
ing him to speak something criminal, and which he could
not excuse or defend, Matt. 22: 15. The Jews were intan-
gled with the enslaving yoke of ceremonies ; so fully ac-
customed to it, as neither to be able or willing to free
themselves from it, Gal. 5: 1. Men arc intangled by their
usts when so inveigled and fixed in a course of sin that
ihey neither will nor can leave it, 2 Pet. 2: 20. Men are
intangled in the affairs of this life when their care of, and
labor therein, distract and captivate their minds, 2 Tim. 2:
4. — Bran'u.
INTEGRITY ; purity of mind, free from any undue
bias or principle, Prov. 11: 3. Many hold, that a certain
artful sagacity, founded upon knowledge of the world, is
the best conductor of every one who would be a successful
adventurer in life, and that a strict attention to integrity
would lead them into danger and distress. But in answer
to this, it is justly observed, 1. That the guidance of inte-
grity is the safest under which we can be placed ; that the
road in which it leads us is, upon the whole, the freest
from dangers, Prov. 3: 21, &c. 2. Il is unquestionably
the most honorable ; for integrity is the foundation of all
that is high in character among mankind, Prov. 4: 8. 3.
It is the most conducive to felicity, Phil. 4: ti, 7. Prov. 3:
17. 4. Such a character can look forward to eternity
without dismay, Rom. 2: 7. — He?id. Btirlc.
INTEMPERANCE; excess in eating or drinking. This
is the general idea of it ; but we may observe, that what-
ever indulgence undermines the health, impairs the senses,
inflames the passions, clouds and .sullies the reason, per-
verts the judgment, enslaves the will, or in any way disor-
ders or debilitates the faculties, may be ranked under this
vice. (See Tf.mpekakoe.) — Hend. Buck ; Bap. Erpos. 1834.
INTERCESSION OF CHRIST; his interposing for sin-
ners by virtue of the satisfaction he made to divine justice.
1. As to the fact itself, it is evident, from many places
of Scripture, that Christ pleads -uith God in favor of his
)ieople, Rom. 8: 34. Heb. 7: 25. 1 John 2: 1. 2. As to the
maimer of it : the appearance of the high-priest among the
Jews, in the presence of God, on the day of atonement,
when he ofl'ered before him the blood of the sin-offering,
is at large referred to by St. Paul, as illustrating the in-
tercession of Christ, Heb. 9: 11, 14, 22, 2(>. 10: 13, 21.
Christ appears before God with his own body ; but whe-
ther he intercedes vocally or not cannot be known, though
it is most probable that he does not ; however, it is certain
that he does not intercede in like manner as when on
earth, with prostration of body, cries and tears, which
would be quite inconsistent with his state of exaltation
and glory ; nor as supplicating an angry judge, for peace
is made by the blood of the cross ; nor as litigating a point
in a court of judicature : but his intercession is carried on
by showing himself as having done, as their .surety, all
that law and justice could require, by representing his
blood and sacrifice as the ground of his people's acceptance
with the Father, Rev. 5: (5. John 17: 24. 3. The end of
Christ's intercession is not to remind the Divine Being of
any thing which he would otherwise forget, nor to per-
suade him to any thing which he is not disposed to do;
but it may serve to illustrate the holiness and majesty of
the Father, and the wisdom and grace of the Son ; not to
say that it may have other unknown uses with respect to
the inhabitants of the invisible world. He is represented,
also, as offering up the prayers and praises of his people,
which become acceptable to God through him, Rev. 8: 3,
4. Heb. 13: 15. 1 Pet. 2: 5. He there pleads for the con-
version of his unconverted ones ; and for the consolation,
preservation, and glorification of his people, John 17. 1
John 2: 1, 2.
4. Of the properties of Christ's intercession, we may ob-
serve, 1. That it is authoritative. He intercedes not with-
out right, John 17: 24. Ps. 2: 8. 2. Wise : he understands
the nature of his work, and the wants of his people, John
2: 25. 3. Righteous ; for it is founded upon justice and
truth, 1 John 3: 5. Heb. 7: 2(5. 4. Compassionate, Heb.
2: 17. 5: 8. Is. 63: 9. 5. He is the sole advocate, 1 Tim.
2: 5. 6. It is perpetual, Heb. 7: 25. 7. Efficacious, 1
John 2: 1,2. John 11: 42.
5. The use we should make of Christ's intercession is
this : — 1. We maj' learn the wonderful love of God to man,
Rom. 5: 10. 2. The durability and safety of the church,
Luke 22: 31, 32. Is. 17: 24. 3. The ground we have for
comfort, Heb. 9: 24. Rom. 8: 34. 4. It should excite us
to offer up prayers to God, as they are acceptable through
him. Rev. 8: 3, 4. (See Advocate.) Charnock's Works,
vol. ii. p. 1109; FlaveVs Works, vol. i. p. 72; Doddridge's
Lectures, vol. ii. p. 294, octavo ; GiWs Body of Divinity,
vol. ii. p. 126, octavo edit. ; Brown's Natural and lievealed
Religion, p. 348 ; Berry Street Lectures, no. 18 ; Bidgley's
Body of Divinity, qu.55; Dmiglii's Theology. — Hend. Buck.
INTERDICT; an ecclesiastical censure, by which the
church of Rome forbids the performance of divine service
in a kingdom, province, town, &c. This censure has
been frequently executed in France, Italy, and Germany;
and, in the year 1170, pope Alexander III. put all England
under an interdict, forbidding the clergy to perform any
part of divine sen'ice, except baptizing infants, taking
confessions, and giving absolution to dying penitents ; but
this censure being liable to ill consequences, of promoting
libertinism and a neglect of religion, the succeeding popes
have very seldoin made use of it. There was also an in-
terdict of persons, who Avere deprived of the benefit of at-
tending on divine service. Particular persons were also
anciently interdicted of fire and water, which signifies aba-
nishment for some particular offence : by this censure, no
person was permitted to receive them, or allow them fire
or water ; and being thus wholly deprived of the two ne-
cessary elements of life, they were, doubtless, under a
kind of civil death. — Hend. Buck.
INTEREST IN CHRIST; a term often made use of
in the religious world, and implies an actual participation
in the blessings of salvation. In one sense, every human
being has an interest in the mediation of our Redeemer,
forasmuch as it is only through that mediation that his
eternal well-being can be secured, and eternal blessedness
is thus proclaimed to all ; but it is not till a sinner receives
the divine testimony respecting the way of salvation, that
he becomes posseesedof a real personal interest in Christ.
—Hend. Buck.
TNTERIJI ; the name of a formulary, or confession of
faith, obtruded upon the Protestants, after the death of Lu-
ther, by the emperor Charles V., when he had defeated
their forces. It was so called, because it was only to take
place in the interim, till a general council should decide
all the points in question between the Protestants and Ca-
tholics. The occasion of it was this :— The emperor had
made choice of three divines, viz. Julius Phlug, bishop of
Naumberg ; Michael Helding, titular bishop of Sidon ; and
John Agricola, preacher to the elector of Brandenburgh ;
who drew up a project, consisting of twenty-six articles,
concerning the points of religion in dispute between the
Catholics and Protestants. The controverted points were,
the state of Adam before and after his fall ; the redemp-
tion of mankind by Jesus Christ ; the justificaiion of sin-
ners ; charity and good works ; the confidence we ought
to have in God ; that our sins are remitted ; tho church
'fc.^
INT
[ 6135 j
1 K E
aod its true marks, its power, its authority, and miuiblers ;
the pope and bishops; llie sacraments; the mass; the
c.ommemoralion of saints ; their intercession, and prayers
for the dead.
The emperor sent this project to the pope for his appro-
bation, which he refused : whereiipoii Charies V. published
the imperial constitution, called the " Interim," wherein he
declared, that "it was his will, that all his Catholic domi-
nions should, for the future, inviolably observe the cus-
toms, statutes, and ordinances of the universal church ;
and that those who had separated themselves from it,
should either reunite themselves to it, or at least conform
to this constitution ; and that all should quietly expect
the decisions if the general council." \ h! ordinance
was published ir the diet of Augsb-rgh, Slay 15, IS^d-
but this device ni.J^i r -lr"sp'' ll.e pc-e nor the Protes-
tants: the Luihcran preachers openly declared they would
not receive it, alleging that it re-established popery : some
chose rather to quit their chairs and livings than to sub-
scribe it ; nor would the duke of Saxony receive it. Cal-
vin and several others wrote against it. On the other side,
the emperor was so severe again.-;! lho.se who refused to
accept it, thai lie disiianchiseu ti.e ,it js jf Magdeburg
and Constance for their opposition. — Head. Buck.
INTERMEDIAiE STATE; a term made use of to
denote the stale of the soul between death and the resur-
rection. From the Scriptures speaking frequently of the
dead as sleeping in their graves, many have supposed that
the soul sleeps till the resurrection, i. e. is in a state of en-
tire insensibility. But against this opinion, and that the soul,
after death, enters iinmediately into a state of reward or
punishment, the following passages seem to be conclusive ;
Matt. 17: 3. Luke 23: 42. 2 Cor. 5: 6. Phil. 1: 21. Luke
16: 22, 23. Rev. 6: 9. See Hades ; Kesuerection ; Soul ;
and Future State ; Campbell's Dissertations ; Bishop Law's
Appendix to his Theory of Religion ; Search's Light of Na-
ture Pursued ; Bennet's Olam Haneshamoth, or Vietv of the
Intermediate State ; Archibald Campbell's View of the Mid-
dle State ; Archdeacon Blachburne's Historical Viem of the
Controversy concerning an Intermediate State, and the sepa-
rate Existence of the Soid betrveen Death and the general
Resurrection ; in which last the reader will find a large
account of the writings on this subject, from the beginning
of the Reformation to almost the present time. See also
Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 219; TVatts' World to Come;
Fuller's Letters on the Socinian Controversy ; Dwight's Theo-
logy ; IVntson's Theological Institutes; Stuart's Essays;
Balfour's Essays, and Cooke's Examination. — Hend. Buck.
INTERNUNTIUS; the messenger or representative of
the pope, sent to small foreign courts and republics. The
papal ambassador sent to emperors and kings is called
ttuntius. — Hend. Buck.
INTERPRETATION. rSee Biblical Interpretation.)
INTERPRETING OF TONGUES; a gift bestowed
on the apostles and primitive Christians, so that in a
mixed assembly, consisting of persons of different nations,
if one spoke in a language understood by one part, ano-
ther could repeat and translate what he said into the dif-
ferent languages understood by others, 1 Cor. 13: 10. 14:
5, C, n.~Hend. Buck. ,
IIVTOLERANCE, is a word chiefly used in reference
to those persons, churches, or societies, who do not allow
men to think for themselves, but impose on them articles,
creeds, ceremonies. &c. of their own devising. (See To-
leration.)
Nothing is more abhorrent from the genius of the
■ Christian religion than an intolerant spirit, or an intole-
rant church. " It has inspired its votaries with a savage
ferocity ; has plunged the fatal dagger into innocent blood ;
depopulated towns and kingdoms ; overthrown states and
empires, and brought down the righteous vengeance of
heaven upon a guilty world. The pretence of su]ierior
knowledge, sanctity, and authority for its support, is the
disgrace of reason, the grief of wisdom, and the paroxysm
of folly. To fetter the conscience, is injustice ; to insnare
it, is an act of sacrilege ; but to torture it by an attempt to
force its feelings, is horrible intolerance ; it is the most
abandoned violation nf all the maxims of religion and mo-
rality. Jesus Christ formed a kingdom purely spiritual :
the apostles exercised only a spiritual authority under the
84
direction gf JesUs Christ ; particular chiirchci were united
only by faith and love ; in all civil atlairs they submitted
to civil magistracy ; and in religious concerns they were
governed by the rea.soniiig, advice, and exhortations ol
their own officers : their censures were only honest iv
proofs ; and their excommunications were only tieclara
lions that such offenders, being incorrigible, were no
longer accounted members of their communities."
Let it ever be remembered, therefore, that no man or
ir°n have any authority whatever from Christ over the
consciences of others, or to persecute the persons of any
whose religious principles agree not with their own. See
Lowell's Sermons ; Robinson's Claude, vol. ii. p. 227, 229 ;
Saurin's Sermons, vol. iii. preface ; Locke on Government and
lole.alum ■ Memn f Roger Williams. — Hejid. Bvci.
INTRIIfljj'\ V , ^ disposition of mind unafl'ected with
tear ai the aj.proacn of danger. Resolution either banishes
fear or surmounts it, and is firm on all occasions. Courage
is impatient to attack, undertakes boldly, and is not les.s-
ened ly difficu'ty. Valor acts with vigor, gives no way
tc rt'sistan :e b it j jrsues an enterprise in spite of opposi-
I on Br; pe y kn ws no fear ; it runs nobly into danger,
: nd prefe s i onor o life itself. Intrepidity encounters the
gre te^t jierus .'it.. t..e Jf lost coolness, and dares even
present death. (See Courage ; Fortitude.) — Hend. Buck.
INTROIBO ; part of the fifth verse of the forty-second
Psalm, with which the Catholic priest, at the foot of the
altar, after having made the sign of the cross, begins the
mass ; on which the servitor answers with the rest of the
verse. The whole psalm is then recited alternately by the
priest and the servitor. In ma.sses for the dead, and during
passion-week, the psalm is not pronounced.— //€?((/. Buck.
INVESTITURE, in ecclesiastical policy, is the act of
conferring any benefice on another. It was customary for
princes to make investiture of ecclesiastical benefices, by
delivering to the person they had chosen a pastoral staff
and a ring. The account of this ceremony may be seen at
large in Mosheim's Ealesiastical History, cent. xi. part ii.
chap. 2. — Hend. Buck.
INVISIBLES ; a name of distinction given to the disci-
ples of Osiander, Flaccius Illyricus, Swenkfeld, &:c., be-
cause they denied the perpetual visibility ol' the church. —
Hend. Bufk.
INVOCATION ; a caUing upon God in prayer. It is
generally considered as the first part of that necessary
duty, and includes, 1. A making mention of one or more
of the names or titles of God, indicative of the object to
whom we pray. 2. A declaration of our desire and design
to worship him. And, 3. A desire of his assistance and
acceptance, under a .sense of our own unworihiness.
In the church of Rome, invocation also signifies adora-
tion of, and prayers to, the saints. The council of Trent
expressly teaches, that the saints who reign with Jesus
Christ are employed as the intercessors of men, and ofler
up their prayers to God, and condemn those who maintain
the contrary doctrine. The Protestants censure and re-
ject this opinion, as contrary to Scripture; deny the truth
of the fact; and think it highly unreasonable to suppose
that a limited, finite being should be in a manner omnipre-
sent, and, at one and the same time, hear and attend to
the prayers that are oflTered up to him in England, China,
and Peru ; and from hence infer, that#tf the saints cannot
hear their reqHcst, it is inconsistent with common sense to
address any kind of prayer to them. — Hend. Buck.
IONIC PHILOSOPHY ; the doctrine of Thalcs, one of
the seven wise men of Greece, who taught philosophy at
Miletus, in Ionia. He taught that water was the origiuof.
all things ; which doctrine he probably derived from a
tradition of the Blosaic chaos. He taught the doctrine of
a Supreme Being, who is sometimes represented by him
as the soul of the world, and the source of all motion and
intelligence. He invented several mathematical proposi-
tions, which were afterwards adopted by Euclid, and had
sufficient skill in astronomy to foietel an eclipse. His
doctrines were, however, superseded by tho.se of Plato anil
Aristotle, and sunk into obscurity, nntil. in the close of the
sixteenth century, it was revived bv Claude Berigard, of
Spain. Enfield's Philosajihy. vol. i. book ii. ch. 3 ; vol. ii
p. 422.— Williams. - i, k .
IREN^US ; bishop of Lvons, in France, one ol itie tM?st
I S A
[ 6G6
ISA
Christian writers of the second century. He was a Greek
by birth, and probably bom of Christian parents. He was
in early life a disciple of the venerable Polycarp, bishop
of Smyrna, by whom he was sent to preach the gospel
among the Gauls. His labors were remarkably useful.
He employed his pen against the internal and domestic
enemies of the church, by attacking the monstrous errors
adopted by some classes of professed Christians. His five
Books against Heresies are yet preserved in a Latin trans-
lation, through the barbarity of which, though excessive,
it is easy to discern the eloquence and erudition that reign
throughout the original. Only the first book is yet ex-
taut in the original Greek. — Mosheim.
IRON, {breiie!,} occurs (irst in Gen. 4: 22, and afterwards
frequently ; and the ChaWee prenel in Dan. 2: 33, 41, and
elsewhere often in that book; Greek siderns, Rev. 18: 12,
and the adjectives, Acts 13: 10. Rev. 2: 27. 9: 9. 12: 5.
19: 15; a well-known and very serviceable metal. The
knowledge of working it was very ancient, as appears
from Gen. 4: 23. We do not, however, find that Moses
made use of iron in the fabric of the tabernacle in the wil-
derness, or Solomon in any part of the temple at Jeru-
salem. Yet, from the manner in which the Jewish legis-
lator speaks of iron, the metal, it appears, must have been
in use in Egypt before his time. He celebrates the great
hardness of it ; (Lev. 26: 19. Deut. 28: 23, 48.) takes no-
tice that the bedstead of Og, king of Bashan, was of iron ;
(Deut. 3: 11.) he speaks of mines of iron; (Deut. 8: 9.)
and he compares the severity of the servitude of the Isra-
elites in Egypt to the heat of a funiace for melting iron,
Deut. 4: 20. We find, also, that swords, (Num. 35: 16.)
axes, (Deut. 19: 5.) and tools for cutting stones, (Deut. 27:
0.) were inade of iron.
By the " northern iron," (Jer. 15: 12.) we may probably
understand the hardened iron, called in Greek chnhtps,
fro'Ti the Chalybes, a people bordering on the Euxine sea,
and consequently lying on the north of Judea, by whom
the art of tempering steel is said to have been discovered.
Strabo speaks of this people by the name of Chalybes,
but afterwards Chaldsei ; and mentions their iron mines.
These, however, were a different people from the Chalde-
ans, who were united with the Babylonians. — Watson.
ISAAC, the .son of Abraham and Sarah, was born in
the year of the world 2108. His name, which signifies
laughter, was given him by his mother, because when it
was told her by an angel that she should have a son, and
that at a time of life when, according to the course of na-
ture, she was past child-beariiig, she privately laughed.
Gen. 18: 10 — 12. And when the child was born she said,
" God hath made me to laugh, so that all that hear will
laugh with me," Gen. 21: 6. The life of Isaac, for the
first seventy-five years of it, is so blended with that of his
illustrious father, that the principal incidents of it have
been already noticed under the article Aerauam.
His birth was attended with some extraordinary circum-
stances : it was the subject of various promises and pro-
phecies ; an event most ardently desired by his parents,
and yet purposely delayed by divine providence till they
were both advanced in years, no doubt for the trial of
their faith, and that Isaac might more evidently appear to
be the gift of God, and '-the child of proiuise." At an
early period oflifele was the object of the profane con-
tempt of IshmacI, the son of the bond-woman, by whom
he was persecuted ; and as in the circumstances attending
his birth there was something typical of the birth of Abra-
ham s greater Son, the Messiah, the promised Seed ; .so, in
the latter instance, we contemplate in him a resemblance
ol real Christians, who, as Isaac w^as, are " the children
of promise," invested with all the immunities and blessings
of the new covenant ; but, as then, '-he that was born after
the flesh persecuted him that was born after the Spirit
even so it is now," Gal. 4: 29. (See Esau, and Jacob )—
Watson. '
ISAIAH. Though fifth in the order of time, the writ-
ings of the prophet Isaiah are placed first in order of the
prophetical books, principally on account of the sublimitv
ana importance of his predictions, and partly also because
the book which bears his name is larger than all the twelve
minor prophets put together.
1. Concerning his family and descent, nothine certain
has been recorded, except what he himself tells ns, (isa.
1: 1.) namely, that he was the son of Amos, and dis-
charged the prophetic office " in the days of Uzziah, Jo-
tham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Jodabj" who succes-
sively flourished between A. M. 3194 and 3305. There is
a current tradition that he was of the blood-royal ; and
some writers have affirmed that his father Amoz or Amos
was the son of Joash, and consequently brother of Uzziah,
king of Judah. He must have exercised the oflSce of a
prophet during a long period of time ; for the lowest com-
putation, beginning from the year in which Uzziah died,
when he is by some supposed to have received his first
appointment to that oflSce, to the reign of Manasseh, brings
it to sixty-one years. But the tradition of the Jews, which
has been adopted by most Christian commentators, that he
was put to death by Manasseh, is veiy uncertain ; and
Aben Ezra, one of the most celebrated Jewish writers, is
rather of opinion that he died before the decease of Heze-
kiah ; which bishop Lowth thinks most probable. Of his
wife and two sons, we have notices in Isa. 8: 1. — 3. Thp
name of Isaiah, as Vitringa has remarked, after several
preceding commentators, is in some measure descriptive
of his high character, since it signifies the Salvation of Je-
hovah ; and was given with singular propriety to him, who
foretold the advent of the Messiah, through whom " all
flesh shall see the salvation of God," Isa. 40: 5. Luke 3:
6. Acts 4: 12. Isaiah was contemporary with the pro-
phets Amos, Hosea, Joel, and Micah.
2. Besides the volume of prophecies, which we are now to
consider, it appears from 2 Chron. 26: 22, that Isaiah wrote
an account of "the acts of Uzziah," king of Judah : this
has perished with some other writings of the prophets,
which, as probably not written by inspiration, were never
admitted into the canon of Scripture. There are also two
apocr)'phal books ascribed to him, namely, the Ascension
of Isaiah, and the Apocalypse of Isaiah ; but these are
evidently forgeries of a later date, and the Apocalypse has
long since perished.
3. Isaiah is uniformly spoken of in the Scriptures as a
prophet of the highest dignity. Bishop Lowth calls him
the prince of all the prophets, and pronounces the whole
of his book to be poetical, with the exception of a few de-
tached passages. The scope of Isaiah's predictions is
threefold, namely, 1. To detect, reprove, aggravate, and
condemn, the sins of the Jewish people especially, and
also the iniquities of the ten tribes of Israel, and the abo-
minations of many gentile nations and countries; de-
nouncing the severest judgments against all sorts and de-
grees of persons, whether Jews or Gentiles. 2. To invite
persons of every rank and condition, both Jews and Gen-
tiles, to repentance and reformation, by numerous promises
of pardon and mercy. It is worthy of remark, that no
such promises are intermingled with the denunciations of
divine vengeance against Babylon, although they occur in
the threatenings against every other people. (See Baby-
lon.) 3. To comfort all the truly pious, in the midst of
all the calamities and judgments denounced against the
wicked, with prophetic promises of the true l\lessiah,
which seem almost to anticipate the gospel history, so
clearly do they foreshow the divine character of Christ.
4. Isaiah has, with singular propriety, been denominated
the evangelical prophet, on account of the number and
variety of his prophecies concerning the advent and cha-
racter, the ministry and preaching, the sufferings and
death, and the extensive, permanent kingdom of the Mes-
siah. So explicit and determinate are his predictions, as
well as so numerous, that he seems to speak rather of
things past than of events yet future ; and he may rather
be called an evangelist than a prophet. No one, indeed,
can be at a loss in applying them to the mission and cha-
racter of Jesus Christ, and to the events which are cited in
his history by the writers of the New Testament. This
prophet, says bishop Lowth, abounds in such transcendent
excellencies, that he may be properly said to afford the
most perfect model of prophetic poetry. He is at once
elegant and sublime, forcible and ornamented ; he imites
energy with copiousness, and dignity with variety. In his
sentiments there is uncommon elevation and majesty ; in
his imagery, the utmost propriety, elegance, dignity, and
diversity ; in his language, uncommon beauty and ener-
ISH
[667 j
IT A
gy ; and, nolwilhstanding the obscurity of his subjects, a
surprising degree of clearness and simplicity. To these
we may add, that there is such sweetness in the poetical
composition of his senrenees, whether it proceed from art
or genius, that, if the Hebrew poetry at prssent is pos-
sessed of any remains of its native grace and harmony,
we shall chiefly find them in the writings of Isaiah : so
Ihat the saying of Ezekiel may most justly be applied to
Ihis prophet : —
" Thou art ihe coofirmed exemptar of measures,
full of wisdom, and perfect in beauty."
Ezekiel 2S: 12.
Isaiah also greatly excels in all the graces of method,
order, connexion, and arrangement: though in asserting
this we must not forget the nature of the prophetic im-
pulse, which bears away the mind with irresistible vio-
lence^ and frequently in rapid transitions from near to re-
mote objects, froin human to divine. We must likewise
be careful in remarking the limits of particular predic-
lious, since, as in our version, they are often improperly
connected, without any marks of discrimination ; which
injudicious arrangement, on some occasions, creates al-
most insuperable difSculties — IVatsuii.
ISBRANIKJ ; a denomination which appeared in Rus-
sia about the year lli62, and assumed this name, which
signifies the multitude of the elect. But they were called
by their adversaries Raskolniki, or the seditious faction.
They professed a rigorous zeal for the letter of the Holy
Scriptures. They maintained that there is no .subordina-
tion of rank among the faithful, and that a Christian may
kill himself for the love of Christ,— HsbiJ. SvcI:.
ISHBOSHETH, or Ishb.iai.; sou of Saul, and also his
successor. Abner, Saul's kinsman and general, so ma-
naged, that Ishbosheth was acknowledged king at Maha-
oaim bj' the greater part of Israel, while David reigned at
Hebron over Judah. He was forty-four years of age
when he began to reign, and he reigned two years peace-
ably; after which he had skirmishes, with loss, against
David, 2 Sam. 2: 8, kc. With this prince terminated the
loyal family of Saul, B. C. l(H9.—Cahu:t.
ISHMAEL, son of Abraham and Hagar, wa.s born
A. M. 2094. The angel of the Lord appeared to Hagar
in the wilderness, when she fled from her mistress, and
bade her return, adding, " Thou shalt bring forth a son,
and call his name Ishmael, ' the Lord hath hearkened ;'
because the Lord hath heard ihce in thy affliction. He
shall be a fierce, savage man, whose hand shall be against
all men, and the hands of all men again.st him." Hagar
returned therefore to Abraham's liou.se, and had a son,
whom she named Ishmael. (See H.war.) Fourteen
years after this the Lord visited Sarah, and Isaac being
born to Abraham, Ishmael, who till then had been consi-
dered as the sole heir, saw his hope disappointed, and was
filled with envy and hatred against his younger brother,
rive or six years afterwards, Ishmael by his persecuting
spirit displeased Sarah, who prevailed on Abraham to
expel him and his mother. Hagar, wiih Ishmael, wan-
dered in the wilderness of Beersheba, and when reduced
to great distress, a voice from heaven said, " Fear not,
Hagar, the Lord halh heard the child's voice. I wilt
make him the father of a great people." They abode in
the wilderness of Paran, where Ishmael became expert in
archery, and his mother married him to an Egyptian
woman. He had twelve sons; viz. Nabajoth, Kedar, Ad-
beel, Mibsam, Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hader or Hadad,
Teraa, Jetur, Naphish, Kedemah. He had likewise a
daughter, named Mahalath or Bashemath, (Gen. 36; 3.)
who married Esau, Gen. 28: 9. From the twelve sons of
Ishmael are derived the twelve tribes of the Arabians, still
Bubsisting ; and Jerome says that in his time they called
the districts of Arabia by the names of their several tribes.
The descendants of Ishmael inhabited from Havilah to
Shur , and are usually mentioned in history under the
general name of Arabians and Ishmaelites. Since the
seventh century, they have almost all embraced the reli-
gion of Mahomet. Ishmael died in the presence of all his
brethren, (Gen. 23: 18.) as the Vulgate renders ; or, ac-
cording to another translation, his inheritance lay opposite
to that of all his brethren. See Gen. 16: 12. The year
of his death is not known. (See Arabia.) — Calmet.
ISHMAELITES, or 1s.mai.ians. (S«' A.«assino.)
ISHTOB j a country situated at the iiouhern extremity
of the mountains of Gilead, towards mount Libanus, 2
Sam. 10: 6. (See Tos.)— li^otaon.
ISLAMISM; the orthodox religion of the followers of
Mohammed. (See Mohammedanism.) The word signifies
an entire submission or devotion to the will of another,
and especially of God, and thence the security, peace, and
prosperity which those who thus submit themselves enjoy.
The profession of faith in the unity of God, and the divine
apostleship of Jlohammed, is called (rxlr.ma ; and every
one who makes such a profession, receives the name of
Mnskm, i. e., one who has entirely embraced the true faith,
and surrendered hitnself to the will of God. The plural
of this would be Mmlim ; but the dual number, Mnsliiiiiiin,
being commonly substituted for the singular by the Per.
sians and Turks, the word Mussulman, or Musstlman, has
in these, as well as in the European languages, nearly
superseded the shorter and more correct tenn.. — H. Buck.
ISLANDS ; Isles, Considerable errors in sacred geo-
graphy have arisen from taking the word rendered islands,
for a spot surrounded by water. It rather imports a senk-
vi-eii>, or rLANTATio.v; that is to say, a colony or establish-
ment, as distinct from an open, unappropriated region.
Thus we should understand Gen. 10: 5 : " By \hese were
the settlements of (he Gentiles divided in their lands,"
The sacred \mter evidentl}' had enumerated couutries,
which were n<it isles in any sense whatever. So Job
22: 3fl : " He (God) shall deliver the iskrid of the inno
cent," i. c, settlement, or establishment. Isa. 42; 15: ''I
will make the rivers islands;" rather scttJemaits of human
population, in these place.s, and many others, the true
idea of the Hebrew M-ord is establishments, or colonies,
understood to be at some distance from others of a similar
nature. The oases of Africa, which are small districts
comprising wells, verdure, and population, surrounded by
immense deserts of sand, are called island.s, in Arabic, to
this day ; and no doubt but sucli were so called by the
Hebrews, notwithstanding that they had no stream of wa-
ter within many days' journey arotind them. (See Ja-
rncTH.) — Cdlmtl.
ISRAEL, {who prevaih mth God;) a nairre given to
Jacob, after having wrestled with him at JIahanaim, or
Fennel, Gen. 32; l", 2, and 28, 29, 30. Hosca 12: 3. ^See
Jacob.) By the name Israel is sometimes understood the
person of Jacob ; sometimes the people of Israel, the race
of Jacob ; and sometimes the kingdom of Israel, or the
ten tribes, as disliuct from the kingilom of Judah. — Calmet,
ISRAELITES. (See Jews.)
ISSACHAR, the fifth son of Jacob and Leah, was born
about B. C. 1749. He had four son.s Tola, Fhuvah,
Job, and Shimron, (Jen. 40; 13. We know nothing particu-
lar of bis life. Jacob, blessing him, said, •'Issachar isa
strong ass, couchitig down between two burdens. And
he saw that rest was good, and the land that it was plea-
sant, and bowed his shoulder to bear, and became a ser-
vant unto tribute." The Chaldee translates it in a quite
contrary sense : " He shall subdue provinces, and make
those tributary to him, who shall remain in his land."
The tribe of Issachar had its portion among the best parts
of the land of Canaan, along the great plain, or valley of
Jezreel, with the half-tribe of Manasseh to the south, Zebu-
lun to the north, the Mediterranean sea west, and Jordan,
with the south point of the sea of Tiberias, east. (See Ca-
naan.)— Calmet.
ISSUE. The issues from death, that is, all the means of
escape from sin or misery, and all the persons redeemed,
belong to the Lord, Ps. 68: 20. Out of the heart are the
issues of life ; the holy thoughts and good works of men
demonstrate spiritual life to be in their heart, and prepare
them for eternal life, Prov 4: 23. — Brotni.
ITALA. (See Ancient Bible Veksion, under the arti
cle BiBi.E, No. 10.)
ITALY ; a Latin word, which some derive from Vitulm
or Vitula, because this country abounded in calves anii
heifers ; but others, from a king called Italus. We know
not the ancient name of Italy in the Hebrew language
Jerome has sometimes rendered diittim, Italy ; (Numb. -4:
24. Ezek. 27; 6.) and in Isa. 66: 19. he translates Ihubal
Italy, though, according to others, the Tibarcnians ar.
JAB
[■ 66S ]
JAB
here meant. In the sacred books written in Greek, there
is no ambiguity in the word Italy; it signifies that country
of which Rome is the capital. (See Ro.me.)
The Italian band mentioned in Acts 10: 1. is thought
by Calmet to have been a cohort, named from Italica, a
city in Spain, built by Scipio, A. U. C. 654, at the begin-
ning of a peace with the Carthaginians. Appian (de Bello
Hisp.) informs us that Scipio collected his wounded
soldiers into one city, which, from Italy, he named Italica.
— Cahna.
ITHAMAH ; Aaron's fourth sow, who, with his descend'
ants, exercised the fimctions of common priests only, till
the high-priesthood passed into his family in the person
of EH. The successors of Eli, of the family of Ithannar,
were Ahitub, Aliiah, Ahimelech, and Abiathar, wliom
Solomo-n deposed, 1 Kings 2: 27. — Calmet.
ITINERANT PREACHERS; those who are not settled
over any particwlar congregation, but go from pjace to
place for the purpose of preachirtg to and instructing the
ignorant. A great deal has been said against persons of
this description ; and it must be acknowledged, that there
would not be so much necessity for them, were every
minister to do his duty. But the sad declension of morals
in many places, the awful ignorance that prevails as tO'
God and real reSgion, the little or no exerfio)n of those
who are the guides of the people ; " villages made up of a
train of idle, profligate, and miserable poor, and where
the barbarous rhymes in their church-yards inform us that
they are all either gone or going to heaven ;" these things,
with a variety of others, form a sirfficient reason for every
able and benevolent person to step forward, and to do all
that he can to enlighten the minds, lessen the miseries,
and promote the welfare of his fellow-creatures.
"Notwithstanding the prejudices of mankind, and the
indiscretions of some imiividoals, an itinerant teacher is
one of the most honorable and useful characters that can
be found upon eartlv ; and there needs no other proof than
the experience of the church in all ages, that, when this
work is done properly and with perseverance, it forms the
grand metliod of spreading wide, and rendering efficacious
religious knowledge ; for great reformations aixl revivals
of religion have uniformly been thus efleeted ; and it is
especially sanctioned by the example of Christ and his
apostles, and recomn>eixled as the divine method of spread-
ing the gospe) through the nations of the earth, itinerant
preaching having almost always preceded aixl made way
for the solid ministry of regular pastoi-s. But it is a work
which requires peculiar talents and dispositions, and a
peculiar call in God's proridence ; and is not rashly and
hastily to be ventured upon by every novice who has
learned to speak about the gospel, and has more zeal than
knowledge, prudence, humility, or experience. An un-
felemished character, a disinterested spirit, an exemplary
deadness to the world, nnaffectevV humility, deep acquaint-
ance with the human heart, and preparation for endur-
ing the cross not only with boldn«ss, but \v\xh meekness,
patience, and sweetness of temper, are indispensably
necessary for such a ser\-i-ce." HaWs Works.— Hend. Buck.
ITUREA; a province of Syria or Arabia, beyond Jor-
dan, east of the Batanea, and south of Trachonitis. Luke
3:1. speaks of Iturea ; and 1 Chron. 5: 19. of the Itnreans,
oT of Jethur, who was one of the sons of Ishmaef, and
gave name to Iturea. In Gen. 25: 15, and in 1 Cliion,
1: 31, Itnrea is included in Arabia Petrfea. Early in
his reign Aristobulus made war wilh the Itureans, sub-
dued the greater part of them, and obliged them to em-
brace Judaism, as Hircanns his father had some years
before obliged the Idumeans to do. He gave them their
choice, either to be circumcised ai>d embrace the Jewish
religion, or to leave the country. They chsse the former-
Philip, one of Herod's sons, was teti arch of Itnrea, wheH
John the Baptist entered on his ministry, Luke 3: 1. —
Calmet.
IVORY ; (Heb. scTienhaUm, from sehen, a tooth, and hahim,
elephants ; Greek, ehphantin(fs,'S.tv . 18: 12.} The first time
that ivory is mentioned in Scrtptnre is in the reign of
Solomon. If the forty-fifth Psalm was written before the
Canticles, and before Solomon had constructed his royal
and magnificent throne, then that contains the first men-
tion of this commodity. It is spoken of as used in decorat-
ing fhose boxes of perfume, whose odors were employed
to exhilarate the king's spirits. It is probable that Solo-
mon, who traded to India, Srst brought thenee clephant.«>
and ivory tO' Judea, I Kings 10: 23. 2 Chron 9: 21. It
seems that Solomon had a throne decorated with ivory,
and inlaid with gold; the beauty of these materials reliev-
ing the splendor, and heightening the lustre of each other,
1 Kings 10: 18. Cabinets and wardrobes were ornamented
with ivory, by what is called marernetry, Ps, 45:. 8..
dtinte per artent
fnd^isum fli
txf avt Oricia terebi-ntho
JLucet ehur.
ViROIE.
" So shines a ^ctii, illwstrfoBs ro&eriold",
On some feir vhfin's neck, enchased' m gold -
So the anrroanding e&on's darker hue
Improves the polish'd ivory lo the view."
Pitt.
These were named "houses of ivory," probably be-
cause made in the form of a house, or pafece ; as the
silver naoi of Diana, mentioned Acts 19: 24, were in the
form of her temple at Ephesus; and as we have now-
ivory models of the Chinese pagodas, or temples. In this
sense we may understand what is said of the ivory houso-
which Ahab made, 1 Kings 22: 39. As to dwelling-
houses, the most we can suppose in regard to them is,
that they might have ornameu't.s of ivory, as they some-
times have of gold, silver, or other precious materials, ill
such abundance as to derive an appellation from the arti-
cle of their decoration ; as the emperor Nero's palace,
mentioned by Suetonius, was named avma, or " golden,"
because lita entro, "overlaid with gold." This method of
ornamenting buildings, or apartments, was very ancieuS
among the Greeks. Homer mentions ivory as employecJ
iin the pabive of Menelaus, at Lacedsemon: —
" Above^ henealh, arounif the pahice, shines
The suniless (reasnre of eichaiisred mines ;
Tl^ spoils of eleptiaKifs the rnnf inlay,
And studded amber darts a golden ray.."^ '
Odyss. iv. 72. PopB.
Bacchylides, cited by Athenseus, says, that, in the island
of Ceos, one of the Cyclades, the houses of the great men
"glister with gold and ivory." Hams' Nat. Sis. — Watsoo.
J.
JABAL ; son of Lamech and Adah, father of those who
lodge under tents, and of shepherds ; (Gen. 4: 20.) that is,
the first distinguished example of that class of men, who^
like the Arab Bedoweens, hve under tents, and are shep-
herds. (See. FATBETi.)— Calmet.
JABBOK; a small river rising in the mountains of
Gdead, which falls into the Jordan on the east, below the
sea of Tiberias. Near the ford of this brook the an^el
wrestled with Jacob, Gen. 32: 22. "^
Mr. Buckingham thus describes it : "Tlie banks of this
slreim are so thickly wooded with oleander and plane-
irecs. wihl olives, and wild almonds in blossom, with many
How !■:.--, i!ic iimnes of which wove nnkno'.rn to us ; with
tall and waving reeds, at least fifteen feet in height ; that
we coald not perceive the water through them from
above, though the presence of these luxuriant borders
marked the winding of its coarse, and the murmur of its
flow, echoing through its long, deep channel, was to be
heard distinctly from afar. The river, where we crossed
it at this point, was not more than ten yards wide, but it
was deeper than the Jordan, and nearly as rapid ; so that
we had some difficulty in fording it. As it ran in a rocky
bed, its waters were clear, and we found their taste agreea-
ble." It is now called El Zerka. — Watson.
JABESH, or Jaeesh-gilead ; the name of a city in
the halftribe of Manasseh, east of Jordan. Naash, kiB.g
JAC
[ 669
! AC
t>{ the Ammonites, besieged it, 1 Sam. 11: 1, &c. The
inhabitants were friendly to Saul and his family, 1 Sam.
31: 11, 12.— Watson.
JABIN ; king of Hazor, in the northern part of Canaan,
Josh. 11: 1, &c. Discomfited at the conquests of Joshua,
who had subdued the south of Canaan, he formed with
other kings in the northern part along the Jordan, and the
Mediterranean, and in the mountains, a league offensive
and defensive. With their troops they rendezvoused at
the waters of Merom, but Joshua attacked Ihem suddenly,
defeated them, and pursued them to great Zidon, and the
valley of Mizpeh. He lamed their horses, burnt their
chariots, took HaZor, and killed Jabin, about A. M. 2555.
— 2. Another king of Hazor, who oppressed the Israelites
twenty years, from A. M. 2699 to 2719, Judg. 4: 2, &c.
Sisera, his general, was defeated by Barak at the foot of
mount Tabor; and the Israelites were delivered. — Cahnet.
JABNEH, or Jab.n-ia , a city of the Philistines, thirty
miles east of Jerusalem, (2 Chron. 26: 6.) called Jamnia,
(1 Mac. 4: 15.) and Jaraneia, chap. 5: 58. 2 Mac. 12: 8.
Its situation may be gathered from the passage last cited,
as being not far from Jaffa or Joppa. The following is
Dr. Wittman's account of it : " Yebna is a village about
twelve miles distant from Jaffa; in a fine open plain,
surrounded by hills and covered with herbage. A rivulet
formed by the rains supplies water. It is conjectured that
the rock Etam, where Samson was surprised by the
Philistines, was not far from Yebna. North-east of Yebna
is a lofty hill, from which is an extensive and pleasing
view of Ramla, distant about five miles. On sloping hills
of easy ascent, by which the plains are bordered, Yebna,
Ekron, Asdod, and Ashkalon, were in sight." Comp. 2
Chron. 26: 6.—Calmet.
JACHIN, {stabiiity ;) the name of a brass pillar placed at
the porch of Solomon's temple. (See Boaz.) — Calmet.
JACINTH. This precious gem, which is mentioned in
Rev. 21: 20, where it is called in the Greek text hyacinth,
as it also is in Pliny, is now thought to be the amethyst
of the moderns. The amethysts of the ancients are now
called garnets. There seems to be no reason for doubt-
ing the propriety of rendering the Hebrew ahaJmah, and
the Greek amethtjslos, by amethyst. Pliny says the reason
assigned for its name is, that though it approaches to the
color of wine, it falls short of it and stops at a violet color.
Others think it is called amethyst, because its color resem-
bles wine mixed with water ; and in this view, also, it
derives its name from a, negative, and methy, wine. The
Oriental amethyst or jacinth is an extremely rare gem. If
heated, it loses its color and becomes transparent, in
which state it is hardly distinguishable from the diamond.
— Harris.
JACOB ; the younger twin son of Isaac and Rehekah.
It was observed, that at his birth he held his brother
Esau's heel ; and for this reason was called Jacob, (Gen.
25: 26.) which signifies " he supplanted," Jacob was of
a meek and peaceable temper, and loved a quiet, pastoral
hfe ; whereas Esau was of a fierce and turbulent nature,
and was fond of hunting. Isaac had a particular fondness
for Esau ; but Rehekah was more attached to Jacob.
The manner in which Jacob purchased his brother's
birthright for a mass of pottage, and supplanted him by
obtaining Isaac's blessing, is already referred to in the
article Esau.
The events of the interesting and chequered life of
Jacob are so plainly and consecutively narrated by Moses,
that they are familiar to all ; but upon some of them a
few remarks may be useful.
1. As to the purchase of the birthright, Jacob appears to
have been innocent, so far as any guile on his part or real
necessity from hunger on the part of Esau is involved in
the question ; but his obtaining the ratification of this by
ihe blessing of Isaac, though agreeable, indeed, to the
]iurpose of God, that the elder should serve the younger,
was blamable as to the means employed. Indeed all the
parties were more or less culpable ; Isaac, for endeavor-
ing to set aside the oracle which had been pronounced in
favor of his younger son ; but of which he might have an
I'bscure conception; Esau, for wishing to deprive his
lirothepnf the blessing which he had hiin.self relinquished ;
and Rehekah and Jacob, for securing it by fraudulent
means, not trusting wholly in the Lord. That their princi-
pal object, however, was the spiritual part of the blessing,
and not the temporal, was shown by the event. For
Jacob afterwards reverenced Esau, as his elder brother,
and insisted on Esau's accepting a present from his hand,
in token of submission. Gen. 33: 3. — 15. Esau also appears
to have possessed himself of his father's properly during
Jacob's long exile.
But thougl^the intention of Rehekah and Jacob might
have been free from worldly or mercenary motives, they
ought not to have done evil that good might come. And
they were both severely punished in this life for their fraud,
which destroyed the peace of the family, and planted a
mortal enmity in the breast of Esau against his brother,
Gen. 27: 36 — 41. And there can be litlle doubt of his
intention of executing his threat, when he came to meet
him on his return, with such an armed force as strongly
alarmed Jacob's fears, had not God in answer to Jacob's
wrestling prayer changed the spirit of Esau into mildness,
so that " he ran to meet Jacob, and fell on his neck, and
they wept," Geu. 33: 4. Rebekah, also, was deprived of
the society of her darling son, whom " she sent away for
one year," as she fondly imagined, " until his brother's
fury should turn away," (Gen. 27: 42 — 44.) but whom
she saw no more ; for she died during his long exile of
twenty years, though Isaac survived. Gen. 35: 27. Thus
was " she pierced through with many sorrows."
2. Jacob, also, had abundant reason subsequently to say,
" Few and evil have been the days of the years of my
pilgrimage," Gen. 47: 9. At the period of his flight how
forcible would have been the question — By Khoni shall
Jacob arise' Amos 7: 5. Though he had the consolation
of having the blessing of Abraham voluntarily renewed to
him by his father, before he was forced to fly from hi.s
brother's fury, (Gen. 28: 1 — 4.) and had the satisfaction
of obeying his parents in going to Padan-aram, orCharran,
in quest of a wife of his own kindred, (Gen. 28:7.) yet he
set out on a long and perilous journey of six hundred
miles and upwards, through barren and inhospitable
regions, unattended and unprovided, like a pilgrim, in-
deed, with only his staff in his hand. Gen. 32: 10. And
though he was supported with the assurance of the divine
protection, and the renewal ef the blessing of Abraham by
God himself, in his remarkable vision at Bethel, and
solemnly devoted himself to his service, wishing only for
food and raiment, and vowing to profess the worship of
God, and pay tithe unto him, should he return back in
peace, (Gen. 28: 10 — 22.) yet he was forced to engage
in a tedious and thankless servitude of seven years, at
first for Rachel, with Laban, who relalialed upon him the
imposition he had practised on his own father, and subsii-
luted Leah, whom he hated, for Rachel, whom he loved ;
and thereby compelled him to serve seven years more ;
and changed his wages several times during the remain-
der of his whole servitude of Iwenly years ; in Ihe c^.urse
of which, as he pathetically complained, '' the d.'-cught
consumed him by day, and the frost by night, and :he
sleep departed from his eyes," in watching Laban's flocks ;
(Gen. 31: 40.) and at last he was forced to steal away,
and was only protected from Laban's vengeance, as
afterwards from Esau's, by divine interposition. Add '.o
these his domestic troubles and misfortunes ; the impatience
of his favorite wife, "Give me children, or I die;" her
death in bearing her .'econd son, Benjamin : the rape of
his daughter Dinah ; the perfidy and cri:elty of her bro-
thers, Simeon and Levi, to the Shecheniites , the misbeha-
vior of Reuben ; the siipfiosed death of Jc^eph his favorite
and most deserving son : — these were, a'l'. together,
sufficient to have brought down his grey hairs with
sorrow to the grave, had he not been divinely supported
and encouraged ihronchout the whole of his "pilgrimage.
For the circumstances which led Jacob in.o Egypt, (Gen.
47: 1 — 10.) see Joseph.
Jacob spent the remainder of his days in tianquiUity
and prosperity, enjoying the society of his beloved child
seventeen years. The close of his life was a Imppy calm,
after a stormy "voyage.
3. Of all the predictions which he pronounced wiih his ex-
piring breath, (Gen, 49.) the most remarkable and (he mcxsi
interesting is tint relating to Judah : "Thes eptre shall i.ol
JAC
[670]
JAM
depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet,
until Shiloh come j and unto him shall the gathering of
the people be," Gen. 49: 10. One grand personage was
in the mind of the patriarch, as it had been in the contem-
plation of his predecessors, even the illustrious Deliverer
who should arise in after ages to redeem his people, and
bring salvation to the human race. (See Shiloh.) Here,
then, in this prediction and its fulfilment, we have a glori-
ous proof not only of the piety and faith of Jacob, but of
the veracity of Scripture, and the truth of our religion,
Gen. 50: 1—11. See Cahiet.^Watson.
JACOBITES ; a sect of Christians in Syria and Mesopo-
tamia ; so called, either from Jacob, a Syrian, who lived in
the reign of the emperor Mauriliu.s, or from one Jacob, a
monk, who flourished in the year 550.
The Jacobites are of two sects, some following the rites
of the Latin church, and others continuing separated
from the church of Rome. There is also a division among
the latter, who have two rival patriarchs, and consist of
about thirty or forty thousand families, living in Syria
and Mesopotamia. As to their belief, they hold but one
nature in Jesus Christ. (See Hypostasis, and Mono-
FHYSiTEs.) With respect to purgatory, and prayers for the
dead, they are of the same opinion with the Greeks and
other Eastern Christians. They consecrate unleavened
bread at the eucharist, and are against confession, believ-
ing that it is not of divine institution. They also practise
circumcision before baptism. (See Nestorians.)
The name oi Jacobites is also applied to the adherents of
James II., particularly to the non-jurors who separated
from the high Episcopal church, simply because they
would not take the oath of allegiance to the new Iring,
and who in their public services prayed for the Stuart
family. They were most numerous in Scotland, but were
very much lessened by the defeat of the Pretender, in
1745, and at his death, in 1788, they began to pray for
George m.—Hend. Buck.
JACOB'S WELL ; a fountain near Sychar or Shechem,
Gen. 38. John 4:6. " The principal object of veneration
here is Jacob's well, over which a church was formerly
erected. This is situated at a small distance from the
town, in the road to Jerusalem, and has been visited by
pilgrims of all ages, hut particularly since the Chri.siian
era, as the place where our Savior revealed himself to
the woman of Samaria. The spot is so distinctly marlced
by the evangehst, and so little liable to nnceriainty, from
the circumstance of the well itself, and the features of the
country, that, if no tradition existed for its identity, the
f-ite of it could hardly be mistaken. Perhaps no Christian
scholar ever attentively read the fourth chapter of St. John
without being struck with the numerous internal evidences
of truth which crowd upon the mind in its perusal. With-
in so small a compass it is impo-^sible to find in other
writings so many .sources of reflection and of interest.
Independently of its importance as a theological document,
it concentrates so much inlbrmation, that a volume might
be filled with the illustration it reflects on the history of
the Jews, and on the geography of their country. All
that can be gathered on these subjects from Josephus
seems but as a comment to illustrate this chapter. The
journey of out Lord from Judea into Galilee ; the cause of
it ; his passage ihrougn the territory of Samaria ; his
approach to the metropolis of this country; its name ; his
arrival at the Amorhe field, which terminates the narrow
valley of Sichem ; the ancient custom of halting at a well ;
the female employment of drawing water ; the disciples
sent into the city for food, by which it.' situation out of
the town is obviously implied ; the questicm of the woman
referring to existing prejudices which scp'.iraled the Jews
from the Samaritans ; liie depth of the well ; the Oriental
allusion contained in the expression, '/ii'/n? "'"'cr;' the
history of the well, and the customs Ihereb)' illustrated ;
the worship upon mount Gerizim ; all these occnr within
the space of twenty verses : and if to tliese be added, what
has already been referred to in the remainder of the same
chapter, we shall perhaps consider it as a record which, in
the words of him who sent it, ' we may lift up ovr eyes,
AND LOOK UPON, FOR IT IS WHITE ALREADY TO HARVEST.'"
Dr. E. D Clarke, p. 5 n.—Calmet.
JACOMB, (Thomas, D. D.,) an English divine, of gical
learning and piety, was born in 1622, studied at Oxford
and Cambridge, and was settled at Ludgate parish)
London, in 1617; where he continued till ejected for non-
conformity, in 1662. He was received as chaplain into
the house of the countess dowager of Exeter, where he
labored faithfully, and with great usefulness, until his
death, in 1687, aged sixty-five.
His complaint was a cancer ; but through his long and
painful sickness he was a model of Christian patience and
resignation ; with comfort reviewing his course, and with
joy expecting his crown from Christ his Savior, " who was
made unto nim of God, wisdom and righteousness, and
sanctification and redemption." Once indeed he said to a
friend, while longing to be above, " Death flies from me ;
I make no haste to my Father's hou.se. I lie here, but
get no ground for heaven or earth." It being said, " YeS,
in your preparations for heaven," he replied, " 0 yes, there
I sensibly get ground, I bless God. It will not be long
before we meet in heaven, never to part more ; but to he
with Christ is best of all."
His works consist of a Commentary on Kom. VIII. ;
a Treatise of Holy Dedication ; Life and Death of Mr.
William Whitaker ; and several occasional Sermons.—
Middht07i, vol. iv. p. 3.
JAEL, or Jahel, wife of Heber the Kenite, killed Sise-
ra, general of the Canaanitish army, Judg. 4: 17, 21.
Why this woman violated the sacred rites of hospitality,
by murdering her guest, does not appear, Mr. Taylor
suggests as probable, (1.) That Jael had herself felt the
severity of the late oppression of Israel by Siscra ; (2.)
That she was actuated by motives of patriotism, and of
gratitude toward Israel ; (3.) That the general character
of Sisera might be so atrocious, that at any rate his death
was desirable. We find a similar proceeding in the case
of .Tudith. — Calmel.
JAH ; one of the names of God ; which is combined
with many Hebrew words ; as Adonijah, Halleluiah, Ma-
lac.hia : — God is my Lord, praise the Lord, the Lord is my
king, kc. (See Jehovah. )^Co/mrt.
JAIR, of Manasseh, posscs.sed the whole country of Ar-
gob beyond Jordan, to the borders of Geshurand Maacha-
Ihi, Judg. 10: 3. He .succeeded Tola in the government
of Israel, and was succeeded by Jephthah. His govern-
ment continued twenty-two years, from A. M. 2795 to
2817. Comp. Num. 32: 41. Deut. 3: 14. Josh. 13: 30. 1
Kings 4: 13. 1 Chron. 2: 22.
2. Jair ; the eighth month of the Hebrew civil year,
and the second of the sacred year. It corresponded partly
to March and April. — Calmet.
JAIRUS ; chief of the synagogue at Capernaum, whose
only daughter, an interesting girl of twelve, falling dange-
rously sick, was healed by Jesus, Mark 5: 22. — Calmel.
JABIBRES. (See Jankes.)
JAMES, (Gr. Jakvbos ;) of the same import as Jacob.
James, surnamed the Greater, or the Elder, to distinguish
him from James the Younger, was biolher to John the
evangelist, and son to Zebedce and Salome, Matt. 4: 21.
He was of Bethsaida, in Galilee, with his brother John, a
fisherman, and left all to follow Christ, Mark 1; 18, 19.
They were witnesses of our Lord's transfiguration. Matt.
17; 2. When certain Samaritans refused to admit Jesus
Christ, James and John wished leave to pray for fire from
heaven to consume them, Luke 9: 54. Some days after
the resurrection of our Savior, James and John went to
fish in the sea of Tiberias, where they saw Jesus. They
were present at the ascension of our Lord. St. James is
said to have preached to all the dispersed tribes of Israel j
but for this there is only report. His martyrdom is relat-
ed. Acts 12: 1, 2, about A. D. 42, or 44, for the dale is not
well ascertained. Herod Agrippa, king of the Jews, and
grandson of Herod the Great, caused him to be seized and
executed at Jerusalem. Clemens Alexandrinus informs us,
that he who brought St. James before the judges, was so
much affected with his constancy in confessing Jesus Christ,
that he also declared himself a Christian, and was con-
demned, as well as the apostle, to be beheaded. (See Bo-
anerges.)
2. James the Less, surnamed the brother of our Lord,
(Gal. 1: 19.) was the son of Cleophas, otherwise calletl
Alphens, and Mary, sister to the blessed virgin ; conbc
JAM
[671]
JAN
quently, lie was cousin-german to Jesus Christ. He was
surnamed the Just, on account of the admirable holiness
and purity of his life. He is said to have been a priest,
and to have observed the laws of the Nazarites from his
birth. Our Savior appeared to James the Less, eight days
after his resurrection, 1 Cor. 15: 7. He was at Jerusalem,
and was considered as a pillar of the church, when St.
Paul first came thither after his conversion, (Gal. 1: 19.)
A. D. 37. In the council of Jerusalem, held in the year
51, St. James gave his vote last ; and the result of the
council was principally formed from what St. James said,
who, though he observed the ceremonies of the law, and
was careful that others should observe them, was of opi-
nion, that such a yoke was not to be imposed on the faith-
ful converted from among the heathens, Acts 15: 13, iVc.
About A. D. 03, it is said James was commanded by the
Jews to proclaim from one of the galleries of the temple,
that Jesus of Nazareth was not the Messiah ; instead of
which he proclaimed him to be the Son of God, and
Judge of the world. For this he was thrown from the bat-
tlement, and while praying for his murderers, was stoned
to death.
James the Less was a person of great prudence and
discretion, and was highly esteemed by the apostles and
other Christians. Such, indeed, was his general reputa-
tion for piety and virtue, that, (as we learn from Origen,
Eusebius, and Jerome,) Josephus thought, and declared it
to be the common opinion, that the sufferings of the Jews,
and the destruction of their city and temple, were owing
to the anger of God, excited by the murder of James.
This must be considered as a strong and remarkable testi-
mony to the character of this apostle, as it is given by a
person who did not believe that Jesus was the Christ.
The passages of Josephus, referred to by those fathers up-
on this subject, are not found in his works now extant.
3. James, General Episti.e of. Clement of Rome and
Hermas allude to this epistle ; and it is quoted by Origen,
Eusebius, Athanasius, Jerome, Chrysostom, Augustine,
and many other fathers. But though the antiquity of this
epistle had been always undisputed, some few formerly
doubted its right to be admitted into the canon. Eusebius
says, that in his lime it was generally, though not univer-
sally, received as canonical, and publicly read in most,
but not in all, churches ; and Estius afRrms, that after the
fourth century, no church or ecclesiastical writer is found
who ever doubted its authenticity ; but that, on the contra-
ry, it is included in all subsequent catalogues of canonical
Scripture, whether published by councils, churches, or in-
dividuals. It had, indeed, been the uniform tradition of
the church, that this epistle was w ritten by James the Just ;
but it was not universally admitted, till after the fourth
century, that James the Just was the same as James the
Less, one of the twelve apostles ; that point being ascer-
tained, the canonical authority of this epistle was no lon-
ger doubted.
It has always been considered as a circumstance very
much in favor of this epistle, that it is found in the Syriac
version, which was made as early as the end of the first
centurj', and for the particular use of converted Jews, —
the very description of persons to whom it was originally
addressed. Hence we infer, that it was from the first ac-
knowledged by those for whose instruction it was intended ;
, and " T think,'' says Dr. Doddridge, "it can hardly be
doubted but they were better judges of the question of its
authenticity than the Gentiles, to whom it was not written ;
among whom, therefore, it was not likely to be propagated
so early ; and who at first might be prejudiced against it,
because it was inscribed to the Jews."
The immediate design of this epistle was to animate the
Jewish Christians to support with fortitude and patience
any suflTerings to which they might be exposed, and to en-
force the genuine doctrine and practice of the gospel, in
opposition to the errors and vices which then prevailed
among them. St. James begins by showing the benefits
of trials and afflictions, and by assuring the Jewish Chris-
tians that God would listen to their sincere prayers for as-
sistance and support : he reminds them of their being the
distinguished objects of divine favor, and exhorts them to
practical religion ; to a just and impartial regard for the
poor, and to an uniform obedience to all the command.s of
God, without any distinction or exception; he .shows the
inedicacy of faith without works, that is, unless followed
by moral duties ; he inculcates the necessity of a strict go-
vernment of the tongue, and cautions them against censo
riousness, strife, malevolence, pride, indulgence of their
sensual passions, and rash judgment ; he denounces threats
against those who make an improper use of riches ; he
intimates the approaching destruction of Jerusalem ; and
concludes with exhortations to patience, devotion, and a
solicitous concern for the salvation of others.
This epistle is written with great perspicuity and energy,
and it contains an excellent summary of those practical
duties and moral virtues which are required of Christians.
Although the author wrote to the Jews dispersed through-
out the world, j-et the state of his native land passed more
immediately before his eyes. Its final overthrow was ap-
proaching ; and oppressions, factions, and violent scenes
troubled all ranks, and involved some professing Christians
in suffering, others in guilt, James 5: 8, 9. — Walson.
JAMES, (Tho.mas,) a learned English critic and dirine,
was born 1371, and educated at Oxford. In 1602, he was
designated first keeper of the pubhc library in that univer-
sity, to which were soon added some other preferments.
In 1620 he resigned his place as keeper, and devoted him-
self more intensely to study. In 1624, he thus writes to
archbishop Usher ; " I have of late given myself wholly
to the readingof manuscripts, and in them I find so many
and so pregnant testimonies either fully for our religion,
or against the papists, that it is to be wondered at." He
had published more than twenty learned works, and had
commenced the collation of all the manuscripts of the
fathers in all the libraries of England, in order to detect
the forgeries of the popish editions, when he was arrested
by death, in August, 1629. No man exceeded him in in-
defatigable industry. — Middkton, vol. ii. p. 486.
JANEWAY, (John.) This very pious and extraordinary
young man was born at Lylly, Hertford, in 1633, of reli-
gious parents, to whom he gave early hopes of much com-
fort, by his mental superiority. He entered Cambridge at
seventeen, and at eighteen it pleased God to bring his soul
to the Savior, in part by means of Baxter's Saint's Rest.
He now looked upon human learning as useless, if not fixed
below Christ, and pursued for Christ ; without whom it can
only augment the soul's capacity for guilt and misery'. His
zeal now glowed for the salvation of souls, especially of
those nearly related to him. Secret prayer now became
his element, his joy, and his strength, and his great instru-
ment of success. On leaving college, his father being
dead, he went to live in the family of Dr. Cox, where his
health sunk under his studies and labors ; and he finished
his short course in June, 1657, aged twenty-four. His dy-
ing bed was a scene of triumph. " I am going," said lie,
" to him whom I love above life. I charge you all, do not
pray for my life any more. You do me wrong if you do.
Oh that glory, that unspeakable glory that I behold. My
heart is Ml."— Middkton, vol. iii. p. 362.
JANNES and JAMBRES ; the two chief magicians
who resisted Moses, in Egypt, by pretending to perform
similar wonders, 2 Tim. 3: 8. The paraphrast Jonathan,
on Num. 23: 22, says they were the two sons of Balaam,
v,-ho accompanied him to Balak, king of Moab. They are
called by several names, in several translations. Anapa-
nus afiirms, that Pharaoh sent for magicians, from Upper
Egypt, to oppose Moses ; and Ambrosiaster or Hilary the
Deacon says they were brothers. Numenius, cited by
Aristobulus, says, " Jannes and Jambres were sacretl
scribes of the Egyptians, who excelled in magic, at the
time when the Jews were driven out of Egypt. These
were the only persons whom the Egyptians found capable
of opposing Moses, who was a man whose prayers to God
were very powerful. These two men, Jannes and Jam-
bres, were alone able to frustrate the calamities which
Moses brought upon the Egyptians."
The Mussulmen have several particulars to the same
purpose. Their recital supposes, that the magicians
wrought no miracle, but only played conjuring tricks, in
which they endeavored to impose upon the eyes of spec-
tators. Moses, however, expresses himself as if Phaiaoh s
magicians operated the same effects as himself ; so that
Pharaoh and his whole court were persuaded, that the
J.
J A P
[C72]
J A
power of their niagk-iiiis was equal to that of Moses, till
I hose magicians themselves vere constrained to acknow-
leilge, Thi! is the fii,ge.rnf God! Exod. 8: 18, 19. (See
Plagues of Egypt.) — Cat net.
JANSENISTS; a denomination of Roman Catholics in
France, which was formed in the year 1610. They follow
the opinions of Janseniiis, bishop of Ypres, from whose
writings the following propositions are said to have been
extracted : — 1. That there are divine precepts which good
men, notwithstanding their desire to observe them, are,
nevertheless, absolutely unable lo obey ; nor has God given
them that measure of grace which is essentially necessary
lo render them capable of such obedience. 2. That no
person in this corrupt stale of nature, can resist the influ-
ence of divine grace, when it operates upon the mind. 3.
That, in order to render human actions capable of merit
or demerit, it is not requisite that they be exempt from
necessity; but that they be free from constraint. 4. That
the Semi-Pelagians err greatly, in maintaining that the
human will is endowed with the power either of obeying
or resisting the aids and influences of preventing grace.
5. That whoever affirms that Jesus Christ made expiation,
by his sufferings and death, for the sins of all manliind,
is a Semi-Pelagian. Of these propositions, pope Innocent
X. condemned the first four as heretical, and the last as
rash and impious. But he did this without asserting that
these were the doctrines of Jansenius, or even naming
him ; which did not satisfy his adversaries, nor silence
him. The ne.xt pope, however, Alexander VII., was more
particular, and determined the said propositions to be the
doctrines of Jansenius ; which excited no small trouble in
the Galilean church.
This denomination was also distinguished from many
of the Roman Catholics, by their maintaining that the Holy
Scriptures and public liturgies should be given to the peo-
ple in their mother tongue ; and they consider it as a mat-
ter of importance to inculcate upon all Christians, that
true piety does not consist in the performance of external
devotions, but in inward holiness and divine love.
As to Jansenius, it must be confessed that he was more
diligent in the search of truth, than courageous in its de-
/ence. It is said that he read through the whole of St.
Augustine's works ten, and .some parts thirty, times.
From these he made a number of excerpta, which he col-
lected in his book called " Augustinus." This he had not
the courage to publish ; but it was printed after his death,
and from it his enemies, the Jesuits, extracted the propo-
sitions above named ; hut the correctness and fidehty of
their extracts may be justly questioned. Jansenius him-
self, undoubtedly, held the opinions of Calvin on uncondi-
tional election, though he seems to have been reserved in
avomng them.
The Jansenists of Port Royal may be denominated the
evangelical party of the Catholic church : among their
number were the famous Father Quesnel, Pierre Nicole,
Pascal, De Sacy, Duguet, and Arnauld ; the last of whom
is styled by Boileau, " the most learned mortal that ever
lived." They consecrated all their great powers to the
service of the cross ; and for their attachment to the grand
article of the Protestant Reformation, — justification by
faith, with other capital doctrines, they suffered the loss
of all things. The Jesuits, their implacable enemies,
never ceased until they prevailed upon their .sovereign,
Louis XIV., to destroy the abbey of Port Royal, and ba-
nish its inhabitants. It must be confessed, however, that
all the Jansenists were not like the eminent men whom we
have just mentioned : and even these were tinged with en-
thusiasm and superstition. Some of them even pretended
to work miracles, by which their cause was greatly injur-
ed.— Watson ; Hend. Buck.
JAPHETH, the son of Noah, who is commonly named
the third in order of Noah's sons, was born in the five
hundredth year of that patriarch ; (Gen. 5: 32.) but Moses
(Gen. 10: 21.) says expressly he was the oldest of Noah's
sons, according to our translation, and those of the Septua-
gint and Symmachus. Abraham was named the first of
Terah's sons, " not from primogeniture, but from pre-
eminence," as the father of the faithful, and the illustrious
ancestor of the Israelites, and of the Jews, whose " seed
was Christ," according to the flesh ; with whose history
the Old Testament properly commences ; " Now Iheso are
the generations of Terah," itc. ; (Gen. 11: 27.) all the pre-
ceding parts of Genesis being only introductory to this.
By the same analogy, Shem, the second son of Noah, is
placed first of his three sons, (Gen. 5: 32.) and Japheth,
"the eldest," last. Compare Gen. 10: 21. 11:20. Thus
Isaac is put before Ishmael, though fourteen years young-
er, 1 Chron. 1: 28. And Solomon, the eldest, is reckoned
the last of Bathsheba's children, 1 Chron. 3: 5.
Japheth signifies enlargement ; and how wonderfully did
Providence enlarge the boundaries of Japheth ! His pos-
terity diverged eastwards and westwards ; from the origi-
nal settlement in Armenia, through the whole extent of
Asia, north of the great range of Taurus, distinguished by
the general names of Tartary and Siberia, as far as the
Eastern ocean ; and in process of time, by an easy pas-
sage across Behring's straits, the entire continent of Ame-
rica ; and they spread in the opposite direction, throughout
the whole of Europe, to the Atlantic ocean ; thus literally
encompassing the earth, within the precincts of the northern
temperate zone. While the enterprising and warlike
genius of this hardy hunter-race frequently led them to
encroach on the settlements, and to dwell in " the tents of
Shem," whose pastoral occupations rendered them more
inactive, peaceable, and unwarlike ; as when the Scythians
invaded Media, and overran western Asia southwards, as
far as Egypt, in the days of Cyaxares; and when the
Greeks, and afterwards the Romans, subdued the Assyri-
ans, Medes, and Persians, in the East, and the Scythians
and Jews in the South, as foretold by the Assyrian pro-
phet, Balaam : —
"And ships shall come from the coast of Chiltim,
And shall afflict the Assyrians, and afflict the Hebrews ;
But ha [the invader] shall perish himself at last."
Num. 24: 24.
Chiltim here denotes the southern coasts of Europe,
bordering on the Mediterranean sea, called the "isles of
the Gentiles," Gen. 10: 5. And, in later times, the Tar-
tars in the East have repeatedly invaded and subdued the
Hindoos and Chinese ; while the warlike and enterprising-
genius of the Briti-sh isles has spread their colonies, their
arms, their arts, and their language, and, in .some mea-
sure, their religion, from the rising to the setting sun.
(See Division of the Earth.)
Japheth was known, by profane authors, under the name
of Japetus. The poets make him father of heaven and
earth. The Greeks beheved that Japheth was the father
of their race, and acknowledged nothing more ancient
than him. Hence the phrase. Old as Japetus. — Watson.
JAR. (See Jair.)
JAREB ; (Hos. 5: 13. 10: 6.) the name of a king, or
more probably of an idol, for it was common among the
heathen to call their idols kings. — Calmet.
JASHER, (Book of ;) a modern apocryphal work, in-
tended to impose on the credulous and ignorant, to sap the
credit of the books of Moses, and to blacken the character
of Moses himself. It pretends to be a translation of the
ancient record, mentioned Josh. 10: 13, and 2 Sam. 1: 18,
but is one of the most clumsy and impudent forgeries that
ever were attempted to be palmed on the public. It was
first published by Jacob Ihve, a printer, in 1751, in quarto,
who worked it ofi' secretly by night, at a private press. —
Hend. Buck.
JASON, a high-priest of the Jews, and brother of Onias
III., M-as a man of unbounded ambition, who scrupled not
to divest his brother of the high-priesthood, in order to
seize that dignity himself, sacrilegiously purchasing it of
Antiochus Epiphanes. Jason did all he could to abolish
the worship of God in Jerusalem, and to prevail with the
very priests to adopt the religion of the Greeks. He is to
be considered as the cause of all the calamities which be-
fel the Jews under Antiochus. He died at Lacedaemon, a
city in alliance with the Jews, to which he had fled from
Aretas, or Menelaus ; and his body remained without bu-
rial, the greatest indignity that could be oflTered to him.
2. Paul's kinsman, and his host at Thessalonica, (Rom.
16: 21.) hazarded his life to preserve him during a sedition
in that city. Acts 17: 7. — Calmet.
JASPER; (Heb. jaspeh, Exod. 28: 20. 39: 13, and
Ezek. 28: 13. Gr. iaspis, Rev. 4: 3, and 21: 11, 18, 19.)
JEH
[673]
JEH
The Greek and Latin name, jaspis, as well as the English
jasper, is plainly derived from the Hebrew, and leaves lit-
tle room to doubt what species of gem is meant by the
original word. The jasper is usually defined, a hard
stone, of a bright, beautiful, green color ; sometimes cloud-
ed with white, and spotted with red or yellow. — Watson.
JAVAN, or Ion, (for the Hebrew word, differently point-
ed, forms both names,) was the fourth son of Japheth,
and the father of all those nations which were included
under the name of Grecians, or lonians, as they were in-
variably called in the East. (See Division of the Eakth,
and Greece.) — Watson.
JAVELIN. (See Arms, Militaky.)
JEALOUSY, is that particular uneasiness which arises
from the fear that some rival may rob us of the affection
of one' whom we greatly love, or suspicion that he has al-
ready done it. The first sort of jealousy is inseparable
from love, before it is in possession of its object ; the latter
is unjust, generally mischievous, and always troublesome.
God's tender love towards his -church is sometimes call-
ed jealousy. Paul says to the Corinthians, that he is jea-
lous over them with a godly jealousy, that he might pre-
sent them as a chaste virgin to Christ. The word, how-
ever, is frequently used to express the vindictive acts of
dishonored love. Thus the Psalmist, (79: 5.) representing
the church as smarting under divine judgments, occasion-
ed by her infidelity to God, says, " How long. Lord, shall
thy jealousy bum like fire ?" See also 1 Cor. 10: 22.
Waters of jEAiotrsv. — There is something very striking
in the solemn process prescribed in Num. 5: 11 — 31, for
the detection and punishment of a woman who had excited
her husband's jealousy, without affording him the ordinary
means of proving her infidelity. (See Aduxtery.) — Hend.
Buck ; Calmel.
JEARIM, (mount ;) Josh. 15: 10 ; a boundary of the in-
heritance of Judah. It was a woody mountain, on which
thecilvof Balah, or Kirjath-jearim, was situated. — Cabnet.
JEBUS ; the son of Canaan, (Gen. 10: 16.) and father
of the people of Palestine called Jebusites. Their dwell-
ing was in Jerusalem and round about, in the mountains.
This people were very warlike, and held Jerusalem till
David's time. Josh. 15: 65. 2 Sam. 5: 6, &c. — Watson.
JEDUTHUN; a Levite of Merari's family; and one
of the four great masters of music belonging to the tem-
ple, 1 Chron. 16: 41. He is the same as Ethan ; and some
of the psalms are said to have been composed by him, as
Psalm 89, entitled, "Of Ethan the Ezrahite ;" also 39, 62,
and 77, under the name of Jeduthnn. There ara some
psalms with the name of Jeduthun affixed to them, which
seem to have been composed during, or after, the captivity.
These were probably composed, or sung, by his descend-
ants, or class. — Cahnet.
JEGAR-SHADUTHA ; (the heap of n-ilness, Gen. 31: 47,
kc.) The term is Chaldee, and it is usually thought to
prove thai the Chaldee language was different from the
Hebrew. It might be so ; but, we should remember that
Jacob gave two names to this place, '' Galeed, and Miz-
pah." Might not Laban do the same ? varying the term,
as Mizpah differs from Galeed ; for it does not appear that
Laban when speaking afterwards uses the Chaldee words,
Jegar shadutha ; but the Hebrew words which Jacob used,
" this (gal) heap be witness, and this (mizpeh) pillar be
witness." So that in these instances he certainly retained
his Hebrew. (See Stones.) — Calmet.
JEHOAHAZ, otherwise Shallom ; the son of Josiah,
king of Judah, Jer. 22: 11. Jehoahaz was made king in
■ his room, though he was not Josiah's eldest son, 2 Kings
23: 30 — 32. He was in all probability thought fitter than
any of his brethren to make head against the king of
Egypt. He reigned, however, only three months in Jeru-
salem, B. C. 609.— Watson.
JEHOIACHIN ; king of Judah, otherwise called Co-
niah, (Jer. 22: 24.) and Jeconiah, 1 Chron. 3: 17. He as-
cended the throne, and reigned only three months. It seems
he was born about the time of the first Babylonish captivi-
ty, A.M. 3398, n-hen Jehoiakim, or Eliakim, his father, was
carried to Babylon. Jehoiakim returned from Babylon,
and reigned till A. M. 3405, when he was killed by the
Chaldeans, in the eleventh year of his reign ; and was suc-
ceeded by this Jehoiachin, who reigned alone three months
85
and ten days ; but he reigned about ten years in conjunc-
tion with his father. Thus 2 Kings 24: 8, is reconciled
with 2 Chron. 36: 9. In the former of these passages, he
is said to have been eighteen when he began to reign and
in Chronicles only eight ; that is, he was only eight when
he began to reign with his father, and eighteen when he
began to reign alone. The words of the prophet Jeremiah,
(22: 30.) are not to be taken in the strictest sense ; since
he was the father of Salathiel and others, 1 Chron. 3: 17,
18. Matt. 1: 12. It signifies that he should have no heir
to his throne ; as proved to be the fact. — Watson.
JEHOIADA, by Josephus called Joadu.s, succeeded Aza-
riah in the high-priesthood. In 1 Chron. 6: 9, 10, Johanan
and Azariah seemed to be confounded with Jehoiada and
Zechariah. This excellent high-priest, with his wife Jeho-
shabeath, rescued Joash, son of Joram, king of Judah,
when but one year old, from the murderous violence of
AthaUah, and concealed him in the temple. * After seven
years, he set him on t'he throne of David, 2 Kings 11, 12,
and 2 Chron. 23, 24. (.See Athai.iah, and Joash.) While
Jehoiada lived, and Joash followed his advice, everything
happily succeeded. The high-priest formed a design of
repairing the temple, and collected considerable sums in
the cities of Judah ; but the Leviies did not acquit them-
selves of their commission with diligence till after the
king was of age, and the prince and the high-priest united
their authority in promoting the design, 2 Kings 12, and 2
Chron. 24: 5, Sec. He died B. C. 834, aged one hundred
and thirty. — Calmet.
JEHOIAKIM, or Eliakim, brother and Successor of Je-
hoahaz, king of Judah, was made king by Necho, king of
Egypt, at his return from an expedition against Carche-
raish, (2 Kings 23: 34—36.) B. C. 609.
In 2 Chron. 36: 6, according to the Hebrew, it is said,
that Nebuchadnezzar bound Jehoiakim in chains to carry
him to Babylon ; and Daniel relates, that the Lord deliver-
ed Jehoiakim into the hands of Nebuchadnezzar ; that
that prince carried to Babylon a great part of the vessels
belonging to the house of God, with some captives, among
whom were Daniel and his companions ; but he does not
say that Jehoiakim was carried there. The books of
Kings and Chronicles inform us, that Jehoiakim reigned
eleven years at Jerusalem, 2 Kings 23: 36. 2 Chron. 36:
5. Jeremiah says, that Nebuchadnezzar retook Charche-
raish from Necho, king of Egypt, in the fourth year of
Jehoiakim ; and elsewhere, that the first year of Nebu-
chadnezzar agreed with the fourth of Jehoiakim. All
these chronological marks evince, that Nebuchadnezzar
did not come into Judea till A. M. 3399, which is the
fourth year of Jehoiakim ; that Jehoiakim was not carried
into Babylon, but put in chains in order to be removed
thither, yet afterwards was set at liberty, and left at Jeru-
salem ; and lastly, that Jehoiakim was four years subject
to Necho, before he became tributary to Nebuchadnezzar.
After a vile and turbulent reign of eleven years, Jehoia-
kim was taken, slain, and thrown into the common sewer,
B. C. 599, as Jeremiah had predicted, Jer. 22: 18, 19. 26;
23. — Cahnet.
JEHORAM, son and successor of Jehoshaphat, king of
Judah, (2 Kings 8: 16.) was born A. M. 3080, and asso-
ciated with his father in the kingdom, A. I\I. 3112. He
reigned alone after the death of Jehoshaphat, and died,
according to Usher, B. C. 885. His queen, Athaliah,
daughter of Omri, engaged him in idolatry, and other sins,
which produced calamities throughout his reign. Jehoram,
being settled in the kingdom, began his career with the
murder of all his brothers, whom Jehoshaphat had remov-
ed from public business, and placed in the fortified cities
of Judah. To punish his impiety, the Lord permitted the
Edomites who had been subject to the kings of Judah to
revolt, 2 Kings 8: 20, 21. 2 Chron. 21: 8, 9. He died and
was buried in Jerusalem, but not in a royal sepulchre,
B. C. 885.— Calmet.
JEHOSHAPHAT, son of Asa, a pious and illustrious
king of Judah, ascended the throne when aged thirty-five,
and reigned twenty-five years. He prevailed against Baa-
sha, king of Israel ; and placed garrisons in the cities of
Judah and Ephraim, which had been conquered by his
father. He demohshed the high places and groves, aiid
God was with him. because he was faithful. In the third
JEH
[674 ]
JEH
year of his reign he sent officers, with priests and Levites,
throughout Judah, with the boolc of the law, to instruct
the people, and God blessed his zeal. He was feared by
all his neighbors ; and the Philistines and Arabians were
tributaries to him. He built several houses in Judah in
the form of towers, and fortified several cities. He gene-
rally kept an army, or more probably an enfoUed militia,
of a million of men, without reckoning the troops in his
strong holds.
Scripture, however, reproaches Jehoshaphat on account
of his alliance with the idolatrous Ahab, king of Israel, 1
Kings 22: 44. 2 Chron. 18: 35. 19: 1, &c. Jehoshaphat
repaired his fault by the regulations and good order which
he afterwards established in his dominions, both as to civil
and religious affairs ; by appointing honest and able
judges, by regulating the discipline of the priests and Le-
vites, and ^ enjoining them to perform punctually their
duty. After this, God gave him in answer to his prayers
a complete triumph over the Moabites, Ammonites, and
Meonians, people of Arabia PelriEa.
Some time afterwards, Jehoshapliat, repeating his error,
agreed with Ahaziah, the idolatrous king of Israel, jointly
to equip a fleet in the port of Eziou-gaber, on the Red sea,
in order to go to Tarshish, (ver. 35, 36.) and was punished
by the loss of his fleet. He died, after reigning twenty-
five years, and was buried in the royal sepulchre, B. C.
889, 2 Chron. 21: 1, &;c. 1 Kings 22: i2.~Cabnet.
JEHOSHAPHAT, (Valley of.) This valley is a deep
and narrow glen, which runs from north to south, between
the mount of Olives and mount Moriah ; the brook Cedron
flowing through the middle of it, which is dry the greatest
part of the year, but has a current of a red color, after
storms, or in rainy seasons.
The prophet Joel (3: 2, 12.) says, " The Lord will ga-
ther all nations in the valley of Jehoshaphat, and will
plead with them there." Some maintain that the ancient
Hebrews had named no particular place the valley of Je-
hoshaphat ; but that Joel intended generally the place
where God would judge the nations, and will appear at the
last judgment in the brightness of his majesty. Jehosha-
phat, in Hebrew, signifies " the judgment of God." It is
very probable that the valley of Jehoshaphat, that is, of
God's judgment, is symbolical, as well as the valley of
slaughter, in the same chapter. From this passage, how-
ever, the Jews and many Christians have been of opinion,
that the last judgment will be solemnized in the valley of
Jehoshaphat. — Calmet ; Watson.
JEHOVAH, (sELF-ExiSTENT j) the awful and incommuni-
cable name of the Divine Essence. It seems to be a com-
pound of JAH, the Essence, and HAVAH, existing ; that is,
abcatjs existing ; whence the word ETERNAL appears best
to express its import. It is well rendered, " He who is, and
who was, and who is to come," (Rev. 1: 4. 11: 17.) that is,
as the schoolmen speak, Eterjjal, both a parte ante, and a
parte post. Compare John 8: 58. That this name was
known to the heathens, as the God of the Hebrews, there
can be no doubt. Sanchoniathon writes it Jebo ; Diodorus
the Sicilian, Macrobius, Clemens Alexandrinus, Jerome,
and Orige'n, write it Jao ; Epiphanius, Theodoret, and the
Samaritans, Jabe, Jave. The Latins hence took their Jmis
Paler. The Egyptians also seem to have some acquaint-
ai'.ce with its sublime meaning, for on the temple of Isis
was the following inscription, evidently borrowed from
it : "I am whatever is, was, and will be, and uo mortal
has ever raised my veil."
According to Exod. 6: 2, 3, God never revealed himself
by this peculiar and glorious name before the time of Mo-
ses ; though Jloses himself employs it in narrating the
history of patriarchs.
The Jews, after their captivity in Babylon, out of an
excessive and superstitious respect for this name, left ofl'
to pronounce it, and thus lost the true pronunciation.
The Septuagint generally renders it Kurios, '• the Lord."
Origen, Jerome, and Eusebius, testify that in their time
the Jews left the name of Jehovah \vritten in their co-
pies in Samaritan characters, instead of writing it in the
common Chaldee or Hebrew characters ; which shows their
veneration for this holy name ; and the fear they were
under, lest strangers who were not unacquainted \vith the
Chaldee letters and language, should discover and misap-
ply it. Josepluis calls this Tetragramraaton, or four-letter-
ed name, (Heb. JHVH,) the shuddering name of God.
The Jewish cabalists have refined much on the name
Jehovah. The letters which compose it they affirm to
abound with mysteries. He who pronounces it shakes
heaven and earth, and inspires the very angels with terror.
A sovereign authority resides in it ; it governs the world ;
is the fountain of graces and blessings ; the channel
through which God's mercies are conveyed to men.
It would be waste of time and patience to repeat all
that has been said on this incommunicable name. It may
not be amiss, however, to remind the reader, 1. That al-
though it signifies the state of being, yet it forms no verb.
2. It never assumes a plural form. 3. It does not admit
an article, or take an aflix. 4. Neither is it placed in a
state of construction with other words ; though other
words may be in construction with it.
It is usually marked in Jewish books, where it must be
alluded to, by an abbreviation, (Jod.) It is also abbre-
viated in the term Jah, which, the reader will observe,
enters into the formation of many Hebrew appellations.
(See Jah.) In our version it is printed LORD, in large
capitals. As applied to Christ, it becomes a decisive tes-
timony to his divine nature, Ps. 97, and 103. Jer. 23:
5, 6, and 33: 15, 16. Mai. 3: 1. Isa. 40: 3— 11.— Hend.
Buck ; Calmet ; JVatson ; Janes ; Robinson's Bid. Mepos.,
1833, 1834.
JEHOVAH JIREH ; (Jehovah mill provide ; or, perhaps,
shall be seen.) Abraham used this expression in allusion to
the question of Isaac, (Gen. 22: 8.) touching the victim
for sacrifice, and gave this name to a place, (Gen. 22: 14.)
in such a manner that in after ages, (at the time when Ezra
revised the copy,) it became usual to say, " In this moun-
tain Jehovah shall provide ; this is where we expect his
appearance." When we consider the building of the tem-
ple of Solomon nearly adjacent, (if not on the very spot,)
where " the Lord had chosen to put his name ;" (Deut. 12:
5. 1 Kings 14: 21. 2 Chron. 12: 13.) and also the crucifixion
of Jesus, at, or near, perhaps on, this very spot, we cannot
but think that such titles not only commemorated past facts,
but predicted future expectations. — Calmet.
JEHOVAH NISSI ; (Jehovah my banner.) Among the
most perplexing passages of Scripture, is Exod. 17: 15,
16 : " And Moses built an altar — rather, consecrated a piece
of ground for a sacrificatory — and called its name, Jehovah
Nissi : the Lord exalteth me ; or, Jehovah my banner — or
streamer — or signal ; [or, perhaps, " To Jehovah of lifting
up ;" i. e. he to whom I lifted up my hands, in prayer
against Amalek.] And he said-. Because the Lord hath
sworn war with Amalek — so our translation ; but the He-
brew is, " Because of the hand upon — above — or against
the throne of Jehovah, war against Amalek." Either of
these renderings, implies two memorials of the vengeance
to be taken on Amalek : (1.) The writing in the book of
the law, which the king was to copy out for his personal
study, mentioned in the preceding verse ; (2.) A conse-
crated trophy, or elevation of some kind, to commemorate
the battle fought under Moses, and to prefigure the future
punishment of Amalek. — Calmet.
JEHOVAH SHALOM ; (Jehovah of peace ;) aname giT-
en by Gideon to an altar which he built in a place where an
angel of Jehovah had appeared to him, and saluted him
by saying, " Peace be to thee," Judg. 6; 24. Probably
the name may be taken, (1.) To Jehovah of peace, that
is, taking peace for general welfare ; to the Divine Pro-
tector ; (2.) As the words are usually rendered — Jehovah
shall send peace ; that is, we expect prosperity under the
auspices of Jehovah . The phrase appears to have become,
in after ages, a kind of proverb, as probably was the case
with all those remarkable titles, which are come down to
us. What else has been their preservation, when so many
thousand other titles have perished? — Calmet.
JEHOVAH SHAMMAH ; (Jehovah is there; or, the re-
sidence of Jehovah ;) a name given by Ezekiel to a future
holy city, which he describes in the close of his prophecy,
chap. 48: 35, margin. — Calmet.
JEHOVAH TZIDEKENU ; (Jehovah our righteousness,
Jer. 23: 6. 33: 16, margin.) In the first of these passages
we read of a branch, a king, called the Lord our righteous-
ness ; in the second passage we read, " This is the name
JEN
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J E P
■wherewith she [Jerusalem] shall be called, ihe Lord our
righteousness." Now the impropriety of calling a female,
she, by the name of the Lord, masculine, is apparent ; and
the words "is the name" are supplied by our translators; but
the word "name" is in the original in the former passage ;
■where the words are, "and this his name is, which they
shall call him, Jehovah our righteousness :" but in the lat-
ter passage the ■n'ords are, literally, "and this is be thp.t
shall call her, Jehovah our righteousness. ".^Cn/me?.
JEHOZADAK ; son and successor of Seraiah, high-
priest of the Jews, (1 Chron. 6: 14, 15. Ezra 3: 2.) though
it does not appear that he ever exercised the sacred func-
tions.— Calmet.
JEHU, the son of Jehoshaphat, and grandson of Nim-
shi, captain of the troops of Joram, the king of Israel, was
appointed by God to reign over Israel, and to avenge the
sins committed by the house of Ahab, 1 Kings 19: Id.
His history may be found in full in the books of Kings.
Yet, though Jehu had been the instrument in the hand
of God for taking vengeance on the profane house of
Ahab, we find him accused in Scripture of not entirely
forsaking the sins of Jeroboam, Ihe son of Nebat, who
made Israel to sin in worshipping the golden calves, 2
Kings 10: 29, 31. It appears also that, in executing the
divine indignation on the wicked house of Ahab, he was
actuated more by the spirit of ambition and animosity
than the fear of God, or a regard to the purity of his wor-
ship. And thus it is that God, in the course of his provi-
dence, makes nse of tyrants and wicked men, as his in-
struments to execute his righteous judgments in the earth.
After a reign of eight-and-twenty years over Israel, Jehu
died, and was succeeded by his son, Jehoahaz ; but his
reign was embittered by the ■n'ar which Hazael, king of
Sj'ria, long waged against him, 2 Kings 10: 32 — 36. His
four descendants who suceeeded^ him in the throne were
Jehoahaz, Joash, Jeroboam II., and Zechariah.
2. Jehu, the prophet, son of Hanani, was sent by God
to Baasha, king of Israel, to predict punishment for his
misdeeds, 1 Kings 16: 1, 4. The Vulgate adds that Baa-
sha, incensed at this message, put Jehu to death ; but the
Hebrew says, " Jehu having declared to Baasha what the
J.,orJ had pronounced against him, and that the Lord
would treat his house as he had treated the house of Jero-
boam ; for this he slew him ;" leaving it doubtful whether
Baasha slew Jehu, or the Lord slew Baasha. What renders
the latter more credible, is, that about thirty years after the
death of Baasha, we find Jehu, son of Hanani, again sent by
God to Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, 2 Chron. 19: 1, kc.
Some think there were two persons named Jehu, sons of Ha-
nani ; but Calmet is of opinion that in the passage above
quoted, the death of Baasha, not that of Jehu, is intimated.
It is said in chap. 20: 34, that the rest of the acts
of Jehoshaphat first and last, are written in the book of
Jehu, son of Hanani, who is mentioned in the book of the
Kings of Israel ; whence it appears that the prophets em-
ployed themselves in recording the transactions of their
times, and that what Jehu had written of this kind, was
thought worthy to be inserted in the memoirs, in which
the several events in every prince's reign were registered.
— IVatson ; Calmet.
JENNINGS, (David, D. D.,) a learned dissenting divine,
■was the son of an ejected minister, and born at Kibworth,
in Leicestershire, in 1691. He was respectably educated
in London ; and, in 1714, entered on the sacred ministry.
After some time he succeeded to the pastoral office in the
Independent congregation, meeting in Old Gravel lane,
Wapping. In 1743, he became a trustee of the charities
of Mr. AViUiam Coward, and one of his lecturers at LiUle
St. Helen's, and in the following year theological tutor at
the academy founded by that gentleman. He now pub-
lished several works of merit for the use of the students,
particularly an "Introduction to the Use of the Globes
and Orrery, and also, the Application of Astronomy to
Chronology," &c. octavo, 1747 ; " An Appeal to Reason
and Common Sense for the Truth of the Holy Scriptures ;"
" An Introduction to the Knowledge of Medals," octavo ;
and " A Treatise on Jewish Antiquities, with a Dissertation
on the Hebrew Language," two volumes, octavo, which has
been deservedly esteemed, and still maintains its reputation
as one of the best works in our language on the subject.
Dr. Jennings died on the 16th of September, 1762. Be
sides the pieces already mentioned, he was the author of
" Sermons to Young Persons," 1743, and a number of
single sermons on particular occasions, especially one
" On Preaching Christ," ■n'hich has been often reprinted.
— Jones' Chris. Eiog.
JENYNS, (SoAME, Esq.,) a celebrated English writer,
was born in London, in 1704. He was the only son of
Sif Roger Jenyns, of Bottisham. At St. John's coUege,
Cambridge, his genius appeared in juvenile essays and
poetical cifusions, many of which were published in Dods-
ley's collection. He was elected member of parliament
for Cambridge in 1741, and, being repeatedly re-elected,
continued to sit in parliament till 1780. In 1775, he was
appointed one of the lords of trade, which post he held till
the board was abolished, in 1780.
For a considerable part of his life Mr. Jenyns was an
avowed infidel, and is said to have sat down "to read the
Scriptures with a view to expose their spurious claims ;
but in the course of examination his mind was so over-
powered with the evidence of their divine origin and au-
thority, that he published the result in a small volume,
entitled, " A View of the Internal Evidences of the Chris-
tian Rehgion," London, 1770 ; a book which has been
extensively read, and which has produced no little contro-
versy. Mr. Jenyn's works were collected and published
in four volumes, octavo, London, 1790, with a Memoir of
the author prefixed. He died at London, the 18th of De-
cember, 1787.
The intellectual powers of Mr. Jenyns were of a supe-
rior order ; and Mr. Burke pronounced his style to be that
of the purest English, the simplest, and most aboriginal
language, the least tinctured with foreign irnpregnation.
Life by Cole, prefixed to his Works. — Jones' Chris. Eiog.
JEPHTHAH, one of the judges of Israel, was the son
of Gilead by a concubine, Judg. 11: 1, 2. Though early
rejected by his brethren, he was subsequently called by
the people to lead them in battle against the Ammonites,
who had invaded Israel. At this time the Spirit of the
I^ord came upon him, and he made his celebrated vow to
the Lord, that if he delivered the Ammonites into his hand,
whatever came forth out of the doors of his house to meet
him when he returned should be the Lord's ; it is also
added in our English version, " and I will offer it up for a
burnt-oflTering," Judg. 11: 31. The battle terminated aus-
piciously for Jephthah ; the Ammonites were defeated,
and the Israelites ravaged their country. But on return-
ing towards his own house, his daughter, an only child,
came out to meet her father with timbrels and dances, ac-
companied by a chorus of virgins, to celebrate his victory.
On seeing her, Jephthah rent his clothes, and said, " Alas,
my daughter ! thou hast brought me very low ; for I have
opened my mouth to the Lord, and cannot go back,"
Judg. 11: 34—39.
2. Jephthah's Vow. It is scarcely necessary to mention,
that almost from the days of Jephthah to the present time,
it has been a subject of warm contest among the critics '
and commentators, whether the judge of Israel really sa-
crificed his daughter, or only devoted her to a state of ce-
libacy. Among those who contend for the former opinion,
may be particularly mentioned the very learned professor
Michaelis, who insists most peremptorily that the word: ,
"did with her as he had vowed," cannot mean any thing
else but that her father put her to death, and burnt her
body as a burnt-offering. On this point, however, the
following remarks of Dr. Hales are of great w;iglit : —
When Jephthah went fjrth to battle against the Ammo-
nites, "he vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said, if thou
wilt surely give the children of Ammon into my hand,
then it shall be, that whatsoever cometh out of the doors
of my house to meet me, when I return in peace from the
children of Ammon, shall either be the Lord's, or I will
offer it up for a burnt-offering," Judg. 11: 30, 31. Ac-
cording to this rendering of the conjunctions, {vans,) in the
last clause, either, or, (which is justified by the Hebrew
idiom, the paucity of connecting particles in that language
making it necessary that this conjunction should often be
understood disjunctively,) the vow consisted of two parts:
1. That what jmson soever met him .should be the Lord s,
or be dedicated to his service. 2. That what beast soever
JE P
[ 070 ]
J E R
met liim, if clean, should be offered up for a bumt-otier-
ing unto the Lord. This rendering, and this interpreta-
tion, is warranted by the Levitical law about vows. The
neder, or vo7V, in general, incltided either persons, beasts,
or things, dedicated to the Lord for pious uses ; which, if
it was a simple vow, was redeemable at certain prices, if
the person repented of his vow, and wished to commute it
for money, according to the age and sex of the person,
Lev. 27: 1 — 8. This was a wise regulation to remedy rash
vows. But if the vow was accompanied with c/ierem, rfe-
votement, it was irredeemable, as in the following cases :
— "Notwithstanding, no devotement which a man shall
devote unto the Lord, [either] of man, or of beast, or of
land of his own property, shall be sold or redeemed.
Every thing devoted is most holy unto the Lord," Lev.
27: 28. Here the three vans in the original should neces-
sarily be rendered disjunctively, or; as the last actually is
in our public translation, because there are three distinct
subjects of devotenient, to be applied to distinct uses ; the
7inin, to be dedicated to the service of the Lord, as Samu-
el by his mother, Hannah; (1 Sam. 1: 11.) the callle, if
clean, such as oxen, sheep, goats, turtle-doves, or pigeons,
to be sacrificed ; and if unclean, as camels, horses, asses,
to be employed for carrying burdens in the service of the
tabernacle or temple ; and the lands, to be sacred proper-
ty, This law, therefore, expressly applied, in its first
branch, to Jephthah's case, who had devoted his daughter
to the Lord, or opened his mouth unto the Lord, and there-
fore could not go back ; as he declared in his grief at see-
ing his daughter, and his only child, coming to meet
him with timbrels and dances. She was, therefore,
necessarily devoted, but with her own consent, to perpetu-
al virginity, in the service of the tabernacle, .Tudg. 11: 36,
37. And such service was customary ; for in the division
of the spoils taken in the first Midianite war, of the whole
number of captive virgins, " the Lord's tribute was thirty-
two persons," Num. 31: 35 — 40. This instance appears
to be decisive of the nature of her devotement. Her fa-
ther's extreme grief on this occa.sion, and her requisition
of a respite of two months to bewail her virginity, are
both perfectly natural : having no other issue, he could
only look forward to the extinction of his name or family ;
and a state of celibacy, which is reproachful among wo-
men every where, was peculiarly so among the Israelites ;
and was therefore no ordinary sacrifice on her part, who,
though she generously gave up, could not but regret the
loss of becoming "a mother in Israel." "And he did
with her according to his vow which he had vowed, and
she knew no man," or remained a virgin all her life,
Judg. 11: 34—49.
Dr. Hales adds, " The other case of devotement, (Lev.
27: 27.) is utterly irrelative to Jephthah's vow, which did
not regard a foreign enemy, or a domestic transgressor,
devoted to destruction, but, on the contrary, was a vow of
thanksgiving, and therefore properly came under the for-
mer case. And that Jephthah could not possibly have sa-
crificed his daughter, according to the vulgar opinion,
founded on incorrect translation, may appear from the
following considerations:—!. The sacrifice of children to
Moloch was an abomination to the Lord, of which, in
numberless pa.ssages, he expresses his detestation ; and
it was prohibited by an express law, under pain of death,
as " a defilement of God's sanctuai^, and a profanation
of his holy name," Lev, 20: 2, 3. Such a sacrifice, there-
fore, unto the Lord himself, must be a still higher abomi-
nation. And there is no precedent of any such under the
law, m the Old Testament. 2. The case of Isaac, before
the law, is irrelevant ; for Isaac was not sacrificed ; and
it was only proposed for a trial of Abraham's faith. 3,
No father, merely by his own authority, could put an of-
fending, much less an innocent, child to death, upon any
account, without the sentence of the magistrates, (Dent,
21: 18—21.) and the consent of the people, as in Jona-
than's case. 4, The Mischna, or traditional law of the
Jews, is pointedly against it :— " If a Jew should devote
his son or daughter, his man or maid servant, who are
Hebrews, the devotement would be void ; because no man
can devote what is not his own, or of whose life he has
not the absolute disposal,"
These arguments appear to be decisive against the sa-
crifice ; and that Jephthah could not even have devoted
liis daughter to celibacy against her will, is evident from
the history, and from the high estimation in which she
was always held by the daughters of Israel, for her filip'
duty, and her hapless fate, which they celebrated by a
regular anniversary commemoration four days in the year,
Judg, 11: 40, We may, however, remark, that, if it could
be clearly established that Jephthah actually immolated
his daughter, there is not the least evidence that his con-
duct was sanctioned by God, Jephthah was manifestly
like Samson, an instrument of God's powerj rather than
an example of his grace. — Watson; Calmet ; Jmes.
JERAHMEEL; a district in the south of Judah, pos-
sessed by the descendants of Jerahmeel, son of Hezron, 1
Sam. 27: 10. 30: 29. David told Achish that he invaded
the country of Jerahmeel, while he was ravaging the ter-
ritories of the Amalekites, Geshurites, and Jezrites, —
Calmet,
JEREMIAH, This amiable, but afflicted prophet,
was of the sacerdotal race, Anathoth, his native place,
was only three miles north of Jerusalem, Some have
supposed his father to have been that Hilkiah the high-
priest, by whom the book of the law was found in the
temple in the reign of Josiah : but for this there is no oth-
er ground than his having borne the same name,
Jeremiah appears to have been very young when he
was called to the exercise of the prophetical oflice, from
which he modestly endeavored to excuse himself by plead-
ing his youth and incapacity ; but being overruled by the
divine authority, he set himself to discharge the duties of
his function with unremitted diligence and fidelity during
a period of at least forty-two years, reckoned from the thir-
teenth year of Josiah's reign. In the course of his minis-
try he met with great difficulties and opposition from his
countrymen of all degrees, whose persecution and ill
usage sometimes wrought so far upon his mind, as tc
draw from him expressions, in the bitterness of his soul,
which many have thought hard to reconcile with his re-
ligious principles ; but which, when duly considered, may
be found to demand our pity for his unremitted suffer-
ings, rather than our censure for any want of piety and
reverence towards God, He was, in truth, a man of un-
blemished piety and conscientious integrity ; a warm
lover of his country, whose misery he pathetically de-
plores ; and so affectionately attached to his countrymen,
notwithstanding their injurious treatment of him, that he
chose rather to abide with them, and undergo all hard-
ships in their company, than separately to enjoy a state
of ease and plenty, which the favor of the king of Baby-
lon would have secured to him. At length, after the de-
struction of Jerusalem, being carried with the remnant of
the Jews into Egypt, whither upon the murder of Geda-
liah, whom the Chaldeans had left governor in Judea,
they had resolved to retire, though contrary to his advice,
he there continued warmly to remonstrate against their
idolatrous practices, foreteUing the consequences that
would inevitably follow. But his freedom and zeal are
said to have cost him his life ; for the Jews at Tahpan-
hes, according to tradition, took such offence at him that
they stoned him to death. Their wickedness, however,
did not long pass without its reward ; for, in a few years
after, they were miserably destroyed by the Babylonian
armies which invaded Egj'pt, according to the prophet's
prediction, Jer. 44: 27, 28.
2. The idolatrous apostasy, and other criminal enor-
mities of the people of Judah, and the severe judgments
which God was prepared to inflict upon them, but not
without a distant prospect of future restoration and de-
liverance, are the principal subject matters of the prophe-
cies of Jeremiah ; excepting only the forty-fifth chapter,
which relates personally to Baruch, and the six succeed-
ing chapters, which respect the fortunes of some particu-
lar heathen nations. It is observable, however, that
though many of these prophecies have their particular
dates annexed to them, and other dates may be tolerably-
well conjectured from certain internal marks and circum-
stances, there appears much disorder in the arrangement,
not easy to be accounted for on any principle of regular
design, but probably the result of some accident or other,
which has disturbed the original order. The best arrange-
JER
[ 677 ]
J E R
ment of the chapters appears to be according to the list
which will be subjoined ; the different reigns in which the
prophecies were delivered were most probably as follows :
the first twelve chapters seem to contain all the prophe-
cies delivered in the reign of the good king Josiah. Dur-
ing the short reign of Shallum. or Jehoahaz, his second
son, who succeeded him, Jeremiah does not appear to
have had any revelation. Jehoiakim, the eldest son of
Josiah, succeeded. The prophecies of this reign are con-
tinued on from the thirteenth to the twentieth chapter in-
clusively ; to which we must add the twenty-second,
twenty-third, twenty-fifth, twenty-sixlh, thirty-fifth, and
ihirty-sLxth chapters, together with the forty-fifth, forty-
sixth, forty-seventh, and must probably the forty-eighth,
and as far as the thirty-fourth verse of the fort)'-ninth
cliapter. Jeconiah, the son of Jehoiakim, succeeded. We
read of no prophecy that Jeremiah actually delivered in
this king's reign ; but the /ate of Jeconiah, his being car-
ried into captivity, and continuing an exile till the time
of his death, were foretold early in his father's reign, as
may be particularly seen in the twenty-second chapter.
The last king of Judah was Zedekiah, the youngest son
of Josiah. The prophecies delivered in his reign are con-
tained in the twent5'-first and twenty-fourth chapters, tlie
twenty-seventh to the thirty-fourth, and the thirty-.seventh
to the thirtj'-ninth inclusively, together ■n-ith the last six
verses of the forty-ninth chapter, and the fiftieth and fifty-
first chapters, concerning the fall of Babylon. The siege
of Jerusalem, in the reign of Zedekiah, and the capture
of the city, are circumstantially related in the fifty-second
chapter ; and a particular account of the subsequent
transactions is given in the fortieth to the forty-fourth
inclusively. The arrangement of the chapters, alluded
to above, is here subjoined : 1—20, 22, 2.3. 25, 26, 35, 36,
45, 24, 29, 31, 27, 28, 21, 34, 37, 32, 33, 38, 39, from the
fifteenth to the eighteenth verse, 39, from the first to the
fourteenth verse, 40 — 44, 46, and so on.
3. The prophecies of Jeremiah, of which the circum-
stantial accomplishment is often specified in' the Old and
New Testament, are of a very distinguished and illustri-
ous character. He foretold the fate of Zedekiah, (Jer. 34:
2—5. 2Chron.36: 11— 21. 2Kings25:5. Jer. 52: 11.)
the Babylonish captivity, the precise time of its duration,
and the return of the Jews. He describes the destruction
of Babvlon, and the downfall of many nations, Jer. 25:
12. 9: 26. 25: 19—25. 42: 10—18. 46., and the follow-
ing chapters, in predictions, of which the gradual and
successive completion kept up the confidence of the Jews
for the accomplishment of those prophecies, which he de-
livered relative to the Messiah and his period, Jer. 23: 5,
6. 30: 9. 31: 15. 32: 14—18. 33: 9—26. He foreshow-
ed the miraculous conception of Chri.st, (Jer. 31. 22.) the
virttieof his atonement, the spiritual character of his cove-
nant, and the inward efficacy of his laws, Jer. 31: 31 — 36.
33: 8. The reputation of Jeremiah had spread among
foreign nations, and his prophecies were deservedly cele-
brated in other countries. Many heathen writers also
have undesignedly borne testimony to the truth and ac-
curacy of his prophetic and historical descriptions.
4. As to the style of Jeremiah, says bishop Lowth, this
prophet is by no means wanting eithei in elegance or sub-
limity, although, generally speaking, irferior to Isaiah in
both. His thoughts, indeed, are somewhat less elevated,
and he is commonly more large and difru,-,e in his senten-
ces ; but th« reason of this may be, tha*. he is mostly
taken up with the gentler passions of grief and pity, for
the expression of which he has a peculiar talent. This is
mo.st evident in the Lamentations, where those passions
altogether predominate ; but it is often visible also in his
Prophecies, in the former part of the book more especially,
which is principally poetical ; the middle parts are chiefly
historical ; but the last part, consisting of six chapters, is
entirely poetical, and contains several oracles distinctly
marked, in which this prophet falls very little short of the
lofty style of Isaiah.
Jeremiah survived to behold the sad accomplishment
of all his darkest predictions. He witnessed all the hor-
rors of the famine, and, when that had done its work, the
triumph of the enemy. He saw the strong holds of the
city cast down, the palace of Solomon, the temple of God,
with all its courts, its roofii of cedar and of gold, levelled
to the earth, or committed to the flames ; the sacred ves-
sels, the ark of the covenant itself, with the cherubim,
pillaged by profane hands. What were the feehngs of a
patriotic and religious Jew at this tremendous crisis, he
has left on record in his unrivalled elegies. Never did
city suflTer t more miserable fate, never was ruined city
lairented m language so exquisitely pathetic. Jesusa-
^ez\ ij, as it were, personified, and bewailed with the pas-
sionate sorrow of private and domestic attachment ; while
the more general pictures of the famine, the common mi-
sery of every rank, and age, and sex, all the desolation,
the carnage, the violation, the dragging away into captivi-
ty, the remembrance of former gloi-ies, of the gorgeous
ceremonies and the glad festivals, the awful sense of the
divine wrath heightening the present calamities, are suc-
cessively drawn with all the life and reality of an e)'o-
witness. They combine the 'truth of history with iht
deepest pathos of poetry. (See Lamentations.) — Watson.
JERICHO was a city of Benjamin, about twenty miles
north-east from Jerusalem, and six from the Jordan, Josh.
18; 21. Moses calls it the,city of palm-trees, Deut. 34: 3.
•Tosephus says, that in the territory of this city were not
only many palm-trees, but also the balsam-tree. (See
Balsam Tree.) The valley of Jericho was watered by a
rivulet which had been fonuerly salt and bitter, but was
sweetened by the prophet Elisha, 2 Kings 2: 19. Jericho
was the first city in Canaan taken by Joshua, 2: 1, 2, ice.
It being devoted by God, they set fire to the city, and con-
secrated all the gold, silver, and brass. Then .Toshua
said, " Cursed be the man before the Lord who shall re-
build Jericho." About five hundred and thirty years af-
ter this, Hiel, of Bethel, undertook to rebuild it ; but he
lost his eldest son, Abiram, at laying the foundations, and
his youngest son, Segub, when he hung up the gates.
However, we are not to imagine that there was no city
of Jericho till the time of Hiel. There was a city of palm-
trees, probably the same as Jericho, under the judges,
Judges 3: 13. David's ambassadors, who had been in-
sulted by the Ammonites, resided at Jericho till their
beards were grown, 2 Sam. 10: 4. There was, therefore,
a city of Jericho which stood in the neighborhood of the
original Jericho. These two places are distinguished by
Josephus. After Hiel of Bethel had rebuilt old Jericho,
no one scrupled to dwell there. In the days of Christ it
was the second city in Judea. It had a circus and an
amphitheatre, and in the beautiful palace he had here erect-
ed Herod died. Our Savior also wrought miracles at Je-
richo.
The modern village of Jericho is described by Mr.
Buckingham as a settlement of about fifty dwellings, all
very mean In their appearance, and fenced in front with
thorny bushes, while a barrier of the same kind, the most
efl^ctual that could be raised against mounted Arabs, en-
circles the town. A fine brook flows by it, which empties
itself into the Jordan ; the nearest point of that river is
about three miles distant. The grounds in the immediate
vicinity of the village, being fertilized hy this stream,
bear crops of dourra, Indian corn, rice, and onions. The
population is entirely JIahometan, and is governed by a
sheik ; their habits are those of Bedouins, and robbery
and plunder form their chief and most gainful occupa-
tion.
According to Pococke, the mountains around this place
are the highest in all Judea ; and he is probably correct ;
they form part of a chain extending from Scythopolis in-
to Idumea. The hills nearest to Jerusalem consist, ac-
cording to Hasselquist, of a very hard limestone ; and
different sorts of plants are found on them, in particular
the myrtle, the carob-lree, and the turpentine-tree ; but
further towards Jericho they are liare and barren, the hard
limestone giving way to a looser kind, sometimes white
and sometimes greyish, with interjacent layers of a red-
dish micaceous stone, saxum punim micaceum. The vales
contain good red mould, which would amply reward the
husbandman's toil, though now bare and uncultivated,
and full of pebbles.
Nothing can be more savage than the present aspect
of these wild and gloomy solitudes, through which runs
the very road where is laid the scene of that exquisit*
JER
67S ]
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parable, the good Samaritan ; anJ from that lime to the
present, it has been the haunt of the most desperate ban-
ditti, being one of the most dangerous in Palestine. Sotne-
times the track leads along the edges of cliffs and preci-
pices, which threaten destruction on the slightest false
step ; at other times it winds through craggy passes, over-
shadowed by projecting or perpendicular rocks. At one
place the road has been cut through the very apex of a
hill, the rocks overhanging it on either side. Here, in
1820, an English traveller. Sir Frederic Henniker, w;;;;
attacked by the Arabs with fire-arms, who stripped hi:a
naked, and left him severely wounded : — " It was past
mid-day, and burning hot," says Sir Fredeiic ; "I bled
profusely ; and two vultures, whose business it is to con-
sume corpses, were hovering over rae. I should scarcely
have had strength to resist, had they chosen to attack me."
Here, pillage, wounds, and death would be accompanied
with double terror, from the frightful aspect of every thing
around. Here the unfeeling act of passing by a fellow-
creature in distress, as the priest and Levite are said to
have done, strikes one with horror, as an act almost more
than inhuman. And here, too, the compassion of the
good Samaritan is doubly virtuous, from the purity of the
motive which must have led to it, in a spot where no eyes
were fixed on him to draw forth the performance of any
duty, and from the bravery which was necessary to admit
of a man's exposing himself, by such delay, to the risk of
a similar fate to that from which he was endeavoring to
rescue his fellow-creature. — Watson ; Cahnet.
JEROBOAM, the son of Nebat, was born at Zereda, in
the tribe of Ephraim, 1 Kings 11: 26. He is stigmatized
in Scripture, as "he who made Israel to sin," by institut-
ing the idolatrous worship of the golden calves at Dan
and Bethel, 1 Kings 12: 26 — 33. He seems to have been
a bold, unprincipled, and enterprising man, with much of
the address of a deep politician about him ; qualities
which probably pointed him out to king Solomon as a
proper person to be intrusted with the obnoxious com-
mission of levying certain taxes throughout the tribes of
Ephraim and Manasseh, 1 Kings 11: 14 — 39. Whether it
were that the promises made by Ahijah prompted Jero-
boam to aim at taking their accomplishment into his own
hands, and, with a view to that, began to solicit the sub-
jects of Solomon to revolt ; or whether the bare informa-
tion of what had passed between the prophet and Jerobo-
am, excited his fear and jealousj', it appears evident that
the aged monarch took the alarm, and attempted to ap-
prehend Jeroboam, who, getting notice of what was in-
tended him, made a precipitate retreat into Egypt, where
he remained till the death of Solomon. He then return-
ed, and found that Rehoboam, who had succeeded his fa-
ther Solomon in the throne of David, had already excited
the disgust of ten of the tribes by some arbitrary proceed-
ings, in consequence of which they had withdrawn their
allegiance from the new monarch. These tribes no soon-
er heard of his return than they invited him to appear
among them in a general assembly, in which they elected
him to be king over Israel. Jeroboam fixed his residence
at Shechem, and there fortified himself; he also rebuilt
Penuel, a city beyond Jordan, putting it into a state of
defence, in order to keep the tribes quiet which were on
that side Jordan, 1 Kings 12: 1—25.
But Jeroboam soon forgot the duty which he owed to
God, who had given him the kingdom ; and thought of
nothing but how to maintain himself in the possession of
it, though he discarded the worship of the true God. The
first suggestion of his unbelieving heart was, that if the
tribes over whom he reigned were to go up to Jerusalem
to sacrifice and keep the annual festivals, they would be
under continual temptations to return to the house of Da-
vid. To counteract this, he caused two golden calves to
be maile as objects of religious worship, one of which he
placed at Dan, and the other at Bethel, the two extremi-
ties of his dominions ; and caused a proclamation to be
made throughout all his territories, that in future none of
his subjects should go up to Jerusalem to worship ; and,
directing them to the two calves which had been recently
elected, he cried out, "Behold thy gods, 0 Israel, which
brought thee up out of Egypt !" He also caused idolatrous
temples to be built, and priests to be ordained of the low-
est of the people, -who were neither of the family of Aaxon,^
nor uf the tribe of Levi, 1 Kings 12: 26 — 33. Notwith-jJM^
standing the manifest indication of the displeasure of^^Tf
Heaven, (1 Kings 13: 1 — 10.) it failed of recovering Jero-;*-}
boam from his impious procedure. He continued to en-,'' .
courage his .subjects in idolatry, by appointing priests of
the high places, aud engaging them in such worship as
was contrary to the divine law. This was the sin of Je-
roboam's family, and it was the cause of its utter extir-
pation. After a reign of two-and-twenty years, Jeroboam
died, and Nadab, his son, succeeded for a moment to the
crown, 1 Kings 13: 33, 34. 14: 1—20.
2. Jeroboam, the second of that name, was the son
of Jehoash, king of Israel. He succeeded to his father's
royal dignity, A. M. 3179, and reigned forty-one years.
Though much addicted to the idolatrous practices of the
son of Nebat, yet the Lord was pleased so far to prosper
his reign, that by his means, according to the predictions
of the prophet Jonah, the kingdom of the ten tribes was
restored from a state of great decay, into which it had fal-
len, and was even raised to a pitch of extraordinary splen-
dor. The prophets Amos and Hosea, as well as Jonah,
lived during this reign. — Walson.
JEROME, one of the most learned and productive
authors of the early Latin church, was born about 331, in
Dalmatia, of wealthy parents, educated with care in lite-
rary studies, and made familiar with the Roman and
Greek classics, under the grammarian Donatus, at Rome.
He did not escape the contaminating licentiousness of the
capital, but his feelings were excited by the catacombs "
and tombs of the martyrs, and becoming inclined towards
the Christian faith, he became acquainted with several of
its preachers in Gaul, and on the Rhine, and was baptized
before his fortieth year at Rome.
Having formed a high idea of the ascetic life, he retir-
ed in 374 into the deserts of Chalcis, where for four years
he practised the severest mortifications, and applied him-
self to the most laborious studies. He now obtained or-
dination as presbyter of Antioch ; went soon after to en-
joy the instruction of Gregory Nazianzen at Constantino-
ple ; and at length proceeded to Rome, where his public
exposition of the Scriptures procured him great favor,
especially among the ladies ; some of wliom, matrons of
rank in the fashionable world, together with their daugh-
ters, complied with his exhortations, and became nuns,
Blarcella and Paula are celebrated for the epistles which
he wrote to them ; and the latter accompanied him to Pa-
lestine in 386, where he founded a convent at Bethlehem,
with her funds, and in her societ)', and where he died in
A, D. 420.
His biblical labors are highly valuable. His Latin ver-
sion of the Old Testament from the original Hebrew is the
foundation of the Vulgate, and his commentaries contain
much useful matter. He was the only one of the fathers
who seems to have thoroughly studied the Hebrew, which
he did, with the assistance of learned rabbins in Palestine,
He engaged much in controversy, on which occasions he
frequently displayed great acerbity. He had neither the
philosophical genius nor the scriptural views of his cele-
brated contemporary Augustine ; but he possessed a more
extensive knowledge of the languages, and a glowing and
lively imagination, which gave attractions to his style,
and rendered him the most distinguished wTiter of his
time. — Heiid. Buck.
JEROBIE, (of Prague,) the celebrated lay-reformer, was
born at Prague, about the year 1370, Very little is extant
relative to the early part of his life ; but he was very ea-
ger in the pursuit of knowledge, and spent his youth in
the universities of Prague, Paris, Heidelburg, Cologne, s;
and Oxford, At the latter university, he became acquaint- -^
ed with the works of AVickliffe ; translated them into his '
native language ; professed himself, on his return to ■
Prague, to be an open faA'orer of him, and attached him-
self to the reformed in Bohemia, over whom Huss presid-
ed. Before the council of Constance, Jerome was cited
on the 17th of April, 1415, when Huss was confined at
that place. On his arrival, he found that he could not
render any assistance to Huss, and therefore thought it
prudent to retire ; and on behalf of Huss, he wrote to the
emperor. At Eirsaw, Jerome was seized by an officer of
JER
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the duke of Sul]ybach, who immediately wrote to the
council concerning him, and they directed him to send his
prisoner to Constance. On his arrival at that place, he
was immediately brought before the council, accused of
his attachment to Protestant principles, and was remand-
ed from the assembly into a dungeon. As he was there
sitting, ruminating on his approaching fate, he heard a
voice calling out in these words : •' Fear not, Jerome, to
die in the cause of that truth which, during thy life, thou
hast defended." It was the voice of Madderwitz, who
had contributed to the comfort of Huss ; but, in conse-
quence of it, Jerome was conveyed to a strong tower, and
exposed to torture and want.
This suffering brought on him a dangerous illness, and
attempts were then made to induce him to retract his
principles ; but he remained immovable. Unhappily,
however, for his subsequent peace of mind, he was at
length induced to retract, and acknowledged the errors of
Wicklilfe and Huss ; assented to the condemnation of the
latter; and declared himself a firm believer in the church
of Rome. But the conscience of Jerome would not allow
him to suffer that retraction to remain ; and he accord-
ingly recanted, and demanded a second trial.
Accordingly, in the month of May, 141fi, Jerome was
again called before the council, and charged with his ad-
herence to the errors of Wicklifl'e ; his having had a pic-
ture of him in his chamber ; his denial of transubstantia-
tion ; with other matters of a similar description. On
these articles he answered with equal spirit. Through
the whole oration he manifested an amazing strength of
memory. His voice was sweet, distinct, and full. Finn
and intrepid, he stood before the council ; collected in
himself, and not only despising, but seeming even desi-
rous of death.
His speech did not, however, excite pity ; and he was de-
livered over to the civil power for martyrdom. When sur-
rounded by blazing fagots, he cried out, " Oh, Lord God,
have mercy upon me !" and a little afterwards, " Thou
knowest howl have loved thy truth." With cheerful
countenance he met his fate ; and observing the execu-
tioner about to set fire to the wood behind his back, he
cried out, " Bring thy torch hither : perform thy office be-
fore my face. Had I feared death, 1 might have avoided
it." As the wood began to blaze, he sang a hymn, which
the violence of the flames did not interrupt.
Jerome was, unquestionably, an excellent man. His
Christianity must have been sincere thus to have support-
ed him ; and the uniform tenor of his aged and virtuous
life corroborated the truth of that opinion. His temper
was mild and affable, and the relations of life he support-
ed with great piety and benevolence. He was a light set
upon a hill ; and though for a few moments it was ob-
scured and darkened, yet it again burst forth, and con-
tinued to shine with splendor and advantage. See Life
of Jerome ; Gilpin's Lives of the Sefonners ; and a Letter
from Poggio of Florence to Leonard Aretin. Jones' Chris.
Biog. — Ilend. Buck.
JERUBEAAL. (See Gideon.)
JERUEL ; a wilderness west of the Dead sea, and
south of Judah, where Jehoshaphat obtained a great vic-
tory over the Ammonites, Moabites, &c. It was called
'.he valley of Berachah, or blessing ; and lay between
'Cngaddi and Tekoah, 2 Chron. 20: 26.— Ca/mci.
JERUSALEM ; {the abode of peace ; corrupted in the
Greek, Hierosohjma, the sacred Solyma ;) the celebrated capi-
tal of Palestine, originally the royal residence of Mel-
chiseJec, then the possession of the Jebusites, and ulti-
mately the sacred metropolis of the Hebrews, situated on
the boundary line of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin.
As Jenisalem was the centre of the true worship, (Ps.
122: 4.) and the place where God did in a pecubar manner
dwell, first in the tabernacle, (2 Sam. 6: 7, 12. 1 Chron. 15:
1.16: 1. Ps. 132:13. 135: 2.) and afterwards in the temple,
(1 Kings 6: 13.) so it is used figuratively to denote the
church, or the celestial society, to which all that believe,
both Jews and Gentiles, are come, and in which they are
initiated. Gal. 4: 56. Heb. 12: 22. Rev. 3: 12. 21: 2, 10.
Jerusalem was situated in a stony and barren soil, and
was about sixty furlongs in length, according to Strabo.
The territory and places adjacent were well watered.
having the fountains of Gihon and Siloam, and the brook
Cedron, at the foot of its walls ; and, besides these, there
were the waters of Ethan, which Filaie had conveyed
through aqueducts into the city. The ancient city of Je-
rusalem or Jebus, which rr.vid took from the Jebusites,
was not very large. It was seated upon a mountain
southward of the temple. The opposite mountain, situa-
ted to the north, is Sion, where David built a new city,
which he called the cit)' of David, wherein was the royal
palace, and the temple of the Lord. The temple was
built upon mount Moriah, which was one of the little hills
belonging to mount Sion.
Through the reigns of David and Solomon, JerusaleiT!
was the metropolis of the whole Jewish kingdom, anc'
coiiiinued to increase in wealth and splendor. It was re-
sorted to at the festivals by the whole population of tho
country ; and the power and commercial spirit of Solo
mon, improving the advantages acquired by his fathei
David, centred in it most of the eastern trade, both by sea.
through the ports of Elath and Ezion-Geber, and over
land, by the way of Tadmor or Palmyra. Or, at least,
though Jerusalem might not have been made a depot of
merchandise, the quantity of precious metals flowing in-
to it by direct importation, and by duties imposed on
goods passing to the ports of the Mediterranean, and in
other directions, was unbounded. Some idea of the prodi-
gious wealth of Jerusalem at this time may be formed, by
stating, that the quantity of gold left by David for the use
of the temple amounted to twenty-one million six hun-
dred thousand pounds sterling, besides three million one
hundred and fifty thousand pounds in silver ; and Solo-
mon obtained three million two hundred and forty thou-
sand pounds in gold by one voyage to Ophir, while silver
was so abundant, " that it was not any thing accounted
of." These were the days of Jerusalem's gloiT. Univer-
sal peace, unmeasured wealth, the wisdom and clemency
of the prince, and the worship of the true God, marked
Jerusalem, above every city, as rnjoying the presence and
the especial favor of the Almirli' y.
But these days were uot to lust long : intestine divis-
ions and foreign wars, wicked and tyrannical princes, and
last of all, the crime most ofl'ensive to Heaven, and the
one least to be expected amongst so favored a people, led
to a series of calamities, through the long period of nine
hundred )'ears, with which no other city or nation can
furnish a parallel. After the death of Solomon, ten of the
twelve tribes revolted from his successor Rehoboam, and,
under Jerobonni, the son of Nebal, estabbshed a separate
kingdom : so that Jerusalem, no longer the capital of the
whole empire, and its temple frequented only by the
tribes of Judah and Benjamin, must have experienced a
mournful declension. Four years after this, the city and
temple were taken and plundered b',- Shishak. king rf
Egypt, 1 Kings 14: 2t), 27. 2 Chron. 12: 2—9. One hun-
dred and forty-five years after, under Amaziah, thev sus-
tained the same fate from Joash, king of Israel, 2 Kings
14. 2 Chron. 25. One hundred and sixty years from
this period, the city was again taken, by Esarhadden,
king of Assyria ; and Manasseh, the king, carried a pri-
soner to Babylon, 2 Chron. 33. Within the space of
sixty-six years more, it was taken by Pharaoh-Necho.
king of Egypt, whom Josiah, king of Judah, had opposed
in his expedition to Carchemish ; and who, in consequence,
was killed at the battle of Megiddo, and his son Eliakim
placed on the throne in his stead by Necho. who changed
his name to Jehoiakim, and imposed a heavy tribute up-
on him, having sent his elder brother, Jehoahaz, who had
been proclaimed king at Jerusalem, a prisoner to Egypt,
where he died, 2 Kings 23. 2 Chron. 35.
Jerusalem was three times besieged and taken by Ne-
buchadnezzar, king of Babylon, within a very few years.
The first, in the reign of the last-menlioned king, Jehoia-
kim, who was sent a prisoner to Babylon, and the vessels
of the temple transported to the same city, 2 Chron. 36.
The second, in that of his .son Jehoiachin : when all the
treasures of the palace and the temple, and the remainder
of the vessels of the latter which had been hidden or spar-
ed in the first capture, were carried away or destroyed,
and the best of the inhabitants, -with the king, led into
captivitv, 2 Kings 24. 2 Chrcu. "6. And the third, in tha
JER
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reign of Zedekiah, the successor of Jehoiach in ; in whose
ninth year the most formidable siege which this ill-fated
city ever sustained, except that of Titus, was commenced.
It continued two years ; during a great part of which the
inhabitants sufi'ered all the horrors of famine : when, on
the ninth day of the fourth month, in the eleventh year
of Zedekiah, which answers to July, in the year B.C. 588,
the garrison, with the king, endeavored to make their
escape from the city, but were pursued and defeated by
the Chaldeans in the plains of Jericho ; Zedekiah taken
prisoner ; his sons killed before his face at Riblah, whi-
ther he was taken to the king of Babylon ; and he him-
self, after his eyes were put out, was bound with fetters
of brass, and carried prisoner to Babylon, where he died :
thus fulfilling the prophecy of Ezekiel, which declared
that he should be carried to Babylon, but should not see
the place, though he should die there, Ezek. 12: 13. In the
following month, the Chaldean army, under their general,
Neluzaradan, entered the city, took away every thing that
was valuable, and then burnt and utterly destroyed it,
with its temple and walls, and left the whole razed to the
ground. The entire population of the city and country,
with the exception of a few husbandmen, were then carri-
ed captive to Babylon.
During seventy years, the city and temple lay in ruins :
when tho.se Jews who chose to take immediate advantage
of the proclamation of Cyrus, under the conduct of Zerub-
babel, returned to Jerusalem, and began to build the tem-
ple ; all the vessels of gold and silver belonging to which,
that had been taken away by Nebuchadnezzar, being re-
stored by Cyrus. Their work, however, did not proceed
far without opposition ; for in the reign of Cambyses, the
son of Cyrus, who in Scripture is called Ahasuerus, the
Samaritans presented a petition to that monarch to put a
stop to the building, Ezra 4: 6. Cambyses appears to
have been too busily engaged in his Egj'ptian expedition
to pay any attention to this m.alicious request. His succes-
sor, Smerdis the Magian, however, who in Scripture is
called Artaxerxes, to whom a similar petition was sent,
representing the Jews as a factious and dangerous peo-
ple, listened to it, and, in the Irue spirit of a usurper,
issued a decree putting a stop to the further building of
the temple, (Ezra i: 7, &c.) which, in consequence, re-
mained in an unfinished state till the second year, accord-
ing to the Jewish, and third, according to the Babylonian
and Persian account, of Darius Hystaspes, who is called
simply Darius in Scripture. To him also a representation
hostile to the Jews was made by their inveterate enemies,
the Samaritans ; but this noble prince refused to listen to
it, and having searched the rolls of the kingdom, and
found in the palace at Achmetha the decree of Cyrus, issu-
ed a similar one, which reached Jerusalem in the subse-
quent year, and even ordered these very Samaritans to
assist the Jews in their work ; so that it was completed in
the sixth year of the same reign, Ezra 4: 24. 5: 6:1 — 15.
But the city and walls remained in a ruinous condition un-
til the twentieth year of Artaxerxes, the Artaxerxes Longi-
manus of profane history ; by whom Nehemiah was sent
10 Jerusalem, -niih a power granted to him to rebuild
Ihera. Accordingly, under the direction of this zealous
servant of God, the walls were speedily raised, but not
without the accustomed opposition on the part of the Sa-
maritans ; who despairing of the success of an application
to the court of Persia, openly attacked the Jews with
arms. But the building, notwithstanding, went steadily
on ; the men working with an implement of work in one
hand, and a weapon of war in the other ; and the wall,
with incredible labor, was finished in fifty-two days, in
the year B. C. 445 ; after which, the city itself was gradu-
ally rebuilt, Neh. 2, 4, 6. From this time Jerusalem re-
mained attached to the Persian empire, but under the lo-
cal jurisdiction of the high-priests, until the subversion of
that empire by Alexander, fourteen years after. (See
Alexander.)
At the death of Alexander, and the partition of his em-
pire by his generals, Jerusalem, with Judea, fell to the
kings of Syria. But in the frequent wars which followed
between the kings of Syria and those of Egypt, called by
Daniel, the kings of the north and south, it belonged some-
times to one and sometimes to the other : an unsettled and
unhappy state, highly favorable to disorder and corrup-
tion ; tiie high-priesthood was openly sold to the highest
bidder ; and numbers of the Jew-s deserted their religion
for the idolatries of the Greeks. At length, in the year
B. C. 170, Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, enraged
at hearing that the Jews had rejoiced at a false report of
his death, plundered Jerusalem, and killed eighty thou-
sand men. Not more than two years afterwards, this
cruel tyrant, who had seized every opportunity to exercise
his barbarity on the Jews, sent Apollonius with an army
to Jerusalem ; who pulled down the walls, grievously op-
pressed the people, and built a citadel on a rock adjoining
the temple, which commanded that building, and had the
effect of completely overawing the seditious. Having
thus reduced this unfortunate city into entire submission,
and rendered resistance useless, the next step of Antio-
chus was to abohsh the Jewish religion altogether, by
publishing an edict which commanded all the people of
his dominions to conform to the religion of the Greeks:
in consequence of which, the service of the temple ceased,
and a statue of Jupiter Olympus was set up on the altar.
But this extremity of ignominy and oppression led, as
might have been expected, to rebellion ; and those Jews
who still held their insulted religion in reverence, fled to
the mountains, with Mattathias and Judas Maccabseus ;
the latter of whom, after the death of Mattathias, who,
with his followers and successors, are known by the name
of Maccabees, waged successful war with the Syrians;
defeated Apollonius, Nicanor, and Lysias, generals of An-
tiochus; obtained possession of Jerusalem, purified the
temple, and restored the service, after three years' defile-
ment by the gentile idolatries. (See Antiochus.)
From this time, during several succeeding Maccabfean
rulers, who were at once high-priests and sovereigns of
the Jews, but without the title of king, Jerusalem was
able to preserve itself from Syrian violence. It was,
however, twice besieged, first by Antiochus Eupator, in
the year 163, and afterwards by Antiochus Sidetes, in the
year B. C. 134. But the Jews had caused themselves to
be suflSciently respected to obtain conditions of peace on
both occasions, and to save their city ; (ill, at length, Hyr-
canus, in the year 130 B. C, shook ofl' the Syrian yolse,
and reigned, after this event, twenty-one years in inde-
pendence and prosperity. His successor, Judas, made an
important change in the Jewish government, by taking
the title of king, which dignity was enjoyed by his suc-
cessors fcjty-seven years ; when a dispute having arisen
between Hyrcanus II. and his brother Aristobulus, and
the latter having overcome the former, and made himself
king, was, in his turn, conquered by the Romans under
Pompey, by whom the city and temple were taken, Aris-
tobulus made prisoner, and Hyrcanus created high-priest
and prince of the Jews, but without the title of king. By
this event Judea was reduced to the condition of a Ro-
man province, in the j'ear 63 B. C. Nor did Jerusalem
long after enjoy the dignity of a metropolis, that honor
being transferred to Ca>sarea. Julius Crcsar, having de-
feated Pompey, continued Hyrcanus in the high-priest-
hood, but bestowed the government of Judea upon Anti-
pater, an Idumean by birth, but a Jewish proselyte, and
father of Herod the Great. For the siege and destruction
of Jerusalem by the Romans, see Jews.
Jerusalem lay in ruins about forty-seven years, when
the emperor ..ffilius Adrian began to build it anew, and
erected a heathen temple, which he dedicated to Jupiter
Capitolinus. (See ^lia Cafitolina.) In this state Je-
rusalem continued, under the name of ..3i;iia, and inhabit-
ed more by Christians and pagans than by Jews, till the
time of the emperor Constantine, styled the Great ; who,
about the year 323, having made Christianity the religion
of the empire, began to improve it, adorned it with many
new edifices and churches, and restored its ancient name.
About thirty-five years afterwards, Julian, named the
Apostate, not from any love he bore the Jews, but out of
hatred to the Christians, whose faith he had abjured, and
with the avowed design of defeating the prophecies, which
had declared that the temple should not be rebuilt, wrote
to the Jews, inviting them to their city, and promising to
restore their temple and nation. He accordingly employ-
ed great numbers of workmen to clear the foundations ;
JER
[681 ]
JER
but balls of fire bursting from the earth, soon put a stop
to their proceeding. This miraculous interposition of
Providence is attested by many credible witnesses and
historians ; and, in particular, by Ammianus Marcellinus,
a heathen, and friend of Julian ; Zemuch David, a Jew ;
Nazianzen, Chrysostom, Ambrose RufEnus, Theodoret,
Sozomen, and Socrates, who wrote his account within
fifty years after the transaction, and while many eye-wit-
nesses of it were still livinfj. So stubborn, indeed, is the
proof of this miracle, that even Gibbon, who strives to in-
validate it, is obliged to acknowledge the general fact.
Jerusalem continued in nearly the same condition till
the beginning of the seventh century, when it was taken
and plundered by the celebrated Chosroes, king of Persia,
by whom many thousands of the Christian inhabitants
were killed, or sold for slaves. The Persians, however,
did not hold it long, as they were soon after entirely de-
feated by the emperor Heraclius, who rescued Jerusalem,
and restored it, not to the unhappy Jews, who were for-
Didden to come within three miles of it, but to the Chris-
tians. A worse calamity was, however, speedily to be-
fall this ill-fated city. The Mohammedan imposture
arose about this time ; and the fanatics who had adopted
its creed carried their arms and their religion with unpre-
cedented rapidity over the greater part of the East. The
cahph Omar, the third from Mohammed, invested the city,
which, after once more suffering the horrors of a pro-
tracted siege, surrendered on terms of capitulation in the
year 637 ; and has ever since, with the exception of the
short period that it was occupied by the crusaders, been
trodden under foot by the followers of the false prophet.
2. The accounts of modern Jerusalem by travellers are
very numerous. Mr. Conder, in his " Palestine," has
abridged them with judgment. Dr. Clarke was fortunate
in catching his first view of Jerusalem under the illusion
of a brilhant evening sunshine ; but his description is
decidedly overcharged. Mr. Buckingham, Mr. Brown,
Mr. JoUiffe, Sir F. Henniker, and almost every other
modern traveller, confirm the darker representation of
Chateaubriand and Dr. Richardson.
The following is a very spirited sketch of modern Je-
rusalem, from the pen of Mr. Buckingham.
•' Reposing beneath the shade of an olive-tree upon the
brow of this hill, (the mount of Olives,) we enjoyed from
hence a fine prospect of Jerusalem on the opposite one.
This city occupies an irregular square, of about two miles
and a half in circumference. Its shortest apparent side,
is that which faces the east, and in this is the supposed
gate of the ancient temple, now closed up, and the small
projecting stone on which Mohammed is to sit when the
world is to be assembled to judgment in the vale below.
The southern side is exceedingly irregular, taking quite a
zigzag direction ; the south-west extreme being termina-
ted by the mosque built over the supposed sepulchre of
David, on the summit of mount Zion. The form and
exact direction of the western and southern walls are not
distinctly seen from hence ; but every part of this appears
to be a modern work, and executed at the same time.
The walls are flanked at irregular distances by square
towers, and have battlements running all around on their
summits, with loop-holes for arrows or musquetry close to
the top. The walls appear to be about fifty feet in h^jight,
but are not surrounded by a ditch. The northern wall
runs over slightly declining ground ; the eastern brow
runs straight along the brow of mount I\Ioriah, with the
deep valley of Jehoshaphat below ; the southern wall
runs over the summit of the hill assumed as mount Zion,
■nnth the vale of Hinnom at its feet ; and the western
wall runs along on more level ground, near the summit
of the high and stony mountains over which we had first
approached the town. As the city is thus seated on the
brow of one large hill, divided by name into several
smaller hills, and the whole of these slope gently down
towards the east ; this view, from the mount of Olives, a
position of greater height than that on which the highest
part of the city stands, commands nearly the whole of
it at once.
" On the north, it is bounded by a level and apparently
fertile space, now covered with olive-trees, particularly
near the north-east angle. On the south, the steep side
86
of mount Zion, and the valley of Hinnom, both show
patches of cultivation and little garden inclosures. On
the west, the sterile summits of the hills there barely lift
their outlines above the dwellings. And, on the east, the
deep valley of Jehoshaphat, now at our feet, has .some
partial spots relieved by trees, though as forbidding in its
general aspect as the vale of death could ever be desired
to be, by those who have chosen it for the place of their
interment.
" Within the walls of the city are seen crowded dwell-
ings, remarkable in no respect, except being terraced by
flat roofs, and generally built of stone. On the south are
some gardens and vineyards, with the long red mosque of
Al Sakhara, having two tiers of windows, a sloping roof,
and a dark dome at one end, and the mosque of Zion and
the sepulchre of David in the same quarter. On the west
is seen the high square, castle, and palace of the same
monarch, near the Bethlehem gate. In the centre rise the
two cupolas, of unequal form and size ; the one blue, and
the other white, covering the church of the Holy Sepul-
chre. Around, in diSerent directions, are seen the mina-
rets of eight or ten mosques, amid an assemblage of about
two thousand dwellings. And on the east is seated the
great mosque of Al Harrem, or, as called by Christians,
the mosque of Solomon, from being supposed, with that
of Al Sakhara near it, to occupy the site of the ancient
temple of that splendid and luxurious king." Travels m
Palestine, &c. p. 203—205, Ito.
Chateaubriand's description is very striking and graphi-
cal. After citing the language of the prophet Jeremiah,
in his lamentations on the desolation of the ancient city,
as accurately portraying its present state, (Lam. 1: 1 — 6.
2: 1 — 9, 15.) he thus proceeds : —
" When seen from the mount of Olives, on the other
side of the valley of Jehoshaphat, Jerusalem presents an
inclined plane, descending from west to east. An embat-
tled wall, fortified with lowers and a Gothic castle, en-
compasses the city all round ; excluding, however, part
of mount Zion, which it formerly inclosed. In the wes-
tern quarter, and in the centre of the city, the houses
stand very close ; but, in the eastern part, along the brook
Cedron, you perceive vacant spaces ; among the rest,
that which surrounds the mosque erected on the ruins of
the temple, and the nearly deserted spot where once stood
the castle of Antonia, and the second palace of Herod.
The houses of Jerusalem are heavy square masses, very
low, without chimneys or windows ; ihcy have flat terra-
ces or domes on the top, and look like prisons or sepul-
chres. The whole would appear to Ihe eye one uninter-
rupted level, did not the steeples of the churches, the mi-
narets of the mosques, the summits of a few cypresses,
and the clumps of nopals, break the uniformity of the
plan. On beholding these stone buildings, encompassed
by a stony country, you are ready to mquire if they are
not the confused monuments of a cemetery in the midst
of a desert.
" Enter the city, but nothing will you there find to make
amends for the dulncss of its exterior. You lose your-
self among narrow, unpaved streets, here going up hill,
there down, from the inequality of the ground ; and you
walk among clouds of dust or loose stones. Canvass
stretched from house to house increases the gloom of this
labyrinth. Bazaars, roofed over, and fraught with infec-
tion, completely exclude the light from the desolate city.
A few paltry shops expose nothing but '.vretchedness to
view ; and even these are frequently shut, from appre-
hension of the passage of a cadi. Not a creature is to be
seen in the streets, not a creature at the gates, except now
and then a peasant gliding through the gloom, concealing
under his garments the fruits of his labor, lest he should
be robbed of his hard earnings by the rapacious soldier.
Aside, in a corner, the Arab butcher is slaughtering some
animal suspended by the legs from a wall in ruins : from
his haggard and ferocious look, and his bloody hands, you
would suppose that he had been cutting the throat of a
fellow-creature, rather than killing a lamb. The only
noise heard from time to time in the city is the galloping
of Ihe steed of the desert : it is the janissarj- who brings
the head of the Bedouin, or who returns from plundermg
the unhappy Fellah.
JER
[ 682 ]
JER
" Amid tliis extraordinary desolation, you must pause a
moment to contemplate two circumstances still more ex-
traordinary. Among the ruins of Jerusalem, two classes
of independent people find in their religion sufficient forti-
tude to enable them to surmount such complicated horrors
and wretchedness. Here reside communities of Chris-
tian monks, whom nothing can compel to forsake the
tomb of Christ ; neither plunder, nor personal ill-treat-
ment, nor menaces of death itself. Night and day they
chant their hymns around the holy sepulchre. Driven by
the cudgel and the sabre, women, children, flocks, and
herds, seek refuge in the cloisters of these reclnses. What
prevents the armed oppressor from pursuing his prey,
and overthrowing such feeble ramparts ? The charity of
the monks : they deprive themselves of the last resources
of life to ransom their suppliants. Cast your eyes be-
tween the temple and mount Zion ; behold another petty
tribe cut off from the rest of the inhabitants of this city.
The particular objects of every species of degradation,
these people bow their heads without murmuring; they
endure every kind of insult without demanding justice ;
they sink beneath repeated blows without sighing ; if their
head be required, they present it to the scimitar. On the
death of any member of this proscribed community, his
companion goes at night, and inters him by stealth in the
valley of Jehoshaphat, in the shadow of Solomon's tem-
ple. Enter tlie abodes of these people, you will find them,
amid the most abject wretchedness, instructing their chil-
dren to read a m3'sterious book, which they in their turn
will tench their oflispring to read. What they did five
thousand 3'ears ago, these people still continue to do. Se-
venteen times have they witnessed the destruction of Je-
rusalem, yet nothing can discourage them, nothing can
prevent them from turning their faces towards Zion. To
see the Jews scattered ^ver the whole world, according to
the word of God, must doubtless excite surprise. But to
be struck with supernatural astonishment, you must view
them at Jerusalem ; you must behold these rightful mas-
ters of Judea living as slaves and strangers in their own
country ; you must behold them expecting, under all op-
pressions, a king who is to deliver them. Crushed by the
cross that condemns theni, skulking near the temple, of
which not one stone is left upon another, they continue in
their deplorable infatuation. The Persians, the Greeks,
the Romans, are swept from the earth ; and a petty tribe,
whose origin preceded that of those great natit)ns. still
exists unmixed among the ruins of its native land."
To the same effect are the remarks of Dr. Richardson :
" The heart of this wonderful people, in whatever clime
they roam, still torns to it as the city of their promised
rest. They take pleasure in her ruins, and would kiss the
very dust for her sake. Jesusalem is the centre around
which the exiled sons of Judah build, in imagination, the
mansions of their future greatness. In whatever part of
the world he may live, the heart's desire of a Jew is to be
buried in Jerusalem. Thither they return from Spain
and Portugal, from Egypt and Barbary. and other coun-
tries among M'hich they have been scattered : and when,
after all their longings, and all their struggles up the
steeps of life, we see them poor, and blind, and naked, in
the streets of their once happy Zion, he must have a cold
heart that can remain untouched by their sufferings, with-
out uttermg a prayer that God would have mercy on the
da,rkness of Judah ; and that the day-star of Bethlehem
might arise in their hearts."
" Jerusalem," remarks Sir Frederic Henniker, '■ is call-
ed e^veij by Mohammedans, the Blessed City, (El Gootz,
El Rnudes.) The streets of it, liowever, are narrow and de-
serted, the houses dirty and ragged, the shops few and
forsaken ; and tnroughout the whole there is not one symp-
tom of either commerce, comfort, or happiness. The best
view of It IS from the mount of Olives : it commands the
exact shape and nearly every particular ; namely the
church of the holy sepulchre, the Armenian convent the
mosque of Omar, St. Stephen's gale, the round-topped
houses, and the barren vacancies of the city. Without
the walls are a Turkish burial-ground, the tomb of Da-
vid, a small grove near the tombs of the kings, and all
the rest is a surface of rock, on which are a few number-
ed trees."
The Jerusalem of sacred history is, in fact, no more.
Not a vestige remains of the capital of David and Solo-
mon ; not a monument of Jewish times is standing. The
very course of the walls is changed, and the boundaries
of the ancient city are become doubtful. (See Calvary.}
" A few gardens," says Dr. Richardson, " still remain on
the sloping base of mount Zion, watered from the pool of
Siloam ; the gardens of Gelhsemane are still in a sort of
ruined cultivation ; the fences are broken down, and the
olive-trees decaying, as if the hand that dressed and fed
them were withdrawn ; the mount of Olives still retains a
languishing verdure, and nourishes a few of those trees
from which it derives its name ; but all round about Jeru-
salem the general aspect is blighted and barren ; the grass
is withered ; the bare rock look's through the scanty
sward ; and the grain itself, like the staring progeny of
famine, seems in doubt whether to come to maturity, or
die in the ear. The vine that was brought from Egypt is
cut off from the midst of the land; the vineyards are
wasted ; the hedges are taken away ; and the graves of
the ancient dead are open and tenantless."
3. On the accomplishment of prophecy in the condition
in which this celebrated city has lain for ages, Keith well
remarks : — It formed the theme of prophecy from the
death-bed of Jacob ; and, as the seat of the government
of the children of Judah, the sceptre departed not from it
till the Messiah appeared, on the expiration of seventeen
hundred years after the death of the patriarch, and till the
period of its desolation, prophesied of by Daniel, had ar-
rived. It was to be trodden dowr of the Gentiles, till the
time of the Gentiles should be '"alfilled. The time of the
Gentiles is not yet fulfilled, a-id Jerusalem is still trodden
down of the Gentiles. The Jews have often attempted to
recover it : no distance oi space or of time can separate
it from their affections ■ they perform their devotions with
their faces towards it, as if it were the object of their wor-
ship as well as of their love ; and, although their desire
to return be so strong, indelible, and innate, that every
Jew, in every generation, counts himself an exile, yet
they have never been able to rebuild their temple, nor to
recover Jerusalem from the hands of the Gentiles.
But greater power than that of a proscribed and exiled
race has been added to their own, in attempting to frus-'
trate the counsel that professed to be of God. Julian, the
emperor of the Romans, not only permitted but invited
the Jews to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple ; and
promised to re-establish them in their paternal city. By
that single act, more than by all his writings, he might
have destroyed the credibility of the gospel, and restored
his beloved but deserted paganism. The zeal of the Jews
was equal to his own ; and the work was begun by lay-
ing again the foundations of the temple. It was never
accomplished, and the prophecy stands fulfilled. But even
if the attempt »f Julian had never been made, the truth
of the prophecy itself is unassailable. The Jews have
never been reinstated in Judea. Jerusalem has ever
been trodden down of the Gentiles. The edict of Adrian
was renewed by the successors of Julian ; and no Jews
could approach unto Jerusalem but by bribery or by stealth.
It was a spot unlawful for them to touch. In the cru-
sades, all the power of Europe was employed to rescue
Jerusalem from the heathens, but equally in vain. It has
been trodden down for nearly eighteen centuries by its
successive masters ; by Romans, Grecians, Persians, Sara-
cens, Mamelukes, 'Turks, Christians, and again by the
worst of rulers, the Arabs and the Turks.
And could any thing be more improbable to have hap-
pened, or more impossible to have been foreseen by man,
than that any people should be banished from their own
capital and country, and remain expelled and expatriated
for nearly eighteen hundred years ? Did the same fate
ever befall any nation, though no prophecy existed respect-
ing it ? Is there any doctrine in Scripture so hard to be
believed as was this single fact at the period of its predic-
tion ? And even with the example of the Jews before us,
is it likely, or is it credible, or who can foretel, that the
present inhabitants of any country upon earth shall be
banished into all nations, retain their distinctive charac-
ter, meet with an unparalleled fate, continue a people,
without a government and without a country, and remain
JE S
L 683 ]
JE S
for an indefinite period, exceeding seventeen hundred
years, till the fulfilment of a prescribed event which has
yet to be accomplished ? Must not the knowledge of such
truths be derived from that prescience alone which scans
alike the will and the ways of mortals, the actions of fu-
ture nations, and the history of the latest generations?
•^Hend. Buck-; WaUf»i.
JERUSALEM, The New. The city of Jerusalem, like
Gehenna, Paradise, &c., furnishes a metaphorical appli-
cation of its name, in an exaltedand spiritual sense. The
first hint of this in the New Testament, occurs in Gal. 4:
25, where the apostle refers to the formation of the He-
brew nation into a church state, by the giving of the law
from Sinai ; under which terrific and slavish dispensa-
!ion, the "Jerusalem that now is," he says, "continues;
bnt the Jerusalem above is free, which is the mother of
as all," believing Gentiles as well as Jews; {perhaps ;)(j;i-
tbn vietZr^ the Universal Mother.)
The name seems to denote the formation of all man-
kind, as it were, (not of a single nation,) into the church
of God, beginning at Jerusalem ; though properly origi-
Ealing in heaven, the seat of the celestial Jerusalem, the
mansion of complete and uninterrupted tranquiUity.
The metaphor is resumed and enlarged by the writer of
the Revelation ; who describes a new Jejusakm, after
the destruction of the former city by Titus : (Rev. 3: 12.)
■" The city of my God, the new Jerusalem, which cometh
down out of heaven, from my God." Also, (ch. 21.) "And
I saw a new heaven, and a new earth : for the first hea-
ven and the first earth were passed away ; and I saw the
holy city, new Jerusalem," ver. 1. This he describes at
large, (ver. 10, et seq.) in a strain of Oriental metaphor,
that can only agree to the celestial state ; similar allu-
sions to certain parts of its decorations are found, Isa.
54: 11.
This celestial city, called the holy city, and the great
city, had no temple, nor other peculiarities of the Jewish
service; and the whole description of it, the dimensions,
■the parts, and the properties of it, are magnificent in the
highest degree. The new Jerusalem on earth should be
•carefully distinguislied from the new Jerusalem in heaven,
in explaining this book. — Calmei.
JESHIMON ; probably the same as Hesmona, Ase-
inona, Esera, Esemon, and Esemona ; a city in the wil-
derness of Maon, belonging to Simeon ; in the south of
Palestine, or Arabia Petrasa, 1 Sam. 23: 24. — Calmet.
JESHURUN; a name given to the collective political
body of Israelites. Some derive the word from jeshar, just,
or righteous, and so make it to signify, that though, in
general, and on the whole, they were a righteous people,
yet they were not without great faults. Cocceius, how-
ever, derives the word from shur, which signifies to see, be-
Jiold, or discover ; from whence, in the future tense, plural,
comes jeshru, which, with the addition of nun paragogi-
cum, makes Jeshurun ; that is, " the people who had the
vision of God." This makes the name of Jeshurun to be
properly applied to Israel, not only when Moses is called
their king, but when they are upbraided with their rebel-
iion against God ; since the peculiar manifestation which
God had made of himself to them, was a great aggrava-
tion of their ingratitude and rebeUion. — Watsoiu
JESSE. (See David, and Rdti.)
JESUITS, or the Society of J(sus, one of the most
celebrated monastic orders of the Romish church, was
founded in the year 1540, by Ignatius Loyola. (See lo-
NATifs Loyola.) He produced a flan of its constitution
, and laws, which he affirmed to have been suggested by
the immediate inspiration of heav.m, and applied to the
Roman pontiff^ Paul III., for the sanction of his authority
to confirm the institution. At a time when the papal au-
thority had received so severe a shock from the progress
■of the Reformation, and was still exposed to the most
powerful attacks in every quarter, this was an oflTer too
tempting to be resisted. The reigning pontift", though
naturally cautious, and though scarcely capable, without
the spirit of prophecy, of foreseeing all the advantages to
be derived from the services of this nascent order, yet
clearly perceiving the benefit of multiplying the number
of his devoted servants, instantly confirmed by his btiU
the institution of the Jesuits, granted the most ample
privileges to the members of the society, and appointed
Loyola to be the first general of the order.
The recent revival of this subde and dangerous order,
together with its mdely diffused and increasing influence
in the United States, makes it desirable to give as full a
view of its character and history, as our work will admit.
It was, indeed, a fundamental maxim with the Jesuits,
from their first institution, not to publish the rules of their
order : these they kept concealed as an impenetrable mys-
tery. They never communicated them to strangers, nor
even to the greater part of their owit members ; they re-
fused to produce them when required by courts of jus-
tice ; and by a strange solecism in policy, the civil power
in different countries authorized or connived at the esta-
blishment of an order of men, whose constitution and
laws were concealed with a solicitude which alone Has a
good rea.son for having excluded them. Duringthe prose-
cutions, however, which have been carried on against
them in Portugal and France, the Jesuits have been so
inconsiderate as to produce the mysterious volumes of
their institute, the Monita Secrtta, copious extracts from
which may be seen in the British Review for 1815. By
the aid of these authentic records, the principles of iheir
government may be delineated, and the sources of their
power investigated, with a degree of certainty and pre-
cision which, previous to that event, it was impossible to
attain.
1. Constitution of the Order. — The simple and primary
object of the society, says a writer in the Edinburgh En-
cyclopcedia, was to establish a spiritual dominion over the
minds of men, of which the pope should appear as the
ostensible head, while the real power should reside with
themselves. To accomplish this object, the whole consti-
tution and policy of the order were singularly adapted,
and exhibited various peculiarities -which distinguished it
from all other ntonastic orders. The immediate design
af every other religious society was to separate its mem-
bers from the world; that of the Jesuits, to render them
masters of the world. The inmate of the convent devoted
liiraself to work out his own salvation by extraordinary
acts of devotion and self-denial ; the follower of Loyola
considered himself as plunging into all the bustle of secu-
lar affairs, to maintain the inf^erests of the Romish church.
The monk was a retired devotee of heaven ; the Jesuit a
chosen soldier of the pope. That the members of the
new order might have full leisure for this active service,
they were exempted from the usual functions of other
monks. They were not required to spend their time in
the long ceremonial offices and numberless murameriea
of the Romish worship. They attended no processions,
and practised no austerities. They neither chanted not
prayed. " They cannot sing," said their enemies; "fw
birds of prey never do." They were sent forth to watch
every transaction of the world which might appear te
affect the interests of religion, and were especially enjoin
ed to study the dispositions and cultivate the friendshij
of persons in the higher ranks. Nothing could be ima
gined more open and literal than the external aspect of the
institution, yet nothing could be more strict and secret
than its internal organization. Loyola, influenced, per
haps, by the notions of implicit obedience which he had
derived from his military profession, resolved that the
government of the Jesuits should be absolutely monarchi-
cal. A general, chosen for life by deputies from the seve-
ral provinces, possessed supreme and independent power,
extending to every person, and applying to every case.
Every member of the order, the instant that he entered
its pale, surrendered all freedom of thought and action :
and every personal feeling was superseded by the interests
of that body to which he had attached himself. He went
wherever he was ordered ; he performed whatever he was
commanded; he suflered whatever he was enjoined; he
became a mere passive instrument, incapable of resistance.
The gradation of ranks was only a gradation in slavery;
and so perfect a despotism over a large body of men, dis-
persed over the face of the earth, was never before realized-
2. PoUcif of the Order. — The maxims of policy adopted
by this celebrated society were, like its constitution, re-
markable for their union of laxity and ri?;or. Nothing
could divert them from their original object; and no
JE S
[ 684
JES
means were ever scrupled which promised to aid its ac-
compUshment. They were in no degree shackled by preju-
dice, superstition, or real religion. Expediency, in its
most simple and licentious form, was the basis of their
morals, and their principles and practices were uniformly
accommodated to the circumstances in which they were
placed ; and even their bigotry, obdurate as it was, never
appears to have interfered wil;h their interests. The para-
mount and chai-acteristic principle of the order, from
which none of its members ever swerved, was simply
this, that its interests were to be promoted by all possible
means, at all possible expense. In order to acquire more
easily an ascendency over persons of rank and power,
they propagated a system of the most relaxed morality,
which accommodated itself to the passions of men, justi-
fied their vices, tolerated their imperfections, and author-
ized almost every action which the most audacious or
crafty politician would wish to perpetrate. To persons of
stricter principles they studied to recommend themselves
by the purity of their lives, and sometimes by the aus-
terity of their doctrines. While sufficiently compliant in
the treatment of immoral practices, they were generally
rigidly severe in exacting a strict orthodo.xy in opinions.
" They are a sort of people," said the abbe Boileau,
"wlio lengthen the creed and shorten the decalogue."
They adopted the same spirit of accommodation in their
missionary undertakings ; and their Christianity, chame-
leon-like, readily assumed the color of every religion
where it happened to be introduced. They freely pennit-
ted their converts to retain a full proportion of the old .su-
perstitions, and suppressed, without hesitation, any point
in the new faith which was likely to bear hard on their
prejudices or propensities. They proceeded to still great-
er lengths ; and, besides suppressing the truths of reve-
lation, devised the most absurd falselioods, to be used for
attracting disciples, or even to be taught as parts of Chris-
tianity. One of them in India produced a pedigree to
prove his own descent from Brama ; and another in Ame-
rica assured a native chief that Christ had been a valiant
and victorious warrior, who, in the space of three years,
had scalped an incredible number of men, women, and
children. It was, in fact, their own authority, not the au-
thority of true religion, which they wished to establish ;
and Christianity was generally as little known, when they
quitted the foreign scenes of their labors, as when they en-
tered them.
3. Progress of the Order. — These detestable objects and
principles, however, were long an impenetrable secret :
and the professed intention of the new order was to pro-
mote, with unequalled and unfettered zeal, the salvation
of mankind. Its progress, nevertheless, was at first re-
markably slow. Charles V., who is supposed, with his
usual sagacity, to have discerned its dangerous tendency,
rather checked than encouraged its advancement ; and
the universities of France resisted its introduction into
that kingdom. Thus, roused by obstacles, and obliged to
find resources within themselves, the Jesuits brought all
their talents and devices into action. They applied them-
selves to every useful function and curious art ; and nei-
ther neglected nor despised any mode, however humble,
of gaining employment or reputation. The satirist's de-
scription of the Greeks in Rome has been aptly chosen to
describe their indefatigable and universal industry :—
Grammalicus, rhetor, geometres, pictor, aiiptes, [^
Augur, schcBnobates, medicies, magus ; omnia novW
Grteculus. Juvenal, lib. iii. 76.
" A Protean tribe, one tcnows not what to call.
Which shirta to every form, and shines in all :
Grammarian, painter, augur, rhetorician,
Rope-dancer, conjuror, fiddler, and physician, —
All trades his own, your hungry Greekling counts."
GlFFOHD.
They labored with the greatest assiduity to qualify them-
selves as the instructers of youth ; and succeeded, at
length, in supplanting their opponents in every Catholic
kingdom. They aimed, in the next place, to become the
spiritual directors of the higher ranks ; and soon esta-
blished themselves in most of the courts which were at-
tached lo the papal faith, not only as the confessors, but
frequently also as the guides and ministers, of superstitious
princes. The governors of the society, pursuing one uni-
form system, with unwearied perseverance, became en»
tirely successful ; and, in the space of half a century, had
in a wonderful degree extended the reputation, the num*
ber, and influence of the order. When Loyola, in 1540,
petitioned the pope to authorize the institution of the Je'
suits, he had only ten di,sciples ; but in 1608 the number
amounted to ten thousand five hundred andeighty-one. Be"
fore the expiration of the sixteenth century, they had ob-
tained the chief direction of the education of youth in
every Catholic country in Europe, and had become the
confessors of almost all its noblest monarchs. In spite
of their vow of poverty, their wealth increased with their
power ; and they soon rivalled, in the extent and value
of their possessions, the most opulent monastic fraterni-
ties. About the beginning of the seventeenth century,
they obtained from the court of Madrid the grant of the
large and fertile province of Paraguay, which stretches
across the southern continent of America, from the moun-
tains of Potosi to the banks of the river La Plata ; and,
after every deduction which can reasonably be made from
their own accounts of their establishment, enough will
remain to excite the astonishment and applause of man-
kind. They found the inhabitants in the first stage of so-
ciety, ignorant of the arts of life, and nnacquainted with
the first principles of subordination. They applied them-
selves to instruct and civilize these savage tribes. They
commenced their labors by collecting about fifty families
of wandeiing Indians, whom they converted and settled
in a small township. They taught them to build houses,
to cultivate the ground, and to rear tame animals ; train-
ed them to arts and manufactures, and brought them to
relish the blessings of security and order. By a wise and
humane policy, they gradually attracted new subjects and
converts ; till at last they formed a powerful and well-or-
ganized state of three hundred thousand families.
But even in this meritorious effort of the Jesuits for the
good of mankind, the genius and spirit of their order was
discernible : they plainly aimed at establishing in Pa-
raguay an independent empire, subject to the society
alone, and which, by the superior excellence of its consti-
tution and police, could scarcely have failed to extend its
dominion over all the southern continent of America.
With this view, in order to prevent the Spaniards or Por-
tuguese in the adjacent settlements from acquiring any
dangerous influence over the people within the limits of
the province subject to the society, the Jesuits endeavorect
to inspire the Indians with hatred and contempt of these
nations ; they cut off' all intercourse between their sub-
jects and the Spanish or Portuguese settlements. Whea
they were obliged to admit any person in a public charac-
ter from the neighboring govermnents, they did not per-
mit him to have any conversation with their subjects ;
and no Indian was allowed even to enter the hou.se where
these strangers resided, unless in the presence of a Jesuit.
In order to render any communication between them as
difficult as possible, they industriously avoided giving the
Indians any knowledge of the Spanish, or of any other
European language ; but encouraged the difl^erent tribes
which they had civilized to acquire a certain dialect of
the Indian tongue, and labored to make that the universal
language throughout their dominions. As all these pre-
cautions, without military force, would have been insuf-
ficient to have rendered their empire secure and perma-
nent, they instructed their subjects in the European art of
war, and formed them into bodies completely armed and
well disciplined.
Even Henry IV., either dreading their power, or pleased
Avith the exculpation of his licentious habits, which he
found in their flexible system of morality, became their
patron, and selected one of their number as his confessor.
They were favored by Louis XIII. and his minister Riche-
lieu, on account of their literary exertions ; but it was in
the succeeding reign of I,onis XIV., that they reached the
summit of their prosperity. The fathers La Chaise and
Le Teltier were successively confessors to the king; and
did not fail to employ their influence for the interest of
their order : but the latter carried on his projects with so
blind and fiery a zeal, that one of the Jesuits is reported
to have said of him, " He drives at such a rate, that he
will overturn us all." The Jansenists.jpere peculiarly the
JES
[ 6S5
JES
objecls of his machinations, and he rested not till he had
accomplished the destruction of their celebrated college
and convent at Port Royal.
4. Gradual overt firmv of the Order. — Before the fall, how-
ever, of the Port Royal seminary, a shaft from its bow
had reached the heart of its proud oppressor. The " Pro-
vincial Letters of Pascal" had been published, in wliich
the quibbling morality and uninteUigible metaphysics of
(he Jesuits vere e-xposed in a strain of inimitable humor,
and a style of unrivalled elegance. The impression which
I'uey produced was wide and deep, and gradually sapped
Ihe foundation of public opinion, on which the power of
the order had hitherto rested. Voltaire afterwards directed
against the.m all the powers of his ridicule, and finished
the piece which Pascal had sketched. Their power was
l>rought to a very low ebb, when the war of 175(5 broke
out, which occasioned the famous lawsuit that led to their
final overthrow.
In the mean time, the king of Portugal was assas-
sinated ; and Carvalho, the minister, who detested the
Jesuits, found means to load them with the odium of the
crime. Malagrida, and a few more of these fathers, were
charged with advising and absolving the assassins ; and,
having been found guilty, were condemned to the stake.
The rest were banished with every brand of infamy, and
even treated with the most iniquitous cruelty. On the
sixth of August, 17(52, their institute was condemned by
the parliament of France, as contrary to the laws of the
state, to the obedience due to the sovereign, and to the
welfare of the kingdom. The order was dissolved, and
their effects alienated. But in certain quarters, where the
provincial parliaments had not decided against them, Je-
suits still subsisted ; and a royal edict was afterwards
promulgated, which formally abolished the society in
France, but permitted its members to reside within the
kingdom under certain restrictions.
In Spain, where they conceived their establishment to
be jjerfectly secure, they experienced an overthrow equally
complete, and much more miexpected. At midnight,
JMarch 31, 1767, large bodies of military surrounded the
six colleges of the Jesuits in Madrid, forced the gates, se-
cured the bells, collected the fathers in the refectory, and
read to them the king's order for their instant transporta-
tion. They were immediately put into carriages previously
placed at proper stations ; and were on their way to Car-
thagena before the inhabitants of the city had any intelli-
gence of the transaction. Three days afterwards, the
same measures were adopted with regard to every other
college of the order in the kingdom ; and, ships having
been provided at the different sea-ports, they were all em-
barked for the ecclesia.stical states in Italy. All their pro-
perty was confiscated, and a small pension assigned to
each individual as long as he should reside in a place ap-
pointed, and satisfy the Spanish court as to his peaceable
demeanor. All correspondence with the Jesuits was pro-
hibited, and the strictest silence on the subject of their
expulsion was enjoined under penalties of high treason.
A similar .seizure and deportation took place in the Indies,
and an immense property was acquired by the govern-
ment. The example of the king of Spain was immediately
followed by Ferdinand VI., of Naples, and soon after by
the prince of Parma. They had been expelled from Eng-
land in 1(501; from Venice in 1606; and from Portugal
in 1759, upon the charge of having instigated the famUies
of Tavora and D'Aveiro to assassinate king Joseph I.
Frederic the Great, of Prussia, was the only monarch who
ehowed a disposition to aflbrd them protection ; but in
1773 the order was entirely suppressed by pope Clement
XIV., who is supposed afterwards to have fallen a victim
to their vengeance.
5. Recent revival of the Order. — In 1801 the society was
restored in Russia by the emperor Paul ; and in 1804, by
king Ferdinand, in Sardinia. In August, 1814, a bull was
' issued by pope Pius VII., restoring the order to all their
former privileges, and calling upon all Catholic princes to
afford them protection and encouragement. This act of
their revival is expressed in all the solemnity of papal au-
thority ; and even affirmed to be above the recall or revi-
sion of any judge, with whatever power he may be clothed ;
but to every enlightened mind it cannot fail to appear as
a measure altogether incapable of justification, from any
thing either in Ihe hi.story of Jesuitism, or in the character
of the present limes.
6. Incidental benefits of the Order It would be in vain
to deny that many considerable advantages were derived
by mankind from the labors of the Jesuits. Their ardor
in the study of ancient literature, and their labors in the
instruction of youth, greatly contributed to the progress of
polite learning. They have produced a greater number
of ingenious authors than all the other reUgious fraterni-
ties taken together ; and though there never was known
among their order one person who could be said to
possess an enlarged philosophical mind, they can boast of
many eminent masters in the separate branches of science,
many distinguished mathematicians, antiquarians, critics,
and even some orators of high reputation. They were ia
general, also, as individuals, superior in decency, and
even purity of manners, to any other class of regular
clergy in the church of Rome. But all these benefits
by no means counterbalanced the pernicious effects of
their influence and intrigues on the best interests of so-
ciety.
7. Essential Evils of the Order. — The essential principles
of the institution, namely, that their order is to be main-
tained at the expense of society at large, and that the
end sanctifies the means, are utterly incompatible with the
welfare of any community of men. Their system of lax
and pliant morality, justifying every vice, and authorizing
every atrocity, has left deep and lasting ravages on the
face of the moral world. Their zeal to extend the juris-
diction of the court of Rome over every civil government,
gave currency to tenets respecting the duty of opposing
princes who were hostile to the Catholic faith, which shook
the basis of all political allegiance, and loosened the obli-
gations of every human law. Their indefatigable indus-
try, and countless artifices in resisting the progress of the
reformed religion, perpetuated the most pernicious errors
of popery, and postponeil the triumph of tolerant and
Christian principles. Whence, then, it may well be asked,
whence the recent restoration ? What long-latent proof?
has been discovered of the excellence, or even the expedi-
ence, of such an institution ? The sentence of their aboli-
tion was passed by the senates, and monarchs, and states-
men, and divines, of all religions, and of altnost every
civilized country in the world. Almost every land has
been stained and torn by their crimes ; and almost every
land bears on its public records the most solemn protests
against their existence. The evils of Jesuitism arise not
from the violation of the principles of the order ; on the
contrary, they are the natural and necessary fruits of the
system; they are confined to no age, place, or person;
they follow, like the tail of the comet, the same disastrous
course with the luminary itself; and, in consequence, not
this or that nation, but humanity, is startled at the re-ap-
pearance of this common enemy of man.
The number of Jesuits at present in Europe and
America amounts to several thousand. Their general
resides at Rome. In Italy, including Sicily, there are
seven hundred, who possess eighteen colleges for the in-
struction of youth. The number in France is not exactly
known. The society, it has been said, is a swoid, of
which the hilt is at Rome ! But if the hilt be there, the
blade is everywhere, and that with so fine an edge as to
make itself felt before it can be seen. Edin. Brit. Enc.
and Enc. Am. ; Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. ; Harleian Misc., vol.
V. p. 566; Broiighton's Vict.; Pascal's Provincial Letters,
Am. ed.; Works of Robert Hall ; Nem York Evangelist, for
1831; British Review. — Watson; Hend. Buck.
JESUS CHRIST; the Son of God, the Messiah, and Sa-
vior of the world ; the first and principal object of the pro-
phecies ; prefigured and promised in the Old Testament;
expected and desired by the patriarchs ; the hope of the
Gentiles ; the glory, salvation, and consolation of Chris-
tians. The name Jesus, or, as the Hebrews pronounce
it, Jehoshua, or Joshua, signifies, he rvho shall save. No one
ever bore this name with so much justice, nor so perfectly
fulfilled the signification of it, as Jesus Christ, who saves
even from sin and hell, and hath merited heaven for us by
the price of his blood. It is not necessary here to narrate
the history of our Savior's life, which can nowhere bg
JES
[ 686 J
JES
read with advantage except in the writings of the four
evangelists ; but there are several general views which re-
quire to be noticed under this article.
I. Jesus of Nazareth was the Christ or Messiah pro-
mised under the Old Testament. That he professed him-
self to be that Messiah to whom all the prophets gave
witness, and who was, in fact, at the time of his appear-
ing, expected by the Jews ; and that he was received un-
der that character by his disciples, and by all Christians
ever since, is certain. And if the Old Testament Scrip-
tures afford sufficiently definite marks by which the long-
announced Christ should be infallibly known at his advent,
and these presignations are fotmd realized in our Lord,
then is the truth of his pretensions established. From the
books of the Old Testament we learn that the Messiah
was to authenticate his claim by mfVnc/es; and in those
predictions respecting him, so many circumstances are re-
corded, that they could meet only in one person ; and so,
if they are accomplished in him, they leave no room for
doubt, as far as the evidence of prophecy is deemed con-
elusive. As to Miracles, we refer to that article ; here
only observing, that if the miraculous works wrought by
Christ were really done, Ihey prove his mission, because,
from their nature, and having been wrought to confirm
his claim to be the Messiah, they necessarily imply a di-
vine attestation. With respect to Prophecy, the principles
under which its evidence must be regarded as conclusive
will be given under that head ; and here therefore it will
only be necessary to showithe completion of the prophe-
cies of the sacred books of the Jews relative to the Mes-
siah in one person, and that person the Founder of the
Christian religion.
The time of the Messiah's appearance in the world, as
predicted in the Old Testament, is defined, says Keith, by
a number of concurring, circumstances, which fix it to the
very date of the advent of Christ, Gen. 49; 10. Mai. 3: 1.
Hag. 2: 7. Dan. 9: 24, 25. Isa>. 40: 3—11. The plainest
inference may be drawn from these prophecies. All of
them, while, in every respect, they presuppose the most
perfect knowledge of futurity ; while they were unques-
tionably delivered and publicly known for ages previous
to the lime to which they referred ; and while they refer
to diflerent contingent and unconnected events, utterly un-
determinable and inconceivable by all human sagacity ;
accord in perfect unison to a single precise period where
all their diflerent lines terminate at once, — the very fulness
of time when Jesus appeared. A king then reigned over
the Jews in their own land ; they were governed by their
own laws ; and the council of their nation exercised its
authority and power. Before that period, the other tribes
were extinct or dispersed among the nations. Judah
alone remained, and the last sceptre in Israel had not then
departed from it. Every stone of the temple was then
unmoved ; it was the admiration of the Romans, and
might have stood for ages. But in a short space, all these
concurring testimonies to the time of the advent of the
Messiah passed away. During the very year, the twelfth
of his age, in which Christ first publicly appeared in the
temple, Archelaus the king was dethroned and banished ;
Coponius was appointed procurator ; and the kingdom of
Judea, the last remnant of the greatness of Israel, was
debased inlo a part of the province of Syria. The scep-
tre was smmen from the tribe of Judah ; the crown fell
from their heads ; their glory departed ; and, soon after
the death of Christ, of their temple one stone was not left
upon another; their commonwealth itself became as com-
plete a ruin, and was broken in pieces ; and they have
ever since been scattered throughout the world, a name
but not a nation. After the lapse of neariy four hundred
3'ears posterior to the time of Malachi, another prophet
appeared who was the herald of the Messiah. And the
testimony of Josephus confirms iVie account given in
Scripture of John the Baptist. Every mark that denoted
the time of the coming of the Messiah was erased soon
after the crucifixion of Christ, and could never afterwards
be renewed. And with respect J;o the prophecies of Da-
niel, it is remarkable, at this remote period, how llule dis-
crepancy of opinion has existed among the most learned
men, as to the space from the time of the passing out of
the edict to rebuild Jerusalem, after the Babvlonish cao-
tivity, to the commencement of the Christian era, and the
subsequent events foretold in the prophecy.
The predictions contained in the Old Testament respect-
ing both the family out of which the Messiah was to arise,
and the place of his birth, are almost as circumstantial,
and are equally applicable to Christ, as those which refer
to the time of his appearance. He was to be an Israelite,
of the tribe of Judah, of the family of David, and of the
town of Bethlehem. That all these predictions were ful-
filled in Jesus Christ ; that he was of that country, tribe,
and family, of the house and lineage of David, and born
in Bethlehem, we have the fullest evidence in the testimo-
ny of all the evangelists ; in two distinct accounts of the
genealogies, by natural and legal succession, which, ac-
cording to the custom of the Jews, were carefully pre-
served ; in the acquiescence of the enemies of Christ in
the truth of the fact, against which there is not a single
surmise in history ; and in the appeal made by some of
the earliest Christian writers to the unquestionable testi-
mony of the records of the census, taken at the very time
of our Savior's birth by order of Caesar. Here, indeed,
it is impossible not to be struck with the exact fulfilment
of prophecies which are apparently contradictory and ir-
reconcilable, and with the manner in which they were
providentially accomplished. The spot of Christ's nativi-
ty was distant from the place of the abode of his parents,
and the region in which he began his ministry was remote
from the place of his birth ; and another prophecy respect-
ing him was in this manner verified : " In the land of Ze-
bulun and Naphtali, by the way of the sea beyond Jordan,
in Galilee of the nations, the people that walked in dark-
ness have seen a great light ; they that dwell in the land
of the shadow of death, upon them hath the light shined,"
Isaiah 9: 1, 2. Matt. 4: 16. Thus, the time at which the
predicted Messiah was to appear ; the nation, the tribe,
and the family from which he was to be descended ; and
the place of his birth, — no populous city, but of itself an
inconsiderable place, — were all clearly foretold ; and as
clearly refer to Jesus Christ ; and all meet their comple-
tion in him.
But the facts of his life, and the features of his charac-
ter, are also drawn with a precision that cannot be misun-
derstood. The obscurity, the meanness, and the poverty
of his external condition are represented, Isa. 53: 2. 49: 7.
His riding in humble triumph into Jerusalem; his be-
ing betrayed for thirty pieces of silver, and scourged, and
buffeted, and spit upon ; the piercing of his hands and of
his feet ; the last offered draught of vinegar and gall ; the
parting of his raiment, and casting lots upon his vesture ;
the manner of his death and of his burial, and his rising
again without seeing corruption, were all expressly pre-
dicted, and all these predictions were literally fulfilled,
Zech.'9:9. 11:12. Isaiah 1: 6. Psalm 22: 10. 69:21.
22: 18. Isaiah 53: 9. Psalm 16: 10. If all these prophe-
cies admit of any application to the events of the life of
any individual, it can only be to that of the Author of
Christianity. And what other religion can produce a sin-
gle fact which was actually foretold of its founder ?
The death of Christ was as unparalleled as his life ; and
the prophecies are as minutely descriptive of his sufl^er-
ings as of his virtues. Not only did the paschal lamb,
which was to be killed every year in all the families of
Israel, which was to be taken out of the flock, to be with-
out blemish, to be eaten with bitter herbs, to have its
blood sprinkled, and to be kept whole that not a bone of
it should be broken ; not only did the offering up of Isaac, '
and the lifting up of the brazen serpent in the wilderness,
by looking upon which the people were healed, and many
ritual observances of the Jews, prefigure the manner of
Christ's death, and the sacrifice which was to be made for
sin ; but many express declarations abound in the prophe-
cies, that Christ was indeed to suffer. But Isaiah, who
describes, with eloquence worthy of a prophet, the glories
of the kingdom that was to come, characterizes, with the
accuracy of an historian, the humiliation, the trials, and
the agonies which were to precede the triumphs of the
Redeemer of a world ; and the history of Christ forms, to
the very letter, the commentary and the completion of his
every prediction. In a single passage, (Isaiah 52: 13,
Ace. 53.1 the connexion of which is uninterrupted, its
JE S
[687 1
JES
fintiquity indisputable, and its application obvious, the
sufferings of the servant of God (who, under that same
denomination, is previously described as he who was to
be the light of the Gentiles, the salvation of God to the
ends of the earth, and the elect of God in whom his soul
delighted, Isaiah 42: 10. 49: 6.) are so minutely foretold,
that no illustration is requisite to show that they testify of
Jesus. The whole of this prophecy thus refers to the
Messiah. It describes both his debasement and his digni-
ty ; his rejection by the Jews ; his humility, his affliction,
and his agony ; his magnanimity and his charity ; how
his words were disbelieved ; how his state was lowly ;
how his sorrow was severe ; how he opened not his mouth
but to make intercession for the transgressors. In diame-
trical opposition to every dispensation of Providence which
is registered in the records of the Jews, it represents spot-
less innocence suffering by the appointment of Heaven ;
death as the issue of perfect obedience ; God's righteous
servant as forsaken of him ; and one who was perfectly
immaculate bearing the chastisement of many guilty;
sprinkling many nations from their iniquity, by virtue of
his sacrifice ; justifying many by his knowledge ; and di-
viding a portion with the great and the spoil with the
strong, because he hath poured out his soul in death.
This, prophecy, therefore, simply as a prediction prior to
the event, renders the very unbelief of the Jews an evi-
dence against them, converts the scandal of the cross into
an argument in favor of Christianity, and presents us with
an epitome of the truth, a miniature of the gospel in some
of its most striking features. The simple exposition of it
sufficed at once for the conversion gf the eunuch of Ethio-
pia. To these prophecies may, in fact, be added all those
which relate to his spiritual kingdom, or the circumstances
of the promulgation, the opposition, and the triumphs of
his religion ; the accojuplishment of which equally proves
the divine mission of its Author, and points him out as
that great personage with whom they stand inseparably
connected.
II. But if Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah, in that
character his Deity also is necessarily involved, because
the Messiah is surrounded with attributes of divinity in
the Old Testament ; and our Lord himself as certainly
lays claim to those attributes as to the office of " the
Christ."
The divinity of Jesus Christ seems evident, if we con-
sider, 1. The language of the New Testament, and com-
pare it with the state of the pagan world ai the time of
its publication. If Jesus Christ were not God, the writers
of the New Testament discovered great injudiciousness
in the choice of their words, and adopted a very incautious
and dangerous style. The whole world, except the small
kingdom of Judea, worshipped idols at the time of Jesus
Christ's appearance. Jesus Christ ; the evangelists, who
wrote his history ; and the apostles, who wrote epistles to
various classes of men, proposed to destroy idolatry, and
to establish the worship of one only living and true God.
To effect this purpose, it was absolutely necessary for
these founders of Christianity to avoid confusion and ob-
scurity of language, and to express their ideas in a cool
and cautious style. The least expression that would tend
to deify a creature, or countenance idolatry, would have
b»en a source of the greatest error. Hence Paul and Bar-
nabas rent Iheir clothes at the very idea of the multitude's
confounding the creature with the Creator, Acts 14. The
writers of the New Testament knew that, in speaking of
Jesus Christ, extraordinary caution was necessary ; yet,
when wc take up the New Testament, we find such ex-
pressions as these : " The word was God," John 1: I. "God
was manifest in the flesh," 1 Tim. 3: 16. " God with us,"
Matt. 1: 23. The Jews "crucified the Lord of glory," 1
Cor. 2: 8. " Jesus Christ is Lord of all," Acts 10: 36.
"Christ is over all, God blessed for ever," Rom. 9: 5.
These are a few of many propositions, which the New
Testament writers lay down relative to Jesus Christ. If
the writers intended to affirm the divinity of Jesus Christ,
these are words of truth and soberness ; if not, the lan-
guage is incautious and unwarrantable ; and to address
it to men prone to idolatry, for the purpose of destroying
idolatry, is a strong presumption against their inspiration,
it in remarkable, also, that the richest words in the Greek
language are made use of to describe Jesus Christ. This
language, which is very copious, would have afforded
lower terms to express an inferior nature ; but it could
have afforded none higher to express the nature of the Su-
preme God. It is worthy of observation, too, that these
writers addressed their writings, not to philosophers and
scholars, but to the common people, and consequently
used words in their plain, popular signification. The com-
mon people, it seems, understood the words in our sense
of them; for in the Diocletian persecution, when the Ro-
man soldiers burnt a Phrygian city inhabited by Chris-
tians, men, women, and children submitted to their fate,
"calling upon Christ, the God over all."
2. Compare the style of the New Testament with the
state of the Jews at the time of its publication. In the
time of Josus Christ, the Jews were zealous defenders of
the unity of God, and of that idea of his perfections which
the Scriptures excited. Jesus Christ and his apostles pro-
fessed the highest regard for the Jewish Scriptures; yet
the writers of the New Testament described Jesus Christ
by the very names and titles by which the writers of the
Old Testainent had described the Supreme God. Com-
pare Exod. 3: 14, with John 8: 53. Is. 44: 6, with Rev.
1: 11, 17. Deut. 10: 17, with Rev. 17: 14. Ps. 24: 10, with
1 Cor. 2: 8. Hos. 1: 7, with Luke 2: 11. Dan. 5: 23, with
1 Cor. 15: 47. 1 Chron. 29: 11, with Col. 2: 10. If they
who described Jesus Christ to the Jews by these ' sacred
names and titles intended to convey an idea of his deity,
the description is just and the application safe ; but if they
intended to describe a mere man, they %vere surely of all
men the most preposterous. They chose a method of re-
commending Jesus to the Jews the most likely to alarm
and enrage them. Whatever they meant, the Jews un-
derstood them in our sense, and took Jesus for a blasphe-
mer, John 10: 33.
3. Compare the perfections which are ascribed to Jesus
Christ in the Scriptures, with those which are ascribed to
God. Jesus Christ declares, " All things that the Father
hath are mine ;" (John 16: 15.) a very dangerous proposi-
tion, if he were not God. The writers of revelation as-
cribe to him the same perfections which they ascribe to
God. Compare. Jer. AG: 10, with Is. 9: 6. Exod. 15: 13,
with Heb. 1: 8. Jer. 32: 19, with Is. 9: 6. Ps. 102: 24, 27,
with Heb. 13: 8. Jer. 23: 24, with Eph. 1: 20, 23. 1 Sam.
2: 5, with John 14: 30. If Jesus Christ be God, the as-
cription of the perfections of God to him is proper : if he
be not, the apostles are chargeable with weakness or wick-
edness, and either would destroy their claim to inspiration.
4. Consider the works that are ascribed to Jesus Christ,
- and compare them with the claims of Jehovah. Is crea-
tion a work of God > " By Jesus Christ were all things
created," Col. 1: 16. Is preservation a work of God?
" Jesus Christ upholds all things by the word of his pow-
er," Heb. 1: 3. Is the mission of the prophets a work of
God ? Jesus Christ is the Lord God of the holy prophets ;
and it was the spirit of Christ which testified to them be-
forehand the sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should
follow, Neh. 9: 30. Rev. 22: 6, 16. 1 Pet. 1: 11. Is the
salvation of sinners a work of God > Christ is the SaWor
of all that believe, John 4: 42. Heb. 5: 9. Is the forgive-
ness of sin a work of God ? The Son of man hath power
to forgive sins, Matt. 9: 6. The same might be said of
the illumination of the mind ; the sanctification of the
heart ; the resurrection of the dead ; the judging of the
world ; the glorification of the righteous ; the eternal pu-
nishment of the wicked ; all which works, in one part of
Scripture, are ascribed to God ; and all which, in another
part of Scripture, are ascribed to Jesus Christ. Now, if
Jesus Christ he not Goft, into what contradictions these
writers must fall ! They contradict one another : they
contradict themselves. Either Jesus Christ is God, or their
conduct is unaccountable.
5. Consider that divine worship which the Scriptures
claim for Jesus Christ. It is a command of God, " Thou
Shalt worship the Lord thy God, and him only shalt thou
serve," Matt. 4: 20. Yet the Scriptures command "all
the angels of God to worship Christ," Heb-1: 6. Tn'enty
times, in the New Testament, grace, mercy, and peace,
are implored of Christ, together with the "Father. Bap-
tism is an act of worship performed in his name, Matt.
JES
t 688 J
JES
28: 19. Swearing is an act of worship : a solemn appeal
in important cases to the omniscient God ; and this appeal
is made to Christ, Rom. 9: 1. The committing of the soul
to God at death is a sacred act of worship : in the perform-
ance of this act, Stephen died, saying, Lord Jesus, re-
ceive my spirit, Acts 7: 59. The whole host of heaven
worship him that sitteth upon the throne, and the Lamb
forever and ever, Kev. 5: 13, 14.
6. Observe the application of Old Testament passages
which belong to Jehovah, to Jesus in the New Testament,
and try whether you can acquit the writers of the New Tes-
tament of misrepresentation, on supposition that Jesus is
not God. Paul says, " AVe shall all stand before the judg-
ment-seat of Christ." That we shall all be judged, we al-
low ; but how do you prove that Christ shall be our judge ?
Because, adds the apostle, it is written, " As I live, saith
the liOrd, every knee shall bow to me, and every tongue
shall confess to God," Rom. 14: 10, 11, with Isa. 45: 20,
&:c. What sort of reasoning is this? How does this ap-
ply to Christ, if Christ be not God ? And how dare a man
quote one of the most guarded passages in the Old Testa-
ment for such a purpose ? John the Baptist is he who was
spoken of by the prophet Esaias, saying. Prepare ye the
%vay. Matt. 3: 1, 3. Isaiah saith, Prepare ye the way of
he Lord ; make straight a highway for our God, Isa. 40:
3, &c. But what has John the Baptist to do with all this
description if Jesus Christ be only a messenger of Jeho-
v;ih, and not Jehovah himself? for Isaiah saith. Prepare
ye the way of Jehovah. Compare also Zech. 12: 10, with
John 19: 34, 37. Isa. 6, with John 12: 39. Isa. 8: 13, 14,
-dith 1 Pet. 2: 8. Allow Jesus Christ to be God, and all
hese applications are proper. If we deny it, the New
Testament, we must own, is one of the most unaccounta-
jle compositions in the woiid, calculated to make easy
.hings hard to be understood.
7. Examine whether events have justified that notion
of Christianity which the prophets gave their countrymen
of it, if Jesus Christ be not God. The calUng of the Gen-
tiles from the worship of idols to the worship of the one
living and true God is one event, which, the prophets said,
the coming of the Messiah should bring to pass. If Jesus
Christ be God, the event answers the prophecy ; if not,
the event is not come lo pass, for Christians in general
worship Jesus, which is idolatry, if he be not God, Isa. 2,
3, and 4. Zeph. 1: 11. Zech. 14: 9. The primitive Chris-
tians certainly worshipped him as God. Pliny, who was
appointed governor of the province of Bithynia by the
emperor Trajan, in the year 103, examined and punished
several Christians for their non-conformity to the esta-
blished religion of the empire. In a letter to the emperor,
giving an account of his. conduct, he declares, " they af-
firmed the whole of their guilt, or their error, was, that
they met on a certain staled day, before it was light, and
addressed themselves in a form of prayer to Christ as to
some God." Thus Pliny meant to inform the emperor
that Christians worshipped Christ. Justin Martyr, who liv-
ed about 150 years after Christ, asserts, that the Christians
worshipped the Father, the Son, and the Spirit. Besides
his testimony there are numberless pa.ssage.s in the fathers
that attest the truth in question ; especially in TertuUian,
Hippolitus, Felix, &c. DIahomet, who lived in the sixth
centuiy, considers Christians in the light of infidels and
idolaters throughout the Koran ; and, indeed, had not
Christians worshipped Christ, he could have had no shadow
cf a pretence to reform their religion, and lo bring them
back 10 the worship of one God. That the far greater
part of Christians have continued to worship Jesus will
not be doubted; now if Christ be not God, then the Chris-
tians have been guilty of idolatry ; and if they have been
guilty of idolatry, then it must appear remarkable that
the apostles, who foretold the corruptions of Christianity,
(2 Tim. 3.) should never have foreseen nor warned us
against worshipping Christ. In no. part of the Scripture
is there the least intimation of Christians falling into
idolatry in this respect. Surely if this had been an error
which was to he so universally prevalent, those Scriptures
which are able to make us wise unto salvation, would
have left us warning on so important a topic. Lastly,
consider what numberless passages of Scripture have no
sense, or a very absurd one, if Jesus Christ be a mere man.
See Rom. 1: 3. 1 Tim. 3: 16. John 14; 9. 17: 5. Phil. 2;
6. Ps. 110: 1, 4. 1 Tim. 1: 2. Acts 22: 12, and 9: 17.
III. But though Jesus Christ in his original nature be
divine, yet for our sakes, and for our salvation, he took
upon him human nature ; this is, therefore, called his hu-
manity. Marcion, Apelles, Valentinus, and many other
heretics, denied Christ's humanity, as some have done
since. But that Christ had a true human body, and not a
mere human shape, or a body that was not real flesh, is
very evident from the sacred Scriptures, Isa. 7: 12. Luke
24:'39. Heb. 2: 14. Luke 1: 42. Phil. 2: 7, 8. John 1: 14,
Besides, he ate, drank, slept, walked, worked, and was
weary. He groaned, bled, and died upon the cross. It
was necessary that he should thus be human, in order to
fulfil the divine designs and prophecies respecting the
shedding of his blood for our salvation, which could not
have been done had he not possessed a real body. It isi
also as evident that he assumed our whole nature, soul as
well as body. If he had not, he could not have been ca-
pable of that sore amazement and sorrow unto death, and
all those other acts of grieving, feeling, rejoicing, &c. aS'
cribed to him. It was not, however, our sinful nature he
assumed, but the likeness of it, (Rom. 8: 2.) for he was
without sin, and did no iniquity. His human nature must
not be confounded with his divine ; for though there be an
union of natures in Christ, yet there is not a mixture or
confusion of them or their properties. His humanity is
not changed into his deity, nor his deity into humanity ;
but the two natures are distinct in one person. How this
union exists is above our comprehension ; and, indeed, if
we cannot explain how our own bodies and souls are united,
it is not to be supposed we can explain this astonishing
mystery of God manifest in the fiesh. (See Mediator.)
The doctrine of the union of divine and human perfec-
tions in the person of Christ, derives further confirmation
from the consideration, that in no sound sense without ad-
mitting it, can the Scriptures of the Old and New Testa-
ments be interpreted, so as to make their very difl'ereut
and often apparently contradictory statements respecting
him harmonize. How, for instance, is it that he is array-
ed in the attributes of divinity, and yet is capable of be-
ing raised to a kingdom and glory ? — that he is addressed,
'' Thy throne, 0 God, is forever and ever," and yet
that it should follow " God, even thy God, hath anointed
thee with the oil of gladness above thy fellows?" — that he
should be God, and yet, by a human birth, " God with
us?" — that he should say, " I and my Father are one,"
and, " My Father is greater than I ?" — that he is supreme,
and yet a servant ? that he is equal and yet subordinate?
— that he, a man, should require and receive worship and
trust ? — that he should be greater than angels, and yet
" made lower than the angels ?" — that he should be
" made flesh," and yet be the Creator of all things ? — that
he should raise himself from the dead, and yet be raised
by the power of the Father? These and many other
declarations respecting him, all accord with the orthodox
view of his per.son ; and are intelligible so far as they
state the facts respecting him ; but are wholly beyond the
power of interpretation into any rational meaning on any
theory which denies to him a real humanity on the one
hand, or a real and personal divinity on the other. So
powerfully, in fact, has this been felt, that, in order to
evade the force of the testimony of Scripture, the most
licentious criticisms have been resorted to by the deniers
of his divinity ; such as would not certainly have been
tolerated by scholars in the case of an attempt to inter-
pret any other ancient writing.
IV. We now proceed to the character of Jesus Christ,
which, while it aSbrds us the most pleasing subject for
meditation, exhibits to us an example not only of the most
binding authority, but of the most perfect and delightful
kind.
1 . " Here," as an elegant writer observes, " every grace
that can recommend religion, and every virtue that can
adorn humanity, are so blended as to excite our admira-
tion and engage our love. In abstaining from licentious
pleasures, he was equally free from ostentatious singulari-
ty and churlish suUenness. AVhen he complied with the
established ceremonies of his countrymen, that compliance
was not accompanied by any marks of bigotry or supersti-
J E S
[ 689 J
J ET
tion ; when he opposecl their rociled prepossessions, his op-
positioQ was perfectlj' exempt from the captious petulance
tsf a controversialist, and the undistinguishing zeal of an
innovator. His courage was active in encountering the
dangers to which he was exposed, and passive under the
aggravated calamities which the malice of his foes heaped
upon him ; his fortitude was remote from every appear-
ance of rashness, and his patience was equally exempt
('roin abject pusillanimity : he was firm without obstinacy,
and humble ivithoul meanness. Though possessed of the
most unbounded power, we behold him living continually
in a state of voluntary humiliation and poverty ; we see
him daily exposed to almost every species of want and
distress ; afflicted without a comforter, persecuted without
a protector, and wandering about, according to his own
pathetic complaint, because '• he had not where to lay his
head." Though regardless of the pleasures, and some-
limes destitute of the comforts of life, he never provokes
our disgust by the sourness of the misanthrope, or our
contempt by the inactivity of the recluse. His attention
to the welfare of mankind was evidenced not only by his
salutary injunctions, but by his readiness to embrace eve-
ry opportunity of relieving their distress and administer-
ing to their wants. In every period and circumstance of
his life, we behold dignity and elevation blended with love
and pity ; something which, though it awakens our admi-
ration, yet attracts our confidence. We see power ; but
it is power which is rather our security than our dread ; a
power softened with tenderness, and soothing while it
awes. With all the gentleness of a meek and lowly mind,
we behold an heroic firmness which no terrors could re-
strain. In the private scenes of life, and in the public
occupations of his ministry, whether the object of admi-
ration or ridicule, of love or of persecution, whether wel-
comed with hosannas, or insulted with anathemas, we still
see him pursuing, with unwearied constancy, the same
end, and preserving the same integrity of life and man-
ners." White's Sermons, ser. 5.
2. Considering him as our great Moral Teacher, we
must be struck with the greatest admiration. As Dr. Pa-
ley observes, "he preferred solid to popular virtues: a
character which is commonly despised, to a character
universally extolled ; he placed, on our licentious vices,
the check in the right place, viz., upon the thoughts : he
collected human duty into two well-devise'd rules ; he re-
peated these rules, and laid great stress upon them, and
thereby fixed the sentiments of his followers : he excluded
all regard to reputation in our devotion and alms ; and,
by parity of reason, in our other virtues : his instructions
were delivered in a form calculated for impression ; they
were illustrated by parables, the choice and structure of
which would have been admired in any composition
whatever : he was free from the usual symptoms of en-
thusiasm, heat, and vehemence in devotion, austerity in
institutions, and a wild particularity in the description of
a future state: he was free, also, from the depravities of
his age and country, without superstition among the most
superstitious of men ; yet not decrj'ing positive distinc-
tions or external observances, but soberly recalling them
to the principle of their establishment, and to their place
in the scale of human duties : there was nothing of so-
phistry or trifling, though amidst teachers remarkable for
nothing so much as frivolous subtilties and quibbling ex-
positions : he was candid and liberal in his judgment of
the rest of mankind, although belonging to a people who
aSected a separate claim to divine favor, and, in conse-
quence of that opinion, prone to uncharitableness, partia-
lity and restriction : in his religion there was no scheme
of building up a hierarchy, or of ministering to the views
of human governments: in a word, there was every thing
so grand in doctrine, and so delightful in manner, that the
people might well exclaim, — ' Surely never man spake
like this man !' "
3. As our exalted Friend and Pattern, says arch-
bishop Newcome, " he sets an example of the most per-
fect piety to God, and of the most extensive benevolence
and the most tender compassion to men. He does not
merely exhibit a life of strict justice, but of overflowing
benignity. His temperance has not the dark shades of
austerity : his meekness does not degenerate into apathy ;
87
his humility is signal, amiiist a splendor of qualities more
than human ; his fortitude is eminent and exemplary in
enduring the most formidable external evils, and the
sharpest actual suflerings. His patience is invincible;
his resignation entire and absohite. Truth and sincerity
shine throughout his whole conduct. Though of heavenly
descent, he shows obedience and affection to his earthly
parents ; he approves, loves, and attaches himself to
amiable qualities in th-e human race ; he respects autho-
rity, religious and civil ; and he evidences regard for his
country by promoting its most essential good in a painful
ministry dedicated to its service, by deploring its calami-
ties, and by laying down his life for its benefit. Every
one of his eminent virtues is regulated by consummate
prudence ; and he both wins the love of his friends, and
extorts the approbation and wonder of his enemies. Never
was a character at the same time so commanding and
natural, so resplendent and ple;ising, so amiable and ve-
nerable. There is a peculiar contrast in it between an
awful greatness, dignity, and majesty, and the most con-
ciliating loveliness, tenderness, and softness. He now
converses with prophets, lawgivers, and angels ; and the
next instant he meekly endures the dulness of his disciples,
and the blasphemies and rage of the multitude. He now calls
himsell'greaterthan Solomon; one who can command legion.s
of angels ; and giver of life towhom.soeverhe plea.seth ; the
Son of God, and who shall sit on his glorious throne to
judge the world : at other times we find him embracing
young children ; not liftijig up his voice in the streets, nor
quenching the smoking flax; calling his disciples, not
servants, but friends and brethren, and comforting them
with an exuberant and parental affection. Let us pause
an instant, and fill our minds with the idea of one who
knew all things, heavenly and earthly ; searched and laid
open the inmost recesses of the heart ;, rectified every pre-
judice, and removed every mistake of a moral and reli-
gious kind ; by a word exercised a sovereignty over all
nature, penetrated the hidden events of futuriiy,gave pro-
mises of admis-sion into a happy immortality, had the
keys of life and death, claimed an union with the Father ;
and yet was pious, mild, gentle, humble, affable, social,
benevolent, friendly, and alfectionate. Such a character
is fairer than the morning star. Each separate virtue is
made stronger by opposition and contrast ; and the union
of so many virtues forms a brightness which fitly repre-
sents the glory of that God ' who inhabiteih light inacces-
sible.' Such a character must have been a real one.
There is something so extraordinary, so perfect, and so
godlike in it, that it could not have been thus supported
throughout by the utmost stretch of human art, much less
by men confessedly unlearned and obscure."
A great deal has been written concerning the form,
stature, and beauty of Jesus Christ. Some have asserted,
that he was in form the noblest of all the sons of men.
Others have maintained, that there was no beauty noi*
any graces in his outward appearance. This difference in
opinion shows that no certain tradition was handed down
on this subject. The truth probably is, that all wliich was
majestic and attractive in the person of our Lord, was in
the erpressio/i of the countenance, the full influence of
which was displaj'ed chieflv in his confidential intercourse
with his disciples ; whilst his general appearance present-
ed no striking peculiarity to the common observer. See
Eohiiiion's Plea for the D'ivimtij iif Christ, from whirh many
of the above remarks are take'n ; Bish'ip Bull's .Tudgmoit
of the Catholic Cliiirrh ; Ahbadie, U'aterland, Harvktr, anil
Hey, on the Diiinili/ of Christ; Slackhouse, Wright, ami
D Oyley's Lives of Christ : Dr. Jn.nieson's View of the Dor-
trine of Scripture, and the Frimitive Faith concerning the
Deity of Christ ; Owen on the Glory of Christ's Pason ;
jrurrion's Christ Cmdficd ; Dwighi's Theology : J. P.
Smith's Scripture Testimony to the Messiah ,■ M'ardlam's
Discourses ; Fuller's Works ; Works of Hohert Hall : Bishop
Newcome's Observations on our Lord's Conduct ; and Paley s
Evidences of Christianily. — Watson : Hcnd. Buck.
JETHRO, priest, or prince, of Widian, (for the Hebrew,
Cohen, signifies a prince as well as a priest ;) the father-in-
law of JIoscs. It is believed that he was a priest of the
true God. and maintained the true religion, being descend-
ed from Midian, son of Abraham and Keturah. Moses
JEW
f 690
JEW
ioes not conceal his alliance with Jelhru's family, bnt in-
vites him to oO'er sacrifices to the Lord, on his arrival in
the camp of Israel, as one who adored the same God, Ex.
18; 11, 12. Some assert that he had four names, Jethro,
Rague'l, liobab, and Ceiii. Others, that Jethro and Ra-
guel were the same person ; that Hobab was son of
Jethro, and brother of Zipporah ; and that Ceni is a com-
mon name, signifying the country of the Kenites, inhabited
by the posterity of Hobab, south of the promised land.
The Hebrew chothen, which Jerome translates kinsman, is
used in Numb. 10: 29. and Ex. 18: 1, 27, to denote the
relation between Bloses and Hobab; in Numbers, howe-
ver, Hobab is called son of Raguel, whence others are of
opinion that Ragnel was the father of Jethro, and Jethro
the father of Hobab. On the other side, Raguel gives
Zipporah to Moses, Ex. 2: 18. The signification of the
Hebrew chothen not being fixed, it is impossible to deter-
mine this question with certainty.— Co/me?.
JEW. (the w.iNDEKiKG ;) a fictitious pei-son. who, ac-
cording to popular tradition, was a Jew that drove our
Savior'away with curses, when, oppressed with the weight
of his cross, he wished to rest on a stone before his house.
The calm reply of Jesus was, " Thou shall wander on the
earth till I return." The asloanded Jew did not come to
himself till the crowd had passed, and the streets were
empty ; since which time, driven by fear and remorse, he
has been obliged to wander from place to place, and has
never yet been able to find a grave. Numerous Jews
have been suspected and even persecuted as the unhappy
wanderer : and doubtless the fable has been realized by
many thousands of that hapless race ; but it was most
likely invented to characterize their condition from the
time of the destruction of Jerusalem to the present period,
and their rejection of the Savior as the cause of their
wanderings. See Crnly's " Salathiel." — Hend. Buck.
JEWS ; a name derived from the patriarch Judah, and
given to the descendants of Abraham by bis eldest son,
Isaac. AVe shall here present as comprehensive a view
of this singular people as we can.
1. Jews, uistocy of the. — As the reader of this article
may be supposed familiar with their history as recorded
in Scripture, we shall pass over here all that preceded the
Babylonish captivity, under Nebuchadnezzar. It was
then the kingdom of Judah, as well as Israel, was ruined,
A. M. 341fi, about three hundred and eighty-eight years
after its division from that of the ten tribes. In the se^n-
tieth year of the begun captivity, the Jews, according to
the edict of Cyrus, king of Persia, who had overturned the
empire of Chaldea, returned to their own country. (See
Nehemiaii; Ezka.) After their return they rebuilt the
temple and city of Jerusalem, put away their strange
■wives, and renewed their covenant with God. Vast num-
bers of them, who had agreeable settlements, remained in
Babylon.
About A. M. 3490, or 3516, they escaped the ruin design-
ed them by Haman. About 3653, Darius Ochus, king of
Persia, ravaged part of Judea, and carried off a great
many prisoners. When Alexander was in Canaan, about
3670, he confirmed to them all their privileges ; and, hav-
ing built Alexandria, he settled vast numbers of them
there. About fourteen years after, Ptolemy Lagus, the
Greek king of Egypt, ravaged Judea, and earned one
hundred thousand prisoners to Egypt, but used them
kindly, and assigned them many places of trust. About
eight years after, he transported another multitude of
lews to Egypt, and gave them considerable privileges.
About the same time, Seleucus Nicator, having built
about thirty new cities in Asia, settled in them as many
Jews as he could ; and Ptolemy Philadelphus, of Egypt,
about 3720, bought the freedom of all the Jew slaves in
Egypt. Antiochus Epiphanes, about 3S31, enraged with
them for rejoicing at the report of his death, and for the
peculiar form of their worship, ia his return from Egypt,
forced his way into Jerusalem, and murdered forty thou-
sand of them ; and about two years after he ordered his
troops to pillage the cities of Judea, and murder the men,
and sell the women and children for .slaves. Multitudes
were killed, and ten thousand prisoners carried ofl": the
temple was dedicated to Olyinpius, an idol of Greece,
and the Jews exposed to the basest treatment. Matialhi-
us, the priest, with his sons, chiefly Judas, Jonathan ani!
Simon, who were called Maccabees, bravely fought for
their religion and liberties. Judas, who succeeded his fa-
ther about 3840, gave Nicanor and the king's troops a ter-
rible defeat, regained the temple, and dedicated it anew,
restored the daily worship, and repaired Jerusalem, which
was almost in a ruinous heap. After his death, Jonathan
and Simon, his brethren, successively succeeded him ; and
both wisely and bravely promoted the welfare of the church
and state. Simon was succeeded by his son Hircanus,
who subdued Idumea, and reduced the Samaritans. In
3899 he was succeeded by his son Jannetis, who reduced
the Philistines, the country of Moab, Ammon, Gilead, and
part of Arabia. Under these three reigns alone the Jew-
ish nation was independent after the captivity. After the
death of the widow of Janneus, who governed nine years,
the nation was almost ruined with civil broils. In 3939,
Aristobulus invited the Romans to assist him against
Hircanus, his elder brother. The conntry was quickly-
reduced, and Jerusalem taken by force ; and Pompey, and
a number of his ofliicers, pushed their way into the sanc-
tuary, if not into the holy of holies, to view the furniture
thereof. Nine years after, Crassus, the Roman general,
pillaged the temple of its valuables. After Judea had
for more than thiny years been a scene of ravage and
blood, and twenty-fonr of which it had been oppressed
by Herod the Great, Herod got himself in.stalled in the
kingdom. Twenty yeai-s before our Savior's birth, he,
with the Jews' consent, began to build the temple. About
this time the Jews had hopes of the Messiah ; and about
A. M. 4000, Christ actually came, whom Herod (insti-
gated by the fear of losing his throne) sought to murder.
The Jews, however, a few excepted, rejected the Messiah,
and put him to death. The sceptre was now wholly de-
parted from Judah ; and Judea, about twenty-seven years
before, reduced to a province. At the destruction of Jeru-
salem about eleven hundred thousand Jews perished, and
since that disastrous event they have been scattered, con-
temned, persecuted, and enslaved among all nations, not
mixed with any in the common manner, but have re-
mained as a body distinct by themselves.
2. Jews, calamities of.— All history cannot furnish us
with a parallel to the calamities and miseries of the Jews —
rapine and murder, famine and pestilence, within; fire
and sword, and all the terrors of war, without. Our Savior
wept at the foresight of these calamities ; and it is almost
impossible for persons of any humanity to read the account
without being affected. The predictions concerning them
were remarkable, and the calamities that came upon them
were the greatest the world ever saw, Dent. 28, 29. Matt.
24. Now, what heinous sin was it that could be the cause
of such heavy judgments ? Can any other be assigned
than what the Scripture assigns? (1 Thess. 2: 15, 16.)
" They both killed the Lord Jesus and their own prophets,
and persecuted the apostles, and so filled up their sins,
and wrath came upon them to the uttermost." It is hardly
possible to consider the nature and extent of their sutfer-
ings, and not conclude the Jews' own imprecation to be
singularly fulfilled upon them, Matt 27:25: "His blood
be on us and our children." At Cesarea twenty thousand
of the Jews were killed by the Syrians in their mutual
broils. At Damascus ten thousand unarmed Jews were
killed ; and at Bethshan the heathen inhabitants caused
their Jewish neighbors to assist them against their bre-
thren, and then murdered thirteen thousand of these inha-
bitants. At Alexandria the Jews murdered multitudes of
the heathens, and were murdered in their turn to about
fifty thousand. The Romans under Vespasian invaded
the country, and took the cities of Galilee, Chorazin,
Bethsaida, Capernaum, &c., where Christ had been espe-
cially rejected, and murdered numbers of the inhabitants.
At Jerusalem the scene was most wretched of all. At the
passover, when there might be two or three millions of
people in the citv, the Romans surrounded it with troops,
trenches, and walls, that none might escape. The three
diflerent factions within, murdered one another. Titus,
one of the most merciful generals that ever breathed, did
all in his power to persuade them to an advantageous sur-
render, but they scorned every proposal. The multitudes
of unburied carcasses corrupted the air, and oroduced a
JEW
[ 691 ]
E W
peslilence. The people fed on one another ; and even la-
dies, it is said, broiled their sucking infants, and ate them.
After a siege of six months, the city was taken. They
murdered almost every Jew they met with. Titus was
bent to save the temple, but could not : thei^ were six
thousand Jews, who had taken shelter in it, all burnt or
murdered. The outcries of the Jews, when they saw it,
were most dreadful : the whole city, ercept three towers
and a small part of the wall, was razed to the ground,
and the foundations of the temple and other places were
ploughed up. Soon after the forts of Herodiau and Ma-
cheron were taken, the garrison of ftlassada murdered
• hemselves rather than sun-endev. At Jerusalem alone,
it is said one million one hundred thousand perished by
sword, famine, and pestilence. In other places we hear
of two himdrcd ana fifty thousand that were cut off, be-
sides vast numbers sent into Egj'pt to labor as slaves.
About fifiy years after, the Jews murdered about five
hundred thousand of the Roman subjects, for which they
were severely punished by Trajan. About 130, one Bar-
chocab pretended that he was the Messiah, and raised a
Jewish army of two hundred thousand, who murdered all
the heathens and Christians who came in their way ; but
he was deleated by Adrian's forces, la this war, it is
said, about sixty thousand Jews were slain, and peri.shed.
Adrian ttiilt a city on mount Calvary, and erected a mar-
ble statue «f swioe over the gate that led to Bethlehem.
No Jew was allowed to enter the city, or to look to it at a
■ distance, under pain of death. In 360 they began to re-
build their city and temple ; but a terrible earthquake and
(lames of fire issuing from the earth, killed the workmen,
and scattered their materials. Nor till die seventh cen-
tury durst they so much as creep over ihe rubbish to
bewail it, witlwut bribiag Ike guards. In tire third,
fourth, and fifih centuries, there w"ere many o( them furi-
<iusly harassed «.nd murdered. In the si.^tli century,
twenty thousand of them were slain, and as many token
and sold for slaves. In 602 tivey were severely punished
for their horrible massacre of the Christians at Antioch.
In Spain, in 700, they were ordered to be ensla^-ed. lo
the eighth and ninth centuries they were greatly derided
and abused: in some places they were mad.e to wear lea-
thern girdles, and ride without stirrups on asses and mules.
In Franoe and Spain they were mucli iniulled. In the tenth,
eleventh, and twelfth centuries, their misefie.s ralhcr in-
creased ; they were greatly persecuted in Egypt. Besides
what tiiey suffered in the East by the Turkish war and cru-
sades, it is shocking to think what multitudes of tk^m the
eight crusades murdered in Germsus}', Hungary, Lesser
Asia, and elsewhere. la France, multitudes were burnt.
In England, in 1020, they were banished.; and at the coro-
nation of Richard I., the mob fell upon them and murdered
a grcit many of thein. About one thousand five hundred
of iljem were burnt in the palace in the city of York, which
they set tire to themselves, after killing their wives and
children. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries their
condition was no better. In Egypt, Canaan, and Syria,
the crusaders Still harassed them. Provoked with their
mad running after pretended Messiahs, Khalif Nas.ser
scarcely left any of them alive in his dominions of Meso-
potamia. In PersLa, the Tartars murdered them in multi-
tudes. In Spain, Ferdinand persecuted them furiously.
About 12-19, the terrible massacre of them at Toledo forced
many to mitrder themselves, or change their religion.
About 1253, many were murdered, and others banished
from France ; but in 1275 recalled. In 1320 and 1330 the
crusades of the fanatic shepherds, who wasted the south of
France, massacred them ; besides fifteen hundred that
were murdered on another occasion. In 1358 they were
totally banished from France, since which few of them
have entered that country. In 1291 king Edward expelled
them from England, to the number of one hundred and
sixty thousand. In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seven-
teenth centuries, their misery continued. In Persia they
have been terribly used : from 1663 to 1666, the murder
of them was so universal, that but a few escaped to Tur-
key. In Portugal and Spain they have been miserably
handled. About 1392, six or eight hundred thousand were
banished from Spain ; some were drowned in their pass-
age to Africa ; some died by hard usage ; and many
of their carcasses lay in the fields till the wild beasts de
voured them. In Germany they have endured 'many
hardships. They have been banished from Bohemia, Ba-
varia, Cologne, Nuremburg, Augsburg, and Vienna: they
have been terribly massacred in Moravia, and plundered
in Bonn and Bamberg. Except in Portugal and Spain,
their present condition is generally tolerable. In Holland,
Poland, and at Frankfort and Hambergh, they have their
liberty. They have repeatedly, but in vain, attempted to
obtain a naturalization in England, and other nations
among whom they are scattered.
3, Jews, rKESERVATio.i or — •' The preservation of the
Jews," says Basnage, "in tlie midst of the miseries which
they have undergone during seventeen hundred years, is
the greatest prodigy that can be imagined. Religions de-
pend on temporal prosperity ; they triumph tinder the
protection of a conqueror; they languish and sink with
sinking monarchies. Paganism, which once covered the
earth, is -extinct, The Christian church, glorious in ils
martyrs, yet was considerably diminished by the persecu-
cutions to which it was exposed ; nor was it easy lo repair
the breaches in it, made by those acts of violence. But
here we behold a church hated and persecuted for seven-
teen hundred j'ears, and yet sustaining il.self, and widely
extended, Ifings have often emploj-ed the severity of
edicts and the hand of executioners to ruin it. The sedi-
tious multitudes, by murders and massacres, have com-
mitted -outrages against it still more violent and tragical.
Princes and people, pagans, Mohammedans, Christians,
disagreei«g in so many things, have united in the design
of extenninaling it, and have not been able to succeed.
The bitsh of Moses, ,surrounded with flames, ever burns,
and is never consumed. The Jews have been expelled,
in different Irnies, from every part of the world, which
hath only served to spread them in all regions. From
age to age ihey have been exposed tn misery and persecu-
tion ; yet still they subsist, in spite of tire ignoitiiny and
the hatred which hath pursued them in all places, whilst
t!ie greatest monarchies are fallen, and Kolhing remains
of them besides the name.
•' The judgments which Grod has exercised upon this
people are terrible, extending to the men, the religion, and
the very land in which they dwelt. The cciiemonies essen-
tial to their religion can no more bo observed : the ritual
law, which cast a splendor on the national worship, and
struck the pagans so much, that they sent their presents
and their victims to Jerusalem, is absolutely fallen, for
they have no temple, no altar, no sacrifices. Their land
itself seems to lie under a never-ceasing curse. Pagans,
Christians, Mohammedans, in a word, almost all nations,
have by turns seized and held Jerusalem. To the Jew
only hath Cotl refused the possession of this small tract
of ground, so .supremely necessary for him, since he oaglit
to worship on this mountain. A Jewish writer hath af-
firmed, that it is long since any .lew has been seen settled
near Jerusalem : scarcely can they purchase lliere si.'C feet
of land for a buryingplace.
"In all this there is no exaggeration : I am only point-
ing out known facts; and, far from having the lea.st de-
sign to raise an odium against the nation from its miseries,
I conclude that it ought to be looked upon as one cf lliose
prodigies w hich we admire without comprehending : since,
in spite of evils so durable, and a patience so long exer
cised, it is preserved by a particular providence. The
Jew ought to be weary of expecting a Messiah, who so
unlrindly disappoints his vain hopes ; and the Christian
ought to have his attention and his regard excited towards
men whom God preserves for so great a length of time,
under calamities which would have been the total ruin of
any other people."
4. Jews, modern, nltiibek and DisrE.tsioNor. — They are
looked upon to be as numerous at present as they were
formerly in the land of Canaan. Some have rated them
at three millions, and others more than double that num-
ber. Their dispersion is a remarkable particular in this
people. They swarm all over the East, and are settled, it
is said, in the' remotest parts of China. The Turkish em-
pire abounds with them. There are more of them at Con-
stantinople and Salonichi than in any other place : they
are spread through most of the nations of Europe and
JEW
[ 692
JEW
Africa, and m-any families of theni are established in the
West Indies ; not to mention whole nations in middle
Asia, and some discovered in the inner parts of America,
if we may give any credit to their own writers. Their be-
ing always in rebellions (as Addison observes) while they
had the holy temple in view, has excited most nations to
banish them . Besides, the whole people are now a race
of such merchants as are wanderers by profession ; and at
the same time are in most, if not in all places, incapable
of either lands or offices, that might engage theta to make-
any part of the world their home. In addition to this, we
may consider what providential reasons may be assigned
for their numbers and dispersion. Xheir firm adherence
to their religion, and being dispersed all over the earth,
has furnished every age and every nation with the strong-
est arguments for the Christian faith ; not only as these
very particulars are foretold of them, but as they them-
selves are the depositaries of these and all other prophecies
■which tend to their own confnsioa, and the establishment
of Christianity. Their number furnishes us with a sutfi-
cieftl cloud of witnesses that attest the truth of the Bible,
and their dispersion spreads these witnesses through all
parts of the world.
5. Jews, modern, senti.tients of. — A summary of the
Jewish creed was tlrawn up by Moses Mairaonides, other-
wise called the Great Eambam, (i. e, Kabbi Bloses Ben
Maimon,) an Egyptian rabbi of the eleventh century,
which is still acknowledged as their confession of faith.
It consists of thirteen- articles, and reads as follows : —
I. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, blessed
be his name '. is the governor and creator of all the crea-
tures, and that it is he ^p/ho made, maketb, and wiVt make
all things.
II. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator, bless-
ed be his name ! is one, and that no unity is like his, and
he alone, our God, was, is, ami shall be.
HI. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator,
blessed he his name ! is incorporeal ; that he is not to be
comprehended by those faculties which comprehend corpo-
real- objects ; ami that there iis no resemblance to him
whatever.
IV. 1 believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator,
blessed be his name ! is the first and the last.
V. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator,
blessed be his name! is afone worthy of adoration j and
that none besides him is worthy of adoration.
VI. I believe, with a perfect faith, that all the oracles
rf the prophets are true.
Til. { believe, vrAh a perfect faith, that the prophecies
of Moses, our master, on whom be peace, are true; and
that he is the father of all the wise men wh» were before
him, and who came after him.
VIII. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the whole law
of coromandtaents which we now have in our hamls, was
given to Moses, our master, on whom be peace.
IX. I believe, with a perfect faith, that this law will not
be changed, and that there will not be any other law from-
the Creator, blessed be his name T
X. I believe, with a perfrat faith, that the Creator, bless-
ed be his name ! knows alt the actions of the children of
men, and all their thoughts ; as it is said — •' Who frameth
all their hearts ; who understandeth all their actions."
XI. I believe, with a perfect faith, that the Creator,
blessed be his name ! will recompense good to him who
ohserveth his commandments, and that he will punish him
that transgresseth them.
XII. I believe, with a perfect faith, in the advent of the
Messiah, and though he should tarry, yet I will patiently
wait for him every day till he come.
XIII. I believe, with a perfect faith, that there will be a
revivification of the dead, at the period when i! shall
please the Creator, blessed be his name ! and let his re-
membrance be e.xalted forever and ever !
The modern Jews still adhere as closely to the Mosaic
dispensation, as their dispersed and despised condition will
permit them. Their service consists chiefly in reading the
law in their synagogues, together M'ith a variety of pray-
ers. They use no .sacrifices since the destruction of the
temple. They repeat blessings and particular praises to
God, not only in their prayers, but on all accidental occa-
sions, and in almost all their actions. They go to prayers
three times a day in their synagogues. Their sermons
are not made in Hebrew, whteb few of them now perfectly
understand, but in the language of the coontry where they
reside. They are forbidden all vain swearing, and pro-
nouncing any of the names of God without necessity.
They abstain from meats prohibited by the l.eT!tical law ;
for which reason, whatever they eat mast be dressed by
-Jews, and after a roanneT pecnlisr to themselves. As
soon as a child can speaS, they teach him to read the Bible
in the original Hebrew, but without understanding the
meaning of the words. In general they observe the same
ceremonies which were practised by their ancestors in the
celebration of the passover. They acknowfedge a twofold
law of God, a written and an anwritteii one ; the former is
contained in the Pentateuch, or five books of Mos^s; the
tatter, th<!y pretend, was delivered by God to Moses, and
handed down from him by oral tradition, and now to- lie'
received as of equal authority with She former. They as-
sert the perpetuity of their law, together with its perfection-
They deny the accomplishment of the prophecies in the
person of Christ ; alleging that the Messiah is not yel
come, and that he will make his appeaTanee- with the
greatest worldly pomp and grandeur, sabduing all nations
before him, and subjecting them (o the honse of Judab-
Since the prophets have predicted his mean condition and
sufferings, they confidently talk of two Messiahs ; one
Ben-Epbraim, whom they grant to be a person of a mean
and afflicted condition in this world ;. and the other, Ben- '
David, who shall be a victorious arsl' powerful prince.
The Jews pray for the souls of the dead, becaose they
suppose there is a paradise for the souls of good men,
where they enjo-y glory in the presence of Gml. They
believe that the souls of the wicked are tormented in hell
with fire and other punishments; that some are con-
demned to be punished in this manner forever, while
others continue only for a limited time ; and this they calS
purgatory, which is not diflierent from hell in respect of
the place, but of the duration. They suppose no Jew, un-
less guilty of heresy, or certain crimes specilied by the
rabbins, shall continue in purgatory above a twelvemonth ;
and that there are hot few who suffer eternal pimishment.
Almost ali the modern Jews are Pharisees, and are as
much attached to tradition as their ancestors were ; and
assert, that whoever rejects the oral law deserves death.
Hence they entertain an implacable hatretl to- the Kara-
ites, who adhere to the text of Bioses, rejecliing the- rabbiw-
istical interpretation. (See Kak sites.)
There are still some of the Saddncees in Africa, and in
several other places ; but they are few in number — at least
there are but very few who declare openly for these opi-
nions.
There are to this day some remains of the amciient sect
of the Samaritans, who are zealous for the law of Moses,
but are despised by the Jews, because they receive only
the Pentateuch, and observe different ceremonies from
theirs. They deelare they are no Sadducees, btit acknow-
ledge the spirituality and immortality of the soul. Theie
are numbers of this sect at Gaza, Damascus, Graitd Cairo^
and in some other places of the East ; but especially at Si-
chem, now called Naplouse, which is risen out of the ruins
of the ancient Samaria, where they sacrificed not many
years ago, having a place for this purpose on mount
Gerizim.
David Levi, a learned Jew, who in 1796 published " Dis-
sertations on the Prophecies of the Old Testament," ob-
serves in that work, that deism and infidehty have made
such large strides in the world, that they have at length
reached even to the Jewish nation ; many of whom are at
this time so greatly infected with scepticism by reading
Bolingbroke, Hume, Voltaire, iScc, that they scarcely be-
lieve in a revelation, much less have they any hope in
their future restoration.
6. Jews, kestoration of.— From the declarations of
Scripture we have reason to suppose the Jews shall be
called to a participation of the blessings of the gospel,
(Rom. H. 2 Cor. 3: 16. Has. 1: 11.) and some suppose
shall return to their own land, Hos. 3: 5. Is. 65: 17, &c.
Ezek. 36. As to the time, some think about 1866 or 2016 ;
but this, perhaps, is not so easy to determine altogether.
JE2
[ 69.1 ]
JOB
though il is probable it will not be before the fall of Anti-
christ and the Ottoman empire. Let us, however, avoid
putting stumbling-blocks in their way, If we attempt any
thing for their conversion, let it be with peace and love.
Let us, saj's one, propose Christianity to them, as Christ
proposed it to them. Let us lay before them their own
prophecies. Let us show them their accompUshment in
Jesus. Let us applaud their hatred of idolatry. Let us
show them the morality of Jesus in our lives and tempers.
Let us never abridge their civil liberty, nor ever try to
force their consciences. Josephus' History of the Jews;
Spectator, no. 495, vol. iv. ; Levi's Ceremonies of the Jermsh
Religion ; Buxtorf de Synagoga Judaics ; Spencer de Legi-
bus, Heb. Rit. ; NenHon on Proph. ; Warburton's Address to
the Jews, in the Dedication of the second volume of his Lega-
tion ; Sermons preached to the Jeivs at Berry Street, by Dr.
Harveis and others ; Basiiage's and OcJcley's Histories of the
Jews ; Shaw's Philosophy of Judaism; Hartley on Man, vol.
ii. iii. ; Pascal's Thoughts ; Bicheno's Restoration of the Jews ;
Jortin's Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. iii. p. 427, 447 ;
Dr. H. Jackson's Works, vol. i. p. 153 ; Neat's History of the
Jews ; Works of Robert Hall, vol. ii. ; Fuller's Sermon on the
Messiah ; H. Adams' and Milman's Life of S. C. F. Frey ;
Jewish Expositor. — Hend. Buck.
JEWELL, (John,) a learned English writer and bishop,
■Was born, in 1522, at Buden, in the county of Devon, and
educated at Oxford, where he took the degree of bachelor
of arts in 1510, became a noted tutor, and was soon after
chosen lecturer in rhetoric in his college. He had early
imbibed the principles of the Reformation, and inculcated
them upon his pupils, though it was done privately till the
accession of king Edward the Sixth, which took place in
1546, when he made a public declaration of his faith, and
entered into a close friendship with Peter Martyr. On the
accession of queen Mary, in 1553, he was one of the first
to feel the rage of the storm then raised against the Refor-
mation ; he was obliged to fly ; and, after encountering
many difficulties, arrived at Frankfort, in the second year
of queen Mary's reign, where he made a public recanta-
tion of his forced subscription to the popish doctrines. He
then went to Strasburg, and afterwards to Zurich, where
he resided with Peter Martyr. He returned to England
in 1558, after the death of queen Mary, and in the follow-
ing year was consecrated bishop of Salisbury. Two years
afterwards he published his famous " Apologia pro Eccle-
sia AngUcana." But his watchful and laborious manner
of life impaired his heahh, and brought him quickly to the
grave. He died at Monkton Farley, the 22d of September,
1571, in the fiftieth year of his age.
He was a prelate of great learning, piety, and modera-
tion; irreproachable in his private life; extremely gene-
rous and charitable to the poor, to whom, it is said, his
doors stood always open. He was of a pleasant and affa-
ble temper, modest, meek, and temperate, and a great
master of his passions. His memory was naturally strong
and retentive, but he is said to have greatly improved it
by art, insomuch that marvellous things are related of it
by his biographers.
He wrote, besides his Apology for the Church of Eng-
land, " A View of a seditious Bull sent into England by
pope Pius V. in 1569 ;" " A Treatise on the Holy Scrip-
lures ;'' " An Exposition of the Two Epistles to the Thes-
salonians ;" " A Treatise on the Sacrament ;" besides
several sermons and comrovei-sial treatises. His works
were collected and published in one folio volume, London,
, 1609. Brit. Biog— Jones' Chris. Biog.
JEWELS ; valuables, whether for store, or for appa-
rel. This word does not mean jewellery works, gems,
&c. but whatever is stored up in consequence of its supe-
rior estimation . God calls his people jewels ; (Mai. 3: 17.)
the lips of knowledge are a jewel, Prov. 20: 15. — Calmet.
JEZEBEL ; daughter of Elhbaal, king of the Zidonians,
and wife of Ahab, king of Israel, 1 Kings 16: 31. This
princess introduced into the kingdom of Samaria the pub-
lic worship of Baal, Astarte, and other Phoenician deities,
which the Lord had expressly forbidden ; and with this
impious worship, a general prevalence of those abomina-
tions which had formerly incensed God against the Cana-
aniles, to their uUer extirpation. Jezel^el was so zealous,
that she fed at her own table four humlred prophets be-
longing to the goddess Astarte ; and her husband Ahab,
in hke manner, kept four hundred of Baal's prophets, as
ministers of his false gods. The name of Jezebel is used
proverbially. Rev. 2: 20. (See Jehu.) — Walson.
JEZIRAH ; a cabalistic term, denoting the third world,
or the world of thinking substances. It is also the name
of a book on cabalistic theology, containing six chapters,
and treating of the world, of motion, of lime, and of the
soul. It is extremely obscure ; every thing in il is ex-
pressed in numbers and letters. It is mentioned in ihe
Mishna, and therefore must have existed before the Tal-
mud.— Hend. Buck.
JEZREEL; a royal city of the kings of Israel, who
sometimes resided here as well as at Samaria. Ahab, in
particular, is known to have made this his residence ;
near to whose palace was the vineyard of the unfortunate
Naboth. The name of Jezreel was by the Greeks mould-
ed into that of Esdraela ; which is described by Eusebius
and Jerome, in the fourth century, as a considerable town.
In like manner, the valley of Jezreel obtained Ihe name
of the valley or plain of Esdraelon. (See Esdr.4elo.\.)—
Watson.
JOAB, was the son of Zeruiah, David's sister, and bro-
ther to Abishai and Asahel. He was one of the most
valiant soldiers and greatest gener.ils in David's time ;
but he was also cruel, revengeful, and imperious. He
performed great services for David, to whose interests he
was always firm, and was commander-in-chief of his
troops, when David was king of Judah only. His history
is related in the second book of Samuel and the first book
of Kings. (See DAvin ; Ab.n-er ; and Amas.\.; — Watson.
JOACHIMITES ; the disciples of Joachim, abbot of
Flora, in Calabria. Joachim was a Cistercian monk, and
a great pretender to inspiration. He relates of himself,
that, being very young, he went to Jerusalem in the dress of
a hermit to visit the holy places ; a.id that, while he was in
prayer to God in the church of that city, God communi-
cated to him, by infusion, the knowledge of divine mj'.s-
teries, and of the Holy Scriptures. He wrote against
Lombard, the master of the sentences, who had main-
tained that there was but one essence in God, though
there were three persons ; and he pretended, that, since
there were three persons, there must be three essences.
This dispute was in the year 1195. Joachim's writings
were condemned by the fourth Lateran council.
His followers, Ihe Joachimites, were particularly fond
of certain ternaries. The Father, they said, operated from
the beginning until the coming of the Son ; the Son from
that time to theirs, viz. the year 1260 ; and the Holy Spi-
rit then took it up, and was to operate in his turn. They
likewise divided every thing relating to men, doctrine,
and manner of living, into three classes, according to the
three persons of the Trinity. The first tirnary was that
of men ; of whom, Ihe first class was that of married
men, which had lasted during the whole period of the Fa-
ther ; the second was that of clerks, w hich lasted during
Ihe time of the Son ; and the last was that of monks,
wherein was to be an uncommon effusion of grace by the
Holy Spirit. The second ternary was that of doctrine, viz,
the Old Testament, the New. and the everlasting (Jospel:
the first they ascribed to the Father, the second to the Son,
and the third to the Holy Spirit. A third ^^neary consisted
in the manner of living; viz. under the Father, men lived
according to the flesh ; under the Son, they lived accord-
ing to the flesh and the spirit ; and under the Holy Ghost,
they were to live according to the spirit onlv Hend. BurJi.
JOANNA, wife of Chuza, Herod's steVard. (Lu'kc 8:
3.) was one of those women who followed our Savior,
and assisted him with their property. Luke observes, that
these women had been delivered by Christ from evil spirits ;
or cured of diseases. Perhajis Joanna was not a w idow.
It was customary among the Jews, for men who dedicated
themselves to preaching, to accept services from women of
piety, who attended them, without anv scandal. — Calmri.
JOASH; son of Ahaziah, king of Judah, 2 Kings 11.
(See Jehoida, and Jehosheba.) — Watson.
JOB ; a patriarch celebrated for his patience, and the
constancy of his piety and virtue.
1. His reality. — That Job was a real, and not a ficlilioiis,
character, may be inferred from the manner in which he
JOB
[694]
JOB
is mentioned in llie Scriptures, Ezek. 11: 14. James 5:
11. But, besides the authority of the inspired writers,
we have the strongest internal evidence, from the book
itself, that Job was a real person ; for it expressly speci-
fies the names of persons, places, facts, and other circum-
stances usually related in true histories. Thus, we have
the name, country, piety, wealth, fcc, of Job described ;
(Job 1.) the names, number, and acts of his children are
mentioned ; the conduct of his wife is recorded as a fact ;
(2.) his friends, their names, countries, and discourses
■with him in his afflictions are minutely delineated, (Job 2:
11, &c.) Further : no reasonable doubt can be entertain-
ed respecting the real existence of Job, when we consider
that it is proved by the concurrent testimony of all Eastern
tradition : he is mentioned by the author of the book of
Tobit, who lived during the Assyrian captivity ; he is also
repeatedly mentioned by Arabian writers as a real cha-
racter. The whole of his history, with many fabulous
additions, was know'n among the Syrians and Chaldeans ;
and many of the noblest families among the Arabs are
distinguished by his name, and boast of being descended
from him.
2. Date of the History. — The following are the principal
circumstances from which the era of Job may be collected
and ascertained : — 1. The Usserian or Bible clironology
dates the trial of Job about the year 1520 before the Chri.s-
tian era, twenty-nine years before the departure of the
Israelites from Egypt ; and that the book was composed
before that event, is evident from its total silence respect-
ing the miracles which accompanied the exode ; such as
the passage of the Red sea, the destruction of the Egyp-
tians, the manna in the desert, iScc. ; all of which happened
iti the vicinity of Job's country, and were so apposite in
the debate concerning the ways of Providence, that some
notice could not but have been taken of them, if they had
been coeval with the poem of Job. 2. That it was com-
posed beibre Abraham's migration to Canaan, may also
be inferred from its silence respecting the destruction of
Sodom and Gomorrah, and the other cities of the plain,
■which were still nearer to Idumea, where the scene is laid.
3. The length of Job's life places him in the patriarchal
times. He survived his trial one hundred and forty years,
(Job 42: 16.) and was probably not j'ounger at that time ;
for we read that his seven sons were all grown up, and
had been settled in their own houses for a considerable
time. Job 1: 4, 5. He speaks of the sins of his youth,
(Job 13: 26.) and of the prosperity of his youth ; and yet
Eliphaz addresses him as a novice : "With us are both
the gray-headed and very aged men, much elder than thy
father," Job 15: 10. 4. That he did not live at an earlier
period, may be collected from an incidental observation
of Bildad, who refers Job to their forefathers for instruc-
tion in wisdom : — ■
"Inquire, I pray Itiec, of the former age.
And prepare thyself to the search u^ tlieir fathers :"
assigning as a reason the comparative shortness of human
life, and consequent ignorance of the present generation : —
" For we are but of yeslenlay, and know nothing;
Because our days upon earth are a yhadow."
Job S: 8, 9.
But the fathers of the former age, or grandfathers of the
present, were the contemporaries of peleg and Joktan, in
the fifth generation after the deluge, and they might easily
have learned wisdom from the fountain-head by convers-
ing with Shem, or perhaps -.viih Noah himself; whereas,
in the seventh generation, the stand.-,r,I of human life was
reduced to about two himdred years, \\-hich was a shadow
compared with the longevity of Noah and his sons. 5.
The general air of nntiquity which, pervades the inanners
recorded in the poem, is a further evidence of its remote
date. The manners and customs, indeed, critically cor-
respond with that early period. Thus, Job speaks of the
most ancient kind of writing, by sculpture ; (Job 19: 24.)
his riches also are reckoned by his cattle, Job 42:12. Fur-
ther : Job acted as high-pviesl in his family, according to
the patriarchal usage ; (Gen. 8: 20.) for the institution of an
established priesthood does not appear to have taken place
anywhere until the time of Abraham. Melchizedec, kin?
of Salem, was a priest of the primitive order ; (Gen. M: IS.)
Mich also was Jethro, the father indaw of Moses, in the vici-
nity of Idumea, Exod. 18: 12. The first regular priesthood
was probably instituted in Egypt, where Joseph was married
to the daughter of the priest of On, Gen. 41: 45. 6. The
slavish homage of prostration to princes and great men,
which prevailed in Egypt, Persia, and the East in general,
and which still subsisis there, was unknown in Arabia at
that time. Though Job was one of the greatest men of
all the East, we do not find any such adoration paid to him
by his contemporaries, in the zenith of his prosperity,
among the marks of respect so minutely described in the
twenty-ninth chapter. With this description correspond
the manners and conduct of the genuine Arabs of the
present day, a majestic race, who were never conquered,
and who have retained their primitive customs, features,
and character, with scarcely any alteration. 7. The allu-
sion made by Job to that species of idolatry alone, which
by general consent is admitted to have been the most an-
cient, namely, Zabianisin, or the worship of the sun and
moon, and also to the exertion of the judicial authority
against it, (Job 31. 26 — 28.) is an additional and most
complete proof of the high' antiquity of the poem, as well
as a decisive mark of the patriarchal age. 8. A further
evidence of the remote antiquity of this book is the lan-
guage of Job and his friends ; who, being all Idumeans,
or at least Arabians of the adjacent country, yet conversed
in Hebrew. This carries us up to an age so early as that
in ■n'hich all the posterity of Abraham, Israelites, Idume-
ans, and Arabians, yet continued to speak one common
language, and had not branched into difierent dialects.
3. Its Localit]/. — The country in which the scene of this
poem is laid, is stated (Job 1: 1.) to be the land of Uz,
■which by some geographers has been placed in Sandy,
and by others in Stony, Arabia. Bochart strenuously ad-
vocated the former opinion, in which he has been power-
fully supported by Spanheim, Calmet, Carpzov, Heideg-
ger, and soine later writers ; Michaelis and Ilgen place
the scene in the valley of Damascus ; but bishops Lowth
and Magee, Dr. Hales, Dr. Good, and some later critics
and philologists, have shown that the scene is laid in
Edom, or Idumea. In effect, nothing is clearer than that
the history of an inhabitant of Idumea is the subject of
the poem which bears the name of Job, and that all the
persons introduced into it were Idumeans, dwelling in
Idumea, in other words, Edomile Arabs. These charac-
ters are, Job himself, of the land of Uz ; Eliphaz, of Tc-
man, a district of as much repute as Uz, and which, it
appears from the joint testimony of Jeremiah, Ezekiel,
Amos, and Obadiah, (Jer. 49: 7, 20. Ezek. 25: 13. Amos
1: 11, 12. Obadiah 8: y.) formed a principal part of Idu-
mea ; Bildad, of Shuah, -n'ho i.s always mentioned in con-
junction with Sheba and Dedan, the first of whom was
probably named after one of the brothers of Joktan or
Kahtan, and the two last from two of his sons, all of them
being uniformly placed in the vicinity of Idumea ; (Gen.
25: 2, 3. Jer. 49: 8.) Zophar, of Naama, a city importing
pleasantness, which is also .stated by Joshua (15: 21, 41.)
to have been situate in Idumea,, and to have lain in a
southern direction towards its coast, on the shores of the
Red sea; and Elihu, of Buz, which, as the naine of a
place, occurs only once in sacred writ, (Jer. 25: 23.) but is
there mentioned in conjunction with Ternan and Eedan ;
and hence necessarily, like them, a border city upon Uz
or Idumea. Allowing this chorography to be correct, (and
such, upon a fair review of facts, we may conclude it to
be,) there is no ditliculty in conceiving that hordes of no-
madic Chaldeans, as well as Sabeans, a people addicted to
rapine, and roving about at immense distances for the
sake of plunder, should have occasionally infested the de-
fenceless country of Idumea, and roved from the Euphra-
tes even to Egypt.
4. Its Author. — The different parts of the book of Job
are so closely connected together, that they cannot be de-
tached from each other. Hence it is evident, that the
poem is the composition of a single author ; but who that
was, is a question concerning which the learned are very
much divided in their sentiments. Moses, Elihu, Job ;
Solomon, Isaiah, an anonymous writer in the reign of
Manasseh, Ezekiel, and Ezra, have all been contended
for. The arguments already adduced respecting the age
of Job, jirove that it could not be cither of the latter per-
JOE
695
J OH
Eons. But, iuJepeiidently of the characters of antiquity
already referred to, and which place the book of Job very
many centuries before the time of Moses, the total absence
of every the slightest allusion to the manners, customs,
ceremonies, or history of the Israelites, is a direct evidence
that the great legislator of the Hebrews was not, and
could not have been, the author. Upon the whole, then,
"We have sufficient ground to conclude that this book was
not the production of Moses, but of some earlier age.
Bishop Lowth favors the opinion of Schultens, Peters, and
others, which is adopted by bishop Tomline and Dr. Hales,
who suppose Job himself, or some contemporar)', to have
been the author of this poem ; and there seems to be no
good reason for supposing that it was not written by Job
himself. It appears, indeed, highly probable that Job,
who, it appears, was also an inspired prophet, was the
writer of his own story, 42: 1.
The original work was probably more ancient than the
time of Moses, and seems to have been wTitten in the old
Hebrew, or perhaps the Arabic. Our present copy is evi-
dently altered in its style, so as to have transfused into it
a Hebrew phraseology, resembling that in the age of Solo-
mon, to the writings of which author the style bears a
great resemblance. This idea, for which we are indebted
to Dr. J. P. Smith, meets thedifSculty that has been urged
from the style of the book, against its antiquity, and
tmites the discordant opinions that have been entertained
on the subject. ^
5. Its contents, style, ice. — The book of Job contains the
history of a man equally distinguished for purity and up-
rightness of character, and for honors, wealth, and domes-
tic felicity, whom God permitted, for the trial of his faith,
to be suddenly deprived of all his numerous blessings, and
to be at once plunged into the deepest affliction, and most
accumulated distress. His trial is unspeakably aggrava-
ted by the false judgments of his three friends. It gives
an account of his eminent piety, patience, and resignation
under the pressure of these severe calamities, of their hum-
bling and purifying effects upon him, and of his subse-
quent elevation to a degree of prosperity and happiness,
still greater than that which he had before enjoyed. How
long the sufierings of Job continued, we are not informed;
but it is said, that after God turned his captivity, and
blessed him a second time, he lived one hundred and forty
years, Job 42: 16. Through the whole work we discover
religious instruction shining forth amidst the venerable
simplicity of ancient manners. It everywhere abounds
with the noblest sentiments of piety, uttered with the spi-
rit of inspired conviction.
It is a work unrivalled for the magnificence of its lan-
guage, and for the beautiful and sublime images which it
presents. In the wonderful speech of the Deity, (Job 38,
39.) every line delineates his attributes, every sentence
opens a picture of some grand object in creation, charac-
terized by its most striking features. Add to this, that its
prophetic parts reQect much light on the economy of God's
moral government, revealing the consoling truth, that in
this transitory state of discipline, it is whom the Lord lov-
eth he cha.steneth ; and every admirer of sacred antiquity,
every inquirer after religious instruction, will seriously re-
joice that the sublime wish of Job 19: 23, is realized
to a more effectual and unforeseen accomplishment ;
that while the memorable records of antiquity have
mouldered from the rock, the prophetic assurance and sen-
timents of Job are graven in Scriptures that no time shall
alter, no changes shall efface. The best translation of
this book is that of Mr. Noyes. The best analysis bv far,
of its arguments, is that of Dr. Good. See Home's In-
troduction ; Magee on Atonement, Notes ; Memoir, Transla-
tion, and Notes, of Vr. Good. — Calmet ; Jones; Watson.
JOEL ; the second of the twelve lesser prophets. It is
impossible to ascertain the age in which he lived, but it
seems most probable that he was contemporary with Ho-
sea. No particulars of his life or death are certainly
known. His prophecies are confined to the kingdom of
Judah. He inveighs against the sins and impieties of the
people, and threatens them with divine vengeance ; he ex-
horts to repentance, fasting, and prayer ; and promises
the favor of God to those who should be obedient. The
principal predictions contained in this book are the Chal-
dean iuvsision, under the figurative representation of '<^
custs ; the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus ; the bless-
ings of the gospel dispensation ; the conversion and re-
storation of the Jews to their own land ; the overthrow
of the enemies of God ; and the glorious state of the
Christian church in the end of the world. The style of
Joel is perspicuous and elegant, and his descriptions are
remarkably animated and poetical. — Watson ; Home.
JOGEES, or Joguis. (See Yogees.)
JOHANAN ; high-priest, sou of Azariah the high-priest,
and father of another Azariah, 1 Chron. 6: 9, 10. Some be-
lieve him to be Jehoiada, the father of Zechariah, in the reign
of Joash, king of Judah, 2 Chron. 24: 11. &c. — Calmet.
JOHN HIRCANUS ; son of eimon Maccabaeus, and
high-priest of the Jews. He made himself master of all
Judea, Samaiia, Galilee, and many frontier towns ; so
that he was one of the most powerful princes of his time.
At home, however, he was troubled by the Pharisees, who
envied h\s exaltation, and at length their mutual ill-will
broke out into open enmity. John forbade the observance
of such ceremonies as were founded on tradition only ;
and he enforced his orders by penalties on the contuma-
cious. He is said to have built the castle of Baris, on the
mount of the temple ; which became the palace of the
Asraonean princes ; and where the pontifical vestments
were kept. After having been high-priest twenty-nina
years, John died, B. C. 107. Josephus says he was en-
dowed with the spirit of prophecy, Antiq. Ub. xiii. 17, 18 ;
iviii. 6. 2 Mac. 3: 11, et al. — Calmet.
JOHN THE BAPTIST, {qui immergit,) the greatest of
prophets, and the forerunner of the Jlessiah, was the son of
Zechariah and Elisabeth, and bom about six months be-
fore the Savior, Luke 1: 5 — 15.
Of the early part of his life, we have but little informa-
tion. It is only obser\'ed, " that he grew and v.'axed
strong in the Spirit, and was in the deserts till the day of
his showing unto Israel," ver. 80. Though consecrated
from the womb to the ministerial ofliice, John did not enter
upon it in the heat of youth, but after several years spent
in solitude, and a course of self-denial. He had gained
the conquest of his own passions, and was mortified to
the temptations of the world, before he went forth to
preach repentance to others. Divine knowledge is not to
be acquired in the busy scenes of life, amidst the noisp
of folly, the clamor of parties, the confusion of opinions,
and the allurements of vice. In the world we may learn
much of what is generally admired ; but if we would gain
spiritual wisdom, obtain the master)' of our passions, and
an habitual love of holiness, we must, at least occasionally,
retire from the world, to commune with our own hearts,
and be still.
The prophetical descriptions of the Baptist in the Old
Testament are various and striking. That by Isaiah is
direct and unequivocal, ch. 40: 3. The voice which was
thus sounded in the prophet's ears before it was really
heard upon the earth, was that of the Baptist, who, at a
proper season, was sent to dispose the hearts of men for
the reception of the Savior.
Blalachi has the following prediction: "Behold I will
send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great
and dreadful day of the Lord. And he shall turn the
hearts of the fathers to the children, and the hearts of the
children to the fathers, lest I come and smite the earth
with a curse," ch. 4: 5. That this was meant of the Bap-
tist, we have the testimony of our Lord himself, who de-
clared, " For all the prophets and the law prophesied until
John. And if ye will receive it, this is Elias who was to
come," Blatt. li: 14.
The appearance and manners of the Baptist, when he
first came out into the world, excited general attention.
His clothing was of camel's hair, bound around him with
a leathern girdle, and his food consisted of locusts ami
wild honey, Matt. 3: 4. The message which he declared
was authoritative : "Repent ye, for the kingdom of hea-
ven is at hand ;" and the impression produced by his faith-
ful reproofs and admonitions was powerful and extensive,
and in a great number of instances lasting. Most of the
first followers of our Lord appear to have been awakened
to seriousness and religious inquiry by John's ministry.
His first station for preaching and baptizing was at Be-
JOH
[ 696
JOH
I'tiabara, on ihe river JorJan. (See Jurdan; Betbaeara;
.'uDEA ; Wilderness.) He afterwards went up the river
to Eiion. (See Enon.)
His character was jo eminent, that many of the Jews
thought him to be the Messiah ; but he plainly declared
that he was not that exalted personage. Nevertheless,
he was at first unacquainted with the person of Jesus
Christ ; only the Holy Glio.st had told him that he on
whom he should see the Holy Spirit descend and rest was
the Messiah. When Jesus Christ presented himself to re-
ceive baptism from him, the sign was vouchsafed ; and
from that time he bore his testimony to Jesus, as the Christ.
A beautiful fealure in John's character is the lowly
spirit which on every occasion he manifested. Great
popularity is dangej'ous to the most sanctified minds. But
in what a critical situation was the Baptist placed, when
followed by men of all ranks, sects, and parties : his fame
echoed far and near, and " all men mused in their hearts
concerning him, whether he was the Christ!" John 1: 19
—28, and 3: 23 — 36. Let every minister of Christ imi-
tate John in turning the public attention from himself to
the Savior. (.See the article Baptism.)
Herod Antipas, having married his brother Philip's
wife while Philip was .still living, occasioned great scan-
rial. John the Baptist, with his usual liberty and vigor,
reproved Herod to his face ; and told him that it was not
lawful for him to have his brother's wife, while his bro-
ther was yet alive. Herod, incensed at this freedom, or-
dered him into custody, in the castle of Machcerus ; where
he ultimately put him to death. (See Antipas.) Thus
(A. D. 32.) fell this honored prophet, a martyr to ministe-
rial faithfulness. Other prophets testified of Christ; he
pointed to him as already come. Others saw him afar
off; he beheld the advancing glories of his ministry
eclipsing his own, and rejoiced to "decrease" whilst his
Master " increased." His ministry stands as a type of
the true character of evangelical repentance : it goes be-
fore Christ and prepares his way ; it is humbling, but not
despairing ; fot it points to " the Lamb of God which
taketh away the sins of the world."
The Jews had such an opinion of this prophet's sanctity,
that they ascribed the overthrow of Herod's army, which
he had sent against his father-in-law Aretas, to the just
judgment of God for putting John the Baptist to death.
The death of John was sharp, but momentary ; and
though sudden, it did not find him unprepared. From the
darkness and confinement of a prison, he passed to the
liberty and light of heaven : and while malice was grati-
fied with a sight of his head, and his body was carried by
a few friends in silence to the grave, his immortal spirit
repaired to a court, where no Herod desires to have his
brother's wife ; where no Herodias thirsts after the blood
of a prophet ; where he who hath labored with sincerity
and diligence in the work of reformation is sure to be well
received ; where holiness, zeal, and constancy, " are
crowned, and receive palms from the Son of God, whom
they confessed in the world." Bishop Nome's Life of John
Ihe Baptist ; Rohiiisoii's Historij of Baptism. — Jones; Watson.
JOHN, (St., Christians of.) (See Christians of St.
John,)
JOHN, (the Evangelist,) was a native of Bethsaida,
in Galilee, son of Zebedee and Salome, by profession a
fisherman. Some have thought that he was a disciple of
John the Baptist before he attended Jesus Christ. He
was brother tu James the Greater. It is believed that St.
Johii was the youngest of the apostles. Tillemont is of
opinion thai he was twenty-five or twenty-six years of age
when he began to follow Jesus. Our Savior had a par-
ticular friendship fur him ; and he describes himself by
the name of " that disciple whom Jesus loved." St. John
was one of the four apostles to whom our Lord delivered
his predictions relative to the destruction of Jerusalem,
and the approaching calamities of the Jewish nation,
Mark 13: 3. St. Peter, St. James, and St. Juhn were cho-
sen to accompany our Savior on several occasions, when
the other apostles were not permitted to be present. When
Christ restored the daughter of Jairus to life, (Mark 5:
37. Luke 8: 51.) when he was transfigured on the mount,
(Matt. 17: 1, 2. Mark 9: 2. Luke 9: 28.) and when he
endured his agony in the garden, (Matt. 26: 36, 37. Mark
14: 32, 33,) St. Peter. St. James, and St. John were his
only attendants. That St. John was treated by Christ
with greater familiarity than Ihe other apostles, is evident
from St. Peter's desiring him to ask Christ who should be-
tray him, when he himself did not dare to propose the
question, John 13: 24. He seems to have been the only
apostle present at the cmcifixion, and to him Jesus, just
as he was expiring upon the cross, gave the strongest
proof of his confidence and regard, by consigning to him
the care of his mother, John 19; 26, 27. As St. John had
been witness to the death of our Savior, by seeing the
blood and water issue from his side, which a soldier had
pierced, (John 19: 34, 35.) so he was one of the first
made acquainted with his resurrection. Without any he-
sitation, he believed this great event, though '■ as yet he
knew not the Scripture, that Christ was to rise from the
dead," John 20: 9. He was also one of those to whom
our Savior appeared at the sea of Galilee ; and he was
afterwards, with the other ten apostles, a witness of his
ascension into heaven, Mark 16: 19. Luke 24: 51. St.
John continued to preach the gospel for some time at Je-
rusalem : he was imprisoned by the sanhedrim, first with
Peter only, (Acts 4: 1, &c.) and afterwards with the other
apostles, Acts 5: 17, 18. Some time after this second re-
lease, he and St. Peter were sent by the other apostles to
the Samaritans, whom Philip the deacon had converted
to the gospel, that through them they might receive the
Holy Ghost, Acts 8: U, 15. St. John informs us, in his
Revelation, that he was banished to Patmos, an island
in the jEgean sea. Rev. 1: 9. This banLshment is men-
tioned by many of the early ecclesiastical writers ; all of
whom, except Epiphanius in the fourth century, agree in
attributing it to Domitian. Sir Isaac Newton was of opin-
ion that John was banished to Patmos in the time of Nero ;
but even the authority of this great man is not of suffi-
cient weight against the unanimous voice of antiquity.
Dr. Lardner has examined and answered his arguments
with equal candor and learning.
It is not known at what time John Went into Asia Mi-
nor. Lardner thought that it was about the year 66. It
is certain that he lived in Asia Minor the latter part of
his life, and principally at Ephesus. He planted churches
at Smyrna, Pergamos, and many other places ; and, by
his activity and success in propagating the gospel, he is
supposed to have incurred the displeasure of Domitian.
Irenaeus, speaking of the vision which he had in Patmos,
says, " It is not very long ago that it was seen, being but a
little before our time, at the latter end of Domitian's reign."
An opinion has prevailed, that he was, by order of Domi-
tian, thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, and
came out unhurt ; but this account rests almost entirely
on the authority of TertuUian, and seems to deserve little
credit. On the succession of Nerva to the empire, in the
year 96, John returned to Ephesus, where he died at an ad-
vanced age, in the third year of Trajan's reign, A. D. 100.
2. The genuineness of St. John's gospel has always
been unanimously admitted by the Christian church. It
is universally agreed that St. John published his gospel in
Asia ; and that, when he wrote it, he had seen the other
three gospels. It is, therefore, not only valuable in itself,
but also a tacit confirmation of the other three ; with none
of which it disagrees in any material point. The time
of its publication is placed by some rather before, and by
others considerably after, the destruction of Jerusalem.
If we accede to the opinion of those who contend for the
year 97, this late date, exclusive of the authorities which
support it, seems favored by the contents and design of
the gospel itself The immediate design of St. John in
writing his gospel, as we are assured by Irenaeus, Jerome,
and others, was to refute the Cerinthians, Ebionites, and
other heretics, whose tenets, though they branched out
into a variety of subjects, all originated from erroneous
opinions concerning the person of Christ, and the creation
of the world. These points had been scarcely touched
upon by the other evangelists ; though they had faithfully
recorded all the leading facts of our Savior's life, and his
admirable precepts for the regulation of our conduct. St.
John, therefore, undertook, perhaps at the request of the
true believers in Asia, to write what Clement of Alexan-
dria called a spiritual gospel ; and, accordingly, we find in
JOH
[697 J
JOH
it more of doctriiie, and less of historical narrative, than
in any of the others. It is also to be remembered, that this
book, which contains so much additional information re-
'lative to the doctrines of Christianity, and which may be
considered as a standard of faith for all ages, was written
by that apostle who is known to have enjoyed, in a greater
degree than the rest, the affection and confidence of the
divine Author of our religion ; and to whom was given a
special revelation concerning the state of the Christian
church in all succeeding generations.
His object in writing, as slated by himself, (John 20:
31.) is threefold ; to prove, 1. That Jesus is the promised
Messiah; 2. That his person is truly divine ; and, 3. That
eternal life may be obtained by faith in liis name. The
first fourteen verses of the first chapter lay down the same
propositions at large ; and the selection of facts, testimony,
and evidence throughout the whole book, is made to bear
with admirable skill and irresistible force on their illustra-
tion and establishment.
3. We have three epistles by this apostle. Some critics
have thought that all these epistles were written during
St. John's exile in Patmos ; the first, to the Ephesian
church ; the others to individuals ; and that they were
sent along with the gospel, which the apostle is supposed
also to have written in Fatmos. Thus Hug observes, in
his " Introduction :" — If St. John sent his gospel, to the
continent, an epistle to the community was requisite, com-
mending and dedicating it to them. Other evangehsts,
who deposited their works in the place of their residence,
personally superintended them, and delivered them per-
sonally ; consequently they did not require a written do-
cument to accompany them. An epistle w'as therefore
requisite, and, as we have abundantly proved the first of
John's epistles to be inseparable from the gospel, its con-
tents demonstrate it to be an accompanying writing, and
a dedication of the gospel. It went consequently to
Ephesus. We can particularly corroborate this by the
following observation : John, in the Apocalypse, has in-
dividually distinguished each of the Christian communi-
ties, which lay the nearest within his circle and his super-
intendence, by criteria, taken from their fauHs or their
virtues. The church at Ephesus he there describes by
the following traits ; It was thronged with men who arro-
gated to themselves the ministry and apostolical authority,
and were impostors. But in particular he feelingly re-
proaches it because its "first love was cooled." The cir-
cumstance of impostors and false teachers happens in
more churches. But decreasing love is an exclusive cri-
terion and faiUcg, which the apostle reprimands in no
other community. According to his judgment, want of
love was the characteristic fault of the Ephesians : but
this epistle is from beginning to the end occupied with ad-
monitions to love, with recommendations of its value,
with corrections of those who are guiltv of this fault, 1
John 2: 5, 9—11, 15. 3: 1, 11, 12, 14— 'l8, 23. 4: 7—10,
12, 16 — 21. 5: 1 — 3. Must not we therefore declare, if
we compare the opinion of the apostle respecting the
Ephesians with this epistle, that, from its peculiar tenor,
it is not so strikingly adapted to any community in the
first instance as to this ?
The second epistle is directed to a matron, who is not
named, but only designated by the honorable mention,
" the elect lady." The two chief positions, which are
discussed in the first epistle, constitute the contents of this
brief address. He again alludes to the words of our Sa-
vior. " a new commandment," cScc, as in 1 John 2: 7, and
■recommends love, which is manifested by obsen'ance of
the commandments. After this he warns her against
false teachers, who deny that Jesus entered into the world
as the Christ, or Messiah, and forbids an intercourse with
them. At the end, he hopes soon to see her himself, and
complains of the want of writing materials. The whole
is a short syllabus of the first epistle, or it is the first in a
renewed form. The words also are the same. It is still
fall of the former epistle ; nor are they separated from
each other as to time. The matron appears before his
mind in the circumstances and dangers of the society, in
instructing and admonishing which he had just been em-
ployed. If we may judge from local circumstances, she
also lived at Ephesus. But as for the author, his residence
was in none of the Ionian or Asiatic cities, where the
want of writing materials is not conceivable : he was still
therefore in the place of his exile. The other circum-
stances noticed in it, are probably the following : The son's
of the elect lady had visited John, 2 John 4. The sister
of this matron wishing to show to him an equal respect
and sympathy in his fate, sent her sons likewise to visit
the apostle. Whilst the latter were with the apostle, there
was an opportunity of sending to the continent, (2 John
13.) namely, of despatching the two epistles and the gospel.
The third epistle is written to Caius. The author con-
soles himself with the hope, as iu the former epistle, of
soon coming himself, 3 John 14. He still experiences
the same want of writing materials, 3 John 13. Con.sP-
quently, he was still living in the same miserable place .
also, if we may judge from his hopes, the time was nol
very ditferent. The residence of Caius is determined by
the following criteria .- The most general of them is the
danger of being misled by false teachers, 3 John 3, 4.
That whiph leads us nearer to the point, is the circum-
stance of John sometimes sending messages thither, and
receiving accounts from thence ; (3 John 5 — 8.) that he sup-
poses his opinions to be so well known and acknowledged
in this society, that he could appeal to them, as judges re-
specting them ; (3 John 12.) and that, finally, he had many
particular friends among them, 3 John 15. The whole of
this is applicable to a considerable place, where the apostle
had resided for a long time ; and in the second epoch of
his life, it is particularly applicable to Ephesus. He had
lately written to the community, of which Caius was a
member, " I wrote to the church," 3 John 9. If this is to
be referred to the first epistle, (for we are not aware of
any other to a community,) then certainly Ephesus is the
place to which the third epistle was also directed, and was
the place where Caius resided. From hence, the rest con-
tains its own explanation. John had sent his first epistle
thither ; it was the accompanying writing to the gospel,
and with it he also sent the gospel. Who was better
qualified to promulgate the gospel among the believers
than Caius, especially if it was to be published at Ephesus?
The above view is ingenious, and in its leading parts
satisfactory ; but the argument from the apostle's supposed
want of " writing materials" is founded upon a very forced
construction of the texts. There seems, however, no rea-
son to doubt of the close connexion, in point of time, be-
tween the epistles and the gospel ; and, that being remem-
bered, the train of thought in the mind of the apostle
sufficiently explains the peculiar character of the latter.
— Watson; Hornets lutroduction.
JOHN MARK. (See Mark.)
JOHN A LASCO, a Polish reformer, was bom of a
noble family in Poland, and received a learned and ac-
complished education. He also travelled to extend his
knowledge; and his distinguished abilities, learning, and
eloquence, gained him access to several crowned heads,
and made him acceptable ever)'where. It seems that
while visiting Switzerland, di\qne grace first visited his
heart, and not only visited, but fixed its abode within him.
Zuinglius was the instrument of this important change,
who also prevailed on him to study divinity. Leaving
Zurich he returned to his own country, and was appointed
provost of Gnesna, and bishop of 'Vesprim, in Hungary' ;
but these popish appointments he declined, and left Po-
land again in 1540. He became pastor at Embden, in
Frieslandj in 1542. The following year he was engaged
by Anne, countess dowager of Oldenburg, in East Fries-
land, to introduce and establish the reformed religion in
that territory.
In 1549, he was invited by Cranmer into England, to
assist the Reformation, and here many privileges were con-
ferred on him and his friends. He however was dissatis-
fied with the English ritual, and wrote against it. Not-
withstanding this, Edward VI. highly honored him, and
so arranged religious affairs, "that every stranger, who
was not prelected by John a Lasco, became amenable to
the EngUsh governors." After Edward's death, a Lasco
fled to Denmark, where he was refused shelter, because a
Zuinglian in regard to the sacrament, and he therelore
landed in Embden. In 1555, he went to Frankfort, and
in 1560, returned to Poland, w-here he died, greatly es-
JOH
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JON
teemed. He left a number of writings behind him.—
Middletm, Vol.i. p. 492.
JOHNSON, (Samuel, LL. D.,) the English moralist, and
one of the greatest literary characters of the eighteenth cen-
tury, was the son of a bookseller ; was born, in 1709, at
Litchfield ; and completed his education at Pembroke col-
lege Oxford. After having been usher at Market Bos-
worth school, and having married Mrs. Porter, the widow
of a mercer, and vainly endeavored to establish an acade-
my at Edial, he settled in the metropolis, in 1737. In the
following year he published his London, a satire, which
established his poetical reputation, and was praised by
Pope. For some years his subsistence was chiefly derived
from supplying biographical and miscellaneous articles,
inc hiding the debates in parliament, to the Gentleman's
Magazine. His Life of Savage appeared in 1714. From
1747 to 1755, he was engaged on his English dictionary.
In the interval, however, he gave to the world the Vanity
of Human Wishes ; the Rambler ; and the tragedy of
Irene. These labors, however, were more productive of
fame than of profit. He was still obliged to toil to pro-
vide for the passing day, and thus necessity called into ex-
istence the Idler, Kasselas, and various productions of less
consequence. At length, in 1762, a pension of three hun-
dred pounds was granted to him by the crown ; and, in
1765, a large increase was made to his comforts by his he-
coming intimate with the family of Mr. Thrale. In the
course of the last twenty years of his life he produced his
political pamphlets ; an edition of Shakspeare ; a Journey
to the Western Islands of Scotland ; and the Lives of the
Poets. He died December 13, 1784.
The powerful and lofty mind of Johnson was capable
of scorning the ridicule, and defying the opposition of wits
and worldlings to religious seriousness. And yet the na-
ture of his social life was unfavorable to a deep and sim-
ple consideration of Christian truth, and the cultivation
of Christian sentiments ; and the very ascendency by
which he intimidated and silenced impiety contributed to
the injury. His writings contain more expUcit and so-
lemn references to the grand purpose of human life, to a
future judgment, and to eternity, than almost any other
of our elegant moralists has had the piety or the courage
to make. Yet it was not till the closing scene of life, that
his views became perfectly evangelical, and his Christian
character received its full development.
It was truly an instructive scene. It was then that on
a deliberate review of life he said, " I have written like a
philosopher, but I have not lived like one;" adding with
evident agony of spirit, the affecting exclamation, " Shall
I, who have been a teacher of others, be myself a casta-
way ?" His sun did not however set in this cloud. He
at length obtained comfort where alone true comfort could
be obtained, in the sacrifice and mediation of Jesus Christ.
Hawkins ; Boswell ; Wilkes' Chris. Essat/s. — Davenport.
JOHNSON, (Samuel, D. D.,) president of King's col-
lege. New York, was a native of Connecticut, and was
graduated at Yale college. He studied divinity, became
an Episcopalian, and in 1722, went to England to obtain
ordination. In 1754, he was chosen president of the col-
lege just established at New York, and filled the office
with much credit untU 1763, when he resigned and re-
turned to Stratford to resume his pastoral duties. He died
in 1772, in the seventy-sixth year of his age. He was ihe
author of some controversial works, and of a Hebrew and
an English grammar. — Barenport.
JOHNSONIANS ;. the followers of Mr. John Johnson,
many years Baptist minister at Liverpool, in the last cen-
tury, of whose followers there are still several congregations
in different parts of England. He denied that faith was a
duty, or even action of the soul, and defined it " an active
principle" conferred by grace ; and denied also the duty
of ministers to exhort the unconverted, or preach any mo-
ral duties whatever.
Though Mr. Johnson entertained high supralapsarian
notions on the divine decrees, he admitted the universality
of the death of Christ. On the doctrine of the trinity, his
followers are said to have embraced the indwelling scheme,
with Calvinistic views of justification and the atonement.
Johnson's Faith of God's Elect ; Brine's Mistakes of Mr.
Johnson, niS.^^Williams.
JOIN. To be joined to the Lord is to be spiritually
espoused to his Son, and solemnly devoted to his service,
1 Cor. 6: 17. Jer. 1: 5. To be joined to idols is to be
firmly intent on worshipping them, Hos. 4: 17. — Jjrown.
JOINTS, are, (1.) The uniting of bones in an animal
body, Dan. 5: 6. (2.) The uniting parts of a harness, 2
Chron. 18: 33. The joints and bands which unite Christ's
mystical body are his Spirit, ordinances, and influences,
and their mutual relation to him and to one another, and
their graces of faith and love fixed on him, and in him
loving one another. Col. 2: 19. Eph. 4: 16. "TYie joints and
marrow of men's hearts are their secret dispositions, which
the searching word of God, with no small pain to them,
shows and affects them with, Heb. 4: 12. — Brown.
JOKSHAN, second son of Abraham and Keturah,
(Gen. 25: 2.) is thought to have peopled part of Arabia,
and to be the person whom the Arabians call Cahtan, and
acknowledge as the head of their nation. He dwelt in
part of Arabia Felix, and part of Arabia Deserta. This
Moses expressly mentions. Gen. 25: 6. Jokshan's sons
were Sheba and Dedan, who dwelt in the same country,
ver. 3. (See Division of the Earth.) — Calmet.
JOKTAN ; the eldest son of Eber, who had for his por-
tion all the land which lies " from Mesha as thou goest
unto Sephar, a mount of the east," or Kedem, Gen. 10: 25.
Mesha, Calmet takes to be the place where Masias was
situated, in Mesopotamia, and Sephar the country of the
Sepharvaim, or Sepharrenians, or Sapiores, or Serapares ;
for these all denote the same, that is, a people, which, ac-
cording to Herodotus, were placed between the Colchians
and the Medes. Now this was in the provinces which
Moses commonly describes by the name of Kedem, or the
East. We find traces in this country of the names of
Joktan's sons ; which is a further confirmation of this opi-
nion. These sons were Almohad, Shaleph, Hazarmaveth,
Jerah, Hadoram, Uzal, Diklah, Obal, Abimeel, Sheba,
Ophir, Havilah, and Jobab, Gen. 10: 26, &c. — Calmet.
JOKTHEEL, (obedience to the Lord;) a place previously
called Selah, which Amaziah, king of Judah, took from
the Edomites, and which is supposed to have been the city
of Petra, the celebrated capital of the Nabathsei, in Arabia
Petraea, by the Syrians called Rekem, 2 Kings 14: 7.
There are two places, however, which dispute this ho-
nor ; Kerek, a town two days' journey south of Syault, the
see of a Greek bishop, who resides at Jerusalem ; and
Wady-Mousa, a city which is situated in a deep valley at
the foot of mount Hor, and where Burckhardt and more
recent travellers describe the remains of a magnificent and
extensive city. The latter is no doubt the Petra described
by Strabo and Pliny. — Calmet.
JONADAB, son of Rechab, and head of the Rechabites,
lived in the time of Jehu, king of Israel. He is thought
to have added to the ancient austerity of the Rechabites,
that of abstinence from wine ; and to have introduced the
non-cultivation of their lands, 2 Kings 10: 15, 16. — Calmet.
JONAH, son of Amittai, the fifth of the minor prophets, _
was born at Gath-hepher, in Galilee. He is generally
considered as the most ancient of the prophets, and is
supposed to have lived B. C. 840. The book of Jonah is
chiefly narrative.
Upon the repentance of the Ninevites under his preach-
ing, God deferred the execution of his judgment till the
increase of their iniquities made them ripe for destruction,
about a hundred and fifty years afterwards. The last
chapter gives an account of the murmuring of Jonah at
this instance of divine mercy, and of the gentle and conde-
JON
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JON
scending manner in which it pleased God to reprove the
prophet for his unjust complaint.
The style of Jonah is simple and perspicuous ; and his
prayer, in the second chapter, is strongly descriptive of the
feelings of a pious mind under a severe trial of faith.
Our Savior mentions Jonah in the gospel, Matt. 12: 41.
Luke 11: 32. (See Nineveh, andXjouRD.) — W{itso?t.
JONAS, (Justus.) This famous German divine was
born at Northausen, in Thuringia, June 5, 1493, where his
father was chief magistrate. He first studied law, but after-
wards applied himself to theology, when the light of the gos-
pel dawned upon him. He united in one person the charac-
ters of a most able divine and learned civilian ; and as the
state of religion at that time was unavoidably connected
with human politics, he became a very necessary man to
the Protestants in being a skilful politician. He assisted
Luther and Melancthon in the assembly at Marpurg, in
1529, and was afterwards with, Melancthon at the famous
diet of Augsburg, in which he was a principal negotiator.
In 1521, he was made pastor, principal, and professor
at Wittenberg. He aided the Reformation greatly in Jlis-
nia, Thuiingia, and also Saxony. After the death of Lu-
ther, being placed over the church in Eisfield, he there
ended his days in much peace and comfort, October 9,
1555, in his sixty-third year. His loss was widely and
deeply regretted.
Jonas was one of the moderate reformers. His motives
in receding as little as possible from the church of Rome
might be good, but the result of this course in the Lutheran
church has not demonstrated its wisdom. He wrote in
defence of the marriage of priests ; upon the study oj divi-
nity ; Notes on the Acts ; with some other treatises; and
translated several of Luther's works into Latin, — 3Iid-
dleton, vol. i. p. 373.
JONATHAN ; the son of Saul, a prince of an excellent
disposition, and in all varieties of fortune a sincere and
stead)' friend to David. Jonathan gave signal proofs of
courage and conduct upon all occasions that offered, during
the wars between his father and the Philistines. The
death of Jonathan was lamented by David, in one of the
noblest and most pathetic odes ever uttered by genius con-
secrated hy pious friendship. See 1 Sam. 13: 16, &c. 14:
1, 2, &c, — Watson.
JONES, (Jeremiah,) a learned English Dissenting mi-
nister, was born, as is supposed, of parents in opulent cir-
cumstances, in the north of England, in 1693. He was
educated by the Rev. Samuel Jones, of Tewkesbury, who
was also the tutor of Chandler, Butler, Seeker, and many
other distinguished divines. After finishing his education
he became minister of a congregation of Protestant Dis-
senters near Nailsworth, in Gloucestershire, where he also
kept an academy. He died in 1724, at the early age of
thirty-one. His works are, a "Vindication of the former
Part of the Gospel by JIatthew, from Mr. Whiston's Charge
of Dislocation, &c." Also a " New and full Method of
settling the Canonical Authority of the New Testament,"
in tluree volumes, octavo. These works, which are highly
and deservedly esteemed by the learned, have been lately
republished by the conductors of the Clarendon press, of
Oxford, Gentlemen's Magazine, vol. xxiii. ; Monthly Ma-
gazine, AprU, 1803. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
JONES, (Griffith,) called the Welsh Apostle, was born
at Kilredin, in the county of Carmarthen, in 1684, of a re-
ligious and reputable family. A thirst for learning, joined
with a quickness of genius, engaged him in an early and
successful application to .study. From his youth he was
inclined to religious seriousness, which ripening into un-
feigned piety, he devoted himself to the weighty responsi-
bilities of the Christian ministry, and was ordained by
bishop Bull, September 19, 1708. He was made rector
of Llandowror by his friend Sir John Philips, who was
capable of appreciating the worth of his learning and
Christian character.
Here he soon developed all the best quahties of a man
of God and a most eloquent and evangelical preacher,
Christ was all to him ; and it was his greatest delight to
publish and exalt the unsearchable riches of his Redeem-
er's righteousness, A sacred pathos distinguished his
address. He spoke naturally, for he spoke feelingly.
Every thing he uttered bore that stamp of sincerity, which
art may mimic, but cannot reach. Great was the powei
of the Divine Spirit that attended his preaching, both at
home and abroad. Nor was he less blessed in his pastoral
conversations, and various plans of doing good. By
means of his circulating Welsh free-schools more than a
hundred and fifty thousand poor people were taught to
read, and thirty thousand copies of the Welsh Bible circu-
lated among them, besides other useful religious books.
His humility gave lusue to all these labors of love. —
On his dying bed, he said, " I must bear witness to
the goodness of God ! Oh ! how wonderful is the love of
God to me ! Blessed he God, his comforts fill my soul !"
He died April, 1761, aged seventy-seven. At his funeral,
multitudes of poor and disconsolate people testified their
grief in the most affecting manner for the loss of so good
a man, in whom w-ere united the judicious divine, the emi-
nent preacher, the loving pastor, and the faithful friend,
who had labored among them forty-five years. It may
be truly said of him, that few lives were more heavenly
and useful, and few deaths more triumphant. He left
behind him twelve or thirteen volumes, chiefly written
for the benefit of the pious poor, which he had printed and
distributed by thousands. — Middleton, vol. iv. p, 333,
JONES, (TH0M.1S, M. A.,) chaplain of St. Savior's,
Southwark, was born in 1729, and educated at Queen's
college, Cambridge. This excellent man was called to
stand forth in support of the truths of the gospel, at a
period, when those truths seemed to have little impression
among the members of the established church to which he
belonged. An evangelic minister was hardly to be found
in its pale. It might truly be said of them,
Apparent rari luintes in gurgile vasle.
The pulpit then sounded with morality, deduced from the
principles of nature, and the fitness of things, with no rela-
tion to Christ or the Holy Spirit ; and in consequence the
streets resounded with heathen immorality. Flowery lan-
guage was heard in the church and loose language out of
it. Only one pulpit of the establishment, in or about the
great metropolis, it is said, and that only on a Sunday or
Thursday afternoon during term-time, was accessible for
the pure doctrines of the gospel,
BIr. Jones was endowed with great gifts and great
grace ; and he needed both for the work to which Provi-
dence called him. His sweetness of natural temper, great
as it was, would never have supported him under the
numberless insults he met with, had it not been strength-
ened, as well as adorned, by a sublimer influence. He
lived by faith in the Son of God. Various were the me-
thods prompted by his love and zeal, besides the stated
duties of his ofiice, to win souls to the Savior; and when
opposed in one direction, his warm heart was sure to find
out another. His health at length gave way under these
manifold labors, at the early age of thirty-three ; but his
death-bed was triumphant. Once, after praying, "Lord,
secure a soul thou hast died to save," he added joyfully,
" He will, he will : I have part here ; I shall have all
soon !" — Middleton, vol. iv. p. 380,
JONES, (William,) a divine, who was a strenuous
champion of the Hulchinsonian philosophy, was born, in
1726, at Lowick, in Northamptonshire ; wets educated at
the Charter house, and at University college, Oxford; and
died in 1800, perpetual curate of Nayland, and rector of
Paston and HoUingbourne, His theological and philoso-
phical works form twelve octavo volumes. Among them
are. The Catholic Doctrine of the Trinity ; Physiological
Disquisitions ; The Scholar Armed ; Memoirs of Bishop
Home ; and Lectures on the Figurative Language of the
Scriptures. — Darenport.
JONES, (Sir Williaji,) an eminent poet, scholar, and
lawyer, the son of an excellent mathematician, was bom,
in 1746, in London. Mr. Jones, his father, survived the
birth of his son William but three years : his family was
respectable, and his character was excellent. The care ot
the education 6f William now devolved upon his mother,
who, in many respects, was eminently qualified for the
task : she had, by nature, a strong understanding, which
was improved by conversation and instruction. In the
plan adopted by Mrs. Jones for the instruction of her
son, she proposed to reject the severity of discipline, and
JOP
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J OR
U) lead his mind insensiblj' to knowledge and exertion, by
exciting his curiosity, and directing it to useful objects.
William greatly distinguished himself, at Harrow, and at
University college, Oxford ; and. in 17fi5, became tutor to
lord Althorpe, now earl of Spencer, with ^^■hom he travel-
led on the continent. In 1770, he was admitted into the
Inner Temple ; in 1776 he was made a commi.ssioner of
bankrupt ; in 1783 he was knighted, and appointed judge
of the supreme court of judicatuce in Bengal. One of his
early acts in India was the establishment, at Calcutta, of
an institution on the plan of the Koyal society, of which
he was chosen the first president. Another was, to take
vigorous measures for procuring a digest of the Hin-
doo and Mohammedan laws. After a life of great use-
fulness, he died, at Calcutta, in 1794.
His poems, translations, philological essays, and other
works, form twelve volumes. In his command of lan-
guages he had few rivals ; he being more or less ac-
quainted with no fewer than twenty-eight. His poems
are always elegant, often animated, and their versification
is mellitluous. His learning was extensive ; his legal
knowledge was profound ; and he was an enlightened and
zealous champion of constitutional principles.
Above all. Sir William Jones was a Christian. To de-
votional exercises he was habitually attentive. He knew
the duty of resignation to the wiU of his Maker, and of
dependence on the merits of a Redeemer ; and these sen-
timents were expressed in a short prayer, which he com-
posed during an indisposition, in September, 1784, and
which is here inserted, to show the habit of his mind.
" 0 thou Bcstower of all good ! if it please thee to conti-
nm, my easy tasks in this life, grant me strength to per-
form them as a faithful servant ; but if thy wisdom hath
willed to end them by this thy visitation, admit me, not
weighing my unworthiness, but through thy mercy de-
clared in Christ, into thy heavenly mansions, that I may
continually advance in happiness, by advancing in true
knowledge and awful love of thee. Thy will be done !"
Learning, that wantons in irreligion, may, like the Si-
rius of Homer, (lash its strong light upon us ; but though
brilhant, it is baleful, and while it dazzles, makes us
tremble for our safety. The belief of Sir William Jones
in divine revelation is openly and distinctly declared in his
works ; but the above unostentatious eflusion of sequester-
ed adoration, whilst it proves the sincerity of his convic-
tion, gives an additional weight to his avowed opinions.
"I have," says he, "carefully and regularly perused
the Holy Scriptures, and am of opinion, that the volume,
independently of its divine origin, contains more sublimi-
ty, purer morality, more important history, and finer
strains of eloquence, than can be collected from all other
books, in whatever language they may have been writ-
ten." Noble testimony, from a competent judge !
This sketch of the life and character of Sir William
Jones would be imperfect did we not say, that few such
luminaries have ever enlightened the world ; and that,
distinguished as he was for learning, wisdom, taste, and
imagination, he was yet more distinguished for his sincere
piety. See Life of Sir William Jones, by Lord Teignmouth. —
Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
JOPPA ; called also Japho in the Old Testament, which
is still preserved in its modem name of Jaffa or Yafah ; a
sea-port of Palestine, situated on an eminence in a sandy
soil, about forty-five miles north-west of Jerusalem. Joppa
was anciently the port to Jerusalem. Its traditional his-
tory stretches far back into the twilight of time. Pliny
assigns it a date anterior to the deluge ! Here all the
materials sent from Tyre for the building of Solomon's
temple were brought and landed : it was, indeed, the only
port in Judea, though rocky and dangerous. It possesses
still, in times of peace, a considerable commerce with the
places in its vicinity ; and is well inhabited, chiefly by
Arabs. This was the place of landing of the western pil-
grims ; and here the promised pardons commenced during
the crusades.
The present town of Jaffa is seated on a promontory
jutting out into the sea, rising to the height of about one
hundred and fifty feet above its level, and offering on all
sides picturesque and varied prospects. Towards the west
is extended the open sea ; towards the south spread fertile
plains, reaching as far as Gaza ; towards the north, as far a!
Carmel, the flowery meads of Sharon present themselves ;
and to the east, the hills of Ephraim and Judah raise theii
towering heads.' The town is walled round on the south
and east, towards the land, and partially so on the north
and west, towards the sea. — Josephns, Ant. iii. c. 9. s. 2 ;
Calmet ; Watson.
JORDAN ; the largest and most celebrated stream in
Palestine. It is much larger, according to Dr. Shaw, than
all the brooks and streams of the Holy Land united toge-
ther; and, excepting the Nile, is by far the most conside-
rable river either of the coast of Syria or of Barbarv. He
computed it to be about thirty yards broad, and found it
nine feet deep at the brink.
This river, which divides the country into two unequal
parts, has been commonly said to issue from two fbnn-
tains, or to be formed by the junction of two rivulets, the
Jor and the Dan ; but the assertion seems to be destitute
of any solid foundation. Leaving the cave of Panion, it
crosses the bogs and fens of the lake Semichonitis ; and
after a course of fifteen miles, passes under the city of
Julias, the ancient Bethsaida ; then expands into a beau-
tiful sheet of water, named the lake of Gennesareth ; and,
after flowing a long way through the desert, empties itself^
into the lake Asphaltites, or the Dead sea. As the cave
Panion lies at the foot of mount Lebanon, in the north-
em extremity of Canaan, and the lake Asphaltites extends
to the southern extremity, the river Jordan pur.sues Us
course through the whole extent of the country from north
to soiuh. It is evident, also, from the history of Josephus,
that a wilderness or desert of considerable extent stretched
along the river Jordan in the times of the New Testament ;
which was undoubtedly the wilderness mentioned by the
evangelists, where John the Baptist came preaching and
baptizing. The author of " Letters from Palestine" states,
that the stream when it enters the lake Asphaltites is deep
and rapid, rolling a considerable volume of waters ; the
width appears from two to three hundred feet, and the
current is so violent, that a Greek servant belonging to
the author, who attempted to cross it,, though strong, ac-
tive, and an excellent swimmer, found tho undertaking
impracticable.
It may be said to have two banks, of which the inner
marks the ordinary height of the stream ; and the outer,
its ancient elevation during the rainy season, or the melt-
ing of the snows on the summits of Lebanon. In the
days of Joshua, and, it is probable, for many ages after
his time, the harvest was one of the seasons when the
Jordan overflowed his banks, Josh. 3: 15. This happens
in the first month of the Jewish year, which corresponds
with March, 1 Chron. 12: 15. But in modem times, whe-
ther the rapidity of the current has worn the channel
deeper than form,erly, or whether its waters have taken
some other direction, the river seems to have forgotten his
ancient greatness. AVhen Maundrell visited Jordan, on
the thirtieth of March, the proper time for these inunda-
tions, it ran at least two yards below the brink of its chan-
nel. After having descended the outer bank, he went
about a furlong upon the level strand, before he came to
the immediate liank of the river. This inner bank was so
thickly covered with bushes and trees, among which he
observed the tamarisk, the willow, and the oleander, that
he could see no water till he had made his way through
them.
In this entangled thicket, so conveniently planted near
the cooling stream, and remote from the habitations of
men, several kinds of wild beasts were accustomed to re-
pose, till the swelling of the river drove them from their
retreats. This circumstance gave occasion to that beau-
tiful allusion of the prophet : " He shall come up like a
lion, from the swelling of Jordan, against the habitation of
the strong," Jer. 49: 19. The figure is highly poetical and
striking. It is not ea.sy to present a moie terrible image
to the mind, than a lion roused from his den by the roar
of the swelling river, and chafed and irritated by its rapid
and successive encroachments on his chosen haimts, till,
forced to quit his last retreat, he ascends to the higher
grounds and the open country, and turns the fierceness of
his rage against the helpless sheep-cots, or the unsuspect-
ing villages. A destroyer equally fierce, and cruel, and
JOS
L701 ]
J U S
ifresistible, tlie devoted Edomites were to find in Nebu-
chadnezzar and his armies.
The rapidity and depth of the river, which are admitted
by every traveller, allhougli the volume of water seems
now to be much diminished, illustrate those parts of Scrip-
ture which mention the fords and passages of Jordan. It
no longer, indeed, rolls down into the Salt sea so majestic a
stream as in the days of Joshua ; yet its ordinary depth is
f till about ten or twelve feet, so that it cannot even at pre-
sent be passed but at certain places, Judg. 3: 28. 12: 6.
The regular passages over the Jordan were, (1.) Jacob's
bridge, between the lalces Semechon and Gennesareth,
said to be the place where Jacob met his brother Esau,
and where he wrestled with an angel. — (2.) A bridge at
Chammath, at the issue of the river from the lake of Gen-
nesareth.—(3.) A ferry at Beth-abara, 2 Sam. 19: 18. 2
Kings 2: 8. John 1: 28. — (4.) It is probable that there was
another at Bethshan, or Scythopolis.
The difficulty, felt by Mr. Maundrell, will be completely
removed, by supposing, that it does not, like the Nile,
overflow every year, but, like Ihe Euphrates, only in some
particular years ; but when it does, it is in the time of
han'est. Even the Nile, however, sometimes (though
rarely) fails ; and it may be so with the Jordan. If it did
not in ancient times annually overdow its banks, the
majesty of God in dividing its waters to make way for
Joshua and the armies of Israel, was certainly Ihe more
striking to the Canaanites ; who, when they looked upon
themselves as defended in an extraordinary manner by
the casual swelling of the river, its breadth and rapidity
being both so extremely increased, yet, found it in these
circumstances part asunder, and leave a way on dry land
for the people of Jehovah.
The phrase " beyond Jordan," in the early books of Mo-
ses and in Joshua, means the west of the river; but sub-
sequently, that is, when the Hebrews had taken possession
of the country, the term has the opposite meaning, de-
noting the country east of the river.
The Talmudists say, that " the waters of the Jordan are
not fit to sprinkle the unclean, because they are mixed
waters;" meaning, mixed with the waters of other rivers
and brooks, which empty themselves into it. The reader
will compare with this the opinion of Naaman the Syrian,
(2 Kings 5: 11, 12.) who probably had received the same
notion. Perhaps, too, this their inferiority was well un-
'derstood, and not forgotten by the prophet of Israel. Eo-
bir.son 071 Baptism — Wat sun ; Cahnet ; Robinson's Bible Die.
JORTIN, (Dr. John.) an eminent theologian and scho-
lar, and the son of a French refugee, was born, in 1698,
in London ; was educated at the Charter house, and Je-
sus college, Oxford ; and held, successively, the livings
of Swavesey, St. Dunslan's in the East, and Kensington.
He was also a prebendary of St. Paul's, and archdeacon
of London. He died, at Kensington, in 1770, as much
beloved for his private virtues as admired for his piety,
learning, abilities, liberality of mind, and contempt of sub-
serviency. Among his works are, Discotirses concerning
Ihe Truth of the Christian Religion; Lusus Poetici ; a
Life of Erasrnus; Remarks on Ecclesiastical History;
Sermons; and Six Dissertations on different subjects.
His " Remarks on Ecclesiastical History" is a work uni-
versally allowed to be curious, interesting, and impartial ;
full of manly sense, acuteness, and profound erudition.
Few will be found whose names stand higher in the
esteem of the judicious than Dr. Jortin's. — Davenport ;
Jones' Chris. Biog.
JOSEPH; son of Jacob and Rachel, and brother to Ben-
jamin, Gen. 30: 22, 24. The history of Joseph is so fully
and consecutively given by Moses, that it is not necessary
to abridge so familiar an acoount. In place of this, the
following beautiful argument by Mr. Blunt for the vera-
city of- the account, drawn from the identity of Joseph's
character, will be read with pleasure.
"I have already found an argument for the veracity of
Moses in the identity of Jacob's character ; I now find ano-
ther in the identity of that of Joseph. There is one qua-
lity, as it has been often observed, though with a difl^erent
view from mine, which runs like a thread through his
whole history — his affection for his father. Israel loved
him, we read, more than all his children ; he was the
child of his age ; his mother died whilst he was yet young,
and a double care of him consequently devolved upon
his surviving parent. He made him a coat of many co-
lors ; he kept him at home when his other sons were sent
to feed the flocks. When the bloody garment was brought
in, Jacob, in his affection for him, that same affection
which, on a subsequent occasion, when it was told him
that after all Joseph was alive, made him as slow to be-
lieve the good tidings as he was now quick to apprehend
the sad ; in this his affection for him, I say, Jacob at once
concluded the worst, and 'he rent his clothes and put
sackcloth upon his loins, and mourned for his son many
days, and all his daughters rose up to comfort him ; but
he refused to be comforted, and he said. For I will go
down into the grave unto my son mourning.'
" Now, what were the feelings in Joseph which responded
to these? When the sons of Jacob went down to Egypt,
and Joseph knew them, though they knew not him ; for
they, it may be remarked, were of an age not to be greatly
changed by the lapse of years, and were still sustaining
the character in which Josejfli had always seen them ;
whilst he himself had meanwhile grown out of the strip-
ling into the man, and from a shepherd-boy was become
Ihe ruler of a kingdom ; when his brethren thus came be-
fore him, his question was, 'Is your father yet alive?'
Gen. 43: 7. They went down a second time, and again
.the question was, ' Is your father well, the old man of
whom j'e spake, is he yet alive ?' Jlore he could not
venture to ask, whilst he was yet in his disguise. By a
stratagem he now detains Benjamin, leaving the others, if
they would, to go Iheir nay. But Judah came near unto
him. and entreated him for his brother, telling him how
that he had been surely to his father to bring him back ;
how that his father was an old man, and that this was the
child of his old age, and that he loved him ; how it would
come to pass that if he should not see the lad with him he
v\-ould die, and his gray hairs be brought with sorrow to
the grave ; for ' how shall I go to my father, and the lad
be not with me, lest, peradventure, I see Ihe evil that
shall come on my father?' Here, without knowing it, he
had struck the string that was the lenderest of all. Jo-
seph's firmness forsook him at this repeated mention of
his father, and in terms so touching : he could not refrain
himself any longer; and, causing every man to go out,
he made himself known to his brethren. Then, even in
the paroxysm which came on him, (for he wept aloud, so
that the Egj-ptians heard,) still his first words uttered
from the fulness of his heart were, ' Doth my father yet
live ?' He now bids them hasten and bring the old man
down, bearing to him tokens of his love and tidings of his
glory. He goes to meet him ; he presents himself unto
him, and falls on his neck, and weeps on his neck a good
while ; he'provides for hiin and his household out of the
fat of the land; he sets him before Pharaoh. By and by
he hears that he is sick, and hastens to visit him ; he re-
ceives his blessing; walches bis death-bed; embalms his
body ; mourns for him threescore and ten days ; and then
carries him, as he had desired, into Canaan to bury him,
taking with him. as an escort to do him honor, 'all the
elders of Israel, and all the scn-anis of Pharaoh, and all
his house, and the house of his brethren, chariots and
horsemen, a verj' great company.' How natural was it
now for his brethren to think that the lie by which alone
they could imagine Joseph to be held to them was dis-
solved; that any respect he might have felt or feigned for
them must have been buried in the cave of Machpelah,
and that he would now requite to them Ihe evil they had
done ! ' And they sent a messenger unto Joseph, saying,
Thy father did command before he died, saying. So 'shall
ye say unto Joseph, Forgive, I pray thee now, the trespass
of thy brethren, and Iheir sin ; for they did unto thee evil.'
And then Ihey add of themselves, as if well aware of Ihe
surest road to their brother's heart, ' Forgive, we pray
thee, the trespass of Ihe servants of Ihe God of thy father'.'
In every thing the fathers name is still put foremost : it
is his memory which they count upon as iheir shield and
buckler.
" It is not the singular beauty of these scenes, or the
moral lesson they leach, excellent as it is. with which I
am now concerned, but simnly the perfect artless consis-
JO 3
;f2 I
JOS
tency wliicli prevails through ihein af!. Ii is nui i!] > con-
stancy with which the son's strong aH'cclioii lor his I'alhrr
had lived through an interval of twenty years' aljsencf,
and, what is more, through the temptation of sudden pro-
motion to the highest estate ; it is not the noble-minded
frankness with which he still acknowledges his kindred,
and makes way for them, ' shepherds' as they were, to
the throne of Pharaoh himself; it is not the simplicity and
singleness of heart which allcnv him to give all the first-
born of Egypt, men over whom he bore absolute rule, an
opportunity of observiug his own comparatively humble
origin, by leading them in attendance upon his father's
corpse to the valleys of Canaan and the modest cradle of
his race ; it is not, in a word, the grace, but the idmtitij,
of Joseph's character, the light in which it is exhibited liy
himself, and the light in which it is regarded by his
brethren, to which I now point as stamping it with marks
of reality not to be gainsayed."
Some wiiters have considered Joseph as a type of
Christ; and it requires not much ingenuity to find out
some resemblances, as his being hated by his brethren,
sold for money, plunged into deep affliction, and then
raised to power and honor, &c. ; but a.i we have no inti-
mation in any part of Scripture that Joseph was consti-
tuted a figure of our Lord, and that this was one design
of recording his history at length, all such applications
want authority, and cannot safely be indulged. The ac-
count seems rather to have been left for its moral uses,
and that it should afford, by its inimitable simplicity and
truth to nature, a point of irresistible internal evidence of
the truth of the Mosaic narrative.
2. Joseph, the pious husband of Mary, and reputed fa-
ther of Jesus, was the son of Jacob and grandson of Mat-
than. Matt. 1: 15, 16, 19. 13: 55.
It is probable that Joseph died before Christ entered
upon his public ministry ; for upon any other supposition
we are at a loss to account for the reason why Blarj', the
mother of Jesus, is frequently mentioned in the evangelic
narrative, while no allusion is made to Joseph ; and, above
all, why the dying Savior should recommend his mother
to the care of the beloved disciple John, if her husband
had been then living, John 19: 25 — 27.
3. Joseph of Akimathea ; a Jewish senator, and a be-
liever in the divine mission of Jesus Christ, John 19: 38.
St. Luke calls him a counsellor, and also informs us that
he was a good and just man, who did not give his consent
to the crucifixion of Christ, Luke 23: 50, 51. And though
unable to restrain the sanhedrim from their wicked pur-
poses, he went to Pilate by night, and solicited from him
t'le body of Jesus, and laid it in his own new and unoccu-
pied lonib. Matt. 27: 57—60. John 19: .38— 42.— rFoAmn.
JOSEPHUS, (Flavius ;) bom thirty-seven years after
Christ, at Jerusalem, of the sect of the Pharisees, and, for
a long time, the governor of Galilee. He afterwards ob-
tained the command of the Jewish army, and supported
with skill, courage, and resolution, a siege of seven weeks,
in the fortified townofJotapha, where he was attacked by
Vespasian and Titus. The town was betrayed to the ene-
my ; forty thousand of the inhabitants were cut to pieces,
and twelve hundred made prisoners. Josephus was dis-
covered in a cave in which he had concealed himself, and
was given up to the Roman general, who was about to
send him to Nero, when, as it is related, he predicted that
Vespasian would one day enjoy the imperial dignity, and
thereupon obtained both freedom and favor. This induced
him, when he went with Titus to Jeru-salem, to advise his
countrymen to submission.
After the conquest of Jerusalem, he went with Titus to
Rome, and wrote his " History of the Jewish War," of
.which he had been an eye-witness, in seven books, both
in the Hebrew and Greek languages — a work which re-
sembles the writings of Livy more than any other history.
His "Jewish Antiquities," in twenty books, is likewise an
excellent work. It contains the history of the Jews, from
the earliest times till near the end of the reign of Nero.
His two books on the " Antiquity of the Jewish People"
contain valuable extracts from old historians, and are
written against Appion, an Alexandrian grammarian, and
a declared enemy of the Jews. The best edition of his
works Is that of Havercamp, Amsterdam, 1729, in two
\oi!iines, folio, Greek and Latin. The last edition, by
Ob'-'iilier, Leipsic, 1781-5, is in octavo.— //enrf. Buck.
JOSHUA, the heroic son of Nim. He was of the tribe of
Ephraim, and horn A. M. 24liO. He devoted himself to
the service of Moses, and in Scripture he is commonly
called the servant of Moses, Exod. 24: 13. 33:11. Deut.
1: 38, Arc. His first name was Hosea, or Oshea ; Hoseah
signifj-ing Savior ; Jehoshua, the salvation of Jehovah, or
Je/iovah irill save,
Joshua succeeded Bloses in the government of Israel,
about the year of the world 2553, and died at Timnath-
serah, in the hundred and tenth year of his age, A. M.
2570.
His piety, courage, and disinterested integrity are
conspicuous throughout his whole history ; and, exclusive
of the inspiration which enlightened his mind and writings,
he derived divine information, sometimes by immediate
revelation from God, (Josh. 3: 7. 5: 13 — 15.) at others,
from the sanctuarj', through the medium of Eleazer, the
high-priest, the son of Aaron, who, having on the breast-
plate, presented himself before the mercy-seat, on which
the Shechinah, or visible symbol of the divine presence,
rested, and there consulted Jehovah by the Urim and Thum-
mim, to which an answer was returned by an audible
voice.
2. The BOOK OF Joshua continues the sacred history
from the period of the death of Moses to that of the death
of Joshua and of Eleazer ; a space of about thirty years.
It contains an account of the conquest and division of the
land of Canaan, the renewal of the covenant with the
Israelites, and the death of Joshua. There are two pas-
sages in this book which show that it was written by a
person contemporary with the events it records, Josh. 5:
1. 6: 25.
■ Upon the miracle wrought at the word of Joshua, record-
ed in Josh. 10: 12 — 14, much has been written. Objec-
tors have urged that the language of Jo.shua, in corres-
pondence with which the miracle is said to have occurred,
is not in accordance with the ascertained economy of the
universe ; and that if even this objection could be di.sposed
of, an unanswerable one against the fact would remain,
because such an occurrence must have involved the whole
system in a common ruin. To these objections it has been
replied, (1.) That the Hebrew general expressed himself
in popular language, as, indeed, he was compelled to do,
unless he would have incurred the charge of insanity ;
and, (2.) That the miracle consisted in an extraordinary
refraction of the solar and lunar rays, and did not imply
any cessation of the molion of the heavenly bodies.
Though there is not a perfect agreement among the
learned concerning the author of this book, yet by far the
most general opinion is, that it was written by Joshua
himself; and, indeed, in the last chapter it is said that
" Joshua wrote these words in the book of the law of God ;"
which expression seems to imply that he subjoined this
history to that written by Jloses. The last five verses,
giving an account of the death of Joshua, w-ere added by
one of his successors ; probably by Eleazer, Phinehas, or
Samuel. — Wntson ; Calmet.
JOSIAH, king of Judah, deserves particular mention
on account of his wisdom and piety, and some memora-
ble events that occurred in the course of his reign.
He succeeded to the throne, upon the assassination of
his father Anion, at the age of eight years, B. C. 640; and
at a period when idolatry and wickedness, encouraged by
his father's profligate example, very generally prevailed.
Josiah, who manifested the influence of pious and virtuous
principles at a very early age, began in his sixteenth year
to project the reformation of the kingdom, and to adopt
means for restoring the worship of the true God. At the
age of twenty years he vigorously pursued the execution
of the plans which he had meditated. He began with
abolishing idolatry, first at Jerusalem, and then through
different parts of the kingdom ; destroying the altars which
had been erected, and the idols which had been the objects
of veneration and worship. He then proceeded, in his
twenty-sixth year, to a complete restoration of the worship
of God, and the regular service of the temple. Whilst he
was prosecuting this pious work, and repairing the temple,
which had been long neglected, and which had stink into
JOY
[ 703 ]
JUD
a state of dilapidation, the book of the law, which had
been concealed in the temple, was happily discovered.
This was, probably, a copy of the Pentateuch, which had
been lodged there for security by some pious priest in
the reign of Ahaz or Blanasseh. Josiah, desirous of aver^
ing from himself and the kingdom threatened judgments,
determined to adhere to the directions of the law, in the
business of reformation which he had undertaken ; and to
observe the festivals enjoined by Moses, which had been
shsimefully neglected.
But, in pursuing his laudable plans of reformation, he
■was resisted by the inveterate habits of the Israelites ; so
that his zealous and persevering efforts were inefl'eclual.
Their degeneracy was so invincible, that the Almighty
Sovereign was provoked to iniiict upon them those calami-
ties which were denounced by the prophet Zephaniah.
Josiah was slain at Megiddo, in the thirty-ninth year of his
age, B. C. 609. His death was greatly lamented by all
his subjects ; and an elegy was written on the occasion by
the prophet Jeremiah, which is not now extant, 2 Kings
22, 23. 2 Chron. 34, 35.— Watson.
JOT ; a shortened form of the Greek letter lotn, and
the Hebrew Yod or Ji/d. It is the smallest letter in each
of these alphabets, and is therefore used emphatically
to denote the smallest part, or least particle. This also is
its meaning in English, Matt. 5; 18. Eebinson's Bib.
Diet.
JOTBATHAH ; an encampment of Israel, in the
wilderness, between Gidgad and Ebronah, (Numb. 33:
34.) which Mr. Taylor takes to be the same as the graves
of lust ; li-taahalha, signifying a heap of lust. — Calmet.
JOURNEY. A day's journey is reckoned about sixteen
or twenty miles. To this distance around the Hebrew
camp were the quails scattered for food for the people.
Numb. 11: 31. Shaw computes the eleven d.ays' journey
from Sinai to Kadesh-barnea to be about one hundred and
ten miles, Deut. 1: 2. A Sabbath day^s journey is reckoned
by the Hebrews at about seven furlongs, or one mile and
three quarters ; (Matt. 24: 20.) and it is said that if any Jew
travelled above this from the city on the Sabbath he was
beaten ; but it is probable they were allowed to travel as
far to the synagogue as was neccessary, Acts. 1: 12. 2
Kings 4: 23. The Hebrews seem to have had fifty-two
journeys or marches from Rameses to Gilgal, Numb. 33.
— Brown.
JOY ; a delight of the mind, arising from the considera-
tion of a present or assured approaching possession of a
future good. When it is moderate, it is called gladness;
when raised on a sudden to the highest degree, it is then
exultation or transport ; when we limit our desires by our
possessions, it is contentment ; when our desires are raised
high, and yet accomplished, this is called satisfaction ;
when our joy is derived from some comical occasion or
amusement, it is mirth ; if it arise from considerable opposi-
tion that is vanquished in the pursuit of the good we de-
sire, it is then called triumph ; when joy has so long
possessed the mind that it is settled into a temper, we call
it cheerfulness ; when we rejoice upon the account of any
good which others obtain, it may be called sympathy, or
congratulation.
This is natural joy ; but there is, — 2. A moral joy, which
is a self-approbation, or that which arises from the per-
formance of any good actions ; this is called peace, or
serenity of conscience : if the action be honorable, and
the joy rise high, it may be called glory.
3. There is also a spiritual joy, which the Scripture calls
a "fruit of the Spirit," (Gal. 5: 22.) " the joy of faith,"
(Phil. 1: 25.) and " the rejoicing of hope," Heb. 3: 6. The
objects of it are, I.God himseUiTs. i3: i. Is. 61: 10. 2.
Christ, Phil. 3: 3. 1 Pet. 1: 8. 3. The promises, Ps. 119:
162. 4. The administration of the gospel, and gospel
ordinances, Ps. 89: 15. 5. The prosperity of the interest
of Christ, Acts. 15: 3. Rev. 11: 15, 17. 6. The happi-
ness of a future state, Rom. 5: 2. Matt. 25: 21. The nature
and properties of this joy : 1. It is or should be constant,
Phil. 4: 4. 2. It is unknown to the men of the world, 1
Cor. 2: 14. 3. It is unspeakable, 1 Pet. 1: 8. 4. It is
permanent, John 16: 22. Watts on Pass., sect. 11 ; Gill's
Body of Div.,vo\.iii. ^. 111, 8vo. edit. ; Grove's Mor. Fhil.,
vol. i. p. 355 ; Dwight's Theology.— Hend. Buck.
JOVINIANISTS ; the followers of Jovinian, an Italian
monk, who, towards the end of the fourth century, accord-
ing to Dr. Mosheim, wrote against the growing supersti-
tions of the age, which was enough to gain him a place in
Augustine's list of heretics, .ind to procure him persecution
both from church and state. The emperor Honorius cru-
elly ordered him, and his accomplices, to be whipped with
scourges armed with lead, and then to be banished to
different islands ; himself to the isle of Boas, where he
died, about A. D. 406. The church of Rome charges
Upon these good people several heresies, for which there
appears no good foundation ; " to which they added," say.s
Jerome, " this shocking doctrine, that a virgin is no better
than a married woman ! Sfosheini's E. H. vol . i. p. 38S,
389 ; Hieronymus, epist. 50. — Williaim.
JUBILEE; a public festivity. Among the Jews, it
denotes every fiftieth year ; being that following the revo-
Union of seven weeks of years ; at which time all the
slaves were made free, and all lands reverted to their
ancient owners. The jubilees were not regarded after
the Babylonish captivity. The political design of the law
of the jubilee was to prevent the too great oppression of
the poor, as well as their being liable to perpetual slavery.
By this means the rich were prevented from accumulating
lands for perpetuity, and a kind of equality was preserved
through all the families of Israel. The distinction of
tribes was also preserved, in respect both to their families
and possessions ; that they might be able, when there was
occasion, on the jubilee year, to prove their right to the
inheritance of their ancestors. Thus, also, it would be
known with certainty of what tribe or family the Messiah
sprung. It served, also, like the Olympiads of the Greeks,
and the Lustra of the Romans, for the readier computation
of time. The jubilee has also been supposed to be typical
of the gospel state and dispensation, described by Is.
61:1,2, in reference to this period, as "the acceptable
year of the Lord."
The word jubilee, in a more modern sense, denotes a
grand church solemnity or ceremony celebrated at Rome,
in which the pope grants a plenary indulgence to all sin-
ners; at least, to as many as visit the churches of St.
Peter and St. Paul at Rome. The jubilee was first esta-
blished by Boniface VII., in 1300, which was only to
return every hundred years ; but the first celebration
brought in such store of wealth, that Clement VI., in 1343,
reduced it to the period of fifty years. Urban VI., in
1389, appointed it to be held every thirty-five years, that
being the age of our Savior ; and Paul li. and Sixtus IV.,
in 1475, brought it down to every twenty-five, that every
person might have the benefit of it once in his life. Bo-
niface IX. granted the privilege of holding jubilees to
several princes and monasteries ; for instance, to the
monks of Canterbury, who had a jubilee every fifty years :
when people flocked from all parts, to visit the tomb of
Thomas-a-Becket. Afterwards, jubilees became more fre-
quent : there is generally one at the inauguration of a new
pope ; and he grants them as often as the church or him-
self have occasion for them. To be entitled to the privi-
leges of the jubilee, the bull enjoins fasting, alms, and
prayers. It gives the priests a full power to absolve in
all cases, even those otherwise reserved to the pope ; to
make commutations of vows, kc; in which it difl'ers
from a plenary indulgence. During the time of jubilee, all
other indulgences are suspended. — Watson : Hend. Buck.
JUDAH ; the son of Jacob and Leah, who was born in
Mesopotamia, Gen. 29: 35. It was he who advised his
brethren to sell Joseph to the Ishmaelite merchants, rather
than slain their hands with his blood. Gen. 37: 26. There
is little said of his life, and the little that is recorded does
not raise him high in our estimation. In the last pro-
phetic blessing pronounced on him by his father Jacob,
(Gen. 49: 8, 9.) there is a promise of the regal power ;
and that it should not depart from his family before the
coming of the Messiah. The whole southern part of
Palestine fell to Judah's lot ; but the tribes of Simeon and
Dan possessed many cities which at first were given to
Judah. This tribe was so numerous, that at the departure
out of Egypt it contained seventy-four thousand six hun-
dred men capable of bearing arms, Numb. 1: 2li, 27. The
crown passed from the tribe of Benjamin, of which Saul
JUD
[ 704 ]
JUD
and his sons were, to that of Judah, which was David's
tribe, and the tribe of the kings, his successors, until the
Babylonish captivity. — Watson.
JUDAISING CHRISTIANS ; those who attempted to
mingle Judaism and Christianity together. This was
done to some extent in the apostles' days, which gave
occasion to the council recorded in the fifteenth of the Acts.
But the origin of the sect of this name, is placed under
the reign of Adrian ; for when this emperor had at length
razed Jerusalem, entirely destroyed its very foundations,
and enacted laws of the severest kind against the whole
body of the Jewish people, the greatest part of the Chris-
tians who lived in Palestine, to prevent their being con-
founded with the Jews, abandoned entirely the Mosaic
rites, and chose a bishop, namely, Jlark, a foreigner by
nation, and an alien from the commonwealth of Israel.
Those who were strongly attached to the Mosaic rites
separated from their brethren, and founded at Pera, a
country of Palestine, and in the neighboring parts, particu-
lar assemblies, in which the law of Moses maintained its
primitive dignity, authority, and lustre. The body of
judaising Christians, which set Moses and Chridt upon an
equal footing in point of authority, were afterwards divid-
ed into two sects, extremely diti'erent both in their rites
and opinions, and distinguished by the names of Naza-
EENES and Ebionites ; which see. — Hend. Buck.
JUDAISM ; the religious doctrines and riles of the
Jews, the descendants of Abraham. The religion of the
ancestors of the Jews, before the time of Moses, from
Abraham downward, consisted in tlie worship of the one
living and true God, under whose immediate direction
they were ; in the hope of a Redeemer ; in a firm reliance
on his promises itnder all difficulties and dangers ; and in
a thankful acknowledgment for all his blessings and de-
liverances. In that early age, we read of altars, pillars,
and monuments raised, and sacrifices offered to God.
They useil circumcision as a seal of the covenant which
God had made with Abraham. As to the mode and
circumstances of divine worship, they were much at liber-
ty till the time of Moses ; but that legislator, by the di-
rection and appointment of God himself, prescribed an
instituted form of religion, and regulated ceremonies,
feasts, days, priests, and sacrifices, with the utmost exact-
ness. Ancient Judaism, compared -mlh all religions
except the Christian, was distinguished for its superior
purity and spirituality ; and the whole Mosaic ritual was
of a typical nature. (See Hebrews.) Judaism was but a
temporary dispensation, and was to give way, at least the
ceremonial part of it, at the coming of the Messiah.
The principal sects among the Jews were the Pharisees,
ivho placed religion in external ceremony ; the Sadducees,
who were remarkable for their incredulity ; and the Es-
scnes, who were distinguished for their austere sanctity.
At present, the Jews have two sects ; the Karaites, who
admit no rule of religion but the law of Moses ; and the
Rabbinists, who add to the law the traditions of the
Talmud. See those articles, and books recommended
tmder article Jews, in this work. — Hend. Buck.
JUDAS GAULANITIS, or the Gaulanite, opposed the
enrolment of the people made by Cyrenius in Judea ; (see
Cykenius ;) and raised a very great rebellion, pretending
that the Jews, being free, ought to acknowledge no do-
minion besides that of God. His followers chose rather
lo Eufler extreme torments than to call any power on earth
lord or master. The same Judas is named Judas the
Galilean, (Acts 5: 37.) because he was a native of the
city of Gamala, in the Gaulanitis, which was comprised in
Galilee. Calmet believes that the Herodians were the
followers of Judas. — CaJmit.
JUDAS ISCARIOT, or, as he is u.sually called, the Trai-
tor, and betrayer of onr Lord.
"The treachery of Judas Iscariot," says Dr. Hales, "his
remorse, and suicide, are occurrences altogether so strange
and extraordinary, that the motives by which he was ac-
tuated require to be developed, as far as may be done,
where the evangelists are, in a great measure, silent con-
cerning them, from the circumstances of the history itself,
and from the feelings of human nature. Judas, the lead-
ing trait in whose character was covetousness, was proba-
bly induced to follow Jesus at first with a view to the
riches, honors, and other temporal advantages, which he,
in common with the rest, expected the Messiah's friends
would enjoy. The astonishing miracles he saw him per-
form left no room to doubt of the reality of bis Master's
pretensions, who had, indeed, himself in private actually
accepted the title from his apostles ; and Judas must have
been much disappointed when Jesus repeatedly refused
the proffered royalty from the people in Gahlee, after the
miracle of feeding the five thousand, and again after his
public procession to Jerusalem. He might naturally have
grown impatient under the delay, and dissati.sfied also with
Jesus, for openly discouraging all ambitious views among
his disciples ; and, therefore, he might have devised the
scheme of delivering him up to the sanhedrim, or great
council of the nation, (composed of the chief priests,
scribes, and elders,) in order to compel him to avow him-
self openly as the Messiah before them ; and lo work such
miracles, or to give them the sign which they so often re-
quired, as would convince and induce them to elect him in
due form, and by that means enable him to reward his
followers. Even the rebukes of Jesus for his covetous-
ness, and the detection of his treacherous scheme, although
they unquestionably offended Judas, might only serve lo
stimulate him to the speedier execution of his plot, during
the feast of the passover, while the great concourse of the
Jews, from all parts assembled, might powerfuUj' support
the sanhedrim and their Messiah against the Romans.
The success of this measure, though against his Master's
will, would be likely to procure him pardon, and even to
recommend him to favor afterwards. Such might have
been the plausible suggestions by which Satan tempted
him to the commission of this crime.
" But when Judas, who attended the whole trial, saw that
it turned out quite contrary to his expectations, that Jesus
was capitally convicted by the council as a false Christ
and false prophet, notwithstanding he had openly avow-
ed himself; and that he wrought no miracle, either for
their conviction or for his own deliverance, as Judas
well knew he could, even from the circumstance of heal-
ing Malchus, after he was apprehended ; when he further
reflected, like Peter, on his rhasier's merciful forewarnings
of his treachery, and mild and gentle rebuke at the com-
mission of it ; he was seized with remorse, and offered to
return the paltry bribe of thirty pieces of silver to the
chief priests and elders instantly on the spot, saying, ' I
sinned in delivering up innocent blood ;' and expected that
on this they would have desisted from the prosecution.
But they were obstinate, and not only would not relent, but
threw the whole load of guilt upon him, refusing to take
their own share; for they said, ' What is that to us? see
thou to that;' thus, according to the aphorism, loving the
treason, but hating the traitor, after he had served their
wicked turn. Stung to the quick at their refusal to take
back the money, while they condemned himseli", he went
to the temple, cast down the whole sum in the treasury,
or place for receiving the offerings of the people ; and,
after he had thus returned the wages of iniquity, he retir-
ed to some lonely place, not far, perhaps, from the scene
of Peter's repentance ; and, in the frenzy of despair, and
at the instigation of the devil, hanged himself; crowning
with suicide the murder of his master and his friend ; re-
jecting his compassionate Savior, and plunging his own
soul into perdition ! In another place it is said that, ' fall-
ing headlong, he burst asunder, and all his bowels gushed
out,' Acts 1: 18. Both these accounts might be true : he
might first have hanged himself from some tree on the
edge of a precipice ; and, the rope or branch breaking, he
might he dashed to pieces by the fall."
It will, however, be recollected, that the only key which
the evangelic narrative affords, is, Judas' covetousness ;
which passion was, in him, a growing one. It was this
which destroyed whatever of honest intention he might at
first have in following Jesus ; and when fully under its
influence he would be blinded by it to all but the glittering
object of the reward of iniquity. In such a mind there
could be no true faith, and no love ; what wonder then,
when avarice was in him a ruling and unpestrained pas-
sion, that he should betray his Lord ? Still it may be ad-
milted that the knowledge which Judas had of our Lord's
miraculous power, might lead him the more readily to put
J UD
[705]
JUD
him into the hands of the chief priests. He might sup-
pose that he would deliver himself out of their hands ;
and thus Judas attempted to play a double villany, against
Christ and against his employers.
It has been disputed whether Judas was present at the
Lord's supper ; but there is really no ground to suppose it.
He went out during the paschal supper, but the eucharist
Was not instituted till after the paschal supper had been
concluded : and the last action of that supper was what
gave opportunity to the institution of the new rite. To
suppose that Jesus would give to Judas the sacramental
cup in token of his blood " shed /or the remission of sins" —
of sins which Jiida.s had traitorously committed, or which
he designed traitorously to commit, is to trifle with this
most solemn of subjects..
Some of the fathers seem to speak favorably of Judas'
repentance ; others justly think it defective and unprofita-
ble, since it only led him to despair. Origen and Theophy-
i-actj writing on Matthew, say, that Judas, seeing his master
was condemned, and that he could not obtain pardon from
him in this life, made haste to get the start of him, and
wait for him in the other world, in order to beg mercy of
him there ! Some in our day seem to adopt this Origenian
fancy, in the very face of the Scriptures which affirm that he
was " the son of perdition," and " went to his own place,"
and that " it had been good for him that he had not been
born." The original term employed is not the one used
to designate true evangelical repentance. See Campbell's
Sixth Dissertation. — Watson; Calmet.
JUDAS, or Jltje, surnamed Barsabas, was sent from
Jerusalem, with Paul and Barnabas, to the church at An-
tioch, to report the resolution of the apostles at Jerusalem,
concerning the non-observance of the law by the Gentiles,
(Acts 15: 22, 23.) A. D. 54. Some think, that thLs Judas
was the brother of Joseph, surnamed also Barsabas, who
was proposed, with Matthias, to fill up the place of the
traitor Judas, Acts 1: 23. Luke says that Judas Barsabas
was a prophet, and one of the chief among the brethren ;
and it is also believed that he was one of the seventy disci-
ples.— Calmet.
JUDE, (Epistle of ;) a canonical book of the New
Testament, written against the heretics, who, by their im-
pious doctrines and disorderly lives, corrupted the faith
and good morals of Christians. The author of this epis-
tle, called Judas, and also Thaddeus and Lebbeus. was
one of the twelve apostles ; he was the son of Alpheus,
brother of James the Less, and one of those who were
called our Lord's brethren. We are not informed when,
or how, he was called to be an apostle ; but it has been
conjectured, that, before his vocation to the apostleship, he
was an husbandman, that he was married, and that he
had children. The only account we have of him in par-
ticular, is that which occurs in John 14: 21 — 23. It is not
unreasonable to suppose that, after having received, in
common with other apostles, extraordinary gifts at the
Pentecost, he preached the gospel for some time in several
pans of the land of Israel, and wrought miracles in the
name of Christ. And, as his life seems to have been pro-
longed, it is probable that he afterwards left Judea, and
■went abroad preaching the gospel to Jews and Gentiles in
other countries. Some have said that he preached in Ara-
bia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia ; and that he suflfered
martyrdom in the last-mentioned country. But we have
no account of his travels upon which we can rely ; and it
may be questioned whether he was a martyr.
In the early ages of Christianity, several rejected the
.epistle of St. Jude, supposing the apocryphal books of
Enoch, and the ascension of Moses, are quoted in it. Ne
verlheless, it is to be found in all the ancient catalogues
of the sacred writings ; and Clement of Alexandria, Ter
tuUian, and Origen quote it as written by Jude, and reck-
on it among the books of sacred Scripture. In the time
of Eusebius it was generally received. As to the objec
tions that have been urged against i.s authority, Dr.
Lardner suggests, that there is no necessity for supposing
that St. Jude quoted a book called Enoch, or Enoch's pro-
pnecies ; and even allowing that he did quote it, he gives
it no authority ; it was no canonical book of the Jews;
and if such a book existed among the Jews, it was apo-
cryphal, and yet there might be in it some right things.
Instead of referring to a book called the "Assumption or
Ascension of Moses," which probably was a forgery much
later than his time, it is much more credible that St. Jude
refers to the vision in Zech. 3: 1—3. It has been the opi-
nion of several writers, and, among others, of Hammond
and Benson, that St. Jude addressed his epistle to the
Jewish Christians ; but Dr. Lardner infers, from the words
of the inscription of the epistle, (verses 1, 3.) that it was
designed for the use of all in general who had embraced
the Christian religion. The last-mentioned author sup-
poses that this epistle was written A. D. 64, 65, or 66. —
Calmet ; Watson.
JUDEA; a province of Asia, successively called Ca-
naan, Palestine, the Land of Promise, the Land of Israel,
and Judea, after the Jews returned from the Babylonish
captivity ; because then the tribe of Judah was the princi-
pal ; the territories belonging to the other tribes being pos-
sessed by the Samaritans, Idumeans, Arabians, and Phi-
listines. (See Canaan. ) The Jews, when returned from
the captivity, settled about Jerusalem, and in Judah, from
whence they spread over the whole country.
Judea may be considered as divided into four parts :
(1.) The western district, Palestine, inhabited by the Phi-
listines; on the east of this, (2.) The mountainous dis-
trict, called the hill country, (Josh. 21: 11. Luke 1: 39.)
which the rabbins affect to call the king's mountain ;
whether, because on the northern part of this ridge Jeru-
salem is situated, or for any other reason, is not known.
East of these mountains was, (3.) The wilderness of Ju-
dea, along the shore of the Dead sea ; (4.) The valleys,
&c. west of Jerusalem, towards the Mediterranean. Ju-
dea no doubt derived its name from Judah, which tribe
was settled in the south of the land, and maintained its
kingdom after the northern tribes had been expatriated.
This circumstance, together with that of Judah being prin-
cipally peopled with the Israelites, after the return from
the captivity, and being first settled, on account of the
temple being established in it, accounts for the general
name of Jews being given to the Hebrew nation. Judea
was one of the principal divisions of the Holy Land in
the days of Christ : it included from the Mediterranean
sea west, to the Dead sea east, and was bounded north by
Samaria, and south by Edom, or the Desert. It is ex
tremely mountainous in some parts, as from Hebron tf
Jerusalem. West of these mountains is the principal ex
tent of country; but this has many hills. East of them
running along the course of the Jordan, is
The Wildekness of Judea. Here John Baptist firs
taught, (Matt. 3: 1.) and Christ was tempted; probablj
towards the north of it, not far from Jericho. Some parl>
of it were not absolutely barren or uninhabited ; of other
parts the following descriptions are, we believe, very accu-
rate. Dr. Carlyle, who visited the monastery of St. Saba,
which stands in this wilderness, says, "The valley of St.
Saba is an immense chasm in a rifted mountain of marble.
It is not only destitute of trees, but of every other species
of vegetation ; and its sole inhabitants, except the wretch-
ed monks in the convent, are eagles, tigers, and wild
Arabs."
Chateaubriand says, " I doubt whether any convent can
be situated in a more dreary and desolate spot than the
monastery of St. Saba. As we advanced, the aspect of
the mountains continued the same ; that is, white, dusty,
without shade, without tree, without herbage, without
moss." Blr. Buckingham, who visited the same part in
1816, says, " As we proceeded to the northward, we had
on our left a lofty peak of the range of hills which border
the plain of the .Tordan on the west, and ended in this di-
rection the mountains of Judea. This peak is considered
to be that to which Jesus was transported by the devil dur-
ing his fast of forty days in the wilderness : ' after which
he was an hungered.' Nothing can be more forbidding
than the aspect of these hills ; not a blade of verdure is
to be seen over all their surface, and not the sound of any
living being is to be heard throughout all their extent."
A most appropriate .scene for Ihe temptation of the Son of
God, where he is said to have dwelt v^itli the wild beasts,
and where also " the angels ministered unto him."
There are several medals of Judea extant, repre-
senting a woman (the daughter of Zion) sitting under a
JUD
[ 706 1
JUD
palm-tree, in a mournful aliitude ; anJ having around her
a heap of arras, shields. Dec. on which she is seated. The
inscription is, judea capta. s. c.
This may remind us of the captives in Bab)'lon, who
'.' sat down and wept." " But what is more remarkable,"
says Mr. Addison, " we find Judea represented as a wo-
man in sorrow, sitting on the ground, in a passage of the
prophet which foretells the very captivity recorded on these
medals." See Isa. 3: 2ti. 47:1. — Watson, Calrnet.
JUDGES, {shoj)hi:Hm,) governed the Israelites from Jo-
shua to Saul. The Carthaginians, a colony of the Tynans,
had likewise governors, whom they called Sufieles, or So-
plietim, with authority like those of the Hebrews, almost
equal to that of kings. Some are of opinion, that the
archontes among the Athenians, and dictators among the
Romans, were simdar to the judges among the Hebrews.
Grotius compares the government of the Hebrews under
the judges, to that of Gaul, Germany, and Britain, before
the Romans changed it. This office was not hereditary
among the Israelites : they were no more than God's vice-
gerents. When the Hebrews desired a king, God said to
Samuel, " They have not rejected thee, but they have re-
jected me, that I should not reign over them," 1 Sam. 8:
7. See also Judg. 8: 23.
Salian remarks seven points wherein they diflered from
kings: 1. They were not hereditary. 2. They had no
absolute power of life and death, but only according to
the laws, and dependently upon them. 3. They never un-
dertook war at their own pleasure, but only when they
were commanded by God, or called to it by the people. 4.
They exacted no tribute. 5. They did not succeed each
other immediately, but after the death of one there was
frequently an interval of several years before a successor
was appointed. 6. They did not use the ensigns of sove-
reignty, the sceptre or diadem. 7. They had no authority
to make any laws, but were only to take care of the ob-
servance of those of Moses. Godwin, in his " Moses and
Aaron," compares them to the Roman dictators, who were
appointed only on extraordinary emergencies, as in case
of war abroad, or conspiracies at home, and whose power,
while they coniinued in office, was great, and even abso-
lute. Thus the Hebrew judges seem to have been appoint-
ed only in cases of national trouble and danger. This
was the case particularly with respect to Othniel, Ehud,
and Gideon. The power of the judges, while in office,
was very great : nor does it seem to have been limited to
a certain time, like that of the Roman dictators, which
continued for half a year ; nevertheless, it is reasonable to
suppose, that, when they had performed the business for
which they were appointed, they retired to a private life.
This Godwin infers from Gideon's refusing to take upon
him the perpetual government of Israel, as being incon-
sistent with the theocracy. (See Government, fee.)
Besides these superior judges, every city in the com-
monwealth had its elders, who formed a court of judica-
ture, with a power of determining lesser matters in their
respective districts. (See Justice, Administration of.)—
Calmet; Watson.
JUDGES, (The Book of,) is by some ascribed to Phine-
has, by others to Ezra, or to Hezekiah, and by others to
Samuel, or to all the jmlgcs. who wrote each the histo-
ry of his time and judicature. But it appears to be the
work of one author, who lived after the time of the judges ;
and he is generally thought to be Samuel, for the foUon'-
ing reasons:— (1.) The author lived at a time when the
Jebusites were masters of Jerusalem, and consequently
before David, Juilg. 1: 21. (2.) It appears that the He-
brew commonwealth was then governed by kings, since
the author observes, in several places, that at such a time
there was no kiug in Israel.
There are considerable difficulties, however, against this
opinion, as Judg. 18: 30, 31. "And the children of Dan
made Jonathan and his sons priests in the tribe of Dan,
untU the day of the captivity of the laud. And they set
them up Micah's graven image, which he made, all the
time that the house of God was in Shiloh." Now, the
tabernacle or house of God was not at Shiloh till about
the time of Samuel's first appearance as a prophet ; for
then it was brought from Shiloh and carried to the camp,
where it was taken bv the Philistines ■ and after this time
it was sent back to Kirjath-jearim, 1 Saoi. 4; 4, 5, Sec. 6:
21. As to the captivity of the tribe of Dan, it can scarcely,
one would think, be understood of any other than that un-
der Tiglath-pilesler, many hundred years after Samuel,
and consequently he could not write this book ; unless it
be supposed that this passage has been added since, per-
haps under the inspired hand of Ezra. — Calmet.
JUDGE ; to try and determine a cause, Exod. 18: 13.
Christ does not judge according to the seeing of the eye, or
hearing of the ear ; that is, does not esteem persons or
things, or give sentence merely according to outward ap-
pearances, Isa. 11: 3. Saints judge the world — judge an-
gels ; they now condemn the wickedness of the world, by
their holy profession and practice ; at the last day, they
shall assent to the sentences of damnation pronounced
against wicked angels and men, 1 Cor. 6: 2. The saints
Vii'ti judged according to men in the flesh, and live according to
God in the spirit, when they are outwardly corrected for
their sins, or persecuted by wicked men, and yet inwardly
live a life of fellowship with God, 1 Pet. 4: 6. Men be-
come judges of evil thoughts when, in a partial manner,
they prefer one person to another. Jam. 2: 4. — Brorm.
JUDGING, (Rash ;) the act of carelessly, precipitately,
wantonly, or maliciously censuring others.
This is an evil which abounds too much among almost
all classes of men. " Not contented with being in the
right ourselves, we must find all others in the wrong.
We claim an exclusive possession of goodness and wis-
dom ; and from approving warmly of those who join us,
we proceed to condemn, with much acrimony, not only
the principles, but the characters of those from whom we
differ. We rashly extend to every individual the severe
opinion which we have unwarrantably conceived of a
whole body- This man is of a party whose principles we
reckon slavish ; and therefore his whole sentiments are
corrupted. That man belongs to a religious sect, which
we are accustomed to deem bigoted, and therefore he is
incapable of any generous and liberal thought. Another
is connected with a sect, which we have been taught to
account rela.xed, and therefore he can have no sanctity."
We should do well to consider, 1. That this practice of
rash judging is absolutely forbidden in the sacred Scrip-
tures, Matt. 7: 1. — 2. We thereby authorize others to re-
quite us in the same kind. — 3. It often evidences our
pride, envy, and bigotry. — 4. It argues a want of charity,
the distinguishing feature of the Christian religion. — 5.
They who are most forward in censuring others are often
most defective themselves. Barrowh Works, vol. i. ser.
20; Blair's Ser., vol. ii. ser. 10; Saurin's Ser., vol. v.
ser. 4. (See Evil Speaking.) — Hend. Buck.
JUDGMENT, is that act of the mind whereby one
thing is affirmed or denied of another ; or that power of
the soul which passes sentence on things proposed to its
examination, and determines what is right or wrong ; and
thus it approves or disapproves of an action, or an object
considered as true or false, fit or unfit, good or evil.
Dr. Watts gives us the following directions to assist us
in judging right. 1. We should examine all our old opi-
nions afresh, and inquire what was the ground of tliem,
and whether our assent were built on just evidence ; and
then we should cast off all those judgments which were
formed heretofore without due examination. 2. All our
ideas of objects concerning which we pass judgment,
should be clear, distinct, complete, comprehensive, exten-
sive, and orderly. 3. When we have obtained as clear
ideas as we can, both of the subject and predicate of a
proposition, then we must compare those ideas of the
subject and predicate together with the utmost attention,
and observe how far they agree, and wherein they differ.
4. We must search for evidence of truth with diligence
and honesty, and be heartily ready to receive evidence,
whether for the agreement or disagreement of ideas. 5.
We must suspend our judgment, and neither affirm nor
deny until this evidence appear. 6. We must judge of
every proposition by those proper and peculiar means or
mediums whereby the evidence of it is to be obtained,
whether it be sense, consciousness, intelligence, reason, or
testimony. 7. It is very useful to have some general
principles of truth settled in the mind, whose evidence is
great and obvious, that they may be always ready at hand
•^- ■ JUD [ 7C
to assist us in judging of the great variety of tilings wliicli
occur. 8. Let tlie degrees of our assent to every proposition
bear an exact proportion to tiie difl'erent degrees of evidence.
9. We should keep our minds always open to receive
truth, and never set limits to our own improvements.
Walts' Logic, ch. iv. p. 231 ; ZMcke on the Understanding, vol.
i. pp. 222, 256 ; vol. ii. pp. 271, 278 ; Hedge and Duncan's
Logic; Eeid on the Intellectual Powers, p. 497, &c. ; Gam-
bier on Moral Evidence ; Upham's Philosophy. — Hend. Buck.
JUDGMENT, (Day of,) is that important period
which shall terminate the present dispensation of grace
towards the fallen race of Adam, put an end to time, and
introduce the eternal destinies of men and angels. Acts
16: 31. 1 Cor. 15: 24—26. 1 Thess. 4: 14—17. Matt. 25:
31 — 46. It is in reference to this solemn period that the
spnsile Peter says, " The heavens and the earth which
now exist are by the word of God reserved in store unto
fire, against the day of judgment, and perdition of un-
godly men," 2 Pet. 3: 7. (See Peter, Epistles of.)
Some commentators understand this prophecy as a pre-
diction of the destruction of Jerusalem. Tn support of
their interpretation, they appeal to the ancient Jewish pro-
phecies, where, as they contend, the revolutions in the
political state of empires and nations are foretold in the
same forms of expression with those introduced in Peter's
prediction. The following are the prophecies to which
they appeal: — Isaiah 34: 4, where the destruction of
Idumea is foretold under the figures of dissolving the
host of heaven, and of rolling the heaven together as a
scroll, and of the falling down of all their host as the
leaf falleth off from the vine. Ezek. 32: 7, where the
destruction of Egypt is described by the figures of
covering the heaven, and making the stars thereof
dark ; and of covering the sun with a cloud, and of
hindering the moon from giving her light. In Joel 2: 10,
the invasion of Judea by foreign armies is thus foretold :
" The earth shall quake before them; the heavens .shall
tremble ; the sun and the moon shall be dark, and the
stars shall withdraw their shining." And in verses 30,
31, the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans is thus
predicted: " I will show wonders in the heavens and in
the earth, blood, and fire, and pillars of smoke. The sun
shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood,
before the great and terrible day of the Lord come." God,
threatening the Jews, is introduced saying, " In that day
I will cause the sun to go down at noon, and I will darken
the earth in the clear day," Amos 8: 9. The overthrow
of Judaism and heathenism is thus foretold : " Yet once
and I will shake the heavens and the earth, and the sea
and the dry land," Haggai 2; 0. Lastly : our Lord, in
his prophecy of the destruction of Jerusalem, has the fol-
lowing expressions ; " After the tribulation of those days
shall the sun be darkened, and the moon shall not give
her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven, and the
powers of heaven shall be shaken," Matt. 24: 29.
Now it is remarkable that, in these prophecies, none
of the prophets have spoken, as Peter has done, of the
entire destruction of this mundane system, nor of the de-
struction of any part thereof. They mention only the
rolling of the heavens together as a scroll, the obscuring
of the light of the sun and of the moon, the shaking of
the heavens and the earth, and the falling down of the
stars : whereas Peter speaks of the utter destruction of all
the parts of this mundane system by fire. This difference
affords room for believing that the events foretold by the
prophets are different in their nature from those foretold
by the apostle ; and that they are to be figuratively
understood, while those predicted by the apostle are
to be understood literally. To this conclusion, like-
wise, the phraseology of the prophets, compared with
that of the apostle, evidently leads : for the prophetic
phraseology, literally interpreted, exhibits impossibilities;
such as the rolling of the heavens together as a scroll ;
the turning of the moon into blood, and the falling down
of the stars from heaven as the leaf of a tree. Not so the
apostolic phrsiseology : for the burning of the heavens, or
atmosphere, and its passing away with a great noise ; and
the burning of the earth and the works thereon, together
with the burning and melting of the elements, that is, the
constituent parts of which this terraqueous globe is com-
posed ; are all things possible, and therefore may be lit«
rally understood ; while the things mentioned by the pro
phets can only be taken figuratively. This, however, is
not all. There are things in the apostle's prophecy which
show that he intended it to be taken Uterally. As, 1. He
begins with an account of the perishing of the old world,
to demonstrate against the scoffers the possibility of the
perishing of the present heavens and earth. But that
example would not have suited his purpose, unless, by
the burning of the present heavens and earth, he had
meant the destruction of the material fabric. Wherefore,
the opposition stated in this prophecy between the perish-
ing of the old world by water, and the perishing of the
present world by fire, shows that the latter is to be as real
a destruction of the material fabric as the former was.
2. The circumstance of the present heavens and earth
being treasured up and kept, ever since the first deluge,
from all after deluges, in order to their being destroyed by
fire at the day of judgment, sliows, we think, that the
apostle is speaking of a real, and not of a metaphorical,
destruction of the heavens and earth. 3. This appears,
likewise, from the apostle's foretelling that, after the pre-
sent heavens and earth are burned, new heavens and a
new earth are to appear, in which the righteous are forever
to dwell. 4. The time fixed by the apostle for the burning
of the heavens and the earth, namely, the day of judg-
ment, and punishment of ungodly men, shows that the
apostle is speaking, not of the destruction of a single city
or nation during the subsistence of the world, but of the
earth itself, with all the wicked who have dwelt thereon.
These circumstances persuade us that this prophecy, as
well as the one recorded in 2 Thess. 1: 9, is not to be in-
terpreted metaphorically of the destruction' of Jerusalem;
but should be understood Uterally of the general judg-
ment, and of jhe destruction of our mundane system.
I, The proofs of a general judgment are these : —
1. The justice of God requires it ; lor it is evident
that this attribute is not clearly displayed in the dis-
pensation of things in the present state, 2 The.<:s. 1: 6, 7.
Luke 14: 26. 2. The accusations of natural conscience
are testimonies in favor of this belief, Rom. 2: 1 — 15.
Dan. 5: 5, 6. Acts 24: 25. 3. It may be concluded,
from the relation men stand in to God, as creatures
to a Creator. He has a right to give them a law,
and to make them accountable for the breach of it,
Rom. 14: 12. 4. The resurrection of Christ is a certain
proof of it. See Acts 17: 31. Rom. 14: 9. 5. The Scrip-
ture, in a variety of places, sets it beyond all doubt, Jude
14, 15. 2 Cor. 5: 10. Matt. 25. Rom. 14: 10, 11. 2 Thess,
1: 7, 10. 1 Thess. 4: 16, 17. Rom. 2; 1—16. 3: 6. Acts 24: 25.
II. As to the Judge . — the Bible declares that God will
judge the world by Jesus Christ, Acts 17: 31. The triune
God will be the Judge, as to original authority, power,
and right of judgment ; but, according to the economy
settled between the three divine persons, the work is as-
signed to the Son, (Rom. 14: 9, 10.) who will appear in
his human nature ; (John 5: 27. Acts 17: 31.) with great
power and glory; (1 Thess. 4: 16, 17.) visible to every
eye; (Rev. 1: 7.) penetrating every heart; (1 Cor. 4: 5.
Rom. 2: 16.) with full authority over all ; (Matt. 2S: IS.)
and acting with strict justice, 2 Tim. 4: 8. As for the
concern of others in the judgment, angels will be no
otherwise concerned than as attendants, gathering the
elect, raising the dead, &c., but not as advising or judg-
ing. Saints are said to judge the world, not as co-judges
with Christ, but as approvers of his sentence, and as their
holy lives and conversations will rise up in judgment
against their wicked neighbors.
HI. As to the beings that will be judged ; these -nill
be men and devils. The righteous, probably, will be
tried first, as represented in Matt. 25. They will be raised
first, though not a thousand years before the rest, as Dr.
Gill supposes ; since the resurrection of all the bodies of
the saints is spoken of as in a moment, in the twinkling
of an eye, at the last trump, in order to their meeting the
Lord in the air, and being with him, not on earth, but
forever in heaven, 1 Cor. 15: 52. 1 Thess. 4: 16, 17.
Here we may take notice of a question which is proposed
by some, viz. Whether the sins of God's people shall
be published in the great day, though it is certain they
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shall not be alleged against them to their condemnation ?
The ojections urged against this are of little weight. It
seems indispensable that the sins of believers, though for-
given, should be made manifest, that so the glory of that
grace which has pardoned them may appear more illus-
trious, and their obligation to God for this farther en-
hanced. 2. The justice of the proceedings of that day
requires it, since it is presumed and known by the whole
world that they were prone to sin, as well as others ; and,
before conversion, as great sinners as any, and after it
their sins had a peculiar aggravation. Therefore, why
should they not be made public, as a glory due to the
justice and holiness of God, whose nature is opposite to
all sin? And, 3. This is necessary, because their sins
are often connected with those of others. Moreover, 4.
Since God, by recording the sins of his saints in Scrip-
ture, has perpetuated the knowledge thereof; and if it is
to their honor that the sins there mentioned were repented
of, as well as forgiven, why may it not be supposed that
the sins of believers shall be made known iu the great
day ? And, Lastly, this alone seems agreeable to those
expressions of every word, every work, and every secret
thing, being brought into judgment, whether it be good or
whether it be bad, 2 Cor. 4: 10, 11. 1 Cor. 4: 1—5.
As to the wicked, they also shall be judged, and all
their thoughts, words, and deeds be brought into judg-
ment, Eccl. 12: 14. The fallen angels, also, are said to
be reserved unto the judgment of the great day, Jude 6.
They shall then receive their final sentence, and be shut
up in the prison of hell, Kev. 20: 10. Matt. 8: 29.
IV. As to the rule of judgment : — we are informed the
books will be opened, Rev. 20: 12. 1. The book of di-
vine omniscience, (Mai. 3: 5.) or remembrance, Mai. 3:
16. 2. The book of conscience, Rom. 1: 15. 3. The
book of Providence, Rom. 2: 4, 5. 4. The book of Re-
velation, law, and gospel, John 12: 48. Rom. 2: 16. 2: 12.
5. The book of Life, in which the names of the justified
are enrolled, Luke 10: 20. Rev. 3: 5. 20: 12, 15.
V. As to the time of judgment : — the soul will be either
happy or miserable immediately after death, but the ge-
neral judgment will not be till after the resurrection,
Heb. 6: 2. 9: 27. 2 Tim. 4: 1. There is a day appointed,
(Acts 17: 31.) but it is unknown to men, 2 Thes. 2: 1 — 14.
VL As to the place : — this is of no consequence, when
compared with the state in which we shall appear. And
as the Scriptures represent it as certain; (Eccl. 11: 9.)
universal; (2 Cor. 5: 11.) righteous; (Rom. 2: 5.) deci-
sive ; (1 Cor. 15: 32.) and eternal as to its consequences ;
(Heb. 6: 2.) let us be concerned for the welfare of our
immortal interests, flee to the refuge set before us, im-
prove our precious time, depend on the merits of the Re-
deemer, and adliere to the dictates of the divine word,
that we may be found of him in peace, 2 Pet. 3: 14.
" It is appointed unto men once to die, and after this
the judgment." These two events are inseparably linked
together in the divine decree, and they reciprocally reflect
importance on each other. Death is, indeed, the terror of
our nature. Men may contrive to keep it from their
thoughts, but they cannot think of it without fearful ap-
prehensions of its consequences. It was justly to be
dreaded by man in his state of innocence ; and to the un-
renewed man it ever was, and ever will be, a just object
of abhorrence. The gospel of Jesus Christ, which has
brought life and immortality to light, is the only sovereign
antidote against this universal evil. To the believer in
Christ, its rough aspect is smoothed, and its terrors cease
to be alarming. To him it is the messenger of peace ; its
sting is plucked out ; its dark valley is the road to perfect
bUss and life immortal. To him, " to live is Christ, and
to die is gain," Phil. 1: 21. To die ! Speaking properlv,
he cannot die, John 6: 47 — 58. 8: 51. 11; 26. Rev. 2: 11.
He has already died in Christ, and with him : his '■ life is
hid with Christ in God," Rom. 6: 8. Col. 3: 3.
With this conquest of the fear of death is nearly allied
another glorious privilege resulting from union -nnth the
Redeemer ; that, when he siiall appear, we may have con-
fidence, and " not be ashamed before him at his coming,"
1 John2: 28. 4: 16. Were death all that we have to dread,
death might be braved. But after death there is a judgment,
a judgment attended with circumstances so tremendous, as
to shake the hearts of the boldest of the sons of natuW.
Then " men shall seek death, and shall not find it ; and
shall desire to die, and death shall flee from them," Rev.
9: 6. Then shall come indeed an awful day ; a day to
which all that have preceded it are intended to be sub-
servient ; when the Lord shall appear in the united splen-
dor of creating, of governing, and of judicial majesty, to
finish his purposes respecting man and earth, and to pro-
nounce the final, irreversible sentence, " It is done !" Rev.
21: 6. Nothing of terror or magnificence hitherto beheld,
— no glory of the rising sun after a night of darkness and
of storm, — no convulsions of the earth, — no wide irruption
of waters, — no flaming comet dragging its burning train
over half the heaven, can convey to us an adequate con-
ception of that day of terrible brightness and irresistible
devastation. Creation then shall be uncreated. " The
heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the ele-
ments shall melt with fervent heat ; the earth, also, and
the works that are therein, shall be burnt up," 2 Pet. 3; 10.
The Lord shall be revealed from heaven in flaming fire,
(2 Thess. 1: 7, 8.) arrayed in all the glory of his Godhead,
and attended by his mighty angels. Matt. 16: 27. 25: 31.
All that are in the grave shall hear his voice, and shall
come forth, John 5: 28, 29. Earth and sea shall give up
the dead which are in them. All that ever lived shall
appear before him, Rev. 20: 12, 13. The judgment shall
sit ; and the books shall be opened, Dan. 7: 10. The ej'e
of Omniscience detects every concealment by which they
would screen from observation themselves, or their ini-
quity. The last reluctant sinner is finally separated from
the congregation of the righteous ; (Ps. 1: 5.) and inflexi-
ble justice, so often disregarded, derided, and defied, gives
forth their eternal doom ! But to the saints this shall be
a day of glory and honor. They shall be publicly ack-
nowledged by God as his people ; publicly justified from
the slanders of the world ; invested with immortal bodies ;
presented by Christ to the Father ; and admitted into the
highest felicity in the immediate presence of God forever.
The.se are the elevating, the transporting views, which
made the apostle Paul speak with so much desire and
earnest expectation of " the day of Christ." Bates'
Works, p. 449 ; Bishop Hopkins and Stoddard on the Last
Judgment ; Gill's Bodij of Divinity, vol. ii. p. 467, 8vo. ;
Boston's Fourfold State ; Dames' Sirmons ; Paley's Works ;
Hervey's Works ; Fuller's Works, vol. ii. pp. 78, 106, 152,
211, 367, 392, 437, 841, 859, 871, 883, 906 ; DwigJd's The-
ology ; Irving's Argument for Judgment to come ; Payson's
Sermons ; Massilon's do. ; Sauriii's do. ; Nat. His. of Enthu-
siasm ; Saturday Evening ; Foster's Essays ; and books under
the articles Heaven and Hell. — Hend. Buck ; Watson.
JUDGMENTS OF GOD, are the punishments inflicted
by him for particular crimes. The Scriptures give us
many awful instances of the display of divine justice in
the punishment of nations, families, and individuals, for
their iniquities. See Gen. 7. 19: 25. Exod. 15. Judg. 1:
6, 7. Acts 12: 23. Esther 5: 14, with chap. 7: 10. 2 Kings
11. Lev. 10: 1, 2. Acts 5: 1—10. Is. 30: 1—5. 1 Sam. 15:
9. 1 Kings 12: 25, 33. It becomes us, however, to be ex-
ceedingly cautious how we interpret the severe and afflic-
tive dispensations of Providence, in the present world.
Dr. Jortin justly observes, that there is usually much
rashness and presumption in pronouncing that the cala-
mities of sinners are particular judgments of God ; yet,
saith he, if from sacred and profane, from ancient and
modern historians, a collection were made of all the cruel,
persecuting tyrants, who delighted in tormenting their
fellow-creatures, and who died not the common death of
all men, but whose plagues were horrible and strange,
even a sceptic would be moved at the evidence, and would
be apt to suspect that it was theion Ii, that the hand of God
was in it. As Dr. Jortin was no enthusiast, and one
who would not overstrain the point, we shall here princi-
pally follow him in his enumeration of some of the most
remarkable instances.
Herod the Great was the first persecutor of Christianity.
He attempted to destroy Jesus Christ himself, while he
was yet but a child, and for that wicked purpose slew all
the male children that were in and about Bethlehem.
AVhat was the consequence ? Josephus hath told us : he
had long and grievous sufferings, a burning fever, a vora-
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cious appetite, a difficulty of breathing, swellings of his
limbs, loathsome ulcers within and without, breeding ver-
min, violent torments and convulsions, so that he endea-
vored to kill himself, but was restrained by his friends.
The Jews thought these evils to be dirine judgments upon
him for his wickedness. And what is still more remark-
able in his case is, he left a numerous family of children
and grandchildren, though he had put some to death ; and
yet, in about the space of one hundred years, the whole
family was extinct.
Herod Antipas, who beheaded John the Baptist, and
treated Christ contemptuously when he was brought be-
fore him, was defeated by Aretas, an Arabian king, and
afterwards had his dominions taken from him, and was
sent into banishment along with his infamous wife, He-
rodias, by the emperor Caius.
Herod Agrippa killed James, the brother of John, and
put Peter in piison. The angel of the Lord soon after
smote him, and he was eaten of wonns, and gave up the
ghost.
Judas, that betrayed our Lord, died, by his own hands,
the most ignominious of all deaths.
Pontius Pilate, who condemned our blessed Savior to
death, was not long afterwards deposed from his office,
banished from his country, and died by his own hands ;
the divine vengeance overtaking him soon after his
crime.
The high-priest Caiaphas was deposed by Vitellius,
three years after the death of Christ. Thus this wicked
man, who condemned Christ for fear of disobliging the
Romans, was ignominiously turned out Oi his office by
the Roman governor, whom he had sought to oblige.
Ananias, the high-priest, persecuted Paul, and inso-
lently ordered the by-standers to smite him on the mouth.
Upon which the apostle said, " God shall smite thee, thou
whited wall.'' Whether he spake this prophetically or
not, let the event determine ; for certain it is, that some
time after he was slain, together with his brother, by the
hands of his own son.
Ananas, the high-priest, slew James the Less ; for
which and other outrages he was deposed by king Agrip-
pa the younger, and probably perished in the last destruc-
tion of Jerusalem.
. Nero, in the year fil, turned his rag; upon the Chris-
tians, and put to death Peter and Paul, with many others.
Four years after, in his great distress, he attempted to
kill himself; but being as mean-spirited and dastardly as
he was wicked and cruel, he had not thi'. resolution to do
that piece of justice to the world, and was forced to beg
assistance.
Domitian persecuted the Christians also. It is said he
threw John into a caldron of boiling oil, and afterwards
banished him into the isle of Patmos. In the following
year this monster of wickedness was murdered by his
own people.
The Jewish nation persecuted, rejected, and crucified
the Lord of Glory. Wiihin a few years after, their' nation
was destroyed, and the Lord made their plagues wonderful.
Flaccus was governor of Egypt near the time of our
Savior's death, and a violent persecutor of the Jews.
The wrath of God, however, ere long overtook him, and
he died by the hands of violence.
Catullus was governor of Lybia, about the year 73.
He was also a cruel persecutor of the Jews, and he died
miserably. For though he was only turned out of his
office by the Romans, yet he fell into a complicated and
incurable disease, being sorely tormented both in body
and mind. He was dreadfully terrified, and continually
crying out that he was haunted by the ghosts of thope
whom he had murdered ; and, not being able to contain
himself, he leaped out of his bed, as if he were tortured
with fire and put to the rack. His distemper increased
till his entrails were all corrupted, and came out of his
body ; and thus he perished, as signal an example as ever
was known of the divine justice rendering to the wicked
according to their deeds.
Caius, the Roman emperor, was a great persecutor of
the Jews and Christians, and a blasphemer of the God of
heaven. Soon after his atrocities, however, he was mur-
dered by one of his own people.
Severas, emperor of Rome, was a violent and cruel
persecutor of the followers of Christ. He also, and all his
family, perished miserably, about the year 200 after our
Savior.
About the same time, Saturninus, governor of Africa,
persecuted the Christians, and put several of them to
death. Soon after, he went blind.
Heliogabalus, the emperor, brought a new god to Rome,
and would needs compel all his subjects to worship him.
This was sure to have ended in a persecution of the
Christians. But, soon after, this vile monster was slain
by his own soldiers, about the year 222.
Claudius Herminianus was a cruel persecutor • of the
Christians in the second century, and he was eaten of
worms while he lived.
Decius persecuted the church about the year 250 : hs
was soon after killed in battle.
Gallus succeeded and continued the persecution. He,
too, was killed the year following.
Valerian, the emperor, had many good qualities ; but
yet he was an implacable enemy to the Lord Jesus Christ
and his gospel. Sometime after he came to the throne,
he was taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and used
like a Slave and a dog; for the Persian monarch, from
time to time, obliged this unhappy emperor to bow him-
self down, and ofl'er him his back, on which to set his
foot, in order to mount his chariot or his horse. He died
in this miserable state of captivity.
jEmilian, governor of Egypt, about 263, was a virulent
persecutor of the church of Christ. He was soon after
strangled by order of the emperor.
Aurelian, the emperor, just intending to begin a perse-
cution against the followers of Christ, was killed in the
year 274.
Maximinus was a persecutor of the church. He reigned
only three years, and then fell under the hands of vio-
lence.
About the year 300, was the greatest possible contest
between Christ and the Roman emperors, which should
have the dominion. These illustrious wretches seemed
determined to blot out the Christian race and name from
under heaven. The persecution was far more fierce and
briual than it had ever been. It was time, therefore, for
the Lord Jesus Christ, the great Head (.f the church, to
arise and plead his own cause ; and so, indeed, he did.
The examples we have mentioned are dreadful : those that
follow are not less astonishing, and they are all delivered
upon the best authorities.
Diocletian persecuted the church in 303. After this
nothing ever prospered with him. He underwent many
troubles : his senses became impaired ; and he quitted the
empire.
Severus, another persecuting emperor, was overthrown
and put to death in the year 307.
About the same time Urbanus, governor of Palestine,
who had signalized himself by tormenting and destroying
the disciples of Jesus, met with his due reward ; for al-
most immediately after the cruelties committed, the divine
vengeance overtook him. He was unexpectedly degraded
and deprived of all his honors ; and, dejected, dispirited,
and meanly begging for mercy, was put to death by the
same hand that raised him.
Firmilianus, another persecuting governor, met with
the same fate.
Blaximianus Herculius, another of the wretched perse-
cuting emperors, was compelled to hang himself, in the
year 310.
Maximianus Galerius, of all the tyrants of his time the
most cruel, was seized with a grievous and hoTible dis-
ease, and tormented with worms and lUcers to such a de-
gree, that they who were ordered to attend him could not
bear the stench. Worms proceeded from his body in a
most fearful manner; and several of his physicians were
put to death because they could not endure the smell,
and others because they could not cure him. This hap-
pened in the year of our Lord oil.
Maxenlius, another of the inhuman mcnsters, was
overthrown in battle by Constantine ; and in his flight he
fell into the Tiber, and was drowned in the year 312.
Maximinus put out the eyes of many thousands of
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Christians. Soon after the commission of his cruelties, a
disease arose among his people, which greatly affected
their eyes, and took away their sight. He himself died
miserably, and upon the rack, his eyes starting out of his
head through the violence of his distemper, in the year
313. All his family likewise were destroyed, his wife and
children put to death, together with most of his friends
and dependents, who had been the instruments of his
cruelty.
A Koman officer, to oblige this Maximinus, greatly op-
pressed the church at Damascus : not long after, he de-
stroyed himself
Licinius, the last of these persecuting emperors before
Constantine, was conquered and put to death in the year
323. He was equally an enemy to religion, liberty, and
learning.
Cyril, the deacon, was murdered by some pagans, at
Heliopolis, for his opposition to their images. They rip-
ped open his belly, and ate his liver : the divine ven-
geance, however, pursued all those who had been guilty
of this crime ; their teeth came out, their tongues rotted,
and they lost their sight.
Valens was made emperor in 364 ; and though an Arian
Christian himself, he is said to have caused fourscore
presbyters, who differed from him in opinion, to be put to
sea, and burnt alive in a ship. Afterwards, in a battle
with the Goths, he was defeated and wounded, and fled
to a cottage, where he was burnt alive, as most historians
relate : all agree that he perished.
The last pagan prince, who was a formidable enemy
to Christianity, was Radagaisus, a king of the Goths.
He invaded the Roman empire with an army of four
hundred thousand men, about the year 405, and vowed to
sacrifice all the Romans to his gods. The Romans, how-
ever, fought him, and obtained a complete victory, taking
him and his sons prisoners, whom they put to death.
Huneric, the Vandal, though a Christian, was a most
cruel persecutor of those who differed from him in opi-
nion, about the year of our Lord 484. He spared not
even those of his own persuasion, neither his friends nor
his kindred. He reigned, however, not quite eight years,
and died witii all the marks of divine indignation upon
him.
Julian the apostate greatly oppressed the Christians :
and he perished soon after, in his rash expedition against
the Persians.
Several of those who were employed or permitted by Ju-
lian to persecute the Christians, are said to have perished
miserably and remarkably. I will here relate the fate of a
few of those unhappy wretches in the words of Tillemont,
who faithfully collected the account from the ancients.
We have observed, says that learned man, that count
Julian, with Felix, superintendent of the finances, and
Elpidius, treasurer to the emperor, apostates all three,
had received orders to go and seize the effects of the
church at Antioch, and carry them to the treasury. They
did it on the day of the martyrdom of St. Theodoret, and
drew up an account of what they had seized. But count
Julian was not content with taking away the sacred
vessels of the church, and profaning them by his impure
hands : carrying to greater lengths the outrage he was
doing to Jesus Christ, he overturned and flung them down
on the ground, and sat upon them in a most criminal
manner; adding to this all the banters and blasphemies
that he could devise against Christ, and against the
Christians, who, he said, were abandoned of God.
Felix, the superintendent, signaUzed himself also by
another impiety ; for as he was viewing the rich and
magnificent vessels which the emperors Constantine and
Constantius had given to the church, " Behold," said he,
'•■ with what plate the son of Mary is served !" It is said,
too, that count Julian and he made it the subject of ban-
ter, that God should let them thus profane his temple,
without interposing by visible miracles.
But these impieties remained not long unpunished, and
Julian had no sooner profaned the sacred utensils than he
felt the effects of divine vengeance. He fell into a griev-
ous and unknown disease ; and his inward parts being
corrupted, he cast out his liver and his excrements, not
from the ordinary passages, but from his miserable mouth
which had uttered so many blasphemies. His secret
parts, and all the flesh round about them, corrupted also,
and bred worms ; and to show that it was a divine pu-
nishment, all the art of physicians could give him no
relief. In this condition he continued forty days, without
speech or sense, preyed on by worms. At length he
came to himself again. The imposthumes, however, all
over his body, and the worms which gnawed him con-
tinually, reduced him to the utmost extremity. He threw
them up, without ceasing, the last three days of his life,
with a stench which he himself could not bear.
The disease with which God visited Felix was not so
long. He burst suddenly in the middle of his body, and
died of an effusion of blood in the course of one day.
Elpidius was stripped of his effects in 366, and shut up
in prison, where, after having continued for some tirae,
he died without reputation and honor, cursed of all the
world, and surnamed the Apostate.
To these instances many more might be added nearer
our own times, did our room permit. These, however,
are sufficient to show us what a fearful thing it is to fall
into the hands of the living God, and how fruitless and
awful it is to oppose his designs, and to attempt to stop
the progress of his gospel. " Why do the heathen rage,
and the people imagine a vain thing? He that sitteth in
the heavens shall laugh ; the Lord shall have them in de-
rision. Thou shalt break them with a rod of iron ; thou
shalt dash them to pieces as a potter's vessel. Be wise
now, therefore, 0 ye kings ; be instructed, ye judges of
the earth. Serve the Lord with fear, and rejoice with
trembling," Ps. 2. Jorti/i's Remarks on Ecclesiastical His-
tori/, vol. iii. p. 246, &c. ; Simpson's Key to the Prophecies,
29 ; Nen^ton on the Prophecies, dis. 24 ; Bryant's Observa-
tions on the Plagues of Egypt ; Tillemont, Histoire des Emp.
— Hcnd. Buck.
JUDICIUM DEI, or Judgment of God, was a term
anciently applied to all extraordinary trials of secret
crimes ; as those by arms and single combat ; and the
ordeals, or those by fire, or red hot plough-shares, by
plunging the arm in boiling water, or the whole body in
cold water, in hopes that God would work a miracle,
rather than suffer truth and innocence to perish. These
customs were a long time kept up even among Christians,
and they are still in use in some nations. Trials of this
sort were usually held in churches, in the presence of the
bishop, priest, and secular judges, after three days' fast-
ing, confession, communion, and many adjurations and
ceremonies, described at large by Du Cange. — Ilend.
Buck.
JUDSON, (Ann H.,) first female missionary to Bur-
raah, was the daughter of John and Rebecca'Hasseltine,
of Bradford, Mass., and was born Uecemher 22, 1789.
In early life she was gay, enterprising, active, and eager
for the acquisition of knowledge. At the age of sixteen,
she became pious. She was educated at the academy of
her native town, where she was adjudged to be the best
scholar in the school. She was then remarkably beauti-
ful, and was among many well educated young ladies, of
highly respectable families ; but she bore her honors so
meekly that she was the general favorite. She often ad-
justed those little disputes which spring up in every semi-
nary, and sometimes, if not settled at once, produce lasting
effects.
She married the Rev. Adoniram Judson, appointed a
missionary to India, February 5, 1812. In his letter to
her father, asking his consent to the marriage, Mr. Judson
said — " I have now to ask, whether you can consent to
her departure for a heathen land ; whether you can con-
sent to her exposure to the dangers of the ocean ; to every
kind of want and distress ; to degradation, insult, perse-
cution, and perhaps a violent death? Can you consent to
all this for the sake of Him, who left his heavenly home
and died for her and you ?"
She was the first American female, who made up her
mind to go to India as a missionary. She sailed from
Salem, February 19, with Mrs. Harriet Newell, and ar-
rived in June at Calcutta. While there, she and her hus-
band, having on their passage embraced the principles of
the Baptists, were baptized, Sept. 6, 1812. As the mission-
aries were ordered to quit India, she sailed to the isle of
JUD
[711 ]
JUG
France, where, on her arrival, January 17, 1813, she was
informed of the death of Mrs. Newell. She proceeded in
July to Rangoon, in Burmah. After studying the lan-
guage several years, Mr. Judson began to preach and to
publish tracts in the Burman language. He was also
joined by the missionaries. Hough, CoUnan, and Whee-
lock. In January, 1820, Mr. Judson made a fruitless visit
to the emperor to obtain permission to propagate the
Christian religion. In consequence of this refusal, Mr.
Colman was induced to remove to Chittagong, near which
place he died, July 4, 1822. Mr. Wheelock was also de-
ceased, and Mr. Hough had departed, so that in March,
1820, Mr. and Mrs. Judson were left alone at Rangoon.
Several converts, however, were baptized in 1820.
In consequence of alarming ilhiess, Mrs. Judson left
Rangoon in August, 1821, and repaired to Calcutta, and
thence to England. In September, 1822, she arrived at
New York. After visiting her friends at Bradford for a
few weeks, she was induced, on account of her health, to
pass the winter in the milder climate of Baltimore, where
Dr. Elnathan Judson, an only brother of her husband, re-
sided. Here she lived in retirement, and wrote an inte-
resting work, a History of the Burman Mission, in a series
of letters to Mr. Butterworth, a member of parliament,
in whose house she was received while in England.
She sailed on her return June 22, 1823, from Boston,
with the missionaries Mr. and Mrs. Wade, and arrived at
Calcutta in October, and in December proceeded to Ran-
goon. In the same month she accompanied her husband
to Ava, the capital. Just as they were getting under
way in their missionary labors, the Burmese war broke
out. The Bengal government invaded Burmah, in the
spring of 1821. The war was a bloody one to the Bur-
mese. June 8th, Mr. Judson was seized and imprisoned,
with Dr. 'Price, and others. During his imprisonment of
more than a year and a half; nine months in three pair
of fetters, two months in five pair, amidst indescribable
sufferings, Mrs. Judson repaired every day two miles to
the prison, prepared food for her husband, and adminis-
tered to the wants of the prisoners, and made constant
application to the government for their lives and their
deliverance. But for her they must have perished.
Her appeals, written in elegant Burmese, were given to
the king when no one of his officers dared mention the
subject lO him. At length he directed her with her hus-
band, )o go to the English army, then marching on vic-
toriously under general Sir Arcliibald Campbell, and
prepare the way for a treaty of peace. She was sent
with all the honors of an embassador, and the British
comaiander-in-chief received her in this character.
She came to every point in the business with great sin-
gleness of heart and clearness of understanding. She
gave the English a better account of the court of the king
of Ava, than they had ever had from any other source.
The treaty was made through her influence, and even
that proud monarch did not hesitate to acknowledge her
merits, though her own narrative modestly conceals them.
Mr. and Mrs. Judson now settled in the new town of
Amherst, on the Salwen river. But after a Cew months,
and during the absence of Mr. Judson, she died there of a
lever, October 24, 1826, aged thirty-sLx. This fatal event
is to be ascribed to her sulTcrings at Ava. In a few
months her only surviving child, Maiia, died. Her little
son, Roger Williams, had died at Rangoon, and was buried
there. Her grave, which is under a large tree, called the
Hopia, or hope-tree, will be hereafter visited by Christian
missionaries, as a place made sacred by the ashes of a
woman of no ordinary character.
For beauty, talents, piety, dignity of demeanor, and
perseverance of mind, Mrs. Judson has had but few
equals. She acquired languages with great facility, and
used her acquirements to the best purposes of her calling.
She wrote with ease and elegance. She was a pattern of con-
jugal affection and missionary ardor. She was chivalrous
and ronaantic without being giddy or vain. She was en-
gaged in a great work, and she went fearlessly on to
death. She shrunk from no danger, nor turned back from
any peril. She saw martyrdom before her, but it was
surrounded by beatific visions. She saw the seeds of the
gospel planted in a heathen land, and she believed, that,
if it was long in springing up, it would in time flourish,
and break asunder the chains of superstition and sin.
Every day confirms the wisdom of her anticipations.
No female missionary ever passed through such scenes
of suffering, or made such efforts of benevolence in sick-
ness and amidst perils and difficulties of every kind.
When, at a future time, the gospel shall fully triumph over
the superstitions of the East, her name will be honored
throughout Burmah, as it is already honored throughout
the Christian and civilized world. A very interesting
Memoir of the Life of Mrs. Judson, was published by James
D. Knowles, Boston, 1829. N. Y. Mirror, 1834.'
JUGGERNAUT, or Jaoanath ; (i.e. The Lord of Ihe
World ;) the most celebrated and sacred temple in Hin-
^P"-
dostan, in the district of Cutlack, on the coast of Orjssa.
It stands near the shore, not far from the Chilka lake, in
a waste, sandy tract, and appears like a huge, shapeless
mass of stone. The idol is a carved block of wood, with
a hideous face, painted black, and a distended, blood-red
mouth. See Stilton's Orissa Mission, Boston, 1833.
On festival days the throne of the idol is placed on a
tower sixty feet high, moving on wheels, accompanied by
two other idols, that hkewise sit on their separate thrones.
Six long ropes are attached to the tower, by which the
people draw it along. The priests and their attendants
stand round the throne on the tower, and occasionally
turn to the worshippers with indecent and disgusting
songs and gestures. The walls of the temple and the
sides of the car are also covered with obscene images, in
large, durable sculpture. While tlie tower moves along,
numbers of devout worshippers throw themselves on the
ground in order to be crushed by the wheels ; and the
multitude shout in approbation of the act, as a pleasing
sacrifice to the idol.
In the temple itself, a number of prostitutes are kept
for the pilgrims who frequent it, the number of which
latter, it is calculated, amounts to at least one million two
hundred thousand annually, of whom it is said, nine out
of ten die on the road of famine and sickness ; at any
rate, it is a well-known fact, that the country for mile's
round the sacred place is covered with human bones.
Not far from the temple is a place called by Europeans
Golg,i!ha, where the corpses are thrown, and dogs and
vultures are always feeding on the carrion. The'whole
scene presents one of the most revolting and harrowing
spectacles of the crueUies and abominations of idolatry to
be met with on the face of the gfobe .- yet, from the con-
tributions of the poor deluded pilgrims, the East India
JUL
t ^12
JUN
company receive an annual revenue of twelve thousand
pounds, deducting the expenses of the temple, repairs of
roads, &c. Since 1810, a road has been made to the
place from Calcutta, to which a wealthy Hindoo, Rajah
Sukmoy Roy, contributed sixteen thousand pounds, on
condition of its being called by his name. — Ilend. Buck,
JULITTA, a martyr of the fourth century, under Dio-
cletian, was a Lyconian lady of royal descent, but more
celebrated for her Christian virtues than her noble blood.
To avoid the bigoted rage of the pagan governor, she
withdrew from Iconium, her native city, to Tarsus. But
here, with her young son Cyricus, she was seized, and
confessing herself a Christian was ordered to the rack.
Her beautiful boy for repeating; his mother's words, " I am
a Christian," was dashed in pieces on the pavement be-
fore her eyes ; for which the dying mother gave thanks to
God. After patiently sufti^ring various torments, she was
belieaded, April 115, A. D. 305.^Fox, p. 55.
JULITTA, of Cappadocia; a lady of distinguished ca-
pacity, virtue and couragey who having had part of her
estate unjustly seized by a pagan, made an appeal to the
protection of- the laws. This was refused, unless she
would sacrifice to idols. On her nobly declaring that she
would not, for the sake of her property or life, renounce
her God and Savior, she was condemned to be burnt,
which sentence was executed, A. D. 305. — Fox, 55.
JULIAN, THE Apostate ; a Roman emperor, son
of Julius Constans, (brother of Constantine the 'Great,)
born at Constantinople in the year 331. With his younger
brother Gallus he was intrusted for his education to Euse-
bius of Nicomedia, who gave thenr Mardonius for their
tutor. They were brought up in the Christian religion, and
compelled to enter the order of prie.sts, which appears to
have disgusted Julian, who, at the age of twenty-four, re-
paired to Athens, where he enjoyed the instruction of some
renowned heathen philosophers, and embraced their reli-
gion.
On his coming to the throne, he sought to restore the
pagan worship in all its splendor ; opposed the Christians ;
took from the churches their riches, which were often very
great ; and after failing in the attempt to induce the
Christians, by flattery, to renounce their faith, he did all
in his power to make their situation disagreeable, forbid-
ding them to plead before a court of justice, or to receive
offices under the state. He did not even permit them
publicly to profess their religion ; and to falsify the pro-
phecy of Christ with regard to the temple at Jerusalem,
he encouraged the Jews to rebuild it, about three hundred
years after its destruction. In this, however, he was com-
pletely foiled, for flames of fire belching forth from sub-
terraneous caverns slew many of the workmen, and
caused the undertaking to be entirely abandoned.
Julian died in 365, in the thirty-fourth year of his age.
His last words were, " O Galilean, thou hast conquered !"
(See Galilean.) His character was full of contradictions :
while, on the one hand, he was learned, magnanimous,
moderate, temperate, and humane, he was, on the other,
fickle, inconsistent, eccentric, fanatical and superstitious
m the highest degree ; and at the bottom of all these fea-
tures of his character there appears to have lain a sarcas-
tic, sophistic coldness, and dissimulation. — Heiul. Buck.
JULIANO ; a Spanish Roman Catholic of the seven-
teenth century, who on travelling into Germany became a
convert to the Protestant faith. His zeal for the difliusion
of the word of Go.l, led him to undertake the dangerous
enterprise of conveying into Spain a large quantity of
Bibles, concealed in ca.sks, and packed up as Rhenish
wine. A pretended Protestant betrayed him. He was
seized by the Inquisition, and together with eight hupdred
purchasers of his precious treasure, was condemned to the
torture and to death. — Fox, p. 136.
JULIUS CjESAR, the first Roman emperor, had some
connexion with Jewish affairs. He was the son of Lu-
cius CEBsar and Aurelia, daughter of Cotta, and born in
the year of Rome 054 ; ninety-eight years before Jesus
Christ. After having passed through the oflices of tri-
bune, qua;stor, cedile, high-priesl, and pra;tor or governor
of Spain, he obtained the consulship, in the year of Rome
095, and chose the government of Gaul, which he re-
duced into the form of a province, after nine or ten years
of government. After the death of his daughter Julii,
he went to war with Pompey ; but when he entered Italy
with his victorious army, he so terrified his enemies, that
they fled. Passing into Egypt, Caesar v/as shut up in
Alexandria, with some troops, where he was very much
embarrassed, and pressed by the Egyptian army. Anti'
pater induced the Jews to declare for Cssar, who obtained
a complete victory, and thus became master of Egypt;-
Ccesar always preserved a grateful recollection of the im-
portant service which Antipater had rendered him. He
confirmed all the privileges of the Jews in Egypt, and
caused a pillar to be erected, on which he ordered them
all to be engraved, with the decree which confirmed them.
In his fifth and last consiilship, Caesar permitted Hyrcanus
to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, which Pompey had de-
molished. He was assassinated, March 15, B. C; 54.-^
Calmet,
JULIUS ; a centurion of the cohort of Augustus^ to
whom Festus, governor of Judea, committed Paul, to be
conveyed to Rome. Julius had great regard for Paul)
Acts 27: 1, &c. He suffered him to land at Sidon, and to
visit his friends there ; and in a subsequent part of the
voyage he opposed the violence of the soldiers directed
against the prisoners, generally ; in order to save the
apostle. When he delivered his charge to the custody of
the chief captain of the guard, there can be no doubt, but
that his favorable report of the apostle contributed essen-
tially to the indulgence he afterwards met with, and
by which his imprisonment was greatly moderated. —
Calmet.
JULIUS ; a Roman senator of the second century, who
becoming a convert to Christianity, was ordered by the
emperor to sacrifice to him as Hercules. This Julius ab-
solutely refused to do, at the same time avowing himself
a Christian. After a long imprisonment, pursuant to his
sentence, he was beat to death with clubs, which he
patiently suffered for his Savior's sake. — Fox, p. 22.
JUMPERS; persons so called from the practice of
jumping during the time allotted for religious worship.
This singular practice began, it is said, in the western
part of Wales, about the year 1760. — Hend. Buck.
JUNIUS, (Francis, S. T. P.) This extraordinary man
was born at Bourges, in France, in 1543. Under a kind
and learned father he received the rudiments of his edu-
cation ; and though feeble in health, gave such striking
indications of wisdom as led his mother to remark that he
would be a second Socrates. At Lyons, however, where he
was sent to complete his education, he found many temp-
tations, and at length became a complete and avowed
atheist. His father being informed of the state of his
mind, sent for hirii, and with the utmost tenderness re-
quested him to read the New Testament with attention.
He obeyed, and God appeared for him, while reading the
first chapter of John. " I was so impressed," he observes,
" with what I read, that I could not but perceive the divi-
nity of the subject, and the authority and majesty of the
Scriptures, to surpass greatly all human eloquence. I
shuddered in my body with horror at myself; my soul
was astonished ; and I was so strongly affected all that
day, that I scarce knew who, or what, or where I was."
From this time he became a Christian indeed, and gave
up the study of law for theology. In 1565, he became
minister of Antwerp, then at Limbourg, and in 1581, pro-
fessor of divinity at Heidelberg. In 1592, he was called
to the same office in Leyden, which he filled till his much
lamented death, in 1602. Junius, though he suffered much
from persecution, was by universal acknowledgment one
of the greatest and best of men. His learning and judg-
ment, transparent probity, his pacific temper, deep humi-
lity, and ardent piety, have rarely been sitrpassed. His last
hours were rich in Christian consolation, drawn from the
free grace and faithfulness of God in Christ. His Latin
works fill two vols, folio. His Latin Translation of the
Old Testament, in which he was aided by Tremellius, is
in high esteem. — Middhton, vol. ii. p. 309.
JUNIPER, (Heb. rttem.) It is very questionable
whether this shrub is mentioned in Scripture, though it is
found in our translation, 1 Kings 19: 4. Job 30: 3, 4.
The Psalmist (120: 4.) mentions the coals of the junipei
as affording the fiercest fire of any combustible matter
JUS
L V13 ]
JUS
(hat he founa m the desert, and therefore the fittest pu-
nishment for a deceitful tongue : " What shall be given
iiulo thee, or what shall be done unto ihee, thou false
tongue? Sharp arrows of the mighty, with coals of ju-
niper." That is, the wrath of God, like a keen and
barbed arrow from the bow of the mighty, shall pierce
the strongest armor, and strike deep info the hardest
heart, and, like the fierce and protracted flame of the
juniper, shall torment the liar \rith unutterable anguish.
— Abbott.
JUPITER ; the supreme god of the Roman and Greek
mythology, whom the people of Lystra supposed to have
descended from heaven in the form of Barnabas, Acts 14:
12. (See Gods.)
JUST ; conformed to the principles of right and equity ;
acquitted of the charge of guilt, and according to the di-
vine law entitled to the rewards of righteousness. This
may take place either on legal or evangelical principles.
{See JcsxrcE of God; and Justification.)
JUSTICE, consists in an exact and scrupulous regard
to the rights of others, with a deliberate purpose to pre-
.serve theni on all occasions sacred and inviolate. It is
often divided into commutatire and retributive justice. The
former consists in an equal exchange of benefits ; the
ialler in an equal distribution of rewards and punish-
tnents. Dr. Watts gives the following rules respecting
justice. — " 1. It is just that we honor, reverence, and re-
.spect those who are superiors in any kind, Eph. 6: 1, 3.
1 Pet. 2: 17. 1 Tim. 5: 17.— 2. That we show particular
kindness to near relations, Prov. 17: 17. — 3. That we
love those who love us, and show gratitude to those who
have done us good. Gal. 1: 15. — 4. That we pay the full
due to those whom we bargain or deal with, Rom. 13.
Dent. 24: 14. — 3. That we help our fellow-creatures in
cases of great necessity, Exod. 22: 4. — 6. Reparation to
those whom we have wilfully injured." IFa«s' Serm.
set. 24, 26, vol. ii. ; Berry Street Lect. ser. iv. ; Grove's
Mor. Phil. p. 332, vol. ii. ; WoUastoii's Eclig. of Nature,
pp. 137, 141; Jay's Serm. vol. ii p. 131; Dwight's Theo-
logy ; Payson's Stmwns. — Hend. Suck.
JUSTICE, (Administration of.) According to the
Mosaic law, there were to be judges in all the cities,
whose duty it was likewise to exercise judicial authority
in the neighboring villages ; but weighty causes and ap-
peals went up to the supreme judge or ruler of the com-
monwealth, and, in case of a failure here, to the high-
priest, Deut. 17: 8, 9. In the time of the monarchy,
weighty causes and appeals went up, of course, to the
king, who, in verv difficult cases, seems to have con.sulted
the high-priest, as is customary at the present day among
the Persians and Ottomans. The judicial establishment
was reorganized after the capti\'ity, and two classes of
judges, the inferior and superior, were appointed, Ezra
7: 25. The more difficult cases, nevertheless, and .ippeals,
were either brought before the ruler of the state, called
Pahhah. or before the high-priest ; until, in the age of the
Maccabees, a supreme, judicial tribunal was instituted,
which is first mentioned under Hyrcanus II. This tribu-
nal is not to be conlbunded with the seventy-two coun-
sellors, who were appointed to .issist Moses in the civil
administration of the government, but who never tilled
the office of judges. (See Sanhedrim.)
Josephus states, that in every city there was a tribunal
of seven judges, with two Levites as apparitors, and that
it was a Mosaic institution. That there existed such an
institution in his time, there is no reason to doubt ; but
he probably erred in referring its origin to so early a pe-
rio-i as the days of Moses. (See Judges.) This tribunal,
which decided causes of less moment, is once alluded to
by our Lord, by the name of the judgment, Matt. 5: 22.
The Talmudists mention a tribunal of twenty-three judg-
es, and another of three judges ; but Josephus is silent in
respect to them. The courts of twenty-three judges were
the same with the synagogue tribunals, mentioned in
John 16: 2, which merely tried questions of a religious
nature, and sentenced to no other punishment than '■ forty
stripes save one," 2 Cor. 11:21. The court of three
judges was merely a session of referees, which was al-
lowed to the Jews by the Roman laws; for the Talmud-
ists themselves, in describing this court, go on to observe,
yo
-(hat one judge was rhoseii by the accuser, another by the
accused, and a third by the two parties conjunctly ; which
shows at once the nature of the tribunal.
The time at which courts were held, and causes were
brought before them for trial, was in the morning, Jer.
21: 12. Ps. 101: 8. According to the Talmudists, Tr was
not lawful to try cau.ses of a capital nature in the nighi
and it was equally unlawful to examine a cause, pass
sentence, and put it in execution on the same day. The
last particular was very strenuously insisted on. It is
worthy of remark, that all of these practices, which were
observed in other trials, were neglected in the tumultuous
trial of Jesus, Matt. 2ti: 57. John 18: 13—18. The
places for judicial trials were ia very ancient limes the
gates of cities, 'which were well adapted to this purpose.
(See Gates.) Originally, trials were everywhere veiy
summary, excepting in Egypt ; where the accuser com-
mitted the charge to writing, the accused replied in writ-
ing, the accuser repeated the charge, and the accused
answered again, &c.. Job 14: 17. It was customary in
Egypt for the judge to have the code of laws placed be-
fore him ; a practice which still prevails in the East.
Moses interdicted, in the most express and decided man-
ner, gifts or bribes, which were intended to corrupt the
judges, Exod. 22: 20, 21. 23:1—9. Lev. 19: 15. Deut.
24: 14, 15. Moses also, by legal precautions, prevented
capital punishments, and corporal punishments which
were not capital, from being extended, as w,ts done in
other nations, both to parents and their children, and thus
involving the innocent and the guilty in that misery which
was justly due only to the latter, Exod. 23; 7. Deut. 24:
lo. Dan. 6: 24.
The ceremonies which were observed in conducting a
judicial trial, were as follows : 1. The accuser and the
accused both made their appearance before the judge or
judges, (Deut. 25: 1.) who sat with legs crossed upon the
floor, which was furnished for their accommodation with
carpet and cushions. A secretary was present, at leasl
in more modern times, who wrote down the sentence, and,
indeed, every thing in relation to the trial ; for instance,
the articles of agreement that might be entered into pre
vious to the commencement of the judicial proceeding.'-,
Isa. 10: 1, 2. Jer. 32: 1 — 14. The Jews assert that there
were two secretaries, the one being seated lo the right of
the judge, who wrote the sentence of not guilty, the
other to the left, who wrote the sentence of coudemnation,
Matt. 25: 33 — 4(). That an apparitor or beadle was pre-
sent, is apparent from other sources. 2. The accuser was
denominated in Hebrew salan, or the adversary, Zech. 3:
1 — 3. Ps. 109: fi. (See Ad\i:ksarv.) The judge or
judges were seated, but both of the parties implicated
stood up, the accuser standing to the right hand of the
accused : the latter, at least after the captivity, when the
cause was one of great consequence, appeared mth hair
dishevelled, and in a garment of mourning. 3. The wit-
nesses were sworn, and, in capital cases, the parties con-
cerned, 1 Sam. 11: 37—40. Matt. 26: 63. In order to es-
tablish the charges alleged, two witnesses were necessary',
and, including the accuser, three. The witnesses were exa-
mined separately, but the person accused had the liberty
to be present when their leslimonj' was given in, Num.
35: 30. Deut. 17: 1—15. Matt. 26: 59. Proofs might be
brought from other sources : for instance, from written
contracts, or from papers in evidence of any thing pur-
chased or sold, of which there were commonly taken two
copies, the one to be .sealed, the other to be left open, as
was cusloinary in the time of Jerome, Jer. 32: 10 — 13.
4. The parties sometimes, as may be inferred from Prov.
18: 18, made use of the lot in dcierraining the points of
difficulty between them, but not without a mutual agree-
ment. The sacred lot of Urim and Thuminim was an-
ciently resorted to, in order to detect the guilty, (Josh. 7:
14 — 24. 1 Sam. 14.) but the determination of a case of
right or wrong in (his way was not commanded by Moses.
5. The sentence, very soon after the completion of the
examination, was pronounced ; and the criminal, wiihout
any delay, even if the offence were a capital one,^ was
hastened away to the place of punishment, Josh. 7: 22,
.Vc. 1 Sam. 22: 18. 1 Kings 2: 23.
A few additional remarks will cast some light upon
JUS
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JtJS
t.irae passages cf Scripture. The station of the accused
was in an eminent place in the court, that the people
might see them, and hear what was alleged against them,
and the proofs of it, together with the defence made by
the criminals. This explains the reason of the remark by
the evangelist Matthew, concerning the posture of our
Lord at his trial : " Jesus stood before the governor ;'' and
that, in a mock trial, many ages before the birth of Christ,
in which some attention was also paid to pnblic forms,
Naboth was set on high among the people, 1 Kings 21: 9.
The accusers and the witnesses also stood, unless they
were allowed to sit by the indulgence of the judges, when
they stated the accusation, or gave their testimony. To
this custom of the accusers rising from their seats, when
called by the court to read the indictment, our Lord al-
ludes in his answer to the scribes and Pharisees, who ex-
pressed a wish to see him perform some miracle : " The
queen of the South shall rise up in the judgment with this
generation, and shall condemn it," Watt. 12: 42. Accord-
ing to this rule, which seems to have been invariably ob-
served, the Jews who accused the apostle Paul at the bar
of Festus the Roman governor, " stood round about,"
while they stated the crimes ^^•hich they had to lay to his
charge. Acts 25; 7. They were compelled to stand as
well as the prisoner, by the established usage of the
courts of justice in the East.
The Romans often put criminals to the question, or en-
deavored to extort a confession from them by torture.
Agreeably to this cruel and unjust custom. " the chief
captain commanded Paul to be brought into the castle,
and bade that he should be examined by scourging," Acts
22: 24.
It was usual, especially among the Romans, when a man
was charged with a capital crime, and during his arraign-
ment, to let down his hair, suffer his beard to grow long,
to wear filthy, ragged garments, and appear in a very
dirty and sordid habit ; on account of which they were
called sordidati. When the person accused was brought
into court to be tried, even his near relations, friends and
acquaintances, before the court voted, appeared with dis-
hevelled hair, and clothed with garments foul and out of
fashion, weeping, crying, and deprecating punishment.
The accused sometimes appeared before the judges clothed
in black, and his head covered with dust. In allusion to
this ancient custom, the prophet Zechariah represents
Joshua, the high-priest, when he appeared before the
Lord, and Satan stood at his right hand to accuse him, as
clothed with filthy garments, Zech. 3: 3.
After the cause was carefully examined, and all parties
impai^tially heard, the public crier, by command of the
presiding magistrate, ordered the judges to bring in their
verdict. The most ancient way of giving sentence, was
by white and black sea-shells, or pebbles. This custom
has been mentioned by Ovid in these lines : —
" It was a custom among the ancients, to give their votes
by white or black stones ; with these tUey condemned the
guilty, with those acquitted the innocent." In allusion to
this ancient custom, our Lord promises to give the spiri-
tual conqueror " a white stone," (Rev. 2: 17.) the white
stone of absolution or approbation.
When sentence of condemnation was pronounced, if the
case was capital, the witnesses put their hands on the
head of the criminal, and said, " Thy blood be upon thine
own \ietii." To this custom the Jews alluded, when they
cried out at the trial of Christ, " His blood be on us and
on our children." Then was the malefactor led to execu-
tion, and none were allowed openly to lament his misfor-
tune. His hands were secured with cords, and his feet
with fetters ; a custom which furnished David with an
affecting allusion, in his lamentation over the dust of Ab-
ner : " Thy hands were not bound, nor thy feet put in
fetters ;" (2 Sam. 3: 34.) that is, he was put treacherously
to death, without form of justice.
2. Executions in the East are often very prompt and
arbitrary, when resulting from royal authority. In many
cases the suspicion is no so.iner entertained, or the cause
of oflTence given, thin the fatal order is issued ; the mes-
senger of death hurries to the unsuspecting victim, shows
his warrant, and executes his orders that instant in silence
and solitude. Instances of this kind are coDtinoally oc
curring in the Turkish and Persian histories. To such
silent and hasty executioners the royal preacher seems to
refer in that proverb, " The wrath of a king is as mes-
sengers of death ; but a wise man will pacify it ;" (Prov.
10: 14.) his displeasure exposes the unhappy offender to
immediate death, and may fill the unsuspecting bosom
with terror and dismay, like the appearance of a capidgi,
or executioner ; but by wise and prudent conduct a man
may sometimes escape the danger. From the dreadful
promptitude with which Benaiah executed the commands
of Solomon on Adonijah and Joab, it may be concluded
that the executioner of the court was as little ceremonions,
and the ancient Jews, under their kings, nearly as passive,
as the Turks or Persians. The prophet Elrsha is the only
person on the inspired record who ventured to resist the
bloody mandate of the sovereign, 2 Kings 6: 32.
Criminals were at other times executed in pnblic ; and
then commonly without the city. To such executions
without the gate, the Psalmist undoubtedly refers in this
eomplaint : " The dead bodies of thy saints have they
given to be meat unto the fowls of the heaven ; the flesh
of thy saints unto the beasts of the earth ; their blood have
they shed like water round about Jerusalem, and there
was none to bury them," Ps. 79; 2, 3. The last clause
admits of two senses : 1 . There was no friend or relation
left to bury them. 2. None were allowed to perform this
last office. The despotism of Eastern princes often pro-
ceeds to a degree of extravagance which is apt to fill the
mind with astonishment and horror. It has been thought,
from time immemorial, therefore, highly criminal to bury
those who had lost their lives by the hand of an execu-
tioner, without permission. To such a degree of savage
barbarity it is probable the enemies of God's people car-
ried their opposition, that no person dared to bury the
dead bodies of their innocent victims.
In ancient times, persons of the highest rank and sta-
tion were employed to execute the sentence of the law.
They had not then, as we have at present, public execu-
tioners ; but the prince laid his commands on any of his
courtiers whom he chose, and probably selected the person
for whom he had the greatest favor. Sometimes the
chief magistrate executed the sentence of the law with
his own hands ; for when Jether shrunk from the duty
which his father required, Gideon, at that time the su-
preme magistrate in Israel, did not hesitate to do it him-
self. In these times such a command would be reckoned
equally barbarous and unbecoming ; but the ideas which
were entertained in those primitive ages of honor and
propriety, were in many respects extremely different from
ours. In Homer, the exasperated Ulysses commanded
his son Telemachus to put to death the suitors of Pene-
lope, which was immediately done. The custom of em-
ploying persons of high rank to execute the sentence of
the law, is still retained in the principality of Senaar,
where the public executioner is one of the principal nobi-
lity ; and, by virtue of his office, resides in the royal pa-
lace.— IVatsoii.
JUSTICE OF GOD, is that perfection whereby he is
infinitely righteous and just, in his principles and in all
his proceedings with his creatures. Mr. Ryland defines it
thus : " The ardent inclination of his will to prescribe
equal laws as the supreme governor, and to dispense
equal rewards and punishments as the supreme judge,"
Rev. 16: 5. Ps. 145: 7. 97; 1, 2. It is distinguished into
remunerative and punitive justice. Remunerative jus-
tice is a distribution of rewards, the rule of which is not
the merit of the creature, but his own gracious promise.
Jam. 1: 12. 2 Tim. 4; 8. Punitive or vindictive justice,
is the infliction of punishment for any sin committed by
men, 2 Thes. 1: 6. That God will not let sin go unpu-
nished is evident,— 1. From the word of God, Exod. 34:
6, 7. Num. 14; 18. Neh. 1: 3.-2. From the character of
God, Isa. 1: 13, 14. Ps. 5: 5, 6. Heb. 12: 29.-3. From
sin being punished in Christ, the surety of his people,
1 Pet. 3: 18. — 4. From all the various natural evils which
men feel in the present state. The use we should make
of this doctrine is this ;— I. We should learn the dreadful
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JUS
nature of sin, and ihe inevitable ruin of impenitent sin-
ners, Ps. 9; 17. — 2. We should highly appreciate the
Lord Jesus Christ, in whom justice is satisfied, 1 Pet.
3: 18 — 3. We should imitate the justice of God, by
cherishing an ardent regard to the rights of God and
to the rights of mankind, — 4. We should abhor all
sin, as it strikes directly at the justice of God. — 5.
We should derive comfort from the consideration that
the judge of all the earth will do right, as it regards
ourselves, the church, and the world at large, Ps. 97:
1, 2. Ryland's Coiitemp., vol. ii. p. 439 ; Witutis' CEco-
nomy, lib. xi. chap, 8. ^ 11 ; Dr. Ofeen on the Jastice of
God; GilPs Body of Dicinitff, vol. i. p. 155, 8vo. ; Elisha
Cole on the Jiighteousness of God ; MocJaurvi^s Sermons ;
Dwight's Theology ; Fuller's Works.— Hend. Buck.
jDSTIFICAflON ; a forensic term, which signifies the
Jeclaring or the pronouncing a person rigliteous according
to law. It stands opposed to condemnation ; and this is
the idea of the word whenever it is us^ed in an evangeli-
cal sense, Rom. 5: 18. Deut. 2.5: 1, Prov. 17: 15. Matt.
12: 37. It does not signify to make men holy, but the
holding and declaring them to be free from punishment.
It has been defined, "An act of God's free grace, in
which he pardoneth all our sins, and accepteth us as
righteous in his sight only for tl\e righteousness of Christ
imputed to us, and received by faith alone."
The doctrine of justification was styled by Luther,
the article of a standing or falling ckttrth. It is a cafa-
tal article of that faith which was once delivered to the
saints. Far from being a merely speculative point, if
spreads its vital influence through the whole body of theo-
logy, runs through all Christian experience, and operates
in every part of practical godliness. Such is its grand
importance, that a mistake about it has a malignant effi-
cacy, and is attended with a long train of dangerous con-
sequences. Nor can this appear strange, when it is con-
sidered, that the doctrine of justification is no other than
(he way of a sinner's acceptance with God. Being of such
peculiar moment, it is inseparably connected with many
wther evangelical truths, the harmony and beauty of which
we cannot behold while this is misunderstood. It is, if
any thing maybe so called, an essential and fundamental
tnxlh of Christianity ; and as our very salvation depends
OH it through eternity, it deserves and demands our most
serious consideration. (See Acceptance with God.)
Justification, in a theological sense, is either legal or
evangelical. If any person could be found that had never
broken the divine law, he might be justified by it in a
manner strictly legal. But in this way none of the human
race can be justified, or stand acquitted before God. For
all have sinned ; there is none righleo\is ; no, not one,
Rom. 3. As sinners, they are under the sentence of death
by his rigiteons law, and excluded from all hope and
mercy. That justificaliun, therefore, about which the
Scriptures principally treat, and which reaches the case
of a .dinner, is not by a personal, but an imputed right-
eousness ; a i-ighteousness without the law, (Rom. 3:21.)
provided by grace and revealed in the gospel ; for which
reason, that obedience by which a sinner is justified, and
his justification itself, are called evangelical. In this
affair there is the most wonderful display of divine justice
p.nd boundless grace. Of divine justice, if we regard the
meritorious cause and ground on which the Justifier pro-
ceeds in absolving the condemned sinner, and in pro-
nouncing him righteous. Of boundless grace, if we con-
sider the state and character of those persons to whom the
blessing is granted. Justification may be further distin-
guished as being either at the bar of God, and in the
court of conscience ; or in the sight of the world , and be-
fore our fellow-creatures. The former is by mere grace
through faith ; and the latter is by works.
To justify, is evidently a divine prerogative. It is
God that justifieth, Ron*. 8: 33. That sovereign Being,
against whom we have so greatly offended, whose law we
have broken by ten thousand acts of rebellion against
him, has, in the way of his own appointment, the sole
right of acquitting the guilty, and of pronouncing them
righteous. He appoints the wa}', provides the means,
and imputes the righteousness ; and all in perfect agree-
ment with the demands of his offended law, and the rights
of his violated justice. But although this act is in some
places of the infallible word more particularly appropriated
personally to the Father, yet it is manifest that all the
Three Persons are concerned in this grand affair, and
each performs a distinct part in this particular, as also in
the whole economy of salvation. The eternal Father is
represented as appointing the way, and as giving his own
Sou to perform the conditions of our acceptance before
him; (Rom. 8: 32.) the divine Son as engaged to sustain
the curse and make the atonement; 'o fulfil the terms,
and provide the righteousness by which we are justified ;
(Tit. 2: 14.) and the Holy Spirit as revealing to sinners
the perfection, suitableness, and freeness of the Savior's
work, enabling them to receive it as exhibited in the gos-
pel of sovereign grace ; and testifying to their consciences
complete justification by it in the court of heaven, Joli.'i
16; 8, 14.
As to the objects of justification, the Scripture stiys,
they are sinnei's, and ungodly. For thus runs the divine
declaration : To him that worketh is the reivard (of justi-
fication, and of eternal life as connected with it,) not reck-
oned of grace, but of debt. But to him that worketh not,
but believeth on Him that justifieth — whom ? the righi-
eous? the holy? the eminently pious? nay, verily, but
the ungodly ; his faith, or that in which he beUeves, is
counted unto him for righteousness, Rom. 4: 4, 5. Gal. 2:
17. Here, then, we learn, that the subjects of justifica-
tion, considered in themselves, are irot only destitute of a
perfect righteousness, but have performed no good works
at all. They are denominated and considered as the un-
godly, when the blessing is bestowed upon them. Not
that we are to understand that such remain ungodly.
"All," says Dr. Owen, "that are justified, were before
ungodly : but all that are justified, are at the same instant
made godly." That the mere sinner, however, is the
subject of justification appears from hence. The Spirit
of God, speaking in the Scripture, repeatedly declares
that we are justified by grace. But grace stands in direct
opposition to works. Whoever, therefore, is justified by
grace is considered as absolutely unworthy in that very
instant nhen the blessing is vouchsafed to him, Rom. 3:
24. The person, therefore, that is justified, is accepted
without any cause in himself Hence it appears, th.at if
we regard the persons who are justified, and their slate
prior to the enjoyment of the immensely glorious privilege,
divine grace appears, and reigns in all its glory.
As to the way and manner in which sinnei-s are justi-
fied, it may be observed that the Divine Being can acquit
none without a complete righteousness. Justification, as
before observed, is evidently a forensic term, and the thing
intended by it a judicial act. So that, were a person to
be justified without a righteousness, the judgment would
not be according to truth ; it would be a false and unright-
eous sentence. That righteousness by which we are
justified must lie equal to the demands of that law accord-
ing to which the Sovereign Judge proceeds in our justifi-
cation. Many persons talk of conditions of justification ;
(see article Condition ;) but the only condition is that of
perfect righteousness : this the law requires, nor does the
gospel substitute another. But where shall we find, or
how shall we obtain a justifying righteousness ? Shall we
flee to the law for relief? Shall we apply wiih diligence
and zeal to the performance of duty, in order to attain the
desired end? The apostle positively affirms, that there is
no acceptance with God by the works of the law ; and the
reasons are evident. Our righteousness is imperfect, and
consequently cannot justify. If justification were by the
works of men, it could not be by grace ; it would not be a
righteousness without works ; there would be no need
of the righteousness of Christ. And, lastly, if justification
were by the law, then boasting would be encouraged ;
whereas God's design, in the whole scheme of salvation,
is to exclude it, Rom. 3: 27. Eph. 2: 8, 9. Nor is faith
itself our righteousness, or that for the sake of which we
are justified ; for, though believers are said to be justified
by faith, yet not for faith ; faith can only be considered as
the instrument, and not the cause. That faith is not our
righteousness, is evident from the following considera-
tion : No man's faith is perfect ; and, if it were, it would
not be equal to the demands of the divine law. It could
JUS
[716 1
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not, therefore, without an error in judgment, be accounted
a complete righteousness. But the judgment of God, as
before proved, is according to truth, aijd according to the
rights of the law. That obedience by which a sinner is
justified is called the righteousness of faith, righteousness
by faith, and is represented as revealed to faith ; conse-
quently it cannot be faith itself. Faith, in the business
of justification, stands opposed to all works ; " to him that
worketh not, but believeth ." Now, if it were our justifying
righteousness, to consider it in such a light would be
highly improper. For in soch a connexion it fails under
the consideration of a work ; a condition, on the perform-
ance of which our acceptarice with God is manifestly sus-
pended. If faith itself be that on account of v/hich we are
accepted, then some believers are justified by a more, and
some by a less perfect righteousness, in exact proportion
to the strength or weakness of their faith. That which is
the end of the law is our righteousness, which certainly is
not faith, but the obedience of our exalted Substitute,
Bom. 10: 4. Were faith itself our jaslifying righteous-
ness, we might depend upon it before God, and rejoice in
it: So that according to this hypothesis not Christ, but
faith is the capital thing ; the object to which we must
look ; which is absurd. When the apostle says, " faith
was imputed to him for righteousness," his mnin design
was to prove tlwit the eternal Sovereign justifies freely,
without any meritorious cause in the beUever,
Nor is man's obedience to the gospel, as to a new and
milder law, the matter of his justification before God. It
was a notion that some yeai's ago obtained, tliat a relaxa-
tion of the law, and the severities of it, has been obtained
by Christ ; and a new law, a remedial law, a law of
milder tenns, has been introduced by him, ivhich is the
gospel ; the terms of which are faith, repentance, and
obedience ; and though these are imperfect, yet, being sin-
cere, they are accepted of by God in the room of a perfect
righteousness. But every part of this scheme is wrong,
for the law is not relaxed, nor any of its severities abated ;
there is no alteration made in it, either with respect to its
precepts or penalty : bes-ides the scheme is absiu'd, for it
supposes that the law which a man is now under reejuires
only an imperfect obedience j bat an imperfect righteous-
ness cannot answer its demands ; for every law re-
quires perfect obedience to its own precepts and prohibi-
tions.
Nor is a profession of religion, nor sincerity, nor good
works, at all the ground of our acceptance with God, for
all our righteousness is imperfect, and must therefore be
entirely excluded. By grace, saith the apostle, ye are
saved, not of works, lest any man should boast, Eph. 2:
R, 9. Besides, the works of sanctifttation and justifica-
tion are two distinct things : th« one is a work of grace
within men ; the other an act of grace for or toward
men ; the one is imperfect, the other complete ; the
one carried on gradually, the other done at onee. (See
SiNcirne-.tTKOT . )
If, then, we cannot possiHy be JHStified by any of our
own performances, nor by faith itscff, nor even by the
graces of the Holy Spirit, where then shall we find a
righteousness by which we can be justified ? The Sci-jp-
lure furnishes us with an answer—" By Jcwis Christ all
that believe are justified: from all thing.s from which they
could not be justified by the taw of Woses," Acts 13: 38,
39. ^ " He was delivered for our offences, and raised
again for our justification," Rom. 4: 25. " Being justi-
fied by his blood, we shall be saved from wrath through
him," Rom. .5: <». The spotless obedience, therefore, the
bitter sufferings, and the accursed death of oar heavenly
Surety, constitute that very righteousness by which sin-
ners are justified before God. That this righteousness is
imputed to us, and that we are not justified by a personal
righteousness, appears from the Sciipmres with superior
evidence. " By the obedience of one shall many be made
righteous," Rom. 5: 19. " He hath made him to be sin
for us, who knew no sin, that we might be made the rio-ht-
eousness of God in him," 2 Cor. 5: 21. " And be found
in him, not having mine own righteousness, which is of
the law, but that which is through the faith of Christ • the
righteousness which is of God by faith," Phil. 3: 9. 'see
• also Jer. 23: 6. Dan. 9: 24, and the whole of chaps. 2 and
3 of Galatians. (See articles Recowciliatioit ; BishT'
EOUSNESS.)
As to the properties of justification : 1. It is an act of
God's free grace, without any merit whatever in the crea-
ture, Rom. 3: 24. — 2. It is an act of ji>stice as well as
grace : the law being perfectly fulfilled in Christ, and di-
vine justice satisfied, Kom, 3: 26. Fs. 8^: 10 3. It is
an individual and instantaneous act- done at once, admit-
ting of no degrees, John 19: 30. — 4. It is sn irreversible,
and unalterable act, Mai. 3; fi. Rom. 5: 17. &: 30.
As to the time of juslificatioB, divines are not agreed.-
Some have distinguished it into decretive, virtual, and
actual. 1. Decretive, is God's eternal purpose to justify
sinners in time by Jesus Christ. 2. Virtual justiiication
has a referertce to the satisfaction made by Cuist. 3,
Aetital, is when we are enabled to believe in Christ, and
by faith are united to him. Others say that it is eternal,
because his purpose respecting it was from evrr'asting ^
and that, as the Almighty viewed his- pesple m Ghri^:;.
they were, of consequence, jastiSed in his sighl. Bat the:
principle on which the advocates for this doctrine have
proceeded is mf>st absurd. They have confounded the'
design with the execution j for if this distinction be noS
kept up, (be utiiwst perplexity will follow the consideratioE
of every subject which relates to th« decrees of God ; nor
shall we be able to form any clear ideas of his moral go-
vernment whateves. To say, as one does,, that the eter-
nal will of God to j-Hstify men is the justification of them,
is not to the purpose ; for, upon the same ground, we might
as well say that the eternal will of God to convert and
glorify his people is Che real conveirsion and glorification
of them. That it was eternally detenained that there
should be a people who should believe in Christ, and thaS
his righteousness should be im-pnted to them, is not to be
disputed ;. but to say that these things were really done
from eternity, (which we must say if we believe etemaf
justification,) this would be absurd. It is more consist eni;
to believe, that God from eternity teid the plan of justifi-
cation ; that this plan was executed by the life and deatb
of Christ ;: and that the blessiivg is- only manifested, re-
ceived, and enjoyed, when we are regenerated ; so that no
man can say, or has any reason to conclude, he is justi-
fied, until he believes in Christ, Rom. 5: 1. 8; 1.
The effects or btessings of justification, are, 1. An en-
tire freedom from all penal evils in this life, and that
which is to come, 1 Cor. 3: 22. — 2. Peace with God, Rom.
5: 1.— 3. Access to God, through Christ, Eph. 3: 12.— 4.
Acceptance with God, Eph. 5: 27. — 5. Holy confidence
and security under all the diilSculties and troubles of the
present state, 2 Tim. 1: 1, 12., — 6, Finalliy, eternal salva-
tion, Rom. 8^ 30. 5:- 18.
Thus we have given as comprehcttsiye a view of the
doctrine of justification as the nature of this work wil3
admit ; a doctrine which is founded upon the sacred Scrip-
tures, and which so far from leading to licentiousness, as
some suppose, is of all others the most replete with mo-
tives to love, dependence, and obedienee, Rom. 6; 1, 2'.
A ctoetrrne which the primitive Christians held as eonsti-
tutiiig the very essence of theii' .system ; whieh the re-
formers considered as the most important point ; which
the venerable martyrs gloried in, and sealed with their
blood ; and which, as the church of England ob.serves, is
a " very wholesome doctrine, and full of ceiKfort." See
Boom's Beign of Grace ; Lvther on Galatians ; Dr. Owen on
Jttst'ijkali^i ; Eatplinson on Justifkatioa ; Pres. Edrvnrds'
Sermons on ditto. ; Livie Street Lectures, p. 350 ; Herveifs
Theron and Aspmsio, and Eleven Letters ; Witherspoo7i's
Connexion betiveeii Jnstifir.ation rmd Holiness ; GUI and Jiid^-
hifs Div. ; Siinghfs Theohgj ; iVin-h of Robert. Hall ;
Chalmcr's Wivh ; bitt especially the Cvmj>lete Worlis of
Andrew Fidler. — Heiid. Buck.
JUSTIN, snrnamed the BIaktyr, one of the fathers of
the church, was born at Neapolis, anciently Sichem, in
Palestine ; and was a philosopher of the Platonic school.
He is believed to have preached the gospel in Italy, Asia
Minor, and Egypt. He was beheaded at Rome, in 165.
Of his works the principal are, two Apol-ogies for the
Christians. — Davafport ; Spirit of the Pilgrims.
JUSTINIAN I., emperor of the East, was born, in
483, of au oUscnre family, at Tauresium, in Dardania, oa
KAN
[ 717 ]
KE A
the lUyriaa and Thracian frontier ; was associated in the rity. Personally, Justinian was a bigot, and a man of a
government of the empire by his uncle Justin ; and, on weak mind ; yet, in some points of view, his rei^n was a
the death of that monarch, succeeded to the sole autho- elorious one. He died in 565 Davenport.
K.
KAABA ; originally a temple at Mecca, in great es-
teem among the heathen Arabs, who, before they em-
braced Mohammedanism, called a small building of stone
in the same temple kaaba, which has in its turn become
an object of the highest reverence with the Mohammedans.
They say it was built by Abraham and Ishmael. On the
side of it is a bllck stone, surrounded with silver, called
liraktan, set in the wall, about four feet from the ground.
This stone has served, since the second year of the He-
gira, as the kiiiJa, or point towards which the Mohamme-
dan turns his face during prayer. The hadjis or pilgrims
touch and kiss this stone seven times, after which they
enter the kaaba, and offer up their prayers. At first the
Mohammedans turned their face towards Jerusalem, until
their leader ordered the present direction. It appears
from Burckhardt, that this same holy kaaba is the scene
of such indecencies as cannot with propriety be particu-
larized : indecencies which are practised not only with
impunity, but publicly and without a blush. — Head. Buck.
KADESH, (holy or holiness ;) the name of a wilderness,
(Gen. 20: 1. Num. 20: 22.) which appears to be the same
as that called the wilderness of Paran in Num. 13: 26,
and in chap. 33: 36, the desert of Tziu. Simon thinks
that Kadesh implies a sacred place, or asylum ; and he
refers it to two cities : (1.) In the desert of Paran, (Num.
13: 26.) which he thinks is the same as Kadesh-Barnea,
Num. 34: 4. Deut. 1: 2, 19. 2: 14. Judith 5: 14. (2.) A
place on the confines of Edom, (Num. 20: 16.) in the de-
.sert of Tzin, Num. 27: 14 33: 36. Kadesh-Barnea was
eight leagues south from Hebron. — Calmct.
KADESH-BARNEA. (See Kadesh.)
KADMONITES ; (Gen. 15: 19.) a tribe of people who
inhabited the promised land east of the Jordan, about
mount Hermon. They were descended from Canaan, the
son of Ham. Cadmus, the founder of Thebes in Bosotia,
has been conjectured to have been originally a Kadmon-
ite. and his wife Hermione to have been so named from
mount Hermon. The Kadmonites, says Calmet, were
Hivites ; the word Hiviles is derived from a root which
signifies a serpent ; and fable says, that Cadmus sowed
serpent's teeth, from which sprung up armed men ; be-
cause he settled at Thebes his Hivites, or Kadmonites,
who were valiant and martial. — Calmet.
KANAH; a brook on the borders of Ephraim and Ma-
nasseh, (Josh. 16: 8. 17: 9.) which falls into the Mediter-
ranean a few miles south of Cesarea. — Calmet.
KANT, (Im.mantjel,) a celebrated metaphysician, and
founder of a new sect, was born, in 1724, at Konigsberg,
in Prussia, and was the son of a saddler. He was edu-
cated at the Frederician college, on leaving which he be-
came a private tutor. At a later period he gave lectures
on mathematics. He commenced as an author in his
twenty-third year ; but it was not till 1781, that he began
to publish the works which liave excited so much admira-
tion and controversy, especially in Germany. In that
year, he published his Critique of pure Reason, which
contains his system of philosophy, commonly called the
critical philosophy. A second part of it, published in 1783,
bore the title of Prolegomena for future Metaphysics. The
principles contained in them he had, however, long been
promulgating from the chair of logic and metaphysics at
Konigsberg, to which he was appointed in 1770. In 1786
and 1788, he was chosen rector of the university. He died
in 1804, having for some years been in a state of gradual
decay. Kant was a man of talent, an acute thinker, but
more fond of abstraction, than of experiment. His fame
is conspquenlly on the decline, and must sink lower as the
inductive philosophy of Bacon advances in the study of the
mind. His religious system is little b;iter than deism in
disguise. liobi:i=on's Bihl. Rrjins.fnr lf^.i\.— Davenport.
KARAITES, (Heb. Karaim ;) i. e, Scripturists, a Jew-
ish sect residing chiefly in Poland and the Crimea, but to
be found also in different parts of Lithuania, Austria,
the Caucasus, Turkey, Egypt, Abyssinia, India, and the
Holy Land, They principally differ from the Rabbinists
in their rejection of the oral law, and their ligid appeal U;
the text of Scripture as the exclusive source an.l l??t of
religious truth. It is on this account that they are ailk n
Scripturists, Not that they never consult the Talma. I,
but they will not allow that it has any binding aitlhoritv
over their consciences. They also differ from them in ih'e
interpretation of Scripture itself, While the Talmudist
chiefly applies the cabalistical art to bring oat recondite
and mysterious meanings from the sacred text, the K.i
raite maintains that the Scri]iture is its own interpreter,
and that the sense of a passage is to be determined 1-v
the grammatical meaning of the words, the scope and
connexion, and a comparison of parallel passages. Thcv
are very strict in their adherence to the letter of the !nw
are free from many of the superstitions common nmonj
the Jews in general, correct and exemplary in their d.i
mestic habits and arrangements, and characterized in
their dealings by probity and integrity. They are scarcelv
ever known to be embroiled in a lawsuit, or to become the
subject of legal prosecution.
This sect claims a very high antiquity, and seems ori-
ginally to have been the same with that of the Sadducees,
from whom, however, it is supposed they separated when
the latter adopted the errors by which they were distin-
guished in the time of our Lord, They were afterwards
reformed by rabbi Anan, about the middle of the eighth
century. According to accoimts current among them,
the first place where a Karaite synagogue was estahiished
after the destruction of Jerusalem was Grand C:iiro,
where they exist to this day. The number of the Karaii(?s
is not gi'eat, probably not much above eight thousanrl.
Those in the south of Russia possess a translation of the
Hebrew Bible in the Tartar language, which isvernaoukr
among them. — Hend. Buck.
KATTATH ; the limit of the tribe of Zebnlnn, Josli.
19: 15 ; in Judg. 1: 30, called Kitbron, which is the same
in sense. — Calmet.
KEDAR ; a region in the desert of the Ag:i:enes, Gen.
25: 13. 1 Chron. 1: 29. — 2. A city, as some think, called
by Josephns, Camala, Isa. 42: 11. 60:7. Ezek. 27: 21.
Ps. 120: 5. Jer. 2: 10. 49: 28.-3. A son o{ Ishmael,
(Gen. 25: 13.) the father of the Kedarenians, mentioned
by Pliny, who ilwelt in the neighborhood of the Nabathre-
ans, in Arabia Deserta. These people living in tents, it is
not possible to show the place of their habitation, because
they often changed it. Arabia Deserta is sometimes called
Kedar; but the Kedarenians dwelt principally in the south
of Arabia Deserta, or in the north of Arabia Fetnea r
there were some as far as the Red sea. Cant, 1: 5 "i?.
42: n.—Cnlma.
KEDRON. (See Cedrox.)
KEACH, (Benjamin,) the famous author rf tlie
"Scripture Metaphors," the "Travels of True GoJli-
ness," &c, was a Baptist minister of Winslow, Bucks, Eng,
in the latter part of the seventeenth century, Bein? a boUl
and zealous preacher during the reign of Charles 1!., he
was frequently seized and committed to pri-on. where he
was sometimes bound, but often released by bail. On
one occasion four dragoons determined to trample him to
death with their horses. They had already bound him,
and laid him on the ground, and were just putting spurs
to their horses to accomplish their horrid design, w'l-n
an officer rode up, and interposed his authority. In iM.,
he was prosecuted before lord Clarendon, the great patr ir.
of persecuting power, and .sentenced to the pillory foriml
KEM
[ 7 IS
KEN
lishing a work entitled The Child's Instructer,or a New and
Easy Primer. While in the pillory he said, " Good people,
1 am not ashamed to stand here this day with this paper
on my head. My Lord Jesus was not ashamed to suffer
on the cross for me, and it is for his cause that I am made
a gazingstock. You that are acquainted with the Scrip-
tures know the way to the crown is by the cross. The
cause for which I stand here, will plead its own innocency,
when the strongest of its opposers shall be ashamed. 1
do sincerely desire that the Lord would convert them, and
convince them of their errors, that their souls may be
saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." He added, This
is one yoke of Christ's which I experience is easy to me,
and a burden which he doth make hght. Oh, did you
but experience the great love of God, and the excellences
that are in him, it would make you willing to go through
any sufferings for his sake. I do account this the great-
est honor that ever the Lord was pleased to confer on me. '
Mr. Keach was the author of eighteen practical, sixteen
polemical, and nine poetical works, in all forty-three ;
besides a number of prefaces and recommendations for the
works of others.— .Be«erfirt, i. 215; Ivimey, i. 338.
KEEP. To keep God's word, statutes, or laws, is to
believe them firmly as indeed the word of God; to love,
esteem, and delight in them ; and diligently endeavor to
have our whole life exactly conformed thereto, Ps. 119;
17, 34. God keeps covenant and mercij : according to the
tenor of his covenant, he is ever ready to forgive his peo-
ple's sins, and to grant free favors to them, 1 Kings 8; 23.
He keeps the door of men's lips, in preserving them from
vain, imprudent and sinful words, Fs. 141: 3, Ministers
are keepers of the vineyard ; they watch over and labor in
the church, and preserve the truths, ordinances, and mem-
bers thereof from spiritual injuries, Sol. Song 8: 11. The
saints are made slavish keepers of the vineyard to the neg-
lect of their own, when, by administering public oflices,
intermeddling too much with carnal business, or by op-
pression from the impositions of men, they are made to
neglect the due management of their own hearts and
lives, Sol. Song 1; 6. "To keep the heart with all diligence,
is watchfully to observe its inclinations and motions, that
it comply with no temptation, no appearance of evil ; and
earnestly to study that its whole temper, thoughts, and
the words and works proceeding therefrom, correspond
with the unerring law of God, Prov. 4: 23. — Broirn.
KEHELATHAH; an encampment of Israel m the
wilderness. Numb. 33: 22. As it appears to denote " the
place of assembly," some have thought the gathering and
revolt of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram happened here. It
is probably the same as Keilah, a town in the south of Ju-
dah. — Cat met.
KEILAH ; a town of Judah, (Josh. 15: 44.) which
Eusebius places seventeen miles from Eleutheropolis, on
the side of Hebron ; and Jerome eight miles from the late
city. It is said that ihe prophet Habakkuk's tomb was
shown there. — Calmet.
KEITHIANS ; a party which separated from the Qua-
kers in Pennsylvania in the year 1691. They were head-
ed by the famous George Keith, from whom they derived
their name. Those who persisted in their separation,
after then leader deserted them, adopted Bnptist views,
practised immersion, and received the Lord's supper.
This party wcie also called Quaker Baptists, because
they retained the language, dress, and manner of the Qua-
kers. See Benedicts History of Ihe Baptists. — Hend. Buck.
KEJIPIS, (Thomas a,) whose real name was Ham-
inerlein, was born, in 1388, r>t ICempen, in the diocese of
Cologn, and died, in 1471, superior of the monastery of
mount A^nes, at Zwoll. He was born of poor, but pious
parents, who early devoted him to the church. His cha-
racter was distinguished for apostolic simplicity and purity.
Much of his time was spent in transcribing the Bible,
and other works, which he performed in a very beautiful
manner. His original works are all in Latin, and consist
of sermons, hymns, prayers, lives and ascetic treatises.
The treatise on the Imitation of Christ is his masterpiece,
and has gone through more than a thousand editions. It
has been said, perhaps without solid ground, that it was
wvii'en by Gerson. — Davenport; Ency. Am.
KEMUEL ; the third son of Nahor. Kemuel may
have given name to the Kamilites, a people of Syria, lying
west of the Euphrates. — Calmet,
KEN, (Thomas, D. D.,) a pious prelate and poet, was born
in 1637, at Berkhamstead ; was educated at AVinchester.
and at New college, Oxford ; was made bishop of Bath and
Wells by Charles II. ; was one of the seven bishops who
were tried for petitioning James II. ; declined taking the
oaths to William TIL, for which he was deprived of his
see; was pensioned by queen Anne; and died in 1711.
His Sermons, Poems, and other works, were pubHshed
in four volumes 8vo. Bp.Ken was a learned and excellent
man, immovable in what he deemed to be right, but of a
pacific temper, and generally honored and beloved. Seve-
ral of his hymns are very fine. — Davenport.
KENI; a region of the Philistine country, 1 Sara. 27:
10. Judg. 1: 16. "The children of the Kenite," should
be, according to the LXX, "of Jethro the Kenile."— Cal-
met.
KENITES ; a people who dwelt west of the Dead sea,
and extended themselves far into Arabia Petrsea. Jethro,
the father-in-law of Moses, was a Kenite, and out of regard
to him all of this tribe who submitted to the Hebrews,
were suffered to live in their own country. The rest fled,
in all probability, to the Edomiies and Amalekites. See
1 Sam. 15: 6. The lands of the Kenites were in Judah's
lot. Num. 24: 21. They were carried into captivity by
Nebuchadnezzar. — Calmet.
KENIZZITES ; an ancient people of Canaan, whose
land God promised to the descendants of Abraham, (Gen.
15: 19.) and who dwelt, it is thought, in Idumea. Kenaz,
son of Eliphaz, probably took his name from the Keniz-
zitps, among whom he settled. — Calmet.
KENNICOTT, (Benjamin, D. D.,) well known in the
literary world for his elaborate edition of the Hebrew
Bible, and other publications, was born at Totnes, in
Devonshire, A. D. 1718. His early display of talents
recommended him to some gentlemen, who sent him to
Oxford, and there supported him while he went through
his academical studies. He had not been long at Oxford
before he distinguished himself by the publication of two
dissertations, one on the Tree of Life, the other on the
Oblations of Cain and Abel, on account of which the de-
gree of bachelor of arts was conferred upon him gratis a
year before the statutable lime. He soon after acquired
additional fame by the publication of several occasional
sermons, which were well received. In the year 1753, he
laid the foundation of his great work, and spent a long
time in searching out and examining Hebrew manuscripts,
with a view to the elucidation of his subjects. He appeal-
ed to the Jews themselves regarding the slate of the He-
brew text, and gave a compendious history of it from the
close of the Hebrew canon to the time of the invention of
printing, with an account of one hundred and three He-
brew manuscripts. In 1760 he published his proposals
for collecting all the Hebrew MSS. prior to the mvention
of the art of printing, that could be found in Great Bruain j
and, at the same time, for procuring as many collections
of foreign MSS. as his time and money would permit.
The utility of the proposed collation being very gene-
rally admitted, a subscription was made to defray the
expense of it, amounting to nearly ten thousand pounds.
Various persons were employed, both at home and
abroad • but of the forei?n Uterati ihe principal was pro-
fessor Bruns, of the university of Helmstadt, who not
only collated Hebrew SISS. in Germany, but went for that
purpose into Switzerland and Italy. In consequence of
these efTorls, more than .':ix hmulred Hebrew MSS., and
sixteen SISS. of the Samaritan Pentateuch were discovered
in different libraries in England, and on the continent;
many of which were wholly collated, and others consulted
in important passages. j j -.u
Durin" the progress of his work he was rewarded with
the canonry of Christ church. His first volume was
uubhshed in 1776, and the whole was completed in 1/^tX
at Oxford, in two vols, folio, entitled " Vetus Testamentum
Hebraicum, cum Variis Lectionibus." The text of Van
der Hooght was adopted ; but it was printed without the
points The poetical portions are divided into stanzas
according to the nature of the poeto'; and the various
readings are printed at the botlom of the page.
KET
t 719
KID
When we contemplate his diligence and learning, it
must be confessed that Hebrew literature and sacred criti-
cism are more indebted to him than to any Scholar of the
age in which he lived. He was a good and conscientious
man ; and, in the decline of life, resigned a valuable liv-
ing, because he was unable to discharge the duties which
it imposed upon him. He died at Oxford, in 1783, and, at
the time of his death, was employed in printing remarks
on sundry passages of the Old Testament, which were after-
wards published from his papers. Dr. Kennicott was also
keeper of the Radcliffe library, and maintained a corre-
spondence for several years with some of the most emi-
nent literary men in Europe, particularly the celebrated
professor Michaelis, to whom he addressed a Latin epistle,
in 1777, in defence of his great work. Watts' Bib. Brit.;
Jones's Christ. Biog. ; and Bp. Marsh's Led,, lect. 11;
Enci/. Ame.r. — Hmd. Buck.
KERCHIEFS, an article of dress used by the false
prophetesses, are thought to have been headtires, or veils
bound to the head, so as to cover most, if not all of the
face. " They make kerchiefs on the head of every statue to
hunt souls ;" they put them on the head of the idolatrous
statues ; or they put them on the head of those they spoke
to, as if a divine token of their protection ; or it may
mean that they blindfolded people with their delusive
speeches, Ezek. 13: 18. — Brown.
KETT, (Henry,) a divine and scholar, was born, in
1761, at Norwich ; was educated at Trinity college, Ox-
ford ; became perpetual curate of Hykeham, in Lincoln-
shire ; and w£is drowned, in 1825, while bathing. He
wrote Juvenile Poems ; History the Interpreter of Prophe-
cy ; a Tour to the Lakes ; Emily, a moral tale ; and
Logic made easy ; edited the Flowers of Wit, and Head-
ley's Beauties ; and contributed to the OUa Podrida. —
Davenport.
KETTLEWELL, (John,) a divine of the church of
England, distinguished by his piety and learning, was born
at North AUerton, in Yorkshire, on the 10th of March,
1653, and educated at Oxford, where he became eminent
as a tutor. While a youth he wrote his celebrated book,
entitled " Measures of Christian Obedience," which occa-
sioned him to be much noticed. Lord Digby presented
him, July, 1682, to the vicarage of Coleshill, in Warwick-
shire. When he had been about seven years at this place,
a great change for the worse took place in his circum-
stances ; for soon after the revolution, he was deprived of
his living, in consequence of his refusing to take the oaths
of supremacy to king William and queen Mary. He now
came to London, and occupied himself in literary pursuits.
He had the happiness to become acquainted with BIr. Nel-
son, whose friendship was valuable to him, and with whom
he concerted the " Model of a fund of charity for the
needy, suffering, that is, the non-juring Clergy." He was
naturally of a delicate constitution, and inclined to con-
sumption, of which he died at the age of forty-two, on the
12th of April, 1695.
Mr. Nelson, who must have known him well, gives the
following great and noble character of him, in a preface
to his "Five Discourses," a volume printed after his death :
"He was learned without pride ; wise and judicious without
cunning ; he served at the altar without either covetousness
or ambition ; he was devout \rithout affectation ; sincerely
religious without moroseness ; courteous and affable with-
out flattery or mean compliances ; just without rigor ;
charitable without vanity ; and heartily zealous for the
interest of religion without faction." His works were
collected and printed in 1718, in two volumes folio. — Jones'
Chris. Biog.
KETURAH ; the name of Abraham's second wife. (See
ABRAH.1M.) It seems evident from the whole tenor of the
history, that Abraham was childless until the birth of Ish-
mael, (Gen. 15: 2, 3.) that hehadnootberson than Ishmael
when he received the promise of Isaac, (Gen. 17: 18.) and
that Isaac and Ishmael jointly, as his eldest sons, celebrat-
ed his funeral. Gen. 25: 9. His second marriage, at the
age of one hundred and forty years, shows his faith in the
divine promise, that he should be " a father of many na-
tions ;" for which purpose his constitution might be mira-
culously renewed as Sarah's was. Besides, Abraham
himself was born when his father Terah was one hundred
and thirty years of age. Abraham settled the sons of
Keturah in the east country of Arabia, near the residence
of Ishmael. — Watson.
KEY ; the grand instrument and symbol of complete
authority. " And the key of the house of David will I
lay upon his shoulder : so he shall open, and none shall
shut J and he shall shut, and none shall open," Isa. 22: 22.
The keys of the ancients were very different from ours;
because their doors and trunks were closed genera'ly with
bands, and the key served only to loosen or fasten these
bands in a certain manner.
The rabbins say, that God has reserved to himself four
keys ; the key of rain, the key of the grave, the key of
fruitfulness, and the key of barrenness. Christ reproaches
the scribes and Pharisees with having taken away the key
of knowledge; (Luke 11: 52.) that is, with putting such
false glosses on the Scriptures, that they read them without
advantage to themselves, and without discovering to others
the truth ; which in this way they suppressed in unright-
eousness, Rom. 1: 18.
Christ promised to Pet^r, that he should first open the
gate of his kingdom, both to Jew and Gentile, in making
the first converts among them. Matt. 16: 19. It is obser-
vable that no supremacy is here given to Peter ; as the pow-
er of binding and loosing belonged equally to all the apos-
tles. Matt. 18: 18. The term binding and loosing was
customarily applied by the Jews to a decision respecting
doctrines or rites, establishing which were lawful and
which unlawful. (See Bind.) And it may also denote,
to bind with sickness, and to loose by restoring to health.
Jesus Christ says that he has the key of David, and also,
the keys of death and Hades; (see Hades;) (Rev. 1: 18.)
that is, it is in his power to bring to the grave, or to de-
liver from it ; to appoint to life or to death ; to summon to
the state of departed spirits, or to release from that state
at the resurrection of the last day, Rev. 20: 13 — 15. — Wat-
son ; Calmet.
KEYS, (Power of the ;) a term made use of in refer-
ence to ecclesiastical jurisdiction, denoting the power of ex-
communicating and absolving. The Romanists say that
the pope has the power of the keys, and can open and shut
paradise as he pleases ; grounding their opinion on that
expression of Jesus Christ to Peter — " I will give thee the
keys of the kingdom of heaven," Matt. 16: 19. But eve-
ry one must see that this is an absolute perversion of
Scripture. (See Key, and Absolution.)
In St. Gregory we read that it was the custom for the
popes to send a golden key to princes, wherein they inclosed
a little of the filings of St. Peter's chain, kept with such de-
votion at Rome ; and that these keys were worn in the bo-
som, as being supposed to contain some wonderful virtues.
Such has been the superstition of past ages ! — Hend. Buck.
KIBROTH-HATTAAVAH, (the graves of lust,) was one
of the encampments of Israel in the wilderness, where
they desired of God flesh for their sustenance, declaring
they were tired with manna. Num. 11: 31, 35. Quails
were sent in great quantities, but while the meat was in
their mouths, (Ps. 78: 30.) God smote so great a number of
them, that the place was called the graves of those who
lusted. A most monitory example ! 1 Cor. 10: 6. — Calmet.
KICK ; a metaphor taken from a fed horse, or like ani-
mal, kicking with his heels at his owner when he gives him
provision, pricks him forward, or the like. To kick against
God is wantonly and stubbornly to rebel against him, and
make his benefits an occasion of rebelling against him,
Deut. 32: 15. 1 Sam. 2: 19. Acts 9: 5.—Bro>vn.
KID, (getli ;) the young of the goat. Among the He-
brews the kid was reckoned a great delicacy ; and appears
to have been served for food in preference to the lamb.
(See Goat.) It continues to be a choice dish in the neigh-
boring countries. — Watson.
KIDDER, (Richard,) bishopof Bath and Wells, was born
in Sussex or Suffolk, and educated at Emanuel college,
Cambridge, of which he became a member in 1649. Suc-
ceeding to fellowship, he took holy orders, and obtained
from the college the benefice of Stanground, Huntingdon-
shire, of which, however, he was deprived in 1662, for re-
fusing episcopal ordination. His firmness on his convic-
tion appears eventually to have given way, and on his
conforming, he was presented to the living of Rayne, in
KI P
[ 120 )
KIN
E .iPX, ) ,' 'lie earl of Essex. In 1B74. he was collated to
! . Marj- Outwick, in the city of London ; seven years af-
ter vhich he obtained a stall in Norttidi cathedral, and in
1681 was farther promoted to the deanery of Peterborough.
Ir. 1691, bishop Ken being deprived of the sec of Bath and
\' lis, on account of his adherence to the cause of James
;he Second, dean Kidder was selected by king William as
iiis successor, and he was in consequence raised to the
episcopal bench. Two years after his elevation, he preach-
ed the lecture founded by Mr. Boyle, and continued to pre-
side over his diocess for more than twelve years, till the
memorable storm which passed over most parts of the
west of England, on the night of the 26ih November,
1703, when he fell a victim to its fury. The bishop and
his wife had retired to rest, when they were overwhelmed
by the sudden fall of a stack of chimneys in the episcopal
palace at Wells, and were not extricated till life in both
had become extinct.
Many of the bishop's works, however, .survive him, the
principal of which are, " A Demonstration of the Mes-
siah," in three parts ; " A Commctitary on the Pentateuch,"
in two volumes, octavo; and an octavo volume, compris-
ing twelve sermons. He was a very clear, elegant, learn-
ed writer ; and one of the best divines of his time. — Watts'
Del). Brit. ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
KIDNEYS ; metaphorically, the inmost powers, thoughts,
and desires of the soul, and which are sometimes called
reins, Ps. 16: 7. — Brorm.
KIFFIN (WiLT.iAM ;^ one of the most distinguished mi-
nisters among the English Baptists of the seventeenth cen-
tury, and one of the very few on whom the great Disposer
of all events saw fit to bestow much of the perilous riches
and honors of this world. He was personally known to
both Charles II., and James II., his successor. Crosby
informs us, that on one occasion when Charles wanted mo-
ney, he sent to Mr. KifUn to borrow of him forty thousand
pounds. Mr. Kiflin, knowing the unprincipled character
of the monarch, replied that he could not command so
much, but that if it could be of any service to his majesty
he would present him with ten thousand pounds, that is,
upwards of forty thousand dollars. This the king accept-
ed, and Mr. Kiflin afterwards remarked that he thereby
saved thirty thousand pounds. Mr. Kiflin had great influ-
ence at court, and was hence enabled to render great
service to his brethren. B5' his means the false and scur-
rilous pamphlet, entitled Baxter baptized in Blood, was
examined and condemned ; and by his intercession also,
twelve Baptists, who had been condemned to death at
Aylesbury, received the king's pardon. But with all his
wealth and influence, he was a meek and modest man.
In 1683, two of his grandsons, Benjamin and William
Hewling, young gentlemen of great fortunes, accomplish-
ed education, and eminent piety, were concerned in the ill-
limed and ill-fated expedilion of the duke of Monmouth,
which terminated in the destruction of almost all who had
any hand in it. These interesting young men, the last
male descendants of their house, the one twenty-one years
of age and the oilier not quite twenty, who added uncom-
mon beauty and gracefulness of person to spotless morals,
high talent, devoted love of the Protestant cause, and ar-
dent courage in the field, were taken prisoners, and con-
demned to death. Large ransoms and earnest petitions
•; were offered for their lives, but the cruel James was inexo-
rable. The scene at their execution was so affecting, yet so
bright with the heavenly joy and sweetness of their beha-
vior, that even the soldiers declared they scarcely knew
'* * how to bear it, and many others present said it both broke
and rejoiced their hearts. A full account of it may be
found in the first volume of Ivimcy's History of the Eng-
lish Baptists.
Mr. Kiflin, in 1688, was nominated by James II. one of
the aldermen of the city of London in his new charter.
This was an honor the venerable minister by no means
desired. Waiting on the king by his request, he said,
" Sire, I am an old man, and have withdrawn myself from
all kinds of business for some years past, and am incapa-
ble of doing any service in such an afli'air to your majesty,
in the city. Besides, sire," the old man went on, fixing
his eyes steadfastly upon the king, while the tears ran
down his cheeks, " the death of my grandsons gave a wound
to my heart, which is still bleeding, and never will c\u%e
but in the grave."
The king was deeply struck by the manner, the free-
dom, and the spirit of the rebuke. A total silence ensued,
•while the galled countenance of James seemed to shrink
from the horrid remembrance. In a minute or two, how-
ever, he recovered himself sufficiently to say, " Mr. Kiffin,
I shall find a balsam for that sore," and immediately turn-
ed to other business.
Mr. Kiffin was compelled, with three or four others of
his Baptist brethren, to accept the office, till by the coming
of the prince of Orange, in about six months, he was per-
mitted to retire from its burdens and snares. He died a
few years after, net far from eighty years of age, leaving
behind him a character of rare excellence, tried alike by the
fires of prosperity and adversity, in the most eventful times.
■ — Crosby'' s History of the English Baptists ; Ivimey ; Benedict.
KILIEN ; an Irish bishop, missionary, and martyr of
the seventh century. He received from his parenis a
pious education, and having deeply imbibed the truth of
the Scriptures, took unwearied delight in difi'using the gos-
pel. With eleven others he crossed to the continent, and
by his evangelical labors in Germany, was instrumental
of converting to Christianity Gozbert, governor of the city
of Wurtzburg, with many others. As a last proof of Goz-
bert's sincerity, Kilien required him to dissolve his incest-
uous marriage with his brother's widow, Guilana. Goz-
bert complied, but Guilana in revenge put all the mission-
aries to the sword, A. D. 689. — Fox. p. 81.
KILL. The desire of the slothful kills them ; their de-
light in ease hurts their constitution, and exposes them 10
great straits and poverty ; or their desire after things, for
which they care not to labor, leads them to methods that
bring them to an unhappy end, Prov. 21: 25. The letter,
or covenant of works killeth ; it is the strength of sin, and
condemns men to death, spiritual, temporal, and eternal.
The letter or external part of ceremonies, without regard
to the gospel signification killed men and hindered them
from Christ and salvation, and cleaving thereto hastened
ruin on the Jewish nation. The letter or unsanctified head-
knowledge of divine truth kills ; it encourageth pride, and
makes inen esteem themselves, and contemn Christ, and
to their own ruin refuse the offers of the gospel, 2 Cor. 3:
C. — Brown.
KIMCHI, (David,) a learned rabbi, was born, at Nar-
bnnne, about the end of the twelfth century ; and died, in
Provence, in 1240. His contemporaries regarded him
with almost superstitious reverence. He is the aulhor of
a Hebrew Grammar ; a Treatise on Hebrew Roots ; Die-
tionarium Talmudicum ; and Commentaries on the Psalms
and several other books of the Scriptures. — Davenport.
KINDNESS; the spirit of love, favorable treatment,
or a constant and habitual practice of friendly offices and
benevolent actions. (See Beneficence; Charity; Gen-
tleness.)— Hend. Buck.
KINDRED ; a number of people related to one another
by blood or marriage. The kindreds of the earth that shall
mourn at Christ's second appearing, are the vast multi-
tudes of wicked and worldly men. Rev. 1: 7. The kin-
dreds over which Antichrist rules, are vast multitudes of
different nations, sexes, and conditions. Rev. 13: 7, and
11; °i.— Brown.
KING, (Peter,) lord chancellor of England, and fa-
mous for his ecclesiastical learning, as well as his know-
ledge in the law, was born in 1669, at Exeter, in Devon-
shire. His father was an eminent grocer and Salter, in
that city; and, though possessed of considerable property,
and descended from a good family, determined to bring up
his son to his own business. With this view he gave him
only the common rudiments of education, and took him
into the shop, where he kept him for some years. The
son's inclination, however, being strongly bent on learn-
ing, he took all opportunities of gratifying his thirst after
knowledge. He laid out all the money he could muster
in books, and devoted every moment of his leisure hours
to study. His acquaintance with Mr. Locke, who was his
maternal uncle, and who, at his death, left him half his
library, was of vast advantage to him. That gentleman
availed himself of an opportunity to examine his nephew',
and being greatly surprised and pleased with his prodi-
KIN
[ 721 J
KIN
gious s.ttainments in literature, prevailed upon his father
to send him to the university of Leyden, where he prose-
cuted his studies with great success. He appears to have
turned his attention chiefly to divinity ; and when only
twenty-two years of age, gave good proof of his acquire-
ments, by publishing the first part of his celebrated " In-
quiry into the Constitution, Discipline, Unity, and Worship
of the primitive Church, that flourished within the first
three hundred years after Christ, faithfully collected out
of the extant writings of those ages," 1691, octavo. In
the preface to this work, the author modestly requested to
be shown, either publicly or privately, any mistakes he
might have fallen into, in handling the subject ; and his re-
quest was first complied with by BIr. Edmund Elys, be-
tween whom and the author there passed several letters
in 1692, which were published by IVIr. Elys, in 1694, in
octavo, under the title of " Letters on several Subjects."
On his return from Leyden, Mr. King, and it is said to
have been by the advice of Mr. Locke, entered himself a
student at the Inner Temple, and applied himself to the
law ; in which profession his great parts and indefatigable
industry, for both of which he was remarkable, soon made
him eminent. He had not been many years at the Tem-
ple, when he had acquired as high a reputation for his
knowledge in law, as he previously had for his theological
attainments. In 1702, he published " The History of the
Apostles' Creed, with Critical Observations on its several
Articles," octavo. This treatise displayed extraordinary
learning and judgment, and established the author's litera-
ry fame. On the accession of George the First, he was
appointed lord chief justice of the court of common pleas,
and soon after sworn of the privy council. He was creat-
ed a peer, the 25th of May, 1725, by the title of lord King,
baron of Oakham, in Surry ; and the great seal being
taken from lord Macclesfield, was delivered to him. He
continued in the office of lord high chancellor, till the 26th
of November, 1733, when he resigned the seals, and on
the 22d of July, 1734, his life also.— /ones' Chris. Biog.
KING. It appears to have been a maxim of the He-
brew law, that the person of the king was inviolable, what-
ever his character may have been, 1 Sam. 24; 5 — 8. 2
Sam. 1: 14. We have already seen, that by the law of Mo-
ses the Israeiitish monarchy was to be hereditary, and the
history of the Jews shows that this law was strictly at-
tended to. Nevertheless, it appears from the history of
David, that the succession did not necessarily go by the
right of primogeniture, for he appointed Solomon as his
successor, in preference to Adonijah, his elder brother.
The inauguration of the king next demands our atten-
tion. There can be little doubt, that all the kings were
anointed ; hence king and anointed seem to have been used
as synonymous terms, 1 Sain. 2: 10. 2 Sam. 1: 14, 21.
This anointing was sometimes performed privately by a
prophet, (1 Sam. 10: 1. 16: 1—13. 1 Kings 19: 16. 2
Kings 9: 1 — 6.) and was a symbolical prediction that the
person so anointed would, at some future period, ascend
the throne. After the monarchy was e.stablished, this unc-
tion was performed by a priest, (1 Kings 1: 39.) at first in
some public place, (I Kings 1: 32 — 34.) and afterwards,
in the temple, the monarch elect being surrounded by his
guards, 2 Kings 11: 12, 13. 2 Chron. 13. Some are of
opinion that he was at the same time girded with a sword,
Ps. 45; 3. The next step was to place the diadem or
crown upon the sovereign's head, and the sceptre in his
hand. To the former of these there is an allusion in Ps.
21: 3, and also in Ezek. 21; 26, and to the latter in Ps. 45:
6. When the diadem was placed on the head of the mo-
narch, he entered into a solemn covenant mth his sub-
jects, that he would govern according to the law ; (2 Sam.
5: 3. 1 Chron. 11: 3.) after which the nobles pledged them-
selves to obedience, and confirmed the pledge with the
kiss of homage, or, as the Jews call it, the kiss of majesty,
1 Sam. 10: 1. This ceremony is probably alluded to in
the following passage of the Psalmist : " Kiss the Son, lest
he be angry," &c. ; (Ps. 2; 12.) that is, acknowledge him
as your king, pay him homage, and yield him subjection.
Loud acclamations, accompanied with music, then follow-
ed, after which the king entered the city, 1 Kings 1; 39,
40. 2 Kings 11; 12, 19. 2 Chron. 23: 11. To this prac-
tice there are numerous allusions both in the Old Testa-
91
ment (Ps. 17: 2—9. 97: 1. 99: 9, &c.) as well as in the
New; (Matt. 21: 9, 10. Mark U; 9, 10. Luke 19: 35, 38.)
in which last cited passages the Jews, by welcoming our
Savior in the same manner as their kings were formerly
manifestly acknowledged him to be the Messiah whom
they expected.
In noticing the state and grandeur of the Jewish mo-
narchs, we must not omit mentioning their attendants and
guards ; particularly the Cherethites and Pelethites, of
whom there is frequent mention in the histories of David
and Solomon, 2 Sam. 15: 18. 20: 7. 8; 16, 18. They seem
to have been the king's body-guard, like the praetorian
band among the Romans. Their number may probably
be gathered from the targets and shields of .gold, which
Solomon made for his guards ; which were five hundred,
1 Kings 10; 16, 17, compared with 2 Chron. 12: 9—11.
Yet, notwithstanding all this royal state and grandeur,
they were only God's viceroys, bound to govern according
to the statute-law of the land, which they, as well as their
subjects, were required to obey. (See Government of
THE Hebrews ; Habits ; Horses ; Justice, Administra-
tion OF ; Revenue ; Tribute.) — Calmet.
KINGDOM OF GOD, in Scripture, is a term of frequent
occurrence, and variously applied to the providential, mo-
ral, and evangelical government of Jehovah. Thus we
read of the kingdom of God, (Ps. 103: 19. Dan. 4: 3.) or
his universal empire and dominion over all creatures ; in
reference to which it is said, " Jehovah is a great God, and
a great King above all gods," Ps. 95: 3. " His throne is
established in the heavens, and his kingdom ruleth over
all."
Again : we frequently read in the evangelists of the
kingdom of heaven ; a phrase, says Dr. Campbell, in
which there is a manifest allusion to the predictions in
which the dispensation of the Messiah was revealed by
the prophets in the Old Testament, particularly by Daniel,
who mentions it as " a kingdom which the God of heaven
would set up, and which should never be destroyed," Dan.
2: 44. The same prophet also speaks of it as a kingdom
to be given, with glory and dominion over all people, na-
tions, and languages, to one like unto the Son of man,
Dan. 7; 13, 14. See also Micah 4: 6, 7. The Jews, ac-
customed to this way of speaking, expected the kingdom
of the Messiah to resemble that of a temporal king, exer-
cising power on his enemies, restoring the Hebrew mo-
narchy, and the throne of David to all its splendor; sub-
duing the nations, and rewarding his friends and faithful
servants, in proportion to their fidelity and services.
Hence the early contests among the apostles about prece-
dency in his kingdom ; and hence the sons of Zebedee de-
sired the two chief places in it.
According to the prophecy of Daniel, this kingdom was
to take place during the existence of the Roman empire,
the last of the four great monarchies that had succeeded
each other, Dan. 2: 44. And as it was set up by the God
of heaven, it is, in the New Testament, termed '' the king-
dom of God," or " the kingdom of heaven." It was typifi-
ed by the Jewish theocracy, and declared to be at hand by
John the Baptist, and by Christ and his apostles also in the
days of his flesh ; but it did not come with power till Jesus
rose from the dead and sat down on the right hand of the
Slajesty on high, Acts 2; 32 — 37. Then was he most so-
lemnly inaugurated, and proclaimed King of the universe,
and especially of the New Testament church, amidst ador-
ing myriads of attendant angels, and •' the spirits of just
men made perfect." Then were fulfilled the words of Je-
hovah by David, " I have set my King upon my holy hiH
of Zion," Ps. 2: 6. This is that spiritual, evangelical,
and eternal empire to which he himself referred when in-
terrogated before Pontius Pilate, and in reference to which
he said, " My kingdom is not of this world," John IS; 36,
37. His empire, indeed, extends to every creature ; for
" all authority is committed into his hands, both in heaven
and on earth," and he is "head over all things to the
church ;" but his kingdom primarily imports the gospel
Church, which is the subject of his laws, the seat of his
government, and the object of his care ; and, being sur-
rounded with powerful opposers, he is represented as rul-
ing in the midst of his enemies.
This kingdom is not of a worldly origin, or nnture, nor
¥
KIN
[ 722
KIR
has it this world for its end or object, Rom. 11: 17. 1 Cor.
4: 20. It can neither be promoted nor delended by world-
ly power, influence, or carnal weapons, but by bearing
witness unto the truth, or by the preaching of the gospel
with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven, 2 Cor. 10:
4, 5. Its establishment among men is progressive, but it
is destined at last to fill the whole earth, Dan. 2. Rev. 11:
15. Its real subjects are only those who are of the truth,
and hear Christ's voice ; for none can enter it but such as
are born from above ; (John 3: 3—5. Matt. 18: 3. 19: 14.
Mark 10: 15.) nor can any be visible subjects of it, but
such as appear to be regenerated, by a credible profession
of faith and obedience, Luke 16: 16. Malt. 20: 28—44.
Its privileges and immunities are not of this world, but
such as are spiritual and heavenly ; they are all spiritual
blessings in heavenly things in Christ Jesus, Eph. 1: 3.
Over this glorious kingdom death has no power ; it extends
as well to the future as the present world ; and though en-
tered here by renewing grace, (Col. 1: 13.) it is inhe-
rited in its perfection in the world of glory, Matt. 25: 34.
1 Cor. 15: 50. 2 Pet. 1: 11. Hypocrites and false brethren
may indeed insinuate themselves into it here ; but they
will have no possible place in it hereafter. Matt. 13: 41,
47—50. 22: U— 14. Luke 13: 28, 29. 1 Cor. 6: 9, 10.
Gal. 5: 21. Rev. 21: 27.— T-rotoon; Calmel.
KINGDOM OF HEAVEN, is an expression used in the
New Testament, to signify the reign, or administration, of
Jesus Christ on earth and in heaven, Matt. 4: 17. 5: 3, Iff,
12,20. 6:10,33. 7:21. (Sec Kingdom oF God.)
KINGS, Books of. The first book of Kings com-
mences with an account of the death of David, and con-
tains a period of a hundred and twenty-six years, to the
death of Jehoshaphat ; and the second book of Kings con-
tinues the history of the kings of Israel and Judah through
a period of three hundred years, to the destruction of the
city and temple of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. These
two books formed only one in the Hebrew canon, and they
were probably compiled by Ezra from the records which
were regularly kept, both in Jerusalem and Samaria, of
all public transactions. These records appear to have
been made by the contemporary prophets, and frequently
derived their names from the kings whose history they
contained. They are mentioned in many parts of Scrip-
ture ; thus, (1 Kings 11: 41.) we read of the Book of the
Acts of Solomon, which is supposed to have been written
by Nathan, Ahijah, and Iddo, 2 Chron. 9: 29. We else-
where read that Shemaiah the prophet, and Iddo the seer,
wrote the Actsof Rehoboam, (2 Chron. 12: 15.) that Jehu
wrote the Acts. of Jehoshaphat, (2 Chron. 20: 34.) and
Isaiah those of Uzziah and Hezekiah, 2 Chron. 26: 22.
32: 32. We may therefore conclude, that from these pub-
lic records, and other authentic documents, were composed
the two books of Kings ; and the uniformity of their style
favors the opinion of their being put into their present
shape by the same inspired person. — JVntfon.
KING'S MOTHER. That " king's mother" was a title
of dignity, is obvious by 1 Kings 2: 19.
From the travels of Bruce we learn, (1.) That the title
and place of Iteghe, or, " king's mother," is of great con-
sequence ; we find her interfering much in public affairs,
keeping a separate palace and court, possessing great in-
fluence and authority. (2.) That while any Iteghe is liv-
ing, it is contrary to law to crown another ; which ac-
counts at once for Asa's Iteghe, or king's mother, being
his grandmother, the same person as held that dignity be-
fore he came to the crown. (3.) That this title occurs
also in other parts of the East ; and is given without con-
sideration of natural maternity. (4.) It should seem,
that " Queen," in our sense of the word, is a title and sta-
tion unknown in the royal harem throughout the East.
If it be taken at all, it is by that wife who brings a son
after the king's coronation ; such son being presumptive
heir to the crown, his mother is sometimes entitled " Sul-
tana Queen," or "prime Sultaness j" but not with the
EngUsh ideas annexed to the title queen. (5^ That
this person is called indifferently, " Queen," or " Iteghe,"
or " King's Mother," even by Bruce ; w-hence arises the
very same ambiguity in him, as has been remarked in
Scripture, 1 Kings 15: 1—10. 2 Chron. 13: 4, 16. 2
Kings 24: 12, 15, comp. with Jer. 29: 2. This illustration
also sets in its proper light the interference of the " queen,"
in the story of Belshazzar, Dan. 5: 10. In order to de-
termine who was this " queen," which has been a. desidera-
tum among learned men, it is not enough to know who
might be Belshazzar's wife, or wives, at the time : but
also who was Iteghe, or king's mother, before he came to
the crown ; anil who, therefore, being well acquainted
with former events, and continuing in the same dignity,
might naturally allude to them on this occasion. Had in-
quiry into this matter been conducted on these principles,
in all probability, it had been more conformable to the
manners of the East, and had superseded many ineffectual
conjectures. — Calmet.
KIPPIS, (ANnKEW,) a dissenting divine, biographer,
and miscellaneous writer, the son of a silk mercer, was
born, in 1725, at Nottingham ; was educated by Dr. Dodd-
ridge ; and, after having been minister at Boston and at
Dorking, was appointed, in 1753, pastor to a congregation
in Prince's street, Westminster. In 1763, he was chosen
classical and philological tutor to the academy founded by
Mr. Coward ; and this office he held for more than a quar-
ter of a century. He was subsequently connected with
the Hackney Institution. Dr. Kippis was a member of
the Royal and Antiquarian societies. He died in 1795,
leaving behind him a well-earned reputation for learning,
character, and talents. Kippis contributed to the Monthly
Review, and other periodicals ; projected and wrote in the
New Annual Register ; and produced, besides various oc-
casional pamphlets. Lives of Cook, Pringle, Doddridge,
and Lardner ; but his great work was the new edition of
the Biographia Britannica, of which only five volumes
were published. It was conducted on a plan so elaborate,
that no termination of it on the same scale is ever likely
to be attempted. — Davenport.
KIR ; a city of Moab, Isa. 15: 1. 2. Part of Albania
and Bledia, where the river Kyrus flows, 2 Kings 16: 9.
Isa. 22: 6. Amos 1: 5. 9: 1.— Calmet.
KIRJATH-HUZOTH, {the city of s'juares,)vfas the royal
seat of Balak, king of Moab ; and therefore may well be
supposed to have had handsome streets, iJcc. Num. 22: 39.
— Calmet.
KIRJATH-JEARIM. (See Dedie.)
KIRJATH-SEPHER, (the ciUj of books,) otherwise De-
bir, Kirjath-debir, the city of words ; a city in the tribe of
Judah, afterwards given to Caleb. It was taken by 0th-
niel, to whom Caleb for his reward gave his daughter
Achsah in marriage. Josh. 15: 15. Judg. 1: 11, &c. This
city was so called long before Moses ; at least it would
seem so by the manner of mentioning it, which proves
that books were known before that legislator, and that he
is not the oldest writer, as the fathers have asserted ; a
character which it is to be observed he never assumes.
It is possible that the Canaanites might lodge their re-
cords in this city, and those few monuments of antiquity
which they had preserved ; or it might be something hke
the cities of the priests in Israel, the residence of the
learned ; a kind of college. This idea receives confirma-
tion from its other name, DeMr, which designates an ora-
cle ; and seems to hint at a seat of learning, a college, or
university ; an establishment, probably, of priests, for the
purpose of educating the younger members of their body.
The circumstance is very remarkable, because it occurs
so early as the days of Joshua ; and is evidently an esta-
blishment by the Canaanites, previous to the Hebrew in-
vasion. It contributes, therefore, greatly to prove that the
origin of letters was not the revelation of them to Moses
on mount Sinai, as some have imagined ; since, beside
the silence of Closes on that matter, we find indications
of their being already in use elsewhere. — Calmet.
KIRK SESSIONS; the name of a petty ecclesiastical
judicatory in Scotland. Each parish, according to its ex-
tent, is divided into several particular districts, every one
of which has its own elders and deacons to oversee it. A
consistory of the minister, elders, and deacon of a parish,
form a kirk session. These meet once a week, the minis-
ter being their moderator, but without a negative voice.
It regulates matters relative to public worship, elections,
catechising, visitations, itc. It judges in matters of less
scandal ; but greater, as adultery, are left to the presby
tery, and in all cases an appeal lies from it to the presby
KIS
[723]
KNK
tery. Kirk sessions have likewise the care of the poor,
and poor's funds. (See Chckch of Scotland, and Pres-
BTTERiAMisM.) — Heiifi. Buck.
KIKKLAND, (Samuel.) a missionary among the Indi-
ans. His father was minister of Norwich, Con. He was
graduated at the college in New Jersey, in 1765. While
at school he had learned the language of the JMohawks ;
and he commenced a journey to the Seneca Indians in or-
der to acquire their language, Nov. 20, 1764, and did not
return till May, 1766. He was ordained at Lebanon, June
19th, as a missionary to the Indians. He removed his
wife to Oneida castle in 1769. In the spring following
he went to the house of his friend, general Herkimer, at
Little Falls ; and there his twin children were born, Aug.
17, 1770, of whom one is Dr. Kirkland, late president of
Harvard college. For more than forty years his attention
was directed to the Oneida tribe in New York, and he died
at Paris, in that state, the place of his residence, in the
neighborhood of Oneida, March 28, 1808, aged sixty-six.
Mr. Kirkland was instrumental in the conversion of
Shenandoah, the famous Oneida chief, whose subsequent
life illustrated the power of the gospel, and whose last
words were, " Bury me by the side of my minister and
friend, that I may go up with him at the great resurrec-
tion !" Wheelock's Narratives ; Panop!i:t, iii. ii36 ; Chris-
tian Orator. — Allen.
KIR WAN, (Walter Blaee.) an eloquent Irish divine,
bom about 1754, at Galway ; was educated at St. Omer's
and Louvain ; took orders as a Catholic priest ; and, in
J778, was appointed chaplain to the Neapohtan ambas-
sador. In 1787, becoming a Protestant, he conformed to
the established church nf England, and, after having held
the living of St. Nicholas, in DubUn, was promoted In the
deanerj' of Killala. He died in 1805. As a pulpit ora-
tor, Kirwan had no rival among his contemporaries ; and
his powers were often exerted with astonishing success in
favor of chartible institutions. The collection on one oc-
casion was not less than thirteen hundred pounds. A
volume of his Sermons was published after his decease.
Of Kirwan it has been finely said, that '■ he came to rouse
one world with the thunders of another." Londmi Chris.
Observer, 1S14. — Davenport.
KISHON. " That ancient river, the river Kishon,"
falls into the bay of Acre, and has its source in the hills
to the cast of the plain of Esdr,aelon, which it intersects.
Being enlarged liy several small streams, it passes be-
tween mount Carmel and the hills to the north, and then
falls into the sea at this point. In the condition we saw
it, says Maundrell, its waters were low and inconsidera-
ble ; but in passing along the side of the plain, we discern-
ed the tracks of many lesser torrents, faUing down into it
from the mountains, which must needs make it swell ex-
ceedingly upon sudden rains, as doubtless it actually did
at the destruction of Sisera's host. (See Esdraelon.J
Robinson's Bib. Repos. for 1831. — Watson.
KISS ; a mode of salutation, and token of respect,
which has been practised in all nations. It was also in
ordinary use among the Jews ; hence Judas in this way
saluted his master. But there was also the kiss of hom-
age, as one of the ceremonies performed at the inaugura-
tion of the kings of Israel. The Jews called it the kiss
of majesty. Ps. 2: 12. seems to be an allusion to this. (See
KixGs.) St. Paul speaks frequently of the kiss of peace,
which was in use among believers, and was given by
them to one another as a token of charity and imion,
Rom. 16: 16. 1 Cor. 16: 20. 2 Cor. 13: 12." 1 Thess. 5:
26. 1 Peter 5: 14. Acts 20: 37. Kissing the feet is in
Eastern countries expressive of exuberant gratitude or
reverence, Luke 7: 45.
Catholics kiss the bishop's hand, or rather the ring
which he wears in virtue of his episcopal office. Kissing
the foot or toe has been required by the popes as a sign
of respect from the secular power since the eighth century.
The first who received this honor was pope Constantine
I. It was paid him by the emperor Justinian II. on his
entrj' into Constantinople, in 710. Valentine I., about
827, required eveiy one to kiss his foot ; and, from that
time, this mark of reverence appears to have been expect-
^i by all popes. When the ceremony takes place, the
pope wears a slipper with a cross, which is kissed. In
more recent times, Protestants have not been obbged to
kiss the pope's foot, but merely to bend the knee sUghtly.
The kiss of peace Ibrms part of one of the Catholic rites.
It is given immediately before the communion ; the cler-
gyman who celebrates mass kissing the altar, and cm-
bracing the deacon, saying, " Pax tibi, frater, el ecclesiie
sanctce Dei ;" the deacon does the same to the sub-deacon,
saying " Pax tecitm ,■" the latter salutes the other clergy.
The kiss of charity, which still obtains among cer-
tain sects as an ordinance to he observed in public, is
only the same custom under a different form. That such a
practice obtained in the church at a very eariy period can-
not be denied, as it is mentioned by Justin, Tertullian, and
other fathers, when referring to the Agapce ; a practice on
which the pagans founded the calumny of promiscuous em-
braces ; but it is without any warrant from Scripture ; the
salutation there called the " holy kiss," and the " kiss of
charity," not being enjoined as a public rite, or church
observance, but simply an occasional greeting of Christian
kindness, as circumstances of meeting afforded an oppor
tunity. It should be remembered also, that in both Jew-
ish and Christian assemblies, the two sexes sat apart. —
Watson ; Hend. Buck.
KITE, {ajah:) Lev. 11: 14. Deut. 14: 13. Job 28: 7.
Bochart supposes this to be the bird which the Arabians
call the ja-jao, from its note ; and which the ancients
named asalon, " the merlin," a bird celebrated for its
sharp-sightedness. This faculty is referred to in Job 28:
7, where the word is rendered "vultitre." As a noun
masculine plural, ajim, in Isa. 13: 22. 34: 14, and Jer. 1:-
39, Bochart says that jackals are intended ; but, by the
several contexts, particularly the last, it may well mean
a kind of unclean bird, and so be the same with that men-
tioned above. — Watson.
KITRON ; a city of Zebulun, which that tribe could
not take from the Canaanites, Judg. 1: 30. Kitron is
Sippor, (Sepphoris,) says Bab. Megill. (fol. 6. 1.) a very
strong place, and the largest city in Galilee. It is noted
ill the Talmuds for being a university ; in wliich taught
rabbi Judah the Holy, who died here. — Calmet.
KLOPSTOCK, (Fr.EDEEic THEoPHiLus,)one of the most
eminent poets of Germany, was born, in 1724, at Quedlin-
burg, and was educated at the college of that place, at
Jena, and at Leipsic. The first three cantos of his Mes-
siah were published, in 1748, in a Bremen periodical
work; in 1751 the first five appeared, and, in 1755, the
first ten ; the concluding ten did not appear till 1769. In
1750, the king of Denmark invited him to Copenhagen,
and gave him a pension. Klopstock continued to reside
in the Danish capital till 1771, when he removed to Ham-
burgh, to fill the offices of Danish legate, and counsellor
from the court of Baden. He died JIareh 14, 1803. As
a lyrical writer Klop.slock is perhaps among the most suc-
cessful of any age. He may well be called the Pindar of
modern poetry ; but that he is superior to him in rich-
ness and deep feeling, as the spiritual world which he
paints, excels in intrinsic magnificence the subjects
celebrated by the Grecian poet. His religious odes exhibit
the elevation of the P.'Jalmist. Purity and noble feeling
were the characteristics of his mind. The most illiterate
cannot fail to understand and venerate Klopstock as a
writer of sacred poetry.
His first wife, Maegaret, whom he married in 1754,
and who died in 175S, was a woman of genius. Among
her works are Letters from the Dead to the Living ; and
the Death of Abel, a tragedy. Her husband placed over
her remains this simple and beautiful epitaph : — '■' Seed
sown by God, to ripen for the harvest."
The Messiah is a work of great sublimity and beauty ;
but Klopstock has certainly failed to accomplish that
which some of his countrymen sanguinely hoped from
him ; namely, to eclipse the Paradise Lost. His patriolic
Odes glow^ with poetic fire, and his Tragedies, thougli
not calculated for the stage, are worthy of their author.
Ency. Ame. — Davenport.
KNEADING-TROUGHS. In the description of^the
departure of the Israelites from Egypt, (E.xod. 12: 31.)
we read that "the people took their dough before it was
leavened, their kneadinsi-troughs being bound up m iheir
clothes upon their shoulders." Persons who know how
p
KNO
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cumbersome our kneadlng-troughs are, and how much
less important they are than many other utensils, may
wonder at this statement, and find a difficulty in account-
ing for it. But this wonder will cease, when it is under-
stood that the vessels which the Arabs make use of, for
kneading the unleavened cakes they prepare for those
who travel in the very desert through which Israel pass-
ed, are only small wooden bowls ; and that they seem to
use no other in their own tents for that purpose, or any
other ; these bowls being used by them for kneading their
bread, and serving up their provisions when cooked. It
will appear, that nothing could be more convenient than
kneading-troughs of this sort for the Israelites in their
journey. Besides, Dr. Potocke gives us a description of
a round leather coverlid, which the Arabs lay on the
ground, and which serves them to eat off. This piece of
furniture has, he says, rings round it by which it is drawn
together with a chain, that has a hook to it, to hang it by.
It is drawn together, and in this manner they bring it full
of bread, and when the repast is over, carry it away at
once, with all that is left. Perhaps this utensil is rather
to be understood by the word translated kneading-troughs,
than the Arab wooden bowl. There is nothing, in the
other three places in which the word occurs, to contradict
this explanation. These places are Exod. 8: 3. Deut.
28: 5. and 17 ; in the two last of which places it is trans-
lated sfom.
Many of the sneers that pass for wit, while they are
nothing better than sheer ignorance, lose even that shadow
of support to their profaneness, at which they catch, by
more correct information. — Calmet.
KNEE, not only signifies that part of the body so call-
ed, but the whole body, a part being put for the whole,
Ps. 109: 24. Also for persons ; so, weak and feeble knees
denote weak and disconsolate persons, Job 4: 4. Heb. 12:
12. Isa. 35: 3.—Bro7Vii.
KNIFE. To put a kjiife to our throat at the table of the
great, is carefully to restrain our appetite, as if we were in
the utmost hazard of eating too much, Prov. 23: 2. — Brown.
KNOCK. Jesus knocks at the door of our heart ; by
his word, spirit, and providence he awakens, incites, and
urges us to receive himself as the free gift of God, and
Savior come to seek and save that which was lost, Rev. 3:
20. Sol. Song 5: 2. Our hiOcAvn? at his door of mercy is
fervent and frequent prayers for his distinguished presence
and favor. Matt. 7: 7, 8. Luke 11: \0.— Brown.
KNOLLYS, (Hansard ;) a very eminent minister among
the English Baptists of the seventeenth century. He was
a man of great learning, sound principles, solid piety, and
true pulpit eloquence. He was deservedly popular as a
preacher, and suffered greatly for conscience' sake. Few
men of his age were more useful. He was an Episco-
pal minister some years, but came to this country in 1633,
a Baptist. For some hard things said of the Massachu-
setts government he ingenuously made a confession in Bos-
ton. He was the first minister ever settled in Dover, N. H.
where he preached from 1635 to 1639. He was afterwards
involved in some disturbances, and went to Long Island.
Most of the New England historians have abused his cha-
racter m a shameful manner. Only Cotton Mather has
done him justice. About 1642, he returned to England,
and formed a large Baptist church in London, of which he
was near fifty years the minister. He died, September
19, 1691, aged ninety-three. He published Rudiments of
the Hebrew Grammar, WiS.—Baehts ■ Ivimev
KNOWLEDGE, is defined by Mr. Locke to be the
perception of the connexion and agreement, or disagree-
ment and repugnancy of our ideas. It also denotes harn-
mg, or the improvement of our faculties by reading ; ex-
penence, or the acquiring new ideas or triuhs, by seeing
a variety of objects, and making observations upon them
m our own minds. No man, savs the admirable Dr.
■Watts, is obliged to learn and know every thing • this
can neither be sought nor required, for it is utterly im-
possible : yet all persons are under some obligation to im-
prove their own understanding, otherwise it will be a bar-
ren desert, or a forest overgrown with weeds and bram-
bles. Universal ignorance, or infinite error, will over-
spread the mind which is utterly neglected and lies with-
out any cultivation.
The following rules, therefore, should be attended to for
the improvement of knowledge : — 1. Deeply possess your
mind with the vast importance of a good judgment, and
the rich and inestimable advantage of right reasoning. —
2. Consider the weaknesses, failings, and mistakes of hu-
man nature in general. — 3. Be not satisfied with a slight
view of things, but take a wide survey now and then of
the vast and unlimited regions of learning, the variety
of questions and difficulties belonging to every science. —
4. Presume not too much upon a bright genius, a ready
wit, and gcjod parts ; for this, without study, will never
make a man of knowledge. — 5. Do not imagine that large
and laborious reading, and a strong memory, can denomi-
nate you truly wise, without meditation and studious
thought. — 6. Be not so weak as to imagine that a hfe of
learning is a life of laziness. — 7. Let the hope of new dis-
coveries, as well as the satisfaction and pleasure of known
truths, animate your daily industry. — 8. Do not hover
always on the surface of things, nor take up suddenly
with mere appearances. — 9. Once a day, especially in the
early years of life and study, call yourselves to an ac-
count what new ideas you have gained. — 10. Maintain a
constant watch, at all times, against a dogmatical spirit.
— 11. Be humble and courageous enough to retract any
mistake, and confess an error. — 12. Beware of a fanciful
temper of mind, and a humorous conduct. — 13. Have a
care of trifling with things important and momentous, or
of sporting with things awful and sacred. — 14. Ever
maintain a virtuous and pious frame of spirit. — 15.
Watch against the pride of your own reason, and a vain
conceit of your own intellectual powers, with the neglect
of divine aid and blessing. — 16. OflTer up, therefore, your
daily requests to God, the Father of Lights, that he would
bless all your attempts and labors in reading, study, and
conversation. — Watts on the Mind ; Dr. John Edn-ards' Tin-
certainty, Deficiency, and Corruption of Human Knowledge ;
Reid's Intellectual Powers of Man ; Stennett's Sermon on
^rts 26: 24, 25. Upham's Intellectual Fhilosophy ; Douglas
on the Advancement of Soaeiy ; Works of Mobert Hall;
Amer. Library of Useful Knowledge. — Hend. Buck.
KNOWLEDGE OF GOD, is often taken for the fear
of God. and the whole of religion. There is, indeed, a
speculative knowledge, which consists only in the belief
of his existence, and the acknowledgment of his perfec-
tions, but has no influence on the heart and conduct. A
spiritual, saving knowledge is attended with veneration
for the Divine Being, (Ps. 89: 7.) love to him as an object
of beauty and goodness, (Zech. 9: 17.) humble confidence
in his mercy and promise, (Ps. 9: 10.) and sincere, uni-
form, and persevering obedience to his word, 1 John 2: 3.
It may further be considered as a knowledge of God, the
Father ; of his love, faithfulness, power, &c. Of the Son,
as it relates to the dignity of his nature, (1 John 5: 20.)
the suitability of his offices, (Heb. 9.) the perfection of
his work, (Ps. 68: 18.) the brightness of his example,
(Acts 10: 38.) and the prevalency of his intercession,
Heb. 7: 25. Of the Holy Ghost, as equal with the Father
and the Son ; of his agency as an enlightener and com-
forter ; as also in his work of witnessing, sanctifying, and
directing his people, John 15, 16. 2 Cor. 3: 17, 18. John
3: 5, 6. Rom. 8: 16.
This knowledge may be considered as experimental, (2
Tim. 1: 12.) confiding, (Job 13: 15, 16.) afl'ectionate, (1
John 3: 19.) influential, (Ps. 9: 16. Matt. 5: 16.) self-
abasing, (Is. 6. Job 42: 5, 6.) satisfying, (Psal. 36: 7.
Prov. 3: 17.) and superior to all other knowledge, Phil.
3: 8.
The advantages of religious knowledge are very great.
It forms the basis of true honor and felicity. Not all the
lustre of a noble birth, not all the influence of wealth, not
all the pomp of tifles, not all the splendor of power, can
give dignity to the soul that is destitute of inward im-
provement. By this we are allied to angels, and are ca-
pable of rising forever in the scale of being. Such is its
inherent worth, that it hath always been represented under
the most pleasing images. In particular, it hath been
compared to light, the most valuable and reviving of
nature's works, and to that glorious luminary which is the
most beautiful and transporting object our eyes behold. V
If we entertain any doubts concerning the intrinsic value
?f
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of religious knowledge, let ns look around us, and we
siiall be convinced how desirable it is to be acquainted
with God, with spiritual, with eternal things. Observe
the difference between a cultivated and a barren country.
While the former is a lovely, cheerful, and delightful
sight, the other administers a spectacle of horror. There
is an equal difference between the nations among whom
the principles of piety prevail, and the nations that are
overrun with idolatry, superstition, and error. Know-
ledge, also, is of great importance to our personal and pri-
vate felicity : it furnishes a pleasure that cannot be met
with in the possession of inferior enjoyments ; a fine en-
tertainment, which adds a relish to prosperity, and allevi-
ates the hour of distress. It throws a lustre upon great-
ness, and reflects an honor upon poverty. Knowledge
will also instruct us how to apply our several talents for
the benefit of mankind. It will make us capable of ad-
vising and regulating others. Hence we may become the
lights of the world, and diffuse those munificent beams
around us, which shall shine on benighted travellers, and
discover the path of rectitude and bliss. This knowledge,
also, tends to destroy bigotry and enthusiasm. To this we
are indebted for the important change which hath been
made since the beginning of the Reformation. To this
we are indebted for the general cultivation and refinement
of the understandings of men. It is owing to this that
even arbitrary governments seem to have lost something
of their original ferocity, and that there is a source of im-
provement in Europe which will, we hope, in future
times, shed the most dehghtful influences on society, and
unite its members in harmony, peace, and love. But the
advantages of religious knowledge are still greater, for it
points out to us an eternal felicity. The several branches
of human science are intended only to bless and adorn
our present existence ; but religious knowledge bids us
provide for an immortal being, sets the path of salvation
before us, and is our inseparable companion in the road
to glory. As it instructs in the way to endless bliss, so it
will survive that mighty day when all worldly literature
and accomplishments shall forever cease. At that so-
lemn period, in which the records and registers of men
shall be destroyed, the systems of human policy be dis-
solved, and the grandest works of genius die, the wisdom
which is spiritual and heavenly shall not only subsist, but
be increased to an extent that human nature cannot in
this life admit. Our views of things, at present, are ob-
scure, imperfect, partial, and liable to error ; but when we
arrive at the realms of everlasting light, the clouds that
shadowed our understanding will be removed ; we shall
behold, with amazing clearness, the attributes, ways, and
works of God ; shall perceive more distinctly the design
of his dispensations; shall trace with rapture the wonders
of nature and grace, and become acquainted with a thou-
sand glorious objects, of which the imagination can as
yet have no conception, 1 Cor. 13: 9^12.
In order to increase in the knowledge of God, there
must be dependence on him from whom all light proceeds,
f Jas. 1: 6.) attention to his revealed will, (John 5: 39.) a
watchful spirit against corrupt affections, (Luke 21: 34.)
a humble frame of mind, (Ps. 25: 9.) frequent medita-
tion, (Ps. 101: 34.) a persevering design of conformity to
Ihe divine image, Hos. 6: 3. Charnock's Works, vol. ii. p.
3S1 ; Snurin's Serm., vol. i. ser. 1 ; Gill's Body of Div., vol.
iii. p. 12, 8vo ; Tillolson's Serm., ser. 113 ; Watts' Works,
vol. i. ser. 4-5; Hall's Servton on the Advantages of Know-
ledge to the Lower Classes ; Foster's Essay on Popular Igno-
roiire ; Dwieht's Theology. — Hend. Buck.
KNOX, (John,) the great champion of the Scottish re-
formation, was born, in 1.505, at Gilford, in East Lothian,
and was educated at Haddington and St. Andrews. After
he was created master of arts, he taught philosophy, most
probably as a regent in one of the colleges of the univer-
sity. His class became celebrated, and he was considered
as equalling, if not excelling, his master, in the subtleties
of the dialectic art. About the same time, although he
had no interest but what was procured by his own merit,
he was advanced to clerical orders, and ordained a priest
before he reached the age fixed by the canons of the church.
At this time, the fathers of the Christian churoh, Jerome
and Augustine, attracted his particular attention. By the
writings of the former, he was led to the Scriptures as the
only pure fountain of divine truth, and instructed in the
utility of studying them in the original languages. In the
works of the latter he found religious sentiments very op-
posite to those taught in the Romish church, who, while
she retained his name as a saint in her calendar, had ba-
nished his doctrine as heretical from her pulpits. From
this time he renounced the study of scholastic theology ;
and, aUhough not yet completely emancipated from super-
stition, his mind was filteJ for improving the means which
Providence had given for leading him to a fuller and more
comprehensive view of the system of evangelical religion.
It was about the year 1535, when this favorable change
commenced ; but it does not appear that he professed
himself a Protestant before the year 1542. He was con-
verted from the Romish faith by Wishart, and became a
zealous preacher of the new doctrines. Having been
compelled to take shelter in the castle of St. Andrews, he
fell into the hands of the French in July, 1547, and was
carried with the garrison to France, where he remained a
captive on board of the galleys till 1549. Subsequent to
his liberation he was for a short time chaplain to Edward
VI., after which he visited Geneva and Frankfort, and, in
1555, returned to his native country. After having for
twelve months labored actively and successfully to
strengthen the Protestant cause in Scotland, he revisited
Geneva, where he remained till 1559. During his resi-
dence in Geneva he published his First Blast of the Trum-
pet against the monstrous Government of Women ; a
treatise which was levelled against Mary of England, but
which gave serious offence to Elizabeth. From April,
1559, when he once more and finally set foot on Scottish
earth, till his decease, which took place November 24,
1572, the reformed church was triumphant, and he was
one of its most prominent, admired, and honored lead-
ers.
When his body was laid in the grave, the regent of
Scotland emphatically pronounced his eulogium, in the
well-known words, " There lies he who never feared the
face of man."
Knox has been styled the iulrepid reformer; and that
character he unquestionably deserves. In personal intre-
pidity, and popular eloquence, he resembled Luther. His
doctrinal sentiments were those of Calvin ; and like Zuin-
gUus, he felt an attachment to the principles of religious
liberty. He effected much in the great work of the refor-
mation ; but his manners were so severe, and his temper
so acrid, that whilst he may be equally respected with Lu-
ther and Melancthon, he is not equally beloved. Knox
was, however, known and beloved by the principal persons
among the reformed in France, Switzerland, and Germa-
ny; and the affectionate veneration in which his memory
was held in Scotland after his death, evinced that the in-
fluence he possessed among his countrymen, during his
life, was not constrained, but founded on the high opinion
which they entertained. Banatyne has thus drawn his
character, and it is unquestionably entitled to considera-
tion : — " In this manner (says he) departed this man of
God; the light of Scotland, the comfort of the church
within the same, the mirror of godUness, and pattern, and
example to all true ministers, in purity of life, soundness
of doctrine, and boldness in reproving of wickedness ;
one that cared not for the favor of men, how great soever
they were.''
Of his works the principal is a History of the Reforma-
tion in Scotland : the fourth edition of it includes all lu3
« K 0 R [7
other wr.tiogs. Life of Knox by Dr. M'Crie. Jonas'
'^hris. Biog. — Hend, Bvck ; Davenport,
KNOX, (Dr. VioESiMus,) a divine and miscellaiieous
writer, was born in 1752 ; was educated at Merchant
Tailors school, and at St. John's college, Oxford ; succeed-
ed his father as head master of Tunbridge school ; held
that.'Sitnation for thirty-three years ; obtained the livings
of Runwell and Ramsden Grays, in Essex, and the cha-
pelry of Shipbourne, in Kent ; and died December 6, 182 1 .
Among his original works are. Essays, Moral and Lite; ,■>.-
ry ; Liberal Education ; Winter Evenings ; Personal No-
bility ; Christian Philosophy ; and The Spirit of Despo-
tism. He was the compiler of the Elegant Extracts and
Epistles. — Davenport.
KOHATH ; the second son of Levi, and father of Am-
ram, Izhar, Hebron, and Uzziel, Gen. 46: 11. Exod. 6: 18.
Kohath's family was appointed to cany the ark and sa-
cred vessels of the tabernacle, while the Israelites marched
through the wilderness. Num. 4, &c. — Watson.
KOLLOCK, (Henky, D. D.,) minister of Savannah, was
born at New Providence, New Jersey, December 14, 1778,
and was graduated at Princeton, in 1794. In December,
1800, he was ordained at Elizabethtown. In December,
1803, he was appointed professor of theology at Princeton,
having a care also of the church. His abilities and elo-
quence procured him great respect.
In 1806, he removed to Savannah, where he was a mi-
nister about thirteen years. For a time some ecclesiastical
difficulties, fotmded on a charge of intemperance, threw a
cloud over his good name. He went to Europe in 1817,
and returned with invigorated health. He died, December
19, 1819, aged forty-one. After his death, his sermons
were published in four volumes. — Allen.
KORAH, was the son of Izhar, of the race of Levi, and
father of Asher, Elkanah, and Alisaph, and head of the
Korites, a celebrated family among the Levites. Korah,
being dissatisfied with the rank he held among the sons
of Levi, and envying the authority of Moses and Aaron,
formed a party against them, in which he engaged Da-
than, Abirara, and On, with two hundred and fifty of the
principal Levites, Num. l(i: 1 — 3, &c. "When Korah, for
his rebellion, was swallowed up in the earth, his sons were
preserved from his misfortuties.
In succeeding generations the sons of Korah continued
as before to serve in the tabernacle of the Lord. David
appointed them their oflice in the temple, to guard the doors,
and sing the praises of God. To them are ascribed several
psalms, which are designated by the name of Korah ; as the
forty-second, forty-fourth to the forty-ninth, eighty-fourth
to the eighty-seventh ; in all, eleven psalms. — Watson.
KORAN, or with the article, Al-Kokan, (Alcoran,) i.e.
the Koran, which originally means the reading, or that
mhich is to be read, is the Bible, or religious code of the
Mohammedans, written in Arabic by Mohammed. It is
also called Al-Forlmi, either from its division into distinct
portions, or because it is regarded as that which divides
right from wrong ; ^i-JlfosAo/, the volume : B.nA Al-Kitah,
the book.
1. KoKAN, HisTOKY OF THE. — It is the common opmion,
that Mohammed, assisted by one Sergius, a monk, com-
posed this book. The Koran, while Mohammed lived,
was only kept in loose sheets: his successor, Abubeker,
firM collected them into a volume, and committed the
keeping of it to Haphsa, the widow of Mohammed, in or-
der to be consulted as an original ; and there being a good
deal of diversity between the several copies already dis-
persed throughout the provinces, Ottoman, successor of
Abubeker, procured a great number of copies to be taken
from that of Haphsa, at the same time suppressing all the
others not conformable to the original. There are seven
principal editions of the Koran ; two at Medina, one at Mec-
ca, one at Cufa, one at Bassora, one in Syria, and the com-
mon, or vulgar edition. The first contains six thousand
verses, the others surpassing this number by two hundred
or two hundred and thirty-six verses ; but the number of
words and letters is the same in all ; viz. seventy-seven
thousand six hundred and thirty-nine words, and three
hundred and twenty-three thousand and fifteen letters.
The number of commentaries on the Koran is so large,
that the bare titles would make a huge volume. Ben Os-
2(3 ] K 0 K
chair lias writtew the history of them, entitled Tarikh Sen
Oschair. The principal among them are, Reidhari, Thaa-
lebi, Zamalchschari, and Bacai. The Mohommedans
have a positive theology built on the Koran and tradition,
as well as a scholastical one built on reason. They have
likewise their casuists, and a kind of canon law, wherein
they distinguish what is of divine and what of positive right.
They have their beneficiaries, too, chaplains, almoners,
and canons, who read a chapter every day out of the Ko-
ran in their mosques, and have prebends annexed to their
office. The hatib of the mosque is what we call the par-
son of the parish ; and the seheiks are the preachers, who
take their texts out of the Koran.
2. Koran, Mohammedan faith conceenins. — It is the
general belief among the Mohammedans that the Koran is
of divine oiiginal ; nay, that it is eternal and uncreated ;
remaining, as some express it, in the very essence of Gud ,
and the first transcript has been from everlasting, by God's
throne, written on a table of vast bigness, called 'he pre-
served table, in whicli are also recorded the divine decrees,
past and future ; that a copy from this table, in one vo-
lume, upon paper, was, by the ministry of the angel Ga-
briel, sent down to the lowest heaven, in the month of
Ramadan, on the night of power, from whence Gabriel re-
vealed it to Mohammed in parcels, some at Mecca, and
some at Medina, at different times, during the space of
twenty-three years, as the exigency of affairs required ;
giving him, however, the consolation to show him the
whole (which they tell us was bound in silk, and adorned
with gold and precious stones of paradise) once a year ;
but in the last year of his life he had the favor to see it
twice. In fine, the book of the Koran is held in the high-
est esteem and reverence among the Mussulmen. They
dare not so much as touch the Koran without being first
washed, or legally purified ; to prevent which an inscrip-
tion is put on the cover or label, — " Let none touch but
they who are clean." It is read with great care and re-
spect, being never held below the girdle. They swear by
it ; take omens from it on all weighty occasions ; carry it
with them to war : write sentences of it on their banners ;
adorn it with gold and precious stones ; and knowingly
suffer it not to be in the possession of any of a different
religion. Some say that it is punishable even with death,
in a Christian, even to touch it ; others, that the venera-
tion of the ]\Iussulmen leads them to condemn the trans-
lating it into any other language as a profanation : but
these seem to be exaggerations. The Mohammedans
have taken care to have their Scripture translated into the
Persian, the Javan, the Malayan, and other languages;
though out of respect to the original, these versions are
generally, if not always, interiineated.
3. KOR.IN, THE STYLE AND MERITS OF THE, EXAMINED.—
The praise of all the productions of genius is invention ;
that quality of the mind, which, by the extent and quick-
ness of its views, is capable of the largest conceptions, and
of forming new combinations of objects the most distant
and unu.sual. But the Koran bears little impression of this
transcendent character. Its materials are wholly borrowed
from the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, from the Talmu-
dical legends and apocryphal gospels then current in the
East, and from the traditions and fables which abounded
in Arabia. The materials collected from these several
sources are here heaped together with perpetual and
heedless repetitions, without any settled principle or visi-
ble connexion. When a great part of the life of Moham-
med had been spent in preparatory meditation on the sys-
tem he was about to establish, its chapters were dealt out
slowly and separately duiing the long ]ieriod of twenty-
three years. Yet, thus defective in its structure, and no
less objectionable in its doctrines, was the work which
Mohammed delivered to his followers as the oracles of
God. The most prominent feature of the Koran, that
point of excellency in which the partiality of its admirers
has ever delighted to view it, is the sublime notion it gene-
rally impresses of the nature and attributes of God. If its
author had really derived these just conceptions from the
inspiration of that Being whom they attempt to descrihc,
they would not have been surrounded, as they now are, on
every side, with error and absurdity. But it might be ea-
sily proved, that whatever it justly defines of the divine
ft
LAB
[ 737 ]
LAM
attributes, was borrowed from our Holy Scripture ; which
even from its first promulgation, but' especially from the
completion of the New Testament, has extended the views
and enlightened the understandings of mankind ; and thus
furnished them with arms which have too often been ef-
fectually turned against itself by its ungenerous ene-
mies. In this instance, particularly, the copy is far below
the great original, both in the propriety of its images and
the force of its descriptions.
It is, therefore, abundantly apparent, that no miracle
was either externally performed for the support, or is inter-
nally involved in the composition of the Mohammedan
revelation. See Sale's Koran ; Prideaux's Life of Maho-
met ; mite's Sermons at the Bampton Lecture ; and Moham-
medanism.— He/>d. Buck.
KORNTHAL, (Society of :) a religious community in
the kingdom of Wurtemberg, which originated in the fol-
lowing circumstances : — In the year 1818, Theophilus
A\^illiam Hoffmann, a notary-public, and burgomaster of
Leonberg, perceiving that a dilierence of religious belief
led a great number of the inhabitants of "Wurtemberg to
Russia and America, thought it would be an efficacious
means of preventing other dissenters from following their
example, if they were removed from under the jurisdiction
of the Lutheriyi consistory, and obtained toleration for the
exercise of their religious worship. A royal decree, of the
22d of August, 1819, sanctioned their separation from the
Lutheran church, and gave its approbation to regulations,
formed by themselves, for their organization as a religious
body, and for their relation to the state. They consisted,
at that time, of about forty families ; but their numbers
rapidly incrSsed. They purchased the lordship of Korn-
thal, a bailiwick of Leonberg, two leagues from Stutgard,
containing a thousand acres of arable and woody land,
with some buildings, for a hundred and fifteen thousand
florins. One of their first cares was to erect a commodious
place of worship, capable of holding two thousand per-
sons. Their mode of worship nearly resembles that of the
Protestant churches, from which they are legally separated,
although they adopt the tenets and teach the catechism of
Luther, and have a liturgy similar, not to that introduced
into certain Lutheran churches in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, but to that of 1582. It mil be seen
from what follows, that their discipline resembles that of
the Moravian Brethren.
Their service consists of a succession of bymns, prayers,
and Scripture reading ; the Lord's supper is administered
every fourth week, eight days previous to which, separate
meetings are held of married men and widowers, married
women and widows, bachelors, and spinsters. Besides
the Sundays, they celebrate the festivals of Jesus Christ,
the Apostles, St. Stephen, the New Year, Epiphany, Holy
Thursday, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension, Pentecost, St.
John the Baptist, Annunciation, and Purification of the Vir-
gin Mary. They have also, once' a month, a day of fasting
and prayer. Their clergy consist of readers, elders, and a
president, called bishop, who in public service appear in
white robes. A secular president administers their tem-
poral affairs ; who, like all their civil and ecclesiastical
officers, is elected by the community, whose suflirage i.s
also requisite in the admission of members. A community
of goods is not held by them : any member, on quitting
the society, may carry away his movables ; but he can
only sell his fixtures to anolher member, or, in default of
a purchaser, to the community. The two sexes have
separate burial places. Feasts at baptisms and funerals
are abolished ; also salutations on the new year. Mourn-
ing is never worn. Oaths are forbidden. Benevolence
towards persons of other communions is commanded.
Begging is prohibited, and care is taken of the poor and
aged. A portion of the money collected for charitable
uses, is applied to carrying the knowledge of the "nspel to
heathen lands. They have schools for each sex, in whicii
they are mainly solicitous to inculcate piety and virtue.
No member may marry without the advice of the presi-
dents, especially out of the society. Every one must have
some trade. For every thing there is a fixed price. No
brother may borrow money but from the common chest.
No member may lodge a foreigner, or take a foreign ser-
vant, without informing the president. The various
branches of agriculture, and the mechanical arts, form
the habitual employment of this colony. Since 1821, a
kind of journal has, at indefinite periods, presented to the
public a view of the civil and religious stale of this society,
whose prosperity will augment while it shall retain its pri-
mitive zeal, its purity of manners, and its love of labor.—
Ilend. Buck.
KEUDENER, (Baroness Valeria,) a rehgious enthusi-
ast, daughter of count Wittenkofl', was born, in 176ti, at
Riga ; married baron Krudener when she was only four-
teen ; and w-as for a considerable period one of the gayest
of the gay in the Parisian circli s. At length she became
a fanatical devotee, announced herself as an envoy from
Heaven, and wandered from state to state preaching, and
surrounded by thousands of pci |ile. In many places she
was driven out by the magistruics. She died, in the Cri-
mea, in 1824. Alexander of Russia was among those who
listened to her doctrines. She wrote Valeria, a novel,
which is believed to depict some of her earl}' adventures. —
Davenport; Hend. Buck ; Enaj. Amer.
KTISTOLATR^ ; a branch of the Monophysites, which
maintained that the body of Christ before his resurrection
was corruptible. — Hend. Buck.
KYRLE, (John,) a man remarkable for his active be-
nevolence, was born, in 1640, at Whitehouse, in Glouces-
tershire, and died at Ross, in Herefordshire, in 1724.
Pope, in his Moral Essays, has commemorated the good
deeds of this estimable character. Wi'.li his small fortune,
however, Kyrle could not solely have accomplished all
that is attributed to him ; but his example prompted some,
and his solicitations induced others, to associate with him
in the work of charity and public utility. — Davenport.
L.
LABADISTS, were so called from their founder, John
Labadie, a native of France. He was originally in the
Romish communion ; but leaving that, he became a mem-
ber of the reformed church, and performed with reputation
the ministerial functions in France, Switzerland, and Hol-
land. He at length erected a nev, community, which re-
sided successively at Middtcburg, in Zealand, Amsterdam,
Hervorden, and af Aiiona, where he died, about 1674.
After his death, his followers removed their wandering
community to Wiewert, in the district of North Holland,
where it soon fell into oblivion. If we are to judge of the
Labadists by their own account, they did not difl'er from
the reformed church so much in their tenets and doctrines
as in their manners and rules of discipline; although it
seems that Labadie had some strange notions, — H. Buck.
LABARUIM ; the name given to the imperial banner,
upon which Constantine, after his conversion, blazoned
the monogram of Christ. — Heiid. Buck.
LACTANTIUS, (Lucius C^lius,) a father of the
church, the purity of whose Latinity has gained for him
the title of the Christian Cicero, was born in the third cen-
tury, but whether in Africa, or at Fenno, in Italy, is un-
decided. He studied under Arnobius ; became celebrated
for his eloquence ; and was appointed tutor to Crispus,
the son of Constantine. He is supposed to have died at
Treves, about 325. His principal works are, De Opificio
Dei ; and Divinarum Institutionum. — Davenport.
LAITY ; the people, as distinguished from the clergy.
(See Cleksy.)
LAKE J a confluence of waters. The principal lakes
in Judea, were the lake Asphaltites, the lake of Tiberias,
and the lake Semechon ; and, towards Egypt, the lake
Sirbon. (See the respective articles.) — Calmet.
LAMAISM ; the religion of the people of Thibet. The
Delai Lama, "Grand Lama," is at once the high-priest,
and the visible object of adoration, to this natisn, to the
LAM
[728]
LAM
hordes of wandering Tartars, and to the prodigious popu-
lation of China. He resides at Patoli, a vast palace on a
mountain near the banks of the Burarapooter, about seven
miles from Lahasse. The foot of the mountain is sur-
rounded by twenty thousand lamas, or priests, in attend-
ance on their sovereign pontiff, who is considered as the
vicegerent of the Deity on earth ; and the more remote
Tartars are said to regard him absolutely as the Deity
himself, and call him God, the everlasting father of hea-
ven. They believe him to be immortal, and endowed with
all knowledge and virtue. Every year they come up
from different parts to worship, and make rich offerings at
his shrine. Even the emperor of China, who is a Mant-
chou Tartar, does not fail in acknowledgments to him in
his religious capacity ; and entertains in the palace at
Pekin "-n inferior lama, deputed as his nuncio from
Thibet.
The grand Lama is only to be seen in a secret place of
his palace, amidst a great number of lamps, sitting cross-
legged on a cushion, and decked all over with gold and
precious stones ; while, at a distance, the people prostrate
themselves before him, it being not lawful for any so much
as to kiss his feet. He returns not the least sign of re-
spect, nor ever speaks, even to the greatest princes ; but
only lays his hand upon their heads, and they are fully
persuaded that they thereby receive a full forgiveness of
their sins. The siinniasses, or Indian pilgrims, often visit
Thibet as a holy place ; and the Lama entertains a body
of two or three hundred in his pay. Besides his religious
influence and authority, he is possessed of unlimited power
throughout his dominions, which are very extensive. The
inferior lamas, who form the most numerous as well as
the most powerful body in the state, have the priesthood
entirely in their hands, and, besides, fill up many monas-
tic orders, which are held in great veneration among them.
The whole country, like Italy, abounds with priests ; and
Ihey entirely subsist on the rich presents sent them from
the utmost extent of Tartary, from the empire of the great
mogul, and from almost all parts of the Indies.
The opinion of the orthodox among the Thibetians is,
that when the grand lama seems to die, either of old age or
infirmities, his soul, in fact, only quits a crazy habitation to
enter another, younger and better ; and is discovered again
in the body of some child, by certain tokens, knowTi only
to the lamas, or priests, in which order he always appears.
Almost all the nations of the East, except the Mohamme-
dans, believe the metempsi/ckosis, or transmigration of the
soul, as the most important article of their faith ; espe-
cially the inhabitants of Thibet, Burmah, and Anan, the
Siamese, the greater part of the Chinese and Japanese,
and the Monguls and Kalmucks. According to their doc-
trine, the soul no sooner leaves her old habitation than she
entei-s a new one. The delai lama, therefore, or rather the
god Foe or Fuh, residing in the delai lama, passes to his
successor ; and he being a god, to whom all things are
known, the grand Lama is therefore acquainted with every
thing which happened during his residence in his former
bodies,
This religion, which was early adopted in a large part
it the globe, IS said to have been of three thousand years'
J landing ; and neither time, nor the influence of men, has
bad the power of shaking the authority of the grand Lama,
ihis theocracy, which extends as fully to temporal as to
spiritual concerns, is professed all over Thibet and Mon-
galia ; is almost universal in Greater and Less Bucharia,
and several provinces of Tartary; has some followers in
the kmgdom of Cashmere, in India; and is the predomi-
nant religion of China.
It has been observed that the religion of Thibet is the
counterpart oflhe Roman Catholic, since the inhabitants
of that country use holy water, and a singing service.
I hey also offer alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the dead
They have a vast number of convents filled with monks
and friars, amounting to thirty thousand, and confessors
chosen by their superiors. They use beads, wear the mi-
tre, like the bishops ; and their delai lama is nearly the
same among them as the sovereign pontiff was formerly,
in the zenith of his power, among the Roman Catholics!
So complete is the resemblance, that, when one of the first
Roman missionaries penetrated Thibet, he came to the
conclusion, that the devil had set up there an imitation of
the rites of the Catholic church, in order the more effectu-
ally to destroy the souls of men.
Captain Turner, speaking of the religion of Thibet, says,
" It seems to be the schismatical offspring of the religion
of the Hindoos, deriving its origin from one of the follow-
ers of that faith, a disciple of Bouddhu, who first broached
the doctrine which now prevails over the wide extent of
Tartary. It is reported to have received its earliest ad-
mission in that part of Tibet, or Thibet, bordering upon
India, which from hence became the seal of the sovereign
lamas ; to have traversed over Mantchieux Tartary, and
to have been ultimately disseminated over China and Ja-
pan. Though it differs from the Hindoo in many of its
outward forms, yet it still bears a very close alfinity with
the religion of I5rumha in many important particulars.
The principal idol in the temples of Tibet, or Thibet, is
Muha-Moonee, the Booddhu of Bengal, who is worshipped
imder these and various other epithets, throughout the
great extent of Tartary, and among all nations to the east-
ward of the Brumhapootru. In the wide-extended space
over which this faith prevails, the same object of venera-
tion is acknowledged under numerous titles ; among
others, he is styled Godumu, or Gotumu, in Assam and
Ava, Shummunu in Siam, Amida Buth in-Japan, Fohi in
China," fee. — Watson,
LAiMB OF GOD. By this name John the Baptist
called our Savior, (John 1: 29, 36.) to signify his inno-
cence, and his quality as a victim to be offered for the
sins of the world. Or, he might allude to these words of
the prophet : " He is brought as a lamb tojhe slaughter,
and as a sheep before his shearers is dumb, so he openeth
not his mouth," Isa. 53: 7. If it were a little before the
passover, then the sight of a number of lambs going to
Jerusalem to be slain on that occasion, might suggest the
idea; as if he had said, "Behold the true, the most excel-
lent Lamb of God," &c. — Calmet.
LAMBETH ARTICLES. (See Articles.)
LABIBERT, (John,) the English martyr. His real
name was Nicholson, Lambert being assumed in the latter
part of his life to avoid the dangers that beset his life. He
was born in Norfolk, and educated at Cambridge, wdiere
the excellent Bilney was the means of his conversion, not
only to Protestant principles, but to God. He was soon
obliged to seek refuge in Holland ; whence in 1532 he
was brought to London by means of Sir Thomas More,
and tried before the archbishop of Canterbury on forty-
nine articles, preserved, with his answers, by Fox. In
1534, Warham dying, Cranmer succeeded to the primacy,
and Lambert was released. In 1538, he was apprehended
at the instigation of bishop Gardiner, and tried before
Henry VIII. with great pomp. Lambert defended him
self with the firmness of a man, the learning of a scholar,
and the humility of a Christian. But the cause was al-
ready prejudged, and he was condemned to be burnt.
Lord Cromwell and Cranmer, afterwards such distin-
guished friends of the Reformation, that day were against
him.
No man was used at the stake with greater cruelty than
was Lambert. But God was with him. Just before he
expired, he lifted up his hands, all flaming with fire, and
cried out to the people, with his dying voice, in these glo-
rious words. None but Christ ! None but Christ ! A
volume could not have conveyed the energy of divine
truth like these words, in these circumstances. — Middle-
ton, vol. i. p. 139.
LAME. Persons weak in body, or in their intellect and
grace, and halting between different opinions, are called
lame, Isa. 33: 23. Heb. 12: 13.— Bromn.
LAMECH ; a descendant of Cain, the son of Mathu-
sael, and father of Jabal, Jubal, Tubal-Cain, and Naamah,
Gen. 4: 18 — 20, &c. He stands branded as the father of
polygamy, the first who dared to violate the sacred com-
mand ; (Gen. 2: 24.) giving way to his unbridled passion,
and thus overleaping the divine mound raised by the wis-
dom of our great Creator ; which restraint is enforced by
the laws of nature herself, who peoples the earth with an
equal number of males and females, and thereby teaches
foolish man that polygamy is incompatible with her wise
regulations. He married Adah and Zillah : the former
LAM
729 ]
LAN
was the mother of Jabal and Jubal, and the latter of Tu-
bal-Cain and Naamah, his sister. — Watson.
LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH ; a mournful po-
em, composed by the prophet, on occasion of the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. The first two
chapters principally describe the calamities of the siege of
Jerusalem ; the third deplores the persecutions which Je-
remiah himself had suffered ; the fourth adverts to the
ruin and desolation of the city and temple, and the
misfortune of Zedekiah ; and the fifth is a kind of form
of prayer for the Jews in their captivity. At the close
the prophet speaks of the cruelty of the Edomites, who
had insulted Jerusalem in her misery, and threatens them
with the wrath of God. (See Jeremiau.)
The first four chapters of the Lamentations are in the
acrostic form 5 every verse or couplet beginning with a
letter of the Hebrew alphabet, in regular order. The first
nnd second chapters contain twenty-two verses, according
t!) the letters of the alphabet ; the third chapter has trip-
lets, beginning with the same letter ; and the fourth is like
the first two, having twenty-two verses. The fifth chapter
is not an acrostic. The style of Jeremiah's Lamentations
is lively, tender, pathetic, and affecting. It was the talent
of this prophet to write melancholy and moving elegies ;
and never was a subject more worthy of tears, nor written
with more tender and affecting sentiments. — Calmet.
LAMPETIANS ; a denomination in the seventeenth
century, the followers of Lampetius, a Syrian monk. He
pretended that as man is born free, a Christian, in order
to please God, ought to do nothing by necessity ; and that
It is, therefore, unlawful to make vows, even those of obe-
dience. To this system it is said he added the doctrines
of the Arians, Carpocratians, and other denominations. —
Hend. Buck.
LAMP. There is frequent mention of lamps in Scrip-
ture, and the word is often used figuratively. The inven-
tion of lamps is ascribed to the Egyptians. They also
were the first who put burning lamps in the tombs with
their dead, as an emblem of the immortality of the soul.
Lamps were known to the Hebrews as early as the time
of Moses and Job.
To do this subject justice, it might be considered under
several distinctions : as, (1.) Military lamps, those intend-
ed to meet the exigencies of night, in the external air,
when the breeze is lively, or when the wind is high. (2.)
Domestic lamps, those intended for service in the interior
of a dwelling, or to be carried aboitt into all parts of it ;
but not powerful enough to resist a gale of wind in the
open air. (3.) Lariips for religious uses ; those hung up
in temples, or deposited in the sacred recesses of edifices,
public or private, &c. "VVe shall, however, attend only to
the distinction between lamps for the exterior, the open
air ; and lamps for the interior, domestic purposes.
1. We meet with the Hebrew term lapid, properly lam-
pid, (whence the word lamp,) in that remarkable history
of the "smoking furnace and the burning lamp," which
ratified the covenant made with Abraham ; (Gen. 15: 17.)
■where the text observes, that, (1.) it was after the sun was
gone down, (2.) when it was dark, what is rendered, a
furnace, passed; and this is expressly noted a^(3.) smok-
ing. Whatever light, or splendor, overcame the darkness
of the evening, with the inuch greater darkness occasion-
ed by the density of the smoke by which it was immedi-
ately surrounded, and in the centre of which it blazed,
was certainly not feeble, or dim, but lively, vigorous, and
even powerful. The action took place in the open air ;
and this lamp, described as burning, was competent to re-
sist, and more than resist, every impulse of the atmo-
sphere. With this we may compare the appearances at
the giving of the law, (Exod. 20: 18.) and in Daniel's
vision, Dan. 10: 6. Also Judg. 7: 15. 15: 4. Isa. 62: 1.
Ez. 1: 13, and Zech. 12: 6, in all of which the same word
is used in the original. To this word answers the Greek
tampas, Matt. 25: 1.
2. A lamp for domestic use is called iter in the Hebrew,
andis frequentlv, though erroneously, rendered candle in
our version. See Prov. 31: 18. Job. 29: 3. IS: 5, 6. 2
Sam. 21: IS. Num. 21:30. This household lamp is in
Greek usually called the luchnos, Matt. 5: 15. The houses
in the East were, from the remotest antiquitv, lighted with
. 92
lamps ; and hence it is so common in Scripture to call
every thing which enlightens the body or mind, which
guides or refreshes, by the name of a lamp. These lamps
were sustained by a large candlestick set upon the ground.
The houses of Egypt, in modern times, are never without
lights : they burn lamps all the night long, and in every
occupied apartment. So requisite to the comfort of a
family is this custom reckoned, or so imperious is the
power which it exercises, that the poorest people would
rather retrench part of their food than neglect it. As this
custom no doubt prevailed in Egypt and the adjacent re-
gions of Arabia and Palestine in foriner times, it iriiparts
a beauty and force to some passages of Scripture which
have been little observed. Thu.s, in the language of Jere-
miah, to extinguish the light in an apartment is a converti-
ble phrase for total destruction ; and nothing can more
properly and emphatically represent the total destruction of
a city than the extinction of the lights : " I will take from
them the light of a candle, and this whole land shall be a
desolation and an astonishment." See also Job 21: 17. 18:
5, 6. A brilliant lamp is, on the other hand, the chosen sym-
bol of prosperity, a beautiful instance of which occurs in
the complaint of Job, 29: 2, 3. When the ten tribes were
taken from Rehoboam, and given 10 his rival, Jehovah pro-
mised to reserve one tribe, and assigns this reason : " That
David my servant may have a light always before me in Je-
rusalem," 1 Kings ll:3l5. In many parts of the East, and
in particular in the Indies, instead of torches and flam-
beaux, they carry a pot of oil in one hand, and a lamp full
of oily rags in the other. (See Marriase.)— Ca/mei ,-
JVnisoii.
LAND, in the Old Testament, often denotes the country
of the Israelites, or the particular country, or district, spo-
ken of; the land of Canaan, the land of Egypt, the land
of Ashur, the land of Moab. In many places of our pub-
lic version the phrase ■' all the earth" is used, where the
meaning should be restricted to the land, or all the land.
—Calmet.
LANFRANC, a pious and learned Romish prelate, was
born, in 1005, at Pavia; became prior of Bee, in Nor-
mandy, in 1044; and was made abbot of St. Stephen, at
Caen, in 1062. When William the Conqueror ascended
the English throne, he raised Lanfranc to the archbishop-
ric of Canterbury, who held the see till his decease, in
1089. Lanfranc rebuilt the cathedral of Canterbury, and
founded the hospitals of St. John and Harbledown. He
was the antagonist of the great Berengarius, and wrote,
in good Latin, various theological works. — Davenport.
LANGDON, (Sa.mcel, D. D.,) minister of Portsmouth,
N. H., and president of Harvard college, was a native of
Boston ; was graduated in 1740 ; ordained as the successor
of Mr. Fitch in 1747; inducted into the oflice of president
as the successor of Mr. Locke in 1774, but resigned it, in
consequence of the disaffection of his pupils, occasioned
bv his want of the requisite dignity and authority, in 1780.
He settled at Hampton Falls, N. H., in 1781. His exten-
sive knowledge, hospitality, patriotism, and piety secured
to him, in this calm retreat, the affection and respect of
the people of his charge, and of his numerous acquaint-
ance. He died, November 29, 1797, aged seventy-four.
He published many sermons, besides an Examination of
R. SanJeman's letters on 'f heron and Aspasio, 1765; a
Summary of Christian Faith and Practice, 1708 ; and
Remarks on the Leading Sentiments of Dr. Hopkins' Sys-
tem of Doctrines, 1794. Alden's Ace. of the Helig. Soc:
of Portsmouth ; Hist. Co!., vol. x. p. 51. — Allen.
LANGUAGE, in general, denotes those articulate sounds
by which men express their thoughts. Much has been
said respecting the invention of language. On the one
side, it is observed, that it is altogether a human inven-
tion, and that the progress of the mind, in the invention
and improvement of language, is, by certain natural gra-
dations, plainly discernible in the composition of words.
But on the other side it is alleged, that we are indebted to
divine revelation for the origin of it. Without supposmg
this, we see not hov,- our first larents could so early hold
converse with God, or the mai'i with his wife. Adinittmg,
however, that it is of divine orit,inal, we cannot suppose
that a perfect system of it was a.'! at once given to man
II is much more natural to think that God taught our first
LAN
[730 ]
LAr
pareuts only such language as suited iheir present occa-
sion, leaving Ihem, as he did in other things, to enlarge
and improve it, as their future necessities should require.
Without attempting, however, to decide this controversy,
we may consider language as one of the greatest blessings
belonging to mankind. Destitute of this, we should make
but small advancements in science, be lost to ail social en-
joyments, and religion itself would feel the want of such
a power. Our wise Creator, therefore, has conferred upon
us this inestimable privilese : let us then be cautious that
our tongues be not the vehicle of vain and useless matter,
but used for the great end of glorifying him, and doing
good to mankind.
What was the first language taught man, is matter of
dispute among the learned, but most think it was the He-
brew. There are, however, other opinions on the oft-dis-
puted subject as to the primilive language. The Arme-
nians allege, that as the ark rested in their country, Noah
and hi? children must have remained there a considerable
time, before the lower and marshy country of Chaldea
could be fit to receive ihem ; and it is therefore reasonable
to suppose they left their language there, which was proba-
bly the very same that Adam spoke. Some have fancied the
Greek the most ancient tongue, because of its extent and
copiousness. The Teutonic, or that dialect of it which is
spoken in the Lower Germany and Brabant, has found a
strenuous patron in Geropius Eecanus, who endeavors to
derive even the Hebrew itself from that tongue. The
pretensions of the Chinese to lliis honor have been allow-
ed by several Europeaus. The patrons of this opinion
endeavor to support it, partly, by the great antiqidty of the
Chinese, and their having preserved themselves so many
ages from any considerable mixture or intercourse witli
other nations. It is a notion advanced by Dr. Allix, and
maintained by Jlr. Whiston with his usual tenacity and
fervor, that the Chinese are the po.sterity of Noah, by his
dijldren born after the flood ; and that Fohi, the first king
of China, was Noah. As for those which are called the
Oriental language;-, they have each their partisan.?. The
generality of Eastern writers allow the preference to the
SjTiac, except Ihe .lews, who assert the aiuiquity of the
Hebrew with the greatest warmth ; and with them' several
Christian writers agree, particularly Chrysostom, Austin,
Origen, and Jerome, among the ancients ; aird among the
moderiis, Bochart, Heidegger, Selden, and Buxtorf. The
.Sanscrit has also put in its claims ; and sohne have thought
that the Pali bears the character of the highest antiquity.
AH these are however useless speculations. The only
point worth contending for is, that language was conveyed
at once to the first pair in sufficient degi'ee for intellectual
intercourse with each other, an(f devotional intercourse
with God; and that man was not left, as infidel writers
have been pleased to saj', to form it for hiin.<elf out of rude
and inatinciive sounds.
It is true that many languages bear marlcs of being
raised to their improved state "from rude and imperfect
elements, and that all are oap.ible of being enriched and
rendered more exact ; and it is this which has given some
color to those theories which trace all language itself up
from elemental sounds, as the necessities of men, Iheir
increasing knowledge, and their imagination led to the in-
vention Of new words and combinations. All this is. how-
ever, consistent with the Scripture fact, that language was
taught at first by God toour first parents. The dispersion
of mankind carried many tribes to great distances, and
wars stilHurther scattered them, and often into wide re-
gions, where they were further dispersed to live chiefly by
the chase, by hshing, or at best but an imperfect agricul-
ture. In various degrees we know they lost usefurarts •
and for the same reasons they would lose much of their
original language ; those terms being chiefly retained
which their immediate necessities, and the common afl^airs
of a gross life, kept in use. But when civdization again
overtook these portions of mankind, and kingdoms and
empires were founded among them, or they became inte-
gral parts of the old empires, then their intercourse with
each other becoming more rapid, and artificial, and intel-
lectual, their language was put into a new process of im-
provement, and to the eye of the critic would exhibit the
various stages of advancement ; and in many it would be
pushed beyond that perfection which it had when it first
began to deteriorate. (See Letters.) Dr. Adam Smith's
Dissertation on the Formation of Languages ; Harris'
Hermes ; Warburton's Divine Legation of Moses, vol. iii. ;
Traiti rle la Formation Mkanique des Langues, par le Fri^
sident de Brasses ; Blair's Rhetoric ; Gregory's Essays, ess.
6 ; Lord Monboddo on the Origin and Frogress of La7iguage ;
Good's Book nf Nature. — Watson ; Hend. Buck.
LANTERN, {lampadon.) The word occurs, John ISi
3 ; but appears to denote a sort of military lamp. (See
Lamp.) The soldiers came thus furnished to apprehend
our Lord, lest he should escape through the darlcness of
the night. — Watson.
LAODICEA. There were several cities of this name,
but the Scripture speaks only of that in Phrygia, upon ths
river Lycus, near Colosse. Its ancient name was Diospo-
lis : it was afterwards called Khoas. Lastly, Antiochus,
the son of Stratonice, rebuUt it, and called it Laodicea,
from the name of his wife Laodice. It increased towards
Ihe time of Augustus Cecsar. The fertility of the soil,
and the good fortune of some of its citizens, raised it td
greatness. Iliero, who adorned it with many ofl"eringg,
bequeathed to the people more than two thousand talents ;
and though an inland town, it grew more potent than the
citie.'; on the coast, and became one of the largest towns
in Phrygia. Such was its state when Christianity was
planted in it, and also at the date of the epistle to the
Colossians, A. D. fiO, or 61. Whether the church here
was numerous, we know not; but it seems they boasted
of their splendid garments, and wealth, and knowledge ;
which agrees with their history, that they were enriched
by the fleeces of their sheep, and eminent in polite studies.
Its three theatres, and the immense circus, which was
capable of containing upwards of thirty thousand specta-
tors, the spacious remains of which (with other ruins bu-
ried under ruins) are yet to be seen, give proof of the
greatness of its ancient wealth and population ; and indi-
cate too strongly, that in that city where Christians were
rebuked, without exception, for their lukevvarmness, there
were multitudes who were lovers of pleasure more than
lovers of God. The amphitheatre was built after the Apo-
calypse was written, and the warning of the Spirit had
been given to the church of Ihe Laodiceans to be zealous
and repent, Eev. 3: 14 — 22. It became the mother-church
of sixteen bishoprics.
There are no sights of grandeur, nor scenes of tempta-
tion, around it now. Its tragedy may be briefly told. It
was lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot ; and therefore it
was loathsome in the sight of God ; and with the city of
its abode, it has been blotted from the world. " Laodicea,"
says Dr. Smith, " is utterly desolated, and without any in-
habitant, except wolves, and jackals, and foxes. It can
boast of no human inhabitants, except occasionally when
wandering Turcomans pitch their tents in its spacious am-
phitheatre. Colonel Lake observes, " There are few ancient
cities more likely than Laodicea to preserve many curious
remains of antiquity beiieath the surface of the soil. Its
opulence, and the earthquakes to which it was subject,
render it pi'obable that valuable works of art wers often
there buried, beneath the ruins of the public and private
edifices." The finest sculptured fragments are to be seen
at a considerable depth, in excavations which have been
made among the ruins. — Watson ; Cahnet.
LAPWING, (dukiphath,) Levit. 11: 19. Deut. 14: 18.
The bird intended by the Hebrew name in these places Is
undoubtedly the hoopoe ; a very beautiful, but most un-
clean and filthy, snecies of birds. The Sentuagint renders
L AT
L 731
I. AU
it epopa ; and the Vulgate, vpupa ; which is tlie same vilh
the Arabian interpreters. The Egyptian name of the bird
is hikuphah ; and the Syrian, kihiphah ; whiclr approach
the Hebrew dukiphath. It may have its name from the
noise or cry it makes, which is very remarkable, and may
be heard a great way. — Harris; Abbott; Watson.
LARDNEK, (Nathaniel, D. D.,) a learned dissenting
divine, was born, in 1684, at Hawkhurst, in Kent, of pious
parents; studied at Utrecht and Leyden ; became a minis-
ter in his twenty-fifth year ; and, after having been chap-
lain and tutor in the family of lady Treby, acquired equal
leputation as a preacher and a writer. During the year
1724, he was engaged, with several other mini.sters, in
preaching a lecture, on Tuesday ev.enings, at the Old Jew-
ry, from whence originally sprung his great work, " The
Credibility of the Gospel History." On the 24th of Au-
gust, 172'.1, he received an unexpected invitation from the
church at Crutchcd Friars, which he accepted. He main-
tained a large correspondence, both in Great Britain and
foreign parts, particularly in America and Germany. On
account of his deafness, he in 1751 resigned the place of
morning preacher at Crulched Friars, having been assist-
ant there near twenty-two years. As he lived very retir-
ed, especially the latter part of his life, he engaged in
very few public things ; however, as a private man, he
was always ready in every good word and work, alTording
his assistance, according to his ability, to those in distress.
He died, at his native place, in 1768. The collected edi-
tion of his works forms eleven volumes, octavo. Of these
the chief is. The Credibility of the Gospel History, a pro-
duction which is deserving of the highest praise, for its
learning, faithfulness, and candor. See Memoirs, hy Dr.
Kippis. — Jones'' Chris. Biog. ; Davenport.
EARNED, (Sylvester.) the eloquent minister of New
Orleans, was the son of colonel Simon Earned, of Fittsfield,
Blassachusetts. His mother was a woman of extraoidi-
nary intellectual power and pious zeal. He was born Au-
gust 31, 1796, and in his senior year at college his mind
M-as first impressed by religious truth. He graduated, at
Middlebury, (Vt.) in 1813, having the English oration.
His talents were very early developed. His theological
education wels at Ando\'er and Princeton. At this period
no one equalled him in extemporary debate. After he
became a preacher, in 1817, and was ordained as an evan-
gelist, he repaired to New Orleans. On the arrival of Mr.
Earned the society was quickly established, and he was
settled as the minister of the first Presbyterian congrega-
tion. He fell a victim to the yellow fever, Thursday, Au-
gust 31, 1820, aged twentj--four. He preached on the pre-
ceding Sabbath from the words, " For to me to live is
Christ and to die is gain ;" and closed his discourse in
tears. Probably no preacher in the United States occupi-
ed a' more important station, or was more adinired for his
eloquence. By his death, a kind of sacrifice to duty, he
left a deep impression of the courage and value of true
piety. — illen.
EAS CASAS. (See Casas.)
LATIMER, (Hugh,) a pious prelate, one of the victims
of the sanguinary Mary, was the son of ayeoman, and was
born, about 1470, at Thurcaston. in Leicestershire, He
was educated at Christ's college, Cambridge. In early
life he was a zealous papist, but, being converted at fifty-
three, he became an equally zealous champion of the Ke-
Ibrmation.
The credit to the Protestant cause, which he gained in
the pulpit, he maintained hy a holy life out of it. Mr.
Biluey and he gave daily instances of goodness, which
malice could not scandalize, nor envy misinterpret. They
visited the prisoners, relieved the ]X)or, and fed the hun-
gry. Cambridge was full of their good works ; their cha-
rities to the poor, and friendly visits to the sick, were con-
stant topics of discourse. (See Bilney.)
After having encountered many perils, he was made
bishop of Worcester, in 1535, by Henry VIII. The bishop-
ric, however, he resigned, on the passing of the act of
the six articles ; and wa.s punished by being imprisoned
during the remainder of Henry's reign. He had the cou-
rage, while in favor at court, to write a letter of remon-
strance to Henry VIII., on the evil of prohibiting the use
of the Bible in English, and even presented him for anew
year's gift, instead of a pur.se as was usual, a New Tes-
tament, having the leaf turned down to this passage :
'• Whoremongers and adulterers God will judge." The ac-
cession of Edward VI. set Latimer at liberty, and he re-
sumed his preaching, but refused to resume the mitre.
On Mary ascending the throne, he was again incarcerated ;
and, in 1555, was brought to the stake, where he suffered
ixith unshaken counge Ridley was his fellow martyr
AVhen they came to the slal e he liticl up his e\es and
said Fidehs est D u i ( ! I ithtul who will
not suffer us to be tempted above what we are able to bear.
He then prepared himself, saying to the bishop of Lon-
don, "We shall this day, brother, light such a candle in
England, as shall never be ptit out."
Such was ihe death of Hugh Latimer, bishop of Wor-
cester. He had a happy temper, improved by the best
principles ; and such was his cheerfulness, that none of
the circumstances of life were seen to discompose him :
such was his Christian fortitude, that not even the severest
trials could unman him. Indeed, for Latimer, no eulogy
is wanting, when it is recollected that he was one of the
leaders of that noble army of martyrs who introduced the
Reformation into England.
"He, more than any other man, promoted the Reforma
tion by his preaching. The straight forward honesty of
his remarks, the liveliness of his illu.strations, his homely
wit, his racy manner, his manly freedom, the playfulness
of his temper, the simplicity of his heart, the sincerity of
his understanding, gave life and vigor to his sermons when
they were delivered, and render them now the most amus-
ing productions of that age, and to us, perhaps, the most
valuable." See Gilpin's Lives of Rt:J'ormtrs : Midd/eton's
Evang. Bi'icr, — Dnr>tiporl ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
LATITUDINARIANS; persons who, disTegarding fix-
ed, determinate, or exclusive views of doctrine or worship,
maintain that men will be saved, independently of any
particular persuasion which they entertain. The term
was given " to More, Hales, ChiUingworth, Wilkins, Cud-
worth, Whitchcot, Gale, Tillotson, and others, mostly Cam-
bridge men, who endeavored to examine all the principles
of morality and rehgion on philosophical principles, and
to maintain them hy the reason of things. They declared
against superstition on the one hand, and enthusiasm on
the other. " They were attached to the constitution and
forms of the church ; but moderate in their opposition to
those who dissented from it. They were mostly Arniini-
ans of the Dutch school, but admitted of a considerable
latitude of sentiment, ^oth in philosophy and theology, on
which account they were denominated Latitndinariojis.
In conjunction with other clergymen of that period, they
introduced a very inefficient mode of preaching into the
established church ; learnedly defending the tnith of Chris-
tianity as a system, but modifying the statements of the
gospel, obscuring the glory of divine grice, and thus neu-
tralizing its influence on the heart of man. They were,
in fact, low churchmen, of Arminian principles ; moderate
in piety, in sentiment, and in zeal ; though some of them
gradually became ' fierce for moderation.' '' — Hend. Buck.
LAUD, (William, D. D.,) a prelate, the son of a clothier,
was bom, in 1573. at Reading, in Berkshire ; was educated
at the free school of his native place, and at St. John s col-
lege, Oxford ; was ordained in 1601 ; became president ol
LAV
[ 732 ]
LAW
his college in 1611 ; and, after having held various livings,
was at length patronised by James I., who had long looked
upon him with coldness. His first preferment from the
sovereign was the deanery of Gloucester, which he obtain-
ed in 1616. In 1620 he was nominated to the see of St.
David's, whence he was successively translated, in 1626,
1628, and 1633, to Bath and Wells, London, and Canter-
bury. From the moment of his attaining power he acted
the part of a furious persecutor of those who differed from
him on religious points, and an enemy to public liberty.
His ingratitude, too, was equal to his violence. The
meeting of the long parhament was the signal of his down-
fal. He was impeached, and confined during three j'ears
in the Tower. On his being brought to trial he defended
himself with great courage and aeateness. A bill of
attainder was at length passed against him by the com-
mons, and he was executed, January 10, 1644-5. Laud
was intolerant, tyrannical, and superstitious ; but it would
be unjust to conceal that he was a patron of learning.
The most interesting of his works is his Diary. — Daven-
port ; Clissold ; Ency. Amer.
LAUGHTER, is an indication either of delight and as-
surance-; or of mirth and mockery. Sarah in her trans-
port of joy called her son Isaac ; that is, laughter. Gen.
21: 6. " At destruction and famine .thou shalt laugh ;"
i. e. thou shalt not fear it, thou shalt be perfectly secure
against those evils. God laughs at the wicked ; he de-
spises their vain efforts. Ishmael laughed at Isaac ; he
insulted him, he vexed him. See Gal. 4: 29. Laughter
in general implies rejoicing. " Tliere is a time to laugh,
and a time to weep';" that is, a time to rejoice, and~a time
to be afflicted, Eccl. 3: 4. " Blessed are ye who weep now,
for ye shall laugh," Luke 6; 21, 25. It is frequently used
for excessive and irreligious mirth. " I said of laughter,
it is mad," Eccl. 2: 2. "Your laughter shall be turned
into mourning ;" your worldly joy shall terminate in sor-
row and remorse, James 4: 9. Abraham's laughter, when
God promised him a son, was an expression of admiration
and gratitude, not of tloubt : the Scripture which relates
it does, not disapprove of it, as it does of Sarah's,. Gen.
17: n.— Calmet.
LAURA ; in church history, a name given to a collec-
tion of Utile cells at some distance from each other, la
which the hermits of ancient times lived together in a wil-
derness. These hermits did not live in community, but
each monk provided for himself in his distinct cell. The
most celebrated lauras mentioned in ecclesiastical history
were in Palestine ; as the laura of St. Euthyraus, St. Sa-
ba, the laura of the towers, &c. — Head. Buck.
LAUREATE, as a passive verb, to be crowned with
the prize, as a successful theological candidate, in ancient
times, at the Scotch universities. — Hend. Buck.
LAURENTIUS, (commonly called St. Laurence,) a
Christian martyr of the third century, was one of the dea-
cons of the church at Rome. Being seized and command-
ed to produce the church treasures, he collected together
the helpless poor Christians, who were supported by their
brethren, and said, " These are the true treasures 'of the
church !" The governor of the city, exasperated by dis-
appointment, and by what he took to be an intended in-
sult, ordered him to immediate tortures and death ; which
(thoiigh actually roasted on a gridiron) Laurentius en-
dtirert with a fortitude inconceivable. He died August 2,
A. D. 258.— i^ra, 32.
LAVATER, (John Caspar,) the philosopher and divine,
a native of Zurich, m Switzerland, was born in 1741 ■ be-
came pastor to the Orphan's church, in his birthplace,
and afterwards to that of St. Peter ; and received a wound
from a French soldier in 1799, of M'hich he died in 1801.
He was the author of Swiss Lays; Spiritual Canticles;
The Journal of a Secret Observer ; and other productions ;
but the work which has made him universally known is
his Fragments on Physiognomy. These Fragments have
been translated in several languages; but their popularity
has been long on the wane. Dr. Spurzheim, however, has
followed his steps in this department with better success.
Lavater was an enthusiastic, but eminently worthy and
benevolent man. His Christian piety was of the highest
order. — Davenport ; F.nnj. Amer.
LAVER, (Brazen.) Moses was directed (Exod. 30:
IS.) to make, among other articles of furniture for the
services of the tabernacle, a laver of brass, Exod. 38: 8.
(See Glass.) This is not particularly described as to
form ; but the layers made far the temple were borne by
four cherubim, standing upon bases or pedestals mounted
on brazen wheels, and having handles belonging to them,
by means of which they might be drawn, and conveyed
from one place to another, as they should be wanted.
These layers were double, that is to say, composed of a
basin, which received the water that fell from another
square vessel above it, from which they drew water with
cocks. The whole work was of brass ; the square vessel
was adorned with the heads of a Hon, an ox, and a che-
rub ; that is to say, of extraordinary hieroglyphic crea-
tures. Each of the layers contained forty baths, or four
bushels, forty-one pints, and forty cubic inches of Paris
measure. There were ten made in this form, and of this
capacity ; five of them were placed to the right, and five
to the left of the temple, between the altar of burnt-offer-
ings and the steps which led to the porch of the temple.
— Calmet.
LAW ; a rule of action ; a precept or command, com-
ing from a superior authority, which an inferior is bound
to obey. The manner in which God governs rational crea-
tures is by a law, as the rule of their obedience to him,
and this is what we call God's moral government of the
world.
The term, however, is used in Scripture with considera-
ble latitude of meaning; and to ascertain its precise im-
port in any particular place, it is necessary to regard the
scope and connexion of the passage in which it occurs-
Thus, for instance, sometimes it denotes the whole reveal-
ed will of God as communicated to us in his word. In
this sense it is generally used in the book of Psalms, 1: 2.
19:7. 119. Isa. 8: 20. 42:21. Sometimes it is taken for
the Mosaic institution as distinguished from the gospel,
John 1: 17. Matt. 11: 13. 12:5. Acts 25: 8. Hence we
frequently read of the law of Moses as expressive of the
whole religion of the Jews, Heb. 9: 19. 10: 28. Some-
times, in a more restricted sense, for the ritual or ceremo-
nial observances of the Jewish religion. In this sense
the apostle speaks of " the law of commandments contain-
ed in ordinances," (Eph. 2: 15. Heb. 10: 1.) and which,
being only " a shadow of good things to come," Christ
Jesus abolished by his death, and so in effect destroyed
the ancient distinction between Jew and Gentile, Gal.
3: 17.
Very frequently it is used to signify the decalogue, or
ten precepts which were delivered to the Israelites from
mount Sinai. It is in this acceptation of the terra that the
Lord Jesus declares he " came not to destroy the law, but
to fulfil it ;" (Matt. 5: 17.) and he explains its import as
requiring perfect love to God and man, Luke 10: 27. It
is in reference to this view that St. Paul affirms, " By the
deeds of the law shall no flesh living be justified ; for by
the law is the knowledge of sin," Rom. 3: 20. The lan-
guage of this law is, " The soul that sinneth it shall die,"
and " Cursed is every one that continueth not in all things
that are written." or required, " in the book of the law, to
do them," Gal. 3: 10. To deliver believers from this pe-
nalty, " Christ hath redeemed us from the curse of the
law, being himself made a curse for us," Gal. 3: 13. The
law, in this sense, was not given that men should obtain
righteousness or justification by it, but to convince them of
sin, to show them their need of a Savior, to shut them up,
as it were, from all hopes of salvation from that source, and
LAW
[733]
LAW
to recommend the gospel of divine grace lo their accept-
ance, Gal. 3: 19—25.
Again, this term denotes the rule of good and evil,
or of right and wrong, revealed by the Creator and in-
scribed on man's conscience, even at his creation, and con-
sequently binding upon him by divine authority ; and in
this respect it is in substance the same with the decalogue.
That such a law was connate with, and, as it were, im-
planted in, man, appears from its traces, which, like the
ruins of some noble building, are still e.xtant in every
man. It is from those common notions, handed down by
tradition, though often imperfect and perverted, that the
heathens themselves distinguished right from wrong, by
which " they were a law unto themselves, showing the
work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience
bearing witne.^s," (Eora. 2: 12 — 15.) although they had no
express revelation.
The term law is, however, •eminently given to the moral
lav,', as given by Moses ; on the principles and spirit of
which, a few general remarks may be offered. The right
consideration of this divine institute, says Dr. Graves, will
surround it with a glory of truth and holiness, not only
worthy of its claims, but which has continued to be the
light of the world on theological and moral subjects, and
often on great political principles, to this day.
1 . Illustration of tlie Moral Lam ns given to the Jews. — It
is an obvious, but it is not theretbre a less important re-
mark, that to the Jewish religion we owe that adinirable
summary of mora! dul)', contained in the ten command-
ments. AW fair reasoners will admit that each of these
. must be understood to condemn, not merely the extreme
crime which it expressly prohibits, but every inferior of-
fence of the same kind, and every mode of conduct lead-
ing to such transgression ; and, on tlie contraiy, to enjoin
opposite conduct, and the cultivation of opposite disposi-
tions. Thus, the command, " Thou shalt not kill," con-
demns not merely the single crime of deliberate murder,
but every kind of violence, and every indulgence of pas-
sion and resentment, which tends either to excite such
violence, or to produce that malignant disposition of mind,
in wdiich the guilt of murder principally consists : and
sirhilarly of the rest. In this extensive interpretation of
the commandments, we are warranted, not merely by the
deductions of reason, but by the letter of the law itself.
For the addition of the last, " Thou shalt not covet," proves
clearly that in all, the dispositions of the heart, as much as
the immediate outward act, is the object of the divine Le-
gislator; and thus it forms a cominent oir the meaning,
as well as a guard for the observance, of all the preceding
commands. Interpreted in tliis natural and rational lati-
tude, how comprehensive and important is this summary
of moral duty ! It inculcates the adoration of the one
true God, who "made heaven and earth, the sea, and all
that in them is ;" who must, therefore, be infinite in power,
and wisdom, and goodness ; the object of exclusive ado-
ration ; of gratitude for every blessing we enjoy ; of fear,
for he is a jealous God; of hope, for he is merciful. It
prohibits every species of idolatry ; whether by associating
false gods with the true, or worshipping the true by sym-
bols and images. Commanding not to take the name of
God in vain, it enjoins the observance of all outward re-
spect for the divine authority, as well as the.cultivation of
inward sentiments and feelings suited to this outward re-
verence ; and it establishes the obligation of oaths, and,
by consequence, of all compacts and deliberate promises ;
a principle, without which the administration of laws
would be impracticable, and the bonds of society must be
dissolved. By commanding to keep holy the Sabbath, as
the memorial of the creation, it establishes the necessity
of public worship, and of a stated.and outward profession
of the truths of religion, as well as of the cultivation of
suitable feelings ; and it enforces this by a motive which
is equally applicable to all mankind, and which should
have taught the Jew that he ought to consider all nations
as equally creatures of that Jehovah whom he himself
adored ; equally subject to his government, and, if sin-
cerely obedient, entitled to all the privileges his favor could
bestow. It is also remarkable, that this coinmandment,
requiring that the rest of the Sabbath should include the
man-servant, and the maid-servant, and the stranger that
was within their gates, noy, even tlieir cattle, proved that
the Creator of the universe extended his attention to all
his creatures ; that the humblest of mankind were the ob-
jects of his paternal love ; that no accidental differences,
which so often create ahenation amongst different nations,
would alienate any from the divine regard ; and that even
the brute creation shared the benevolence of their Creator,
and ought to be treated by men with gentleness and hu-
manity.
When we proceed lo the second table, comprehending
more expressly our social duties, we find all the most im-
portant principles on which they depend clearly enforced.
The commandment which enjoins, " Honor thy father and
mother," sanctions the principles, not merely of filial obe-
dience, but of all those duties which arise from our domes-
tic relations ; and, while it requires not so much any one
specific act, as the general disposition which should re-
gulate our whole course of conduct in this instance, it
impresses the important conviction, that the entire law
proceeds from a Legislator able to search and jodge
the heart of man. The subsequent commands coincide
with the clear dictates of rea.son, and prohibit crimes
which human laws in general have prohibited as plainly
destructive of social happiness. But it was of infinite im-
portance to rest the prohibitions, " Thou shalt not kill,"
" Thou shalt not commit adultery," " Thou shalt not steal,"
" Thou shalt not bear false witness," not merely on the
deductions of reason, but also on the weight of a divine
authority. How often have false ideas of public good in
some places, depraved passions in others, and the delu-
sions of idolatry in still more, established a law of reputa-
tion contrary to the dictates of reason, and the real inte-
rests of society. In one country we see theft allowed, if
perpetrated with address; in others, piracy and rapine
honored, if conducted with intrepidity. Sometimes we per-
ceive adultery permitted, the most unnatural crimes com-
mitted without remorse or shame ; nay, every species of im
purity enjoined and consecrated as a part of divine worship.
In others, we find revenge honored as spirit, and death in-
flicted at its impulse, with ferocious triumph. Again, we
see every feeling of nature outraged, and parents exposing
their helpless children to perish for deformily of body or
weakness of mind ; or, what is still more dreadl'ul, from
mercenary or political views; and this inhuman practice
familiarized by custom, and authorized by law. And, to
close the horrid catalogue, we see false religions leading
their deluded votaries to heap the altars of their idols with
human victims ; the master butchers his .slave, the con-
queror his captive ; nay, dreadful to relate, the parent sacri-
fices his children, and, while they shriek ainidst the tortures
of the flames, or in the agonies of death, he drowns their
cries by the clangor of cymbals and the yells of fanaticism.
Yet these abominations, separate or combined, have dis-
graced ages and nations which we are accustomed to ad-
mire and celebrate as civilized and enlightened, — Babylon
and Egypt, Phosnicia and Carthage, Greece and Rome.
Many oi" these crimes legislators have enjoined, or philo-
sophers defended. What, indeed, could be hoped from
legislators and philosophers, when we recollect the institu-
tions of Lycurgus, especially as to purity of manners, and
the regulations of Plato on the same subject, in b.s
model of a perfect republic ; when we consider the sensu-
ality of the Epicureans, and immodesty of the Cynics;
when we find suicide applauded by the Stoics, and the
murderous combats of gladiators defended by Cicero, and
exhibited by Trajan? Such variation and inconstancy in
the rule and practice of moral duty, as established by the
feeble or fluctuating authority of human opinion, demon-
strates the utility of a clear divine interposition, to impress
these important prohibitions ; and it is difficult for any
sagacity to calculate how far such an interposhion was
necessary, and what elfect it may have produced by influ-
encing human opinions and regulating human conduct,
when we recollect that the Slosaic code was probably the
first written law ever delivered to any nation ; and that it
must have been generally known in those Eastern coun-
tries, from which the most ancient and celebrated l^?'*'^'
tors and sages derived the models of their laws and the
principles of their philosophy. ,
But the Jewish religion promoted the interests of moral
LAW I -ISl ]
virtue, not merely by the positive injunctions of the deca-
logue ; it also inculcated clearly and authoritatively the
two great principles on which all piety and virtue depend,
and which our blessed Lord recognised as the comraand-
raents on which hang the law and the prophets, — the
principles of love to God and love to our neighbor. The
Jove of God is everywhere enjoined in the Mosaic law, as
the ruling disposition of the lieart, from which all obedi-
■cnce should spring, and in which it ought to terminate,
Deut. (5: 4, 5. 10: 12. Lev. 19: 18, 33, 34.
Thus, on a review of the topics we have discussed, it
appears that the Jewish law promulgated tiie great princi-
ples of moral duty in the decalogue, with a solemnity suit-
ed to their high pre-eminence; that it enjoined love to
God with the most unceasing solicitude, and love to our
neighbor, as extensively and forcibly, as the peculiar de-
sign of the Jewish economy, and the peculiar character
of the Jewish people, would permit ; that it impressed the
deepest conviction of God's requiring, not mere external
observances, but heart-felt piety, well regulated desires,
and active benevolence ; that it taught sacrifice could not
obtain pardon wiihout repentance, or repentance without
reformation and restitution ; that it described circumcision
itself, and, by consequence, every other legal rite, as de-
signed to typify and inctilcale internal hoUness, which
alone could render men acceptable to God ; that it repre-
sented the love of God as designed to act as a practical
principle, stimulating lo the constant and sincere cultiva-
tion of purity, mercy, and truth ; and that it enforced all
these principles and precepts by sanctions the most likely
to operate powerfully on minds unaccustomed to abstract
speculations and remote views, even by temporal as well
as eternal rewards and punishments; the assurance of
which was confirmed from the immediate experience of
similar rewards and punishments, dispensed to their ene-
mies and to themselves by that supernatural Power which
had delivered the Hebrew nation out of Egypt, conducted
them through the wilderness, planted them in the land of
Canaan, regulated their government, distributed their pos-
sessions, and to which alone they could look to obtain new
blessings, or secure those already enjoyed. From all this
we derive another presumptive argument for .he divino au-
thority of the Mosaic code ; and it may be cou'endrd, that
a moral system thus perfect, promulgated at so early a pe-
riod, to such a people, and enforced by snch sanctions as
no human power could undertake to execute, strongly be-
speaks a divine original.
2. IlhistratioH of the Moral Law as gioeii to Christians. —
It is important to remark, however, that, although the mo-
ral laws of the Mosaic dispensation pass into the Christian
code, they stand there in other and higher circumstances ;
so that the New Testament is a more perfect dispensation
of the knowledge of the moral will of God than the Old.
In particular, (1.) They are more expressly extended to
the heart, as by our Lord, in his sermon on the mount ;
who teaches us that the thought and inward purpose of
any oflence, is a violation of the law prohibiting its exter-
nal and visible commission. (2.) The principles on which
they are founded are carried out in the New Testament
into a greater variety of duties, which by embracing
more perfectly the social and civil relations of life, are of
a more universal character. (3.) There is a much more
enlarged injunction of positive and particular virtues, es-
pecially those which constitute the Christian temper.
(4.) By all overt acts being inseparably connected with
corresponding principles in the heart, in order to constitute
acceptable obedience, which principles suppose the rege-
neration of the soul by the Holy Ghost. This moral reno-
vation is, therefore, held out as necessary to our salvation,
and promised as a part of the grace of our redemption by
Christ. (5.) By being connected with promises of divine
assistance, which is peculiar to a law connected with
evangelical provisions. (6.) By their having a living
illustration in the perfect and practical example of Christ.
(7.) By the higher sanctions derived from the clearer
revelation of a future state, and the more explicit promises
of eternal Ufe, and Ihreatenings of eternal punishment.
It follows from this, that we have in the gospel the most
complete and perfect revelation of moral law ever given
to men ; and a more exact manifestation of the bright-
LAY
ness, perfection, and glory of that law, under which an-
gels and our progenitors in paradise were placed, and
which it is at once the delight and the interest of the most
perfect and happy beings to obey.
3. Lam, remedial, a fancied law, which some believe in,
who hold that God, in mercy to mankind, has abolished
that rigorous constitution or law that they were under
originally, and instead of it has introduced a more mild
constitution, and put us under a new law, which requires
no more than imperfect sincere obedience, in compliance
with our poor, infirm, impotent circumstances since the
fall. I call this ajancled law, because it exists nowhere
except in the imagination of those who hold it. (See
Neonomiaws ; and Justification.)
3. Lair of hmior is a system of rules constructed by
people of fashion, and calculated to facilitate their inter-
course with one another, and for no other purpose.
Consequently nothing is adverted to by the law of
honor but what tends lo incommode this intercourse.
Hence this law only prescribes and regulates the duties
betwixt equals, omitting such as relate to the Supreme
Being, as well as those which we owe to our inferiors ;
and, in most instances, is favorable to the licentious in-
dulgence of the natural passions. Thus it allows of for-
nication, adultery, drunkenness, prodigality, duelling, and
of revenge in the extreme, and lays no stress upon the
virtues opposite to these.
5. Laws of nations are those rules which by a tacit con-
sent are agreed upon among all communities, at least
among those who are reckoned thepolite and humanized
part of mankind. Grams on the Pentateuch ; Witherspoon's
Moral Philosophy ; Gill's Bodi/ of J)iv., vol. i. p. 454, 8vo.
vol. iii. 425, ditto; Faley's Mor. Phil., vol. i. p. 2 ; Cum-
berland's Lan' of Nature ; Grove's Mor. Phil., vol.ii. p. 117;
Booth's Death of Legal Hope ; Worhs of Fres. Bdmards ;
Taylor, Inglish, and Eurder's Pieces on the Moral Lam ;
JVatIs' Wor}cs, vol. i. ser. 49, 8vo. edition, and vol. ii. p.
443, ice. ; Scott's Essays ; Fuller's Works ; Dwight's Theo-
logy ; Bridges' Christian Ministry ; Tyng's Lectures on the
Law and Gospel. — Watson ; Hend. Buck.
LAW, (William,) a non-juring divine, was born, in
1686, at King's Clifi'e, in Northamptonshire ; was educated
at Emanuel college, Cambridge ; and died in 1761. Law
was a man of piety, acuteness and talent ; but a firm be-
liever in the absurdities of Behmen. Of his works the
most popular are. The Serious Call to a Devout and Holy
.Life ; and a Practical Treatise on Christian Perfection. —
Jones' Chris. Biog. ; Davenport.
LAW, (EnMtTND, D.D.,) a learned prelate, was born, in
1703, near Cartmel, in Lancashire; was educated at St.
John's college, Cambridge ; and after having held some less-
er preferments, among which were the living of Greystock,
the archdeaconry of Carlisle, and the mastership of Peter-
house, Cambridge, he was raised, in 1769, to the bishop-
ric of Carlisle. He died in 1787. He wrote Considera-
tions on the Theory of Religion ; Inquiry into the Ideas
of Space, Time, &c. ; and various tracts ; and pubhshed _
an edition of Locke's works. — Davenport.
LAWYERS. These functionaries, so often mentioned
in the New Testament, were men who devoted themselves
to the study and explanation of the law ; particularly of
the traditionary or oral law. They belonged to the sect
of the Pharisees, and fell under the reproof of our Savior
for having taken from the people the key of knowledge.
They were as the blind leading the blind. — Calmet.
LAY-BROTHERS ; among the Romanists, illitera:te
persons, who devote themselves at some convent to the
service of the religious. They wear a different habit from
that of the religious, but never enter into the choir, nor
are present at the chapters ; nor do they make any
other vow than that of constancy and obedience. — Hend.
Buck.
LAYMAN ; one who follows a secular emplo>'ment,
and is not in orders ; opposed to a clergyman. The dis-
tinction is purely ecclesiastical ; and being founded on
misinterpretation and misapplication of the word of God,
is most preposterously adopted by some dissenters, whose
professed principles are totally at variance with the un-
scriptural idea which it is calculated to foster. (See
Clekgt.) — Hend. Buck.
LEA
[ 735
LEA
Lazarus ; brother to Martha und Slary. He dwelt
at Bethany with his sisters, near Jerusalem ; and the Lord
Jesus did him the honor sometimes of lodging at his
house when he visited the city. See the account of his
resurrection related at large in John 11: 5, &c,— IKoWoh.
LEAD, is a very heavy metal, sufficiently well known.
The mode of purifying it from the dross which is mixed
with it, by subjecting it to a fierce flame, and melting off
its scoria or dross, furnishes several allusions in Scripture
to God's punisliing, or purifying his people. The prophet
Ezekiel (22: 18, 20.) compares the Jews to lead, because
of their guilt, and dross, from which they must be purged
as by fire. Mention is made of a talent of lead in Zcch.
5: 7, 8, which probably was of a figure and size as well
known as any of our weights in ordinary use ; so that
though weights are usually called in Hebrew stones, yet,
perhaps, they had some of metal only ; as this talent of
lead, for instance.
Lead was one of the substances used for writing upon
by the ancients. (See Book.) — Calmei.
LEAULYANS ; the followers of Jean Leadly, an Eng-
lish lady, who, about the beginning of the eighteenth
century, pretended to visions, and insisted that if all who
bear the Christian name, regardless of external doctrines
and discipline, would coinmit their souls to the care of the
internal guide, the church would speedily become a glo-
rious scene of charity, concord, and happiness. Her disci-
ples she formed into a body, to which she gave the name
of the Philadtlphiaii Society. She predicted a period when
all intellectual beings should he finally restored to perfec-
tion and happiness. She had two principal associates,
Bromely and Pordage, the former of whom had nothing to
recommend him but his mystical piety ; and the latter
surpa.s'sed Jacob Behmen himself in obscurity and non-
sense ; and could only excite in his hearers a stupid awe,
by the sonorous jingle of his words. — Heiid, Buck.
LEAGUE, (SiviALC-Aj,Dic ;) a solemn alliance first form-
ed at Smalcald, in 1530, and afterwards at Frankfort, by
the elector of Saxony, and those princes who were con-
federate with him, with a view to defend, with the utmost
vigor, their religion and liberties against the dangers and
encroachments with which they were menaced by the
edict which had just been framed at the diet of Augsburg.
Into this confederacy they invited the kings of England,
France, aud Denmark, with several other states and re-
publics, and left no means unemployed that might tend
to corroborate and cement it. Moshcim's Church Hist.,
iv. p. 98. — Heiid. Buck.
LEAGUE AND COVENANT, (Solemn.) (See Co-
^INANT.)
LEAN. Men lean to their own itnderstanding, when,
without serious consulting of God, they trust to their own
wisdom and prmlence to direct their management, Prov.
3: 5. Saints lean upon Christ when, trusting in his word,
they cleave to his person, depend on his righteousness and
strength, and delight themselves in his love, Sol. Song 8:
5. Hypocrites lean on the Lord when they profess a strong
attachment to his truth, ordinances and ways ; and expect
that he will show them singular favors and deliverances,
y.'.c. 3: 11. — Brown.
LEARN. (1.) To get the knowledge of things by
hearing or observing, 1 Cor. M: 31. Ps. 119: 71. (2.) To
imitate; to follow as a pattern, Fs. 106: 35. Malt. 11: 29.
(3.) To take heeii, 1 Tim. 1: 20. (4.) To know the senti-
ments of others. Gal. 3: 2. Christ learned obedience by the
things which he suffered ; by his suflerings he experimen-
tally felt what it was to obey the divine law ; and he im-
provei-l them all to excite his holy manhood to fulfil the
obedience required of him, Heb. 5: 8. Some are ever
learning and yet never come to the knowledge of the truth ;
have long the means of instruction, and profess to use
them, and yet never have any solid knowledge of divine
things, 2 Tim. 3: 7. — Brown. ■
LEARNING; skill in any science, or that improve-
ment of the mind which we gain by stitdy, instruction,
observation, iScc. An attentive examination of ecclesias-
tical history will lead us to see how greatly learning is
indebted to Christianity, and that Christianity, in its turn,
has been much served by learning. " All the useful
learning," says Dr. Jortin, " which is now to be found in
the world, is in a great measure owing lo the gospel.
The Christians, who had a great veneration for the Old
Testament, have contributed more than the Jews them-
selves to secure and explain those books. The Christians,
in ancient times, collected and preserved the Greek ver-
sions of the Scriptures, particularly the Septuagint, and
translated the originals into Latin. To Christians were
due the old Hexapla ; and in later times Christians have
published the Polyglots and the Samaritan Pentateuch. It
was the study of the Holy Scriptures which excited Chris-
tians from early times to study chronology, sacred and
secular ; and here much knowledge of history, and some
skill in astronomy, were needful. The New Testament,
being written in Greek, caused Christians to apply them-
selves also to the study of that language. As the Chris-
tians were opposed by th£ pagans and- the Jews, they
were excited to the study of pagan and Jewish literature,
in order to expose the absurdities of the Jewish traditions,
the weakness of paganism, and the imperfections and in-
sufficiency of philosophy. The firet fathers, till the third
centui-y, were generally Greek writers. In the third cen-
tury the Latin language was much upon the decline, but
the Christians preserved it from sinking into absolute
barbarism. Monkery, indeed, produced many sad effects ;
but Providence here also brought good out of evil ; lor
the monks were employed in the transcribing of books,
and many valuable authors vi'ould have perished if it had
not been for the monasteries. In the ninth century, the
Saracens were very studious, and contribuled much to the
restoration of letters. But whatever was good in the
Mohammedan religion, it is in no small measure indebted
to Christianity for it, since Mohammedanism is made up
for the most part of Judaism and Christianity. If Chris-
tianity had been suppressed at its first appearance, it is
extremely probable that the Latin and Greek tongues
would have been lost in the revolutions of empires, aud
the irruptions of barbarians in the East and in the West ;
for the old inhabitants would have had no conscientious
and religious motives to keep up their language ; and
then, together with the Latin and Greek tongues, the
knowledge of antiquities and the ancient writers would
have been destroyed. To whom, then, are we indebted
for the knowledge of antiquity, for every thing that is
called philosophy, or the Ultra huinaniores ? — to Christians.
To whom, for grammars and dictionaries of the learned
languages ? — to Christians. To whom for chronology-,
aud the continuation of history through many centuries ?
— to Christians. To whom for rational systems of mora-
lity, and improvements in natural philosophy, and for the
application of these discoveries to religious purposes ? —
to Christians. To whom for metaphysical researches
carried as far as the subject will permit? — to Christians.
To whom for the moral rules to be observed by nations
in war and peace ? — to Christians. To whom for juris-
prudence, and for political knowledge, and for settling the
rights of subjects, both civil and religious, upon a proper
foundation ? — to Christians. To whom for the Reforma-
tion ? — to Christians.
"As religion hath been the chief preserver of erudition,
so erudition hath not been ungrateful to her patroness,
but hath contributed largely to the support of religion.
The useful expositions of the Scriptures, the sober ai^;!
sensible defences of revelation, the faithful representa-
tions of pure and undefiled Christianity : these have been
the works of learned, judicious, and industrious men."
Nothing, however, is more common than to hear the ig-
norant decry all human learning as entirely useless in
religion ; and what is still more remarkable, even some,
who call themselves preachers, entertain the same senti-
ments. But to such we can only say what a judicious
preacher observed upon a public occasion, that if all men
had been as unlearned as themselves, they never would
have had <i text on which lo have displayed their igno-
rance. Dr. Jortin's Sermons, vol. vii. charge 1 ; Miss H.
More's Hints to a Young Princess, vol. i. p. 6i ; Cook's
Miss. Ser. on Matt. 6: 3 ; Dr. Stennett's Ser. on Ads 2i5:
24, 25 ; Buchniiisters Oration.— Hend. Buck.
LE AST. The wilful breaker of 1 he least of God's com-
mandments shall be called /effrf in the kingdom of heaven ;
i. c. shall be of little use or esteem in the visible church,
LEB
[ 736 J
LEC
and, without repentance, shall never be admitted into the
kingdom of glory, Matt. 5: 19. — Brown.
LEAVE. God may have his people so as to withdraw
his sensible presence and comfort for a time ; but never
haves thtm, nor forsakes them, so as to break his covenant
relation to theim, as their God, Savior, and Portion ; or, as
to withhold what continued supplies of gracious influence
are necessary to maintain the existence of their new na-
ture, Ps. 141: 8. Heb. 13: .5. Dying parents have their
fatherless children with God, when by the effectual, ferven.*.
prayer of faith, they commit them to his care, and tru.^'.
in his promise that he will preserve, direct, and provide
for them, Jer. 49: 11. — Brown.
LEAVEN ; well known for its gradually transforming
power, Matt. 13: 33. Ifi: 11. 1 Cor. 5: 6. It was forbid-
den to the Hebrews, during l^: seven days of the passo-
ver, in memory of what their ancestors did, when they
went out of Egypt ; they being then obliged to carry un-
leavened meal with them, and to make bread in haste ;
the Egyptians pressing them to be gone, Exod. 12: 15, 19.
Lev. 2: 11. They were hence very careful in cleansing
their houses from it before this feast began.
God forbade either leaven or honey to be offered to him
in his temple ; that is, in cakes, or in any baked meats.
But on other occasions they might offer leavened bread or
honey. See Num. 15: 20, 21, where God requires them
to give the first fruits of the bread, which was kneaded in
all the cities of Israel, to the priests and Levites. Paul
(1 Cor. 5:7, 8.) expresses his desire, tliat Christians should
celebrate Iheir passover with unleavened bread ; which
figuratively signifies sincerity and truth. — Calmet.
LEBANON, or Libanus ; signifying n-Iiite, from its
snows ; the most elevated mountain or mountain-chain
in Syria, celebrated in all ages for its cedars ; which, as
is well known, furnished the wood for Solomon's temple.
This mountain is the centre, or nucleus, of all the moun-
lain-ridges which, from the north, the south, and the east,
converge towards this point ; but it overtops them all.
This configuration of the mountains, and the superiority
of Lebanon, are particularly striking to the traveller ap-
proaching both from the Mediterranean on the west, and
the Desert on the east. Dr. E. D. Clarke, in the month
of July, saw some of the eastern summits of Lebanon,
or Anii-Libanus, near Damascus, covered with snow, not
lying in patches, as is common in the summer season
with mountains which border on the line of perpetual
congelation, but do not quite reach it, but with that per-
fectly white, smooth, and velvet-like appearance which snow
only exhibits when it is very deep, — a striking spectacle
in such a climate, where the beholder, seeking protection
from a burning sun, almost considers the firmament to be
on fire. A I tiie time this observation was made, the ther-
mometer, in an elevated siluation near the sea of Tibe-
rias, stood at one hundred and two degrees in the shade.
Sir Frederic Henniker passed over snow in July ; and Ali
Bey describes the same easlern ridge as covered with
snow iu September.
The cedar of Lebanon has, in all ages, been reckoned
an object of unrivalled grandeur and beauty in the vege-
table kingdom. It is, accordingly, one of the natural
itnages which frequenlly occur in the poetical style of the
Hebrew prophets ; and is appropriated lo denote kings,
princes, and potentates of the highest rank. fSee Cedar.)
The stupendous size, the extensive range, and great
elevation of Libanus ; its towering summits capped with
perpetual snow, or crowned with fragrant cedars ; its olive
plantations ; its vineyards producing the most delicious
wines ; its clear fountains, and cold-flowing brooks ; its
fertile vales, and odoriferous shrubberies, — combine to
form, in Scripture language, "the glory of Lebanon,"
i.$a. 35: 4. But that glory, liable to change, has, by the
unanimous con.sent of modern travellers, suffered a sensi-
ble decline. The extensive forests of cedar, which adorn-
ed and perfumed the summits and dechvities of those
mountains, have almost disappeared. Only a small num-
ber of these " trees of God, planted by his almighty hand,"
which, according to the usual import of the phrase, sig-
nally displayed the divine power, wisdom, and goodness,
now remain. Their counlless number in the days of So-
lomon, and their prodigious bulk, must be recollected, in
order to feel the force of that sublime decl/ .-ation of the
prophet : " Lebanon is not sufficient to burn, nor the
beasts thereof sufficient for a burnt-offering," Isa. 40: 16.
Though (he trembling sinner were to make choice of Le-
banon for the altar ; were to cut down all its forests to
form the pile ; though the fragrance of this fuel, with all
its odoriferous gums, were the incense ; the wine of Leba-
non pressed from all. I'.s -/ineyards, the libation ; and all
its beasts, the prop:,-.,atory sacrifice ; all would prove in-
sufficient to make atonement for the sins of men ; would
be regarded as nothing in the eyes of the supreme Judge
for the expiation of even one transgression. The just
and holy law of God requires a nobler altar, a costlier
sacrifice, and a sweeter perfume, — the obedience and
death of a divine Person to atone for our sins, and the
incense of his continual intercession to secure our accept'
ance with the Father of mercies, and admission into the
mansions of eternal rest. — IFatson.
LEBBiEUS ; othei-B'ise Judas or Thaddeeus, brother
of James the Less, son of Mary sister of the Virgin, and
of Cleophas, and brother of Joseph. He was married
and had children. Nicephorus calls his own wife Mary.
The Muscovites believe, that they received the faith from
him. — Calmet.
LEBONAH ; (Judg. 21: 19.) a place which Maundrell
takes for Chan-Leban, four leagues from Sichem south-
ward, and two from Bethel. — Calmet.
LECLERC, (John,) an etninent critic, was bom, in
1657, at Geneva ; and died, in 1736, in a state of childish-
ness, at Amsterdam, where he was a clergyman, and pro-
fessor of philosophy, belles-lettres, and Hebrew. Leclerc
was impatient of contradiction, acrimonious and satirical
in debate, irascible, and fond of singularity. He has been
called the self constituted inquisitor of the republic of lite-
rature. Among his works are, Ars Critica ; Harmonia
Evangelica ; and the three Bibliotheques, or Ijibraries, in
twenty-five, twenty-eight, and twenty-nine volumes. —
DavC7tport ; Eiiaj. Am.
LECTURE, (Religious ;) a discourse or sermon de-
livered on any subject in theology. Beside lectures on
the Sabbath day, many think proper to preach on week-
days ; sometimes at five in the morning, before people go
to work, and at seven in the evening, after they have
done. In Loudon there is preaching almost every fore-
noon and evening in the week, at some place or other.
Il may be objected, however, against week-day preaching,
that if has a tendency to take people from their business,
and that the number of places open on a Sabbath day su-
persedes the necessity of it. But in answer to this may it
not be observed, — 1. That people stand in need at all
times of reUgious instruction, exhortation, and comfort ? —
2. That there is a probabihty of converting sinners then
as well as at other times? — 3. That ministers are com-
manded to be instant in season and out of season ? — And,
4. It gives ministers an opportunity of hearing one ano-
ther, which is of great utility. After all, it must be re-
marked, that he who can hear the truth on a Sabbath day
does not act consistently to neglect his family or business
lo be always present at week-day lectures ; nor is he alto-
gether wise who has an opportunity of receiving instruc-
tion, yet altogether neglects it. — Hr/id. Buck.
LECTURES, (B.iMPTOx ;) a eourse of eight sermons
preached annually at the university of Oxford, set on foot
by the reverend John Bampton, canon of Salisbury. Ac-
cording to the directions in his will, they are to be preach-
ed upon either of the following subjects : To confirm and
establish the Christian faith, and to confute all heretics
and schismatics ; upon the divine authority of the Holy
Scriptures ; upon the authority of the writings of the
primitive fathers, as to the faith and practice of the
primitive church ; upon the divinity of our Lord and Sa-
vior Jesus Christ ; upon the divinity of the Holy Ghost ;
upon the articles of the Christian faith, as comprehended
in the Apostles' and Nicene creeds. For the support of
this lecture, he bequeathed his lands and estates to the
chancellor, masters, and scholars of the university of Ox-
ford forever, upon trust that the vice-chancellor for the
time being take and receive all the rents and profits there-
of; and, after all taxes, reparations, and necessary deduc-
tions made, to pay all the remainder to the endowment of
LEG
[ 737 ]
LEE
llies.? divinily leclure sermons. He also Jirecis in liis
wj., that no person shall be qualified to preach these lec-
tures unless he have taken the degree of master of arts, at
least in one of the two universities of Oxford or Cam-
bridge, and that the same person shall never preach the
same sermon twice. A number of excellent sermons
preached at this lecture are now before the public. A
more enlarged account of this lecture may be seen in the
Christian Observer for May, 1809. — Hend. Buck.
LECTURE, (Merchants' ;) a lecture set up in the
year 1872, by the Presbyterians and Independents, to
show their agreement among themselves, as well as lo
support the doctrines of the Reformation against the pre-
vailing errors of Popery, Sociniaaism, and Infidelity.
The principal ministers for learning and popularity were
chosen as lecturers ; such as Dr. Bates, Dr. Manton, Dr.
Owen, Mr. Baxter, Mr. Collins, Jenkins, Mead, and after-
wards Mr. Alsop, Howe, Cole, and others. It was en-
couraged and supported by some of the principal mer-
chants and tradesmen of the city. Some misunderstanding
taking place, the Presbyterians removed to Salter's hall,
and the Independents remained at Pinner's hall, and each
party filled up their numbers out of their respective de-
nominations. This lecture is kept up to the pres&nt day,
and is now held at Broad street meeting every Tuesday
morning. — Hend. Buck.
LECTURE, (Monthly.) A lecture preached monthly
by the Congregational ministers of London in their diffe-
rent chapels, taken in rotation. These lectures have of
late been systematically arranged, so as to form a con-
nected course of one or more years. A valuable volume
on the Evidences of Revelation, published in 1827, is
one of the fruits of these monthly exercises. — Hend.
Buck.
LECTURES, (MoKNiNs.) Certain casuistical lectures,
which were preached by some of the most able divines in
London. The occasion of these lectures seems to be this :
During the troublesome times of Charles I., most of the
citizens having some near relation or friend in the army
of the earl of Essex, so many bills were sent up to the
pulpit every Lord's day for their preservation, that the
minister had neither time to read them, nor to recommend
their cases to God in prayer ; it was, therefore, agreed by
some London divines to separate an hour for this purpose
every morning, one half to be spent in prayer, and the
other in a suitable exhortation to the people. When the
heat of the war was over, it became a casuistical lecture,
and was carried on till the restoration of Charles II.
These sermons were afterwards published in several vo-
lumes quarto, under the title of the Morning Exercises.
The authors were the most eminent preachers of the day ;
Mr. (afterwards archbishop) Tillotson was one of them.
It appears that these lectures were held every morning for
one month only ; and from the preface to the volume, dated
1689, the time was afterwards contracted to a fortnight.
Blost of these were delivered at Cripple-gate church, some
at St. Giles', and a volume against popery in Southwark.
Mr. Neale observes, that this lecture was afterwards re-
vived in a different form, and continued in his day. It
was kept up long afterwards at several places in the sum-
mer, a week at each place ; but latterly the time wa.s ex-
changed for the evening. — Hend. Buck.
LECTURES, (Mover's ;) a course of eight sermons
preached annually, set on foot by the beneficence of lady
Mover, about 1720, who left by will a rich legacy, as a
foundation for the same. A great number of English
writers having endeavored, in a variety of ways, to inva-
lidate the doctrine of the Trinity, this opulent and ortho-
dox lady was influenced to think of an institution, which
should produce to posterity an ample collection of produc-
tions in defence of this branch of the Christian faith. The
first course of these lectures was preached by Dr. Water-
land, on the Divinity of Christ, and are well worthy of
perusal. — Me7i/l. Buck.
LECTURE, (Warbl'Rtonian ;) a lecture founded by
bishop Warburton, to prove the truth of revealed religion
in general, and the Christian in particular, from the com-
pletion of the prophecies in the Old and New Testament
which relate to the Christian church, especially to the
apostasy of papal Rome. To this foundation we owe the
93
admirable discourses of Hurd, Halifax, Bagot, and many
others. — Hend. Buck.
LECTURERS, in the church of England, are an order
of preachers distinct from the rector, vicar, and curate.
They are chosen by the vestry, or chief inhabitants of the
parish, supported by voluntary subscriptions and legacies,
and are usually the afternoon preachers, and sometimes
officiate on some stated day in the week. Where there
are lectures founded by the donations of pious persons, the
lecturers are appointed by the founders, without any inter-
position or consent of the rectors of churches, &c. though
with the leave and approbation of the bishop ; such as
that of lady Moyer at St. Paul's. But the lecturer is not
entitled to the pulpit without the consent of the rector or
vicar, who is possessed of the freehold of the church. —
Hend. Buck.
LEE, (Ann,) founder of the sect of Shakers in Ame-
rica, was born in Manchester, England, about 1730, and
was the daughter of a blacksmith, who lived iu Toad
lane. Her trade was that of a cutter of hatter's fur. She
married at an early age Abraham Standley, a blacksmith,
who lived in her father's house. She had four children,
who all died in infancy.
At the age of twenty-two, about 1758, she became a
convert to James Wardley, who was originally a Quaker,
but who in 1747, imagining that he had supernatural vi-
sions and revelations, established the sect, called Shakers,
from their bodily agitations. Having become a member
of this society, which was merely a new form of the
fanaticism of the French prophets fifty years hefcire, she
passed through the exercises of the sect. In her fits, as
she clenched her hands, it is said, the blood flowed through
the pores of her skin. Her flesh wasted away, and in
her weakness she was fed like an infant. Thus was she
exercised nine years, by the end of which time, it might
be thought, she had lost her reason. At length, about
1770, she made the discovery of the wickedness of mar-
riage, and opened her testimony against it. She called
herself " Ann, the Word," signifying, that in her dwelt
the Word ; and to this day her followers say, that " the
man who was called Jesus, and the woman who was called
Ann, are verily the two first pillars of the church, the two
anointed ones," &:c.
Soon after Mrs. Standley, abas Ann Lee, begun her tes-
timony against '• the root of human depravity," her ex-
ercises induced the people of Manchester to shut her up
in a mad-house, where she was kept several weeks. She
came to America in the ship Maria, Capt. Smiih, and ar-
rived at New York in May, 1771, having as her compa-
nions her brother, William Lee, James Whitaker, John
Hocknell, called elders, and others. In the spring of ITTli,
she went to Albany, and thence to Niskeuna, now Water-
Vliet, eight miles from Albany. Here she and her follow-
ers lived unknown a few j'ears, holding their meetings as
usual. (See StiAicERs.)
But the beginning of 1780, when there was an unusual
religious commotion, brought her in a fine harvest of de-
luded followers. One of these, Valentine Rathbun, was a
Baptist minister, who however in about three months re-
covered his senses, and published a pamphlet against the
imposture. He says, that there attended this infatuation
an inexplicable agency upon the body, to which lie him-
self was subjected, that affected the nerves suddenly and
forcibly like the electric fluid, and was followed by trcnih-
lings and the complete deprivation of strength. When
the good mother had somewhat established her authority
with her new disciples, she warned them of the great sin
of following the vain customs of the world, and having
fleeced them of their ear-rings, necklaces, buckles, and
every thing which might nourish pride, and having cut
off their hair close by their ears, she admitted them into
her church. Thus metamorphosed, they were ashamed
to be seen by their old acquaintance, and would be induced
to continue Shakers to save themselves from further hu-
miliation.
The impostor asserted, that she was not liable to the
assaults of death, and that, when she left this world, she
should ascend in the twinklin? of an eve to lieaven. But
unhappily for her claims, she died at Water-Vliei, Sep-
tember 8, 1784.
LEG
[ 738 J
LEi
As to the moral character of mother Ann, Reuben
Rathbun, who was once a Shaker, testifies, that he once
saw her come to hard blows with William Lee. He adds,
" It appears to me, that the mother, at that time, was very
much overcome with strong liquor." He considered her
also as well skilled in profane and indecent language.
But, whatever might have been her moral deportment, it
is one of the deplorable facts, of which the history of the
world is full, evincing the blindness and depravity of
man, that rational beings should yield their minds to her
blasphemous religions pretensions. iVe?!; York Theol.
Mag., i. 82; V. Raikbtin's Hints ; D. Eathhun's, Taylor's,
Wtsl-s and Brown's Account of Shs'cers. — Allen.
LEECH. (See Hokse-Leech.)
LEEK, (chetsir ;) in Num. 11:5, translated "leek;"
in 1 Kings 18: 5. 2 Kings 19: 26. Job 40: 15. Ps. 37: 2.
90: 5. 103: 15. 104: 14. 129: 6. 147: 8. Isa. 35: 7. 37:
27. 40: 6, it is rendered " grass ;" in Job 8: 12, " herb ;"
in Frov. 27: 25. Isa. 15: 6, "hay;" and in Isa. 34: 13,
" a court."
The leek is much of the same nature with the onion.
The kind called karrat by the Arabians, the allium porrum
of Linnseus, Hasselquist says, must certainly have been
one of those desired by the children of Israel, as it has
been cultivated and esteemed from the earliest times to the
present in Egypt. The inhabitants are very fond of eating
it raw, as sauce for their roasted meat ; and the poor people
eat it raw with their bread, especially for breakfast.
There is reason, however, to doubt whether this plant is
intena^'d in Num. 11: 5, and so differently rendered every-
where else : it should rather intend such vegetables as
grow promiscuously with grass. Ludolphus supposes
that it may mean lettuce and salads in general ; and
MaiUet observes, that the succory and endive are eaten
with great relish by the people in Egypt. Bishop Lowth
thinks it is the lotus, a sort of water lily, peculiar to
Egypt, which forms one of the most common aliments of the
Egyptians now, as we learn from history it did in ancient
limes. The root of this plant is round, of the size of an
apple, of an agreeable flavor and refreshing quality, es-
pecially in the heats of summer. Some or all of these
may be meant. — Wutson.
LEES ; dregs. To drink up the cup of God's wrath,
" even to the lees," is to drink the whole cup to the bot-
tom, Ps. 75: 8. Isa. 51: 17. Ezek. 23: 34. "The lees of
the people," signifies the vilest part of them, Isa. 49: 6,
7. God threatens by Zephaniah, to visit those who are
settled on their lees ; i. e. hardened in their sins, Zeph. 1:
12.— Calmet.
LEGAL or MOSAIC DISPENSATION. (See Dis-
pensation.)
LEGALIST, strictly speaking, is one who acts accord-
ing to or consistent with the law ; but in general the
term is made use of to denote one who expects salva-
tion by his own works. (See Law.) We may further
consider a legalist as one who has no proper conviction
of the evil of sin; who, although he pretends to abide
by the law, yet has not a just idea of its spirituality and
demands. He is ignorant of the grand scheme of salva-
tion by free grace : proud of his own fancied righteous-
ness, he submits not to the righteousness of God ; he
derogates from the honor of Christ, by mixing his own
works with his ; and in lact denies the necessity of the
work of the Spirit, by supposing that he has ability in
himself to perform all those duties wliich God has required.
Sucit is the character of the legalist ; a character diame-
trically opposite to that of the true Cliristian, whose .sen-
timent corresponds witli that of the apostle, " By grace
are ye saved, through faith, and that not of yourselves :
It is the gift of God. Not of works, lest any man .should
boast," Eph. 2: 8, 9.—Hr,nl. Buck.
LEGATE ; a cardinal or bishop, whom the pope sends
as his ambassador to sovereign princes. — Hend. Buck.
LEGEND, (legenda ;) originally a book, in the Romish
church, containing the lessons that were to be read in di-
vine service : from hence the word was jipplied to the
histories of ihc lives of saints, because chapters were read
out of them nt matins ; but as the golden legend, compiled
by James de Varase, about the year 1290, contained in it
several ridiculous and romantic stories, ihe word is now
used by Protestants to signify any incredible or inattthefi-
tic narrative. Hence, as Dr. Jortin observes, we have
false legends concerning the miracles of Christ, of his
apostles, and of ancient Christians ; and the writers of
these fables had, in all probability, as good natural abili-
ties as the disciples of Christ, and some of them wanted
neither learning nor craft ; and yet they betray themselves
by faults against chronology, against history, against
manners and customs, against morality, and against pro-
bability. A liar of this kind can never pass undiscovered ;
but an honest relater of truth and matter of fact is safe :
he wants no artifice, and fears no examination.— ifend.
Buck.
LEGION. The Roman legions were composed each
of ten cohorts, a cohort of fifty maniples, and a maniple
of fifteen men ; consequentl)', a full legion contained six
thousand soldiers. Matt. 26: 53. — Calmet.
LEGION, (Thebean ;) a name given, in the time of
Diocletian, to a whole legion of Christians, consisting of
more than six thousand men, who were said to have suf-
ferred martyrdom by the order of Maximian. Though
this story hath never wanted patrons, yet it is disbelieved
by many. Dr. Jortin, in his usual facetious way, says,
that it stands upon the authority of one Eucherius, bishop
of Lyons, and a writer of the fifth century, who had it
from Theodorus, another bishop, who had the honor and
felicity to find the relics of these martyrs by revelation,
and perhaps by the smell of the bones .' — Hend. Buck.
LEGION, (Thundering ;) a name given to those Chris-
tians who served in the Roman army of Marcus Antonius,
in the second century. The occasion of it was this :— -
AVhen that emperor was at war with the Marcomanni, his
army was inclosed by the enemy, and reduced to the most
deplorable condition by the thirst under which they lan-
guished in a parched desert. Just at this time they were
remarkably relieved by a sudden and unexpected rain.
This event was attributed to the Christians, who were
supposed to have effected this by their prayers ; and the
name of the thundering legion ^\■as given to them, on ac-
count of the thunder and lightning that destroyed the
enemy, while the shower revived the fainting Romans.
Whether this was really miraculous or not, has been dis-
puted among learned men. Those who wish to see what
has been said on both sides, may consult Witsins Dissertat.
de Legione Fulminatrice, which is subjoined to his JEgyp-
tiaca, in defence of this miracle • as also what is alleged
against it by Dan. Lauroque, in a discourse upon that
subject, subjoined to the Adversaria Sacra of Matt. Lau-
roque, his father. The controversy between Sir Peter
King and Mr. Moyle upon this subject is also worthy of
attention. — Hend. Buck.
LEHI, (jaw-bone ;) Judg. 15: 18. Calmet remarks, that
the Hebrews sometimes called naked, sharp, and steep
rocks, teeth, (1 Sam. 14: 4, 5. Job 39: 28.) and that in
this case God opened a rock called Machtes, or the Cheek-
tooth, which was at the place where Samson obtained his
victory, and which, fur this reason, he called Lehi, the
Jaw-bone. This fountain issuing out of a rock called the
Cheek-tooth, at a place named the Jaw-bone, has induced
some to believe that it came immediately out of a tooth-
hole in the ass's jaw-bone, which would be a surprising
miracle indeed. But as Calmet explains the matter, the
miracle of the fountain issuing out of the rock at Sam-
son's prayer is acknowledged ; and wonders are not to be
multiplied without necessity. This opinion is adopted by
Josephus, by the paraphrast Jonathan, and by many com-
mentators. En-hakkore signifies " the fountain of invo-
cation." The fountain subsisted long, and still subsists,
probably, in Palestine. Glycas, and the martyr Antoninus,
speak of it as in the suburbs of Eleutheropolis. — Calmet.
LEIBNITZ, (Godfrey William,) baron, a philosopher
and scholar of almost universal genius, was born, in 1646,
at Leipsic ; and studied at the universities of that place
and of Jena. He was first in the service of the elector
of Mentz, as counsellor of revision in the chanceiy ; and,
after the death of that prince, was patronised by the
house of Hanover. He also received pensions and flat-
tering distinctions from Peter the Great, the king of Prus-
sia, and the emperor of Germany ; and weis a member of
various learned bodies. France he visited once, and
LEI
[ 739
LEL
England twice, and was received with the respect which
was due to his merits. He died at Hanover, in 1716.
The major part of the numerous works of Leibnitz has
been collected in six quarto volumes by Dutens. Some
of the rest were published by Raspe, with the title of Phi-
losophic Works.
" Leibnitz, who was thus occupied with the most ab-
struse metaphj-sical inquiries, (says a modern writer,) was
also in his day the rival of Newton himself in physical
science ; possessed unequalled erudition, classical and
scholastic ; was distinguished by his knowledge of Roman
jurisprudence and German aetiquities ; and was a pro-
found and masterly controversial theologian."
Gibbon also has drawn his character at full length, and
in glowing colors. But unlike Gibbon, Leibnitz was a
Christian. He was a Protestant, and a Trinitarian. One
r>{ his works is entitled " A Logical Defence by new argu-
snents of the Most Holy Trinity." Enc^. Am. — Daoeiiport.
LEiGHTON,(Abp. Robert,) the most pious and popular
preacher of his time, was the eldest son of Dr. Alexander
Leighton, and born in London, in the j'ear 1<513. After
heing instructed in the common paits of education, and
initiated into the higher branches, he was sent to the uni-
versity of Edinburgh. He was pious from his youth;
early indicating considerable talents, as well as a strong
desire to serve God in the sacred ministry ; and his studies
were directed with that important view. He soon com-
manded the admiration of his fellow-students by his
quick progress in the mathematics and philosoph}', and
i?y his familiar acquaintance with the learned languages ;
while he gained their esteem by the gentleness of his tem-
per, a«d the prudence of his conduct. Having finished
iis academical course with great success and applause,
he was sent abroad, and lived several years in France.
He early imbibed a strong aversion to prelacy, and to the
tyranny which the leailers in the church of England prac-
tised ; an aversion, doubtless, greatly heightened by the
sufferings of his father, who was a conscientious," zealous,
and persecuted Puritan. The son, ac xirdingly, on his
return to Britain, attached himself to th.i church of Scot-
land, which was strictly formed on the Presbyterian mo-
del; and having been unanimously calkd by the congre-
gation of Newbottle, near Edinburgh, he was ordained
• here about the thirtieth year of his age. He remaine;!
at Newbottle several years, anri was most assiduous in
discharging the various duties of his office. His prepara-
tion for the pulpit wa.s very e.^act : he diligently visited
the poor, the sick, and the afBicted of his flock ; and pro-
moted personal, domestic, social, and public rehgion, to
the utnjost of his power, by precept, example, and many
prayers.
At the time when Charles I. was confined, by the com-
missioners of the parliament, in Holmby house, and (he
€?i S'^gaiient was formed to rescue him, Leighton, disgusted
with animosity, unable pei-haps to ascertain the point
where resistance to the authority of a prince becomes law-
ful and necessary, and probiibly dreadiug the downfal of
monarchy, declared for the engagement, and gave up his
connexion with the Presbyterians, to form one with the
Episcopalians. For this conduct, the Presbyterians de-
nounced him as an apostate, and the Episcopalians wel-
comed him as a convert.
The office of principal in the university of Edinburgh
becoming vacant soon after Leighton's resignation of his
charge, the magistrates and common-council of that city,
who had the gift of presentation, unanimously chose him
to fill the chair, and pressed his acceptance of it, by the
powerful motive, that he would serve the church, signally,
without taking any part in public measures. He delivered
lectures, especially to the students of theology, and occa-
sionally supplied the place of divinity professor. His the-
ological lectures are known to the learned world, and have
been translated into English. For pure Latin, sublime
thought, and warm diction, they have never been sur-
passed, and seldom equalled. In that office Dr. Leighton
remained ten years, the ornament and delight of the uni-
versity, and a blessing to studious youth.
The conduct of bishop Leighton in accepting a bishop-
ric, in 1662, has been much blamed ; but it appears that
be hoped, by .such conduct, to accommodate differences.
and soften animosities ; but still, afterwards, he was nol
satisfied with his own conduct.
The good bishop, who had expressly declared to Charles,
that he would not plant even Christianity itself by vio-
lence, and far less a particular mode of government and
worship, in 1667, went to London the second time, and
remonstrated earnestly with the king, against the oppres-
sive measures pursued. Charles, as usual, gave him
fair speeches and promises, but nothing eti'ectual was
done. Leighton returned to his diocess with a heavy
heart, and labored in word and doctrine, preaching and
catechising throughout his diocess.
In the 3'ear 1670, he was, without his solicitation, and
against his will, appointed to the archbishopric of Glas-
gow, though he did not take possession of that see for
twelve months after the appointment. While he was
archbishop of Glasgow, he did all in his power to reform
the clergy ; to correct wickedness, and promote piety among
the people; to suppress violence, and to soothe the minds
of the Presbyterians, Finding his new situation more
and more disagreeable, and seeing no hope of uniting
the different parties, he again determined to resign his
dignity, and went to London for that purpose, in the sum-
mer of 1673, The king, however, still refused to accept
his resignation, but gave a wTitten engagement to allow
him 10 retire, after the trial of another j'ear ; and, when
that period had elapsed, his resignation was accepted.
After resigning the dignity of archbishop of Glasgow,
he resumed that of bishop of Dunblane ; but, wearied and
disgusted with the court, he retired to Broadhurst, in Sus-
sex, and there, in domestic and peaceful habits, spent the
remainder of his days with a relative. In 1(^1, he ex-
pired, serene and happy. The works of this learned and
pious man consist of various sermons ; " A Commentary
on the First Epistle of Peter ; " A Critical Exposition of
some of the Psalms ;" and " Lectures on the First Nine
Chapters of St. JIatthcw ;" and have been frequently
published. Few uninspired writings, says Dr. Doddridge,
are better adapted to mend the Vs'orld. They continually
overflov,' with love to God and man.
For a further account of this excellent msn, see Leigh-
tmi's V/brks ; BiirMt's History of hk Own Times ; Burnet's
Pastors! Cart ; Dnddrid s,t' s Preface to LeiglU»K's IVorks ;
The Remains nf Archbishop Lfi!;hton, bp Jerment ; his Select
n''orks bu Chfever, Boston, 1822.— Jones' Chris. Bing.
LELAND, (Jons, D. D.,) a leariieil English dissenting mi-
nister, well known by his writings in defence of Christianity,
was born at Wigan, in Lancashire, in 1691, of eminently
pious and virtuous parents. They took the earliest care
to imbue his mind with virtuous principles ; bat in his
sixth year, the small pox deprived him of his understand-
ing and memory, obliterating from the tablet of his mind
all his former ideas. In this deplorable stale he continued
nearly a year, when his faculties seemed to spring up
anew; and though he did not retain the le.T.sl trace of any
impressions made on him prior to his disorder, yet he now
discovered a quick apprehension and strong memory. In
a few years after, his parents settled at Dublin, which
situation gave him an early introduction to learning and
the sciences.
When properly qualified by years and study, he was
called to the pastoral office, in a congregation of Protestant
dissenters in that city. He was an able and acceptable
preacher, but his labors were not confined to the pulpit.
The numerous attacks that, at that period, were made
upon Christianity, and some of them by writers of no
contemptible ability, determined him to consider the sub-
ject with the exactest care and most faithful examination.
The result was a firm conviction of the divine authoritj-,
as well as the importance and excellency of Christianity,
which he now set himself to defend against a host of as
sailants. He was indeed a master in this controversy,
and his history of it, entitled" A View of the Deistical
Writers that have appeared in England, in the last and
present Century," is greatly and deservedly esteemed.
His calm and dispassionate manner of treating his opp^
nents, and his solid confutation of their objections and
reasonings, contributed more to depress the cause of
atheism and infidelity, than the angry zeal of warm ctis-
pntants.
LE N
[ 740 j
LEO
In the decline of life, he published anot'ier laborious
work, entitled " The Advantages and Necessity of the
Christian Revelation, shown from (he state of Religion in
the Ancient Heathen World, especially with respect to the
Knowledge and Worship of the One true God ; a Rule of
Moral Draty, and a State of Rewards and Punishments;
to which is prefixed, a long preliminary Disconrse on Na-
tural and Revealed Religion," two volumes quarto. This
noble and extensive subject, the several parts of which
have been slightly and occasionally handled by other
writers, Leland has treated at large with superior ability.
The work has been subsequently reprinted, in two vo-
lumes, octavo. Dr. Leland died in 1766, in the seventy-
fifth year of his age, highly respected for his learning and
talents. After his death, his Sermons were published, in
four volumes, octavo, with a preface, giving some account
of the life, character, and writings of the author, by the
Rev. Dr. Isaac Weld ; London, 1769. — Jimi^s' Chris. Biog.
LELAND, (Thomas,) a divine and miscellaneous writer,
was born, in 1722, at Dublin, and was educated at Trinity
college, where, in 1763, he became professor of oratory.
In 1768, the lord lieutenant appointed him his chaplain,
and subsequently gave him the vicarage of Sray, and a
prebend in St. Patrick's cathedral. l3r. Leland died in
1785. He wrote Sermons ; The History of Ireland ; The
Life of Philip of Macedon ; and a Dissertation on the
Principles of Human Eloquence, (which wasanonymously
attacked byHurd;) and translated the Orations of De-
mosthenes aiKl jEschines. — Davenport.
LEMFRIERE, (John,) a native of Jersey, was edtrcatetl
at Winchester, and at Pembroke college, Oxford ; was
head master )f Ahington grammar-school, and afterwards
of the schot at Exeter ; and, on resigning the latter, ^^■as
presented to the livings of Meelh and Newton Pelrock, in
Devonshire, which he held till his decease, in 1824. He
compiled the Bibliotheca Classica ; and Universal Bic^ra-
phy ; and printed the first volume of a translation of He-
rodotus . — Btmnfsirl .
LENT, a Teutonic word, — hi Gennan, Lenz, the
spring ; a time of fasting in the church, observed as a
perioil of hamiltafron before Easter. The Romish church,
and sonic of the Protestant commimion, maintain, that it
was always a fast of forty days, and, as such, of aposto-
Hcal institution. Others think that it was of ecclesiastical
inititution, and that it was variously observed in different
churches, and grew by degrees from a fast of forty hours
lo a fast of forty ixy's. This is the sentiment of Morton,
hishop Taylor, Du Moulin, Daille, and others.
Anciently, the manner of observfng Lent among those
who were piously ri^isposed, was to ab.'itain from food tin
evening : their only refreshment was a supper, and it was
mdifferent whether it was ffesh or any other fooil, provided
It was used with sobriety and moderation. Lent was
thought the proper time for exercising more abundantly
every species of chiirity : thus what they spared of their
own bodies by abrid'.ging them of a meal, was usually
given to the poor : they employed their vacant hours in
visiting the sick and those that were in prison ; in enler-
taiiiing strangers, and reconciling drfferences. The iin-
perial laws forbade all prosecution of men in criminal
actions, that might bring them to corporal punishment and
torture, during the whole season. This was a time of
more than ordinary strictness and devotion ; and, there-
fore, in many of the great churches, they had refigious
assemblies for prayer and preaching every" day. All pub-
lic games and stnge plays -nere prohibited at this season,
and also the celebration of all festivals, birthdays, and
marriages.
The Christians of the Greek church obser\'e four Lents ;
the first commences on the 15th of November ; the second
IS the same with our Lent ; the third begins the week after
Whitsuntide, and continues till the festival of St. Peter
and St. Paul ; and the fourth commences on the 1st of
August, and lasts no longer than till the 15th. These
Lents are observed with great strictness and austerity, but
on Saturdays and Sundays they indulge themselves in
drinking wine and using oil, which are prohibited on other
days. — Hmd. Buck.
LENTIL, (odeshim ; Gen. 25: 34. 2 Sam. 17: 28. 23:
11. Ezek. 4: 9.) a sort of pulse ; in the Septuagint ;)A<jte,
and Vulgate lens. The leuiils of Egypt were very macfi
esteemed among the ancients. St. Austin says, they grow
abundantly in Egypt, are much used as a food there, and
those of Alexandria are considered particularly valuable.
Dr. Sliaw says, beans, lentils, kidney -beans, and garvan--
cos are the chief of their pulse kind. Beans, when boiled<
and stewed with oil and garlic, are the principal food ol
persons of all distinctions. Lentils are dressed in the
same manner as beans, dissolving easily into a mass, and
making a pottage of a chocolate color. This, we find,
was the " red pottage" which Esau, from thence called
Edom, exchanged for his birthright. — Watson.
LEO X., Pope, Jon,i DE jMedici, the son of the illastri-
o^is Lorenzo, was born, in 1475, at Florence, and was
nominated a cardinal in his thirteenth year. In 1505, he
was made governor of Perugia ; was intrusted with the'
command of the papal army in 1511 ; arni was made pri-
soner, in the following year, at the battle of Ravenna.
He attained the papal crown in 1513, on the death of Ju-
lias II. He died in 1521. Leo was one of the most mU'
nificenl patrons of learning and of the arts ; but he was
prodigal, and on some occasions grossly violated the prin-
ciples of justice. To his shameless sale of indulgences,
to raise money lo complete St. Peter's church at Rome,
the world is indebted for the Reformation of the church,
by Luther. — Davenport.
LEO, (JrD.s.) This great and good divine was born
in Alsace, Germany, in 1482, and took his degree at the
university of Basil in 1512. Here he wsts- associated with
Zuinglius, and iTnbil>ed from Dr. Wittenbush, his preceptor,
the true principles of the gospel. He also studied the
Oriental langtjages, the fathers, particularly Jerome and
Augustine, and the books of Luther, Erasmus, and
Reuchlin, the famous Hebraist. CaHed to the pastoral
charge at Zurich, where he labored eighteen years, he
openly opposed the abominations of popery, both from the
pulpit ami the press; and became ctistinguislied among
the great and burning lights of the Reformation,
Assisted by oli.er learned men, he undertook, by request
of his brethren, the translation of the Old Testament, to
which he devoted himself wnth such intense appHcation
as destroyed his health. He died in 1542, leaving most
of the poetical books unfinished ; which however were
completed by his friend Bibliander, and published by
Conrade Pellican. It is said that Robert Stephens in a
great measure pirated this translation. He was also the
author of Annotations on Genesis, Exodus, and the Epis-
tles, besides Iran.slating some of the Works of Zuinglins
into Latin.
In his last moments he said, "■ To my Lord and Saviof
Jesus Christ, my hope and my saVration, I wholly give up
my soul and body. I cast myself wholly upon his mercy
and grace. In this confidence I fear not to die." —
3Ii(Mletoit, i. p. 152.
LEONARD, (Geokge,) a young minister of great love-
liness and promise, was bom in Raynham, Mass., August
17, 1802, of pious parents. His father dying when he
was five years old, his religious education devolved on his
eicellenit mother. He became pious in 1818, was bap-
tized in 1820, and graduated at Brown university in 1824.
He was immediately chosen tutor of Columbian college,
Washington. In 1826, he accepted an invitation to be-
come pastor of the second Baptist church in Salem,
(Mass.) where he labored till the failure of his health, in
1829. Having in some measure recovered in 1831, he
settled as pastor of the Baptist church in Portland, (Me.)
where he fell a victim to the ardor of his zeal. He died
of an afl'ection of the lungs, August 11, 1832, in the calm
triumph of the Christian believer. His last words were,
" Prepare to meet your God." He was eminent as a
biblical scholar. — Memoir, prejixed to his Sermons.
LEONIDAS, father of the celebrated Origen, was a
Christian martyr of the third century. Previous to the
execution, his son, in order to encourage him, wrote to him
as follows : " Beware that your care for us does not make
yon change your resolution !" The father accepted the
heroic exhortation of the son, and yielded his neck joy-
fully 10 the stroke of the executioner. — Fox, p. 23.
LEOPARD, (mmr; Cant. 4: 8. Isa. 11: 6. Jer. 5: 6.
13: 23. Rosea 13: 7. Hab. 1: 8. Dan. 7: 6.) pardalis,
L£P
[741]
LES
Rev. 13: 2. Ecclus. 2S: 23. There can be no doubt that
the pard or leopard is the animal mentioned. Bochart
^^^^fM
shows that the name is similar in the Chaldee, Syriac,
Arabic, and Ethiopic. The LXX uaiformly render it by
pardalis ; and Jerome, pardtis. The leopard is a fierce ani-
mal, spotted with a diversity of colors ; it has small white
eyes, wide jaws, sharp teeth, round ears, a large tail ;
five claws on his fore feet, four on those behind. It is
said to be extremely cruel to man. Its name, leo-pard,
implies that it has something of the lion and of the pan-
ther in its nature. Probably, these animals were nume-
rous in Palestine; as we find places with a name intima-
ting their having been the taunts of leopards : Nimrah,
(Num. 32: 3.) Beth-Nimrah, (Num. 32: 36. Joshua 13:
27.) and " waters of Nimrim," (Isaiah 15: 6. Jer. 48: 34.)
and " mountains of leopards," Cant. 4: 8. Brocardsays,
that the mountain called by the name of Leopards is two
leagues from Tripoli northwards, and one league from
Libanus. Nimrod might have his name from this ani-
mal.— Watson i Calmet.
LEPER. (See Leprosy.)
LEPROSY. JMoses mentions three sorl.^ of leprosies;
in (1.) men ; (2.) houses ; and (3.) clothes.
1. Leprosy in men: this disease afiects the skin, and
sometimes increases in such a manner, as to produce
scurf, scabs, and violent itchings, and to corrupt the whole
mass of blood. At other times it is only a deformity.
The Jews regarded the leprosy as a disease sent from
God, and Moses prescribes no natural remedy for the cure
of it. He requires only that the diseased person should
show himself to the priest, and that the priest should judge
of his leprosy ; if it appeared to be a real leprosy , capable
of being communicated to others, he separated the leper
from the company of mankind. He appoints certain sa-
crifices and parlicular ceremonies already mentioned for
the purification of a leper, and for restoring him to socie-
ty. The marks which Moses gives for the better distin-
guishing a leprosy, are signs of the increase of this dis-
ease. Those who have treated of this disease, have made
the same remarks, but have distinguished a recent leprosj'
from one already formed and become inveterate. A recent
leprosy may be healed, but an inveterate one is incurable.
The common marks by which, as physicians tell us, an
mveterate leprosy may be discerned are these : The voice
becomes hoarse, like that of a dog which has been long
barking, and comes through the nose rather than the
mouth : the pulse is small and hea\T', slow and disorder-
ed : the blood abounds with white and bright corpuscles,
like millet-seeds ; is, in fact, all a scurfy serum, without
due mixture ; so that salt put into it does not melt, and is
.>o dry, that vinegar mixed with it bubbles up ; the urine
is undigested, settled, ash-colored, and thick ; the sediment
like meal mixed with bran : the face is like a coal half
extinguished, shming, unctuous, bloated, full of very hard
pimples, with small kernels round about the bottom of
ihem: the eyes are red and inflamed, and project out of
the head, but cannot be moved either to the right or left :
the ears are swelled and red, corroded with ulcers about
the root of them, and encompassed with small kernels :
the nose sinks, because the cartilage rots : the nostrils are
open, and the passages stopped with ulcers at the bottom :
the tongue is dry, black, swelled, ulcerated, shortened, di-
vided in ridges, and beset with httle while pimples; the
skin of it is uneven, hard, and insensible ; even if a hole
be made in it, or it be cut, a putrefied sanies issues from
it instead of blood. Leprosy is very ca.sily communica-
ted ; and hence Moses has taken so much precaution to
prevent lepers from communication with persons in health.
His care extended even to dead bodies thus infected, which
he directed should not be buried with others.
We can hardly fail of observing the character, and ter-
ror in consequence, of this disease ; how dreadful is the
leprosy in Scripture! how justly dreadful, when so fatal,
and so hopeless of cure ! Mungo Park states that the
Negroes are subject to a leprosy of the very worst kind ;
and Mr. Grey Jackson, in his " Account of Morocc'o,-' (p.
192.) informs us, that the species of leprosy called jeddem,
is very prevalent in Barbary. " At Morocco there is s se-
parate quarter, outside of the walls, inhabited oy lepers
only. Those who are affected with it are clligcd to wear
a badge of distinction whenever they leave their habita-
tions ; so that a straw hat, with a very wide brim, lied on
in a particular manner, is the signal for per-ions not to ap-
proach the wearer.
Niebuhr gives the best account of the various kinds of
leprosy in Arabia.
2. The leprosy of houses, mentioned in Lev. 11: 34. The
rabbins and others conclude, that this leprosy of houses
was not natural, but was a punishment inliictcd by God
on wicked Israelites ; but Calmet is of opinion that it was
caused by ammahulcc which erode the stones like mites in
a cheese. Might it be similar to the dry-rot in timber?
3. The leprosy in clothes is also noticed by Moses, as com-
mon in his time. Calmet thinks it ver)' credible, that the
leprosy in clothes and skins was caused by vermin . — Calmet.
LESHEM, perhaps Laish, also 'Dn.n.'—Cclmit.
LESLIE, (Charles,) was born in Ireland but the date
of his birth is unknown. His father, John Leslie, whose
life exceeded a hundred years, was made bishop of the
Orkney islands, by Charles the First, and afterwards suc-
cessively translated to the Irish sees of Raphoe and Clo-
gher. Charles was his second son, and received his edu-
cation at Trinity college, Dublin, where he graduated
master of arts. He afterwards became a student in the
Temple, but relinquished the law for divinity, and entered
into orders in 1680.
In 1BS7, he was made chancellor of Connor, and dis-
played great firmness in resisting the measures of the
popish party, by disputation and otherwise : and in parti-
cular, withstood the admission of a sheriff of that reli-
gion, although nominated by James the Second himself.
But notwithstanding this resistance to what lie deemed an
illegal mandate, he did not fall in with the principles of
the revolution, and declined taking the oalh to king "Wil-
liam, which necessarily deprived him of .nil his prefer-
ments ; and he withdrew, with his family, from England.
He returned to his own country, and died at his own house
at Glaslough, in the county of Mouaghan. April the 13th,
1732. He wrote, with singular acutenc-s an.I ability,
against Deists, Jews, and Socinians. and his work's have
been collected and published, in two volumes, folio.
Bayle styles him a man of great merit and learning,
and adds, that he was the first who wrote, in Great Bri-
tain, against the fanaticism of madame Bourignou : his
books, he further says, are much esteemed, and especially
his treatise of '• The Snake in the Grass.'' Salmon ob-
serves, that his works must transmit him to posterity as a
man thoroughly learned and truly pious. Dr. Ilickcssays
that he made more converts to a sound faith and holy life
than any man of the age in which he lived : that his con-
summate learning, attended by the lowest humility, the
strictest piety without the least tincture of narrowness, a
conversation to the last degree lively and spirited, yet to
the last degree innocent, made him the delisht of man-
kind. Bior. Brit, and Ency. Brit. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
LESSONS, among ecclesiastical miters, are portions
of the Holy Scriptures read in churches at the time of di-
vine service. In the ancient church, reading the Scrip-
ture was one part of the service of the caicihumen, at
which all persons were allowed to be present, in order to
obtain instruction. (See Bible.) — Had. Bi'ci.
/
/
LET
[74^! J
LEV
LETECH ; a Hebrew measure, half an onier ; contain-
ing sixteen pecks, or four bushels, Hos. 3: 2. — Calmet.
LETTERS i marks for the purpose of expressing
sounds, used in writing. Few subjects have given rise to
more discussion than the origin of alphabetic characters.
If they are of human invention, they must be considered
as one of the most admirable efforts of the ingenuity of
man. So wonderful is the facility which they afford for
recording human thought ; so ingenious, and at the same
time so simple, is the analysis which they furnish for the
sounds of articulate speech, and for all the possible varie-
ty of words ; that we might expect the author of this hap-
py invention to have been immortalized by the grateful
homage of succeeding ages, and his name delivered down
to posterity with the ample honors it so justly merited.
But the author and the era of this discovery, if such it be,
are both lost in the darkness of remote antiquity. Even
the nation to which the invention is due cannot now be as-
certained. The Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Phoenicians,
the Persians, the Indians, have all laid claim to the ho-
nor of it ; and each has named its inventor among the
remote, and probably fabulous, personages that figure in
the earlier ages of their history.
Lucan affirms, that the Phoenicians invented the com-
mon letters before the Egyptians were acquainted with
the use of paper, or with the art of writing in hieroglyph-
ical characters ; (lib. 3.) it was probably in imitation of
the Phoenicians, therefore, that the Egyptians used letters
in their writing. Of this we cannot be certain, but two
things we know ; first, that there were great resemblances
in the ancient characters of the two people ; and secondly,
that Moses, who was instructed in all the learning of
Egypt, wrote in Phcenician characters. The old Egyp-
tian letters are at present unknown, though many of them
remain. This people lost the use of their writing when
under the dominion of the Greeks, and the Coptic or mo-
dern Egyptian character is formed from the Greek.
The Phcenicians spread the use of their letters through-
out all their colonies. CadmuscarriedthemintoGreece; the
Greeks perfected them, and added others. They communi-
cated them to the Latins, and after the conquests of Al-
exander, extended them over Egypt and Syria. So that
the Phoenician writing, which is so ancient, and the pa-
rent of so many others, would at this day have been en-
tirely forgotten, had not the Samaritans preserved the Pen-
tateuch of Moses, written in the old Canaanite or Hebrew
character ; by the help of which, medals, and the small re-
mains of Phoenician monuments, have been deciphered.
Some learned men, however, maintain that the square
Hebrew character still in use, is the same as was tised by
Moses ; hut the greater number suppose that the Jews
gradually abandoned the original character, while in cap-
tivity at Babylon, and that ultimately Ezra substituted
the Chaldee, which is now used ; while the Samaritans
preserved their Pentateuch, written in old Hebrew and
Phcenician characters. (See Writing.)
It is generally said, that the Hebrews have no vowels,
and that to supply the want of them, they invented the
v'lwel points, sometimes used by them in their books.
But it is certain that they have vowels ; though they do
ni<. always express them in their writing ; and that the
sound, powers, and quantity of these vowels are not al-
ways the same, as happens also in other languages.
Aleph, F«r(, /orf, and Aiii are vowels; He is an aspirate
only. The vowel points are modern, aiul Ihe invention
of the Massorets. about the middle of the ninth, or the be-
ginning of the tenth, century. The honor of th?m is as-
cribed principally to the rabbins Asher and Naphtaii, who
lived at that time. They are ten in number, and express
the five vowels according to their different changes and
pronunci^tions. The inquisitive reader may find the sub-
stance of ihe dispute for and against the antiquity of the
vowri points clearly and concisely represented by Pridcaux,
in ine first part of his Connection, hook v., and from
thence may have a distinct view of the chief arguments
prodv.ced pro and con in this controversy, by those emi-
neni antagonists Capellus, the two Buxtorfs, &c.
The Hebrews have certain acrostic verses, which begin
tvith the le'.ters of the alphabet, ranged in order.
The m' St considerable of these is Psalm 119., Mhjch
contams twenty-two stanzas of eight verses each, all ata'O-
Stic ; that is, the first eight begin with Aleph, the next
eight with Beth, and so on. Other Psalms, as 25, 33,
have but twenty-two verses, each beginning with one of
the twenty-two letters of the alphabet. Others, as 111,
112, have one half of the verse beginning with one letter,
and the other half with another. Thus : —
Blessed is the man wtio feareth tlie Lord,
Wlio deligliteth greatly in tils comniaudmenta.
The first half of the verse begins with Aleph ; the second
with Beth. The Lamentations of Jeremiah are also in
acrostic verse, as well as the thirty-first chapter of Pro-
verbs, from the eighth verse to the end.
The Jews use their characters not only for writing, but
for numbers, as did the Greeks, who in their arithmetical
computations fixed a numerical value on their hitters.
But we do not believe the ancient Hebrews did sc, nor
that letters were numerical among them. The sacred
authors always write the numbers entire and without ab-
breviation. We know that some learned men have at-
tempted to rectify dates, or supply years, on a supposition
that the letters served for numerals in the Scripture ; but
it was incumbent on them first, to prove that the ancient
Hebrews used that manner.
In consequence of this uncertainty respecting the author
of alphabetic writing, and the high value and extreme
difficulty of the invention itself, many have been inclined
to attribute this art to an immediate revelation from the
Deity ; contending that it was communicated with other
invaluable gifts from above, in remote ages, to the de-
scendants of Abraham, and probably to the patriarch Mo-
ses, who was the author of tne most ancient compositions
in alphabetical writing that we at present possess. The
arguments which are brought in support of the divine re-
velation of the alphabet, are chiefly these: 1. The high
antiquity of the use of letters ; the Hebrew characters
having existed in a perfect state when Moses composed
the Pentateuch, the most ancient writing now known to be
e.xtant. 2. The similarity between the various alphabets
of different nations, which, for the most part, are the same,
in the order, power, and even form, of their letters with
the Hebrew. 3. The complete want of alphabetic cha-
racters among those nations, which have been cut off from
all communication with the ancient civilized world, as the
aboriginal Americans ; or that part of the human race
which had no opportunity of borrowing the .system of
written characters revealed to the Hebrews, as China.
(See Writing, and Books.) — Wnts'in ; Calmet.
LETTER, (the.) Paul places the letterin opposition
to the spirit ; a way of speaking very common in the
ecclesiastical style, Rom. 2: 27, 29. 7: 6. 2 Cor. 3: fi, 7.
•'God hath made us ministers of the New Testament, not
of the letter, but of the spirit ; for the letter killeth, but
the spirit quickeneth ;" that is, the law of Moses is inca-
pable of giving li.^e to the soul, and justif)'ing before God
those who are most servilely addicted to the literal obser-
vance of it. These tilings can he effected only by means
of the go.spel of Christ, and of that Spirit of truth and
holiness which attends it, and makes it effectual to the
salvation of the soul. — Calmet.
LEUCOPETRIANS ; the name of a fanatical sect
which sprung up in the Greek and Eastern churches to-
wards the close of tlie twelfth century ; they professed to
believe in a double trinity, rejected wedlock, abstained
from flesh, treated with the utmost contempt the sacra-
ments of baptism and the Lord's supper, and all the va-
rious branches of external vforship; placed the essence
of religion in internal prayer alone ; and maintained, as
it is said, that an evil being or genius dwelt in the Jreast
of every mortal, and couUl be expelled from thence by no
other method than by perpetual supplication to the Su-
preme Being. The Ibunder of this sect is said to have
been a person called Leucopctrus, and his chief di.sciple,
Tyliicus, who corrupted by fanatical interpretations seve-
ral booif^ of Scripture, and particularly the gospel of Mat-
thew. This account is not undoubted. — Hetid. Biirk.
LEVI, the third son of Jacob and Leah, was born in
Mesopotamia, A.M. 2248, Gen. 29: 31. 34:2.1,20. 46:
11. 49: 5, fi.
Levi was, according to his father's prediction, scattered
LEV
t 743]
LIB
over all Israel, having no share in the division of Canaan,
but certain cities in the portions of other tribes. He was
not the worse provided for, however, since God chose the
tribe for the service of the temple and priesthood, and be-
stowed on it many privileges above the other tribes, in digni-
ty, and in the advantages of life. (See Levites.)— Coto«(.
LEVIATHAN ; Job 3: 8. 41: 1. Psalms 74: 14. 104:
26. Isaiah 27: 1. The old commentators concurred in re-
garding the whale as the animal here intended. Beza
anj". Diodati were among the first to interpret it the croco-
dile : and Bochart has since supported this last rendering
with a train of argument which has nearly overwhelmed
all opposition, and brought almost every commentator
over to his opinion. It is very certain that it could not be
the whale, which does not inhabit the Mediterranean,
much less the rivers that empty themselves into it j nor
will the characteristics at all apply to the whale. The
crocodile, on the contrary, is a natural inhabitant of the
Nile, and other Asiatic and African rivers ; of enormous
voracity and strength, as well as fleetness in swimming;
attacks mankind and the largest animals with most daring
impetuosity ; when taken by means of a powerful net,
will often overturn the boats that surround it ; has, pro-
portionally, the largest mouth of all monsters whatever ;
moves both its jaws equally, the upper of which has not
less than forty, and the lower than thirty-eight sharp, but
strong and massy, teeth ; and is furnished with a coat of
mail, so scaly and callous as to resist the force of a mus-
ket-ball in every part, except under the belly. Indeed,
to this animal the general character of the leviathan
seems so well to apply, that it is unnecessary to seek far-
ther.— Calmet ; Harris; Abbott; Watson.
LEVIRATE ; a Hebrew law, in obedience to which,
when a man died without issue, his brother was obliged
to marry his widow, with the view of raising up a first-
born son to succeed to the inheritance. The term is de-
rived from the word Levir, which, though not of classical
authority, is found in the Vulgate and the Pandects, and
is explained by Festus to signify a husband's brother.
Michalis on the Laws of Moses, article 98. — Hend. Buck.
LEVITES. Under this name may be comprised all the
descendants of Levi ; but it principally denotes those who
were employed in the lowest ministries of the temple, by
which they were distinguished from the priests, who, be-
ing descended from Aaron, were likewise of the race of
Levi by Kohath, but were employed in higher offices.
The Levites were descendants of Levi, by Gershom, Ko-
hath, and Merari, excepting the family of Aaron ; for the
children of Moses had no part in the priesthood, andwere
only common Levites.
God chose the Levites instead of the first-born of all
Israel, for the service of his tabernacle and temple. Num.
^: 6, ikc. They obeyed the priests in the ministrations of
the temple, and brought to them wood, water, and other
things necessary for the sacrifices. They sung, and play-
ed on instruments, in the temple, &c. ; they studied the
law, and were the ordinary judges of the country, but sub-
ordinate to the priests. Moses ordained that the Levites
should not begin in the sendee of the tabernacle till they
were five-and-twenty years of age, (Num. 8: 24 — 26.) or,
as he says elsewhere, from thirty to fifty years old. Num.
4: 3. But David, finding that they were no longer em-
ployed in these grosser offices of transporting the vessels
of the tabernacle, appointed them to enter on service at
the temple at twenty years of age. The priests and Le-
vites waited by turns, weekly, in the temple. They be-
gan their weeks on one Sabbath day, and on the Sabbath
day in the following week went out . f waiting, t Chron.
23: 2.1. 2 Chron. 21: 17. Ezra 3: 8.
God provided for the subsistence of the Levites, by giv-
ing them the tythe of corn, fruit, and cattle ; but they
paid to the priests the tenth of their tylhes ; and as the
Levites possessed no estates in the land, the tythes which
the priests received from them were looked on as the first-
fruits which they were to offer to the Lord, Num. 18: 21
— 24. God assigned them for their habitations forty-eight
cities, with fields, pastures and gardens. Num. 35. Of
these, thirteen were given to the priests, six of which were
cities of refuge, Joshua 20: 7. 21: 19, 20, &:c. While the
Levites were actually employed in the temple, they were
subsisted out of the provisions in store there, and out of
the daily offerings there made ; and if any Levite quitted
the place of his abode, to serve the temple, even out of
the time of his half-yearly or weekly waiting, he was re-
ceived there, kept and provided for, in like manner as his
other brethren, who were regularly in waiting, Deut. 18:
0 — 8. When an Israelite made a religious entertainment
in the temple, God required that the Levites should be in
vited to it, Deut. 12: 18, 19.
The consecration of Levites was without much ceremo-
ny. They wore no peculiar habit to distinguish them
from the other Israelites, and God ordained nothing par-
ticularly for their mourning, 2 Chron. 29: 34. The man-
ner of their consecration may be seen in Num. 8: 5 — 7,
itc. — Watson.
LEVITES, (Military ;) a name given to such ministers
in the time of^ the Commonwealth, as filled the office of
chaplain to the regiments of the parliamentary army. —
He7i(!. Buck.
LEVITICUS ; a canonical book of Scripture, being the
third book of the Pentateuch of Moses ; thus called be-
cause it contains principally the laws and regulations re-
lating to the Levites, priests, and sacrifices ; for which
reason the Hebrews call it the law of the priests, because
it includes many ordinances concerning their services.
(See Pentateuch.) — Watson.
LEVITY ; lightness of spirit, in opposition to gravity.
Nothing can be more proper than for a Christian to wear
an air of cheerfulness, and to watch against a morose and
gloomy disposition. But though it be his privilege to re-
joice, yet he must be cautious of that volatility of spirit
which characterizes the unthinking, and marks the vain
professor. To be cheerful without levity, and grave with-
out austerity, form both a happy and dignified character.
— Iltnd. Buck.
LEWIS DE DIEU. This great man, minister of Ley-
den, and professor in the Walloon college of that city,
was born, in 1590, at Flushing, where his father was mi-
nister. He was a scholar of great abilities, and well
versed in the Oriental tongues. He was held in high
esteem by archbishop Usher. While yet a youth, prince
Maurice being in Zealand, heard him preach, and some
time after sent for him to court. Our young divine mo-
destly excused himself, declaring that he designed in the
e.xercise of his ministry to satisfy his conscience, and to
censure freely what he should find deserved censure ; a li-
berty which courts did not care to allow ; while at the
same time he thought the post offered him, more proper
for a man in years than a student.
He was called to Leyden in 1619, and discharged his
duties with great diligence till his death, in 1642. He de-
clined the offer which was made hint of the divinity pro-
fessorship in the new university of Utrecht. He publish-
ed in 1631, a Commentary on the Four Gospels, and Notes
on the Acts of the Apostles, of which father Simon speaks
highly. He drew up likewise rudiments of the Hebrew
and Persian tongues, and edited several works in both
languages. The learned Constantinel' Emperor saj's that
for practical piety, knowledge of theology, and science of
all kinds, he was a star of the first magnitude. — Middle-
ton, vol. iii. p. 154.
LIBATION. This word is used in sacrificial language,
to express an effusion of liquors, poured upon victims to
be sacrificed to the Lord. The quantity of wine for a li-
bation was the fourth part of a hin, rather more than two
pints. Libations among the Hebrews were poured on the
victim after it was killed, and the several pieces of it were
laid on the altar, ready to be consumed bv the flames,
Lev. 6: 20. 8: 25, 26. 9: 4. 16: 12. 20. These libation-*
LIB
[ 744
LIB
consisted in oderings of breaJ, wiiie, ami sail. The
Greeks and Latins offered libations witli the sacrifices, but
Ihey were poured on tlie victim's head wlule it was living.
So Sinon, relating the manner in which lie was to be sa-
crificed, says he was in the priest's hands ready to be
slain ; was loaded with bands and garlands ; tliat they
were preparing to [wtir upon him tlie libations of grain
and salted meal : —
Jiinique dits in/anda aderal, mi/ii sacra parari^
Dt salsa ft uges, el circiim leiiutora villa.
jEiieiJ ii. 130, 131.
"The salted barley on niv front was spread,
The 3.acreil fillets bound iny deutijied head."
Pitt.
St. Paul describes 1 '.mself, as it were, a victim about to
be sacrificed, and that the accustr-med libations were al-
ready, in a manner, poured upon him : " For I am ready
to be offered, and tlie time of my departure is at hand,"
?. Tim. 4: ti. The same expressive sacrificial term occurs
in Philip. 2: 17, where the apostle represents the faith of
the Philippians as a sacrifice, and his own blood as a li-
bation poured forth to hallow and consecrate it : " Yea,
and if 1 be offered, spe/tdumai, upon the sacrifice and ser-
vice of your iailh, 1 joy and rejoice with you all." — Wat-
son ; Calmet.
LIBELLATICI ; a term in ecclesiastical history, applied
to certain Christians, who saved themselves from persecu-
tion, either by privately sifjning libels (writings) of abju-
ration; or by procuring, either through interest or by mo-
nej', libels of security, excusing them from the heathen
sacrifices. Bmughtun's Did. — Williams.
LIBERALITY ; bounty ; a generous disposition of
mind, exerting itself in giving largely. It is thus distin-
guished from generosity and bounty : — Liberality implies
acts of mere giving or spending ; generosity, acts of great-
ness ; bounty, acts of kindness. Liberality is a natural
disposition ; generosity proceeds from elevation of senti-
ment; bounty from religious motives. Liberality denotes
freedom of spirit ; generosity, greatness of soul; bounty,
openness of heart. — Hend. Buck.
LIBERALITY OF SENTIMENT ; a generous dispo-
sition a man feels towards another who is of a different
opinion from himself ; or, as one defines it, ''that generous
expansion of mind which enables it to look beyond all
petty distinctions of party and system, and, in the esti-
mate of men and things, to rise superior to narrow pre-
judices."
As liberality of sentiment is often a cover for error and
scepticism on the one hand, and as it is too little attended
to by the ignorant and bigoted on the other, we shall here
lay before our readers a view of it by a masterly writer.
"A man of liberal sentiments must be distinguished from
him who hath no religious sentiments at all. He is one
who hath seriously and effectually investigated, both in
his Bible and on his knees, in public assemblies and in
private conversations, the important articles of religion.
He hath laid down principles, he hath inferred consequen-
ces ; in a word, he hath adopted sentiments of his own.
" He must be distinguished, also, from that tame, un-
discerning domestic among good people, who, though he
has sentiments of his own, 5'et has not judgment to esti-
mate the worth and value of one sentiment beyond ano-
tUr.
" Now, a generous believer of the Christian religion is
one who will never allow himself to try to propagate his
sentiments by the commission of sin. No collusion, no
bitterness, no wrath, no undue influence of any kind, will
he apply to make his sentiments receivable ; and no living
thing will be less happy for his being a Christian. He
will exercise his liberality by allowing those who differ
from him as much virtue and integrity as he possibly can.
" There are, among a multitude of arguments to enforce
such a disposition, the following worthy our attention : —
" First, We should exercise liberality in union with sen-
timent, because of the different capacities, advantages,
and tasks of mankind. Religion employs the capacities
of mankind just as the air employs their lungs and their
organs of speech. The fancy of one is lively, of another
dull. The judgment of one is elastic ; of another feeble,
a damaged spring. The memory of one is retentive;
that of another is treacherous as the wind. The passions
of this man are lofty, vigorous, rapid ; those of that man
crawl, and hum, and buzz, and, when on wing, sail only
round the circumference of a tulip. Is it conceivable that
capability, so different in every thing else, should be all
alike in reUgion? The advantages of mankind differ.
How should he who hath no parents, no books, no tutor,
no companions, equal him whom Providence hath gratifi-
ed with them all ; who, when he looks over the treasures
of his own knowledge, can say, this I had of a Greek,
that I learned of a Roman ; this information I acquired
of my tutor, that was a present of my father ; a friend
gave me this branch of knowledge, an acquaintance be-
queathed me that ? The tasks of mankind differ ; so I
call the employments and exercises of life. In my opin-
ion, circumstances make great men ; and if we have not
Ccesars in the state, and Pauls in the church, it is because
neither church nor stale are in the circumstances in which
they were in the days of those great men. Push a dull
man into a river, and endanger his life, and suddenly he
will discover invention, and make efforts beyond himself.
The world is a fine school of instruction. Poverty, sick-
ness, pain, loss of children, treachery of friends, malice
of enemies, and a thousand other things, drive the man of
sentiment to his Bible, and, so to speak, bring him hoine
to a repast with his benefactor, God. Is it conceivable
that he whose young and tender heart is yet unpractised
in trials of this kind, can have ascertained and tasted so
many religious truths as the sufferer has .'
" VVe should believe the Christian religion with liberali-
ty, in the second place, because every part of the Chris-
tian religion inculcates generosity. Christianity gives us
a character of God ; but what a character does it give !
God is Love. Christianity teaches the doctrine of Provi-
dence ; but what a providence ! Upon whom doth not its
light arise ? Is there an animalcule so little, or a wretch
so forlorn, as to be forsaken and forgotten of his God ?
Christianity teaches the doctrine of redemption ; but the
redemption of whom ? — of all tongues, kindred, nations,
and people ; of the infant of a span, and the sinner of a
hundred years old : a redemption generous in its princi-
ple, generous in its price, generous in its effects ; fixed
sentiments of divine munificence, and revealed with a
liberality for which we have no name. In a word, the il-
liberal Christian always acts contrary to the spirit of his
religion : the liberal man alore thoroughly understands it.
" Thirdly, We should be liberal, because no other spirit
is exemplified in the infaUible guides whom we profess to
follow. I set one Paul against a whole army of uninspir-
ed men : ' Some preach Christ of good-will, and some of
envy and strife. What then ? Christ is preached ; and I
therein do rejoice, yea, and will rejoice. One eateth all
things, another eateth herbs ; but why dost thou judge
thy brother? We shall all stand before the judgment-seat
of Christ.' We often inquire. What was the doctrine of
Christ, and what was the practice of Christ? Suppose
we were to institute a third question. Of what temper was
Christ ?
" Once more : We should be liberal as well as orthodox,
because truths, especially the truths of Christianity, do ;
not want any support from our illiberality. Let the little \
bee guard its little honey with its little sling; perhaps its
little life may depend a little while on that little nourish- ]
ment. Let the fierce bull shake his head, and nod his J
horn, and threaten his enemy, who seeks to eat his flesh, "
and wear his coat, and live by his death : poor fellow !
his life is in danger ; I forgive his bellowing and his rage.
But the Christian religion, — is that in danger? And what
human efforts can render that false which is true, that odi-
ous which is lovely? Christianity is in no danger, and
therefore it gives its professors life and breath, and all
things except a power of injuring others.
"In fine, liberality in the profession of religion is a J
wise and innocent policy. The bigot lives at home ; a rep- I
tile he crawled into existence, and there in his hole he '
lurks a reptile still. A generous Christian goes out of his
own party, associates with others, and gains improvement
by all. It is a Persian proverb, ' A liberal hand is better
than a strong arm.' The dignity of Christianity is better
supported by acts of liberality than by accuracy of rea-
LIB
[745]
LIF
soning ; but when both go together, wlien a man of senti-
ment can clearly state and ably defend his religious prin-
ciples, and when his heart is as generous as his principles
are inflexible, he possesses strength and beauty in an emi-
nent degree." See Theol. Misc. vol. i. p. 39 ; Draper mi
Bigotry ; Nenton, Cecil, and Fuller's Works ; Wayland's
Discourses. — Heitd. Buck.
LIBERTINE : one who acts without restraint, and
pays no regard io the precepts of religion. (See LiBek-
TiNEs.) — Hend. Buck.
LIBERTINES. 1. Mention is made of the synagogue
of the Libertines, (Acts 6: 9.) concerning whom there are
diflerent opinions, two of which hid fairest for the truth.
The first is that of Grotius and Vilringa, adopted by Guise
and Doddridge, that they were Italian Jews or proselytes.
The ancient Romans distinguished between Uberius and li-
bertinus. Liberlus was one who had been a slave, and ob-
tained his freedom ; liberti/ius was the son of a liberlus.
But this distinction in after ages was not strictly observed ;
-and libertiiius also came to be used for one not born, but
inade L"ee, in opposition to i/igenuus, or one born free. But
as all the other people of the several synagogues, men-
tioned in this passage of the Acts, are denominated from
the places from whence they came, it is probable that the
Libertines were so too ; and as the Cyrenians and Alex-
andrians, who came from Africa, are placed next to the
Libertines in that catalogue, it is probable they also be-
longed to the same country. So that, upon the whole,
there is little reason to doubt of the Libertines being so
called from the place from whence they came ; and the
order of the names in the catalogue might lead us to think,
that they were farther off from Jerusalem than Alexan-
dria and Cyrenia, which will carry us to the proconsular
province in Africa about Carthage. That a city called
Libertina did exist in that province is certain ; and that it
became the seat of a flourishing Christian church.
2. A religious sect which arose in the year 1525, whose
principal tenets were, that the Deity was the sole opera-
ting cause in the mind of man, and ihe immediate author
of all human actions ; that, consequently, the distinctions
of good and evil, which had been established with regard
to those actions, were false, and groundless, and that men
could not, properly speaking, commit sin ; that religion
consisted in the union of the spirit, or rational soul, with
the Supreme Being ; that all those who had attained this
happy union, by sublime contemplation and elevation of
mind, were then allowed to indulge without exception or
re.straint, iheir appetites or passions ; that all their actions
and pursuits were then perfectly innocent ; and that, after
the death of the body, they were to be united to the Deity.
These maxims occasioned their being called Libertines,
and the word has been used in an ill sense ever since.
3. Libertines of Geneva were a cabal of rakes rather than
of fanatics ; for they made no pretence to any religious
system, but pleaded only for the liberty of leading volup-
tuous and immoral lives. This cabal was composed of a
certain number of licentious, citizens, who could not bear
the severe disciphne of Calvin. There were also among
them several who were not only notorious for their disso-
lute and scandalous manner of living, but also for their
:i!heistical impiety and contempt of all religion. — Hend.
ruck ; Watson.
LIBERTY, denotes a state of freedom, in contradis-
tinction to slavery or restraint. — 1. Liberty of conscience is
freedom from restraint in our choice, and judgment about
matters of religion. — 2. Internal liberty, or liberty of choice,
is that in which our volitions are not determined by any
■ foreign cause or consideration whatever offered to it, but
by our own understanding or pleasure. — 3. External liber-
ty, or liberty of action, is opposed to a constraint laid on
the executive powers ; and consists in a power of render-
ing our volitions effectual. — 4. Philosophical or 7noral liber-
ty consists in a prevailing disposition to act according
to the dictates of reeison, i. e. in such a manner as
shall, all things considered, most effectually promote
our happiness. — 5. Spiritual liberty consists in freedom
from the curse of the moral law ; from the servitude
of the Jewish ritual ; from the love, power, and guilt of sin ;
from the dominion of Satan ; from the corruptions of the
world ; from the fear of death, and the wrath to come,
94
Rom. b: 14. 8: 1. Gal. 3: 13. John 8: 36. Rom 8:
21. Gal. 5:1. Thcss. 1: 10. See articles Materialists :
Necessity; Will; Predesti.vation ; and Doddridge's
Lect., vol. i. p, 50, oct. ; Watts' Phil., sect. v. p. 288 ; Jan.
Edwards on the Will ; Locke on Und. ; Grove's Mor. Phil
sect. 18, 19; /. Palmer on Liberty of Man; Martin's Qi J-
ries and Remarks on Human Liberty ; Charnock's Works, vol.
ii. p. 175, &c. ; Saurin's Serm., vol. iii. ser. 4 ; Brown's
Philosophy ; Oliver's Hin's ; M. Necker on Religion ; Ful-
ler's Wor/is; Works of Robert Hall; Wilkes' Essays.
Hend. Buck.
LIBYA. This name, in its largest sense, was used by
the Greeks to denote the whole of Africa. But Libya
Proper, or the Libya of the New Testament, the country
of the Lubims of the Old, was a large country lying along
the Mediterranean, on the west of Egypt. It was called
Pentapolitana Regio by Pliny, from its five chief cities,
Berenice, Arsinoe, Ptolemais, ApoHonia, and Gyrene ;
and Libya Cyrenaica by Ptolemy, from Cyrene, its capi-
tal. Libya is supposed to have been first peopled by, and
to have derived its name from, the Lehabim, or Lubim.
These, its earlier inhabitants, appear, in the times of the
Old Testament, to have consisted of wandering tribes,
who were sometimes in alliance with Egypt, and at others
with the Ethiopians of Arabia ; as they are said to have
assisted both Shishak and Zerah in their expeditions into
Judea, 2 Chron. 12, 14, ll3. They were for a time suffi-
ciently powerful to maintain a war with the Carthaginians,
by whom they were in the end entirely overcome. Since
that period, Libya, in common with the rest of the East,
has successively passed into the hands of the Greeks, Ro-
mans, Saracens, and Turks. The city Cyrene, built by a
Grecian colony, was the capital of this country, in which,
and other parts, dwelt many Jews, who came up to Jeru-
salem at the feast of Pentecost, together with those dis-
persed among other nations, and are called by St. Luke
"dwellers in the parts of Libya about Cyrene," Acts 2:
10. — Watson; Calmet ; Jones.
LICE . Swarms of lice was the third plague with which
God punished the Egyptians, Exod- 8: 16. The Hebrew
\\ord kanini, which the LXX. render skniphes, some trans-
late " flies," and think them the same as gnats. But Jo-
sephus, the Jewish rabbins, and most of the modern trans-
lators render the Hebrew word at large lice ; and Bochart
and Bryant support this interpretation. The former ar-
gues that gnats could not be meant ; 1. Because the crea-
tures here mentioned sprang from the dust of the earth,
and not from Ihe waters. 2. Because they were both on
men and cattle, which cannot be spoken of gnats. 3. Be-
cause their name comes from the radix kaun, which signi-
fies to make firm, fix, establish ; which can never agree to
gnats, flies, &c., which are ever changing their place, and
are almost constantly on the wing. 4. Because kanah is
the term by which talmudisls express the term louse, &C.
To which may be added, that if they were winged and
stinging insects, as Jerome, Origen, and others have sup-
posed, the plague of flies is unduly anticipated ; and the
next miracle will be only a repetition of the former.
Mr. Bryant, in ilhistrating the aptness of this miracle,
has the following remarks : " The Egyptians affected
great external purity, and were very nice both in their
persons and clothing ; bathing and making ablutions con-
tinually. Uncommon care was taken not to harbor any
vermin. They were particularly solicitous on this head ;
thinking it would be a great profanation of the temple
which they entered, if any animalculae of this sort were
concealed in their garments. The priests, says Herodo-
tus, are shaved, both as to their heads and bodies, every
third day, to prevent any louse, or any other detestable
creature, being found upon them when they are perform-
ing their duty to the gods. The judgment, therefore, in-
flicted by the hands of Moses, was, consequently, not only
most noisome Io the people in general, but it was no small
odium to Ihe most sacred order in Egypt, that they were
overrun with these filthy and delestable vermin." — Watson.
LIE. (See Lying.)
LIFE ; properly a state of active and happy existence.
1. Mortal life, since the fall, is the continuance or duration
of our present slate, which the Scriptures represent as
blended largely with death, and consequently short and
L IG
[746]
LIL
vain, Gen. 3: 17. 19:22—24. Job 14:1,2. James 4:
14. 2. Spiritual life consists in our being in the favor of
God, influenced by a principle of sanctifying grace, and
living in dependence on him to his glory. It is considered
as of divine origin, (Col. 3: 4.) hidden, (Col. 3: 3.) peace-
ful, (Rom. 8: 6.) secure, John 10: 28. 3. Eternal life is
the consummation of spiritual, (Rom. ti; 22.) that never
ending state of existence which the saints shall enjoy in hea-
ven ; and is glorious, (Col. 3: 4.) holy, Rev. 21: 27. and
blissful, 1 Pet. 1: 4. 2 Cor. 4: 17. (See Heaven. )-Heflrf. Buck.
LIFE, Book of. (See Book.)
LIFE, Tree of. (See Tree of Life.)
LIFTERS, and ANTILIFTERS ; so were called two
congregations at KiUmaurs, m North Britain, who, ac-
cording to Sir John Sinclair, diifered on the paltry ques-
tion, whether it was necessary for the minister to lift in
his hand the plate of bread before its distribution in the
Lord's supper. They were also called New Lights, and
the others Old Lights ; terms that have been applied in
other cases somewhat similar. Grigoire's Hist. torn. i. p.
61, quoted from Sinclair's Works, vol. ix. pp. 375-6. —
Williams.
LIFTING UP THE HANDS, is among the Orientals
a common part of the ceremony of taking an oath: — " I
have lift up mine hand unto the Lord," says Abraham,
Gen. 14: 22. And, "I will bring you into the land con-
cerning which I lift up mine hand," (Exod. 6: 8.) which I
promised with an oath.
To LIFT UP one's hands, EYES, SOUL, Or HEART, UUtO
the Lord, are also expressions describing the sentiments
and emotion of one who prays earnestly, or desires a thing
with ardor. — Calmet.
LIGHT, {phos,) is used in a physical sense, (Matt. 17:
2. Acts 9: 3. 12: 7. 2 Cor. 4: 6.) for a fire giving light,
(Mark 14: 54. Luke 22: 56.) for a torch, candle, or lamp,
(Acts 16: 29.) and for the material light of heaven, as the
sun, moon, or stars, Ps. 136: 7. James 1: 17. Figura-
tively taken, it signifies a manife.«?t or open state of things ;
(Matt. 10: 27. Luke 12: 3.) also, in a still higher sense,
the eternal source of truth, purity, and joy, 1 John 1:
5. James 1: 17.
God is said to dwell in light inaccessible, 1 Tim. 6: 16.
This seems to contain a reference to the glory and splen-
dor which shone in the holy of holies, where Jehovah ap-
peared in the luminous cloud above the mercy-seat, and
which none biit the high-priest, and he only once a year,
was permitted to approach unto ; (Lev. 16: 2. Ezek. 1:
22, 26, 28.) but this was typical of the glory of the celes-
tial world .
Light frequently signifies, also, instruction, both by doc-
trine and example ; (Matt. 5: 16. John 5: 35.) or persons
considered as giving such light. Matt. 5: 14. Rom. 2 19.
It is applied in the highest sense lo Christ, the true Light,
the Sun of Righteousness, who is that in the spiritual,
which the material light is in the natural world ; who is
the great Author, not only of illumination and knowledge,
but of spiritual life, health, and joy to the souls of men.
The images of light and darkness, says bishop Lowth,
are commonly made use of in all languages to imply or
denote prosperity and adversity, agreeably to the common
sense and perception which all men have of the objects
themselves. But the Hebrews, upon a subject more sub-
lime indeed, in itself, and illustrating it by an idea which
was more habitual to them, more daringly exalt their
strains, and give a loose rein to the spirit of poetry. They
display, for instance, not the image of the spring, of Au-
rora, or of the dreary night ; but the sun and stars as rising
with increased splendor in a new creation, or again in-
volved in chaos and primeval darkness, Isa. 30: 26. 60:
19, 20. 24: 25. Ezek. 27; 7, 8.
The expressions are bold and daring ; but the imagery
is well known, the use of it is common, the signification
definite ; they are therefore perspicuous, clear, and truly
magnificent. — Watson.
LIGHT OF NATURE. (See Nature.)
LIGHT, DrviNE. (See Knowledge ; Religion.)
LIGHTFOOT, (John, D. D.) a most learned English di-
vine, was the son of a minister, and born in March, 1602, at
Stoke-upon-Trent, in Staffordshire. At Cambridge, he ap-
pli ed himself to eloquence, and succeeded so well in it as
to be thought the best orator of the under graduates in the
university. He also made an extraordinary proficiency
in Latin and Greek. When he took the degree of bache«
lor of arts he left the university, and became assistant to
a school at Repton, in Derbyshire. After he had siipplied
this place a year or two, he entered into orders, and be-
came curate of Norton-under-Hales, in Shropshire. Ha
now began to study the Hebrew language, persuaded that
no man could be well versed in the Scriptures but an He'
braist. Not long after he removed to Hornsey, where he
wrote his Emblems, or Miscellanies, Christian and Judai-
cal, in 1629. He was then only twenty-seven, and
yet was well acquainted with the Latin and Greek fathers,
as well as the ancient heathen writers. He, at that time,
satisfied himself in clearing up many of the abstrusest
passages in the Bible ; and therein had provided the chief
materials, as well as formed the plan of his " Harmony.''
An opportunity of inspecting it at the press, was a motive
for his going to London, where he had not long been, be-
fore he was chosen minister of St. Bartholomew's, behind
the royal exchange. The great assembly of divines meet-
ing in 1643, our author gave his attendance there, and
made a distinguished figure in their debates ; where he
used great freedom, and gave signal proofs of his courage
as well as learning, in opposing many of those tenets
which the divines were endeavoring to establish. In 1653,
he was presented to the living of Much Munden, in Hert-
foi'd,shire. In 1655, he entered upon the office of vice-
chancellor of Cambridge. The year of Dr. Lightfoot's
decease is not exactly known. He was a true Christian.
In the discharge of his clerical duties, he was zealous and
active. As to his learning in the rabbinical way, he was
excelled by none, and had few equals. The most com-
plete edition of the works of this learned author is that
edited by Pitman, comprised in thirteen volumes, octavo ;
London, 1825. Jones' Chris. Biog. — Hend. Buck.
LIGURE, {lishim; Exod. 28: 19. 39: 12.) a precious
stone, of a deep red color, with a considerable tinge of yel-
low. Theophrastus and Pliny describe it as resembling
tlie carbuncle, of a brightness sparkling like fire. — Watson.
LILLY, (William,) an astrologer, was bom, in 1602,
at Diseworth, in Leicestershire ; and, after having been
servant to a mantuamaker, and bookkeeper to a trades-
man, he became a professor of astrology. Lilly, who had
a tolerable spice of the knave in his composition, soon ac-
quired both fame and money in his new vocation. Dur-
ing the civil wars he was consulted by both parties as to
events ; but it was the cause of the parliament that he
finally espoused. He died in 1681. Among his works
are, Observations on the Life and Death of Charles I. ; and
his own Life. — Davenport.
LILY, (shushan ; 1 Kings 7: 19, 22, 26. 2 Chron. 4: 5.
Cant. 2: 2, 16. 4: 5. 5: 13. 6: 2, 3. 7: 2. Hos. 14: 5.
kriiwn, Matt. 6: 28. Luke 12: 27.) a well known, sweet, and
beautiful flower, which furnished Solomon with a variety
of charming images in his Song, and with graceful orna-
ments in the fabric and furniture of the temple. The
title of some of the Psalms " upon Shushan," or " Sho-
shanim," (Ps. 45, 60, 69, 80.) probably means no more
than that the music of these sacred compositions was to
be regulated by that of some odes, which were known by
those names or appellations.
By " the lily of the valley," (Cant. 2: 2.) we are not to
understand the humble flower, generally so called mth us,
the lilium convallium, but the noble flower which ornaments
our gardens, and which in Palestine grows wild in the
fields, and especially in the valleys. In the East, as with
us, it is the emblem of purity and moral excellence. So
the Persian poet, Sadi, compares an amiable youth to
"the white lily in a bed of narcissuses," because he sur-
passed all the young shepherds in goodness.
As, in Cant. 5: 13, the lips are compared to the lily,
bishop Patrick supposes the lily here instanced to be the
same which, on account of its deep red color, is particu-
larly called by Pliny rubens lilium, and which, he tells us,
was much esteemed in Syria. Such may have been the
lily mentioned in Matt, fi: 28 — 30 ; for the royal robes were
purple. Sir James E . Smith observes, "It is natural to
presume the divine Teacher, according to his usual cus
torn, called the attention of his hearers to some ob'ect at
LIN
747
LIN
hand ; and as the fields of the Levant are overrun with
the amaryUis lutea, whose golden lilaceous flowers in au-
tumn afford one of the most briUianl and gorgeous objects
in nature, the expression of ' Solomon in all his glory not
being arrayed like one of these,' is peculiarly appropriate.
I consider the feelmg with which this was expressed as
the highest honor ever done to the study of plants ; and if
my botanical conjecture be right, we learn a chronological
fact respecting the season of the year when the sermon on
the mount was dehvered." (See Grass.) — Watson.
LBIBO, in Roman Catholic divinity, signifies a place
on the borders of hell, where the patriarchs remained un-
til the advent of Christ, who, before his resurrection, ap-
peared to them, and opened for them the doors of heaven.
It is commonly called limbits patrtwt ; besides which, some
adopt a Hmhiis infantum, to which those infants go who die
without having been baptized. — Hend. Buck.
LIME, {shid; Deut. 27: 2, 4. Isa. 33: 12. Amos 2: 1.)
a soft friable substance, obtained by calcining or burning
f-tones, shells, or the like. From Isaiah 33: 12, it appears
that it was made in a kiln lighted with thorn bushes; and
from Amos 2: 1, that bones were sometimes calcined for
lime. The use of it was for plaster or cement, the first
mention of which is in Deut. 27. — Watson.
LIMITER, (liwitour ;) an itinerant and begging friar,
employed by the convent to collect its dues, and promote
its temporal interests, within certain Units, though under
the direction of the brotherhood who employed him ; he
was occasionally a person of considerable importance.
liusseU's Notes ; Worhs of the English end Scottish Refor-
mers, vol. ii. pp. 536, 542. — Hend. Suck.
LINCOLN, (Ensign.) This estimable man, " the me-
morial of whose -driues will be imperishable," was born
in Hingham, (Mass.) Jan. 8, 1779. His early years were
blest with the care of an eminently pious mother. He
was regularly bred to the profession of a printer by Messrs.
Jlanning and Loring, of Boston.
About the age of nineteen Sir. Lincoln felt the power
of the gospel under the ministry of the Rev. Dr. Baldwin,
and was baptized by him on profession of his faith. To
the Baptist communion, though enlarged and catholic in
his affections, he continued conscientiously and ardently
attached to the end of his days. He soon became intimate
with other voung men of character and religious principle,
and with them spent many of his evenings in social reli-
gious meetings, while as an apprentice be was a model of
faithfulness and purity. Here were the germs of his sub-
sequent life.
In the year 1800, he commenced business on his own
ai;couQt. The first work he printed was Cowper's Poems,
in two volumes, the first edition of the works of that im-
mortal bard of Christianity which appeared in this coun-
try.
When Mr. Samuel Hall (a name well known and re-
.<;peeled among booksellers at the beginning of the present
centnry) was looking round among the younger members
of the profession for a successor, his eye rested on Mr.
Lincoln ; and he and Mr. T. Edmands, with whom he had
jnst formed a partnership, became the purchasers of Mr.
Hall's stock in trade, and the occupants of the long cele-
brated stand. No. 59, Cornhill, (now Washington street,)
Boston. Very few partnerships have been of .so long du-
ration, or have contributed more to the furtherance of
S'jund knowledge, especially religious knowledge, in our
country; and it is but justice to add, that no partnership
in trade has more deservedly enjoyed the esteem and con-
fidence of the public, by the uniform exercise of all the
mercantile and Christian virtues for the space of thirty
j-ears ; none more enterprising, industrious, and economi-
cal ; none more fair and honorable in the sight of all men.
It was dissolved only by the lamented death of Mr. Lin-
coln, Dec. 2, 1832, at the age of fifty-three.
Mr. Lincoln had been from 1811, a licensed minister of
the gospel of Christ ; and though he never was ordained,
and therefore never relinquished the secular profession to
which he had been educated, and in which he thought it
his duty to persevere with all the constancy of a man of
the world, yet he preached, and prayed, and performed
the ordinary offices of a minister of the gospel with all
the holy fervor of an apostle. lie won the unaffected re-
spect of all men, as a generous neighbor, an honest friend,
and a vntuous cuizen. " A purer mind," says Mr. Buck-
ingham, " never inhabited a mortal frame. A love of
truth and goodness was the ruling passion of his soul.
His manners were frank and open ; his deportment was
as free from prudery and affectation, as his heart was
from hypocrisy. He delighted in the' social intercourse
of friends, and was always an object around which they
might gather to indulge in the pleasures of conversation ;
to be pleased, improved, refined. There are few who
combine so many of the useful qualities with so much re-
tiring modesty. There are few who have done no much
good in so noiseless a manner."
Mr. Lincoln's death, though in the meridian of life and
usefulness, and watched by the breaking hearts of his fami-
ly and friends, was not only peaceful but triumphant. He
had lived to see the prosperity of the cause he loved, and
labored to promote ; to see the churches he had assisted
largely in planting, flourishing in all directions around
him ; to see all his children who were grown up, become
the devoted followers of the Savior, and preparing to fill
his place in society, and in the church of God ; and he
felt that death was welcome. " If I should live to the
age of Methuselah," he remarked, " I could find no bet-
ter time to die." To an inquiry whether he enjoyed the
presence of Christ, he readily answered, " The Savior
promised to be with me a great while ago, and he will ful-
fil every v^ord." Being asked on another occasion bow
he felt, " Oh, delightfully," was his characteristic reply ;
"the Lord reignelh ; he will do infinitely well for me and
mine. I feel entire confidence in his wisdom and good-
ness." A prayer which he offered audibly, about an hour
before his death, concluded with these touching words :
" Gracious Redeemer, what has been wrong do thou for-
give ; what has been gracious do Ihou record." The glo-
ry of Christ being afterwards alluded to, he said, (and
they were his last words,) " Yes, not to behold his glory
would be no heaven !" Thus in the full view of the near
approach of death, and ^rilh an intellect calm and collect-
ed, he expressed his unshaken reliance on God, and his
hope in his Redeemer.
At his funeral the church was dressed in the habiliments
of mourning ; and the general aspect and solemnity of the
audience, composed in part of ministers and distinguished
citizens of difierent denominations in the city and vicini-
ty, seemed in silent eloquence to say that a saint of emi-
nent usefulness had departed to the rewards of grace in
the world of glory.
]\Ir. Lincoln wa-s active in the organization of the Evan-
gelical Tract society, the Howard Benevolent society, the
Boston Baptist Foreign Mission society, the Massachu-
setts Baptist Education society, and other institutions of
a similar character. To these he not only gave his name,
but much of his time, and thoughts, and pen, as well as
his property.
Aiuong the numerous valuable works issued from the
press of Lincoln and Edmands, for which the public are in-
debted to Blr. Lincoln, may be mentioned particularly,
Winchell's AVatts, the Pronouncing Bible, and the series
of beautiful volumes, styletl The Christian Library.
Lincoln's Scripture Questions, and Sabbath School Class
Book, prepared by him, are well kno«Ti. — Hiv. Dr. Sharp's
Funeral Sermon ; Boston Coitritr ; Christian Watchman ;
Am. Baptist Magazine fir April, 1833.
LINDSEY, (Theopuilus.) a Unitarian divine, was born,
in 1723, at Bliddlewich, in Cheshire, and was educated at
St. .John's college, Cambridge. He. after ten years vacil-
lation, resigned the living of Catlerick in 1773, in conse-
quence of his having embraced the principles of Unitari-
anisni. On account of this resignation Mr. Belshams
calls him "the venerable confessor." Upon this title
Robert Hall admirably observes : — " The nature of the doc-
trine professed must be taken into consideration before we
can determine that profession to he a Christian profession ;
nor is martyrdom entitled to the high veneration justly
bestowed on acts of heroic piety, on any other ground than
its being what the term imports, an atkstation of the truth.
It is the saint which makes the martyr, not the martyr the
"""From 1774 till 1793, he was minister of a congregation
L I 0 [ 7<
n Essex street, hi the SlranJ. He died in 1803. He
wrote among other works, an Apology for himself; a Se-
quel to the Apology ; Considerations on the Divine Go-
vernment ; an Examination of Mr. Robinson's Plea ; an
Historical View of the Unitarian Doctrine and Worship ;
and Sermons. See Behham's Memoirs of Liiirlsei/, Revictrs
of Robert Hall ; Jones' Chris. Biog. — Davenport.
LINE. To stretch a line over a city, is to destroy it,
Zeeh. 1: 16. Jer. 2: S.—Calmet^
LINEN, {bed ;) the product of a well known plant, (flax,)
whose bark, being prepared, serves to make fine and much
esteemed linen clothes. Another sort of linen Scripture
rails shesh ; which we believe to be cotton. Under the name
of linen Jj/s.ws is included; but this was something different
from both linen and cotton. It was a kind of silk yield-
ed by fish of the muscle kind, which Rondelet calls pinna
magna. (See Flax.) — Calmet.
LINN, (John Blair,) an American divine and poet,
son of AVilliam Linn, D. D., was born in Pennsylvania,
in 1777, and after graduating at Columbia college, entered
on the study of law, in the office of Alexander Hamilton,
in New York. Finding but little agreeable to him in this
pursuit, and having felt the power of religion on his heart,
he determined to embrace the ministry ; and after complet-
ing a course of theological study, he was settled as a
preacher, in Philadelphia, in 1799. He died of consump-
tion, in 1805. He is the author of Valerian, a poem on
the influence of Christianity, and of the Powers of Genius,
a poem possessing much beauty, and which has gone
through several editions, both in England and the Uni-
ted States. Life by C. B. Brown ; Allen. — Davenport.
LINUS ; a Christian mentioned by Paul, (2 Tim. 4: 21.)
an whom Irenceus, Eusebius, Optatus, Epiphanius, Aus-
tin, Jerome, and Theodoret, affirm to have succeeded Peter
as bishop of Kome.
Mr. Taylor thinks there is little hazard in taking Links
for the British CyLLiN, brother of Claudia. (See Claudia,
and PoHPONiA Grecia.) If so, it agrees with the history
that Christianity had made converts in the family of Bren-
nus, king of Britain, and Caractacus, his son, then prison-
ers at Rome ; and the first (Gentile) bishop of Rome was
a Briton. (See Christianity.) — Calmet.
LION. The name by which this noble animal is gene-
rally designated in the Hebrew Scriptures is translated, to
pluck or tear off, and has been supposed to have originated
m his remarkable habit of tearing his prey to pieces, Ps.
7: 2. 22; 13. Mic. 5: 8. But there are several other
names given to him by the inspired writers, each of which
is characteristic either of his age or some feature in his
character.
We now proceed to describe this noble animal, whose
outward form seems to speak his internal generosity. His
figure is striking, his look confident and bold, his gait
proud, and his roar is terrible. His stature is not over-
grown, like that of the elephant, or rhinoceros ; nor is his
shape clumsy, hke that of the hippopotamus, or the ox.
It is compact, well proportioned, and sizable ; a perfect
model of strength, joined with agility. It is muscular
and bold, neither charged with fat or unnecessary flesh.
8 ] LIT
It is sufBcient but to see him in order to be assured of \i\i
superior force. His large head, surrounded with a dread-
ful mane ; all those muscles that appear under the skin
swelling with the slightest exertions ; and the great breadth
of his paws, with the thickness of his limbs, plainly evince
that no other animal in the forest is capable of opposing
him. His face is very broad, and is surrounded with
very long hair, which gives it a most majestic air. His
huge eyebrows ; his round and fiery eyeballs, whiah, up-
on the least irritation, seem to glow with peculiar lustre ;
together with the formidable appearance of his teeth ; ex-
hibit a picture of terrific grandeur which it is impossible
to describe. The length of a large lion is between eight
and nine feet ; and its height about four feet and a half.
The top of the head, the temples, the cheeks, the under
jaw, the neck, the breast, the shoulders, the hinder part of
the legs, and the belly, are furnished with long hair, while
all the rest of the body is covered with very short hair, of
a tawny color. The mane of the lion grows every year
longer as the animal grows older : but the lioness is wilh-
out this appendage at every age. This mane is not coarse
or rough as in a horse, but is composed of the same hair
as covers the rest of the body.
It is usually supposed that the lion is not possessed of
the sense of smelling in such perfection as many other
animals. It is also observed, that too strong a light great-
ly incommodes him : this is apparent, indeed, from the
formation of his eyes, which, Uke those of the cat, seeiT.
fitted for seeing best in the dark. For this reason, he sel-
dom appears in open day, but ravages chiefly by night.
With this fact, corresponds the language of the royal
prophet, Ps. 104: 20—22.
The most fierce and terrible of these animals are found
in Africa, and the hottest parts of Asia. It is particularly
in the frightful deserts of these scorching regions that
those enormous and ferocious beasts are found, that seem
to be the scourge and terror of the neighboring kingdoms.
Happily, indeed, says Buffon, the species is not very nu-
merous, and it seems to be diminishing daily ; for those
who have travelled through these countries, assure us,
there are by no means so many there at present, as were
known formerly. (See Jordan.)
Accustomed to measure his strength with every animal
he meets, the habit of conquering renders the lion intrepid
and terrible. In those regions where he has not experi-
enced the dangerous arts and combinations of man, he has
no apprehensions from his power. He boldly faces him,
and seems to brave the force of his arms. Wounds rather
serve to provoke his rage than to repress his ardor. Nor
is he daunted by the opposition of numbers ; a single lion
of the desert often attacks an entire caravan, and, after an
obstinate combat, when he finds himself overpowered, in-
stead of flying he continues to combat, retreating, and still
facing the enemy till he dies. To this trait in his charac-
ter Job alludes, when, complaining of his trials, he hastily
said to the Almighty, " Thou huntest me as a fierce lion,"
ch. 10: 16. We see, also, the propriety with which Hushai
describes the valiant among the troops of Absalom, as
possessing " the heart of a lion," 2 Sam. 17: 10. — Calmet.
LIP, is sometimes used for the bank of a river, for the
border of a vessel or table, Exod. 25: 24. 2 Chron. 4: 2.
It also signifies language. Gen. 11: 1. Exod. 6: 12, Arc.
" We will render thee the calves of our lips," says Hosea ;
(14: 2.) that is, sacrifices of praise, instead of bloody vic-
tims. " I do not send thee," says the Lord to Ezekiel, (3:
5.) " to a people deep of lip," of an unknown language. —
Calmet.
LITANY; a general supplication used in public wor-
ship to appease the wrath of the Deity, and to request
those blessings a person wants. The word comes from
the Greek litnneia, " supplication." At first, the use of
litanies was not fixed to any stated time, but were only
employed as exigencies reqiiired. They were observed,
in imitation of the Ninevites, with ardent supplications
and fastings, to avert the threatened judgments of fire,
earthquakes, inundations, or hostile invasions. About A. D.
400, litanies began to be used in processions, the people
walking barefoot, and repeating them with great devotion ;
and it is pretended that by this means several cotmtrie.s
were delivered from great catamites. The days on which
i^
LIT
they were" used were called Rogation days ; these were
appointed by the canons of different councils, till it was
decreed by the council of Toledo, that they should be used
every month throughout the year; and thus, by degrees,
they came to be used weekly on AVednesdays and Fridays,
the ancient stationary days for fasting. To these days the
rubric of the church of England has added Sundays, as
being the greatest day for assembling at divine service.
Almost every saint in the Roman calendar has his lita-
ny, in which the people respond, Ora pro nobis, " pray
for us." Litanies are found in the old Lutheran hymn
books ; but they are no longer used by German Protes-
tants.— Hencl. Bnck.
LITHGOW, (William;) a gentleman of Scotland, who,
while travelling in Spain, in 1620, fell into the hands of
the Inquisition, and was subjected to unheard of tortures,
but was providentially delivered. The history may be
found at length in Fox, pp. 167 — 173.
LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies in general be-
longing to divine service. The word comes from the
Greek leitoiirgia, "service, public ministry," formed of
kilos, " public," and ergon, "work." In a more restrain-
ed signification, liturgy is used among the Romanists to
signify the mass, and among Protestants, the commoa
prayer. All who have WTitten on liturgies agree, that in
primitive days, divine service was exceedingly simple,
clogged with very few ceremonies, and consisted of but a
small number of prayers ; but, by degrees, they increased
the number of ceremonies, and added new prayers, to
make the office look more awful and venerable to the peo-
ple. At length, things were carried to such a pitch, that
a regulation became necessary : and it was found necessa-
ry to put the service and the manner of performing it into
writing, and this was what they called a liturgy.
Liturgies have been different at different times and in
different countries. The Armenians, Copts, Ethiopians,
Greeks, Syrians, Jacobites, Maronites, and Nestorians,
have their several liturgies, and some of them from three
to forty different cues.
The liturgy of the Roman church consists of the Bre-
viary, containing the matins, lauds, &c. ; the Missal, or
volume employed in saying mass, and containing the cal-
endar, the general rubrics, or rites of that mass ; the Cere-
monial, containing the offices peculiar to the pope, .such as
consecration, benediction, canonization, kc. ; the Pontifi-
cale, which describes the functions of bishops at ordina-
tions, consecrations of churches, &c. ; and the Ritual, con-
taining the services as performed by the simple priests
both in public worship and in private. The whole of this
liturgy is performed in Latin.
The liturgy of the church of England was composed in
the year 1517, and established in the second year of king
Edward VI. In the fifth year of this king it was revised,
because some things were contained in that liturgy which
showed a compliance with the superstition of those times,
and some exceptions were taken against it by some learn-
ed men at home, and by Calvin abroad. Some altera-
tion£ were made in it, which consisted in adding the gene-
ral confession and absolution, and the communion to begin
with the ten commandments. The use of oil in confirma-
tion and extreme unction was left out, and also prayers
fur souls departed, and what related to a belief of Chri.st's
real pitesence in the eucharist. This liturgy, so reformed,
was established by the acts of the fifth and sixth Edward
VI. cap. 1. However, it was abolished by queen Mary,
who enacted, that the service should stand as it was most
commonly used in the last year of the reign of king Henry
Vni. That of Edward VI. was re-e.stablished, with
some alterations, by Elizabeth. Some further alterations
were introduced, in consequence of the revision of the
common prayer book, by order of king James, in the first
year of his reign, particularly in the office of private bap-
tism, in several rubrics, and other passages, with the addi-
tion of five or six new prayers and thanksgivings, and all
that part of the catechism which contains the doctrine of
the sacraments. The book of common prayer, so altered,
remained in force from the first year of king James to the
fourieenlh of Charles II. The last revision of the liturgy
was in the year 1661. Many petitions have been since
made fur a revision, but without success.
[ 749 ] L L 0
The common prayer book of the Protestant Episcop&S
Church, in the United States, which was adopted in 178'.!,
omits the Athanasian creed, and leaves to the officiating
minister the discretionary power to substitute for the arti-
cle " he descended into hell," the words " he went into the
place of departed spirits." Bingham's Orig. Eccl. p. 13 ;
Broughton's Did. ; Bennett, Robinson, and Ctarkson, on Li-
tur. passim ; A Letter to a Dissenting Minister on tite Expe-
diency of Forms, and BrehelVs Answer ; Roger's Lectures on
the IJturg!/ of the Church of England ; Biddulph's Essays
on. the Liturgy ; Orion's Letters, vol. i. pp. 16, 24. — Heml.
Buck.
LIVERPOOL LITURGY. A liturgy so called from
its first publication at Liverpool. It was composed by
some of the Presbyterians, who, growing weary of extem-
pore prayer, thought a form more desirable. It made its
appearance in 1652. Sir. Orton says of it, " It is scarcely
a Christian liturgy. In the collect the name of Christ is
hardly mentioned ; and the Spirit is quite banished from
it." It was little better than a deistical composition. Or-
ion's Letters, vol. i. pp. 60, 81 ; Boguc and Bennett's Hist.
of Diss. vol. iii. p. 'ii2.—IIcnd. Buck.
LIVE. To be inwardly quickened, nourished, and actu-
ated by the influence of God, Gal. 2: 20. (2.) To be great-
ly refreshed and comforted, Ps. 22: 16. 1 Thess. 3: 8. (3.)
To have the continued possession of grace here, and glo-
ry hereafter, John 14: 19. God /ices in and of himself ; he
has incomprehensible and everlasting activity and happi-
ness, Num. 14: 21. Christ now Vwes possessed of all hap-
piness for himself. Rev. 1: 18. He lives for his people,
perpetually interceding for them, and conveying to them
his purchased blessings ; (Heb. 7: 25.) and he lives in them
as a quickening Spirit ; he dwells in their hearts by faith,
and is the hfe-giving principle from which their spiritual
activity and comforts proceed ; and they live on him by
faith, drawing virtue from his word, person, righteousness,
and fulness, for their quickening, activity, and comfort,
Gal. 2: 20. Hen live not by bread alone, but by every word
that proceedeth out of the month of God. Even when there
are no apparent means of subsistence, we are to trust to
the power aVid promise of God for our support in life,
]\Iatt. 4: 4. Blen live not to themselves, but unto God, or
Christ, when they make, not their carnal ease, profit, or ho-
nor their great end, but his glorv, and the edification of his
church, Rom. 14: 7, 8. 2 Cor. 5: 14, 15. To live in God's
sis.hl is to be preserved by his favor, live under his special
care, and in the exercise of loving and pleasing him, Hos.
6: 2. Gen. 17, 18. The religious service of saints is call-
ed a living and reasonable sacrifice, to distinguish it from
the ancient sacrifices of beasts; and because proceeding
from a soul spiritually quickened, it is performed in a
lively and active manner. Rev. 12: 1.— (See Life.) BrmrK.
LIZARD. Several species of lizards are well known.
There are some in Arabia, a cubit in length; but in the
Indies there are some much longer. In America they are
eaten, as they probably were in Arabia and Judea, since
Bloses forbids them as food.
We find several sortsof lizards mentioned in Scripture;
Utah; rhomet ; tinshemeth ; (Lev. 11: 30.) and shemamith.
The third is translated mole ; but Bochart maintains that
it is the chameleon, (which is a kind of lizard.) — Calmet.
LLORENTE. (John Anthony.) a Spanish ecclesiastic,
was born, in 1756, at Rincon del Soto, and obtained vari-
ous preferments, among which was that of secretary-g«-ne-
ral to the Inquisition. Having accepted a consideiable
post under Joseph Bonaparte, and written in his favor, he
was compelled to quit Spain on the return of Ferdinand.
He died in 1823. He is the author of a History of the In-
quisition ; Memoirs relative to the History of the Spanish
Revolution ; Political Portraits of the Popes ; and other
works. — Davenport.
LLOYD, (William, D. D.) a learned prelate of the church of
England, was born at Tilehurst, in Berkshire, 1627, where
his father was rector of the parish. After having resided
at the university of Oxford for several years, and gone
through his degrees, he obtained a prebend in the collegi-
ate church of Ripon, soon after the restoration, and m
1666 was appointed chaplain to the king. After holding
various other ecclesiastical preferments, among which » as
the deanery of Bangor, he, in 1676, was instituted to the
LOG
vicarage of St. Martin's in the Fields, 'Westminster; and,
in 1680, he was raised to the bishopric of St. Asaph.
AVhile he held this benefice, he joined archbishop Bancroft,
and other prelates, in presenting a petition to king James
II., deprecating his assumed power of suspending the laws
against popery. The prosecution and acquittal of the pe-
titioners is a well known and important fact in English
history. On the revolution taking place, bishop Lloyd
•was made almoner to king William III. ; and, in 1692, he
was translated to the see of Litchfield. Thence he was
promoted to the see of Worcester, where he sat till his
death, in 1717, in the ninety-first year of his age.
His writings, which amount to about twenty dislimt
publications, display much learning and acuteness. He
assisted Dr. Wilkins in his "Essay toward a real Charac-
ter ;" but his most important work is a " Dissertation on
the Seventy Weeks of Daniel ; and an Exposition of that
Prophecy." We are also indebted to liim for the chrono-
logy, and many of the references and parallel passages
printed in most of our English Bibles. Biog. Brit. ; At-
kin^s Geti. Biog. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
LOCKE, (John,) one of the greatest of English philoso-
phers and metaphysicians, was born, in 1632, at Wrington,
750 J
LOO
in Somersetshire ; and was educated at Westminster
school, and at Christ church, Oxford ; though he often
said that what he had learned there was of Uttle use to
him, to enlighten and enlarge his mind. The first books
which gave him a relish for the study of philosophy, were
the writings of Des Cartes ; for though he did not always
approve of his sentiments, he found that he wrote with
great perspicuity. After some time, he applied himself
very closely to the study of medicine : not M'ith any de-
sign of practising as a physician, but principally for the
benefit of his own constitution, which was bat weak. He
went to the continent, in 1664, as secretary to the envoy
S'?nt to Berlin ; resumed his medical studies after his re-
turn; and graduated as a bachelor of physic, in 1674,
though he never entered upon general practice. Locke
was introduced, in 1606, to lord Ashley, afterwards earl of
Shaftesbury, who esteemed him highly, confided to him
the superintendence of his son's education, and the form-
ing of a constitution for the colony of Carolina, and, when
he himself became chancellor, appointed him secretary of
presentations, and, at a later period, secretary to the board
of trade. When Shaftesbury withdrew to Holland, Locke
accompanied him, and he remained on the continent for
eome years. Here he formed a friendship with Limborch
and Leclerc. So obnoxious was he to James' govern-
ment, that the British envoy demanded that he should be
delivered up ; a fate which he escaped only by concealing
himself for a year.
It was while he resided in Holland that he completed
his Essay on the Human Understanding, and wrote his
first Letter on Toleration. Having returned to England
at the revolution, he published his Essay in 1690. It was
virulently but vainly assailed, and rapidly spread his fame
in all quarters. That fame he enhanced by his additional
Letters on Toleration ; his two Treatises on Government,
which annihilated Filmer and the whole tribe of non-resis-
tance teachers ; his Thoughts on Education ; Reasonable-
ness of Christianity ; and other pieces. His merit was
rewarded by his being made a commissioner of appeals,
and, subsequently, of trade and plantations.
The last fourteen or fifteen years of his life, Mr. Locke
spent chiefly at Gates, seldoin coming to town ; and during
this agreeable retirement, he applied himself to the study
of the Scriptures, of the divine origin of which he was
thoroughly persuaded. It has been said that Mr. Locke
was a Unitarian, at least so far as to disbelieve the doc-
trine of the Trinity. The confidence with which his name
has been quoted of late, to this effect, will appear remark-
able, if it is remembered, 1. That no positive evidence of
it is to be found in his writings. 2. That to Dr. Stilling-
fleet, who accused him of it, he expressly denied having
written a sentence unfavorable to the doctrine of the Tri-
nity. .3. That in a letter to Limborch, alluding to Dr.
Allix's work on the Trinil)', he uses this remarkable lan-
guage : " I have not been in the habit of expecting any
aid in this cause from the Jews and rabbins ; but light is
very delightful, from whatever source it may shine." His
Common Place Book of the Scriptures is an invaluable
fruit of his scriptural studies. He admired the wisdom
and goodness of God in the method found out for the sal-
vation of mankind ; and when he thought upon it, he
could not forbear crj'ing out, " 0, the depth of the riches
of the goodness and knowdedge of God !" He was per-
suaded that men would be convinced of this by read-
ing the Scriptures without prejudice ; and he frequently
exhorted those witli whom he conversed, to a serious study
of these sacred writings. A relation inquired of him, what
was the shortest and surest way for a young gentleman to
attain a true knowledge of the Christian religion ? " Let
HIM STCTDY," said I\Ir. Locke, " the Holy Scripture, espe-
cially IN THE New Testament. Therein are contained
the words of eternal life. It has God for its author ;
salvation for its end ; and truth, without any mixture
OF error, for its matter." These words deserve to be
written in letters of gold.
In 1704, his strength began to fail him more than ever
in the beginning of the summer, a season which, for many
years, hatl restored him some degree of strength. He then
saw how short a time he had to live, and prepared to quit
this world, with a deep sense of the manifold mercies of
God to him, which he took delight in recounting to his
friends ; and full of a sincere resignation to the divine will,
and in firm hopes of his promises of a future life, he ex-
pired, on the 28th of October, 1704, in the seventy-third
}'ear of his age.
There is no occasion to attempt a panegyric on this
great man ; his writings are now well known and valued,
and will last as long as the English language. Averse to
all mean complaisance, his wisdom, his experience, his
gentle manners, gained him the respect of his inferiors,
the esteem of his equals, the friendship and confidence of
those of the highest quality. He was very exact to his
word, and religiously performed whatever he promised.
As he always kept the useful in his eye, he esteemed the
employments of men only in proportion to the good they
were capable of producing; for which reason lie had no
great value for those critics, and mere grammarians, who
waste their lives in comparing words and phrases, and in
coming to a determination in the choice of a various read-
ing in a passage of no importance.
But, above all, Locke was a Christian, habitual and
sincere. The ways of religion he loved, and he found
them the ways of pleasantness and peace : thus he com-
bined wisdom and knowledge, and truly benefited the
world. He left several manuscripts behind him, besides
his "Paraphrase on some' of St. Paul's Epistles," which
were pubhshed at diff'erent times after his death. His
collected works form four quarto volumes. Great as are
his merits in other respects, it is principally as the cham-
pion of civil and religious liberty that Locke is entitled to
the reverence and gratitude of mankind. — Jones' Chris.
Biog. ; Davenport.
LOCUST ; a voracious insect, belonging to the grass-
hopper or grylli genus, and a great scourge in Oriental
countries.
Moses describes four sorts of locusts, or, it may be, the
same sort in diff'erent states : — arl/eh, salani, chargol, and
chageb ; which Jerome translates brvchus, attacus, ophioma-
cus, and tocusta.
On many occasions the locust has been employed by
the Almighty for chastising his guilty creatures. A
swarm of locusts were among the plagues of Egypt, when
they covered the whole land, sc '.hat the earth was dark-
LOG
[751]
o c
ened ; aud they devoured every green herb of the earth,
and the fruit of every tree which the hail had left, Exod.
10: 15. But the most particular description of this insect,
and of its destructive career, mentioned in the sacred
writings, is to be found in Joel 2: 3 — 10. This is, per-
haps, one of the most striking and animated descriptions
lo be met with in the whole compass of prophecy. The
contexture of the passage is extremely curious ; and the
double destruction to be produced by locusts, and the ene-
mies of which they were the liarbingers, is painted with
the most expressive force, and described with the most
terrible accuracy. We may fancy the destroying army to
be moving before us while we irad, aud imagine that we
see the desolation spreading. The following extracts may
furnish a commentary upon this and other passages in the
Holy Scriptures : —
" The locusts were no sooner hatched, in June, than
each of the broods collected itself into a compact body of
a furlong or more in square, and marching afterwards
directly forward towards the sea, they let nothing escape
them ; eating up every thing that was green and juicy,
not only the lesser lands of vegetables, but the vine like-
wise, the Jig-treCf the pomegranate, the pahu, and the apple
tree, even all the trees of the field, (Joel 1: 12.) in doing
which, they kept their ranks like men of war, climbing
over, as they advanced, every tree or wall that was in
their way ; nay, they entered in our very houses and bed-
chambers like thieves. The inhabitants, to stop their pro-
gress, made a variety of pits and trenches all over their
fields and gardens, which they filled with water ; or else
they heaped up therein heath, stubble, and such like com-
bustible matter, which were severally set on fire upon the
approach of the locusts. But this was all to no purpose,
for the trenches were quickly filled up, and the fires extin-
guished by infinite swarms succeeding one another, whilst
the front was regardless of danger, and the rear pressed
on so close, that a retreat was altogether impossible.
A day or two after one of these broods was in motion,
others were already hatched to march and glean after
them, gnawing off the very bark, and the young branches
of such trees, as had before escaped with the loss only of
their fruit and foliage. So justly have they been compared
by the prophet to a great army, who further observes, that
ilie land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them
a desolate wilderness." — Sham's Travels, p. 187, 4to.
" I cannot better represent their llight to you," says
Eeauplan, '-than by comparing it to the flakes of snow in
cloudy weather, driven about by the wind ; and when they
alight upon the ground to feed, the plains are all covered,
and they make a murmuring noise as they eat, and in less
than two hours they devour all close to the ground ; then
rising, they suffer themselves to be carried away by the
wind ; and when they fly, though the sun shines ever so
bright, it is no lighter than when most clouded. The air
was so full of them, that I could not eat in my chamber
without a candle ; [Joel 2: 10.] all the houses being full
of them, even the stables, barns, chambers, garrets, and
cellars," ver. 9.
" These insects seek each other," says M. Baron, "the
moment they are able to use their wings ; after their
union, Ihe female lays her eggs in a hole which she makes
in the earth ; and for this purpose she seeks light sandy
earth, avoiding moist, compact, and cultivated grounds.
The eggs lie all the winter, till the warmth of spring calls
them into life.
" There is no doubt on the changes to which the locUsl
is subject. The animal which appears at first in the form
of a worm, passes afterwanls into the state of a nymph;
and undergoes a third metamorphosis by quitting its skin,
and becoming a perfect animal, capable of continuing Us
species. A locust remains in its nymph state twenty-four
or twenty-five days, more or less, according to the season :
When, having acquired its full growth, it refrains some
days from eating; and, gradually bursting its skin, comes
forth a new animal, full of life and vigor. These insects
leap to a height two hundred times the length of their bo-
dies, by means of those powerl\il legs a>id thighs, which
are articulated near the centre of the body. When rai.sed
to a certain height in the air, they spread their wings, and
are so closely embodied together as lo form but one mass,
intercepting the rays of the sun, almost by a total eclipse.
" Even when dead they are hurtful. The infection
spread by their corrupting carcasses is insupportable.
Surius and Cornelius Gemma both, mentioning a prodi-
gious incursion of locusts in 1542, report, that after their
death, they infected the air with such a stench, that ihe
ravens, crows, and other birds of prey, though hungry, yet
would not come near their carcasses. We have ourselves
experienced two years ago the truth of this fact ; the pits
where they had been buried, after twenty-four hours,
could not be passed. In A. D. 591, it is said that neatly
a million of men and beasts were carried ofl" in Spain, by
a pestilence arising from their stench."
Upon this information Mr. Taylor submits the following
remarks : —
1. Heat and dryness are favorable to the increase of lo-
custs. We think, therefore, that when God threatens lo
bring a plague of locusts over Israel, as in Joel, (chap. 2.)
it may imply also a summer of drought. The prophei
Nahum says of the locusts, that they camp in the hedges
in the cold day, but when the sun ariseth they flee away.
Every observer notices the torpid effect of cold, and the
invigorating powers of heat, on the locust. But,'
2. Another remarkable particular appears to have consi-
derable connexion with some things said on E.xod. 16: 13,
that "in the morning, or evening, or in misty weather, lo-
custs do not see equally well, nor fly so high ; they sufler
themselves to be more closely approached ; they are stilf
and slow in their motions ; and are more easily destroyed."
This supports those who consider the word selav as denoting
a mist, or fog; and think it possible that the word selavim
(Num. 11: 31.) may express those clouds of locu.sts, which
compose these flying armies. — The opposition of two
winds was likely to produce a calm, and a calm lo cause
a fog ; the lower flight of Ihe locusts, the gathering them
during the evening, all night, and the next morning, agree
with these extracts ; and the fatal efiVcts (verses 33, 34.)
while the flesh was yet between the teeth of the people,
seem lo be precisely such as might be expected, from the
stench of Ihe immense masses of locusts, spread all abroad
round about the camp. Could a more certain way of ge-
nerating a pestilence have been adopted, considering the
stench uniformly attributed to them, and the malignity at-
tending such infection as their dead carcasses so exposed
must occasion ?
As locusts are commonly eaten in Palestine, and in Ihe
neighboring countries, there is no diflicully in supposing,
that the word aerides, used by Matthew, (3: 4.) speaking
of the food on which Johu subsisted, might signify these
insects. The ancients affirm, that in Africa, Syria, Persia,
and almost throughout Asia, Ihe people did commonly eat
these creatures. Some nations were called Acridophagi,
or eaters of locusts, because these insects formed theii
principal food.
To explain Rev. 9: 1 — 11, Mr. Taylor has translated the
following passage from Niebuhr : (Descrip. Arab. p. 153.)
— " An Arab of the desert near Basra [Bassorah] informed
me of a singular comparison of the locust with other ani-
mals. The terrible locust of chap. 9. of ihe Apocalyp.se
not then occurring lo me, I regarded this comparison as a
jest of the Bedouin, [Arab] and paid no atlenlion lo it, nil
it was repealed by another from Bagdad. It was thus :
He compared the head of the locust lo that of the horse ;
ils breast to that of the lion ; its feel lo those of ihe camel ;
its body to that of the serpent; its tail lo that ol i!ie scor-
OL
[752 J
LOL
pion ; its horns, [antenna] if I mistake not, to the locks of
hair of a virgin ; and so of other parts."
It seems more natural to compare their teeth to those of
lions, than their breasts to those of lions ; but this is more
especially proper to the Apocalyptic writer's purpose, as he
had already informed us of their resemblance to " horses
prepared for battle." As to the armor, &c. of horses pre-
pared for battle, in the East, Knolles informs us, that the
Mamelukes' horses were commonly furnished with silver
bridles, gilt trappings, and rich saddles ; and that their
necks and breasts were armed with plates of iron. It is
not therefore unlikely, that they had also ornaments re-
sembling crowns of gold, to which the horns of the locust
might be, with propriety, compared : we find they had
really " breast-plates of iron ;" and by their rushing on the
enemy, and the use they made of their mouths, as descn"bed
by Knolles, the comparison of them to locusts seems very
applicable.
It is remarkable that Solomon says, (Prov. 30: 27.)
" The locusts have no king ;" but the locusts of the Apoca-
lypse have a king, and a dreadful king too ; Abaddon, —
the destroyer. (See Abaddon.) — Calmet.
L0& ; a Hebrew measure, which held five-sixths of a
pint; it is called the fourth part of a cab, 2 Kings 6: 25.
Lev. 14: 10, 12, 2i— Calmet.
LOGAN, (John,) a divine and poet, was born, in
1748, at Fala, in Scotland ; was educated at Edinburgh ;
and, after having been minister at South Leith, he re-
moved to London, in 1786, and became a writer in the
English Review. He died in 1788. Logan wrote a vo-
lume of poems ; the tragedy of Runnamede ; Sermons ;
a Dissertation on the Manners and Spirit of Asia ; and
a Review of the Charges against Mr. Hastings. For the
last, which appeared anonymously, Stockdale, the publish-
er, was prosecuted ; but was successfully defended by Er-
skine. — Davenport.
LOGOS, THE woKD ; a term employed by the evangelist
Jojn to designate the mediatorial character of our Re-
diL-'mer, with special reference to his revelation of the cha-
rac'er and will of the Father. It appears to be used as
an abstract for the concrete, just as we find this same
writer employing light for enlighlener, life for life-giver,
kc. ; so that it properly signifies the speaker or interpreter,
than which nothing can more exactly a( -ord with the
siatement made, John 1: 18: "No man hath seen God at
any time ; the only-begotten, who is in the bosom of the
Father, hath declared him," i. e. communicated to us the
true knowledge of his mind and character. That the term
is merely expressive of a divine attribute, a position which
has been long and variously maintained by Socinians,
though abandoned as untenable by some of their best au-
thorities, is in total repugnance to all the circumstances
of the context, which distinctly and expressly require per-
sonal subsistence in the subject which it describes. He
■■.vhom John styles the Logos, has the creation of all things
ascribed to him ; is set forth as possessing the country and
people of the Jews ; as the only-begotten (son) of the Fa-
ther ; as assuming the human nature, and displaying in it
the attributes of grace and truth, &c. Such things could
i.ever, with the least degree of propriety, be said of any
mere attribute or quality. Nor is the hypothesis of a per-
sonification to be reconciled with the universally admitted
fact, that the style of John is the most simply historical,
and the furthest removed from that species of composition
to which such a figure of speech properly belongs. To
the Logos, the apostle attributes eternal existence, distinct
personality, and strict and proper Deity — characters which
he also ascribes to him in his first epistle — besides the pos-
session and exercise of perfections which absolutely ex-
clude the idea of derived or created being. See Dr. Lau-
rence's Dissertation on the Logos ; J. J. Gurney's Biblical
Notes; Stuart's Letters to Chatining ; Spirit of the Pil-
grims; and Dr. J. P. Smith on the Person of Christ. —
Hend. Buck. (See John, Gospel of.)
XOLLARDS ; a religious sect, differing in many points
from the church of Rome, which arose in Germany about
the beginning of the fourteenth century ; so called, as
many writers have imagined, from Walter Lollard, their
chief leader and chainpion, a native of Mentz, and equally
famous for his eloquence and his writings, who was burnt
at Cologne ; though others think that Lollard was no sur-
name, but merely a term of reproach applied to all here-
tics who concealed what was deemed error under the ap-
pearance of piety.
The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the word
Lollard from Inlium, " a tare," as if the Lollards were the '
tares sown in Christ's vineyard. Abelley says, that tl.e
word signifies " praising God," from the German loien,
" to praise," and herr, " lord ;" cecause the Lollards em-
ployed themselves in travelling about from place to place,
singing psalms and hymns. Others, much to the same
purpose, derive lollhard, lullhard, or lollert, lullert, as it
was written by the ancient Germans, from the old Ger-
man word lullen, lollen, or lallen, and the termination
hard, with which many of the high Dutch words end.
Lollen signifies, " to sing with a low voice," and therefore
Lollard is a singer, or one who frequently sings ; and in
the vulgar tongue of the Germans it denotes a person who
is continually praising God with a song, or singing hymns
to his honor.
Fuller, however, informs us, that in the reign of Edward
III., about A. D. 1315, Walter Lollard, a German preach-
er, or, (as Perrin, in his History of the Waldenses, calls
him,) one of their barbs, (pastors,) of great renown among
them, came into England ; and who was so eminent in
England, that as in France they were called Berengarians,
from Berengarius, and Petrobrusians, from Peter Bruis,
and in Italy and Flanders, Arnoldists, from the famous
Arnold of Brescia ; so did the Waldensian Christians for
many generations after bear the name of this worthy
man, being called Lollards. Bishop Newton having
mentioned the Lollards, says, " There was a man more
worthy to have given name to the sect, the deservedly fa-
mous John Wickliffe, the honor of his own, and the admi-
ration of succeeding times." In England, the followers
of Wickliffe were called, by way of reproach, Lollards,
though the first English Lollards came from Germany.
Lollard and his followers rejected the sacrifice of the
mass, extreme unction, and penances for sin ; arguing
that Christ's sufferings were sufficient. He is likewise
said to have set aside baptism, as a thing of no effect ; but
this appears to be a mistake, founded on their rejection of
infant baptism, and their denial of its saving efficacy.
That this was the case, appears from the laws made
against them in the reign of Henry IV. ; for among the
articles by which the inquisitors were to examine them,
one was, "Whether an infant dying unbaptized can be
saved ?" This the Lollards constantly asserted, in opposi-
tion to the church of Rome, which decreed that no infant
could be saved without it. Fox says, that among the
errors they were charged with, were these : " That they
spoke against the opinion of such as think children are
damned who depart before baptism, and said that Christian
people be sufficiently baptized in the blood of Christ, and
need no water ; and that infants be sufficiently baptized,
if their parents are baptized before them." Fox thinks
they were slandered in this matter ; we think justly, so
far as the denial of believers' baptism is concerned, for the
last of the three charges is itself a plain contradiction of it.
Besides, Sir Lewis Clifford, who had been a friend of AVick-
liffe, expressly affirmed, that " the Lollards would not bap-
tize their new-born children ;" and Thomas AValden, who
had access to the writings of Wickliffe, calls him " one of
the seven heads that came out of the bottomless pit for
denying infant baptism, that heresie of the Lollards, of whom
he was so great a ringleader."
Fox says, that it was upon these charges, that in the
space of four years, one hundred and twenty Lollards, men
and women, were apprehended, and suffered greatly ; a
number of them being burnt at the stake. William Saw-
try, the parish priest of St. Osith, in London, was the first
martyrin this English persecution. Rapin says, "In 1389,
the Wickliffites or Lollards began to separate from the
church of Rome, and appoint priests from among them-
selves to perform divine service after their way." From
this period to the Reformation, their sufferings were very
great. More than one hundred are recorded by name
who were burnt to death.
The Lollards' tower still stands as a monument of their
miseries, and of the cruelty of their implacable enemies.
^-
LOR
[ 753
LOR
This tower is at Lambeth palace, and was fitteJ up for
this purpose by Chicheby, archbishop of Canterbury, who
came to this see in 1414. It is said that he expended two
hundred and eighty pounds to make this prison for the
Lollards. The vast staples and rmgs to which they were
fastened, before they were brought out to the stake, are
still to be seen in a large lumber-room at the top of the
palace ; and ought to make Prole,';tants look back with
gratitude upon the hour which terminated so bloody a pe-
riod. (See WicKLiFFE ; and Oldcastle.) Mosheim, vol.
i. pp. 398, 404 ; Fox, p. 235—240 ; Ivimeij, vol. i. pp. 25,
59, 64, 68—73, 83— 85.— Hend. Buck.
LOMBARD, (Peter,) otherwise known by the title of
Master of the Sentences ; an author of great repute in
the twelfth century. He was born at Novara, in Lombar-
dy, and died archbishop of Paris, in 1164. His work on
the sentences is divided into four books, and has been
largely commented upon. He has also left commentaries
on the Psalms and Paul's Epistles. — Hend. Buck.
LONG-SUFFERING OF GOD. (See Patience of
God.)
LONG ; to desire very earnestly, as one hungry or
thirsty desires refreshment : (Gen. 34; 8. 2 Sam. 23: 15.)
5.0 persons grievously afflicted long for death. Job 3: 21.
David's soul longed for his banished -son Absalom, 2 Sam.
13: 39. Exiles long to see their native country, Gen. 31:
SO. Faithful ministers sick or imprisoned long to visit
their people, Phil. 2: 63. Saints long for the experience
of God's presence or power in his ordinances, and for his
salvation from the guilt, power, and pollution of sin, to
perfect holiness and happiness, Ps. 84: 2. 119: 40, 174. —
Brown.
LOOK. God's looking on men imports his perfect know-
ledge of their conduct ; his care of and kindness to them;
(Ps. 53: 2. Lam. 3:.50.) his dehghtful contemplation of
their graces, (Sol. Song 6: 13.) or his apparent unconcern
about them, as if he were a mere by-stander; (Hab. 1:
13. Ps. 35: 17.) or his terrifying and punishing them,
Exod. 14: 24. Men's looking to God or Christ imports
their riewing him by faith in his excellencies and new
covenant relations, desiring direction, support, and every
blessing of salvation from him, and their viewing him
as their pattern, Ps. 34: 5. Isa. 45: 22. 17: 7. Heb. 12: 2.
—Brown.
LOOKING-GLASSES. Moses says, that the devout
women who sat up all night at the door of the tabernacle
in the wilderness, otTered cheerfully their "looking-glass-
es" to be employed in making a brazen laver for the puri-
fications of the priests, Exod. 38: 8. These looking-glasses
were, without doubt, of brass, since the laver was made
out of them. (See Glass, and Laver.) — Calmet.
LORD ; a term properly denoting one who has domin-
ion, whether in a family or community ; whether on earth
or in heaven. Applied to God, it signifies the supreme
Governor and Disposer of all things. When printed with
large capitals in the English Bible, it stands for the He-
brew Jehovah, and when in small, Adonai ; names exclu-
sively given to the Divine Being. (See God, and Jehovah.)-
— Heml. Buck.
LORD'S DAY. (See Sabbath.)
LORD'S NAME TAKEN IN VAIN, consists first, in
using it lightly or rashly, in exclamations, adjurations, and
appeals in common conversation. 2. Hypocritically in
our prayers, thanksgivings, &c. 3. Superstitiously, as
when the Israelites carried the ark to the field of battle, to
render them successful against the Philistines, 1 Sam. 4:
3,4. 4. Wantonly, in swearing by him, or creatures in
his stead. Matt. 3: 34, 37. 5. Angrily, or sportfully,
cursing, and devoiing ourselves or others to mischief and
damnation. 6. Perjuring ourselves, attesting that which
is false. Mai. 3: 5. 7. Blasphemously reeling God, or
causing others to do so, Rom. 2: 24.
Perhaps there is no sin more common as to the practice,
and less thought of as to the guilt of it, than this. Nor is
It thus common with the vulgar only, but with those who
call themselves wise, humane, and moral. They tremble
at the idea of murder, theft, adultery, &c., while they for-
get that the same law which prohibits the commission of
these crimes, does, with equal force, forbid that of profan-
ing his name. No man, therefore, whatever his sense,
95
abilities, or profession may be, can be held guiltless, or be
exonerated from the charge of being a wicked man, while
he lives in the habitual violation of this part of God's sa-
cred law.
A very celebrated female writer justly observes, that
" it is utterly inexcusable ; it has none of the palliatives
of temptation which other vices plead, and in that respect
stands distinguished from all others, both in its nature and
degree of guilt. Like many other sins, however, it is at
once cause and effect ; it proceeds from want of love and
reverence to the best of Beings, and causes the want of
that love both in themselves and others. This species of
profaneness is not only swearing, but, perhaps, in .some
respects,- swearing of the worst sort ; as it is a direct
breach of an express command, and offends against the
very letter of that law, which says, in so many words,
" Thou shall not take the name of the Lord thy God in
vain." It offends against politeness and good breeding,
for those who comiuit it little think of the pain they are
inflicting on the sober mind, which is deeply wounded
when it hears the holy name it loves dishonored ; and it
is as contrary to good breeding to give pain, as it is to
true piety to be profane. It is astonishing that the refined
and elegant should not reprobate this practice for its coarse-
ness and vulgarity, as much as the pions abhor it for its
sinfulness.
" I would endeavor to give some faint idea of the gross-
ness of this offence by an analogy, (0 ! how inadequate !)
with which the feeling heart, even though not seasoned
wdth religion, may yet be touched. To such I would
earnestly say — Suppose you had some beloved friend — to
put the case still more strongly, a departed friend — a re-
vered parent, perhaps, whose image never occurs without
awakening in your bosom sentiments of tender love and
lively gratitude ; how would you feel if you heard this
honored name bandied about with unfeeling familiarity
and indecent levity ; or, at best, thrust into every pause
of speech as a vulgar expletive ? Does not your affection-
ate heart recoil at the thought ? And yet the hallowed
name of your truest Benefactor, your heavenly Father,
your best Friend, to whom yon are indebted for all you
enjoy ; who gives you those very friends in whom you so
much delight, those very talents with which you dishonor
him, those very organs of speech with which you blas-
pheme him, is treated with an irreverence, a contempt, a
wantonness, with which you cannot bear the very thought
or mention of treating a human friend. His name is im-
piously, is unfeelingly, is ungratefully singled out as the
object of decided irreverence, of systematic contempt, of
thoughtless levity. His sacred name is used indiscrimi-
nately to express anger, joy, surprise, impatience ; and,
what is almost still more unpardonable than all, it is wan-
tonly used as a mere unmeaning expletive, which, being
excited by no temptation, can have nothing to extenuate
it; which causing no emotion, can have nothing tore-
commend it, unless it be the pleasure of the sin."' H.
More on Education, vol. ii. p. 87 ; Gill's Body of Div., vol.
iii. p. 427 ; Brown's Si/stem of Eelig., p. 526 ; Dwighi's The-
ology. — Hend. Buck.
LORD'S PRAYER is that which our Lord gave to his
disciples on the mount. According to what is said in the
sixth chapter of Matthew, it was given as a directory ; but
from Luke 11:1, some argue that it was given as a form.
Some have thought that the second and fourth petition of
that prayer could be intended only for temporary use ; but
it is always our highest duty to pray that Christ's Iringdom
may be advanced in the world, and also to profess our
daily dependence on God's providential care. Neverthe-
less, there is no reason to believe that Christ meant that
his people should always use this as a set form ; for. if
that had been the case, it would not have been varied as
it is by the two evangelists. Matt. 6. Luke 11. Besides,
we do not find that the disciples ever used it as a form.
It is, however, a most exquisite summary of prayer, for
its inatter, brevity, and order ; and Christians should study
its meaning, and enter into its spirit, far more deeply than
they do. Frequentlv as it is repeated in the cour.se both
of public and domestic devotion, it is far from being uni-
versally known, or if Icnown, from being always i-ecollcot-
ed, what is the nature and extent of the petitions it in
•. ♦ T ii^
LOR
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Volves. This may in a great measure be accounted for
by the consideration that the prayer is often impressed up-
on the youthful memory, without any explanation of its
meaning or its views ; and recited mechanically in after
life, with an habitual feeling that whatever the child could
learn, the man must understand. What is familiar to the
memory, is by a very natural process of association sup-
posed to be also familiar to the mind. See Doddridge's
Lectures, lect. 194; Barrom's Works, vol. i.p. 48; Arch-
bisltop Leighton's Explmiation of it ; West on the Lord's
Prayer ; GUI's Body of Div. ; Hannah More's Works ; For-
dyce on Edification iy Public Instruction, pp. 11, 12 ; Mmdam's
Expo, of the Lord's Prayer : Fuller's Works.— Hend. Buck.
LORD'S SUPPER is an ordinance which our Savior in-
stituted as a commemoration of his death and sufferings.
I. It is commonly called a sacrament, that is, a sign and
an oath : an outward and visible sign of an inward and
spiritual grace ; an oath by which we bind our souls with
a bond unto the Lord. Some, however, reject this term as
not being scriptural ; as likewise the idea of swearing or
vowing to the Lord. (See Vovv-.) 2. It is called the Lord's
supper, because it was first instituted in the evening, and
at the close of the passover supper ; and because we there-
in feed upon Christ, the bread of life, Rev. 3: 20. 1 Cor.
II. 3. It is called the communion, as herein we have
communion with Christ, and with his people, 1 Cor. 12:
13. 10: 17. 4. It is called the eucharist, a thanksgiving,
because Christ, in the institution of it, gave thanlis, (1 Cor.
11: 24.) and because we, in the participation of it, must
give thanks likewise. 5. It is called a feast, and by some
a feast upon a sacrifice, (though not a sacrifice itself,) in
allusion to the custom of the Jews feasting upon their sa-
crifices, 1 Cor. 10: 18.
As to the nature of this ordinance, we may observe,
that, in participating of the bread and wine, we do not
consider it as expiatory, but, 1. As a commemorating or-
dinance. We are here to remember the person, love, and
death of Christ, 1 Cor. 11:24. 2. A confessing ordinance.
We hereby profess our esteem for Christ, and dependence
upon him. 3. A communicating ordinance ; blessings of
grace are here communicated to us. 4. A covenanting
ordinance. God, in and by this ordinance, tleclares that he
is ours, and we by it declare ourselves to be his, Matt. 26: 28.
Heb. 8: 8. 5. A standing ordinance, for it is lo be observed
to the end of time, 1 Cor. 11: 26. It seems to be quite an
indifferent thing what bread is used in this ordinance, or
what colored wine, for Christ took that which was readiest.
The eating of the bread and drinking of the wine being
always connected in Christ's example, they ought never
lo be separated ; whenever one is given, the other should
not be withheld. This bread and wine are not changed
into the real body and blood of Christ, but are only em-
blems thereof. (See Transubstantiation.)
The subjects of this ordinance should be such as make
a credible profession of the gospel in the mode appointed
his disciples by the Savior ; the ignorant, and those whose
lives are immoral, have no right lo it ; nor should it be
ever administered as a test of civil obedience, for this is
sacrilegiously perverting the design of it. None hut true
believers can approach it with profit ; yet we cannot ex-
clude any who make a credible profession of faith in
Christ ; for God only is the judge of the heart, while we
can only act according to outward appearances.
Much has been said respecting the time of administer-
ing it. Some plead for the morning, others the afternoon,
and some for the evening ; which latter, indeed, was the
time of the first celebration of it, and is most suitable to a
supper. How often it is to be observed has been disputed.
Some have been for keeping it every day in the week ;
others four times a week ; some every Lord's day, which
many think is nearest the apostolic practice; (Acts 20: 7.)
a practice which was long kept up in Christian antiquity,
and only deviated from when the love of the Christians
began to wax cold. Others have kept it three times a
year, and some once a year ; but the most common is
once a month. It evidently appears, however, both from
Scripture, (1 Cor. 11: 26.) and from the nature of the or-
dinance, that it ought to be frequent.
As to the posture, Dr. Doddridge justly observes, that it
is greatly to be lamented that Christians have perverted
an ordinance, intended as a pledge and means of their
mutual union, into an occasion of discord and contention,
by laying such a stress on the manner in which it is lo be
administered, and the posture in which it is to be receiv-
ed. As to the latter, a table posture seems most eligible,
as having been used by Christ and his apostles, and Being
peculiarly suitable to the notion of a sacred feast ; and
kneeling, which was never introduced into the church till
Iransuhstantiation was received, may prove an occasion
of superstition.
We vriW only subjoin a few directions in what frame of
mind we should attend upon this ordinance. It should be
with sorrow for our past sins, and a tender composure
of affection, free from the disorders and ruffles of passion ;
with a holy awe and reverence of the divine DIajesty, yet
with a gracious confidence and earnest desires towards
God ; with raised expectations ; prayer, joy, and thanks-
giving, and love to all men. When coming from it, we
should admire the condescensions of divine grace ; watch
against the snares of Satan, and the allurements of the
world ; rejoice in the finished work of Christ ; depend up-
on the gracious influence of the Spirit, that we may live
more to the glory of God ; keep up a sense of the divine
favor; and be longing for heaven, where we hope at last
to join the general assembly of the first-born.
The advantages arising from the participation of the
Lord's supper are numerous. 1. It is a means of strength-
ening our faith in the Lord Jesus Christ. 2. It affords
great consolation and joy. 3. It increases love. 4. It has
a tendency to enlighten our minds in the mystery of god-
liness. 5. It gives us an utter aversion to all kinds of sin,
and occasions a hearty grief for it. 6. It has a tendency
lo excite and strengthen all holy desires in us. 7. It re-
news our obligations to our Lord and Master. 8. It binds
the souls of Christians one to another.
In the early limes of the gospel the celebration of the
Lord's supper was both frequent and numerously attended.
Voluntary absence was considered as a culpable neglect ;
and exclusion from it, by the sentence of the church, as a
severe punishment. Every one brought an oflering pro-
portioned to his ability ; these offerings were chiefly of
bread and wine ; and the ministers appropriated as much
as was necessary for the administration of the eucharist.
They then had a part of what was left for their mainte-
nance ; and the rest fitrnished supplies for the poor. See
Saurin's Serirwns ; and Henry, Earle, Doolittle, Grove, and
Robertson on the Lord's Supper ; Br. Omen's, Charnock's, Dr.
Cndworth's, Mr. Willet's, Dr. Worthington's, Dr. Watts',
Bishop Warburton's, Bishop Cleaver's, Dr. Bell's Pieces on
the subject ; Orme's Discourses on the Lord's Supper ; Dwight's
■ Theology ; Works of Robert Hall ; Works of Andrew Fid-
ler ; and Erskine, Haldane, and Mason on Frequency of Com-
munion. A variety of other treatises, explanatory of the
nature and design of the Lord's supper, may be seen in
almost any catalogue. — Watson : Hend. Buck.
LO-RUHAMAH; not beloved. (See Ammi.)
LOSADA, (Christopher ;) an eminent physician, and
learned philosopher of Spain, in the sixteenth century,
who was arrested by the Inquisition in consequence of his
zeal to diffuse Protestant principles among his country-
men. Neither the prison nor the rack availing to make
him renounce his principles, he was condemned lo the
flames, which he bore with admirable Christian patience,
committing his soul lo a faithful Creator. — Fox, p. 136.
LOT ; the son of Haran, and nephew to Abraham. He
accompanied his uncle from XJr lo Haran, and from thence
to Canaan ; a proof of their mutual attachment, and simi-
larity of principles respecting the true religion. With
Abraham he descended into Egypt, and afterwards return-
ed with him into Canaan : but the multiplicity of their
flocks, and still more the quarrels of their servants, ren-
dered a friendly separation necessary. When God destroy-
ed the cities of the plain with fire and brimstone, he de-
livered "just Lot" from the conflagration, according to
the account of the divine historian.
The whole time that Lot resided there was twenty-three
years. During all this period he had been a preacher of
righteousness among this degenerate people. In him they
had before their eyes an illustrious example of the ex-
ercise of genuine piety, supporteii by unsullied justice
*.«■;
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and benevolent actions. And doubtless it was for these
purposes that divine Providence placed him lor a time in
that city. The losses which Lot sustained on this melan-
choly occasion were very great ; his wife, property, and
all the prospects of the future settlement of his family.
Some think it was in judgment for a worldly choice.
Lot left Zoar, and retired with his two daughters to a
cave in an adjacent mountain. Conceiving that all man-
kind was destroyed, and that the world would end, unless
they provided new inhabitants for it, they made their fa-
ther drink, and the eldest lay with him without his per-
ceiving it ; she conceived a son whom she called Moab.
The second daughter did the same, and had Ammun . The
crim^of incest was not then clearly understood, as now.
2. Several questions are jwoposed concerning Lot's
wife being changed into a pillar of salt. Some are of opi-
nion, that being surprised and suffocated with fire and
smoke, she continued in the same place, as immovable as
a rock of salt ; others, that a column or monument of salt
stone was erected on her grave ; others, that she was
stifled in the flame, and became a monument of salt to
posterity ; that is, a permanent and durable monument of
her imprudence. The common opinion is, that she was
stiddenly petrified and changed into a statue of rock salt,
which is as hard as the hardest rocks.
The words of the original, however, have been much
too strictly taken by translators. Getsib, rendered statue,
by no means expresses form, but fixation ; hence a mili-
tary post ; that is, a fixed station ; and as the Hebrews
reckoned among salts both nitre and bitumen, so the term
salt here used, denotes the bituminous mass which over-
whelmed this woman, fixed her to the place where it fell
upon her, raised a mound over her, of a height propor-
tionable to that of her figure, and was long afterwards
pointed out by the inhabitants as a memento of her fate,
and a warning against loitering, when divinely exhorted,
Luke 17: 32.— fTfl^sM ; Calmet.
LOTS are a mutual agreement to determine an uncer-
tain event, no other ways determinable, by an appeal to
the providence of God, on easting or throwing something.
This is a decisory lot, Prov. 16: 33. 18: 18. The mat-
ter, therefore, to be determined, in order to avoid guilt,
should be important, and no other possible way left to de-
termine it ; and the manner of making the appeal solemn
and grave, if we would escape the guilt of taking the
name of God in vain. Wantonl)', without necc-isity, and
in a ludicrous manner, to make this appeal, must be there-
fore highly blamable. And if thus the decisory lot,
■when wantonly and unnecessarily employed, be criminal,
equally, if not more so, must the divinatory lot be, which
is employed for discovering the will of God ; this, being
no means of God's appointment, must be superstitious, and
the height of presumption.
The manner of casting lots is not described in the
Scriptures ; but several methods appear to have been used.
Solomon observes, (Prov. 16: 33.) that " the lot," pebble,
" is cast into the /ap," (becliif,) probably, of an urn, or
vase. Literally, " in a lot-vase the lots are shaken in all
directions; nevertheless, from the Lord is their whole de-
cision— ^judgment."
The wise man also acknowledges the usefulness of this
custom, Prov. 18: 18. " The lot causeth contentions to
cease, and parteth between the mighty." It is sometimes
forbidden, however ; as, when it is practised without ne-
cessity ; or with superstition ; or with a design of tempt-
ing God ; or, in things in which there are other natural
means of discovering truth, reason and religion furnish
better ways to guide us. Hainan (Esth. 3: 7, &c.) used
lots, not only out of superstition, but likewise in an unjust
ajid criminal matter, when he undertook to destroy the
Jews. Nebuchadnezzar did so in a superstitious manner,
-when, being on the way to Jerusalem, and Rabbath of the
Ammonites, he cast lots to determine which of the two
cities he should first attack, Ezek. 21: 18, &c.
The Moravian Brethren employ the appeal to lot in the
case of marrisige and other appointments in their commu-
nity.— Head. Buck; Calmet.
LOVE ; an attachment of the affections to any object,
accompanied with an ardent desire to promote its happi-
ness. It has been distinguished into, 1. Love of ctm-
placency, which arises from the consideration of any object
agreeable to us, and calculated to aflbrd us pleasure.
2. Love of esteem, which arises from the mere considera-
tion of some excellency in an object, and belongs either to
persons or things. 3. Love of gratitude, which' arises from
the sense of kindness conferred on us. 4. Love of lie?ievo-
laice, which is an inclination to seek the happiness and wel-
fare of any being. Usually these- .elemehts'are blended
in our attachments ; but tliey often exist in a separate
state, or in very diflferent degre_es of combination.
It is the excellence of the Christian system, that it en-
nobles, regulates, and directs this passion to proper objects,
and moderates.it within due bounds. Finding this princi-
ple in the human mind, it does not banish but encourage
it ; does not depress but exalt it ; does not abate but pro-
mote it. It is conducted by piety to proper objects, is ani-
mated with the noblest expectations, and is trained up for
perpetual exercise in a world where it shall be perfectly
purified, perfectly extended, and perfectly rewarded.
Love is the greatest of all graces ; (1 Cor. 13: 13.) it an-
swers the end of the law; (1 Tim. 1: 5.) resembles the
inhabitants of a better world; and without it every other
attainment is of no avail, 1 Cor. 13. (See CflABiTY.) —
Dni^hl's Theology ; Hend. Buck ; Calmet.
LOVE OF OUR NEIGHBOR, is that humane, ten-
der, and benevolent regard for our fellew-men required by
the divine law, which is to be exercised towards all with-
04U exception, according to their degree of proximity to us,
in kindred, place, acquaintance, and opportunity. It is
a settled disposition of the soul, in the view of time and
eternity, prompting us to every act of kindness towards
them. It does not consist merely in fHty to and relief of oth-
ers ; (1 Cor. 13.) in love to our benefactors only, and those
who are related to us, Matt. 5: 46, 47. ■ It must flow from
love to God, and extend to all mankind ; yea, we are re-
quired by the highest authority to love even our enemies ;
(Matt. 5: 44.) not so as to countenance them in their evil
actions, but to forgive the injuries they have done to us ;
and promote as w-ell as pray for their happiness, conver-
sion, and salvation. (See Charity.)— Ht;irf. Buck.
LOVE, BROTHERLY, is that peculiar attachment
among Christians arising from their common faith, in-
terest, object, and hope. Its foundation is their common
love of Christ, and truth, and virtue, or Christian holiness.
Love to good men must be particularly cultivated, for it
is the command of Christ ; (John 13: 3,) they belong to
the same Father and family ; (Gal. 5: 10.) we hereby give
proof of our discipleship ; (John 13: 35,) the example of
Christ should allure us to it, (1 John 3: 16,) it is creative
of a variety of pleasing sensations, and prevents a thou-
sand emis .
This love should show itself by praying for our brethren,
(Eph, 6: 18,) bearing one another's burdens, by assisting
and reliei-ing each other, (Gal, 6: 2,) by forbearing with
one another, (Col, 3: 13,) by reproving and admonishing
in the spirit of meekness, (Prov, 27: o, 6.) by establishing
each other in the truth, by conversation, exhortation, and
stirring up one another to the several duties of religion,
bolhpublicandprivate. Jude20, 21. Heb. 10: 24,25. (See
Charity.) Dwigltt's Theology; Fuller's Works; Works
of Robert Hall ; Dotiglason Truth and Error. — Hend. Bmk.
LOVE, Family of. Apeculiar sect of Baptists, thataroie
in Holland, in the sixteenth century, (1555,) founded l>y
Henry Nicholas, a "VVestphalian. He maintained that he
had a commission from heaven to teach men that the es
sence of religion consisted in the feelings of divine love ;
that all other theological tenets, whether they related to
objects of faith or modes of worship, were of no sort of
moment ; and, consequently, that it was a matter of in-
difference what opinions Christians entertained concerning
the divine nature, provided their hearts burned with the
pure and sacred flame of piety and love. — Head. Buck.
LOVE FEASTS, (See Agap.s,)
LOVE OF GOD, is either his natural deUght in that
which is good, (Isa, 61: 8,) or his special benevolence to
mankind, (John 3: 16,) or that gracious, sovereign aflec-
tion he bears to his people, Eph, 2: 4. 1 John 4: 19, Not that
he possesses the passion of love a-s we do : but it implies nis
benevolent purpose and will to deliver, bless, and save ms
neoole. The love of God to his people appears m nis au-
X
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wise dt signs and plans for their happiness, Eph. 3: 10.
2. In the choice of them, and determination to sanctify and
glorify them, 2 Thess. 2: 13. 3. In the gift of his Son to die
for them, and redeem them from sin, death, and hell, Rom.
5; 9. John 3; 16. 4. In the revelation of his -will, and the
declaration of his promises to them, 2 Peter 1: 4. 5. In
the awful punishment of their enemies, Ex. 19: 4. 6. In
his actual conduct towards them ; in supporting them in
life, blessing them in death, and bringing them to glory,
Rom. 8: 30—39. 6: 23.
The properties of this love may be considered as, 1.
Everlasting, Jer. 31: 3. Eph. 1: 4. 2. Immutable, Mai.
3: 6. Zeph. 3: 17. 3. Free ; neither the sufferings of
Christ nor the merits of men are the cause, but his own
good pleasure, John 3: 16. 4. Great and unspeakable,
Eph. 2: 4, 6. 3: 19. Ps. 36: 7. GiWs Div. : Hall's Help tu
Zion's Travellers ; Fuller's Works.— Hen d. Buck.
LOVE TO GOD ; the disposition which lies at the foun-
dation of all true holiness, or real virtue. To serve and
obey God on the conviction that it is right to serve and
obey him, is in Christianity joined with that love to God
which gives life and animation to service, and renders it
the means of exalting our pleasures, at the same time that
it accords with our convictions. The supreme love of
God is the chief, the noblest, therefore, of all our affec-
tions. It is the sum and the end of law ; and though lost
by us in Adam, it is restored to us by Christ.
When it regards God absolutely, and in himself, as a
Being of infinite and harmonious perfections and moral
beauties, it is that movement of the soul towards him
which is produced by admiration, approval, and delight.
When it regards him relatively, it fixes upon the cease-
less emanations of his goodness ts us all in the continu-
ance of the existence which he at first bestowed ; the cir-
cumstances which render that existence felicitous; and,
above all, upon that " great love wherewith he loved us."
manifested in the gift of his Son for our redemption, and
in saving us by his grace ; or, in the forcible language of
St. Paul, upon " the exceeding riches of his grace in his
kindness to us through Christ Jesus." Under all these
views an unbounded gratitude overflows the heart which
is influenced by this spiritual affection. But the love of
God is more than a sentiment of gratitude : it rejoices
in his perfections and glories, and devoutly contemplates
them as the highest and most interesting subjects of
thought ; it keeps the idea of this supremely beloved ob-
ject constantly present to the mind ; it turns to it with
adoring ardor from the business and distractions of life;
it connects it with every scene of majesty and beauty in
nature, and with every event of general and particular
providence ; it brings the soul into fellowship with God,
real and sensible, because vital ; it moulds the other affec-
tions into conformity with what God himself wills or pro-
hibits, loves or hates ; it produces an unbounded desire to
please him, and to be accepted of him in all things ; it is
jealous of his honor, unwearied in his service, quick to
prompt to every sacrifice in the cause of his truth and his
church ; and it renders all such sacrifices, even when car-
ried to the extent of suffering and death, unreluctant and
cheerful. It chooses God as the chief good of the soul,
the enjoyment of which assures its perfect and eternal in-
terest and happiness. '■ Whom have I in heaven but thee ?
and there is none upon earth that I desire beside thee,"
is the language of every heart, when its love of God is
true in principle and supreme in degree.
If, then, the will of God is the perfect rule of morals ;
and if supreme and perfect love to God must produce a
prompt, an unwearied, a delightful subjection to his will,
or rather, an entire and most free choice of it as the rule
of all our principles, affections, and actions ; the impor-
tance of this affection in securing that obedience to the
law of God in which true morality consists, is manifest •
and we clearly perceive the reason why an inspired writer
has affirmed, that " love is the fulfilling of the law." The
necessity of keeping this subject before us under those
views in which it is placed in the Christian system, and
of not surrendering it to mere philosophy, is, however, an
important consideration. (See Affections.)
With the philosopher the love of God may be the mere
approval of the intellect ; or a sentiment which results
from the contemplation of infinite perfection, manifesting
itself in acts of power and goodness. In the Scriptures it
is much more than either, and is produced and maintained
by a different process. We are there taught that " the
carnal mind is enmity against God," and is not, of course,
capable of loving God. Yet this carnal mind may consist
with deep attainments in philosophy, and with strongly
impassioned poetic sentiment. The mere approval of the
understanding, and the susceptibility of being impressed
with feelings of admiration, awe, and even pleasure, when
the character of God is manifested in his works, as both
may be found in the carnal mind which is enmity to God,
are not therefore the love of God. They are principles
which enter into that love, since it cannot exist without
them ; but they may exist without this aflTection itself,
and be found in a vicious and unchanged nature.
The love of God is a fruit of the Holy Spirit ; that is,
it is truly exercised only in the souls which he has re-
generated ; and, as that which excites its exercise is chiefly,
and in the first place, a sense of the benefits bestowed by
the grace of God in our redemption, and a humble
persuasion of our personal interest in those benefits, it
necessarily presupposes our reconciliation to God through
faith in the atonement of Christ, and that attestation of it
to the heart by the Spirit of adoption. AVe here see, then,
another proof of the necessary connexion of Christian
morals with Christian doctrine, and how imperfect and
deceptive every system must be which separates them.
Love is essential to true obedience ; for when the apos-
tle declares love to be "the fulfilling of the law," he de-
clares, in effect, that the law cannot be fulfilled without
love ; and that every action which has not this for its
principle, however virtuous in its show, fails of accom-
phshing the precepts which are obligatory upon us. But
this love to God cannot be fully exercised so long as we
are sensible of his wrath, and are in dread of his judg-
ments. These feelings are incompatible with each other,
and we must be assured of his readiness to forgive, before
we are capable of lovinghim with the whole heart, and soul,
and mind, and strength. Thus the very existence of love to
God implies the doctrines of atonement, repentance, faith,
and the gift of the Spirit of adoption to believers ; and un-
less it be taught in this connexion, and through this pro-
cess of experience, it will be exhibited only as a bright
and beauteous object to which man has no access ; or a
fictitious and imitative sentimentalism will be substituted
for it, to the delusion of the souls of men.
It is not either from the visionary mystic, the sensual
fanatic, or the frantic zealot, but from the plain word of
God, that we are to take onr ideas of this divine sentiment.
There we find it described in all its native purity and sim-
plicity. The marks by which it is there distinguished contain
nothing enthusiastic or extravagant. It may be considered,
1, As sincere. Matt. 22: 36, 38, 2, Constant, Rom. 8, 3.
Universal of all his attributes, commandments, ordinances,
&c. 4. Progressive. 1 Thess. 5: 12. 2 Thess. 1:3. Eph.
3: 19. 5. Superlative, Lam. 3: 24. G. Eternal, Rom. 8.
This love manifests itself, 1. In a desire to be like God.
2. In making his glory the supreme end of our actions, 1
Cor. 11: 31. 3. In delighting in communion with him, 1
John 1: 3. 4. In grief under the hidings of his face. Job
23: 2. 5. In rehnquishing all that stands in opposition to
his will, Phil. 3: 8. 6. In regard to his house, worship,
and ordinances, Ps. 84. 7. In love for his truth and peo-
ple, Ps. 119. John 13: 35. 8. By confidence in his pro-
mises, Ps. 71: 1. And lastly, by obedience to his word,
John 14: 15. 1 John 2: 3. Gill's Body of Div., vol. iii. p.
94, 8vo ; Watts' Discourses on Love to God ; Scott's Ser.,
ser. 14 ; Maclaurin's Essays; Edwards' Works; Bellamy
on True Eeligion, and Signs of Counterfeit Love, p. 82 ;
Bishop Porteus' Ser., vol. i. ser. 1 ; Wilherforce's View;
Works of Hannah More ; Nervton's Works ; Scott's Works ;
Cecil's Works ; Fuller's do. ; Hall's do. ; but above all,
Dtvisht's Tlieologi/. — Watson ; Hend. Buck.
LOVE OF THE WORLD. (See World.)
LOW. Let the rich Christian rejoice in that he is made
low ; humble in the temper of his mind ; or even that he
has his outward wealth and honor taken from him, as
that tends to his real good, James 1: 10. Christ was
made for a little while, or in a little degree, lower than ths
LOW
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LUC
angels, in his state of humiliation, Ps. 8: 5. Heb. 2: 7, 9.
— Brown.
LOW CHURCHMEN ; those who disapproved of the
schism made in the church by ihe non-jurors, and who dis-
tinguished themselves by their moderation towards Dissen-
ters, and were less ardent in extencUngthe limits of ecclesi-
astical authority. (See High Churchmen.) — Ilmd. Buck.
LOWER PARTS OF THE EARTH are (1.) Valleys,
■which diversify the face of the globe, and are evidently
lower than hills, which also contribute to that diversity,
Isa. 44: 23. (2.) The graoe, which is the lowest part of
the earth, usually opened to men, Ps. G3: 9. (3.) Sheol, or
Hades, sometimes called ihe deep, or abyss ; and, indeed, it
is secluded from our cognizance, till we are called to vi.sit
" that bourne from whence no traveller returns," Eph. 4:
9. (4.) As to the phrase " lower farts of the earth," in Ps.
139: 15, it is obscure. It does not appear necessary to
take the Hebrew word, rendered " lower parts," as ex-
pressing the extremely deep, or central parts, in reference to
the general globe of the earth ; (see Ps. 63: 9. Eph. 4: 9.
Isa. 44: 23.) so that the dust of the earth, of which man
was originally made, being taken from the valley, not from
high hills, may be understood by the phrase. " The
formation of my body was not without thy knowledge,
though as wonderful as the composition of the globe it-
self !" Comp. Job 10: 9 — 12. — Calmet.
LOWTH, (William,) a distinguished divine, and fa-
ther of bishop Lowth, was born in London, the Uth
of September, 1661. He was educated at the Mer-
chant Tailors' school, whence he was elected, in 167i>,
into St. John's college, Oxford ; where, in 1683, he gradu-
ated master of arts, and proceeded lo bachelor of divinity in
1688. His studies were strictly confined within his own
province, and applied solely to the duties of his function ;
yet, that he might acquit himself the better, he ac-
quired an uncommon share of critical learning. There
was scarcely any ancient author, Greek or Latin, profane
or ecclesiastical, especially the latter, that he had not read
with care and attention, constantly accompanying his
reading with critical and philological remarks. But the
most valuable part of his character was that which least
appeared in the eyes of the world. His piety, diligence,
hospitality, and beneficence, rendered his life highly ex-
emplary, and greatly enforced his public exhortations.
The works of this learned divine, who died in 1732, are,
" A Vindication of the Divine Authority and Inspiration of
the Old and New Testament ;" " Directions for the profita-
ble reading of the Holy Scriptures ;" " A Commentary
on the Prophetical Books of the Old Testament," which
generally accompanies Patrick and Whitby. Biog. Brit.
— Jones^ Chris. Biog.
LOWTH, (Robert, D. D.,) a distinguished English pre-
late, was born at Buriton, the 27th of Nov. 1710. In 1737,
he graduated master of arts, at Oxford, and in 1741, was
elected professor of poetry in the university of Oxford.
The first preferment which he obtained in the church,
was the rectory of Ovington, in Hampshire, in 1744 ; and
four years afterwards he accompanied Mr. Legge, after-
wards chancellor of the exchequer, to Berlin. He was,
about this time, appointed tutor to the sons of the duke of
Devonshire, during their travels on the continent. On
his return he was appointed archdeacon of Winchester,
by bishop Hoadley, who, three years after, presented him
with the rectory of East Woodhay.
In 1753, he published his valuable work, " De Sacra
Foesi HebrtEorum, Pi'selectiones Academicae," quarto. Of
this work, to which the duties of the author's professor-
ship gave occasion, all the best critics speak in unquali*
fied praise. In 1751, he received the degree of doctor ia
divinity, from the university of Oxford, by diploma ; and
in 1755, went to Ireland as chaplain to the marquis of
Hartington, then appointed lord-lieutenant, who nominat-
ed him bishop of Limerick, a preferment which he ex-
changed for a prebend of Durham, and the rectory of Sedge-
field. In the year 1758, he preached a sermon in favor
of free inquiry in matters of religion, which has been
often reprinted, and has been much admired. In the same
year he published his " Life of William of Wykeliam," oc-
tavo; and in 1762, "A Short Introduction to English Gram-
mar ;" a production that has gone through a great number
of editions, and may be considered the precursor of that at-
tention to grammatical accuracy and precision which has
since distinguished the best writers of English prose. Ia
1766, Dr. Lowlh was appointed bhshop of St. David's,
whence, in a few years afterwards, he was translated to
the see of Oxford.
In 1777, he succeeded Dr. Terrick in the diocess of Lon-
don : and, in the following year, pubhshed the last of his
literary labors, namely, " Isaiah ; a new Translation,
with a Preliminary Dissertation, and Notes." This ele-
gant and beautiful version of the evangelical prophet, of
which learned men in every part of Europe have been
unanimous in their eulogiuras, is alone suflicient to trans
mit his name to posterity. On the death of archbishop
Cornwallis, the primacy was oflered to Dr. Lowth ; a dig-
nity which he declined on account of his advanced age
and family afflictions. In 1768, he lost his eldest daugh.
ter ; and in 1783, his second daughter suddenly expired
while presiding at the tea-table : his eldest sou was also
suddenly cut oif in the prime of life. This amiable pre-
late died on the 3d of November, 1787, at his palace of
Fulham, in the seventy -seventh year of his age. Dods-
leifs An. Register, and Brit. Plutarch. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
LUCI AN ; a philosopher and wit, who appeared as one of
the early opposers of the Christian religion and its followers.
The hostile sentiments of the heathens towards Chris-
tianity, says Dr. Neander, were different, according to the
difference of theii' philosophical and religious views.
There entered then upon the contest two classes of men,
who have never since ceased to persecute Christianity.
These were the superstitious, to whom the honoring God
in spirit and in truth was a stumbling-stone, and the care- B
less unbeliever, who, unacquainted with all feelings of re-
ligious wants, was accustomed to laugh, and to mock at
every thing which proceeded from them, whether he un-
derstood it or not, and at all which supposed such feelings
and proposed to satisfy them.
Such was Lucian. To him Christianity, like every oth-
er remarkable religious phenomenon, appeared only as a
fit object for his sarcastic wit. Without giving himself
the trouble to examine and to discriminate, he threw Chris-
tianity, superstition, and fanaticism into the same class.
It is easy enough, in any system which lays deep hold on
man's nature, to find out some side open to ridicule, if a
man bring forward only that which is external in the sys-
tem, abstracted from all its inward power and meaning,
and without either understanding, or attempting to un-
derstand this power. He, therefore, who looked on Chris-
tianity with cold indifference, and the profane every-day
feelings of worldly prudence, might easily heie and there
find objects for his satire. The Christian might indeed
have profited by that ridicule, and have learned from the
children of darkness to join the wisdom of the serpent
with the meekness of the dove. In the end the scoffer
brings himself to derision, because he ventures to pass
sentence on the phenomena of a world of which he has
not the slightest conception, and which to his eyes, buried
as they are in the films of the earth, is entirely closed.
Such was Lucian. He sought to bring forward all that
is striking and remarkable in the external conduct and
circumstances of Christians, which might serve for the
object of his sarcastic raillery, without any deeper inquiry •
as to what the rehgion of the Christians really was. And
yet even in that at which he scoffed, there was much
which might have taught him to remark in Christianity
no common power over the hearts of men, had he been
capable of such serious impressions. The firm hope of
LUC
[758]
LUK
eternal life, which taught them to meet death with tran-
quillity, their brotherly love one towards another, might
have indicated to him some higher spirit which animated
these men ; but instead of this he treats it all as delusion,
because many gave themselves up to death with some-
thing like fanatical enthusiasm. He scoffs at the notion
of a crucified man having taught them to regard all man-
kind as their brethren, the moment they should have ab-
jured the gods of Greece ; as if it were not just the most
remarkable part of all this, that an obscure person in Je-
rusalem, who was deserted by every one, and executed as
a criminal, should be able, a good century after his death,
to cause such effects as Luciau, in his own time, saw ex-
tending in all directions, and in spite of every kind of per-
secution. How bUnded must he have been to pass thus
lightly over such a phenomenon ! But men of his ready
wit are apt to e.xert it with too great readiness on all sub-
jects. They are able to illustrate every thing out of no-
thing J with their miserable " nil admirari," they can close
their hearts against all lofty impressions. With all his
wit and keenness, with all his undeniably fine powers of
observation in all that has no concern with the deeper im-
pulses of man's spirit, he was a man of very little mind.
But hear his own language : " The wretched people have
persuaded themselves that they are altogether immortal,
and will live forever; therefore they despise death, and
many of them meet it of their own accord. Their first
lawgiver has persuaded them also to regard all mankind
as their brethren, as soon as they have abjured the Gre-
cian gods ; and, honoring their crucified Master, have be-
gun to live according to his laws. They despise every
thing heathen equally, and regard all but their oi^Ti no-
tions as profaneness, while they have yet embraced those
notions without suflicient examination." He has no fur-
ther accusation to make against them here, except the
ease with which they allowed their benevolence towards
their fellow-Christians to be abused by impostors, in which
there may be much truth, but there is nevertheless some
exaggeration. Neander's Church History. — Watso7i.
LUCIANISTS, or Lucanists ; a sect so called from
Lucianus, or Lucanus, a heretic of the second century,
being a disciple of Marcion, whose errors he followed, add-
ing some new ones to them. Epiphanius says he aban-
doned Marcion, leaching that people ought not to marry,
for fear of enriching the Creator ; and yet other authors
mention that he held this error in common with Marcion
and other Gnostics. He denied the immortality of the
soul, asserting it to be material.
There was another sect of Luciauists, who appeared
some time after the Arians. They taught that the Father
had been a Father always, and that he had the name even
before he begot the Son, as having in him the power and
faculty of generation ; and in this manner they accounted
for the eternity of the Son.— Hend. Buck.
LUCIFER. This word signifies literally the morning
star. Isaiah (14: 12, &c.) speaks of the fall of Lucifer,
which most commentators are of opinion denotes the king
of Babylon, who, like Satan, fell from his state of glory
and elevation, and was cast headlong into hell, or hades,
the state of the dead, 1 Tim. 3: (,.—Cahnct.
LUCIFERIANS ; a sect who adhered to the schism of
Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari, in the fourth century, who
was banished by the emperor Constantius, for having de-
fended the Nicene doctrine concerning the three persons
in the Godhead. It is said, also, that they believed the
soul to be corporeal, and to be transmitted from the father
to the children. The Luciferians were numerous in Gaul,
Spain, Egypt, &c. The occasion of this schism was, that
Lucifer would not allow any acts he had done to be abo-
lished. There were but two Luciferian bishops, but a
great number of priests and deacons. The Luciferians
bore a great aversion to the Arians. — Hend. Buck.
LXJCIFUG^, or LisnT-iiATERs ; a name of reproach
given to the early Christians, becau.se, in times of persecu-
tion, they frequently held their religious assemblies at
night, or before 'he break of day. — Hend. Buck.
LUCIUS, (ol Cyrene,) mentioned Acts 13: 1, was one
of the prophets of the Christian church at Antioch. Some
think that he was one of the seventy.
2. A disciple, mentioned Eom. 16: 21, and styled Paul's
kinsman, is thought by some to be the same as Lucius the
Cyrenian ; but he is generally distinguished from him.
We know nothing of this Lucius, unless he and Luke be
the same person, which seems very credible. (See Luke.)
— Calmet.
LUD ; the fourth son of Shem, (Gen. 10: 22.) who is be-
lieved to have peopled Lydia, a province of Asia Minor.
Arias Montanus places the Ludim where the Tigris and
Euphrates ineet, and M. le Clerc, between the rivers Cha-
boras and Saocoras or Masca. — Calmet.
LUDIM; the son of Mizraim, (Gen. 10: 13.) and alsoa
people frequently mentioned in Scripture, Isa. 66: 19. Jer.
46:9. Ezek. 27: 10. 30:5. We may admit of two coun-
tries under this name. (1.) Lydia in Asia; and (2.) Ly-
dia, or Ludim, in Africa. Josephus affirms, that the de-
scendants of Ludim had long been extinct, having been
destroyed in the Ethiopian wars. The Jerusalem para-
phrast translates Ludim, the inhabitants of the Mareotis,
a part of Egypt. The truth is, that although these people
were in Egypt, it is not easy to show exactly where they
dwelt.— Calmet.
LUHITH ; a mountain, in the opinion of Lyra, and the
Hebrew cominentators on Isa. 15: 5 ; but Eusebius thinks
it to be a place between Areopolis and Joara; others sup-
pose between Petra and Sihor. From Jer. 48: 5, it is evi-
dent that it was an elevated station, but whether a town
on a hill, or a place for prospect, or simply the prospect
up a hill, the road lying that way, does not appear. The
order of the places named is not the same in both prophets,
though both refer to the calamities of Moab, to which do-
minion Luhith belonged. — Calmet.
LUKE, the evangelist, is the author of the gospel bear-
ing his name, and also of the Acts of the Apostles. Mr.
Taylor has bestowed much labor on an historical biogra-
phy of this evangelist, with a view to the elucidation and
authentication of several of the Scripture narratives. He
says, " We have traced the evangelist under the names of
Lucius and Luke, from Jerusalem to Antioch, from An-
tioch to Troas and Philippi ; again from Philippi to Jeru-
salem, and from Jerusalem to Malta, and to Rome. We
have found him a learned, confidential, and considerate
man, advanced in years, endowed with the Holy Ghost
from on high, an inspired teacher, a valuable companion
and counsellor of the apostle Paul ; a correct, judicious,
and spirited writer, a man of research, and of Tio less for-
titude than composure. We now part with him, at the
conclusion of his history, on his last remove into Achaia ;
where he soon after died, at the great age of eighty-four.
".Nothing so fully establishes our confidence in a writer,
as a knowledge of his personal character. If he be loose,
inaccurate, heedless, we hardly know how to trust him when
he declares the most solemn truths in the most solemn man-
ner. If he be studious, particular, punctual, we pay a de-
ference even to his current discourse ; and if he affirm a
thing, we rest satisfied of its truth and reabty . But, persons
of strict accuracy seldom trust to their memory entirely on
important affairs ; they make memoranda, or keep some kind
of journal, in which they minute transactions as they arise ;
so that, at after-periods, they can refer to events thus record-
ed, and refresh their memories by consulting their former
observations. This, too, is customary, chiefly, if not
wholly, among men of letters, men of liberal and enlarged
education, men who are conversant with science, and who
know the value of hints made on the spot, pro re nata.
" We turn now to the preface of Luke's gospel, and we
find it completely in union with this strongly marked ex-
actness and precision : — ' Whereas many good people
enough, and not to be blamed, have taken in hand, but did
not complete their intention, to publish an orderly narra-
tion of certain events, as they have been delivered to us
by those who, from the beginning of these events, were
(some of them) eyewitnesses, and (others) parties con-
cerned in them, promoters of them by personal participa-
tion ; it has seemed good to me, having accurately exa-
mined all points from a much earlier period than they had
done, indeed from the very first rise of the inatter, to write
an orderly history of these things ; and thereby to accom-
plish that desirable purpose in which those writers have
failed.' We say, this profession of correctness and order
is perfectly in character with the man who tells us how
LUK
[759 ]
LUK
many days he staid iu such a place, in what point the
wind was, what was the name of the ship he sailed in, on
what occasion a council was held in the vessel, and what
was the language and observations of the seamen, as to
the bearing of the port they intended to make, ice. This
man could not bear the imperfections of the books which
came under his notice on a certain subject ; they did not
begin early enough, and they ended too soon. He there-
fore determined to begin his history much earlier, and to
continue it much later. This he accomplished iu a man-
ner which we shall see hereafter.
""We have presumed, that Luke, at our first acquaint-
ance with him, was of mature age, a reasoning and con-
siderate man ; and we further presume, a physician. Such
was the companion of Cleopas, Luke 24: 18. But, there is
another personage of greater importance than Cleopas,
on whose account the character of Luke peculiarly de-
mands notice. For if we reflect, we shall find that Jlary,
the mother of Jesus, was of much about the age of Luke ;
(say nearly fifty years, at the time of the crucifixion ;)
that she was no less reasoning and no less considerate
than he was ; and that his profession of physician admit-
ted access to the confidence of the sex, without offence.
The inference we wish to draw is, that this evangelist re-
ceived from the holy mother those papers which he has
preserved in the early part of his gospel ; with that infor-
mation which enabled him to assert his ' perfect under-
standing (or diligent tracing) of all things connected with
this history, from the very first.' It is probable, that this
confidence was the result of prolonged intercourse.
•'By tracing the chronology of Luke's life in an invert-
ed order, we obtain a stronger conviction of the triuh of
the facts stated, than others have allowed themselves to
indulge ; nevertheless, that these facts have been already
admitted, may appear from the words of the equally cau-
tious and learned Lardner. 'It is probable, that he is Lu-
cius, mentioned Rom. 16: 2] . If so, he was related to St.
Paul the apostle. And it is not unliiely, that that Lucius
is the same as Lucius of Cyrene, mentioned by name,
(Acts 13: 1.) and in general with others, chap. 11: 20. It
appears to me very probable, that St. Luke was a Jew by
birth, and an early Jewish believer. This must be reck-
oned to be a kind of requisite qualification for writing a
history of Christ, and the early preaching of his apostles,
to advantage ; which certainly St. Luke has performed.
He may, also, have been one of the two whom our Lord
met in the way to Emmaus, on the day of his resurrection,
as related Luke 24: 13 — 35. He is expressly styled by
the apostle his fellow-laborer, Philem. ver. 21. If he be
the person intended Col. 4: 14, (which seems very proba-
ble,) he was or had been by profession a physician. And
he was greatly valued by the apostle, who calls him be-
loved. He accompanied Paul when he first went into Bla-
cedonia. And we know, that he went with the apostle
from Greece through Blacedonia and Asia, to Jerusalem,
and thence to Rome, where he stayed with him two years
of his imprisonment. We do not exactly know when
Luke formed the design of writing his two books ; but,
probably, they are the labor of several years. Nor can
any b-sitate to allow the truth of what is said by some of
the ancients, that Luke, who for the most part was a com-
panion of Paul, had likewise more than a slight acquaint-
ance with the rest of the apostles.'
" We have no design of enlarging on the life of Luke ;
hut would point out a few incidental allusions to him, in
their regular order. For, notwithstanding what appears
so conspicuously, his habitual correctness and diligence,
we, bj placing him in the number of the one hundred and
twenty, on whom the Holy Ghost fell, in a visible form,
insist on his unquestionable inspiration ; and that in no
ordinary degree. He was, in this respect, though no apos-
tle, yet equal to the apostles : and there can be no doubt,
but what the extraordinary gifts of the Holy Spirit quali-
fied him abundantly for the discharge of every duty to
which he might be called, whether as a teacher, or as a
writer. (See Ixspiratio.w.)
" We suppose him. he being a Cyrenian, to have felt a
special interest in the opposition raised by ' those of the
synagogue of the Libertini, of the Cyrenians, and the
Alexandrian?' (all Africans) against Stephen ; which end-
ed in the deatl- of that protomarlyr. Acts 0: 'J. And here,
perhaps, began his acquaintance with the ' young man,
whose name was Saul.' We suppose him, also, to have
sympathized much with those Avho were scattered abroad
on the persecution that followed 'the death of Stephen j
' some of whom were men of Cyprus and Cyrene, who
went as far as Antioch,' Acts U: 20. But, whether he
quitted Jerusalem at this time, cannot be determined with-
out reserve. If he did, he was now a sufl'erer through
the persecution of that very man, Saul, with whom he
afterwards contracted the most confidential intimacy. Lit-
tle did either of them see the events of a few years 1"
2. Luke, (Gospel of.) Lardner thinks that there area
few allusions to Luke's gospel in some of the apostolical
fathers, especially in Hermas and Polycarp ; and in Jus-
tin Martyr there are passages evidently taken from it ;
but the earaest author, who actually mentions St. Luke's
gospel, is Irenaeus ; and he cites so many peculiarities in
it, all agreeing with the gospel which we now have, that
he alone is sufficient to prove its genuineness. We may
however observe, that his testimony is supported by Cle-
ment of Alexandria, TertuUian, Origen, Eusebitis, Jerome,
Chrj'sostom, and many others. Dr. Owen and Dr. Town-
son have compared many parallel passages of St. Mark's
and St. Luke's gospels ; and Dr. Townson has concluded
that St. Luke had seen St. Mark's gospel, and Dr. Owen,
that St. Blark hail seen St. Luke's ; but there does not
appear lo be a sufficient similarity of expression to justify
either of these conclusions. There was among the an-
cients a difference of opinion concerning the priority of
these two gospels ; and it must be acknowledged to be a
very doubtful point.
There is also some doubt about the place where this
gospel was pubhshed. It seems most probable that it was
published in Greece, and for the use of Gentile converts.
Dr. Townson observes, that the evangelist has inserted
many explanations, particularly concerning the scribes
and Pharisees, which he would have omitted if he had
been writing for those who were acquainted with the cus-
toms and sects of the Jews. The accounts to which he
refers in his preface are now entirely lost, and the names
of their authors are not known. AVhen the four authentic
gospels were published, and came into general use, all
others were quickly disregarded and forgotten.
St. Luke's gospel is addressed to Theophilus; but there
was a doubt, even in the time of Epiphanius, whether a
particular person, or an}' good Christian in general, be in-
tended by that name. 'Theophilus was probably a real
person, that opinion being more agreeable lo the simpli-
city of the sacred writings. We have seen that St. Luke
was for several years the companion of St. Paul ; and ma-
ny ancient writers consider this gospel as having the sanc-
tion of St. Paul, in the same manner as St. Mark's had
that of St. Peter. Wlioever will examine the evangelist's
and the apostle's account of the eucharist in their respec-
tive original works, will observe a great coincidence of
expression, Luke 22. 1 Cor. 11.
St. Luke seems to have had more learning than any
other of the evangelists, and his language is more varied,
copious, and pure. This superiority in style may pe:haps
be owing to his longer residence in Greece, and greater
acquaintance with Gentiles of good education, than fell to
the 4ot of the writers of the other three gospels. This
gospel contains many things which are not found in the
other gospels ; among which are the following : the birth
of John the Baptist ; the Roman census in Judea ; the
circumstances attending Christ's birth at Bethlehem ; the
vision granted to the shepherds ; the early testimony of
Simeon and Anna ; Christ's conversation Avith the doctors
in the temple when he was twelve years old ; the parables
of the good Samaritan, of the prodigal son, of Dives and
Lazarus, of the wicked judge, and of the publican and
Pharisee ; the miraculous cure of the woman who had
been bowed down by illness eighteen years ; the cleansing
of the ten lepers ; and the restoring to life the son of a
widow at Nain ; the account of Zaccheus, and of the peni-
tent thief ; and the particulars of the journey to Emmaus.
It is very satisfactory that so early a writer as Irenceus
has noticed most of these peculiarities ; which proves not
only that St. Luke's gospel, but that the other gospels
r
LUT
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also, are tlie same now that they were in the second cen-
tury. (See Acts of the Apostles.) — -Cohnct ; Watson.
LUKEWARMNESS ; applied to the affections, indif-
ference, or want of ardor.' In respect to religion, hardly
any thing can be more culpable than this spirit. If there
be a God possessed of unspeakable rectitude in his own
nature, and unbounded goodness towards his creatures,
what can be more inconsistent and unbecoming than to
be frigid and indifferent in our devotions to him ? Athe-
ism, in some respects, cannot be worse than lukewann-
ness. The atheist disbelieves the existence of a God, and,
therefore, cannot worship him at all ; the lukewarm owns
the existence, .'sovereignly, and goodness of the Supreme
Being, but denies him that fervor of affection, that devo-
tedness of heart, and activity of service, which the excel-
lency of his nature demands, and the authority of his
word requires. Such a character, therefore, is represent-
ed a.s absolutely loathsome to God, and obnoxious to his
■wrath. Rev. 3: '15, 16.
The general signs of a lukewarm spirit are such as
these : — Neglect of private prayer ; a preference of world-
ly to religious company ; a lax attendance on public ordi-
nances ; omission or careless perusal of God's word ; a
zeal for some appendages of religion, while languid about
religion itself; a backwardness to promote the cause of
God in the world, and a rashness of spirit in censuring
those who are desirous to be useful.
If we inquire the causes of such a spirit, we shall find
them to be — worldly prosperity ; the influence of carnal
relatives and acquaintances ; indulgence of secret sins ;
the fear of man ; and sitting under an unfaithful ministry.
The inconsistency of it appears if we consider, that it is
highly unreasonable ; dishonorable to God ; incompatible
with the genius of the gospel ; a barrier to improvement ;
a death-blow to usefulness ; a direct opposition to the
commands of Scriptui'e ; and tends to the greatest misery.
To overcome such a state of mind, we should consider
how offensive it is to God ; how incongruous with the very
idea and nature of true religion ; how injurious to peace
and felicity of mind ; how ungrateful to Jesus Christ,
whose whole life was labor for us and our salvation ; how
grievous to the Holy Spirit ; how dreadful an example to
those who have no religion ; how unlike the saints of old,
and even to our enemies in the worst of causes ; how dan-
gerous to our immortal souls, since it is indicative of our
want of love to God, and exposes us to just condemnation,
Amos G: 1. Massillon's Sermons ; Davies' Sermons ; Walk-
ers Sermons ; Fuller's Works. — Hend. Suck.
LUNATICS ; a name given to those diseased persons,
who suffer most severely on the changes of the moon ;
for example, epileptical persons, or those who have the
falling sickness ; insane persons, or those tormented with
fits of morbid melancholy ; as well as persons possessed
by the devil ; for often those have been beUeved to be really
possessed by the devil, who were tormented only with
great degrees of melancholy or fury. Jerome (in Blatt.
4: 24.) is of opinion, that the lunatics in the gospel were
possessed persons, whom the people through mistake call-
ed lunatics, because they saw them most tormented during
the change of the moon ; the devil affecting to make them
suffer most in these circumstances, that simple people
might impute the cause of it to the moon, and from thence
take occasion to blaspheme the Creator. Others maintain,
that all the difference between an epileptic and a luna-
tic was, that one was more disordered than the other.
Persons subject to epilepsies are not all equally attacked.
Some fall more frequently, others more rarely : some eve-
ry day. Lunatics are affected chiefly on the declension
of the moon. Cump. Matt. 17: 15. (See Demoniacs.) —
Calmet.
LUST ; the irregular love of pleasure, riches, or ho-
nors, Rom. 7: 7 — 25. 1 John 2: 6. As in both Testaments,
evil desires, as well as evil actions, are equally proscribed,
so the first care of every man who would please God should
be to crucify his lusts. Gal. 5: 24. — Calmet.
LUTHER, (Martin.) the celebrated reformer, was born
the 10th of November, 1483, at the town of Eisleben, in
the electorate of Saxony. His father, John Luther, was
remarkable for his industry. He was a local magistrate,
a man of respectability, and good character. His mo-
ther, Margaret Lindeman, was a woman of eminent piety ;
and Luther was much benefited by her maternal instruc-
tions. At an early age, he was placed under the tuition
of George Omilius, who instructed him in the elements of
knowledge, and from whom he was early removed, to be
placed in a superior school at Magdeburg. At the age of
fifteen, he was sent to a distinguished seminary in Eise-
nach ; his master's name was John Trebonius, and ths
school was conducted by Franciscans. Here was laid
the foundation of his future eminence ; and he soon com-
posed Latin verses, which alike surprised and gratified his
instructers. At the age of nineteen, he repaired to the
seminary of Erfurt, where he diligently studied logic and
Latin, and most probably Greek ; and attained so much
proficiency, that, when only twenty years of age, he took
the degree of master of arts.
Luther at this time was in an unregenerate state ; but
in the following year, 1504, walking out one day with a
friend, named Alexius, they were overtaken by a thunder-
storm, and his friend was struck dead by his side. , Per-
ceiving the vanity of all terrestrial good, he then deter-
mined on ending his days in a monastery ; and notwith-
standing the contrary advice of his friends, and the plea-
sure he derived from social intercourse, in 1505 he entered
the Augustinian monastery at Erfurt. On embracing the
monastic profession, he was very imperfectly acquainted
with the routine of the discipline. It was in 1507, (2d of
Slay,) and in Luther's twenty-fourth year, that he entered
into orders, and celebrated his first mass. This date is
the more remarkable, because he discovered, about the
same time, a Latin copy of the Bible, lying in the hbrary
of the monastery ; he eagerly laid hold of this neglected
book, and persevered in studying it with so much diligence,
that he was able, in a short time, to refer with ease and
promptitude to any particular passage. In the zealous
prosecution of his studies, he had little opportunity of de-
riving assistance from the labors of others. The writings
of the fathers, with the exception of those of Augustine,
were wholly unknown to him. His knowledge of Greek
was very imperfect, and with Hebrew he was entirely un-
acquainted. Besides, the only copy of the Scriptures as
yet in his possession, was the Latin Vulgate. Erasmus
had not then published his edition of the New Testament ;
and since the days of Jerome, no very eminent example
had been given of the application of sound criticism to the
sacred canon. Deprived thus of information, from the
researches of others, Luther would often spend a whole
day in meditating on a few particular passages. To this
he was prompted equally by a thirst for information, and
the disquieted state of his mind. Before his acquaintance
with the Bible, he had, like other persons, been satisfied
with the current doctrines, and had never thought of exa-
mining a subject ia which he suspected no error. Now,
however, he was sufficiently advanced to perceive that his
early creed must be abandoned, without having gone far
enough to find another in its place. His former melan-
choly returned, and continued to do so at intervals, until
his views of divine truth acquired clearness and consis-
tency. During this slate of uncertainty, when reflecting
on the wrath of God, and on the extraordinary examples
of punishment recorded in Scripture, he was sometimes
struck with such terror as almost to faint away. He has
been so much agitated by eagerness of temper, when en-
gaged in a dispute on doctrine, as to find it necessary to
throw himself on a bed in an adjoining chamber, where
he would fall down in prayer, and frequently repeat these
LUT
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words : " He hath concluded all in unbelief, that he might
have mercy upon all." In those agitations of mind, Lu-
ther's resort was to the works of Augustine, who was, in
his eyes, an oracle of equal price, as Jerome in those of
Erasmus. Luther, absorbed in study, and averse to con-
sume time in the uninstructive routine of Romish ceremo-
nies, became unmindful of the forms of the monastery;
he would read and write with such ardor, for days toge-
ther, as to overlook the hours prescribed for divine service
by the canons ; he was, on the other hand, rigid in the
observance of the penance enjoined to his profession.
At a diet held at Worms, in 1495, it had been agreed
among the electors, that each should become the founder
of a university. Luther's sovereign, Frederick, elector of
Saxony, surnamed the Sage, was fully alive to the advan-
tages of erecting such an establishment in his territory.
in 1308, Luther was appointed to an academical chair in
'he university of Witlemberg, at the early age of twent)'-
live. He now felt the necessity of acquiring a knowledge
of Hebrew. Luther was, in many respects, not only a
sincere but a zealous Cathohc. In addition to the duty of
teaching his class and jireaching, Luther occasionally
heard confessions. In t|g exercise of this function, in the
year 1517, some persons came to him to confess, and
though guilty of serious crimes, refused to undergo the
penance prescribed by him, because they had already re-
ceived remission in the shape of an indulgence. Luther,
revohing at this evasion, flatly refused them the absolution
for which they applied. As he persisted m this negative
determination, the persons in question, considering them-
selves aggrieved, entered a serious complaint against him
with Tetzel, who was at that time in the neighborhood of
the town of Interbock. In an evil hour for the papacy,
Tetzel became violently incensed against Luther ; and be-
mg one of the holy commission charged with the extirpa-
tion of heresy, he threatened to subject Luther, and those
who might adhere to him, to the horrors of the inquisition.
The manner in which Luther proceeded, affords a convinc-
ing proof that he acted with no deliberate hostility to the
church. Confonnably to the custom of the age, in the
case of doubtful points, he came to the determination of
staling his ideas in a series of propositions, with a view to
a public disputation. Accordingly, on the 31st of October,
1517, he published ninety-five, discussing copiously the
doctrines of penitence, charity, indulgences, purgatory, ifec.
Haviug affixed the propositions to the church adjacent to
the castle of Wittemberg, au invitation to a public dispu-
tation on them was subjoined, accompanied with a request,
that those who were necessarily absent, would transmit
him their observations in writing. A long and tedious
contest ensued between Tetzel and Luther ; they wrote
much and violently ; and, resolute as was his character,
a considerable time ela^jsed before he came to an open
rupture with the court of Rome. Towai^slhe end of the
year 1319, Luther began to express, without reserve, his
dissent from the church of Rome, on the subject of the
sacrament.
In the year 1521, Luther published his celebrated essay,
'■ De Captivitate Babylonioa Ecclesiae." He here examin-
ed into the nature and useVof the sacraments, which, as is
well known, are, according to the Romanists, seven in
number. From this enumeration Luther dissented ; and
denied the name of sacrament to confirmation, holy orders,
marriage, or extreme unction. But he continued to in-
clude penance in the list, as well as baptism and the
Lord's supper. The universities of Cologne and Louvain
having openly burned Luther's books, and a similar exam-
ple having been given at Rome, the reformer now determin-
ed to retaliate. He caused public notice to be given at Wit-
lemberg, that he purposed burning the antichristian decre-
tals, on Monday, the 10th of December. So novel a scene
excited great interest, and the concourse, accordingly, was
immense. The people assembled at nine o'clock in the
morning, and proceeded, in regular divisions, to the spot
in the neighborhood where the ceremor^was to be per-
formed. Having there partaken of a si^ht repast, an
eminent member of the university erected aM|U|d of fune-
ral pile, and set it on fire ; after which LutheMook Gra-
tian's Abridgment of the Canon Law, the Letters com-
monly called Decretals of the Pontiffs, the Clementines
96
and Exlravagants, and, last of all, the Bull of Leo X. A
these he threw into the fire, and exclaimed with a loud
voice, " Because ye have troubled the saints of the Lord,
therefore let eternal fire trouble you." Havin" remained
to witness their consumption, he returned into the city, ac-
companied by the same muUitude, without the occurrence:
of the slightest disorder. Luther, according to his usual
practice, replied with great spirit to the condemning sen-
tence of the universities of Cologne and Louvain. The
adherents of the court of Rome were much disappointed
at the inefficient operation of the bull against Luther ;
and the conduct of that court, in this business, has been
subjected to those charges of impolicy which are generally
applied to unsuccessful counsels. It has been said by
many persons, that the bull was too long delayed ; by
others, that its langtiage was too violent and arbitrary.
The term granted to Luther having expired, a new bull
made its appearance on the 3d of January, 1521, confirm-
ing the preceding in all its extent, with the serious addi-
tion of Luther's excommunication. But this edict made
very little impression, and its reception tended only to
show the diminished efficacy of papal fulminations against
the progress of opinion.
The time had now arrived for holding Charles' first diet.
The city of Nuremberg being infested with the plague,
the place of meeting was fixed at Worms. The diet as-
sembled in January, and the agents of the court of Rome
were indefatigable in their eflbrts to get a summons for
Luther speedily issued. Frederick, apprized of all their
machinations, gave Luther information, through the me-
dium of Spalatin, of what was likely to happen, and
caused him to be asked what course he would pursue in
the event of his being summoned by the emperor to ap-
pear before the diet ? — a step which, in consequence of the
urgency of the pope's agents, he thought very probable.
Luther's answer was conveyed in a very .spirited and well-
written letter to Spalatin, in which he says, " If there
were as many devils in Worms as there are tiles on the
roofs of the houses, I would go on." When drawing to-
wards the close of his journey, Luther received an invita-
tion from Glassio, the emperor's confessor, to meet him at
the residence of one of Luther's friends, at some distance
liom the road. But Luther, whether suspicious of Glas-
sio, or, as is more likely, afraid of exceeding the hmited
term of twenty-one days, replied, " that he was determin-
ed to go whither he had been ordered by the emperor."
Accordingly, he feached Worms on the 16th of Apiil,
attired in his friar's cowl, seated in an open chariot, pre-
ceded by the emperor's herald on horseback, in his offi-
cial dress. Next day, the 17th of April, notice was
sent from the emperor to Luther, that his presence was re-
quired at the diet in the afternoon. Even the roofs are
said to have been covered with spectators. An intimation
having been privately given to Luther not to speak, e.xcept
in reply, the proceedings commenced on the part of one
John Eckius, official, as it is termed, of the archbishop of
Treves, and equally hostile to Luther as his namesake,
the disputant. This orator, in an audible voice, first in
Latin, and next in German, proposed two questions : —
'■ Whether Luther avowed himself the author of the books
bearing his name?" to a collection of which he then
pointed; and ''Whether he was disposed to retract, or
persist in their contents ?" Luther instantly acknowledged
himself the author of these works ; but, in regard to the
second question, he asked, no doubt by the suggestion of
his counsel, that " time might be given him to consider
his answer." On entering the diet next day, Eckius re-
capitulated, with great form, the proceedings of the day
before, and asked Luther once more whether he retracted
or persisted ? Luther delivered an answer at great length,
first in German, and afterwards in Latin. Notwithstand-
ing the awe of the assembly, and the excessive heat from
the great numbers present, he spoke in a tone of clearness
and confidence for two hours, and ended in these noble
words : " Let me then be refuted and convinced by the
testimony of the Scriptures, or by the clearest arguments ;
otherwise I cannot and will not recant ; for it is neuher
safe nor expedient to act against conscience. Here I '^^
my stand- I can do no otherwise, so help me Crod .
Amen."
LUT
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Eckius, who had discovered symptoms of impatience
iluring the delivery of the defence, declared, as soon as it
was ended, that Luther had not answered to the point, and
ought not to express doubts about things that had been
already defined and condemned by so many councils.
Luther replied. The emperor being, in a great measure,
unacquainted with the mode of conducting the affairs of
Germany, and impatient at the continuance of the con-
troversy, allowed himself to be persuaded that the fittest
course would be to excommunicate Luther at once. This
took place, accordingly, next day, the 19lh of April;
but, being done without the assent of the princes, the effi-
cacy of the decree was very difierent from what would
have attended a concurrent resolution of the diet. Many
persons of distinction continued to visit Luther, and the
multitude gave evident signs of their interest in his cause.
The subsequent proceedings of the diet were such as to
show the expediency of this step, extraordinary as it v/as.
After some delay, incurred, probably, for the purpose of
taking advantage of the departure of Luther's principal
friends from the diet, an imperial edict was issued, which
declared him a schismatic and heretic, and put him under
the ban of the empire. This edict was not published un-
til the 26th of May, although dated, for the sake of ap-
pearing the act of the diet at large, so far back as the 8th
of Jlay.
Luther was now confined in the castle of Wittemberg ;
but though secluded from intercourse with the world, he
was incapable of passing his time in inactivity or indiffe-
rence. The first essay which Luther found means to pub-
lish from his retreat, was a short treatise in German, •' On
the Abuse of Auricular Confession." His next publica-
tion was a short practical work, consisting of " Notes on
the Evangelists," the merit of which was acknowledged,
even by his adversaries. He carried on, likewise, a con-
troversy with James Latomus, a divine of Louvain, al-
ready known to the pubhc by his disputes with Keuchlin
and Erasmus, and who had undertaken the defence of the
decision given by his university in Luther's cause. In
1521, he also composed his celebrated work on " Monastic
Vows."
Luther was now to encounter an adversary of a new
kind. Henry VIIL of England, having, in the early part
of life, paid some attention to the study of scholastic the-
ology, was flattered by his courtiers into the belief of be-
ing able to obtain an easy triumph over the arguments of
Luther. Henry's book, considering the badness of his
cause, and the wretched system of learning then in vogue,
is not destitute of merit. But Luther was not to be dis-
couraged, either by high-sounding encomiums, or by the
rank of his assailant. He made a prompt reply, and had
no scruple in describing the king by the most uncourteous
epithets. Luther having, after a short absence, returned
from the castle of Wittemberg, began, in 1522, to devote
himself to a labor of great importance, — the translation of
the Scriptures into German. The magnitude of the de-
sign was in correspondence with his ardent and enterpri-
sing cast of mind j and the seclusion of his present resi-
dence was favorable to the commencement of its execution.
The church of Rome was well aware of the danger to her
superstitious legends and extravagant assumptions, from
a good translation of the Bible. Her defenders have,
therefore, directed many attacks against Luther's labor,
and have presumed to accuse it of frequently vitiating the
sense of the original. Meanwhile the civil authorities in
Germany continued their efforts to crush the Lutheran
doctrine.
In the same year Luther returned to Wittemberg, which
gave occasion to lively demonstrations of joy ; the learned
and unlearned partaking equally in the general exulta-
tion. It was about this time that Luther had occasion to
write to-the Bohemians. They were beginning, he heard,
to waver in their favorable disposition towards the new
creed, in consequence of the divisions arising among its
followers. He argued strongly, that to return to the
church of Rome was not the way to escape the evils of
discussions, since no communion was more distracted by
multiplicity of schisms. Indefatigable in his labors against
the papacy, he soon after published a work, entitled, " Ad-
versus falso nominatum ordinem Episcoporum." The
next of his numerous publications was a small treatise,
entitled, " De Doctrinis Hominum Vitandis." This may
be considered an abridgment of his former book on " Mo-
nastic Vows."
It is now time to direct our attention to the proceedings
of the court of Rome. The virtuous but inexperienced
Adrian had paid the debt of nature on the 14th of Sep-
tember, 1523. His death gave occasion, as usual, to
strong contentions of interest in the conclave. At last,
Julius of Medicis was elected in the end of November,
and assumed the name of Clement VII. The chief diffi-
culty which he apprehended, in regard to the Reformation,
arose from the extraordiny admissions made by his pre-
decessor. He deemed it expedient, therefore, to negotiate
as if Adrian had taken no active part in these unpleasant
proceedings. Blind, like most bad governments, to the
real cause of public discontent, Clement and his advisers
looked in particular circumstances and events, for that
which they should have sought in the general difl'usion
of information. On the 7th of December, therefore,
Clement addressed a letter to the elector Frederick, allu-
ding, in general terms, to the disturbances existing in
Germany, and expressing a confident belief that the elec-
tor would advocate the cause of the church. This letter,
in imitation of the example of his predecessors, was in-
tended to pave the way for the further progress of Cam-
peggio's negotiation. Accordingly, on the I5th of Janua-
ry, 1524, that legate being about to repair to the diet as-
sembled at Nuremberg, the pope wrote another letter to
Frederick, still expressed in general terms, but in a style
of studied complaisance, and intimating a wish that the
elector would consult with the legate, in regard to the best
means of restoring peace and tranquiUity to the empire. ;
Ably as this letter was penned, it does not appear to have i
extracted any answer from the wary Frederick. The i
publication of " The Recess of the Diet" took place on
the 18th of April. It was divided into two general heads ;
the first regarding Luther and his doctrine, the second
treating of the dangers which threatened Germary.
Luther having speedily obtained a copy of the '■ Recess"
published by the diet, was strongly agitated by the conduct
of the princes of Germany. With that disregard of con-
sequences which so frequently marked his conduct, he in-
stantly republished the Edict of Worms, of May 8th,
1521, and contrasting it with that of Nuremberg, had no
hesitation to call the princes " miserable, infatuated njen,
set over the people by God in his anger." His views in
other respects began to expand, and he ventured, on the
9th of October, 1524, to lay aside his monastic habit, and
to assume the dress of a professor or preacher. A part
of this year was passed by Luther in a manner much
more profitable than controversy. He translated the
Psalms into German verse, for the use of the common
people ; and added sacred hymns of his own composition.
Luther now determined to settle himself in marriage. ;
This step, remarkable in itself, on the part of one who
had sworn celibacy, was rendered still more so by the ex-
istence of a similar obligation on the part of her whom
he espoused. (See Boke, Catharine von.) The advo-
cates of the church of Rome poured out the most vehe-
ment declamations against Luther, on the occasion of his
marriage with a nun. Some affirmed that he was mad,
or possessed with an evil spirit. The elector, John, now
consented to take steps to make the Lutheran the predo-
minant religion in his dominions. Though the majority
of his subjects were favorably inclined to it, the change
was <oo great to be effected otherwise than by degrees
Towards the end of 1525, an attempt, it was said, was
intended to be made to cm off Luther by poison. In con-
sequence of the suspicion of some of Luther's friends, a
Jew and several other persons were arrested at Wittem-
berg ; but, on their examination, nothing could be disco-
vered, and Luther interceded that they might not be put
to the torture. They were accordingly set at liberty. Hi-
therto Luther had been not only the origin, but the main
spring, of the ^position to the papacy : but the range
which it now<embraced, was too wide to be directed by the
exertions 8^an individual. The further progress of this
opposition belongs, therefore, to general history, and would
be wholly ;iiisplaced in a biographical relation. In di-
LUT
[763]
LIUT
reeling Ihe translation of the Bible, Luther now devoted
much time. He had divided this stupendous labor into
three parts, — the books of Moses ; the subsequent histo-
ry of the Jews ; and, lastly, the prophetical and other
books of the Old Testament. The version of the prophets
did not begin to appear till 1527 ; and, in completing this
part of his task, Luther received benefit from the assis-
tance of some Jews of the city of Worms. The book of
Isaiah was printed in 1528. Daniel followed soon after ;
and, in 153(), the whole was completed. His chief coad-
jutors in this noble undertaking were Bugenhagen, better
known by the name of Pomeranus, Justus Jonas, Melanc-
thon, and Matthew, surnamed Aurogallus.
The year 1526 was the first, since 1517, that Luther al-
lowed to pass without publishing a book against the Ro-
manists. In the course of the year, however, he published
his '■ Commentaries on Jonah and Habakkuk," along with
some lesser pieces of Scripture criticism. The imperial
diet, at midsummer, was held at the city of Spires, and
the pressure of business was such as to require the attend-
ance of the elector John, during several months. Luther
continued occupied in plans for the progress of the Refor-
mation, which were to be submitted to the elector, as soon
as more urgent business permitted him to give them his
attention. ■ Next 3'ear, 1528, Luther published his " Com-
mentary on Genesis and Zechariah," as well as a Letter
to the bishop of Misnia, respecting the Eucharist. Luther,
while residing at Cobonrg, suffered several attacks of iU
health, but nothing could relax his application to his stu-
dies. He employed his time in the translation of the
books of the prophets, and in composing his " Commen-
tary on the Psalms." From the fatigue of these graver
employments, he sought relaxation in composing an Ad-
monition to the Clergy assembled at Augsburg, which he
thought proper to send to that city to be printed. It was
entitled, "Admonitio ad Eccle.siastici ordinis Congrega-
lioaes in Comitiis Augustanis." During the following
year, 1532, Luther published commentaries on difierent
portions of Scripture. It was now that he was destined
to lose a valuable friend and protector, in the person of
John, elector of Saxony, who expired of apoplexy, on the
IGth of August, being cut olT, like his brother Frederick,
in his si.xty-third year.
The year 1531) was reinarkable for the death of the
great Erasmus. It is much to be lamented, that his dis-
pute with Luther was revived two years before, with a
great share of mutual asperity ; Luther having gone so
far as to bring the charge of atheism against his antago-
nist. Improperly as Erasmus acted in his latter years,
he deserves to be regarded as one of the principal found-
ers of the Reformation. (See Ekasmus.) Luther's last
controversy with Erasmus was followed by one with very
difierent opponents, the Anabaptists. (See Anabaptists.)
In the beginni;ig of 1537, Luther was aftiicted mth a
su'angury, and the symptoms were so severe, that both he
and his friends began to despair of his life. During this
alarming illness, much anxiety was manifested for his re-
covery, as well by his friends as by the public characters
v.'ho favored the Reformation. His recovery appears to
have been complete, and he was able to resume his labors
in the cause of religion. He prepared for the press two
editions of his great work, the translation of the Bible,
and published them successively in 1541 and 1545.
It was in 1545, in Luther's sixty-second year, that his
constitution began to exhibit strong symptoms of decline.
But bodily infirmity was not the only misfortune of Lu-
ther. That constitutional ardor which enabled him to
brave the threats of ecclesiastical and temporal rulers,
was connected with a temper productive, in several re-
spects, of much uneasy sensation to its possessor. It
happened, also, very unfortunately, that the evening of
Luther's day was clouded by an altercation %vilh the law-
yers on the subject of clandestine marriages. So strong
was the effect of this accumulation of chagrin, that Lu-
ther lost his attachment to his favorite city, Wittemberg,
and left it in the month of July, 1545. His companions
were his three sons, John, Martin, and Paul, and his stea-
dy friend, Justus Jonas. His health now, however, ra-
pidly declined ; and, on the 18th of February, he expired
at Eiselben. His last words were, "0 my heavenly Fa-
ther, eternal and merciful God, thou har.t revealed to me
thy Son, our Lord Jesus Christ ! I have preached him, I
have confessed him, I lore him, and I worship him as my
dearest Savior and Redeemer ; him whom the wicked
persecute, accuse, and blaspheme.'' He then repeated
three times the words of the psalm, " Into thy hands I
commit my spirit ; God of truth, thou hast redeemed me."
Luther was no ordinary man. In all his proceedings,
various as they were, in his preachings, his treatises, and
disputations, we discern no step taken for the gratification
of personal ad\'antage ; all is disinterested and zealous ;
all is prompted by an anxiety to understand and promul-
gate the word of God.
In considering Luther as an author, we are struck with
the extent and variety of his labors. They consist of
controversial tracts, of commentaries on Scripture, of
sermons, of letters, and of narratives of the chief events of
his life. The leading feature of his controversial writings
is an unvaried confidence of the goodness of his argit-
ments. His compositions of all kinds, including sermons
and epistolary disquisitions, are calculated, by his distin-
guished biographer, Seckendorff, at the extraordinary
number of eleven hundred and thirty-seven. Where the
mass of writing was so large, we must expect little polish
of style. Luther's imagination was vigorous, but the cul-
tivation of taste engaged no part of his attention. His
inelegance of style has been chiefly remarked in his Latin
publications. His theological system he professed to
ibund altogether on the authority of Scripture.
Warm as he was in temper, and unaccustomed to yield
to authoritative demands, he yet possessed inuch of the
milk of human kindness. His frankness of disposition
was apparent at the first interview, and his communica-
tive turn, joined to the richness of his stores, rendered liis
conversation remarkably interesting. The visitor of Lu-
ther's domestic circle was assured of witnessing a pleasing
union of religious service with conjugal and paternal af-
fection. The diffusion of religious knowledge being al-
ways foremost in Luther's mind, he was fond, when along
with his friends, of turning the conversation in that direc-
tion. Nor was there any objection on the part of his as-
sociates.
As a preacher, he was justly celebrated. He mounted
the pulpit full of his subject, and eager to diffuse a portion
of his stores among his audience. The hearer's attention
was aroused by the boldness and novelty of the ideas ; it
was kept up by the ardor with which he saw the preacher
inspired. In the discourse, there was nothing of the stiff
ness of labored composition ; in the speaker, no affectation
in voice or gesture. Luther's sole object was to bring the
truth fully and forcibly before his congregation. His
delivery was aided by a clear elocution, and his diction
had all the copiousness of a fervent imagination. Few
men have conferred on posterity so many benefits as this
learned, pious, and zealous reformer. Jams' Chris. Biog. ;
Bowers' Life of Ltither ; Ency. Amer. ; Mosheim ; Robert
son's Charles V. — Head. Buck.
LUTHER ANISM ; the system of Protestantism adopt
ed by the followers of Luther. It has undergone somi
alterations since the time of its founder.
Luther reduced the number of sacraments to two, viz.
baptism and the eucharist ; but he believed the impana-
tion or consubstantiation ; that is, that the matter of the
bread and wine remain with the body and blood of
Christ ; and it is in this article that the main difference
between the Lutheran and the English churches consists.
I..uther maintained the mass to benosacrifice ; exploded
the adoration of the host, auricular confession, meritorious
works, indulgences, purgatory, the worship of images,
ice, which had been introduced in the corrupt times of
the Romish church. He also opposed the doctrine of free
will, maintained predestination, and asserted our justifica-
tion to be solely by the imputation of the merits and sa-
tisfaction of Christ. He also opposed the fastings of the
Romish church, monastical vows, the celibacy of the der-
S>'' *-''=■ ■ . .^
The Lutherans, however, of all Protestants, are said to
differ least from the Romish church : as they affirm that
the body and blood of Christ are materially present in the
sacrament of the Lord's supper, though in an incompre-
L YD
[ -64 ]
L YS
hensible manner ; and likewise represent some religious
rites and institutions, as the use of images in churches,
the distinguishing vestments of the clergy, the private
confession of sins, the use of wafers in the administration
of the Lord's supper, the form of exorcism in the celebra-
tion of baptism, and other ceremonies of the like nature,
as tolerable, and some of them as useful. The Lutherans
maintain, with regard to the divine decrees, that they re-
spect the salvation or misery of men, in consequence of a
previous knowledge of their sentiments and characters,
and not as free and unconditional, or as founded on the
gratuitous mercy and sovereign will of God.
Towards the close of the seventeenth century, the Lu-
therans began to entertain a greater laxity of sentiment
than they had before adopted. Their public teachers now
use an unbounded liberty of dis.senting from the decisions
of those symbols or creeds which were once deemed al-
most infallible rules of faith and practice, and of declar-
ing their dissent in the manner they judge the most expe-
dient. IMosheim attributes this change in their sentiments
to the maxim which they generally adopted, that Chris-
tians were accountable to God alone for their religious opin-
ions ; and that no individual could be justly punished by the
magistrate for his erroneous opinions, while he conducted
himself like a virtuous and obedient subject, and made no
attempts to disturb the peace and order of civil society.
This just maxim has however been made a cover for the
vilest hypocrisy of scepticism. On the present state of
the Lutheran church in Germany, see Spirit of the Pil-
grims, 1828—1833; Eohinson's Bill. Sepos.for 1831; JV.
Y. Bap. Reg., 1834. See also the article Neology ; and
Protestant Evanoelical Christian Church.
In Sweden, the Lutheran church is episcopal ; in Nor-
way the same. In Denmark, the episcopal authority is
retained, and the name of bishop re-adopted instead of that
of superintendent, which still obtains in most parts of Ger-
many ; though the superior power is vested in a consistory,
over which there is a president, with a distinction of rank
and privileges, and a subordination of inferior clergy to
their superiors, different from the parity of Presbyterian-
ism. Mosheim's Ecdes. History ; Life of Luther ; Haweis'
Ch. Hist., vol. ii. p. 4.51 ; Enc. Brit. ; Robertson's History of
Charles V. vol. ii. p. 42 ; Luther on Galatians. — Henil. Bvch.
LUTHERAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES.
(See Appendix to this work.)
LUXURY ; a disposition of mind addicted to pleasure,
riot, and superfluities. Luxury implies a giving one's
self up to pleasure ; voluptuousness, an indulgence in the
same to excess. Luxury may be further considered as
consisting in, 1. Vain and useless expenses. 2. In a
parade beyond what people can afford. 3. In affecting
to be above our own rank. 4. In living in a splendor
that does not agree with the public good. In order to
avoid it, we should consider that it is ridiculous, trouble-
some, sinful, and ruinous. Robinson's Claude, vol. i. .p.
382 ; Ferguson on Society, part vi. sect. 2. — Hend. Buch.
LUZ. (See Bethel.)
LYCAONIA ; a province of Asia Minor, and forming
part of Cappadocia, having Galatia north, Pisidia south,
Cappadocia east, and Phrygia west. In it were the cities
of Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra, Acts 14: 6, &c. The
" speech of Lycaonia" is generally believed to have been a
corrupt Greek ; that is, Greek mingled with a great deal
of Syriac.^Cn/);ie(.
LYCIA ; a province of Asia Minor, having Phrygia
on the north, the Mediterranean on the south, Pamphylia
on the east, and Caria on the west, 1 Mac. 15: 23. Acts
27: 5. Paul landed at the port of Myra in this province,
when going to Rome, A. D. 60.—Calmet.
LYDDA, in Hebrew, Lud, or Lod, by the Greeks and
Latins called Lydda, or Diospolis, is a city in the way
from Jerusalem to Caesarea Philippi. It lay east of Jop-
pa four or five leagues ; and belonged to Ephraim. It
seems to have been inhabited by the Benjamites after the
Babylonish captivity, (Neh. 11: 35.) and was one of the
three toparchies which were dismembered from Samaria
and given to the Jews, 1 Mac. 11: 34. Peter coming to Lyd-
da, cured -Sneas, who was sick of the palsy. Acts 9: 33 34.
" Lydda was denominated by the Greeks Diospolis, [the
city,] or temple of Jupiter, probably because a temple had
been dedicated in its vicinity to that deity. Since the cru
sades it has received from the Christians the name of St.
George, on account of its having been the scene of the
martyrdom and burial of that saint. In this city tradi-
tion reports that the emperor Justinian erected a church."
It is now a ruined village. — Calmet.
LYDIA; a woman of Tbyatira, a seller of purple, who
dwelt in the city of Philippi, in Macedonia, Acts 16: 14,
40. Her household was the first in Europe converted by
Paul's preaching. This woman was not by birth a Jewess,
but a proselyte. Whether she was iKarried, and had chil-
dren, is unknown. — Calmet.
LYDIA ; a Roman province, once a celebrated kingdom
of Asia Minor, peopled by the sons of Lud, son of Shem,
Gen. 10: 23. We have very little notice of these Lydians
in Scripture. They are mentioned in Isa. 66: 19, if these
be not rather the Lydians in Egypt. — Calmet.
LYING ; speaking falsehoods wilfully, with an intent
to deceive. Thus, by Grove, " A lie is an affirmation or
denial by words, or any other signs to which a certain de-
terminate meaning is affixed, of something contrary to
our real thoughts and intentions." Thus, by Faley, ■' A
lie is a breach of promise ; for whoever seriously ad-
dresses his discourse to another, tacitly promises to speak
the truth, because he knows that the truth is expected."
There are various kinds of lies. 1. The pernicious lie,
uttered for the hurt or disadvantage of our neighbor. 2.
The officious lie, uttered for our own or our neighbor's ad-
vantage. 3. The ludicrous and jocose lie, uttered by way
of jest, and only for mirth's sake in common converse.
4. Pious frauds, as they are improperly called, pretended
inspirations, forged books, counterfeit miracles, are species
of lies. 5. Lies of the conduct, for a lie may be told in
gestures as well as in words ; as when a tradesman shuts
up his windows to induce his creditors to believe that he
is abroad. 6. Lies of omission, as when an author wil-
fully omits what ought to be related ; and may we not
add, 7. That all equivocation and mental reservation
come under the guilt of lying?
The evil and injustice of lying appear, 1. From its be-
ing a breach of the natural and universal right of man-
kind to truth in the intercourse of speech. 2. From its
being a violation of God's sacred law, Phil. 4: 8. Lev. 19:
11. Col. 3: 9. 3. The faculty of speech was bestowed as
an instrument of knowledge, not of deceit ; to communi-
cate our thoughts, not to hide them. 4. It is esteemed a
reproach of so heinous and hateful a nature for a man to
be called a liar, that sometimes the life and blood of the
slanderer have paid for it. 5. It has a tendency to dis-
solve all society, and to indispose the mind to religious
impressions. 6. The punishment of it is tremendous:
the loss of credit, the hatred of those whom we have de-
ceived, and an eternal separation from God in the world
to come, Rev. 21: 8. 22: 15. Psalm 101: 7. (See Equivo-
cation.) Ch-ove's Moral Phil.,vol. i. ch. 11 ; Paky's Mo-
ral Phil., vol. i. ch. 15 ; Doddridge's Lect., lect. 68 ; Watts'
Serm., vol. i. ser. 22 ; Evans' Serm., vol. ii. ser. 13 ; South's
Serm., vol. i. ser. 12; Dr. Lamont's Serm., vol. i. ser. 11
and 12 ; Mrs. Opie's Illustrations of Lying ; ajid Dwight's
Theology. — Hend. Biiclt.
LYSANIAS, or Ltsias, tetrarch of Abilene, a small
province in Lebanon, (Luke 3: 1.) was probably son or
grandson of another Lysanias known in history, (Dio. lib.
xlix. p. 44.) and put to death by Mark Antony, who gave
part of his kingdom to Cleopatra. (See Abila.) — Calmet.
LYSIAS ; a friend and relation of king Antiochus
Epiphanes, to whom he left the regency of Syria when he
passed beyond the Euphrates. (See Antiochus Epi-
phanes.)— Calmet.
LYSIMACHUS ; brother of Menelaus, high-priest of
the Jews, who, in an attempt to pillage the treasury of
the temple, was killed, 2 Mac. 4: 39, 40. He is some-
limes reckoned among the high-priests, because he was
vicegerent to his brother Menelaus; but he never himself
possessed that dignity. — Calmet.
LYSTRA ; a city of Lycaonia, of which Timothy was
a native, and where Paul and Barnabas, in the space of a
few hours, were first deified, and then stoned by the peo-
ple. What a lesson on the instability of popular favor !
Acts 14. (See Lycaonia.) — Calmet.
MAC
[765 ]
M.
MAC
MAACAH Maachah, Maachati, or Beth-Maacha ; a
liule province of Syria, east and north of the sources of
Jordan, towaid Damascus. It was called Abel-beth-maa-
cha, because Abel was situated in it. (See Abel, the
plain.) — Catmet.
MAACHAH ; daughter of Abishalom, wife of Reho-
boam, king of Judah, and mother of Abijam his successor,
1 Kings 15: 2. In 2 Chron. 13: 2, she is called Micaiah,
daughter of Uriel of Gibeah. (See King's Mother.) — 2.
The daughter of Abishalom, wife of Abijam, king of Ju-
dah, and mother of Asa his successor, 1 Kings 15: 10, 13,
14. Asa deprived her of the office of priestess of the
groves. There are several other persons of this name,
mentioned in the Old Testament. — Cahnet.
MAALEH-ACRABBIM ; a mountain, so called from
the multitude of scorpions that infested it, at the southern
end of the Salt sea, Num. 34: 4. Josh. 15: 3. — Cahnet.
MACARIANS ; the followers of Macarius, an Egyp-
tian monk, who was distinguished, towards the close of
the fourth century, for his sanctity and virtue. In his
writings there are some superstitious tenets, and also cer-
tain opinions that seem tainted with Origenism. The
name has been also applied to those who adopted the sen-
timents of Macarius, a native of Ireland, who, about the
close of the ninth century, propagated in France the tenet
afterwards maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual
intelligence or soul performed the spiritual and rational
functions in all the liuman race. — Htiid. Euck.
MACCABEES ; two apocryphal books of the Old Testa-
ment, which contain the history of Judas, surnamed Mac-
cabaeus, and his brothers, and the wars which they main-
tained against the kings of Syria, in defence of the Jew-
ish religion, and the iiidepentlence of their country. The
author and age of these books are uncertain. The first
is a valuable historical document, supplying important in-
formation respecting the Jewish affairs at the time to
which it refers. The second contains a considerable
quantity of spurious matter, and requires to be read with
caution. (See Apocrypha ; Jerusalem ; and Jews.)
There are a third andfotirth book of Maccabees, but they
are of no authority whatever. They are found in some
manuscripts and editions of the LXX., but have never
been admitted even into the Vulgate. — Hend. Buck.
MACEDONIA ; a kingdom of Greece, having Thrace
to the north. Thessaly south, Epirus west, and the iEgean
sea east. Alexander the Great, son of Philip, king of Ma-
cedonia, having conquered Asia, and subverted the Per-
sian empire, the name of the Macedonians became very
famous throughout the East ; and it is often given to the
Greeks, the successors of Alexander in the monarchy. lu
like manner, the name of Greeks is often put for 3Iace-
donians. 2 Maccabees 4: 3fi. AVhen the Roman empire
was divided, Macedonia fell to the share of the emperor
of the East. After it had long continued subject to the
Romans, it fell under the power of the Ottoman Turks,
who are the present masters of it.
St. Paul was invited by an angel of the Lord, who ap-
peared to him at Troas, to come and preach the gospel in
Macedonia, Acts 16: 9. After this vision, the apostle no
longer doubted his divine call to preach the gospel in Bla-
cedonia ; and the success that attended his ministry con-
firmed hiin in his persuasion. Here he laid the founda-
tion of the churches of Philippi and Thessalonica. —
Calmet ; Watson.
MACEDONIANS ; the followers of Macedonius, bishop
of Constantinople, who, through the influence of the Eu-
nomians, was deposed by the council of Constantinople,
in 360, and sent into exile. He con.sidered the Holy
Ghost as a divine energ)' diffused thi oughout the universe,
and not as a person distinct from tha Father and the Son.
The sect of the Macedonians was crushed before it had
arrived at its full maturity, by the council assembled by
Theodosius, in 381, at Constantinople'. (See Semi-arians.)
-Hend Buck.
MACHIAVELIANISM ; the doctrine or principles of
Machiavel, as laid down in his treatise entitled " The
Prince," and which consists in doing any thing to compass
a design, without any regard to the peace or welfare of
subjects, the dictates of honesty and honor, or the precepts
of rehgion. This work has been translated into many
languages, and written against by many authors, though
the world is not agreed as to the motives of the writer ;
some thinking he meant to recommend tyrannical max-
ims ; others, that he only delineated them to excite abhor-
rence.— Hend. Buck.
MACKINTOSH, (Sir James, LL.D.) This distinguished
man, who united in no ordinary degree the rarest qualities of
the philosopher, the jurist, the orator, the historian, and the
man of letters, was born at Alldowrie, in the county of
Inverness, Scotland, October 24, 1765. His early instruc-
tion and training fell into the hands of his grandmother,
a woman of great excellence. In 1783, he entered King's
college, Aberdeen, where his acquaintance with the cele-
brated Robert Hall commenced, and gave a .lone to his
mind which it ever after in some degree retained. At
Edinburgh he studied medicine, but on going to London
to practise, he soon embarked on the more congenial cur-
re.it of politics. In 1791, the powerful talent displayed
in his Vindicia Galtica, brought him into the notice of
Sheridan, Fox, and even of Eurkc. He now studied law
thoroughly, and his Lectures on the Law of Nature and
of Nations, in 1798, and his defence of Peltier in 1RG3, won
him the highest reputation. He received the honor of
knighthood and was appointed Recorder of Bombay, where
he lor several years discharged his oflicial duties with
distinguished zeal, ability, and philanthropy. In 1811,
his health faiUi.g, he returned to England, with a pension
from the East India company of twelve hundred pounds
a year. In 1313, he entered the house of commons as
rep-esentative of the county of Nairn, and in ISIS, for
Knaresborougb. The part he took on the question of na-
tural rights, won him the name of tlie Friend of America.
On all questions of foreign policy, and international law,
on the alien bill, the liberty of the press, religious tolera-
tions, slavery, the settlement of Greece, parliamentary,
reform, and especially the reform of the criminal law,
Sir James took a prominent part, and was always found
on the side of freedom, justice, and humanity. The rich
gifts of profound and original thought, the delightful com-
bination of philosophy and taste, were exhibited b)' Mack-
intosh in higher perfection than by any parliamentary
orator since the time of Burke. In 1822, he was elected
lord rector of the university of Glasgow, and in 1830,
comraisjioner for the affairs of India. He died May 30,
1832, greatly lamented.
Sir James Mackintosh was a Christian; always in
conviction, but in his last days vitally. His principal
works, besides those mentioned above, are Life of Sir
Thomas More, Progress of Ethical Philosophy, and Histo-
ry of England. — Museum, 1833; Life of Robert Hall.
MACKNIGHT, (James, D. D.,) an eminent Scotch di-
\'ine and critic, was born in 1721, at Irvine, in Arg\-le-
shire ; studied at Glasgow and Leyden ; was first settled
at IMaybole and Jedburgh, and \^ as, for tRirty years, one
of the ministers of Edinburgh. He died iii 1800. He
published a Harmony of the Four Gospels ; The Truth
of the Gospel History; and a much a Imired Translation,
with Commentaries and Notes, of all the Apostolic Epis-
tles. This last was the great labor of his life. — Davenport.
MACLAURIN, ('ohn,) one of the brightest ornaments
of the Christian name, was born in October, 1693, at
Glenderule, in Argyleshire, of which parish his lather was
minister. He had two brothers, one of whom, Daniel,
died young ; and the other, Colin, is well known as ono
of the ablest mathematicians of the age. Losing their
parents at an early period, they were taken under the care
of an uncle, Mr. Daniel Maclaurin, minister of Kilsinnan,
who sent them to the university of Glasgow, where they
MAD
f 7G6 J
iv'I A (t
pursued tlieir studies with great eticct; after which, John
was sent to finish his education at Le3'den, under professor
Wesselius. In 1717, he was licensed to preach, by the
presbytery of Dumbarton ; and in 1719, ordained minister
of Luss, a country parish situated on the banks of Loch
Lomond, about twenty miles north-west of Glasgow.
He was not allowed, however, to continue long in so ob-
scure a station. His uncommon talents attracted the at-
tention of all who had access to know him ; and, in 172.?,
he accepted an invitation from the city of Glasgow, to be-
come the minister of the north-west parish, a station which
afforded an ample field for his talents and usefulness, and
in which he continued to labor with great acceptance,
till removed by death, on the 8th of September, 1754.
Mr. JMaclaurin was a correspondent of president Ed-
wards, and with him it appears originated the proposal of
a union of Christians in extraordinary prayer, which Ed-
wards so ably recommended, and which was the germ of
the present Monthly Concert. His mind was of the very
highest order, and imbued with a piety pure and profound
as that of a seraph, and as active and unwearied in plan-
ning and doing good. The fruits of his pen that remain,
though small in quantity, are of sterling value, and prove
him to have been a profound thinker, an accurate and
cogent reasoner, deeply versed in the mysteries of redemp-
tion, and zealous for the glory of his divine Master. His
works consist of "Essays and Sermons," in one volume
duodecimo, which has often been published ; and an octa-
vo volume on the " Prophecies concerning the Messiah,"
of which the late Dr. Hurd has been thought to avail
himself in his excellent " Introductory Sermons at Lin-
coln's Inn."
It has been remarked, by a late writer and competent
judge, that Mr. Maclaurin's " Essay on Prejudices against
the Gospel," and the sermons on " The Sins of men not
Chargeable on God," and " On Glorying in the Cross of
Christ," are compositions, the two first for profundity and
acuteness, and the last for impressive eloquence, to which,
in the whole range of theological literature, we shall not
easily fmd any thing superior. See Mr. Brorvn's Introiuc-
tory Sssaj/, prefixed to a new edition of his ivories, 1824. —
Jones' Chris. Biog.
MAD, Madness. Insanity, or deprivation of reason ;
medically defined to be delirium without fever. Our Lord
cured, by his word, several who were deprived of the ex-
ercise of their rational powers ; and the circumstances of
their histories prove, that there could neither be mistake
nor collusion respecting them. How far madness may be
allied to, or connected with, demoniacal possession, is a
V ;-ry intricate inquiry; and whether in the present day
(as perhaps anciently) evil spirits may not take advantage
from distemperature of the bodily frame, to augment evils
endured by the patient, is more than may be affirmed,
though the idea seems to be not absolutely repugnant to
reason. Nevertheless, what may be, is probably different
on most inquiries from what we can prove really is.
The epithet mad, is applied to several descriptions of
persons in Scripture; as (1.) To one deprived of reason,
Acts 26: 24. L Cor. 14: 23.— (2.) To one whose reason is
depraved, and overruled by the fury of his angry passions,
Acts 2-;: 11. — (3.) To one whose mind is perplexed and
bewildered, so disturbed that he acts in nn uncertain, ex-
travagant, irregular manner, Deut. 28: 34. Eccl. 7: 7.—
(4.) To one who is infatuated by the vehemence of his
desires after idols, and vanities, Jer. 1: 38, — or (5.) After
folly, deceit, and falsehooJ, Hosea 9: 7.
Dand's madness (1 Sam. 21: 13.) is by many supposed
not to have been feigned, but a real epilepsy,' or falling
sick-ness ; and the LXX. use words which strongly indicate
this sense. It is urged in support of this opinion, that
the troubles which David underwent might very naturally
weaken his constitutional strength ; and that the force he
suffered in being obliged to seek shelter in a foreign court,
would disturb his imagination in the highest degree. See
Saurhi's Sermons. — Calinct.
MADAI, the third son of Japheth, (Gen. 10: 2.) is com-
monly thought to be father of the Medes ; but, beside that
Media is too distant from the other countries peopled by
Japheth, it cannot be comprehended under the name of
" The Isles oi the Gentiles," which were allotted to the
sons of Japheth. These reasons have induced some
learned men to suggest, that Madai wa.s father of the
Macedonians ; whose country was called jEmathia, as if
from the Hebrew or Greek Ei, an island, and Madai;
q. d. the isle of Madai. Near this country is mentioned
a people called Mfedi orMadi. ' (See Media.) — Calmet.
MAGDALA ; a city on the west side of the sea of Ga-
lilee, near Dalmanutha ; Jesus, after the miracle of the
seven loaves, being said by St. Matthew to have gone by
ship to the coasts of Magdala ; (Blatt. 15: 39.) and by St.
Mark, to " the parts of Dalmanutha," Mark 8: 10. Mr.
Buckingham came to a small village in this situation
called Migdal, close to the edge of the lake, beneath a
range of high cliffs, in which small grottoes are seen,
with the remains of an old square tower, and some larger
buildings, of rude construction, apparently of great anti-
quity. Migdol implies a tower, or fortress ; and this
place, from having this name particularly applied to it,
was doubtless, like the Egyptian Migdol, one of consider-
able importance ; and may be considered as the site of
the Migdal of the Naphtalites, as well as the Magdala of
the New Testament. — Watson.
MAGDALEN, (Relisious of St. ;) a denomination
given to divers communities of nuns, consisting generally
of penitent courtezans ; sometimes also called Magdalen-
ettcs. They were established at Meniz in 1542; at Paris
in 1492; at Naples in 1324; at Piouen and Bordeaux in
1018. In each of these monasteries there were three
kinds of persons and congregations : the first consisted of
those who were admitted to make vows, and those bear
the name of Si. Magdalen ; the congregation of St. Martha
was the second, and was composed of those whom it was
not thought proper to admit to vows finally ; the congre-
gation of St. Lazarus was composed of such as were de-
tained by force. The religious of St. Magdalen at Rome
were established by pope iLeo X. Clement VIII. settled a
revenue on them ; and further appointed, that the effects
of all public prostitutes dying intestate should fall to
them ; and that the testaments of the rest should be inva-
lid, unless they bequeathed a portion of their effects,
which was to be at least a fifth part of them. The term
originated in the mistaken notion, that Mary Magdalen,
of whom we read in the gospel, was a woman of bad cha-
racter; a notion which is still very prevalent, notwith-
standing the increased attention which has been excited
to the interpretation of Holy Scripture. (See BIaey Mag-
dalen.)— Hend. Buck.
MAGI, or Magians ; ft'om nwg, or vtag, which signifies
a priest, in the Pehlvi language ; an ancient caste of priests
with the Persians and Medians, who, abominating the
adoration of images, worshipped God only by fire, in
which they were directly opposite to the Sabians. (See
Saeians.) The Magi believed that there were two prin-
ciples, one the cause of all good, and the other the cause
of all evil ; in which opinion they were ibllowed by the
sect of the Manichees. (See Manichees.) They called
the good principle Jezden, and Ornmzd; and the evil prin-
ciple Ahriman, or Aherman. The former w-as by the
Greeks called Oromasdes, and the latter, Arimanius. The
reason of their worshipping fire was, because they looked
upon it as the truest symbol of Oromasdes, or the good
god ; as darkness was of Arimanius, or the evil god, In
all their temples they had fire continually burning upon
their altars, and in their own private houses.
The religion of the Magi fell into disgrace on the death
of the ringleaders, who had usurped the sovereignty after
the death of Cambyses ; and the slaughter that was made
of the chief men among them sunk it so low, that Sabi-
anism everywhere prevailed against it, Darius and most
of his followers on that occasion going over to it. But
the affection which the people had for the religion of their
forefathers not being easily to be rooted out, the famous
Zoroaster, some ages after, undertook to revive and re-
form it.
The reformation which this great man made in the
Magian religion was in the first principle of it ; for
he introduced a God superior both to Oromasdes and Ari-
manius. Dr. Prideaux is of opinion that Zoroaster took
the hint of this altei ation in their theology from the pro-
phet Isaiah, who brings in God, saying to Cyrus, king of
MAG
[ 767 ]
MAG
Persia, " I am the Lord, and there is notie else : I form
the liglit, and create darkness ; I make peace and create
evil," eh. 43: 7. In short, Zoroaster held that there was
one supreme independent Being, and under him two prin-
ciples, or angels; one the angel of light, or good, and the
other the angel of evil, or darkness j that there is a perpe-
tual struggle between them, which shall last to the end of
the world ; that then the angel of darkness and his disci-
ples shall go into a world of their own, where they shall
be punished in everlasting darkness ; and the angel of
light and his disciples shall go into a world of their own,
where they shall be rewarded in everlasting light.
Zoroaster was the first who buiU temples ; the Ma-
gians before his time performing their devotions on the
tops of hills, and in the open air, by which means they
were exposed to the inconvenience of rain and tempests,
which often extinguished their sacred fires. To procure
the greater veneration for these sacred fires, he pretended
to have received fire from heaven, which he placed on the
a!tar of the first fire-temple he erected, which was that of
Xis, in Media, from whence they say it was propagated to
all the rest. The Magian priests kept their sacred fire
with the greatest diligence, watching it day and night, and
never sutTering it to be extinguished. They fed it only
with wood stripped of the bark, and they never blowed it
with their breath or w'ith bellows, for fear of polluting it ;
to do either of these was death by their law. The Magian
religion, as reformed by Zoroaster, seems in many things
to be built upon the plan of the Jewish. The Jews had
their sacred fire wliich came down from heaven upon the
altar of burnt-offerings, which they never sufiered to go
out, and with which all their sacrifices and oblations were
made. Zoroaster, In like manner, pretended to have
brought this holy fire from heaven ; and as the Jews had
a Shekinah of the divine presence among them, resting
over the mercy-seat in the holy of holies, Zoroaster like-
wise told his Magians to look upon the sacred fire in their
temples as a Shekinah, in wdiich God especially dwelt. —
From these and some other instances of analogy between
the Jewish and Magian religion, Prideaux infers that
Zoroaster had been first educated and brought up in the
Jewish religion.
Zoroaster made his first appearance in Media, in the
city of Xix, now called Aderbijan, as some say ; or, ac-
cording to others, in Ecbatana, now called Tauris, in the
age of Daniel. Instead of admitting the existence of two
first causes, with the Magians, he asserted the existence
of one supreme God, who created both these, and out of
these two produced, according to his sovereign pleasure,
every thing else. He had the address to bring over Da-
rius to his new reformed religion, notwithstanding the
strongest opposition of the Sabians ; and from that time
it became the national religion of all that country, and so
continued for many ages after, till it was supplanted by
that of Mohammed. Zoroaster composed a book contain-
ing the principles of the Magian religion. It is called
Zendacesta, and by contraction Zend. (See Zend.)
So great an improvement in the moral character and
influence of the religion of a whole nation as was efl^ected
by Zoroaster, a change which certainly is not paralleled
in the ancient history of the religion of mankind, can
scarcely be thought possible, except we suppose a divine
interposition, either directly, or by the occurrence of some
very impressive events. Now as there are so many au-
thorities for fixing the time of Zoroaster or Zeratusht not
many years subsequent to the death of the great Cyrus,
the events connected with the conquest of Babylon may
account for his success in that reformation of religion of
which he was the author. For, had not the minds of men
been prepared for this change by something extraordinary,
it is not supposable that they would have adopted a purer
faith from him. That he gave them a better doctrine, is
clear from the admission of Prideaux, who has very un-
justly branded him as an impostor. Let it then be re-
membered, that as " the Most High ruleth in the king-
doms of men," he often overrules great political events
for moral purposes. The Jews were sent into captivity
to Babylon to be reformed from their idolatrous propensi-
ties, and their reformation commenced with their cala-
mity. A miracle was there wrouglit in favor of three
Hebrew confessors of the existence of the one only God,
and that under circumstances to put shame upon a popu-
lar idol in the presence of the king and " all the rulers of
the provinces," that the issue of this controversv between
Jehovah and idolatry might be made known throughout
that vast empire.
Nor are we to suppose tlie impression confined to the
court ; for the history of the three Hebrew youths, of Ne-
buchadnezzar's dream, sickness, and reformation from
idolatry, of the interpretation of the handwriting on the
wall by Daniel the servant of the living God, of his deli-
verance from the lions, and the publicity of the prophecy
of Isaiah respecting Cyrus, were too recent, too public,
and too striking in their nature, not to be often and largely
talked of. (See Cykus.) Besides, in the prophecy re-
specting Cyrus, the intention of Almighty God in recording
the name of that monarch in an inspired book, and show-
ing beforehand that he had chosen him to overturn the
Babylonian empire, is expressly mentioned as having re-
spect to two great objects ; first, the deliverance of Israel,
and, second, the making known his supreme divinity
among the nations of the earth. We quote from Lowth's
translation : —
'• For tlie salie of my servmit Jacobs
And of Israel my ctiosen,
I hav8 even called thee by thy name ;
I have surriamed ihee, though thou knevvest me not.
1 am Jehovah, and none else,
Beside me there is no God ;
I will gird ihee, though thou hast not known me,
That theij may knotu, from the Tiding of Ike sun,
And from the West, that there is none beside m.e," &c.
It was therefore intended by this proceeding on the part
of Providence to teach, not only Cyrus, but the people of
his vast empire, and surrounding nations, 1. That the
God of the Jews was Jehovah, the self-subsislent, the
eternal God; 2. That he was (J^d alone, there being no
Deity beside himself; and, 3. That good and evil, repre-
sented by light and darkness, were neither independent
nor eternal subsistences, but his great instruments, and
under his control.
The Persians, who had so vastly extended their empire
by the conquest of the countries formerly held by the mo-
narchs of Babylon, were thus prepared for such a refor-
mation of their religion as Zoroaster effected. The princi-
ples he advocated had been previously adopted by Cyrus
and other Persian monarchs, and probably by many oJ' the
principal persons of that nation. Zoroaster himself thus
became acquainted with the great truths contained in this
famous prophecy, which attacked the very foundations of
every idolatrous and Manichean system. From the other
sacred books of the Jews, who mixed with the Persians
in every part of the empire, he evidenlly learned more.
This is sufficiently proved from the mr. iiy points of simi-
larity between his religion and Jiuiaism, though he
should not be allowed to speak so much in the style of
the Holy Scriptures as some passages in the Zendavesta
would indicate. He found the people, however, •' prepared
of the Lord" to admit his reformations, and he carried
them.
This cannot but be looked upon as one instance of se-
veral merciful dispensations of God to the Gentile wori.-i,
through his own peculiar people, the Jews, by which the
idolatries of the heathen were often checked, and the
light of truth rekindled among them. This renders pagan
nations more evidently " without excuse." That this
dispensation of mercy was afterwards neglected among
the Persians, is certain. How long the effect continued
we know not, nor how widely it spread ; perhaps longer
and wider than may now distinctly appear. If the Magi,
who came from the East to seek Christ, were Persians,
some true worshippers of God would appear to have re-
mained in Persia to that day ; and if, as is probable, the
prophecies of Isaiah and Daniel were retained among
them, they might be among those who " wailed for re-
demption," not at Jerusalem, but in a distant part of the
world. The Parsees, who were nearly extirpated by Mo-
hammedan fanaticism, were charged by their oppressors
with the idolatry of fire, and this was probably true
of the multitude. Some of their writers, however, warmly
defended them.sdves asainst the cTiarge. A considerable
MAG [16S ]
humber of them remain in India to this day, and profess
to have the boolis of Zoroaster.
2. The term 3Iagi was also anciently used generally
throughout the East, to distinguish philosophers, and es-
pecially astronomers. Pliny and Ptolemy mention Arabi
as synonymous with Magi ; and it was the opinion of
many learned in the first ages of Christianity, that the
Magi who presented ofl'erings to the infant Savior, (Matt.
2: 1.) came from southern Arabia, for it is certain that
" gold, frankincense, and myrrh," were productions of
that country. They were philosophers among whom the
best parts of the reformed Magian system, which was ex-
tensively diffused, were probably preserved. They were
pious men, also, who had some acquaintance, it may be,
with the Hebrew prophecies, and were favored themselves
with divine revelations. They are to be regarded as
members of the old patriarchal church, never quite extin-
guished among the liealhen ; and they had the special
honor to present the homage of the Gentile world to the
infant Savior.— Hend. Buck; Watson.
.MAGIC ; a term originally conveying a good or lauda-
ble meaning, being used purely to signify the study of
wisdom, and the more sublime parts of knowledge, as
taught by the Magi ; but as some of them engaged in as-
trology, divination, sorcery, kc, it became odious, and
was, in length of time, only used to signify an unlawful
and diabolical kind of science, supposed to depend on the
intluence of the devil and departed spirits.
Magic has been divided into natural, which consists in
the application of natural active causes to passive sub-
jects, by means of which many surprising, but yet simply
natural elfects are produced ; celestial, which attributes to
spirits a kind of rule or dominion over the planets, and to
these an influence over the affairs of men ; and diabolical,
which consists in the invocation of demons, the entering
into compact with the devil, &c., with a view to produce
eifects .seemingly surpassing the powers of nature. All
indulgence in such arts of imposture was strictly prohi-
bited by the law of Moses, under pain of death, as a
form of idolatry. — Heud. Buck.
MAGICIANS ; persons pretending to a supernatural
acquaintance with, and control over the powers of nature.
They abounded in Egypt ; and, according to the earliest
accounts which we have of them in the book of Exodus,
they appear to have possessed great dexterity ; but how
great soever their sleight of hand, so that they seemed to
work miracles equally great with those recorded in these
accounts, they were themselves obliged to acknowledge
the limitation of their power. (See Jannes.)
God by Bloses forbids recourse to such on pain of de-
struction. Lev. 19: 31, 20:1). It was such sort of people
that Saul extirpated out of the land of Israel, 1 Sam. 28:
3. Daniel also speaks of magicians and diviners in
Chaldea, under Nebuchadnezzar, Dan. 1: 20, &c. He
names four sorts : Chartumim, Asaphim, Mecasphim, and
Cai&m, Dan. 2: 2. The first, Chartumim, according to
Theodotion, signifies "enchanters;" according to the
LXX., "sophists;" according to Jerome, hariolas, "divi-
ners, fortune-tellers, casters of nativities." The second
v/ord, Asaphim, has a great resemblance to the Greek word
sophos, "Wiseman;" whether the Greeks took this word
from the Babylonians, or vice versa. Theodotion and Je-
rome have rendered it " magicians ;" the LXX., " philo-
sophers." The third word, Mecasphim, by Jerome and
the Greeks, is translated malejici, " enchanters ;" such as
used noxious herbs and drugs, the blood of victims, and
the bones of the dead, for their superstitious operations.
The fourth word, Casdim, or Chaldeans, has two significa-
tions : first, the Chaldean people, over whom Nebuchad-
nezzar was monarch ; the second, a sort of philosophers,
who dwelt in a separate part of the citv, who were exempt
from all public offices and employments. Their studies
were physic, astrology, divination, foretelling of future
events by the stars, interpretation of dreams, augury, wor-
ship of the gods, &c. All these inquisitive and supersti-
tious arts were prohibited among the Israelites, as founded
on imposture or devilism, and as inconsistent with faith
in God's providence, and trust in his supremacy. — Hend.
Buck ; Watson. ,
MAGISTER DISCIPLINE, or Master of Discipline ;
MAI
the appellation of a certain ecclesiastical officer in the
ancient church. It was a custom in some places, particu-
larly in Spain, in the time of the Gothic kings, about the
end of the fifth century, for parents to dedicate their chil-
dren very young to the service of the church. For this
purpose they were taken into the bishop's family, and
educated under him by some grave and discreet person
whom the bishop deputed for that purpose, and set over
them, by the name of Presbyter, or Magister Disciplincc,
Whose chief business it Was to inspect their behavior, and
instruct them in the rules and discipline of the church. —
Hend. Buck.
MAGNANIMITY ; gi'eatness of soul ; a disposition of
mind exerted in contemning dangers and difficulties, in
scorning temptations, and despising earthly pomp and
splendor. Cic. de Offic, lect. i. ch. 20 ; Grovels Moral
Phil., vol. ii. p. 268. See articles Codrage ; Fortitude ;
in this work ; Steele's Christian Hero ; Watts on Self-
Murder. — Hend. Buck.
MAGNIFY ; to make great, or declare to be great.
God magnifies his own inercy or name, when, by the fulfil-
ment or powerful application of his word, he discovers the
unbounded nature of his mercy, and other perfections
Gen. 19: 19. Acts 19: 7. He magnifies his word above all
his name when he clearly discovers his mercy and faithful-
ness contained and pledged in it, Ps. 138: 2. Jesus mag-
nified the law and made it honorable ; his silbjection to it,
as he was the great Lawgiver, highly demonstrated the
honor and immutable obligation of it : and he rendered to
it an infinitely more valuable obedience than it could ever
have received of men, Isa. 42: 21. Men magnify God or
his works when they publish and declare his greatness
and glory, Ps. 34: 2. Job 46: 24. — Brown.
MAGOG ; son of Japheth, (Gen. 10: 2.) and father, as
is believed, of the Scythians and Tartars ; a name which
comprehends the Getee, the Goths, the Sarmatians, the
Sacae, the MassagetEB, and others. The Tartars and Mus-
covites possess the country of the ancient Scythians, and
retain several traces of the names Gog and Magog. They
were formerly called Mogli, and in Tartary are the pro-
vinces Lug, Mongug, Cangigu, and Gigui ; Engui, Cor-
gangui, Caigui, &c. Gog and Magog have in a manner
passed into a proverb, to express a multitude of powerful,
cruel, barbarous, and implacable enemies to God and his
worship. (See Gog.) — Calmet.
MAHALATH, is the title of Psalms 53 and 88. " To
the chief musician on Mahalath ;" which some think sig-
nifies a musical instrument ; but Calmet rather thinks it
imports dancing, which is certainly its proper significa-
tion in Hebrew ; as if the title of the Psalm imported to
be, " An instructive Psalm of David, for the chief master
of dancing ;" or, for the chorus of singers and dancers. — ■
Calmet.
MAHANAIM ; a city of the Levites, of the family of
Merari, in the tribe of Gad, upon the brook Jabbok, Josh.
21: 38. 13: 26. The name Mahanaim signifies "two
hosts," or " two fields." The patriarch gave it this name
because in this place he had a vision of angels coming to
meet him. Gen. 32: 2. Mahanaim was the seat of the
kingdom of Ishbosheth, after the death of Saul, 2 Sam.
2: 9, 12. It was also to this place that David retired, dur-
ing the usurpation of Absalom ; (2 Sam. 17: 24.) and this
rebellious son was subdued, and suffered death, not far
from this city. — Watson.
MAHER-SHALAL-HASH-BAZ, {he hasteneth to the
prey ;) a name given to one of the sons of the prophet
Isaiah, by way of prediction. The prophet observes,
that his children were for signs and wonders, and this
name is evidence of the fact. Of the same nature we are
to consider Emmanuel, and some other names. — Calmet.
MAHOMET. (See Moham.:\ied ; Mohammedanism.)
MAIMED, implies the loss of a limb or member j often
the absolute loss of it, not a suspension of its use, by a,
contraction, or diminution. This total loss is clearly the
import of the original word : " If thine hand or foot offend
thee, cut them off, and cast thera from thee — enter into
life maimed, rather than, having two hands," &rc. Matt.
18: 8. And this should the rather be observed, to distin-
gtiish it from withered, contracted, &c.; and because it
may he asked, what we should think of a person who
M AL
[ 769
M A N
could restore a lost limb, or member. Perhaps we are
not always sensible of the full import of this word, when
reading the history of the miraculous cures performed by
our Lord. — Calmet.
JMAIMONIDES, or Ben Maimo.v, (Moses,) one of the
most celebrated of the Jewish rabbis, who is called the
eagle of the doctors, and the lamp of Israel, was born, in
1131, at Cordova ; was profoundly versed in languages,
and in all the learning of the age; became chief physician
10 the sultan of Kgypt ; and died in 1204. Among his
works are, a Commentary on the Mischna ; an Abridg-
ment of the Talmud ; and The Book of Precepts. —
Davenport.
MAJORISTS ; those who held with Major in the Lu-
theran controversy, about the time of the Interim, relative
to good works ; it being maintained by those so called,
that they were necessary to salvation ; whereas their oppo-
nents were of opinion that such a position only swelled
the errors of popery, alreadj' countenanced by some of
the refonners ; and one of them went so far as to avow,
that good works were hurtful to salvation. — Hend. Buck.
MAKAZ ; a city probably of Dan, (1 Kings \: 9.) sup-
posed bv Calmet to be the Maktesh, the jaw-tooth, or En-
hakkore, of Judg. 15: 19. Zeph. 1: U.— Calmet.
MAKELOTH ; an encampment of Israel in the desert ;
(Num. 33: 25, 20.) thought to be Malathis, which Eusebius
and Jerome place twenty miles from Hebron, in the south
of Judah. — Calmet.
MALACHI ; the last of the twelve minor prophets. It
is doubted whether his name be a proper name, or only a
generical one, signifying the angel of the Lord, a mes-
senger, a prophet. It appears by Hag. 1: 13, and Mai. 3:
1, that in these times the name of Mai ach- Jehovah, messen-
ger of the Lord, was given to prophets. The author of
the Lives of the Prophets, under the name of Epiphanius
Dorotheus, and the Chronicon Alexandrinum, say, that
Malachi was of the tribe of Zebulun, and native of Sa-
pha ; that the name Malachi was given to him because
of his angelical mildness. He died very young, as they
say, and was buried near the place of his ancestors. If is
much more probable, however, that Malachi was the
same as Ezra ; and this is the opinion of the ancient He-
brews, of the Chaldee paraphrast, of Jerome, and of abbot
Rupert.
It appears certain that Blalachi prophesied under Nehe-
miah, and after Haggai and Zechariah, at a time of great
disorder among the priests and people of Judah ; whom he
reproves. He inveighs against the priests ; reproves the
people for having taken strange wives, for inhumanity to
their brethren, for too freqtiently divorcing their wives,
and for neglect of payingtithes and first-fruits. He seems
to allude to the covenant thai Nehemiah renewed with the
Lord, together with the priests and the chief of the nation.
Malachi is the last of the prophets of the synagogue, and
lived about four hundred years before Christ. He prophe-
sied of the coming of John the Baptist, and of the twofold
coming of our Savior very clearly, ch. 3. He speaks of
the abolition of sacrifices under the old law, and of the sa^
crifice of the new covenant, ch. 1: 10, 13. 4: 5, 0. — Calmet.
MALEVOLENCE, is that disposition of mind which
inclines us to wish ill to any person . It discovers itself in
frowns and a lowering countenance ; in uncharitableness,
in evil sentiments ; hard speeches to or of its object ; in
cursing and reviling ; and doing mischief either with open
violence or secret spite, as far as there is power. It is a
sort of habitual hatred. (See H.itked.) — Hend. Buck.
MALICE, is a settled or deliberate determination to
revenge or do hurt to another. It more frequently denotes
the disposition of inferior minds to execute every purpose
of mischief wnthin the more limited circle of their abili-
ties. It is a most hateful temper in the sight of God,
(Rom. 1: 29.) strictly forbidden in his holy word, (Col. 3:
8 — 12.) disgracefid to rational creatures, (1 Cor. 14: 20.)
and every wav inimical to the spirit of Christianity, Matt.
5:44. rPet.'2: 1. (See Charity ; Love.)— HtW. iJwr.'.-.
BIALIGNITY ; a disposition obstinately bad or mali-
cious. Malignancy and malignity are words nearly syno-
nymous. In some connexions, malignity seems rather
more pertinently applied to a radical depravity of nature;
and mnligi.ancy to indications of this depravity in temper
and conduct in particular instances. It differs only in
degiee from malevolence Hmd. Buck
MALTA. (See Melita.)
MAMMON; the Syriac god of wealth, or worldly
acquisitions of all kinds, Matt. 6: 24.
MAMKE; a city; (Gen. 13: 18.) either the same as
Hebron and Arba, (Gen. 23: 17, 19. 35: 27.) or a place at
a short distance from it. — Cahmt.
MAN ; the head and lord of the animal creation in
whose complex structure the organic or vegetable, the
animal or sensitive and the intellectual or spiritual
world, are wonderfully united, and his condition on
earth modified by the laws of each. (See Adam ; Physi-
ology ; Matekialism ; Soui. ; Depravity ; Salvation.)
In the present article we design to notice the natural
history of man ; his characteristics as a distinct species ;
the principal varieties observable in the race ; the unity
of the species ; and the sources to which naturalists trace
the individual and generic varieties.
I. The natural history of man in its most comprehen-
sive sense constitutes a subject of immense extent and of
endless variety ; or rather includes several very important
subjects, if we attempt to describe both the individual and
the species. In a complete history of man it would be
necessary in respect to the former to relate the phenomena
of his first production, to examine his anatomical struc-
ture, his bodily and intellectual functions, his propensities
and feelings and diseases, and progress from birth to
death ; to point out the circumstances that distinguish
him from other animals, and determine the precise de-
gree of resemblance or difference, of specific aflinity or
diversity between them and ourselves ; to compare or con-
trast with each other the various nations or tribes of hu-
man beings ; to delineate the physical and moral charac-
ters of the people inhabiting the difierent portions of the
globe, and to trace their progress from the first rudiments
of civil society to the state at which they are now arrived.
To write such a history of our species, says Mr. Law-
rence, would demand a famihar acquaintance with nearly
the whole circle of human knowledge, and a combination
of the most opposite talents and jjursuits. This labor,
much too extensive to be properly executed by any indi-
vidual, is divided into several subordinate branches.
The anatomist and phj'siologist unfold the construction,
and uses of the corporeal mechanism ; the surgeon and
physician describe its diseases ; w hile the metaphysician
and moralist employ them.selves with the functions of the
mind and moral sentiments. Blan in society, his progress
in the various countries and ages of the world, his multi-
plication and extension, are the province of the hisii'i ian
and political economist; while the divine traces the hijjljcr
relations that connect man with his Creator, with superior
beings, and the future world. (See Heaven ; and IIell.)
II. The distinctive characteristics of man as a sp-i-cies
are the following :
1. Smoothness of the skin, and want of iiamral ofl'en-
sive weapons or means of defence.
2. Possession of two hands, and very perfect structure
of the hand.
3. Slow growth; long infancy ; late puberty.
4. Menstruation of the female sex ; exercise of the sex-
ual functions not confined to particular seasons ; reiiued
and honorable conjugal sentiments.
5. Erect stature ; to which the conformation of the tody
in general, and that of the pelvis, lower limb.';, and their
muscles in particular, are accommodated.
6. Capability of inhabiting all climates and situations,
and of living on all kinds of food.
7. Great proportion of the brain to the face.
8. Great number and development of mental facul-
ties, whether intellectual, moral, or religious.
9. Speech ; letters ; arts and sciences ; revflation.
10. Perfect ibihly ; or capacity of indefinite individual
and social improvement ; revealed i.m.mortalitv.
III. The differences which exist between inhabitants
of the diflferent regions of the globe, both in bodily forma-
tion, and in the faculties of the mind, have led some na-
turalists, as Linneus and Buflbn, to the .<;upposiiion ot dis-
tinct species. " With those forms, proportions, and colors,
which we consider so beauiiliil in the line ligiires ol
MAN
t 770 ]
HAH
Greece, contrast," it has beeu said, " the woolly hair, the flat
nose, the retreating forehead and advancing jaws, and
black skin of the Negro; or the broad square face, narrow
oblique eyes, beardless chin, coarse straight hair, and olive
color of the Calmuck. Compare the ruddy and sanguine
European with the jet-blaclc African, the red man of
America, the yellow Mongolian, or the brown South sea
Islander ; the gigantic Patagonian with the dwarfish Lap-
lander; the highly civilized nations of Europe, so conspi-
cuous in arts, science, and literature, in all that can
strengthen and adorn society, or exalt and dignify hnman
nature, with a troop of naked, shivering and starved New
Hollanders, a horde of filthy Hottentots, or the whole of
the more or less barbarous tribes that cover nearly the
entire continent of Africa. Are these all brethren? have
they descended from one stock, or must we trace them to
more than one ? and if so, how many Adams must we admit ?"
The testimony of revelation on this point is well known ;
and the time has been when certain men of science
thought that they had discovered facts that must set aside
that testimony. But since the subject has been more fully
investigated by Blumenbach, Pritchard, and others, a
better state of opinion has prevailed. However easy it
may be to observe distinct, well-marked differences be-
tween the particular specimens of the human race, W8
find the case very different when we come to make the
division, and reduce all the specimens to one or the other
of them. Whatever number we may fix upon, and how-
ever well we may distinguish them, we see them, after all
our attempts, constantly running into each other by every
shade of gradation, Bory de St. Vincent divided the
human race into fifteen species! Linneus and Buffon
into six ! The differences are now called by the more
correct name of varieties ; the generic ones, or races, are
reduced to five — (1) the Caucasian, (2) the Mongolian,
(3) the American, (4) the African, and (5) the Australian ;
and will probably be yet reduced to three — the Japhetite,
the Sheniite, and the Hamite ; while the unity of the
species on anatomical and scientific principles is now
generally acknowledged. See Cuvicr's Animal Kingdom.
IV. The differences of physical organization, and of
moral and intellectual qualities, which characterize the
several races, says Dr. Lawrence, (himself a sceptic,) are,
" 1. Analogous in kind and degree to those which dis-
tinguish the breeds of domestic animals, and must there-
fore be accounted for on the same principles.
" 2. They are produced in both instances as native or
congenital varieties, and these transmitted to the offspring
m hereditary succession.
" 3. Of the circumstances that favor this production of
varieties in the animal kingdom, the most powerful is the
state of domestication.
" 4. External or adventitious causes, such as climate,
situation, food, way of life, have considerable effect in
altering the constitution of man, and animals ; but this
effect, as well as that of art and accident, is confined
usually to the individuals, not being transmitted by gene-
ration, and not therefore affecting the race.
"5. That Ihe human species, therefore, is single, and
lliat all the differences it exhibits are to be regarded
merely as varieties." Thus again does the progress of
true science corroborate the Bible !
Good's Book of Nature ; Lawrence's Lectures on Pliijsio-
^og'J ; Sjmrzheim's Worhs ; Combe and Chalmers on the
Constitution of Man ; Mason on Self-Knowledge.
MAN OF GOD, generally signifies a prophet ; a man
devoted to God ; to his service. Moses is called peculiarly
" the man of God," Deut. 33: 1. Josh. 11: 6. Our Savior
frequently calls himself "the son of man," in allusion,
probably, to the prophecy of Daniel, in which the Messiah
is spoken of, Dan. 7: 13. — Calmet.
MAN OF SIN. (See Antichrist.)
MANAEN ; a Christian prophet and teacher, who had
been in early life a foster-brother of Herod Antipas, Acts
13; 1. It is thought that he was one of the seventy disci-
ples, but no particulars of his life are Imown. — Calmet.
MANASSEH, the eldest son of Joseph, (Gen. 41: 50.)
was born, A. M. 2290, B C. 1711. The name Manasseh
signifies forgctfulness, because Joseph said, " God hath
made tne forget all my toil, and all my father's house."
When Jacob was going to die, Joseph brought his two
sons to him, that his father might give them his last
blessing, Gen. 48. Jacob adopted them, though the
birthright was given to Ephraim.
The tribe of Manasseh came out of Egypt in number
thirty-two thousand two hundred men, upwards of twenty
years old, under the conduct of Gamaliel, son of Fedahzur,
Num. 2: 20, 21. This tribe was divided ia the land of
promise. One half-tribe of Manasseh settled beyond the
river Jordan, and possessed the country of Bashan, from
the river Jabbok to mount Libanus ; and the other half-
tribe of Manasseh settled on this side Jordan, and pos-
sessed the coantry between the tribe of Bphraita so.uth,
and the tribe of Issachar north, having the river Jordan
east, and the Mediterranean sea west, Josh. 16, 17. —
Watson.
MANASSEH, the fifteenth king of Judah, and son and
successor of Hezekiah, was twelve years old when he be-
gan to reign, and reigned fifty-five years, 2 Kings 20: 21.
21: 1, 2. 2 Chrou. 33: 1, 2, &c.
His history is remarkable as a strong illustration of di-
vine forbearance and mercy. He did evil in the sight '
of the Lord ; worshipped the idols of the land of Canaan ;
rebuilt the high places that his father Hezekiah had de-
stroyed ; set up altars to Baal ; and planted groves to false
gods. He raised altars to the whole host of heaven, in
the courts of God's house ; made his son pass through the
fire in honor of Moloch ; was addicted to magic, divina-
tions, auguries, and other superstitions ; set up the idol
Astarte in the house of God ; finally, he involved his peo-
ple in all the abomination of the idolatrous nations to that
degree, that Israel committed more \rickedness than the
Canaanites, whom the Lord had driven out before
them.
To all these crimes Manasseh added cruelty ; and he
shed rivers of innocent blood in Jerusalem. The Lord
being provoked by so many crimes, threatened him by his
prophets, 2 Chron. 33: 11, 12, &c. It was probably Sar
gon or Esar-haddon, king of Assyria, who sent Tartan
into Palestine, and who taking Azoth, attacked Manasseh,
put him irons, and led him away, not to Nineveh, but to
Babylon, of which Esar-haddon had becoine master and
M A.N
[in ]
MAN
had reuniled the empires of the Assyrians and the Chal-
deans.
Manasseh, in bonds at Babylon, humbled himself before
God, who heard his prayers, and brought him back to Je-
rusalem ; and Manasseh acknowledged the hand of the
Lord, Manasseh was probably delivered out of prison by
Saosduchin, the successor of Esar-haddon, 2 Chron. 33;
13, 14, &c. Being returned to Jerusalem, he restored the
worship of the Lord ; broke down the altars of the false
gods; abolished all traces of their idolatrous worship;
but he did not destroy the high places : which is the only
thing Scripture reproaches him with, after his return from
Babylon. He caused Jerusalem to be fortified; and he
inclosed with a wall another city, which in his time was
erected west of Jerusalem, and which went by the name
of the second city, 2 Chron. 33: 11. He put garrisons
into all the strong places of Judah. Manasseh died at
Jerusalem, and was IvJried in the garden of his house, in
the garden of Uzza, 2 Kings 21: 18. He was succeeded
by his son Amon. — IPatseiu
JIANDEVILLE, (Bernakd,) a sceptical physician and
writer, was born, about 1670, at Dort, in Holland ; settled in
England at the beginning of the eighteenth century ; and
died in 1733. He is the author of several productions,
among which are, an Inquiry into the Origin of Honor;
Free Thoughts on Religion ; and The Virgin Unmasked ;
but his principal work is The Fable of the Bee.';, or Private
Vices made Public Benefits. This last most false and
extravagant position was attacked by Berkeley, to whom
Mandeville replied, and was presented, as flagrantly im-
moral, by the grand Jury of Middlesex. — Davenport.
MANDRAKE, (duduim ; Gen. 30: 11—16. Cant. 7: 13.)
Interpreters have wasted much time and pains in endea-
voring to ascertain what is intended by the Hebrew word
dudaim. Some translate it by " violet," others, "lihes,"
"jasmines," "truffle or mushroom," and some think that
(he word means " flowers," or " fine flowers," in general.
Bochart, Calmet, and Sir Thomas Browne, suppose the
citron intended ; Celsius is persuaded that it is the fruit
of the lote tree ; Hiller, that cherries are spoken of; and
Ludolf maintains that it is the fruit which the Syrians
call maur, resembling in figure and tasle the Indian fig.
But the generality of interpreters and commentators
understand by dudaim, mandrakes, a species of melon ;
and it is so rendered in the Septuagint, and in both the
Targums, on Gen. 29: 32—34. 30:' 14. It appears from
Scripture, that they were in perfection about the time of
wheat harvest, have an agreeable odor, may he preserved,
and are placed with pomegranates, Cant. 7: 13.
Nor was the opinion of their prolific virtue confined to
the Jews; the Greeks and the Romans had the same no-
lion of mandrakes. They gave to the fruit the name of
'■ Apple of Love," and to Venus that of Mandragoritis.
The emperor Julian in his epistle to Calixenes says, that
he drank the juice of mandrakes to e.xcite his inclina-
tions. And before him, Dioscorides had observed of it,
'' The root is supposed to be used in philters or love-po-
tions." On the whole, there seems little doubt but this
plant had a provocative quality, and therefore its Hebrew
name d«daimma.y be properly deduced, says Calmet, from
titidim, phfi^ures of love. — Watson ; Calmet.
MANICHjEANS, or Manichees ; a denomination
founded in the latter part of the third century, by Mani,
Manes, or Manichoeus. Being a Persian or Chaldean by
birth, and educated among the Magi, he attempted a coa-
lition of their doctrine with the Christian system, or rather,
the explication of the one by the other. Dr. Lardner, so
far from taking Mani and his followers for enthusiasts,
as some have done, thinks they erred on the other side,
and were rather a sect of reasoners and philosophers,
than visionaries and enthusiasts. So Faustus, one of
their leaders, says, the doctrine of Mani taught him not
to receive every thing recommended as said by our Savior,
but first to examine and consider whether it be true, sound,
right, genuine ; while the Catholics, he says, swallowed
every thing, and acted as if they despised the benefit of
human reason, and were afraid to examine and distin-
guish between truth and falsehood. Augustine, it is well
known, was for some time among this sect; but it was
not pretensions to inspiration, but specious and alluring
promises of rational discoveries, by which Augustine was
deluded, as he particularly states in his letter to his friend
Honoratus. So Beausobre remarks : " These heretics
were philosophers, who, having formeci certain systems
accommodated revelation to them, which was the servant
of their reason, not the mistress,"
Mani, according to Dr. Lardner, believed in an eternal
self-existent Being, completely happy and perfect in good-
ness, whom alone he called God, in a strict and proper
sense ; bitt he believed, plso, in an evil principle, or being,
which he called liyJe., or the devil, whom he considered as
the god of this world, blinding the eyes of them that be-
lieve not, 2 Cor. 4: 4. God, the supreme and good, they
considered as the Author of the universe ; and, according
to Augrtsline, they believed, also, in a consubstantial
Trinitj', though they strangely supposed the Father to
dwell in light inaccessible, the Son to have his residence
in the solar orb, and the Holy Spirit to be diflused
throughout the atmosphere ; on which account they paid
a superstitious, and perhaps an idolatrous, reverence to
the sun and moon. Their belief in the evil principle was,
no doubt, adopted to solve the mysterious question of the
origin of evil, which, says Dr. Lardner, was the ruin of
these men, and of many others. As to the hyk, or the
devil, though they dared not to consider him as the crea-
ture of God, neither did they believe in his eternity; for
they contended, from the Greek text of John S: 44, that
he had a father. But they admitted the eternity of mat-
ter, which they called darkness ; and supposed htjle to be
the result of some wonderful and unaccountable commo-
tion in the kingdom of darkness, which idea seems to be
borrowed from the Mosaic chaos. In this commotion
darkness became mingled with light, and thus they ac-
count for good and evil being so mixed together in the
world. Having thus brought Uy!e, or Satan, into being,
they next found an empire and employment for him.
Every thing, therefore, which they conceived unworthy of
the fountain of goodness, they attributed to the evil
being ; particularly the material world, the Mosaic dis-
pensation, and the Scriptures on which it was founded.
This accounts for their rejecting the Old Testament. Dr.
Lardner contends, however, that they received generally
the books of the New Testament, though ihey objected to
particular passages as corrupted, which they could not re-
concile to their system.
On Rom. 7. Mani founded the doctrine of two souls in
man, two active principles ; one, the source and cause of
vicious passions, deriving its origin from matter; tht
other, the cause of the ideas of just and right, and of in-
clinations to follow those ideas, deriving its origin from
God. Considering all sensual enjoyments to be in some
degree criminal, they were enemies to marriage ; though,
at the same time, knowing that all men cannot receive
this saying, they allowed it to the second class of their
disciples, called auditors; but by no means to the perfect
or confirmed believers. Another absurd consequence of
believing the moral evil of matter was, that they denied
the real exi.stence of Christ's human nature, and supposed
him to sutler and die in appearance only. According to
them, he took the form only of man ; a notion that was
afterwards adopted by Blahomet, and which necessarily
excludes all faith in the atonement. Construing too lite-
rally the assertion that flesh and blood could not inherit
the kingdom of God, they denied the doctrine of the
resurrection. Christ came, they said, to save the souls
of men, and not the bodies. No part of matter, accord-
ing to them, could be worthy of salvation. In many
leading principles they thus evidently agreed with the
Gnostics, of whom, indeed, they may be considered a
branch. (See Gnostics ; and SIagi.) — Watson.
MANIFEST; to show a thing clearly, and render it
visible, Eccl. 3: 18. 1 Tim. 3: 16. The Son of God was
manifest when he appeared visibly in our nature, 1 John 3:
5. The apostles were manifest when it fully appeared by
their behavior, doctrine, and success, that thev were sent
of God, 2 Cor. 11: 6. The saints and the wicked are ma-
iiifest when the diflerence between their characters and
states is clearly discovered, 1 John 3: 10. The manifesta-
tion ofthi Spirit is either that which the Holy Ghost shows
to men, the doctrines of the go.spel, -he love of God, ami
MAN
[772]
MAE
car interest in it, and the things of another world ; or, his
gifts and graces, whereby his power and residence in os
are plainly evinced, 1 Cor. 12: 7. The manifestation of the
sans of God is the public display of their station and happi-
ness, in their being openly acknowledged and honored by
Christ at the last day, Rom. 8: Vi—Bnirn.
MANIFOLD. God's wisdom, mercy, and grace, are
manifold; unbounded in their natare, showed forth in a
variety of ways, and numerous in their frnits, Eph. 3: 10.
Neh. 9: 19. 1 Pet. 4: 10. Temptations and trials are
manifold when very numerous, and in many different
forms, and from variou.s sources, 1 Fet. 1: 6. Transgres-
sions are manifdd when many in number, aiKl of many
different forms, and in marty various degrees of aggrava-
tion, Amos 5: 12. — Brown.
MANNA ; a substance which God gave to the children
of Israel for food, in the deserts of Arabia. It began to
fall on Friday morning, the sixteenth day of the second
month, which from thence was called Ijar, and continued
to fall daily in the morning, except on the Sabbath, tilt
after the passage aver Jordan, and to the passover of the
fortieth year from the exodus, that is, from Friday, June
5, A. M. 2513, to the second day of the passover, Wednes-
day, May 5, A. M. 2-553. It was a small grain, white,
like hoar-frost, round, and the size of coriander seed, Ex.
16:14. Num. 11:1 — 5. It fell every morning with the dew,
about the camp of the Israelites, and in so great qnantitie.s
during the whole forty years of their journey in the wil-
derness, that it was sutEcient to feed the entire multitude,
of above a million of souls, every one of whwn gathered,
for his share every day, the quantity of an omev, i. e. abotit
three quarts. It maintained all this mnltitnde, and yet
none of them found any inconvenience from the constant
eating of it. Every Friday there fell a double quantity,
(Exod- IC: 5.) and though it putrelied and bred maggots
■when kept on any other day, yet on (he Sabbath it suffered
no such alteration. And the same manna that was melted
by the heat of the sun, when left in the field, was of so
hard a consistence when Ijrought into the house, that it
was beat in mottars, ami would even endure the fire. It
was baked in pans, made into paste, and so into cakes.
Instead of " It is mannn," read "What is it?" in Ex. 16: 14.
Scripture gives to manna the name of " bread of hea-
ven," and " food of angels ;" perhaps, as intimating its
superior quality, Ps. 78: 25. There is a vegetable sub-
stance called manna which falls in Arabia, in Poland, in
Calabria, in mount Lihanus, and elsewhere. The most
common and the most famous is that of Arabia, which is
a kind of coiidense-d honey, found in the summer time on
the leaves of trees, on herbs, on the rocks, or the sand of
Arabia Petrtea, That which is gathered about mount Si-
nai has a veiy strong smell, which it receives from the
herbs on which it Iblls. It easily evaporates, insomuch
that if thirty jxiunds of it were kept in an open vessel,
hardly ten would remain at the end of fifteen days. Seve-
ral writers think that the manna with which the Israelites
were fed was like that now found in Arabia, and that the
only thing that was miraculous in the occurrence was the
regularity of the sapply, and its cessation on the Sabbath.
The Jews, however, with the majority of critics, for good
reasons, are of opinion that it was a totally diiferent
substance from the vegetable manna, and was specially
provided by the Almighty for his people. And this is
confirmed by the language of our Lord, John G.—Calmet.
MANNER. God spake unto the fathers nnder the Old
Testament, m dium manners ; not fully, and all at once,
but by little and little, sometimes more, and sometimes
less clearly; and by the different means of angels, pro-
phets, visions, dreams, voices from heaven, Urim and
Thummim, kc, Heb. 1: 1. To say the manner of Beer-
sheba liveth, was to swear by the idol there worshipped,
Amos 8: li.— Brown ; Owen on the Spirit
MANNING, (James, D. D.,) first president of the college
inRhode Island, was horn in New Jersey, October 22, 1738
and graduated at Nassau hall, in 1762.' Not long after he
began to preach, several of his Baptist brethren^ in New
Jersey and Pennsylvania proposed the establishment of a
college in Rhode Island, on account of the relisions free-
dom which was there enjoyed. He was chosen its first
president. The charier was obtained in February, 1764,
and in 1765 he removed to Warren, Rhode Island, to maka
preparations for carrying the design into execution. In
1770, the institution was removed to Providence, where a
spacious building had been erected, to which two others
have since been added, and the whole called Brown Uni'
versity. He was soon chosen pastor of the Baptist church
in that town also, and he continued in the active discharge
of the duties of these two otHces, (except in an interval of
about six months, in 178ti, when he was a member of con-
gress,) till his death, by apoplexy, JttSy 29, 1791, aged
fifty-two.
Dr. Manning was equally known in the religions, politi-
cal, and literary world. Nature had given him distin-
guished abititie.'*. The resources of his genius seemec!
adequate to all duties and occasions. He was of a kind
and benevolent disposition, social and communicative rn
mind, and enchanting in manners. His life was a scene
of labor for the benefit of others. His piety, and his fer-
vent 7«al in preaching the gospel, evinced bis love to God
aind man. With a most graceful form, a dignified and
majestic appearance, his address was manly, famifiar, and
engaging, his voice harmonious, and his eloquence irre-
sistible. In the government of the college be was mild,
yet energetic. He lived beloved and died lamented, be-
yond the lot of ordinary men. The good order, learning,
and respectability of the Baptist churches in the eastern
states, nnder God are much owing to his personal influence,
and assiduous attention to their welfare. Benedict, ii. p. 346,
MANO AH, the father of Samson, was of the tribe of Dan,
and a native of the city of Zorah, Judg. 13: 6 — 23. (See
Samson.) — fVaisira.
BIANSLAYER. (See Avengeh. and REFtrsE.)
MANTON, (Thomas, D. D.,) a laborious and zealous
divine of the seventeenth century, was born, in 1620, at
Laarence-Lydiard, Somerset, England. His father and
both his grandfathers were ministers. He was educated
at Oxford, and received orders from bishop Hall, before he
was twenty ; being regarded bj' the good bishop as an ex-
traordinary young man. Atludicg to his extreme youth
he afterwards said, " The Lord forgive my rash intru-
sion." He soon settled at Stoke-Newington, near London.
Here he prepared and published his Expositions of Jamea
and Jude. During the revolution he was frequently called
to preach before the parliament, where he had the courage
to preach against the death of the king, though he gave
great offence. Some years after he was chosen preacher
of St. Paul's, Covent-Garden, where he had a numerous
congregation of persons of great note and rank, and was
eminently successful in his ministry. Usher calls him
one of the best preachers in England. He was also chap-
lain to the Protector, and one of the committee for examin-
ing ministers under the commonwealth. He was forward
however to promote the restoration, and was chosen one
of the king's chaplains, and one of the Savoy commission-
ers ; but soon fell under suspicion for non-confonnity,
and, in 1662, was deprived and imprisoned for six months.
He died October 18, 1677. Perhaps few men of the age
had more virtue, and fewer faihngs; but his only trust was
in the Lamb of God. He left numerous writings, chiefly
sermons and expositions. — Middlelon, iii. p. 429.
MAON ; a city in the south of Jndah, (Josh. 15: 55. 1
Sam. 23: 24, 25. 25: 2.) and about which Nabal the Car-
melite had great possessions. It is thought to be the
Mtenois, or Moeonis, which Eusebius places in the neigh-
borhood of Gaza ; and the Meneeum of the Codex Theodo-
sianus, which is near Beersheba. — Calmet.
MARAH, (bitterness.) When the Israelites coming out
of Egypt, arrived at the desert of Etham, they there
found the water to be so bitter, that r -ither themselves
nor their cattle conld drink it, Exod. 15: 23. They there-
fore began to murmur against Moses, who praying to the
Lord, was shown a kind of wood ; which being thrown
into the water, made it potable. This wood is called
ahah by the Mahometans. The word ah/a has some rela-
tion to aloes, which is a very bitter wood ; and some inter-
preters have hinted, that Moses took a very bitter sort
of wood, on purpose that the power of God might be
more remarkable, in sweetening these waters. Josephus
saj'S, that this legislator used the wood which he found by
chance, lying at his feet.
MAR
[ 773 ]
MAR
We believe that the colonists who first peopled some
parts of America, corrected the qualities of the water they
found there, by infusing in it branches of sassafras ; and
it is understood that the first inducement of the Chinese to
the general use of tea, was to correct the water of their
rivers j it follows, therefore, that some kinds of wood pos-
sess such a quality : and it may be, that God directed
Moses to the very wood proper for his purpose. But then,
it must be confessed, that the water of those parts conti-
nues bad to this day, and is so greatly in want of something
to improve it, that had such a discovery been communi-
cated by Bloses, it could hardly have been lost. It must
therefore be admitted to have been a miracle, wrought by
divine power upon a special occasion. — Cnlmel.
MARAN-ATHA. (See Anathema.)
MARBLE, {shish; 1 Chron. 29: 2. Eslh. 1: 6. Cant. 5:
15.) a valuable kind of slone, of a texture so hard and
compact, and of a grain so fine, as readily to take a beau-
tiful polish. It is dug out of quarries in large masses,
and is much used in buildings, ornamental pillars, &c.
Marble is of difierent colors, — black, w-hite, &c. ; and is
sometimes elegantly clouded and variegated. The Se-
venty and Vulgate render it " Parian stone," which was
remarkable for its bright white color. Probably the cliff
Ziz, (2 Chron. 20: 16.) was so called from being a marble
crag : the place was afterwards called Fetra. The variety
of stones mentioned in the pavement of Ahasucrus might
be marble of different colors. The ancients sometimes
made pavements wherein were set very valuable stones. —
Watson.
MARCELLA ; a Roman mdow, the intimate friend of
Paula, and of Eustochium. The latter received instruc-
tion from her ; and it is easy to judge, says Jerome, of the
merit of one who could form such disciples. Blarcella was
a Christian, and deeply learned in the Scriptures. She
was greatly opposed to the errors of Origen, who mingled
the dogmas of oriental philosophy with the truths of Chris-
tianity. On difficult passages of Scripture she consulted
Jerome ; but she herself was consulted from all parts as a
great theologian, and her answers were always dictated
by prudence and humility. She died A. D. 409, soon
after Rome was taken by the Goths. — Betham.
MARCELLANS; a sect of ancient heretics, towards
the close of Ihe second century ; so called from JIarcellus
of Ancyra, their leader, who was accused of reviving the
errors of Sabellius. Some, however, are of opinion that
Marcellus was orthodox, and that they were his enemies,
the Arians, who fathered their errors upon him. — Hend.
Buck.
MARCIONITES, or Makciootsts, Marcionistce ; a very
ancient and popular sect of heretics, who, in the time of
Epiphanius, were spread over Italy, Egypt, Palestine, Sy-
ria, Arabia, Persia, and other countries ; they were thus
denominated from their author, Marcion. Marcion was
of Pontus, the son of a bishop, and at first made profession
of the monastic life; but he was excommunicated by his
own father, who would never admit him again into com-
munion with the church, not even on his repentance. On
this he abandoned his omi country, and retired to Rome,
where he began to broach his doctrines.
He flourished between the years 130 and IfiO, and was
one of the most distinguished and influential heretics of
the second century. He was the second person before
Slanes who mixed the Eastern doctrines with Christianity.
His celebrity arose, not so much from his introducing any
new doctrines, as from his enlarging upon those which had
been taught before him, which he did in a work which he
entitled Atitheses, which was celebrated by the ancients,
and regarded by his followers as a symbolical book.
He laid down two principles, the one good, the other
evil ; between these he imagined an intermediate kind of
deity, of a mixed nature, who was the creator of this infe-
rior world, and the god and legislator of the Jewish na-
tion. The other nations, who worshipped a variety of
gods, were supposed to be under the empire of the evil
principle. These two conflicting powers exercised oppres-
sions upon rational and immortal souls ; and therefore the
supreme God, to deliver them from bondage, sent to the
Jews a being more like unto himself, even his Son Jesus
Christ, clothed with a certain shadowy resemblance of a
body : this celestial messenger was attacked by the prince
of darkness, and by the god of Ihe Jews, but without effect.
Those who followed the directions of this celestial conduc-
tor, mortify the body by fastings and austerities, and re-
nounce the precepts of the god of the Jews and the prince
of darkness, shall after death ascend to the mansions of
felicTty and perfection. The rule of manners which Mar-
cion prescribed to his followers was excessively austere,
containing an express prohibition of wedlock, wine, flesh,
and all the external comforts of life.
Marcion denied the real birth, incarnation, and passion
of Jesus Christ, and held them to be apparent only. He
denied the resurrection of the body, and allowed none to
be baptized but those who preserved their continence ; but
these he granted might be baptized three times. In many
things he followed the sentiments of the heretic Ccrdon,
and rejected ihe law and the prophets, or, according to
Theodoret, the whole of the Old Testament. He pretend-
ed the gospels had been corrupted, and received only
one, which has been supposed to bi- that of LuK'e ; but
they are so very different, that the most dislinguished
modern critics are decidedly of opinion thnt iMarcion's
was merely an apocryphal gospel, and a mutilated or gar-
bled copy of Luke's, as some of the fathers alleged on
conjecture. He rejected the two epistles to Timothy, that
to Titus and the Hebrews, and the Apocalypse. Whoever
would wish to investigate the hLstory of this herelic, can
hardly avoid studying the five books wrillen expressly
against him by Tertullian ; but they must be read with
some allowance for invective. Dr. Burton on Ihe Early
Hensiea, Note 13. — Hcnd. Buck.
MARCITES, Marcitji ; a sect of heretics in the second
century, who also called themselves ihe pitftcli, and made
profession of doing every thing with a great deal of liberty
and without fear. This doctrine they borrowed from Si-
mon Magits, W'ho however was not Iheir chief; for they
were called Mareites from one Marcus, who conferred the
priesthood, and the administratjpn of the sacraments, on
women. — Hend. Bvck.
MARCOSIANS, or Colobarsians ; an ancient sect in
the church, making a branch of the Valentinians.
IrenoBus speaks at large of the leader of this sect, Mar-
cus, who, it seems, was reputed a great magician. The
Marcosians had a great number of apocryphal books,
which they held for canonical, and of the same authority
with ours. Out of these they picked several idle fables
touching the infancy of Jesiis Christ, which Ihcy put off
for true histories. Many of these fables are still in use
and credit among the Greek monks. — Hend. Buck.
MARCUS ; a Christian bishop of Arethusa, who having
destroyed a heathen temple, and erected a Cluislian church
in its room, was accused before the emperor Julian. His
persecutors stripped and heat him, and after various tor-
ments covered him wilh honey, and hung him up in a
basket to be stung to death by wasps. — Fox. p. 159.
MARESHAH, or Marissa ; a cily of Judah, called also
Moresheth and Morasthi. The prophet Micah was a na-
tive of this city. It Avas two miles from Eleuthcropolis;
and near to it, in the vale of Zephalhah. was fought a fa-
mous battle between Asa, king of Judah, and Zerah, king
of Cush, in which Asa defeated a million of men, 2 Chron.
14: 9 — 13. In the latter times of Ihe Jewish common-
wealth, Mareshah belonged to Idnmea, as did several other
sontherlv cities of Judah. — Colmet.
MARGARET, (queen of Scotland ;) a woman of the
rarest piety, and of a character fitted to throw a lustre on
the purest ages. She was grandaughter to Solomon,
king of Hungary. With her brother, Edgar Atheling,
she AA'as wreclved on the coast of Scotland, and was there,
in 1060, married to Malcolm, who had just recovered the
throne of Scotland from the usurper Macbeth, Through
her influence the ferocious spirit of her husband received
a happy tincture of humanity, and through his high opi-
nion of her wisdom she was enabled greatly to icl'orm the
kingdom, to diininish taxes, purify the courts of justice,
repress the insolence of the soldiery, revive the spirit of
piety, and introduce a more serious regard to the duties of
the Sabbath, She made laws to enforce temperance. The
poor and unfortunate shared her kindest regard. Her
children she carefully and successfully educated on Chris
MAR
J 774]
MAR
tian principles. Theoderic, a monk of Durham, who
wrote her life, says, " She would discourse with me con-
cerning the sweetness of everlasting life, in such a man-
ner as to draw tears from my eyes." In 1093, while
suffering from sickness, she heard of the death of her hus-
band, who was slain at Alnwick, in Northumberland, in
the reign of WiUiam Rufus. She received the bitter news
as a Christian. " I thank thee, 0 Lord," she said, " that
in sending me so great an affliction, thou wouldst purify
me from my sins. Thou, who by thy death hast given
life to the world, deliver me from evil." This excellent
quei n survived but a few days. — Betham.
MAEGARET, of France, duchess of Berri and Savoy,
daughter of Francis I., was born in 1523, and received a
superior education. She was the patroness of the sciences
and learned men ; and after the death of her father gain-
ed a high reputation by her beauty, piety, learning, and
amiable qualities. She married Philibert, duke of Savoy,
in 1559, and died, 1574, aged fifty-one. The most illus-
trious of the literati contended who should praise her best,
and her subjects called her the Mother of htr People. —
Betham.
MARIAMNE. (See Herod.)
MARK was the nephew of Barnabas, being his sister's
son. He is supposed to have been converted to the gos-
pel by St. Peter, who calls him his son ; (1 Peter 5: 13.) but
no circumstances of his conversion are recorded. The
first historical fact mentioned of him in the New Testa-
ment is, that he went, in the year 41, from Jerusalem to
Antioch, with Paul and Barnabas. Not long after, he set
out from Antioch with those apostles upon a journey,
which they undertook by the direction of the Holy Spirit, for
the purpose of preaching the gospel in different countries:
but he soon left them, probably without sufficient reason,
at Perga in Pamphylia, and went to Jerusalem, Acts 13.
Afterwards, when Paul and Barnabas had determined to
visit the several churches which they had established,
Barnabas proposed that they should take Mark with them ;
to which Paul objected, because Blark had left them in
their former journey. This difference of judgment ended
in their separation, though it did not break their friend-
ship, or cool their zeal for the diffusion of the gospel.
Mark accompanied his uncle Barnabas to Cyprus, but it
is not mentioned whither they went when they left that
island. We m.ay conclude that St. Paul was afterwards
reconciled to Blark, from the manner in which he men-
tions him in his epistles written subsequently to this dis-
pute ; and particularly from the direction which he gives
to Timothy : " Take Mark, and bring him with thee ; for
he is profitable to me for the ministry," 2 Tim. 4: 1 1. No
further circumstances are recorded of Mark in the New
Testament ; but it is believed, upon the authority of an-
cient writers, that soon after his journey with Barnabas he
met Peter in Asia, and that he continued with him for some
time ; perhaps till Peter suffered martyrdom at Rome.
Epiphanius, Eusebius, and .Terome, all assert that Mark
preached the gospel in Egypt ; and the two latter call him
bishop of Alexandria, where he suffered martyrdom.
2. Dr. Lardner thinks that Mark's Gospel is alluded to
by Clement of Rome : but the earliest ecclesiastical wri-
ter upon record who expressly mentions it is Papias. It
is mentioned, also, by Irenseus, Clement of Alexandria,
Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome, Augus-
tine, Chry.soslom, and many others. The works of these
fathers contain numerous quotations from this gospel ; and
as their testimony is not contradicted by anv ancient wri-
ter, we may safely conclude that the gospel of Mark is gen-
uine. The authority of this gospelis not affected by the
question concerning the identity of Mark the evangelist,
and Mark the nephew of Barnabas ; since all agree that
thew.-i:2r of this gospel was the familiar companion of
St. Peter, and that he was qualified for the work which he
undertook, by having heard, for many years, the public
discourses and private conversation of that aposilc.
To'ne writers have asserted that St. Peter revised and
app'oved ihis gospel, and others have not scrupled to call
it tne goofel according to St. Peter ; by which title they
did not mean to question St. Mark's right to be considered
as the author of this gospel, but merely to give it the
sanction of St. Peter's name. The following passage in
Eusebius appear.^ to contain so probable an account of tk,
occasion of writing this gospel, and comes supported by
such high autliority, that we think it right to transcribe it :
" The lustre of piety so enlightened the minds of Peter''
hearers at Rome, lliat they were not contented with the
bare hearmg and unwritten instruction of his divine
preaching, but they earnestly requested St. Mark, whose
gospel we have, being an attendant upon St. Peter, to
leave with them a written account of the instructions
which had been delivered to them by word of mouth ; nor
did they desist till they had prevailed upon him ; and thus
they were the cause of the writing of that gi^spel, which is
called according to St. Mark ; and they say, that the apos-
tle being informed of what was done, by the revelativ'n of
the Holy Ghost, was pleased with the zeal of the men, and
authorized the writing to be introduced into the churches.
Clement gives this account in the sixth book of his Insti-
tutions ; and Papias, bishop of Hierapohs, bears testimony
to it." Jerome also says, that St. Mark wrote a short gos-
pel from what he had heard from St. Peter, at the request
of the brethren at Rome, which, when St. Peter knew, he
approved, and pubhshed it in the church, commanding
the reading of it by his own authority.
Different persons have assigned different dates to thia
gospel ; but there being almost an unanimous concurrence
of opinion, that it was written whileMark was with St. Pe-
ter at Rome, and not findmg any ancient authority for
supposing that St. Peter was in that city till A. D. (54, we
are inclined to place the publication of this gospel about
A. D. 65. St. Mark having written this gospel for the use of
the Christians at Rome, which was at that time the great
metropolis and common centre of all civilized nations, we
accordingly find it free from all peculiarities, and equally
accommodated to every description of persons. Quota-
tions from the ancient prophets, and allusions to Jewish
customs, are, as much as possible, avoided ; and such ex-
planations are added as might be necessary for Gentile
readers at Rome ; thus, when Jordan is first mentioned
in this gospel, the word river is prefixed, (Mark 1: 5.) the
Oriental word corban is said to mean a gift, (Mark 7: 11.)
the preparation is said to be the day before the Sabbath,
(Mark 15: 42.) and defiled hands are said to mean un-
washed hands ; (Mark 7: 2.) and the superstition of the
Jews upon that subject is staled more at large than it
would have been by a person writing at Jerusalem. Some
learned men, from a collation of St. Matthew's and Blark's
gospels, have pointed out the use of the same words and
expressions in so many instances, that it has been sup-
posed Mark wrote with St. Matthew's gospel before him ;
but the similarity is not strong enough to warrant such a
conclusion ; and seems no greater than might have arisen
from other causes. St. Peter would naturally recite in
his preaching the same events and discourses which St.
Matthew recorded in his gospel ; and the same circum-
stances might be mentioned in the same manner by men
who .sought not after " excellency of .speech," but whose
minds retained the remembrance of facts or conversations
which strongly impressed them, even without taking into
consideration the idea of supernatural guidance. (See
Inspiration.) We may farther observe, that the idea of
Mark's writing from St. Matthew's gospel does not cor-
respond with the account given by Eusebius and Jerome,
as staled above. — Watson.
MARK ON THE FOREHEAD. (See Forehead.)
MARKET. The market or forum, in the cities of an-
tiquity, was very difl"erent from our markets, where meat,
(fcc. is usually sold. When we read (Acts 17: 17.) of the
apostle Paul disputing w-ith philosophers in the •' market,"
at Athens, we are apt to wonder what kind of philosophers
these market-folks could be; or why the disputants could
not engage in a place filter for investigation, and discus-
sion, of abstruse and difbcult subjects. But the fact is,
that the forum was usually a public market on one side
only, the other sides of the area being occupied by tem-
ples, theatres, courts of justice, and other public build-
ings. In short, the forums were sumptuous squares, sur-
rounded by decorations tzc. of various, and often of mag-
nificent, kinds. Here the philosophers met, and taught ;
here laws were promulgated ; and here devotions, as well
as amusements, occupied the populace. The nearest ap
MAR
[ 775 ]
MAR
proach lo the composition of an ancient forum, Is Covent-
garden, in England; where we have a market in the mid-
dle, a church at one end, a theatre at one corner, and
sitting magistrates close adjacent. In short, if we add a
school for philosophical instruction, or divinity lectures,
we have nearly the composition of an ancient forum, or
market-place. Hence, when the Pharisees desired salu-
tations in the market-places, (Mark 12: 38.) it was not
merely from the country people who brought their pro-
duce for sale, but, as they loved to be admired by re-
ligious people at the temple, the synagogues, i:c. so they
desired salutations from persons of consequence, judges,
magistrates, dignitaries, kc. in the forum, in order to dis-
play their importance to the people, to maintain their in-
fluence, &c. — Calmet.
MARLORATUS; one of the reformers of the sixteenth
century. This excellent minister of Christ was born in
Lorrain, in 1506. His parents dying while he was young,
he obtained his education in a monastery of Augustine
friars. Thence he went to the university of Sausanne, where
it pleased God to bring him to the knowledge of the truth.
He soon became pastor first of Vivia, and then of Rouen,
in Normandy, where he gathered, and watched over a
large congregation with signal fidelity and success. In
15(31, he distinguished himself at the conference at Poissy,
in defence of the Protestants. The next year, in the civil
war, Rouen was taken by the papists, and Marloratus, on
a false charge of high treason, was sentenced to an infa-
mous death. He died, glorifying God by his faith, pa-
tience, and meekness, in the fifty-sixth year of his age.
He left several excellent writings. — Middkton, ii. p. 82.
MARONITES ; a sect of Eastern Christians who follow
the Syrian rites, and are subject to the pope ; their princi-
pal habitation being on mount Libanus, or between the
Ansarians to the north and the Druses to the south. Mo-
sheim informs us, that the Monothelites, condamned and
exploded by the council of Constantinople, found a place
of refuge among the Jlardaites, signifying in Syriac rebels,
a people who took possession of Lebanon, A. D. 676,
which became the asylum of vagabonds, slaves, and all
sorts of rabble ; and about the conclusion of the seventh
century they were called Maronites, after Maro, their first
bishop ; a name which they still retain. None, he says,
of the ancient writers, give any certain account of the
first person who instructed these mountaineers in the doc-
trine of the Monothelites; it is probable, however, from
several circumstances, that it was John Maro, whose name
they have adopted ; and that this ecclesiastic received the
name of Maro from his having lived in the character of
a monk, in the famous convent of St. Maro, upon the
borders of the Orontes, before his settlement among the
Mardaites of mount Libanus. One thing is certain, from
the testimony of Tyrius, and other unexceptionable wit-
nesses, as also from the most authentic records, namely,
that the Maronites retained the opinions of the Monothe-
lites until the twelfth centurj', when, abandoning and re-
nouncing the doctrine of one will in Christ, they were re-
admitted into the communion of the Roman church. The
most learned of the modern Blaronites have left no method
unemployed to defend their church against this accusa-
tion ; they have labored to prove, by a variety of testimo-
nies, that their ancestors always persevered in the Catholic
faith, and in their attachment to the Roman pontiff, with-
out ever adopting the doctrine of the Monophysites or
Monothelites. But all their eflTorts are insufficient to
prove the truth of these assertions, and the testimonies
they allege will appear absolutely fictitious and destitute
of authority.
The nation may be considered as divided into two
classes, the common people and the shaiks, by whom must
be understood the most eminent of the inhabitants, who,
from the antiquity of their families, and the opulence of
their fortunes, are superior to the ordinary class. They
all live dispersed in the mountains, in villages, hamlets,
and even detached houses ; which is never the case in the
plains. The whole nation consists of cultivators. Every
man improves the little domain he possesses, or farms,
with his own hands. Even the shaiks live in the same
manner, and are only distinguished from the rest by a
bad pelisse, a horse, and a few slight advantages in food
and lodging ; they all live frugally, without many enjoy-
ments, but also with few wants, as they are little ac-
quainted with the inventions of luxury. In general, the
nation is poor, but no one wants necessaries ; and if beg-
gars are sometimes seen, they come rather from the sea-
coast than the country itself Property is as sacred among
them as in Europe ; nor do we see there those robberies
and extortions so frequent with the Turks. Travellers
may journey there, either by night or by day, with a se-
curity unknown in any other part of the empire, and the
stranger is received with hospitality, as among the Arabs :
it must be owned, however, that the Maronites are less
generous, and rather inclined to the vice of parsimony.
Conformably to the doctrines of Christianity, they have
only one wife, wliom they frequently espouse without hav-
ing seen, and always without having been much in her
company. Contrary to the precepts of that same religion,
however, they have admitted, or retained, the Arab cus-
tom of retaliation, and the nearest relation of a murdered
person is bound to avenge him. From a habit founded
on distrust, and the political state of the country, every
one, whether shaik or peasant, walks continually armed
with a musket and poinards. This is, perhaps, an incon-
venience ; but this advantage results from it, that they
have no novices in the use of arms among them, when it
is necessary to employ them against the Turks. As the
country maintains no regular troops, every man is obliged
to join the army in time of war ; and if this militia were
well conducted, it would be superior to many European
armies. From accounts taken in late years, the number
of men, fit to bear arms, amounts to thirty-five thousand.
In religious matters the Maronites are dependent on
Rome. Though they acknowledge the supremacy of the
pope, their clergy continue, as heretofore, to elect a head,
with the title of batrak, or patriarch of Antioch. Their
priests marry, as in the first ages of the church ; but
their wives must be maidens, and not widows ; nor can
they marry a second time. They celebrate mass in
Syriac, of which the greatest part of them comprehend not
a word. The gospel, alone, is read aloud in Arabic, that
it may be understood by the people. The communion is
administered in both kinds. In the small country of the
Maronites there are reckoned upwards of two hundred
convents for men and women. These religious are of the
order of St. Anthony, whose rules they observe with an
exactness which reminds us of earlier times. The court
of Rome, in afliliating the IMaronites, has granted them
an hospitium at Rome, lo which they may send several of
their youth to receive a gratuitous education. It should
seem that this institution might introduce among them
the ideas and arts of Europe ; but the pupils of this
school, limited to an education purely monastic, bring
home nothing but the Italian language, which is of no
use, and a stock of theological learning, from which as
little advantage can be derived; they accordingly soon
assimilate with the rest. Nor has a greater change been
operated by the three or four missionaries maintained by
the French capuchins at Gazir, Tripoli, and Bairout.
The most valuable advantage that has resulted from their
labors is, that the art of writing has become more common
among the Maronites, and rendered them, in this country,
what the Copts are in Egypt ; that is, they are in pos-
session of all the posts of writers, intendants, and kaiyas
among the Turks, and especially of those among their
allies and neighbors, the Druses.
Mosheim observes, that the subjection of the Maronites
to the spiritual jurisdiction of the Roman pontiff was
agreed to with this express condition, that neither the
popes nor their emissaries should pretend to change or
abolish any thing that related to the ancient rites, moral
precepts, or religious opinions of this people ; so that, in
reality, there is nothing to be found among the JIaronites
that savors of popery, if we except their attachment to
the Roman pontiff. It is also certain that there are Maro-
nites in Syria, who still behold the church of Rome with
the greatest aversion and abhorrence ; nay, what is still
more remarkable, great numbers of that nation residing
in Italy, even under the eye of the pontiff, opposed his
authority during the seventeenth century, and threw the
court of Rome into great perplexity. One body of these
MAR
[VTG ]
M A R
non-coriforming Maroniles retired into the valle) s u( Pied-
raoiit, wliere they joined the Waldenses ; another, above
six hundred in number, with a bishop, and several eccle-
siastics at their head, flew into Corsica, and implored the
proleclion of the republic of Genoa, against the violence
of the inquisitors. — Walson ; Ifeiid. Buck.
MARRIAGE ; a civil and religious contract, by which
a man is intimately and permanently united to one woman,
for Ine various important ends ordained of God, Gen. 1:
23. 2:18—24. Mai. 2: 14, 15. Matt. 19: 3— 11. Eph. 5:
22—33. G: 1—4. 1 Cor. 7: 2—39. It is founded on the
original constitution of the sexes, and dignified by peculiar
sentiments of affection, delicacy, and honor. Marriage
is a part of the law of nations.
• The public use of the marriage institution consists, ac-
cording to Paley, in their promoting Ijie following benefi-
cial efliicts : 1. The private comfort of individuals. 2. The
production of t!ie greatest number of healthy children,
their better education, and the malring of due provision
for their settlement in life. 3. The peace of human
society, in cutting off a principal source of contention, by
assigning one or more women to one man, and protecting
his exclusive right by sanctions of morality and law. 4.
The better government of society, by distributing the
community into .separate families, and appointing over
each the authority of a master of a family, which has
more actual influence than all civil authority put together.
5. The additional security which the state receives for
the good behavior of its citizens, from the solicitude they
feel for the welfare of their children, and from their being
confined to permanent habitations. C. The encourage-
ment of industry. See also Dmight's Theology on this
topic ; and Anderson on the Domestic Constitution.
Whether marriage be a ciWl or a religious contract, has
been a subject of dispute. The truth seems to be that it
is both. It has its engagements to men, and its vows to
God. A Christian state recognises marriage as a branch
of public morality, and a source of civil peace and
strength, it is connected with the peace of society by
assigning one woman to one man, and the state protects
him. therefore, in her exclusive possession. Christianity,
by tillowing divorce in the event of adultery, supposes,
also, that the crime must be proved by pioper evidence
before the civil magistrate ; and lest divorce should be
the result of unfounded suspicion, or be made a cover for
license, the decision of the case could safely be lodged
nowhere else. Marriage, loo, as placing one human being
more completely under the power of another than any
other relation, requires laws for the protection of those
who are thus so exposed to injury. The distribution of
society into families, also, can only be an instrument for
promoting the order of the community, by the cognizance
which the law takes of the head of a family, and by mak-
ing him responsible, to a certain extent, for the conduct
of those under his influence. Questions of property are
also involved in marriage and its issue. The law must,
therefore, for these and many other weighty reasons, be
cognizant of marfiage ; must prescribe various regulations
respecting it ; require publicity of the contract; and guard
some of the great injunctions of religion in the matter by
penalties.
In every well-ordered society marriage must be placed
under the cognizance and control of the state. But then
(hose who v.ould have the whole matter to lie between the
parties themselves, and the civil magistrate, appear wholly
to forget that marriage is also a solemn religious act, in
which vows are made to God by both persons, who, when
the rite is properly understood, engage to abide by all
those laws witli which he has guarded the institution ; to
love and cherish each other ; and to remain faithful to
each other until death. For if, at least, they profess be-
lief in Christianity, whatever duties are laid upon hus-
bands and wives in the Holy Scriptures, they engage to
obey, by the very act of their contracting marriage.
2. We find but few laws in the books of Moses con-
cerning the institution of marriage. Though the Mosaic
law nowhere obliges men to marry, the Jews have always
looked upon it as an indispensable duty implied in the
words, "increase and multiply ;" (Gen. 1: 28.) so that a
man who did not marry his daughter before she Was
twenty years of age, was looked upon as accessory to any
irregularities the young woman might be guilty of for
want of being timely married. Sloses restrained the
Israelites from marrying within certain degrees of con-
sanguinity ; which had till then been permitted, to prevent
their taking wives from among the idolatrous nations
among whom they lived. Gen. 34: 3. A man was at li-
berty to marry not only in the twelve tribes, but even out
of them, provided it was to a proselyte, or among such
nations as used circumcision; such were the Midianites,
Ishmaelites, Edomites, Moabites, and Egyptians. Ac-
cordingly, we find Moses himself married to a Midianite,
and Boaz to a Bloabite. Amasa was the son of Jether, an
Ishmaelite, by Abigail, David's sister ; and Solomon, in
the beginning of his reign, married Pharaoh's daughter.
Whenever we find him and other kings blamed for mar-
rying strange women, we must understand it of those
nations which were idolatrous and uncircumcised.
The laws of revelation, as well as most civilized coun-
tries, have made several exceptions of persons marrying
who are nearly related by blood. (See Levieate ; and
Incest.) Some have supposed from those passages,
1 Tim. 3: 2. Tit. 1: 6, that bishops or pastors ought
never to marry a second wife. But such a prohibition
would be contrary to natural right, and the design of the
law itself; neither of which was ever intended to be set
aside by the gospel dispensation. It is more probably de-
signed to guard against polygamy, and against divorce on
frivolous occasions ; both of which were frequent among
the Jews, but condemned by our Lord, Matt. 19: 3 — 9.
(See Polygamy ; and Divorce.)
Marriage should always be entered into with delibera-
tion ; at a proper age ; and with mutual consent ; as well as
with the consent of parents and guardians, under whose
care single persons may be. It is an honorable state,
(Heb. 13: ?.) being an institution of God, and that in
Paradise, (Gen. 2.) Christ also honored marriage by his
presence, and at such a solemnity wrought his first miracle,
(John 2.) Moreover, it is honorable, as fornication, self-
pollution, and seduction, are thereby prevented ; the world
peopled with ijihabilants ; families are formed and built
up, supplying the important elements of churches and of
states; candidates for heaven multiplied; and, by its
various duties, life rendered an unspeakable blessing.
3. Among the Jews, at weddings, the bridegroom had a
Paranymphus, or brideman, called by our Savior " the
friend of the bridegroom," John 3: 29. A number of young
people kept him company during the days of the wedding,
to do him honor ; as also young women kept company
with the bride all this time. The companions of the
bridegroom are expressly mentioned in the history of
Samson ; (Judg. 14, and Cant. 5: 1. 8: 13.) also the com-
panio»s of the bride ; Cant. 1: 4. 2: 7. 3: 5. 8: 4. Ps. 45:
9, 14, 15. The office of the brideman was to perform the
ceremonies of the wedding, instead of the bridegroom,
and to obey his orders. Some think that the Architricli-
nus or governor of the feast, at the marriage in Cana, was
the brideman, Paranymphus, or friend of the bridegroom,
who presided at the feast, and had the care of providing
for the guests, John 2: 9. The friends and companions
of the bride sang the Epithalamium, or wedding song, at
the door of the bride the evening before the wedding.
Psalm 45. is a sacred Epithalamium, entitled " a song of
rejoicing of the well-beloved." The ceremony of the wed-
ding was performed with great decorum, the young people
of each sex being kept separate, in distinct apartments,
and at different tables. The reservedness of the Eastern
people towards their women required this ; and we see
proofs of it in the marriage of Samson, in that of Esther,
and in the Canticles. The young men diverted themselves
sometimes in proposing riddles, and the bridegroom ap-
pointed the prize to those who could explain them, Judg.
14: 14.
The wedding ceremonies commonly lasted seven days
for a maid, and three days for a widow. So Laban says
to Jacob, respecting Leah — " fulfil her week," Gen. 29: 27.
The ceremonies of Samson's wedding continued seven
whole days, (Judg. 14: 17, 18.) as also those of that of
Tobias, ch. U: 12. These seven days of rejoicing were
commonly spent in the house of the woman's father.
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after which they conducted the bride to her husband's
home. (See Marriage Ceremony.)
The procession accompanying the bride from the house
of her father to that of the bridegroom was generally one
of great pomp, according to the circumstances of the
married couple ; and for this they often chose the night.
" At a marriage, the procession of which I saw some
years ago," says Blr. Ward, (View of Hist, of Hindoos,
vol. iii. p. 171, 172.) "the bridegroom came from a dis-
tance, and the bride lived at Serampore, to which place
the bridegroom was to come by water. After waiting
two or three hours, at length, near midnight, it M'as an-
nounced, as if in the very words of Scripture, " Behold !
the bridegroom cometh, go ye out to meet him." All the
persons employed now lighted their lamps, and ran with
them in their hands to fill up their stations in the proces-
sion ; some of them had lost their lights, and were un-
prepared, but it was then too late to seek them, and the
cavalcade moved forward to the house of the bride, at
which place the company entered a large and splendidly
illuminated area, before the house, covered with an awn-
ing, where a great multitude of friends, dressed in their
best apparel, were seated upon mats. The bridegroom
was carried in the arms of a friend, and placed in a su-
perb seat in the midst of the company, where he sat a
short time, and then went into the house, the door of
which was immediately shut, and guarded by Sepoys. I
and others expostulated with the door-keepers, but in vain.
Never was I so struck with our Lord's beautiful parable,
as at this moment : — and the door was shut." See Matt.
25: 1—13.
From a parable of Christ, in which a great king is re-
presented as making a most magnificent entertainment at
the marriage of his son, (Matt. 22.) we learn that all the
guests, who were honored with an invitation, were expect-
ed to be dressed in a manner suitable to the splendor of
such an occasion, and as a token of just respect to the
new married couple ; and that after the procession, in the
evening, from the bride's house was concluded, the guests,
before they were admitted into the hall where the enter-
tainment was served up, were examined, that it might
be known if any stranger had intruded, or if any of the
company were apparelled in raiment unsuitable to the
genial solemnity they were going to celebrate ; and such,
if found, were expelled the house with every mark of ig-
nominy and disgrace. From the knowledge of this custom
ihe following passage receives great light and lustre.
When the king came in to see the guests, he discovered
among them a person who had not on a wedding garment.
He called him and said : Friend, how came you to intrude
into my palace in a dress so unsuitable to this occasion ?
— The man was struck dumb ; he had no apologj' to offer
for this disrespectful neglgct. The king then called to his
servants, and bade them bind him hand and foot — to drag
him out of the room — and thrust him out into Ihe mid-
night darkness. (See Habits in Dress.)
3. When this important contract is once made, then cer-
tain rights are acquired by the parties mutually, who are
also bound by reciprocal duties, in the fulfilment of which
the practical virtue of each consists. And here the supe-
rior character of the morals of the New Testament, as
well as their higher authority, is illustrated. It may, in-
deed, be within the scope of mere moralists to show that
fidelity, and affection, and all the courtesies necessary to
maintain affection, are rationally obligatory upon those
who are connected by the nuptial bond ; but in Chris-
tianity nuptial fidelity is guarded by the express law,
" Thou shall not commit adultery," and by our Lord's ex-
position of the spirit of that law which forbids the indul-
gence of loose thoughts and desires, and places the purity
of the heart under the guardianship of that hallowed fear
which his authority tends to inspire. Affection, too, is
made a matter of ddigent cultivation upon considerations,
and by a standard, pecuUar to our religion. Husbands
are placed in a relation to their wives, similar to that
which Christ bears to his church, and his example is thus
made their rule. As Christ loved the church, so husbands
are to love their wives ; as Christ " gave himself," his
life, " for the church," (Eph. 4: 25.) so are they to ha-
zard life for their wives ; as Christ saves his church, so
98
IS It the bounden duty of husbands to endeavor, by every
possible means, to promote the religious edification and
salvation of their wives. The connexion is thus exalted
into a religious one ; and when love which knows no abate-
ment, protection at the hazard of life, and a tender and
constant solicitude for the salvation of a wife, are thus
enjoined, the greatest possible security is established for the
exercise of kindness and fidelity. The reciprocal duties on
the part of the wife are, affectionate reverence, subjection,
obedience, assistance, sympathy, modesty, love, chaste,
single. Christian, constant and faithful unto death,
Eph. 5: 32, 33. Tit. 2: 5. 1 Tim. 5: 11, 12. Ruth 1: 16.
(See articles Divorce; Parent.) Grove's Mor. Phil., vol.
ii. p. 470 ; Falei/'s Mar. Phil., vol. i. ch. viii. p. 339 ;
Doddridge's Lectures, vol. i. pp. 225, 234, 265, 8vo ed. ;
Bean's Christian Minister's Advice to a New-married Couple ;
Guide to Domestic Happiness ; Advantages and Disadvantages
of the Married State ; Stennctt on Domestic Duties ; Jay't
Essay on Marriage ; Jame.<i' Family Monitor ; Calebs ; Ab-
bott's Famihj at Home ; Dtright's Theology ; Fuller's IVorks ;
Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. v. ; and especially .i4«(/erson on
the Domestic Constitution. — Watson; Calmet ; Hend. Duck.
MARRIAGE, (Christian Rule of.) The importance
of regulating the conjugal alliance on religious principles,
was, according to the record of the Old Testament, practi-
cally recognised at a very early period. The intermix-
ture, by marriage, of the professed servants and worship-
pers of God, with those by whom his authority was
disowned, was first branded, and afterwards positively
forbidden by divine authority ; denounced as an eV^l, the
results of which were most injurious to the inten.sts of
religion, and which exposed those who fell into it to the
condign and awful displeasure of the Most High. Now,
although there were some circumstances atteni'ing the
marriages in this manner denounced, which do not directly
apply to the state of society in our own country, (especially
the circumstance that the people with whom si'ch inter-
course was forbidden, were idolaters,) yet there is much,
as must be evident to every pious observer, that illustrates
the sin and danger of forming .so intimate and permanent
a union in life with the ungodly. The general fact is
hence clearly deducible, that there is an influence in mar-
riage strongly affecting the character, which demands
from those who are anxious for moral rectitude and im-
provement, much of caution as lo the manner in which
their affections are fixed ; and that unequal alliances —
alliances where the parties are actuated by different spiri-
tual habits and desires, and where good is made to meet
and combine with bad, encountering most imminently the
danger of seduction and pollution — are guilty, unnatural,
and monstrous. The expression of the divine authority,
in application to the Jew.^, is to be regarded as compre-
hending the principle of his people in all ages, that here
they ought not to walk in the counsel of the ungodly, nor
to stand in the way of sinners.
What we thus are enabled lo conclude from the Old
Testament, will be still more distinctly exemplified from
the New. The evangelical writings do not indeed fre
quently offer directions expressly on the subject of mar-
riage ; the point appearing rather to be assumed than
argued, that in Christian marriage, the husband and wife
ought both, in the emphatic terms of the apostle Peter, to
be and walk as being "heirs together of the grace of
life."
In the first epistle to the Corinthians, the apostle Pai.
applies himself to a question which seems at that time
have been agitated — whether Christians, who, previous ts
their conversion, had contracted marriages with unbelie
vers, ought not to be actually divorced from the wives or
husbands remaining in unbelief, because of Ihe evil and
peril attending the continuance of the aUiance. Such an
extreme, advocated by some, he considers as uncalled for
1 Cor. 7: 10 — 17. But respecting the formation of a new
matrimonial connexion by a believer, (the case taken being
that of a believing widow, though the rule of course ex-
tends to all,) this is the direction : — "She is at liberty to
be married to whom she will, only in the Lord," 1 Cor.
7; 39. Here is a simple proclamation, the force of which
is permanent, and in submission to which Christians, m
every period, should act. They are to marry "only in
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the Lord." They, being themselves "in the LorJ," —
united to the Lord Jesus by the Divine Spirit, and pos-
sessing an interest in the redeeming blessings lie has pur-
chased, are to marry only on Christian principles, and of
course only such as are thus also " in the Lord" — be-
liever with believer, and with none else. This is the ob-
vious meaning of the passage, which no sophism can
evade or fritter away.
It would be easy to employ the attention further, on the
general statements contained in the word of God, re-
specting the character of separation from the world,
which ought to be sustained by his church, the ends for
which it is called, and the objects it is bound to perform ;
statements which all bear on the principle as to marriage ;
operating to enforce and to confirm it. See especially
2 Cor. 6: 14 — IS. 7: 1. But, without amplifying here,
and satisfied that this principle receives, from the testi-
mony already quoted, a convincing and solemn establish-
ment, the reader is requested to ponder a truth, which is
as indubitable as it ought to be impressive ; namely, that
marriages formed by Christians in violation of the reli-
gious design of the institute, and of the express principles
of their religion, are connected with evils many and cala-
mitou.s, most earnestly to be deprecated, and most cau-
tiously to be avoided. Is it indeed to be expected on the
ground of religion, that an act can he committed against
the expressed will of the JMost High God, without exposing
the transgressor to the scourge of his chastisement? Is
it to be expected, on the ground of reason, that an alli-
ance can be formed between individuals whose moral
attributes and desires are essentially incompatible, with-
out creating the elements of uneasiness, discord, and dis-
appointment ? Excited imagination and passion may
delude with the belief of innocence and hope of escape ;
but religion and reason speak the language of unchange-
able veracity, and are ever justified in the fulfilments of
experience, and of fact.
The operation of the evil results whose origin is thus
deduced, is of course susceptible of modifications from
several circumstances in domestic and social life ; and,
for many reasons, the degrees of public exhibition and
of personal pressure may vary. Yet it may be remarked
uniformly, respecting these results, — they are such as deeply
affect the character. A reference has already been made to
the moral influence of marriage ; and as the marriages
stigmatized under the patriarchal, and forbidden and pu-
nished under the Jewish dispensation, were obnoxious on
account of the contamination into which they led the pro-
fessed people of God, so are the marriages of Christians
with worldlings in this age, a worldly spirit be'uig still the
essence of idolatry, (James 4: -1. Col. 3; 5. 1 John 2: 15 — 17.
Blatt. 6: 24.) the objects of censure and deprecation, be-
cause of the baneful eflect they exert on tho.se who are
numbered among the redeemed of the Lord. Such mar-
riages as these present constant and insinuating tempta-
tions to seduce Christians to worldly dispositions and pur-
suits; they enfeeble their spiritual energies; interfere with
their communion with God ; hinder their growth in the
attainments of divine life ; check and oppose their per-
formance of duty and their pursuit of usefulness, in the
family, the church, and the world. The writer of this
article has never known or heard of (what he feels justi-
fied in terming) a forbidden marriage, which, if its
original character were continued, did not pollute and in-
jure. Some instances have been most palpable and
painful ; nor can it be considered but as a truth unques-
tionable and notorious, that whoever will so transgress,
invokes a very blighting of the soul. It may be remarked
respecting these results, again, they are such as deeply affect
happiness. Christian character and Christian happiness
are closely connected : if the one be hurt, the other will
not remain untouched. And who sees not in the unhal-
lowed alliance a gathering of the elements of sorrow ?
Are there not ample materials for secret and pungent
accusations of conscience, that agitate the heart with the
untold pangs of self-condemnation and remorse ? Is there
not reason for the bitterness of disappointment, and the
sadness of foreboding fear, because the best intercourse is
unknown — the purest affection is impossible — the noblest
union is wanting — and the being on whom the spirit
would repose, is^ to all that is the sweetest and most sub-
lime in human sympathies, human joys, and human pros-
pects, an alien and a stranger? And what must be the
horror of that anticipation which sets forth the event of a
final separation at the bar of God, when, while the hope
of personal salvation may be preserved, the partner of the
bosom is seen as one to be condemned by the Judge, and
banished with everlasting destruction from his presence
and the glory of his power ! 0 the infatuation of the
folly which leads to unite, where are created evils like
these, rather than where God will sanction, and where
time and eternity will both combine to bless !
Its effects upon what may be regarded as the supreme •
end of the marriage relation — the religious education of
children, is another most distressing consideration. What
must it be ! What has it ever been !
That much injury therefore has arisen to the public in-
terests of the church of Christ from this transgression
cannot be doubted. Injury done to individual character,
is injury done to the community to which the individual
is attached. It has always been a fact, that whoever
sins in the household of faith, sins not only against him-
self, but against others ; and that tliis transgression is one
peculiarly extended in its influence ; operating more than,
perhaps, any one else which can be named, to bring reli-
gion from its vantage ground, to clog its progress, and to
retard its triumph. Cong. Mag., May, 1831 ; Jay on Mar-
riage ; Mahom on the Christian Rule of Marriage ; H.
March Calebs in Search of a Wife ; and the works referred
to under the article Marriage. — Hend. Buck.
MARRIAGE CEREMONY. The forms of solemnizing
marriage, even among Christians, differ in different places.
In Lutheran countries, as in the United States, it is gene-
rally celebrated in private houses. In Scotland, like all
other religious services of that country, it is extremely
simple, and is performed in the session house, the resi-
dence of the minister, or the private house of some friend
of one of the parties. But in England, it can only be
legally administered at the altar, before which, in the
body of the church, the parties are placed, after having
mutually joined hands and pledged their mutual troth,
according to a set form of words, which they say after the
minister. Quakers and Jews are the only exceptions at
present ; although efforts ate now making to so alter the
marriage law, as to allow all dissenters the liberty of
solemnizing marriage in their own way. See an Appeal
to Dissenters, by J. Wilson, Esq. of the Inner Temple, 1832.
The ancient Jews celebrated their marriages in a man-
ner much like that which still prevails in the East. The
wedding festival lasted several days, as may be seen in
the case of Samson, and of Jacob at an earlier period.
On the last day the bride was conducted to the house of
the bridegroom's father. The procession generally set
off in the evening with much ceremony and pomp. The
companions of each attended them with songs and music
of instruments. The way as they went along was lighted
by numerous torches. In the mean time, another com-
pany, consisting of the young friends of the bridegroom,
was waiting at the bridegroom's house, ready at the first
notice of their approach to go forth and meet them.
They joined themselves to the procession, and the whole
company moved forward to the house, where an entertain-
ment was provided for them, and the remainder of the
MAR
[119]
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evening was spent in cheerful participation of the mar-
riage sapper, with such social merriment as suited the
joyous occasion. (See Marriage.)
In modern times, the Jews have a regular formal mar-
riage rite by which the union is solemnly ratified. The
parties stand up under a canopy, each covered by a veil ;
some grave person takes a cup of wine, pronounces a
short blessing, and hands it to be tasted by both ; the bride-
groom puts a ring on the finger of the bride, saying. By
this ring thou nrt my spouse nrcording to the ntstom of Moses
and the children of Israel ! The marriage contract is then
read and given to the bride's relations ; another cup of
wine is brought and blessed six times, when the married
couple taste it, and pour the rest out in token of cheerful-
ness ; and 10 conclitde a'.l, the husband dashes the cup
itself against tlie wall, and breaks it all to pieces, in
memory of the sad destruction of their once glorious
temple. — He»d. Buck.
MARRIAGE VEIL. (See Veil.)
MARROW-JIEN; otherwise called the Tn-ehe Brelh-
rm, and Ihe Eepresenters ; those ministers of the Scotch
church who, about the beginning of last century, advo-
cated the evangelical views contained in a book called the
" Marrow of Modern Divinity," which at that time had
been republished and widely circulated in Scotland, and
paved the way for the secession which afterwards follow-
ed. This book having been condemned by an act of the
general a.ssembly, a representation was drawn up and
signed by the following twelve ministers :— James Hogg,
Thomas Boston, John Bonnar, James Kidd, Gabriel "Wil-
son, Ebenezcr Erskine, Ralph Erskine, James WarcUaw,
.Tames Bathgate, Henry Davidson, William Hunter, and
John Williamson. This representalion they gave in to
the Assembly ; but after a great deal of vexation and oppo-
sition, they were dismissed from its bar with a rebuke
and admonition. The Representers were not oiliy accu-
rate and able divines, and several of them learned men, but
ministers of Ihe most enlightened and tender consciences,
enemies in doctrine and praclice to all licentionsness, and
shining examples of true holiness in all manner of con-
versation. They were at the same time zealous adherents
to the Confession of Faith and Ihe Catechisms. The
term Mnrron'men and Aitti-Marrommen now became deno-
niiiiative of evangelical and legal preachers ; and from
this time may be dated the commencement of an exten-
sive and remarkable revival of religion in Scotland. —
Hend. Buck.
MARS' HILL. (See Athens ; and Areopagus.)
SIARTHA ; sister of Lazarus and Mary, and mistress
of the house where our Savior was entertained, in the
village of Bethany. Martha is always named before
Ulary, probably because she was the elder sister. Whether
she was truly pious, previous to the time referred to Luke
10: 38, is extremely doubtful. That she was afterwards,
at the period of her brother's death, is certain, John 11:
1 — 27. May we nof hope that the Savior's well-known
reproof was the means of her real conversion from the
worid to God ?
MARTIN, bishop of Rome in the seventh century, was
born at Todi, in La.y, and received from his parents an
excellent edu.-alion. Accomplished by the united endow-
ments of divine grace and human science, he was elected
en the death of Theodore to succeed him in the church at
Rome, by the unanimous voice of the people. His cha-
racter seems to have well merited the important trust ;
Ihe duties of which he discharged in the most faithful and
affectionate manner. His zeal however in calling a coun-
cil which condemned the opinion of the Monotheliies in-
censed the emperor, who seized him under the false pre-
tence of treason^ and after various indignities, which he
meekly endured, put him lb death, A. D. 665. — Fox, p. 80.
MARTINA, a Christian martyr in the reign of the
tyrant Maximinus, was a noble and beautiful virgin of
Rome, who for the sake of Christ suffered manifold tor-
tures, which were finished at length by the sword of the
executioner, A. D. 235.
Multitudes of Christians in Ihe course of this three
years' per.secufion were .slain without trial, and buried in-
discriminately in heaps, fifty or sixty being sometimes
cast into a pit together. — Fox, p. 25, 26.
MARTYN, (Henry,) missionary to India and Persia,
was born at Truro, in the county of Cornwall, on the 18tn
of February, 1781. His father educated him piously and
respectably. His residence at St. John's college, where
his name had been previously entered in the summer,
commenced in the month of October, 1797.
Tlie tenor of Henry Martyn's life, during this and the
succeeding year he passed at college, was, to the eye
of the world, in Ihe highest degree amiable and com-
mendable. He was outwardly moral ; with little ex-
ception, was unwearied in application, and exhibited
marks of no ordinary talent. But whatever may have
been his external conduct, and whatever his capacity in
literary pursuits, he seems to have been totally ignorant
of spiritual things, and to have lived " without God in
the world." At length, however, it pleased God to con
vince' Henr)', by a most affecting visitation of his provi
dence, that there was a knowledge far more important tf>
him than any human science ; and that, whilst contem-
plating the heavens by the light of astronomy, he should
devote himself to his service, who, having made those
heavens, did, in his nature, pass through them as his medi-
ator and advocate. But his conversion did not improperly
interfere with his literary pursuits. His decided superi-
ority in mathematics, therefore, soon appeared ; and the
highest academical honor was adjudged him in January,
1801, a period when he had not completed the twentieth
j'ear of his age. Mr. Martyn's engagements consisted
chiefly in instructing some pupils, and preparing himself
for the examination, which was to lake place previous to
the election in the month of March, 1802, when he was
chosen fellow of St. John's. Soon afterwards, he obtained
the first prize for the best Latin prose composition in the
universilj'. But with such exertions Mr. Martyn became
dissatisfied, and he resolved to devole his future life in
the service of God, as a Christian missionart, in connex-
ion with the Cluirch Missionary society. The situation
of a chaplain to the East India company, had long ap-
peared to many of those -who took a lively interest in him
and his work, to be peculiarly eligible, as offering singular
facilities for missionary exertions amongst millions of
idolaters.
The commencement of Mr. Martyn's ministry, amongst
the Europeans at Dinapore, in India, was not of such a
kind as either to gratify or encourage him. At first he
read jirayers to the soldiers at the barracks, on the long
drum, and as there was no place for them to sit, was de-
sired to omit his sermon. On Sunday, i\larch 15, 1805, he
commenced the performance of divine worship in the ver-
nacular language of India, concluding with an exhortation
from the Scripture in the same tongue. The spectacle
was as novel as it was gratifying, to behold two hundred
women, Portuguese, Roman Catholics, and IMohamm.e-
dans, crowding to attend the service. In addition to Mr
Martyn's studies in Sancrit, Persian, and Hindostanee,
we find him now sedulousl}' employed in reading Lcland
against the deistical writers ; and thence drawing out
arguments against llie Koran. Throughout the year
1808, Mr. Martyn's life flowed on in the same coiii-se of
uniformity and usefulness. He coniinued lo minister lo
the Europeans and Ihe natives at Ihe hospitals, and daily
received the more religious part of his flock at his own
liouse, whilst his health permiited : to this was added ue
MAR
780 J
MAR
revisal ol the sheels ol' Ihe Hindos^lanee version of the
New Testament, which he had completed ; the superin-
tendence of tte Persian translation,' confided to Sabat ;
and the study of Arabic, that he might be fully competent
to superintend another version of the New Testament
into that tongue.
Mr. Martyn's removal from Dinapore to Cawnpore was
to him, in many respects, a very unpleasant arrangement.
He was several hundred miles farther distant from Cal-
cutta, and was far more widely separated than before from
his friend Mr. Corrie : he had new acquaintances to form
at his new abode ; and, after having, with much diffi-
culty, procured the erection of a church at Dinapore, he
was transported to a spot where none of the conveniences,
much less the decencies and solemnities, of public wor-
ship were visible. We find him, soon after he arrived
there, preaching to a thousand soldiers, drawn up in a
hollow square, when the heat was so great, although the
san had not risen, that many actually dropped down, un-
able to sujiport it.
The close of the year 1809 was distinguished by the
commencement of Mr. Martyn's first public ministration
among the heathen. A crowd of mendicants, whom, to
prevent perpetual interruptions, he had appointed to meet
on a stated day, for the distribution of alms, frequently
assembled before his house in immense numbers, present-
mg an aflTecting spectacle of extreme wretchedness. To
this congregation he determined to preach the word of life.
The following Sunday he preached again to the beggars,
in number about five hundred, when all he said was re-
ceived with great applause. And on the last day of the
year he again addressed them, their number amounting
to above five hundred and fifty.
The two last years of his life were spent at Shiraz, in
Persia, among the Mohammedans. Here, however, his
health rapidly declining, after having preached a sermon
on the anniversary of the Calcutta Bible society, which
was afterwards printed, and entitled, " Christian India ;
or, an Appeal on behalf of nine hundred thousand Christian's
m India who want the Bible ;" Mr. Martyn departed forever
from those shores, where he had fondly and fully purposed
to spend all his days. At Tocat, on the 16th of October,
1812, either falling a sacrifice to the plague, which then
raged there, or sinking under that disorder, which so
greatly reduced him, he surrendered his soul into the
hands of his Redeemer. He had not completed the thirty-
second year of a life of eminent activity and usefulness,
and he died whilst hastening towards his native country,
that, having there repaired his shattered health, he might
again devote it to the glory of Christ, amongst the nations
of the East.
With respect to his labors :— his own '•' works praise
him in the gate," far above human commendation. By
him, and by his means, the whole of the New Testament
was translated intoHindostanee— a language spoken from
Delhi to cape Comorin, and intelligible "to many mill-
ions of immortal souls. The Psalms of David and the
New Testament were rendered into Persian— the verna-
cular language of two hundred thousand who bear the
Christian name, and known over one fourth of the habi-
table globe. By him, also, the imposture of the prophet
of Mecca was daringly exposed, and the truths of Chris-
tianity openly vindicated, in the very heart and centre of
a Mohammedan empire. A light has been kindled by
him there, that will never go ont. Even the Persian mol-
lahs say of him, " Henry Martyn was never beat in an
argument. He was a good man ; a man of God !" But
when It is considered, that the Persian and Hindostanee
Scriptures are m wide and extensive circulation, who can
ascertain the consequences which may have already fol-
lowed, or foresee what may hereafter accrue, from their
dispersion ? Mr. Ward, of Serampore, publicly acknow-
ledged that the most successful missionary that had then
visited India, was Henky Martyn ! See Memoir, by Mr.
Sargent, last Am. edition, 1832. — Jones'' Chris. Biog.
MAETYR, (Peter,) a celebrated reformer and theolo-
gian, whose real name was Vermigli, was born, in 1500,
at Florence. He was originally an Augustin monk, and
became an eminent preacher, and prior of St. Fridian's, at
Lucca. Having, however, embraced the Protestant doc-
trines, he found it necessary to quit his native countiy.
After having been for some time professor of divinity at
Strasburg, he was invited to England, and appointed
professor of theology at Oxford. He left England, on the
accession of Mary, and died in 1561, theological professor
at Zurich. He wrote several works, of great erudition,
among which are Commentaries upon parts of the Scrip-
tures. His personal character is said to have been ex-
tremely amiable.— Z»flt'e«;)ort; Middleton, vol. i. p. 499.
MARTYR, is one who lays down his life or suffers
death for the sake of his religion. The word is Greek,
and properly signifies a " witness." It is applied byway
of eminence to those who suflfer in witness of the truth of
the gospel.
The Christian church is illustrious with martyrs. Pro-
phecy had foretold that so it should be, and history is
filled with surprising accounts of their singular constancy
and fortitude under the most cruel torments human nature
was capable of sufl^ering.
The primitive Christians were accused by their enemies
of paying a sort of divine worship to martyrs. Of this -we
have an instance in the answer of the church of Smyrna
to the suggestion of the Jews, who, at the martyrdom of
Polycarp, desired the heathen judge not to suffer the
Christians to carry off his body, lest they should leave
their crucified master, and worship him in his stead. To
which they answered, " We can neither forsake Christ,
nor worship any other ; for we worship him as the Son
of God ; but love the martyrs as the disciples and follow-
ers of the Lord, for the great aflection they have shown to
their King and Master." A like answer was given at the
martyrdom of Fructuosus, in Spain ; for when the judge
asked Eulogius, his deacon, whether he \vould not worship
Fructuosus, as thinking, that, though he refused to wor-
ship the heathen idols, he might yet be inchned to worship
a Christian martyr, Eulogius replied, " I do not worship
Fructuosus, but him whom Fructuosus worships."
The primitive Christians believed that the martyrs en-
joyed very singular privileges ; that upon their death they
were immediately admitted to the beatific vision, and that
God would grant to their prayers the hastening of bis
kingdom, and shortening the times of persecution. Per-
haps this consideration might excite many to court mar-
tyrdom, as we believe many did. It mast be recollected,
however, that martyrdom in itself is no proof of the good-
ness of our cause, only that we ourselves are persuaded
that it is so. " It is not the blood, but the cause, that
makes the martyr." {Mead.) Yet we may consider the
number and fortitude of those who, in the first ages, suf-
fered for Christianity as a collateral proof at least of its
truth and excellence ; for the thing for which they suffered
was not a point of speculation, but a plain matter of fact,
in which (had it been false) they could not have been
mistaken. The martyrdom, indeed, of so many wise and
good men, in succeeding ages, take* with a view of the
whole system of Christianity, will certainly afford some-
thing considerable in its favor. — Hcnd. Buck.
MARTYRS, Festivals of. The festivals of the mar-
tyrs are of very ancient date in the Christian chnrch,
and may be carried back at least to the time of Polycarp,
who suffered martyrdom about the year of Christ 168.
On these days the Christians met at the graves of the
martyrs, and offered prayers and thanksgivings to God
for Ihe example they had afforded them : they celebrated
the eucharist, and ave alms to the poor ; which, together
M A R
781 ]
M AR
wilh a panegyrical oration or sermon, and reading the
acts of the martyrs, were the spiritual exercises of these
anniversaries. — Haul. Buck.
MAKTYKOLOGY ; a catalogue or list of martyrs, in-
cluding the history of their lives and sufferings for the
sake of religion. Only a small proportion, however, have
been rescued from destruction and oblivion. It is enough
that their names are in the Lamb's Book of Life.
The martyrologies generally draw their materials from
the calendars of particular churches, in which the several
fe.'itivals dedicated to them are marked ; and which seem
to be derived from the practice of the ancient Romans,
who inserted the names of heroes and great men in iheir
fasti, or public registers.
The papal martyrologies are very numerous, and con-
tain many ridiculous, and even contradictory narratives ;
which is easily accounted for, if we consider how many
forged and spurious accounts of the lives of saints and
martyrs appeared in the first ages of the church, which
the legendary writers afterwards adopted, without examin-
ing inio the truth of them. However, some good critics,
of late years, have gone a great way towards clearing the
lives ol" the saints and martyrs from the monstrous heap
of fiction they labored under. (See article Legend.)
The martyrology of Eusebius of Ccesarea was the most
celebrated in the ancient church. It was translated into
Latin by Jerome ; but the learned agree that it is not
now extant. The mart5'rology of Jerome, says Du Sol-
lier, is the great Roman martyrology ; from this was made
the little Roman one printed by Rosweyd : of this little
Roman martyrology was formed that of Bede, augmented
by Floras. Ado compiled his in the year 858. The mar-
tyrology of Nevelon, monk of Corbie, written about the
year 1089, is little more than an abridgment of that of
Ado ; father Kircher also makes mention of a Coptic mar-
tyrology, preserved by the DIaroniles at Rome.
We have also several Protestant martjTologies, contain-
ing the sufferings of the reformed under the papists ; viz.
an English martyrology, by John Fox ; with others by
Clark, Bray, &c. (See Persecution.) — Hend. Buck.
MARY; the mother of Jesus, and wife of Joseph. She
is called by the Jews the daughter of Eli ; and by the
early Christian writers, the daughter of Joakim and Anna :
but Joakim and Eliakim are sometimes interchanged, (2
Chron. 36: 4.) and Eli, or Heli, is therefore the abridg-
ment of Ehakim, Luke 3: 23. She was of the royal race
of David, as was also Joseph her husband ; and she was
also cousin to EHsabeth, the wife of Zacharias the priest,
Luke 1: 5, 36.
Mar)' being espoused to Joseph, the angel Gabriel ap-
peared to her, to announce to her that she should be by a
miracle of divine power, the mother of the Messiah, Luke
1: 26, 27, fee. To confirm this message, and to show
that nothing is impossible to God, he added that her cousin
Elisabeth, who was old, and had been hitherto barren,
was then in the sixth month of her pregnane)'. I\Iary,
thus convinced, answered, "Behold the handmaid of the
Lord; be it unto me according to thy word." (See Luke.)
Infidelity has busied itself with the basest conjectures,
and most maUgnant misrepresentations of the extraordi-
nary facts, recorded by the evangelists with such unpre-
tending historical simplicity. But it should never be for-
gotten that this is but one link in a long chain of undeniobh
mracks. The subsequent scenes connected with the birth,
and the presentation of Christ in the temple, the flight in-
to Egypt, the slaughter of the innocents, and other events
in the infancy of our Lord, are plainly related in the gos-
pels. But his mother, it is said — and it marks her cha-
racter of quiet thoughtfulness, profound piety, and deep
maternal love — laid up all these things in her heart, Luke
2: 51, &c.
The gospel speaks noihing more of the virgin Mary till
the marriage at Cana of Galilee, at which she was present
with her son Jesus. She was at Jerusalem, at the last
passover our Savior celebrated there. There she saw all
that was transacted ; followed him to Calvary ; and stood
at the foot of his cross with an admirable constancy and
courage, though the sword, as Simeon foretold, pierced
through her own heart. Jesus seeing his mother, and
his beloved disciple near, he said to his mother, "Woman,
behold thy son ; and to the disciple, Behold thy mother.
And frour that hour the disciple took her home to his own
house." No further particulars of this favored woman
are mentioned, except that she was a witness of Christ's
resurrection. A veil is drawn over her character and his-
tory i as though with the design to reprove that wretched
idolatry of which she was made the subject when Christi-
anity became corrupt and paganized.
2. Mary, the mother of John Mark, a disciple of the
apostles. She had a house in Jerusalem, whither, it is
thought, the apostles retired after the ascension of our
Lord, and where they received fne Holy Ghost. After
the imprisonment of St. Peter, the faithful assembled in
this house, and were praying there when Peter, delivered
by the ministry of an angel, knocked at the door of the
house, Acts 12: 12.
3. Mary, of Cleophas. The best critics take Mary mo-
ther of James, and Mary wife of Cleophas, to be the same
person. Matt. 27: 5(i. JIark 15: 40,41. Luke 24: 10. John
19: 25. St. John gives her the name of Mary of Cleophas ;
and the other evangelists, the name of Blar;', mother of
James. Cleophas and Alpheus are the same person ; as
James, son of Mary, wife of Cleophas, is the same as James,
son of Alpheus. It is thought she was the sister of the virgin
Mary, and that she was the mother of James the Less,
of Joses, of Simon, and of Judas, who in the gospel are
named the brethren of Jesus Christ, (JIatt. 13: 55. 27:
56. Mark 6: 3.) that is, his cousin-germans. She was an
early believer in Jesus Christ, and attended him on his
journeys, to minister to him. She was present at the last
passover, and at the death of our Savior she followed him
to Calvary ; and during his passion she was with the mo-
ther of Jesus at the foot of the cro.ss. She was also pre-
sent at his burial ; and on the Friday before had, in union
with others, prepared the perfumes to embalm him, Luke
23: 59. But going to his tomb very early on the Sunday
morning, with other women, they there learned, from the
mouth of an angel, that he was risen ; of which they car-
ried the news to the apostles, Luke 24: 1 — 5. Matt. 28: 9.
By the way, Jesus appeared to them ; and they embraced
his feet, worshipping him. This is all we know with cer-
tainty concerning Blary, the wife of Cleophas.
4. Mahy, sister of Lazarus, who has been preposterous-
ly confounded with that female sinner spoken of, Luke
7: 37 — 39. She lived with her brother and her sister Mar-
tha at Bethany ; and Jesus Christ, having a particular af-
fection for this family, often retired to their house with his
disciples. Six days before the passover, after having
raised Lazarus from the dead, he came to Bethany with
his disciples, and was invited lo sup with Simon the leper,
John 12: 1, &c. Malt. 26: 6, i:c. Mark 14: 3, .Vc. Ma-
ry, grateful for the recovery of so dear a brother, express-
ed her feelings in a costly manner. Judas Iscariot mur-
mured ; but Jesus justified Mary in what she had done,
saying that by this solemn unction .she bad prevented his
embalmment, and in a manner had declared his death and
burial, which were at hand. From this period the Scrip-
tures make no mention of either Mary or Martha.
5. BIary Magdalene ; so called, it is probable, from
Magdala, a town of Galilee, of which she was a native,
or where she had resided during the early part of her life.
Out of her, St. Luke tells us, Jesus had cast seven devils,
by whose malignant power she had been afflicted, Luke
8: 2. Some, without a shadow of proof, havesupposed her
to be the sinful woman spoke of, Luke 7: 37 — 39 ; as oth-
ers have as erroneously imagined her to be JMary, the sis-
ter of Lazarus.
There is no doubt but that Mary Blagdalene, both in
character and circumstances, was a woman of good repu-
tation, and high standing in society. She is mentioned
by the evangeUsts as being one of those women that fol-
lowed our Savior, to minister to him, according to the cus-
tom of the Jews. She attended him in the last journey
he made from Galilee to Jerusalem, and was at the loot
of the cross with the holy virgin; (John 19: 25. Mark 15:
47.) after which she returned to Jerusalem, to buy .ind
prepare with others certain perfumes, that she might em-
balm him after the Sabbath was over, which was then
about to begin. All the Sabbath day she remained in the
city ; and the next day, early in the morning, went lo th«
MAS
[782 j
Mas
sepulchre along with Marv, the molher of Jamos, and
Salome, Mark J6: 1, 2. Luke 24: 1, 2. For other particu-
lars respecting her, see also Matt. 28: 1—5. John 20: 11
■~n.— Watson.
MASCAKON, (Junes,) a distinguished French prelate
and pulpit orator, was born in 1634 ; entered among the
priests of the Oratory ; and soon became so popular a
preacher that multitudes Jhronged from all quarters lo
hear him. In 1066, he was called to the court, to prencli
before Louis XIV.; and in 1671, he was raised to the see
of Tulle, whence, in 1679, he was translated to that of
Agen. He died in 1703. Of his funeral orations l^o
most admired are those on Henrietta of England, the diii;-j
of Beaufort, and marshal Turenne. — Davenport.
MASCHIL ; a title, or inscription, at the head of seve-
ral psalms of David and others, in the book of Fsalms.
Thus Psalm 32. is inscribed, "A Psalm of David, i\Ias-
chil ;" and Psalm 42, " To the chief musician, Maschil,
ibr the sons of Korah." The word Maschil, in the He-
brew, signifies, " he that instructs ;" though some inter-
preters take it for the name of a musical in.strument.
Some of the rabbins believe that, in repeating the psalms
which have this inscription, it was usual to add an inter-
pretation or explication to them. Others, on the contrary,
think it shows the clearness and perspicuity of such
psalms, and that they needed no particular explication.
The most probable opinion is, that Maschil means an in-
structive song. — Watson.
MASH AM, (Lady Damahis,) daughter of the celebrated
Cudworth, was born at Cambridge, England, in 1658.
Her father perceiving the bent of her genius, took particu-
lar care of her education, so that she was early distin-
guished for piety and uncommon learning. She became
the second wife of Sir Francis Masham, of Gates, in Es-
sex; and repaid her father's care of her, in the admirable
pains she took in the education of her only son.
In the study of divinity and philosophy she was greatly
assisted by Mr. Locke, who lived in her family many of
the last years of his life. She wrote a Discourse con-
cerning the Love of God, 1691, 12mo ; and Occasional
Thoughts in reference to a Virtuous or Christian Life,
1700, 12mo ; and drew up the account of Mr. Loclfe pub-
lished in the great Historical Dictionary. She died in
1703.— Betham.
MASON, (John Mitcheli., D. D.,) a distinguished
American divine and pidpit orator, was born in the city of
New York, in 1770, and after graduating at Columbia col-
lege, prepared himself for the sacred mii'iistry. His theo-
Iii:<ical studies were completed in Europe. In 1792, he
r.'Urned to New York, and was establi.shedin the ministry
v\ that place till 1811, when he accepted the appointment
of provost in Columbia college. This situation his ill
health obliged him to resign, and he visited Europe to re-
pair his constitution. On his return in 1817, he again re-
sumed his labors in preaching, and in 1821, uirdertook
t!ie charge of Diclcinson college, in Pennsylvania. In
1824, he relumed to New York, and died in 1829. He
was the author of Letters on Frequent Communion ; a
Plea for Sacramental Communion on Catholic Principles ;
and a number of Essays, Reviews, Orations, and Sermons,
published at different times. They have recently been
collected and published, in four volumes, octavo.
The mind of Dr. Mason was of the most robust order ;
las theology Calvinislic ; and his style of eloquence pow-
erful and irresistible as a torrent." AVhen Robert Hall
first heard him deliver before the London Missionary
Society, m 1802, his celebrated discourse on Messiah's
Throne, it is said he exclaimed, "I can never preach
again!" — Davenport.
MASORA ; a term, in the Jewish theology, signifying
a work- on the Bible, performed by several learned rab-
bins, to secure it from any alterations which might other-
wise happen.
The work regards merely the letter of the Hebrew text
in which they have first fixed the true reading by vowels
and accents ; they have, secondly, numbered not only the
chapters and sections, but the verses, words, and letters
of the text ; and they find in the Pentateuch five thousand
two hundred and forty-five verses, and in the whole Bi-
ble twenty-three thousand two hundred and six. The
Masora is called by the Jews the '• hedge or fence of the
law," because this enumeratian of the verses, &c. is a
means of preserving it from being corrupted and altered.
They have, thirdly, marked whatever irregularities occur
in any of the letters of the Hebrew text ; such as the dif-
ferent size of the letters, their various positions and inver-
sions, lVc. ; and they have been fruitful in finding out
reasons for these mysteries and irregularities in Ihem.
They are, fourthly, supposed to be the authors of the Eeri
and Chetibh, or the marginal corrections of the text in
otir Hebrew Bibles.
According to Elias Levita, they were the Jews of a fa-
mous school at Tiberias, about five hundred years after
Christ, who composed, or at least began, the Masora;
whence they are called Masorites, and Masoretic do-tors.
Aben Ezra makes them the authors of the points and ac-
cents in the Hebrew text, as we now find it, and which
serve for vowels.
The age of the Masorites, however, has been much dis-
puted. Archbishop Usher places them before Jerome ;
Capel at the end of the fifth century ; father Morin in the
tenth century. Basnage says that they were not a society,
bm a succession of men ; and that the Masora was the
work of many grammarians, who, without associating
and coinmunicating their notions, composed this collection
of criticisms on the Hebrew text. It is urged, that there
were Masorites from the time of Ezra and the men of the
great synagogue, to about the year of Christ 1030; and
that Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali, who were the best of
the profession, and who, according to Basnage, were the
inventors of the Masora, flourished at this time. Each
of these published a copy of the whole Hebrew text, as
correct, says Dr. Prideaux, as they could make it. The
eastern Jews have followed that of Ben Naphtali, and
the western that of Ben Asher : and all that has been
done since is to copy after them, without making any more
corrections or masoretical criticisms.
There is a great and little Masora printed at Venice
and at Basil, with the Hebrew text in a different cha-
racter. Buxtorf has written a work on the Masorites,
which he calls Tiberias. — Hcnd. Buck.
MASS, MissA; in the church of Rome, the oflice of
prayers used at the celebration of the eucharist ; or in
other words, the consecrating the bread and wine so that
it is transubstantiated into the body and blood of Christ,
and offering them as an expiatory sacrifice for the quick
and the dead. Nicod, after Baronius, observes that the
v.-ord comes from the Hebrew missoch, [oblalum,) or from the
Latin missn missorum ; because in former times the cate-
chumens and excommunicated were sent out of the church,
when the deacons said, " Ite, missa est," after sermon and
reading of the epistle and gospel ; they not being allowed
to assist at the consecration. Menage derives the word
from missio, '-'dismissing;" others, frommz^sa, "sending;"
because in the mass the prayers of men on earth are sent
up to heaven.
As the mass is in general believed to be a representa-
tion of the passion of our blessed Savior, so every action
of the priest, and every particular part of the service, are
MAS
f 783]
MAT
supposed to allude' to the particular circumstances of his
passion and death. The general division of masses is in-
to high and low mass. The first is that sung by the chor-
isters, and celebrated with the assistance of a deacon and
sub-deacon : low masses are those in which the prayers are
barely rehearsed without singing. There are a great num-
ber of different or occasional masses in the Romish church,
many of which have nothing peculiar but Ihe name. Such
are the masses of the saints : that of St. Mary of the Snow,
celebrated on the fifth of August; that of St. Margaret,
patroness of lying-in women; that at the feast of St. John
the Baptist, at which are said three masses ; that of the
Innocents, at which the gloria in excelsis and hallelujah
are omitted ; and, it being a day of mourning, the altar is of
a violet color. As to ordinary masses, some are said for the
dead, and, as is supposed, contribute to extricate the soul
out of purgatory. At these masses the altar is put in
mourning, and the only decorations are a cross in the mid-
dle of six yellow wax lights ; the dress of the celebrant,
and the vtcy mass-book, are black ; many parts of the
office are omitted, and the people are dismissed without
the benediction. If the mass be said for a person distin-
guished by his rank or virtues, it is followed with a fune-
ral oration ; they erect a chapclle ardcnle, that is, a repre-
sentation of the deceased, with branches and tapers of
yellow wax, either in the middle of the church, or near
the deceased's tomb, where the priest pronounces a solemn
absolution of the deceased. There are likewise private
masses said for stolen or strayed goods or cattle, for health,
for travellers, &c., which go under the name of votive
masses. There is still a further distinction of masses, de-
nominated from the countries in which they were used :
thus the Gothic mass, or jnissa mosarabum, is that used
among the Goths when they were masters of Spain, and
which is still observed at Toledo and Salamanca ; the Am-
brosian mass is that composed by St. Ambrose, and used
only at Milan, of which city he was bishop; the Gallic
mass, used by the ancient Gauls ; and the Roman mass,
used by almost all the churches in the Roman comnru-
nion. — Watson.
MASSALIANS, or Messalians ; a sect which sprung
up about the year 361, in the reign of the emperor Con-
stantius, who maintained that men have two souls, a ce-
lestial and a diabolical ; and that the latter is driven out
by prayer. From these words of our Lord, " Labor not
for the meat that perisheth," it is said, that they concluded
they ought not to do any work to get their bread. We
may suppose, says Dr. Jortin, that this sect did not last
long ; that these sluggards were soon starved out of the
world ; or rather, that cold and hunger sharpened their
wits, and taught them to be better interpreters of Scrip-
ture. It is more probable, however, that they have been
misrepresented by their enemies. — Hend. Buck.
MASSILLON, (Jean Baptiste,) the most eloquent of
the French divines, was born in 1(563, the son of a notary,
at Hieres, in Provence. In 1681, he entered into the con-
gregation of the Oratory, and wherever he was sent gain-
ed all hearts, by the liveliness of his character, the agree-
ableness of his wit, and a natural fund of sensible and
captivating politeness. These advantages, united with
his great talents, excited the envy of his brethren, no less
than the admiration of others ; and he was sent, by his
superiors, to one of their houses, in the diocess of Meaux.
The first efforts of his eloquence were made at Vienne,
while he was a public teacher of theology , and his fune-
ral oration on Henri de Villars, archbishop of that city,
was universally admired. The fame of this discourse in-
duced father de la Tour, then general of the congregation
of the Oratory, to send for him to Paris. After some
time, being asked his opinion of the principal preachers
in that capital — " They display," said he, " great genius
and abilities ; but, if I preach, I shall not preach as they
do." He kept his word, and took up a style of his own,
not attempting to imitate any one, except it was Bourda-
loue, whom, at the same time, the natural difference of
his disposition did not suffer him to follow very closely.
A touching and natural simplicity is the characteristic of
his style, and has been thought, by able judges, to reach
the heart, and produce its due effects, with much more
certainty than all the logic of Bourdaloue. His powers
were immediately distinguished when he made his appea^
ance at court ; and at Versailles, he received this compli-
ment from Louis XIV. : "My father, when I hear other
preachers, I go away much pleased with them ; but when-
ever I hear you, I go away much displeased with myself."
On one occasion, the effect of a discourse preached by
him, " On the Small Number of the Elect," was so extraor-
nary, that it raised the hearers from their seats, and pro-
duced a general, though involuntary murmur of applause
in the congregation. The preacher himself was confused
by it ; but the effect was only increased, and the pathetic
was carried to the greatest height that can be supposed
possible.
His mode of delivery contributed not a little to his suc-
cess. " We seem to behold him still in imagination," said
they who had been fortunate enough to attend his dis-
courses, •' with that simple air, that modest carriage, those
eyes so humbly directed downwards, that unstudied ges-
ture, that touching tone of voice, that look of a man fully
impressed with the truths which he enforced, conveying
the most brilliant instruction to the mind, and the most
pathetic movements to the heart." The famous actor,
Baron, after hearing him, told him to continue as he had
begun. "You," said he, "have a manner of your own ;
leave the rules to others." At another time, he said to an
actor who was with him, " My friend, this is the true ora-
tor ; we are mere players."
Jlassillon was not the least inflated by the praises he
received. His modesty continued unaltered, and the
charms of his society attracted those who were likely to be
alarmed at the strictness of his lessons. In 1717, the re-
gent, being convinced of his merits, by his own attend-
ance on his sermons, appointed him bishop of Clermont.
The French academy received him as a member in 17iy.
The funeral oration of the duchess of Orleans, in 1723,
was the last discourse he pronounced at Paris. From
that time he resided altogether ii his diocess, where the
luildness, benevolence, and piety of his character, gained
all hearts. His love of peace led him to make many cii-
deavors to conciliate his brethren of the Oratory and the
Jesuits ; but he found, at length, that he had le.ss influence
over divines, than over the hearts of sinners.
He died, resident on his diocess, in September, 1742, at
the age of seventy-nine. His name has since been almost
proverbial in France, where he is considered a consum-
mate master of eloquence. His works were published,
complete, by his nephew, at Paris, in 1745 and 1746, form-
ing fourteen volumes of a larger, and twelve of a smaller
kind of duodecimo. — Jones' Chris. Biog. ; D'Alcmiert.
MASTER ; a person who has servants under him ; a
ruler or instructer. The duties of masters relate, 1. To the
civil concenis of the family. To arrang;^ ihe several busi-
nesses required of servants ; 1o give pani'Ular instructions
for what is to be done, and how it is u> be done ; to take
care that no more is required of servants than they are
equal to; to be gentle in our deportment towards them;
to reprove them when they do wrong, to commend Iheni
when they do right ; to make them an adequate recom-
pense for their services, as to protection, maintenance,
wages, and character. 2. As to the morals of servants.
Masters must look well to their servants' characters be-
fore they hire them ; instruct them in the principles and
confirm them in the habits of virtue ; watch over their
morals, and set them good examples. 3. As to their reli-
gious interests. They should instruct them in the know-
ledge of divine things; (Gen. 11: 14. 18: 19.) pray with
them, and for them ; (Joshua 24: 15.) allow them time
and leisure for religious services, ice, Eph. 6: 9. See
Stennett on Domestic Duties, ser. 8 ; Foley's Moral Philoso-
phy, vol. i. pp. 233, 235 ; Bcattie's Elements of Moral Sci-
ence, vol. i. pp. 150, 153 ; Doddridge's Lectures, vol. ii. p.
266 ; Divight's Theology ; Lindsley's Lectures to the Middle
Aged ; Anderson on the Domestic Constitution. — Hend. BucJi.
MATERIALISTS ; a sect in the ancient church, com-
posed of persons who, being prepossessed with that max-
im in philosophy, "exnihilo nihil fit," out of nothing,
nothing can arise, had recourse to an eternal matter, on
which they supposed God wrought in the creation, instead
of admitting him alone as the sole cause of Ihe existence
of all things. Tertullian vigorously opposed them m his
MAT
[784]
MAT
treatise against Hennogenes, who was one of their num-
ber.
Materialists are also those who maintain that the soul
of man is material, or that the principle of perception and
thought is not a substance distinct from the body, but the
result of corporeal organization. Most of these theorists
ore sceptics; but some of them are professed believers in
Christianity. We shall here state the views of this latter
class, with their necessary consequences, and then briefly
give the leasonings of their opponents.
I. The followers of the late Dr. Priestley are Material-
ists, and hence philosophical necessarians. According to
the doctor's writings, he believed,
1. That man is no more than what we now see of him :
his being commences at the time of his conception, or
perhaps at ati earlier period. The corporeal and mental
faculties, inhering in the same substance, grow, ripen,
and decay together ; and whenever the system is dissolv-
ed, it continues in a state of dissolution till it shall please
that Almighty Being who called it into existence, to re-
store it to life again. For if the mental principle were,
in its own nature, immaterial and immortal, all its pecu-
liar faculties would be so too ; whereas we see that every
faculty of the mind, without exception, is liable to be im-
paired, and even to become wholly extinct, before death.
Since, therefore, all the faculties of t"he mind, separately
taken, appear to be mortal, the substance, or principle, in
which they exist, must be pronounced mortal too. Thus
we might conclude that the body was mortal, from ob-
serving that all the separate senses and limbs were liable
to decay and perish.
This system gives a real value to the doctrine of the re-
surrection of the dead, which is peculiar to revelation ;
on which alone the sacred writers build all our hope of
future life ; and it explains the uniform language of the
Scriptures, which speak of one day of judgment for all
mankind ; and represent all the rewards of virtue, and all
the punishments of vice, as talring place at that awful
day, and not before. In the Scriptuies, the heathens are
represented as without hope, and all mankind as perish-
ing at death, if there be no resurrection of the dead.
The apostle Paul asserts, in 1 Cor. 15, 16, that "if the
dead rise not, then is not Christ risen ; and if Christ be
not raised, your faith is vain, ye are yet in your sins :
then they also who are fallen asleep in Christ are perish-
ed." And again, ver. 32, " If the dead rise not, let us
eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." In the whole dis-
course, he does not even mention the doctrine of happi-
ness or misery without the body.
If we search the Scriptures for passages expressive of
the state of man at death, we find such declarations as
expressly exclude any trace of sense, thought, or enjoy-
ment. See Ps. 6: 5. Job 14: 7, &c.
2. That there is some fixed law of nature respecting the
will, as well as the other powers of the mind, and every
thing else in the constitution of nature ; and, consequently,
that it is never determined without some real or apparent
cause foreign to itself; i. e. without some motive of choice ;
or that motives influence us in some definite and invaria-
ble manner, so that every volition, or choice, is constantly
regulated and determined by what precedes it : and this
constant determination of mind, according to the motives
presented to it, is what is meant by its necessary deter-
mination. This being admitted to be fact, there will be
a necessary connexion between all things past, present,
and to come, in the way of proper cause and effect, as
much in the intellectual as in the natural world ; so that,
according to the established laws of nature, no event could
have been otherwise than it has been, or is to be, and
therefore all things past, present, and to come, are pre-
cisely what the Author of nature really intended them to
be, and has made provision for.
To establish this conclusion, nothing is necessary but
that throughout all nature the same consequences should
invariably result from the same circumstances. For if
this be admitted, it will necessarily follow, that at the
commencement of any system, since the several parts of
it and their respective situations were appointed by the
Deity, the first change would take place according to a
certain rule established by himself, the result of which
would be a new situation ; after which, the same laws
continuing, another change would succeed, according to
the same rules, and so on forever ; every new situation in-
variably leading to another, and every event, from the
commencement to the termination of the system, being
strictly connected ; so that, unless the fundamental laws
of the system were changed, it would be impossible that
any event should have been otherwise than it was. In
all these cases, the circumstances preceding any change,
are called the causes of that change ; and since a de-
terminate event, or effect, constantly follows certain
circumstances, or causes, the connexion between cause
and effect is concluded to be invariable, and therefore ne-
cessary.
It is universally acknowledged, that there can be no
effect without an adequate cause. This is even the
foundation on which the only proper argument for the be-
ing of a God rests. And the necessarian asserts, that if,
in any given state of mind, with respect both to disposi-
tions and motives, two different determinations, or voli-
tions, be possible, it can be on no other principle than that
one of them should come under the description of an effect
without a cause ; just as if the beam of a balance might
incline either way, though loaded with equal weights.
And if any thing whatever, even a thought in the mind
of man, could arise without an adequate cause, any thing
else, the mind itself, or the whole universe, might like-
wise exist Arithout an adequate cause.
This scheme of philosophical necessity implies a chain
of causes and effects established by infinite wisdom, and
terminating in the greatest good of the whole universe ;
evils of all kinds, natural and moral, being admitted, as
far as they contribute to that end, or are in the nature of
things inseparable from it. Vice is productive not of good,
but of evil to us, both here and hereafter, though good
may result from it to the whole system ; and, according to
the fixed laws of nature, our present and future happiness
necessarily depend on our cultivating good dispositions.
This scheme of philosophical necessity the doctor dis-
tinguishes from the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination
in the following particulars : —
1. No necessarian supposes that any of the human race
will suffer eternally ; but that future punishments will an-
swer the same purpose as temporal ones are found to do ;
all of which tend to good, and are evidently admitted for
that purpose. Upon the doctrine of necessity, also, the
most indifferent actions of men are equally necessary
with the most important ; since every volition, like any
other effect, must have an adequate cause depending upon
the previous state of the mind, and the influence to which
it is exposed.
2. The necessarian believes that his own dispositions
and actions are the necessary and sole means of his pre-
sent and future happiness ; so that, in the most proper
sense of the words, it depends entirely on himself whetlier
he be virtuous or vicious, happy or miserable.
3. The Calvinistic system entirely excludes the popular
notion of free will, viz., the liberty or power of doing what
we please, virtuous or vicious, as belonging to every per-
.son, in every situation ; which is perfectly consistent with
the doctrine of philosophical necessity, and indeed results
from it. [The doctor misrepresents Calvinism.]
4. The necessarian believes nothing of the posterity of
Adam's sinning in him, and of their being liable to the
wrath of God on that account ; or the necessity of an infi-
nite Being making atonement for them by suffering in
their jstead, and thus making tlie Deity propitious to them.
He beUeves nothing of all the actions of any man being
necessarily sinful ; but, on the contrary, thinks that the
very worst of men are capable of benevolent intentions in
many things that they do ; and, likewise, that very good
men are capable of falling from virtue, and consequently
of sinking into final perdition. Upon the principles of the
necessarian, also, all late repentance, and especially after
long and confirmed habits of vice, is altogether and ne-
cessarily ineffectual ; there not being suflScient time left
to produce a change of disposition and character, which
can only be done by a change of conduct of proportiona-
bly long continuance.
In short, in three doctrines of Materialism, Philosophi
MAT
[ ■ras ]
M A T
cal Necessity, and Socinianism, are considered as equally
parts of one system. The scheme of necessity is the im-
mediate result of the materiality of man ; for mechanism
is the undoubted consequence of materialism ; and that
man is wholly material, is eminently subservient to the
proper or mere hnmaniiy of Christ. For if no man have
a soul distinct from his body, Christ, who in all other re-
spects appeared as a man, could not have a soul which
had existed before his body : and the whole doctrine of the
pre-existence of souls, of which the opinion of the pre-
existence of Christ is a branch, will be effectually over-
turned. Such is the reasoning of Dr. Priestley.
II. Much has been written of late years against the doc-
trine of Materialism, and the different modifications which
it has assumed ; but the able and condensed argument of
Wollaston, in his "Religion of Nature delineated," if well
considered, will furnish every one with a most clear ani
satisfactory refutation of this antiscriptural and irra-
tional error. We can offer only a brief abstract. The
soul cannot be mere matter : for if it is, then either all
matter must think; or the difference must arise from a
peculiar system of organization ; or a faculty of thinking
must be superadded to some systems of it, which is not
superadded to others.
1. But, in the first place, that position which makes all
matter to be cogitative, is contrary to all the apprehensions
and knowledge we have of the nature of it ; nor can it be
true, unless our senses and faculties be contrived only to
deceive us. Why doth the scene of thinking lie in our
heads, and all the ministers of sensation make their re-
ports to something there, if all matter be apprehensive
and cogitative ? For in that case there would be as much
thought and understanding in our heels, and everywhere
else, as in our heads. If all matter be cogitative, then it
must be so as matter, and thinking must be of the essence
and definition of it ; but if so, we should not only continue
to think always, till the matter of which we consist is an-
nihilated, and so the assertor of this doctrine would stum-
ble upon immortality unawares ; but we must also have
thought always in time past, ever since that matter was
in being ; nor could there be any the least intermission
of actual thinking ; which does not appear to be our case.
2. In the next place, the faculties of thinking, tVc, can-
not arise from a peculiar system of organization, because
by organization bodies can only become greater or less,
round or square, rare or dense, &c. ; all which ideas -re
quite different from that of thinking ; there can be no re-
lation between them, except that of an instrument to an
agent. These modifications and affections of matter are
so far from being principles or causes of thinking and
acting, that they are themselves but effects, proceeding
from the action of some other matter or thing upon it, and
are proofs of its passivity, deadness, and utter incapacity
of becoming cogitative : this is evident to sense.
3. That faculty of thinking, so much talked of by some
as superadded to certain systems of matter, fitly disposed,
by virtue of God's omnipotence, though it be so called,
must in reality amount to the same thing as another be-
ing, or nature, with the faculty of thinking. For a faculty
of thinking alone will not make up the idea of a human
soul, which is endued with many faculties ; apprehending,
reflecting, comparing, judging, making deductions and
reasoning, willing, putting the body in motion, continuing
the animal functions by its presence, and giving life ; and
therefore, whatever it is that is superadded, it must be
something which is endued with all those other faculties.
And whether that can be a faculty of thinking, and .so
these other faculties be only faculties of a faculty, or whe-
ther they must not all be rather the faculties of some
spiritual nature, which being, by their own concession,
superadded to matter, must be different from it, we leave
the unprejudiced to determine. If men would bnt serious-
ly look into themselves, the soul would not appear to ihem
merely as a faculty of the body, or a kind of appurte-
nance to it, but rather as some intelligent being, properly
placed in it, not only to use it as an instrument, and act
by it, but also to govern it, or the parts of it, as the tongue,
hands, feet, &c., according to its own reason. For we think
it is plain enough, that the mind, though it acts under
great limitations, doth, however, in ninnv instances
govern the body by its own will ; and it is monstrous to
suppose this governor to be nothing but some fit dispo-
sition, or accident, superadded, of that matter which is
governed. A ship, it is true, would not be fit for naviga-
tion, if it was not built and provided in a proper manner •
but then, when it has its proper form, and is become a
system of materials fitly disposed, it is not this disposition
that governs it : it is the man, that other substance, who
sits at the helm, and they who manage the .sails and tac-
kle, that do this. So our vessels without a proper organi-
zation and conformity of parts would not be capable of
being acted as they are; but still it is not the shape, or
modification, or any other accident, that can govern them.
The capacity of being governed or used can never be the
governor, applying and using that capacity. No, there
must be at the helm something distinct, that commands
the body, and without which the vessel would run adrift,
or rather sink.
For the foregoing reasons it is plain, that matter cannot
think, cannot be made to think. But if a faculty of think-
ing can be superadded to a system of matter, without uni-
ting an immaterial substance to it ; yet a human body is
not such a system, being plainly void of thought, and or-
ganized in such a manner as to transmit the impressions
of sensible objects up to the brain, where the percipient,
and that which reflects upon them, certainly resides ; and
therefore that which there apprehends, thinks, and v.'ills,
must be that system of matter to which a faculty of think-
ing is superadded. But all the premises well considered,
judge whether, instead of saying that this inhabitant of
our heads (the soul) is a system of matter to which a fac-
ulty of thinking is .superadded, it might not be more rea-
sonable to say, it is a thinking nature intimately united
to that fine material vehicle, more or less perfectly organ-
ized, the brain. During our earthly life, by the will of the
Father of spirits, these act in conjunction, that which
affects the one affecting the other; the soul is detained in
the body till the habitation is spoiled, and their mutual
tendency to improvement interrupted, by some hurt or
disease, or by the decays and ruins of old age, or the like.
By an accidental blow, the scull is beaten in, the brain
is pressed upon, and the patient lies without sense or feel-
ing. No sooner is the pressure removed than the power
of thought immediately returns. It is known, again, that
the phenomena of fainting arise from a temporary defi-
ciency ol blood in the brain ; the vessels collap.'ie, and the
loss of sense immediately ensues. Eeslore the circula-
tion, and the sense is as instantly recovered. On the con-
trary, when the circulation in the brain is too rapid, and
inflammation of the organ succeeds, we find that deliri-
um, frenzy, and other disorders of the mind arise in pio-
portion to the inflammatory action, by which they are ap-
parently produced. It is observed, also, that when the
stomach is disordered by an excess of wine, or of ardent
spirits, the brain is also affected through the strong sym-
pathies of the nervous system, the intellect is disordered,
and the man has no longer a rational command over him-
self or his actions. Froin these, and other circumstances
of a similar nature, it is concluded, that thought is a quali-
ty or function of the brain ; that it is inseparable from the
organ in which it resides ; and as Jlr. Lawrence, after the
French physiologists, represents it, that " medullary mat-
ter thinks."
Now it must certainly be inferred from all these cir-
cumstances, that there is a close connexion between the
power of thinking and the brain ; but it by no means lol-
lows, that they are, therefore, one and the same. Allow-
ing, however, for a moment, the justice of the inference,
from the premises which have been stated, we must re-
member, that « e have not as yet taken in all the circum-
stances of the case. We have -watched the body rather
than the mind, and that only in a diseased state ; and
from this partial and imperfect view of the subject, our
conclusions have been deduced.
But let us take the matter iu another point of view.
We have observed the action of the brain upon thought,
and have seen that when the former is unnalunilly com-
pressed, the latter is immediately disordered or lost. Let
us now turn our attention to the action of thought upon
the brain. A letter is brought to a man containing some
MAT
[ 786 J
MAT
afflicting intelligence. He casts his eye upon its contents,
and drops down witliont sense or motion. What is the
cause of this sudden affection ? It may be said that the
vessels have collapsed, that the brain is consequently dis-
ordered, and that loss of sense is the natural consequence.
But let us take one step backward, and inquire what is
the cause of the disorder itself, the effects of which are
thus visible. It is produced by a sheet of while paper
distinguished by a few black marks. But no one would
be absurd enough to suppose, that it was the effect of the
paper alone, or of the characters inscribed upon it, unless
those characters convej'ed some meaning to the under-
standing. It is thought then -which so suddenly agitates
and disturbs the brain, and makes its vessels to collapse.
From this circumstance alone we discover the amazing
influence of thought upon the external organ ; of that
thought which \vc can neither hear, nor see, nor touch,
which yet produces an aflection of the brain fully equal
to a blow, a pressure, or any other sensible injury. Now
this very action of thought upon tlie brain clearly shows
that the brain does not produce it, while the mutual influ-
ence which thej' possess over each other, as clearly shows
that there is a strong connexion between them. But it is
carefully to be remembered, that connexion is not identity.
While we acknowledge then, on the one side, the mutual
connexion of the undei-standing and the brain, we must
acknowledge, on the other, their mutual independence.
The phenomena which we daily observe lead us of neces-
sity to the recognition of these two important princi-
ples.
If then from the observations which we are enabled to
make on the phenomena of the understanding and of the
brain, we are led to infer mutual independence, we shall
find our conchisions still farther strengthened by a con-
sideration of the substance and composition of the latter.
Not only is the brain a material substance, endowed with
all those properties of matter which we have before shown
to be inconsistent with Ihonght, but it is a substance,
■which, in common with the rest of our body, is imdergo-
ing a perpetual change. Indeed experiments and obser-
vations give us abundant reason for concluding that the
brain undergoes within itself precisely the same change
with the remainder of the boily. A man will fall down in
a fit of apoplexy, and be recovered ; in a few years he
will be attacked by another, which will prove fatal. Up-
on dissection it will be found that there is a cavity formed
by the blood effused from the ruptured vessel, and that a
certain action had been going on, which gradually ab-
sorbed the coagulated blood. If then an absorbent sys-
tem exists in the brain, and the organ thereby undergoes,
in the course of a certain time, a total change, it is impos-
sible that this flux and variable substance can be endow-
ed with consciousness or thought. If the panicles of the
brain, either separately or in a mass, were capable of con-
sciousne.ss, then after their removal the consciousness
which they produced must forever cease. The conse-
quence of which would be, that pei-sonal identity must be
destroyed, and that no man could be the same individual
being that he was ten years ago. But our common sense
informs us, that as far as our understanding and our mo-
ral responsibility are involved, we are the same individual
beings that we ever were. If the body alone, or any sub-
stance subject to the laws of body, were concerned, per-
sonal identity might rea.sonably be doubted : but it is
something beyond the brain that makes the man at every
period of his life the same : it is consciousness, that,
amidst the perpetual change of our material particles,
unites every link of successive being in one indissoluble
chain. The body may be gradually changed, and yet by
the deposition of new particles, similar to those which ab-
sorption has removed, it may preserve the appearance of
identity. But in consciousness there is real, not an ap-
parent, individuality, admitting of no change or substi-
tution.
So inconsistent with reason is every attempt which has
been made to reduce our thoughts to a material origin,
and to identify our understanding with any part of our
corporeal frame ! The more carefully we observe the ope-
ration, both of the mind and of the brain, the more clearly
we shall disung\iiili, and the more forcibly shall we fee),
the independence of the one upon the other. We know
that the brain is the organ or instrument by which the
mind operates on matter, and we know that the brain
again is the chain of communication between the mind
and the material world. That certain disorders therefore
in the chain should either prevent or disturb this commu-
nication is reasonably to be expected ; but nothing more
is proved from thence than we knew before, namely, that
the link is imperfect. And when that link is again restor-
ed, the mind declares its identity, by its memory of things
which preceded the injury or the disease ; and where the
recovery is rapid, the patient awakes as it were from a
disturbed dream. How, indeed, the brain and the think-
ing principle are connected, and in what manner they mu-
tually affect each other, is beyond the reach of our facul-
ties to discover. We must, for the present, be contented
■with our ignorance of the cause, while from the effects we
are persuaded both of their connexion on the one hand,
and of their independence on the other. For the argu-
ments from Scripture see Futiire State ; Intermediate
State ; Necessity ; Pre-existe.vce ; Sopl ; Socinian ; and
books under those articles. — Hend. Buck; Watson.
MATHER, (Increase, D. D.,) a very pious and learned
American divine, was born at Dorchester, in 1639 ; was
educated to the ministry, and was settled in the North
church, Boston, in 1(564. He continued there for sixty-
two years, discharging the duties of his sacred office with
zeal and ability. In 1685, he was appointed to the presi-
dency of Harvard college, which he resigned in 1701.
He died in 1723. He was an indefatigable student, and
published a variety of works on religion, politics, history,
and philosophy. — Davenport.
MATHER, (Cotton, D. D.,) son of Increase Mather,
and author of the celebrated " Essays to do Good," to
which Franklin ascribes his desire to be useful, was born
at Boston, Feb. 12, 1662-3. At twelve years old he
had made such uncommon progress in the Latin and
Greek languages, besides entering on the Hebrew, that it
was thought proper to remove him to the university. Ac-
cordingly, he was admitted into Harvard college, where
the progress he made in his academical studies ■svas no
way short of what he had made at school. Here he soon
set himself to draw up systems of the sciences as he studi-
ed them, which he found to be an excellent means of per-
fecting him.self in them. His systems of logic and phys-
ics were so far from contemptible, (though composed at
an age when few lads are attempting any thing superior
to themes at school,) that they have been valued and u.sed
for systems by some others since. Another excellent
means of improvement, by the books he read, which he
used from the beginning of his studies, was to write re-
marks upon them. Multitudes of such remarks were
found among his papers, after his death. He took his
first degree at sixteen years of age, and, in his nineteenth
year, he proceeded master of arts. The thesis he exhibit-
ed and defended on that occasion was, concerning the di-
vine authority of the Hebrew points, in which he main-
tained their authority. But the best and brightest orna-
ment of Dr. Mather's character, was his early piety, for
which he was no less remarkable than for his natural ca-
pacity, and his wonderful progress in learning. When
he was grown a little above the age of childhood, he join-
ed himself to a religious society of young men, who m.et
on Lord's day evenings; and he used afterwards to ascribe
much of the skill which he had attained in speaking and
praying, to his early exercises in that society.
Dr. Mather had, from his cradle, an impediment in his
speech, which seemed so opposed to his usefulness as a
minister, that, for some lime, he quite laid aside all
thoughts of the ministry, and applied himself to the study
of physic. But, by habituating himself to a dehberate
way of speaking, he, in time, got rid of his impediment ;
and then, by the advice of his friends, he returned to the
study of divinity ; which he prosecuted with such success-
ful application, that before he was eighteen years old, he
was thought to be prepared for public service, and was
advised to begin to preach ; which accordingly he did,
August 22, 1680, and accepted a call from the North
church, at Boston.
Though, from the account which has been given of Dr.
MAT
[ 787
MAT
Malher's labors in the ministry, one might naturally be
led to think, that he could have time for nothing else, yet
his heart was so set on doing good, in every possible way,
ihat he redeemed time for several other valuable and use-
ful services. He published a proposal for an evangelical
treasury, in order to build churches where they were
wanted, distribute books ef piety, relieve poor ministers,
ice, which his own church, and some others, readily ac-
ceded to. That he might the bettor extend his usefulness
bej'ond the limits of his own country, he applied himself
to llie study of the modem languages. He learned the
Freuch and Spanish ; and, in his forly-fiflh year, he made
him.self so far master of the Iroquois Indian tongue, that
he wrote and published treatises in each of those lan-
guages. Itt short, it was the great ambition of his whole
life to do good. His heart was set upon it ; he did not
therefore content himself with merely embracing opportu-
nities of doing good, that occasionally offered themselves,
but he very frequently set apart much time on purpose to
devise good ; and he seldom came into any company
without having this directly in his vievr. It was constant-
ly one of his first th«ights in the morning, What good
may I do this day? And that he might more certainly
attend to the various branches of so large and comprehen-
sive a duly, he resolved this general question, What good
?hall I do? into several particulars, one of which he look
into ORisideration, while he was dressing himself every
moTHing ; and as soon as he carae into his study, he set
ik)v.-n some brief hints of his meditations upon it. He
had ordinarily a distinct question for each morning in the
week. His question for the Lord's day morning constant-
ly was. What shall I do, as a pastor of a church, for the
good of the flock under my charge ? Upon this he consi-
dered, what subjects were most suitable and seasonable for
hiia to preach on ; what families of his flock were to be
visited, and wilh what particular view ; and how he might
make his ministry still more acceptable and useful.
He published, in his lifetime, three hundred and eighty-
two books. Though many of them are indeed but smmll
v-olnmes, as single Sermons, Essaj's, &c. yet there are seve-
ral among them of a much larger size : as his " Magnalia
Christi Americana ;" his ■■ Christian Philosopher ;" his
'■Ratio Disciplinfe Fratrum Nov-Anglorum:" liis "Di-
rections to a Candidate for the Ministry," a book which
brought him as many letters of thanks as would fill a vo-
lume. Besides all these, the doctor left behind him seve-
ral books in manuscript ; one of which, viz. his " Biblia
Americana, or Illustrations of the Sacred Scriptures,"
was proposed to be printed in three volumes folio. The
true motive that prompteil him lo write ar.d publish so
creat a number of books, appears from the motto that he
wrote on the outside of the catalogue, which he U'ept of
his own works, viz. John 15: 8, '• Herein is ray Father
glorified, that ye bear much fruit." He received various
public honors with a grateful sense of his obligations to
tho.se that conferred them ; he also considered them as
encouragements, which the providence of God designedly
ministered to his zeal and diligence in his sacred work ;
and he begged grace from on high to make a right im-
provement of them.
It might be said of Dr. Mather, with peculiar propriety,
that '• he was in the fear of the Lord all the day long,"
for he was almost continually conversing with God in his
thoughts ; and there was hardly a single occurrence that
he met with in life, hut he improved it, to awaken in his
mind some pious thoughts, and, very commonly, into an
occasion of short ejaculatory prayers. At length the life
of Dr. Mather dre%v to a close, and he was, for a long
time, confined to a bed of sickness. Many were the so-
lemn blessings he pronounced on those that came to see
him, and the serious charges which he gave them at part-
ing. How earnestly did he wish and pray that the bless-
ing of him, in whom all nations are to be blessed, might
rest on the persons and families of his friends. Dr. Bla-
ther died the 13th of Feb. 1727-8, which was the next
day after he had completed his sixty-fifth year. God was
graciously pleased to favor him with an easy dismission
oat of life, and with a sweet composure of mind to the
very la-st ; blessings which he often and earnestly praj'ed
for. " Mark the perfect man, and behold the upright, for
the end of that man is peace." See his Life, n-ritUti by Or.
Jcmiinos.— Jones' Chris. Biog.
MATTHEW, called also Levi, was the Son of Alphe-
us, but probably not of that Alpheus who was the father
of the apostle James the Less. He was a native of Gali-
lee ; but it is not known in what cily of that country he
was born, or to what tribe of the people of Israel he be-
longed. Though a Jew, he was a publican or tax-gatherer
under the Romans ; and his oflice seems to have consisted
in collecting the customs due upon commodities which
were carried, and from persons who passed, over the lake
of Gennesarclh. St. Matthew, soon after his call, made
an entertainment at his liouse, at which were present
Christ and some of his disciples, and also several publi-
cans. After the ascension of our Savior, he continued,
with the other apostles, to preach the gospel for some time
in Judea; but as there is no farther account of him ex
tant, in any writer of the first four centuries, we must con-
sider it as uncertain into what country he afterwards went,
and likewise in M'hat manner and at what time he died,
though the general opinion is, that he preached and suf-
fered martyrdom in Persia or Parthia.
2. In the few writings which remain of the apostolical
fathers, Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius,
and Polycarp, there are manifest allusions to several pas-
sages in St. Matthew's gospel. This gospel is repeatedly
quoted by Justin Jlartyr, but without mentioning the
name of St. Matthew, It is both frequently quoted, and
St. Matthew mentioned as its author, by Irenajus, Ori-
gen, Alhanasius, Cyril, Epiphanius, Jerome. Chrysostom,
and a long train of subsequent writers. It was, indeed,
universally received by the Christian church ; and we do
not find that its genuineness was controverted by any
early profane writer. We may therefore conclude, upon
the concurrent testimony of antiquit}', that this gospel is
rightly ascribed to St. Matthew.
It is gener.ally agreed, upon the most satisfactory evi-
dence, that St. RIaithew's gospel was the first which was
wriMen. Eusebius, who lived a hundred and fifty years
after Irenteus, says, that Matthew wrote his gospel just
before he left Judea to preach the religion of Christ in oth-
er countries ; but when that was, neither he nor any other
ancient author informs us with certainty. The impossi-
bility of settling this point upon ancient authority has
given rise to a variety of opinions among moderns. Of
the several dates assigned to this gospel, which deserve
any attentioti, the earliest is A. D. 3>>.
it appears very improbable that the Christians should
be left any considerable nuinber of years without a wiit-
ten history of our Savior's ministry. We may with rea-
son conceive that the apostles would be desirous of losing
no time in writing an account of the miracles v.hich Je-
sus performed, and of the discourses which he delivered,
because the sooner such an account was published, the
easier it would be to inquire into its truth and accuracy ;
and, consequently, when these points were satisfactorily
ascertained, the greater would be its weight and authori-
ty. We must own that these arguiuents aa' so strong in
favor of an early publication of some history of our Sa-
vior's ministry, that we cannot bi\t accede to the opini jn
of Jones, AVetstein, and Dr. Owen, that St. Matthew's gos-
pel was written A. D. 3S.
There has also of late been a difl"erence of opinion con-
cerning the language in which this gospel was originally
written. In a question of this sort, however, which is a
question of fact, the concurrent voice of antiquity is deci-
sive. Though the fathers are unanimous, in declaring
that St. Matthew wrote his gospel in Hebrew, yet they
have not informed us by whom it was translated into
Greek. It is, however, universally allowed, that the Greek
translation was made very early, and that it was more
used than the original. This last circumstance is easily
accounted for. After the destruction of Jerusalem, the
language of the Jews, and every thing which belong-
ed to them, fell into great contempt ; and the early fathers,
writing in Greek, would naturally quote and refer to the
Greek copy of St. Blatthew's gospel, in the same manner
as they constantly used the Septuagint version of the Old
Testament, There being no longer any country in which
the language of St, INIatthew's original gospel was com-
MAT
[ 788 J
WKE
monly spoken, that original would soon be forgotten ; and
the translation into Greek, the language then generally
understood, would be substituted in its room. This early
and exclusive use of the Greek translation is a strong
proof of its correctness, and leaves us but little reason to
lament the loss of the original.
"As the sacred writeTS," says Dr. Campbell, "espe-
cially the evangelists, have many qualities in common,
go there is something in eveiy one of them, which, if at-
tended to, will be found to distinguish him from the rest.
That which principally distinguishes St. Matthew, is the
distinctness and particularity -with which he has related
many of oar Lord's discourses and moral instructions.
Of these, hrs sermon on the mount, his charge to the
apostles, his illustration of the nature of his kingdom, and
his prophecy on mount Olivet, are examples. He has al-
so wonderfully united simplicity and energy in relating
the replies of his Master to thfr cavils of his adversaries.
Being early called to the apostleship, he was an eye-wit-
ness and ear-witness of most of the things which he re-
lates ; and though I do not think it was the scope of any
of these historians, to adjust their naiTatives to the pre-
cise order of time wherein the events happened, there are
some circumstances which incline me to think, that St.
Matthew has approached at least as near that order as
any of them." And this, we may observe, would irattj-
rally be the distinguishing characteristic of a narrative,
written very soon after the events had taken place. The
most remarkable things recorded rn St. Matthew's gospel,
and not found in any other, are the followiirg : the visit
of the eastern Magi ; our Savior's flight into Egypt ; the
slaughter of the infants at Bethlehem ; the parable of the
ten virgins ; the dream of Pilate's wife ; the resurrec-
tion of many saints at onr S,avior'3 cruciSxion ,- anil the
bribing of the Roman gaard, appointed to watch at
the holy sepulchre, by the chief priests and elders. Home,
ciiiT, TTinfs IntrodiicUons. — Wats(m.
MATTHIAS, the apostle, was first in the rank of our
S.tvior's disciples, and one of those who continued with
him from his baptism to his ascension, Acts 1: 21, 22. It
is v6fy probable he was of the number of the seventy, as
Clemens Alexandrinus and other ancients inform us. We
have no particulars of his youth or education, for we may
reckon as nothing what is read in Abdias, or Obadiah,
concerning this matter. Tlie Greeks believe that Matthi-
as preached and died at Colchis. — Watson.
MAUIJy, (John Siffhein,) a French cardinal and
statesman, w;is bnm, in 1715, at Vaureas, in the comtat
Venaissin, and acquired great reputation by his eloquence
as a preacher. He was one of the deputies of the clergy
SO the states general, and was conspicuous for his opposi-
tion to reYOlntionary measures. In 1791, he quitted
France, and the pope made him a cardinal. Napoleon,
in ISIO, gave him the archbishopric of Paris. Maury
died in 1817. He wroie an Essay on Eloquence; and
other works. — Dar^'iiport.
MAXCY. (.Io.\ATHAN, D. D.,) a dislingnishcd Baptist
minister, and president of three colleges, was born at At-
tleborough, Mass., Sept. 2, 1768, and was graduated in
1787, at the college in Providence, of the Baptist church
in which town he was ordained the pastor, Sept. 8, 1791.
He was also professor of divinity in the college, and eleven
years the president, from Sept. 6, 1792. In 1801, he suc-
ceeded Dr. Ednards as the president of TJnion college',
Schenectady, in which ofTcce he was succeeded by Dr. Nott,
in 1804. For the next fifteen years he was the first presi-
dent of the co!'»",ge of South Carolina, in Columbia, where
he died June 4, 1820, aged fifty-two. Dr. Maxcy was one
of the most accomplished scholars and pulpit orators this
country has produced. His character was very amiable,
and his piety sincere. His health through life was deli-
cate, and hence his change of situation. His death was
that of the believer in Jesus, and his memorj' is widely
revered. He published a Discourse on the Death of Presi-
dent Manning ; on the Existence of God ; on the Atone-
ment, 1796; Address to a class, 1797; a Fimeral Sermon
before the legislature of South Carolina, 1818. — AIIe?i.
M ATURTN, (CnABi.ES Robert,) a divine, dramatist, and
poet, was born, in 1782, in Ireland, and was educated at
Trinity college, Dublin. Though he was popular I'or his
eloquence as a preacher, his only church prefermefif waS
the curacy of St. Peter's, in the Irish metropolis. His
pen was fertile, but the remaneration which he received
could not save him from frequent embarrassments. His
first three novels. The Fatal Revenge, The Wild Irish
Boy, and The Milesian Chief, were puhSished under the as-
sumed name of Dennis Jasper Murphy. He died in 1825.
Besides the works already mentioned, he wrote Sermons ;
The Universe, a poem ; the novels of Melmoth, and Wc*-
man ; and the tragedies of Bertram, Manuel, and Fredol-
pho. The genius of Maturin was great, but it was nol
always umicr the control' of a pttre taste. — Davenport.
MAYHEW, (Experience,) minister on Martha's Vine-
yard, was born Jan. 27, 1673. His father, grandfathei',
and great-grandfather, were all engaged as missionaries
to the Indians before him, and several hundred of them
were converted to Christ. In March, 1694, about five
yeairs after the death of ftis father, he began to preach to
(he Indians, taking the oversight of five or six- of their as-
semblies. The Indian language had been familiar to hiiH
from infancy, and he was employed by the commissioners
of the society for propagating the gospel in New England
to make a rjew version of the Psalms and of John, which
work he executed with great accuracy i-n 1709. He dieri
Nov. 29, 1758, aged eighty-five. He published a sermon,
entitled. All Mankind by Nature equally under Sin, 1724 ;
Indian Converts, 8yo, 1727 ; in which he gives an ac-
count of the lives of thirty Indian ministers, and abouJ
eighty Indian men, women, and youth, worthy of remem'
brttnce on aicconnt of their piety j a Letter on the Lord's
Supper, 1741 ; Grace Defended, 8vo, 1744 ;. in which he
contends, that the offer of saTration, made to sinners in
the gospel, contains in it a conurl.ional promise of the
grarce given in regeneration. In this, he says, he differ.'
from most Calvinisfs ; yet be supports the doctrines of
original sin, of eternal decrees, and of the sovereignty of
God in the salvation of man.
His son Zechariah succeeded him in the missionary
field, making five generations thus engaged. The age
attained by the Mayhews is remarkable ; the first, Tho-
mas, died aged ninety ; Experience, eighty-four ; John,
grandson of the first John, efghty-nine j his brother, Jere-
miah, eighty-five ; Dr. Matthew, eighty-five; Zechariah,
seventy-nine. Indian Co«i)., Appen. 306, 307 i Chauncy't
Hem/irks ore l.amlaff's Sermon, 23. — Allen.
BIAYHEW, (Jonathan, D. D.,) a divine of Boston,
was born in Martha's Vineyard, in 1720, and educated at
Harvard college. In 1747, he was ordained pastor of the
"VVe.st church, in Boston, and continued in this station the
remainder of his life. He possessed a mind of great acute-
ness and energy, and in his principles was a determined
republican. He had no little influence in producing the
American revolution. His sermons and controversial
tracts obtained for him a high reputation, and many of
them were republished several times in England. He
ctied in 1766. — Davenport.
MAZZAROTH, Job 38: 32. Onr margin snpposes
this word to denote the twelve signs of the zodiac, a broad
circle in the heavens, comprehending all such stars as lie
in the path of the sun and moon. As these luminaries
appear to proceed throughout this circle annually, so diffe-
rent parts of it progressivel)' receive them every month, and
this progression seems to be what is meant by " bringing
forth mazzaroth in his season ;" q. d. " Canst thou by thy
power cause the revolutions of the heavenly bodies in the
zodiac, and the seasons of summer and winter, which en-
sue on their progress into the regular annual or monthly
situations ?" — Calmet.
M'KEEN, (Joseph, D. D.,) first president of Bowdoin
college, was born at Londonderry, New Hampshire, Oct.
15, 1757. He was graduated at Dartmouth college in
1774, and after being some time an assistant in the acade-
my at Andover, he directed his attention to theology, and
was ordained successor of Dr. Wiltard, as pastor of the
church in Beverly, in May, 1785. Here he contintjed
with reputation and usefulness seventeen years. Being
chosen president of Bowdoin college, which had been in-
corporated eight years, but had not yet been carried into
operation, he was inducted into that important office, Sept.
2, 1802. He died July 15, 1807, aged forty-nine, IcaV'
MED
[ 789 ]
MED
ing the seminary, over which he had presided, in a very
flourishing condition.
Dr. M'Keen possessed a strong and discriminating
mind ; his manners were conciliating though dignified, and
his spirit mild though firm and decided. Hs was inde-
fatigable in his exertion.^ to promote the interests of sci-
ence and reUgion. He was respectable for his learning
and exemplary for his Christian virtues, being pious wilh-
out ostentation, and adhering to evangelical truth without
bigotry or superstition. He published several sermons,
and some papers in the Transactions of the American
academy : his inaugural address, with Mr. Jenks' eulogyj
1802.— ^«en.
MEANS OF GRACE ; those ordinances God has esta-
blished as the channels of his mercy in Christ, and which we
are to use for the purposeof improving our minds, afl'ecting
ourhearts,andobtaining spiritual blessings ; such are hear-
ing the gospel, reading the Scriptures, self-examination,
meditation, prayer, praise. Christian conversation, Ice.
The means are to be used without an}' reference to merit,
solely wilh a dependence on the Divine Being ; nor can
we ever expect happiness in ourselves, nor be good exem-
plars to others, while we lii'e in the neglect of them. It
B in vain to argue that the divine decrees supersede the
necessity of them, since God has as certainly appointed
the means as the end. Besides, he himself generally
works by them ; and the more means he thinks proper to
use, the more he displays his glorious perfections. Jesus
Christ, when on earth, used means ; he prayed, he exhort-
ed, and did good, by going from place to place. Indeed,
the systems of nature, providence, and grace, are all car-
ried on by means. The Scriptures abound with exhorta-
tions to them, (Matt. 5. Rom. 12.) and none but enthusi-
asts or immoral characters ever refuse to use them. See
Griffin's Park Street Lectures ; Dyvight's Theology', ^TiA Ful-
ler's Works. — Hend. Buck.
MEASURE ; that by which any thing is measured,
adjusted, or proportioned. See the general table of
Weights, Measures, and Money, of the Hebrews, at the
end of this work. Also the particular names of each,
as Shekel, Talent, Bath, Efhah, &c. — Calmct.
MEATS. (See Food, and Animals.)
MEDAD and ELDAD; two men who were among
those whom God inspired wilh his Holy Spirit, to assist
Moses in the government. Num. 11: 26 — 30. The Jews
affirm, that they were brothers by the mother's side to
Moses, and sons of Jochebed and Elizaphan. They are
divided about the snbject of their prophecies ; some think-
ing they prophesied concerning the quails that the Israel-
ites were quickly to receive ; others concerning the death
of Moses, and the exaltation of Joshua.— -Ca/mrt.
MEDAN, or SIadan, the third son of Abraham and
Keturah, (Gen. 25: 2.) is thought, with Midian his bro-
ther, to have peopled the country of Midian or Madian,
east of the Dead sea. — Calmct.
MEDE, (Joseph, B.D.,) a learned English divine, was
descended from a respectable family at Berden, in Essex,
and born in 1586. He became a commoner of Christ-
church, Cambridge, in 1602, where he took the degree of
master of arts in 1610, having at this time made such
progress in all kinds of learning, that he was universally
esteemed an accc-mplished scholar. He was an acute logi-
cian, an accurate philosopher, a skilful mathematician, an
excellent anatomist, a great philologist, a master of many
languages, and a good proficient in history and chronologT,'.
He was appointed Greek lecturer on Sir Waller Mildmay's
foundation, and particularly employed himself in studying
the history of the Chaldeans and Egyptians. In 1627, he
published at Cambridge his " Clavis Apocalyptica," in
quarto, to which he added, in 1632, •' In Sancti Joannis
Apocalypsin Commentarius, ad amussim Clavis Apocalyp-
ticx." An English translation of this celebrated work
was published in London in lij50, entitled " The Key of
the Revelation searched and demonstrated out of the na-
tural and proper Characters of the Visions, &c., to which
is added, a Conjecture concerning Gog and Magog." This
work has been honored with high commendation from the
learned Dr. Hurd, in his " Introduction to the Study of the
Prophecies," vol. ii. p. 122, Ace, where he characterizes
him as "a subhme genius, without vanity, interest, or
spleen, but with a single, unmixed love of truth, dedi-
cating his great talents to the study of the prophetic Scrip-
tures, and unfolding the mysterious prophecies of the
Revelation." Mr. Mede died in 1638. A collection of
the whole of his works was published in 1677, in two vo-
lumes, folio, by Dr. Worlhington, who added lo them a
life of the author. He w as a pious and profoundly learned
man ; and in every part of his works the talents oi' a sound
and learned divine are eminently conspicuous. Biog.
Brit. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
MEDIA. It has been commonly thought that Media
was peopled by the descendants of JMadai, son of Japheth,
Gen. 10: 2. The Greeks maintain thai this country took
its name from Bledus, the son of Medea. If, however,
Madai and his immediate descendants did not people this
country, some of his posterity might have carried hi^
name thither, since we find it so olten given to Me.li^
from the times of the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah, and
from the transportation of the ten tribes, and the destruc-
tion of Samaria under Shalmaneser, A. M. 3283.
Media Proper was bounded by Armenia and Assyria
Proper on the west, by Persia on the east, by tiie Caspian
provinces on the north, and by Susiana on Ihe sciuih. It
was an elevated and mountainous country, and formed a
kind of pass between the cultivated parts of eastern aud
western Asia. Hence, from its geographical p^isilion, and
from the temperature, verdure, and fertiliiy ot its climate.
Media was one of the most important and interesting re-
gions of Asia.
Into this country the ten tribes who composed the kingdom
of Israel were transplanted, in the Assyrian captivity, by
Tiglath-pileser and Shalmaneser, 1 Chron. 5: 26. 2 Kings
17: 6. The geographical position of Jledia was vifisely
chosen for the distribution of the great h'l.'iy of the cap-
tives ; for, it was so remote, and so impeded and inter-
sected with great mountains and numerous and deep ri-
vers, that it would be extremely difficult for tliem to escape
from this natural prison, and reUirn lo their own country.
They would also be opposed in their passage llirough Kir,
or Assyria Proper, not only by the native Assyrians, but
also by their enemies, the Syrians, transplanted thither
before them. The superior civilization of the Israelites,
also, and their skill in agriculture, and in the arts, would
tend to civilize and improve those wild and barbarous re-
gions.— Watson.
MEDIATOR ; a person that intervenes between two
parties at variance, in order to reconcile them. Thus Je-
sus Christ is the Mediator between an cffciuled God and
sinful man, 1 Tim. 2: 5. Both Jews and Ge-.ililes have a
notion of a Mediator : the Jews call the fliessiah Amezoa,
the Mediator, or Middle One. The Persians call their god
Jlithras, mesith, a mediator; and the demons, with the
heathens, seem to be, according to them, mediators be-
tween the superior gods and men. Indeed, the whole reli-
gion of paganism was a system of mediation and interces-
sion. The idea, therefore, of salvation by a Mediator, is
not so novel or restricted as some imagine ; and ihe Scrip-
tures of truth inform us, that it is only by this way human
beings can arrive at eternal felicity, Acis 4: 12. John 14: 6.
Man, in his stale of innocence, was in friendship with
God ; but, by sinning against him, he exposed himself to
his just displeasure; his powers became enfeebled, and
his heart filled with enmity against him : (Rom. S: 6.) he
was driven out of his paradisiacal Eden, and toially inca-
pable of returning to God, and making salisfnclion to his
justice. Jesus Christ, therefore, was llie appointed Media-
tor to bring about reconciliation ; (Gen. 3: 12. Col. 1:21.)
and in the fulness of time he came into this world, obeyed
the law. satisfied justice, and brought his piople into a
stale of grace and favor ; yea, into a more exalted state of
friend.ship wilh God than was lost by the fall, Eph. 2: 18.
Now, in order to the accomplishing of this work, it was
necessary that the Mediator should be God and man in
one person. It was necessary that he should be man, — I.
TInil he might he related to those of whom he was a Sledia-
tor a;;d Redeemer. — 2. That sin might be satisfied for, and
reconciliation be made for it, in the same nam re which
sinned. — 3. It was proper that the Mediator should be ca
pable of obeying the law broken by the sin of man, as a
divine person could not be subject to the law, and yield
MED
[ 790
ME D
obeAience lo it, Gal. i: 4. Eom. 5: 19. — 4. It was meet
that the Mediator should be man, that he might be capable
of suffering death ; for, as God, he could not die, and
without shedding of blood there was no remission, Heb. 2:
10, 15. 8: 3. — 5. It was fit he should be mail, that he
might be a faithful high-priest, lo sympathize with his
people under all their trials, temptations, (Sec, Heb. 2: 17,
18. 4: 15.— 6. It was fit that he should be a holy and
righteous man, free from all sin, original and actual, that
he might offer himself without spot to God, take away the
sins of men, and be an advocate for them, Heb. 7: 26. 9:
14. 1 John 3: 5. (See Incarnation.)
But it was not enough to be truly man, and an innocent
person ; he must be more than a man ; it was requisite
that he should be God also, for,— 1. No mere man could
,have entered into a covenant with God to mediate between
him and sinful men.— 2. He nmst be God, to give virtue
and value to his obedience and sufferings ; for the suffer-
ings of men or angels would not have been sufficient. — 3.
Being thu.s God-man, we are encouraged to hope in him.
In the person of Jesus Christ the object of trust is brought
nearer to ourselves ; and those well-known, tender affec-
tions which are only figuratively ascribed to the Deity, are
in our'great Mediator thoroughly realized. Further, were
he God, and not man, we should approach him with fear
and dread ; were he man and not God, we should be guilty
of idolatry to worship and trust hiin at all, Jer. 17: 5. The
plan of salvation, therefore, by such a Mediator, is the
most suitable to human beings that pos,sibly could be ; for
here "mercy and truth meet together, righteousness and
peace kiss each other," Ps. 85: 10. (See Jesus Christ.)
The properties of Christ as Mediator are these : — 1. He
is the only Mediator, 1 Tim. 2: 4. Praying, therefore, to
saints and angels, is an error of the church of Rome, and
has no countenance from the Scripture.— 2. Christ is a
Mediator of men only, not of angels ; good angels need
not any ; and as for evil angels, none is provided nor ad-
mitted.— 3. He is the Mediator both for Jews and Gen-
tiles, Eph. 2: 18. 1 John 2: 2.— 1. He is Mediator both for
Old and New Testament saints. — 5. He is a suitable, con-
stant, willing, and prevalent Mediator ; his mediation
always succeeds, and is infallible. (See Atonement,
and Advocate.) Gill's Body of Divinity, vol. i. Oct. p.
336 ; Witsii CEcon. Fad. lib. ii. c. 4 ; Fuller's Gospel its own
JVitness, ch. iv. p. 2 ; Hunion's Christ Crucified, p. 103,
fee; Dr. Owen on the Person of Christ; Dr. Goodwin's
Works, h. iii. ; Madavrin's Works ; Butler's Analogy ;
Works of Robert Hall ; Divight's Theology.— Hend. Buck.
MEDICINE, or the healing art, is an invention ascribed
by Jesus, .son of Sirach, to God himself, Ecclus. 38: 1, A:c.
Scripture makes no mention of physicians before the
time of Joseph, who commanded his servants, the physi-
cians of Egypt, to embalm the body of Jacob, Gen. 50: 2.
The art of medicine, however, was very ancient in Egypt.
They ascribed the invention of it to Thaut, or to Hermes,
or to Osiris, or to Isis ; and some of the learned have
thought that Moses having been instructed in all the learn-
ing of the Eg5'ptians, must also have known the chief
secrets of medicine. They also argue it from his accurate
diagnosis, or indications concerning diseases, the leprosy,
infirmities of women, animals, clean and unclean, Arc. It
does not appear that physicians were common among the
Hebrews, especially for internal maladies ; but for wounds,
fractures, bruises, and external injuries, they had physi-
cians, or surgeons, who understood the dressing and bind-
ing up of wounds, with the application of medicaments.
Sec Jer. 8:22. 41): 11. Ezek. 30:21. But there was no
remedy known for the leprosy, or for distempers which
were Ihe consequences of incontinence.
The low slate of the art of medicine, with the persua-
sion that distempers were effects of God's anger, or were
caused by evil spirits, was the reason that in extraordinary
malaJies the sufferers applied to various empirics, diviners,
magicians, enchanters, or false gods. Sometimes they
applied 10 the prophets of the Lord for cure ; or, at least.
to know whether they should recover or not, 2 Kings 5: 5,
6. 8: 8. 20: 7. l.^a. 28: 21. Asa being disea.sed in his feet,
and having applied to physicians, is upbraided with it, as
contrary to that confidence which he ought to have had m
•he Lord, 1 Kings 15: 23. 2 Chron. lli: 12. And whoi: our
Savior appeared in Palestine, although there tan be 110
doubt that there were physicians in the country, it is evi-
dent that the people placed but little confidence in them.
Compare Mark 5: 26. Luke 8: 43. They brought to our
Savior and his apostles multitudes of diseased people from
air parts of the land. (See Diseases.)
Medicine, which may be termed a science of facts, is
indebted for its present distinction to observation, and on
it must depend for its further advancement. To observa-
tion, the physician owes the most exact and valuable part
of his knowledge, and upon it he rests the basis of his dia-
gnosis, prognosis, and treatment of disease. It is at the
bedside of the patient that the observer must study dis-
ease ; there he will see it in its true characters, stripped
of those false shades by which it is so frequently disguised
in books. There, freed from the vagueness and illusion
of systems, the student can acquire fixed and definite no-
tions of diseases, and learn the difficult art of distinguish-
ing them. If physicians had always confined themselves
within the limits of strict obseri'ation — if they had restrict-
ed themselves to such conclusions as are fairly deducible
from facts, the science of medicine would not now be over-
loaded, as it is, by hypothesis, and we should possess a suf
fieient body of materials to enable us to establish sound
general principles.
In man, the most artificial of all animals, the most ex-
posed to all the circumstances that can act unfavorably on
his frame, diseases are so numerous and diversified as to
exhaust the ingenuity of the nosologist, and fatigue the
memory of the physician. It is only of late years thai pa-
thology— the knowledge of the alterations induced by dis-
ease in the organs and textures of which the s)'stem is
composed— has begun to assume the rank of a special
department of medical science. The improved means of
investigating diseases which have been devised, by ren-
dering"the methods of examination more strict and rigor-
ous, have given a very decided impulse to medicine.
Pathological anatomy has raised it to a level with the
descriptive sciences, when considered in reference to or-
ganic alterations, and the " Auscultation Mediate" has
placed it among the physical sciences so far as the doc-
trine of symptoms is concerned. Nosology, or the classi-
fications of diseases, has also been greatly improved.
" Perhaps nosological catalogues," says Dr. Lawrence,
"would aflbrd the most convincing argument that man
has departed from the way of life to which nature has
destined him ; unless, indeed, it should be contended that
these afflictions are a necessary part of his nature ; a dis-
tinction from animals, of which he will not be very likely
to boast.
" The accumulation of numbers in large cities— the
noxious effects of impure air, sedentary habits, and un-
wholesome employments— the excesses in diet, the luxuri-
ous food, the heating drinks, the monstrous mixtures, and
the pernicious seasonings, which stimulate and oppress
the organs — the unnatural activity of the great cerebral
circulation, excited by the double impulse of our luxuri-
ous habits and undue mental exertions, the violent pas-
sions which agitate and exhaust us, the anxiety, chagrin,
and vexation from w'hich few entirely escape, reacting on,
and disturbing the whole frame — the delicacy and sensi-
bility to external influences caused by our heated rooms,
warm clothing, inactivity, and other indulgences — are so
many fatal proofs that our most grievous ills are our own
work, and might be obviated by a more simple and uni-
form way of life." — Lnn-rcnce's Lectures ; Martinet's Patho-
logy ; Good's Study of Medicine ,• Calmct.
MEDITATION, is an act by which we consider any
thing closely, or wherein the soul is employed in the search
or consideration of any truth. In religion it is used to
signify the serious exercise of the understanding, whereby
our thoughts are fixed on the observation of spiritual
things, in order to practice. Mystic divines make a great
difference between meditation and contemplation : the for-
mer consists in discursive acts of the soul, considering
methodically and with attention the mysteries of faith and
the precepts of morality ; and is performed by reflectioni
and reasonings which leave behind them manifest impres
sions on the brain. The purely contemplative, they say
have no need ofmeditatiop ps seeing al things ir G"' a
MEE
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MEL
•, glance, anJ without any reflection. (See Begijins, ami
QuffiTISTS.)
1. Meditation is a duty which ought to be attended to
by all who wish well to their spiritual interests. It ought
to be deliberate, close, and perpetual, Ps. 119: 97. 1; 2.
2. The subjects which ought more especially to engage
the Christian mind are the works of creation ; (Ps. 19.) the
perfections of God ; (Deut. 32: 4.) the excellencies, offices,
characters, and works of Christ ; (Heb. 12: 2, 3.) the of-
fices and operations of the Holy Spirit ; (John 15: and 16.)
the various dispensations of Providence ; (Ps. 97: 1, 2.)
the precepts, declarations, promises, &c. of God's word ;
(Ps. 119.) the value, powers, and immortality of the soul ;
(Mark 8: 36.) the noble, beautiful, and benevolent plan
of the gospel ; (1 Tim. 1: 11.) the necessity of our personal
interest in and experience of its power ; (John 3: 3.) the
depravity of our nature, and the freedom of divine grace
in choosing, adopting, justifying, and sanctifying us ; (1
Cor. 6: 11.) the shortness, worth, and swiftness of time ;
(James 4: 14.) the certainty of death ; (Heb. 9: 27.) the
resurrection and judgment to come ; (1 Cor. 15: 50, 4:c.)
and the future state of eternal rewards and punishments,
Malt. 25. These are some of the most important subjects
on which we should meditate.
3. To perform this duty aright, we should be much in
prayer ; (Luke 18: 1.) avoid a worldly spirit ; (1 John 2:
15.) beware of sloth ; (Heb. 6: 11.) take heed of sensual
pleasures ; (James 4: 4.) watch against the devices of Sa-
tan ; (1 Pet. 5: 8.) be often in retirement ; (Ps. 4: 4.) em-
brace the most favorable opportunities — the calmness of
the morning; (Ps. 5: 1, 3.) the solemnity of the evening ;
(Gen. 24: 63.) Sabbath days; (Ps. 118: 24.) sacramental
occasions, &c., 1 Cor. 11: 28.
4. The advantages residting from this are, improvement
of the faculties of the soul ; (Prov. 16: 22.) the affections
are raised to God ; (Ps. 39: 1, 4.) an enjoyment of divine
peace and felicity ; (Phil. 4: 6, 7.) holiness of life is pro-
moted; (Ps. 119: 59, 60.) and we thereby experience a
foretaste of eternal glory, Ps. 73: 25, 26. 2 Cor. 5: 1, 4:c. ;
Baxter's Saints' litst. — jkend. Buck.
]\IEEKNESS ; a calm, serene temper of mind, not ea-
sily ruffled, or provoked to resentment. In the Greek
language it is praos, easiness of spirit, and thus it may be
justly called ; for by quietly acquiescing in the dispensa-
tions and will of God, and leaving to him the avenging
of injuries, it accommodates the soul to every occurrence,
and so makes a man easy to himself, and to all about
him. The Latins call a meek man mnnsiMvs, used to the
hand ; which alludes to the taming and reclaiming of crea-
tures wild by nature, and bringing them to be tractable
and familiar, Jam. 3: 7, 8. So where the great principles
of Christianity have disciplined the soul, where the holy
grace of meekness reigns, it subdues the impetuous dispo-
sition, and teaches it, trusting in God, both to submit and
to forgive. It teaches us to govern our own anger when-
ever we are at any time provoked, and patiently to bear
the anger of others, that it may not be a provocation to us.
The former is its office, especially in superiors; the latter
in inferiors, and both in equals, James 3: 13.
The excellency of such a spirit appears, if we consider
that it enables us to gain a victory over corrupt nature ;
(Prov. 16: 32.) that it is a beauty and an ornainent to hu-
man beings; (1 Pet. 3: 4.) that it is obedience to God's
word, and conformity to the best patterns ; Eph. 5: 1, 2.
Phil. 4; 8. It is productive of the highest peace to the
professor, Luke 21: 19. Matt. 11: 28, 29. It fits us for any
duty, instruction, relation, condition, or persecution, Phil.
4: 11, 12.
To obtain this spirit, consider that it is a divine injunc-
tion, Zeph. 2: 3. Col. 3: 12. 1 Tim. 6: 11. Observe the
many examples of it : Jesus Christ ; (Matt. 11: 28.) Abra-
ham ; (Gen. 13. 16: 5, 6.) Moses ; (Num. 12: 3.) David;
(Zech. 12: 8. 2 Sam. 16: 10, 12. Ps. 131: 2.) Paul, 1 Cor.
9: 19. How lovely a spirit it is in itself, and how it se-
cures us from a variety of evils. That peculiar promises
are made to such. Matt. 5: 5. Isa. 66; 2. That such give
evidence of their being under the influence of divine grace,
and shall enjoy the divine blessing, Isa. 57: 15. See
if'nry on Meekness ; Dunhp's Sermnrs, vol. ii. p. 434 ;
irnns' Sermons on the Christian Temper ser. 29 ; TiUotson
on 1 Pet. 2: 21 ; and on Matt. 5: 44 ; Logan's Sermons, vol.
i. ser. 10 ; and Jortin's Sermons, vol. iii. ser. 11. — //. Buck.
MEETING-HOUSE ; a place appropriated for the pur-
pose of public worship. (See Church, Chafel, and Bell.)
—Hend. Buck.
MEGIDDO ; a city of Manasseh, (Josh. 17; H. Judg.
1; 27.) famous for the defeat of king Josiah, 2 Kings 23:
29, 30. It is alluded to under this character, Kev. 16; 16
(See EsDRAELON.) — Calmct.
MELANCHOLY; sadness or gloom, arising either
from habit of body, or the slate of the mind. To remove
it, the following remedies may be applied: — 1. Early
rising. 2. Plain, nourishing food. 3. Strict temperance.
4. Exercise in the open air. (See Medicine.)
Or, if it arises particularly from the mind, 1. Associate
with the cheerful. 2. Study the Scriptures. 3. Consider
the amiable character of God, and the all-sufficient atone
ment of his Son. 4. Avoid all sin. 5. Be much in prayer,
that you may enjoy the promised presence of the Holy Spi-
rit, the infallible Comfokter. 6. Be constantly engaged
in such employments as combine the sense of duty and
the feelings of benevolence. See Burton, Baxter, and So-
gers on Melancholy ; Cecil's Bemains ; Fuller's Works ; Na-
tural History of Enthusiasm. — Hend. Buck.
MELANCTHON, (Philip,) Luther's fellow-laborer' in
the Reformation, was born Februarj- 16, 1497, at Bretten,
in the palatinate of the Rhine. He was distinguished, at
an early age, by his intellectual endowments. His rapid
progress in the ancient languages, during his boyhood,
made him a pecuhar favorite with Reuchlin. At his ad-
vice he changed his name, according to the custom of the
learned at that time, from Schwartzerd (Black earth) into
the Greek name Melancthon, of the same signification ;
and, in 1510, went to the university of Heidelberg. Here
he was pre-eminent in philological and philosophical stu-
dies, so that the following year he was deemed qualified
for the degree of bachelor of philosophy, and was made the
instructer of several young coMnts. But as this university
denied him the dignity of magister, on account of his youth,
he went to Tubingen, in 1512, where, in addition to his
former studies, he devoted himself particularly to theolo-
gy ; and, in 1514, after obtaining the degree of master,
delivered lectures on the Greek and Latin authors.
In 1518, he received from the great Erasmus the praise
of uncommon research, correct knowledge of classical an-
tiquity, and of an eloquent style. On Reuchlin's recom
mendation, he was appointed, the same year, to be profes-
sor of the Greek language and Uterature, at the university
of Wiltemberg, where he was brought into contact with
Luther; and, by his enlightened mind, ripened judgment,
philosophical and critical acumen, the uncommon distinct-
ness and order of his ideas, his extraordinary cauiion, yet
steadfast zeal, contributed greatly to the progress and sue
cess of the Reformation, in connexion with the activity,
spirit, and enterprise of Luther. His superiority as a scho-
lar, his mild, amiable character, and the moderation and
candor with which he treated the opposite partj', rendered
him peculiarly suitable to be a mediator. No one knew
better than he how to soften the rigor of Luther, and to
recommend the new doctrines to those who were prepos-
sessed against them. His " Loci Theologici," which first
appeared in 1521, opened the path to an exposition of the
Christian creed, at once scientific and intelligible, and be-
came the model to all Protestant writers on dogmatics.
He urged decidedly, in 1529, the protest against the reso-
lutions of the diet of Spire, which gave his party its name.
In 1530, he drew up the celebrated Confession of Augs-
burg. This and the Apology for it, which he composed
soon after, carried the reputation of his name through al.
Europe. Francis I. invited him to France, in 1535, with
the view to a pacific conference with the doctors of the
Sorboime ; and he soon after received a similar invitation
to England ; but political reasons prevented his accepting
either of the invitations.
He went to Worms, in 1541, and soon after to Eatisbon,
to defend the cause of the Protestants ; but failing by his
■\risdom and moderation to produce the peace which he si.
earnestly desired, he was reproached by his own party lb.
the steps which he had taken, which they considered a^
leading to an unworthy compromise w ith the Catholic:.
ME L
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MEL
The saiDfl happened to him at Bonn, in 1543; bm neither
Luther nor any of his fiiends, how niucli soever they dis-
approved of his me:isures, ever entertained a doubt of the
purity of liis intentions, or his fidelity to the cause of gos-
pel triitli. Slnch as Welancthon had to suffer from Luther's
vehemence, the friendship of these two noble-spirited men,
agreeing in their religious belief, remained unbroken till
Luther's death, when Melancthon lamented for hira with
the feelings of a son.
A great part of the confidence which Luther enjoyed,
was now transferred to his surviving friend. Germany had
already called him her teacher, and Willemberg revered
in him its only support, and the restorer of its university af-
ter the Smalcaldic war. The new elector, Maurice, treated
him with distinction, and did nothing in religious matters
without his advice. But some theologians, who would fain
have been the sole inheritors of Luther's glory, attacked
his dogmas, and raised suspicions of his orthodoxy. The
approximation of his views, on the subject of the Lord's
supper, to tliose of the Swiss reformers, occasioned him
much censure, as did still more his acquiescence in the in-
troduction of the Augsburg Interim into Saxony, in 1549.
Flacius and Osiander greatly annoyed him : the former on
the subject of religious ceremonies, and the latter on that
of justification : but the investigation of his orthodoxy,
which was instituted at Naumberg, iu 1554, resulted in
his entire justification. The unity of the church, to pro-
mote which he made another attempt at Worms, in 1557,
was his last wish. He died at Wittemberg, April 19,
1560, aged sixty-ihree years.
A more amiable, benevolent, open, and unsuspicious
character, never iirnanienteJ the Christian name. His
endeavors to promote education are never to be forgotten ;
and while the history of the Reformation continues to be
a subject of interest, Melancthon will command respect
and esteem. See the admirable Life of Melancthon, lately
written by F. A. Cox, LL. D. ; /u«ts' Chris. Biog. — Haid.
Buck.
MELCHIZEDEK, (king of justice ;) king of Salem, and
priest of the Most High God. Scripture tells us nothing of
his father, or of his mother, or of his genealogy, or of his
birth, or of his death, Gen. 14: 17. Heb. 7: 1—3. And in
this sense he was, as Paul says, a figure of Jesus Christ,
who is a priest forever, according to the order of Melchi-
zedek ; and not according to the order of Aaron, whose
origin, consecration, life, and deilh, are known.
The person of Melchizedec presents an interesting sub-
ject of inquiry. He has been variously and absurdly sup-
posed to be the Holy Spirit, tjie S >n of God, Enoch, or an
angel ; more probably, Shem. The latter opinion has
been elaborately supported by Mr. Taylor, the substance
of whose statements .and reasonings is as follows: —
From the allusions to the histo-.y of Melchizedek in
Scripture, we gather, 1. That he had undergone deep dis-
tress ; had implored the Preserving Tower to interfere in
his behalf, and had been heard. 2. That he had exempli-
fied great j'iety and obedience. 3. That he was not a
priest by regular olficial descent, that is, by birth, but by
divi.ie appointment. 4. That lie was a king. 5. That
the Levitical priesthood is very inferior to his; as — (1.)
It is comparatively modern. — (2.) It has not equal dignity,
wanting royalty. — (3.) It often changes hands ; and some-
times is held by persons not very holy. — (4.) It concerns
only a single small nation ; and does not so much as as-
sume to officiate for mankind in general.
We turn to the Bible history of Shem, a person of con-
spicuous piety after the deluge ; witness his behavior to
his father, Noah, whom Ham, his brother, had exposed.
It is natural to infer the same pious disposition of charac-
ter before that catastrophe. His name, imposed, appa-
rently, prior to that event, signifies settled, steady ; and, as
Noah was " a preacher of righteousness" to the antediluvi-
ans, we may think the same of his son Shem, who suc-
ceeded in the priesthood. That dreadful event which was
coming on the earth was certainly foretold to Noah ; and
if to Noah to Shem, who also assisted in the preparation
of the ark. Deeply pious, and eminently sedate, he could
not but look forward with apprehension, and every thing
warrants the belief, that both the son and the father would
deprecate and deplore the judgment they awaited. In
other words^the piety of Shem prompted him, Under
these trying circumstances, to address with prayers and
supplications, with strong cryings and tears, that celestial
Power which was able to save him from death ; in which
this patriarch was the counterpart of our Lord Jesus ; who,,
foreseeing his descent into the silent tomb, (as Shem fore-
saw his enclosure in the floating tomb of the ark,) prayed,
" If it were possible let this cup pass from me ;" — but, in
the issue, as Shem in obedience to the divine injunction
entered the ark, so did Jesus enter the grave : — " never-
theless, not my will, but thine be done," Shem was saved,
and revivified; so was Jesus; one from the ark, the
other from the sepulchre.
The ark discharged its inhabitants on the mountains of
Caucasus ; whence it is probable the patriarch Shem travel-
led, in process of time, to Canaan ; there he was acknow-
ledged as a royal priest ; being, first, king of justice. And
who could more properly exercise this ofiice ? To promul-
gate laws, or to apply them ; to direct in matters of jurispru-
dence ; to combine the dignity of the magistrate with the
affection of the patriarch ; to promote the welfare of those
comnmnities which were his posterity — who could be more
suitable than Sheiu ? he was truly ■' the king of justice,"
His tribunal was adjacent to his residence in " the king's
valley ;" so called, because here sat the king ; and here,
according to the duty of a king, he administered justice in
mercy ; " the royal valley, for despatch of public and offi-
cial afiairs,"
This not only explains the reason why Abraham visited
Shem in triumph ; but also why that patriarch takes so
great interest in a victory, by which the country was
cleared from its Karaite invaders ; why he blesses Abra-
ham, and treats him with such distinction ; why the
tithes of the spoils are presented to Melchizedek ; why the
tribunal in the king's valley is selected for the solemnities
of the occasion ; why Abraham takes nothing from his
kindred, the kings he had delivered ; and, in short, why
this history is preserved in the sacred records, as being
one of those remarkable events of which posterity ought
not to be ignorant.
These hints lead us to contemplate this venerable patri-
arch, Shem, whom hitherto we have rather considered as
a king, in his character of a priest also ; a priest of no
ordinary description, Blany are his qualifications for this
ofiice ; but natural descent must not be enumerated among
them ; for the apostle reports him " fatherless, and mother-
less;" that is, as he immediately explains himself, "with-
out pedigree" — genealogy-less. This was an insuperable
blemish in a Levitical priest, and incapacitated from priest
ly privileges ; see Neh, 7: 65, Besides this, it may be
said, in conformity to the import of the tradition, that this
priest of the Most High God had neither father nor mother,
in the postdiluvian world ; he was of the former world, of
the former people ; and now pedigree, descent, was reck-
oned Irom him. AVe prefer, however, the Levitical idea;
and suppose the apostle adopts priestly terms, to express
the absence of claim to the priestly office by descent ; ac-
cording to another expression of the same sentiment, "he
whose pedigree is not reckoned from them (the Levitical
orders) received tithes." We know, also, that the principle
of respectable descent was so powerful, not only among
the Jew^s, but among the heathen, that the most venerated
of their sacred personages— the Vestals, for instance —
were ineligible to that dignity, unless both parents were
unblemished, and both were living at the time of the elec-
tion. Such a virgin is described by Aulius Gellius (Noct.
Att. i. 12.) as patrima et matrima, or what the Greeks called
amphithales, possessing both parents. And this, probably,
was one of the most ancient regulationsof patriarchal reli-
gion ; and, perhaps, coeval with sacerdotal appointments
and institutions.
But why had Shem no right, by descent, to the priest-
hood ? We take the fact to be, that Japheth was the eldest
by birth ; (see Japheth ;) whence his name, and his dou-
ble portion, as befitted his birthright ; but Shem, being
appointed to the priesthood, received an official precedence,
and in consequence is named (among his own descendants,
at least) before his brother Japheth.
We have now considered those particulars which are
usually thought perplexing, except that one which is ad
MEL
[ 793 1
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routed 1(1 be the most perplexing of all. "VV'hal is this uii-
qhangeable priesthood ? Is it unchangeable by reason of
the continued life of him who possesses it? In what could
originate a conception so extraordinary, so contrary to ex-
perience ? Providence has interposed, to assist in answer-
ing this question also ; and when the usual stores of learn-
ing are exhausted, has opened fresh repositories to elucidate
a subject hitherto impenetrable.
In what sense is it said of Shem that he is living? Ob-
serve, the apostle uses a word which does not imply strict
demonstration of this ; but a current report, general belief:
" it is witnessed ;" not by myself, nor by any to whom I
refer confidence ; but, it is admitted; this may be taken
as the fair import of the term. But how is even this looser
sense, this immortality, not strict but popular, to be justi-
fied?— The question is answered, by producing from the
Puranas the following extract ; the tenor of which no one
in our part of the world would ever have imagined.
'• Airi (Noah] for the purpose of making the Vedas [the
sacred books] known to mankind, had three sons; or, as
it is [elsewhere] declared in the Puranas, the Trimurti, or
Hindoo Triad, was incarnated in his house. The eldest,
[son] called Soma, or the moon in a human shape, was a
portion, or form, of Brahma. To him the sacred isles in
the west were allotted. He is still alive, though invisible,
and is acknowledged as the chief of the sacerdotal tribe, to
this day." (Asiatic Researches, vol. v. p. 261.) Every
word of this testimony is important, and it agrees with the
western reports concerning Melchizedek. The comparison
is striking, and justifies attention.
The parallel is exact ; it assists us even beyond what
appears at first sight. No wonder now, that this patriarch,
as " king of peace," was a character too sacred to be mo-
lested by war ; no wonder that Abraham, and in him Levi,
paid tithes to this most venerated personage, &c. The
multiplicity of names for the same per.son in the East is
notorious : Vishnu has a thousand ; Siva also has a thou-
sand ; and other ancient characters in proportion : so that
no doubt, on the identity of Atri's being Noah, arises from
the dissimilarity of appellation. The name Soma is known
as Sem, or Shem, in other writings ; indeed the Seventy
constantly write, Sem, or perhaps Sem.
This curious history, thus brought to light from a far
countr}', affords several inferences; — as (1.) The apostle
says, many things might be uttered respecting Melchize-
dek, but they were hard to be understood. This hint
seems to point at various reports concerning him, which,
not improbably, were in traditionary circulation among
those Hebrews to whom the writer addressed his epistle.
(2.) The priesthood of Shem being exercised in bis per.son
during so long a period as five hundred years, suggests,
almost naturally, an idea of perpetuity. (3.) The access
of Abraham to the divine presence, by means of this royal
priest, with the communications this patriarch might make
to Abraham, must not be allowed to escape notice. When
Abraham was divinely directed to quit Kedem, was Shem
the agent ? When he offered up Isaac, was it near the
Salem of Shem? When Rebekah inquired of the Lord,
was it by the ministration of Shem ? was he the person
who prophetically informed her, '■ two nations are in thy
womb," &:c. ? (4.) This may show the propriety and the
bearing of the Psalmist's expression, (Ps. 110: 4.) "A
priest forever," like Melchizedek; like him who is "still
alive, though invisible; and chief of the sacerdotal tribe,"
though not acting as such now in a public capacity, [but
thought to continue his office in heaven itself]
It may be proper to anticipate an objection, not new,
indeed, but forcible, were it just, by an observation in
vindication of the chronology of Shem's life. — That patri-
arch lived, by the shortest computation, till Isaac was fifty
years of age ; but other compulations add forty or fifty
years to his life. At the shortest period, however, he out-
lived his father Noah above one hundred and fifty years ;
and hi.s son Arphaxad, sixty years ; consequently, no chro-
nological difficulty attends the principles adopted as the
basis of these arguments.
If it be asked — Why does not Moses in Genesis, or the
apostle to the Hebrews, call Melchizedek by the name
of Shem ? It may be sufficient to answer, that he was
much better known at that time, and in that' country, un-
100
dcr his title, "King of Justice." He wa'? better known:
for though we find him called Shmun, Sharma, or Soma,
in India, yet that name has not been preserved in the
West. I.Ioreover, Bochart says : (p. 784.) The Orientals
call the planet Jupiter by the name Zedtk, in honor of
Shem ; as appears by the old Jewish writings. Indeed,
that Jewish tradition considered Shem as the same ^vilh
Melchizedek, is evident from the Targums of Jonathan,
and of Jerusalem, the Alidrash Agada, as cited by rabbi
Solomon; and the Cabalists in Baal-haturim. Now, if
this were an article not denied among the Jews, the rea-
son why it needed no elucidation is clear : probably, loo,
the inhabitants of Jerusalem would have been highly
offended with any doubt on the subject ; or any question
whether the Salem of this king were their own Jerusalem.
Is there any allusion to the title of this king, in 2 Sam. 23:
5. Isa. 41: 26. Acts 3: 14. 7: 52. Jam. 5: 7?
It is but fair to apprize the reader, that these principles,
if well established, lead to important con.sequences ; for as
we have elsewhere supposed the art of writing to be extant,
in ages prior to the Abrahamic migration, and confessedly
a priestly .study, it will follow, that Shem might bring into
the west, and communicate to Abraham, and by him to his
family, the then extant parts of that volume which we
esteem sacred. He might, indeed, communicate much
other information, and many additional predictions; while,
possibly, only those which referred to the land allotted to
Abraham and his posterity are come down to us ; those
referring to other nations having been neglected among
the Jewish historians. This has great effect on the autho-
rity of that system of which Moses was the minister. It
supei-sedes tradition ; it allows no interval of time wherein
the books written could become obsolete, or so much as
difficult to a linguist like Moses. It accounts also for the
knowledge diffused throughout Canaan, that this country
had been authoritatively, that is, divinely, allotted to the
Hebrew nation in remote ages. — Calmtt.
MELCHITES; the name given tothe Syriac, Eg)-ptian,
and other Christians of the Levant. The Blelchites, ex-
cepting some few points of little or no importance, which
relate only to ceremonies and ecclesiastical discipline, are,
in every respect, pixifessed Greeks ; but they are governed
by a particular patriarch, who assumes the title of Patri-
arch of Antioch . The name of Melc'iilcs, or Eni/aiists, was
given to them because they agreed with the Greeks who
submitted to the council of Chalccdon, and was designed
by their enemies to brand them with the reproach of hav-
ing done so merely in conformity to the religion of the
emperor. They celebrate mass in the Arabic language.
The religions among the Melchites follow the rule of St.
Basil, the common rule of all the Greek monks. — Iltiid.
Biirk.
MELCHIZEDEKIANS ; a denomination which arose
about the beginning of the third century. They atfirnieil
that Melchizedek was not a man, but a heavenly power
superior to Jesus Christ ; for Melchizedek, they said, was
the intercessor and mediator of the angels ; and Jesns
Christ was only so for man, and his priesthood only a
copy of that of Melchizedek. — Ilcnd. Buck.
MELETIANS ; the name of a considerable party w!.o
adhered to the cause of Meletius, bishop of Lycopoli's in
Upper Egypt, after he was deposed, about the year 3i.'6,
by Peter, bishop of Alexandria, under the charge of his
having .sacrificed to the gods, and having been gudty of
other heinous crimes ; though Epiphanius makes his only
failing to have been an excessive severity against the
lapsed. This dispute, which was at fiist a personal differ-
ence between Bleletius and Peter, became a religious con-
troversy; and the Meleiian party subsisted in tlie fifth
century, but was condemned by the first council of Nice.
They joined with the Arians against the orthodox par
ty of Athanasius, without, however, adopting their he-
resy.
Schismatics of the same name arose at Antioch, in 360,
when Meletius, of Melitene, in Armenia, was chosen
bishop of the Arians, and was afterwards driven out. on
account of his orthodoxy. The Roman and <^''"^^J^
churches reckon this Meletius among their saints.— /A'"'-
Buck. , . „, ,
MELITONI; s,i called from one Mehto. «ho taught
MEM
[794]
MEN
that not the soul. Ijut the body of man, was made after
God's image. — Hend. Buck.
MELITA, perhaps that now called Malta ; an island in
the Mediterranean sea, between Africa and Sicily, twenty
miles in length and twelve in breadth, formerly reckoned
a part of Africa, but now belonging to Europe. St. Paul
suffered shipwreck upon the coast, Acts 28r 1 — 3.
In the opinion of Dr. Hales, the island where this hap-
pened was not Malta, but Meleda. His words are: "That
this island was Meleda, near the Illyrian coast, not Malta,
on the southern coast of Sicily, may appear from the fol-
lowing considerations: 1. It lies confessedly in the Adria-
tic sea, but Malta a considerable distance from it. 2. It lies
nearer the mouth of the Adriatic than any other island of
that sea; and would, of course, be more likely to receive
the wreck of any vessel driven by tempests towards that
quarter. And it lies north-west by north of the south-west
promontory of Crete ; and came nearly in the direction of
a storm from the south-east quarter. 3. An obscure island
called Melita, whose inhabitants were ' barbarous,' was
not applicable to the celebrity of Malta at that time, which
Cicero represents as abounding in curiosities and riches,
and possessing a remarkable manufacture of the finest
linen; and Diodorus Siculus more fully: 'Malta is fur-
nished with many and very good harbors, and the inhabi-
tants are very rich ; for it is full of all sorts of artificers,
among whom there are excellent weavers of fine linen.
Their hou.ses are very stately and beautiful, adorned with
graceful eaves, and pargetted with white plaster. The
inhabitants are a colony of Phoenicians, who, trading as
merchants, as far as the Western ocean, resorted to this
place on account of its commodious ports and convenient
situation for maritime commerce ; and by the advantage
of this place, the inhabitants frequently became famous
both for their wealth and their merchandise.' 4. The cir-
cumstance of the viper, or venomous snake, which fas-
tened on St. Paul's hand, agrees with the damp and woody
i.sland of Meleda. affording shelter and proper nourishment
for such, but not with the dry and rocky island of Malta,
in which there are no serpents now, and none in the time
of Pliny. 5. The disea.se with which the father of Publius
was affected, dysentery combined with fever, probably inter-
mittent, might well suit a country woody and damp, and
probably, for want of draining, exposed to the putrid efflu-
via of confined moisture ; but was not likely to affect a
dry, rock)', and remarkably healthy island like Malta." —
Cahnet ; Watsm.
MELON; (abattehim, dingers, Num. 11: 5.) a luscious
fruit, so well known that a description of it would be su-
perfluous. It grows to great perfection, and is highly
esteemed, in Egypt, especially by the lower class of peo-
ple, during the hot months.
There are varieties of this fruit ; but that more particu-
larly referred to in the text must be the water-melon, which
in Egypt is now called banich. It is cultivated, says Has-
oelquist, on the banks of the Nile, in the rich clayey earth,
which subsides during the inundation. This serves the
Egyptians for meat, drink, and physic. The juice is pecu-
liarly coolingand agreeable in that sultr)' climate, where
it is justly pronounced one of the most delicious refresh-
ments that nature, amidst her constant attention to the
wants of man, affords in the season of violent heat. This
well explains the regret expressed by the Israelites for the
loss of this fruit, whose pleasant liquor had so often
quenched their thirst, and relieved their weariness in their
servitude, and which would have been exceedingly grate-
ful in a dry, scorching desert.— iform ; Watson.
MEMBER, properly denotes a part of the natural body,
1 Cor. 12: 12—25. Figuratively, sinful habits or affec-
tions, which in an unrenewed state compose a system,
like a body consisting of many members ; (Rom. 7: 23.)
also, true believers, members of Christ's mystical body, as
forming one society or body, of which Christ is the head,
Eph. 4: 25.— Calmet.
MEMORY ; a faculty of the mind, or rather that state
of the mind, in which ideas or notions of things past are
accompanied with a persuasion that the things themselves
were formerly real and present to the individual conscious-
ness. When we remember with little or no effort, it is
called remembrance simply, or memory, and sometimes
passive memory. When we endeavor to remeiiber whal
does not immediately and of itself occur, it is called active
memory, or recollection.
A good memory has these several qualifications: 1. Il
is ready to receive and admit with great ease the various
ideas, both of words and things, which are learned or
taught. — 2. It is large and copious to treasure up these
ideas in great number and variety.— 3. It is strong and
durable to retain, for a considerable time, those words
or thoughts which are committed to it. — 4. It is faith-
ful and active to suggest and recollect, upon every pro-
per occasion, all those words or thoughts which it hath
treasured up. (See Attentiok.)
As this faculty may be injured by neglect and slothful-
ness, we will here subjoin a few of the best rules which
have been given for the improvement of il. 1. We should
form a clear and distinct apprehension of the things which
we commit to memory. — 2. Beware of every sort of intem-
perance, for that greatly impairs the faculties. — 3. If it be
weak, we must not overload it, but charge it only with the
most useful and solid notions. — 4. We should take every
opportunity of uttering our best thoughts in conversation,
as this will deeply imprint them. — 5. We should join to
the idea we wish to remember, some other idea Jhat is
more familiar to us, which bears some similitude to it, ei-
ther in its nature, or in the sound of the word. — 0. We
should think of it before we go to sleep at night, and the
first thing in the morning, when the faculties are fresh. —
7. Method and regularity in the things we commit to the
memory are necessary. — 8. Often thinking, writing, or talk-
ing, on the subjects we wish to remember. — 9. Fervent
and frequent prayer. See Watts on the Mint!, chap. 17 ;
Grey's Memoria Technica ; Sos;ers' Pleasures of Memory ;
Reid's Intellectual Powers of Man, pp. 303, 310, 338, 356 ;
Brown ; Abercromhie ; Chalmers ; and Upham's Intellectual
Philosophy ; Spurzheim's Works. — Hend. Buck.
MENANDRIANS ; a denomination in the first century,
from Menander, a Samaritan, and supposed disciple of
Simon Magus. He pretended to be one of the aions sent
from the pleruma, or celestial regions, to succor the souls
that lay groaning under oppression ; and to support them
against the demons, that hold the reins of empire in this
sublunarj' world. But his notions were so extravagant,
that he was rather considered as a lunatic than a heretic,
and very justly. Moskeim's E. H. vol. i. p. 143. — Williams.
MEND^ANS, Mendaites, Mendoi Ijahi, or disciples
of St. John, that is, the Baptist. From twenty to twenty-
five thousand families of this .sect still remain, chiefly in
the neighborhood of Bassora, a city between Arabia and
Persia, on the extremity of the desert of Iiac. They are
sometimes called Christians of St. John ; a name which
they probably received from the Turks, and to which they
contentedly submit for the sake of the toleration it affords
them ; but they are better known in ecclesiastical history
as Hemero (or every day) Baptists, from their frequent
washings. (See Christians of St. John, and Hemero
Baptists.) — Williams.
MENDELSOHN, (Moses,) a learned Jewish writer,
was born, in 1729, at Dessau, in the principality of Anhall.
Though in his youth he was extremely indigent, yet, by
incessant study, he acquired an extensive knowledge of
philosophy and languages, and became a celebrated author.
He died at Berlin, in 1786. Among his productions are,
Phaedon, a Dialogue on the Immortality of the Soul, which
gained him the title of the Jewish Socrates ; Philosophical
Works ; Morning Hours ; and a Letter to Lavater. He
was a disciple of Locke. — Davenport ; De Israeli.
MENDICANTS, or Begging Friars ; several orders of
religious in popish countries, who, having no settled reve-
nues, are supported by charitable contributions. They were
instituted by pope Innocent III. in 1215, for the express
purpose of opposing heretics, and maintaining the authority
of the pope and the church of Rome. Their affectation of
humility and poverty, travelling barefooted, with a cord
for a girdle round their loins, and begging from door to
door, gave them great influence with the people, which
they uniformly employed to the support of ignorance and
superstition, and, in many cases, of persecution. They
multiplied like locusts in the earth, and formed four great
swarms — Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Her-
w
MEN
t 796
MEN
arils of St. Augustine ; which will be found severally
noticed in their proper places. Moskeim's E. H., vol. iii.
p. \°i2, dLC.— WiUiams ; Htnd. Bmk.
MENE ; a Chaldean word, signifying Ae has nKmbered,
or he Ims comited. Daniel explained this ill-boding inscrip-
tion to the king of Babylon. (See Belsiiazear.) — Calmet.
MENI ; an idol representing the moon. Jeremiah (7:
S8. 44: 17, 18.) speaks of her as queen of heaven, and,
\rtth Isaiah, (f)5: U. Heb.) shows that her worship was
popular in Palestine, and among the Hebrews. Meni is
probably Astarte, and Venus Ctclestis, who was worship-
ped by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, from whom
Israel learned her Nvorship. Isaiah repixiaches them with
setting up a table to Gad — fortune, good fortune, or the
lord of fortune — and with making libations to Meni. (See
£doi,atry, Gad, and Gods.) — Calmet.
MENNO, (Simons,) one of tlie illustrious reformi?rs of
the sixteenth century, a man whose apostolical spirit and
labors have never yet been appreciated, was born .".t Wil-
tnarsura, in Friesland, in 1505. In his twenty-fourth year
(1528) he entered into orders as a Romish priest in the
village of Pingium, although in utter darkness of mind
and worldliness of spirit, yet not without some tendertiess
of conscience and apparent piety. In 1530, he was induced
to examine the New Testament with diligence, in conse-
quence of doubts concerning transubstantiation. He now
became through grace gradually enlightened, his preach-
ing changed, and he was called by some an evangelical
preacher, though he says of himself that at the time,
" the world lo\'ed me, and I the world.'" At lenjrili an
account of the tnartyrdoni of Sieke Snyder at Leu warden,
for AnaWptism, roused him to a similar inquiry concern-
ing the other sacrament, which resulted in his embracing
the views of the persecuted Baptists, though he for several
years struggled to suppress his secret convictions, on ttc-
couut of the odium and suffering the avowal must incur.
■' By the gracious favor of God," he observes, " I have ac-
quired mj' knowledge, as well of baptism as of the Lord's
supper, throvigh the enlightening of the Holy Spirit, atten-
dant ira nay rawch reading and contemplating the Scrip-
tures, and not through the efforts and mcitn.s of sedttcing
sects, as I am accused."
There is the fullest evidence that his change of views
and practice was sincere. It was the result of a true con-
rersion of God. There is no color for the injurious asser-
iiou of Mosheim, thai he held a '^ claisdestine inlejx:ourse
with the Anabaptists," until he found it convenient to
"throw off the mask." 5Ienno asserts in the work from
which we quote, (which has recently been translated info
English, and published in this country,) that i'le had no
communication whatever with the Baptists, until he had
been led by the word and Spirit of God to adopt their prin-
ciples. After this, he says, "ilicsouglit my God with sigh-
ing and tears, that t<j tne a troubled sinner he v\-ould grant
the gift of his grace ; that he would endue me with wis-
dom, spirit, frankness, and manlj' fortitude, so that I might
preach his worthy name and holy word unadulterated,
and proclaim his truth to his praise.
" At length the great and gracious Lord, perhaps after the
course of nine months, extended to me his fatherly spirit,
help, and mighty hand, so that I freely abandoned at once
my character, honor, and fame, which I had among men,
as also my anfi-christian abominations, mass, infant bap-
tism, loose and careless life, and all, and put myself wil-
lingly in all trouble and poverty under the pressing cross
of Christ my Lord. In my weakness I feared God ; I
sought pious people, and of these I foitnd some, though
few, in good zeal and doctrine. I disputed with the per-
verted, and some I gained through God's help and power,
and led them by his word to the Lord Christ ; but the stifF-
necked and obdurate I commended to the Lord.
" Thus has the gracious Lord drawn me, through the
free favor of his great grace. He first stirred in my
heart ; he has given me a new mind ; he has humbled me
in his fear ; he has led me from the way of death, and,
through mere mercy, has called me upon the narrow path
of life into the company of the saints. To him be praise
forever. Amen."
About the j'ear 1537, Menno was earnestly solicited by
many of the Christians with which he connected himself,
to assume among them the rank and fund ions of a public
teacher; and as he looked upon the persons who made
this proposal to be exempt from the fanaticul plirensy of
their brethren at Munster, he yielded to thtir emrealies.
From this period to the end of his hfe he travelled from
one country to another with his wife and chililren, exer-
cising; his ministry, under pressures and calamities of vari-
ous kinds, that succeeded each other without interruption
and constantly exposed to the danger of falling a victim to
the seventy of the laws. '■ East and West Frieshind," says
Mosheim, " with the province of Groningen, «ere first vi-
sited by this zealous apostle of the Anabaptists; whence
he directed his course into Holland, Guelderland, Brabant,
and Westphalia; continued it through the German pro-
vinces that lie on the coast of the Baltic sea, and penetra-
ted so far as Livonia. In all the.se places his ministerial
labors were attended with remarkable success, and added
to his sect a prodigious number of followers. Hence he
is deservedly considered as the ctimmon chief of almost all
the Anabaptists, and the parent of the sect that still sub-
sists under that denomination." Now hear Menno himself.
" And, through ottr feeble service, teaching, and simple
writing, with the careful deportment, labor, and help of
our faithftii brethren, the great and mighty God has made
so known and public, in many cities and lands, the word
of true repentance, the word of his grace and power, to-
gether with the wholesome use of his holy S9.craments,
and has given such growth to his churches, and endued
them with such invincible strength, that not only many
proud, s-^toul hearts have become humble, the impure chaste,
the dntnken temperate, the covetous liberal, the cruel kind,
the godless godly, but also, for the testimony which they
bear, they faithfully give up their property to confiscation,
and their bodies to torture and to death ; as has occurred
again and again, to the pre3ent hour. These can be no
fruits nor marks of false doctrine ; (with that Gmi does not
co-operate ;) nor under .such oppression and misery could
any thing have stood so long were it not the power and
word of the Almighty.
" See, this is our calling, doctrine, and fruit of our ser-
vice, for which we are so horribly calumniated, and perse-
cuted with so much enmity. Whether all the prophets,
apostles, and true servants of God, did not through their
service also produce the like fruit.s, we would gladly let all
the pious judge.
" He who bought me with the blood of his love, and
called me to his service, unworthy as t am, searches me,
and knows that I seek neither gold and good.s. nor luxury,
nor ease on earth, but only my Lord's glory, my salvation,
and the souls of many immortals. Vvhcrefore I have had,
now the eighteenth year, to endure so e.xce.ssive anxiety,
oppression, trouble, sorrow, and persecution, with my poor,
feeble wile and little offspring, that I have stood in jeo-
pardy of my life and in many a fear. Yes, while the
priests lie on soft beds and cushions, we must Ivide our-
selves commonly in secret corners. While they at all
nuptials and christenings, and other times, m.ike thent
selves merry in public with fifes, drums, and various kinds
of music, we must lixjk out for every dog, lest he be one
employed to catch us. Instead of being greeted by all as
doctors and masters, we must be called Anabaptists, clan-
destine holders-forlh, deceivers, and heretics. In short,
while for their services they are rewarded, in princely
style, with great emoluments and good days, our reward
and portion must be (ire, sword and death.
" What now I, and my true coadjutors in this very difS-
cult, hazardous service, have sought, or could have sought,
all the well disposed may easily estimate from the work
itself and its fruit. I will then humbly entreat the faithful
and candid reader once more, for Jesus' sake, to receive in
love this my forced acknowledgment of my enlightening,
and make of it a suitable application. I have presented
it out of great necessity, that the pious reader may know
how it has happened, since I am on all sides calumniated
and falsely accused, as if I were ordained and called to
this service by a seditious and misleading sect. Let hira
that fears God read and judge."
Menno was a man of whom the world was not worthy-
The age in which he lived was, least of all, filteil anc
disposed to do justice to his character. He espoused opi
M E N
I -'&S]
MEK
nions, which not only provoked the hostility tA' (iie Catholic
church, but which found little favor among the " powerful
large sects," the Lutherans and Calvinisls.. It is not
surprising, therefore, that his condact has been misonder-
stood and misrepresented. We talje pleastire in assis'ing
to circulate an authentic exposition of his principles ; and
we offer our thanks to the translator for the service which
he has rendered to us and to our readers, as well as Ic the
interests of truth. A good memoir is still a desideratum
Menno was a man of genius, and sound judgment. lie
possessed a natural and persuasive eloquence, and such a
degree of learning as made him pass with many for an
oracle. He appears, moreover, to have been a man of
probity, of a meek and tractable spirit, gentle in; his man-
ners, affable in his commerce with persons of all raoks
and characters, and extremely zealous in promoting prac-
tical religion and rirlue, which he recommended by his
example as well as by his precepts. He died in 1561, in
the duchy of Holstein, at the country seal o-f a certain n»>
bleman not far from the city of Oldesloe, who, moved with
compassion by the view of the pertls to « htch Jlenno was
exposed, and the snares that were daily laid for his ruin,
took him, with certain of his associates, into his protection,
and gave him an asylum. The writings of Menno, which
are almost all composed in th« Dutch language, were pub-
lished in folio, at Amsterdam, in the year i651. — Htiid.
Buck; Mosheim ; Meiaiffs Defaitun ffom Poper]/.
MENNONITES ; a society of Baptists in Holland, so
called from Blenno Simons. (See Menno.) This great
man, as Mosheim observes, reduced the system of the
scattered sect then called Anabaptists, to consistency and
moderation. (See Anabaptists, and Baptists.)
The Mennonites maintain that practical piety is the
essence of religion, and that the surest mark of the true
church is the sartdily of its members. They plead for
nniversa.1 tolerattoa in religion ; and debar none from their
societies who le:ict pious lives, and own the Scriptures for
the wDrd of God. They teach that infanta are not the
proper subjects of baptism ; that ministers of the gospel
ought to receive no salary [from the state.]. They also
object to the terms, person and triiiihj, as not consistent with
the simplicity of the Scriptures.
They are, like tire society of Friends, utterly averse to
oaths and war. aiKl to capital ponisbmenl.s, as coBtrary to
the spirit of the Christian rfisi-iensation.
In their private meetings every one has the liberty to
speak, to expound the Scriptures, and to pray. They as-
semble (or used to do so) twice every year from all parts
of Holland, at rvyiis.bourg, a village two leagues from
Lej'dcn, at which iime they receive the ?ommuni(m, sitting
at a table in the manner of the Independents ; but in their
form of discipline they are said more to resemble the Pres-
byterians. [This last statement wants authority.]
The ancient Mcnuoniles professed a contempt of erudi-
tion and science, [only when put in competition with piety
in their ministers.) and excluded alt from their commnnioa
who deviated in the least l^om the most rigorous rules of
simplicity and gravity: but this primitive austerity is
greatly diminished in their most considerable societies.
Those who adhere to their ancient disciphne are called
Flemings, or Flaiidrians. The whole sect were formerly
called Waterlandians, from the district in which they
lived. An unspeakable number have been martyrs.
The Mennonites in Pennsylvania do not baptize by im-
mersion, though they administer the ordinance to none
but believers. Their common method is litis : the person
to be bnptized kneeling, the minister holds his hands over
him, into which the deacon pours water, and through
which it runs on the head of the bnptized; after which
follow imposition of hands and pravcr. Mnshiim ; though
his account is written with violeiit prejudices ; Edrvards'
and Benedict's History of American Baptists, vol. i. p. 94.
Such is the account published by Mrs. H. Adams, to
which we are now able to make considerable corrections
from the Letters of Mr. Ward the missionary, who re-
cently visited both Holland and America:
An "Account of the Origin of the Dutch Baptists." or
Mennonites, was published at Breda, in 1819, by Dr. Vpeij,
professor of theology at Groningeii, and the' Rev. J. J.
Derraoni, chaplain to the king of the Netherlands, learned
Pcdobaptisis. With this account Mr. Wtird fills several Jet-
ters, and from it we shall make some extracts. In the opi-
nion of these learned writers, " (he Mennonites are descend-
ed from the tolerably pure evangelical Waldenses, who
were driven by persecution into various countries ; and who
during the latter part of the twelfth century 3ed into Flati-
ders, and into the provinces of Hona:Hd and Zealand, where
they lived simple and exemplary lives, in the villages as
farmers, in the towns by trades, free from the charge of
any gross immoralities, and professing the most pure and
simple principles, which they exemplified in a holy con-
versation. They were therefore in existence long before
the Reformed church of the Netherlands.
" There were then two sects among Ihemi : the one dis-
tinguished by the naiiie of Ihe pvrfcst, (who held to a coov
munity of goods.) and the other the imperfect. Hj far the
greater part of the first sect, and the whole of the secoiKi,
were certainly among the most pious Christians the church
ever saw, and the worthiest citizens the state ever hadv
History removes every dotibl on this subject.
" In the year 1531), their scattered community obtained
js regular stale of church order, separate from all Dutcl}
and German Protestants, wiVo at that time ted n'ot beeii
formed into one body by any bonds of unity. This ad-
vantage was procured them by the sensible management
of a Friezland Prolestant, IVIenno Simonsy who had fof
merly been a pojiisb priest. This learned, wise, and prui-
(fertt iTtan, was chosen by them as their leader, that they
might by his paternal efforts, in the eyes of all Christen-
dom, be cleared from the blame which some of them had
incurred. This object was accomplished accordingly :
some of the perfectionists be reclaimed to order, and
others he exclmled. Ke purified also the religiocs doc-
trines of the Baptists.
" We have now seenthat the Baptists who were formerly
called Anabaptists, and in later times Mennonites, were
the original Waldenses ; and who have long in the history
of the church received the honor of that origin. On this
account the Baptists may be considered as the only Chris-
tian cornmunily which has stood since the days of the
apostles, and as a Christian society which has preserved
pure the doctrines of the gospel ihTOUgb all ttges. The
perfectly correct external and internal economy of the
Baptist cTenominatiory, leads lo confirm the truth, dispikted
by the Romish church, that the Reformation brought
about in the sixteenth century was in the highest degree
necessary ; and at the same time goes to refute the erro-
neous notion of the Catholics, that their communion is the
nwst ancient." Thus far. Dr. Ypeij and Dermont.
This testimony, from the highest official authority in
the Dutch Reformed churc-b, is- eertairily a rare instance
of liberality towards another denomination. It is conceding
all the Mennonites or Baptists claim. It should be added,
that they have constantly, but politely, declined the sala-
ries, which the government of Holland offers to all deno-
minations under its authority.
The Mennonites, it appears, form one undivfded Chris-
tian body. Associations arc held at different times, simi-
lar to those in England and the United States, though
some churches, as among the English and American Bap-
tists, decline all union with any association. The business
of the A.ssociation connected with Rotterdam is chiefly to
provide supplies for destitute churches, and examine into
the state of the Mennonite college at Amsterdam. Theie
are no buildings connected with this college ; but the stu-
dents receive theological instruction in a rooin, containing
the library, over the Mennonite chapel. The lectures are
delivered in Latin ; and each student before his enlrancc
must be acquainted with Latin and Greek'. They attend
at a literary institution for instruction in Hebrew, ecclesi-
astical history, physics, nattiral and moral philosophy, he.
They have private lodgings in different parts of the city.
The college was established nearly a century ago, and was
at first supported by the Amsterdam Mennonites alone ;
but lately other churches send in their contributions.
Some of the students receive support from the public
fund ; they are all intended for the Christian ministry.
Divine worship is conducted among the Mennonites
as among the churches of the reformed. They have
preaching only once on the Sabbath, and the ministers are
MER
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MER
ehoseli 111 some places by the congregation, and in others
by the elders and deacons.
With respect to their confession of faith, as stated by one
of their ministers, Mr. Gan, of Ryswick, It appears to be
moderate orthodoxy.
Oh baptism Mr. Gan says, it " consists in immersion
Or pouring upon of water, in the name," Ace. Conversion
and faith are necessary j and those " who are the children
of Christian parents, and have been educated In the Chris-
tian church, are under an obligation to be baptized, as
well as converted Jews and heathens. They train up
catechumens under their ministers, and, about the age of
sixteen, baptize Ihem, taking from the candidate, before
the minister and elders, an account of his repentance and
faith. They reject infant baptism, and refuse to commune
at the Lord's table with any who administer the ordinance
to children, unless re-sprinkkJ." According to Mr. Ward's
account, (given him verbally by Rev. N. Messchaert,)
the modern Mennonites plead the authority of Menno for
the use of pouring and sprinkling as baptism. But in
reality it is a wide departure from the views of Blenno,
who says, " After we have searched ever so diligently, we
shall find no other baptism but dipping in water, which
is acceptable to God and approved in his word."
With respect to the number of Mennonites in Holland,
they are calculated at thirty thousand, including children,
and form about one hundred and thirty churches.
In the United States of America, it appears, " there are
more than two hundred Mennonite churches, some of which
contain as many as three hundred members in each;
and," Mr. Ward sa3's, " they are mostly the descendants of
the Mennonites, who emigrated in great numbers from
Paltz.
The Dutch Baptists have published a large history of
themselves, and of their numerous martyrs. There is
reason to hope, from recent intelligence, that a new and
brighter era is beginning among them, — Ward's Faren-cU
Letters, lett. 19 — 22 ; Am. Bap. Mag. 1834.
MEN OF UNDERSTANDING. This title distinguish-
ed a fanatical sect which appeared in Flanders and Brus-
sels, in the year 1511. 'They owed their origin to an
illiterate man, whose name was Egidius Cantor, and to
William of Hildenison, a Carmelite monk. With some
great truths they mingled egregious errors. They pre-
tended to be honored with celestial visions, denied that
any could arrive at perfect knowledge of the Holy Scrip-
tures without the extraordinary succors of a divine illumi-
nation, and declared the approach of a new revelation
from heaven, more perfect than the gospel of Christ.
They said that the resurrection was accomplished in the
person of Jesus, and no other was to be expected ; that
the inward man was not defiled by the outward actions,
whatever they were ; that the pains of hell were to have
an end ; and not only all mankind, but even the devils
themselves, were to return to God, and be made partakers
of eternal felicity.
This denomination appears to have been a branch of
the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit. — Ileiid. Buck.
MENOLOGIUM, (from ment, the moon, and logos, a
discourse,) in the Greek church, nearly corresponds to the
martyrologium of the Roman church. It is a book in
which the festivals of every month are recorded, with the
names and biographies of the saints and martyrs, in the
order in which they are read in the masses, fee. — Hend.
Buck.
MEPHIBOSHETH ; a son of Jonathan, whose proper
name was Jleribbaal. (See Baal.) Mephibosheth was
very young when his father was killed in the battle of Gil-
. boa, (2 Sam. 4: 4.) and his nurse was in such consterna-
tion at the news, that she let the child fall, who from this
accident was lame all his life. When David found him-
self in peaceable possession of the kingdom, he sought for
all that remained of the house of Saul, that he might show
them kindness, in consideration of the friendship between
him and Jonathan. He told .'\Iephibosheth, that for the
sake of Jonathan his father he should have his grandfa-
ther's estate, and eat always at the royal table, 2 Sara. 9:
1, (kc. See also 1 Chron. 8: 34. — Calmet.
MERAB, orMEEOB, the eldest daughter of king Saul,
was promised to David in marriage, in reward for his vic-
tory over Goliath ; but was given to Adricl, son of Barjtil-
lai the Meholathite, 1 Sam. 14: 4'J. 18: 17, 19. Merab
had six sons by him, who were delivered to the Gibconites
and hanged before the Lord. The text intimates, that the
six men delivered to the Gibeonites were sons of Michal,
daughter of Saul, and wife of Adricl; but it is thought,
that the name of MichnI has slipped into the text instead
of Merab ; for (1.) Michal did not marry Adricl, hnl Phal-
tiel ; and (2.) we nowhere read that Michal had six sons.
Others think, these were six sons of Merab by birih, but
of Michal by adoption. — Cahnel.
MERCURY ; a fabulous god of the ancient h !alhcn,
the messenger of the celestials, and the deity that presided
over learning, eloquence, and traffic. The Greeks named
him Hermes, an interpreter, because they considered him
as interpreter of the will of the gods. Probably, it was for
this reason that the people of Lysira, having heard Peu.
preach, and having seen liim heal a lame tn;in, wcBld
have offered sacrifice to him, as to their god Mercury ;
and to Barnabas as Jupiter, because of his venerable
aspect. Acts 14; 11. (See Jufiteh, and Lystra.}— Cff/77lf^
MERCY; that particular species or niodificanon of
goodness which has for its objects beings who are in cir-
cumstances of misery and distress, and which I'oiisists in
commiserating and pitying them under their sufferings, -
and in affording them such relief as can be extended to
Ihem consistently with the relative situation of him by
whom the disposition is felt.
Divine mercy is tViat attribute which compassionates the
family of man, considered as miserable in consequence of
the guilt which they have contracted by tlicir voluntary
and unprovoked rebellion against the moral government
of Jehovah ; and which is exercised in such a way, and to
such an extent, as the end and rectitude of that govern-
ment require. It is not the simple act of |iiiy which one
individual in private life may display towards another in-
dividual, or a number of individuals, but it is a commise-
ration which, though infinite with respect to its source,
and unlimited in its nature, abstrncledly considered, is
nevertheless combined in its exercise with the due influ-
ence of every consideration arising out of the public and
official station which is occupied by God as the ruler of an
universe of intelligent beings, whose interests as a whole
cannot in justice be left out of view in the treatment of
individuals. That a due regard is ever lo be had to the
good of the whole in every thing that is ione for the bene-
fit of any of the parts, is one of the firmest and most un-
doubted principles of all enlightened and equitable legisla-
tion. IMercy, in the sense in which it 'S too commonly
taken, as exercised without any rational end or induce-
ment, besides the bare impulse of the affections towards
an isolated object, and consequently without the guidance
and direction of an intelligent mind properly attentive to
all conceivable results, would be no proof of moral excel-
lence, but a blind and nndistinguishing act, which in num-
berless instances would be productive of infinitely greater
misery than it actually relieved, and thus deserve the
name of cruelly rather than that of mercy.
In Jehovah, this attribute is ever regulated by the high-
est intelligence ; its exercise is invariably accompanied
Arith suitable displays of the divine purity ; and its conse-
quences combine with the relief and eternal felicity of its
objects, the maintenance of the cbims of divine moral go-
vernment, and the advancement of the divine glory. That
mercy is extended to any of the guilty children of men, is
to be ascribed to the pure benevolence of the Deity ; that
it is not extended to all miserable offenders mast be attri-
buted to the same benevolence, in the character of the love
of rectitude, or a just regard to the clai:ns which are put
forth by the vast community of intelligent existences over
which he presides ; and that it is shown to one sinner
rather than another, is to be resolved in'o his all-wise,
holy, and benevolent sovereignty : " He will have mercy
on whom he will have mercy."
What completely establishes these ^iews of the mercy
of God, is the consideration of the peculiar and exclusive
medium through which he has chosen to dispense it — the
atonement made by the infinitely precious hlootl of his
Son when he died as the substitute of sinners, ^^'•j'^
every feature in this wondrous transaction is calculated
MER
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E S
to afford Ihe most illustrious comment on the declaration,
"He delighteth in mercy," the whole plan is most obvi-
otisly designed to secure and uphold the pillars of the di-
vine government, and to unite in its grand results the
glory of God and the happiness of his obedient creatures.
(See the articles Atonement ; Abound ; Justice.)
According to the circumstances and wants of those who
are its objects, the divine mercy may be regarded as en-
lightening, renewing, forgiving, relieving, comforting, and
strengthening. It is rich, efficient, unmerited, absolutely
free, immutable, and eternal. — Jones ; Htnd. Buck.
MERCY-SEAT, {ilastlrion, propiiiatory.) This word is
properly an adjective, agreeing with epithemn, a lid, under-
stood, which is exj)ressed by the Seventy, Ex. 25: 17. In
that version, ilnsterwn generally answers to the Hebrew
caphrah, from the verb cnpJuir, to cover, expiate, and was
the lid or owsring of the ark of the covenant, made of pure
gold, on and before which the high-priest was to sprinkle
the blood of the expiatory sacrifices on the great day of
atonement, and where God promised to meet his people,
Ex. 25: 17, 22, 29: 42. .30: 36. Lev. Ifi: 2, 14.
St. Paul, by applying this name to Chri.st, (Rom. 3: 25.)
assures us that he is the true mercy-seat, the reality of
what the caphrah represented to the ancient believers ; by
him our sins are covered or expiated, and through him
God communes with us in mercy. The mercy-seat also
represents our approach to God through Christ ; we come
to the "throne of grace ;" which beautiful dc-^ignation is
only a variation of the term "mercy-seat." — Watson.
MERIBAH, {strife, or contention ;) the name given to
the station at or near Rephidim, where the people mur-
mured for water, and Moses struck the rock, where it
gushed ont, Ex. 17: 1 — 7. Dr. Shaw feels confident that
he has discovered this extraordinary stone, at Rephidim,
and has furnished a particular account of it in his Travels.
Mr. Taylor, however, has shown that this idea proceeds
upon a total misapprehension of the history, as well as of
thr reference made to it hy the apostle Paul, 1 Cor, 10: 4.
(Fragment 284.) (See RcFHimM.) — Calmet.
MERIT, signifies desert, or the earning of a fair title to
a reward. Originally the word was applied to soldiers
and other military persons, who, by their labors in the
field, and by the various hardships they underwent during
the course of a campaign, as also by other services they
might occasionally render the commonwealth, were said,
nierere stipendia, to merit, or earn tlieir pay ; which they
might properly be said to do, because they yielded in real
service an equivalent to the state for the stipend they re-
ceived, which was therefore due to them in justice. Here,
then, we come at the true meaning of the word merit ;
from which it is very clearly to be seen that there can be
no such thing as merit in our best obedience. One man
may merit of another, hut all mankind together cannot
merit from the hand of God, because, being originally his,
all possible service is but a duty, the failing of which is
sin. This still more evidently appears, if we consider the
imperfections of all our services, and ihe express declara-
tions of the divine word. Xuke 17: 10. Eph. 2: 5, 9. Rom.
11: 5, 6. Tit. 3: 5. Rom'. 10: 1, 4. The Doctrine of Merit
stated, vol. iii. ser. 1 ; Sovth's Sermons ; Tnpladi/s Works,
vol. iii. p. 471 ; Hervet/'s Eleven Letters to Wesley; Jlohin-
toi's Claude, vol. ii. p, 218; Dn-ight's Theology; Fuller's
Worns. — Hend. Buck.
MERITS OF CHRIST ; a term used to denote the
aciive and passive obedience of Christ ; all that he wrought
and all that he suflered for the salvation of mankind. See
Atonement; Imputation; Obedience; Righteousness of
CnniST. — Hend. Buck.
MERODACH ; an ancient king of Babylon, placed
among the gods, and worshipped by the Babylonians,
Jeremiah (50: 2.) spe.aking of the ruin of Babylon says,
" Babylon is taken, Bel is confounded, IMerodacti is broken
in pieces, her idols are confounded, her images are broken
in pieces." We find certain kings of Babylon, whose
names comprise that nf Merodach ; as Evil-Merodach, and
Merodach-Baladan. — Calmet.
MEROM, the waters of Merom, (Jo.5h, 11: 5.) or la're
of Semechon, is the most norlhern of the Ihree hdces
supplied by the river .Tordan. It is situate in a valU-y,
called the Ard Houle, formed by the two branches of
mount Hebron. The lake is now called, after the vallsy,
the lake of Hou'.e. In summer this lake is for the most
part dry, and covered with shrubs and grass, in which li-
ons, bears, and other wild beasts conceal themselves.
(See Jordan.) — Calmet.
MEROZ ; a place in the neighborhood of the brook Ki-
shon, whose inhabitants, refusing to come to Ihe assistance
of their brethren, when they fought with Sisera, were put
under an anathema, Judg. 5: 23. — Wat.wn.
MERRICK, (James,) a poet and divine, was born, in
1720, at Reading; was educated at Ihe school of that
place, and at Trinity col'ege, Oxford ; and died in 1769.
Bishop Lowlh speaks of him as being one of the best of
men and most eminent of scholars. Among his works
are. Poems on Sacred Subjects ; Annotations on the
Psalms, and on the Gospel of St. John ; a translation of
Tryphiodorus ; and a metrical version of the Psalms.—
D(ive?iport.
MESHA ; (Gen. 10: 27—30.) the .same, probably, <Kt
mount Masius. The sons of Joktan possessed the whole
cottntry between mount Masius and the mountains of Se-
phar, or Sepharvaim. — Calmet.
MESHECH, (Country of.) Mcshech was the sixth
son of Japhelh, and is generally mentioned in conjunction
with his brother Tubal; and both were first seated in the
north-eastern angle of Asia Minor, from the shores of Ihe
Euxine, along to the south of Caucasus ; where were the
Monies Moschisi, and where, in after times, were the Ibe-
ri, Tibareni, and Moschi. There appears also to have
been in the same neighborhood, namelj', in Armenia, a
river and country termed Rosh : for so, Bochart sayo, the
river Araxes is called by the Arabs ; and that there was a
people in the adjoining country called Rhossi. That pas-
sage in Ezek. 38, also, which in our Bibles is rendered ''the
chief prince of Meshech and Tubal," is, in the Septuagint,
" the prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal." These Rhossi
and Moschi, who were neighbors in Asia, dispersed their
colonies jointly over the vast empire of Russia; and pre-
serve their names still in those of Russians and Musco-
vites.— Watson.
MESOPOTAMIA ; an extensive province of Asia, the
Greek name of which denotes "between the rivers," and
on this account Strabo says, that " it was situated between
Ihe Euphrates and the Tigris." In Scripture this country
is often called Aram, and Aramea. But as Aram also
signifies Syria, it is denominated Aram Naharaim, or the
Syria of the rivers, Judg. 3: 8. 2 Sara. 10. Dan. 1:2. Zech.
5: 11.
This province, which inclines from the south-east to the
north-west, commenced at ihirty-three degrees twenty mi-
nutes north latitude, and terminated near thirty-seven
degrees thirty minutes north latitude. Towards the south
it extended as far as the bend formed by the Jordan at
Cunaxa, and to the wall of Semiiamis, which separated it
from Messene. The northern part of Mesopotamia is oc-
cupied by chains of mountains p.assing from north-west to
south-east, in the .situation of the rivers. The central parts
of these mountains were called Singara; Monies. In the
western part were Edessa, called al.so Callin-Rha?, (Orfa.)
Charra-, (Harran.) Nicephorium, (Racca,) Circesium at
the mouth of the Chaboras, Anathoh, (Anah,) Neharda,
(Hadith Unnour.) upon the right of the Euphrates. There
are several other towns of less importance. According to
Strabo, this country was fertile in vines, and afforded
abundance of good wine. According to Ptolemy, Mesopo-
tamia had on the north a part of Armenia, on the west the
Euphrates on the side of Syria, on the east the Tigris on
the borders of Assyria, and on the south the Euphrates,
which joined the Tigris, Jle.sopotamia was a satrapy
under the kings of Syria, It is now comprised in modern
Persia.
" On the fifth or sixth day after leaving Aleppo," says
Campbell, in his Overland Journey to India, 'iwe arrived
at the city of Diarbeker, the capital of the province of that
name; having pas.sed over an extentof country of between
three and four hundred miles, most of it blessed with the
greatest fertility, and abounding with as rich pastures as
I ever beheld, covered with numerous herds and flocks.
The air was charmingly temperate in the daytime, but, to
my feeling, extremely coM at night. Yet notwithstanding
M£ S
[ 799 ]
ME S
the extreme fertiliij of this country, the bad administra-
tion of government, conspiring with the indolence of the
inhabitants, leaves it unpeopled and uncultivated. Diar-
beker Proper, called also Mesopotamia from its lying be-
tween two famous rivers, and by Moses called Padan-aram,
that is, ' the fruitful Syria,' abounds wth corn, wine, oil,
fruits, and all the necessaries of life. It is supposed lo
have been the seat of the earthly paradise ; and all geo-
graphers agree that here the descendants of Noah settled
immediately after the flood. To be treading that ground
■which Abraham trod, where Nahor the father of Kebecca
lived, where holy Job breathed the pure air of piety and
simplicity, and where Laban the father-in-law of Jacob
resided, was to me a circumstance productive of delightful
sensations." (See Abraham.) — Watson.
MESSIAH. The Greek word Christos, from whence
comes Christ and Christian, exactly answers to the Hebrew
Messiah, which signifies him that hath received unction, a
king, a prophet, or a priest. (See Jssus Christ.)
The ancient Jews had just notions of the Messiah, which
came gradually to be corrupted, by expecting a temporal
monarch and conqueror; and finding Jesus Christ lo be
poor, humble, and of an unpromising appearance, they
rejected him. Most of the modern rabbins, according to
Buxtorf, believe that the Messiah is come, but that he lies
concealed because of the sins of the Jews. Others believe
he is not yet come, fixing different times for his appearance,
many of which are elapsed ; and, being thus batfled, have
pronounced an anathema against those who shall pretend
to calculate the time of his coming. To reconcile the pro-
phecies concerning the Messiah that seemed to be contra-
dictory, some have had recourse to a twofold Messiah ;
one in a state of poverty and suffering, the other of splen-
dor and glory. The first, they say, is to proceed from the
tribe of Ephraim, who is to fight against Gog, and to be
slain by Armillus ; (Zech. 12: 10.) the second is to be of
the tribe of Judah and lineage of David, who is lo conquer
and kill Armillus ; to bring the first Messiah to life again,
to assemble all Israel, and rule over the whole world.
That Jesus Christ is the true Messiah, and actually
come in the flesh, is evident, if we consider (as Mr. Fuller
observes) that it is intimated that whenever he should
come, the sacrifices and ceremonies of the Mosaic law
were to be superseded by him, Ps. 40: 6 — 8. 1 Sam. 15:
22. Dan. 9: 27. Jer. 31: 31, 34. Heb. 8: 13. Now sacri-
fice and oblation have ceased. They virtually ceased
when Jesus offered himself a sacrifice, and in a few years
after, they actually ceased. A few of the ancient ceremo-
nies are indeed adhered to, but, as one of the Jewish wri-
ters acknowledges, " the sacrifices of the holy temple have
ceased." Let every Jew therefore ask himself this ques-
tion : Should Messiah the Prince come at some future
period, how are the sacrifice and oblation to cease on his
appearance, when they have already ceased near eighteen
hundred years ? (See Christianity ; Jesus Christ.)
There have been numerous false Messiahs which have
arisen at different times. Of these the Savior predicted.
Matt. 24: 14. Some have reckoned as many as twenty-
four, of whom we shall here give an account.
1. Caziba was the first of any note who made a noise
in the world. Being dissatisfied with the state of things
under Adrian, he set himself up at the head of the Jew-
ish nation, and proclaimed himself their long-expected
Messiah. He was one of those banditti that infested Ju-
dea, and committed all kinds of violence against the Ro-
mans ; and had become so powerful, that he was chosen
king of the Jews, and by them acknowledged their Mes-
siah. However, to facilitate the success of this bold en-
terprise, he changed his name from Caziba, which it was
at first, to that of Barchocheba, alluding to the star fore-
told by Balaam ; for he pretended to be the star sent from
heaven to restore his nation to its ancient liberty and glo-
ry. He chose a forerunner, raised an army, was anointed
king, coined money inscribed with his own name, and
proclaimed himself Messiah and prince of the Jewish na-
tion. Adrian raised an army, and sent it against him.
He retired into a town called Bither, where he was be-
sieged. Barchocheba was killed in the siege, the city was
taken, and a dreadful havoc succeeded. The Jews ihem-
Belve.s allow, that, during this short war against the Ro-
mans in defence of this false Messiah, Ihey lost five Of
SIX hundred thousand souls. This was in the former part
of the second century.
2. In the reign of Theodosius the younger, in the year
of our Lord 434, another impostor arose, called Moses
Crelensis. He pretended to be a second Moses, sent to
deliver the Jews who dwelt in Crete, and promised to di-
vide the sea, and give them a safe passage through it.
Their delusion proved so strong and universal, thai they
neglected their lands, houses, and all other concerns, and
took only so much with them as they could conveniently
carry. And on the day appointed, this false Moses, havmg
led them to the top of a rock, men, women, and children
threw themselves headlong down into the sea, without ihe
least hesitation or reluctance, till so great a number of
them were drowned, as opened the eyes of the rest, and
made them sensible of the cheat. They then began to
look out for their pretended leader, but he disappeared,
and escaped out of their hand.
3. In ihc reign of Justin, about 520, another impostor
appeared, who called himself the son of Moses. His
name was Dunaan. He entered into a city of Arabia Fe-
lix, and there he greatly oppressed the Christians ; but he
was taken prisoner, and put to death by Elesban, an Ethi-
opian general.
4. In the year 529, the Jews and Samaritans rebelled
against the emperor Justinian, and set up one Julian for
their king ; and accounted him the Messiah. The em-
peror sent an army against them, killed great numbers
of them, took their pretended Messiah prisoner, and im-
mediately put him to death.
5. In the year 571, was born Mohammed, in Arabia.
At first he professed himself to be the Messiah who wsis
promised to the Jews. By this means he drew many of
that unhappy people after him. In some sense, therefore,
he may be considered in the number of false Messiahs.
(See Moha.m.medanism.)
(i. About the year 721, in the time of Leo Isaurus,
arose another false Messiah in Spain ; his name was Se-
renus. He drew great numbers after him, to their no
small loss and disappointment, but all his pretensions
came to nothing.
7. The twelfth century was fruitful in false Messinhs,
for about the year 1137, there appeared one in France,
who was put to death, with many of those who followed
him.
8. In the year 1138, the Persians were disturbed with
a Jew, who called himself the Messiah. He collected to-
gether a vast army. But he, loo, was put lo death, and
his followers treated with great inhumanity.
9. In the year 1.57, a false Messiah stirred up the
Jews at Corduba, in Spain. The wiser and belter sort
looked upon him as a madman, but the great body of the
Jews in that nation believed in him. On this occa.sion
almost all the Jews in Spain were destroyed.
10. In the year 1167, another false Messiah arose in
the kingdom of Fez, which brought great troubles and
persecution upon the Jews that were scattered through
that country.
11. In the same year an Arabian set up there for the
Messiah, and pretended to work miracles. When search
was made for him, his followers fled, and he was Vrought
before the Arabian king. Being questioned by him. he
replied, that he was a prophet sent from God. The king
then asked him what sign he could show to confirm his
mission ? " Cut off my head," said he, " and I will re-
turn to hfe again." The king took him at his word, pro-
mising to believe him if his prediction came to pass. The
poor wretch, however, never returned to life again, and
the cheat was sufficiently discovered. Those who had
been deluded by him were grievously punished, and the
nation condemned lo a very heavy fine.
12. Not long after this, a Jew who dwelt beyond Eu-
phrates, called himself the Messiah, and drew vast multi-
tudes of people after him. He gave this for a sign of it j
that he had been leprous, and was cured in the course of
one night. He, like the rest, perished in the attempt,
and brought great persecution on his countrymen.
13. In the year 1174, a magician and false Christ arose
in Persia, who was called David Almusser. He pretend
MET
MET
ed that he cciiUl make himself invisible ; but he was soon
taken, anJ put to death, and a heavy fine laid upon his
brethren the Jews.
14. In the year 1175, another of these impostors arose
in Moravia, who made similar pretensions ; but his frauds
being detected, and not being able to ehide the efforts
that were made to secure him, be was likewise put to
death.
15. In the year 1199, a famous cheat and rebel exerted
himself in Persia, called David el David. He was a man
of learning, a great magician, and pretended to be the
Slessiah. He raised an army against the king, but was
taken and imprisoned ; and, having made his escape, was
afterwards seized again, and beheaded. Vast numbers
of the Jews were butchered for taking part with this im-
postor.
16. We are told of another false Christ in this same
century by Maimonides and Solomon ; bm they take no
notice eitlier of his name, country, or good or ill success.
Here we may obser%-e, that no less than ten false Chrisls
arose in the twelfth cenlurj-, and brought prodigious ca-
lamities and destruction Uf.on the Jews in various quar-
ters of the world.
17. In the year 1497, we find another false Christ,
who-ie name was Ismael Sophus, who deluded the Jews
in Sjiain. He also perished, and as many as believed in
him u-ere dispersed.
18. In the year 1500, rabbi Lcmlem, a German Jew of
Ansirin, declared himself a forerunner of the Messiah,
and pulled down his own oven, promising his brethren that
they should bake their bread in the Holy Land next
year.
19. In the year 1509, one whose name was Pfefferkorn,
a Jew of Cologne, pretended to be the Messiah. He af-
terwards affected, however, to turn Christian.
20. In the year 1534, rabbi Salomo Malcho, giving out
that he was the Messiah, was burnt to death by Charles
V. of Spain.
21. In the year 1615, a false Christ arose in the East
Indies, and was greatly followed by the Portuguese Jews
who were scattered over that country.
22. In the year 1624, another in the Low Countries
pretended to be the Messiah, of the family of David, and
of the line of Nathan. He promised to destroy Rome,
and to overthrow the kingdom of Antichrist, and the
Turkish empire.
23. In the year 1666, appeared the false Blessiah Saba-
tai Sevi, who made so great a noise, and gained such a
number of proselytes. He was born at Aleppo, imposed
on the Jews for a considerable time ; but afterwards, with
a view of saving his life, turned Mohammedan, and was
at last beheaded.
24. The last false Christ that made any considerable
number of converts was one rabbi Mordecai, a Jew of
Germany : he appeared in the year 1682. It was not
long before he was found out to be an impostor, and was
obliged to fly from Italy to Poland, to save his life. What
became of him afterwards does not seem to be recorded.
This may be considered as true and exact an account
of the false Christs that have arisen since the crucifixion
of our blessed Savior, as can well be given. See Juhnn-
ttes H Lent's Hist, of False Messiahs ; Jtirthi's Rem. on Erd.
Hist., vol. iii. p. 330 ; Kidder's Demonstratinn of the Mes-
sits ; Harris' Sermons on the Messiah ; The eleventh vo-
lume of the Modern Part of the Universal History ; Simpson's
Kcij In the Prophecies, sec. 9 ; Maelaurin on the Prophecies
relating to the Messiah ; Fuller's Jesus the true Messiah . —
IJend. Buck.
MESS-JOHNS; a name given upwards of a century
ago, in England, to chaplains kept by the nobility and
others in high life ; whose situation in the family appears
to have been any thing but agreeable. They were gene-
rally expected to rise from table after the second course ;
and if they ever attempted to sit the dinner out, it gene-
rally cost them their place. At an annual dinner given
at that time, on St. Stephen's day, by the archbishop of
Canterbury, the chaplain used to come in and say grace,
and retired immediately, till wanted to bless after dinner.
— Hend. Buck.
METEMPSYCHOSIS; the doctrine of the transmigra-
tion of souls into other bodies. This tenet has been at-
tributed to the sect of the Pharisees. Josephus, who was
himself a Pharisee, gives this account of their doctrine
in these points : — " Every soul is immortal ; those of the
good only enter into another body, but those of the bad
are tormented with everlasting punishment." From
whence it has been pretty generally concluded, that the
resurrection they held was only a Pythagorean one, name-
ly, the transmigration of the soul into another body ;
from which they excluded all that were notoriously wick-
ed, who were doomed at once to eternal punishment ; but
their opinion was, that those who were guilty only of les-
ser crimes were punished for them in the bodies into
which their souls were next sent. It is also supposed,
that it was upon this notion the disciples asked our Lord,
" Did this man sin, or his parents, that he was born
blind ?" (John 9: 2.) and that some said, Christ was " John
the Baptist, some Elias, others Jeremias, or one of the
prophets,-' Matt. 16: 14.
The transmigration of souls into other bodies was un-
doubtedly the opinion of the Pythagoreans and Platonists, .
and was embraced by some among the Jews ; as by the
author of the book of Wi.sdom, who says, that " being
good, he came into a body undefiled," 8: 20. Neverthe-
less, it is questioned whether the words of Josephus, be-
fore quoted, are a sufficient evidence of this doctrine of
the metempsychosis being received by the whole sect of
the Pharisees ; for, " passing into another or different
body," may only denote its receiving a body at the re-
surrection ; which will be another, not in substance, but
in quality ; as it is said of Christ at his transfiguration,
" the fashion of his countenance was" another, or, as we
render it, was " altered," Luke 9: 29.
As to the opinion which some entertained concerning
our Savior, that he was either John the Baptist, or Elias,
or Jeremias, or one of the prophets, (Matt. 16: 14.) it is
not ascribed to the Pharisees in particular, and if it were,
one cannot see how it could be founded on the doctrine
of the metempsychosis ; since the soul of Elias, now in-
habiting the body of Jesus, would no more make him to
be Elias, than several others had been, in whose bodies
the soul of Elias, according to this doctrine, is supposed
to have dwelt since the death of that ancient prophet, near
a thousand years before. Besides, how was it possible
any person that saw Christ, who did not appear to be less
than thirty years old, should, according to the notion of
the metempsychosis, conceive him to be John the Baptist,
who had been so lately beheaded ? Surely this apprehen-
sion mast be grounded on the supposition of a proper re-
surrection. It was, probably, therefore, upon the same
account, that others took him to be Elias, and others Je-
remias. Accordingly, St. Luke expresses it thus : — " Oth-
ers say, that one of the old prophets is risen from the
dead," Luke 9: 19. It may farther be observed, that the
doctrine of the resurrection, which St. Paul preached, was
not a present metempsychosis, but a real future resurrec-
tion, which he calls " the hope and resurrection of the
dead," Acts 23: 6. This he professed as a Pharisee, and
for this profession the partisans of that sect vindicated
him against the Sadducees, Acts 23: 7—9. Upon the
whole, therefore, it appears most reasonable to adopt the
opinion of Reland, though in opposition to the sentiments
of many other learned men, that the Pharisees held the
doctrine of the resurrection in a proper sense.
The doctrine of the metempsychosis prevails at the
present day almost universally among the heathen nations
of the East. (See Bcdhism, Hindooism, and Lamaism.)
— Watson.
METHODIST ; a term frequently applied m England
to a person who becomes religious, wdthout reference to
any particular sect or party, and especially to such mem-
bers of the church of England as are evangelical and zea-
lous in their preaching. — Hend. Buck.
METHODISTS, Dialectic ; those popish doctors who
arose in France about the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury, in opposition to the Huguenots, or Protestants.
These Methodists, from their different manner of treating
the controversy with their opponents, may be divided into
two classes. The one comprehends those doctors whose
method of disputing with the Protestants was disingenu-
fe*
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ous and unreasonable, and who followed the example of
those raililary chiefs who shut up their troops in inlrench-
riients and strong-holds, in order to cover them from the
attacks of the enemy. Of this number were the Jesuit
Veron, who required the Protestants to prove the tenets
of their church by plain passages of Scripture, without
being allowed the liberty of illustrating those passages,
reasoning upon them, or drawing any conclusions from
them ; Nihusius, an apostate from the Protestant religion ;
the two Wallenburgs, and others, who confined themselves
lo the business of answering objections ; and cardinal
Richlieu, who confined the whole controversy to the sin-
gle article of the divine institution and authority of the
church.
The Methodists of the second class were of opinion
that the most expedient manner of reducing the Protes-
tanis to silence, was not lo attack them by piecemeal, but
to overv/lielm them at once by the weight of some gene-
ral principle, or presumption, or some universal argument,
which comprehended or might be applied to all the points
contested between the two churches ; thus imitating the
conduct of those military leaders who, instead of spend-
ing their time and strength in sieges and skirmishes, en-
deavored to put an end to the war by a general and de-
cisive action. Some of these polemics rested the defence
of popery upon prescription ; others upon the wicked
lives of Protestant princes, who had left the church of
Rome ; others, the crime of religious schism ; the variety
of opinions among Protestants with regard to doctrine
and discipline, and the uniformity of the tenets and wor-
ship of the church of Rome ; and thus, by urging their
respective arguments, they thought they should stop the
mouths of their adversaries at once. — Hend. Buck.
METHODISTS, Wesleyan. Origin. This large and
respectable denomination was founded, in the year 1729,
by one JMr. Morgan and Mr. John Wesley. (See Wesley,
John.) These constitute the great body of the Arminian
Methodists, who hold the chapels, schools, &c., built or
founded by the great father of Methodism, and consider
themselves as representatives to the present generation
of what that system was when originally established.
1. Doctrine. The doctrines of the Wesleyan Metho-
dists, according lo their own account, are the same as the
church of England, as set forth in her liturgy, articles,
and homilies. This, however, has been disputed. Mr.
Wesley, in his appeal to men of reason and religion, thus
declares his sentiments : — " All I teach," he observes,
" respects either the nature and condition of justification,
the nature and condition of salvation, tlje nature of
justifying and saving faith, or the Author of faith
and salvation. That justification whereof our articles
and homilies speak, .signifies present forgiveness, and
consequently acceptance with God : I believe the con-
dition of this is faith : I tnean not only that without faith
we cannot be justified, but also that, as soon as any one
has true faith, in that monrent he is justified. Good
works follow this faith, but cannot go before it ; much
less can sanctification, which implies a continued course
of good works, springing from hohness of heart. But it
is allowed that sanctification goes before our justification
at the last day, Heb. 12: 14. Repentance, and fruits
meet for repentance, go before faith. Repentance abso-
lutely must go before faith; fruits meet for it, if there he
opportunity. By repentance I mean conviction of sin,
producing real desires and sincere resolutions of amend-
ment ; by salvation I mean not barely deliverance from
hell, but a present deliverance from sin. Faith, in gene-
ral, is a divine, supernatural evidence, or conviction of
things not seen, not discoverable by our bodily senses :
justifying faith implies not only a divine evidence or con-
fiction that God was in Christ reconciling the world unto
himself, but a sure trust and confidence that Christ died
for my sins, that he loved me, and gave himself for me.
And the moment a penitent sinner believes this, God par-
dons and absolves bim ; and as soon as his pardon or jus-
tification is witnessed to him by the Holy Ghost, he is
saved. From that time (unless he make shipwreck of the
faith) salvation gradually increases in his soul.
" The Author of faith and salvation is God alone.
There is no more of power than of merit in man ; but as
101
all merit is in the Son of God, in what he has done and
suflered for us, so all power is in the Spirit of God. And,
therefore, every man, in order lo believe unto salvation,
must receive the Holy Ghost." So far Mr. Wesley. Re-
specting original sin, free will, the justification of men,
good works, and works done before justification, he refers
us lo what is said on these subjects in the former pari of
the ninth, the tenth, the eleventh, the twelfth, and thir-
teenth articles of the church of England. In order that
we may form still clearer ideas respecling Mr. Wesley's
opinions, we shall here quote a few questions and answers
as laid down in the Minutes of Conference. Q. " In what
sense is Adam's sin imputed to all mankind ?'' A. " In
Adam all die, i. e. 1. Our bodies then became mortid.
2. Our souls died, i. e. were disunited from God. And
hence, 3. We are all born with a sinful, devili.sh nature ;
by reason whereof, 4. We are children of wrath, liable
to death eternal," Rom. .5: 18. Eph. 2: 3. Q. "In what
sense is the righteousness of Christ imputed lo all man-
kind, or lo believers?" A. "We do not find it expressly
affirmed in Scripture that God imputes the righteousness
of Christ to any, although we do find that faith is impuled
for righteousness. That text, ' As by one man's disobe-
dience all men were made sinners, so by the obedience
of one all were made righreous,' we conceive, means
by the merits of Christ all men are cleared from the guilt
of Adam's actual sin." Q. " Can faith be lost but
through disobedience ?" A. " It cannot. A believer first
inwardly disobeys ; inclines to sin with his heart ; then
his intercourse with God is cut off, i. e. his faith is lost ;
and after this he may fall into outward sin, being now
weak, and like another man." Q. "What is implied in
being a perfect Christian ?" A. " The loving the Lord our
God with all our heart, and with all our mind, and soul,
and strength." Q. " Does this imply that all inward sin
is taken away ?" A. " Without doubt ; or how could we
be said to be saved from all our undeannesses ?" Ezek. 36:
29. Q. " How much is allowed by our brethren who
diflPer from us with regard to entire sanctification ?" A.
" They grant, 1. That every one must be entirely sancti-
fied in the article of death. 2. That till then a believer
daily grows in grace, comes nearer and nearer to perfec-
tion. 3. That we ought to be continually pressing aftei
this, and to exhort all others to do so." Q. " What do
we allow them?" A. " We grant, 1. That many of those
who have died in the faith, yea, the greater part of those
we have known, were not sanctified throughout, not made
perfect in love, till a little before death. 2. That the
term sanctified is continually applied by St. Paul to all
that were justified, that were true believers. 3. That by
this term alone he rarely (if ever) means saved from all
sin. 4. That consequently it is not proper to use it in
this sense, without adding the word ' wholly, entirely,' or
the Uke. 5. That the inspired writers almost continually
speak of or to those who were justified, but very rarely
either of or to those who were sanctified. 6. That conse-
quently it behooves us to speak in public almo.st continu-
ally of the stale of justification ; but more rarely in full
and explicit terms concerning entire sanctification." Q.
"What, then, is the point wherein we divide ?'" A. "It
is this : Whether we should expect to be saved frcra all
sin before the article of death." Q. " Is there any clear
Scripture promise of this, that God will save us from all
sin ?" A. " There is. Ps. 130; 8 : ' He shall redeem Is-
rael from all his iniquities.' This is more largely express-
ed in Ezek. 36: 25, 29. 2 Cor. 7: 1. Deut. 30: 0. 1 John
3: 8. Eph. 5: 25, 27. John 17: 20, 23. 1 John 4; 17."
Thus we have endeavored lo give a view of ihe tenets
of the Wesleyan Methodists ; and this we have chosen to do
in their own words, in order to prevent misrepresentation.
■ 2. Discipline. Blr. Wesley having formed numerous
societies in diflerent parts, he, with his brother Charles,
drew up certain rules, by which they were, and it seems in
many respects still are, governed. They stale the nature
and design of a Methodist society in the following words : —
" Such a society is no other than a company of men
having the form and seeking the power of godliness ;
united in order to pray together, lo receive the ""''™ °*
exhortation, and to watch over one another in love, thai
they may help each other to work out their saivation.
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" That it may ilie more easily be discerned whether they
are indeed working out their own salvation, each society
IS divided into smaller companies, called classes, accord-
ing to their respective places of abode. There are about
twelve persons (sometimes fifteen, twenty, or even more)
in each class ; one of whom is styled the leader. It is his
business, 1. To see each person in his class once a week,
at least, in order to inquire how their souls prosper ; to
advise, reprove, comfort, or exhort, as occasion may re-
quire ; to receive what they are willing to give to the
poor, or towards the gospel. 2. To meet the minister and
the stewards of the society once a week, in order to in-
form the minister of any that are sick, or of any that
walk disorderly, and will not be reproved ; to pay to the
stewards what they have received of their several classes
in the week preceding ; and to show their account of
what each person has contributed.
" There is only one condition previously required of
those who desire admission into these societies, namely,
a desire to flee from the wrath to come ; to be saved from
their sins : but wherever this is really fixed in the soul,
it will be shown by its fruits. It is, therefore, expected
of all who continue therein, that they should continue to
evidence their desire of salvation, —
"First, by doing no harm ; by avoiding evil in every
kind ; especially that which is most generally practised,
such as taking the name of God in vain ; the profaning
the day of the Lord, either by doing ordinary Avork there-
on, or by buying or selling ; drunkenness ; buying or
selling spirituous liquors, or drinking them, unless in
cases of extreme necessity ; fighting, quarrelling, brawl-
ing ; brother going to law with brother ; returning evil
for evil, or railing for railing ; the using many words in
buying or selling ; the buying or selling uncustomed
goods ; the giving or taking things on usury ; i. e. unlaw-
ful interest.
" Uncharitable or unprofitable conversation ; particu-
ly speaking evil of magistrates or of ministers.
" Doing to others as we would not they should do un-
to us.
"Doing what we know is not for the glory of God ; as
the putting on gold or costly apparel ; the taking such di-
versions as cannot be used in the name of the Lord Jesus.
"The singing those songs, or reading those books,
which do not tend to the knowledge or love of God ; soft-
ness, and needless self-indulgence ; laying up treasure
upon the earth ; borrowing without a probability of paying,
or takin gup goods without a probability of pay ing for them .
" It is expected of all who continue in these societies
Ihat they should continue to evidence their desire of sal-
ration, —
" Secondly, by doing good ; by being in every kind
merciful after their power, as they have opportunity ; do-
ing good of every possible sort, and as far as possible, to
nil men ; to their bodies, of the ability which God giveth ;
Dy giving food to the hungry, by clothing the naked, by
visiting or helping them that are sick, or in prison ; to
Iheir souls, by instructing, reproving, or exhorting all we
have any intercourse with ; trampling under foot that en-
thusiastic doctrine of devils, that ' We are not to do good,
unle.ss our hearts be free to it.'
" By doing good, especially to them that are of the
household of faith, or groaning so to be ; employing them
preferably to others; buying one of another; helping
each other in business ; and so much the more, because
the world will love its own, and them only ; by all possi-
ble diligence and frugality, that the gospel be not blamed ;
by rnnning with patience the race set before them, deny-
ing themselves, and taking up their cross daily ; submit-
ting to bear the reproach of Christ ; to be as the filth and
ofl'scouring of the world, and looking that men should say
all manner of evil of them falsely for the Lord's sake.
" It is expected of all who desire to continue in these
societies, that they should continue to evidence their de-
sire of salvation, —
" Thirdly, by attending on all the ordinances of God :
such are, the public worship of God ; the ministry of the
word, either read or expounded ; the supper of the Lord ■
family and private prayer ; searching the Scriptures ; and
fasting and abstinence.
" These are the general rules of our societies, all which
we are taught of God to observe, even in his written
word : the only rttle, and the sufficient rule, both of our
faith and practice ; and all these we know his Spirit
writes on every truly awakened heart. If there be any
among us who observe them not, who habitually break
any of them, let it be inade known unto them who watch
over that soul, as they who must give an account. We
will admonish him of the error of his ways ; we will bear
with him for a season ; but then, if he repent not, he hath
no more place among us ; we have delivered our own
souls.
3. Circuits and Conferences. In Mr. Wesley's connex-
ion, they have circuits and conferences, which we find
were "thus formed : — When the preachers at first went out
to exhort and preach, it was by Mr. Wesley's permission
and direction ; some from one part of the kingdom, and
some from another ; and though frequently strangers to
each other, and those to whom they were sent, yet on his
credit and sanction alone they were received and provided
for as friends, by the societies wherever they came. But,
having little or no communication or intercourse with one
another, nor any subordination among themselves, they
must have been under the necessity of recurring to Mr.
Wesley for directions how and where they were to labor.
To remedy this inconvenience, he conceived the design
of calling them together to an annual conference ; by this
means he brought them into closer union with each other,
and made them sensible of the utility of acting in concert
and harmony. He soon found it necessary, also, to bring
their itinerancy under certain regulations, and reduce it
to some fixed order, both to prevent confusion, and for his
own ease ; he therefore took fifteen or twenty societies,
more or less, which lay round some principal society in
those parts, and which were so situated, that the greatest
distance from one to the other was not much more than
twenty miles, and united them into what was called a
circuit. At the yearly conference he appointed two, three,
or four preachers to one of these circuits, according to its
extent, which at first was often very considerable, some-
times taking in a part of three or four c ..unties. Here,
and here only, were they to labor for one year, that is,
until the next conference. One of the preachers on every
circuit was called the assistant, because he assisted Mr.
Wesley in superintending the societies, and other preach-
ers ; he took charge of the societies within the limits as-
signed him ; he enforced the rules everywhere, and direct-
ed the labors of the preachers associated with him. Hav-
ing received'a list of the societies forming his circuit, he
took his own station in it, gave to the other preachers a
plan of it, and pointed out the day when each should be
at the place fixed for him, to begin a progressive motion
round it, in such order as the plan directed. They now
followed one another through all the societies belonging
to that circuit, at stated distances of time, all being go-
verned by the same rules, and undergoing the same labor.
By this plan, every preacher's daily work was appointed
beforehand ; each knew, every day, where the others
were, and each society when to expect the preacher, and
how long he would stay with them. It may be observed,
however, that Mr. Wesley's design in calling the preach-
ers together annually, was not merel)' for the regulation
of the circuits, but also for the review of their doctrines
and discipline, and for the examination of their moral
conduct ; that those who were to administer with him in
holy things might be thoroughly furnished for every good
work.
4. Examination of Preachers. As to their preachers,
the following extract from the above-mentioned Minutes
of Conference will show us in what manner they are chor
sen and designated. Q. " How shall we try those who
think they are moi-ed by the Holy Ghost to preach ?" A.
"Inquire, 1. Do they know God as a pardoning God?
Have they the love of God abiding in them ? Do they
desire and seek nothing but God? And are they holy in
all manner of conversation ? 2. Have they gifts as well
as grace for the work ? Have they, in some tolerable de-
gree, a clear, sound understanding ? Have they a right
judgment in the things of God ? Have they a just con-
ception of salvation by faith ? And has God given them
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any degree of uuerance ? Do they speak justly, readily,
clearly ? 3. Have they fruit ? Are any truly convinced
of sin, and converted to God, by their preaching ?
" As long as these three marks concur in any one, we
believe he is called of God to preach. These we receive
as sufficient proof that he is moved thereto by the Holy
Ghost."
Q. "What method may we use in receiving a new help-
er?" A. ''A proper time for doing this is at a conference,
after solemn fasting and prayer. Every person proposed
is then to be present, and each of them may be asked, —
" Have you failh in Christ ? Are you going on to per-
fection ? Do you expect to be perfected in love in this
life ? Are you groaning after it ? Are yon resolved to
devote yourself wholly to God and to his work ? Have
you considered the rules of a helper ? AVill you keep
them for conscience' sake ? Are you determined to em-
ploy all your time in the work of God ? Will you preach
every morning and evening ? Will you diligently instruct
the children in every place ? Will you visit them from
house to house ? Will you recommend fasting both by
precept and example ?
" We then may receive him as a probationer, by giving
him the Minutes of the Conference, inscribed thus : — 'To
A. B. You think it your duty to call sinners to repent-
ance. Make full proof hereof, and we shall rejoice to
receive you as a fellow-laborer.' Let him then road
and carefully weigh what is contained therein, that if
he has any doubt it may be removed."
" To the above it may be useful to add," says Mr. Ben-
son, " a few remarks on the method pursued in the choice
of the itinerant preachers, as many have formed the most
erroneous ideas on the subject, imagining they are em-
ployed with hardly any prior preparation. 1. They are
received as private members of the society on trial. 2.
After a quarter of a year, if they are found deserving,
they are admitted as proper members. 3. When their
grace and abilities are sufficiently manifest, they are ap-
pointed leaders of classes. 4. If they then discover ta-
lents for more important services, they are employed to
exhort occasionally in the smaller congregations, when
the preachers cannot attend. 5. If approved in this line
of duty, they are allowed to preach. 6. Out of these
men, who are called local preachers, are selected the itine-
rant preachers, who are first proposed at a quarterly
meeting of the stewards and local preachers of the circuit ;
then at a meeting of the travelling preachers of the dis-
trict ; and, lastly, in the conference ; and, if accepted, are
nominated for a circuit. 7. Their characters and conduct
are examined annually in the conference ; and, if they
continue faithful for four years of trial, they are received
into full connexion. At these conferences, also, strict in-
quiry is made into the conduct and success of every
preacher, and those who are found deficient in abilities
are no longer employed as itinerants ; while those whose
conduct has not been agreeable to the gospel, are expell-
ed, and thereby deprived of all the privileges even of pri-
vate members of the society."
5. Duties of Preachers. The following extract from
" The Larger Minutes," will show what are considered to
he the office and duty of a Methodist preacher : — Q.
"What is the office of a Christian minister?" A. "To
watch over souls, as he that must give an account. To
feed and guide the flock." Q. " How shall he be fully
qualified for his great work ?" A. " By walking closely
with God, and having his work greatly at heart ; by un-
derstanding and loving every branch of our discipline;
and by carefully and constantly observing the twelve rules
of a helper: viz. 1. Be diligent; never be unemployed;
never be triflingly employed ; never while away time, nor
spend more time at any place than is strictly necessary^
2. Be serious; let your motto be holiness to the Lord;
avoid all lightness, jesting, and foolish talking. 3. Con-
verse sparingly and cautiously with women, particularly
with young women. 4. Take no step towards marriage
■without solemn prayer to God, and consulting with your
brethren. 5. Believe evil of no one ; unless fully proved
take heed how you credit it ; put the best construction you
can on every thing; you know the judge is always suppos-
ed to be on the prisoner's side. 6. Speak evil of no one,
else yuiir word especially would eat as dolh a canker;
keep your thoughts within your own breast, till you come
to the person concerned. 7. Tell every one what you
think wrong in him, lovingly and plainly, and as soon as
may be, else it will fester in your own heart ; make all
haste to cast the fire out of your bosom. 8. Do not affect
the gentleman : a preacher of the gospel is the servant of
all. 9. Be ashamed of nothing but sin, no, not of clean-
ing your own shoes when necessary. 10. Be punctual-
do every thing exactly at the time ; and do not mend our
rules, but keep them, and that for conscience' sake. 11.
You have nothing to do but to save souls ; and therefore
spend and be spent in this work ; and go always, not on-
ly to those who want you, but to those who want yon
most. 12. Act in all things, not according to your own
will, but as a son in the gospel, and in union with your
brethren. As such, it is your part to employ your time
as our rules direct ; partly in preaching and visiting from
house to house ; partly in reading, meditation, and prayer.
Above all, if you labor with us in our Lord's vineyard, it
is needful that you should do that part of the work which
the conference shall advise, at those times and- places
which they shall judge most for his glory.
" Obsei-ve : — It is not your business to preach so many
times, and to take care merely of this and that society ;
but to save as many souls as you can; to bring as many
sinners as you possibly can to repentance ; and, with all
your power, to build them up in that holiness without
which they cannot see the Lord ; and, remember, a Me-
thodist preacher is to mind every point, great and small, in the
Methodist discipline ; therefore you will need all the grace
and all the sense you have, and to have all your wits
about you."
The discipline of the Wesleyan Methodists is rigidly
uniform. No deviation whatever from prescribed rules
is permitted. Every preacher, and indeed every member,
is to render unqualified obedience to the dictates of the
conference ; the legal number of the preachers constituting
which is one hundred, though it is often attended by about
three hundred and fifty ministers. From the minutes of
the conference held in 1831, it appears that the number
of persons in the societies were as follows : — In Great
Britain, 249,119 ; in Ireland, 22,470; and in foreign sta-
tions, 42,743. Their regular preacheis were 846, in
Great Britain ; 143 in Ireland ; and 187, exclusive of cate-
chists, in foreign stations.
II. New Co.vNExioNs. Since Mr. Wesley's death, his
people have been divided ; but this division, it seems, re-
spects discipline more than sentiment. At the first con-
ference after his death, which was held at Manchester, the
preachers published a declaration, in which they said that
they would " take the plan as Mr. Wesley had left it."
This was by no means satisfactory to many of ihe preach-
ers and people, who thought that religious liberty ought to
be extended to all the societies which desired it. In order
to favor this cause, so agreeable to the spirit of Chris-
tianity and the rights of Englishmen, several respectable
preachers came forward ; and by the writings which they
circulated through the connexion, paved the way for
a plan of pacification, by which it was stipulated, that ia
every society where a threefold majority of class-leaders,
stewards, and trustees desired it, the people should have
preaching in church hours, and the sacraments of baptism
and the Lord's supper administered to them.
The spirit of inquiry being roused did not stop here ;
for it appeared agreeable both to reason and the customs
of the primitive church, that the people should have a
voice in the temporal concerns of the societies, vote in the
election of church oflicers, and give their sufirages in
spiritual concerns. This subject produced a variety of
arguments on both sides of the question ; many of the
preachers and people thought that an annual delegation
of the general stewards of the circuits, to sit either in the
conference or the district meetings, in order to assist in
the disbursement of the yearly collection, the Kingswood
school collection, and the preachers' fund, and in making
new or revising old laws, would be a bond of ""J'"" _
tween the conference and connexion at large, and do a™;".^
the very idea of arbitrary power among the travellint,
preachers.
MET
S04
IvI E T
III Older to facilitate this good woik, raatiy societies, in
various parts of the kingdom, sent delegates to the con-
ference held at Leeds, in 1797 : they were instructed to
request, that the people might have a voice in the forma-
tion of their own laws, the choice of their own officers,
and the distribution of their own property. The preachers
proceeded to discuss two motions : — Shall delegates from
the societies be admitted into the conference? Shall cir-
cuit stewards be admitted into the district meetings?
Both motions were negatived, and consequently all hopes
of accommodation between the parties were given up. Se-
veral friends of religious liberty proposed a plan for a new
itinerancy. In order that it might be carried into imme-
diate effect, they formed themselves into a regular meet-
ing, in Ebenezer chapel; Mr. William Thom being cho-
sen president, and Mr. Alexander Kilham secretary.
The meeting proceeded to arrange the plan for supplying
Ihe circuits of the new connexion with preachers ; and
desired the president and secretary to draw up the rules
of church government, in order that they might be circu-
lated through the societies for their approbation. Accord-
ingly, a form of church government, suited to an itinerant
ministry, was printed by these two brethren, under the
title of " Outlines of a Constitution proposed for the Ex-
amination, Amendment, and Acceptance, of the members
of the Methodist Itinerancy." The plan was examined
by select committees in the different circuits of the con-
nexion, and, with a few alterations, was accepted by the
conference of preachers and delegates. The preachers
and people are incorporated in all meetings for business,
not by temporary concession, but by the essential princi-
ples of their constitution ; for the private members choose
the class-leaders ; the leaders' meeting nominates the
stewards ; and the society confirms or rejects the nomina-
tion. The quarterly meetings are composed of the gene-
ral stewards and representatives chosen by the different
societies of the circuits, and the fourth quarterly meeting
of the year appoints the preacher and delegate of every
circuit that shall attend the general conference. For a
further account of their principles and discipline, we must
refer the reader to a pamphlet, entitled, "General Rules
of the United Societies of Methodists in the New Connex-
ion."
In 1829, the New Connexion Methodists had 162 cha-
pels, 59 circuits, and 492 local preachers. Their numbers
amounted to 11,777.
III. PuiMiTn'E Methodists, or Ranteks, who are in
general very illiterate, and extremely noisy in their pub-
lic demeanor, (proceeding, for instance, through the streets
singing hymns,) broke off from the grand body of the Me-
thodists, some years ago, on the ground that the original
.<;pirit of Methodism was not kept up among its members.
They allow females to preach in promiscuous assemblies ;
a practice condemned by the conference. They have 403
chapels ; the number of their preachers, chiefly local, is
2,700 ; and that of their members 33,720.
IV. Independent Methodists, and
V. Wesleyan Protestant Methodists, are two minor
bodies that have recently separated, in consequence of
what they deemed acts of arbitrary and unconstitutional
power on the part of the conference, and the claiming of
an authority which they conceived to be unwarranted by
the New Testament. One of the latter body goes so far
as to say, that the power which has hitherto been exercis-
ed by the Methodist conference, agrees in all things with
that of the princes of this world, who rule over men only
for their own honor and advantage ; but is utterly incom-
patible with the power of moral suasion, and the power of
Christian charity. The " Independents " have upwards
of a hundred lay-preachers, and about 4,000 members ;
the " Protestants," who reside chiefly in and about Leeds,
are rapidly on the increase, and their cause has been
warmly espoused by many in London, who were weary
of the yoke imposed upon them Dy the conference. What
gave rise to the Independent branch was, we understand,
a refusal on the part of the conference to admit lay-mem-
bers to a share in the administration of the discipline and
other affairs of the society.
VI. Betanites, so called from a Mr. Bryan, one of
their preachers, have about 13,000 members. They differ
very Utile from the Ranters. Cohe's, Southey's, and Wat-
son's Life of Wesley ; Macgotvan's Shaver ; Wesley's
Works ; Baismi's Vindication and Apology for the Me-
thodists ; Fletcher's Works ; Bogue and Bennett's History o]
the Dissenters, vol. iii. ; Walker's Address to the Methodists.
— JJend. Buck.
METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN THE UNI-
TED STATES.* History. The first Methodist class in
America was formed in the city of New York, by Mr. Philip
Embury, in 1766. The community, however, arising out of
the labors of Mr. Wesley and some early preachers, was
not regularly formed till 1784, when Dr. Coke, a presby-
ter of the church of England, having been ordained, was
sent out in the capacity of superintendent of the Metho-
dist societies in America.
On the 25th of December, 1784, the preachers, amount-
ing in number to sixty-one, were eissembled for conference
in Baltimore, at which time the Methodist Episcopal
church was duly organized. Agreeably to the instructions
received from Mr. Wesley, Mr. Asbury, who was unani-
mously elected by the suffrages of his brethren, was first
ordained deacon, then elder, and afterwards superinteti-
dent or bishop, by Dr. Coke, with the assistance of the
presbyters present. At the same conference, twelve of
the preachers were elected and ordained elders, and sent
forth like the apostles of old to preach the word of God,
and to administer the holy sacraments. The doings of
this conference resulted in giving great satisfaction both
to the preachers and people ; for their plans of future ope-
ration were now so regulated and systematized, that the
wants of the societies were promptly met ; and the great
object of the preachers in spreading the gospel was greatly
promoted by a well organized system of itinerancy. At
this time, there were 14,988 members in the society, and
83 preachers. (See Asbury, and Coke.)
Their number having so increased, and their fields of
labor being so remote from each other, it was not long be-
fore it was impracticable for them all to meet in one con-
ference, as they had been accustomed to do ; therefore
they found it necessary to divide themselves into annual
conferences, each conference including such numbers of
the preachers as were so situated as to be able to meet
with the least inconvenience to themselves : they always
fixing the time of their annual sessions to suit the conve-
nience of the bishops ; for it pertains to their ofiice to pre-
side on these occasions ; to direct the business of the
conference, and to appoint the preachers to their work for
the year.
These several annual conferences soon found it neces-
sary, in order to preserve a general harmony in their
mode of operation, to appoint a general conference,
which was then composed of all the elders belonging to
the travelling connexion. This body soon became so
large, that it was found expedient to reduce the number;
this was done by adopting the plan of having a suitable
number of delegates from each conference, fully to re-
present the wants of the church in their several confe-
rences.
The first delegated general conference was held in the
city of New York, in May, 1812. At this time there
were 688 travelling preachers, and 196,357 members in
the church. The increase of members this year was
10,790. This conference was composed of one member
for every five members of each annual conference ; but at
the last general conference the number was changed to
one for every fourteen. For a knowledge of the pow-
ers and privileges of this body, we refer the reader to
the Discipline of the Church, sec. 3, page 19, edition
1832.
Statistics. There are now (1833) five bishops in -the
Methodist Episcopal church, who are constantly travel-
ling over our whole extent of country ; preaching the
gospel, attending the several conferences, ordaining mi-
nisters, and taking the general oversight of the whole
work.
In the United States there are at present, annual con-
ferences, 22.
* This article was prepared for the Encyclopedia liy the Rev. Ship-
ley W. Willson, editor of Zion's Herald, Boston.
M E T
[ 805 ]
W E T
Travelling preachers,
While members, ....
Colored, ......
Indian, ......
Total preachers and church members, 569,498
Increase this year, (18i3,) . . . 46,720
This large number of preachers and people have been
raised up in the United States within the short space of
sixty-seven years ; besides the thousands who have died
in the faith, and gone to inherit the promises. In view of
the wonderful success that has crowned the labors of the
Methodist ministry, we may well exclaim, " What halh
God wrought!" Truly, it may be said, "A little one
has become a thousand, and a small one a great people ;
this is the Lord's doings, and it is marvellous in our eyes."
Enterprise. The Jlethodist Episcopal church has not
been indifferent to the benevolent enterprises of the day,
but has done much, and now has the prospect of doing
much more, for the promotion of the general objects that
engro.ss the attention of the Christian world.
In 1819, the Missionary Society of the Methodist Episco-
pal church was organized ; and at the next general con-
ierence, in 1820, it received the approval and sanction of
that body. Many auxiliary societies have been formed,
and the church generally lakes a lively and deep interest
in the missionary cause.
There are now (1834) employed under the patronage
of this society 100 missionaries, who have the charge, as
nearly as can be ascertained, of 11,886 church members,
and probably preach to five times this number of people.
In connexion with these, there are 16 teachers and 672
scholars.
Two missionaries are now in Liberia, (Africa,) and two
ore sent to the Flat Head Indians, beyond the Kocky
mountains.
The funds of the society have greatly increased during
the past year. The receipts were S31,361 39, being an
increase of S 18,603 10 over that of the previous year.
The church has also a Bible, Tract, and Sunday School
Society ; and every department is in successful operation.
The subject of temperome is regarded by the church as
a matter of vital im])ortance to its spiritual interests.
There are many conference and church temperance socie-
ties formed ; and both preachers and people are deeply
engaged in doing all in their power to promote the great
objects of the temperance cau.se.
The Methodist Episcopal church has a large book con-
cern, which is located in the city of New York. In this
establishment there are thirty presses employed, one of
which is a power press. The concern employs three edi-
tors, two agents, seven clerks, one superintendent of the
printing office, who has under his charge eighty-seven
persons, including com]X)sitors, pressmen, roller boys,
&c. ; one superintendent of the bindery, who has under
his charge forty-three males, and sixty-one females, mak-
ing in all two hundred and five persons.
In 1828, there was a publishing fund instituted, the ob-
ject of which is to enable the book concern to print and
sell Bibles, tracts, and Sunday school books at the low-
est possible prices.
The chartered fund of the Methodist Episcopal church
v'ns originally raised by the voluntary contributions of
benevolent friends. It is located in Philadelphia, and is
under the management of a board of nine trustees, mem-
bers of the church. A charter was obtained of the legisla-
ture of Pennsylvania for this fund, in 1797, and its income
is equally divided among the several conferences, for the
benefit of the deficient, superannuated, and supernume-
rary preachers, their wives and children, and the widows
and orphans of deceased preachers. Its capital is only
about S25,000; and its income but about $1,500 a year.
Literature has not been overlooked by this church, but
has alwa5'S received the attention that could be possibly
spared from the more important work of saving souls.
There are at present five colleges, and twelve or more
academies under its particular patronage. These are all
under good discipline, and are exerting an influence not
only favorable to literature, but favorable also to morals
and religion.
Doctrine. As the doctrines of the church are embodied
in the articles of religion, which give the sentiments of
our denomination fully, we would refer the reader to the
Discipline. [See also the article Methodists, Wesleva.n.]
A careful perijsalof these articles, and a candid com-
parison of these with the word of God, will enable the
inquirer after truth to form an opinion for himself.
Government. The title of the church gives us a correct
idea of the character of its government — it is strictly
Episcopal. The general rules of government are the same
in this country as those given by fllr. Wesley, for the go-
vernment of the l\Iethodist societies in England. (See
Discipline, chap. 2, sec. 1, p. 75, &c.)
All the members are received into the church on a pro-
bation of six months ; during which time they have am-
ple time to make themselves acquainted with all the doc-
trines and usages of the church ; and the church has also
an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the Christian
experience and the general character of the probationers :
at the end of the probation, if there is a mutual agree-
ment between the probationers and the church they are
received into full connexion ; but in case there is a disa-
greement, probationers can withdraw, or the church can
drop them without the formality of a church trial.
Whenever there is a sufficient number of persons in a
place, who wish to unite with the Methodist Episcopal
church, it is customary for the preacher to form them into
a class, and to appoint one of their number a leader,
who.se duty it is to take a special oversight of them, and
to meet them once a week for the purpose of religious in-
struction and improvement. (Sec Discipline, chapter 2,
section 2, page 81.) Classes thus formed are united into
a church, and the church is placed under the charge of a
travelling preacher. The churches are situated on cir-
cuits or stations, and they are annually supplied by a
preacher from the conference.
On each circuit or station there is a quarterly confe-
rence, consisting of the presiding elder of the district, all
the travelling and local preachers, exhorters, stewards,
and leaders of the circuit or station, and none else. This
conference possesses an appellate jurisdiction over the
members of the church on the circuit or station, who may
have appealed from the decisions of the church, and its
decisions in all cases are final. It al'o attends to the
general business of the church, both temporal and spiritu-
al, which cannot so well be attended to by the members
of the church in their more private capacity. It is pro-
perly a connecting link between the church and the an-
nual conference, and all the business of the church wiih
the annual conference is prepared and forwarded by this
body.
A number of circuits and stations form districts, over
which an elder is appo'nted to preside. And a number
of the districts form a conference, which meets annually
for the transaction of its appropriate business. And then,
again, delegates from these several annual conferences
form a general conference, which meet.s once in four years.
There are three nrdei"s of ministers recognised in the
Methodist Episcopal clTurch ; bishops, elders, and deacons ;
and the duties pertaining to each, are plainly defined in
the Discipline. [See JIethodists, Weslevan.]
For the election, consecration, and duties of the bishops,
see Discipline, chap. 1, sec. 4, p. 25. For the duties of
presiding elders, see Dis., sec. 5. p. 28. For the election
and ordination of travelling elders, and their duties, see
sec. 6, p. 31. For the election and ordination of travel-
ling deacons, see sec. 7. p. 32. And for the method of
receiving travelling preachers, and their duties, see sec. 8,
p. 33. In addition to the travelling ministry, there is a
large and useful class of ministers belongi.g to the Me-
thodist Episcopal church, denominated local preachers. As
these men are so circumstanced in their affairs of life as
not to be able to give themselves up exclusively to the
work of the ministry, yet they do what they can on Sab-
bath days, and at other times, in preaching the gospel, and
in helping on the great work of evangelizing the world-
For a knowledge of their duties, powers, and privile^s,
see Dis., chap. 1, sec. 20, p. 66. For the particular du-
ties of the preachers to God, to themselves, and each oth-
er, see Dis., sec. 12, p. 48.
MET
[ 806 ]
M E Z
There are many other things connected with the his-
tory, doctrine, and government of this church, which we
cannot notice in this article, for the want of room ; and
even if we had, it would not be necessary, for there are a
great plenty of works already before the public, which
treat of all these matters in detail.
Distinguished Men. The standard writers of the Me-
thodists are Wesley, Fletcher, Benson, Clarke, and Wat-
son, with many others, too numerous to mention. To
these we would refer the reader for a full and particular
knowledge of this numerous denomination of Christians.
See Zimi's Herald, for June, 1834.
METHODIST PROTESTANT CHURCH. (See Pso-
TESTANT Methodist Church.)
METHODISTS, Whitfield, or Cai.vinistic. Under
this term are generally comprised three distinct con-
nexions.
1. The Tabernacle Connexion, or that formed by Mr.
Whitfield, and so called from the name given to several
of his places of worship, in London, Bristol, fee. (See
Whitfield.) In some of the chapels in this connexion
the service of the church of England is read ; in others
the worship is conducted much in the same way as among
the Congregationalists : while, in all, the system of sup-
ply is more or less kept up, consisting in the employment,
for a n onth or six weeks, of ministers from different parts
of the country, who either take the whole duty, or assist
the resident minister. Some of the congregations con-
sist of several thousand hearers ; and, by the blessing of
' God on the rousing and faithful sermons which are usu-
ally delivered to them, very extensive good is effected in
the way of conversion. Most of the ministers now em-
ployed as supplies in this connexion, are of the Congre-
gational order, to which of late years there appears to be
a gradual approximation ; and it is not improbable that
ere long both bodies will coalesce.
2. Lady Huntingdon's Connexion. For an account of
the origin of this section of Calvinistic Methodists, see the
article Huntinodon, Countess of The number of cha-
pels belonging to this body, at the present time, is about
.sixty, in all of which the liturgy of the church of England
is read, and most of her forms scrupulously kept up. The
ministers, who used formerly to supply at different chapels
in the course of the year, are now become more stationary,
and have assumed more of the pastoral character. They
have a respectable j;ollege at Cheshunt, in Hertford-
shire.
3. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. This body, which
is now very numerous, takes its date from the year 1735,
iiiuch about the time that Methodism began in England ;
and is to be traced to the zealous labors of Howel Harris,
Esq., of Trevecca, in Brecknockshire, who had intended
to take orders in the church of England, but was so shock-
ed at the impiety which he witnessed among the students
at Oxford, that he abandoned his purpose ; and returning
to his native place, began to exert himself for the salvation
of sinners, both in his own parish and in those which ad-
joined it. A great revival was the result ; and it being
found necessary to have private conversations with such
as were under concern about their souls, beyond what Mr.
Harris could attend to, he formed societies, in which they
could be carried on by experienced individuals appointed
for the purpose. Notwithstanding the opposition that he
met Willi, he was so successful in his exertions, that in
the cour.se of four years, not fewer than three hundred
societies were formed in South Wales. It was not
long before this zealous servant of Christ was joined by
several ministers who left the established church, who be-
came itinerants, and diffused the knowledge of the gospel
very widely in the principality.
The first association was held about the year 1743, and
since which time associations have been held quarterly.
The connexion continued to receive fresh accessions, both
from among the ministers and members of the establish-
ment, till the year 1785, when it was joined by the Rev.
Thomas Charles, A. B., of Bala, who, in addition to other
zealous labors in the gospel, set himself to organize the
body, according to a more regular plan ; so that to him
its members now look as the principal instrument in re-
ducing them to their present order.
Their constitution consists of the following combina-
tions : — 1. Private societies. These include such, and such
only, as discover some concern about their souls, their
need of Christ, a diligent attendance on the means of
grace, freedom from doctrinal errors, and an unblamable
walk and conversation, together with their children ; and
who meet once every week privately, under the superin-
tendence of two or more leaders. These socielies are sub-
ject, as it regards subordination and government, to, 2.
The monthly societies, the members of which are exclusively
preachers, or leaders of private societies within the county,
and such of the officers from neighboring counties as may
conveniently attend. These take cognizance of the state
of all the private societies within their bounds, particu-
larly that there be nothing, either in doctrine or discipline,
contrary to the word of God, or dissonant from the rule^j
of the connexion. 3. The quarterly socielies, or associa-
tions, which are convened once every quarter of a year,
both in South and North Wales. At every such associa-
tion the whole connexion is supposed to be present,
through its representatives, the preachers and leaders ;
and accordingly the decisions of this meeting are deemed
of authority on every subject relating to the body through
all its branches.
The number of Calvinistic Methodists in Wales is very
great, and is increasing from year to year. Their chapels
more than treble the churches. In almost every village
neat stone buildings, built expressly for places of dissent-
ing worship, are to be iinet with, and most of these belong
to this body ; and had it not been for their exertions and
those of the Independents, ttc, the inhabitants of most
parts of the principality must have remained in the gross-
est state of ignorance ; the gospel being very seldom
preached in the pulpits of the establishment.
They are high in their Calvinistic sentiments, taking
the strictly commercial view of the atonement of Christ,
and regarding the work of redemption as possessing no
aspect or bearing but what regards the elect. See History
of Methodism : Gillie's Life of Whitfield, and Worh ; The
History, Constitution, Huhs of Discipline, and Cojifession of
Faith of the Calvinistic Methodists in Wales. — Hend. Buck.
METHUSELAH, son of Enoch, (Gen. 5: 21, 22.) was
born A. M. 687 : he begat Lamech, A.M. 874, and died
A. M. 1G56, aged nine hundred and sixty-nine years; the
greatest age attained by any man. The year of his death
was that of the deluge. — Calmet.
METROPOLITAN ; a bishop of a mother-church, or of
the chief church in the chief citj'. (See articles Bishop ;
Episcopacy.) — Hcnd. Buck.
BIETUS ; an aged and venerable Christian of Alexan-
dria, who in the persecution in that city A. D. 249, for
refusing to blaspheme his Savior, was first beaten with
clubs, then pierced with sharp reeds, and finally stoned to
death. Qui.nta and ApoLLo^•IA, two Christian females,
and many others whose names are not preserved, were
fellow-sufferers. — Fox, p. 26.
MEZUZOTH, is a name the Jews give to certain pieces
of parchment, which they fix on the door-posts
of their houses ; taking literally what Moses
says. Dent. 6: 9, 11, 13 : " Thou shalt never for-
get the laws of thy God, but thou shalt write them
on the 'posts of thy house, and on thy gates." They
pretend, that to avoid making themselves ridicu-
lous, by writing the commandments of God with-
out their doors, or rather to avoid exposing them
to profanation, they ought to write them on
parchment, and to inclose it. Therefore they
write these words on a square piece of prepared
parchment, with a particular ink, and a square
kind of character, Deut. 6: 4—9 : " Hear, 0 Is-
rael, the Lord our God is one Lord," &c. Then
they leave ahttle space, and afterwards goon to Deut. 11:
13 ; " And it shall come to pass, if thou shall hearken dili-
gently to my commandments," ice. as far as, " thou shalt
write them upon the door-posts of thy house." After this
they roll up the parchment, put it into a case, and write
on it Shadai, (Almighty,) which is one of the names of
God, and then attach it to the doors of their houses, and
chambers, and to the knocker of the door on the right
side. As often as they pass, they touch it in this place
MIC
l807 ]
MIC
with their finger, which they afterwards IjiSs. The He-
brew mezuza properly signifies a door-post of a house, but
is a name also given to this roll of parchment. — Calmet.
MICAH, the seventh in order of the twelve lesser pro-
phets, is supposed to have prophesied about B. C. 750.
He was commissioned to denounce the judgments of God
against both the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, for their
idolatry and wickedness.
The principal predictions contained in this book are, the
invasions of Shalmanezer and Sennacherib ; the destruc-
tion of Samaria and of Jerusalem, mixed with consola-
tcHy promises of the deliverance of the Jews from the
Babylonian captivity, and of the downfall of the power
of their Assyrian and Babylonian oppressors; the cessa-
tion of prophecy in consequence of their continued
deceitfulness and hypocrisy ; and a desolation in a then
distant period, still greater than that which was declared
to be impending. The birth of the Slessiah at Bethlehem
is also expressly foretold ; and the Jews are directed to
loolf to the establishment and extent of his lungdom, as
an unfailing source of comfort amidst general distress.
The style of Micah is nervous, concise, and elegant,
often elevated and poetical, but sometimes ob-scure from
sudden transitions of subject ; and the contrast of the ne-
glected duties of justice, mercy, humilily, and piety, with
the punctilious observance of the ceremonial sacrifices,
affords a beautiful example of the harmony which sub-
sists between the Blosaic and Christian dispensations, and
shows that the law partook of that spiri'.ual nature which
more immediately characterizes the religion of Jesus.
The prophecy of Micah, contained in the fifth chapter,
is, perhaps, the most important single prophecy in all the
Old Testament, and the most comprehensive respecting the
personal character of the Messiah, and his sitccessive
jnanifestations to the world. It crowns the whole chain
of predictions respecting the several limitations of the
promised seed : to the line of Sheni ; to the family of
Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob ; to the tribe of Judah ;
and to the royal house of David, terminating in his birth
at Bethlehem, " the city of David." It carefully distin-
guishes his human nativity from his divine nature and
eternal existence ; foretels the casting off of the Israelites
and Jews for a season ; their ultimate restoration ; and
the universal peace which should prevail in the kingdom
and under the government of the Messiah. This prophe-
cy, therefore, forms the basis of the New Testament reve-
lation, which commences with the birth of the Messiah at
Bethlehem, the miraculous circumstances of which are
recorded by St. Matthew and St. Luke in the introduction
to their respective histories ; the eternal subsistence of
Chri.st as " the Word," in the sublime introduction to St.
John's gospel ; his prophetic character and second com-
ing, illustrated in the four gospels and in the apostolic
epistles. — Jones ; Watson.
MICAH, of Ephraim, son of a rich widow, who became
an occasion of falling to Israel, (Judg. 17, 18.) by mak-
ing an ephol (or priestly habit) and images of metal, for
a domestic chapel. He made one of his own sons priest ;
and afterwards a young Levite. It is believed this hap-
pened in the interval, after the death of Joshua, and the
elder.s that succeeded him, till Othniel judged Israel.
Thus idolatry took root, and diff'used its influence, like the
dtadly upas, throughout his country. Behold, how great a
matter a little fire Undhlh. — Calmet.
MICAIAH ; son of Imlah, of Ephraim, and a prophet,
who lived in the time of Ahab, 1 Kings 22: 8—38.—
Calmet.
MICHAEL ; the name given to the archangel who is
represented as presiding over the Jewish nation. (See An-
aEL. and Archanrel.) Jude (9, 10.) speaks of his con-
tending with the devil, and disputing about the body of
Bloses ; an expression which has given rise to many
opinions. Wilhnut detailing these, we remark, that the
opinion of Macknight seems to be the most reasonable,
and the least liable to exception.
In Dan. 10: 13—21, and 12: 1, Michael, he remarks,
is spoken of as one of the chief angels, who took care of
the Israelites as a nation : he may, therefore, he thinks,
have " been the angel of the Lord," before whom Joshua
the high-priest is said to have stood, " Satan being at his
right hand to resist him ;" (Zech. 3: 1.) namely, in his de-
sign of restoring the Jemsh church and state, called by
Jude, the body of Moses, just as the Christian church is call-
ed by Paul, Ihel/odij o/ Christ. Zechariah adds, " And the
Lord," that is, the angel of the Lord, as is plain from ver.
1, " said unto Satan, The Lord rebuketh thee, O Satan!
even the Lord who hath chosen Jerusalem, rebuketh
thee!" Dr. A. Clarke adopts this view of the passage,
and adds to the remarks of Macknight the following :—
" Among the Hebrews, guph, body, is often used for a
thing itself ; so Rom. 7: 24, the body of sin, signifies sin it-
self. So the body of Moses may signify Moses him.self ;
or that in which he was particularly concerned ; namely,
hi.-i institutes, rehgion, &c. (See Jude.) — Calmet.
MICHAELIS, (John Henry,) a learned divine and
Oriental .scholar, was born at Kettenberg, in German)*^
ItiOS. He studied at the university of Leipsic, and after-
wards at Halle, where he became professor of Greek lite-
rature in 1699. He subsequently obtained the ofiice of
librarian to the university, and at length was appointed
to the chair of divinity and the Oriental languages. In
1720, he published, at Halle, a valuable edition of the He-
brew Bible, with various readings from manuscripts and
printed editions, and the fliasoretic Commentary and An-
notations of the Rabbins. A kind of appendix to this
work at the saiue time appeared under the title of " An-
notationes Philologico Exegeticte in Hagiographiis ;"
Halle, 1720, in three vols. 4to. He was also the author
of a Hebrew Grammar, and other works. He died in
1738.— //««(/. Buck.
MICHAELIS, (Sir John Dav[d,) son of Christian
Benedict, and nephew of John Henry Michaelis, was born
at Halle, in 1717. He was educated at the university of
his native place, and devoted himself to the clerical pro-
fession. Having visited England, he became acquainted
with bishop Lowth, and other learned men, and for a
while officiated as minister at the German chapel, St.
James' palace. Returning to Germany, he was made
professor of theology and Oriental literature at the uni-
versity of Gottingen, of which be was also librarian. He
was appointed director of the Royal Society of Gottingen ;
and by his writings and lectures he contributed greatly to
the celebrity of that university as a school of theological
literature. The order of the polar star was conferred up-
on professor Michaelis in 1775, by the king of Sweden ;
and in 1786, he was made an aulic counsellor of Hano-
ver. He died in 1791, at the age of seventy-five. His
works are very numerous, amounting to about fifty diffe-
rent pubUcations, mostly relating to Scripture criticism,
and the Oriental languages and literature. Among the
most valued are his •' Introduction to the New Testa-
ment," which has been translated into English by bishop
Marsh ; his " Commentaries on the Law of Bloses," of
which there is an English version by Pr. Smith, a clersy-
man of the church of Scotland; his " Spicilegium Gco-
graphicE Hebrceorum ;" his '■ Suppleracnlaad Lexica Hc-
braica;" his "Biblical and Oriental Library ;" and his
" Translation of the Bible, with -Notes ; for the Un-
learned."
The adherence of Michaelis to the established system
of Lutheranism, and his outward respect for the Chris-
tian religion, have principally been attributed to the im-
pressions made upon his mind by the intercourse of the
Pietists, and especially by the education which he receiv-
ed from his excellent father. Too light-minded, as he
himself acknowledges, to adopt their tone of pious feel-
ing, he nevertheless retained a certain conviction of the
truth of Christianity ; endeavored, by new andsineularly
ingenious theories, to remove objections to it ; and, much
to the surprise of his younger contemporaries, whose ra-
tionalistic views were ripening apace, he held, to the last,
many parts of the older system, which they had either
modified or thrown aside. The inelancholy consequences,
however, of this merely natural persuasion, are abun-
dantly manifest. Destitute of that conviction which can
alone give a comprehensive insight into the real character
of revelation, and the harmonious relation of its several
parts, he had no> guide to enable him to perceive what
might be safely admitted withotu detriment to the system
itself; he consequentlv, according to the usual custom
MID
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MIL
of persons taking only a partial view of subjects, fre-
quently opposed the objection, instead of the principle on
which the objection was founded ; endeavored to remove
it by theories in conformity with mere human systems,
and strengthened it equally by his concessions and by his
own inadequate and arbitrary defences. Possessed of no
settled principles, every minute difficulty presented itself
with intrinsic force and perplexity to his mind ; his belief
was a reed ready to be shaken by every fresh breeze ; all
that he had previously gained seemed again staked on the
issue of each petty skirmish ; and, in the very descriptive
comparison of Lessing, he was like the timid soldier who
loses his life before an outpost, without once seeing the
country of which he would gain possession. The theo-
logical opinions of this celebrated man are never to be
trasted ; and, indeed, the .<;erious student cannot but be
disgusted with the levity which too frequently appears in
his writings, and the gross obscenity which occasionally
defiles them ; (as it did much more offensively his oral lec-
tures ;) the result of his intemperate habits and low mo-
ral character. — Heiid. Buck.
MICHMAS ; a city of Ephraim, on the confines of Ben-
jamin, (Ezra 2: 27. Neh. 7: 31.) called also Michmash,
1 Sam. 13: 2. Isa. 10: 28. Comp. Neh. 11: 31. Euse-
bius says, it was, in his time, a considerable place, about
nine miles from Jerusalem, towards Rama. — Calniet.
MIDDLETON, (Conyers, D. D.,) a learned divine and
elegant writer, was born, in 1683, at York, and was edu-
cated at Trinity college, Cambridge, of which he became a
fellow. In the contest between the members of that college
and Dr. Bentley he took a prominent part. In 1724, he
visited Italy. He was, subsequently, Woodwardian pro-
fessor of mineralogy, and librarian at Cambridge. His
only church preferment was the living of Hascomb, in
Surry, for his free spirit of inquiry was not calculated to
conciliate clerical patronage. He had, however, a suffi-
cient fortune to render him indifferent to the emoluments
of his profession. He died in 1750.
His chief works are, a Life of Cicero, which ranks
among the classical productions of otir literature ; and a
Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers of the Church,
which excited against him a host of vehement opponents ;
a Refutation of Tindal ; a Letter from Rome, showing
an exact conformity between Popery and Paganism.
It certainly must be admitted that some of Middleton's
expressions were incautious, and some of his sentiments
controvertible ; but Middleton was too good a man to
oppose truth, and too wise a man to disbelieve the ve-
racity of the Holy Scriptures, He was an accomplished
scholar, and wrote the English language with great ele-
gance ; but he was a man of independent mind, and not
suited to pace in the trammels of the establishment. He
exemplified, in his life and conversation, those Christian
principles to which he was attached. His Miscellane-
ous Pieces form five octavo volumes. See Life of Dr.
Middleton. — Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Bio^.
MIDDLETON, (Ehasmus,) author of 'the " Biographia
Evangelica," was born about 1750, and graduated at
King's college, Cambridge. He was a predecessor of
f.egh Richmond, as rector of Turvey, Bedfordshire, and
a man of warm piety, and of a catholic spirit. His great
work in biography is a collection of invaluable materials,
and must immortalize his memory, while doing immense
g)od. It ought to be better known in this country.
MIDDLETON, (Thomas Fanshaw, D. D., F. R. S,,)
first bishop of Calcutta, was the only son of the rector of
ICeddleston, in Derbyshire, where he was born in 1769.
He received his education at Christ's ho.spital, and pro-
ceeded from thence upon a school exhibition to Pembroke
hall, Cambridge, where he took his first degree in 1792.
The same year he took orders as curate of Gainsborough,
in Lincolnshire, where he wrote for a periodical paper, un-
der the title of " The Country Spectator." In 1808, he took
his doctor's degree, and the same year he gave to the pub-
lic his learned work, entitled, " The Doctrine of the Greek
Article, applied to the Illustration of the New Testament,"
in a large octavo volume, which, after being several years
out of print, has been recently republished.
In 1812, he was made archdeacon of Huntingdon ; and
when government came to the resolution of establishing a
resident bishop in India, Dr. Middleton was selected for
that eminent station ; and, being consecrated at Lambeth,
in May, 1814, he sailed for Calcutta, where he arrived in i
the month of November of the same year. He immedi-
ately began to exert himself in his new and authoritative
station with zeal and assiduity. In 1820, he laid the
foundation-stone of a church at Calcutta, near to which a
school was erected for the Christian poor, and soon after a
missionary college ; towards the erection of which endow-'
raent the Societies for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts, and for Missions to Africa and the East,
contributed five thousand pounds each. In the midst of
these labors, the learned bishop was attacked with a fever,
of which he died, after a short illness, July 8lh, 1822.
His sermons and charges have been collected into a vo-
lume by Dr. Bonney, to which a biographical memoir is
prefixed. Life by Bonney. — Tones' Chris. Biog.
MIDIAN, Land of, or country of the Midianites, de-
rived its name and its inhabitants from Midian, the son of
Abraham by Keturah. This country extended from the east
of the land of Moab, on the east of the Dead sea, southward,
along the Eleanitic gulf of the Red sea, stretching some
way into Arabia. It further passed to the south of the land
of Edom, into the peninsula of mount Sinai, where Moses
met with the daughter of Jethro, the priest of Midian,
whom he married. The Midianites, together with their
neighbors, the Ishmaelites, were early engaged in the
trade between the East and the West, as we find the party
to whom Joseph was sold, carrying spices, the produce of
the East, into Egypt; and taking Gilead in their way, to
add the celebrated and highly-prized balm of that country
to their merchandise. It appears that, at the time of the
passage of the Israelites through the country of the Amo-
rites, the Midianites had been subdued by that people, as
the chiefs or kings of their five principal tribes are called ^
dukes of Sihon, and dwelt in his country. Josh. 13: 21. It
was at this time that the Midianites, alarmed at the num-
bers and the progress of the Israelites, united with the
Moabites in sending into Syria for Balaam, the soothsayer;
thinking to do that by incantation which they despaired
of effecting by force. The result of this measure, the
constraint imposed on Balaam to bless instead of to curse,
and the subsequent defeat and slaughter of the Midianites,
form one of the most interesting narratives in the early
history of the Jews, Num. 22— 25, 31.
About two hundred years after this, the Midianites,
having recovered their numbers and their strength, were
permitted by God to distress the Israelites, for the space
of seven years, as a punishment for their relapse into ido-
latry. But at length their armies, which had encamped
in the valley of Jezreel, were miraculously defeated by
Gideon, Judg. 6 — 8. The Midianites appear not to have
survived this second discomfiture as a nation ; but their
remains became gradually incorporated with the Moabites
and Arabians. — Jones ; Calmet ; Watson.
MIGDOL, Exod. 14: 2. It is not known whether Mig-
dol was a city, or only a fortress ; probably the latter, in
which a garrison was stationed. — Watson.
MITjE ; a measure of length, containing a thousand
paces. Eight stadia or furlongs make a mile. The Ro-
mans commonly measured by miles, and the Greeks by
furlongs. The furlong was a hundred and twenty-five
paces ; the pace was five feet. The ancient Hebrews had
neither miles, furlongs, nor feet, but only the cubit, the
reed, and the line. The rabbins make a mile to consist
of two thousand cubits, and four miles make a parasang.
— Watson.
MILETUS ; a city on the continent of Asia Minor, and
in the province of Caria, memorable for being the birth-
place of Thales, one of the seven wise men of Greece, of
Anaximander and Anaximines, the philosophers, and of
Timotheus, the musician. It was about thirty-six miles
south of Ephesus, and the capital of both Caria and Ionia.
The Milesians were subdued by the Persians, and the
country passed successively into the power of the Greeks
and Romans. At present the Turks call it Molas, and it
is not far distant from the true Meander, which encircles
all the plain with many mazes, and innumerable wind-
ings. In it was a magnificent temple of Apollo. It was
to this place that St. Paul called the elders of the church
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of Ephefjs, to deliver his last charge to them, Acts 20:
15, &c. There was another Miletus in Crete, mentioned
2 Tim. 4:20. Wlntby ; Wclh ; Cal met ; Jones ; Smiki/.—
IValson.
MILITANT ; (from militans, fighting ;) a term applied
to the church on earth, as engaged in a warfare with the
world, sill, and the devil ; in distinction froiu the church
IriumphoHt in heaven. — Hend. Buck.
MILK. The first natural food or nutriment of infancy.
It is pure, sweet, simple, wholesome, and its reception re-
quires no labor of the yet tender organs, either to chew,
swallow, or digest, in order to yield nourishment. Paul
compares some of his converts to little children, to be fed
with milk, and not with solid food ;(1 Cor. 3; 2. Heb. 5:
12.) and Peter exhorts the faithful universally, " As new-
born babes, desire the sincere milk of the word, that
ye may grow thereby," 1 Pet. 2: 2. Sncn is the simple
testimony of God, to his children. — IVhatever requires an
effort of the reasoning poivers, on the other hand, is called
'■ strong meat," and is adapted to the mature stage of
Christian knowledge and experience. Hence it is evident
that the doctrines of human sinfulness and condemnation ;
of justification by faith in Christ only ; of the Deity, in-
carnation, and atonement of the Savior ; of the nece.ssity
of regeneration by the Holy Spirit ; of gratuitou.« ele",t=.on
to salvation, according to God's eternal purpose and irre-
vocable calling ; and of the everlasting tenure of future
retribution ; with their kindred truths, belong strictly and
properly to the first class, not the latter. They are to be
received on divine testimony, without reasoning, in all
their integrity, simplicity and sweetness, by the weakest
believer ; not as strong meat, but as the pure milk of the
word. When thus received, their nourishing properties, as
the sustenance of the divine life, will soon be conspicuous
in the growth, health, and cheerful activity of the believer.
Then in due time he will acquire the power of reasoning
with a sound judgment on spiritual things, 1 Cor. 2: 15.
A land flowing with milk and honey, is a country of
extraordinary fertility. In the prophets the kingdom of the
Messiah is represented as a time of great abundance,
" when the mountains should flow with milk and honey,"
Joel 3: 18. And Isaiah says to the church, (60: 10.)
" Thou shalt also suck the milk of the Gentiles, and shall
suck the breasts of kings." — Cabnet.
MILL. In the first ages they parched or roasted their
grain ; a practice which the people of Israel, as we learn
from the Scriptures, long continued : afterwards they
pounded it in a mortar, to which Solomon thus alludes :
" Though thou shouldest bray a fool in a mortar among
wheat with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness depart
from him," Prov. 27: 22. This was succeeded by mills,
of which there were two sorts : the first were large, and
turned by the strength of horses or asses ; the second were
smaller, and wrought by women, or by slaves condemned
to this hard labor, as a punishment for their crimes. Most
of their corn is ground by these little mills. Chardin re-
marks, in his manuscript, that the persons employed are
generally female slaves, who are least regarded, or are
least fitted for any thing else ; for the work is extremely
laborious, and esteemed the lowest employment about the
102
house. Hence we may see the propriety of the exprei
sion in the declaration of Moses : " And all the first-
born in the land of Egypt shall die, from the first-born of
Pharaoh that sitteth upon his throne, even unto the fiist-
born of the maid-servant that is behind the mill," Exod
11: 5.
The manner in which the hand-mills are worked is well
described by Dr. E. D. Clarke, in his Travels : " Scarcely
had we reached the apartment prepared for our reception,
when,' looking from the window into the court-yard be
longing to the house, we beheld two women grinding at
the mill, in a manner most forcibly illustrating the saying
of our Savior: 'Two women shall be grinding at the
mill, the one shall be taken and the other left.' They
were preparing flour to make our bread, as it is always
customary in the country when strangers arrive. The
two women, seated upon the ground opposite to each other,
held between them two round flat stones, such as are seen
in Lapland, and such as in Scotland are called querns. In
the centre of the upper stone was a cavity for pouring in
the corn, and by the side of this an upright wooden han-
dle for moving the stone. As this operation began, one
of the women opposite received it from her companion,
who pushed it towards her, who again sent it to her compa-
nion ; thus communicating a rotatory motion to the upper
stone, their left hands being all the while employed in
supplying fresh corn, as fast as the bran and flour escaped
from the sides of the machine."
When they are not impelled, as in this instance, to
premature exertions by the arrival of strangers, they
grind their corn in the morning at break of day : the noise
of the mill is then to be heard everywhere, and is often so
great as to rouse the inhabitants of the cities from their
slumbers ; for it i» well known they bake their bread every
day, and commonly grind their corn as it is wanted. The
females engaged in this operation, also endeavored to be-
guile the lingering hours of toilsome exertion with a
song. We learn from an expression of Aristophanes,
preserved by Alhenseus, that the Grecian maidens accom-
panied the sound of the millstones with their voices. The
noise of the millstone is therefore, with great propriety,
selected by the prophets as one of the tokens of a popu-
lous and thriving country : " Moreover, I w ill take from
them the voice of mirth, and the voice of gladness, the
voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride, the
sound of millstones and the light of a candle, and their
whole land shall be a desolation," Jer. 25: 10. Isa. 47:
1, 2. Rev. 18: 22. The morning sliall no more be cheered
with the joyful sound of the mill, nor the shadows of even-
ing by the light of a candle ; the morning shall be silent,
and the evening dark and melancholy, where desolation
reigns.
The custom of daily grinding their corn for the family,
shows the propriety of the law : " No man shall take the
nether or the upper millstone to pledge, for he taketh
a man's life to pledge ;" because if he take either the
upper or the nether millstone, he deprives him of his daily
provision, which cannot be prepared without them. The
fact that it was done only by women and menials, dis-
plays, also, the vindictive contempt which suggested the
punishment of Samson, the captive ruler of Israel, that
the Philistines, with barbarous contumely, compelled him
to perform the meanest service of a female slave ; they
sent him to grind in the prison, (Judg. 16; 21.) but not
for himself alone ; this, although extremely mortifying to
the hero, had been more tolerable ; they made hira grinder
for the prison, perhaps while the vilest malefactor was
permitted to look on, and join in the mockery. Sain.son,
the ruler and avenger of Israel, labors, as Isaiah foretold
the virgin daughter of Babylon should labor : " Come
down, and sit in the dust, O virgin daughter of Babylon :
there is no throne," no seat for thee, '-0 daughter of the
Chaldeans. Take the millstones and grind meal," but
not with the wonted song : '■ sit thou silent, and get thee
into darkness," there to conceal thy vexation and disgrace,
Isa. 47: 1, 2, 5. — Watson. , , .
MILL, (John, D. D..) a learned English <1"'''«. ""',!,,
blical critic, was born at Shapp, in Westmoreland, in lO"-
He became a servitor in Queen's college, Oxford in Ihbl
where he graduated master of arts in lOl'i'- Being aOer-
MIL
[810 ]
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wards elected a lellow, he became an eminent tutor, and
Having entered into orders, was greatly admired for his
pulpit eloquence. In 1680, he received from his college
the living of Bletchingdon, in Oxfordshire ; and proceeding
D. D. became chaplain in ordinary to Charles IT. The
valuable edition of the New Testament, on which Dr.
Mill employed thirty years of his life, appeared in 1707,
under the title of "Novum Testamentum Grcecum, cum
Lectionibus variantibus, ex MSS.," &,c. Of the great
learning and critical acumen of Dr. IMill, this laborious
work forms an indisputable testimony. The collection
of such a mass of various readings, (gathered, it is satd,
from more than thirty thousand MSS.) instead of supply-
ing arms for Infidelity, as some seem to have feared, has
served lo place the uncorrupted integrity of the Scriptures
in a stronger light than ever. Cavil and suspicion on
this point is forever precluded, and set at defiance. Dr.
Bentley has ably vindicated the labors of Dr. Mill, in his
"Remarks." He survived the publication of his great
work only a fortnight, dying of an apoplexy, in 1708, in
the sixty-third year of his age. — Biog. Brit. ; Jones' Chris.
Biog.
MILLS, (SiMtjEL J.,) -was the son of the minister of
Torringford, Connecticut, and was bom April 21, 1783.
At an early period he had such a sense of his sins, that
for two years he regarded his existence as a curse ; but
m answer to the fervent prayers of his pious parents he
was cheered with the Christian hope.
He graduated at Williams' college, in 1809. While in
that seminary his mind was deeply impressed with the
importance of foreign missions, and he endeavored to
awaken a similar feeling in the hearts of his fellow-stu-
dents. At the theological seminary in Andover he united
with Judson, Newell, Nott, and Hall, i« a resolution to
undertake a foreign mission. In 1812 and 1813, he and
J. F. Schermerhorn made a missionary tour in the western
states. He was ordained with other missionaries at New-
buryport, June 21, 1S15. He made a second tour with
Mr. Smith in 1814 and 1815. He ascertained in March,
1815, that not a Bible could be found for sale or to be
given away in New Orleans : in this city he distributed
many Bibles in French and English, and visited the sick
soldiers. Finding that seventy or eighty thousand fami-
lies at the south and west were destitute of a Bible, he
suggested at the close of his report the establishment of a
national society like that of the British. His efforts con-
tributed to the establishment of the American Bible Soci-
ety, May 8, 1816. The plan of the United Foreign Mission
Society, which, however, accomjjlished but little, originate'l
with him, while residing with Ur. Griffin, at Newark, as
did also the African school, which existed a few years at
Parsippany, near Newark.
He attended the first meeting of the Colonization society,
January 1, 1817, which was established by the exertions
of Dr. Finley. Appoinled, with Mr. Burgess, to visit
England and explore the coast of Africa for the society,
he sailed in November, 1817, and in a wonderful manner
escaped shipwreck on the coast of France. He sailed
from England for Africa, February 2, 1818, and arrived
on the coast March 12th. After a iaborious inspection of
more than two months, he embarked on his return in the
brig Success, May 22, 1818. A severe cold, which he
took early in June, was succeeded by a fever, of which he
died, June 16, 1818, aged thirty-four. He was buried in
the depths of the ocean.
Samuel J. Mills was a Christian, eminently pious and
benevolent ; and, when the sea gives up its dead, he
will rise to heavenly glory. Memoirs, hy Rev. Gardiner
Spring. D. D— Allen. .
MILLENARIANS, or Chiliasts ; a name given to
those who believe that the saints will reign on earth with
Christ a thousand years. See next article.— Henrf. Buck.
MILLENNIUM, " a thousand years ;" generally era-
ployed to denote the thousand years during which, accord-
ing to an ancient tradition in the church, grounded on
some doubtful texts in the Apocalypse and other Scrip-
tures, our blessed Savior shall reign with the faithful upon
earth after the first resurrection, before the final comple-
tion of bealituJe.
Though there has been no. age of the church in which
such views of the millennium were not admitted by indivi'
dual divines, it is yet evident, from the writings of Euse"
bius, IrensBus, Origen, and others, among the ancients, as
well as from the histories of Dupin, Mosheim, and all the(
modems, that they were never adopted by the whole
church, or made an article of the established creed in any
nation.
About the middle of the fourth century, the millena-
rians held the following tenets : 1. That the city of Jeru-
salem should be rebuilt, and that the land of Jndea should
be the habitation of those who were to reign on the earth
a thousand years. 2. That the first resurrection was not
to be confined to the martyrs, but that, after the fall of
Antichrist, all the just were to rise, and all that were on
the earth were to continue for that space of time. 3. That
Christ shall then come down from heaven, and be seen on
earth, and reign there with his servants. 4. That the
saints, during this period, shall enjoy all the delights of a
terrestrial paradise.
These opinions were derived from several passages in
Scripture, which the millenarians, among the fathers, un-
derstood in no other than a literal sense ; but which the
moderns, who hold that opinion, consider as partly literal
and partly metaphorical. Of these passages, that upon
which the greatest stress has been laid, we believe to be
the following : — " And I saw an angel come down from
heaven, having the key of the bottomless pit, and a great
chain in his hand ; and he laid hold on the dragon, that
old serpent, which is the Devil and Satan, and bound him
a thousand years, and cast him into the bottomless pit,
and shut him up, and set a seal upon him, that be should
deceive the nations no more, till the thousand years should
be fulfilled ; and, after that, he must be loosed a little
season. And I saw thrones, and they sat upon them, and
judgment was given unto them : and 1 saw the souls of
them that were beheaded lor the witness of Jesus, and for
the word of God, and which had not worshipped the beast,
neither his image, neither had received his mark upon
their foreheads, nor in their hands ; and they livcl ami
reigned with Christ a thousand years. Bat the rest of the
dead lived not again till the thousand years were finished.
This is the first resurrection," Kev. 20; 1 — 6. This pas-
sage the ancient millenarians took in a sense grossly lite-
ral, and taught that, during the millennium, the saints on
earth were to enjoy every bodily delight. The moderns,
on the other hand, consider the power and pleasures of
this kingdom as wholly spiritual ; but they represent them
as not to commence till after the conflagration of the pre-
sent earth. This last supposition is, however, a mistake,
as the very next verse but one assures us ; for we are
there told, that, " when the thousand yeai>s are expired,
Satan shall he loosed out of his prison, and shall go out
to deceive the nations which are in the four quarlers of
the earth ;" and we have no reason to believe that he will
have such power or such liberty in " the new heavens
and the new earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness."
These views have recently been revived in England,
by the Rev. Edward Irving, and a parly who arrogate to
themselves the exclu.sive epithet of " The Students of
Prophecy ;" and partly in consequence of the fanatical
manner in which they have been propounded, parlly
owing to the absurd notions and practices, such as the
pretended gift of tongues, working of miracles, &c., which
have been connectetl with them, have produced a conside-
rable impression, principally on clergymen and laymen of
the church of England. The few Dissenters that have
been led away by them, are such as originally attended
Mr. Irving's ministry.
Respecting the real millennium, we may observe the fol-
lowing things :—l. That the Scriptures afford us ground to
believe that the church will arrive at a state of prosperity
which it never has yet enjoyed, Rev. 20: 4, 7. Ps. 72: 11.
Is. 2: 2, 4. 11: 9. 49: 23. 60. Dan. 7: 27.
2. That this will continue at least a thousand years, or
a considerable space of lime, in which the work of salva-
tion may be fully accomplished in the utmost extent and
glory of it. In this time, in which the world will soon
be filled with real Christians, and continue full by early
regeneration, to supply the place of those who leave the
world, there will be many thousands born and live on the
MIL
[811 ]
MIL
eavlh, to each one that has been born and lived in the pre-
ceding six thousand years ; so that, if ihey who shall be
born in that thousand years shall be all, or most of them
saved, (as they will be,) there will, on the whole, be many
thousands of mankind saved to one that shall be lost.
3. This will be a state of great happiness and glory.
The Jews shall be converted, genuine Christianity be dif-
fused through all nations, and Christ shall reign, by his
spiritual presence, in a glorious manner. It will be a
time of eminent holiness, clear light and knowledge, love,
peace, and friendship, agreement in doctrine and worship.
Human life, perhaps, will rarely be endangered by the
poisons of the mineral, vegetable, and<animal kingdoms.
Beasts of prey, perhaps, will be extirpated or tamed by
the power of man. The inhabitants of every place will
rest secure from fear of robbery and murder.' War shall
be entirely ended. Capital crimes and punishinents be
heard of no more. Governments placed on fair, just, and
feamane foundations. The torch of civil discord will be
cx'iingnished. Pagans, Turks, Deists, and Jews, will
cither be entirely converted, or will be as few in number
as real Christians are now. Kings, nobles, magistrates,
nad rulers in churches, shall act With principle, and be
forward l« promote the best interests of men : tyranny,
oppression, persecution, bigotry, and cruelty shall cease.
Business will be attended to without contention, dishonesty,
and covetousness. Trades and manufactures will be
carried on with a design to promote the general good of
mankind, and not with selfish interests as now. Mer-
chandise between dissent countries will be conducted
without fear of an enemy; and works of ornament antl
beauty, perhaps, shall not be wanting in those days.
Jjearning, which has always fJonrislied in proportion as
religion has spread, shall then greatly increase, and be
employed for the best of purposes. Astronomy, geogra-
phy, natural history, metaphysics, and all the useful sci-
eaces, will be better understood, and consecrated to the
sefvice ■of God ; and by the improvements which have
been made, and are making, in ship-building, navigation,
electricity, medicine, &c., " the tempest will lose half its
force, the lightning lose half its terrors," and the human
i'rame Ect Ise nearly so much exposed to danger. Above
sTl, the Bible will be more highly appreciated, its har-
mony perceived, its superiority owned, and its energy felt
by millions of human beings. In fact, the cartft shn!t ic
filed with the hmu-hdge of the Lord, as the rrnters cover the
sea.
5. The time when the milleauisim will commence cannot
be fully ascertained ; bnt the common idea is, that it will
be in the seven thousandth year of the world. It will,
most probably, come on by I'egrees, and be in a manner
introduced years before that time. And who knows but
the present convtilsions among ditVerer.t nation';, the over-
throw which popery has had in places where it has been
so dominant for hundreds of years, the fulfilment of pro-
phecy respe-cti ng inSdcls, and the falling away of many
in Iho last limes ; and yet, in the midst of all, the number
<if niis-sionaries sent into different parts of the world, to-
{jetlier with the increase of gosj^el ministers ; the thou-
frinds of ignorant children that have been taught to read
I lie Bible, and the vast number of different societies that
have been lately instituted for the benevolent purpose of
informing the minds and impressing the hearts of the ig-
norant ; who knows btit that these things are the forerun-
ners of events of the most delightful nature, and which
may usher in the happy morn of that bright and glorious
day, when the whole world shall be filled with his glory,
and all the ends of the earth see the salvation of our
God!
How delightful then the prospects which open upon the
eye of faith in prophetic vision ! Christianity prevails
universally. Our race assumes the appearance of one vast,
vii'tuous, peaceful family. Our world becomes the seat of
one grand, triumphant, adoring assembly. At length, after
a brief space of severe trial, the scene mingles with the
heavens, and rising in brightness is blended with the glo-
ries on high. The mysteries of God on earth are finished,
" the times of restitution of all things" are fulfilled. The
Son of God descends. The scene closes with divine gran-
deur; " And I heard as it were the voice of a great multi-
tude, and as the voice of many waters, and as the voic«
of many thunderings, saying, Alleluia ; for the Lord God
omnipotent reignelh." <' The kingdoms of this world are
become the kingdoms of our Lord and his Christ." " And
I saw a new heaven and a new earth ; for the first heaven
and the first earth -treTa passed away ; and there was no
more ,sea. And I saw the holy city New Jerusalem,
coining down from God out of heaven. And I heard a
great voice out of heaven, saying. Behold the tabernacle
of God is with men, and he will dwell with them, and
they shall be his people, and God himself shall be with
them, and be th-cir God," Rev. I'.t: 6. 11: 15, 21: 1—4.
See Apocalypse ; Hejildns on the Millennium ; Whitby's
Treatise on it, at the ettd of the second vol. of his Annotations
on the New Testnmi'nt ; Scott's Commentary ; How's Chris-
tian Scgisf(r, for 1816; Bishop Nertlon en lie Prophecies ;
Btllami/'s Treatise on the Millenmum ; Theol. Blisc., 6th vcl. ;
Lardner's Cred., Ith, 5th, 7th, and <)th vols. ; Mosheim't
Eccl. //«:/. , cent. 3, p. 11, ch, 12; Taylor's Sermons on the
Milknnii'm ; lllnstratitms of Prophe<''j, ch.3i ; Bogve, Emer-
son, and Potter, on the Millennium ; Wardlarv's Sermon an
the Millennium ; Fuller's Works ; Jones' Lectures on Ike
Apocalypse ; Joms' Bib. Cyclopedia ; Natnrel History of En-
thusiasm ; Works of Rev. Soiert Hall ; Keith's Signs of
the Times ; IVatson. — Hend. Buck ; Jones.
MILLET, (dochan ; Ezek. 4: 9.) a kind of maize, so
called from it5 thrusting forth such a quantity of grains.
Thus in Latin it is called mUlium, as if one stalk bore a
thousand seeds. It has been supposed that the dochan
means what is now called in the East dnrra ; which, ac-
cording to Niebuhr, is a sort of millet, and when made
into bad bread with camel's milk, oil, butter, or grease, is
almost the only food which is eaten by the common people
in Arabia Felix. " I fotmd it so disagreeable," says he,
"that I should willingly have preferred plain barley bread
to it." This illaslrates the appointment of it to the pro-
phet Ezekiel as a part of his hard fare. It is also used
in Palestine and Syria, and it is generally agreed that it
yields much more than any other kindof grain. — Wnt.son.
MILLO ; originally a deep valley, between the old city
of Jebus, or Jerusalem, and the city of David, on mount
Zion. David and Solomon caused it to bv3 fdkd up, aad
here made a place for the people to assemble, 2 Sam. 5:
9. 1 Kings 9: 15. 2 Kings 12: 20. 1 Chron. II: 8. Solo-
mon, also, on a part of it built a palace for his queen, the
daughter of Pharaoh, 1 Kings 9: 24. — CalmU.
MILNER, (Isaac, D. D.;) an Episcopal divine, emi-
nent as a mathematician and natuial philosopher, and not
less for ardent evangelical piety. He was bom at Leeds,
in the county of York, of humble parentage, and brought
tip to the employment of weaving, which he followed for
some time, dedicating every moment of leisure to the
studv of classic literature and the mathematics. He was
then employed as an assistant in a grammar-school, and
afterwards admitted a .student at Queen's college, Cam-
bridge. In 1774, he gained the first mathematical prize ;
and, becoming a tutor, he had among his pupils Mr. Piit
and Mr. Wilberforce, with whom he travelled abroad, and
was the honored instrument of the conversion of the lat-
ter. (See WlLBERFOKCE.)
Returning to the university, he was chosen professor
of natural philosophy in 1783, and master of his college
in 1788, when he proceeded doctor in divinity; and about
the same time he obtained the deanery of Carlisle. He
was vice-chancellor of the university in 1792, and six
years afterwards he became Litcasian professor of mathe-
matics. He wrote " Animadversions on Dr. Haweis'
Impartial History of the Church of Christ," octavo, ISOO ;
" Strictures on some of the publications of the Rev. Her-
bert Marsh, intended as a Reply to some of his Objections
against the Bible Society," octavo, 1813 ; besides various
works of a mathematical kind. He died in 1820. Cent.
Mag. ; Jymdon Christian Observer. — .Tones' Chris. Biog.
MILNER, (.losEPH,) brother of the preceding, was also
originally a weaver, but raised himself by the exercise of
his talents to eminence in the literarv world. He was
born at Leeds, in 1744, .and educated at the free grammar-
school, whence he proceeded to Catharine hall, Camhricige,
where he took his bachelor's degree in 17b.., and obtained
one of the chancellor's medals. Entering into orders, he
MIL
[812 J
M I N
became master of the grammar-school, and afiernoon lec-
turer at Hull. He subsequently obtained the vicarage of
North Ferriby, in Yorkshire, and also that of the Holy
Trinity church, in Hull. He died on the 15th of Novem-
ber, 1797, at the age of fifty-two.
His works consist of " A History of the Christian
Church," in four volumes octavo ; the last volume of
which was completed by his brother, dean ]\Iilner, who
added to it a fifth volume, continuing the History of the
Reformation, executed with so much ability, that it is a
matter of regret he did not live to continue the history to
its completion. He also wrote an " Answer to Mr. Gib-
bon's Attack on Christianity ;" " Essays on the Influences
of the Holy Spirit ;" and published two volumes of Ser-
mons.
The author of the '■' Natural History of Enthusiasm," in
speaking of the characteristic defects of Mosheim and
Milner as historians of Christianity, observes, that Mos-
heim gives us the mere husk of history, and Milner no-
thing but some separated particles of pure farina. We
may add, that Jones has shown a sounder judgment,
Waddington a finer taste, and Neander move learning
and philosophic power, than either. Life, of Rtv. J. Mil-
ner, by his brother, prefixed tohis Sermons. — Janes' Chris. Biog.
MILNER, (John, D. D.,) an eminent Romish theolo-
gian and antiquary, whose real name %yas Miller, was
born, in 1752, in London ; was educated at the schools of
Sedgely Park and Edgbaston, and at Douay ; and, after
having been a priest at Winchester, was appointed, in
1803, vicar apostolic in the midland district, with the title
of bishop of Catalba. In 1814, he visited Rome. He re-
mained there for twelve months, and had frequent audi-
ences with pope Pius Vtl. He died April 19, 1826.
Of all the advocates of the Papal chstrcb, no one has
displayed more learning and acuteness than Milner, though
not unmixed wilh partisan gall and misrepresentation.
Proofs of this will be seen in bis Letters to a Prebendary ;
The End of Religious Controversy ; and his other contro-
versial treatises. As an antiqsary he fnlly established
his character by the History of Winchester : Dissertation
on the modern Style of altering Cathedrals ; and Treatise
(m the Ecclesiastical Architecture of England during the
Middle Ages. He was a fellow of the Anti(juarian soci-
ety, and contributed many learned papers to the Archaeo-
logia. — Davenport.
MILTON, (John,) the Christian Homer, was born,
Decembei 9, 1608, in Bread street, in London, and was
educated at St. Panl's school, and Christ's college, Cam-
bridge. His original purpose was to enter the church,
but his dislike to subscription and to oaths, which in his
opinion required what he emphatically termed, " an ac-
commodating conscience," prevented the fulfilnrent of his
intention. After he quitted the university he passed five
years of studious retirement at his father's house, at Hor-
ton, m Buckinghamshire; during which period he pro-
duced Comus, Lycidas, and some of his other poems. In
1638, be went to France, whence he proceeded to Italy.
On his return, after an absence of fifteen mouths, he
opened an academy at Aldersgate street, and began also
to take a part in the controversies of the time. He mar-
ried in 1643, but so scanty was his nuptial felicity, his
wife leaving him to return to her parents in the course of
a month, that he was stimulated to write his Treatise on
Divorce, and to take measures for procuring another help-
mate. On her becoming penitent, however, he not only
received her again, but gave her royalist father and bro-
thers an asylum in his house. He entered twice taofi
into the marriage state. The zeal with which, in his
Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, he vindicated the exe-
cution of Charles I., induced the council of state to appoint
him Latin secretary, and he thus became, in a manner,
the literary champion of the popular cause. In behalf of
that cause he published his Iconoclastes, in answer to the
Icon Basilike, and his two Defences of the People of Eng-
land against the libels of Salmasius and Du Moulin. In
the execution of this '• noble task," as he calls it, he lost
his sight ; his previous weakness of the eyes terminating
in gutta Serena.
At the restoration he remained concealed for a while,
but the interest of his friends, particularly of MarVell and
Davenant, soon enabled him to reappear in safety. The
rest of his life was spent in retirement, employed partly
in the composition of tliat noble work which he had long
meditated, and by which he at once fmmortaitized his
name, and shed a lustre over his country. The Paradise
Lost appeared in 1607. The Maecenas of a bookseller
paid him five pounds for the first edition of thirteen hun-
dred copies, and liberally agreed to pay ten more, npors
the sale of two subsequent editions ol equal magnitude :
The Paradise Regained, Samson Agonistes, the History
of Britain, were among his latest productions. The date
of his recently discovered Treatise of Christian Doctrine
is unknown. This work shows Milton to have been an
Arian Baptist. His active imagination and impetuous
spirit mingle too strongly with his theology, and in seve-
ral particulars corrupt it ; but though like Locke he some-
times mistakes the sense of Scripture, no man had a
higher opinion of its supreme authority, or held fast more
firmly its most vital trnfhs. His name earntot be classect
with modern Unitarians. He died November 9, 1674.
The mists which prejudice and bigotry have spread over
the bright name of Milton are not yet wholly scattered,
though fast passing away. He was a seraph, burning with
a calm lore of moral grandeur and celestial purity. He
thought not so much of what man is as of what he mighJ
become. His own mind was a revelation to him of a
higher condition of humanity, and to promote this he
thirsted and toiled for freedom, as the element for the
growth artd improvement of his nature.
"Reformation" was the first word of public warnin,?
which broke from his youthful lips, and the hope of it was
a fire in his aged breast. Refined and Epirit»al in. his
habiss, temperate almost to abstemiousness, Milton re-
freshed himself, after intellectual effort, by music. His
life was an echo of the noble sentiments inculcated in his
writings. See Milton's Life, hy Johnson, Symmmts, and
kimey, and his Charaeler by Dr. Channnig. — Davenport ;
Jmte.^ Chris. Biog.
MINA, or 7na?ieh ; properly, vae part ortnmce ; a species
of money, usually translated pound). Ezekiel tells tis,
(45: 12.) that it was valued at sixty shekels, which, in
gold, made of English moniey, is above fifty-four pounds,
and in silver, almost seven pounds. The Greek or Attic
mina, which is probably that mentioned in the books of
the Maccabees, and in the New Testament, is valued at
a hundred drachmje, or about two pounds seventeen shil-
Kngs. There was afso a lesser mina, valued at seventy-
five drachmce. — Calmet.
MIND ; a thinking, intelKger?t being ; othei-wise called
spirit, or soul. (See Soul ; and Knowledge.)
Dr. Watts has given us some admirable thoughts as to
the improvement of the mind. " There are five eminent
means or methods," he observes, " whereby the mind is
improved in the knowledge of things ; and these are, ob-
servation, reading, instruction by lectures, conversation,
and meditation ; which last, in a most peculiar manner,
is called study. See Loeke &n the Hu7n.an Understanding ;
Bron-n's Lectnres on the Philosophy of the Mind; Reid,
Stewart, and Upham ; Ahircrombie and Chalmers ; and es-
pecially Watts on t?ie Mind; a book which no student
should be without. — Hcnd. BueJc.
MINIMS; a religious order in the church of Rome,
founded by St. Francis de Paula, towards the end of the
fifteenth century. Their habit is a coarse black woollen
stuff, with a woollen girdle of the same color, tied in five
knots. They are not permitted to quit llieir habit and gir-
MIN
[ 813
MI N
die nighl nor day. Formerly they went barefooted, but
are now allowed the use of shoes. — Hend. Buck.
MINISTER, strictly denotes one who officiates, serves
or waits upon another. Thus Joshua is called the minis-
ter of Moses, (Exod. 24: 13.) and .Tohn Marie, the minis-
ter of Paul and Barnabas, Acts 13: 5. But the term is
applied variously by the sacred writers, such as to magis-
trates, (Rom. 13: 6.) to pastors and teachers, (1 Cor. 3: 5.
and 4: 1.) to angels, (Ps. 101: 4. Heb, 1: 14.) and to the
Son of God, who came into this world " not to be minis-
tered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom
for many," Matt. 20: 28.
Paul terms Christ "a minister of the circumcision for
the truth of God, to confirm the promises made to the fa-
thers," Rom. 15: 8. Jesus Christ was born a Jew, and
he exercised his ministry among the Jews ; hence his own
words, " I am not sent but to the lost sheep of the house
of Israel," (Matt. 10: 6, and 15: 24.) and this, la order that
God's ancient promise to Abraham, namely, that " all the
nations of the earth should be blessed in his seed," niis^ht
be ratified and confirmed to them. (See Ministry of Je-
sus Christ.) The glad tidings of salvation were first, by
Christ's express command, published to the Jews, Luke
24; 47. Acts 3: 26. And by Jewish converts the gospel
was first preached among the Gentiles, Acts 15: 7. 26:
16—18. Eph. 3: 8, 9.
The same apostle also terms the Savior " a minister of
the sanctuar)',"(Heb. R: 2.) that is, of the heavenly sanc-
tuary, the true holy of holies. There he is " set down
on the right hand of the Majesty on high," on his glorious
throne ; to officiate forever as our high-priest, advocate,
and intercessor, Heb. 9: 12 — 24. — Jones.
MINISTER OF THE GOSPEL ; a name applied to
those w'ho are pastors of a congregation, or preachers of
God's word.
They are also tailed divines, and may be distinguished
into polemic^ or those who possess controversial talents;
casuistic, or those who resolve cases of conscience ; expert-
mental, those who address themselves to the feelings, cases,
and circumstances of their hearers ; and lastly, practical,
those who insist upon the performance of all those duties
which the word of God enjoins. An able minister will
have something of all these united in him, though he may
not excel in all ; and it becomes every one who is a can-
didate for the ministry to get a clear idea of each, that he
may not be deficient in the discharge of that work which
is the most important that can be sustained by mortal be-
ings. Many volumes have been written on this subject,
but we must be content in this place to offer only a few
remarks relative to it.
In the first place, then, it must be observed, that minis-
ters of the gospel ought to be sound as to their principks.
They must be men whose hearts are renovated by divine
grace, and whose sentiments are derived from the sacred
oracles of divine truth. A minister without principles
will never do any good ; and he who professes to beheve
in a system, should see to it that it accords with the word
of God. His mind should clearly perceive the beauty,
harmony, and utility of the doctrines, while his heart
should he deeply impressed with a sense of their value
and importance.
2. Tfiey should be mild and affable as to their dispositions
and deportment. A haught)', imperious spirit is a disgrace
to the ministerial character, and generally brings contempt.
They should learn to bear injuries with patience, and be
ready to do good to every one ; be courteous to all without
cringing to any ; be affable without levity, and humble
without pusillanimity ; conciliating the affections without
violating the truth ; connecting a suavity of manners
with a dignity of character ; obliging without flattery ;
and throwing off all reserve without running into the op-
posite extreme of volubility and trifling.
3. They should be superior as to their knon-ledge and talents.
Though many have been useful %vithout what is called
learning, yet none have been so without some portion of
knowledge and wisdom. Nor has God Almighty ever
sanctified ignorance, or consecrated it to his service ; since
it is the effect of the fall, and the consequence of our de-
parture from the fountain of intelligence. Ministers,
therefore, especially, should endeavor to break these shack-
les, get their minds enlarged, and stored with all useful
knowledge. The Bible should be well sludicil, and that,
especially, in the original languages. The scheme of sal-
vation by Jesus Christ should be well understood, with all
the various topics connected with it. And in the present
day, a knowledge of history, natural philosophy, logic,
mathematics, and rhetoric, are peculiarly requisite. A
clear judgment, also, with a retentive memory, inventive
faculty, and a facility of communication, should be ob-
tained.
4. They should be diligent as to their studies. Their time
especially should be improved, and not lost by too much
sleep, formal visits, indolence, reading useless book.s. stu-
dying useless subjects. Every day shonld have its work,
and every subject its due attention. Some advise a chap-
ter in the Hebrew Bible, and another in the Greek Testa-
ment, to be read every day. A well-chosen .system of di-
vinity should be accurately studied. The best definitions
should be obtained, and a constant regard paid to all those
studies which savor of religion, and have .some tendency
to public work.
5. Ministers should be extensive as to their benevolence and
candor. A contracted, bigoted spirit ill becomes tho.se who
preach a gospel which breathes the purest benevolence to
mankind. This spirit hns done more harm among all
parties than many imagine , and is, in our opini<m, one
of the most powerful engines the devil makes use of to
oppose the best interesis of mankind ; and it is really
shocking to observe how sects and parlies have all, in
their turns, anathematized each other. Now, while minis-
ters ought to contend earnestly for the I'aiih once deliver-
ed to the saints, they must remember tliat men always
think differently from each other ; that prejudice of edu-
cation has great influence; that difference of opinion^as to
subordinate things is not of such importance as to be a
ground of dislike. Let the ministers of Christ, then, pity
the weak, forgive the ignorant, bear with the sincere
though mistaken zealot, and love all who love the Lord
Jesus Christ.
6. Ministers should be zealous and faithful in their public
iviirk. The sick must be visited ; children must be cate-
chised ; the ordinances administered ; and the word of
God preached. These things must be taken up, not as
a matter of duty only, but of pleasure, and executed
with faithfulness ; and, as they are of the utmost impor-
tance, ministers should attend to them with all that since-
rity, earnestness, and zeal which that importance demands.
An idle, frigid, indifferent minister is a pesi to society, a
disgrace to his professi(m, an injury to the church, and of-
fen.sive to God himself.
7. Lastly, ministers should be consistent as to their conduct.
No brightness of talent, no superiority of intellect, no ex-
tent of knowledge, will ever be a substitute for this. They
should not only possess a luminous mind, but set a good
example. This will procure dignity to themselves, give
energy to what they say, and prove a blessing to the circle
in which they move. In fine, they should be men of pru-
dence and prayer, light and love, zeal and knowledge,
courage and hiiinillly, humanity and religion. See Epis-
tles to Timothy and Titus ; articles Decla.mation, Elo-
quence, JIethodists, Preaching, and Sermons, in this
work ; Dr. Smith's Lect. on the Sacred Office : Gerarifs Pas-
toral Care ; MacgHl's Address to Young Chrgymen ; Au-
gustine on Preaching ; Chrysostom on the Frit slhnoj ; Mas-
sillon's Charges; Baxter's Reformed Pastor; Herbert's
Country Parson : Burnet's Pastoral Care ; Watts' Humble
Attempt ; Dr. Edn-nrds' Preacher ; Mason's Student and
Pastor ; Brmrn's Address to his Students : Gibbon's Chris-
tian Minister : Mather's Student and Preacher ; Oslervo/d's
Lectures on the Sacred Ministry ; Robin'in's Claude ;
Doddridge's Lectures on PrracJiing ; Daighl's Theology ;
Miller's Letters on Clerical Manners ; Campbell's Lectures ;
Works of Robert Hall ; Burder's Hints ; Ware's Leeime on
the Connexion of Pulpit Eloquence and the Pastoral Care ;
Rei'iew of Ctllcrier's Three Lectures in Chri.-:tian Examiner,
1833 ; and perhaps more comprehensive than all. if bul
one can be had, Bridse's Christian Ministry. — {{m^- Buck.
MINISTERIAL CALL ; a term used lo dearie that
right or authority which a person receives to prcnch the
gcspel. This call is considered as twofokti.'iM,:* audfcrfi-
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IVl I N
tittstical. The following things seem essential to a divine
call: 1. A holy, blameless life. — 2. An ardent and con-
stant inclination and zeal to do good. — 3. Abilities suited
to the work : such as knowledge, aptness to teach, cou-
rage, &c. — 4. An opportunity afforded in providence to
be useful. See Prof. Kiiomles' Premium Tract.
An ecclesiastical call consists in the election which is
made of any person to be a pastor. But here the Episco-
palian and the Dissenter differ ; the former believing that
the choice and call of a minister rest with the superior
clergy, or those who have the gift of an ecclesiastical bene-
fice; the latter supposes that it should rest on the suffrage
of the people to whom he is to minister. Whoever will
attentively examine the history of the primitive times,
will find that all ecclesiastical officers for the first three
hundred years were elected by the people. We must re-
fer the reader for more on this subject to the articles
ORDiNiTioN, Church, Episcopacy, Congkegationalists,
and Baptists. — Hend. Buck.
MINISTERIAL EDUCATION. It is said of Jeremy
Taylor, that he once urged a negligent mother to be more
careful of her child's education, in some such words as
these : " Madam, be at thepaijis to educate your son, or be as-
sured, Satan ivill do it for you." The parent would seem to
have been contenting herself with the thought, that, if
her child were not instructed, the whole of the evil would
be that he should remain in ignorance. But this in
truth was not the state of the question. The inquiry was
not, " Shall the child be educated — or shall he not ?" Edu-
cated he must be. The only question was, by whom he
should be instructed, and in what species of learning.
Should his teachers be his own casual companions, how-
ever vicious, and was his education to become one of pro-
fligacy and crime ; or should his instructers be select, and
their instruction appropriate to his station, and valuable in
its character ?
That such is the true state of the case would appear, if
any parent were now inclined (o make the cruel experi-
ment. Preserve your son from the confinement of school,
and the drudgery of study. Let him abjure all books,
and gather his knowledge and glean his morals in careless
freedom from our streets. No school bills would meet
you, month after month, with their clamorous demands.
No austere teacher would intimidate and repel your child
by looks of harshness, and with lessons tedious and diffi-
cult. He would not be seen pale and watchful as he bent
over the midnight lamp. But gratuitously and impercepti-
bly, without concern or care on your part, you would find
him thoroughly educated. In squalid neglect and vice, in
the language of profanity and obscenity, in all dishones-
ty, in all filthiness, and in all untractableness,he would
return to your home an apt scholar, and an early
proficient, a grief to your eyes, and the burden of 3'our
heart. If parents will not educate their families, the world
will. And where no other teachers are provided, evil ex-
ample and association will furnish ihem gratuitously, and
their teachings will be constajit, unwearied, and effectual.
Have not many good men fallen into a similar error
with the careless parent ? Have Ihey not believed, that
with regard to ministerial education, the question was,
" Shall our pastors be educated, or shall they remain ig-
norant?" But this is not the trite state of llie case, and
these are not really the two alternatives between which the
church is left to choose. The demands of the churches,
the state of society, and the indications of providence,
nave decided this qucslion. Ministers must be educated. —
The only room for inquiry now remaining is found here :
" AVho shall be their teachers, and what .shall be the cha-
racter and extent of their instructions?" Taught and
sent by the spirit of God, our youthful brethren need ne-
vertheless to study the Bible; they need lo know the
mle"., and pjwer, and the right use of their own language •
it will not be to their injury should they know some-
what of the languages which God honored hy selecting
t!i!<ic as the vehicles of his inspiration ; and tliey will not
be i.-ss prepared to repel the many forms of heresv that
nc\ assail the Christian's faith, were they to le.irri some-
tiiii.g of the history of error, and the men and the arms
by which it has been most succe.'^sfully combatlfl. The
true question is, " I'.'lw shall teach our ministers in ihcse
useful branches of knowledge ?" Shall they be their own
instructers, or shall their brethren of greater age, experi-
ence, and knowledge, be allowed to aid and guide their ef-
forts ? IVtien shall they study ? In the scattered and
brief remnants of time which they shall be able to save
or to steal from other pursuits ; or shall they by the kind-
ness of the churches be enabled to pursue their studies in
retirement and at leisure ? Shall they be compelled by
their brethren to gather their education whilst they dis-
charge their ministry ; or will they be encouraged in the
years of youth to prepare for the active toils of maturer
life ? Shall they be coolly exhorted to buy, to beg, or to
borrow, as they best can, the books they may need, where
they may first find them ; or .shall they be invited to use
the well-stored library, aided by the counsel and supervi-
sion of the faithful teacher ? Shall their instructers be com-
petent or incompetent ? Shall they select for themselves,
as their models of ministerial character, the men whom
they may first meet, or easiest reach ; or will the church
point them to men of approved piety, wisdom and know-
ledge, as their patterns and tutors ? Shall they study in
cheerless and melancholy solitude, with no tissociate to
lighten the toil of research, and share the joy of discove-
ry ; or shall they become inmates of those schools of the
prophets, where they may aid and urge each one his bro-
ther, and where they may form those friendships which
shall draw into unity of feeling and effort the churches,
over whom they may afterwards be placed ? Shall they
be left to that unamiable self-confidence and .self-compla-
cency which the successful labors of a solitary student
are calculated to foster; or shall they be ushered into
scenes where they will find rival or superior talent, ac-
quirements more splendid, powers of mind more vigorous
or more highly cultivated ; where, in short, all will teach
them the folly of measuring themselves among themselves ?
These are in truth the alternatives between which the
church is called to make her selection.
We know, and bless God for the fact, that there have
been, and yet are, in the ministry, men of the largest
usefulness, who have never profited by a theological semi-
nary. They have been selftaught men. Yet nearly with
one voire these men of deserved influence, and most com-
petent to judge, have advocated theological schools. Their
own struggles and sacrifices in the attainment of know-
ledge have taught them its value, and made them desi-
rous of its diffusion. Among them stands high and pro-
minent the name of Fcllee. But Ahdrew Fuller, though
his own powers had been slowly developed in solitude and
neglect, was the friend of ministerial educalion. Unedu-
cated and self-made men have, by the a.scendency of ge-
nius, urged their way into our senato chambers. But are
they ever found advocating the general proposition, lh,at it
is best to leave a child to educate himself, because the
perilous experiment has succeeded in their own case?
If b3' these inslitulions it were intended to supersede
the teachings of the Holy Spirit; if it were ever to be
forgotten that only he can qualify and commission the he-
ralds of the cross, and that his grace is needed 10 sanctify
and to prosper every earthly "aid and appliance," we
.should unite in execrating, as blasphemous arrogance, the
attempt of those who would educate the youthful pastor
and missionary. But such is not the intent and spirit of
these institutions. Those youth only are instructed, who
hopefully, as members of the true church, have shared in
divine teachings, and whom the church has deemed quali-
fied for ministerial usefulness. That the teachings of the
Spirit do not in such men supersede the employment of
human instructers, we learn from the history of Apollos.
He was mighty in the Scriptures, and fervent in spirit, and
as Luke assures us, '' insiructed in the way of the Lord;"
yet was he taken by Aquila and Priscilla and " taught the
way of God more perfectly." And that a period of time
ma)^ he wisely spent in retirement and preparation before
entering upon the active proclamation of the gospel, would
seem not unreasonable, when we look to the three years
of constant intercouiso with their Lord, and instruction
from I'.im, which filled the apostles for evangelizing the
world. We find Paul too going down into Arabia. No
traces appear of his ministerial labors during the years
.spent there. Is there any violence in the supposition thai
MIN
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MIN
he visited the same scenes of savage grandeur and soli-
tude, which centuries before had been traversed by Moses
as the guest of Jethro, there in solitary communings with
his own heart and his God, to be fitted, like his holy prede-
cessor, for large and lasting usefulness ? And in the se-
clusion of our Savior's youth, and in the soUtary buflet-
ings which he endured in the wilderness before commenc-
ing his ministry, do we not learn that years past in retire-
ment and meditation are nut lost to the teacher or to the
interests of his flock ?
We know the prejudices which have prevailed against
learning. It has been supposed that it necessarily pru-
duced pride. But even were this the case, is it true on the
other hand that ignorance naturally produces and secures
humility ? So thought many of the Romanists in the
night of the dark ages. They acted with fearless consis-
tency on this, their great discovery. And there existed in
Italy an order of friars, whose name was not the " Bro-
thers of Charity," nor yet the " Poor Brothers," as some
in the same age were called, but the " Brothers of Igno-
rance." The oath or vow of the order was, that they did
not know and would never know any thing ; and to every
question their constant and sufficient reply was, " Ncscio."
Was it from the monastery of these men, who thus secur-
ed religion under the lock of ignorance, that God selected
his own messengers Luther and Calvin, and sent them
forth to liberate from the fetters of an unknown language
the imprisoned gospel, and to proclaim to those that were
botmd the opening of their prison doors ? On the contrary
Luther was " a ripe scholar," and Calvin a man of pre-
eminent attainments. And laboring as they did, they
found that ignorance, so far from j*roduciiig piety and
smoothing the way of the evangelist, had hedged up their
path. It had become the nurse of fanaticism and hypoc-
risy, and through many a weary day did those faithful and
holy men toil in uprooting the weeds of error, that had
sprung tall and luxuriant in the fat and heavy soil of ig-
norance. Knowledge has been abused to the support of
pride, and so has power, and so have intellect and health
and strength. Shall we therefore abjure strength and
health, intellect and power and knowledge ?
But it has been objected, that learning is unfriendly to
spirituality of mind, and to that devotional character so ne-
cessary in the Christian minister. But is this objection
sustained by universal experience ? Are not some of our
most holy, also among our most studious divines ? The
American church yet kindles into earnest regret and ad-
miration at the name of Payson, and Payson was no in-
dolent student. Who gave more time to study than Jona-
than Edwards, and who walked more close and humbly
with God? Where shall we find metaphysical acumen
and profound study of the human mind more happily dis-
played than in the auto-biography of Halyburton, and
where a more thorough mastery of scriptural quotation,
more ardent piety, and more earnest and humble self-ex-
amination? Pascal, both as a scholar and a Christian,
stands amongst the first names in the history of our race.
Of all the various forms of learning, classical knowledge
might be deemed the least friendly to simple and fervid
piety. Now in many of the works of Leighton, classical
allusions are woven into the whole texture of the compo-
sition. But difficult K'ere it to find a character of more
seraphic piety, and few are the human writings that more
wonderfully resemble in every page the transparent purity
and simplicity, and the holy but unstudied elevation, that
distinguish the sacred Scriptures. Feuelon blended simi-
lar qualities in his character as a man and an author.
The English non-conformists, certainly men who towered
in theological science as in Christian piety, not only above
their contemporaries, but alike over their predecessors and
followers, were a race of thorough-bred scholars. And
the men who stood in the fore-front of them, Owen, Good-
win, Baxter, Howe, Poole and Gale, were champions,
who, in learned encounter, feared not the face of man.
Amongst them, were we called upon for an example of
ardent piety and holy consistency, whose name would oc-
cur more readily to every reader than that of Philip Hen-
ry? and PhiUp Henry was " a ripe scholar and a good,"
a favorite pupil of the rigid Busby, certainly no partial
or merciful critic in matters of scholarship.
Look to the missionaries of our own time.'!, and will il
not be found that the most useful and holy have often been
also the most eminent in earthly learning >. Vanderkemp,
distinguished among the early missionaries of the London
Missionary society, was a man of rare and varied at-
tainments. Braiiierd was not an uneducated man. In
the present age his mantle would seem to have fallen on
Henry Wartyn, a man who brought to the altar of his
God the wreaths that he had won in the lists of this world's
science ; and eminent as a scholar, he was yet more emi-
nent as a Christian. Our own land sent forth a Pliny
Fiske, who to much fervor added much simplicity of cha-
racter, and was withal an unwearied and successful stu-
dent. Review those now in the field : and for piety as
well as fur scholarship whom shall we place before Carey,
the matchless orientalist ; Morrison, who has given to
the three hundred millions of China in their own tongue
the lively oracles ; Wolff, the eccentric but devoted son
of Abraham ; (of whom a fellow-traveller testified that he
spent his days in preaching and disputing, and his nights
in digging Hebrew routs ;) Gutzlaff, intrepid and enter-
prising as an apostle, notwithstanding his accompUshed
scholarship ; and our own Judson, who from the halls of
Andover came forth nut to dream or to declaim, but to
write, to labor, to pray and to suffer, until the church in
America awoke to her duty, and Burmah is beginning to
rejoice in the light of the gospel? But the topic is end-
less. Were not even the staunchest advocates of igno-
rance but the last Sabbath confuting themselves, as they
sent up their praises to God in the hymns of delightful
spirituality furnished them by a learned Watts, and a.
learned Doddridge ?
But it has been feared that theological seminaries will
teach men an undue deference to human authority. And here
again we may ask. is ignorance any protection against the
same abuse? Look to the desolation in many churches
at the west. Is not the authority of a name there as
great and fatal as if they were the most learned of our
community? And is it not on the other hand a charac-
teristic of theological study in our own time, that the au-
thority of the Scriptures, as the standard and source of
truth, is continually rising, and the influence of human
theory and tradition visibly declining ?
But these schools foster heresy. We reply, " look again
to the west, and let us learn if ignorance prevents it."'
On the contrary do not errors in that soil shoot with a
luxuriance and rapidity of vegetation which they do not
elsewhere display. From the times of Mohammed to
the days of Mormonism, ignorance has been found the
kindliest soil for the growth of error. The men who have
thought to preserve "piety and truth by banishing know-
ledge, have unconsciously been actingon a system of phi-
losophy which they have borrowed from the Catholic
church. It was held by the ancient hermits that bodily
health and strength favored the commission of sin. Who
robbed— who murdered— who oppressed? The man in
the vigor of his years and health. AVhen did he seem
penitent, but when disease had weakened his strength and
stretched him on the bed of languishing ? To resist sin,
the simple and obvious expedient therefore was, to de-
stroy this dangerous strength, and to weaken and chastise
the body. Let it fast, let it wear the rough haircloth, kt
it feel the knotted scourge, and it will not sin. But did
they succeed ? And did sin never enter the walls of a
monastery ? Was it an unheard of wonder that it should
be found lurking beneath the cowl and the veil? Was
holiness the constant inmate of the hermitage ? The re-
sult is notorious. Their failure was complete. We be-
lieve fasting in its proper degree useful and obligatory ;
but continued fasting and abstinence unaccompanied by
prayer never vanquished sin. Now what food is to the
bodily strength, that is knowledge to the vigor of the
mind. Withhold knowledge and you may starve the
mind, but it does not follow of necessity that you will sanc-
tify it. No man was ever yet starved into samtship, anJ
mere ignorance can never seal the diploma of an apostle.
The circumstances of the age show that a greater woi u
is before the church than she has yet ventured 'o ^"^9" '"
ter even in imagination. And much as the .''^w o' ''
reign missions needs more generosity ui pecuniar) contri-
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MIR
butionF, it is well known tliat in men and not in money
the deficiency is greatest and most distressing. Let the
churches of Christ arise to consider their duty in this mat-
ter to God and to man. Addressof W. R. Williams; N. Y.
Bap. Bep.
MINISTRY, (Gospel;) an ordinance appointed for the
purpose of instructing men in the principles and know-
ledge of the gospel, Eph. 4: S, 11. Rom. 10: 15. Heb. 5:
4. That the gospel ministry is of divine origin, and in-
tended to be kept up in the church, will evidently appear,
if we consider the promises that in the last and best times
of the New Testament dispensation there would be an in-
stituted and regular ministry in her; (Eph. 4: 8, 11. Tit.
1; 3. 1 Pet. 3. 1 Tim. 1.) also from the names of office
peculiar to some members in the church, and not common
to all ; (Eph. 4: 8, 11 ) from the duties which are repre-
sented as reciprocally binding on ministers and people ;
(Heb. 13: 7, 17. 1 Pet. 3: 2, 3, 4.) from the promises of
as.sistance which were given to the first ministers of the
new dispensation ; (Matt. 28: 20.) and from the importance
of a gospel ministry, which is represented in the Scripture
as a very great blessing to them who enjoy it, and the re-
moval of it as one of the greatest calamities which can
befall any people. Rev. 2. and 3. See books under article
Minister of the Gospel. — Hfnd. Bud:.
MINISTRY OF JESUS CHRIST. The duration of this
has been a subject of dispute among the learned. Sir
Isaac Newton and some other critics make it to have last-
ed five passovers ; but the more general opinion is, that it
only continued three years, and was included in four
passovers. Some reduce it to even a still shorter period.
The following chronology of our Lord's public ministry
is copied from Bowyer's Conjectures on the New Testa-
ment, a work equally learned and curious.
CHRONOLOGY OF CHKISI'S PUBLIC MINISTRY.
The fifteenth of Tiberius began August 19, in the year
4742 of the Julian period. (Tiberius' reign began Au-
gust 19, An. J. P. 4727, A. D. U.) So soon as winter
was over, and the weather became warm enough, John
began to baptize, Luke 3: 1. (Suppose in March.)
A. D. Tib. The First Passover, (John 2: 33.) Wednesday,
31. 16-17. March 28, after Christ's baptism ; (which was,
we may suppose, in September, the 17th of
Tiberius not beginning till August 19 ;) he
came into Judea ; staid baptizing there, while
John was baptizing in Mnon, John 3: 22, 23.
John cast into prison in November. About the
time of the winter solstice, (in December,) four
months before the harvest, Jesus Christ went
through Samaria into Cana of Galilee, Matt. 4:
12. A nobleman of Capernaum went to him
there, and desired he would come and heal his
son. He did not go, but said, " Go, thy son li-
veth," John 4.
After some time there, he pa-ssed through the
midst of the people, and dwelt in Capernaum,
Luke 4.
(3!!. 17-18. The Second Passover, Monday, April 14. He
called Peter, Andrew, James, and John :
preached the sermon on the mount, (Matt. 5.)
whither multitudes followed him from Jerusa-
lem, where he had been at the feast. When
the winter was coming on, he went to the feast
of tabernacles in September. Matt. 8: 19, 23.
Luke 9: 51, 37.
He went about the villages of Galilee, teaching
in their synagogues, and working many mira-
cles, Malt. 9. Sent forth the twelve. Matt. 10.
Received a message from John the Baptist.
Upbraided the cities of Chorazin, Bethsaida,
and Capernaum, because they repented not ;
(Matt. 11.) which shows there was a considera-
ble time from the imprisonment of John till now
S3. 18-19. The Third Passover, Friday, April 3. After
which the disciples, going through the corn-
fields, rubbed the ears in their hands, (Matt.
12. Luke 6: 1.) deuteroprotb, " on the second
prime Sabbath," that is, the second of the two
great feasts of the passover
A. D. Tib. He healed a man on the Sabbath day, Matt. 12;
9. Luke 5: 6. (
The Pharisees consulted to destroy him, whenh*
withdrew himself. Matt. 12; 14.
He spake in a ship three parables ; one of the
seedsmen sowing the fields, (Matt. 13.) whence
we may infer it was now seed-time ; and that
the feast of the tabernacles, in September or
October, was past.
He went into his own country, and taught in the
synagogues ; but did not any mighty work, be-
cause of their unbelief. The twelve returned,
having been abroad a year, and told him of
John's being beheaded. He departed privately
in a ship to Bethsaida. Fed five thousand in
the desert. Matt. 14. Luke 9. John 6: 4.
34. 19-20. The Fourth Passover, Friday, April 23, (John 6:
4.) to which he went not up, John 7: 1. Hence-
forward he was found on the coast of Tyre
and Sidon, then by the sea of Galilee, next on
the coast of Cesarea Philippi, and lastly, at
Capernaum, Matt. 15: 21, 29. 16: 13. 17: 24.
Went privately to the feast of tabernacles in
autumn, John 7: 2. The Jews thought to stone
him, but he escaped, John 8: 59. Went to the
feast of dedication in winter, John 10: 22. The
Jews seeking to kill him he fled beyond Jordan,
John 10: 39, 40. Matt. 19: 1. On the death of
Lazarus came to Bethany, John 11: 7, 18.
Walked no more openly, but retired to Eph-
raim, a city in the wilderness, till
35. 20. The Fifth and last Passover, Wednesday, April
13, (John 11: 33 — 33.) in the consulship of Fa-
bius and Vitellius.
See further, concerning the above chronology, the third
edition of Bowyer's Conjectures, 1782, 4to, p. 149, com-
pared with preface, p. 24 — 32. — Jones ; Nemcome.
MINNI, mentioned Jer. 51: 27, is thought by Calmet
to denote Minias, a province of Armenia. — Jones.
MINNITH ; a city beyond Jordan, situated four miles
from Heshbon, on the road to Philadelphia, Judges 11:
33. — Jones.
MINT; (Matt. 23: 23. Luke 11: 42.) a garden herb well
known. The law did not oblige the Jews to give the tithe
of this sort of herbs ; it only required it of those things
which could be comprehended under the name of income
or revenue. But the Pharisees, desirous of distinguishing
themselves by a more scrupulous and literal observance
of the law than others, gave the tithes " of mint, anise,
and cummin," Matt. 23: 23. — Watson.
MIRACLES. A miracle, in the popular sense, is a
prodigy, or an extraordinary event, which surprises us by
its novelty. In a more accurate and philosophic sense,
" a miracle is a work effected in a manner unusual, or
difierent from the common and regular method of provi-
dence, by the power of God himself, for the proof of
some particular message, or in attestation of the autho-
rity of some particular divine messenger."
In judging of miracles there are certain criteria, pecu-
liar to the subject, sufficient to conduct our inquiries, and
warrant our determination. Assuredly they do not appeal
to our ignorance, for they presuppose not only the exis-
tence of a general order of things, but our actual know-
ledge of the appearance which that order exhibits, and of
the secondary material causes from which it, in most
cases, proceeds. If a miraculous event were effected by
the immediate hand of God, and yet bore no mark of dis-
tinction from the ordinary effects of his agency, it would
impress no conviction, and probably awaken no attention.
Our knowledge of the ordinary course of things, though
limited, is real ; and therefore it is essentieil to a miracle,
both that it differ from that course, and be accompanied
with peculiar and unequivocal signs of such difference.
The argument for the divine authority of the Jewish re-
ligion, and more especially of Christianity, arising from
the miracles that were wrought to confirm them, is a sub-
ject of great importance, and deserves the particular at-
tention of the biblical student. Happily for Christians of
the present day, the doctrine of miracles has been investi-
gated by a host of able writers during the last century ;
MIR
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M IR
and by Drs. Campbell, Douglas, Farmer, Paley, Gregory,
Chalmers, and others, it has been placed in such a lumi-
nous point of view, that little remains to be added by any
subsequent writer. The following observations on the
subject will be found to exhibit a compendious statement
of the question.
I. Statement of the argument from miracles. Let us sup-
pose any man assuming to be an inspired teacher, in any
place, to tell his countrymen, that he did not desire them,
on his ipse dixit, to believe that he had any preternatural
communion with the Deity, but that, for the truth of his
assertion, he would give them the evidence of their own
senses; and after this declaration, let us suppose him im-
mediately to raise a person from the dead in their pre-
sence, merely by calling upon him to come out of his
grave. Would not the only possible objection to the man's
veracity in making so extraordinary a claim, be removed
by this miracle ? and his solemn afiirmation that he had
received such and such doctrines from God be as fully
credited as if it related to the most common occurrence ?
Undoubtedly it would ; for when so much preternatural
power was visibly communicated to this person, no one
could have reason to question his having received an
equal portion of_preternatural knowledge. A palpable de-
viation from the known laws of nature in one instance,
by the infinitely wise Author of them, implies an end of
the utmost importance ; and in such a case as this, it is
nothing less than the witness of God to the truth of the
man.
Miracles, then, under which we include prophecy, are
the only direct evidence which can be given of divine in-
spiration. When a religion, or any religious truth, is to
be revealed from heaven, they appear to be absolutely ne-
cessary to enforce its reception among men ; and this is
the only case in which we can suppose them necessary,
or believe for a moment that they ever have been or will
be performed.
Now the history of almost every religion abounds with
relations of prodigies and wonders, and of the intercourse
of men with the gods ; but we know of no religious sys-
tem, those of the Jews and Christians excepted, which ap-
pealed to miracles as the grand palpable evidence of its
truth and divinity. The pretended miracles mentioned by
pagan historians and poets, were not even pretended to have
been publicly wrought to eriforce the truth of a new religion,
contrary to the reigning idolatry. Many of them may be
clearly shown to have been mere natural events ; others
of them are represented as having been performed in se-
cret on the most trivial occasions, and in obscure and fa-
bulous ages long prior to the era of the writers by whom
they are recorded ; and such of them as at first view ap-
pear to be best attested, are evidently tricks contrived for
interested purposes, to flatter power, or to promote the pre-
vailing superstitions. For these reasons, as well as on ac-
count of the immoral character of the divinities by whom
they are said to have been wrought, they are altogether
unworthy of comparison, not to say of examination, and
carry in the veiy nature of them the completest proofs of
falsehood and imposture.
II. Credibility of miracles. If we be asked whether mi-
racles are credible, we reply,
1. That, abstractedly considered, they are not incredi-
ble ; that they are capable of indirect proof from analogy,
and of direct, from testimony ; that in the common and
daily course of worldly affairs, events, the improbability
of which, antecedently to all testimony, was very great,
are proved to have happened, by the authority of compe-
tent and honest witnesses ; that the Christian miracles
were objects of real and proper experience to those who
saw them ; and that whatsoever the senses of mankind
can perceive, their report may substantiate. Should it be
asked whether miracles were necessary, and whether the
end proposed to be effected by them could warrant so im-
mediate and extraordinary an interference of the Al-
mighty, as such extraordinary operations suppose ; to this
we might answer, that, if the fact be established, all rea-
sonings it priori concerning their necessity must be frivo-
lous, and may be false. We are not capable of deciding
on a question which, however simple in appearance, is
yet too complex in its parts, a«d too extensive in its ob-
103
ject, to be fully comprehended by the human understand-
ing. God is the best and indeed the only Judge how far
miracles are proper to promote any particular design of
his providence, and how far that design would have been
left unaccomplished, if common and ordinary methods
only had been pursued. So, from the absence of miracles,
we may conclude, in any supposed case, that they were
not necessary ; from their existence, supported by fair tes-
timony, in any given case, we may infer with confidence
that they are proper.
2. A divine revelation is necessary to mankind. A view
of the state of the world in general, and of the Jewish
nation in particular, and an examination of the nature
and tendency of the Christian religion, will point out
very clearly the great expediency of a miraculous interpo-
sition ; and when we reflect on the gracious and impor-
tant ends that were to be effected by it, we shall be con-
vinced that it was not an idle and useless display of di-
vine power ; but that while the means effected and con-
firmed the end, the end fully justified and illustrated the
means. If we reflect on the extent and importance, as
well as the singularity, of the Christian revelation; what
was its avowed purpose to effect, and what difficulties it
was necessarily called to struggle with, before that pur-
pose could be effected ; how much it was opposed by the
opinions and the practice of the generality of mankind,
by philosophy, by superstition, by corrupt passions and in-
veterate habits, by pride and sensuahty,in short, by every
engine of human influence, whether formed by craft, or
aided by power; if we reflect on the almost irresistible
force of prejudice, and the strong opposition it universally
made to the establishment of a new religion on the demo-
lition of rites and ceremonies, which authority had made
sacred, and custom had familiarized ; — if we seriously re-
flect on these things, and give them their due force, (and
experience shows us that we can scarcely give them too
much,) we shall be induced to admit even the necessity
of a miraculous interposition, at a time when common
means must inevitably, in our apprehensions, have failed
of sixccess.
3. Miracles are inseparable from divine revelation. The reve-
lation of the divine will by inspired parsons is, as such,
miraculous ; and therefore, before the adversaries of the
gospel can employ with propriety their objections to the
particular miracles on which its credibility is based, they
should show the impossibility of any revelation . In what-
ever age the revelation is given, that age can have no oth-
er demonstration of its authority but miracles, and suc-
ceeding ages can know it only from testimony ; and if
they admit the one, they cannot deny the other. That
the apostles could not be deceived, and that they had no
temptation to deceive, has been repeatedly demonstrated.
So powerful, indeed, is the proof adduced in support of
their testimony, that the infidels of these later days have
been obliged to abandon the ground on which their prede-
cessors stood ; to disclaim all moral evidences arising
from the character and relation of eye-witnesses ; and to
maintain, upon metaphysical, rather than historical, prin-
ciples, that miracles are utterly incapable, in their own
nature, of existing in any circumstances, or of being sup-
ported by any evidence.
Mr. Hume has insidiously or erroneously maintained
that a miracle is contrary to experience ; but, in reality,
it is only different from ordinary experience. That dis-
eases should generally be cured by the application of me-
dicine, and sometimes at the mere word of a prophet, are
facts not inconsistent with each other in the nature of
things themselves, nor irreconcilable according to our
ideas. Each fact may arise from its own proper cause ;
each may exist independently of the other ; and each is
known by its own proper proof, whether of sense or testi-
mony. To pronounce, therefore, a miracle to be false, be-
cause it is different from ordinary experience, is only to
conclude against its existence from the very circumstance
which constitutes its specific character ; for if it were not
different from ordinary experience, where would be its
singularity ? or what proof could be drawn from it, in at-
testation of a divine message ? ■ <; i
We have been told that the course of n.nture is tixea
and unalterable, and therefore it is not con.sistent wnth the
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immutability of God to perform miracles. But, surely,
they "who reason in this manner beg the very point in
question. We have no right to assume that the Deity
has ordained such general laws for his own operations, as
will exclude his acting in other modes, and we cannot sup-
pose that he would forbear so to act where any important
end could be answered. Besides, if the course of nature
implies the whole order of events which God has ordained
for Ihe government of the world, it includes both his ordi-
nary and extraordinary dispensations, and among them
miracles may have their place, as an inseparable part of
the universal plan. This is, indeed, equally consistent
with sound philosophy, and with pure religion.
He that acknowledges a God, must, at least, admit the
possibility of a miracle. He who admits the creation of
the world, believes in the actual occurrence of a miracle.
He who concedes that the world is under the control of a
wise and beneficent providence, cannot deny that a particu-
lar operation of that providence for beneficent purposes is
both consistent and desirable.
HI. Miracles of the Jewish and Christian dispensations.
Miracles may be classed under two heads : those which
consist in a train or combination of events, which distin-
guish themselves from the ordinary arrangements of pro-
vidence ; and those particular operations which are per-
formed by instruments and agents incompetent to effect
them without a preternatural power.
1. In the conduct of providence respecting the Jewish
people, from the earliest periods of their existence, as a
distinct class of society, to the present time, we behold a
singularity of circumstance and procedure which we can-
not account for on common principles. Comparing their
condition and situation with that of other nations, we can
meet with nothing similar to it in the history of manlfind.
So remarkable a difference, conspicuous in every revolution
of their history, could not have subsisted through mere ac-
cident. There must have been a cause adequate to so ex-
traordinary an effect. Now, what should this cause be,
but an interposition of providence in a manner different
from the course of its general government ? for the phe-
nomenon cannot be explained by an application of those
general causes and effects that operate in other cases.
The original propagation of Christianity was likewise
an event which clearly discovered a miraculous interposi-
tion. The circumstances which attended it were such as
cannot rationally be accounted for on any other postula-
tum. (See the article Christianity.)
It may now be observed, that the institutions of the
law and the gospel may not only appeal for their confir-
mation to a train of events whicli, taken in a general and
combined view, point out an extraordinary designation,
and vindicate their claim to a divine authority ; but also
to a number of particular operations which, considered
distinctly, or in a separate and detached light, evidently
display a supernatural power, immediately exerted on the
occasion.
2. Particular miracles of our Lord. Since Christ him-
self constantly appealed to these works as the evidences
of his divine mission and character, we may briefly exa-
mine how far they justified and confirmed his pretensions.
That our Lord laid the greatest stress on the evidence
they afforded ; nay, that he considered that evidence as
sufficient to authenticate his claims to the office of the
Messiah with all reasonable and well-disposed inquirers,
is manifest, not only from his own words, John 10: 25.
Matt 11: 45, but also from a great variety of other passa-
ges in the evangelists, especially John 10: 37 : " If I do
not the works of my Father, believe me not : but if I do,
though ye believe not me, believe the works." This ap-
peal to miracles was founded on the following just and ob-
vious grounds : —
First : that they are visible proofs of divine approbation,
as well as of divine power : for it would have been quite
inconclusive to rest an appeal on the testimony of the lat-
ter, if it had not at the same time included an evidence of
the fonner ; and it was, indeed, a natural in/erence, that
working of miracles, in defence of a particular cause,
was the seal of heaven to the truth of that cause. To
suppose the contrary, would be to suppose that God not
only permitted his creatures to be deceived, but that he
deviated from the ordinary course of his providence, pur-
posely with a view to deceive them. (See Apostles.)
Secondly : when our Lord appealed to his miracles, as
proofs of his divine mission, it presupposed that those mi-
racles were of such a nature as would bear the strictest
examination ; that they had all those criteria which could
possibly distinguish them from the delusions of enthusi-
asm, and the artifices of imposture ; else the appeal would
have been fallacious and equivocal. He appealed to them
with all the confidence of an upright mind, totally possess-
ed with a consciousness of their truth and reality. This
appeal was not drawn out into any labored argument, nor
adorned by any of the embellishments of language. It
was short, simple, and decisive. He neither reasoned nor
declaimed on their nature or their design : he barely
pointed to them as plain and indubitable facts, such as
spoke their own meaning, and carried with them their
own authority. The miracles which our Lord performed
were too public to be suspected of imposture ; and, being
objects of sense, they were secured against the charge of
enthusiasm. An impostor would not have acted so ab-
surdly as to have risked his credit on the performance of
what, he must have known, it was not in his power to ef-
fect ; and though an enthusiast, from the warmth of ima-
gination, might have flattered himself with a full persua-
sion of his being able to perform some miraculous work,
yet, when the trial was referred to an object of sense, the
event must soon have exposed the delusion. The impos-
tor would not have dared to say to the blind, Receive thy
sight ; to the deaf, Hear ; to the dumb. Speak ; to the
dead. Arise; to the raging of the sea. Be still; lest he
should injure the credit of his cause, by undertaking more
than he could perform ; and though the enthusiast, under
the delusion of his passions, might have confidently com-
manded disease to fly, and the powers of nature to be sub-
ject to his control ; yet their obedience would not have
followed his command.
The miracles of Christ then were such as an impostor
would not have attempted, and such as an enthusiast
could not have effected. They had no disguise ; and were
in a variety of instances of such a nature as to preclude
the very possibility of collusion. They were performed
in the midst of his bitterest enemies ; and were so palpa-
ble and certain, as to e.xtort the acknowledgment of their -
reality, even from persons who were most eager to oppose
his doctrines, and to discredit his pretensions, John H:
47, 48. They could not deny the facts, but they imputed
them to the agency of an infernal spirit. Now, suppos-
ing miracles to be in the power of an infernal spirit,
can it be imagined that he would communicate an ability
of performing them to persons who were counteracting
his designs ? Would he by them give credit to a cause
that tended to bring his own into disgrace ? Matt. 12: 24
— 26. Thus, as our Savior appealed to miracles as proofs
of his power, so he appealed to the inherent worth and
purity of the doctrines they were intended to bear wit-
ness to, as a proof that the power was of God. In this
manner do the external and internal evidences give and
receive mutual confirmation, and mutual lustre.
3. Particular miracles of the apostles. The truth of the
Christian religion does not, however, wholly depend on
the miracles wrought by its divine Founder, though suffi-
cient in themselves to establish his claims : but in order to
give the evidence of miracles the strongest force they
could possibly acquire, that evidence was extended still
farther ; and the same power that our Lord possessed was
communicated to his disciples, and their more immediate
successors. AVhilst yet on earth he imparted to them this
extraordinary gift, as the seal of their commission, when
he sent them to preach the gospel : and after his glorious
resurrection and ascension into heaven, they were endow-
ed with powers yet more stupendous. Sensible of the va-
lidity of this kind of evidence, the apostles of our Lord,
with the same artless simplicity, and the same boldness
of conscious integrity, which distinguished their great
Master, constantly insisted upon the miracles they wrought,
as strong and undeniable proofs of the truth of their doc-
trines. The heathen philosophers imputed them to some
occult power of magic : ^d thus applied what has no
existence in nature, in order to account for a phenome-
MIR
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Hon that existed out of its common course. But if we
consider their nature, their greatness, and their number ;
and if to this consideration we add that which respects
their end and design, we must aclfnowledge, that no one
could have performed them, unless God was with him.
These miracles were of a nature too palpable to be mis-
taken. They were the objects of sense, and not the pre-
carious speculations of reason concerning what God
might do, or the chimerical suggestions of fancy concern-
ing what he did.
IV. Credibility of the evangelical records. The facts were
recorded by those who must have known whether they
were true or false. The persons who recorded them were
under no possible temptations to deceive the world. We
can only account for their conduct on the supposition of
their most perfect conviction and disinterested zeal. That
thev should assert what they knew to be false ; that they
should publish it with so much ardor ; that they should
risk every thing dear to humanity, in order to maintain it ;
and at last submit to death, in order to attest their persua-
sion of its truth in those moments when imposture usually
drops its mask, and enthusiasm loses iis confidence ; that
they should act thus in opposition to every dictate of com-
mon sense, and every principle of common honesty, every
restraint of shame, and every impulse of selfishness, is a
phenomenon not less irreconcilable to the moral state of
things than miracles are to the natural constitution of the
world.
V. Duration of miracles in the Church. How long mi-
racles were continued in the church, has been a matter
(if keen dispute, and has been investigated with as much
anxiety, as if the truth of the gospel depended upon the
manner in which it was decided. Assuming, as we are
here warranted to do, that real miraculous power was con-
veyed in the way detailed by the inspired writers, it is
plain, that it may have been exercised in different coun-
tries, and may have remained, without any new commu-
nication of it, throughout the first, and a considerable part
of the second century. The apostles, wherever they went
to esecuie their commission, would avail themselves of
the stupendous gift which had been imparted to them ;
and it is clear, not only that they were permitted and ena-
bled to convey it to others, but that spiritual gifts, inclu-
ding the power of working miracles, wete actually con-
ferred on many of the primitive disciples. Allusions to
this we find in the epistles of St. Paul ; such allusions,
too, as it is utterly inconceivable that any man of a sound
judgment could have made, had he not known that he
was referring to an obvious fact, about which there could
be no hesitation.
Of the time nt which several of the apostles died, we
have no certain knowledge. St. Peter and St. Paul suf-
fered at Kome about A. D. 60, or li7 ; and it is fully es-
tablished, that the life of John was much longer protract-
ed, he having died a natural death, A. D. 100, or 101.
Supposing that the two former of these apostles imparled
spiritual gifts tiil the time of their suffering martyrdom,
the persons to whom they were imparted might, in the
course of nature, have lived through the earlier part of
the second century ; and if John did the same till the end
of his life, such gifts as were derived from him might
have remained till more than the half of that century had
elapsed. That such was the fact, is nsserled by ancient
ecclesiastical writers.
Whether, after the generation immediately succeeding
the apostles had passed away, the power of working mi-
racles was anew communicated, is a question, the solution
of which cannot be so satisfactory. The probability is,
that there was no such renewal ; and this opinion rests
upon the ground that the attestation of Christianity was
already complete, and that other means were now suffi-
cient to accomplish the end for which miracles are ori-
ginally designed.
VI. Spurious miracles confirm the reality of the genuine. As
to the miracles of the Romish church, it is evident, as
Doddridge observes, that many of them were ridiculous
tales, according to their own historians; others were per-
formed without any credible witnesses, or in circumstan-
ces where the performer had the greatest opportunity for
juggling : and it is particularly remarkable, that they were
hardly ever wrought where they seem most necessary, i. «.
in countries where those doctrines are renounced which
that church esteems of the highest importance. It was
in fact foretold that such '• lying wonders" should be con-
nected with the great apostasy, 2Thess. 2. These counter-
feits, therefore, not only presuppose the existence of the
true, but fulfil the voice of prophecy.
On the subject of the cessation of miracles, and the
fictitious miracles of the modern Millenarians, see Modern
Fanaticism Unveiled. See Fleetwood, Clarapede, Conybeare,
Campbell, Lardner, Farmer, Adams, and Weston, on Mira-
cles ; article Miracle, Ency. Brit, and Amer. ; Doddridge's
Led., led. 101 and 135; Leland's View of Deistical Wri-
ters, letters 3, 4, 7 ; Hurrion on the Spirit, p. 2y9, Ace. ; Na-
tural History of Enthusiasm. — Hend. Buck ; Watson ; Jones.
MIRAGE. Bishop Lowth translates the first clause
of Ps. 35: 7, " And the glowing sand shall become a
pool." In his note on the passage, he says, " The word
is Arabic, as well as Hebrew, but it means the same
thing in both languages, namely, a gloiving, sandy plain,
tvhich in the hot countries, at a distance, has the appearance
of water.
It sometimes tempts thirsty travellers out of their way,
but deceives them when they come near ; either going
forward, — for it always appears at the same distance, —
or it quite vanishes.
Dr. E. D. Clarke, in his Travels, has given a very lively
view of this wonderful appearance. He says, " We ar-
rived at the wretched, solitary village of Utko, near the
muddy shore of the lake of that name, the entrance to
which is called Maodic. Here we procured asses for all
the party ; and setting out for Rosetta, began to scour the
desert, now appeari!»glikean oceanof sand, but flatter and
firmer as to its surface than before. The Arabs, uttering
their harsh guttural language, ran chattering by the side
of our asses, until some of them calling out " Raschid,"
(or Rosetta,) we perceived its domes and turrets, apparent-
ly upon the opposite side of an immense lake or sea, that
covered all the intervening space between us and the city.
" Not having in my own mind at the time any doubt as
to the certainty of its being water, and seeing the tall mi-
narets and buildings of Rosetta, with all its gloves of
dates and sycamores, as perfectly reflected by it as by a
mirror, insomuch that even the minutest detail of the ar-
chitecture, and the trees, might have been delineated thence,
I applied to the Arabs lo know in whnt manner we were
to pass the water. Our inlerpreler, although a Greek, and
therefore hkely to have been informed of such a spectacle,
was as fully convinced as any of us that we were drawing
near to the water's edge, and became indignant when the
Arabs maintained that within an hour we should reach
Rosetta, by crossing the sands in the direct Une_ we then
pursued, and that there v.-as no water. • What !" said he,
giving way to his impatience, ' do you suppose me to be
an idiot, to be persuaded contrary to the evidence of >".^
own senses?' The Arabs, smiling, soon pacified him,
and completely astonished the whole party, by desinngus
to look back at the desert we had already raised, .^vhen
we beheld a precisely similar appearance. /' "^V, ,w.n
the mirage, a prodigy to which every one of us wul men
IR
[ 820 ]
MI S
strangers ; allhough it afterwards became more familiar.
Yet upon no future occasion did we behold this extraordi-
nary illusion so marvellously displayed. Tlie view of it
afforded us ideas of the horrible despondency to which tra-
vellers must be sometimes exposed, who, in travelling the
interminable desert, destitute of water, and perishing with
thirst, have sometimes this deceitful prospect before their
eyes," Job 6: 15 — 20.
In striking contrast to this, the prophet, speaking of the
blessings lo spring from the coming of the Messiah, ex-
claims,
The desert and the waste shall be glad,
And tlie wilderness shall rejoice and flourish;
Like the rose shall it beautifully flourish ;
Then shall be unclosed the eyes of the blind,
And the ears of the deaf shall be opened ;
Then shall the lame bound as the hart ;
And the tongue of the dumb shall sing ;
For in the wilderness shall burst forth waters,
And torrents in the desert ;
And the glowing sand shall become a pool
MIRACULOUS CONCEPTION. By this is meant,
that the human nature of Jesus Christ was formed, not in
the ordinary method of generation, but out of the sub-
stance of the virgin Mary, by the immediate operation of
the Holy Ghost. The evidence upon which this article
of the Christian faith rests is found in Blatt. 1: 18 — 23,
and in the more particular narration which St. Luke has
given in the first chapter of his gospel. If we admit this
evidence of the fact, we can discern the emphatical mean-
ing of the appellation given to our Savior when he is call-
ed " the seed of the woman ;" (Gen. 3: 15.) we can per-
ceive the meaning of a phrase which St. Luke has intro-
duced into the genealogy of Jesus, (Luke 3: 23.) " being
(as was supposed) the son of Joseph," and of which,
otherwise, it is not possible to give a good account ; and
we can discover a peculiar significancy in an expression
of the apostle Paul, (Gal. 4: 4.) "God sent forth his Son,
made of a woman."
The conception of Jesus is the point from which we
date the union between his divine and human nature ;
and, this conception being miraculous, the existence of
the Person in wliom they are united, was not physically
derived from Adam. But, as Dr. Horsley speaks in his
Sermon on the Incarnation, the union with the uncreated
Word is the very principle of personality and individual
existence in the Son of Mary. According to this view of
the matter, the miraculous conception gives a complete-
ness and consistency to the revelation concerning Jesus
Christ. Not only is he the Son of God, but, as the Son
of man, he is exalted above his brethren, while he is made
like them. He is preserved from the contamination ad-
hering to the race whose nature he assumed ; and when
the only-begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father,
was made flesh, the intercourse which, as man, he had
with God, is distinguished, not in degree only, but in kind,
from that which any prophet ever enjoyed ; and it is infi-
nitely more intimate, because it did not consist in commu-
nications occasionally made to him, but arose from the
manner in which his human nature had its existence. See
Jesus Christ, Incarnation, and Horsley' s Serin. — Watson.
MIRIAM, sister of Moses and Aaron, was born about
A. M. 2424. She might be ten or twelve years old when
her brother Mo.ses was exposed on the banks of the Nile,
since Miriam was watching there, and ofl'ered herself to
Pharaoh's daughter to fetch her a nurse. The princess
accepting the offer, Miriam fetched Iter own mother, to
whom the young Moses was given to nurse, Exod. 2: 4,
5, &c. It is thought that Miriam married Hur, of the
tribe of Judah ; but it does not appear that she had any
children by him, Exod. 17: 10, 11. Miriam had the gift
of prophecy, as she intimates : (Num. 12: 2.) " Hath the
Lord indeed spoken only by Moses ? hath he not spoken
also by us?" See also Exod. 15: 21. Num. 12. and 20.
— Watson.
MIRRORS, usually, but improperly, rendered looking-
glasses. The Eastern mirrors were made of polished me-
tal, and for the most part convex. So Callimachus de-
scribes Venus as " taking the shining brass," that is, to
adjust her hair. If they were thus made in the country
of Elihu, the image made use of by him will appear very
lively : " Hast thou with him spread Jut the sky, which is
strong, and as a molten looking-glass ?" Job 37: 18. Shaw
informs us that " in the Levant, looking-glasses are a part
of female dress. The Moorish women in Barhary are so
fond of their ornaments, and particularly of their looking-
glasses, which they hang upon their breasts, that they will
not lay them aside, even when, after the drudgery of the
day, they are obliged to go two or three miles with a
pitcher or a goat's skin, to fetch water." The Israelilish
women used to carry their mirrors with them, even to
their most solemn place of worship. The word mirror
should be used in the passages here referred to. To speak
of " looking-glasses made of steel," and " glasses molten,"
is palpably absurd ; whereas the term mirror obviates
every difficulty, and expresses the true meaning of the
original. — Watson.
MIRTH ; joy, gayety, merriment. It is distinguished
from cheerfulness thus : Mirth is considered as an act ;
cheerfulness a habit of the mind. Mirth is short and
transient ; cheerfulness fixed and permanent. Those are
often raised into the greatest transports of mirth who are
subject to the greatest depressions of melancholy : on the
contrary, cheerfulness, though it does not give such an
exquisite gladness, prevents us from falling into any
depths of sorrow. Mirth is like a flash of lightning, that
breaks through a gloom of clouds, and glitters for a mo-
ment ; cheerfulness keeps up a kind of dayhght in the
mind, and fills it with a steady and perpetual serenity.
Mirth is sinful, 1. When men rejoice in that which is
evil. 2. When unreasonable. 3. When tending to com-
mit sin. 4. When a hindcrance to duty. 5. When it is
blasphemous and profane. — Hend. Buck.
MISANTHROPIST; (from theGreekmi'so, tohate, and
anthropos, man ;) a hater of mankind ; one that abandons
society from a principle of discontent. The consideration
of the depravity of human nature is certainly enough to
raise emotions of sorrow in the breast of every man of
the least sensibility ; yet it is our duty to bear with the
follies of mankind ; to exercise a degree of candor con-
sistent with truth ; to lessen, if possible, by our exertions,
the sum of moral and natural evil ; and by connecting
ourselves with society, to add at least something to the
general interests of mankind. The misanthropist, there-
fore, is an ungenerous and dishonorable character. Dis-
gusted with life, he seeks a retreat from it ; like a coward,
he flees from the scene of action, while he increases his
own misery by his natural discontent, and leaves others
to do what they can for themselves.
The following is his character more at large ; " He is a
man," says Saurin, " who avoids society only to free him-
self from the trouble of being useful to it. He is a man,
who considers his neighbors only on the side of their de-
fects, not knowing the art of combining their virtues with
their vices, and of rendering the imperfections of other
people tolerable by reflecting on his own. He is a man ■
more employed in finding out and inflicting punishments
on the guilty than in devising means to reform them. He
is a man, who talks of nothing but banishing and execut-
ing, and who, because he thinks his talents are not suffi-
ciently valued and employed by his fellow-citizens, or ra-
ther because they know his foibles, and do not choose to
be subject to his caprice, talks of quitting cities, towns,
and societies, and of living in dens or deserts. Saurin's
Sermo,>s. — Hend. Buck.
MISER, (Lat. unhappy ;) a term formerly used in re-
ference to a person in wretchedness or calamity ; but it
now denotes a parsimonious person, or one who is cove-
tous to extremity ; who denies himself even the comforts
of life to accumulate wealth.
Avarice, says Saurin, may be considered in two differ-
ent points of light. It may be considered in those men,
or rather those public bloodsuckers, or, as the ofiicers of
the Roman emperor Vespasian were called, those sponges
of society, who, infatuated with this passion, seek after
riches as the supreme good, determine to acquire it by any
methods, and consider the ways that lead to wealth, legal
or illegal, as the only road for them to travel.
Avarice, however, must be considered in a second point
of light. It not only consists in committing bold crimes,
but in entertaining mean ideas and practising low methods,
MIS
L Bal J
Ml S
.'«^
incompatible with such magnanimity as our condition
ought to inspire. It consists not only in omitting lo serve
God, but in trj'ing to associate the service of God with
that of mammon.
How many forms doth avarice take to disguise itself
from the man who is guilty of it, and who will be drench-
ed in the guilt of it till the day he dies ! Sometimes it is
prudence, which requires him to provide not only for his
present wants, but for such as he may have in future.
Sometimes it is charity, which requires him not to give so-
ciety examples of prodigality and parade. Sometimes it
is parental love, obliging him lo save something for his
children. Sometimes it is circutnspection, which requires
him not to supply people who make ill use of what they
get. Sometimes it is necessity, which obliges him to repel
artifice by artifice. Sometimes it is conscience, which con-
vinces him, good man, that he hath already exceeded in
compassion and alms-giving, and done too much. Some-
times it is equity, for justice requires that every one should
enjoy the fruit of his own labors, and those of his ances-
tors.— Such, alas I are the awful pretexts and subterfuges
of the miser. Sa«n'H's Sct'., vol. v. ser. 12. (See Avarice ;
CovETonsuEss.) — Hend. Buck.
MISERY ; such a state of wretchedness, unhappiness,
or calamity, as renders a person an object of compassion.
— Hend, Buck.
MISHNA, (from the Heb. m«sA«(r, repetition ;) apart of
the Jewish Talmud.
The Mishna contains the text ; and the Gemara, which
is the second part of the Talmud, contains the commenta-
ries : so that the Gemara is, as it were, a glossary on the
Mishna.
The Mishna consists of various traditions of the Jews,
and of explanations of several passages of Scripture:
these traditions serving as an explication of the written
law, and supplement to it, are said to have been delivered
to Moses during the time of his abode on the mount ;
which he afterwards communicated to Aaron, Eleazer,
This, as an elegant writer observes, is one of the great-
est mischiefs of conversation. Self-love is continually at
work lo give to all we say a bias in our own favor. How
often in society, otherwise respectable, are we pained with
narrations in which prejudice warps, and self-love blinds I
How often do we see that withholding pan of a truth
answers the worst ends of a falsehood ! How often regret
the unfair turn given to a cause by placing a .•ieniimcnt
in one point of view, which the speaker had used in ano-
ther! the letter of truth preserved, where its spirit is vi-
olated ! a superstitious exactness scrupulously maintained
in the underparts of a detail, in order to impress such an
idea of integrity as shall gain credit for the misrepresent er,
while he is designedly mistaking the leading principle!
How may we observe a new character given to a fact by
a different look, tone, or emphasis, which alters it as much
as words could have done ! the false impression of a ser-
mon conveyed, when we do not like the preacher, or when
through him we wish to make religion itself ridicnious ; the
care to avoid literal untruths, while the mischief is better ef-
fected by the unfair quotation of a passage divested of its
context! the bringing together detached portions of a
subject, and making those parts ludicrous, when connected,
which were serious in their distinct position ! the insidious
use made of a sentiment by representing it as the opinion
of him who had only brought it forward in order lo ex-
pose it ! the relating opinions which had merely been put
hypothetically, as if they were the avowed principles of
him we would discredit ! that subtle falsehood which is
so made to incorporate with a certain quantity of truth,
that the most skilful moral chemist cannot analyse or se-
parate them ! for a good misrepresenter knows that a suc-
cessful lie must have a certain infusion of truth, or it will
not go down. And this amalgamation is the test of his
skill ; as too much truth would defeat the end of his mis-
chief, and too little would destroy the belief of the hearer.
All that indefinable ambiguity and equivocation ; all that
prudent deceit, which is rather implied than expressed ;
and his servant Joshua. By these they were transmitted, those more delicate artifices of the school of Loyola and
to the seventy elders ; by them to the prophets, who com-
municated them to the men of the great sanhedrim, from
whom the wise men of Jerusalem and Babylon received
them. Dr. Prideaux, rejecting the Jewish fictions, ob-
serves, that after the death of Simeon the Just, about 2tl9
years before Christ, the Mishnacal doctors arose, who by
their comments and conclusions added to the number of
those traditions which had been received and allowed by
Ezra and the men of the great synagogue ; so that towards
the middle of the second century after Christ, under the
empire of Antoninus Pius, it was found necessary to com-
mit these traditions to writing ; more especially as their
country had considerably suflered under Adrian, and many
of their schools had been dissolved, and their learned men
cut off; and therefore the usual method of preserving
their traditions had failed. Rabbi Judah on this occasion
being rector of the school at Tiberias, and president of the
sanhedrim in that place, undertook the work, and compil-
ed it in six books, each consisting of several tracts, which
altogether make up the number of sixty-three. Prid.
Connex., vol. ii. p. 468, &c., ed. 9.
This learned author computes, that the Mishna was
composed about the 150th year of our Lord ; but Dr.
Lightfoot says, that rabbi Judah compiled the Mishna
about the year of Christ 190, in the latter end of the reign
of Commodus': or, as some compute, in the year of Christ
220. Dr. Lardner is of opinion that this work could not
have been finished before the year 190, or later. Thus
the book called the Mishna was formed ; a book which
the Jews have generally received with the greatest vene-
ration. The original has been pu Wished with a Latin
translation by Surenhusius, with notes of his own, and
others from the learned Maimonides, &c., in sLx vols. fol.
Amster. A. D. 1098—1703. (See Cabala, Gemaka, Tai.-
MtJD.) It is written in a much purer style, and is not
nearly so full of dreams and visions as the Gemara. —
Hend. Buck.
MISR ; a name given to the land of Egypt. (See Miz-
RAIM.)
MISREPRESENTATION ; the act of wilfully repre-
senting a thing otherwise than it is.
of Chesterfield, which allow us, when we dare not deny a
truth, yet so to disguise and discolor ii, that the truth we
relate shall not resemble the truth we heard ; these, and
all the thousand shades of simulation and dissimulation,
will be carefully guarded against in the conversation of
vigilant Christians. Miss H. More on Education, vol. ii.
p. 91 ; Divight's Theology. (See Truth, and Ltimg.) —
Hend. Buck.
MISSAL ; the Romish mass-book, containing the seve-
ral masses to be said on particular days. It is derived
from the Lalin word missa, which, in the ancient Christian
church, signified every part of dinne service. It was
formed by collecting the separate liturgical books former-
ly used in the religious services, particularly the Oratorium,
Lectionarium, Evangeliarurn, Anliphonarium, the Canon,
itc, for the convenience of the priest. Some of these prayers
and ceremonies are very ancient. Pius V. required, in
1570, that the Missal which had been revised under his
direction, should be adopted by the whole Catholic church ;
and this form has been retained till Ihe present time ; the
changes introduced by Clement VIII. and Urban VIII.,
being little more than the alteration of a few sentences,
and the addition of some new masses to those already in
use. (See LiTrRcv.) — Hend. Buck.
MISSION; a power or commission to preach the gos-
pel. Thus Jesus Christ gave his disciples their mission
when he said, " Go ye into all the world, and preach the
gospel to every creature." See Mark 16: 16, and Note
on the text in the Comprehensive Commentary. See also the
two next articles. — Hend. Buck.
BIISSION ; an establishment of Christians, zealous fo-
the glory of God and the salvation of souls, who go an..
preach the gospel in remote countries, and among infi-
dels. No man possessed of the least degree of feeling
or compassion for the human race, can deny the necessity
and utility of Christian missions. Whoever considers
that the major part of the world is enveloped in the gross
est darkness, bound with the chains of savage bnrbanty,
and immersed in the awful chaos of brutal ignorance,
must, if he be not destitute of everj- principle of ■^'jS'""
and humanity, concur with the design and applaud the
MIS
[ 823 ]
MIS
princip.es c; tnose who engage in so benevolent a work.
(See Heathen, (Sec.) We shall not, however, in this place,
enter into a defence of missions, but shall present the rea-
der with a short view of those that have been established.
1. Papal Missions. — In the sixteenth century, the Ro-
mish church particularly exerted herself for the propagation
of her religion. The Portuguese and Spaniards pretend
to have done mighty exploits in the spread of the Chris-
tian faith in Asia, Africa, and America ; but, when we
consider the superstitions they imposed on some, and the
dreadful cruelties they inflicted on others, it more than
counterbalances any good that was done. For a time,
the Dominicans, Franciscans, and other religious ordel^,
were very zealous in the conversion of the heathen ; but
the Jesuits outdid them all in their attempts in the conver-
sion of African, A.sian, and American infidels. Xavier
spread some hints of the Romish religion through the
Portuguese settlements in the East Indies, through most
of the Indian continent, and of Ceylon. In 1519, he sailed
to Japan, and laid the foundation of a church there, which
at one time was said to have consisted of about si.x hun-
dred thousand Christians. After him, others penetrated
into China, and founded a church, which continued about
one hundred and seventy years. About 1580, others pene-
trated into Chili and Peru, in South America, and con-
verted the natives. Others bestirred themselves to con-
vert the Greeks, Nestorians, Monophysites, Abyssinians,
and the Egyptian Copts. " It is, however," as one ob-
serves, " a matter of doubt whether the disciples of a
Xavier, or the converts of a Loyola and Dominic, with
their partisans of the Romish church, should be admitted
among the number of Christians, ortheir labors be thought
to have contributed to the promotion or to the hinderance
of the religion of Christ. Certain it is, that the methods
these men pursued tended much more to make disciples to
themselves and the pontiffs of Rome, than to form the
mind to the reception of evangelical truth." With ardent
zeal, however, and unwearied industry, these apostles la-
bored in this work. In 1622, we find the pope established
a congregation of cardinals, de propagandd fide, and en-
dowed it with ample revenues, and every thing which
could forward the missions was Uberally supplied. In
1627, also, Urban added the college /or the propagation of
the faith ; in which missionaries were taught the langua-
ges of the countries to which they were to be sent. France
copied the example of Rome, and formed an establishment
for the same purposes. The Jesuits claimed the first rank,
as due to their zeal, learning, and devotedness to the holy
see. The Dominicans, Franciscans, and others, disputed
the palm with them. The new world and the Asiatic re-
gions were the chief field of their labors. They penetra-
ted into the unculiivated recesses of America. They vi-
sited the untried regions of Siam, Tonquin, and Cochin-
China. They entered the vast empire of China itself,
and numbered millions among their converts. They dared
affront the dangers of the tyrannical government of Ja-
pan. In India thcj' assumed the garb and austerities of
the Brahmins, and boasted on the coasts of Malabar of a
thousand converts baptized in one year by a single mis-
sionary. Their sufterings, however, were very great;
and in China and Japan they were exposed to the most
dreadful persecutions, and many thousands were cut olT,
with, at last, a final expulsion from the empires. In Af-
rica the Capuchins were chiefly employed, though it does
not appear that they had any considerable success. And
in America their laborious exertions have had but little in-
fluence, we fear, to promote the real conversion of the na-
tives to the truth.
2. Protestant Missions. — In the year 162 1, the Dutch opened
a church in the city of Batavia, and from hence ministers
were sent to Amboyna. At Leyden, ministers and assis-
tants were educated for the purpose of missions under the
famous Walseus, and sent into the East, where thousands
embraced the Christian religion at Formosa, Columba,
Java, Malabar, fee. ; and though the work declined in
some places, 5'et there are still churches in Ceylon, Suma-
tra, Amboyna, &:c.
About 1705, Frederick IV., of Denmark, applied to the
University of Halle, in Germany, for missionaries to preach
the gospel on the coast of Malabar, in the East Indies ;
and Messrs. Ziegenbalg and rUusehe were the first em-
ployed on this important mission ; to them others were
soon added, who labored with considerable success. It is
said that upwards of eighteen thousand Gentoos have
been brought up to the profession of Christianity.
A great work has been carried on among the Indian
nations in North America. One of the first and most emi-
nent instruments in this work was the excellent Mr. El-
liott, commonly called the Indian apostle, who, from the
time of his going to New England, in 1631, to his death,
in 1690, devoted himself to this great work by his lips
and pen, translating the Bible and other books into the
native dialect. Some years after this, Thomas Mayhew,
Esq., governor and patentee of the islands of Martha's
Vineyard, and some neighboring islands, greatly exerted
himself in the attempt to convert the Indians in that part
of America. His son John gathered and founded an In-
dian church, which, after his death, not being able to pay
a minister, the old gentleman himself, at seventy year.s
of age, became their instructer for more than twenty
years ; and his grandson and great-grandson both succeed-
ed him in the same work. Blr. D. Brainerd was also a
truly pious and successful missionary among the Susque-
hannah and Delaware Indians. His journal contains in-
stances of very extraordinary conversions.
But the Moravians have exceeded all in their missiona-
ry exertions. They have various missions ; and, by therr
persevering zeal, it is said, upwards of twenty-three thou-
sand of the most destitute of mankind, in difierent regions
of the earth, have been brought to the knowledge of the
truth. Vast numbers in the Danish islands of St. Tho-
mas, St. ,Tau, and St. Croix, and the Enghsh islands of
Jamaica, Antigua, Nevis, Barbadoes, St. Kitts, and To-
bago, have, by their ministry, been called to worship God
in spirit and in truth. In the inhospitable climes of Green-
land and Labrador, they have met with wonderful success,
after undergoing the most astonishing dangers and diffi-
culties. The Arrowack Indians, and the negroes of Suri-
nam and Berbice, liave been collected into bodies of faith-
ful people bj' them. Canada and the United States of
North America have, by their instrumentality, aflbrded
happy evidences of the power of the gospel. Even those
esteemed the last of human beings, for brutishness ana
ignorance, the Hottentots, have been formed into their so-
cieties ; and upwards of seven hundred are said to be
worshipping God at Bavians Cloof, near the cape of Good
Hope. We might also mention their efibrts to illumine
the distant East, the coast of Coroinandel, and the Nico-
bar islands ; their attempts to penetrate into Abyssinia,
to carry the gospel to Persia and Egypt, and to ascend
the mountains of Caucasus. In fact, where shall we find
the men who have labored as these have ? Their invincible
patience, their well-regulated zeal, their self-denial, their
constant prudence, deserve the meed of highest approba-
tion. Nor are they wearied in so honorable a service ;
for they have numerous missionaries still employed in
diflferent parts of the world. (See Moravians.)
Good has been also done by the Wesleyan Methodists,
who are certainly not the least in missionary work. They
have several missionaries in the British dominions in Ame-
rica, and in the West Indies. They have some thousands
of members in their societies in those parts. (See Me-
thodists.)
In 1791, a society was instituted among the Baptists, called
" The Particular Baptist Society for propagating the Gospel
among the Heathen ;" under the auspices of which mis-
sionaries were sent to India, where they have had consi-
derable success, particularly in the translation of the Scrip-
tures into many of the Indian languages and dialects.
They have also missionaries in the West Indies, where
their efforts have been signally blessed in the conversion
of the negroes. The annual expenditure is about twenty
thousand pounds.
In the year 1795, the London Missionary society was
formed. According to its constitution, it is not confined
to one body of people, but consists of Episcopalians, Pres-
byterians, and Independents, who hold an annual meeting
in London, in May. Missions have been established by
this society in the South seas, the West Indies, South Af-
rica, India, China, and Siberia, in most of which places
MIS
[ 823 ]
MIS
the labors of its devoted agents have been remarkably
blessed, especially in the islands of the Pacific, where are
upwards of twenty, on which idolatry has been entirely
abolished, several Christian churches have been formed,
and some thousands of the natives give satisfactory evi-
dence of genuine conversion. According to the report for
1831, the society had eighty stations, with ninety Euro-
pean missionaries, besides twenty-one printers, schoolmas-
ters, &c., and native teachers, amounting altogether to
nearly four hundred. About twenty thousand children
and adults receive instruction in the schools. The an-
nual expenditure now amounts to upwards of forty thou-
sand pounds.
Besides the above-mentioned societies, others have been
formed, in connexion with the Established church. In
1699, a society was instituted in England for promoting
Christian knowledge. In 1701, another was formed for
the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts. In Scot-
land, about the year 1700, a society was instituted for the
propagation of Christian knowledge. In 1800, the Church
Missionary society was formed. Its stations are fifty-six
in number, — in India, West Africa, Australia, the Medi-
terranean, the West Indies, and British America. Its ex-
penditure for 1831, was forty -four thousand two hundred
and sixty-six pounds thirteen shillings and nine-pence.
Societies for spreading the gospel also have been insti-
tuted in various other places, especially in the United
States ; the missionaries of which country are laboring
in the Sandwich islands, Africa, Palestine, Armenia, the
Greek islands, India, Burmah, Siam, and China. See
accounts of the several denominations, and the Missiona-
ry Department at the end of this work.
From the whole, it seems evident that the light and
knowledge of the glorious gospel will be more diffused
than ever throughout the earth. And who is there that
has any concern for the souls of men, any love for truth
and religion, but what must rejoice at the formation, num-
ber, and success of those institutions, which have not the
mere temporal concerns of men, but their everlasting wel-
fare, as their object ? Whose heart does not overflow with
joy. and his eyes with tears, \:'hen he considers the happy
and extensive effects which are likely to take place. The
untutored mind will receive the peaceful principles of re-
ligion and virtue ; the savage barbarian will rejoice in the
copious blessings, and feel the benign effects of civiliza-
tion ; the ignorant idolater will be directed to offer up his
prayers and praises to the true God, and learn the way of
salvation through Jesus Christ. The habitations of cru-
elty will become the abodes of peace and security, while
ignorance and superstition shall give way to the celestial
blessings of intelligence, purity, and joy. Happy men,
who are employed as instruments in this cause ; who fore-
go your personal comforts, reUnquish your native country,
and voluntarily devote yourselves to the most noble and
honorable of services ! Peace and prosperity be with you !
Wayland on the Moral Dignity of the Missionary Enterprise ;
Hall's Charge to Sev. Eustace Carey ; Miller's History of the
Propagation of Christianity ; Kennett's ditto ; Gillies' Histori-
cal Collection ; Carey' s Enquiry respecting Missions ; Loskiell's
jlistory of the Moravian Missions ; Crantz's History of Green-
land ; Home's and Swan's Letters on Missions ; Sermons
mid Reports of the Missionary Societies, &c. ^^cc. &c. ;
Wi'liams' and Edn-ards' Missionary Gazetteers ; London
QitorLerly Jieview, for 1825 ; and above all Choules' origin
and History of Missions. — Hend. Buck.
MISSIONARY SPIRIT. A question of prime impor-
tance will unquestionably be started by a reflecting mind,
whether the missionary spirit has its foundation in the
religious coivilitution of the Christian ; or in his natural
propensity for the romantic, hazardous, and untrodden
paths of existence ; especially when associated with bene-
volence to others, either real or apparent. Now this is
not only an inquiry of importance, but it is one which
leads us directly to the latent springs of moral action ;
and the only way to arrive at a correct and conclusive
answer is, to ascertain whether the legitimate tendency
of holy influence and sacred truth is to produce or sus-
tain such views respecting the unconverted nations of the
globe.
Previous to entering on this investigation we m,ay re-
mark, 'hat It IS by no means necessary to divest the mi^
sionary of that degree of passion for new scenes of enter-
prise, which makes him very willing to forsake old ones.
The instability of a rover may make a north-western
hunter, but will never keep a man in the wilderness of
human society, patiently gathering the chosen vessels of
divine mercy into the fold of the Redeemer. To return
to the question ; —
First ; the genuine spirit of missions exists only in the
minds of those whose souls are lighted from above, who
have tasted that the Lord is gracious, and are under the
impelling influence of the love of God shed abroad in the
heart. All this is the very spirit of heaven, of pure be-
nevolence, of impartial love. It was the simple action of
the;:e principles that led the Son of God to die for the hap-
piness of millions. It was this that devised and consum-
mated the plan of mercy for earth's unnumbered myriads.
The very genius of the gospel ; all its eternal provisions ;
all its promises ; all its moral power ; all its magnificent
and unfading rewards, are directed with an undeviating
aim to the salvation of sinners ; to break down their ob-
duracy, to pour into their minds the light and joy of
heaven.
What then, we ask, would be the natural, the inevitable
tendency of these all-powerful and intensively active
principles, if fully and cordially received into the immor-
tal mind ? Quiescent they cannot be ; and if they act at all,
it must be in a centrifugal direction. They do not centre
in the bosom of the recipient alone, but rather in the im-
mense field of sin and suffering discovered on every side ;
these principles go forth, like the spirits of light, to seek
out, and minister to the heirs of salvation. Most evi-
dently then, the spirit of missions is the divine energy of the
gospel.
Second ; the missionary spirit is most intimately connect-
ed with, or rather is composed of those particular feelings,
which are said to be the fruits oi' ihe spirit. For instance,
love, patience, brotherly kindness, hope, peace, meekness,
gentleness, &:c. And to the cultivation and diflTusion of
these principles, the missionary consecrates his powers,
and this is the way in which lie becomes a worker toge-
ther with God. It is the work of the spirit to convince
of sin, and to lead the minds of men into all truth. To
these eSbrts, also, the labors of missionaries are constantly
devoted. Thus we see that the spirit of missions finds a
correlate in that mighty power wherewith Christ will sub-
due all things to himself.
Third ; the missionary spirit is most strongly intrench-
ed behind the sacred Scriptures, so that it cannot be suc-
cessfully attacked until a thousand declarations of the
Bible are obliterated and forgotten.
The whole life of Christ, and of the apostle Paul, must
ever stand as practical illustrations of what a missionary
should be ; and the very first essay to copy their exalted
example would inevitably lead to a missionary life. The
farewell commission given just before the heavens receiv-
ed him out of the sight of mortal eye, is a perpetual in-
junction from the Lord of glory, to foster and maintain
the spirit of missions. Because no sooner does the be-
liever ask, what shall I do in reference to souls ? than he
hears, breaking out of the cloud on Olivet, " Go ye^into
all the world — preach the gospel — to every creature,'' —
four ideas of sufficient interest to move any thing but a
man of marble.
Fourth ; the organized existence of the church is such,
as naturally, and almost necessarily to promote a mis-
sionary spirit. At any rate, its present organization
would be needless, if we are to have no missionaries to
send or support. There must be those to send as well as
to go ; and in the early ages of the church, particular
churches supported foreign and domestic missionaries ;
and it would now be impossible for the great mass of
Christians to do any thing whatever beyond the breath of
prayer for the conversion of the heathen, if the missionary
spirit were to be extinguished, and they no more be called
upon to contribute for their support.
Fifth ; we must before closing this article advert to the
facts in the case. Let it be recollected that there arc now
near seven hundred foreign missionaries in the fcurquar-
ters of the globe, and manv of them have grown lioarr
MIZ
[ 824
M'LE
headed in this work ; they have had trials, disappoint-
ments, mockery, and death around them, but their hearts
never quailed in the work. The novelty of the enterprise
has passed away, but they are patiently at their labor of
love, winning souls to Christ. A few instances of fickle-
ness may have existed, and it would have been surprising
not to have found them ; still, it is a delightful and an
undisputed fact, that the missionary spark first struck in
their hearts has burned with a steadiness which shows
that it is fed with inextinguishable material.
And the obvious conclusion is, that a genuine missionary
spirit is deeply seated in the constituent parts of the Chris-
tian character. — W. Y. Bap. Rep.
MITCHELL, (Jonathan,) minister of Cambridge,
Massachusetts, was born in England, in 1624. He was
brought to this country in 1635, by his parents, who sought
a refuge from ecclesiastical tyranny in the wilderness.
Mr. Mitchell was graduated at Harvard college in 1647,
having made great acquisitions in knowledge and improve-
ments in virtue. He was ordained at Cambridge, as the
successor of Mr. Shepherd, August 21, 1650. Soon after
his settlement president Dunstar embraced the principles
of the Bapti.sts. This was a peculiar trial to him ; but,
though he felt it to be his duty to combat the principles
of his former tutor, he did it with such meekness of wis-
dom, as not to lose his friendship. In 1662, he was a
member of the synod, which met in Boston to discuss
and settle a question concerning church-membership and
church discipUne, and the result was chiefly written by
him. The determination of the question relating to the
baptism of the children of those who did not approach
the Lord's table, and the support thus given to what is
called the half-way covenant, was more owing to him
than to any other man. (See Half-Way Covenant.)
Time has shown that the views which this good man la-
bored so hard to establish on this point, cannot be sus-
tained without ruining the purity of the churches. What
an instructive lesson ! — Mr. Mitchell was eminent for pie-
ty, wisdom, humility, and love. He died in the hope of
glory, July 9, 1668, aged forty-three. He published several
Letters and Sermons. His Life, by C. Mather ; Magnolia,
iii. 158—185 ; His. Soc. vii. 23, 27, il~52.— Allen.
MITE ; a small piece of money, in value a quarter of
a Roman penny, or denarius ; in English money about se-
ven farthings ; in our currency, four cents. See Luke 12:
59. 21: 2.— Calmet.
MITRE ; a sacerdotal ornament, worn on the head by
the ancient Jewish high-priest, and in modern limes by
bishops and certain abbots,
on solemn occasions, being
a sort of turban, or cap,
pointed and cleft at the top.
iisH ^'^ holiness the pope uses
■Tl 'liftlMB ^°"'' diflerent mitres, which
are more or less richly adorn-
ed, according to the nature
of the festivals on which"
they are assumed. The
mitre is frequently met with in early Christian manu-
scripts, in illuminated missals, and upon the oldest eccle-
siastical monuments. A statue of Si. Peter, erected in
the seventh century, bears this mark of distinction in the
shape of a round, high, and pyramidal mitre, such as
those which the popes have since worn, and offers, per-
haps, one of the earliest instances of its usage in churches.
—Hend. Buck.
MITYLENE ; the capital of the island of Lesbos,
through which Paul passed as he went from Corinth to
Jerusalem, A. D. 58, Acts 20: 14. — Calmer.
MIZPAH, or MizPEH ; a city of the tribe of Benjamin,
situated in a plain, about eighteen miles west of Jerusa-
lem. Here Samuel dwelt, 1 Sam. 7. Here, also, Saul
was anointed king, 1 Sam. 10: 17 — 25. 1 Kings 15: 22.
There was another city of this name in Gilead, (Gen. 31:
49.) and a third in the land of Moab, 1 Sam. 22: 3. It is
to be observed, that Mizpeh implies a beacon or watch-
tower, a pillar or heap of commemoration ; and at all the
places bearing this name, it is probable that a single pil-
lar, or a rude pile, was erected as the witness and the re-
cord of some particular event. These, subsequently,
became altars and places of convocation on public occa-
sions, religious and civil. — Watson.
MIZRAIM ; son of Ham, and father of Ludim, Ana-
min, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, and Casluhim,
Gen. 10: 6. He was father of the Mizraim, or Egyp-
tians. Mizraim is also put for the country of Egypt:
thus it has three significations, which are perpetually con-
founded and used promiscuously ; sometimes denoting
the land of Egypt, sometimes he who first peopled Egypt,
and sometimes the inhabitants themselves. (See Egypt.)
— Calmet.
BI'LEAN, (Archibald,) a eminent Baptist writer, was
born May 1, 1733, Old Style, at East Kilbride, a small
village, about eight miles south of Glasgow. He was
the third in descent from Brolus, eldest son of Duart, the
chief of the clan of the M'Leans.
Mr. M'Lean's parents were members of the Presbyterian
church of Scotland, and trained up their son in a venera-
tion for that national establishment of religion. He was
brought to a saving acquaintance with the truth as it is
in Jesus, under the preaching of the excellent Maclaurin,
a minister of the Established church ; he consequently en-
tered into the communion of that church, and continued
several years a very zealous member of it. In 1746, he
was articled as an apprentice to a printer in Glasgow,
by whom he was highly prized and esteemed. This was
an employment every way congenial to his disposition.
The variety of works which were constantly passing
through his hands, proved at the same time a source of
amusement and information ; and he soon made himself
perfectly acquainted with every branch of the printing
business. His leisure hours were devoted to the study
of the languages in which the Scriptures were originally
written ; and to facilitate his acquaintance with them he
constructed several grammars for his own use, some of
which are still in the possession of the family. During
the terra of his apprenticeship, he also applied himself to
a course of general reading, and to the particular study
of some branches of science connected with theology,
which laid the foundation of that extensive acquaintance
with the Scriptures which he ultimately attained.
In 1765, Mr. M'Lean became a Baptist, and was bap-
tized by Mr. Carmichael, in Edinburgh. In 1767, having
gone to London, he continued there, at his printing busi-
ness, till the month of December, when, having been ap-
plied 10, to become overseer of the extensive printing con-
cern of Messrs. Donaldson and Co. in Edinburgh, he ac-
ceded to the proposal, and, quitting the metropolis, settled
there with his family. He superintended this great esta-
blishment eighteen years ; a period of extraordinary exer-
tion. In June, 1768, he was chosen colleague to Mr.
Carmichael, and besides his pastoral labors, was rising to
high distinction as an author.
About the year 1785, in consequence of the V£iried ex-
ertions of Mr._ M'Lean, his health was much affected.
The spread of the Baptist profession, in various parts of
Scotland, and the discriminating principles of the church-
es formed upon the plan of those of the Scotch Baptists,
having extended also to various parts of England, occa-
sioned numerous applications, at this period, to him, not
only for information, by letter, on points of difficulty that
arose among them, but also for visits, to set societies in
order, and ordain elders over them. As his engagements
in Mr. Donaldson's printing office precluded the possibility
of a compliance with the greater part of these applica-
tions, and as the church of Edinburgh was now respecta-
ble in point of number, they urged it upon him to give up
his secular employ, and accept such a salary from them
as their ability enabled them to raise him. He complied
with that request ; consented to accept a salary from the
church, of sixty guineas per annum, at which sum it conti-
nued for several years ; and though, when an extraordi-
nary rise in all the necessaries of life took place, it was
graduedly augmented, yet it never exceeded a hundred and
twenty pounds, which was the sum he was in receipt of at
the time of his decease.
The Baptist mission to India was an undertaking which,
from 1795, engaged much of Mr. M'Lean's attention,
and in furthering it he took a very lively interest. His
zeal happily stimulated all classes of his countrymen to
MO A
[ 825 ]
MO A
co-operate in promoting the interest of the Baptist mission
lo India. He died Dncember 21, 1812, at the age of
eighty, in the hope of that blessed gospel he had recom-
mended so extensively to others.
As a minister, a Christian, and an author, he was alike
distinguished. An opinion has, indeed, very generally
prevailed among the dissenters throughout England, that
Mr. Sr'fjean and those with whom he walked in church
fellowship, differed from the Sandemanians in scarcely
any thing but the subject of baptism : but this opinion is
totally unfounded. A handsome etUtion of his valuable
works was published, in seven volumes, octavo, London,
1S23, with a Memoir of his Life, (J-c- *.'/ ^V. Jones. Jams'
Chris. Biog. ; Benedict's History nf the Baptists. — Jlend.
Bite':.
M'MILLANITES. (See- Synod ; Reformed Pkes-
DYTEU.)
MNASON, of Cyprus ; a Jew, converted by Christ him-
self; and one of the seventy, Acts 21: 16. Paul lodged
at his house at Jerusalem, A. D. 58.: — Calmet.
MOABITES ; the descendants of Moab, son of Lot,
born A. M. 2108, whose habitation was east of Jordan,
and adjacent to the Dead sea, on both bides the river Ar-
non, oa which their capital city was situated. (See An.)
This country was originally possessed by a race of giants
called Emim, (Deut. 2; 11, 12.) whom the Moabites con-
quered. Afterwards, the Amorites took a part from the
Moabites, (Judg. 11: 13.) but Mo.ses reconquered it, and
gave it to the tribe of Reuben. The Moabites were spared
by Moses, as God had restricted him ; (Deut. 2: 9.) but
there always was a great antipathy between them and
the Israelites, which occasioned many wars. Balaam se-
duced the Hebrews to idolatry and uncleanness, by means
of the daughters of Bloab, Num. 25: 1, 2. God ordained
that this people should not enter into the congregation of
his people, or be capable of office, &c. even to the tenth
generation, (Deut. 23: 3.) because they had the inhuma-
nity to refuse the Israelites a passage through their coun-
try, nor would supply them with bread and water in their
necessity, Judg. 3: 12. 2 Kings 3: 4, 5, 1(>. Amos 1: 13.
2 Chron. 26: 7,8. 27: 5. Jer. 9:26. 12: 14, 15. 25: U, 12.
■18: 47. 49: 3, 6, 39. 50: l(i.
The principal deities of the Moabites were Chemosh
and Baal-peor. Scripture Sfieaks of Nebo, of Baal-meon,
and of Baal-dibon, as gods of the Jloabites ; but it is
likely these are rather names of places where Chemosh
and Peor were worshipped : and that Baal-dibon, Baal-
meon, and Nebo, are no other than Chemosh adored at
Dibon, or at Meon, or on mount Nebo.
The land of Moab lay to the east and south-east of Ju-
dea, and bordered on the east, north-east, and partly on
the south of the Dead sea. Its early history is nearly ana-
logous to that of Ammon ; (see Ammon ;) and the soil,
though perhaps more diversified, is, in many places where
the desert and plains of salt have not encroached on its
borders, of equal fertility. Wlierever any spot is culti-
vated the corn is hi.Muriant ; and the riches of the soil
cannot perhaps be more clearly illustrated than by the
fict, that one grain of Heshbon wheat exceeds in dimen-
sions two of the ordinary sort, and more than double the
number of grains grow on the stalk.
The prophecies concerning Moab are numerous and re-
markable. There are, says Keith, abundant predictions
which refer so clearly to its modern state, that there is
scarcely a single feature peculiar to the land of Moab, as
it now exists, which was not marked by the prophets in
their delineation of the low condition to which, from the
height of its wickedness and haughtiness, it was finally to
be brought down.
The whole country abounds with ruins ; and Burck-
hardt, who encountered many difficulties in so desolate
and dangerous a land, thus records the brief history of a
few of them : '■ The ruins of Eleale, Heshbon, Sleon,
Sledaba, Dibon. Aroer, still subsist to illustrate the his-
tory of the sons of Israel." And it might with equal
truth have been added, that they still subsist to confirm
the inspiration of the Jewish Scriptures, or to prove that
the seers of Israel were the prophets of God ; for the deso-
lation of each of these very cities was the theme of a pre-
diction. Eveiy thing worthv of observation respecting
lOi
them has been detailed, not only in Burckhardt's " TraveU
in Syrm," but also by Seetzen, and, more recently, U
captams Irby and Mangles, who, along with Mr. Banke'
and Mr. I..eigh. visited this deserted district.
Mount Nebo wa.s completely barren when Burckhardi
passed over it, and the site of the ancient city had
not been ascertained. "Nebo is spoiled." None of
the ancient cities of Moab now remain as tenanted bv
men. Kerek, which neither bears any resemblance in
name to any of the cities of Moab which are men
tioned as existing in the time of the Israelites, nor
possesses any monuments which denote a very remote
antiquity, is the only nominal town in the whole country,
and, in the words of Seetzen, who visited it, " in its pre-
sent ruined state it can only be called a hamlet ; and the
houses have only one floor."
But the most populous and fertil-e province in Europe,
especially any situated in the interior of a country like
Moab, is not covered so thickly with towns as Moab is
plentiful in ruins, deserted and desolate though now it be.
Burckhardt enumerates about fifty ruined sites within its
boundaries, many of ihera extensive. In general they
are a broken do« n and undistinguishable mass of ruins ;
and many of them have not been closely inspected. But,
in some instances, there are the remains of temples, se-
pulchral monuments; the ruins of edifices constructed of
very large stones, in one of which buildings some of the
stones are twenty feet in length, and so broad that one
constitutes the thickness of the wall ; traces of hanging
gardens; entire columns lying on the ground, three feet
in diameter, and fragments of smaller columns ; and
many cisterns out of the rock. When the towns of Moab
existed in their prime, and were at ease ; when arrogance,
and haughtiness, and pride prevailed amongst them; the
desolation, and total desertion and abandonment of them
all, must have utterly surpassed all human concep-
tion. " They shall cry of Moab, How is it broken
down !"
The strong contrast between the ancient and the actual
state of Jloab is exemplified in the condition of the inha-
bitants as well as of the land ; and the coincidence be-
tween the prediction and the fact is as striking in the one
case as in the other. " The days come, saith the I.,ord,
that I will send unto him (Moab) wanderers that shall
cause him to wander, and shall empty his vessels." The
Bedouin (wandering) Arabs are now the chief and almost
the only inhabitants of a country once studded with cities.
They prevent any from forming a fixed settlement who
are inclined to attempt it ; for although the fruitfulness'
of the soil would abundantly repay the labor of settlers,
aird render migration wholly unnecessary, even if the
population were increased more than tenfold ; yet the
Bedouins forcibly deprive them of the means of subsist-
ence, compel them to search for it elsewhere, and, in the
words of the prediction, literally '' cause them lo wander."
'• It may be remarked generally of the Bedouins," says ■
Burckhardt, in describing their extortions in this very
country, " that wherever they are the masters of the ct\I-
tivators, the latter are soon reduced lo beggary by their
unceasing demands."
" 0 ye that dwell in Moab, leave the cities and dwell in
the rock, aud be like the dove that inaketh her nest in the
sides of the hole's mouth." In a general description of the
condition of the inhabitants of that extensive desert which
now occupies the place of these ancient flourishing states,
Volney, in plain but unmeant illustration of this prediction,
remarks, that the " wretched peasants live in perpetu:il
dread of losing the fruit of their labors ; and no sooner
have they gathered in their harvest, than they hasten to
secrete it in private places, aud retire among the rocks
which border on Ihc Dead sea.'
But whether flocks lie down in the city wiihoul any lo
make them afraid, or whether men are to be found dwell-
ing in the rocks, and are " like ihe dove that makclh her
nest in the sides of the hole's mouth," the wonderful tran-
sition, in either case, and the close accordance, in both,
of the fact to the prediction, assuredly mark it in charac-
ters that may be visible to the purblind mind, as the wont
of that God" before whom the darkness of Aiiuriiy is as
light, and without whom a sparrow .nnnc'l !-;l' imlo the
MOD >■ [ 826 ]
the Evidence of Prophecy.— Cabnel ;
MOH
ground. Keith
Watson.
MODALISTS; those who resolve the distinction be-
tween the persons of the Trinity merely into the manner
of their subsistence, as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
(See NoETiANS ; and Sabellians.) — Williams.
MODERATE j to moderate a call, in the church of Scot-
land, is, under the presidency of one of the clergy, to pub-
licly announce and give in an invitation to a minister or
licentiate to take the charge of a partsh ; which announce-
ment or invitation, thus given in the hearing of the as-
sembled parishioners, is regarded as the first legal step
towards a settlement. — Hend. Buck.
MODERATION ; the state of keeping a due medium
between extremes ; calmness, temperance, or equanimity.
It is sometimes used with reference to our opinions,
(Rom. 12: 3.) but in general it respects our conduct in
that state which comes under the description of ease or
prosperity ; and ought to take place in our wishes, pur-
suits, e.xpectations, pleasures, and passions. See Bishop
Hall on Moderation, ser. 16 ; Blair's Sermons, vol. iii. ser.
12 ; Topladi/s Works, vol. iii. ser. 10. — Hend. Buck.
MODERATOR; a clergyman presiding in the general
assembly of the church of Scotland, or in any of the sub-
ordin.ite courts of that church ; and likewise the person
acting as cliairman or president of any church court, or
voluntary association. — Hend. Buck.
MODERN QUESTION, (the.) So is called the Qnes-
tion—" Whether it be the duty of all, to whom the gospel
is preached, to repent and believe in Christ?" and it is
called Modern, because it is supposed never to have been
agitated before the early part of the last century.
The following is an abstract of Dr. Ryland's History of
this controversy, which he con.siders to have originated in
Northamptonshire, in the churches in which Mr. Davis,
of Rothwell, preached ; though it does not appear that he
took an active part in it. Mr. Maurice, his successor,
even strenuously opposed the negative side of the ques-
tion, which had been maintained by some of Mr. Davis'
admirers, particularly by Mr. Lewis Weyman, of Kini-
bolton ; to whom Mr. Maurice wrote a reply, which, on
Mr. Maurice dying before it was completed, was published
by the celebrated Sir. Bradbury. This was between 1737
and 1739. Mr. Gutteridge, of Oundle, took also the af-
firmative side ; and, in 1743, Mr. Brine the negative ; as
did also the learned Dr. Gill, though he did not write ex-
pressly on the subject.
The question, thus started, was pursued by a variety
of inferior writers down to the time of Andrew Fuller, who
very ably supported the positive side of the question ;
namely, that faith is the duty of all men, although,
through the depravity of human nature, men mill not be-
lieve, till regenerated by the Holy Spirit. On the other
side it was contended, " that faith was not a duty, but a
grace ;" the exercis^ of which was not required till it
was bestowed. 7; is both. On this subject, Mr. Fuller
published " The Gospel worthy of all acceptation ; or the
Duty of all Men to believe in Jesus Christ." "The lead-
ing design of this performance (says Mr. Morris) is to
prove that men are under indispensalDle obligations to be-
lieve whatever God says, and to do whatever he com-
mands ; and a Savior being revealed in the gospel, the
Urv in effect requires those to whom he is made known to
believe in him, seeing it insists upon obedience to the
whole will of God ; that the inability of man to comply
with the divine requirements is wholly of a moral nature,
and consists in the prevalence of an evil disposition,
which, being voluntary, is in ihe highest degree criminal."
On this subject, Mr. Fuller was attacked by Mr. Button,
a supralapsarian, on the one hand ; and by Mr. Danie!
Taylor, an Arminian, on the other; to whom he replied,
by " A Defence" of his former tract. There the question
seems to rest ; and it appears hardly possible in the pre-
sent state of things, to throw farther light upon the subject.
The late Mr. Robinson shrewdly remarks, that those
ministers who will not use applications, lest they should
rob the Holy Spirit of the honor of applying the word,
should, for the same reason, not use explications, lest they
should deprive him of the honor of illustrating it. Dr.
Ryland's Life of Fuller, pp. 6— U ; Morris' do., ch. viii. ;
Wilson's Dissenting Churches, vol. ii. pp. 372 — 574 ; Icimey's
English Baptists, vol. iii. pp. 262 — 272. — Williams.
MODESTY, is sometimes used to denote humility, and
sometimes to express chastity. The Greek word kosmios,
signifies neat or well arranged. It suggests the idea of
simple elegance. Modesty, therefore, consists in purity
of sentiment and manners, inclining us to abhor the least
appearance of vice and indecency, and to fear doing any
thing which will justly incur censure. An excess of
modesty is called bashfulness, and the want of it imperti-
nence, or impudence.
There is a false or vicious modesty, which influences a
man to do any thing that is ill or indiscreet ; such as,
through fear of offending his companions, he runs into
their follies or excesses ; or it is a false modesty which
restrains a man from doing what is good or laudable ;
such as being ashamed to speak of religion, and to be
seen in the exercises of piety and devotion. — Hend. Buck.
MOHAMMED, or Mahomet, the founder of Islamism,
was born in the reign of Anushirwan the Just emperor
of Persia, about the end of the sixth century of the Chris-
tian era. He came into the world under some disadvan-
tages. His father, Abd'allah, was a younger son of
Abd'almotalleb, and dying very young, and in his father's
lifetime, left his widow and infant son in mean circum-
stances, his whole subsistence consisting but of five camels
and one Ethiopian female slave. Abd'almotalleb was
therefore obliged to take care of his grandchild Moham-
med ; which he not onl}' did during his life, but at his
death enjoined his eldest son, Abu Taleb, who was brother
to Abd'allah by the same mother, to provide for him for
the future ; which he very affectionately did, and instruct-
ed him in the business of a merchant, which he followed;
and to that end he took him into Syria, when he was but
thirteen. He afterwards recommended him to Khadijah,
a noble and rich widow, for her factor ; in whose service
he behaved himself so well, that by making him her hus-
band, she soon raised him to an equality with the richest
in Mecca.
It was after he began by this advantageous match to
live at his ease, that he formed the scheme of establishing
a new religion, or, as he expressed it, of replanting the
only true and ancient one professed by Adam, Noah,
Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all the prophets, by destroy-
ing the gross idolatry into which the generality of hjs
countrymen had fallen, and weeding out the corruptions
and superstitions which the latter Jews and Christians
had, as he thought, introduced into their religion, and re-
ducing it to its original purity, which consisted chiefly in
the worship of one God.
Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightly judged
that it was necessary for him to begin with the conversion
of his own household. Having, therefore, retired with
his family, as he had done several times before, to a cave
in mount Hara, he there opened the secret of his mission
to his wife Khadijah ; and acquainted her, that the angel
Gabriel had just before appeared to him, and told him
that he was appointed the apostle of God : he also repeated
to her a passage which he pretended had been revealed to
him by the ministry of the angel, with those other circum-
stances of this first appearance which are related by the
Mohammedan writers. Khadijah received the news with
great joy, swearing by Him in whose hands her soul was,
that she trusted he would be the prophet of his nation ;
and immediately communicated what she had heard to
MOH
[ 827 j
MOH
her cousin Warakah Ebn Nawfal, who, being a ChrisUan,
could write in the Hebrew character, and was tolerably
well versed in the Scriptures ; and he readily came into
her opinion, assuring her that the saine angel who had
formerly appeared unto Moses, was now sent to Moham-
med. The first overture the prophet made, was in the
month of Ramadan, in the fortieth year of his age, which
is therefore usually called the year of his mission.
Encouraged by so good a beginning, he resolved to pro-
ceed, and try for some time what he could do by private
persuasion, not daring to hazard the whole affair by ex-
posing it too suddenly to the public. He soon made pro.s-
elyles of those under his own roof, viz. : his wife Khadi-
jah. his servant Zeid Ebn Hareiha, to whom he gave his
freedom on that occasion, (which afterwards became a rule
to his followers,) and his cousin and pupil Ali, the son of
Abu Taleb, though then very young ; but this last, making
no account of the other two, used to stj'le himself the first
of l/clitvers. The next person Mohammed applied to was
Abd'allah Ebn Abi Kohafa, surnamed Abu Beer, a man
of great authority among the Koreish, and one whose in-
terest he well knew would be of great service to him, as
it soon appeared ; for Abu Beer, being gained over, pre-
vailed also on Othman Ebn Affan, Abd'alraham Ebn
Awf, Saad Ebn Abbi Wakkus, Al Zobeir, Al Awam, and
Telha Ebn Obeid'allah, all principal men of Mecca, to
follow his example. These men were six chief compan-
ions, who, with a few more, were converted in the space
of three years: al the end of which, Blohammed having,
as he hoped, a siifhcient interest to support him, made his
mission no longer a secret, but gave out that God had
commanded him to admonish his near relations ; and in
order to do it v.iih more convenience and prospect of suc-
cess, he directed Ali to prepare an entertainment, and in-
vited the sons and descendants of Abd'alraotalleb, intend-
ing then to open his mind to them. This was done, and
about forty of them came ; bat Abn Laheb, one of his
uncles, making the company brealc up before Mohammed
had an opportunity of speaking, obliged him to give them
a second invitation the next day ; and when they were
come, he made them the following speech : — " I know no
man in all Arabia who can offer his kindred a more ex-
cellent thing than I now do to you ; I offer )-ou happiness
both in this life and in that which is to come: God Al-
mighty hath commanded me to call you unto him. Who,
therefore, among 3'ou will be assistant to me herein, and
become my brother and ray vicegerent?'' All of them
hesitating and declining the matter, Ali at length rose up,
and declared tliat he would be his assistant, and vehe-
mently threatened those w'ho should oppose him. Mo-
hammed upon this embraced Ali with great demonstrations
of affection, and desired all who were present to hearken
to and obey him as his deputy ; at w'hich the company
broke out into a great laughter, telling Abu Taleb that he
must now pay obedience to his son.
This repuise, however, was so far from discouraging
Mohammed, that he began to preach in public to the peo-
ple, who heard him with some patience, till he came to
upbraid them with the idolatry, obstinacy, and perverse-
ness of themselves and their fathers ; which so highly
provoked them, that they declared themselves his ene-
mies ; and would soon have procured his ruin, had he not
been protected by Abu Taleb. The chief of the Koreish
warmly solicited this person to desert his nephew, making
frequent remonstrances against the innovations he was
attempting ; which proving ineffectual, they at length
threatened him with an open rupture if he diet not prevail
on Mohammed to desist. At this Abu Taleb was so far
moved, that he earnestly dissuaded his nephew from pur-
suing the aifair any further, representing the great danger
that he and his friends must otherwise run. But Sloham-
med was not to be intimidated, telling his uncle plainly,
■■ that if they set the sun against him on his right hand,
and the moon on his left, he would not leave his enter-
prise ;" and Abu Taleb, seeing him so firmly resolved to
proceed, used no further arguments, but promised to stand
by him against all his enemies.
The Koreish, finding they could prevail neither by fair
words nor menaces, tried what they could do by force and
ill treatment ; using Mohammed's followers so very inju-
riously, that n was not safe for them to continue at Mecca
any longer ; whereupon Mohammed gave leave to such
of them as had no friends to protect them, to seek for re-
fuge elsewhere. And accordingly, in the fifth year of the
prophet's mission, sixteen of them, four of whom were
women, fled into Ethiopia ; and among them, Othman
Ebn Affan, and his wife Rakiah, Mohammed's daughter.
This was the first flight, but afterwards several others fol-
lowed them, retiring, one after another, to the number of
eighty-three men and eighteen women, besides children.
These refugees were kindly received by the Nagush, or
king of Ethiopia, who refused to deliver them up to those
whom the Koreish sent to demand them, and, as the Arab
writers unanimously attest, even professed the Moham-
medan religion.
In the sixth year of his mission, Mohammed had the
pleasure of seeing his party strengthened by the conver-
sion of his uncle Hamza, a man of great valor and merit ;
and of Omar Ebn al Katlab, a person highly esteemed,
and once a violent opposer of the prophet. As persecution
generally advances rather than obstrncls the spreading of
a religion, Islamism made so great a progress among the
Arab tribes, that the Koreish, to suppress it effectually, if
possible, in the seventh year of Mohammed's mission,
made a solemn league or covenant against the Hashem-
ites, and the family of Abd'almotalleb, engaging them-
selves to contract no inarriages with any of them, and
to have no communication with them ; and to give it the
greater sanction, reduced it into writing, and laid it up
in the Kaaba. Upon this the tribe became divided into
two factions ; and the family of Hashem all repaired
to Abu Taleb as their head ; except only Abd'al Uzza,
surnamed A/jii Laheh, who, out of inveterate hatred to
his nephew and his doctrine, went over to the opposite
party, whose chief was Abu Sossian Ebn Harb, of the
i'amilj' of Ommeya.
The families continued thus at variance for three years ;
but in the tenth year of his mission Mohammed told his
uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifestly showed his dis-
approbation of the league which the Koreish had made
against them, by sending a Avorm to eat out every word
of the instrument except the name of Go(i. Of this acci-
dent Mohamiued had probably some private notice ; for
Abu Taleb went immediately to the Koreish, and ac-
quainted them with it ; offering, if it proved false, to deli-
ver his nephew up to them ; but, in case it were true, he
insisted that they ought to lay aside their animosity, and
annul the league they had made against the Hashemitcs.
To this they acquiesced ; and, going to inspect the writing,
to their great astonishment found it to be as Abu Taleb
had said ; and the league was thereupon declared void.
In the twelfth year of his mission it was that Moham-
med gave out that he had made his night journe"y from
Jlecca to Jerusalem, and thence to heaven, so much spok-
en of by all that w-rite of him. Dr. Prideaux thinks he
invented it either to answer the expectations of those who
demanded some miracle as a proof of his mission ; or
else, by pretending to have conversed with God. to esta-
blish the authority of whatever he should think fit to
leave behind by way of oral tradition, and make his say-
ings to serve the same purpose as the oral laws of the
Jews. But it does not appear that Mohammed himself
ever expected so great a regard should be paid to his say-
ings as his followers have since done ; and, seeing he all
along disclairned any power of performing miracles, it seems
rather to have been a fetch of policy to raise his reputa-
tion, by pretending to have actually conversed with God
in heaven, as Moses had heretofore done in the mount,
and to have received several institutions immediately
from him ; whereas, before, he contented himself with
persuading them that he had all by the ministry of
Gabriel.
However, this story seemed so absurd and incredible,
that several of his followers left him upon it ; and had
probably ruined the whole design, had not Abu Beer
vouched for his veracity, and declared, that if Moham-
med affirmed it to be true, he verily believed the whole:
which happy incident not onlv retrieved the prophet s crcuii.
but increased il to such a degree, that he wa.s sectire i
being able to make his disciples swallow whate^ei
I\I 0 II
[ 828
M 0 11
pleased to impo.se on liiem for the UUiire. And ihis fic-
tion, notwitlistanJiiig its extravagance, was one of the
most artful contrivances Mohammed ever put in practice,
and what chiefly contributed to the raising of his reputa-
tion to that great height to which it afterwards arrived .
The next year, being the thirteenth of Mohammed's
mission, Masab returned to Mecca, accompanied by se-
venty-three men, and two women of IMedina, who had
professed Islamism, besides some others who were as yet
unbelievers. On their arrival thej' immediately sent lo
Mohammed, and oflered him their assistance, of which he
was now in great need ; for his adversaries were by this
time grown so poAverful in Mecca, that he could not stay
there much longer without imminent danger. Wherefore
he accepted their proposal, and met them one night, by
appointment, at Al Akaba, north of the city, attended by
his uncle, Al Abbas ; who, though he s-as not then a lic-
liever, wished his nephew well, and made a speech to
those of MediiKi, wherein he told them, that, as Moham-
med was obliged to quit his native city, and seek an asy-
lum elsewhere, and they had olfered him their protection,
they would do well not to deceive him ; that if they « ere
not firmly resolved to defend, and not betray him, they
had better declare their minds, and let him provide for
his safety in some other manner. Upon their prolestmg
their sincerity, l\Iohammed swore to be faithful to them,
on condition that they should protect him against all in-
sults as heartily as tliey would their own wives and lami-
lies. They then asked him what recompense theyveie
to expect if they should happen to be killed in his quarrel,
he answered, Paradise. Whereupon they pledged their
faith to him, and so returned home, after Mohammed hai
(hosen twelve out of their number, who were lo have the
same authority among them as the' twelve apost'e^ ol
Christ had among his disciples.
Hitherto Mohammed had propagated his religion by
fair means ; so that the whole success of his enterpiise,
before his flight to Medina, must be attributed to persua-
sion only, and not to compulsion. For before the abo\ e
oath of fealty or inauguration at Al Akaba, he had no
permission to use any force at all ; and in several places
of the Koran, which he pretended were revealed duun^
his stay at Mecca, he declares his business was onlj to
preach and admonish ; that he had no authority to compel
any person to embrace his religion ; and that, whether
people believe or not, was none of his concern, but be-
longed solely unto God. And hje was so far from allowing
his followers to use force, that he exhorted them to bear pa-
tiently those injuries which were oflered them on account
of their faith ■ and when persecuted himself chose rather
to quit the phce ot his bulh inlielite to Medina than
Jh //
1 li 111 I IMediin, A D 621.
to make any resistance But this gieat passiveness ar.l
moderation seem entireb, owing to his want of power, and
the great superioritj of his opposers, for the first twelve
years of his mission ; lor no sooner was he enabled, by
the assistance of those of Medina, to make head against
his enemies, than he gave out that God had allowed liim
and his followers to defend themselves against the infi-
dels ; and at length, as his forces increased, he pretended
to have the divine leave even to attack them, and destroy
idolatry, and set up the true faith by the sword ; finding by
experience, ihal lii.^ designs would otherwise proceed very
slowly, if they \a ere not utterlj' overthrown ; and knowing,
on the other hand, that innovators, when they depend solely
on their own strength, and can compel, seldom run any
risk ; from whence, says Machiavel, it follows, that all
the armed prophets have succeeded, and the unarmed
ones have failed. Moses, Cyrus, Theseus, and Romulus,
would not have been able to establish the observance ol
their insiitulions for any length of time had they not been
armed. The first passage of the Koran which' gave Mo-
hammed th^ permission of defending himself by arms, is
said to have been that in the twenty-second chapter ;
after which a great number to the same purpose were re-
vealed. The flight to Medina begins the Mohammedan
era.
Mohammed, being .securely settled at Medina, and able
not only to defend himself against the insults of his ene-
mies, but to attack them, began to send out small parties
to make reprisals on the Koreish ; the first party consisting
of no more than nine men, who intercepted and plundered
a caravan belonging to that tribe, and in the action look
two prisoners. But what established his affairs very much,
nn,i w!ic 't>o.foundation on which he built all his succeed-
ing iri itii-ss, was the gaining ot the battle of Bedr,
preadmg his relig'jon b> llie sword
which was Ibught in the second year of the Kegira, and
is so famous in the Mohammedan history. Some reckon
no less than twenty-seven expeditions, wherein Moham-
med was personally present, in nine of which he gave
battle, besides .several other expeditions in which he was
not present. His forces he maintained partly by the con-
tributions of his followers for this purpose, which he called
by the name of zncal, or alms, and the paying of which he
very artfully made one main article of his religion ; and
partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder to be brought
into the public treasury for that purpose, in which matter,
he likewise pretended to act by the divine direction.
In the seventh year of the Hegira, Mohammed began
lo think of propagating his religion beyond the bounds of
Arabia, and sent messengers to the neighboring princes,
with letters to invite them to Mohammedanism. Nor was
this project without some success.
The eighth year of the Hegira was a very fortunaie
j'ear to Mohammed. In the beginning of it, Khaled Ebn
al Walid and Ainru Ebn al As, both excellent soldiers,
the first of whom afterwards conquered Syria and other
countries, and the latter Egypt, became proselytes to Mo-
hammedanism. And soon after, the prophet sent three
thousand men against the Grecian forces, to revenge the
death of one of his ambassadors, who, being sent to the
governor of Bosra, on the same errand as those who went
to the above-mentioned princes, was slain by an Arab of
the tribe of Ghassan, at Bluta, a town in the territory of
Balka, in Syria, about three days' journey eastward from
Jerusalem, near which town they encounlered. The Gre-
cians being vastly superior in number, (for, including the
auxiliary Arabs, they had an army of one hundred thou-
sand men,) the Mohammedans were repulsed in the first
attack, and lost successively three of their generals, viz.
Zeid Ebn Haretha, Mohammed's freedman ; Jaasar, the
son of Abu Taleb ; and Abdaliah Ebn Rawalia ; but ICha-
led Ebn al Walid, succeeding to the command, overthrew
M 0 II
[829]
M (J It
Ihe Greeks with great slaughter, and brought u«ay abun-
dance of rich spoil ; on occasion of which action liloliam-
med gave him the title of Seif min soyuf Allah — " One of
the swords of God."
In this year also, Mohammed look the city of Mecca,
the inhabitants whereof had broken the truce concluded
two years before.
Tiie reiTiainder of this year Mohammed employed in
destroying the idols in and around Mecca, sending several
of the generals on expeditions for that purpose, and to in-
vite th'2 Arabs to Islamism ; wherein it is no wonder if
they now mot with success.
The next year, being the ninth of the Hegira, the Mo-
hammedans call the year of embassies ; for the Arabs had
been hitherto awaiting the issue of the war between Mo-
hammed and the Koreish ; but as soon as that tribe, the
priucipalof the whole nation, and the genuine descendants
of Ishmael, who.se prerogatives none offered to dispute,
bad submitted, they were satisfied that it was not in their
power to oppose Mohammed ; and, therefore, began to
come in to him in great numbers, and to send embassies
to make their submissions to him, both to Mecca, while he
stayed there, and also to Medina, whilher he returned this
year. Among the rest, five kings of Ihe tribe of Hamyer
professed .Aloharamedanism, and sent ambassadors to no-
tify the same.
In the tenth year, AH was sent into Yemen to propagate
the Mohammedan faith there ; and, as it is said, converted
the whole tribe of Hamdan in one day. Their example
was quickly followed by all the inhabitants of that pro-
vince, except only those of Najran, who, being Christians,
chose rather to pay tribute.
Thus was Mohammedanism established, and idolatry
rooted out, even in Mohammed's lifetime, (for he died the
next year,) throughout all Arabia, except only Yamama,
where Moseilama, who set up also as a prophet as JIo-
hammed's competitor, had a great party, and was not re-
duced till the caliphate of Abu Beer ; and the Arabs being
then united in one faith, and under one prince, found
themselves in a condition for making those conquests
which extended the Mohammedan faith over so great a
part of the world. (See Arabia; and Mohammedanmsm.)
—Ilnid. Buck.
M0HAMMEDANIS3I ; the system of religion founded
and propagated by Mohammed, and still adhered to by his
followers. It is professed by the Turks and Persians, and
by several nations in Africa and Eastern Asia. It is di-
vided by its adliereuls into two general parts : faith and
practiu.
I. llELIGIOtIS BELIEF.
1. That they believe both Mohammed, and those among
his followers who are reckoned orthodox, had, and con-
tinue to have, just and true notions of God and his attri-
butes, appears so plain from the Koran itself, and all the
Bloharamedan divines, that it would be loss of time to
refute those who suppose the God of Mohammed to be
different from the true God, and only a fictitious deity or
idol of his own creation.
2. The existence of angels and their purity, are abso-
lutely required lo be believed in the Koran ; and he is
reckoned an infidel who denies there are such beines, or
liHies any .of them, or asserts any distinction of sexes
Kin'ifig them. They believe them to have pure and subtle
bodies, created of fire ; that Ihey neither eat nor drink,
iior propagate their species ; that they have various forms
and ofTices, .some adoring God in diflerent postures, others
.singing praises to him, or interceding for mankind. Tlrey
hold, that some of them are employed in writing down the
. actions of men ; others m carrying the throne of God, and
other services.
3. As to the Scriptures, the Mohammedans are taught
by the Koran, that God, in divers ages of the world, gave
revelations of his will in writing to several prophets, the
whole and every one of which it is absolutely necessary
for a good Moslem to believe. The number of these sa-
cred book.s were, according to them, one hundred and
four; of which ten were given to Adam, fifty to Seth,
thirty to Edris or Enoch, len to Abraham ; and the other
/our, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel, and
ine Knr.in, were successively delivered to Moses, David,
Jesus, and Mohammed, which last being the seal of the
prophets, those revelations are now closed, and no more
are to be expected. AU these divine books, except the
four last, they agree to be now entirely lost, and their con-
tents unknown ; though the Sabians have several books
which they attribute to some of ihe antedduvian prophets.
And of those four, the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Gospel,
they say, have undergone so many alterations and cor-
ruptions, that, though there may possibly be some part of
the true word of God therein, yet no credit is to be given
to the present copies in the hands of the Jews and Chris-
tians.
4. The number of the prophets, who have been from
time to lime sent by God into the world, amounts to no
less than two hundred and twenty-four thousand, accord-
ing to one Mohammedan tradition ; or lo one hun.'.red
and tv.-enty-four thousand, according to another ; among
whom three hitndred and thirteen were apostles, sent with
special commissions to reclaim mankind from infidelity
and superstition ; and six of them brought new laws or
dispensations, which successively abrogated the pre-
ceding : these were Adam, Noah, Abraham Moses, JesOs,
and Mohammed. All the prophets in general, the Mo-
hammedans believed to have been free from great sins
and errors of consequence, and professors of one and the
same religion, ihat is, Islamism, notwithstanding the dif-
ferent laws and institutions which they observed. They
allow of degrees among them, and hold some of them to
be more excellent and honorable than others. The first
place they give to the revealers and establishers of new
dispensations, and the next lo ihe apostles.
In this great number of prophets they not only reckon
divers patriarchs and persons named in Scripture, but not
recorded to have been piophets, (wherein the Jewish and
Christian writers have sometimes led the way.) as Adam,
Seih, Lot, Ishmael, Nun, Joshua, &c., and introduced
some of them under different names, as Enoch, Heber,
and Jethro, who are called, in the Koran, Edris, Hud,
and Shoaib ; but several others whose very names do not
appear in Scripture, (though they endeavor to find some
persons there lo fix them on,) as Saleh, Khedr, Dhu'lkefl,
&c.
5. The belief of a general resurrection and a future
judgment.
The lime of the resurrection the IMohammedans allow
to be a perfect secret to all but God alone ; the angel Ga-
briel himself acknowledging his ignorance in this point,
M'hen Mohammed asked him about it. However, Ihey
say, the approach of that day may be Icnown from certain
signs which are to precede it.
After examinalion is past, (the account of which is toa
long and tedious for this place,) and every one's works
weighed in a just balance, they say that mutual retaliation
will follow, according to which every creature will take
vengeance of another, or have satisfaction made them for
the injuries which they have suffered. And, since there
will then be no other way of reluming like for like, the
manner of giving this satisfaction v:\\[ be by taking away
a proportional part of the good works of him v.'ho offered
the injury, and adding it lo those of him who suffered it.
Which being done, if the angels (by whose ministry this
is 10 be performed) say, "I.,ord, we have given to every
one his due, and there renmineth of this person's good
works so much as equnllelh the weight of an ant," God
will, of Ids mercy, cause it to be doubled unto him, that he
may be admitted into Paradise ; but if, on the cor'rary,
his good works be exhausted, and there remain evil works
only, and there be any who have not yet received satisfac-
tion from him, God uill order that an equal weight of
their sins be added unto his, that he maybe punished for
them in their stead, and he will be sent to hell laden with
both. This will be the method of God's dealing with
mankind. As to brutes, after they shall have likewise taken
vengeance of one another, he will command them to be
changed into dust ; wicked men being reserved to more
grievous punishment, so that they shall cry out, on hear-
ing this sentence passed on the brutes, " Would to God
that we were dust also !'' As to the genii, many ;\Iohamine-
dans are of opinion that such of them as are' true believ-
ers, will undergo the same fate as the irrational animals,
MOH
[ 830 ]
IvIOH
and have no olber reward than the favor of being con-
verted into dust ; and for this they quote the authority of
their prophet.
The trials being over, and the assembly dissolved, the
Mohammedans hold, that those who are to be admitted
into Paradise will take the right hand way, and those who
are destined for hell-fire will take the left ; but both
of them must first pass the bridge called in Arabic Al Si-
rat, which they say is laid over the midst of hell, and de-
scribe to be finer than a hair, and sharper than the edrre
of a sword ; so that it seems very difficult to conceive h'.'V
any one shall be able to stand upon it : for which rensoa
most of the sect of the Motazalites reject it as a fable ;
though the orthodox think it a sufliicient proof of the truth
of this article, that it was seriously affirmed by him who
never asserted a falsehood, meaning their prophet ; who,
to add to the difficulty of the passage, has likewise declar-
ed, that this bridge is beset on each side with briars and
hooked thorns, which will, however, be no impediment to
the good ; for they shall pass with wonderful ease and
swiftness, like lightning, or the wind, Mohammed and his
Moslems leading the way ; whereas the wicked, what
with the slipperiness and extreme narrowness of the path,
the entangling of the thorns, and the extinction of the
light which directed the former to Paradise, will soon
miss iheir footing, and fall down headlong into hell, which
is gaping beneath them.
As to the punishment of the wicked, the Mohammedans
are taught, that hell is divided into seven stories or apart-
ments, one below another, designed for the reception of as
many distinct classes of the damned. The first, which
they call Jehcnan, they say will be the receptacle of those
who acknowledged one God, that is, the wicked Moham-
medans ; who, after having been punished according to
their demerits, will at length be released ; the second,
named Ladha, they assign to the .Tews ; the third, named
al Hotama, to the Chri.stians ; the fourth, named al Sair,
to the Sabians ; the fifth, named Sakar, to the Magiarts ;
the sixth, named al Jalihi, to the idolaters ; and the se-
venth, which is the lowest and worst of all, and is called
III Hawyat, to the hypocrites, or those who outwardly pro-
fessed some religion, but in their hearts were of none.
Over each of these apartments they believe there will be
set a guard of angels, nineteen iu number; to whom the
damned will confess the just judgment of God, and beg
them to intercede with him for some alleviation of their
pain, or that they may be delivered hy being annihi-
lated.
Mohammed has, in his Koran and traditions, been'very
ex.ict in describing the various torments of hell, which,
according to him, the wicked will suffer both from intense
heat and excessive cold. We shall, however, enter into
no detail of them here ; but only observe, that the degrees
of these pains will also vary in proportion to the crimes of
the sufferer, and the apartment he is condemned to ; and
that he who is punished the most lightly of all will be shod
with shoes of fire, the fervor of which will cause his skull
to boil like a cauldron. The condition of these unhappy
wretches, as the same prophet leaches, cannot be properly
called either life or death ; and their misery will be great-
iy increased by iheir despair of being ever delivered from
tbdt place, since, according to that frequent expression in
the Koran, "they must remain therein forever." It mast
be remarked, however, that the infidels alone will he liable
(o eternity of damnation ; for the Moslems, or those who
have embraced the true religion, and have been guilty of
heinous sins, will be delivered thence after they shall have
expiated their crimes by their sufferings. The time which
these believers shall be detained there, according to a tra-
dition handed down from their prophet, will not be less
than nine hundred years, nor more than seven thousand.
And, as to the manner of iheir delivery, they say that they
shall be distinguished by the marks of prostration on those
parts of their bodies with which they used to touch the
ground in prayer, and over which the fire will therefore
have no power; and that, being known by this character-
istic, they will be released by the mercy of God, at the
intercession of Mohammed and the blessed : whereupon
those who shall have been dead will be restored to life, as
has been said ; and those whose bodies shall have con-
tracted any sootiness.or fiUh from the fiamcs and smoke
of hell, will be immersed in one of the rivers of Paradise,
called the river of life, which will wash them whiter than
pearls.
The righteous, as the Mohammedans are taught to be-
lieve, having surm.ounted the difficulties, and passed the
■ sharps bridge above mentioned, before they enter Paradise,
will be refreshed by drinking at the pond of their prophet,
who describes it to be an exact square, of a month's jour-
ney in compass ; its water, which is supplied by two pipes
fromo; Camlhay, one of the rivers of Paradise, being whiter
than milk or silver, and more odoriferous than musk,
with as many cups set around it as there are stars in the
firmament ; of which water whoever drinks will thirst no
more forever. This is the first taste which the blessed will
have of their future, and now near approaching felicily.
Though Paradise be so very frequently mentioned in
the Koran, yet it is a dispute among the Mohammedans,
whether it be already created, or is to be created hereaiter ;
.the Motazalites and.some other sectaries asserting, that
there is not at present any such place in nature, and that
the Paradise which the righteous will inhabit in the next
life will be different from that from which Adam was ex-
pelled. However, the orthodox profess the contrary,
maintaining that it was created even before the world,
and describe it, from their prophet's traditions, in the fol-
lowing manner : —
They say it is situated above the seven heavens, (or in
the seventh heaven,) and next under the throne of God ;
and to express the amenity of the place, tell us, that Ihe
earth of it is of the finest wheat flour, or of the purest
musk, or, as others will have it, of saffron ; that its stones
are pearls and jacinths, Ihe walls of its buildings enriched
with gold and silver, and that the trunks of all its trees
are of gold ; among which the most remarkable is the tree
called tuba, or the tree of happiness. Concerning this
tree, they fable, that it stands in the palace of Moham-
med, though a branch of it will reach to the house of
every true believer; that it will be laden with pome-
granates, grapes, dates, and other fruits, of surprising big-
ness, and of tastes unknown to mortals ; so that if a man
desire to eat of any particular Icind of fruit, it will imme-
diately be presented him ; or if he choose flesh, birds ready
dressed will be set before him, according to his wish.
They add, that the boughs of this tree will spontaneously
bend down to the hand of the person who would gather
of its fruits, and that it will supply the blessed not only
with food, but also with silken garments, and beasts to
ride on ready saddled and bridled, and adorned with rich
trappings, which will burst forth from its fruils ; and that
this tree is so large, that a person mounted on the fleetest
horse would not be able to gallop from one end of its
shade to the other in one hundred years.
As plenty of water is one of the greatest additions to
the pleasantness of any place, the Koran often speaks of
the rivers of Paradise as a principal ornament thereof;
some of ti.ese rivers, they say, flow with water, some with
milk, some with wine, and others with honey ; all taking
their rise from the root of the tree tuba.
But all Ihese glories will be eclipsed by the resplendent
and ravi.shing giris of Paradise, called, from their large
black eves, Hiir al oyvn, the enjoyment of whose company
will be a principal felicity of the faithful. These, they
say. are created not of clay, as mortal women are, but of
pure musk- ; being, as their prophet often aflirms in his
Koran, free from all natural impurities, defects, and in-
conveniences incident to the sex ; of the strictest modesty,
and .secluded from public view in pavilions of hollow
pearls, so large, that, as some traditions have it, one of
them will be no less than four parasangs (or, as others
sav, sixty miles) long, and as many broad.
The name which the Mohammedans usually give to
this happy mansion is al Jannat, or '■ the Garden ;" and
sometimes they call it with an addition, Jannat al Ferdaws,
" the Garden of Paradise ;" Jannat Adan, " the Garden of
Eden ;" (though they generally interpret the word Eden
not according to its acceptation in Hebrew, but according
to its meaning in their own tongue, wherein it signifies
" a settled or perpetual habitation ;") Jannat al Man'a,
" the Garden of Abode ;" Jannat al Nairn, " the Garden of
MOH
L 831
MOL
Pleasure," and thi: like ; by which several appellations
some understand so many different gardens, or at least
places of different degrees of felicity, (for they reckon no
less than a hundred such in all,) the very meanest whereof
will afford its inhabitants so many pleasures and delights,
that one would conclude they must even sink under theOi,
had not Mohammed declared that, in order to qualify the
blessed for a full enjoyment of them, God will give to
every one the abilities of one hundred men.
6. God's absolute decree and predestination both of
good and evil. The orthodox doctrine is, that whatever
hath or shall come to pass in this world, whether ii be
good or whether it be bad, proceedeih entirely from the
divine will, and is irrevocably fixed and recorded from all
eternity in the preserved table ; God having secretly pre-
determined not only the adverse and prosperous fortune
of every person in this world, in the most minute particu-
lars, but also his faith or infidelity, his obedience or diso-
bedience, and consequently his everlasting happiness or
misery after death ; which fate or predestination it is not
possible by any foresight or wisdom to avoid.
II. RELIGIOUS PRACTICE.
1. The first point is prayer, under which are also com-
prehended those legal washings or purifications which are
necessary preparations thereto.
For the regular performance of the duty of prayer
among the Mohammedans, it is requisite, while Ihey pray,
to turn their faces towards the temple of Mecca ; the
quarter where the same is situated being, for that reason,
pointed out within their mosques by a niche, which they
call al Mehrah ; and without by the situation of the doors
opening into the galleries of the steeples ; there are al.--o
tables calculated for the ready finding out their Keblah,
or part towards which they ought to pray, in places where
they have no other direction.
2. Alms are of two sorts, legal aud voluntary. The legal
alms are of indispensable obligation, being commanded by
the law, which directs and determines both the portion
■wdiich is to be given, and of what things it ought to con-
sist ; but the vohmtary alms are left to every one's liberty,
to give more or less, as he shall see fit. The former kind
of alms some think to be properly called zacat, and the
latter sarlakat, though this name be also frequently given
to the legal alms. They are called zarat. either because
they increai^ a man's store by drawing down a blessing
thereon, and produce in his soul the virtue of liberahty ;
or because they purify the remaining part of one's sub-
stance from pollution, and the soul from the filth of ava-
rice ; and sadakat, because they are a proof of a man's
sincerity in the worship of God. Some writers have called
the legal alms tithes ; but improperly, sii\ce in some cases
they fall short, and in others exceed that proportion.
3. Fasting is a duty of so great moment, that Moham-
med used to say it was " the gate of religion ;" and that
the "odor of the mouth of him who fasteth is more giate-
ful to God than that of musk ;" and Al Ghazali reckons
fasting one-fourlh part of the faith. According to the
Mohammedan divines, there are three degrees of fasting.
1. The restraining of the belly and other parts of the body
from satisfying their lusts. — 2. The restraining the ears,
eyes, tongue, hands, feet and other members, from sin. —
3. The fasting of the heart from worldly cares, and re-
straining the thought from every thing besides God.
4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is so necessary a point of
practice, that, according to a tradition of Mohammed, he
who dies without performing it may as well die a Jew or
a Christian ; and the same is expressly commanded in the
Koran. (See PiLcKniASE.)
III. BIOH.MVIMEDANISM, CAUSES OF THE SUCCESS OF.
The rapid success which attended the propagation of this
new religion was owing to causes that are plain and evi-
dent, and must remove, or rather prevent our surprise,
when they are attentively considered. The terror of Mo-
hammed's arms, and the repeated victories which were
gained by him and his successors, were, no doubt, the
irresistible arguments that persuaded such multitudes to
embrace his religion, and submit to his dominion. Be-
sides, his law was artfully and marvellously adapted to
the corrupt nature of man ; and, in a most particular
manner, to the customs and opinions of the Eastern na-
tions, and the vices to which they were naturally addicted:
for the articles of the faith which it proposed were few io
number, and extremely s.mple ; and the duties it require.l
were neither many nor diii: ult, nor such as were incom-
patible wilh the empire of appetites and passions. It is to
be observed further, that the gross ignorance under which
the Arabians, Syrians, Persians, and the greatest part of
the Eastern nations, labored at this time, rendered many
an easy prey to the artifice and eloquence of this bold ad-
venlurer. To these causes of the progress of Mohamme-
danism we may add the bitter dissensions and cruel oni-
mosities that reigned among the Christian sects, parlirn-
larly the Greeks, Nestorians, Eutychians, and Monojihy-
silv-'.i i dissensions that filled a great part of the East with
carnage, assassinations, and such detestable enormities,
as rendered the very name of Christianity odious to many.
\\'e might add here, that the Monophysites and Iscsto-
rians, full of resentment against the Greeks, from whom
they had sufl'ered the bitterest and most injurious treat-
ment, assisted the Arabians in the conquest of several
provinces, into which, of consequence, the religion of Mo-
hammed was afterwards introduced. Other causes of (he
sudden progresj of that religion will naturally occur to
such as consider attentively its spirit and genius, and the
slate of the world at this time. — For the two preceding
articles see Prideauz's Life of Mahomet ; J^Iosheim^s EccL
Hist. cent. vii. ch. 2 ; Sale's Preliminary Discourse, prefixed
to his English Translation of the Koran ; Simpson'^ Key to
Proph., sect. 19 ; Bishop Nervlon, 3Iede, and Gill, on Eev.
9. ; Miller's Propag. of Christianity, vol. i. ch. 1 ; W^hite's
Sermons at Bamp'.on Lee. ; Ency. Brit. ; Ency. Amcr. ;
Mill's Mohammedanism ; Douglas on the Truths of Religion^
and Errors regarding Religion. — Hend. Buck.
MOLE. This word, in our version of Lev. 11: 30,
answers to the word tenshemeth, which Bochart has shown
I-) be the chameleon ; but
I. -' conjectures, with great
propriety, that choled,
irauslaled "weasel," in
the preceding verse, is the
true word for the mole.
The present name of the
mole in the East \skhuld,
which is undeniably the same word as the Hebrew cholad.
The irnport of the Hebrew w^ord is, " to creep into." and
the same Syriac word implies, " to creep underneath," to
creep into by buiTowing; which are well known charac-
teristics of the mole. Harris ; Abbott. — Watson.
MOLINISTS ; a sect in the Romish church who follow
the doctrine and sentiments of the Jesuit Molina, relating
to sufiicient and efficacious grace. lie taught that the
operations of divine grace were entirely consistent with
the freedom of the human will ; and iiuroduced a new
kind of hypothesis to remove the difficulties attending
the doctrines of predestination and liberty, and to reconcile
the jarring opinions of Augustines, Thomists, Semi-Pela-
gians, and other contentious divines. He affirmed that
the decree of predestination to eternal glory was founded
upon a previous knowledge and consideration of the merils
of the elect ; that the grace, from whose operation these
merits are derived, is not efficacious by its own intrinsic
power only, but also by the consent of our own will, and
because it is administered in those circumstances in which
the Deity, by that branch of his knowledge which is
called scientia media, foresees that it will be elficacious.
The kind of prescience, denominated in the schools sci-
entia media, is that foreknowledge of future contingents
that arises from an acquaintance with the nature and fa-
culties of rational beings, of the circumstances in which
they shall be placed, of the objects that shall be presented
to them, and of the influence which their circumstances
and objects must have on their actions. — Head. Buck.
MOLINOS, (Michael de,) founder of the Quietists,
(see Quietists,) was a Spaniard, of a rich and honorable
famdy. He entered into priest's order? young, but would
accept no preferment in the church. He pos.sessed ereat
talents, and was ardently pious Mithoui any of the austeri-
ties of the Romish religious orders. He went to Rome.
where, in 167.5, he pubUshed his Spir-tual Guide, which
MOL
832 ]
M 0 N
gave him universal reputation. Tlie Jesuits and Domini-
i;ans, envious at his success, charged him mth heresy, and
at last succeeded in getting him condemned by the Inquisi-
tion. He died of torment in their dungeons, a few years
after.— .Foi, p. 204.
MOLLAH ; a spiritual and judicial officer among the
Turks, who has civil and criminal jurisdiction over towns,
or whole districts, and is therefore a superior judge,
under whom are the cadis, or inferior judges. — Hend.
Buck.
MOLLIUS, (John,) a distinguished Protestant martyr
of the sixteenth century, was born at Rome, of reputable
parents, and at twelve years of age placed in the monas-
tery of Grey Friars, where he made such rapid progress
m arts, sciences, and languages, that at eighteen he was
permitted to take priest's orders. After pursuing his
studies six years longer at Ferrara, he was made theologi-
cal lecturer in the university of that city. He was subse-
quently appointed profes.sor of theology in the university
of Bononia. There, on reading several treatises of the
reformers, he became at heart a zealous Protestant, and
begPvU to expound in its purity the epistle to the Romans.
Immense crowds began to attend his lectures, and the re-
port coming to Rome, he was seized by (ji'der of the pope,
and being denied a public trial, gave an account of his
opinions in writing, confirming Ihera by scriptural autho-
rity. The pope for political reasons spared him at first,
but after a while put him to death for his reformed faith.
He was hung, and his body burnt to ashes, A. D. 1553. —
Fox, p. 184.
MOLOCH, MoLECH, MiLcoM, or Melchom, was a god
of the Ammonites. The word Moloch signifies " king,"
and Melchom signifies " their king." Moses in several
places forbids the Israelites, under the penalty of death, to
dedicate their children to Moloch, by making them pass
through the fire in honor of that god. Lev. 18: 21. 20: 2 — ■
5. God himself threatens to pour out his wrath against
such offenders. There is great probability that the He-
brews Avere addicted to the worship of this inhuman deity,
before their coming out of Egypt, Amos 5: 26. Acts 7:
43. 1 Kings 11: 7. 2 Kings 21: 3—6. (See Chicn.)
Some are of opinion that they contented themselves
with making their children leap over a fire sacred to Mo-
locli, by which they consecrated them to some false deity ;
and by this lustration purified them ; this being an usual
ceremony among the heathens on other occasions. Some
believe that they made them pass through two fires oppo-
site to each other, for the same purpose. But the word
translated " to cause to pass through," and the phrase " to
cause to pass through the fire," are used in respect to
human sacrifices in Deut. 12: 31. 18: 10. 2 Kings 16: 3.
21: 6. 2 Chron. 28: 3. 33: 6. They are synonymous with
to burn, and to immolate, with whish they are inter-
changed, as may be seen by an examination of Jer. 7: 31.
19: 5. Ezek. 16: 20, 21. Psalm 106: 38.
In the corrupt periods of the Jewish kingdom, this idol
was erected in the valley south of Jerusalem, namely, in
the valley of Hinnom, and in the part of that valley called
Tophel, so named from the drums, which were beaten to
prevent the groans and cries of children sacrificed from
being heard, Jer. 7: 31, 32. 19:6—14. Isa.30:33. 2 Kings
23: 10.
The rabbins assure us, that the image was of brass,
sitting on a throne of the same metal, adorned with a
royal crown, having the head of a calf, and his arms ex-
tended as if to embrace any one ; that when they offered
children to him, they heated the statue from within, by a
great fire ; and when it was burning hot, put the misera-
ble victim withm its arms, where it was .soon consumed
by the violence of the heat; and, that the cries of the
children nught not be heard, they made a great noise with
drums, and other instruments, about the idol. Others say,
that his arms were extended, and reaching toward the
ground, so that when they put a child withiii his arms, it
immediately fell into a great fire which was burning at
ihe foot of the statue.
The place was so abhorrent to the minds of the more
recent Jews, that they applied its name to the place of tor-
tnent in a future life. The word gehenna is itsed in this
way, namely, for the place of punishment beyond the
grave, very frequently in oriental writers, as far as India.
(See Gehenna ; and Hell.)
There are various sentiments about the relation that
Moloch had to the other pagan divinities. Some believe
that Moloch was the same as Saturn, to whom it is well
known that human sacrifices were offered ; others think
it was the same with Mercury ; others, Venus ; others.
Mars, or Mithra. Calmet has endeavored, and we think
successfully, to prove that Moloch signified the sun, or
the king of heaven. — JVntson ; Calmet.
MOLOKANS; a numerous sect in Russia, so called
from their use of milk or milk diet on the Russian fasts.
These fasts they entirely reject, but keep Saturday as a
fast day. They are more enhghtened than the generality
of the members of the Greek church, and doubtless many
truly pious people are to be found among them ; but they
greatly need to be taught the way of God more perfectly.
— Hend. Buck.
MONACHISM; the history of monks. (See Monk ;
and Monastery.)
MONICA, the mother of the celebrated Augustine, lived
towards the latter end of the fourth century. She was
brought up when young in a Christian family, and being
al'terwards married to Patricius, a pagan of Tagasta, in
Numidia, endeavored by her amiable manners to win him
to her faith. She bore patiently with his passionate temper ;
when he was angry she was silent, but when he became
cool, she would mildly expostulate with him. This course,
sanctioned by the word of God, (1 Pet. 3: 1 — 4.) she also
recommended to others, and they followed it with success.
Her mother-in-law, who had been strongly prejudiced
against Christianity, was entirely won over by her kind,
faithful, and conciliating spirit. Her husband also permitted
her to bring up her son in her own faith, and at last em-
braced it himself After his death, Augustine, who was her
only son, became the object of her chief solicitude, and for
nine years she prayed and wept for him. AChristian bishop,
■whom she had importuned to reason with him on one oc-
casion, said to her, " Be gone, good woman ; it is not pos-
sible that a child of such tears should perish." (See Atr-
GUSTIWE.)
At Rome, whither she had followed her son, and where
she had the unspeakable happiness to witness his conver-
sion to God, she died, in the fifty-sixth 5'ear of her age.
In her last sickness, some one lamented that she was
likely to die in a foreign land; to which this amiable
woman replied, " Nothing is far from God ; and I do not
fear that he should not know where to find me at the re-
surrection." Milnefs Church History ; Betham's Celebrated
Women.
MOMIER, (from mmnerie, mummery ;) a term of re-
proach, applied 10 the dissenters from Ihe modern church
of Geneva. Malan's Swiss Tracts, no. i. p. 20. — Williams.
MONARCHIANS ; a name given to those who seceded
from the ancient orthodox faith, because they insisted upon
the divine uniti/, which they considered to be infringed by
the common doctrine, which taught that there are three
eternal persons in the dii'ine nature. Monnrchiam tcnemus
was their frequent assertion when comparing themselves
with the orthodox fathers. This general class, however,
comprehended many who difiered more from each other
than they did even from those reputed orthodox, and who,
indeed, had nothing in common but a great zeal for mo-
notheism, and a fear lest the unity of God should be en-
dangered by the hypostases of the Alexandrine fathers.
Thus Thetidotus, Artemon, and Paul of Samosata, were
placed by the side of Praxeus, Noetus, Beryllus of Bostra,
and Sabellius, between whom and themselves, on every
essential point of Christian doctrine, there was a total
opposition. (See Arians ; Unitarians; and Patrifas-
siANs.) — Hend. Buck.
MONASTERY; a convent or house built for the re-
ception of religious ; whether it be abbey, priory, nunnery,
or the like.
Monastery is only properly applied to the houses of
monks, mendicant friars, and nuns ; the rest are more
propel .'V called religious houses. For the origin of monas-
teries, see Monk.
The hooses belonging to the several religious orders
which obtaii.ed in England and Wales, were cathedrals,
M O N
L 833
MO N
colleges, abbeys, priories, prceeptories, cummauderies,
hospitals, Criarics, hermilages, chantries, and free chapels.
These were under the direction and management of va-
rious officers.
The dissolution of houses of this kind began so early
as the year J312, when the Templars were suppressed;
and in 1323, their lands, churches, advowsons, and liber-
ties, in England, were given, by 17 Edw. II., slat. 3,
to tiie prior and brethren of the hospital of St. John of Je-
rusalem. Ill the years 1390, 1437, 1411, 1459, 1497,
1505, 1508, and 1515, several other houses were dissolved,
and their revenues settled on different colleges in Oxford
and Cambridge. The motive which induced Wolsey and
many others, in the reign of Henry VIII., to suppress
these houses, was the desire of promoting learning ; and
archbishop Cranmer engaged in it with a view of carrying
on the Reformation. There were other causes that con-
curred to bring; on their ruin : many of the religious were
loose and vicious ; the luonks were generally thought to
be in their hearts attached to the pope's supremacy ; their
revenues were not employed according to the intent of the
donors ; many cheats in images, feigned miracles, and
counterfeit relics, had been discovered, which brought the
monlis into disgrace ; the Observant friars had opposed
the king's divorce from queen Catharine ; and these cir-
cumstances operated, in concurrence with the king's want
of a supply and the (leople's desire to save their money, to
forward a motion in parliament, that, in order to support
the king's state, and supply his wants, all the religious
houses might be conferred upon the crown, which were
not able to spend above two hundred pounds a year ; and
an act was passed for that purpose, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 28.
The number of houses and places suppressed from first
to last, in England, so far as any calculations appear to
have been made, seems to be as follows : —
Of le.sser monasteries, of which we have the
valuation 374
Of greater monasteries 186
Belonging to the hospitallers .... 48
Colleges 90
Hospitals 110
Chantries and free chapels 2374
Total 3182
Besides the friars' houses, and those suppressed by Wol-
sey, and many small houses of which we have no parti-
cular account.
The sum total of the clear yearly revenue of the several
houses at the time of their dissolution, of which we have
any account, seems to be as follows : —
Of the greater monasteries . . £104,919 13 3
Of all those of the lesser monasteries
of which we have the valuation . 29,702 1 10
Knights hospitallers, head house in
London 2,385 12 8
We have the valuation of only twenty-
'eight of their houses in the country 3,026 9 5
Friars' houses, of which we have the
valuation J51 2 0
Total £140,784 19 2
If proper allowances are made fur the lesser monasteries
and houses not included in this estimate, and for the
plate, &c. which came into the hands of the king by the
dissolution, and for the valuation of money at that time,
which was at least six times ;rs much as at present, and
also consider that the estimate of the lands was generally
supposed to be much under the real worth, we must con-
clude their whole revenues to have been immense.
It docs not appear that any computation hath been
made of the number of persons contained in the religious
houses.
Those of the lesser inonasteries dissolved by 27
Hen. VIII. were reckoned at about . . 10,000
If «e fuppose the colleges and hospitals to have
105
contained a proportiunable number, these will
make about 5 347
If we reckon the number in the greater mona.s-
teries according to the proportion of their re-
venues, they will be about thirty-five thou-
sand ; but as, probably, they had larger allow-
ances m proportion to their number than those
of the lesser monasteries, if we abate upon
that account five thousand, they will then be . 30,000
One for each chantry and free chajiel . . 2,374
Total 47,721
But as there was probably more than one person to offi-
ciate in several of the free chapels, and there were other •
houses which are not included within this calculation, per-
haps they may be computed in one general estimate at
about fifty thousand.
As there were pensions paid to almost all those of the
greater monasteries, the king did not immediately come
into the full enjoyment of their whole revenues; however,
by means of what he did receive, he founded six new
bishoprics, viz. those of Westminster, (which was changed
by queen Elizabeth into a deanery, with twelve prebends
and a school,) Peterborough, Chester, Gloucester, Bristol,
and Oxford. And in eight other sees he founded deane-
ries and chapters, by converting the priors and monks
into deans and prebendaries; viz. Canterbury, Winchester,
Durham, Worcester, Rochester, Norwich, Ely, and Car-
lisle. He founded also the colleges of Christ church in
Oxford, and Trinity in Cambridge, and finished King's
college there. He likewise founded professorships of di-
vinity, law, physic, and of the Hebrew and Greek tongues
in both the said universities. He gave the house of Grey
Friars and St. Bartholomew's hospital to the city of Lon-
don, and a perpetual pension to the poor knights of Wind-
sor, and laid out great sums in building and fortifying
many ports in the channel.
It is observable, upon the whole, that the dissolution of
these houses was an act not of the church, but of the
state, in the period preceding the Reformation, by a king
and parliament of the Roman Catholic communion in all
points, except the king's supremacy ; to which the pope
himself, by his bulls and licences, had led the way.
As to the merits of these institutions, authors are much
divided. While .some have considered them as beneficial
to learning, piety, and benevolence, otheis have thought
them very injurious. We may form some idea of them
from the following remarks of Sir. Gilpin. He is speak-
ing of Glastonbury abbey, which possessed the ani]^k'st
revenues of any religious house in England. " Ilsfraur-
nity," says he, " is said to have consisted of five hundred
established monks, besides nearly as many retainers on
the abbey. Above four hundred cl'.ildrcn were not only
educated in it, but entirely maintained. Strangers from
all parts of Europe were liberally received, classed ac-
cording to their sex and nation, and might consider the
hospitable roof under which they lodged as their own.
Five hundred travellers, with their horses, have been
lodged at once within ils walls ; while the poor from every
side of the country wailed the ringing of the alms-bell ;
when they flocked in crowds, young and old, to the gate
of the monastery, where they received, every morning, a
plentiful provision for themselves and their families. All
this appears great and noble.
" On the other hand, when we consider five hundred
persons bred up in indolence, and lost to the conimini-
weallh ; when we consider that these houses were the
great nurseries of supcr.stiiion, bigotry, and ignorance;
the stews of sloth, stupidity, and perhaps intemperance ;
when we consider that the education received in them had
not the least tincture of tiscful learning, good manners,
or true religion, but tended rather to vilify atid disgrace
the human iiiind; when v,-e consider that the pilgrims and
strangers who resorted thither were idle vagabonds, who
got nothing abroad that was equivalent 10 the occupations
they left at home ; and when we consider, lastly, that
indiscriminate alms-giving is not real charily, but a'-J'^ y
cation from labor and industry, checking e%er> i"^-
exertion, and fiUing the mind «nih abject notions. «e are
MON
[ 834 J
MON
led to acquiesce in the fate of these foundations, and view
their ruins, not only witli a picturesque eye, but with mo-
ral and religious satisfaction." Gilpin's Observations an
the Western parts of England, pp. 138, 139 ; Eigland's
Letters on Hvt., p. 313.— i/cnd. Buck.
MONASTIC ; something belonging to monks, or the
monkish life. (See Monk.) — Hend. Bvrk.
MONEY. Scripture often speaks of gold, silver, brass,
of certain sums of money, of purchases made with mo-
ney, of current money, of money of a certain weight ;
but "vve do not observe coined or stamped money till a late
period ; which makes it probable that the ancient He-
brews took gold and silver only by weight ; that they only
considered the purity of the metal, and not the stamp,
• Gen. 23: 15, 16. 38: 28. 43: 21. 24: 22. Exod. 30: 24.
38: 29. 2 Sam. 14: 2(5. Isa. 46: 6. Jer. 32: 10. Amos
8: 5.
In all these passages three things only are mentioned :
1. The metal, that is, gold or silver, and never copper,
that not being used in traffic as money. 2. The weight,
a talent, a shelcel, a gerah, or obolus, the weight of the
sanctuary, and the king's weight. 3. The alloy (stand-
ard) of pure or fine gold and silver, and of good quality,
as received by the merchant. The impression of the coin-
age is not referred to ; but it is said they weighed the sil-
ver, or other coinmodities, by the shekel and by the talent.
This shekel, therefore, and this talent, were not fixed and
determined pieces of money, but weights applied to things
used in commerce. Hence those deceitful balances of the
merchants, who would increase the shekel, that is, would
augment the weight by which they weighed the gold and
silver they were to receive, that they might have a great-
er quantity than was their due ; hence the weight of the
sanctuary, the standard of which was preserved in the
teinple to prevent fraud ; hence those prohibitions in the
law : " Thou shall not have in thy bag divers weights,"
in Hebrew, stones, " a great and a small ;" (Deut. 25: 13.)
hence those scales that the Hebrews wore at their girdles,
(Hosea 12: 7.) and the Canaanites carried in their hands,
to weigh the gold and silver which they received in pay-
ment.
The shekel of silver, or the .silverling, (Isa. 7: 23.) ori-
ginally weighed three hundred and twenty barleycorns ;
but it was afterwards increased to three hundred and
eighty-four barleycorns ; its value, being considered equal
to four Roman denarii, was two shillings and seven pence,
or, according to bishop Cumberland, two shillings and
four pence farthing. It is said to have had Aaron's rod
on the one side, and the pot of manna on the other. The
bekah was equal to half a shekel, Exod. 38: 26. The de-
narius was one fourth of a shekel, seven pence three
farthings English money. The gerah, or meah, (Exod. 30:
13.) was the sixth part of the denarius, or diner, and the
twenty-fourth part of the .shekel. The a.ssar, or assarion,
(Matt. 10: 29.) was the ninety-sixth part of a shekel : its
value was rather more than a farthing. The farthing,
(Matt. 5: 26.) was in value the thirteenth part of a penny
sterling. The mite was the half of a farthing, or the
twenty-sixth part of a penny sterling. The mina, or ma-
neh, (Ezek. 45: 12.) was equal to sixty shekels, which,
taken at two shillings and seven pence, was seven pounds
fifteen shillings. 'The talent was fifty minas; and its
value, therefore, three hundred and eighty-seven pounds
ten shillings.
The gold coins were as follows : a shekel of gold was
about fourteen and a half times the value of silver, that
is, one pound seventeen shillings and five pence half-
penny. A talent of gold consisted of three thousand
shekels. The drachma was equal to a Roman denarius,
or seven pence three farthings of our money. The di-
drachma, or tribute money, (Matt. 17: 24.) was equal to
fifteen pence half-penny. It is said to have been stamped
with a harp on one side, and a vine on the other. The
stater, or piece of money which Peter fonnd in the fish's
mouth, (Matt. 17: 27.) was two half shekels. A daric
dram, (1 Chron. 29: 7. Ezra 8: 27.) was a gold coiii
struck by Darius the Mede. According to Parkhurst its
value was one pound five shillings. A gold penny is sta-
ted by tr, have beeji equal to twenty-five silver
pence
Hug derives a satisfactory argument for the Veracity of
the gospels from the diflferent kinds of money mentioned
in them : — The admixture of foreign manners and consti-
tutions proceeded through numberless circumstances of
life. Take, for example, the circulation of coin ; at one
time it is Greek coin ; at another, Roman ; at another
time, ancient Jewish. But how accurately is even this
stated according to history, and the arrangement of
things ! The ancient imposts which were introduced be*
fore the Roman dominion were valued according to the
Greek coinage ; for example, the taxes of the temple, the
didrachmon, Matt. 17: 24. The offerings were paid in
these, Mark 12: 42. Luke 21: 2. A payment which pro-
ceeded from the temple treasury was made according to
the ancient national payment by weight ; (Matt. 26: 15.)
but in common business, trade, wages, sale, Ace, the assi.l
and denarius, and Roman coin were usual, Matt. 10:
29.20:3. Luke 12: 6. Mark 14: 5. John 12: 5. 6:7.
The more modern state taxes are likewise paid in
the coin of the nation which exercises at the time the
greatest authority. Matt. 22: 19. Mark 12: 15. Luke 20:
24. Writers, who, in each little circumstance, which
otherwise would pass by unnoticed, so accurately describe
the period of time, must certainly have had a personal
knowledge of it. — Watson.
MONEY-CHANGERS, in the gospels, were persona
who exchanged native for foreign coin, to enable those
who came to Jerusalem from distant countries to purchase
the necessary sacrifices. In our Lord's time they had
established themselves in the court of the temple ; a pro-
fanation which had probably grown up with the influence
of Roman manners, which allowed the argentarii to esta-
blish their usurious mensas, tables, by the statues of the
gods, even at the feet of Janus, in the most holy places,.
in porticibus Basilicarum, or in the temples, pone csdem Cas-
toris.
The following extract from Buckingham's Travels
among the Arabs, is illustrative : — " The mosque at the
time of our passing through it was full of people, though
these were not worshippers, nor was il at either of the
usual hours of public prayers. Some of the parties were
assembled to smoke, others to play at chess, and soine
apparently to drive bargains of trade, but certainly none
to pray. It was, indeed, a living picture of what we
might beheve the temple at Jerusalem to have been, when
those who sold oxen, and sheep, and doves, and the
changers of money sitting there, were driven out by Jesus,
with a scourge of cords, and their tables overturned. It
was, in short, a place of public resort and thoroughfare,
a house of merchandise, as the temple of the Jews had
become in the days of the Messiah." — Watson.
MONK, anciently denoted " a person who retired
from the world to give himself wholly to God, and to live
in solitude and abstinence." The word is derived fronn
the Latin monachus, and that from the Greek moztachoSf
" solitary."
The original of monks seems to have been this : — The
persecutions which attended the first ages of the gospel,
forced some Christians to retire from the world, and live
in deserts and places most private and unfrequented, iu
hopes of finding that peace and comfort among beasts,
which were denied them among men ; and this being the
case of some very extraordinary persons, their example
gave such reputation to retirement, that the practice was
continued when the reason of its commencement ceased.
After the empire became Christian, instances of this kind
were numerous ; and those whose security had obliged
them to live separately and apart, became afterwards uni-
ted into societies. We may also add, that the mystie
theology, which gained ground towards the close of the
third century, contributed to produce the same effect, and
to drive men into solitude for the purposes of devotion.
The monks, at least the ancient ones, were distinguish-
ed into solitaries, ccenobites, and sarabiies.
The solitaries axe those who live alone, in places remote
from all towns and habitations of men, as do still some of
the hermits. The ca^ioiites are those who live in commu-
nity with several others in the same house, and under
the same superiors. The sarabiies were strolling monks,
having no fixed rule or residence.
MON
[ 835 ]
MO N
The houses of monks, again, -wre of two kinds, viz.,
ntonasterks and latme.
Those who are now called monks are coenobites, who
live together in a convent or monastery, who make vows
of living according to a certain rule established by the
tbunder, and wear a habit which distinguishes their
order.
Those that are endowed, or have a &xed revenue, are
most properly called monks, monachi ; as the Chartreux,
Benedictines, Bernardines, &;c. The Mendicants, or those
that beg, as the Capuchins and Franciscans, are more
properly called religious and friars, though the names are
frequently confounded.
The first monks were those of St. Anthony, who, to-
wards the close of the fourth century, formed tbem into a
regular body, engaged them to live in society with each
other, and prescribed to them fixed rules for the direction
of iheir conduct. These regulations, which Anthony had
made in Eg)'pt, were soon introduced into Palestine and
Syria by his disciple Hilarion. Almost about the same
lime, Aones, or Eugenius, with their companions, Gadda-
nas and Azyzas, instituted the monastic order in Meso-
potamia, and th« adjacent countries ; and their example
was followed with such rapid success, that in a short time
the whole East was filted with a iaay set of mortals, who,
abandoning all human connexions, advantages, pleasures,
and concerns, wore out a languishing and miserable ex-
istence, amidst the hardships of want, and various kinds
of suffering, in order to arrive at a more close and raptu-
rous communication with God and angels.
From the East this gtoomy disposition passed into the
West, and first into Italy and its neighboring islands ;
though it is uncertain who ti^amsplanted it thither. St.
SlarKn, the celebrated bishop of Tours, erected the first
monasteries in Gaul, and recommended this religious soli-
tude with such power and efficacy, both by his instruc-
tions and his example, that his funeral is said to have
Jseen attended by no less than two thousasid monks.
From hence the monastic discipline gradually extended
its progress through the other provinces and countries of
Europe- There were, besides "he monks of St. Basil
(called in the East Cnlogeri, from kahs geron, " a good
old man") and tliose of St. Jerome, the hermits of St.
Augustine, and afterwards tbcise of St. Benedict and St.
Bernard : at length came those of St. Fraiieis and St. Do-
minic, with a legion of others; all which see under their
proper heads.
Towards the close of the fifth century, the monks, who
isad formerly lived only for themselves in solitary retreats,
and had never thought of assuming any rank among the
sacerdotal order, were now gradually distinguislied from
the populace, and endowed with such opulence and ho-
norable privileges, that they foimd themselves in a condi-
tion to claim an eminent station among the pillars and
supporters of the Christian community. The fime of
their piety and sanctity was so great, that bishops and
presbyters were often chosen out of llieir order ; and the
passion of erecting edifices and convents, in which the
monks and holy virgins might serve God in the most
commodious manner, was at that time carried beyond all
bounds. However, their licentiottsness, even in this cen-
tury, was become a proverb ; and they are said to have
excited the most dreadful tumults and seditions in various
places. The monastic orders were at first under the im-
mediate inrisdiction of the bishops, from which they were
exempted by the Roman pontiff about the end of the
seventh centurj' ; and the monks, in return, devoted
themselves wholly to advance the interest and to main-
tain the dignity of the bishop of Rome. This immunity
which they obtained was a fruitful source of licentious-
ness and disorder, and occasioned the greatest part of the
vices with which they were afterwards so justly charged.
In the eighth century the monastic discipline was ex-
tremely relaxed, both in the eastern and western pro-
vinces, and all efforts to restore it were ineffectual. Ne-
vertheless, this kind of institution was in the highest
esteem ; and nothing could equal the veneration that was
paid about the close of the ninth century to such as devot-
ed themselves to the sacred gloom and indolence of a con-
vent. This veneration caused several kings and empe-
rors to call them to their courts, and to employ them m civil
affairs of the greatest moment. Their reformation was
attempted by Louis the Meek, but the effect was of short
duration. In the eleventh century, they were exempted
by the popes from the authority established ; insomuch,
that in the council of Laleran, that was held in the year
1215, a decree was passed, by the advice of Innocent III.,
to prevent any new monastic institutions ; and several
were entirely suppressed. In the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, it appears, from the testimony of the best wri-
ters, that the monks were generally lazy, illiterate, profli-
gate, and licentious epicures, whose views in life were
confined to opulence, idleness and pleasure. However,
the Reformation had a manifest influence in restraining
their excesses, and rendering thejn more circumspect and
cautious in their external conduct. (See Monasterv.)
Monks are distinguished by the color of their habits in-
to black, )rhite, gray, &c. Among the monks, .some are
called monies «/ tkt cheir, others prefessul monks, and others
laijmovks; which last are destined for the service of the
convent, and have neither clericale nor literature.
Cloistered monks are those who actually reside in the
house ; in opposition to extra monks, who have benefices
depending on the monastery.
Monks are also distinguished into rrforiiKt!-, whom the
civil and ecclesiastical authority have made masters of
ancient convenes, and ptit in their power to iX'lrieve the
ancient discipline, which had been relaxed ; and anciejit,
whi) remain in the convent, to live in it according to its
establishment at the time wlien they made their vows,
%\'ithout obliging themselves to any new reform.
Anciently the monks were all laymen, and were only
distinguished from the rest of the people by a peculiar
habit, and an extraordinary devolioji. IS'ot only the
monks were prohibited the priesthood, but even priests
were expressly prohibited fixim becoming monks, as ap-
pears from the letters of St. Gregory. Pope Siricius was
the first who called them to the clericale, on occasion of
some great scarcity of priests that the church was then
supposed to lalx)r under ; and since that time the priest-
hood has been usually united to the monastical profession.
Uncy. Brit. ; British M&tinchism, or Mojitt^rs and Cifsioms
ef Monks and Nuns of England ; M«shci}n's Efl. JItst. ;
Joiifi' Clmrrh History ; Natural History vf Enthusiasm ;
and Fanntiasm, bv the same author. — Heiul. Buck.
MONOPHYSltES, (from moms, '• single," and phvsis,
" nature ;") a general name given to all those sectaries in
the Levant who only own one nature in Jesus Christ ;
and who maintain that the divine and human nature of
Jesus Christ were so united as to form only one nature,
yet without any change, confusion, or mixture of the two
natures-
The Monophysiles, however, properly so calletl, are the
followers of Severus, a learned monk of Palestine, who
was created patriarch of Antioch, in 513, and Peli-us Ful-
lensis.
The Slonophysiles were encoui-aged by the emperor
Anastasiiis, but suppressed by Justin and succeeding em-
perors. However, this sect was restored by Jacob Bara-
dfcus, an obscuie monk ; insomuch that when he died
bishop of Edessa, A. D. 5S8, he left it in a most flourish-
ing state in Syria, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Egypt, Kubia,
Abyssinia, and other countries. The laborious efforts of
Jacob were seconded in Egypt and the adjacent countries
by Theodosius, bishop of Alexandria ; and he became so
famous, that all the Monophysites of the East considered
him as their second parent and founder, and are to this
day called Jacobites, in honor of their nev.' chief. The
Monophysites are divided into two sects or parties, the
one African and the other Asiatic : at the head of the
latter is the patriarch of Antioch, who resides for the most
part in the monastery of St. Athanias, near the city of
Merdin ; the former are under the jurisdiction of the pa-
triarch of Alexandria, who generally resides at Grand Cai-
ro, and are subdivided into Copts and Abvssinians. Fi'iy"^
the fifteenth century downwards, all the patriarchs of the
Monophysites have taken the name of Ignatius, m order
to show 'that they are the lineal successors of Ignatius,
who was bishop of Antioch in the first ceniurj-, and con-
sequently the lawful patriarch of Antioch. In the seven-
MON
[836 J
MON
teenth century, a small body of Monophysites, in- Asia,
abandoned for some time the doctrine and institution of
their ancestors, and embraced the communion of Rome ;
but the African Monophysites, notwithstanding that po-
veny and ignorance which exposed them to the seductions
of sophistry and gain, stood firm in their principles, and
made an obstinate resistance to the promises, presents,
and attempts employed by the papal missionaries to bring
them under the Roman yoke ; and in the eighteenth cen-
tury, those of Asia and Africa have persisted in tliseir re-
fusal to enter into the commtmion of the Romish church,
notwithstanding the earnest entreaties and alluring offers
that have been made from time to time by the pope's le-
gates, to conquer their inflexible constancy.
In the present day, the Monophysite churches are, 1.
The Syrian Jacobite church. 2. The Coptic church. 3.
The Abyssinian church, which, as acknowledging the su-
premacy of the Jacobite patriarch of Alexandria, may be
considered as a branch of the Coptic. 4. The Nestorian-
Chaldean church, the head of which is the patriarch of
Babylon, residing at Mosoul. 5. The Armenian church;
and, 6. The Indo-Syrian church, under the metropolitan
of Malabar, who acknowledges, however, the supremacy
of the patriarch of Antioch. — Hend. Brick; Watson.
MONOTHEISM; (from monos, "single," and theos,
" God ;") She belief in and worship of one only God, in
opposition to polytheism, v.'hich acknowledges a plurality
of gods. All the different mythologies liave, among the
host of gods with which they people heaven and earth,
some superior or supreme deity, more or less defined, but
m every case distinguished above the others; and in the
history of all the different i>ations where polytheism has
obtained, we may trace a period when the idea of one
God was more or less prevalent. The most ancient tra-
ditions concur with the testimony of sacred Scripture in
representing this as the primary and uncorrtrpted religion
of mankind. — TLml. Bark.
MONOTHELITES ; (compounded oi: nwitos, " single,"
and thelhna, " will ;") an ancient sect, which sprung out
of the Eutychians ; thus called, as only allowing of one
win i.T Jesus Christ.
The opinion of the Moiiolhehles had its rise in 630, and
had the emperor Hevachua for an a(therent : it was the
same with that of the acephalous Severians. They al-
lowed of two wills in Christ, considered with regard to
the two natures ; but reduced them to one, by reason of
the union of the two natures, thinking it absurd that
there should be fivo free wills in one and the same per-
son. They were amdemned by the sixth general council
in 680, as beirvg sn.pposed to destroy the perfection of the
humanity of Jesas Christ, depriving it of will and opera-
tion. Their sentiments were afterwards embraced by the
Marouites. — Heml. Bud:.
MONTAIGIVE, (Michael be,) a celebrated French
essayist, was bom, in 1533, at the castle of Blontaigne,
in Perigord. The utmost care was taken in his educa-
tion. Latin and Greek he acquired by tlieir being con-
stantly spoken to him in his childhooil. He finished his
studies at Gnienne college, in Bm-deau.x. About 1554, he
became one of the counsellors of the partiament of Bor-
deaux. He was twice mayor of Bordeaux ; took a part
in the assembly of the stales of Blois ; and received the
order of St. Michael from Charles IX. In 1560, and 1581,
ho visited Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. His Essays
were begun about 1573, and the first edition was publi.sh-
ed in 1580. He died in 1502. His Essays, of which in-
numerable editions have appeared, have been translated
into English. Pascal, in his TTtm/ghts, Sec, contests his
principles and morals. — Daoenporf.
MONTANISTS ; a sect which sprung trp abotit the
year 171, in the reign of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
They were so called from their leader Montanns, a Phry-
gian by birth ; whence they arc sometimes called Phnj-
gians and Catapfiri/g^inns.
Montanus, it is said, embraced Christianity, in hopes
of rising to the dignities of the church. He pretended to
inspiration ; and gave out that the Holy Ghost had in-
structed him in several points which had not been revealed
to the apostles. Priscilla and MaximiUa, two enthnsias-
tic women of Phrygia, presently became his disciples, and
in a short time he had a great number of followers. The
bishops of Asia, being assembled together, condemned
his prophecies, and excommunicated those that dispersed
them. Afterwards they wrote an accimnt of what hat'i
passed to the western churches, where the pretended pro-
phecies of Montanus. and his followers were likewise con-
demned. The Montanists, finding themselves exposed to
the censure of the whole church, formed a schism, and
set up a distinct society, under the direction of those who
called themselves pmpliets. Montanus, in conjunction
with Priscilla and MaximiUa, were at the head of this
sect.
These sectaries denied the doctrine of the Trinity ; but
they held that the Holy Spirit made Montanus his orgarf
for dehvering a more perfect form of discipline than what
was delivered by his apostles. They suffered women to'
preach and to baptize. They refused communion forever
to those who were guilty of notorious crimes, and believ-
ed that the bishops had no authority to reconcile them.
They held it unlawful to Qy irt time of persecntion. They
condemned second tnarriages, allowed the dissolution of
marriage, and observed three lents. According to Robin-
son, the practice of pedobaptism originated with this sect.
See EoUnsnn's Histor'j of Baptism, pp. 165—177 ; Lard'
ner's Heretics, b. ii. c. 19. — Hend. Buck.
MONTE-NEGRINES. The inhabitants of an arid
mountainous district, called Monte-negro, in Albania.
They profess to be Greek Christians, but hate the pops
equally as the Turks. They reject images, crucifixes,
and pictures, and will not admit a Catholic without re-
baptizing him. Their morals are very depraved : they
are very ignoiTjnt in religion ; yet very superstitious in
their religious rites. — Nightingale's Religious Ceremonies,
pp. 99—112, from the Travels of Col. L. C. Viella de
Sommieres. — IVillimns.
MONTESQUIEU, (Baron de,) an illustrious Freucli
writer and magistrate, was born, in 1689, at the castle of
Brede, near Bordeaux ; became counsellor of the parlia-
ment of Bordeaux in 1714 ; and in 1716 succeeded his un-
cle as president a mortier. His first published work was
his Persian Letters, which appeared in 1721. In 1720,
he relinquished his office, in order to devote himself to
literature. He then travelled over a considerable part of
the continent, and visited England, where he resided for
two years. On 'his return he retired to the castle of Brede.
His two principal works, on tlie Greatness and Decline of
the Romans ; and the Spirit of Laws ; the former given
to the world in 1734, and the latter in 1748, were the re-
sult of his long studies and meditations. He died in
1755. Burke characterizes htm as " a genius not born in
every country, or every time ; a man gifted by nature
w-ith a penetrating aquiline eye ; with a judgment pre-
pared with the most extensive erudition ; with a Hercule-
an robustness of mind, and nerves not to be broken with
labor." — Davenport.
MONTH. The ancient Hebrews had no particular
names for their months ; they said the first, the second,
the third, fee. Critics are not agreed about the origin of
the subsequent Hebrew names of the months. Scaliger
thought them borrowed fnrni the Pheenicians. Grotius
believes they came from the Chaldeans ; and Hardouin
deduces them from the Egj'ptians. But after the captivity
of Babylon, the people continued the names of the months
as they had found them among the Chaldeans and Per-
sians.
Originally, the Hebrews followed the same distribution
of their years and months as in Egj'pt. Their year con-
sisted of three hundred and sixty-five days, and of twelve
months, each of thirty days. This a|-^ears by the enu-
meration of the days of the year of the deluge. Gen 7.
The twelfth month was to have thirty-five days, and they
bad no intercalary month, but at the end of one hundred
and twenty years ; when the beginning of the year foU
lowing was out of its place thirty whole days.
After the Exodus, which happened in the month of
March, God ordained that the holy year, that is, the ca-
lendar of religious feasts and ceremonies, should begin at
Nisan, the seventh month of the civil year, (the ci\'il year
being left unchanged,) which the Hebrews continued to
begin at the month Tisri, (September.) But we set"
MOO
t 837 ]
M 0 0
plainly by Ecclesiaslicus, (43: 6.) by the Maccabees, by
Josephus, (Antiq. lib. iii. cap. 10,) ami by Philo, (Vit.
Mos. lib. iii.) thai in their time they followed the custom
of the Grecians ; that is, their months were lunar, and
their years solar. These lunar months were each of
twenty-nine days and a half; or, rather, one was of thirty
days, the following of twenty-nine, and so on alternately :
that which had thuty days was called a full or complete
month ; that which had but twenty-nine days was called
incomplete.
The new moon was always the beginning of the month,
and this day they called Neomenia, new-moon day, or
new month. They did not begin it from that point of
time when the moon was in conjunction with the sun, but
from the time at which she first became visible, after that
conjunction. And to determine this, it is said, they had
people posted on elevated places, to inform the sanhedrim
as soon as possible. Proclamatiorvwas then made, " The
feast of the new moon! The feast of the new moon!"
and the beginning of the month was proclaimed by sound
of trumpet. For fear of any failing in the observation
of that command, which directed certain ceremonies at
the beginning of each month, they continued the Neomenia
two days ; the first was called " the day of the moon's
appearance," the other " of the moon's disappearance."
So say the rabbins : but there is great probability, that if
this was ever practised, it was only in provinces distant
from Jerusalem. In the temple, and in the metropolis,
there was always a fixed calendar, or at least a fixed de-
cision for festival days, determined by the house of judg-
ment.
Names of the Hebrew months, according to the order of the
sacred and civil years.
Nisan, answering to March, 0. S.
acred.
Ciril.
7
1
8
2
9
3
10
4
11
5
12
6
1
7
2
8
3
9
4
10
5
11
6
12
Ijar,
Sivan,
Thammuz,
April.
Blay.
June.
Ab,
Elul,
Tisri,
Marchesvan,
July.
August.
September.
October.
Casleu,
November.
Thebet,
December.
Shebat,
Adar,
January.
February.
"When we say that the months of the Jews answered
to ours, Nisan to March, Jair to April, Arc, we must be
understood with some latitude ; for the lunar months can-
not be reduced exactly to solar ones. The vernal equinox
falls between the twentieth and twenty-first of March, ac-
cording to the course of the solar year. But in the lunar
year, the new moon will fall in the month of March, and
the full moon in tlie month of April. So that the He-
brew months will answer partially to two of onr months,
the end of one, and the beginning of the other.
Twelve lunar months making but three hundred and
fifty-four days and six hours, the Jewish year was short
of the Roman by twelve days. To recover the equinoc-
tial points, from which this diflerence of the solar and lu-
nar year would separate the new moon of the first month,
the Jews every three years intercalated athirleeiith month,
which they called Ve-adar ; the second Adar. By this
means their lunar year equalled the solar; because in
thirty-six solar months there would be thirty-seven lunar
months. The sanhedrim regulated this intercalation, and
the thirteenth month was placed between Adar and Ni-
san ; so that the passover was always celebrated the first
full moon after the equinox. — Calmet.
MOODY, (JosnuA,) minister of Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, was born in England, in 1(533. His father,
William, one of the early settlers of Newbury, came to
this country in 1634. He was graduated at Harvard col-
lege in 1653. He began to preach at Portsmouth about
the year 1658, but was not ordained till 1671.
In 1634, he accepted of an invitation from the first
church in Boston to be an assistant minister, and was so
highly esteemed, timt upon the death of president Kogen
he was invited to tal;c the ovrrsightof the collc".- • but
he declined. In the days ol' the witchcraft delusion in
1692, he manfully resisted the unjust and violent mea-
sures towards the imagined ofienders. His zeal against
this wretched delusion occasioned, however, his dismission
from the church where he was preaching. In the lollow-
ing year he returned to Portsmouth, where lie spent the
rest of his life in usefulness and peace. On the approach
of his last sickness he went for advice to Boston, where
he died, July 4, 1697, aged sixty-four. Though lie was
deeply impressed with his nnworthiness of the Mivinc
mercy, yet he indulged the hope of glory, ami was de-
sirous of entering into the presence of the Eedeemer,
whom he had served in his gosp.cl.
He wrote upwards of four thousand sermons. He pub-
lished a practical discourse concerning the choice bcnefi'
of communion with God in his house, being the sum ct
several sermons, 12mo, 1685, reprinted 1716 ; an election
sermon, 1692. C. blather's Funeral Her. ; Mugnalia, iv,
192— 199— v4?toi.
MOODY, (Joseph.) a Congre^atioival minister of York,
(Maine,) was born in 1701, and died in 1753. He had
many eccentricities in his conduct; but he was eminent
for piety, and was a remarkably useful minister of the
gospel. In his younger years he often preachsd beyond
the limits of his own parish, and wherever he went, the
people hung upon his lips. In one of his excursions he
went as far as Providence, where his cxer: ions were the
means of laying the fonndation of a church. Though a
zealous friend to the revival of religion, widch occurred
throughout the country a short time before his death, yet
he gave no countenance to separations.
Such was the sanctity of his character, thai it impressed
the irreligious with awe. To piety he united uncommon
benevolence. While with importunate earnestness he
pleaded the cause of the poor, he was very charitable
himself. It was by his own choice, that he derived his
support from a free contribution, rather than a fixed sala-
ry in the usual way. In one of his sermons he men-
tions, that he had been supported twenty years in a way
most pleasing to him, and had been under no ne-
cessity of spending one hour in a week in care for the
world.
Some remarkable inst.nnces of answers to his prayers,
and of correspondences between the event and his faith,
are not yet forgotten in York. The boor of dinner once
came, and his table was unsnpplied with provisions ; bnt
he insisted upon having the cloth laid, saying to his wife,
he was confident that they should be furnished by the
bounty of God. At this moment some one ra)'ped at
the door, and presented a ready cooked dinner. It was
sent by persons who, on that day, had mad*" an enter-
tainment, anil who knew the poverty of Mr. Sloody.
He was of an irritable temper, though ha was con-
stantly watchful against this infirmity. In one of his
.sermons the doclriue which he drew from the text was
this : " When you know not what to do, you mnst not do
you know not what." He published a discourse on the
doleful .state of the damned, especially of such as go to
hell from under the gospel, 1710 ; election sermon, 1721;
a summary account of the life and death of Joseph Quas-
son, an Indian. Siillioan's Maine, 238 ; n Funtral Ser. on
Mnridy..-Mlfn.
MOON. The Lord created the sun and the moon on
the fourth day of the world, to preside over day and
night, and to distinguish times and seasons. Gen. 1: 15,
16. As the sun presides over day, so the moon presides
overnight; the sun regulates the course of a year, the
moon the course of a month ; the sun is, a! it were, king
of the host of heaven, the moon is queen. The moon
was appointed for the distinction of seasons, of festival
days, and days of assembling, Gen. 1: 14. I's. 101: 19.
(See MoNTn.)
Vi'e do not know whether the Hebrews understood the
thenry of lunar eclipses; bnt they alwavs speak of ihcm
in terms which intimate that they considered them as
wonders, and as etTects of the power and wrnih ol God.
When the prophets speak of the destruction of ••i-pires,
thev often say, that the sun shall be covered \vii!i dark-
MOO
[ S38
MOR
ness ; the moon withdraw her light ; and the stars fall
from heaven, Isa. 13: 10. 24: 23. Ezek. 32: 7, 8. Joel
2: 10. 3; 15. But we cannot perceive that there is any
direct mention of an eclipse.
Among the Orientals in general, and the Hebrews in
particular, the idolatrous worship of the moon was more
extensive, and more famous than that of the sun. In
Deut. 4: 19. 17: 3, Moses bids the Israelites take care,
when they see the sun, the moon, the stars, and the host
of heaven, not to pay them any superstitious worship, be-
cause they were only creatures appointed for the service
of all nations under heaven. Job (31: 26, 27.) also speaks
of the same worship, " If I beheld the sun when it shined,
cr the moon walking in brightness, and my heart has
been secretly enticed, or my mouth hath ki.ssed my hand,"
as a token of adoration. The Hebrews worshipped the
moon, by the name of Meni, of Astarte, of the goddess
of the groves, of the queen of heaven, kc. The Syrians
adored her as Astarte, Urania, or CcElestis ; the Arabians
as Alilat ; the Egyptians as Isis ; the Greeks as Diana,
Venus, Juno, Hecate, Bellona, Minerva, kc. The moon
was worshipped as a god, and not as a goddess, in Syria,
Mesopotamia, and Armenia. The Sepharvites called her
Anamelech, the gracious king. Strabo calls her Meen ;
as doth Isaiah, 65: 11. She was represented clothed like
a man ; and there are medals extant, on which she is repre-
sented in the habit and form of a man armed, having a cock
at his feet, covered with a Phrygian or Armenian bonnet.
Several sorts of sacrifices were offered to the moon.
We see in Isaiah 65: 11. and Jeremiah 7: 18, that they
oficfed to her in the highways, and upon the roofs of
their houses, sacrifices of cakes, and similar offerings.
Thus the Greeks honored Hecate, or Trivia, which is the
moon. Elsewhere they offered to her human sacrifices.
Strabo relates, that in the countries bordering on the Arax-
es, they especially worshipped the moon, who had there
a famous temple. The goddess had several slaves, and
every year they offered one of them in sacrifice to her,
after having fed him daintily the whole year before. Lu-
cian speaks of like sacrifices, offered to the Syrian god-
dess, the Dea Ccrlestis, that is, the moon. Fathers carried
their children, tied up in sacks, to the top of the porch of
the temple, whence they threw them down upon the pave-
ment ; and when the unfortunate victims moaned, the fa-
thers would answer, that they were not their children, but
young calves.
The Jews ascribed different effects to the moon. Mo-
ses speaks of the fruits of the sun and the moon, (Deut.
33: 14.) these being considered as the two causes which
produce the fruits of the earth. Some commentators
think, that the fruits of the sun are those that come
yearly, as wheat, grapes, &c. ; and the fruits of the moon
those that may be gathered at different months of the
year, as cucumbers, figs, &c. — Cahnet.
MOORE, (Benjamin, D. D.,) bishop of New York,
was born at Newion, Long Island, Oct. 16, 1748, and edu-
cated at King's college. New York. His father was a
farmer. He was chosen the rector of Trinity church in
1800 ; was president of Columbia college from 1801 to
1811; and was for some years a bishop. He died at
Greenwich, Feb. 27, 1816, aged sixty seven. He publish-
ed a Sermon before the Convention, 1801 ; on Disobedi-
ence, in Amer. Preacher, vol. i ; Iniquity its own Accuser,
in volume ii. — Allen.
MOORE, (ZErHANi.\u Swift, D. D.,) president of Wil-
liams' college and first president of Amherst college, was
born at Palmer, Mass., Nov. 20, 1770; was graduated at
Dartmouth college in 1793 ; and was the minister of Lei-
cester from 1798 till 1811, when he was appointed pro-
fessor of languages in Dartmonlh college. In Sept. 1815,
he was chosen president of Williams' college. Having
co-operated in the ineffectual altenipt to remove this col-
lege to Hampshire county, his situation was rendered un-
pleasant at Williamstown ; so that when the collegiate
seminary was established at Amherst, in 1821, and be-
fore it was incorporated as a college, he was invited to
preside over it. He died of the cholera at Amherst, June
25, 1823, aged fifty-two. He published a sermon at ihe
ordination of Mr. Cotton, at Palmer, 1811 ; at the elcclion,
1818.— Alien.
MORAL ; relating to the actions or cotidiicl tif ll.''c' ;
that which determines an action to be good or virtuous.
2. A moral agent is a being capable of those aclions
that have a moral quaUty, and which can properly be
denominated good or evil. (See Moral Agency.) 3. A
moral certainty is a very strong probability, and is used in
contradistinction to mathematical probability. 4. Moral
fitness is the agreement of the actions of any intelligent
being with the nature, circumstances, and relation of
things. 5. A moral impossibility is a very great or insu-
perable difficulty arising from the state of the will ; op-
posed to a natural impossibility. (See Inability.) 6.
Moral obligation is the necessity of doing or omitting any
action in order to be happy and good. (See Moral Obli-
gation.) 7. Moral philosophy is the science of manners,
the knowledge of our duty and felicity. (See Philoso-
PHY.) 8. Moral sense is that whereby we perceive the
difference between right and wrong, and approve what is
good, virtuous, and beautiful, in actions, manners, and
character. Some call this natural conscience, others in-
tuitive perception of right and wrong, &c. (See articles
Sense; Conscience; Moral Obligation.) 9. Moral law,
(See Law; Evidence.) — Hcnd. Buck.
MORAL AGENCY ; the capacity of acting voluntarily
and deliberately in view of motives ; or Ihe action of one
under moral obligation, law, and responsibility.
The custom of considering the volitions and agency of
man as a matter of abstract science, has favored the sup-
position, that volition is simple or uniform in its mode of
springing up in the mind. But if the real world of senti-
ent beings is looked at, it will at once be seen, both that
each species has its peculiar conditions of the voluntary
principle, and that vohtion in each species results, at diffe-
rent times, from very different internal processes. It
would appear then to be the most natural course to look
oitt first for the simpler instances of volition ; and then to
ascend from them to such as are complex, and not so
readily analyzed. For, as we may fairly presume, the
more complicated orders take up into their mental ma-
chinery the elements that have been singly developed
in the lower ranks of existence. To this general truth,
however, there is one exception. Whatever principle
of agency in the animal world is no element of Ihe human
constitution, is called Instinct ; and as this of course
throws no light upon the agency of man, it must be ex-
cluded from our process of induction.
I. Conditions of Moral Agency. The agency of one
class of animals is found to differ from that of another,
by all the amount of an additional element, A horse may
therefore be managed by means which it would be utterly
absurd to address to a pig or a hen. And it would be
highly unphilosophical to rea.son concerning the two
classes, as if they were one and the same.
We ascend many degrees on Ihe scale of reason, of
moral .sensibility, and of complex volition, when we turn
from Ihe horse to the dog, who is the object of far more
sentiment, TinA Ihe subject of abundantly more education;
not arbitrarily or accidentally, but becatlse he po.ssesses
more intellectual faculty, moral feeling, and fitness for
social companionship with man. Yet ihe dog is limited in
his intellectual range to a narrow circle ; and in compar-
ing his powers with those of man, we discern the more
clearly the foundation of that different Irealment of which
the higher nature is Ihe subject ; and discern too the in-
effable absurdity of the metaphysical doctrine which as-
sumes the agency of men, of brutes, and of machines, to
be one and the same thing !
The want, or at least the extreme limitation of the
power of abstraction, and ol comparing complex relations,
effects, in an essential manner, the moral constitution of
these inferior species, even of the most intelligent of them.
And the possession of such powers gives to man his re-
sponsibility ; invests him with the anxious prerogative of
being under God master of his destinies ; and, in a word
transfers him, in a erent degree, from the present to r
future system of re'.ributive treatment. Man alone can
be influenced by motives drawn from eternity.
Accordingly, an inward voluntary reformation of man-
ners is never looked for from the brute. He may indeed
be amended in his dispositions by e.tternal treatment : he
MOR
[ 839 ]
MOR
may become more or less bland and tractable, in conse-
quence of changes in his constitution and diet ; but he
never changes in consequence of a mental process, bring-
ing two abstract moral qualities into comparison, and al-
lowing the one to be chosen and followed, while the other
is hated and avoided. If it be asked on what ground we
infer these deficiencies of internal structure in the brute
mind, we reply that the internal defect may fairly be im-
plied from the absence of the proper outward results of
the supposed faculty. In following even the most saga-
cious animal through his movements, in connexion with
new and artificial occasions, we catch him at fault, pre-
cisely for the want of the power of abstraction. The in-
ternal structure is as good as laid bare in such instances ;
and we cease to wonder, that a being so deficient should
not provide for his welfare by artificial means.
The very same deficiency necessitates his moral condi-
tion ; and knowing it, though we feel complacency or
displacency towards the dog, or the elephant, according to
his dispositions, we neither assign to him in the one case
the praise of virtue, nor in the other impute to him the
blame of vice. The animal that does not observe propor-
tions, nor use instruments, nor construct machines, /or
the same reason does not turn or remodel his own character ;
does not, in any degree, educate himself. His is not the
power to choose what he shall be, in view of an unlimited
futurity.
Virtue, vice, praise, blame, law, government, retribu-
tion, are proper conditions of the existence of a being,
who, by his use of arbitrary signs, by his employment of
complicated means, by his conversion of the powers of na-
ture to his particular advantage, above all by his con-
science, or potver of introverted, deliberative, directive
thought, in connexion rvith his moral sensibilities, makes it
evident that he possesses an agency which renders virtue,
vice, praise, blame, law, government, retribution, the true
correlatives of his nature, and which must attach to it
forever. (See Blame ; Accountability ; Moral Obli-
gation.)
The sophism which would sever these things from hu-
man nature, contains an absurdity of precisely the same
degree, as must belong to an argument that would attach
them to the brute. It were a whim of the same order, to
look for arts and accomplishments among tigers, kites,
sharks, as not to look for them among men ; and it is non-
sense of the same magnitude, to deny that the being who
builds, plants, writes, and calculates, can work upon his
own dispositions, as to affirm that tigers, kites, and
sharks, might, if they so pleased, become more amiable,
and less rapacious, than they have hitherto shown them-
selves. And when metaphysical abstractions of a certain
order are attempted to be dovetailed upon the actual con-
stitution of nature, the one set of principles calls the other
fool, and both utterly refuse to coalesce. What man can
do, and what he mil do, are things perfectly distinct.
(See Depravity, Human.)
II. Development of Moral Agency. The conjunction of
the higher elements of intellectual and moral being with
the common ingredients of animal Ufe, is beautifully de-
veloped to the eye that with philosophical attention ob-
serves the growth and expansion of the human mind
from infancy to manhood. Man, throughout the period
of his infancy, is, as an agent, below zero. Though launch-
ed as a separate being in the world, he is still an embryo,
and exists only within the coil of maternal vigilance. At
a very early period, however, the agency of the infant is
enriched and extended, by the development of the two
correlative emotions, which, in their multiform combinations,
are afterwards to constitute the moral life, love and re-
sentment. These feelings, liable as they are to perver-
sion, are, when properly directed and governed, the con-
servative elements of existence. The intelligent mo-
ther uses her skill incessantly, as manager of the two
elementary and antagonist principles of the moral life ;
and by avoiding as far as possible to excite the irascible
emotion, and by giving the fullest play to the loving
principle, she strengthens the latter by all the force of
liabit, and deprives the former of the corresponding ad-
vantaere. TVam vp a chUd in the way he should go, &c.
(See RELiaious Education.)
That development of the reasoning faculty, and that
power of complex thought, which are the grounds of in-
telligent and responsible agency, are not apparently de-
veloped, even in the lowest degree, until some time after
the habits, both of the animal and moral life, have become
firmly settled.
It would be curious and entertaining, if not instructive,
to trace by a series of exact observations, the influence
of language, and other signs, in eliciting or ha.stening
that last expansion of the mind, which imparts to it a de-
liberative power i or which constitutes man a voluntary
agent in the higher sense of the term ; and which, in its
matured state, carries him to an immeasurable distance
beyond the inferior species of sentient beings. Daily,
hourly, occasions arise in that little world of commence-
ments, the nursery, whereon the hasty strides of desire are
arrested by maternal vigilance, and other motives placed
before the mind, and antagonist considerations urged upon
its attention. Here begins the process of complex vo-
lition. At the moment of its commencement the little
being sets foot upon a course that has no limit ; is trans-
lated from the lower world of animal life, into the higher
sphere of rational and moral existence ; is introduced
into the community of responsible agents, and takes up
his heirship of an interminable destiny. (See Judgment,
Day of.)
For a more full development of this interesting subject,
with the true grounds of moral approbation and disappro-
bation, see an Essay Introductory to Edn-ards on the Will, by
the author of the Natural History of Enthusiasm. Also
Fuller's IVorks ; Griffin on the Atonement ; Upham on the
Will ; and Hiyiton on the Work of the Holy Spirit.
MOKAL OBLIGATION. Different opinions have
been held as to the ground of moral obligation. Grotius,
Balguy, and Dr. Samuel Clarke, place it in the eternal
and necessary fitness of things. To this there are two
objections. The first is, that it leaves the distinction be-
tween virtue and vice, in a great measure, arbitrary and
indefinite, dependent upon our perception of fitness and
unfitness, which, in different individuals, will greatly dif-
fer. The second is, that when a fitness or unfitness is
proved, it is no more than the discovery of a natural
essential difference or congruity, which alone cannot con-
stitute a moral obligation to choose what is fit, and to re-
ject what is unfit. When we have proved a fitness in a
certain course of action, we have not proved that it is
obligatory. A second step is necessary before we can
reach this conclusion. Cudworth, Butler, Price, and oth-
ers, maintain, that virtue carries its own obligation in it-
self; that the understanding at once perceives a certain
action to be right, and therefore it ought to be performed.
Several objections lie to this notion : 1. It supposes the
understandings of men to determine precisely in the same
manner concerning all virtuous and vicious actions ;
which is contrary to fact. 2. It supposes a previous rule,
by which the action is determined to he right ; but if the
revealed word of God is not to be taken into considera-
tion, what common rule exists among men ? There is
evidently no such rule, and therefore no means of cer-
tainly determining what is right. 3. If a common stand-
ard were known among men, and if the understandings
of men determined in the same manner as to the con-
formity, or otherwise, of an action to that standard, what
renders it a matter of obligation that any one should per-
form it ? The rule must be proved to be binding, or no
ground of obligation is established.
An action is obligator}-, say others, because it is agreear
ble to the moral sense. This is the theory of Lord Shaftes-
bury and Dr. Hutcheson. It may, indeed, be conceded
that such is the constitution of the human soul, that when
those distinctions between actions, which have been
taught by religious tradition or direct revelation, are
known in their nature, relations, and consequences, the
calm and sober judgments of men will approve of them ;
and that especially when they are considered abstractedly,
that is, as not affecting and controlling their own interests
and passions immediately, virtue may command compla-
cency, and vice provoke abhorrence ; this is what ^,f' "^^l
by conscience, or if you please, "the moral sense. rsui
that, independent of reflection' on their nature or tueir
M 0 R
[ 840 ]
BIOR
consequences, there is an insiinctivc principle in man
which abhors evil, and loves good, is contradicted bj' that
vaviety of opinion and feeling on the vices and virtues,
which obtains among all uninstructed nations. We ap-
plaud the forgiveness of an injury as magnanimous ;«a
savage despises it as mean. We think it a duty to sup-
port and cherish aged parents ; many nations, on the con-
trary, abandon them as nseless, and throw them to the
beasts of the field. Innumerable instances of this con-
trariety might be adduced, which are all contrary to the
notion of instinctive sentiment Instincts operate uni-
formly, but this assumed moral sense does not. Besides,
if it be mere matter of feeling, independent of judgment,
to love virtue, and abhor vice, the morality of the exer-
cise of this principle is questionable ; for it would be
difficult to show, that there is any more morality, properly
speaking, in the affections and disgusts of instinct than
in those of the palate. If judgment, the knowledge and
comparison of things, be included, then this principle sup-
poses a uniform and universal individual revelation as to
the nature of things to every man, or an intuitive faculty
of determining their moral quality ; both of which are
too absurd to be maintained.
The only satisfactory conclusion on this subject, is that
which refers moral obligation to the will of God manifest-
ed first in the moral relations we sustain, and secondly in
his written word. " Obligation." says Warburton, "ne-
cess-.rily implies an obliger, and the obliger must be diffe-
rent from, and not one and the same with, the obliged.
Moral obligation, that is, the obligation of a free agent,
further implies a law, which enjoins and forbids ; but a
law is the imposition of an intelligent superior, who hath
power to exact conformity thereto." This lawgiver is
God ; and whatever may be the reasons which have led
him to enjoin this, and to prohibit that, it is plain that the
obligation to obey lies not merely in the fitness and pro-
priety of a creature obeying an infinitely wise and good
Creator, (though such a fitness exists,) nor in the useful
consequences flowing from obedience, (though such utili-
ty really follows,) but in that obedience being enjoined.
For, since the question respects the duty of a created be-
ing with reference to his Creator, nothing can be more
conclusive than that the Creator has an absolute right to
the obedience of his creatures ; and that the creature is
in duty obliged to obey him from whom it not only has
received being, but by wdiom that being is consianlly
sustained.
It has, indeed, been said, that even if it be admitted, that
I am obliged to obey the will of God, the question is still
open, "Why am I obliged to obey his will?" and that
this brings us round to the former answer ; because he
can only will what is upon the whole best for his crea-
tures. But this is confounding that which may be, and
doubtless is, a rule to God in the commands which he is-
sues, with that which really obliges the creature. Now,
that which in truth obliges the creature is not the nature
of the commands issued by God; but the relation in
which the creature itself stands to God. If a creature
can have no existence, nor any pov,'er or faculty inde-
pendently of God, it can have no right to employ its fa-
culties independently of him ; and if it have no right to
employ its faculties in an independent manner, the right
to rule its conduct must rest with the Creator alone ; and
from this results the obligation of absolute and universal
obedience. (See Oiu.ioatio.v.) Moe/cintosh's View of the
Frogress of Ethical Philosophy ; Witherspnon^ s Moral Phi-
losophy ; Dtvight's Tlieology ; Works of Robert Hall;
Greenes Exnminntion of "Godwin ; Gishorne's Sermons ;
Chalmers on the Intellectual and Moral Constitution of Man ;
Necker on the Importance of Religious Opinions. — Watson.
MORALITIES ; allegorical plays, so termed because
they consisted of moral discourses in praise of virtue and
condemnation of vice. They succeeded the mysteries,
which see. The dialogues were carried on by such cha-
racters as Good Doctrine, Charily, Faith, Prudence, Dis-
cretion, Death, &c., whose discourses were of a serious
cast ; while the province of making merriment for the
spectators was devolved upon Vice, Iniquity, or some bad
quality, which was personified and acted its part. Mo-
ralities were exhibited as late as the reign of Henry VIII.,
and, after various modifications, assumed the form of the
Mask, which became a favorite entertainment at thecoui*
of Elizabeth and her successors. — Ilend. Buck. )
MORALITY, is that relation or proportion which ac«
tions bear to a given rule. (See Blame.)
It is generally used in reference to a good, civil life.
Morality in this sense, is distinguished from religion thus:
" Morality is a studious conformity of our actions to the
relations in which we stand to each other in civil society.
Morality comprehends only a part of religion ; but reli-
gion comprehends the whole of morality. Blorality finds
all her motives here below ; religion fetches all her mo-
tives from above. The highest principle in social morals
is a just regard to the rights of men ; the first principle
in religion is the love of God." The various duties of
morality are considered in their respective places in this
work. See Bishop Horsley's Charge, 1790 ; Paley's and
Grove's Moral Philosophy ; Seattle's Elements of Moral
Science ; Evans' Sermons on Christian Temper ; Waits' Ser-
mons on Christian Morals ; Mason's Christian Morals ; H.
More's Hints, vol. ii. p. 245 ; Gishorne's Sermons designed
to illustrate and enforce Christian Morality. — Hend. Buck.
MORAVIANS, Unitas Fratrum, or United Brethren ;
a body of Christians, generally said to have arisen
under Nicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, a German
nobleman of the last century, and thus called because the
first converts to their system were some Moravian families.
According to the society's own account, however, they
derive their origin from the Greek church in the ninth
century, when, by the instrumentality of Methodius and
Cyrillus, two Greek monks, the kings of Bulgaria and
Moravia, being converted to the faith, were, together with
their subjects, united in communion with the Greek
church. Methodius was their first bishop, and for their
use Cyrillus translated the Scriptures into the Sclavonian
language.
The antipathy of the Greek and Roman churches is
well known, and by much the greater part of the brethren
were in process of time compelled, after many struggles,
to submit to the see of Rome. A few, however, adhering
to the rites of their mother church, united themselves, in
1170, to the Waldenses, and sent missionaries into many
countries. In 1547, they were called Fratres legis Christi,
or Brethren of the Law of Christ ; because, about that
period, they had thrown off all reverence for human com-
pilations of tiie faith, professing simply to follow the doc-
trines and precepts contained in the word of God.
There being at this time no bishops in the Bohemian
church who had not submitted to the papal jurisdiction,
three preachers of the society of United Brethren were,
about the year 1467, ordained by Stephen, a bishop of the
Waldenses, in Austria ; (see Waldenses ;) and these, on
their return to their own country, ordained ten bishops, or
seniors, from among the rest. In 1523, the United Bre-
thren commenced a friendly correspondence, first with
Luther, and afterwards with Calvin, and other leaders
among the reformers. A persecution, which was brought
upon them on this account, and some religious disputes
which took place among themselves, threatened for a while
the society with ruin; but the disputes were, in 1570, put
an end to by a synod, which decreed that differences,
about non-essentials should not destroy their union ; and
the persecution ceased in 1575, v.'hen the United Brethren
obtained an edict for the public exercise of their religion.
This toleration was renewed in 1609, and liberty granted
them to erect new churches. But a civil war, which, in
1612, broke out in Bohemia, and a violent persecution
which followed it in 1621, occasioned the dispersion of their
ministers, and brought great distress upon the brethren in
general. Some of them fled to England, others to Saxony
and Brandenburg ; whilst many, overcome by the severity
of the persecution, conformed to the rites of the church
of Rome. One colony of these, who retained in purity
their original principles and practice, was, in 1722, con-
ducted by a brother, named Christian David, from Ful- •
neck, in Moravia, to Upper Lusatia, where they put them-
selves under the protection of Nicholas Lewis, count of
Zinzendorf, and built a village on his estate, at the foot of
a hill, called Hutberg, or Watch Hill. They called their
settlement Herrnhut, " the watch of the Lord." The
MOR
[ 841
m OR
murJ, who, soon after their arrival, removed from Dres-
den to his estate in the country, showed every mark of
kindness to the poor emigrants ; but being a zealous
member of the church established by law, he endeavored
for some time to prevail upon them to unite themselves
with it, by adopting the Lutheran faith and discipline.
This they declined ; and the count, on a more minute in-
quiry into their ancient history and distinguishing tenets,
not only desisted from his tirst purpose, but became him-
self 3 convert to the faith and discipUiie of the United
Brethren.
The synod, which, in 1570, put an end to the disputes
which then tore the church of the Brethren into factions,
had considered as non-essentials the distinguishing tenets
of their own society, of the Lutherans, and of the Cal-
vinists. In consequence of this, many of the reformers
of both these sects had followed the Brethren to Herrnhut,
and been received by them into communion; but not be-
ing endued with the peaceable spirit of the church n'hich
they had joined, they started disputes among themselves,
which threatened the destruction of the whole establish-
ment. By the indefatigable exertions of count Zinzen-
dorf, these disputes were allayed ; and statutes being, in
1727, drawn up and agreed to for the regulation both of
the internal and of the external concerns of the congre-
gation, brotherly love and union was again established ;
and no schism whatever, in point of doctrine, has since
that period disturbed the church of the United Brethren.
In 1735, the count, who, under God, had been the in-
strument of renewing the Brethren's church, was ordained
one of their bishops. Dr. Potter, then archbishop of Can-
terbury, in England, congratulated him upon this event,
and promised his assistance to a church of confessors, of
whom he wrote in terms of the highest respect, for their
having maintained the pure and primitive faith and disci-
pline in the midst of the most tedious and cruel persecu-
tions.
This sect, like many others, has been shamefully mis-
represented, and things laid to their charge of which they
never were guilty. It must, however, be acknowledged,
that some of their converts having previously imbibed ex-
travagant notions, propagated them with zeal among their
new friends in a phraseology extremely reprehensible ;
and that count Zinzendorf himself fretjuently adopted the
very improper language of those fanatics, whom he wish-
ed to reclaim from their errors to the soberness of truth ;
but much of the extravagance and absurdity which has
been attributed to the count is not to be charged to him,
but to those persons who, writing his extempore sermons
in short hand, printed and pubhshed them without his
knowledge or consent.
This eminent benefactor to the United Brethren died in
1760, and it is with reason that they honor his memory,
as having been the instrumeut by w'hich God restored and
built up their church. But they do not regard him as
their head, nor take his writings, nor the writings of any
other man, as the standard of their doctrines, which they
profess to derive immediately from the word of God.
The United Brethren allow to their bishops no elevation
of rank or pre-eminent authority ; their church having
fiom its first establishment been governed by councils or
synods, consisting of deputies from all the congregations,
and by other subordinate bodies, which they call confe-
rences. The synods, which are generally held once in
seven years, are called together by the elders who were
ia the former synod appointed to superintend the whole
Unity. In the first sitting a president is chosen, and these
elders lay down their office ; but they do not withdraw
trom the assembly ; for they, together with all bishops,
feniores civiles, or lay elders, and those ministers who have
the general care or inspection of several congregations in
one province, have seats in the synod without any particu-
lar election. The other members are, one or more depu-
ties sent by each congregation, and such ministers or mis-
sionaries as are particularly called to attend. Women,
approved by the congregations, are also admitted as
hearers, and are called upon to give their advice in what
relates to the ministerial labor among their sex ; but they
have no decisive vote in the synod. The votes of all the
other members are eqn.il.
106
In questions of importance, or of which the conse-
quences cannot be foreseen, neither the majority of votes
nor the unanimous consent of all present can decide ; but
recourse is had to the hi. Fur adopting this unusual
mode of deciding in ecclesiastical atfairs, the Brethren
allege as reasons the practices of the ancient Jews and
the apostles ; the insufficiency of the human understand-
ing, amidst the best and purest intentions, to decide for it
self in what concerns the administration of Christ's king-
dom ; aud their own confident reliance on the comfortable
promises that the Lord Jesus will approve himself the
head and ruler of his church. The lot is never made use
of but after mature deliberation and fervent prayer ; nor
is any thing submitted to its decision which does not, after
being thoroughly weighed, appear to the assembly eligible
in itself. (See Lot.)
In every synod the inward and outward state of the
Unity, and the concerns of the congregations and mis
sions, are taken into consideration. If errors in doctrine
or deviations in practice ha;-e crept in, the synod endea-
vors not only to remove them, but, by salutary regula-
tions, to prevent them for the future. It considers how
many bishops are to be consecrated to fill up the vacan-
cies occasioned by death ; and every member of the synod
gives his vote for such of the clergy as he thinks best
qualified. Those who have the majority of votes are
taken into the Ivt, and they who are approved are conse-
crated accordingly ; but, by consecration, they are vested
with no superiority over their brethren, since it behoves
him who is the greatest to be the servant of all.
Towards the conclusion of every synod a kind of ex-
ecutive board is chosen, and called the elders' conference
of the Unity. At present it consists of ten elders,
and is divided into four committees, or departments. 1.
The missions' department, which superintends all the con-
cerns of the missions into heathen countries. 2. The
helpers' department, which watches over the purity of doc-
trine, and the moral conduct of the difi'ereut congrega-
tions. 3. The servants' department, to which the eco-
nomical concerns of the Unity are committed. 4. The
overseers' department, of which the business is to see that
the constitution and discipline of the brethren be every-
where maintained. No resolution, however, of any of
tliese departments has the smallest force till it be laid be-
fore the assembly of the whole tldtrs' conference, and have
the approbation of that body. The powers of the elders'
conference are, indeed, very extensive ; besides the general
care which it is commissioned by the synods to take of all
the congregations and missions, it appoints and removes-
every sen'ant in the Unity, as circumstances may require ;
authorizes the bishops io ordain presbyters or deacons,
and to consecrate other bishops ; and, in a word, though
it cannot abrogate any of the constitutions of the synod,
or enact new ones itself, it is possessed of the supreme
executive power over the whole body of the United Bre-
thren, but is responsible to the synod.
Besides this general conference of elders, which superin-
tends the affairs of the whole Unity, there is another con-
ference of elders belonging to each congregation, which
directs its affairs, and to which the bishops anil all other
ministers, as well as the lay members of the congregation,
are subjecj. This body, which is called the elders' (jmfe-
rence of the congregations, consist.*, 1. Of the minister, as
president, to whom the ordinary care of the congregation
is committed, except when it is very numerous, and then
the general inspection of it is intrusted to a separate per-
son, called the congregation he!pcr. 3. Of the icarden,
whose office it is to superintend, with the aid of his conn-
ed, all outward concerns of the congregation, and to as-
sist every individual with his advice. 3. Of a married
pair, who care particularly for the spiritual welfare of the
married people. 4. Of a single clergyman, to whost c3.tc
the young men are more particularly committed. And, 5.
Of llwse n'omcn who assist in caring for the spiritual and
temporal welfare of their own sex, and who, in this confe-
rence, have equal votes with the men. As the ciders' con-
ference of each congregation is answerable for its proceed-
ings to the elders' ^wiference of the Unity, visitations Irora
the latter to the former are held from time to time, that
the affairs of each congregation, and ihc cinbiot ot its
MOR
[ S42 j
MOPv
immediate governors, may be intimately known to the su-
preme executive government of the whole church.
In their opinion, episcopal consecration does not confer
any power to preside over one or more congregations ;
and a bishop can discharge no office but by the appoint-
ment of a synod, or of the elders' conference of the Unity.
Presbyters among them can perform every function of the
bishop, except ordination. Deacons are assistants to the
presbyters ; and in the Brethren's churches., deaconesses
are retained for the purpose of privately admonishing
their own sex, and visiting them in their sicliness ; but
thougli they are solemnly blessed to this office, they are
not permitted to teach in public, and far less to administer
the sacraments. They have likewise seniores civiles, or
lay elders, in contradistinction to spiritual elders, or bish-
ops, who are appointed to watch over the constitution and
discipline of the Dnity of the Brethren, over the observ-
ance of the laws of the country in which congregations
or missions are established, and over the privileges grant-
ed to the Brethren by the governments under which they
live. They have economies, or choir houses, where they
live together in communily ; the single men and single
women, widows and widowers, apart, each under the su-
perintendence of elderly persons of their own class. In
these liouses every person who is able, and has not an in-
dependent support, labors in their own occupation, and
contributes a stipulated sum for their maintenance.
" No marriage lakes place without the consent of the
board of cldc/s of the (ongregation. Upon due applica-
tion this consent is signified to the parlies ; whereupon
they are solemnly belrothe<l, in presence of the elders
and nearest connexions, and the marriage then takes
place, according to the forms prescribed by law in each
country."
" The education of yonth is regarded by the Brethren as
worthy of the greatest attention, being persuaded that a
good education is the most valuable legacy which parents
can leave to their children. It is therefore their principal
aim, that their youth, from their tenderest age, be not only
screened as far as possible from all pernicious examples,
hurtful impressions, and seductions to evd ; but that the
love of GOD in Christ Jesus may be implanted in the
tender hearts of their children ; that virtue may be repre-
sented to them in the most amiable light ; and that they,
as the property of the Lord, who created and redeemed
them, may live wholly to his joy and honor, and become
useful members of human society."
"Whoever does not walk conformably to th^ rules
established, thus losing sight of the aim of his living in
a congregation of the Brethren, incurs that church disci-
pline which has been introduced agreeably to the ex-
ample of the apostolic age and the ancient church of the
Brethren."
But what characterizes the Moravians most, and holds
them up to the attention of others, is their missionary
zeal. In this they are superior to any other body of peo-
ple in the world. " Their missionaries," as one observes,
"are all of them volunteers; for it is an inviolable max-
im with them to persuade no man to engage in missions.
They are all of one mind as to the doctrines they teach,
and seldom make an attempt where there are not half a
dozen of them in the mission. Their zeal is calm, steady,
persevering. They would reform the world, but are care-
ful how they quarrel with it. They carry their point by
address, and the insinuations of modesty and mildness,
which commend them to all men, and give oflence to
none. The habits of silence, quietness, and decent re-
serve, mark their character. If any of their missionaries
are carried off by sickness or casualty, men of the same
stamp are ready to supply their place."
The following are the names of the settlements of the
United Brethren in heathen countries :
" Begun in 1732, in the Danish West India islands. In
St. Thomas; New Herrnhut, Nisky. In St. Croix; Frie-
densbcrg, Friedensthal. In St. Jan ; Belhany, Emmaus.
In 1733 : in Greenland ; New Herrnhut, Lichtenfels, Lich-
lenau. In 1734: in North America; Fairfield in Upper
Canada, Goshen on the river Muskingum. In 173(5: at
the cape of Good Hope ; Bavians Kloof, (renewed in
1792.) In 1738 : in South America ; among the negro
slaves at Paramaribo and Sommelsdyk ; among the free
negroes at Bambey, on the Sarameca ; among the native
Indians at Hope, on the river Coientyn. In 1754 : in Ja-
maica ; two settlements in St. Elizabeth's parish. lu
1756 : in Antigua; at St. John's, Grace Hill, Grace Bay.
In 1760 : near Tranquebar, in the East Indies ; Brethren's
Garden. In 1764 : on the coast of Labrador ; Nain, Ok-
kah, Hopedale. In 1765; in Barbadoes; Sharon, near
Bridgetown. In 1765 : in the Russian part of Asia ; Sa-
repta. In 1775 : in St. Kitt's ; at Basseterre. In 1789 :
in Tobago ; Signal Hill, (renewed in 1798.) (See also
the missionary department of this work.)
" A society for the furtherance of the gospel among the
heathen was instituted by the Brethren in London as early
as the year 1751, for the more eflictual co-operation with
and assistance of the said missions' department, in caring
for those missionaries who might pass through London to
their several posts. The society was, after some interrup-
tion in their meetings^ renewed in 1756, and took th'!
whole charge of the mission on the coast of Labradt r
upon themselves; besides continuing to assist the other
missions as much as lay in their power, especially those
in the British dominions. As no regular communication
was kept up with the coast of Labrador by government,
a small vessel was employed to convey the necessaries of
life to the missionaries once a year.
" In Amsterdam, a similar society was established by
the Brethren in 1746, and renewed in 1793, at Zeist, near
Utrecht. This society took particular charge of the mis-
sion at the cape of Good Hope ; but the late troubles in
Holland have rendered them unable to lend much assis-
tance for the present. The Brethren in North America
established a society for propagating the gospel among the
heathen in the year 1787, which was incorporated by the
state of Pennsylvania, and has been very active in as-
sisting the missions among the Indians. These three so-
cieties do all in their power to help support the great
and accumulated burthens of the above-mentioned mis-
sions' department, and God has laid a blessing upon their
exertions. But they have no power to begin new mis-
sions, or to send out missionaries, which, by the synods
of the Brethren's church, is vested solely in the elders'
conference of the Unity."
The number of converts and persons under instruction
in the difl'erent missions, amount to about 55,150, and the
number of missionaries to about 163.
As to the tenets of the Moravians, though they acknow-
ledge no other standard of truth than the sacred Scriptures,
they adhere to the Augsburg confession ; (see that article.)
They profess to believe that the kingdom of Christ is not
confined to any particular party, community, or church ;
and they consider themselves, though united in one joined
body, or visible church, as spiritually in the bond of Chris-
tian love to all who are taught of (Jod, and belong to the
universal church of Christ, however much they may differ
in forms, which they deem non-essentials.
The Moravians are often called Herrnhuters, from
Herrnhut, the name of the village where they were first
settled. They also go by the name of Unitas Fratrum, or
United Brethren. If the reader wish to have a fuller ac-
count of this society, he may consult Crautz's Ancient and
Modern History of the Church of the United Brethren, 1780 ;
Spangenberg's Exposition of the Christian Doctrine, 1784 ;
Dr. Haiveis' Church History, vol. iii. p. 184, (fee. ; Crantz's
History of their Mission in Greenland ; The Periodical Ac-
counls of their Missions ; Loskiel's History of the North
American Indian Missions ; Oldendorp's History of the Bre-
thren's Missions in the Danish West Indian Islands; and
Chouhs' History of Missions. — Hend. Buck.
MORE, (Hannah,) the most brilliant female ornament
of Christian literature, was born in 1744, at the village
of Stapleton, Gloucestershire. She was the youngest of
five sisters, none of whom entered into the marriage state.
Her father, who died while she was young, was a clergy-
man, eminent for his classical attainments, but equally
eminent for the excellence of his character and disposi-
tion. Of her mother we know nothing. Very early in
life, Hannah evinced a taste for literature, and an insatia-
ble appetite for books. She speedily devoured the con-
tents of her father's library, and then had recourse to
MOR
[ 843
MOR
those of some friends in the village of Hannam, near
Bristol. It is said that Richardson's Pamela was the first
book that fell in lier way, and that inspired her with a
passion for reading. As she grew up toward? woman-
hood, her remarkable attainments and excellent character
attracted the esteem and admiration of her neighbors, and
becoming more widely known, acquired for her the pa-
tronage of several persons of superior station and talents.
Her sisters, who, though less gifted than she, were amia-
ble and talented women, had, in the meantime, opened a
small school, which, as their reputation increased, was re-
linquished for one of higher pretensions. While they
were engaged in tuition, she was trying her powers in the
composition of verse.
About the year 17t)t5, the Misses Blore had acquired so
much celebrity, as instructers of youth, that, on the re-
commendation of several ladies of fortune and discern-
ment, they removed to Bristol, and opened a boarding-
school in Park street. In a short time, it was esteemed
the first establishment of the kind in the west of England,
and was selected by many persons of rank for the educa-
tion of their daughters.
Miss Hannah More accompanied her sisters to Bristol,
where she acquired the friendship of Dr. Stonehouse, a
gentleman from whose urbanity, influence, and general
knowledge, she derived material worldly advantages ; but
it is doubtful whether her acquaintance with him, though
he was a clergj'man, resulted in her religious improve-
ment. He it was, however, who prepared for the press
her first work, " The Search after Happiness." She after-
wards turned her attention to dramatic composition. Her
first play was " Fatal Falsehood," which was " brought
out" under the patronage of Garrick, with whom Dr.
Stonehouse was intimate. It was tolerably well received ;
but, " Percy," her second efibrt in this department, was
much more successful. " The Indexible Captive," the
only other drama she prepared for the stage, was greatly
inferior to its predecessors. During these engagements,
she came in contact with several distinguished men of that
day. She was honored with the intimate acquaintance
of Johnson, Burke, and Reynolds, and of many other
highly eminent individuals, who equally appreciated her
amiable qualities and her superior intellect.
The fact that Hannah More wrote for the stage, will,
with most religious persons, be deemed proof enough that
she was not then so decided a Christian as she afterwards
became. She at length began to doubt its propriety.
We are disposed to date the conversion of Hannah
IMore from the period when her publications assumed a
decidedly rehgious character and tendency. Then it was,
that, under a deep conviction that to live to the glory of
God, and to the good of our fellow-creatures, is the great
object of human existence, and the only one which can
bring peace at the last, she quitted the bright circle of
fashion and literature, and devoted herself to a life of
active Christian benevolence, and to the composition of
various works, having for their object the real improve-
ment of mankind. Among this class of works, her " Sa-
cred Dramas" must be mentioned as the first ; for these,
though composed at a very early period of her life, were
not printed till the year 1782. The fact that she had
nrilten for the stage in the mean time, would have led us
to suspect the truth of the declaration, that the " Sacred
Drama.s" were composed while she was a girl, but that it
rests on the evidence of a respectable American, who had
it from her own lips. It serves to show that she derived
no religious advantage from the notice into which her
talents brought her, and to attest the power of divine
.grace, by which she was ultimately rescued from the dan-
gerous tendency of worldly associations and of public ap-
plause. Her first work of a didactic nature was entitled
" Essa)'s to Young Ladies." To this, in 1780, succeeded
an anonymous volume, " Thoughts on the Manners of the
Great," which excited much interest and curiosity. Some
attributed it to the bishop of London, and others to the
late Mr. Wilberforce. It was at length traced to the mas-
culine pen of Miss Hannah More. Its object was to
expose and correct the licentious manners of the great,
and it proved that she had not moved in fashionable cir-
cles with perfect satisfaction of mind.
In 1799, while residing at Bath, Miss More gave to the
public her invaluable " Strictures on the Modern System
of Female Education."
Perhaps the highest testimony to the talents and virtues
of Hannah More, was borne by bishop Porteus, who
strongly recommended her as every way qualified to su-
perintend the education of the princess Charlotte. By
those in power, however, the charge was thought too great
for an individual without title, though they were willing
enough to engage her service in a subordinate capacity.
But she declined the ofler, and the negotiation ended.
That she had indulged the prospect of receiving the higher
appointment, may he presumed from the subsequent ap-
pearance, in 1S05, of her " Hints towards formingthe Cha-
racter of a Young Princess," a work which fully justified
the aspirations which her right reverend friend had taught
her to indulge, but yet a work of more universal applica-
tion than the title intimates.
Before this volume appeared. Miss Hannah Jlore and
her sisters, by their reputation and industry, first in Bris-
tol and afterwards in Bath, had realized sufficient property
to enable them to retire from public life, and purchase a
residence called Barley Wood, delightfully situated at the
foot of the Mendip hills.
In 1809, she published her " Coelebs in Search of a
Wife," a novel of unexceptionable moral tendency, though
far from being perfect as a work of art. Her " Practical
Piety" appeared in 1811, and her admirable " Essay on
the Character and Writings of St. Paul" in 1815.
Be.sides the works already noticed, Miss More gave to
the world several other publications, alike distinguished
by the talent they display, and their excellent moral and
religious tendency. Her best work, that which deserves
to be most widely known, and most highly appreciated, is
her " Christian Morals," printed in 1812. This truly
valuable worli will be read with pleasure and improve-
ment by geneqations yet unborn.
The last work on which she was engaged, and which
was published five or six years since, is a small volume,
entitled " The Spirit of Praj'er," which is an assemblage
of the most devotional passages in her various writings.
It opens with a striking definition of prayer, which may
be instanced as one of the finest specimens of the au-
thor's powers of composition. The motto which she pre-
fixed to this interesting collection, " Knowing that shortly
I must put off this my tabernacle," shows that she was
then anticipating her dissolution, and that in the tem-
per of mind suited to the Christian character and profes-
sion.
But hterary occupations did not absorb her whole time
in the delightful retirement of Barley Wood. She insti-
tuted a number of schools in the vicinity, at which many
hundreds of children were educated under her direction.
Her constitution, sho said, was very .strong, for it had car-
ried her, with the blessing of Providence, through the as-
saults of twenty mortal diseases.
On the death of her sister Martha, which took place a
few years since. Miss Hannah More exchanged her resi-
dence at Barley Wood for Chfton, near Bristol, where,
notwithstanding the increasing infirmities of age, she
maintained her wonted cheerfulness of temper, and con-
tinued to distribute her superfluous wealth in acts of the
purest benevolence and highest charity, until death put
an end to her long and useful career. This event occur-
red on 7th of September, at her residence in Windsor
Terrace, Clifton, in the eighty-ninth year of her age ;
and her remains were interred on Friday the 13th, in the
vault at Wrington, which contains those of her beloved
sisters. She had endured a painful and protracted ill-
ness, accompanied by feverish delirium ; but the hles.sed
influence of Christian habit was strikingly exemplified
even under the decay of extreme old age and its attend-
ant consequences. She frequently broke forth into earnest
prayer and devout ejaculation, and invariably met the
aflectionate attention of the friends who sedulously watch-
ed over her sick bed, by unceasing and most expressive
returns of grateful love. An individual who saw her in
the day of her last seizure, nhich was in IS'ovember, li o-,
slates 'that "she expressed to him, in a most mipressive
manner, the sentiments of an humble, penitent believe'
MOR
[ 844 ]
MOR
ia Jesus Christ, assuring him that she reposed her hopes
of salvation on his merits alone, and expressing at the
same time a firm and joyful affiance on his unchanging
promises." — Land. Chris. Obs. ; Am. Ed. of her Works.
MORDECAI, was the son of Jair, of the race of Saul,
and a chief of the tribe of Benjamin. He was carried
captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar, with Jehoiachin,
or Jeconiah, king of Judah, A. M. 3105, Esther 2: 5, 6.
He settled at Shushan, and there lived to the first year of
Cyrus, when it is thought he returned to Jerusalem, with
several other captives ; but he afterwards returned to
Shushan. There is grfat probability that Mordecai was
very young when taken into caplivity. The book of Es-
ther gives the whole history of Mordecai's elevation, the
punishment of Haman, and the wonderful deliverance of
the Jews, in dear and regular narrative.
But it may be asked, for what reason did Mordecai re-
fuse to pay that respect to Haman, the neglect of which
incensed him against the Jews ? Esther 3: 1 — 6. Some
think the reason was, because Haman was nn Amalekite ;
a people whom the Israelites had been commissioned
from God to destroy, because of the injuries they had for-
merly done them, Deut. 25: 17 — 19. But this scarcely
seems to be a sufficient account of Mordecai's refusing
civil respect to Haman, who was first minister of state ;
especially when by so doing he exposed his whole nation
to imminent danger. Besides, if nothing but civil respect
had been intended to Haman, the king need not have en-
joined it on his servants after he had made him his first
minister and chief favorite ; (Esther 3: 1, 2.) they would
have been ready enough to show it on all occasions. Pro-
bably, therefore, tlie reverence ordered to be done to this
great man was a kind of divine honor, such as was some-
times addressed to the Persian monarchs themselves j
which, being a species of idolatry, Mordecai refused for
the sake of a good conscience. And perhaps it was be-
cause Haman knew that his refusal was thje result of his
Jewish principles, that he determined to attempt the de-
struction of the Jews in general, knowing they were all of
the same mind.
2. As to another question, why Haman cast lots, in order
to fix the day for the massacre of the Jews, (Esther 3: 7.)
from whence the feast of purim, which is a Persic word,
and signifies lots, took its name ; (Esther 9: 25.) it was no
doubt owing to the superstitious conceit which anciently
prevailed, of some days being more fortunate than others
tor any undertaking ; in .short, he endeavsred to find oiu,
by this way of divining, what month, and what day of
the month, was most unfortunate to the Jews, and most
fortunate for the success of his bloody design again.st
them. It is very remarkable, that while Haman sought
for direction in this afl"air from the Persian idols, the God
of Israel so overruled the lot as to fix the intended massa-
cre to almost a year's distance, fromNisan the first month
to Adar the last of the year, in order to give time and op-
portunity to Mordecai and Esther to defeat the conspi-
racy.
3. We learn from Chardin, (1.) That to inquire what
passes in the harem of an Eastern monarch, is a crime.
(2.) That it is possible, ■■ by a great de.al of art," and
weighty reasons, no doubt, to make the black eunuchs
"speak," on .some occasions. (3.) That a man may walk
by the court of the harem a hundred days, one after another
yet obtain no intelligence from thence. (4.) That " bloody
doings" are occasionally transacted there.
These hints may account for the conduct of Mordecai,
who walked every day before the court of the n-omen's house,
to gather any intelligence that might chance to come with-
in his cognizance, respecting his neice. We learn also,
that there are " bloody doings" in the harem ; this agrees
with the remark of Mordecai, (chap. 4: 13.) " think not
that thou Shalt escape in the king's house, more than all
the Jews." He certainly means that Haman would pro-
cure her death, even in the harem. — Watson; Calmet.
MORE, (Henry, D. D.,) a divine and platonic philoso-
pher, was born, in 1614, at Grantham; was educated at
Eton, and Christ college, Cambridge ; refused the high-
est preferments ; and died, universally beloved, in 1687.
His works, in which are many fine passages, form two
folio volumes. As a poet, he is known by his Pyschozoia,
or Song of the Soul, in which, though il is ofieu oUscure
and prosaic, there is much poetical imagery. — Davenport.
MORGAN, (Abel,) an eminent Baptist minister of
Pennepek, Penn., was born in Wales, in 1637, and came
to this country in 1711. He died Dec. 16, 1722. He
compiled a folio concordance to the Welsh Bible, printed
at Philadelphia ; and also translated " Century Confes-
sion" into Welch, with additions. Benedict, i. 583. — Alien.
MORIAH, Mount. A hill on the north-east side of Je-
rusalem, once separated from that of Acra by a broad
valley, which, according to Josephus, was filled up by the
Asmoneans, and the two hills converted into one. In the
lime of David it stood apart from the city, and was under
cultivation ; for here was the threshing-floor of Araunah
the Jebusite, which David bought, on which to erect an
altar to God, 2 Sam. 24: 15—25. On the same spot Solo-
mon afterwards built the temple, (2 Chron. 3: 1.) when it
was included within the walls of the city. Here, also,
Abraham is supposed to have been directed to offer his
son Isaac, Gen. 22: 1, 2. Moriah implies ''vision ;" and
the " Land of Moriah," mentioned in the above passage
in the history of Abraham, was probably so called from
being seen '■ afar off." It included the whole group of
hills on which Jerusalem was afterwards built. — Watson. .
MORMONITES ; believers in the " Book of Mormon." '
This famous book, which its misguided followers regard
as a second Bible, or more properly as the Mohammedans
do ihe Koran, is .said to be a translation from certain brass
plates, found by one Joseph Smith, in the town of Pal-
myra, (N. Y.) in 1826. They were inclosed in a box,
which had to all appearance been used for common sized
window glass. Smith pretended to interpret them, with
a stone in his hat, and this hat over his face, while one
Martin Harris was employed to write down the contents
at his dictation. Some disagreement arising between the
parties, Harris went away, and Oliver Cowdry came and
wrote for Smith, while he interpreted as above described,
till Ihe " Book of Mormon" was completed. Smith then
gave out that it was a revelation from heaven, and that
he himself was a prophet ; and thus collected around him
a class of simple and credulous people, whom he persuad-
ed to dispose of their property, and follow him to the New
Zion which he was commissioned to establish in Missouri,
west of the Mississippi river, " in the centre of the world."
They accordingly settled in Jackson county, in that state;
and there under the guidance of ihe new prophet esta-
blished a new society, from which they send out preachers
in all directions to collect proselytes. A weekly periodi-
cal has also been established, through which new revela-
tions are from time to time circulated among the commu-
nity. Many of them find their way to New England,
and not a few weak, and some pious people, are caught in
the snare.
The contents of the book of Mormon are a series of
puerile eastern romance, with abundance of names, but
no dates, localities, or connexion of any sort with sober
history. Its style affects an imitation of Scripture, which,
with the ignorant, gives it an air of sacreduess, like that
of a revelation from heaven. The above account of its
origin is taken from a statement affirmed and subscribed
to, before Charles Dimon, justice of the peace, March 29,
1834, by Mr. Isaac Hale, father-in-law of Joseph Smith,
the pretended prophet. While in common with every
friend of humanity we deeply deplore the outrages recentlj'
committed by some of the citizens of Missouri on the
Mormon community, we deem it important that the facts
should be known, which show the real foundation of the
imposture. — See the Cross and Baptist Journal, 1834.
MORNAY, (Philip de,) lord of Plessis Marty, an il-
lustrious French Protestant, and governor of Saumur,
privy counsellor of Henry IV., was born at Buhi, in Vex-
en, Nov. 5, 1549. He was designed by his father for ihe
Romish church. His excellent mother, however, tool:
care to inspire his mind with Protestant principles, which
she secretly cherished. This circumstance, combined
with the perusal of the New Testament, when only twelve
years of age, fixed his faith. His literary education was
of the first order, and was improved by his travels in al-
most all parts of Europe. He made that usecf travelling
which a wise man will ever make, and everywhere,
J\IO R
L S.45 ]
M (J S
though yel a young man, discovered ihe spirii of a Chris-
tian and a philosopher. In 1572, he visited England,
whither his fame had already preceded him, and where
his presence was courted by the great and noble. In
1576, he joined the court of Henry, then king of Navarre.
In 15713, he published a treatise concerning Life and
Death. In 1578, a treatise concerning the Church, in
which he explained his motives for embracing the Protes-
tant faith. In 1582, appeared his justly celebrated book
upon the Truth of the Christian Religion. In 1596, came
out his Just Procedures of those of the Reformed Religion,
and in 1598, his treatise on the Eucharist, which raised his
reputation so high that he was called by some of his ene-
mies "the Protestant's pope." In 1607, he published
the Mystery of Iniquity, or History of the Papacy, and an
Exhortation to the Jews concerning the Messiah. He
(lied in 1623, saying that he was perfectly, though fumbly,
persuaded of his future happiness through the Savior,
" by a demonstration more powerful, more clear, and
certain, than any demonstration of Euclid — the demon-
stration of the Holy Spirit." (1 Cor. 2: 4. 2 Cor. 5: 5.)
— Mlddleton, vol. ii. p. 436 — 442.
MORNING LECTURES. (See Lectures.)
MORROW. " But God prepared a worm in the rising
of the damn for the morrotB," or, against the morrow, which
is in our translation, when the rmrrovi rose the next day,
Jonah 4: 7. This phrase shows that the Hebrew viorrorv
did not commence before the light. See also Num. 11: 32.
The Anglo-Saxon morrow is, no doubt, derived from the
Memher ; and as it is evident from Tacitus and Julius
Caesar, that both the Germans and the Gauls computed
time in the tnanner of the Hebrews, and other Eastern
nations, there is the greater reason for supposing that our
ancestors used the word morrow according to the idea of
the Hebrew Mewher. — Calmei.
MORRIS, (Gou\-ERN£UR,) an eminent statesnian and
orator, was born at Morrisania, near the city of New York,
in 1752, was graduated at King's college in 1768, and li-
censed to practise law in 1771. In 1775, he was a mem-
ber of the provincial congress of New York, and was one
of the committee which drafted a constitution for the stale
of New York. In 1777, he was chosen a delegate to the
continental congress, and in the following year wrote the
celebrated Observations on the American Revolution. In
1781, he accepted the post of assistant superintendent of
finance, as colleague of Robert Morris ; and in 1787, was
a member of the convention which framed the constitu-
tion of the United States. In 1792, he was appointed
minister plenipotentiary to France, and held this station
till his recall by the request of the French government, in
1794. In 1800, he was elected a senator in congress, from
the state of New York, and in this body was very con-
spicuous for his political information and his brilliant elo-
quence. Many of his speeches in congress and orations
have been published ; and a selection from his correspond-
ence and other valuable papers, with a biographical sketch,
by Mr. Jared Sparks, was issued in 1832.
Mr. Jefferson has represented Rlr. Morris as a disbelie-
ver in Christianity. But this is a mistake ; orif at one time
true, his views altered. He delivered two months be-
fore his death an address to the Historical society, in which
he points out the superiority of scriptural history to all
other history. He regarded rehgious principle indeed as
necessary to national independence and peace. •' There
must be something more to hope, than pleasure, wealth,
and power. Something more to fear than poverty and
pain. Something after death more terrible than death.
There must be religion. When that ligainent is torn, so-
ciety is disjointed and its members perish." — Davenport ;
Allen.
MORTALITY ; subjection to death. It is a term also
used to signify a contagious disease which destroys great
numbers of either men or beasts. Bills of mortality are
accounts or registers specifj'ing Ihe numbers born, mar-
ried, and buried, in any parish, town, or district. In gene-
rat, they contain only these numbers, and even when thus
limited are of great use, by showing the degrees of healthi-
ness and prolificness, and the progress of population in
the place where they are kept. — Hend. Buck.
MORTAR. There is a remarkable nassage in Pro v.
27: 2L : •• Though thou shouldest bniv a foul iji a mortar
among wheat, with a pestle, yet will not his foolishness
depart from him." The mode of punishment here refer-
red to may be proved to exist in the East, by the positive
testimony of "Volney and others.
" Fanaticism has enacted, in Turkey, in favor of the
Ulemats, (or body of lawyers,) that their goods shall never
be confiscated nor themselves put to death, hut by bein."
bruised in a mortar. The honor of being treated in so dis-
tinguished a manner, may not, perhaps, be sensibly felt
by every one ; examples are rare ; yet the insolence of
the mufti irritated sultan Osraan to such a degree, that
he ordered the mortars to be replated, which, having been
long neglected, had been thrown down, and almost cover-
ed with earth. This order alone produced a surprising
effect : the body of Ulemats, justly terrified, submitted."
(Baron du Tott, vol. i. page 28.) "As for the guards cf
the towers, who had let prince Coreskie [a prisoner] es-
cape, some of them were empayled, and some were pounded,
or beaten to pieces, in great mortars of yron, wherein they doe
vsually pound their rice, to reduce it to meale." Knolles'
History of the Turks, p. 1374.
This last quotation is the very case in point; except
that Solomon seems to suppose the fool was pounded to-
gether with the wheat ; whereas in this instance the guards
were beaten to death, certainly, without any such accom-
paniment.— Calmet.
MORTIFICATION, among the Romanists, is any se-
vere penance observed on a religious account.
The mortification of sin in believers is a duty enjoined
in the sacred Scriptures, Rom. 8: 13. Col. 3: 5. It con-
sists in breaking the league with sin ; declaration of open
hostility against it; and strong resistance to it, Eph. 6:
10, &c. Gal. 5: 24. Rom. 8: 13. The means to be used
in this work are, not macerating the body, seclusion from
society, or our own resolutions ; but the Holy Spirit is the
chief agent, (Rom 8: 13.) while faith, prayer and depend-
ence are subordinate means to this end. The evidences
of mortification are, not the cessation from one sin, for
that may be only exchanged for another ; or it may be re-
nounced because it is a gross sin ; or there may not be
an occasion to practise it : but if sin be mortified, we shall
not yield to temptation ; our minds will be more spiritual ;
we shall find more happiness in spiritual services, and
bring forth the fruits of the Spirit. Br. Owen on the Mor-
tification of Sin, and on the Holy Spirit, ch. viii. book 4 ;
Charnock's Works, vol. ii. p. 1313; Eryson's Sermons on
Rum. 8, p. 97, kc.—Hend. Buck.
MOSAIC DISPENSATION ; inferior to the gospel dis-
pensation. (See DisFEXSATio.s'.; — Hend. Buck.
MOSAIC LAW, or the law of Moses, is the most an-
cient that we know of in the world, and is of three kinds ;
the moral law, the ceremonial law, aud the civil or judi-
cial law. Some observe, that the diflerent manner in
which each of these laws was delivered may suggest to
us a right idea of their diflerent natures.
The five boolcs of Moses, called the Pentateuch, are fie-
quently styled, by way of emphasis, the law. This was
held by the Jews in such veneration, that they would not
allow it to be laid upon the bed of any sick person, lest
it should be poUiUed by touching the dead. (See Liw.)
—Hend. Buck.
MOSEROTH, orMosERAH; (Num. 32:30.) a station
of the Israelites, probably the same as Hazeroth, or Haze-
rah, near Kadesh, and mount Hor. Burckhardt mentions
a valley east of mount Hor, called Wady Mousa. which
is probably a corruption of Moserah. (See ExoDcs.) —
Calmet.
MOSES. This illustrious legislator of the Israelites
was of the tribe of Levi, in the line of Koath and Amram,
wiiose son he was, and therefore in the fourth generation
after the settlement of the Israelites in Egypt. The time
of his birth is ascertained by the e.xode of the Israelites,
when Bloses was eighty years old, Exod. 7: 7.
By a singular providence, the infant Moses, when expos-
ed on the river Nile, through fear of the royal decree, after
his mother had hid hiin three months, because he was a
goodly child, was taken up and adopted by Pharaoh's
daughter, and nursed by his own mother, whom she hired
at the suggestion of his sister Miriam. Thus did he find
M 0 S
[ 840 ]
EIO g
an asylum in the very palace of his intenJeil destroyer ;
■while his intercourse with his own family and nation was
still most naturally, though unexpectedlj', maintained . so
mysterious are the ways of Heaven. And while he was
instructed " in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," and hred
up in the midst of a luxurious court, he acquired at home
the knowledge of the promised redemption of Israel ; and,
"by faith" in the Redeemer Christ, "refused to be called
the son of Pharaoh's daughter ; choosing rather to suffer
affliction with the people of God, than to enjoy the pli-:i-
sures of sin for a season : esteeming the reproach mI'
Christ," or persecution for Christ's sake, " greater rif lies
than the treasures of Egypt : for he had respect to the
recompense of reward," or looked forward to a future
state. Exodus 2- 1—10. Acts 7: 20—22. Heb. 11: 23— 2il.
2. When Moses was grown to manhood, and was full
forty years old, he was moved by a divine intimation, as
it geems, to undertake the deliverance of his countrymen;
" for he supposed that his brethren would have understoocl
how that God, by his hand, would give them deliverance ;
but they understootl not." For when, in the excess of his
zeal to redress their grievances, he had slain an Egyptian,
who injured one of them, in which he probably went
beyond his commission, and afterwards endeavored to re-
concile two of them that were at variance, Ihey rejected his
mediation ; and " the mtin who had done wrong said. Who
made thee a judge and a ruler over us? Intendest thou
to kill me, as thou killedst the Egyptian yesterday?" So
Mo.ses, finding it was known, and that Pharaoh sought to
slay him, fled for his life to the land of Midian, in Arabia
Petrcea, where he married Zipporah, the daughter of Je-
thro, or Reuel, prince and priest of Midian ; and, as a
shepherd, kept his flocks in the vicinity of mount Horeb,
or Sinai, for forty years, Exod. 2: 11—21. 3: 1. 18: 5.
Num. 10: 29. Acts 7: 23—30.
During this long exile Moses was trained in the school
of humble circumstances for that arduous mission which
he had prematurely anticipated ; and, instead of the un-
thinking zeal which at first actuated him, learned to dis-
trust himself. His backwardness, afterwards, to under-
take that mission for which he was destined from the
womb, was no less remarkable than his forwardness be-
fore, Exod. 4: 10—13.
3. At length, when the oppression of the Israelites was
come to the full, and they cried to God for succor, and the
king was dead, and all the men in Egypt that sought his
life, " the God of glory" appeared to Moses in a flame of
lire, from the midst of a bush, and announced himself as
" the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob," under the
lilies of .Tahoh and JSIijeh, expressive of his unity and
sameness; and commissioned him first to make known to
the Israehtes the divine will for their deliverance ; and
next to go with the elders of Israel to Pharaoh, requiring
him, in the name of " the Lord, the God of the Hebrews,
to suffer the people to go three days' journey into the wil-
derness, to sacrifice unto the Lord their God," after such
sacrifices had been long intermitted during their bondage ;
for the Egyptians had sunk into bestial polytheism, and
■would have stoned them, had they attempted to sacrifice
their principal divinities, the apis, or bull, &c., in the
land itself: foretelling, also, the opposition they would meet
■with from the king, the mighty signs and wonders that
■ffjuld finally compel his assent, and their spoiling of the
Egyptians, by asking or demanding of them (not borrow-
ing) jewels of silver, and jewels of gold, and raiment, (by
■way of wages or compensation for their services,) as ori-
ginally declared to Abraham, that " they should go out
from thence with great substance," Gen. 15: 14. Exod. 2:
23—25. 3: 2—22. 8: 25, 26.
4. To vouch his divine commission to the Israelites,
God enabled Moses to work three signal miracles : 1.
Turning his rod into a serpent, and restoring it again ; 2.
Making his hand leprous as snow, when he first drew it
out of his bosom, and restoring it sound as before when
he next drew it out; and, 3. Turning the water of the
river into blood. And the people believed the signs, and
the promised deliverance, and worshipped. For the conduct
of Moses as the deliverer and lawgiver of the Israelites,
see Phakaoh, Plashes of Egvpt, Red Sea, and Law.
5. At mount Sinai the Lord was pleased Vo make Mo-
ses, the redeemer of Israel, an eminent type of the Re-
deemer of the world. " I will raise them up a prophet
from among their brethren, like unto thee, and will put
my words in his mouth ; and he shall speak unto them all
that I shall command him : and it shall come to pass,
that whosoever will not hearken unto my words, which he
shall .speak in my name, I will require it of him :" which
Moses communicated to the people. " The Lord thy God
will raise up unto thee a prophet, from the midst of thee,
of thy brethren, like unto me : unto him shall ye hearken,"
Deut. 18: 15 — 19. This prophet like unto Moses was our
Lord Jesus Christ, who was by birth a Jew, of the middle
class of the people, and resembled his predecessor in per-
sonal intercourse with God, miracles, and legislation,
which no other prophet did, (Deut. 34: 10 — 12.) and to
whom God, at his transfiguration, required the world to
hearken. Matt. 17: 5. See also Acts 3: 22.
0. The offence of Moses, at Meribah, (Num. 20: 1—13.
27: 14.) as far as may be collected from so conci.se an ac-
count, seems to have been, 1. He distrusted or disbelieved
that water could be produced from the rock only by speak^
ing to it; which was a higher miracle than he had per-
formed Isefore at Rephidim, Exod. 17: 6. 2. He unne-
cessarily smote the rock twice ; thereby betraying an un-
warrantable impatience. 3. He did not, at least in the
phrase he used, ascribe the glory of the miracle wholly
to God, but rather to hiniself and his brother : " Must me
fetch you water out of this rock ?" And he denominated
them "rebels" against his and his brother's authority,
which, although an implied act of rebellion against God,
ought to have been stated, as on a former occasion ; " Ye
have been rebels against the Lord, from the day that I
knew you ;" (Deut. 9: 24.) which he spake without blame.
See Ps. 106: 33. Deut. 3: 23—27.
7. The faculties of this illustrious legislator, both of
mind and body, were not impaired at the age of a hun-
dred and twenty years, whea he died. " His eye was not
dim, nor his natural strength abated ;" (Deut. 34: 7.) and
the noblest of all his compositions was his Song, or the
Divine Ode, which bishop Lowth elegantly styles, Cycnea
Oratio, "the Dying Swan's Oration." His death took
place after the Lord had shown him, from the top of Pis-
gah, a distant view of the promised land, throughout its
whole extent. "He then buried his body in a valley op-
posite Beth-peor, in the land of Moab ; but no man know-
eth his sepulchre unto this day," observes the sacred histo-
rian, probably Ezra, who annexed the circumstances of his
death to the book of Deuteronomy, 34: 6. (See Ezra, and
Michael.)
8. The history of Moses was so famous for many age.s,
in almost all countries, that it is no wonder writers of dif-
ferent nations have each represented it after his own man-
ner. The Orientals, the ancient Grecians, the Egyptians,
the Chaldeans, the Romans, have all made additions to
his history. Some of them have improved on the mira-
cles that the Scripture relates concerning his life ; others
have disguised his story by -adding to it not only false,
but mean and trifling circumstances.
His institutes have not only been maintained for several
thousands of years, and by Jews, however dispersed in
all parts of the globe, but they retain a vigor that promis-
es a perpetuity, unless disturbed by some omnipotent in-
terference. They have ■n-ithstood the fury of persecution,
and the more dangerous snares of seduction. They are
essentially the same in China and in India, as in Persia
and in Europe. The character and life of this legislator
is, indeed, one of the finest subjects for the pen of a phi-
losophical historian, who is at the same lime a competent
antiquary.
9. So marked and hallowed is the character of this, the
most eminent of mere men, that it has often been success-
fully made the basis of an irresistible argument for the
truth of his divine mission. Thus Cellerier observes:
" Every imposture has an object in view, and an aim more
or less selfish. Men practise deceit for money, for pleas-
ure, or for glory. If, by a strange combination, the love
of mankind ever entered into the mind of an impostor,
doubtless, even then, he has contrived to reconcile, at least,
his own selfish interests with those of the human race. If
men deceive others, for the sake of causing their own
MO S
[847 ]
MOS
tip'mions or Uieir own party to triumph, they may some-
times, perhaps, forget their own interests during the strug-
gle, but they again remember them when the victory is
achieved. It is a general rule, that no impostor forgets
himself long. But Moses forgot himself, and forgot him-
self to the last. Yet there is no middle supposition. If
Moses was not a divinely inspired messenger, he was an
imjTostor in the strongest sense of the term. It is not, as
in the case of Numa, a slight and single fraud, designed
to secure some good end, that we have to charge him
with, but a series of deceits, many of which were gross ;
a profound, dishonest, perfidious, sanguinary dissimula-
tion, continued for the space of forty years. When we
consider these several things ; when we reflect on all the
ministry of Moses, on his life, on his death, on his cha-
racter, on his abihties, and his success ; we are powerfully
convinced that he was the messenger of God. If we con-
sider him only as an able legislator, a.s a Lycurgus, as a
Numa, his actions are inexplicable .- we find not in him
the affections, the interests, the views which usually be-
long to the human heart. The simplicity, the harmony,
the verity of this natural character are gone ; they give
place to an incoherent union of ardor and imposture ; of
daring and of timidity, of incapacity and genius, of cru-
elty and sensibility. No ! Moses was inspired by God :
he received from God the law which he left his country-
men."— Watson; Cahnet ; Jones.
MOSES, (Books of.) To Bloses we owe that impor-
tant portion of Holy Scripture, the Pentateuch, which
brings us acquainted with the creation of the world, the
entrance of sin and death, the first promises of redemp-
tion, the flood, the peopling of the postdiluvian earth, and
the origin of nations, the call of Abraham, and the giving
of the law. "We have, indeed, in it the early history of
religion, and a key to all the subsequent dispensations of
God to man. The genuineness and authenticity of these
most venerable and important books have been establish-
ed by various writers ; but the following remarks upon
the veracity of the writings of Moses have the merit of
compressing much argument into few words : — 1. There
is a minuleiicss m the details of the Mosaic writings, which
bespeaks their truth ; for it often bespeaks the eye-witness,
as in the adventures of the wilderness ; and often seems
intended to supply directions to the artificer, as in the
construction of the tabernacle. 2. There are touches of
nature in the narrative which bespeak its truth, for it is
not easy to regard them otherwise than as strokes from
the life; as where ''the mixed multitude," whether half-
castes or Egyptians, are the first to sigh for the cucum-
bers and melons of Egypt, and to spread discontent
through the camp; (Num. 11: 4.) as the miserable excul-
pation of himself which Aaron attempts, with all the cow-
ardice of conscious guilt : " I cast into the fire, and there
came out this calf;" the fire, to be sure, being in the fault,
Exod. 32; 24. 3. There are certain little inconveniences
represented as turning up unexpectedly, that bespeak
truth in the storj' ; for they are just such accidents as are
characteristic of the working of a new system and untried
machinery. What is to be done with the man who is
found gathering sticks on the Sabbath day? Num. 15: 32.
( Could an impostor have devised such a trifle ?) How is
the inheritance of the daughters of Zelophehad to be dis-
posed of, there being no heir-male ? (Num. 36: 2.)— either
of them inconsiderable matters in themselves, but both
giving occasion to very important laws ; the one touching
life, and the other property. 4. There is a simplicity in
the manner of Bloses, when telling his tale, which be-
speaks its truth ; no parade of language, no pomp of cir-
cumstance even in his miracles, a modesty and dignity
throughout all. Let us but compare him in any trying
scene with Josephus ; his description, for instance, of the
passage through the Red sea, (Exod. 14.) of the murmur-
ing of the Israelites and the supply of quails and manna,
Willi the same as given by the Jewish historian, or rheto-
rician we might rather say, and the force of the observa-
tion will be felt. 5. There is a candor in the treatment
of his subject by Closes, which bespeaks his truth ; as
when he tells of his own want of eloquence, which unfit-
ted him for a leader, (Exod. 4: 10.) his own want of faith,
which prevented him from entering the promised land.
(Num. 20: 12.) the idolatry of Aaron his brother, 'Eixl.
32: 21.) the profaneness of Nadab and Abihu, his ne-
phews, (Lev. 10.) the disaffection and punishment of Mi-
riam, his sister, Num. 12: 1. 6. There is a disinterested-
ness in his conduct, which bt peaks him to be a man of
truth ; for though he had sons, he apparently takes no
measures during his life to give them offices of trust or
profit ; and at his death he appoints as his successor one
who had no claims upon him, either of alliance, of clanship,
or of blood. 7. There are certain prophetical passages
in the writings of Moses, which bespeak their truth ; as,
several respecting the future Messiah, and the very sub-
lime and literal one respecting the final fall of Jerusalem,
Deut. 28. 8. There is a siynple ke^/ supplied by these wri-
tiii 's. lo the meaning of many ancient traditions current
aniungst the heathens, though greatly disguised, which is
another circumstance that bespeaks their truth : as, the
golden age ; the garden of the Hesperides; the fruit-tree,
in the midst of the garden which the dragon guarded ;
the destruction of mankind by a flood, all except two per-
sons, and those righteous persons,
the rainbow, "which Jupiter set in the cloud, a sign to
men ;" the seventh day a sacred day ; with many others,
all conspiring to establish the reality of the facts which
Moses relates, because tending to show that vestiges of
the like present themselves in the traditional history of the
world at large. 9. The concurrence which is found be-
tween the writings of Moses and those of the New Testa-
ment bespeaks their truth ; the latter constantly appealing
to them, being indeed but the completion of the system
which the others are the first to put forth. Surely it is a
very improbable thing, that two dispensations, separated
by an interval of some fifteen hundred years, each exhibit-
ing prophecies of its own, since fulfilled ; each asserting
miracles of its own, on strong evidence of its own ■ that
two dispensations, with such i:i ;;vidual claims to be be-
lieved, should also be found to >ia:id in the closest relation
to one another, and yet both turii out impostures after all.
10. Above all, there is a comparative paW^y in the theolo-
gy and morality of the Pentateuch, which argues not only
its truth, but its high original ; for how else are we to ac-
count for a system like that of Moses, in such an age and
amongst such a people ; that the doctrine of the unity,
the self-existence, the providence, the perfections of the
great God of heaven and earth, should thus have blazed
forth (how far more brightly than even in the vaunted
schools of Athens at its most refined era!) from the midst
of a nation, of themselves ever plunging into gross and
grovelling idolatry ; and that principles of social duty, of
benevolence, and of self-restraint, extending even to the
thoughts of the heart, should have bceii the produce of
an age, which the very provisions of ihe Levitical law
itself show to have been full of savage and licentious
abominations? Exod. 3: 14. 20: 3—17" Lev. 19: 2, IS.
Deut. 6: 4. 30: (3. Such are some of the iaterna! evi-
dences for the veracity of the books of INIoses.
StiU, after all, says Mr. Blunt, unbelievers may start
difficulties ; this I dispute not ; difficulties, too, which we
may not always be able to answer, though I think we may
be always able to neutralize them. It may be a part of
our trial, that such difficulties should exist and be encoun-
tered ; for there can be no reason why temptations should
not be provided for the natural pride of our understand-
ing, as well as for the natural lusts of our flesh. To
many, indeed, they would be the more formidable of the
two ; perhaps to the angels who kept not their first estate
they proved so. AVith such facts, however, before me, as
these which I have submitted to my readers, 1 can come
to no conclusion but one, — that when we read the writings
of Jloses, we read no cunningly devised fables, but solemn
and safe records of great and marvellous events, which
court examination, and sustain it ; records of such appa-
rent veracity and faithfulness, that I can understand our
Lord to have spoken almost without a figure, when he said
that he who believed not Jloses, neither wo-uld he be per
suaded though one rose from the dead. — Watson ; Calmt
MOSHEIM, (John Laurence. D. D..) a German Pi:
testanl theologian, was born, in 1695, at Lubcck, and, afte..
M 0 T
L S48
MOT
having filled professorships in Denmark and Brunsniclc,
died in 1755, professor of theology and chancellor of the
'.■n'i'ersity of Gottingen. His sermons were much admir-
fiii (or their pure, elegant, and mellifluous style. In his
private character he is said to have resembled Fenelon.
He wrote above a hundred and sixty works, among which
may be mentioned. The Morality of the Holy Scriptures ;
and an Ecclesiastical History ; the latter of which was
translated by Dr. Maclaine, and still more recently in
closer conformily to the simple style of the original,
by Dr. Murdock, of New Haven, Connecticut. — Davenjmri.
MOSQUE, (Arab. Uesjed ;) a temple or place of reli-
gious worship among the Mohammedans. All mosques
are square buildings, generally constructed of stone. Be-
fore the chief gate there is a square court paved with
white marble, and Jow galleries round it, whose roof is
supported by marble pillars. In these galleries the Turks
wash themselves before they go into the mosque. In each
mosque there is a great number of lamps ; and between
these hang many crystal rings, ostrich's eggs, and other
curiosities, which, when the lamps are lighted, make a
fine show. As it is not lawful to enter the mosque with
stockings or shoes on, the pavements are covered with
pieces of stuff sewed together, each being wide enough to
hold a row of men kneeling, sitting, or prostrate. The
women are not allowed to enter the mosque, but stay in
Hie porches withotit. About every mosque there are six
high towers, called minarets, each of which has three little
open galleries, one above another : these towers, as well
as the mosques, are covered with lead, and adorned with
gilding and other ornaments,: and from thence, instead
of a bell, the people are called to prayers by certain oifi-
cers appointed for that purpose. Most of the mosques
have a kind of hospital, in which travellers of what reli-
gion soever are entertained three days. Each mosque
has also a place called tarbi:. which is the burying-place of
its founders ; within which is a tomb six or seven feet
long, covered with green velvet or satin ; at the ends of
which are two tapers, and round it several seats for those
who read the Koran, and pray for the souls of the de-
ceased.— Heiul. Buck.
MOTE. Small faults and errors discovered in others
through the magnifying medium of prejudice, are com-
pared by our Lord to motes in the eye, which the cen-
sorious only are proud of detecting. Matt. 7: I — 5. (See
Eye, and Jubgino.)
MOTH ; {oish, Job 4: 19, and oshsh, Job. 13: 28. 27:
H. Psalm 6: 7. 31: 9, 10. 3P: 11. Isaiah 50: 9. Hosea 5:
12 ) The clothes moth
is the tinea argaiUa ; of
a white, shining silver,
or pearl color. It is
clothed with shells, four-
teen ui number, and
these are scaly. Albin
n serts this to be the in-
^ 1 1 that eats woollen
stuffs , and says that it
is pioduced from a gray
speckled moth, that flies
bv night, creeps among
woollens, and there lays
her eggs, which after a httle time, are hatched as worms ;
and m this state they feed on their habitation, till they
change into a chrysalis, and thence emerge into molhs.
" The young moth, or moth-worm," says the abbe Pluche,
'• upon leaving the egg which a papilio had lodged upon
a piece of stuff commodious for her purpose, finds a proper
place of residence, grows and feeds upon the nap, and like-
_iJjiUiiJ — m
wise builds with it an apartment, which is fixed to the ground
work of the stuff with several cords and a little glue.
From an aperture in this habitation, the moth-worm de-
vours and demolishes all about him ; and, when he has
cleared the place, he draws out all the fastenings of his
tent ; after which he carries it to some little distance, and
then fixes it with the slender cords in a new situation.
In this manner he continues to live at our expense, till he
is satisfied with his food, at which period he is first trans-
formed into the nympha, and then changed into the papilio."
The allusions to this insect in the sacred writines are
very striking : " Fear ye not the reproach of men, neitner
be ye afraid of their revilings. For the moth ."!na.i eat
them up like a garment, and the worm shall eat them like
wool." They shall perish with as little noise as a gar-
ment under the tooth of a moth, Isaiah 51: 7, 8. In the
prophecies of Hosea, God himself says, " I will be as a
moth unto Ephraim, and as a lion ;" that is, I will send
silent and secret judgments upon him, which shall imper-
ceptibly waste his beauty, corrode his power, and dimi-
nish his strength, and will finish his destruction with open
and irresistible calamities. The same allusion is involved
in the direction of our Lord to his disciples : " Lay not tjp
for yourselves treasures upon the earth, where moth and
rust doth corrupt, and where thi-evcs break through and
steal. But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven,
where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt, and where
thieves do not break through nor steal," Matt. 6: 19, 20.
The Jews had treasures of raiment ; as well as of fruits, of
corn, of wine, of oil, of honey, (Jer. 41: 8.) and of gold,
silver, and brass, (Ezek, 33: 4, Dan, 11: 43,) upon which
the persevering industry of the moth could make no im-
pression, (See Habits m Dkess,) It is also Ukelj', that
by " moth" our Lord meant to suggest all the kinds of in-
sects which devour or spoil the different kinds of property,
which were treasured up for the future. These, in warm
countries, are very numerous and destructive. — TVatson.
MOTHER. God has declared in almost every part of
his living creation, that the mother for a certain time is
the natural protector of her ofl'spring. To woman he has
been particularly emphatic, by implanting in her affections
which are rarely subdued, and by giving her an organization
most wonderfullv fitted for the exercise of her b."st and
MOU
I 849 ]
MU F
raost enviable feelings. It truly requires all the afl'ection
oiafond mother lo administer duly to the numerous wants
of a young child. The care really essential to its health
and comfort, consists in a due attention to its food, cloth-
ing, and cleanliness, and the establishment of regular and
useful habits, as regards exercise, exposure, sleep, and
evacuations ; as well as whatever belongs to the higher
education of the moral feelings and religious principles.
To constitute a mother, therefore, in the best sense of the
term, much more is required than giving birth to progeny
— it requires qualifications both rare and estimable. It
exacts a patient endurance of fatigue, and anxious solici-
tude for their welfare, as well as a submission to priva-
tions, which nothing renders supportable but a mother's
love. What a responsibility, also, rests upon her office ! It
has been said with some truth, that " every man is nothing
more nor less than what his mother has made him."
There is nothing indeed more worthy of admiration,
than that imperious sentiment, at once so mild and so ten-
der, which unites the mother to her child ; and which as
it were makes but one existence of two individuals, so
different in age, and apparently in necessities. Children
would perish, and with them the whole human race would
be extinct, did not woman take an active and continual
care of them, did she not consecrate to them every mo-
ment, did she not sacrifice to them her whole life, health,
youth, beauty, ease, every thing.
What wonder then that this vivid sentiment should be
so often alluded to in the sacred volume, to illustrate the
love of God to his people, and of Christian ministers to
the souls of men ? See particularly those exquisite pas-
sages, Isa. 49: 15. 1 Cor. 3: 2. Gal. 4: 19, 20. 1 Thess. 2:
7, 8. (See Mjiebiage ; Relisious Education.)
Mother is sometimes used, also, for a metropolis, the
capital city of a country, or of a tribe ; and sometimes
for a whole people, 2 Sam. 20: 19. Isa. 50: 1. Gal. 4:
26. Rev. 17: 5.
" A mother in Israel" signifies a woman, whom God uses
to cherish or deliver his people. This name is given to
Deborah, Judg. 5: 7. Wisdom in the Apocrypha calls
herself the mother of chaste love. The earth, to which
at our death we must all return, is called the mother of
all men. Job has a still stronger image, Job. 17: 14. —
Calmet ; Maygritr ; Debtees on ChUdren.
MOTIVE ; that which moves, excites, or invites the
mind to volition. It may be one thing singly, or many
things conjunctly. It may be adequate or inadequate ;
strong or weak. It may also be internal or external. In-
ternal motives, or such as arise from the affections, are
again distinguishable into pure and impure. See Moral
Agency, and Will ; Edwards, and Upham on the Will ;
Toplady's Works ; Land. Chris. Observer. — Hend. Buck.
MOTIVITY ; the capacity of being influenced by mo-
tives; moral agency. (See Moral Agencv.)
MOUNTAIN. Judea is a mountainous country, but
the mountains are generally beautiful, fruitful, and culti-
vated. Moses says, (Deut. 32: 13.) that the rocks of its
mountains produce oil and honey, by a figure of speech,
which elegantly shows their fertility. He says, (Deut. 8:
7, 9.) that in the mountains of Palestine spring excellent
fountains ; and that their bowels yield iron and brass.
He desired earnestly of the Lord, that he might see the
line mountains of Judea and Libanus, Deut. 3: 25. They
were sometimes retired to as places of security.
The most famous mountains mentioned in Scripture,
are Seir, in Idumea ; Horee, near Sinai, in Arabia Pe-
troea ; Sinai, in Arabia Petrsea ; Hoe, in Idumea; Gil-
boa, south of the valley of Jezreel ; Nebo, a mountain
of Abarim ; Tabor, in Lower Galilee ; E-n-gedi, near the
Dead sea ; Libanus and Anti-libanus ; Geeizim, in Sa-
maria ; Ebal, near to Gerizim ; Gilead, beyond Jordan ;
Amalek, in Ephraim ; Moriah, where the temple was
buiU ; Paran, in Arabia Petrasa ; Gahash, in Ephraim;
Olivet ; Pisgah, beyond Jordan ; Hermon, beyond Jor-
dan, near Libanus ; Cakmel, near the Mediterranean sea,
between Dora and Ptolemais. — Calmet.
MOUNTAIN JIEN. (See Synod ; Reformed Presby-
terian.)
MOURNING ; sorrow, grief. (See Sorrow.)— ff. Buck.
MOURNING ; a particular dress or habit, worn to signi-
107
fy gnel on some melancholy occasion, particularly the
death of friends, or of great public characters.
The modes of mourning are various in various coun
tries ; as also are the colors that obtain for that end. In
Europe, the ordinary color for mourning is black ; in
China, it is white; in Turkey, blue or violet ; in Egypt
yellow ; in Ethiopia, brown. Each people pretend to
have their reasons for the particular color of their mourn-
ing. White is supposed to denote purity ; yellow, that
death is the end of human hopes, as leaves when they
fall, and flowers when they fade, become yellow; brown
denotes the earth, whither the dead return ; black, the
privation of life, as being the privation of light ; blue ex-
presses the happiness which it is hoped the deceased en
joys ; and purple or violet, sorrow on the one side, and
hope on the other, as being a mixture of black and blue.
For an account of the mourning of the Hebrews, see
Lev. 19. and 21. .Ter. IG: 6. Num. 20. Deut. 34: 8. (See
Burial, and Dead.)
The propriety of following the customs prevalent on
this point, has been of late very extensively called in
question, by Christians in this country. Many individu-
als and religious bodies have objected against it. 1. That
it is a useless ceremony. 2. That it involves needless ex-
pense, especially to the poor. 3. That the bustle of pre-
paring it interferes with the moral and religious purposes
of affliction. — Hend. Buck ; Chris. Watchman, IS^d.
MOUSE ; (Heb. achbar, in Chaldee acalbar, probably
the same with the aliarbui of the Arabians, or ihe Jerboa,
described by Bruce, Lev. 11: 29. 1 Sam. 6: 4, 5, U, 18.
Isa. 46: 17.) All interpreters acknowledge that the He-
brew word achbar signifies a " mouse," and more especial-
ly a " field moiLse." Moses declares it to be unclean,
which insinuates that it was sometimes eaten ; and, in-
deed, it is affirmed that the Jews were so oppressed with
famine during the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans,
that, notwithstanding this prohibition, they were compelled
to eat dogs, mice, and rats. Isa. 66: 17, justly reproaches
the Jews in his time with eating the flesh of mice and
other things that were impure and abominable. It is
known what spoil was made by mice in the fields of the
Philistines, 1 Sam. 6: 5, 6. Bochart has collected many
curious accounts relative to the terrible devastation made
by these animals. — Watson.
MOUTH. The Hebrews, by a beautiful pleonasm,
often say, he opened his mouth, and spoke, sung, cur.sed,
&c. Also, that God opens the mouth of the prophets,
puts words into their mouth, that is, bids them speak wfcat
he inspires them with. To inquire at the mouth of the
Lord, is to consult him. Josh. 9: 14. To " set their moulh
against the heavens," (Psal. 73: 9.) is to speak arrog.inlly,
insolently, and blasphemously of God.
God directs that his law should be always in the mouth
of his people ; i. e. that they should commune frequently
with one another about it, and constantly inculcate it upon
their children. " From the abundance of the heart the
mouth speaketh ;" (Matt. 12: 31.) i. e. our discourses are
the overflowing, or echo of the sentiments of our hearts.
Isaiah says of the Messiah, (11: 4 ) "He shall smite
the earth with the rod of his moulh, and with the breath
of his lips shall he slay the wicked." These expressions
denote his sovereign authority and absoliiie power, and
that it requires only one breath to destroy his enemies ;
perhaps by his judicial sentence. — Calmet.
MUFTI ; the chief of the ecclesiastical order, or pri-
mate of the Mussulman religion. The authority of the
mufti is very great in the Ottoman empire ; for even the
sultan himself, if he will preserve any appearance of reli-
gion, cannot, without first hearing his opinion, put any
person to death, or so much as inflict any corporal punish-
ment. In all actions, and especially criminal ones, his
opinion is required, by giving him a writing in which the
case is stated under feigned names, which he subscribes
with the words Olur, or Olnwz, i. e. he shall or sha.. not
be punished.
Such outward honor is paid to the mufti, that the grand
seignior himself rises up to him, and advances seven steps
towards him when he comes into his presence. He alone
has the honor of kissing the sultan's left shoulder, whilst
the priine vizier kisses only the hem of his garment.
MUL
t 850 ]
MUR
When liie grand seignior addresses any writing to the
mufli, he gives liiin the following titles : — " To the Esad,
the wisest of the wise ; instructed in all knowledge ;
the most excellent of excellcnts ; abstaining from things
unlawful ; the spring of virtue and true science ; heir of
the prophetic doctrines ; resolver of the problems of faith ;
revealer of the orthodox articles ; ki y of the treasures
of truth ; the light to doubtful allego.-ies ; strengthened
with the grace of the Supreme Legislator of Mankind.
May the Most High God perpetuate thy favors."
The election of the mufti is solely in the grand seignior,
who presents him with a vest of rich sables, and allows
him a salary of a thousand aspers a day, which is about
five pounds sterling. Besides t'nis, he has the disposal of
certain benefices belonging to the royal mosques, which
he makes no scruple of selling to the oest advantage ; and,
on his admission to his office, he is complimented by the
agents of the bashas, who make him the usual presents,
\/hich generally amount to a very considerable sum.
Whatever regard was formerly paid to the mufti, it is
now become very little more than form. If he interprets
the law, or gives sentence contrary to the sultan's pleas-
ure, he is immediately displaced, and a more pliant person
put in his R»m. If he is convicted of treason, or any
very great crime, he is put into a mortar kept for that
purpose in the seven towers of Constantinople, and pound-
ed to death. (See Moktar.) — Htnd. Back.
MUGGLETONIANS; the followers of Ludovic Mug-
pleton, a journeyman tailor, who, with his companion
Reeves, (a person of equal obscurity,) set up for great
prophets, in the time of Cromwell. They pretended to ab-
solve or condemn whom they pleased ; and gave out that
they were the two last witnesses spoken of in the Revela-
tion, who were to appear previous to the final destruction
of the world. They affirmed that there was no devil at
all without the body of man or woman ; that the devil is
man's spirit of unclean reason and cursed imagination ;
that the ministry in this world, whether prophetical or
ministerial, is all a lie and abomination to the Lord ; with
a variety of other vain and inconsistent tenets. — Heiul.
Buck ; Williams.
MUEHLENBERG, (HenkyMelchiok, D. D.,) the found-
er of the German Lutheran church in the United States,
was born at Eimbeck, in Hanover, Germany, in 1711,
and came to Philadelphia, where he was the pastor of a
German Lutheran church forty-five years, and distinguish-
ed for his piety and learning. He died in 1787, aged
seventy-six . — Allen .
MUEHLENBERG, (Henry Ernst, D. D.,) a Lutheran
divine and botanist, the son of Rev. Henry Muehlenberg,
was born in New Providence, Montgomery county, Penn-
sylvania, November 17, 1753. In 1763, he was sent to
Halle with his two elder brothers to finish his education.
On his return in 1770, he was ordained at the early age of
seventeen, and in 1774 appointed one of the assistants of
his father in the Philadelphia congregation. In 1780, he ac-
cepted a call from Lancaster, where he lived about thirty-
five years in the exemplary discharge of the duties of his
office. He died of the apoplexy, May 23, 1815, in the rich
peace and hope of the Christian, aged sixty-one.
While he was a learned theologian and well acquainted
%vith the ancient languages, and sldlful also in medicine,
cheinistry, and mineralogy, he was particularly distin-
guished for his knowledge of botany. He Avas induced
first to cultivate this science in 1777, when he was driven
from Philadelphia in consequence of its being occupied by
the British. From this time he corresponded with many
learned botanists in Europe and America. Of many
learned societies he was a member. His herbarium was
purchased and presented to the American Philosophical
society. He published Catalogus Planlarum Ainer. Sep-
tent. 1713 ; DescriptioUberior Graminium. &c. 1816. He
left Flora Lancastriensis in manuscript. Eiici/. Amer. ;
Benedicts History of all Religions. — Alltit.
MULBERRY-TREE ; (born, 2 Sam. 5: 23, 24. 1 Chron.
14:14,15. Psalm 84: 7.) The LXX., in Chronicles, render
the word by apion, " pear-trees ;" so Aquila and the Vul-
gate both in Samuel and Chronicles, ";)j/itir-Mm." Others
translate it the " tniilberry-lree." Blore probably it is the
large shrub which the Arabs still call " baca ;" and which
gave name to the ralley where it abounded. Of inis val-
ley Celsius remarks, that it was " rugged and embarrass-
ed with bushes and stones, which could not be passed
through without labor and tears ;" referring to Psalm 84:
7, and the '■ rough valley ;" (Deut. 2J: 4.) and he quotes
from a manuscript of Abu') Fideli a description of the
tree which grew there, and mentions it as bearing a fruit
of an acrid taste.
The passage in 2 Sam. 5: 23, 24, Dr. Harris thinks
should read, " When thou bearest a noise as of many people
marching, upon the hills of Bochim, then faH immediately
upon the enemy." — Watson.
MULE ; the offspring of two animals of different spe-
cies, as a horse and an ass.
There is no probability that the Jews bred mules, be-
cause it was forbidden to couple creatures of different spe-
cies. Lev. 19: 19. But they were not foibidden to use
them. Thus we may observe, especially after David's
time, that mules, male and female, were common among
the Hebrews: formerly they used only male and female
asses, 2 Sam. 13: 29. 18: 9. 1 Kings 1: 33, 38, 44. 10: 25.
18: 5, &c.
Some have thought that Anah, son of Zibeon, of the
posterity of Seir, being in the desert, fouixl out the man-
ner of breeding mnles. This opinion was much espoused
by the ancients. But Jerome, who notices it in his Hebrai-
cal questions on Genesis, translates, "that Anah found
hot springs." The Syriac says, Ol fountain ; but rather il
signifies a people whom Anah surprised and defeated.
(See Anah.) — Calmet.
MUNSON, ("Eneas, M. D.,) a Christian physician, was
born in New Haven, June 24, 1734; graduated at Yale
college in 1753 ; and, having been a tutor, was a chap-
lain in the array in 1755 on Long Island. IH health in-
duced him to study medicine with John Darly, of East-
hampton. He practised physic at Bedford in 1756, and
removed in 1760 to New Haven, where he died, June 1&,
1826, aged nearly ninety-two.
For more than half a century he had a high neputation
as a physician, and was in the practice seventy years. Of
the medical society of Connecticut he was the president.
He was a man of piety from an early period his life. At
the bedside of his patients he was accustomed to commend
them to God in prayer. It was with joyous Christian
hope that this venerable old man went down to the dead.
Tharher. — Allen.
MURDER ; the act of wilfully and feloniously killing
a person upon malice or forethought. (See Law.)
Heart murder is the secret wishing or designing the
death of any man ; yea, the Scripture sailh, " Whosoever
hateth his brother is a murderer," 1 John 3: 15. We have
instances of this kind of murder in Ahab, (1 Kings 22:
9.) Jezebel, (2 Kings 19: 2.) the Jews, (Mark 11: 18.)
David, (1 Samuel 25: 21, 22.) Jonah, ch. 4: 1, 4.
Murder is contrary to the authority of God, the sove-
reign disposer of life ; (Deut. 32: 39.) to the goodness of
God, who gives it; (Job 10: 12.) to the law of nature ;
(Acts 16: 28.) to the love a man owes to himself, his
neighbor, and society at large. Not but that life may be
taken away, as in lawful war; (1 Chron. 5: 22.) by 'he
hand of the civil magistrate for capital crimes ; (Deut. 17:
8, 10.) and in self-defence. (See Self-defence.)
According to the divine law, murder is to be punished
with death, Gen. 9: 6. Deut. 19: 11, 12. 1 Kings 2: 28,
29. It is remarkable that God often gives up murderers
to the terrors of a guilty conscience. Gen 4: 13, 15, 23,
24. Such are followed with many instances of divine
vengeance ; (2 Sam. 12: 9, 10.) their lives are often short-
ened ; (Psalm 55: 23.) and judgments for their sin are
oftentimes transmitted to posterity, Gen. 49: 7. 2 Sam.
21: 1.
When a dead body was found in the fields, and the
murderer was unknown, Moses commanded that the el-
ders and judges of the neighboring places should resort to
the spot, Deut. 21: 1 — 8. The elders of the city nearest
to it were to take a heifer, which had never yet borne the
yoke, and were to lead it into some rude and uncultivated
place, which had not been ploughed or sowed, where they
were to cut its throat ; the priests of the Lord, with the
elders and magistrates of the city, were to come near the
MUR
I 831 ]
MU S
eiSacI Ixx.y, and washing Iheir hands over the heifer that
bad been slain, they were to say : " Our hands have not
shed this blood, nor have our eyes seen it shed. Lord,
be favorable to thy people Israel, and impute not to us
this blood which has been shed in the midst of our coun-
try." This ceremony may inform us what idea they had
of the heinousness of murder, and how much horror they
conceived at ttiis crime; also, their fear that God might
avenge it on the whole country ; and the pollution that
the countrj' was supposed to contract, by the blood spilt
in it, unless it were expiated or avenged on him who had
occasioned it, if he could be discovered. Comp. Psalm
73: 13; also the action of Pilate, Malt. 27: 4. Cabnct ;
dahn ; Jams ; Dmght's Theology. — Hcnd. Bndc.
MURMURING ; a complaint made for wrong supposed
to have been received. Paul frequently forbids mtirmur-
ieg, ICoT. 10: 10. Phil. 2: H. God severely punished
the Hebrews who murmured in the desert, and was more
than once on the point of forsaking them, and even of de-
stroying them, had not Moses appeased his anger by ear-
nest prayer. Num. H: 33, 31. 12. 14: 30, 31. 16: S. 21:
1—6. Pb-al. 78: SO. (See Restsna^ion.)— Ca/mef.
MURRAY, (John,) first Universalist minister in Boston,
was born at Alton, Hainpshire county, England, about
1741. His father was an Episcopalian ; his mother a
Presbyterian. They removed from Alton to Ireland. In
early life he believed the doctrine of election ; then he be-
came a Methodist preacher in Blr. Wesley's connexion ;
and aftem-ards he was attached to Mr. Whitfield. Re-
pairing 10 London, fee soon forgot the character of a mi-
nister. Good company, music, dancing, Vauxhall, and
lYie play houses intoxicated 'him- He says,"! plunged
into a vortex of pleasure.^
Visiting a young lady to convert her from the error of
Universalism, the following was the argumentation. She
asked. For not believing what is an unbeliever damned f
He replied, For not believing that Jesus Christ is his com-
plete Savior. She again asked, Must the unbeliever be-
lieve that Jesus Christ is his Savior? Must he believe
a lie ? Is Christ the Savior of the unbeliever ? By this
•irgnment he was overwhelmed. His own erroneous de-
finition of faith was indeed refuted by the questions of the
lady ; l)«t, in.stead of abandoning that fundamental error,
he only followed it out to its natural consequences, and
became a Universalist.
Having lost his wife and child, he came to America in
poverty, in September, 1770. His talents and eloquent en-
thusiasm, combined with many just and evangelical senti-
ments, soon raised him to popularity. He preached at
Br«ns«-ick, New Jersey, Newpoit, and Providence, and
first in Boston October 30, 1773 ; afterwards in Newbury-
port and New London, in New York and Pennsylvania,
in May, 1775, he was a chaplain in a Rhode Island regi-
ment. After preaching in Gloucester, he was established
in Boston about the year 1785, and passed the remainder
of his life there. After six years of helplessness he died
in peace, September 3, 1815, aged seventy-four.
Jlr. Murray, as well as BIr. Winchester, was a Trinita-
rian. He regarded Winchester, however, as a believer in
purgatorial satisfaction, and as teaching that every man
is his own Savior. He himself believed that myriads
<if men would rise to the resurrection of damnation, and
would call on the rocks to hide them from the wrath of
the Lamb ; yet considered that danmation as ending at
the judgment-day. He supposed, that in the day of judg-
ment the devil and his angels would be placed, as the goats,
'>n the left hand of the judge, and all men on the right
hand, in most obvious contradiction to the Scripture,
wliich says, that " all nations" will be gathered, to be se-
parated, the just from the unjust. This amounts in fact
to a denial of the future judgment.
Since his death Mr. Balfour, with Mr. Ballou and others,
has explicitly maintained, that there will be no future
reckoning day. See 2 Tim. 3: 13. At last this error of
denying a future judgment, and thus subverting the mo-
ral government of God, appeared so great and perilous to
a number of Universalist ministers, who assert a future
retribution and the punishment, though not everlasting, of
the wicked, that in August, 1831, they announced their
full and entire separation from the denomination of Uni-
versalists, and the establishment of a religious community
by the name of the " Massachusetts Association of Uni-
versal Reslorationists." (See Universal Re,stob*tio.i-
ISTS.) Mr. Murray published Letters and Sketches of
Sermons, 3 vols. His Life, by himself, was published in
ISlfi, and two editions have been publif,hed s>nce hi^
death. Life of Murray, ed. 1833._.4/toi.
MURRAY, (LiNDLEY,) a grammarian, and member of
the society of Friends, was born, in 1745, at Smetara,
near Lancaster, in Pennsylvania ; was originally an
American barrister, but quitted the bar to become a mer
chant ; acquired a competency by his mercantile pursuits;
settled in England, and became known by bis school
books; and died Januan,' 10, 1826. Among his works
are, English Grammar ; Exercises ; Key; SpeUing Book;
and Reader ; tv%'o French Selections ; the Power of Reli-
gion on the Mind ; and the Duty and Benefit of Reading
the Scriptures. — Davenport.
MUSCULUS, (V/oLroA-NS-js,) a celebrated German di-
vine and reformer, was bora at D-ieuze, upon Lorrain,
Septembers, U'.t7. His father was a poor cooper ; the
son found friends, and was educated in a monastery at
Westriek, where the prior treated him as his own son.
At the age of twenty he began the study of theology,
when a pious old monk said to him, " If you intend to
become a good preacher, you must endeavor to be fami-
liar with the Bible." By means of this advice, Musculns
became a Christian and a Protestant, and was the inslrtt-
ment of converting to his principles almost all his brother
friars in the monastery. After various successful labors
in Le'ixheim, Strasburg, and Augsburg, he was settled as
professor of theology at Bern, in 1549, where he died,
August 30, 1563. He left many valuable works, chiefly
commentaries on the Scriptures. His Dying Hymn in
Latin has been much admired. — Middleton, ii. pp. 85 — 89,
THE DYING HYMN OF MUSCULUS.
1. AT/ EKpcrtst vUi^f /rigus pracordia capiat ;
Sftl lu Christe, mi'At vita perennis odes.
2. (^iiid trepidas anima ? ad scdcs ahitara qiiielis,
En tibi ducior.^ adest anotlus Ule iKtts.
Linque domum ftanc tKiscram, nunc in sua fata rm^rm,
(i.uam litii JiiUi Det dertern reslituet.
G. Prttsta fst de Sntnna, peccafv^ ft mortc trinmphans
Christds : ad ituNc igitur Idta alacrisqvj: tiiigra..
Of this beautiful effusion of Christian piety and genius
the editor of this work begs leave to offer the following
NEW TRANSLATJON.
!. Ths Till] dame stiall burn [lo more!
The blooj around my heart is coM !
5, Why tl\en, mv gout, why tremble thus.
To will? thy flight to seats of rest .'
Behold llty gnjile, thine angel, waila
To lead thee there amoug the blcsu
3. Leave then this wretched mansion, leave,
In ruins it around thee lies;
For (joo's right hand is failhfiil still,
And thou shall see il fairer rise.
4. But ha^t thou sinned 7 and hence thy fear.
Sad truth ! txit yet believers know,
Th.ll crimson as the stain may be,
The blood of CaRlST dolh cleansing flow.
o. Does death a face of horror wear ?
Most true, my soul, but life is nigh !
That life to which thy Savior calls.
By grace eo sure thou canst not die.
6. Victor o'er Satan, sin, and death,
Yonder thy Lord in triumph reigns ;
Stretch. O my soul, thy joyful wings.
And fly to those celestial plains !
MUSIC ; the harmonious combination of sounds ; an
art of great antiquity, and early employed as a meditun
MUS
[ 852 ]
M US
of religions worship. As practised in pablic worship
tmong both Jews and Christians, it is of two liinds : —
1. Vocal music. This species, which is the most natu-
ral, may be considered to haye existed before ai>y other.
It was coDtinued by the Jews, and it is the only kind that
is permitted in the Greek and Scotch churches, or, with
few exceptions, in dissenting, congregations in England.
The Christian rule requires its use, both for personal and
social edification, Ephes. ,'). Col. 3. The vocal music of
the imperial choristers in St. Petersburgh incomparably
surpasses, in sweetness and effect, the sounds produced
by the combined power of the most exquisite musical in-
struments.
2. Instrumental music is also of very ancient date, its
invention being ascribed to Tubal, the sixth descendant
from Cain. That instrumental music was not practised
by tlic primitive Christians, but was em aid to devotion
of later times, is evident from church history. The organ
was first introduced into the church service by Marianns
Sanutus, in the year 1290 ; and the first that was known
m the West, was one sent to Pepin, by Constantintts Co-
pronymus, about the middle of the eighth century. In-
strumental music is becoming quite common in the
churches of this country ; nor is this to be regretted, so
long as it is made subservient to vocal, not a substitute
for it.
Music,, indeed, is probably nearly coeval with our race,
er, at least, with the first attempts t-o preserve the memo-
ry of transactions. Before the invention of writing, the
history of remarkable events was committed to memory,
and handed down by oral tradition. The knowledge of
laws and of asefnl airts was preserved in the same way.
Rhythm and song were probably soon found important
helps to the memory ; and thus the muses became the
early instnicters of mankind. Nor was it long, we may
eonjecture, before dancing and song united contribntexJ to
festivity, or to the solemnities of religion. The first in-
DTusical Instruments.
straments of nrasic were probably of the pulsatile kind ;
and rhythm, it is likely, preceded the observation of those
intervals of sound which are .so pleasing to the ear-
About five hundred and fifty years after the deluge, or
B. C. 1800, according to the common chronology, both
vocal and instrumental music are spoken of as things in
general use : " And Laban said, What hast thon done,
that thou hast stolen away unawares to me, and carrietl
away my daughters, as captives taken with the sword ?
Wherefore didst thou flee away secretly, and steal away
from i»e ; and didst not tell me, that I might have sent
thee away with mirth and with songs, wifh tabret and
with harp?" Gen. 31: 26, 27.
Egypt has been called the cradle of the arts and sciences,
and there can be no doubt of the very early civiliaation
of that country. To the Egyptian Mercury, or Thoth,
who is called Trismcgistos, or " thrice illustrious," is as-
cribed the invention of the lyre, which had at first only
three strings. It would be idle to mention the various
conjectures how these strings were tuned, or to try to set-
tle the chronology of this invention. The single Ante,
which they called pholiiiz, is also ascribed to the Egyp-
tians. Its shape was that of a horn, of which, no doubt,
it was originally made. Before the invention of these in'
struments, as Dr. Burney justly observes, "music could
have beeB little more than metrical, as no other instru'
ments except those of percussion were known. "When
the art was first discovered of refining and sustaining
tones, the power of music over mankind was probably
irresistible, from the agreeable surprise which soft and
lengthened sounds must ha.ve occasioned." The same
learned writer has given a drawing, made tmder bis own
eye, of an Egyptian miwicat instrument, representee! on a
very ancient obelisk at Rome, brought from Egypt by
Augustus. This obelisk is supposed to have been erecteil
at Heliopolis, by Sesostris, near fofir hundred years before!
the Trojan war. The most remarkable thing in this inc
struroent is, that i^t is supplied with a neck, so that its twO
strings were capable of famishing a great number of
sounds. This is a contrivance which the Greeks, with all
their ingenuity, never hit upon. " I have never beee
able," says the doctor, " to discover in any reE>aiBs of
Greek scnfptare, an instrument furnished with a neck ;
and father Montfancon says, that in examining the repre-
sentations of near five hundred ancient fyres, harps, and
cilharas, he never met with one in which there was any
contrivance for shortening the strings during the' time of
performance, as by a neck arnd finger-board." From the
long residence of the Hebrews in Egypt, it is no impro^
bable conjecture that their music was derived from thaJ
source. However that may be, music, vocal and instru-
mental, made one important part of their religions service.
If the e,iceellence of the music was conformable to the:
sublimity of the poetry which it accompanied, there would
be no injustice in supposing it unspeakably superior to
that of every other people ; and the pains that were taken
to render the tabernacle and temple masie woithy of the
subjects of Sheir lOfty odes, leaves little douSt that it was
so. That the instruments were load and sonorous, wili
appear from what follows ; bnt as the pabh'c singing was
performed in alternate responses, or the chorus of all
succeeded to those parts of the psalm which were sung
OD\y by the appointed leaders, instruments of this kind
were necessary to command and control the voices of
so great a number as was usually assembled on high
occasions.
The Hebrews insisted on having music at marriages',
on anniversary birthdays, at victories, at the inauguration
of their kings, in their public worship, and when they
were coming from afar to attend the great festivals of
their nation, Isa. 3Sr 29.
Instrumental music was first introduced into the Jewish
service by Moses; and afterward, by the express command
of God, was very much improved with the addition of se-
veral instruments in the reign of David. Wtea Heaekiah
restored the temple service, which bad been negJected in
his predecessor's reign, " he set tbe Levites in the house
of the Lord, -with cymbals, with psalteries, and 'with harps,
according t-» the eonimaadraent of David, and of Gad the
king's seer, and Nathan the
prophet! ; for SO- -was th,e
eomBiandmenJ of the iord
by his prophets," 2 Chron.
29: 25.
The harp, or ancient lyre,
kinnor, was the most ancient
of the class of stringed in-
slramemts, Gen. 4: 2J. It
was sometimes called jam-
txic, or "eight-stringed," (1
Chron. 15: 21. Ps. 6: 1. 12:
1.) although, as we may
gather from the coins or
medals of the Maccabean
age, there were some harps
which were furnished with
only three strings. The
na/ilum, or psaltery, is first
mentioned in the Psalms
:, and 144: 9, it is called
nsheor, " a ten stringed instrument ;" but in Psalm 92:
of David.
MUS
[ 853 ]
M YR
S, it is dislingnished from it. Josephus assigns to it
twelve strings, wliich, talfen in connexion wiiii tlie fact
above stated, leaves us to conclude that it sometimes
had ten and sometimes twelve strings. It was not played
with a bow or fret, but with the fingers. It resembled in
form a right angled triangle, or the Greek delta inverted.
'The body of it was of wood and hollow, and was inclosed
with a piece of leather tensely drawn. The chords were
extended on the outside of the leather, and were fixed at
one end into the transverse part of the triangular body of
the instrument. Such is its form at the present day in
the East ; but it hsis only five strings in its modern shape,
2 Sam. 6: 5. 1 Kings 10: 12. There was another instru-
ment of this kind used in Babylonia : it was triangular in
form. It had originally only four, but subsequently
twenty strings, Dan. 3: 6, 7, 10, 15.
Among their wind instruments was the organ, so called
in the English version, in Hebrew, huggab, Gen. 4: 21. It
may be styled the ancient shepherd's pipe,
corresponding most nearly to the siirigz, or
the pipe of Pan, among the Greeks. It
consisted at first of only one or two, but
afterwards of about seven pipes, made of
reeds, and differing from each other in
length. Chain, nechilolh, and nekeb, are
wind instruments made of various materi-
als, such as wood, reeds, horns, and bones.
As far as we may be permitted to judge
from the three kinds of pipes now used in
the East, the Hebrew instrHment called nechiloth is the
one that is double in its structure ; chatil is perhaps the
one of simpler form, having a single stem with an orifice
through it ; while nekeb answers to the one without an
orifice, Isa. 5: 12. 30: 29. Jer. 48: 36. Ps. 5: 1. Ezek. 28:
13. The hoTn, or crooked trumpet, was a very ancient in-
strument. It WEis made of the horns of oxen, which were
cut off at the smaller extremity, and thus presented an
orifice which extended through. In progress of time,
rams' horns were hollowed and employed for the same
purpose. It is probable that in some instances it was
made of brass, fashioned so as to resemble a horn. It
was greatly used in war, and its sound resembled thunder.
Chatsoteroth, the siJier trumpet, was straight, a cubit in
length, hollow throughout, and at the larger extremity
shaped so as to resemble the mouth of a small bell. In
times of peace, when the people or the rulers were to be
assembled together, this trumpet was blown softly. "When
the eamps were to move forward, or the people to march
to war, it was sounded with a deeper note.
There were several sorts of drums. The toph, rendered
in the English version tabret and timbrel, (Gen. 31: 27.)
consisted of a circular
hoop, either of wood
or brass, three inches
and six-tenths wide,
was covered with a
skin tensely drawn,
and hung round with
small bells. It was
held in the left hand,
jj^^ and beaten to notes
of music with the
right. The ladies through all the East, even to this day,
dance to the sound of this instrument, Exod. 15: 20.
Job 17: 6. 21: 12. 2 Sam. 6: 5. The cymbals, tseltselim,
were of two kinds formerly, as there are to this day, in
the East. The first consisted of two flat pieces of metal
or plates ; the musician held one of them in his right hand,
the other in his left, and smote them together, as an ac-
companiment to other instruments. This cymbal and the
mode of using it may be often seen in modern armies.
The second kind of cymbals consisted of four small plates
attached, two to each hand, which the ladies, as they
danced, smote together. But mezilols, (Zech. 14: 20.)
rendered in the English version bells, are not musical in-
blruments, as some suppose, nor indeed bells, but concave
pieces or plates of brass, which were sometimes attach-
ed to horses for the sake of ornament. — IIe7id. Buck;
iVatson.
JIUSSULMAN. (See Islamism.)
MUSTARD ; (stnapi, Matt. 13: 32. 17: 20. Mark 4: 31.
Luke 13: 19. 17: 6.) a well-known garden herb. Christ
compares the kingdom
of heaven to "a grain
of mustard-seed, which
a man t^tuk and sowed
in the earth, which in-
deed," said he, " is the
least of all seeds ; but
when it is grown is the
greatest among herbs,
and becometh a tree,
so that the birds of the
air come and lodge in
the branches thereof."
Matt. 13: 31,32. "This
expression will not ap-
pear strange," says Sir Thomas Browne, " if we recollect
that the mustard-seed, though it be not simply and in
itself the smallest of .seeds, yet may be very well believed
to be the smallest of such as are npt to grow unto a lig-
neous substance, and become a kind of tree."
The expression, also, that it might grow into such
dimensions that birds might lodge on its branches,
may be literally conceived, if we allow the liixuriancy
of plants in India above our northern regions. And
he quotes upon this occasion what is recorded in the
Jewish story, of a mustard tree that was to be climbed
like a fig-tree. The Talmud also mentions one whose
branches were so extensive as to cover a tent. Without
insisting on the accuracy of this, we may gather from
it that we should not judge of Eastern vegetables by
those which are familiar to ourselves. Schcuchzer de-
scribes a species of mustard which grows several feet
high, with a tapering stalk, and spreads into many
branches. Of this arborescent or tree-hke vegetable he
gives a print ; and Linnteus mentions a species whose
branches were real wood, which he names sinapi eru-
coiJes.
But whatever kind of tree our Lord meant, it is clear,
from the fact that he never lakes his illustrations from
any objects but such as were familiar, and often present
in the scene around him, that he spoke of one which the
Jews well knew to have minute seeds, and yet to be of so
large growth as to afford shelter for the birds of the air. —
Watson; Harris; Abbott.
MYCONIUS, (Frederick,) an intimate friend of Lu-
ther, and one of the refonners of the sixteenth century,
was born at Litchtenfeldt, Franconia, in 1491, of religious
parents, and educated at Annaberg. At the age of twenty
he was persuaded to enter a monastery, where he devoted
seven years chiefly to the study of the Bible, the -school-
men, and the works of Augustine. After he entered into
orders, he was preacher at Vinaria, where Luther's works
fell into his hand.s, and his mind becoming enlightened, he
began to proclaim the truth with boldness ; and it spread,
says his biographer, "as if the angels had been the car-
riers of it." In 1524, he was called to Gotba, where he
labored among the Thuringian churches twenty-two
years. He often accompanied the elector of Saxony into
the Netherlands, and preached the gospel at the hazard
of his life. He was once his ambassador to England. He
was also employed to visit and reform the churches of
Misnia. His health failing in 1541, he wrote to Luther
" that he was sick not unto death, but unto life." But he
recovered, and, according to Luther's prayer, outliveii him
several months. He died in 1546, glorifying God for all
the rich mercies of the Reformation. He published nu-
merous works. — Middleton, vol. i. p. 250.
MYRRH; (mir, Exod. 30: 23. Esther 2: 12. Ps. 45: 8.
Prov.7: 17. Cant. 1: 13. 3: 6. 4:6. 14. 5: 1. 5, 13; srmir-
na, Ecclus. 24: 15. Matt. 2: 11. Mark 15: 23. John 19:
39.) a precious kind of giun, issuing by inci."=ion, and
sometimes spontaneously, from the trunk a:i I larger
branches of a tree growing in Egypt, Arabia, and Abys-
sinia. Its taste is extremely bitter, but its smell, though
strong, is not disagreeable ; and among the ancients it
entered into the composition of the most costly ointments.
As a perfume, it appears to have been used to give »
pleasant fragrance to vestments, and to be carried by fe
M YS
r 854 ]
MY S
males iu little caskets in the bosoms. The Magi, who
came from the East to worship our Savior at Bethlehem,
made him a present of myrrh among other things,
Matt. 2: 11.
In the gospel (Mark 15: 23.) is mentioned myrrh and
wine, or wine mingled with myrrh, which was offered to
Jesus, previous to his crucifixion, and intended to deaden
in him the anguish of his sufferings. It was a custom
among the Hebrews to give such kind of stupefying liquors
to persons who were about to be capitally punished, Prov.
31: fi. Some have thought that the myrrhedwine of Mark
is the same as the " wine mingled with gall" of Matthew ;
but others distinguish them. They suppose the myrrhcd
wine was given lo our Lord from a sentiment of sympa-
thy, to prevent him from feeling loo sensibly the pain of
his sufferings ; while the potation, mingled with gall, of
which he would not drink, was given from cruelty.
Others, however, think that Matlhew, writing in Syriac,
used the word marra, which signifies eilher myrrh, bitter-
ness, or gall ; which the Greek translator took in the
sense of gall, and Mark in the sense of myrrh. Wine
mingled with myrrh was highly esteemed by the ancients.
— Watson; Caimet.
MYRTLE ; {ntsh, Neh. 8: 15. Isa. 41: 19. 55: 13.
Zech. 1: 8 — 10.) a shrub, sometimes growing to a small
tree, very conrnnon in
Judea. It has a hard
woody root, that sends
forth a great number of
small flexible branches,
furnished with leaves like
those of box, but much
less, and more pointed :
they are soft to the touch,
shining, smooth, of a
beautiful green, and have
a sweet smell. The flow-
ers grow among the
leaves, and consist of five
white petals disposed in
the form of a ro.se: they
have an agreeable per-
fume, and ornamental
appearance.
Savary, describing a scene at the end of the forest of
Platanea, says, " Myrtles, inienni.Ted with laurel roses,
grow in the valleys to the height of ten feet. Their snow-
white flowers, bordered with a purple edging, appear to
peculiar advantage under the vcidant foliage. Each
myrtle is loaded with them, and they emit perfumes more
exquisite than those of the ros- itself. They enchant
every one, and the .soul is filled with the softest sensa-
tions."
The. myrtle is mentioned in Scripture among lofty trees,
not as comparing with them in size, but as contributing
with them to the bcauiy and richness of the scenery.
Thus Isaiah, (41: 19.) intending to describe a scene of va-
ried excellence : " I will plant in the \vildernc-;s the cedar,
and the shittah tree, and the myiile, and the oil tree ;"
that is, I will adorn the dreary and barren waste with
trees famed for their stature and the grnndeiir of their ap-
pearance, the beauty of their form, and also (he fragrance
of their odor. The apocrypha! B.inirli, (5: 8.) speaking
of the return from Babylon, expresses the protection af-
forded by God lo ihe people by the same image : " Even
the woods and every sweet-smelling tree shall over-
shadow Israel by the commandment of God." Harris. —
Watson.
MYSIA ; a country of Asia Minor, having Ihe Propon-
tis on the north, Bithynia on the noith-east and east,
Phr^'gia on the south-east, Lydia (from which it was sepa-
rated by the river Hermus) on the south, the jEgean sea
on the west, and the narrow strait, called Ihe Hellespont,
rn Ihe north-west. Mysia was visited by St. Paul in his
ci'c-.'t through Asia Minor ; but he was not sutfercd by
ihe Spirii to remain there, being directed to pass over into
:il /.cedonia, Acts 16: 7—10. In this country stood the
ai'-ient city Troy ; as also that of Pergamus, one of the
soven churches of Asia. Under the Romans it was made
a province of the empire, and called Hcllesponlus ; an.l
its inhabitants are represented by Cicero as base and cOh-
templible to a proverb. — Watson.
MYSTERY 5 secret i a wonder ; (from mucin to stoma, to
shut the mouth.) It is taken, — 1. For a truth revealed
by God which we could not have discovered without reve-
lation j such as the call lo the Gentiles, (Eph. 1: 9.) the
transforming of some without dying, &c., 1 Cor. 15: 51. —
2. The word is also used in reference to things which re*
main in part incomprehensible after they are revealed j
such as the incarnation of Christ, the resurrection of the
dead, &c., 1 Tim. 3: 12. Some critics, however, observe
that the word in the Scripture does not usually import
what is incapable in its own nature of being understood
by man, but barely a secret, any thing not disclosed or pub-
Ushed to the world, Ephes. 1: 9. 3: 3—12. 1 Cor. 13: 1—3,
In respect to the mysteries of religion, divines have run
into two extremes. Some, as one observes, have j;iven
up all that was mysterious, thinking that they were not
called to believe any thing but what they could compre-
hend. " Where mystery begins," says Dr .'ames Fo.'i-.T,
" religion ends." But the truth is, as Robert Hail ob-
serves, that they begin and end together ; a portion of that
which is inscrutable to our faculties attaching to every
truth of nature and revelation. A religion rtithout mystery
is a temple nithout its God, 1 Cor. 2: 6 — 10.
But if it can be proved that mysteries make a part of a
religion coming from God, it can be no part of piety to
discard them, as if we were wiser than he. And besides,
upon this principle, a man must believe nothing : Ihe va-
riou.5 works of nature, the growth of plants, instincts of
brutes, union of body and soul, properties of matter, the
nature of spirit, and a thousand other things, are all re-
plete with mysteries. If so in Ihe common works of na-
ture, we can hardly suppose thai ihose things which more
immediately relate to the Divine Being himself, can be
without mystery. The other extreme lies in an attempt to
explain the mysteries of revelation so as lo free them
from all obscurity. To defend religion in this manner is
lo expose it to contempt.
The following maxim points out the proper way of de-
fence, by which both extremes are avoided. Where the
truth of a doctrine depends not on the evidence of the
things themselves, but on the authority of him who re-
veals it, there the only way to prove Ihe doctrine to be
true is to prove the testimony of him that revealed it lobe
infallible.
Dr. South observes, that the mysteriousness of those
parts of the gospel called the credenda, or matters of our
faith, is most subservient lo the great and important ends
of religion, and that upon these accounts : — First, because
religion in the prime institution of it was designed to make
impressions of awe and reverential fear upon men's
minds. 2. To humble the pride and haughtiness of man's
rea.son. 3. To engage us in a closer and more diligent
search into them. 4. That the full and entire knowledge
of divine things may be one principal part of our felicity
hereafter. Sohinson's Claude, vol. i. pp. 118, 119, 304,
305 ; Campbell's Preliminary Dissertation to the Gospels, vol.
i. p. 383 ; Slillingflecfs Origines Sacra, vol. ii. c. 8 ; Eidgleij'.i
Div., qu. 11 ; Calmefs Diet. ; Crudcii's Concordance : Snnlh's
Serm., ser. fi, vol. iii. ; Works of Robert JIall. — HenJ. Buck.
MYSTERIES ; a term used 10 denote the secret rites
of Ihe pagan superstition, which were carpfully concealed
from the knowledge of the vulgar.
The learned bishop Warburton supposed that the mys-
teries of the pagan religion were the invention of legisla-
tors and other great personages, whom fortune or their
own merit had placed at the head of those civil societies
which were formed in the earliest ages in different parts
of the world.
Mosheim was of opinion that the mysteries were en-
tirely commemorative ; that they were instituted with a
view to preserve Ihe remembrance of heroes and great
men, who had been deified in consideration of their mar-
tial exploits, useful inventions, public virtues, and espe-
cially in consequence of the benefits by them conferred
on their contemporaries.
Others, however, suppose that the mysteries were "he
offspring of bigotry and priestcraft, and that ihey origi-
nated in Egj'pt, the native laud of idolatry. In that
MY S
L 865 J
M YS
country, the priesthood ruled predominant. The kings
■were engrafted into their body before they could ascend
the throne. They were possessed of a third part of the
land of all Egypt. The sacerdotal function was confined
to one tribe, and was transmitted from father to son. All
the Orientals, but more especially the Egyptians, delighted
in mysterious and allegorical doctrines. Every maxim
of morality, every tenet of theology, every dogma of phi-
losophy, was wrap* up in a veil of allegory and mysticism.
This propensity, no doubt, conspired with avarice and
ambition to dispose them to a dark and mysterious system
of religion. Besides, the Egyptians were a gloomy race
of men ; they delighted in darkness and solitude. Their
yacred rites were generally celebrated with melancholy
airs, weeping, and lamentation. This gloomy and unso-
cial bias of mind must have stimulated them to a conge-
nial mode of worship. — Hend. Buck.
MYSTERIES, or, as they were also called, Miracles ; a
kind of rude drama, which was a favorite spectacle in the
middle ages, represented at solemn festivals. The sub-
jects were of a religious character, and the ecclesiastics
were at first the authors and performers. They received
the above name because they professedly taught the mys-
terious doctrines of Christianity, and represented the mi-
racles of the saints and martyrs. The first play of this
sort, mentioned by name, appears to have been St. Catha-
rine, written, according to Matthew Paris, by Geoffrey, a
Norman, about 1110. They sometimes lasted several
days. One which lasted eight days contained a great part
of the Scripture history. The Corpus Christi, or famous
Coventry mystery, begins with the creation, and ends
with the day of judgment. The slaughter of the children
at Bethlehem, the sufferings of Christ, &c. were repre-
sented.— Hend. Buck.
MYSTICAL. The mystical sense of Scripture is that
which is evidently symbolical or metaphorical. For ex-
ample, Babylon signifies literally a city of Chaldea, the
habitation of kings who persecuted the Hebrews, and who
were overwhelmed in idolatry and wickedness. But John,
in the Revelations, gives the name of Babylon, mystically,
to the city of Rome. So Jerusalem is literally a city of
Judea ; but mystically, the heavenly Jerusalem ; the habi-
tation of the saints, ic. — Calmet.
MYSTICS, who have also been sometimes called Qui-
etists, are those who profess a pure and sublime devotion,
accompanied with a dismterested love of God, free from
all selfish considerations ; and who believe that the Scrip-
tures have a mystic and hidden sense, which must be
sought after, in order to understand their true import.
Under this name some improperly comprehend all those
who profess to know that they areinwardly taught of God.
The system of the Mystics proceeded upon the known
doctrine of the Platonic school, which was also adopted
by Origen and his disciples, that the divine nature was
diffused through all human .souls ; or that the faculty of
reason, from which proceed the health and vigor of the
mind, was an emanation from God into the human soul,
and comprehended in it the principles and elements of all
truth, human and divine. They denied that men could
by labor or study excite this celestial flame in their
breasts ; and, therefore, they disapproved highly of the
attempts of those who, by definitions, abstract theorems,
and profound speculations, endeavored to form distinct
notions of truth, and discover its hidden nature. On the
contrary, they maintained that silence, tranquillity, repose,
and solitude, accompanied with such acts as might tend
to attenuate and exhaust the bodj', were the means by
which the hidden and internal word was excited to pro-
duce its latent virtues, and to instruct men in the know-
ledge of divine things. They reasoned as follows : " Those
who behold with a noble contempt all human affairs, who
turn away their eyes from terrestrial vanities, and shut
all the avenues of the outward senses against the conta-
gious influence of a material world, must necessarily re-
turn to God, when the spirit is thus disengaged from the
impediments which prevented that happy union. And,
in this blessed frame, they not only enjoy inexpressible
raptures from that communion with the Supreme Being,
but also are invested with the inestimable privilege of
contemplating tnith undisguised and uncorrupted in its
native purity, while others behold it in a vitiated and de-
lusive form." The number of the Mystics increased in
the fourth century, under the influence of the Grecian fa-
natic, who gave himself out for Dionysius the Arenpagite,
a disciple of St. Paul, and who probably lived about this
period ; and, by pretending to higher degrees of perfection
than other Christians, and practising great austerities,
their cause gained ground, especially in the eastern pro-
vinces, in the fifth century. A copy of the pretended
Works of Dionysius was sent by Balbus to Lewis the
Meek, A. D. 824, which kindled the holy flame of Mysti-
cism in the western provinces, and filled the Latins with
the most enthusiastic admiration of this new system. In
the twelfth century, these Mystics took the lead in their
method of expounding the Scriptures. In the thirteenth,
they were the most formidable antagonists of the school-
men ; and, towards the close of the fourteenth, many of
them resided and propagated their tenets in almost every
part of Europe. They had, in the fifteenth century, many
persons of distinguished merit in their number. In the
sixteenth, previously to the Reformation, if any sparks of
real piety subsisted under the despotic empire of supersti-
tion, they were chiefly to be found among the Mystics ;
and in the seventeenth, the radical principle of Mysti-
cism was adopted by the Behmists, Bourignonists, and
Quietists.
The BIystics propose a disinterestedness of love, with-
out other motives, and profess to feel, in the enjoyment
of the temper itself, an abundant reward ; and passive
contemplation in the state of perfection to which they as-
pire. They lay little or no stress upon the outward cere-
monies and ordinances of religion, but dwell chiefly upon
the inward operations of the mind. It is not uncommon
for them to allegorize certain passages of Scripture, (at
the same time they do not deny the literal sense,) as hav-
ing an allusion to the inward experience of believers.
Thus, according to them, the word Jerusalem, which is the
name of the capital of Judea, signifies, allegorically, the
church militant ; morally, a believer ; and mysteriously,
heaven. That sublime passage also in Genesis, " Let
there be light, and there was light," which is, according
to the letter, corporeal light, signifies, allegorically, the
Messiah ; morally, grace ; and mysteriously, beatitude,
or the light of glory. All this appears to be harmless;
3'et we must be careful not to give way to the sallies of a
lively imagination in interpreting Scripture. Woolston is
said to have been led to reject the Old Testament by spiri-
tualizing and allegorizing the New.
The Mystics are not confined to any particular denomi
nation of Christians, but may be found in most countries,
and among many descriptions of religionists. Among
the number of Mystics may be reckoned many singular
characters, especially Behmen, a shoemaker at Gorlilz, in
Germany ; Molinos, a Spanish priest, in the seventeenth
century ; Madame Guion, a French lady, who made a great
noise in the religious world ; and the celebrated IMadame
Bourignon, who wrote a work, entitled, " The Light of the
World," which is full of Mystic extravagancies. Fenelon,
also, the learned and amiable archbishop of Cambray,
favored the same sentiments, for which he was repri-
manded by the pope. His work, entitled, " An Explica-
tion of the Maxims of the Saints," which abounds with
Mystical sentiments, was condemned ; and to the pope's
sentence against him the good archbishop quietly sub-
mitted, and even read it publicly himself in the cathedral
of Cambray. In this whole affair, his chief opponent is
said to have been the famous Bossuet, bishop of Meaux.
Mr. William Law, author of the " Serious Call," &c., de-
generated, in the latter part of his life, into all the singu-
larities of Mysticism. In the best sense. Mysticism is to
be regarded as an error arising out of partial views of the
truth, or truth made erroneous, as being put out of its
proper relation to, and connexion with other truths. As
it respects the inward life of religion, its tendency is to a
speci&s of fanaticism, and to induce a contempt for di-
vinely appointed ordinances. In many, however, it has
been happily tempered by good principles ; and too fre-
quently has all scriptural Christianity, in its inward in-
fluence, been branded with the name of Jlysticism. —
Watson : Hend. Buck ; Douglas on Errors.
NAB
[ 856 ]
NAH
MYTHOLOGY, in its original import, signifies any records, or by oral tradition. See articles Heathen ; Pa-
' kind of fabulous doctrine. In its more appropriated sense, ganish ; and Gah' s Court of the Gentiles ;& worV caXcM
it means those fabulous details concerning the objects of lated to show that the pagan philosophers derived their
worship, which were invented and propagated by men most sublime sentiments from the Scriptures. — Hend.
who lived in the early ages of the world, and by them Buck ; Bryant's System of Aiicient Mythology ; Lempriere's
transmitted to succeeding generations, either by written Classical Dictionary ; Drvight's Theology ; Douglas on Errors
N.
NAAMAH; daughter of Lamech and Zillah, and sister
of Tubal-cain, (Gen. 4: 22.) who is believed to have found
out the art of spinning wool, and of making or enriching
cloth and stuffs. — Calinet.
NAAMAN ; a general in the army of Benhadad, king
of Syria, who, being afflicted with a leprosy, was cured
by bathing seven limes in the Jordan, agreeably lo the
command of Elisha the prophet, 2 Kings 5. Comp. Lev.
14: 7, iScc. (See Leprosy ; and Abana.)
The prophet having refused to receive a present oflered
to him by Naaman, the latter begged that he might be
permitted to carry home two mules' burden of the earth
of Canaan, assigning as a reason, that henceforth he
would serve no God but Jehovah. It seems that his in-
tention was to build an altar in Syria formed of that holy
ground, as he conceived it to be, to which God had as-
signed the blessing of his peculiar presence, that he might
daily testify his gratitude for the great mercy which he
had received, that he might declare openly his renuncia-
tion of idolatry, and tliat he might keep a sort of commu-
nication, by similitude of worship, with the people who
inhabited the land where Elisha dwelt, who had so miracu-
lously cured him. This is perfectly consistent with the
precept, (Exod. 20; 24.) " An altar of earth shalt thou
make unto me ;" and it is very credible, that the tempo-
rary altars were usually of earth ; especially on the high
places. To such an altar, apparently, Elijah, after re-
pairing it, added twelve stones, in allusion to the twelve
tribes of Israel, 1 Kings 18: 31.
Elisha having consented to this request, Naaman again
addressed the prophet thus : " In this thing the Lord par-
don thy servant, that when my master goeth into the
house of Rimmon to worship there, and he loaneth on my
hand, and I bow myself in the house of Rimmon : when I
bow myself in the, house of Rimmon, the Lord pardon
thy servant in this thing." And Elisha said to him, " Go
in peace." This passage has given rise to many scru-
ples. Many commentators think, that Naaman only asks
leave to continue those external services to his master
Benhadad, which he had been u.sed to render him, when
he entered the temple of Rimmon ; and that Elisha suf-
fered him to accompany the king into the temple, provided
he paid no worship to the idol. Others, with more reason,
translating the Hebrew in the past tense, suppose that
Naaman mentions only his former sin, and asks pardon
for it. — Calmet ; Watson ; Jones.
NABAL ; a rich but churlish man, of the tribe of Judah,
and race of Caleb, who dwelt in the south of Judah, and
who had a very numerous flock on Carmel, but refused to
give David and his followers, in their distress, any provi-
sions, though modestly requested to do so, 1 Sam. 25: 25,
&c. His name is proverbial for miserly coveteousness. —
Calmet.
NABATHEANS, or Nabathenians ; Arabians de-
scended from Nebajoth. Their country is called Naba-
thiEa, and extends from the Euphrates lo the Red sea, the
chief cities of which are Petra, the capital of Arabia De-
serta, and Medaba. — Calmet.
NABONASSAR ; king of Babylon, the same as Bala-
dan. (See Babylon, History of.) — Calmet.
NABOPOLASSAB, father of Nebuchadnezzar the
Great, was a Babylonian, and chief of the army of Sara-
cus, king of Assyria. He made a league with Astyages,
who gave his daughter Amyitis in marriage to his son
Nebuchadnezzar. Ahasuerus and Nabopolassar, joining
their forces, revolted against Saracus, king of Nineveh,
besieged him in his capital, took him prisoner, and on the
destruction of the Assyrian monarchy raised two king-
doms ; that of the Medes, possessed by Astyages, or Aha-
suerus, and that of the Chaldeans, or of Babylon, founded
by Nabopolassar, A.M. 3378. He died A. M. 3399. (See
Abyssinia ; and Babylon, History of.) — Calmet.
NABOTH ; an Israelite of the city of Jezreel, who lived
under Ahab, king of the ten tribes, and had a fine vine-
yard near the king's palace. Ahab coveted his property ;
but Naboth, according to the law, (Lev. 25: 23, 24.) re-
fused to sell it : and besides, it was a disgrace for a He-
brew to alienate the inheritance of his ancestors. Through
the arts of Jezebel, Naboth was falsely condemned and
stoned for a supposed crime, which brought upon Ahab
and Jezebel the severest maledictions, 1 Kings 21. (See^
Ahab.) — Watson.
NABUCHODONOSOR. (See Asstkia.)
NACHON. The floor of Nachon (2 Sam. 6: 6.) was
either so called from the name of its proprietor ; or, which
is more probable, the Hebrew denotes the prepared floor,
that is, the floor of Obed-edom, which was near, and was
prepared to receive the ark. This place, wherever it
might be, was either in Jerusalem, or very near Jeru-
salem, and near the house of Obededom, in that city. —
Calmet.
NADAB. (See Abibc.)
NAHASH ; a king of the Ammonites, who, besieging
Jabesh-Gilead, was defeated and killed by Saul, 1 Sam.
11. The piece of mutilating barbarity proposed to the
inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead by Nahash, " That 1 may
ihr\ist out all your right eyes, and lay it for a reproach upon
Israel," perhaps, by altering the name of the town to that
of " those who have lost their right eyes," is worthy of
notice. — We must, however, recollect, that the loss of the
eyes is a punishment regularly inflicted on rebels and
others in the East. Mr. Hanway, in his "Journey in
Persia," gives very striking instances of this practice ;
the cruelty of which, and the sight of the streaming blood,
were felt by that gentleman as a man of humanity and a
Christian must feel them. — Calmet.
NAHASH, father of Abigail and Zeruiah, is thought
to be the same as Jesse, father of David. Comp. 2 Sam.
17: 25. and 1 Chron. 2: 13, 15, 16. This perhaps might
be his surname. — Calmet.
NAHOR ; son of Terah, and brother of Abraham, Gen.
11: 26. Neither the year of his birth nor of his death is
exactly known. Nahor married Milcah, the daughter of
Haran, by whom he had several sons, namely, Huz, Buz,
Kemuel, Chesed, Hazo, Pildash, Jidlaph, and Bethuel.
Nahor fixed his habitation at Haran, which is therefore
called the city of Nahor, Gen. 11: 29. 22: 20—22. 24: 10.
— Watson.
NAHUM, is supposed to have been a native of Elcosh,
or Elcosha, a village in Galilee, and to have been of the
tribe of Simeon. There is great uncertainty about the
exact period in which he lived ; but it is generally allowed
that he delivered his predictions between the Assyrian
and Babylonian captivities, and probably about B. C. 715.
They relate solely to the destruction of Nineveh by the
Babylonians and Medes, and are introduced by an ani-
mated display of the attributes of God.
Of all the minor prophets, says bishop Lowth, none
seems to equal Nahum in sublimity, ardor, and boldness.
His prophecy forms an entire and regular poem. The
exordium is magnificent and truly august. The prepara-
tion for the destruction of Nineveh, and the description
of that destruction, are expressed in the most glowing co-
lors ; and at the same time the prophet writes with a per-
N A K [8t
spicuity and elegance which have a just claim to our
highest admiration. — IValson.
NAIL. The nail of Jael's tent with which she killed
Sisera, is called itod ; it was formed for penetrating earth,
or other hard substances, when driven by sufficient force,
as with a hammer, &c. ; it includes the idea of strength.
The Orientals, in fitting up their houses, were by no
means inattentive to the comfort and satisfaction arising
from order and method. Their furniture was scanty and
plain ; but they were careful to arrange the few household
utensils they needed, so as not to encumber the apartments
to which they belonged. Their devices for this purpose,
which, like every part of the structure, bore the character
of remarkable simplicity, may not correspond with our
ideas of neatness and propriety ; but they accorded with
their taste, and suIHciently answered their design. One
of these consisted in a set of spikes, nails, or large pegs
fi.ted in the walls of the house, upon which they hung
up the movables and utensils in common use that be-
longed to the room. These nails they do not drive into
the walls with a hammer or mallet, but fix them there
when the house is building ; for if the walls are of brick,
they are too hard, or if they consist of clay, too soft and
mouldering, to admit the action of the hammer. The
spikes, which are so contrived as to strengthen the walls,
by binding the parts together, as well as to serve for con-
venience, are large, with square heads like dice, and bent
at the ends so as to make them cramp-irons. They com-
monly place them at the windows and doors, in order to
hang upon them, when they choose, veils and curtains,
although they place them in other parts of the room, to
hang up other thmgs of various kinds.
The care with which they fixed these nails, may be in-
ferred, as well from the important purposes they were
meant to serve, as from the promise of the Lord to Elia-
kim : " And I will fasten him as a nail in a sure place,"
Isa. 22: 23. It is evident from the words of the prophet,
that it was common in his time to suspend upon them the
utensils belonging to the apartment : " Will men take a
pin of it to hang any vessel thereon?" Ezek. 15: 3. The
word used in Isaiah for a nail of this sort, is the same
which denotes the stake, or large pin of iron, which fas-
tened down to the ground the cords of their tents. These
nails, therefore, were of necessary and common use, and
of no small importance in all their apartments ; and if
they seem to us mean and insignificant, it is because they
are unknown to us, and inconsistent with our notions
of propriety, and because we have no name for them
but what conveys to our ear a low and contemptible
idea.
It is evident from the frequent allusions in Scripture to
these instruments, that they were not regarded with con-
tempt or indifference by the natives of Palestine. "Grace
has been showed from the Lord our God," said Ezra, " to
leave us a remnant to escape, and to give us a nail in his
holy place;" (Ezra 9: 8.) or, as explained in the margin,
a constant and sure abode. The dignity and propriety of
the metaphor appear from the use which the prophet Ze-
chariah makes of it : " Out of him Cometh forth the cor-
ner, out of him the nail, out of him the battle bow, out of
him every oppressor together," Zech. 10: 4. The whole
frame of government, both in church and state, which the
chosen people of God enjoyed, was the contrivance of his
wisdom and the gift of his bounty ; the foundations upon
which it rested, the bonds which kept the several parts
together, its means of defence, its officers and executors,
were all the fruits of distinguishing goodness ; even the
oppressors cf his people were a rod of correction in the
, hand of Jehovah, to convince them of sin, and restore
them to his service. — Watson.
NAIN ; a city of Palestine, where Jesus restored a
widow's son to life, as they were carrying him out to be
buried. Eusebius says, it was in the neighborhood of
Endor and Scythopolis ; and elsewhere, that it was two
miles from Tabor, south ; at the foot of the lesser mount
Hermon, near the town of Endor. The brook Kishon
ran between Tabor and Nain. — Cohif.t.
NAKEDNESS ; NraiTY. These terms, besides their
ordinary and literal meaning, sometimes signify, put to
shame, stripped of resources, void of succor, disarmed.
ins
7 1 NAM
So, af\er worsliipping the golden calf, the Israelites found
themselves naked in the midst of their enemies.
The nakedness of Adam and Eve was unknown in
their innocence, that is, unfelt -, they were unconscious of
shame before they sinned, because concupiscence and
irregular desires had not yet excited the flesh against the
spirit.
Naked is put for discovered, known, manifest. So Job
26: () : " Hell is naked before him." The unseen state
of the dead is open to the eyes of God, St. Paul says, in
the same sense, " Neither is there any creature that is not
manifest in his sight ; but all things are naked and open
unto the eyes of him with whom we have to do," Heb.
4: 13.
" Nakedness of the feet" was a token of respect. Moses
put off his shoes to approach the burning bush. Most
commentators are of opinion, that the priests served in
the tabernacle with their feet naked ; and afterwards in
the temple. Tn the enumeration that Moses makes of the
habit and ornaments of the priests, he nowhere mentions
any dress for the feet. Also the frequent ablutions ap-
pointed them in the temple seem to imply that their feet
were naked. To uncover the nakedness of any one, is
commonly put for a shameful and unlawful conjunction,
or an incestuous marriage, Lev. 20: 19. Ezek. 16: 37^
Nakedness is sometimes put for being partly undressM ;
en deshabille. Thus Saul continued naked among the
prophets ; that is, having only his under garments on.
Isaiah received orders from the Lord to go naked ; that
is, clothed as a slave, half clad. Thus it is recommended
to clothe the naked ; that is, such as are ill clothed. St.
Paul says, that he was in cold, in nakedness ; that is, in
poverty and want of suitable raiment. — Watson ; Cahnel.
NAME. A name was given to the male child at the
time of its circumcision, but it is probable, previous to the
introduction of that rite, that the name was given imme-
diately after its birth.
Among the Orientals the appellations given as names
are always significant. In the Old Testament, we find
that the child was named in many instances from the cir-
cumstances of its birth, or from some peculiarities in the
history of the family to which it belonged, Gen. 16: 11.
19: 37. 25: 25, 26. Exod. 2: 10. 18: 3, 4. Frequently the
name was a compound one, one part being the name of
the Deity, and among idolatrous nations the name of an
idol. The following instances may be mentioned among
others, and may stand as specimens of the whole ; namely,
Samuel, " hear God ;" Adonijah, " God is lord;" Josedecit,
" God is just ;" Ethhaal, a Canaanitish name, the latter
part of the compound being the name of the idol deity,
Baal ; Belshazzar, " Bel," a Babylonish deity, '■ is ruler
and king." Sometimes the name had a prophetic mean-
ing, Gen. 17: 15. Isa. 7: 14. 8: 3. Hosea 1: 4, 6, 9. Matt.
1:"21. Luke 1: 13,60,63.
In the later times, however, names were selected from
those of the progenitors of a family ; hence in the New
Testament hardly any other than ancient names occur,
Matt. 1: 12. Luke 1: 61. 3: 23, ice.
The inhabitants of the East very frequently change
their names, and sometimes do it for very slight reasons.
This accounts for the fact of so many persons having two
names in Scripture, Ruth 1: 20,21. 1 Sam. 14: 49. 31: 2.
1 Chron. 10: 2. Judg. 6: 32. 7: 1. 2 Sam. 23: 8. Kings
and princes very often changed the names of those who
held offices under them, particularly when they first at-
tracted their notice, and were taken into their employ, and
when subsequently they were elevated to some new sta-
tion, and crowned with additional honors, Gen. 41: 45.
17:5. 32:28. 35:10. 2 Kings 23: 34, 35. 24:17. Dan.
1: 6. John 1: 42. Mark 3: 17. Hence a name, a new
name, occurs tropically, as a token or proof of distinc-
tion and honor in the following among other passages :
Philip. 2: 9. Heb. 1: 4. Rev. 2: 17. Sometimes the
names of the dead were changed ; for instance that of
Abel, given to him after his death, in allusion to the
shortness of his life, Gen. 2: 8. Sometimes proper names
are translated into other languages, losing their original
form, while they preserve their signification . This appears
to have been the case with the proper names whicli occur
in the first eleven chanters of Genesis, and whu-n were
NAM
[ 858 ]
N A
translated into the Hebrew from a language still more
ancient. The Orientals in some instances, in order to dis-
tinguish themselves from others of the same name, added
to their own name the name of their father, grandfather,
and even great-grandfather.
" To raise up the name of the dead," (Ruth 4; 5, 10,
&c.) is said of the brother of a man who died without
children, when his brother married the widow of the de-
ceased, and revived his name in Israel, by means of the
children which he might beget ; and which were deemed
to be children of tl\e deceased. In a contrary sense to
this, to blot out the name of any one, is to exterminate
his memory ; to extirpate his race, his children, works, or
houses, and in general whatever may continue his name
on the earth, Ps. 9: 5. Frov. 10: 7. Isa. 4: 1.
To know any one by his name, (Exod. 33: 12 ) ex-
presses a distinction, a friendship, a particular familiarity.
The kings of the East had little communication with-
their subjects, and hardly ever appeared in public ; so
that when they knew their servants by name, vouchsafed
to speak to them, to call them, and to admit them into
their presence, it was a great mark of favor. In many
Eastern countries the true personal name of the king is
unknown to his subjects : in Japan, to pronounce the em-
pattjr's real name is punishable ; his general name, as
e^cror, is held to be sufficiently sacred. Titles often
became names, or parts of names ; by these titles many
sovereigns are known in history ; and varying with inci-
dents and occurrences, they occasion great confusion.
God often complains that the false prophets prophesied
in his name ; (Jer. 14: 14, 15. 27; 13, &c.) and Christ
says, (Matt. 7: 22.) that in the day of judgment many
shall say, " Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in thy
name, and in thy name cast out devils, and in thy name
done many wonderful works ?" He also says, (Mark 9:
41.) whosoever shall give a cup of cold water in his name,
shall not lose his reward ; and he that receives a prophet
or a just man, in the name (character) of a prophet or a
just man, shall recei\'e a recompense in proportion. Matt.
10.41. In all these instances the " name" is put for the
person, for his commission, his service, liis sake, his au-
thority, in a word, his character.
So names of men are sometimes ptit for persons, espe»
cially persons of distinction, Rev. 3: 4. " Thou hast a
few names even in Sardis, which have not defiled their
garments." And chap. 11: 13. seven thousand men pe-
rished in the earthquake — (names of men ; Gr.) Perhaps
this should be considered as implying men of name, per-
sons of consequence, nobles, &c., Num. Iti: 2. It is pro-
bable, also, that this phrase contains some allu.sion to a
list or catalogue of names; for we find it in Acts 1: 15.
Of the Messiah it is said, " And he hath on his vesture
and on his thigh a name written. King of kings, and Lord
of lords," Rev. 19: 16. In illustration of this it may be
remarked, that it appears to have been an ancient custom
among several nations, to adorn the images of their dei-
ties, princes, victors at their public gam.es, and other
eminent persons, with inscriptions expressive of their
names, character, titles, or some circumstance which
might contribute to their honor. There are several such
images yet extant, with an inscription written either on
the garment, or breast, or one of the thighs. — Watson;
Calmet.
NABIE OF GOB. By this term we are to understand,
1. God himself, (Ps. 20: 1.) or, whatever unfolds to us
ihe glory of the divine character. 2. His titles peculiar
;o himself, Exod. 3; 13, 14. 3. His word, Ps. 5: 11. Acts
3: 15. 4. His works, Ps. 8: 1. 5. His worship, Exod.
20: 24. 6. His perfections and excellencies. Exod. 34: 6.
John 17: 26.
The properties or qualities of this name are these : — 1.
A glorious name, Ps. 72: 17. 2. Transcendent and in-
comparable. Rev. 19: 16. 3. Powerful, Phil, 2: 10. 4.
Holy and reverend, Ps. Ill: 9. 5. Awful to the wicked.
6. Perpetual, Is. 55: 13. Thus the Psalmist, to illustrate
the attractive excellence of the divine character, says,
" They that know thy name, will put their trust in thee."
So Moses, (Deut. 28: 58.) "That thou mayest fear this
glorious and fearful name. The Lord thy Gon." (See
God ; Jehovah ; and liOKD, kame of, taken in vain.)
Cruden's Concordance; Uannam's Anal. Comp., p. 20.-^
Hend. Suck.
NANTES, Edict of j a decree of Henry IV. in favof
of his Huguenot, or Protestant subjects, in the year 1598,
about twenty-six years after the horrible Parisian massa-
cre ; and the sudden repeal of which decree, by Louis
XIV., occasioned the most terrible persecution ever suf-
ferred in France. (See Hdgdenots j Persecution.)^*
Williams.
NAOMI. (See RuTit.)
NAPPlTALl ; the sixth son of Jacob by Bilhah, Ra-
chel's handmaid. The word Naphtali signifies mrestUng,
or struggling. When Rachel gave him this name, she
said, " With great wrestlings have I wrestled with my
sister, and I have prevailed," Gen. 30: 8. (See Hind.)
Naphtali had but four sons, and yet at the coming out
of Egypt his tribe made up fifty-three thousand four hun-
dred men, able to bear arms. Moses, in the blessing he
gave to the same tribe, says, " 0 Naphtali, satisfied with
favor, and full with the blessing of the Lord, possess thou
the west and the south," Deut. 33: 23. The Vulgate
reads it, " the sea and the south," and the Hebrew will
admit of either interpretation, that is, the sea of Gennesa-
reth, which was to the south by the inheritance of this
tribe. His soil was very fruitful in corn and oil. His
limits were extended into Upper and Lower Galilee, having
Jordan to the east, the tribes of Asher and Zebulun to the
west, Libanus to the north, and the tribe of Issachar to
the south.
The residence of the tribe of Naphtali was a beautiful
woodland country, which extended to mount Lebanon, and
produced fruits of every sort. Of the adjacent district of
Kesroan, which Volney says is similar to this side of
mount Lebanon, Le Roque says, (p. 220,) " Nothing equals
the fertility of the lands in Kesroan : mulberry-trees for
the silk-worms ; vineyards yielding excellent wine ; olive
trees tall as oaks ; meadows, pasturages, corn, and fruits
of all kinds. Such are the riches of this agreeable coun-
try, which besides abounds in cattle, large and small, in
birds of game, and in beasts of chase. So beautiful a
country, situated in a climate which I think is the mildest
and most temperate of Syria, seams to contribute, in some
manner, to the kindness of disposition, to the gentle incli-
nations, and to the praiseworthy manners of the inha-
bitants."
Under Barak, their general, they and the Zebulnnites
fought mth distinguished bravery against the army of Ja-
bin the younger ; and at the desire of Gideon they pursued
the Midianites, Judg. 4: 10. 5: 18. 7: 23. A thousand of
their captains, with thirty-seven thousand of their troops,
assisted at David's coronation, and brought great quanti-
ties of provision with them, 1 Chron. 12; 34, 40. We find
no person of distinguished note among them, save Barak,
and Hiram the artificer. Instigated by Asa, Benhadad
the elder, king of Syria, terribly ravaged the land of
Naphtali ; and what it suffered in after invasions by the
Syrians we are partly told, 1 Kings 15: 20. The Naphta-
lites were, many, if not most of them, carried captive by
Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, 2 Kings 13; 29. Josiah
purged their country from idols. Our Savior and his dis-
ciples, during his public ministry, resided much and
preached frequently in the land of Naphtali, Isa. 9: 1.
Matt. 4: 13, 15. — Watson; Calmet.
NAPHTUHIM ; a son, or rather the descendants of a
son, of Mizraim, whose proper name is Naphtuch. Naph-
tuch is supposed to have given his name to Naph, Noph,
or Memphis, and to have been the first king of that divi-
sion of Egypt. He is, however, placed by Bochart in
Libya ; and is conjectured to be the Aphtuchus, or Autu-
chus, who had a temple somewhere here. He is further
conjectured, and not without reason, to be the original of
the heathen god Neptune ; who is represented to have
been a Libyan, and whose temples were generally built
near the sea-coast. By others, he is supposed to have
peopled that part of Ethiopia betwten Syene and Meroe,
the capital of which was called Napata. — Watson.
NASSARIANS, or Nosaiki, a Mohammedan sect of
the Shiite party, formed in the two hundred and seventieth
year of the Hegira, received its name from Nasar, in the
environs of Koufa, the birthplace of its founder. They
NAT
[ 859 ]
NAT
occupy a strip of mount Lebanon, and are tribulary to the
Turks. They have about eight hundred villages, and
their chief tomi is Sasita, eight leagues from Tripoli.
Here their scheik resides. Their manners are rude, and
corrupted by remnants of heathenish customs, which re-
mind us of the Lingam worship. Although polygamy is
not allowed, yet, on certain festival days, they permit the
promiscuous intercourse of the sexes, and are divided,
after the manner of the Hindoos, into numerous castes,
which oppress one another. They profess to be worship-
pers of Ali, believe in the transmigration of souls, but not
in a heaven or hell. They are friendly to Christians, and
observe some of their festivals and ceremonies, but with-
out understanding their meaning. A spiritual head,
icheik Jdialil, directs their religious concerns, and travels
about among them as a prophet.
The opinion formerly current, that this sect were Syrian
Sabians, or disciples of St. John, has been completely ex-
plodeil by Niebuhr, and the accounts of Rosseau, the
French consul at Aleppo. (See Christians of St. John.)
— Hand. Buck.
NATHAN ; a prophet illustrious for his union of pru-
dence and faithfulness. He lived under David, and had
much of the confidence of that prince, ^\hom he served in
a number of ways. Sec 2 Sam. 11, 12, fcc.
The time and manner of Nathan's death are not known.
1 Chron. 29: 29. notices that he, with Gad, wrote the his-
tory of David. There are several other persons of this
name mentioned in Scripture. — Calmet.
NATHANAEL; a disciple of Christ, remarkable for
his transparent sincerity of character, the manner of whose
conversion is related John 1: 46, &:c. Many have thought
that Nathanael was the same as Bartholomew. (See Bak-
THOLOMEw.) — C ihnet.
NATION ; all the inhabitants of a particular country ;
(Deut. 4: 34.) a country or kingdom ; (Exod. 34: 10. Rev.
7: 9.) countrymen, natives of the same stock ; (Acts 26:
4.) the father, head, and original of a people ; (Gen. 25:
23.) the heathen or Gentiles, Isa. 55: 5. (See Gentiles ;
or Heathen.) — Cnlrmt.
NATIVITY OF CHRIST. The birth of onr Savior
was exactly as predicted by the prophecies of the Old Tes-
tament, Isa. 7: 1!. Jer. 31: 22. He was horn of a virgin,
of the house of David, and of the tribe of Judah, Matt.
1. Luke 1: 27. His coming into the world was after the
manner of other men, though his generation and concep-
tion were extraordinary. The place of his birth was Beth-
lehein, (Mic. 5: 2. Matt. 2: 4, (i.) where his parents were
wonderfully conducted by providence, Luke 2: 1, 7. The
time of his birth was foretold by the prophets to be before
the sceptre or civil government departed from Judah,
Gen. 49: 10. Mnl. 3: 1. Hag. 2: 6, 7, 9. Dan. 9: 21. The
e.xaet year of his birth is not agreed on by chronolo-
gers, but it was about the four thousandth year of the
world; nor can the precise season of the year, the month,
and dav in which he was bom be ascertained. The Egyp-
tians placed it in January ; Wagenseil in February ; Bo-
chart in March ; some, mentioned by Clement of Alexan-
dria, in April ; others in May ; Epiphanius speaks of some
who placed it in June, and of others who supposed it to
liave been in July ; Wagenseil, who was not sure of Feb-
ruary, fixed it probably in August ; Lightfoot on the 15th
of September ; Scaliger, Casaubon, and Calvisius, in Oc-
tober : others in November ; and the Latin church in De-
cember. It does not, however, appear probable that the
vulvar account is right ; the circumstance of the shep-
herds watching their (locks by night, agrees not with the
winter season. Dr. Gill thinks it was more likely in an-
.tumn, in the month of September, at the feast of taberna-
cles, to which there seems some reference in John 1: 14.
The Scripture, however, assures us that it was in the
"fulness of time;" (Gal. 4: 4.) and, indeed, the wisdom
of God is evidently displayed as to the time when, as well
as the end for which Christ came. It was in a time when
the world stood in need of such a Savior, and v>'as best
prepared for receiving him.
1. About the time of Christ's appearance, says Dr. Ro-
bertson, there prevailed a general opinion that the Al-
mighty would send forth some eminent messenger to com-
municate a more perfect discovery of his will to mankind.
The dignity ol Christ, the virtues of his character, the
glory of his kingdom, and the signs of his coming, were
described by the ancient prophets with the utmost perspi-
cuity. Guided by the sure word of prophecy, the Jews
of that age concluded the period predetermined by God to
be then completed, and that the promised Messiah would
suddenly appear, Luke 2: 25 — 38. Nor were these ex-
pectations peculiar to the Jews. By their dispersion
among so many nations, by their conversation with the
learned men among the heathen, and the translation of
their inspired WTitings into a language almost universal,
the principles of their religion were spread all over the
East ; and it became the common belief that a Prince
would arise at that time in Judea, who should change the
face of the world, and extend his empire from one end of
the earth to the other. Now, had Christ been manifested
at a more early period, the world would not have been
prepared to meet him with the same fondness and zeal ;
had his appearance been put off for any considerable
time, men's expectations would have begun to languish,
and the warmth of desire, from a delay of gratification,
might have cooled and died away.
2. The birth of Christ was also in the fulness of time,
if we consider the then political state of the world. The
world, in the most early ages, was divided into small in-
dependent states, differing from each other in language,
manners, laws, and religion. The shock of so many op-
posite interests, the interfering of so many contrary views,
occasioned the most violent convulsions and disorders ;
perpetual discord subsisted between these rival stales, and
hostility and bloodshed never ceased. Commerce had not
hitherto united mankind, and opened the communication
of one nation with another : voyages into remote coun-
tries were very rare ; men moved in a narrow circle, little
acquainted with any thing beyond the limits of their own
small territory. At last the Roman ambition undertook
the arduous enterprise of conquering the world. They
trod down the Iringdoms, according to Daniel's prophetic
description, by their exceeding strength they devoured the
whole earth, Dan. 7: 7, 23. However, by enslaving the
world, they civilized it, and while they oppressed man-
kind, they united them together ; the same laws were
everywhere established, and the same languages under-
stood ; men approached nearer to one another in senti-
ments and manners, and the intercourse between the most
distant corners of the earth was rendered secure and
agreeable. Satiated with victory, the first emperors aban-
doned all thoughts of new conquests ; peace, an unknown
blessing, was enjoyed through all that vast empire ; or if
a slight war was waged on an outlying and barbarous
frontier, far from disturbing the tranquillity, it scarcely
drew the attention of mankind. The disciples of Christ,
thus favored by the union and peace of the Roman em-
pire, executed their commission wilh great advantage.
The success and rapidity with which they diffused the
knowledge of his name over the world are astonishing.
Nations were now accessible which foimerly had been
unknown. Under this situation, into which the provi-
dence of God had brought the world, the joyful sound in
a few years reached those remote corners of the earth,
into which it could not otherwise have penetrated for
many ages. Thus the Roman ambition and bravery
paved the way, and prepared the world for the reception
of the Christian doctrine.
3. If we consider the state of the world with regard to
morals, it evidently appears that the coming of Christ was
at the most appropriate time. The Romans, (continues
our author.) by subduing the world, lost their own liberty.
Blany vices engendered or nourished by prosperity, deli-
vered them over to the vilest race of tyrants that ever
afflicted or disgraced human nature. The colors are not
too strong which the apostle employs in drawing the cha-
racter of that age. See Eph. 4: 17, 19. In this time of
universal corruption did the wisdom of God manifest the
Christian revelation to the world. What the wis lom of
men could do for the encouragement of virtue in a corrupt
world had been tried during several ages, and all human
devices were found by experience to be of very small
avail ; so that no juncture could be more proper lor pub-
lishing a religion, which, independent of human laws ana
NAT
N A V
institutions, explains the principles uf morals with admi-
rable perspicuity, and enforces the practice of them by
most persuasive arguments.
4. The wisdom of God will still further appear in the
time of Christ's coming, if we consider the world with re-
gard to its religious state. The Jews seem to have been
deeply tinctured with superstition. Delighted with the
cerenionial prescriptions of the law, they utterly neglected
the moral. While the Pharisees undermined religion, on
the one hand, by their vain traditions and wretched inter-
pretations of the law, the Sadducees denied the immorta-
lity of the soul, and overturned the doctrine of future re-
wards and punishments ; so that between them the know-
ledge and power of true religion were entirely destroyed.
But the deplorable situation of the heathen world called
still more loudly for an immediate interposal of the divine
hand. The characters of their heathen deities were infa-
mous, and their religious worship consisted frequently in
the vilest and most shameful rites. According to the
apostle's observation, they " were in all things too super-
stitious." Stately temples, expensive sacrifices, pompous
ceremonies, magnificent festivals,^ with all the other
circumstances of show and splendor, were the objects
which false religioii presented to its votaries ; but just no-
tions of God, obedience to his moral laws, purity of heart,
and sanctity of life, were not once mentioned as ingredi-
ents in refigious service. Eome adopted the gods of al-
most every nation whom she had conquered, and opened
her temples to tlie grossest superstitions of the most bar-
barous people. Her foolish heart being darkened, she
changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image
made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and' four-footed
beasts, and creeping things, Rom. 1: 21, 23. No period,
therefore, can be mentioned when instructions would have
been more seasonable and necessary ; and no wonder that
those who were looking for salvation should joyfully ex-
claim, " Blessed be the Lord God of Israel, for he hath
visited and redeemed his peopls."
The nativity of Christ is celebrated in England on the
25th day of December, and divine service is performed in
the church, and in many places of worship among dissen-
ters ; but, alas ! the day, we fear, is more generally pro-
faned than improved. Instead of being a season of real
devotion, it is a season of great diversion. The luxury,
extravagance, intemperance, obscene pleasures, and
drunkenness that abound, are striking proofs of the im-
moralities of the age. It is a matter of just complaint,
says a divine, that such irregular and extravagant things
are at this time commonly done by many who call them-
selves Christians ; as if, because the Son of God was at
this time made man, it were fit for men to make them-
selves beasts ! Mamie's Dissertation on the Birth of Christ ;
Lardnerh Cred., p. 1, vol. ii. pp. 796, 963 ; Giirs Body of
Divinity, on Incarnation ; Bishop Law's Theory of Religion ;
Neioton's Review of Ecclesiastical Hisiary ; Dr. Eohertson's
Sermon on the Situation of the World at Christ's Appearance ;
Buckminster's Sermons ; Edwards' Redemption, pp. 313, 316 ;
Robinson's Claude, vol. i. pp. 276, 317; John Edivards' Sur-
vey of all the Dispensations and Methods of Religion, vol. i.
chap. 13 ; Worhs of Hannah More. — Heiid. Buck.
NATURAL, is, (1.) What proceeds from birth and
natural causes, 1 Cor. 15: 44. (2.) What is agreeable to
natural design, form, or inclination, Rom. I: 26, 27. —
Brown.
NATURAL BIAN, (psitchikos anthropos,) is a peculiar
designation that occurs in the apostolic writings: "The
natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God,
neither can he know them, because they are spiritually
discerned," 1 Cor. 2: 14. .See also Jude 19. Here it is
plain, first, that by " the natural man" is not meant a
person devoid of natural judgment, reason, or conscience,
in which sense the expression is often used among men.
Nor does it signify one who is entirely governed by his
fleshly appetites, or what the world calls a voluptuary, or
sen!!ualist. Neither does it signify merely a man in the
rude state of nature, whose faculties have not been culti-
vated by learning and study, and polished by an inter-
course with society. The context forbids either of these
interpretations. The apostle manifestly takes his " natu-
riil man" from among sncb as the world bold in the high-
est repute lor tlieir natural parts, their learning, and their
religion. He selects him from among the philosophers
of Greece, who sought after wisdom, and from among the
Jewish scribes, who were instructed in the revealed law
of God, 1 Cor. 1: 22, 23. These are the persons whom he
terms the wise, the scribes, the disputers of this world ;
men to whom the gospel was a stumbling-block and fool-
ishness, 1 Cor. 1: 20, 23.
The " natural man" is also here evidently opposed to the
pneumatikos, "him that is spiritual," (1 Cor. 2: 15.) even
as the natural body which we derive from Adam is opposed
to the spiritual body which believers will receive from
Christ at the resurrection, according to 1 Cor. 15: 44, 45.
Now the spiritual man is one who has the Spirit of Christ
dwelling in him, (Rom. 8: 9.) not merely in the way of
miraculous gifts, as some have imagined, (for these were
peculiar to the first age of the Christian church, and even
then not common to all the saints, nor inseparably con-
nected with salvation, 1 Cor. 13: 1 — 4. Heb. 6: 4 — 7.)
but in his saving influences of holiness, hght, and conso-
lation, whereby the subject is made to discern the truth
and excellency of spiritual things, and so to believe, love,
and delight in them as his true happiness. If therefore a
man is called " spiritual" because the Spirit of Christ
dwells in him, giving him new views, dispositions, and
enjoyments, then the " natural man," being opposed to
such, must be one who is destitute of the Spirit, and of
all his supernatural and saving effiscts, whatever may be
his attainments in human learning and science. It is ob-
viously upon this principle that our Lord insists upon the
necessity of the new birth in order to our entering into
the kingdom of heaven, John 3: 3, 5. — Watson.
NATURE ; the essential properties of a thing, or that
by which it is distinguished from all others. It is used
also for the system of the world, and the Creator of it ;
for the specific constitution of the sexes ; and for common
sense, Rom. 1: 26, 27. 1 Cor. 11: 14. The word is also
used in reference to a variety of other objects, which we
shall here enumerate. 1. The divine nature is not any
external form or shape, but his glory, excellency, and per-
fections, peculiar to himself. 2. Human nature signifies
the state, properties, and peculiarities of man. 3. Good
nature is a disposition to please, and is compounded of
kindness, forbearance, forgiveness, and self-denial. 4.
The law of nature is the will of God relating to human
actions, grounded in the moral differences of things.
Some understand it in a more comprehensive sense, as
signifying those stated orders by which all the parts of the
material world are governed in their several motions and
operations. 5. The light of nature does not consist mere-
ly in those ideas which heathens have actually attained, ,
but those which are presented to men by the works of
creation, and which, by the exertion of reason, they may
obtain, if they be desirous of retaining God in their mind.
(See Relision.) 6. By the dictates of nature, with re-
gard to right and wrong, we understand those things
which appear to the mind to be natural, fit, or reasonable.
7. The state of nature is that in which men have not by
mutual engagements, implicit or express, entered into
communities. 8. Depraved nature is that corrupt state
in which all mankind are born, and which inclines them
to evil. (See Depravity, Human.)
Peter informs us, (2 Ephes. 1: 4.) that our Savior has
made us partakers of a divine nature : he has imparted
to us the character of children of God, and grace to prac-
tise godUness, &c. like our Father who is in heaven.
Comp. 1 John 3: 1. — Hend. Buck: Ccilmet.
NAVIGATION, was little cultivated among the He-
brews till the days of their kings : Solomon had a fleet,
but he had not sailors equal to the management of it ; no
doubt, from their want of habit. Moses mentions nothing
of navigation, and David, it should seem, rather acquired
his great wealth by land commerce, than by sea voyages.
It is not easy to say what assistance the wisdom of Solo-
mon contributed to his fleet and officers on the mighty
ocean. Perhaps his extensive knowledge of natural
things first suggested the plan of these voyages. We
know that Judea had ports on the Mediterranean, as Jop-
pa, &c., but probably the coa.st, during the days of the
judges, was in the hands of the Philistines, to the exclusion
N A
L 801 J
W AZ
of Hebiew mariners ; and this accounts fur the means by
which the Philistines, on so narrow a slip of land, could
become powerful, and could occasionally furnish immense
armies, because they were free to receive reinforcements
by sea. In later ages the Greeks and Romans invaded
Syria by sea, and the intercourse between Judea and
Rome was direct ; as we learn from the voyage of Paul,
&c. Comp. JopPA.
There were also many boats and lesser vessels employed
in navigating the lakes, or seas, as the Hebrews called
them, which are in the Holy Land ; and there must have
been some embarkations on the Jordan ; but the whole of
these were trilling ; and it appears, that though Provi-
dence taught navigation to mankind, yet it was not the
design of Providence that the chosen people, and the de-
positaries of the Messiah, should have been other than a
settled or local nation, attached to one country, to which
country, and even to certain of its towns, peculiar privi-
leges were attributed in prophecy, and by divine appoint-
ment. The legal observances, distinction of meats, &c.
were great impediments to Jewish sailors, and prevented
their attainment of any great skill in navigation. — Calmei.
NAZARETH ; a littje city in the tribe of Zebulun, in
Lower Galilee, to the west of Tabor, and to the east of
Ptolemais. This city is much celebrated in the Scriptures
for having been the usual place of the residence of Jesus
Christ, during the first thirty years of his life, Luke 2: 51 .
It was here he lived in obedience to Joseph and" Mary,
and hence he took the name of Nazarene. After he had
begun to execute his mission, he preached here sometimes
in the synagogue, Luke 4: 16. i3ut because his country-
men had no faith in him, and were offended at the mean-
ness of his original, he did cot many miracles here, (Matt.
13: 54, 58.; nor would he dwell in llic city. So he fixed
his habitation at Capernaum for the latter part of his life,
Matt. 4: 13. The city of Nazareth was situated upon an
eminence, and on one side was a precipice, from whence
the Nazarenes designed, at one time, to cast Christ down
headlong, because he upbraided them for their incredulity
Luke 4: 29.
The present slate of this celebrated place is thus de-
scribed by modern travellers : — Nassara, or Naszera is
one of the principal towns in the pashalic of. Acre. Us
inhabitants are industrious, because they are treated with
less severity than those of the country towns in general.
The population is estimated at three thousand, of whom
five hundred are Turks ; the remainder are Christians.
There are about ninety Latin families, according to
Burckhardt ; but Jlr. Connor reports the Greeks to be the
most numerous: there is, besides, a congregation of Greek
Catholics, and another of Maronites.
The Latin convent is a very spacious and commodious
building, which was thoroughly repaired and considerably
enlarged in 1730. The remains of the mure ancient edi-
fice, ascribed to the mother of Constantine, may be ob-
served in the form of subverted columns, with fragments
of capitals and bases of pillars, lying near the modern
building. Pococke noticed, over a door, an old alto-relief
of Judith cutting ofl'lhe head of Holofernes. Within the
convent is the church of the Anntmciation, containing
the house of Joseph and Blary, the length of which is not
quite the breadth of the church ; but it forms the principal
part of it. The columns and all the interior of the
church are hung round with damask silk, which gives it a
warm and rich appearance. Behind the great altar is a
subterranean cavern, divided into small grottoes, where
the Virgin is said to have lived. Her kitchen, parlor, and
bedroom, are shown, and also a narrow hole in the rock,
ia which the child Jesus once hid himself from his perse-
cutors! The pilgrims who visit these holy spots are in
the habit of knocking off small pieces of stone from the
walls, which are thus considerably enlarging.
Burckhardt says that this church, next to that of the
linly sepulchre, is the finest in Syria, and contains two
tolerably good organs. Within the walls of the convent
are two gardens, and a small burying-ground : the walls
Hre very thick, and serve occasionally as a fortress to all
the Christians in the town. There are, at present, eleven
friars in the convent : they are chiefly Spaniards. To the
north-west of the convent is a small church, built over
Joseph's workshop. Both Maundrell and Pococke describe
it as in ruins ; but Dr. E. D. Clarke says, " This is now a
small chapel, perfectly modern, and neatly whitewashed."
To the west of this is a small arched building, which, they
say, is the synagogue where Christ exasperated the Jews,
by applying the language of Isaiah to himself.
Dr. E. D. Clarke remarks that the situation of the mo-
dern town answers exactly to the description of St. Luke.
" Induced, by the words of the gospel, to examine the
place more attentively than we should otherwise have
done, we went, as it is written, out of the city, ' to the
brow of the hill whereon the city is built,' and came to a
precipice corresponding to the words of the evangelist.
It is above the Maronite church, and, probably, the pre-
cise spot alluded to by the text.'" — Watson.
NAZARENE ; Matt. 2: 23. We find no particular
place in the prophets expressly affirming that the Mes-
siah should be called a Nazarene ; and Matthew only
mentions the prophets in general. Perhaps he would in-
fer that the consecration of Nazarites, and their great
purity, was a type and prophecv referring to our Savior;
(Num. 6: 18, ly.) or, liiat the' name Nazir, or Nazarite,
given to the patriarch Joseph, had some reference to
Christ, Gen. 49: 26. Deut. 33: 16. Jerome was of opinion,
that Blalthew alludes to Isa. 11:1. 60: 21 : " There shall
come forth a rod out of the stem of Jesse, and a branch
(Heb. A«rer) shall grow out of his roots." This branch,
or Nazer, and this rod, are certainly intended to denote
the Messiah, by the general consent of the fathers and
interpreters. — Or, possibly, in a more general sense, " He
shall be vilified, despised, neglected," as every thinu: wa.s
that came from Nazareth ; and this might be a kind of
prophetic proverb. — Ciilmel.
NAZARENES ; Christians converted from Judaism,
whose chief error consisted in defending the necessity or
expediency of the works of the law, and who obstinately
adhered to the practice of the Jewish ceremonies. The
name of Nazarenes, at first, had nothing odious in it,
N k A
[ 862]
NEC
and il was oi'ien given io Ihe firsl Cliristiaus. The fathers
lifquenlly mention the gospel of the Nazarenes, which
liiflers nothing from that of St. Slatthew, which was either
in Hebrew or Syriac, for the use of the first converts, bat
was afterwards corrnpted by the Ebionites. These Naza-
renes preserved their first gospel in its primitive purity.
Some of them were still in being in the time of Jerome,
■n-ho does not reproach them with any gross errors. They
were very zealous observers of the law of Moses, but hold
the traditions of the Pharisees in very great contempt.
Some have considered the Nazarenes and the Ebioniics
to have been identical ; but this cannot be proved to be I'jLCt ;
and nothing can be more fallacious than the Socinian ar-
gument, which is founded on the mere assumption of this
identity, and according to which, the Nazarenes, being
orthodox judaizing Christians, held that Jesus was a mere
man. See EEIo^'lTES, and Bishop Horsleyh Reply to Dr.
Prieslley, and Burton's Enrly Heresits.
The name Nazarene was given to Jesus Christ and his
disciples ; and is commonly taken in a sense of derision
and contempt in such authors as have written against
Christianity. — Hend. Buck.
NAZARITES ; those under the ancient law who en-
gaged by a vow to abstain from wine and all intoxicating
liquors, to let their hair grow, not lo enter any house pol-
luted by having a dead corpse in it, nor to be present at
any funeral. It', by accident, anyone should have died in
their presence, they recommenced the whole of their con-
secration and Nazariteship. This vow generally lasted eight
days, sometimes a month, and sometimes their whole lives.
Perpetual Nazarites, as Samson and John the Baptist,
were consecrated to their Nazariteship by their parents,
and continued all their lives in this state, without drinking
wine or cutting their hair. Those who made a vow of
Nazariteship out of Palestine, and could not come lo the
temple when their vow was expired, contented themselves
with observing the abstinence required by the law, and
cutting off their hair in the place where they were: the
offerings and sacrifices prescribed by Moses, to be offered
at the temple, by themselves or by others for them, they
deferred till a convenient opportunity. Hence it was that
St. Paul, being at Corinth, and having made the vow of a
Nazarite, had his hair cut off at Cenchrea, a port of Co-
rinth, and deferred the rest of his vow till he came to Jerti-
salem. Acts 18; 18. 21: 23,24.
The institution of Nazaritism is involved in much mys-
tery ; and no satisfactory reason has ever been given of it.
This is certain, that it had the approbation of God, and
i.nv be considered as affording a good e.xample of self-de-
de:iial in order to be given up to the study of the law^, and
the practice of exact righteousness. — Watson.
NEAL, (Daniel,) a dissenting minister, was born, in
1678, in London ; was educated at Merchant Tailors'
school, and at Utrecht ; became minister to a congrega-
tion in Jewin street ; and died in 1743. He wrote a His-
tory of the Puritans; and a History of New England. —
Davr.yjport .
NEAPOLIS, now called Napoli ; (Acts 16: 11.) a city
ofSlacedonia, near the borders of Thrace. — Calmet.
NEAR ; at hand. God is near, he is everywhere pre-
sent, and is ready to help his people in every case; or
uhen he offers to save, uphold, and comfort, Jer. 23: 23.
Isa. 5;. 6, and 41: 5. Deut. 4: 7. 1 Kings 2: 7. Ps. 69: 18,
and 75: 1, and 119: 151, and 32: 9. Lam. 3: 57. He is
vcar in ficopk's month, but far from their reiiu, when they are
oft talking of him, but are far from loving, desiring, and
delighting in him, Jer. 12: 2. God's name is near ; he is
closely related to his people and they intimate in their fel-
lowship with him. His work is near, exerted in upholding,
protecting, and comforting them. His word is nigh in
their mouth, and in their heart, preached to their ear, spo-
ken by their lips, conceived by their mind, and powerfully
applied to and believed by their heart. Israel was a peo-
ple near to Gorl ; while the Gentiles were far off, they were
closely related to him as his peculiar people ; they had his
ordinances and symbols of his presence among them; and
he was ready to support and defend them, Ps. 148: 14,
and 57: 19. We dram near to God when we worship him,
and by faith, prayer, &c., have intimate fellowship with
him, Lev. 16: 1. 1 Sam. 14: 36.— i>V»wn.
NEBl) ; the name of ati idol of llit Babylonians : "Bel
boweth down, Nebo stoopelh," Isa. 46: 1. The word Nebo
comes from a root that signifies " to prophesy," and there-
fore may stand for an oracle. There is some probability
in the opinion of Calmet, that Bel and Nebo are but one
and the same deity, and that Isaiah made use of these
names as synonymous. The god Bel was the oracle of
the B;vbylonians. The name Nebo, or Nabo, is found in
the cOMiposilion of the names of several princes of Baby-
lon ; as Nabonassar, Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar, Ne-
buzar-adan, Nebushasban, &c. (See also Aearim.) —
Watson.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, or Nabopolassak, father of
Nebuchadnezzar the Great, was a Babylonian, and chief
of the army of Saracus, king of Assyria. He made a
league with Astyages, who gave his daughter Amyilis in
marriage to his son Nebuchadnezzar. Ahasuerus and
Nabopolassar, joining their forces, revolted again"t Sara-
cus, king of Nineveh, besieged him in his capildi, looic
him prisoner, and on the destruction of the Assyrian mo-
narchy raised two kingdoms ; that of the Medes, possessed
by Astyages, or Ahasuerus. and that of the Chaldeans, or
oi" Babylon, founded by Nabopolassar, A. M. 3378. He
died A. M. 3399.— Cn/me^
NEBUCHADNEZZAR, son and successor of Nabopo-
lassar, succeeded to the kingdom of Chaldea A. M. 3399.
(See Babylon.)
Nebuchadnezz.Tr, being at Babylon, in the second year
of his reign, had a mysterious dream, in which he saw a
statue composed of several metals ; the interpretation of
which was given by Daniel, and procured his elevation to
the highest po:t in the kingdom. (See Daniel, Abednego,
and Babylon.) Nebuchadnezzar died A. M. 3442, after
having reigned forty-three years. — Calmet.
NECESSITARIANS ; an appellation which may be giv-
en to all who maintain that moral agents act from neces-
sity. (See next article, and Matekialists.) — Hend. Buck.
NECESSITY; constraint, or restraint, by irresistible
power ; in which sense it is opposed to freedom.
The doctrine of necessity regards the origin of human
actions, and the specific mode of the divine government ;
and it seems lo be the immediate result of the materiality
of man ; for literal mechanism is the undoubted conse-
quence of materialism. Hence all materialists are of
course necessitarians ; but it does not follow that all ne-
cessitarians are or must be materialists.
Whether man is a necessary or a free agent, is a ques-
tion which has been debated by writers of the first emi-
nence. Hobbes, Collins, Hume, Leibnitz, Kames, Hartley,
Priestley, Crombie, Toplady, and Belsham, have written on
the side of necessity ; while Edwards, Clarke, King, Law,
Reid, Butler, Price, Bryant, Wollaston, Horsley, Betattie,
Necker, Mackintosh, Gregory, Eutterworth, and Dwight,
have written against it. To state all their arguments in
this place would take up loo much room ; suffice it to say,
thai the anti-necessitarians suppose that the doctrine of
necessity charges God as the author of sin ; that it takes
away the freedom of the will, renders man unaccountable,
makes sin to be no evil, and morality or virtue to be no
good ; precludes the use of means, and is of the most
gloomy tendency. The necessitarians deny these to be le-
gitimate consequences. All necessity, say they, doth not
tak-e away freedom. The actions of a man may be at one
and the same time free and necessary too. Il was infallibly
certain thai Judas would betray Christ, yet he did il volun-
tarily. Jesus Christ necessarily became man, and died,
yel he acted freely. A good man doth naturally and ne-
cessarily love his children, yel voluntarily. It is part of
the happiness of ihe blessed to love God unchangeably,
yet freely, for it would not be iheir happiness if done by
compulsion. Nor does it, says the necessitarian, render
man unaccountable, since the Divine Being does no injury
lo his rational faculties; and man, as his creature, is an-
swerable lo him ; besides, he has a right to do what he will
with his own. That all necessity doth not render actions
less morally good, is evident ; for if necessary virtue be
neither moral nor praiseworthy, it will follow that God
himself is Jiot a moral being, because he is a necessary one ;
and the obedience of Christ cannot be good, because it was
necessary. Further, say they, moral necessity does not
NEC
[ 8b3
NEH
preclude the use of means ; for means are no less ap-
pointed than the end. It was ordained that Christ should
be delivered up to death ; but he could not have been be-
trayed without a betrayer, nor crucified without crucifiers.
That it is not a gloomy doctrine, they allege, because no-
thing can be more consolatory than to believe that all
things are under the direction of an all-wise Being ; that
ids kingdom ruleth over all, and that he doth all things
well. So far from its being inimical to happiness, they
suppose there can be no solid, true happiness without the
belief of it ; that it inspires gratitude, excites confidence,
teaches resignation, produces humility, and draws the soul
to God. It is also observed, that to deny necessity is to
deny the foreknowledge of God, and to wrest the sceptre
from the hand of the Creator, and to place that capricious
and undefinable principle, the self-determining power of
man, upon the throne of the universe. Besides, say they,
the Scripture places the doctrine beyond all doubt, Job
23: 13. 14. 31: 29. Prov. 1(3: 4. Isa. 45: 7. Acts 13: 48.
Eph. 1: 11. 1 Thess. 3: 3. Matt. 10: 29, 30. 18: 7. Luke
24: 26. John 6: 37.
In these statements, however, as president Edwards re-
marks, there is obviously a confused use of terms in differ-
ent meanings, so as to mislead the unwary. For instance :
nccessilij is confounded with certainly ; but an action may
be certain, though free ; that is to say, certain to an om-
niscient Being, who knows how a free agent will finally
resolve; but "this certainty is, in fact, a quality of the
prescient being, not that of the action, to which, however,
men delusively transfer it. Again : God is called a neces-
sary Being, which, if it mean any thing, signifies, as to his
moral acts, that he can only act right. But then this is a
wrong application of the term necessity, which properly
implies such a constraint upon actions, exercised ab extra,
as renders choice or will impossible. But such necessity
cannot exist as to the Supreme Being. Again : the obe-
dience of Christ unto death was necessary ; that is to say,
unless he had died guilty men could not have been forgiv-
en ; but this could not make the act of the Jews who put him
to death a necessary act, that is to say, a forced and con-
strained one ; nor did this necessity affect the act of Christ
himself, who acted voluntarily, and might have left man
without salvation. That the Jews acted fredy, is evident
from their being held liable to punishment, although un-
consciously they accomplished the great designs of Hea-
ven, which, however, was no excuse for their crime. Fi-
nally : as to the allegation, that the doctrine of free agency
puts man's self-determining power upon the throne of the
universe, that view proceeds upon notions unworthy of
God, as though he could not accomplish his plans without
compelling and controlling all things by a fixed fate ;
whereas it is both more glorious to him, and certainly
more in accordance with the Scriptures, to say that he has
1 perfect foresight of the manner in which all creatures
nill act, and that he, by a profound and infinite wisdom,
subordinates every thing without violence to the evolution
and accomplishment of his own glorious purposes.
No writer, however, has set this difficult subject in so
clear a light as the great but unknown author of the Na-
tural History of Enthusiasm, in his Essay introductory to
Edwards on the Will ; to which we beg leave to refer the
reader. See also the works of the above-mentioned writers
on this subject ; and articles Materialists ; Moral Asen-
cY ; Decrees OF God ; Predestination. — Watson; H. Buck.
NECHO, king of Egypt, carried his arms to the Eu-
phrates, where he conquered the city of Carchemish. He
is known not only in Scripture, but in Herodotus, who
says that he was son of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, and
' that having succeeded him in the kingdom, he raised great
armies, and sent out great fleets, as well on the Mediterra-
nean as the Red sea ; that he fought the Syrians near the
city of Migdol, obtained the victory, and took the city of
Cadytis, which some think to be Jerusalem. (See Josun ;
Babylon ; Carchemish.) — Calmet.
NECK. To harden rte Keci is a metaphor drawn from
the practice of a bullock unaccustomed to the yoke.
NECKER, (James,) an eminent financier and religious
statesman, the father of Madame De Slael, was born, in
1732, at Geneva, and for many years carried on the busi-
ness of a banker at Paris. His Eulogy on Colbert, his
treatise on the Corn Laws and Trade, and some essays on
th» Resources of France, inspired such an idea of his ta-
lents for finance, that, in 1776, he was appointed director
of the treasury, and, shortly after, comptroller-general.
Before his resignation, in I7SI, he published a statement
of his operations, addressed to the king; and, while in re-
tirement, he produced a work on the Administration of the
Finances, and another on the Importance of Religions Opi-
nions. The latter work, notwithstanding some imperfec-
tions, is worthy of immortality. It has been translated
into English. He was reinstated in the comptrollership
in 1788, and advised the convocation of the states general :
v.'as abruptly dismissed, and ordered to quit the kingdom,
in July, 1789 ; but was almost instantly recalled, on ac-
C(i!i!!t of the ferment which his departure excited in the
piildic mind. Necker, however, soon became as much a:i
ol)ject of antipathy to the fickle people as he had been of
their idolatry, and in 1790 he left France forever. M.
Necker was a decided Protestant, and worthy of better
treatment than psipal and infidel France was disposed to
give him. In 1798, he published a work of much interest
on the French Revolution, and, in 1800, his last great and
eloquent work on the Religious View of jMorality, in three
volumes. Necker and Burke belong to the same class of
men. He died, at Copet, in Switzerland, in 1804. The
whole of his works form fifteen volumes. — His wife, Su-
sanna, whose maiden name was Curchod, was a woman
of talent, and wrote Reflections on Divorce ; and Miscella-
nies.— Davenport ; Ency. Amer.
NECROLOGY, (formed of tieliros, dead, and logos, dis-
course, or enumeration ;) a book anciently kept in churches
and monasteries, wherein were registered the benefactors
of the same, the time of their deaths, and the days of their
commemoration ; as also the deaths of the priors, abbots,
religious canons, &c. This was otherwise called calendar
and obituarv. — Hend. Buck.
NECROMANCY, (from ne/.r-it and manteia,) is the art
of raising up the ghosts of dec-- 1 ,zi persons, to get infor-
mation from them concerning fV.'.ure events. This prac-
tice, no doubt, the Israelites brought with them from
Egypt, which affected to be the mother of such occult sci-
ences ; and from thence it spread into the neighboring
countries, and soon infected all the East. The injunction
of the law is very express against this vice; and the pu-
nishment to be inflicted on the practisers of it was stoning
to death. Lev. 20: 27. What forms of enchantment were
used in the practice of necromancy we are at a loss to
know, because we read of none that the pythoness of En-
dor employeil ; however, that there were several rites,
spells, and invocations used upon these occasions, we may
learn from almost every ancient author, but from none
more particularly than from Lucan in his Pharsalia.
Whether the art of conversing with the dead was mere
imposture, or grounded upon diabolical agency, is a ques-
tion which has been disputed in all ages. — Watson.
NEGINOTH ; a term which is read before some of the
psalms, and signifies stringed instruments of music, to be
played on by the fingers, or by female musicians. The
titles of these psalms may be translated, A Psalm of Da-
vid to the master of music, who presides over the stringed
instruments. — Calmet.
NEHEMIAH, an illustrious Jewish reformer and ruler,
professes himself the author of the book which bears his
name, in the very beginning of it, and he uniformly writes
in the first person. He was of the tribe of Juclah, and
was probably born at Babylon during the captivity. He
was so distinguished for his family and attainments, as to
be selected for the office of cup-hearer to the king of Per-
sia, a situation of great honor and emolument. He was
made governor of Judea, upon his own application, by
Artaxerxes Longimanus ; and his book, which in the He-
brew canon was joined to that of Ezra, gives an account
of his appointment and administration through a space of
about thirty-six years, to A. M. 3595, at which time the
Scripture history closes ; and, consequently, the historical
books, from Joshua to Nehemiah inclusive, contain the
history of the Jewish people from the death of Moses,
A. M. 2553, to the refor;nation established by Nehemiah,
after the return from captivity, being a period of one thou-
sand and forty-two years. — Watsun.
NE-0
[ 864 ]
NEO
NEHILOTH; a word found at the beginning of the
fifth Psalm, and which signifies tlie dances, or the flutes.
This psahn is addressed to the master who presided over
the dances, which were performed in certain religious
ceremonies, or the band of music which performed on the
tlute. The title of the fifth Psalm may be thus translated :
•' A Psalm of David, addressed to the master of music pre-
siding over the dancers, or over the flutes." — Calmet.
NEHUSHTAN ; a name given by Hezekiah, king of
Judah, to the brazen serpent that Moses had set up in the
wilderness, ('Num.21: 8.) and which had been preserved
by the Israelites to that time. The superstitious people
having made an idol of this serpent, Hezekiah caused it to
be burnt, and in derision gave it the name of Nehushtan,
q. d. this little brazen serpent, 2 Kings 18: 4. — Calmet.
NEIGHBOR, signifies a person near; and generally,
any man connected mth us by the bonds of humanity, and
whom charily requires that we should consider as a friend
and relation. At the time of our Savior, the Pharisees
had restrained the meaning of the worci neighbor to those
(if their own nation, or to their own friends ; holding, that
to hate their enemy was not forbidden by the law, Matt.
5: 43. Luke 10: 20. But our Savior informed them, that
the whole world were neighbors ; that they ought not to do
to another what they would not have done to themselves ;
and that this charity extended even to enemies. See the
beautiful parable of the good Samaritan, the real neighbor
to the distressed, Luke 10: 29. (See Love of our Neigh-
bor )
God is called a neighbor [near] to those who fear him,
and call upon him, Ps. 83: 9. 145: 18. He gives them to-
kens of his presence and protection : " Am 1 a God at hand,
and not a God afar off?" am I one of those gods that men
have made not above two days ago ? am not I an eternal
God? Otherwise; I am a neighbor God, that sees every
thing, knows every thing, and not an absent or a distant
God, Jer. 23: 23. Compare Elijah and Baal's prophets. —
Calmet.
NEOLOGY. This term, which signifies tiew doctrine, has
been used to designate a species of theology and biblical
criticism which has of late years much prevailed among
the Protestant divines of Germany, and the professors of
their universities. It is now, however, more frequently
termed rationalism, and is supposed to occupy a sort of
middle place between the orthodox system and pure deism.
1. Its definitions and forms. — The German divines them-
selves speak of naturalism, rationalism, and supernatural-
ism. The term naturalism arose first in the sixteenth cen-
tury, and was spread in the seventeenth. It was understood
to be the system of those who allowed no other knowledge
of religion than the natural, which man could shape out
by his own strength, and, consequently, excluded all su-
pernatural revelation. As to the different forms of natu-
ralism, theologians say there are three : the first, which
they call Pelagianism, and which considers human dispo-
sitions and notions as perfectly pure, and the religious
knowledge derived from them as sufficiently explicit. A
grosser kind denies all particular revelation ; and the
grossest of all considers the world as God.
Rationalism has been thus explained : " Those who are
generally termed rationalists," says Dr. Bretschneider,
"admit universally in Christianity, a divine, benevolent,
and positive appointment for the good of mankind, and
Jesus as a Messenger of divine Providence, believing that
the true and everlasting word of God is contained in the
Holy Scripture, and that by the same the welfare of man-
kind will be obtained and extended. But they deny there-
in a supernatural and miraculous working of God, and
consider the object of Christianity to be that of introducing
into the world such a religion as reason can comprehend ;
and they distinguish the essential from the unessential,
and what is local and temporary from that which is uni-
versal and permanent in Christianity." There is, how-
ever, a third class of divines, who, in fact, differ very little
from this, though very widely in profession. They affect
to allow a revealing operation of God, but establish on
internal proofs rather than on miracles the divine nature
of Christianity. They allow that revelation may contain
much out of the power of reason to explain, but say that it
should assert nothing contrary to reason, but rather what
may be proved by it. SupernaturaKsm consists in general
in the conviction that God has revealed himself superna-
turally and immediately. The notion of a miracle cannot
well be separated from such a revelation, whether it hap-
pens out of, on, or in men. What is revealed may belong
to the order of nature, but an order higher and unknown
to us, which we could never have known without miracles,
and cannot bring under the laws of nature.
2. Its principles.- — The difference between the naturalists
and the rationalists, as Mr. Rose justly remarks, is not
quite so wide either as it would appear to be at first sight,
or as one of them assuredly wishes it to appear. For if I
receive a system, be it of religion, of morals, or of politics,
only so far as it approves itself to my reason, whatever be
tlie authority that presents it to me, it is idle to say that I
receive the system out of any respect to that authority. I
receive it 07ily because my reason approves it ; and I
should, of course, do so if an authority of far inferior value
were to present the system to me. This is what that divi-
sion of rationalists, which professes to receive Christianity,
and at the same time to make reason the supreme arbiter
in matters of faith, has done. Their system, in a word, is
this : They assume certain general principles, which they
maintain to be the necessary deductions of reason from an
extended and unprejudiced contemplation of the natural
and moral order of things, and to be in themselves immu-
table and universal. Consequently, any thing which, on
however good authority, may be advanced in apparent op-
position to them, must either be rejected as unworthy of
rational belief, or, at least, explained away till it is made
to accord with the assumed principles ; and the truth or
falsehood of all doctrines proposed is to be decided accord-
ing to their agreement or disagreement with those prin-
ciples.
3. Its operation. — It is easy, then, to anticipate, how,
with such principles, the biblical critics of Germany, dis-
tinguished as many of them have been for learning, would
proceed to interpret the Scriptures. Many of the sacred
books and parts of others have, of course, been rejected
by them as spurious, the strongest external evidence being
thought by them insufficient to prove the truth of what
was determined to be contradictory to their reason ; and
the inspiration of the rest was understood in no higher a
sense, to use the language of one of their professors, than
the expressions of Cicero as to the inspir;(tion of the poets,
or those of Quintilian respecting Plato. But where the
supernatural and miraculous accounts were not rejected,
they were, by many of the most eminent of these writers,
explained away by a monstrous ingenuity, which, on any
other subject, and applied to any ancient classic or other
writer, would provoke the most contemptuous ridicule.
When Korah, Dathan, and Abiram were swallowed up,
Moses had previously " secretly undermined the earth." Ja-
cob wrestled with the angel " in a dream ;" and a rheuma-
tic pain in his thigh during sleep suggested the incident in
his dream of the angel touching the sinew of his thigh.
In like manner the miracle of feeding the five thousand in
the desert is resolved into the opportune passing by of a
caravan with provisions, of which the hungry multitude
were allowed to partake, according to eastern hospitality ;
and the apostles were merely employed in conveying it
out in baskets. Christ's walking upon the sea is explained
by his walking upon the sea-shore, and St. Peter's walking
on the sea is resolved into swimming. The miracles of
healing were the efiect of fancy operating favorably upon
the disorders ; and Ananias and Sapphira died of a fright ;
with many other absurdities, half dreams and half blasphe-
mies ; and of which the above are given but as a specimen.
These principlesof unbelief have, under various modifi-
cations, been propagated by means of systems of philoso-
phy, new versions of the Scriptures, commentaries, intro-
ductions, works on biblical criticism and interpretation,
grammars, lexicons, lectures, sermons, catechisms, tracts,
reviews, newspapers, and, in short, through almost every
possible vehicle of communication. Their advocates have
been found in the professor at the university, the preacher
in the pulpit, the village schoolmaster, and even the mo-
ther and the nursery-maid. Sometimes they have been
propounded with all the gravity of a philosopher, and at
other times taught with all the flippancy and levity of a
NE 0
[ 8G5
N EO
buffoon. Wall such instruments aiiJ such efl'orts, Clu'is-
lianity has now harl to struggle for more tlian half a cen-
tury ; ami awful have been the examples of religious
shipwreck which that period of time has presented.
4. Jts sources. — The first step in this sorrowful grada-
tion down to a depth of falsehood and blasphemy, into
which certainly no body of Christian ministers, so large,
so learned, and influential, in any age or period of the
church ever before fell, was, contempt for the authority of
the divines of the Reformation, and of the subsequent age.
They were about to set out on a voyage of discovery ; and
it was necessary to assume that truth still inhabited some
terra incoqiiila, to which neither Luther, Melancthon, nor
their early disciples, had ever found access. One of this
school is pleased, indeed, to denominate the whole even of
the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth centu-
ry, the age of theological barbarism.
The vain conceit that the doctrines of religion were ca-
pable of philosophic denionstration, which obtained among
the followers of Wolf, is con.sidered by Mr. Rose as having
hastened onward the progress of error. The effect in
Germany was speedily developed, though Wolf, the foun-
der of this school, and most of his followers, were pious
and faithful Christians. By carrying demonstrative evi-
dence beyond its own province, they had nurtured in their
followers a vain confidence in human reason ; and the
next and still more fatal step was, that it was the province
of human reason in an enlightened and intellectual age to
perfect Christianity, which, it was contended, had hitherto
existed in a low and degraded state, and to perfect that
system of which the elements only were contained in the
Scripture. All restraint was broken by 'this principle.
Philosophy, good and bad, was left to build up these "ele-
ments" according to its own views ; and as, after all,
many of these elements were found to be too untractable
and too rudely shaped to accord with the plans of these
manifold constructions, formed according to every " pat-
tern," except that " in the mount ;" when the stone could
not be squared and framed by any art which these builders
possessed, it was " rejected."
Semler appears to have been the author of that famous
theory of accommodation, which, in the hands of his fol-
lowers, says Mr. Rose, became " the most formidable wea-
pon ever devised for the destruction of Christianity." (See
Accommodation.) As far as Gemiany is concerned, this
language is not too strong; and we may add, that it was
the most impudent theory ever advocated by men profess-
ing still to be Christians, and one, the avowal of which
can scarcely be accounted for, except on the ground, that
as, because of their interests, it was not convenient for
these teachers of theology and ministers of the German
churches to disavow Christianity altogether, it was de-
vised and maintained, in order to connect the profits of
tlie Chiistian profession with substantial and almost undis-
guised deism. Thus the chairs of theology and the very
pulpits were turned into "the seats of the scornful;" and
where doctrines were at all preached, they were too fre-
quently of this daring and infidel character. It became
even, at least, a negative good, that the sermons delivered
were olten discourses on the best modes of cnliivating
corn and wine, and the preachers employed the Sabbath
and the church in instructing their flocks how to choose
the best kinds of potatoes, or to enforce upon them the
benefits of vaccination. Undisguised infidelity has in no
country treated the grand evidences of the truth of Chris-
tianity with greater contumely, or been more oflensive in
its attacks upon the prophets, or more ridiculous in its at-
tempts to account, on natural principles, for the miracles.
Extremes of every kind were produced, philosophic mysti-
cism, pantheism, and atheism.
We have hitherto referred chiefly to Mr. Rose's work
on this awful declension in the Lutheran and other conti-
nental churches. In a work on the same subject by Mr.
Pusey, the stages of the apostasy are more carefully
marked, and more copiously and deeply investigated.
Our limits will, however, but allow us to advert to two or
three points. In Mr. Pusey's account of the state of Ger-
man theology in the seventeenth century, he opens to us
the sources of the evil. Francke, he observes, assigns as
a rea-son Cor attaching the more value to the opportunities
109
provided at Ilalle for the study of Scripture, that "in foi
mer times, and in those which are scarcely past, one gene-
rally found at universities opportunities for every thing
rather than a solid study ol^ God's word." " In all my
university years," says Knapp, " I was not happy enough
to hear a lecture upon the whole of Scripture ; we should
have regarded it as a great blessing which came down
from heaven." It is .said to be one only of many instan-
ces, that at Leipzic, Carpzoff', having in his lectures for
one half year completed the first chapter of Isaiah, did not
again lecture on the Bible for twenty years, while Olearius
suspended his for ten. Yet Olearius, as well as Alberti,
Spener says, " were diligent theologians, but that most
pains were employed on doctrinal theology and controver-
sy." It is, moreover, a painful speaking fact, which is
mentioned by Francke, (1709,) that in Leipzic, the great
mart of literature as well as of trade, " twenty years ago,
in no bookseller's shop was either Bible or Testament to
be found." Of the passages in Francke, which prove the
same state of things, I will select one or two only : " Youth
are sent to the universities with a moderate knowledge of
Latin ; but of G reek, and especially of Hebrew, next to none.
And it would even then have been well, if what had been
neglected before, had been made up in the universities.
There, however, most are borne, as by a torrent, with the
inultitude ; they flock to logical, metaphysical, ethical, po-
lemical, physical, pneumalical lectures, and what not ;
treating least of all those things whose benefit is mo.st
permanent in their future oflicc, especially deferring, and
at last neglecting, the study of the sacred languages."
Yet these were but effects of a still higher cause, — the
rapid decay of piety in this century, of which the statements
of Mr. Pusey, and the authorities he quotes, present a me-
lancholy picture. Speaking of J. V. Andrea, he says, the
want of practical religious instruction in the early schools,
the perverted state of all education, the extravagance and
dissoluteness of the universities, the total unfitness of the
teachers whom they sent forth and authorized, the de-
graded state of general as well as theological science, the
interested motives for entering into holy orders, the can-
vassing for benefices, the simony in obtaining them, the
especial neglect of the poor, the bad lives, the careless-
ness and bitter controversies of the preachers, and the ge-
neral corruption of manners in all ranks, are again and
again the subjects of his deep regrets or of his censure. Into
the stale of the clergy Francke enters more fully in another
work. " I remember,'' he says, " that a theologian of no
common learning, piety, and practical knowledge, (hw« en
haginis.) told me, that a certain monarch, at his suggestion,
applied to a university, where there w.as a large concourse
of students of theology, for two candidates for holy orders,
who, bv the excellence and purity of their doctrine, and by
holiness of life, might serve as an example to the congre-
gation committed to their charge ; the professors candiilly
answered that there was no such student of theology
among them. Nor is this surprising. I remember that
Kortholt u.sed to say with pain, that in the disgraceful
strifes, disturbances, and tumults in the universities,
which were, alas, but too frequent, it scarcely ever hai>
pened that theological students were not found to be ac-
coiTiplices, nay, the chiefs. I remember that another theo-
logian often lamented, that there was such a dearth in iho
church of such persons as the apostle would alone think
worthy of the ministerial functions, that it was to be re-
garded as a happiness if. of many applicants, some one of
outwardly decent life could at length be found."
5. Its efects. — With several happy exceptions, and the
raising up of a few pious people in some places, and a
partial revival of evangelical doctrines, which, however,
often ran at length into mysticism and Antinomianism.
the evil, both doctrinally and morally, continued to in-
crease to our own day ; for if any ask what has been the
moral etfect of the appalling apostasy of the teachers ot
religion, above described, upon the people of Germany,
theanswer may be given from one of these rationalizing
divines themselves, whose .stateinent is not therefo.-e likely
to be too highly colored. It is from a pamphlet o Bret-
schneider, published in 1822. and the substance is. •• ndil-
ference to religion among all classes ; that lormerly the
Bible used to be in every house, but now the people e;tu?r
NEO
[ 866 j
NEO
lo Hot possess it, or, as formerly, rearl it ; that (ew attend
the churches, which are now too large, thongh fifty years
ago they were too small ; that few honor the Sahbath ;
that there are now few students of theology, compared with
those in law and medicine ; that if things go on so, there
will shortly not be persons to snpply the various ecclesias-
tical offices ; that preaching had fallen into contempt ; and
that distrast and suspicion of the doctrines of Christianity
prevailed among all classes." Melancholy as (his picture
is, nothing in it can surprise any one, except that the very
persons who have created the evil should themselves be
astonished at its existence, or even affect to be so.
6. Secent reaction and revival of religion. — At length, how-
ever, a powerful reaction has taken place. The high places
of literature and influence are no longer exclusively held
by men inimical to the truth as it is in Jesus, but are, many
of them, occupied hy individuals of acknowledged literary
and scientific merit, who are bending all their energies to
undeceive the public with respect to the nnsatisfactorj', un-
tenable, and self-contradrctory theories of rationalism, false-
ly so called. A spirit of piety is rapidly spreading among
those who are destined to be the future inslructers of the
people ; the Scriptures and evangelical tracts are being ex-
tensively circulated ; and some able periodicals have recent-
ly been set on foot, under the editorial superintendence of
men of orthodox principles and high literary attainments.
It has been justly observed, that no men ever undertook
to deny the divine origin of Christianity, or to explain
away its principal facts and doctrines, under circumstances
so favorable for the experiment as those of the neolo-
gists of Germany. The hand of power, instead of being
against them, was most frequently with them. They had
possession of the seats of learning, commanded a vast band
of journals which kept any thing of the kind in the shape
of orthodoxy entirely out of the market. They had all the
advantages which facilities in literature could give ; they
had numbers, and wealth, and clamor on their side;
they had, in a word, ample room and verge enough to
work their will, if that will could have been elfecled. And
yet, in spite of all that metaphysical and mythological re-
.searches could effect to get rid of the divine authority of
the Bible ; in spite of all that sophistry and ridicule could
effect to introduce the misnamed religion of reason, it re-
mains precisely where it was ; and the religion of reason
is being overthrown and rejected. The Bible has laughed
its enemies and all their efforts to scorn. " The word of
God shall stand forever." For further information on
this subject, see Jiobinson^s Biblical Refository ; Christian
Examiner ; and Spirit of the Pilgrims. — Watsmi ; Hend.
Buck.
NEOBIENIA ; (Col. 2: 16.) a Greek word, signifying
the first day of the moon or month. The Hebrews had a
particular veneration for the first day of every month, for
which Moses appointed peculiar sacrifices; (Num. 28: 11,
12.) but he gave no orders that it should be kept as a holy
day, nor can it be proved that the ancients observed it so ;
it was a festival of merely voluntary devotion. (See
Month.) It appears that even from the time of Saul they
made, on this, day, a sort of family entertainment, since Da-
vid ought then to have been at the king's table ; and Sanl
took his absence amiss, 1 Sam. 20: 5, 18. Moses insinu-
ates, that be.Mdes the national sacrifices then regularly
offered, every private person had his particular sacrifices
of devotion. Num. 10: 10. The beginning of the month
was proclaimed by sound of trumi->et, at the offering of
solemn sacrifices, rWrf. But the most celebrated neomenia
was that at the beginning of the civil year, or first day of
the month Tisri, Lev. 23: 24. This was a sacred festival,
on which no servile labor was performed. In the kingdom
of the ten tribes, the people used to assemble at the houses
of the prophets, to hear their in.slruclions, 2 Kings 4: 23.
Isa. 1: 13, 14. Ezekiel says (45: 17 ; see also 1 Chron. 23:
31. 2 Chron. 8: 13.) that the burnt-offerings offered on the
day of the new moon, were provided at the king's expense,
and that on this day was to be opened the eastern gate of
the court of the priests, chap. 40: 1, 2.
Spencer has a long dissertation on the neomenia, in
r/hich he shows that the Gentiles honored the first day of
the month, out of veneration to the moon He would
infer, that the Hebrews borrowed this practice from strange
and idolatrous people. But he by no means proves thiS)
and it is much more probable, that without any design of
imitating the Hebrews, the Gentiles thought fit to honor
the moon at the beginning of the month, that is, her first
appearance. — Calmet.
NEONOMIANS ; so called from the Greek neos, new,
and nomas, law ; signifying a netv law, the condition
whereof is imperfect though sincere and persevering
obedience.
Neonomianism seems to be an essential part of the Ar-
minian system. " The new covenant of grace which,
through the medium of Christ's death, the Father made
with men, consists, according to this system, not in our be-
ing justified by faith, as it apprehends the righteousness of
Christ ; but in this, that God, abrogating the exaction of
perfect legal obedience, reputes or accepts of faith itself,
and the imperfect obedience of faith, instead of the perfect
obedience of the law, and graciously accounts them worthy
of the reward of eternal life." — This opinion was examined
at the synod of Dort, and has been canvassed between the
Calvinists and Arminians on various occasions.
Towards the close of the seventeenth century, a contro-
versy was agitated amongst the English Dissenters, in
which the one side, who were partial to the writings of
Dr. Crisp, were charged with Antinomianism, and the
other, who favored Mr. Baiter, were accused of Neonomi-
anism. Dr. Daniel Williams, who was a principal writer
on what was called the Neonomian side, after many things
had been .said, gives the following as a summary of his
faith in reference to those subjects: — " 1. God has eter-
nally elected a certain definite number of men whom he
will infallibly save by Christ in that way prescribed by the
gospel. — 2. These very elect are not personally justified un-
til they receive Christ, and yield up themselves to him, but
they remain condemned whilst unconverted to Christ. — 3.
By the ministry of the gospel there is a serious offer of
pardon and glory, upon the terms of the gospel, to all that
hear it ; and God thereby requires them to comply with
the said terms. — 4. Ministers ought to n.se these and other
gospel benefits as motives, assuring men that if they be-
lieve they shall be justified ; if they turn to God, they shall
live ; if they repent, their sins shall be blotted out ; and
whilst they neglect these duties, they cannot have a per-
sonal interest in these respective benefits. — 5. It is by the
power of the Spirit of Christ freely exerted, and not by
the power of free-will, that the gospel becomes effectual
for the conversion of any soul to the obedience of faith. —
6. When a man believes, yet is not that very faith, and
much less any other work, the matter of that righteousness
for which a sinner is justified, i. e. entitled to pardon, ac-
ceptance and eternal glory, as righteous before God ; and
it is the imputed righteousness of Christ alone, for which
the gospel gives the believer a right to these and all saving
blessings, who in this respect is justified by Christ's right-
eousness alone. By both this and the fifth head it appears
that all boasting is excluded, and we are saved by free
grace. — 7. Faith alone receives the Lord Jesus and his
righteousness, and the subject of this faith is a convinced,
penitent soul ; hence we are justified by faith alone, and
yet the impenitent are not forgiven. — 8. God has freely
promised that all whom he predestinated to salvation shall
not only savingly believe, but that he by his power shall
preserve them from a total or a final apostasy. — 9. Yet the
believer, whilst he lives in this world, is to pass the time
of his sojourning here with fear, because his warfare is
not accomplished, and that it is true, that if he draw back,
God will have no pleasure in him ; which with the like
cautions God blesseth as means to the saints' perseverance,
and these by ministers should be so urged. — 10. The law
of innocence, or moral law, is so in force still as that every
precept thereof constitutes duty, even to the believer ; eve-
ry breach thereof is a sin deserving of death. This law
binds death by its curse on every imbeliever, and the
righteousness for or by which we are justified before God,
is a righteousness fat least) adequate to that law, which is
Christ's alone righteousness : and this so imputed to the
believer as that God deals judicially with Ihera according
thereto. — 11. Yet such is the grace of the gospel, that it
promiseth in and by Christ a freedom from the curse, for-
giveness of .sin, and eternal life, to every sincere believer;
NEO
[867 J
NE S
\Viiich promise God will certainly perform, notwithstand-
ing the threatening of the law."
Dr. Williams maintains the conditionality of the cove-
nant of grace; but admits, with Dr. Owen, who also uses
the term condition, that " Chri«f undertook that those who
were to be taken into this covenant should receive grace
enabling them to comply with the terms of it, fulfil its
conditions, and yield the obedience which God required
therein."
On this subject Dr. Williams further says, "' The ques-
tion is not whether the first (viz. regenerating) grace, by
which we are enabled to perform the condition, be abso-
lutely given. This I affirm, though that be dispensed or-
dinarily in a due use of means, and in a way discounte-
nancing idleness, and lit encouragement given to the use
>!.f means."
The following objection, among others, was made by
several ministers, in 169?, against Dr. WiUiaip.s' "Gospel
Truth Stated," &c. : — "To supply the room of the moral
jaw, vacated by him, he tu[ns the gospel into a new law,
in keeping of which we shall be justified for the sake of
Christ's righteousness, making qualifications and acts of
jiurs a disposing subordinate righteousness, whereb)' we
become capaWe of being justified by Christ's cighteous-
ti«SS.'"
To this arjong other things he answers, " Th.e diflerence
i."! not, i-. Whether the gospel be a new law in the Socini-
a-Ti, Popish, or Artnima.n sense. This I deny. Nor, 2- Is
faiih, or any other grace or act of ours, any atonement for
xin, satisfaction to justice, meriting qualification, or any
part of that righteousness for whit:h we are justified at
God our Creator's bar. This I deny in places innumera-
ble. Nor, 3. Whether the gospel be a law more ne%v than
is implied in the first promise to fallen Adam, proposed to
Cain, and obeyed by Abel, to the difie-rencing him from
his unbelieving brother. This I delay, 4. Not wlrether
Itie gospel fee a law that allows sin. when it accepts suc-h
{graces as iTae, though short of perfection, to be the condi-
tiifms •cf <rar personal imerest in the bcneiits purdiased by
Christ. This I deny. 5. Nor whether the gospel be a
law, the promises whereof entitle the performers of its
conditions to the benefits as of debt. This I deny.
" The difference is, 1. Is the gospel a law in this sense ;
viz. (Jod i-.i Christ thereby comtnandeth sinners to repent
of sin, and receive Christ by a tnie 0]ieratire fi>ith, pro-
mising that thereupon tliey siiall be united to him, justified
l,iy his rifbteousness, pardoned, and adopted ; and that,
persevering in faith and true holiness, they shall be finally
saved; aiso threatening that if any shall die' impenitent,
unbelieving, ungodly, rejecters of his grace, they shall
perish without relief, and endiire .sorer punishments than
if these offers had not been made to them ? — 2. Hath the
gospel a sanction, i. e. doth Christ therein enforce his
commands of faith, repentance, and perseverance, by the
aforesaid pi'omises and thveatenings, as motives of our
obedience? Both these I affirm, and they deny; saying
the gospel in the largest sense is an absolute promise
without precepts and conditions, and a gospel threat is a
bull. — 3. Do the gospel promises of benefits to certain
graces, and its threats that those benefits shall be withheld
and the contrary evils inflicted for the neglect of such
g-aces, render those graces the condition of our personal
title to those benefits ? — This they deny, and I affirm," kc.
It does not appear to have been a question in this con-
troversy, whether God in his word commands sinners to
repent and believe in Chinst, nor whether he promises life
to believers, and threatens death to unbelievers ; but whe-
ther it be the gospel under the form of a new law that thus
commands or threatens, or the moral law on its behalf,
and whether its promises to believing, render such believ-
ing a condition of the things promised. In another con-
troversy, however, which arose about forty years after-
wards among the same description of people, it became a
question whether God did by his word (call it law or gos-
pel) command unregenerate sinners to repent and believe
in Christ, or to do any thing which is spiritually good.
(Sec Callixo.) Of those who took the afiirmalive side of
this question, one party attempted to maintain it on the
ground of the gospel being a new law, consisting of com-
mands, promises, and threntenings, the terms or conditions
of which were repentance, faith, and sincere obediene.
But those who first engaged in the controversy, thougv
they allowed the encouragement to repent and Ijelieve tc
arise merely from the grace of the gospel, yet considereL
the formal obligation to do so as arising merely from thf
moral law, which, requiring supreme love to God, require:"
acquiescence in any revelation which he shall at any timn
make known. (See Modern Question.) Witsitis' Ircni-
cum; Edwards on Ike Will, p. 220; Williams' Gospel Truth;
Edjvards' Crispianism Unmasked ; Chuuncetfs Neonomianism
Unmasked ; A dams' View of Seligimis. — Hend. Btick.
NEOPHYTE, (from iiem, new, and pitutos, a plant ;) in
the Eleusinian and other mysteries, a person recently initi-
ated ; among the primitive Christians, a new convert from
Judaism or paganism ; in the monasteries, a novice, or
candidate of either .sex for a religious order. — Hend. Buck.
NEPHATH-DOR ; a city in Manasseh, called also Dor,
(1 Kings 4: 11.) where it is corruptly read Nephad-Dor.
From the Hebrew it might be rendered — in all the confines
of Dor. — Calmet.
NERO, The emperor Nero is not named in Scripture ;
but he is indicated by his title of emperor, and by his sur-
name Ca:,sar, To him St. Paul appealed after his impri-
sonment by Feli.t, and his examination by Festus, vho
was swayed by the Jews. St. Paul was therefore carried
to Rome, where he arrived A, D. 6i. Here he continjed
two years, preaching the gospel with freedom, till he be-
came famous even in the emperor's court, in which were
many Christians ; for he salutes the Philippians in the
name of the brethi^n who were of the household of Cssar,
that is, of Nero's court, Philip. 1: 12, 13. 4: 22. We have
no particular information how he cleared himself from
the accusations of the Jews, whether by answering before
Nero, or whether his enemies dropped their prosecutions,
which seems proliable. Acts 28: 21. However, it appears
that he was liberated in the year 63.
Nero, the most cruel and savage of all men, and also
the most wicked and depraved, began his jiersecution
against the Christian church, A. D. lil, on pretence of the
burning of Rome, of which some have thought himself to
be the author. He endeavoi-ed to throw all the odium on
the Christians : those were seized first that were known
ptiblicly as .such, and by their meaes many others were
discovered. Tltey were condenineil to death, and were
even insulted in their sufferings. Some were sewed up in
t!ie skin.s of beasts, and then exposed to dogs to be torn in
pieces; some were nailed to crosses ; others perished by
fire. Thf latter were sev.ed up iti pitched coverings,
which, being set on fire, served as torches to the people,
and were lighted up in the night, Nero gave leave to use
his own gardens, as the scene of all these cruelties. From
this time edicts were published ag;unst the Christians, and
many martyrs suffete'd, especially in Italy. St. Peter and
St. Paul are thought to have suffered martyrdom, conse-
quent on this persecution, A. D. 65.
The revolt of the Jews from the Romans happened about
A. D. tio and 66, in the twelfth and thirteenth of Nero.
The city of Jerusalem making an insunection, A. D. OP,
Florus there slew three thousand si.-c hundred persons, and
thus began the war. A little while afterwards, those of
Jerusalem killed the Roman garrison. Cestius on this
came to Jerusalem to suppress the sedition ; but he waa
forced to retire after having besieged it about si-x weeks,
and was routed in his retreat, A. D. 66. About the end of
the same year, Nero gave Vespasian the command of his
troops against the Jews. This general carried on the war
in Galilee and Judea during A. D. 67 and 68, the thirteenth
and fourteenth of Nero. ISut Nero killing himself in the
fourteenth vear of his reign, Jerusalem was not besieged
till after his death, A. D. 70, the first and second of Vespa-
sian.— IVatsoii.
NESTORIANS; a denomination which arose in the
fifth century, from Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, a
man of considerable learning and eloquence, and of an
independent spirit. The Catholic clergy were fond of call-
ing the virgin Mary " Mother of God," to which Nestorius
objected, as implying that she was mother of the divme
nature, which he veiT properly denied; and this raised
against him, from Cyril and others, the cry ot heresy, ana
perhaps led him into some improper forms ol expression
/
NET
[ 868 ]
N£ W
and explication. It is generally agreed, however, by the
moderns, that Nestorius showed a much bcller spirit in
controversy than his antagonist„St. Cyril. As to the doc-
trine of the Trinity, it does not appear that Nestorius dif-
fered from his antagonists, admitting the coequality of the
divine persons; iDut be was charged with maintaining two
distinct persons, as well as natures, in llie mysterious cha-
racter of Christ. This, however, he solemnly and constant-
ly denied ; and from this, as a foul reproach, he has been
cleared by the moderns, and particularly by Martin Luther,
who lays the whole blame of this controversy on the turbu-
lent and angry Cyril. (See Htfostatical Union,) The
discordancy not only between the Nestorians and other
Christians, but also among themselves, arose, no doubt, in
3 great measure, from the ambiguity of the Greek terms
hypostasis and prosopon. The councils assembled at Seleu-
cia on this occasion decreed that in Christ there were two
hypostases. But this word, unhappily, was used both for
person and ivature ; hence the difficulty and ambiguity :
and of these hypostases it is said the one was divine, and
the other human ; — the divine Word, and the man Jesns.
Now of these two hypostases it is added, they had only one
appearance, {bnrsopa, the original term used by Nestorius,
and usually translated by the Greeks, " person.") To avoid
the appearance of an express contradiction. Dr. Mosheim
translates this barbarous word "aspect," as meaning a
union of will and affection, rather than of nature or of per-
son. And thus the Nestorians are charged with rejecting
the union of two natures in one person, from their peculiar
manner of expressing themselves, thongh they absolutely
denied the charge.
In the earliest ages of Nestorranism, the various branch-
es of that numerous and powerful sect were under the spi-
ritual jurisdiction of the Catholic patriarch of Babylon, — a
vague appellation which has been successively applied to
the sees of Seleucra, Ctesiphon, and Bagdad, — but who
naw resides at Mousul. In the sixteenth century the Nes-
torians were divided into two sects ; for in 1551 a warrin
dispute arose among them atxiut the creation of a new
patriarch, Simeon Barmamas, or Barmana, being proposed
by one parly, and Sulaka, otherwise named Siud, earnestly
•tesired by the other ; when the latter, to snpport his pre-
tensions the more efl'ectually, repaired to Rome, and was
consecrated patriarch in 1553, by pope Julius IIL, whose
jurisdiction he had acknowledgeil, and to whose commands
he had promised unlimited submission and obedience.
Upon this new Chaldean patriarch's return to his own
country, Julius sent with him several persons skilled in
the Syrvac language, to assist him in establishing and ex-
tending the papal empire amcng the Nestorians ; and from
that time, that unhappy people have been divided into two
factions, and have often been involved in the greatest dan-
gers and difficulties, by the jarring sentiments and perpe-
tual cfuarrels of their patriarchs. In 1555, Simeon Denha,
archbishop of Gelu, adopted the party of the fugitive patri-
arch, who had embraced the communion of the Latin
church ; and, being afterwards chosen patriarch himself,
he fixed his residence in the city of Van, or Onnus, in the
mountainous parts of Persia, where his successors still
continue, and are all distinguished by the name of Sime-
on ; but they seem of late to have withdrawn themselves
from their communion with the church of Rome. The
great Nestorian pontiffs who form the opposite party, and
who have, since 1559, been distinguished by the general
denomination of Elias, and reside constantly at Mousul,
look with a hostile eye on this little patriarch ; but since
1C17 the bishops of Ormus have been in so low and
declining a state, both in opulence and credit, that they
are no longer in a condition to excite the envy of their
brethren at Mousul, whose spiritual dominioji is very ex-
tensive, taking in great part of Asia, and comprehending
within its circuit the Arabian Nestorians, as also the Chris-
tians of St. Thomas, who dwell along the coast of Mala-
bar.— Watson.
■ NET. Surely in vain the net is spread in the sight of
any bird ; that is, the very birds of the air are wiser than
sinners, since they take warnings which sinners refuse to
observe, Prov. 1: 17,
NETHINIM, (^iven, or offered ;) servants dedicated to
the service of the tabernacle and temple, to perfonn the
most laborious offices ; as carrying of wood and watef.
At first the Gibeonites were destined to this station ; after-
wards, the Canaanites who surrendered themselves, and
whose lives were spared. "We read, in Ezra 8: 20, that
the Netbinim were staves devoted by David, and other
princes, to the service of the temple ; arid in Ezra 2: 58,
that they were slaves given by Solomon ; the children of
Solomon's servants. From 1 Kings 9: 20, 21, we see that
he had subdued the remains of the Canaanites, and it is
very probable that he gave a good number of them to the
priests and Levites, for the temple service. The Nethinia>
were carried into eaptivfty with the tribe of Jivdah, and
^reat numbers were placed not far from the Caspian sea,
whence Ezra brought two hundred and twenty of them
into Judea, chap. 8: 17. Those who followed Zerubbabel,
made up three hundred and ninety-two, Neh. 3: 2fi. This
nnmber was but small in regard to their offices ; so that we
find afterwards a solemnity called rykrpkotia, in which the
people carried wood to the temple, with great ceremony, to
keep up the fire of the altar of hurnt sacrifices. — Calmet.
NETOFI-IA ; a city and district between Bethlehem and
Analhoth, Ezra 2; 22. Neh, 7; 26. Jcr. 11: 8, 1 Cbron. 9;
i6.— Calmet.
NETTLES. We find this name given to two different
words in the original. The first is cherul, .Tob 30: 7. Prov.
24: 31. Zeph. 2: 9. It-is not easy to determine what spe-
cies of plant is here meant. From the pttssage in Job, the
nettle coitld not be intended ; for a plant is referred to large
enough for people to take shelter under. The follow-
ing extract iVom Denon's Travels may help to illustrate
the text, and show to what an uncomfortable retreat those
vagabonds must have resorted. "One of the inconve-
niences of the vegetable thickets of Egypt is, that it is dif-
ficult to remain in them ; as nine-tenths of tli* trees and
the plants are armed witji inexorable thorns, which suffer
only an unquiet enjoyment of the shadow which is so>
constantly desirable, frotn the precaution necessary to
giiard against them." The kimosh, (Prov. 24: 31. Isa. 34:
13. Hos" 9: fi.) is by the Vulgate rendered "urtica," which
is well defended by Cebius, and very probably means "the
nettle." — Watson.
NEW; fresh; recent; unused before; endued witb
new qualities. (See Judg. 5: 8. Nmn. 16: 30.) God pro-
mises a new heaven and a new earth, in the time of the
Messiah, (Isa. 65: 17. 66: 22.) that is, a universal renova-
tion of manners, sentiments, and actions, throughout the
world. This passage is referred to the end of the world,
when will commence a new heaven and a new earth ; not
that the present heaven and earth will be annihilated ; but
the air, the earth, and the elements, will be made more
perfect, or at least, together with the inhabitants, shall be
of a nature superior to those vicissitudes and aherations
that now aiii^et these elements. (See Ccvflageation.)
God also promises to his peofJe " a new covenant, a new
spiiit, a new heart ;" and this promise was fulfilled in the
covenant of grace, the gospel, Ezek. 11: 19. 18: 31. 36:
26. Jer. 31: 33. Heb. 8: 10. (See Covenant, and Eecie-
NERATioN.) — Calmet.
NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH. (See Swedenborgi-
ANS.)
NEWELL, (Samuel,) American missionary at Bombay,
was graduated at Harvard college, in 1807, and studied the-
ology at Andover. With Judson, Nott, and Mills, he of-
fered himself as a missionary to the General Association
of ministers at Bradford, June 27, 1810 ; was ordained at
Salem, with Judson, Nott, and Rice, February'6, 1812 ;
and sailed on the 19th for Calcutta. On his arrival he
was ordered by the Bengal government to leave the coun-
try. Proceeding first to the Isle of France, he suffered the
affliction of losing his wife and child ; he afterwards went
to Ceylon, and was useful in preparing the way for the
subsequent mission in that island. He afterwards joined
Mr. Hail at Bombay, and, in 1817, was joined by Mr.
Graves and Mr. Nichols. He continued at Bombay, a
faithful laborer in the service of Jesus Christ, until his
death, by the chiAera, May 30, 1821, aged about thirty-five.
The same disease in four years had swept over India, Bur-
mah, and the Asiatic islands, and hurried millions to the
tomb. At that time, from sixty to one hundred were dy-
ing daily in Boinbay.
NEW
[ 869 ]
NEW
Mr. Newell was very modest and humble, possessed
great tenderness of feeling, and was enlirelj' devoted to
the arduous and important labors of a missionary. He
Wrote, with Mr. Hall, The Conversion of the World, or
the Claims of Six Hundred Millions, &c., 2d edit. 1818.—
Allen j Memoirs of American Missionaries.
NEWELL, (Harriet,) the wife of the preceding, the
daughter of Moses Atwood, of Haverhill, (Mass.,) was
born October 10, 1793, and received an excellent educa-
tion. She was naturally cheerful and unreserved ; pos-
sessed a lively imagination and great sensibility; and,
at a very early age, discovered a retentive memory, and a
taste for reading. Before the age of thirteen, she received
no particular or lasting impressions of religion, but was
uniformly obedient, attentive, and atfectionate. In the
summer of 1806 she was roused to attend to the one thing
needful; to turn her eyes from beholding vanity ; and to
prepare for that important change which, in her, was so
soon to take place. At a school, at Bradford, she was the
subject of those solid and serious impressions, which laid
the foundation of her Christian life. From that time she
employed herself assiduously, and with earnestness, in the
promotion of her Redeemer's cause ; and by her conduct
and advice, became an honorable and truly valuable mem-
ber of society. The uniform piety and seriousness of her
mind is forcibly displayed in her letters to her young
friends, and in her diary. Her health was delicate, but
she bore indisposition with that calmness and submission
to the dictates of Providence which always signalized her
character. She complained much of the want of humility,
and lamented her deficiency in that Christian grace : she
longed for that meek and lowly spirit, which Jesus exhi-
bited in the days of his flesh. At the age of fifteen, she
made a profession of religion. She sailed with her hus-
band from Calcutta for the Isle of France, August 4, 1812.
Mrs. Newell died of ihe consumption, at the Isle of
France, November 30, 1812, aged nineteen. She departed
in the peace and triumph of an eminent Christian. Her
Life, written by Dr. Woods, has passed through many edi-
tions. The cause of missions was greatly promoted by
the delineation of her character and the description of her
sufferings. See her Life. — Allen ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
NEWCOME, (Abp. William, D. D.,) a learned prelate,
was born, in 1729, at Barton le Clay, in, Bedfordshire ;
was educated at Abingdon school, and at Pembroke col-
lege, Oxford ; was successively bishop of Dromore, Osso-
ry, and Waterford, in Ireland ; was raised to the archbi-
shopric of Armagh ; and died in 1800. Of his works the
principal are. Observations on the Character of our Lord ;
A Harmony of the Gospels ; An Historical View of the
English Biblical Translations ; and Attempts towards an
improved Version of Ezekiel and the Minor Prophets, —
Davenport.
NEW PLATONICS, or Ammonians; so called from
Ammonius Saccas, who taught with the highest applause
in the Alexandrian school, about the conclusion of the se-
cond century. This learned man attempted a general re-
conciliation of all sects, whether philosophical or rehgious.
He maintained that the great principles of all philosophical
and religious truth were to be found equally in all .sects,
and that they ditfered from each other only in their method
of expressing them, in some opinions of little or no impor-
tance ; and that by a proper interpretation of their respec-
tive sentiments they might easily be united in one body.
Ammonius supposed that true philosophy derived its
origin and its consistence from the eastern nations, that it
was taught to the Egypi'ans by Hermes, that it was
brought from them to the Greeks, and preserved in its
original purity by Plato, who was the best interpreter of
Hermes and the other Oriental sages. He maintained
thai all the different religions which prevailed in the world
were, in their original integrity, conformable to this an-
cient philo.wphy ; but it unforHinately happened, that the
symbols and fictions under which, according to the ancient
manner, Ihe ancients delivered their precepts and doc-
trines, were in process of time erroneously understood,
both by priests and people, in a literal sense ; that in con-
sequence of this, the invisible beings and demons whom
the Supreme Deity had placed in the different parts of the
universe as the ministers of his providence, were by the
suggestions of superstition converted into goj.-^, and wor-
shipped with a multiplicity of vain ceremonies. lie there-
fore insisted that all the religions of all nations should be
restored to their primitive standard ; viz. Ike ancient phi-
losophy of the East : and he asserted that his project was
agreeable to the intentions of Jesus Christ, whom he ac-
knowledged to be a most excellent man, the friend of God;
and affirmed that his sole view in descending on earth,
was to set bounds to the reigning superstition, to remove
the errors which had crept into the religion of all nations,
but not to abolish the ancient theology from which they
were derived.
Taking these principles for granted, Ammonius associ-
ated the sentiments of the Egyptians with the doctrines of
Plato ; and to finish this conciliatory .scheme, he so inter-
preted the doctrines of the other philosophical and religious
sects, by art, invention, and allegory, thai they bcemci.'. ts
bear some semblance to the Egyptian and Platonic systems.
With regard to moral discipline, Ammonius permitted
the people to live according to the law of their country,
and the dictates of nature ; but a more sublime rule was
laid down for the wise. They were to raise above all ter-
restrial things, by the towering efforts of holy contempla-
tion, those souls whose origin was celestial and divine.
They were ordered to extenuaie by hunger, thirst, and
other mortifications, the sluggish body, which restrains
the Uberty of the immortal spirit, that in this life they
might enjoy communion with the Supreme Being, and as-
cend after death, active and unencumbered, to the univer-
sal parent, to live in his presence forever. See Robinson's
Eiljl. Repos. for 183i.—Heiid. Buck.
NEW TESTAMEMT. (See Bibl-e ; Gospels; Acts;
Epistles ; Inspiration ; and Scriptuke.)
NEWTON, (Sir Isaac,) the greatest of philosophers,
was born, December 25, 1(342, at Colsterworlh, in Lincoln-
shire, and early displayed a talent for mechanics and draw-
ing. On one occasion, having been sent to market with
corn and other products of the farm, young Newion left
the sale of his goods to a servant, while he himself retired
to a hay-loft at an inn in Grantham, to ruminate ov»r the
problems of Euclid, and the laws of Kepler, in which situ-
ation the uncle happened to find him, probably meditating
discoveries of his own, which should eclipse t!ie glory of
his predecessors. He was educated at Grantham school,
and at Trinity college, Cambridge, and studied malhema-
tics with the utmost assiduitj'. In 1667, he obtained a fel-
lowship; in lfii"i9, the inatbemalical prcfessorship ; and in
1()71, he became a member of the Royal society. It was
during his abode at Cambridge that he made his three
great discoveries, of lli»xions, the nature of light and co-
lors, and the laws of gravitation. To Ihe latter of these
his attention was first turned by his seeing an apple fall
from a tree. The Principia, which unfolded to ihe world
the theory of the universe, was not published till ifi87. In
that year also Newton was cho.sen one of the delegates, to
defend the privileges of the university against James II. ;
and in 1688 and 1701 he was elected one of the members
of the university. He was appointed warden of the mint in
ltJ96 ; was made master of it in 1699 ; was chosen presi-
dent of the Roval society in 1703 ; and was Icnighted in
1705. He died March 20, 1727.
His •• Observations on the Prophecies of Daniel and ihe
Apocalypse" appeared in 1733, in quarto. •■ II is asto-
nishing," says Dr. Hutton, '■ what care and industry New-
ton employed about the papers relating to chror.ology,
church history, Ice. ; as, on examining Ihein, it "PP^^p
that many are copies over and over again, ollon v.'.l!'. Iillle
New
r 870 ]
NIC
or no variation." All the works of this eminent philo-
sopher were published by Dr. Samuel Horsley, in 1779, in
five volumes, quarto ; and an English translation of his
" Philosophice Naturalis PrincipiaSlalliematica" is extant.
The character of this great man has been thus drawn
by Mr. Hume, at the close of his History of England : "In
Newton, this island may boast of having produced the
greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the ornament
and instruction of the human species. Cautious in admit-
ting no principles but such as were founded on experi-
ment ; but resolute to adopt every such principle, however
new or unusual : from modesty, ignorant of his superiority
above the rest of mankind ; and thence less careful to ac-
commodate his reasonings to common apprehensions :
more anxious to merit than acquire fame : he was, from
these causes, long unknown to the world; but his reputa-
tion at last broke out with a lustre, which .scarcely any
writer, during his own lifetime, had ever before attained.
While Newton seemed to draw off the veil from some of
the mysteries of nature, he showed at the same lime the
imperfections of the mechanical philosophy ; and thereby
restored her ultimate secrets to that obscurity in which
they ever did and ever will remain."
The remains of Sir Isaac Newton were interred in West-
minster abbey, where a magnificent monument is erected to
his memory, with a Latin inscription, concluding thus : —
" Let mortals congratulate themselves, that so great an or-
nament of human nature has existed." His character
is shown by Dr. Brewster to have been that of the ortho-
dox, humble and sincere Christian. Of nature, antiquity,
and the Holy Scriptures, he was a diligent, sagacious, and
faithful interpreter. He maintained, by his philosophy,
the dignity of the Supreme Beins, and in his manners he
exhibited the simplicity of the gospel. " I seem to my-
self," he said, " to be like a child, picking up a shell here
and there, on the shore of the great ocean of truth." Mar-
tinis Biog. Philos. ; Hutlon's Math. Diet.; Brewster's Lif a
of Sir Isaac Nercton. — Davenport ; Junes' Chris. Biog. ; Chal-
mers' U/^orLs.
NEWTON, (Bp. Tho>hs,) a learned prelate, was born,
in 1701, at Litchfield ; was educated there, at Westminster,
and at Trinity college, Cambridge ; and, after having filled
various minor preferments, was made bishop of Bristol, in
1761. He died in 1782. His principal work is, Di.sserla-
tions on the Prophecies. He also published editions, with
notes, of Paradise Lost, and Paradise Regained. — Davenport.
NEWTON, (John,) rector of St. JIary Woolnolh, and
St. Mary Woolchurch Haw, was born in London, on the
24th of July, 1722, 0. S. His parents, though not wealthy,
were respectable. His father was for many years master
of a ship in the Mediterranean trade. His mother was a
dissenter, a pious woman, and a member of the late Dr.
Jenning's church, but, unfortunately, she died before he
had attained the age of seven years. When he was four
years old, he could read well, repeat the Assembly's
Shorter Catechism, with the proofs, all Dr. Watts' small-
er catechisms, and his Ch'ldren's Hymns. He was ne-
ver at school 'onger than two years, from his eighth to
his tenth year ; it was a boarding-school at ,?tratlurd, in
Essex. When he was eleven years of age, he made five
voyages with his father to the Mediterranean ; during his
last voyage he left him with a friend at Alicant, in Spain.
in 1742, his father left the sea, and he afterwards made
one voyage to Venice, before the mast, and on his return
was impressed on board the Harwich. Becoming, in pro-
cess of time, master of a vessel employed in the slave
trade, he made several voyages to the const of Africa, lor
the purpose of carrying on that abominable tralfic, during
which time he contracted habits of dissipation and vice,
which the brutalizing scenes he witnessed tended to origi-
nate and confirm.
After spending several years in this disgusting employ-
ment, his heart grew sick of it ; and the coinpunclious
visitings of conscience, seconded and enforced by the word
of C id, determined him to abandon it. He grew serious
and fond of study, and having relinquished the occupation
of a mariner, he, in 1775, obtained the oflice of tide sur-
veyor of the port of Liverpool. When he had been about
three years in that situation he turned his atlcnlion towards
the profession of a clergyman in Ihe est.ihlished ■ lain-h,
and made an unsuccessful effort to obtain episcopal or*
dination from the archbishop of York, having been com-
plimented with a title to a curacy by a friend. Disap-
pointed, however, in his hopes, he began to exercise
himself in the way of exhorting or expounding the Scrip-
tures at Liverpool, wherever providence opened a door to
him, we suppose, among the dissenters. In this way he
appears to have passed seven or eight years of his life ;
until, in 1764, having an offer made him of the curacy of
Olney, in Bucks, he renewed his application for ordination,
and, on the 29th of April, obtained it from the hands of
Dr. Green, bishop of Lincoln, at the palace of Buckden.
During a residence of fifteen years at that place, he formed
an intimate friendship with the poet Cowper, whence ori-
ginated a volume of hymns, well known under the title of
" Olney Hymns," their joint composition.
In 1779 Mr. Newton removed to London, having been
presented, by the late BIr. John Thornton, with the rectory
of the united parishes of St. Mary Woolnolh, and St. Mary
Woolchurch Haw, in Lombard street. Here a new and
wide field of usefulness opened before him, which he con-
tinued to fill for about twenty-seven years, until the 21st
of December, 1807, when he departed this life, at the ad-
vanced age of eighty-five ; but, for the last ten or twelve
years, his mental powers were greatly impaired.
Mr. Newton was a man of real originality, and his ha-
bits of observation were eminently philosophical. His
doctrinal sentiments were moderately Calvinistic, and his
writings have been collected, and frequently printed, in
six voUimes octavo, or twelve volumes duodecimo. Few
theologians of the last century contributed more to the re-
commendation and advancement of experimental religion.
A handsome stereotype edition of his Works, compressed
in two volumes octavo, with his Life by Mr. Cecil prefixed,
appeared in Philadelphia in 1831. The price of this edi-
tion puts it within the reach of the poor. — Jones' Chris. Bi-
og. ; Hend. Buck.
NIBHAZ ; a god of the Hivites. (See Anubis.)
NICANDER and Marcian ; two Christian martyrs of
Ihe fourth century. Both were Roman military officers of
great ability, and great efforts were made to induce ihem
to renounce Christianity, but in vain. Crowds of people
attended their execution. The wife of Nicander, being
her.self a Christian, encouraged her husband to suffer pa-
tiently for Christ ; but the wife of Marcian, being a pagan,
entreated her husband to save his hfe lor the sake of her,
and of his child. Marcian embraced her and her babe,
gently reproving her idolatry and unbelief; and then, to-
gether with Nicander, who also in the most afiectionate
manner had taken leave of his Chrislian wife, submitted
joyfully to the fatal stroke, which conferred on them the
crown of martyrdom, A.D. 306. — Fo.z, p. 56.
NICENE CREED. (See Ckeed.)
NICETAS, a Christian martyr of the fourth century,
was of Gothic descent, born near the Danube. Though
he had long been a Christian, he met with no molestation
on that account until the persecution under Athanarick,
in A. D. 370. That monarch of the eastern Goths ordered
an idol to be drawn about on a chariot, through all the
places where Christians lived. The chariot stoppeu at the
door of every professed Christian, and he was ordered :o
pay it adoration. Upon a refusal the houje was iuimedi
ately set ou fire, and all within were burnt. This was the
case with Nicctas, who became a martyr to his Chrislian
constancy, being consumed to ashes in his own house,
September 15, A. D. 312.— Fox, p. 71.
NICHOLS (John,) American missionary lo Bombay,
was born at Antrim, (N. H.) June 20, 1790 ; graduated at
Dartmouth college in 1813. Two years before, during a
revival of religion in college, his mind became perma-
nently affected with religious truth. He yielded his heart
to Christ, and on being convinced that it was his duty to
serve him in the gospel, entered the theological seminary
at Andovcr, in Oct. 1813. He Avas ordained at Boston,
with the missionaries. Swift, Graves, Parsons, and But-
trick, Aug. 2, 1817. ile .sailed for Bombay with his wife,
Sept. 5, 1817, and arrived Feb. 23, 1818. After toiling in
his benevolent work nearly seven years, he died of a fever
at Bombay, Dec. 10, IS24. Blemoirs of Am. Miss. — Allen.
NICODEMUS ; a disciple of Jesus Christ, a Jew by
NtC
[ 871
N IG
natioa, and by sect a Pharisee. He was one of the sena-
tors of the sanhedrim, (John 3.) and at first concealed
his belief in the divine character of our Lord. After-
wards, however, he avowed himself a believer, when he
came with Joseph of Arimathea to pay the last duties to
the body of Christ, which they toolc down from the cross,
embalmed, and laid in the sepulchre. — Calmet.
NICOLAITANS ; heretics who assumed this name
from Nicolas of Antioch ; who, being a Genlile by birth,
first embraced Judaism and then Christianity ; when his
zeal and devotion recommended him to the church of Je-
rusalem, by whom he was chosen one of the first deacons.
Many of the primitive writers believed that Nicolas was
rather the occasion than the author of the infamous prac-
tices of those who assumed his name, who were expressly
condemned by the Spirit of God himself, Rev. 2: 6. And,
indeed, their opinions and aclions were highly extrava-
gant and criminal. They allowed a community of wives,
and made no distinction between ordinary meats and
those offered to idols. According to Eusebius, they sub-
sisted but a short time ; but TertuUian says, that they on-
ly changed their name, and that their heresies passed into
the sect of the Cainiles.
We have the testimony of St. John, (Rev. 2: 14, 20.)
as well as of the fathers, that the lives of the Nicolaitans
were profligate and vicious ; to which we may add, that
they ate things sacrificed to idols. This is expressly said
of Basilides and Valentinus, two celebrated leaders of
Gnostic sects : and we perhaps are not going too far, if we
infer from St. John, that the Nicolaitans were the first
who enticed the Christians to this impious practice, and
obtained from thence the distinction of their peculiar ce-
lebiity. Their motive for such conduct is very evident.
They wished to gain proselytes to their doctrines ; and
they therefore taught that it was lawful to indulge the
passions, and that there was no harm in partaking of an
idol-sacrifice. This had now become the test to which
Christians must submit, if they wished to escape persecu-
tion ; and the Nicolaitans sought to gain converts by tell-
ing them that they might still believe in Jesus, though
" they ate of things sacrificed unto idols." The fear of
death would shake the faith of some ; others would be
gained over by sensual arguments : and thus many un-
happy Christians of the Asiatic churches were found by
St. John in the ranks of the Nicolaitans. We might wish
perhaps to know at what time the sect of the Nicolaitans
began ; but we cannot define it accurately. If Irenseus
is correct in saying that it preceded by a considerable
time the heresy of Cerinthus, and that the Cerinthian
heresy was a principal cause of St. John writing his gos-
pel, it follows, that the Nicolaitans were in existence at
least some years before the time of their being mentioned
in the Revelation ; and the persecution under Domitian,
which was the cause of St. John being sent to Patinos,
may have been the time which enabled the Nicolaitans to
exhibit their principles. Irenaeus indeed adds, thai St.
John directed his gospel against the Nicolaitans as well as
against Cerinthjs : and the comparison which is made
between their doctrine and that of Balaam, may perhaps
authorize us to refer to this sect what is said in the second
epistle of St. Peter. The whole passage contains marked
allusions to Gnostic teachers. — Watson ; Calmet.
NICOLAS ; a proselyte of Antioch, that is, converted
from paganism to the religion of the Jews. He after-
wards embraced Christianity, and was among the most
zealous and most holy of the first Christians ; so that he
was chosen for one of the first seven deacons of the
--'lurch at Jerusalem, Acts 6: 5.
His memory has been tarnished in the church by a
blemish, from which it has not been possible hitherto to
clear him. Certain heretics were called Nicolaitans from
his name ; and though perhaps he had no share in their
errors, nor their irregularities, yet he is suspected to
have given some occasion to them. (See Nicolaitans.)
— Calmet.
NICOMEDES ; a Christian of some distinction at Rome,
who, during the rage of Domitiau's persecution, A. D. 98,
did all he could to serve the afflicted followers of Christ ;
comforting the poor, visiting the confined, exhorting the
wavering, and confirming the faithful. For thus acting,
he was .seized by the ferocious hand of power, sentenced
as a Christian, and scourged to death ; through which he
passed to meet the approving sentence of his Lord, Matt.
25: AO.— Fox, p. 14.
NICOPOLIS i a city of Epirus, on the gulf of Ambra-
cia, whither, as some think, St. Paul wrote to Titus, then
in Crete, to come to him; (Titus 3: 12.) but others, with
greater probability, are of opinion, that the city of Nico-
polis, where St Paul was, was not that of Epirus, but that
of Thrace, on the borders of Macedonia, near the river
Nessus. Emmaus in Palestine was also called Nicopolis
by the Romans. — Watson.
NIDDUI I the lesser sort of excommunication used
among the Hebrews. He who had incurred this, was to
withdraw himself from his relations, at least to the dis-
tance of four cubits. It commonly continued thirty days.
Tf it was not then taken off, it might be prolonged for
sixty, or even ninety days. But if within this term the
excommunicated person did not give satisfaction, he fell
into the rfierem, which was the second sort of excommuni-
cation ; and thence into the third sort, called schammatha,
the most terrible of all. (See Anatue.via.) — Calmet.
NIEBUHR, (Carsten,) a celebrated traveller, %vas bom
in 1733, at Ludingsworth, in the duchy of Lauenberg;
was sent, in company with four other learned men, by t jp
Danish government, in 1761, to explore Arabia ; was em-
ployed for six years on that mission, and was the only one
who returned ; was liberally rewarded by the Danish mo-
narch ; and died in 1S15. Among his works are, a De-
scription of Arabia; and Travels in Arabia, and the
neighboring Countries. Bib. Rtpos. no. viii. — Davenport.
NIEBUHR, (G. B.,) a son of the foregoing, was, suc-
cessively, professor at the university of Berlin, counsellor
of stale, and Prussian ambassador to the pope. While he
was at Rome, he discovered some valuable fragments of
two of Cicero's orations. He died in 1830. His great
work is The History of Rome, which is far superior tc
most of its rivals. — Davenport.
NIGER ; the surname of Simon, (Acts 13: 1.) a prophet
and teacher at Antioch, and one who laid his hands on
Saul and Barnabas, for the execution of that office to
which the Holy Ghost had appointed them. Some believe
he is that Simon the Cyrenian, who carried the cross of
Christ to mount Calvary ; but this opinion is founded only
on a similitude of names. Epiphanius speaks of one
Niger among the seventy disciples of our Savior. — Calmet.
NIGHT. The ancient Hebrews began their artificial
day in the evening, and ended it the next evening ; so
that the night preceded the day ; whence it is said, " eve-
ning and morning one day," Gen. 1: 5. They allowed
twelve hours to the night, and twelve to the day.
Night is put metaphorically for a time of allliction and
adversity: "Thou hast proved mine heart, thou hast vi-
sited me in the night, thou hast tried me ;" (Psal. 17: 3.)
that is, by adversity and tribulation. And •• the morning
coineth, and also the night," Isaiah 21: 12. Night is also
put for the time of death : " The night cometh, wherein
no man can work," John 9: 4. Children of the day, and
children of the night, in a moral and figurative sense, de-
note good men and wicked men. Christians and Gentdes.
The disciples of the Son of God are children of light:
they belong to the light, they walk in the light of truth ;
while the children of the night walk in the darkness of
ignorance and infidelity, and perform only works of dark-
ness. "Ye are all the children of the light, and the
children of the day ; we are not of the night, nor of dark-
ness," 1 Thess. 5: 5. — Watson.
NIGHT-HAWK; (tecJimem;) Lev. 11: 16. Deut. 14:
15. That this is a voracious bird seems clear from the
import of its name ; and interpreters are generally agreed
to describe it as flying by night. On the whole, it should
seem to be the strix Orientalis, which Hasselquist thus
describes : It is of the size of the common owl, and lodges
in the large buildings or ruins of Egi,'pt and Syria, and
sometimes even in the dwelling-houses. The Arabs set-
tled in Egypt call it " Massasa," and the Syrians " Banu."
It is extremely voracious in Syria : to such a degree, that
if care is not taken to shut the windows at the coming on
of night, he enters the houses and kills the children : the
women, therefore, are very much afraid of him. — Watson.
NIM
[872 ]
NIN
Nile ; the river of E^'pt, vvliose fouiilain is in tlie
tipper Ethiopia. After having watered several kingdoms,
the Nile continues its course far into the kingdom of Goi-
am. Then it winds about again, from the east to the
north. Having crossed several kingdoms and provinces,
it falls into Egypt at the cataracts, which are waterfalls
over steep rocks of the length of two hundred feet. At
the bottom of these rocks the Nile returns to its usual
pace, and thus flows through the valley of Egypt. Its
channel, according to Villamont, is about a league broad.
At eight miles below Grand Cairo, it is divided into two
arms, which make a triangle, whose base is at the Me-
diterranean sea, and which the Greeks call the Delta, be-
cause of its figure. These two arms are divided into
others, which discharge themselves into the Mediterra-
nean, the distance of which from the top of the Delta is
about twenty leagues. These branches of the Nile the
ancients commonly reckoned to be seven. Ptolemy
makes them nine, some only four, some eleven, some
fourteen.
Homer, Xenophon, and Dlodorus Siculus testify, that
the ancient name of this river was Egyptus ; and the lat-
ter of these writers says, that it took the name Nilus only
since the time of a king of Egypt called by that name.
The Greeks gave it the name of Melas ; and Diodorus
Siculus observes, that the most ancient name by which
the Grecians have known the Nile was Oceanus. The
Egyptians paid divine honors to this river, and called it
Jupiter Nilus.
Very little rain ever falls in Egypt, never sufficient to
fertilize the land ; and but for the provision of this boun-
tiful river, the country would be condemned to perpetual
sterility. As it is, from the joint operation of the regu-
larity of the flood, the deposit of mud from the water of
the river, and the warmth of the climate, it is the most
fertile country in the world ; the produce exceeding all
calculation. It has in consequence been, in all ages, the
granary of the East ; and has on more than one occasion,
an instance of which is recorded in the history of Joseph,
saved the neighboring countries from starvation. It is
probable, that, while in these countries, on the occasion
referred to, the seven years' famine was the result of the
absence of rain, in Egypt it was brought about by the in-
undation being withheld : and the consternation of the
Egyptians, at witnessing this phenomenon for seven suc-
cessive years, may easily be conceived.
See a most painfully interesting account of a famine
occasioned by this cause, in Robinson's Bibl. Repos. for
October, 1832.
The origin and course of the Nile being unknown to
the ancients, its stream was held, and is still held by the
natives, in the greatest veneration ; and its periodical
overflow was viewed with mysterious wonder. But both
of these are now, from the discoveries of the modems,
better understood. It is now known, that the sources, or
permanent springs of the Nile, are situated in the moun-
tains of Abyssinia, and the unexplored regions to the west
and south-west of that country ; and that the occasional
supplies, or causes of the inundation, are the periodical
rains which fall in tliose districts. For a correct know-
ledge of these facts, and of the true position of the source
of th.it branch of the river, which has generally been con-
sidered to be the continuation of the true Nile, we are in-
debted to the intrepid and indefatigable Bruce.
Although the Nile, by way of eminence, has been called
" the river of Egypt," it must not be confounded with
another stream so ueaominated in Scripture, an insignifi-
cant rivulet in comparison, which falls into the Mediter-
ranean below Gaza. — Watson.
NIMRAH; a city of Gad, or rather of Reuben, east of the
Dead sea. Num. 32: 3. Calmet thinks that Nemra, Nimra
Nimrim, Nemrim, and Beth-nemra, are the same city.
Jeremiah (48: 34.) speaks of Nimrim and its pleasant wa-
ters; Isaiah ( 15: 6.) also mentions the waters of Nim-
rim. Jerome says, that Nimrim is situated on the Dead
sea, and takes name from the bitterness of its waters. —
Calmet.
NIMROD. He is generally supposed to have been the
immediate son of Gush, and the youngest, or sixth, from
the scriptural phrase, " Cush begat Nimrod," after the
mention of his five sons. Gen. 10: 8. But the phrase is
used with considerable latitude, like " father," and " son,"
in Scripture, Gen. 10: 8 — 12. Though the main body of
the Cushites was miraculously dispersed, and sent by
Providence to their destinations along the sea-coasts of
Asia and Africa, yet Nimrod remained behind, and found-
ed an empire in Babylonia, according to ISerosus, by
usurping the property of the Arphaxadites in the land of
Shinar ; where " the beginning of his kingdom was Ba-
bel," or Babylon, and other towns : and, not satisfied
with this, he next invaded Assur, or Assyria, east of the
Tigris, where he built Nineveh, and several other towns.
The marginal reading of our English Bible, " He went
out into Assyria," or to invade Assj'ria, is here adopted
in preference to that in the text, &c.
The meaning of the word Nineveh may lead us to his
original name, Nin, signifying " a son," the most cele-
brated of the sons Cush. That of Nimrod, or " Rebel,"
was probably a designation given him by the oppressed
Shemites, of which we have several instances in Scripture,
2 Kings 18: 4. Nimrod, who first subverted the patriarchal
government, introduced also the Zabian idolatry, or wor-
ship of the heavenly host ; and, after his death, was dei-
fied by his subjects, and supposed to be translated into
the constellations of Orion, attended by his hounds, Sirius
and Canicula, and still pursuing his favorite game, the
great bear. And it is highly probable that the Assyrian
Nimrod, or Hindoo Bala, was also the prototype of the
Grecian Hercules, with his ^lub and lion's skin.
Kimrod is said to have Veen " a mighty hunter before
the Lord ;" which the Jerusalem paraphrast interprets of
persecution, a sinful hunting after the sons of men, to
turn them off from the true religion. But it may be taken
in a more literal sense, for hunting of wild bea.sts ; inas-
much as the circumstance of his being a mighty hunter is
mentioned with great propriety to introduce the account
of his setting up his kingdom ; the exercise of hunting be-
ing looked upon in ancient times as a means of acquiring
the rudiments of war ; for which reason, the principal
heroes of heathen antiquity, as Theseus, Nestor, &c.,
were, as Xenophon tells us, bred up to hunting. Besides,
it may be supposed, that by this jiractice Nimrod drew to-
gether a great company of robust young men to attend
him in his sport, and by that means increased his power.
And by destroying the wild beasts, which, in the compara-
tively defenceless state of society in those early ages,
were, no doubt, very dangerous enemies, he might, per-
haps, render himself farther popular; thereby engaging
numbers to join with him, and to promote his chief design
of subduing men, and making himself master of many
nations. We incline, however, to the version, " a mighty
persecutor in the sight of Jehovah." — Watson.
NINEVEH. This capital of the Assyrian empire
could boast of the remotest antiquity. Tacitus styles it,
" Vetustissima sedes Assyria ;" and Scripture informs us
that Nimrod built Nineveh, and several other cities. Gen.
10: 11. Its name denotes " the habitation of Nin," which
seems to have been the proper name of " that rebel," as
Nimrod signifies ; and it is uniformly styled by Herodo-
tus, Xenophon, Diodorus, Lucian Ace, " the city of Ni-
nus." And the village of Nunia, opposite Mosul, in its
name, and the tradition of the natives, ascertains the
site of the ancient city, which was near the castle of Ar-
bela, according to Tacitus, so celebrated for the decisive
victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians there ;
the site of which is ascertained by the village of Arbil,
about ten German miles to the east of Nunia, according
to Niebuhr's map. Nineveh at first seems only to have
been a small city, and less than Resen, in its neighbor-
hood ; which is conjectured by Bochart, and not without
reason, to have been the same as Larissi, which Xeno-
phon describes as " the ruins of a great city, formerly in-
habited by the Medes," and which the natives might have
described as belonging la Eesen, " to Resen.'' Nineveh
did not rise to greatness for many ages after, until its
second founder, Ninus II., about B. C. 1230, enlarged and
made it the greatest city in the world.
According to Diodorus, it was of an oblong form, a
hundred and fifty stadia long, and ninety broad, and, con-
sequently, four hundred and eifhty in circuit or f( rty-
/
NlJt
[ 873 ]
NIN
eight miles, reckoning ten stadia to an English iv...',, -vuh
major Renncl. And its walls were a hundred feet high,
and so broad that three chariots could drive on them
abreast j and on the walls were fifteen hundred towers,
each two hundred feet high. We are not, however, to
imagine that all this vast inclosure was built upon : it
contained great parlis and extensive fields, and detached
houses and buildings, like Babylon, and other great cities
of the East even at the present day, as Bassorah, &c.
And this entirely corresponds with the representations of
Scripture. In the days of the prophet Jonah, about B. C.
800, it seems to have been a " great city, an e.tcccding
great city, of three day.s' journey," (Joiiah 1: 2. 3: 3.)
perhaps in circuit. The population of Nineveh, also, at
that time was very great. It contained " more than six-
score thousand persons that couM not discern between
their right hand and their left, beside much cattle," Jonah
4: 11. Reckoning the persons to have been infants of
two years old and under, and that these were a fifth part
of the whole, according to Bochart, the whole population
would amount to sLx hundred thousand souls. The same
number Pliny assigns for the population of Seleucia, on
the decline of Babylon. This population shows that a
great part of the city must have been left open and un-
built.
The threatene<l overthrow of Nineveh within three
days, was, by the general repentance and humiliation of
the inhabitants, from the highest to the lowest, suspended
for near two hundred years, until " their iniquity came to
the full ;" and then the prophecy was literally accom-
plished, in the third year of the siege of the city, by the
combined Medes and Babylonians : the king, Sardana-
palus, being encouraged to hold out in consequence of an
ancient prophecy, that Nineveh should never be taken by
assault, till the river became its enemy ; when a mighty
inundation of the river, swollen by continual rains, came
up against a part of the city, and threw down twenty
stadia of the wall in length ; upon which, the king, con-
ceiving that the oracle was accomplished, burnt himself,
his concubines, eunuchs, and treasures ; and the enemy
entering by the breach, sacked and razed the city, about
B. C. 606. The complete demolition of such immense
piles as the walls and towers of Nineveh, may seem mat-
ter of surprise to those who do not consider the nature of
the materials of which they were constructed, that is, of
bricks, dried or baked in the sun, and cemented with bitu-
men, which were apt to be " dissolved" by water, or to
moulder away by the injuries of the weather. Besides,
in the East, the materials of ancient cities have been
often employed in the building of new ones in the neigh-
borhood. Thus Mosul was built with the spoils of Nine-
veh.
The book of Nahum was avowedly prophetic of the
destruction of Nineveh ; and it is there foretold that " the
gates of the river shall be opened, and the palace shall be
dissolved. Nineveh of old, like a pool of water, with an
overflowing flood he will make an utter end of the place
tliereof," Nahum 2: 6. 1: S, 9. The historian describes
the facts by which the other predictions of the prophet
were as literally fulfilled. He relates that the king of
Assyria, elated with his former victories, and ignorant of
the revolt of the Bactrians, had abandoned himself a
scandalous inaction ; had appointed a time of festivity,
and supplied his soldiers with abundance of wine ; andj
that the general of the enemy, apprised, by deserters, of
their negligence and drunkenness, attacked the Assyrian
army while the whole of them were fearlessly giving way
to indulgence, destroyed great part of them, and drove the
rest into the city. The words of the prophet were herebv
verified : " While they be folden together as thorns, and
while they are drunken as drunkards, they shall be de-
voured as stubble fully dry," Nahum 1: 10. The prophet
promised much spoil to the enemy : " Take the sjioil of
silver, take the spoil of gold ; for there is no end of the
store and glory out of all the pleasant furniture," Nahum
2: '.I. And the historian affirms that many talents of gold
and silver, preserved from the fire, were carried to Ec-
batana. According to Nahum, (3: 15.) the city was not
only to be destroyed by an overflowing flood, but the fire,
also, was to devour it ; and, as Diodorus relates, partly
by water, partly by fire, it was destroyed.
The utter and perpetual destruction and desolation of
Nineveh were foretold : '•' The Lord will make an utter
end of the place thereof. Afilii lion shall not rise up the
second time; she is empty, void, and waste," Nahum 1:
8,9. 2: 10. 3: 17— 19. And if now the only spot that
bears its name, or that can be said to be the place where
it was, be indeed the site of one of the most extensive of
cities on which the sun ever shone, and which continued
for many centuries to be the capital of Assyria ; the prin-
cipal mounds, few in number, which show neither bricks,
stones, nor other materials of building, but are in many
places overgrown with grass, and resemble the mounds
left by intrenchments and fortifications of ancient Roman
camps, and the appearances of other mounds and ruins
less marked than even these, extending for ten miles, and
■nidely spread, and seeming to be the wreck of former
buildings, — show that Nineveh is left without one monu-
ment of royalty; without any token whatever of its splen-
dor or wealth ; that their place is not known where they
were ; and that it is indeed a desolation, " empty, void,
and waste," its very ruins perished, and less than the
wreck of what it was. Such an utter ruin, in even' view,
has been made of it ; and such is the truth of the divine pre-
dictions. See KeiUi on llie Evidence, of Prophecij. — Watson.
NINUS ; son of Eelus the Assyrian, and founder of the
Assyrian monarchy, A. M. 2737, about the lime of the-
government of Deborah and Barak in Israel. — Calmet
NO A
[874]
NOA
NISAN ; a Hebrew month, partly answering to our
March ; and which sometimes takes from February or
April, according to the course of ihe moon. It was the
seventh month of the civil year ; but was made the first
- month of the sacred year, at the coming out of Egypt,
Exod. 12: 2. In Moses it is called Abib. The name Ni-
sau is only since the time of Ezra, and the return from
the captivity of Babylon. See the Jewish Calendar. —
Calmet.
NISROCH, or Nesroch ; a god of the Assyrians, 2 Kings
19: 37. The LXX. call him Nesrach ; Josephus, Aras-
kes ; and the Hebrew of Tobit, published by Munster,
Dagon. — Cahmt.
NITRE ; {nether,) Prov. 25: 20. Jer. 2: 22. This is
not the same that we call nitre, or saltpetre, but a native
salt of a dilferent kind, distinguished among naturalists
by the name of natrum. The natrum of the ancients
was an earthy alkaline salt. It was found in abundance
separated from the water of the lake Natron, in Egypt.
It rises from the bottom of the lake to the top of the wa-
ter, and is there condensed by the heat of the sun into the
hard and dry form in which it is sold. This salt thus
scummed off is the same in all respects with the Smyrna
soap earth, Pliny, Matthiolus, and Agricola have de-
scribed it to us ; Hippocrates, Galen, Dio.scorides, and
others, mention its uses, It is also found in great plenty
in Siudy, a province in the inner part of Asia, and in
many other parts of the East; and might be had in any
quantities.
The learned Michaelis plainly demonstrates, from the
nature of the thing and Ihe context, that this fossil and
natural alkali must be that which the Hebrews called ne-
ther. Solomon must mean the same when he compares
the effect which unseasonable mirth has upon a man in
affliction to the action of vinegar upon nitre ; (Prov. 25:
20.) for vinegar has no eflect upon what we call nitre, but
upon the alkali in question has a great effect, making it
rise up in bubbles with much effervescence. It is of a
soapy nature, and was used to take spots from clothes,
and even from the face. Jeremiah alludes to this use of
it, 2: 22.— Watson.
NO, or No-Ammon ; a city of Egypt. (See Nofh,)—
Cnlmet.
NOACHID^ ; a name given to the children of Noah,
md in general, to all men not of the chosen race of Abra-
liam. — Cnlmet.
NOAH, [repose or rest,) son of Lamech, was born A. M.
1056. Amidst the general corruption of mankind, he
found favor in the eyes of the Lord, and received adivine
command, to build an ark for the saving of his house
from the general deluge which the Lord was about to
hring upon the earth. Influenced by faith and religious
fear he obeyed. (See Ark, and Deluse.) After having
left the ark, Noah offered as a burnt-sacrifice to the Lord
one of all the pure animals that had been preserved.
His sacrifice was accepted, and the Lord promised to
bring no more a deluge over the earth ; of which promise
the sign he gave to Noah was the rainbow.
Noah seems, in the first instance at least, to have taken
up his residence in the vicinity of mount Ararat, inas-
much as no notice is taken of his journeying thence prior
to his commencement of husbandry. And this idea is
strengthened by the fact of the existence of a city or town
at the foot of that mountain at this very day, denominated
" The Place of Descent ;" which city appears, from this
circumstance, to have been founded by Noah himself.
In the opinion of some, he spent the remainder of his
days at the place above mentioned ; but others suppose
that he emigrated from thence to China. We will briefly
consider this subject.
Mankind are represented as journeying from the £as<,
when they found the plain of Shinar. Now mount Ara-
rat, in Armenia, is northerhj from Shinar. It folljw.s,
therefore, that the mountain now denominated Ararat is
not the Ararat near which Noah settled after the deluge ;
or, that the posterity of Noah must have wandered in
their journeyings a great distance from that place, in or-
der to bring them to a position whence, by journeying
•..estward, they would reach Shinar. Waiving, therefore,
;'..« consideration of the question where the real Ararat is
situated, we are driven to the conclusion that the great
body of mankind rvere, some time previous to their arriv-
ing at Shinar, eastward of that country.
Noah lived till after the period of the confusion of
tongues. Had he accompanied his posterity to Shinar, it
is morally certain that a person of his eminence, and of
his relation to them, must have figured conspicuously
among them. But as no mention is made of him in con-
nexion with the journeying from the East, and the disper-
sion at Babel, we conclude that he either continued where
he first settled, viz. at the base of mount Ararat, or else
that he journeyed in some other direction with a portion
of his descendants, while the remainder jonrneyed west
to Shinar. The latter is the more probable supposition.
" Two hundred and fifty years before Ninus," says
Fortius Cato, "the earth was overflowed with waters, and
mankind began again in Saga Scythia." Saga Scythix
is in the same latitude with Bactria, between the Caspian
sea and Imaus, north of mount Paraponisus. Noal
might have continued his journey to Saga Scythia, and
formed a settlement there, if the ark did not rest in that
quarter at the subsiding of the waters ; and hence there
is nothing in the foregoing fragment of Fortius Cato in-
consistent with the idea, that Ararat is in Armenia. That
he and some of his posterity did actually separate from
the main body, is rendered still further probable by the
Chaldean tradition which we have already adduced, viz.
that after Xisuthrus, his wife, his daughter, and the pi-
lot had left the ark, and sacrificed to the gods, they dis-
appeared and were seen no more ; although the voice of
Xisuthrus could be still distinguished in the air, admo-
nishing those who remained to pay due respect to the gods,
and directing them to make their way to Babylonia.
From the foregoing consideration it seems citCtr, that
Noah and some of his posterity separated from the res!,-
the former journeying eastward, the latter westward, be-
fore the confusion of tongues at Babel, and the subse-
quent dispersion of mankind.
But whither went Noah and his party ? Most probably
to China. The language, the literature, the policy, and
the history of the Chinese, combine to sustain this idea.
Their language appears not to have changed from its
primitive character by the confusion of tongues at Babel.
Their literature is as ancient as any whatever. Their go-
vernment retains the patriarchal character. And their
history evidently reaches back to the time of Noah.
The first king of China wa.s Fohi, who was undoubtedly
the same person as Noah. The Chinese say Fohi had no
father. So Noah, being the great progenitor of the post-
dilmians, stands in relation to them as did Adam to the
antediluvians — fatherless, Fohi's mother is said to have
conceived him, encompassed by a rainbow ; an evident
allusion to the token of the rainbow in the case of Noah.
Fohi is said carefully to have bred seven kinds of crea-
tures, which he used to sacrifice to the Supreme Spirit of
heaven and earth. Noah took into the ark clean beasts
and fowls by sevens ; of which he ofl^ered burnt-offerings
to the Deity on the subsiding of the deluge. Add to this
the circumstance heretofore brought into view, that the
Chou'king represents the monarch of China as occupied
in drawing ofl' the waters which had deluged the earth ;
and little doubt indeed can remain, that Noah must have
been he founder of the Chinese empire. If, however, any
confirmation of this supposition were wanting, it could
be found in the history of the world in the early ages,
which shows that those eastern regions were as early peo-
pled as the land of Shinar. For in the days of Ninus
and Semiramis, several hundred years after the disper-
sion, the dispersed nations attacked the inhabitants of the
East with their combined forces, but found the nations
about Bactria, and the parts where we have supposed
Noah finally settled, able to repulse them.
Noah lived, after the deluge, three hundred and fifty
years ; his whole life being nine hundred and fifty j'ears.
He died A. M. 2006, leaving three sons, Shem, Ham, and
Japheth, (see those articles,) among whom he divided the
whole world, giving to Shem Asia, to Ham Africa, and to
Japheth Europe. (See Division oe the Earth.)
Peter calls Noah a preacher of righteousness, (2 Pet. 2:
5.) because, before the deluge, he was incessantly declar-
NOD
[ 875
NUN
ing, not only by his discourses, but by his unblamable
life, and by building the ark, in which he was employed
one hundred and twenty years, the coming of the wrath
of God, Matt. 24: 37. The passage in i Pet. 3: 18—20.
has been the theme of much controversy. Several of the
ancient fathers took the words literally j as if Christ af-
ter his death had really preached to those men, who be-
Tore the deluge were disobedient to the preaching of Noah.
But it is certain, that the term " he went and preached,"
Inay signify only " he preached ,-" as in Eph. 2: 15. " he
came and preached peace to you Who were afar off;" not
In person ; but by his agents, his apostles. In this sense
Noah, in his day, was an agent of Christ, being actuated
by his Spirit. It is probable, also, that as fallen angels
are described as being held in chains of darkness, unto
judgment, so disobedient human spirits may be described
cs being in prison, that is, reserved to future judgment.
Comp. Job 26: 5, as usually understood. (See Hell,
Ciikist's Descent into.)
Several learned men have observed, that the pagans
confounded Saturn, Deucalion, Ogyges, the god Coelus
or Ouranus, Janus, Protheus, Prometheus, Vertumnus,
Bacchus, Osiris, Vadimon, and Xisuthrus, with Noah.
The fable of Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha is mani-
festly derived from the history of Noah. Deucalion, by
the advice of his father, built an ark, or vessel of wood,
in which he stored all sorts of provisions necessary for
life, and entered it, with his wife Pyrrha; to secure them-
selves from a deluge, that drowned nearly all Greece.
All the people almost of this country were destroyed ;
none escaped but those who took refuge on the tops of
the highest mountains. When the flood was over, Deu-
calion came out of his ark, and found himself on mount
Parnassus. There he offered sacrifices to Jupiter, who
sent Mercury to him, to know what he desired. He re-
quested that he might become the restorer of mankind,
which Jupiter granted to him. He and Pyrrha were or-
dered to cast stones behind them, which immediately
became so many men and women. The name Nu-
raito given to the wife of Noah by the Syro-Chaldee, '
is derived from the Syriac, nnra, which signifies fire ;
hence Pyrrha (fire) is, by the Greeks, said to have been
the name of the wife of Deucalion ; and so far the Gre-
cian story rests on authority more Oriental than itself
Epiphanius has a reference to this derivation : he calls
her " Noria, said to be the wife of Noah, whose name is,
by interpretation, Pyrrha." There is, also, muchallegory
couched under the names of Deucalion's father, Prome-
theus, (foresight,) by whom he was advised to build a
vessel, and Pyrrha's father, Epimetheus, whose wife was
Pandora, accomplished by gifts from all the gods, with
her box of evils, in which, when opened, remained only
Hope, &c. — Calmet.
NOB ; a sacerdotal city of Benjamin or Ephraim, not
far from Diospolis. When David was driven away by
Saul he came to Nob, the priests of which city were slain
by Saul, 1 Sam. 22: 9, &c. 21: 6, kc— Calmet.
NOBLEMAN, John 4: 46. This was probably an
odicer of Herod's court, and of considerable distinction ;
nol an hereditary nobleman. The word basiJekos signities
a servant of the king ; as the Syriac and Arabic versions
render it. Many have conjectured that this nobleman,
or royal servant, was Chuza, Herod's steward, whose
wife is thought to have been converted on this occasion,
and afterwards to have become an attendant on Jesus,
Luke 8: 3. — Cahuet.
NOD, (Land or ;) the country to which Cain withdrew
after the murder of Abel. As the precise situation of
this country cannot possibly be known, so it has given
rise to much ingenious speculation. All that we are told
of it is, that it was •' on the east of Eden," or, as it may
be rendered, " before Eden ;" which very country of Eden
is no sure guide for us, as the situation of that also is
dispnted. But, be it on the higher or lower Euphrates,
(see Eden,) the land of Nod, which stood before it
with respect to the place where Moses wrote, inay still
preserve the curse of barrenness passed on it for Cain's
sake, namely, in the deserts of Syria or Arabia. The
ChaTdee interpreters render the word Nod, not as the pro-
per name of country, but as an appellative applied to a
Cain himself, signifying a vagabond or fugitive, and read,
" He dwelt a fugitive in the land." But the Hebrew reads
expressly, " He dwelt in the land of Nod."— Watson.
NOETIANS; Christian heretics in the third century,
followers of Noetius, a philosopher of Ephesus, who pre-
tended that he was another Moses, sent by God, and that
his brother was a new Aaron. His heresy consisted in
affirming that there was but one person in the Godheail ;
and that the Word and the Holy Spirit were but external
denominations given to God in consequence of different
operations; that, as Creator, he is called Father; as in-
carnate. Son ; and as descending on the apostles, Holtj
Ghost. (See Sabellians.) — Hend. Buck.
NOGAROLE, (Isotta,) a lady of Verona, of a family
celebrated for the wisdom, piely, and beauty of its women,
was born in 1 12S. She was a great philosopher and di-
vine, mistress of several languages, and of an elo'iuence
surpassing all the orators of Italy. She made a mosi
elaborate speech at the council of Mantua, convened by
pope Pius II., that all Christian princes might enter into a
league. against the Turks. "She wrote eloquent epistles
not only to him, but to his predecessor, Nicholas V., and
a Dialogue, in which she disputed, which was most guilty,
Adam or Eve. Some of her works coming to the sight
of cardinal Bessarion, that illustrious patron of literature
was so taken with her genius, that he made a journey
from Rome to Verona, purely to pay her a visit. She
died in 1446, aged thirty-eight. — Bethiim.
NON-CONFORMISTS ; dissenters from the church of
England ; but the term applies more particularly to those
ministers who were ejected from their livings by the act
of uniformity in 1662 ; the number of whom, according
to Dr. Calamy, was nearly two thousand ; and to the laity
who adhered to them. The celebrated Mr. Locke says,
" Bartholomew-day (the day fixed by the act of uniformi-
ty) was fatal to our church and religion, by throwing out
a very great number of worthy, learned, pious, and or-
thodox divines, who could not come up to this and other
things in that act. And it is worth your knowledge, that
so great was the zeal in carrying on this church affair, and
so blind was the obedience required, that if you compare
the time of passing the act with the time allowed for the
clergy to subscribe the Book of Common Prayer thereby
established, you shall plainly find, it could not be printed
and distributed, so as one man in forty could have seeu
and read the book before they did so perfectly assent and
consent thereto."
By this act, the clergy were required to subscribe, ex
fldi'mo, their " assent and consent to all and every thing
contained in the Book of Common Prayer," which had
never before been insisted on, so rigidly as to deprive
them of their livings and livelihood. Several other acts
were passed about this time, very oppressive both to the
clergy and laity. In the preceding year, 1661, the Corpo-
ration act incapacitated all persons from offices of trust
and honor in a corporation, who did not receive the sacra-
ment in the established church. The Conventicle act, in
1563 and 1670, forbade the attendance at conventicles ;
that is, at places of worship other than the establishment,
where more than five adults were present beside the resi-
dent family ; and that under penalties of fine and impri-
sonment by the sentence of magistrates, without a jury.
The Oxford act of 1665 banished noiKonibrraing ministers
five miles from any corporate town sending members to
parliament, and prohibited them from keeping or teaching
schools. The Test act of the same year required all per-
sons, accepting any office under government, to receive
the sacrament in the established church.
Such were the dreadful consequences of this intolerant
spirit, that it is supposed that near eight thousand died in
prison in the reign of Charles II. It is said that Mr. Jere-
miah White had carefully collected a list of those who
had suffered between Charles II. and the revolution, which
amounted to sixty thousand. The same persecutions
were carried on in Scotland ; and there, as well as in Eng-
land, numbers, to avoid the persecution, left their country.
But, notwithstanding all these dreadful and furious at-
tacks upon the dissenters, they were not extii^pated. Their
very persecution was in their favor. The infamous cha-
racter of their informers and persecutors; their piety.
NON
[ 876 ]
NOP
2?al, and fortilucle, no doubt, had influence on considerate
rainds ; and, indeed, they had additions from the esta-
blished church, which several clergymen in this reign de-
serted as a persecuting church, and took their lot among
them. King William coming to the throne, the famous
Toleration act passed, by which they were exempted from
suffering the penalties above mentioned, and permission
was given them to worship God according to the dictates
of their own consciences. In the reign of George III ,
the act for the protection of religious worship supersede. I
the act of toleration, by still more liberal provisions m
favor of religious liberty ; and in the reign of George IV.,
the Test and Corporation acts were repealed.
See Bogue's Charge at Blr. Knight's Ordination ; Neat'x
History of the Puritans ; Be Lanne's Flea for the Non-con-
formists j Palmer's Non-conformists' Mem. ; Martin's Letters
on Non-conformity ; Robinson's Lectures ; Cornish's History
of Non-conformity ; Dr. Calamy's Life of Baxter ; Pierce's
Vindication of the Dissenters ; Bogue and Bennet's History
of the Dissenters ; Conder, J. Fletcher, and Dobson on Non-
cmiformity. — -Watson! Hend. Buck.
NON-CONFOKIVIITY ; a relative term, which supposes
some previously existing system of observances, establish-
ed either by political authority or general consent, and de-
notes a practical secession or non-communion, on grounds
conceived by the parties to require and justify it. Like
the term Protestantism, it is general and comprehensive.
It applies to the various grounds of secession from a na-
tional establishment of religion, and includes diflerent
systems of ecclesiastical polity. No wise man would
choose to differ from those around him, in reference to
matters either civil or religious, unless, in his own estima-
tion, he had good reasons for thai difl'erence ; and in such
cases it is the obvious dictate of duty to investigate the
questions at issue, with calmness and deliberation; that
conviction and not caprice, principle and not passion, may
regulate the inquiry and form the decision.
Many regard the non-conformist controversy as a very
unattractive subject, a mere debate about words and names
and questions, which gender strife rather than godly edi-
fying. Assuming either that there is no authority or
standard in such matters, or that the authority of certain
ecclesiastical superiors ought lo be submitted to without
murmuring or disputing, they pronounce their disapproba-
tion on all discussions of such subjects, and on the par-
ties wlio engage in them. High-churchmen are offended
that the doctrine of conformity should be called in ques-
tion at all. Those who profess high spirituality, look on
the subject as unworthy of their regard, and as fit for
siuh as mind the carnal things of the kingdom of God.
Dissenters, as well as others, frequently speak of it as be-
ing among non-essential matters, and scarcely deserving
of pro! )und consideration ; and while they luxuriate in the
privileges which their forefathers purchased for them at
so dear ,'i rate, almost pity and condemn the measures
which procured them.
It is mpossible for any one to fonn a correct view of
Engli.='j history for nearly three hundred years, without
an ac juaintance with this controversy, and with the cha-
ractcis and principles of the men who engaged in it. It
is almost coeval with the English Reformation ; and the
treat questions then started cannot be considered as yet
nally settled. The Puritans, under the Tudors, became
non-conf irmists under the Stuarts, and di.ssenters under
ti.e family of Hanover. They have been men of the
same principles substantially throughout. In maintain-
ing the rights of conscience they have contributed more
than any other class of persons to set limits to the power
of the crown, to define the rights of the subjects, and to
secure the liberties of Britain. They have wrested a rod
of iron from the hand of despotism, and substituted in
its place a sceptre of righteousness and mercy. They
have converted the divine right of kings into the princi-
ples of a constitutional government, in which the privi-
leges of the subject are secured by the same charter which
guards the throne. The history of the principles of such
a body ought not, therefore, to be regarded as unimportant
by any friends of British freedom.
The non-conformist controversy contributed greatly lo
ascertain the distinct provinces of divine and human le-
gislation ; to establish the paramount and exclusive aa-
thority of God, and of the revelation of his will, over the
conscience of man ; and to define the undoubted claims
of civil government to the obedience of its subjects in all
matters purely civil. To the same controversy we are
indebted for the correct and scriptural sentiments which
are now extensively entertained respecting the imsecular
nature of the kingdom of Christ. The interm.ixture of
heavenly and earthly things does indeed still prevail, and
its pernicious tendency is yet imperfectly estimated by
many ; but considerable progress has been made towards
the full discovery of the entire spirituality of Messiah's
kingdom. Its independence of secular support and de-
fence ; its resources both of propagation and mainten-
ance ; its uncongeniality with the principles, spirit, and
jiractice of earth-born men, are now much more generally
admitted than they once were. In fact the ablest defend-
ers of eccle.siastico-civil establishments have now entirely
abandoned the doctrine of divine right, and boldly avow
that they are no part of Christianity, but only a human
expedient for its propagation. Orme's Life of Baxter, vol.
ii. p. 254 ; Memoir of Soger Williams. — Hend. Buck.
NON-JURORS ; those -who refused to talse the oaths to
the English government, and who were in consequence
under certain incapacities, and liable to certain severe
penalties. It can .scarcely be said that there are any non-
jurors now in that kingdom ; and it is well known that as
well in Scotland as in England, all penalties have been re-
moved both from papists and Protestants, formerly of that
denomination. The members of the Episcopal church of
Scotland have long been denominated non-jurors ; but
perliaps they are now called so improperly, as the ground
of their difference from the establishment is more on ac-
count of ecclesiastical than political principles. — Hend.
Buck.
NON-RESIDENCE ; the act of not residing on an
ecclesiastical benefice. Nothing can reflect greater dis-
grace on a clergj'man of a parish, than to receive the
emoluments without ever visiting his parishioners, and
being unconcerned for the welfare of their souls ; yet
this, in England, has been a reigning evil, and proves that
there are too many who care little about the flock, so that
they may but live at ease. Let such remember what an
awful account they will have to give of talents misapplied,
time wasted, souls neglected, and a sacred office abused.
—Htnd. Buck ; Am. Bap. Mag. for 1832.
NOON ; the middle time of the day, when the sun is
highest in his daily course ; in modern language, when he
is direct south, on the meridian of any place, 1 Kings 18:
27. Psal. 55: 17. This time of the day being the bright-
est, is made a subject of comparison in several places of
Scripture, Job 5: 14. Psal. 37: 6. The apostle Paul says
the brightness in which he beheld the Lord Jesus, was
superior to that of the sun at noon. Acts 26: 13. — Calmet.
NOPH; a city of Egypt, (Isa. 19: 13. Jer. 2: 16. 41:
1. 46: 14. Ezek. 30: 13, 16.) generally believed to have
been the same with Moph, the Menouf of the Copts and
Arabs ; that is, Memphis. Memphis is the Greek form
of the ilgyplian name, which, according to Plutarch, signi-
fies the port of the good.
The situation of Memphis, formerly the capital of Egypt,
has been a subject of considerable dispute, and has af-
forded materials for long and laborious investigation by
the learned. Bruce's Travels ; the Fragments to Calmet,
no. 546 ; and the Modern Traveller, (Egypt, vol. i. p.
339 — 352,) will supply the necessary information.
Memphis was the residence of the ancient kings of
Egypt, till the times of the Ptolemies, who commonly re-
sided at Alexandria. The prophets, in the places above
referred to, foretell the miseries Memphis was to sufler
from the kings of Chaldea and Persia, and they threaten
the Israelites who should retire into Egypt, or should have
recourse to the Egyptians, that they should perish in that
country. In this city they fed the ox Apis ; and Ezekiel
says, that the Lord will destroy the idols of Memphis,
chap. 30: 13, 16. Memphis retained its splendor tdl it
was conquered by the Arabians, in the eighteenth or nine-
teenth year of the Hegira, A. D. 641. Amrou-Ben-As,
who took it, built another near it, which was called Eiis-
thath, from the general's tent, which had long occupied
NOS
[ 877 ]
NOV
that place. The Faliinite caliphs, becoming masters of
Egypt, added another city, which they named Caherah,
" the victorious," the present Grand Cairo, which is built
on the eastern shore of the NWe.^Cahnet.
NOPHET, in Josh. 17: 11, and elsewhere, is taken for
a district, or province. It is often joined to Dor, as No-
phet-dor, (Josh. U: 2. 12: 23.) the district round the city
Dor, on the Mediterranean, south of mount Carmel, and
north of Caesarea of Palestine. Two-thirds of it was
possessed by Zebulun, and one-third by Manasseh. — •
Calmet.
NORRIS, (John,) one of the founders of the theological
seminary in Andover, was for many years a respectable
merchant in Salem, Massachusetts. March 21, 1808, he
gave ten thousand dollars towards establishing the institu-
tion at Andover. This was a day of unequalled munifi-
cence, for on the same day Messrs. Brown and Bartlet,
merchants of Newburyport, gave toward.s the same ob-
ject, the former ten thousand, and the latter twenty thou-
sand dollars. Mr. Norris lived to see the seminary opened,
on September 28th. He died December 22, 1808, aged
fifty seven.
His widow, Mary Norris, died at Salem, in 1811, be-
queathing thirty thousand dollars to the theological semi-
nary at Andover, and the same sum to trustees, for the
benefit of foreign missions to the heathen.
In such esteem was Mr. Norris held by his fellow-citi-
zens, that he was for several years elected a member of
the senate of Massachusetts. Obtaining, through the di-
vine blessing upon his industr}', an ample fortune, he con-
sidered himself as the steward of God, and his abundant
liberality flowed in various channels. Extr&me self-dif-
fidence prevented him from making a public profession of
religion ; yet his house was a house of prayer, in which
the morning and evening sacrifice ascended to the mercy-
seat ; and he once said in a solemn manner, " I would not
relinquish my hope that I am a child of God for a thou-
sand worlds." — illai.
NORTH. As it was customar}' for the Hebrews to
consider the cardinal points of the heavens in reference
to a man whose face was turned toward the East, the
north was consequently to his left hand. The north wind
dissipates rain, (Prov. 25: 23.) but this must depend on
the situation of a place ; as. in diflerent places the same
wind has diflierent effects. — Calmet.
NORTON, (Jon.N,) an eminent minister of Boston, was
born in Hertfordshire, England, in 160(5, and educated at
the university of Cambridge. A lecture was at this time
supported at Starford by a number of pious ministers, and
through their labors Mr. Norton, who was himself a preach-
er, though like many others ignorant of his own character,
and unacquainted with the truth as it is in Jesus, was im-
pressed with a sense of his sin, andby the agency of the Ho-
ly Spirit was brought to repentance. The view of his own
heart and life, compared with the holy law of God, almost
overwhelmed him with despair ; but a length the promises
of the gospel administered to him inexpressible joy. His
attention had been hitherto occupied in literary and sci-
entific pursuits, but he now devoted himself exclusively
to the study of theology ; and being by his own experience
acquainted with repentance, and faith, and holiness, he
preached upon these subjects with zeal and effect. He
soon became eminent. He adopted the creed and practice
of the Puritans, and in Ui35 emigrated to New England.
He was first settled in the ministry at Ipswich, but was
afterwards prevailed on to remove to Boston. In 1602,
he was appointed one of the two agents of the colony to
address king Charles on his restoration, but they did not
fully succeed in the objects of their mission. He died in
1663, aged fifty-six. In his natural temper Mr. Norton
was somewhat irascible, but, being taught by the grace
of God to govern his passions, his renewed heart rendered
him meek, courteous, and amiable. Still a mistaken zeal
for the truth made him, as it made his contemporaries,
friendly to persecution. His theological works were nu-
merous, and he published several political tracts. — Daven-
port ; Elliot ; Allen.
NOSE. The Hebrews commonly place the strongest
manifestation of anger in the nose: "There went up a
smoke out of his nostrils," 2 Sam. 22: 9. Psal. 18: 8.
Dent. 29: 20. Job 41: 21. The ancient Greek and Latin
authors speak much after the same manner.
Solomon alludes to the custom of women wearing gold-
en rings in their nostrils, when he says, (Prov. 11: 22.)
" As a jewel of gold in a swine's snout, so is a fair woman
without discretion." And Ezekiel, (16: 12.) " I will put
a jewel on thy forehead, [Heb. nose,] and ear-rings in thine
ears, and a beautiful crown upon thine head." They also
put rings in the nostrils of oxen and camels, to guide
them by : "X will put my hook in thy nose, and my bridle
in thy lips," 2 Kings 19: 28. See also Job 11: 2. — Calmet.
NOTES OF THE CHURCH ; certain marks or cha-
racteristics to which tlie Roman Catholics appeal in sup-
port of their pretensions, that the church of Rome is the
only true church. Their writers generally mention fo-ir :
viz. unity, holiness, catholicity, and apostolicity ; but Bel-
larmine lays down the following as more fully deter-
mining the point: catholicity, antiquity, duration, ampli-
tude, episcopal succession, apostolical agreement, unity,
sanctity of doctrine, efficacy of doctrine, holiness of life,
miracles, prophecy, admissions of adversaries, unhappy
end of enemies, temporal felicity. It may be fairly left
with the reader to compare the history of the church of
Rome in reference to these points, with the primitive
apostolic church, as depicted in the New Testament, in
order to his satisfactorily deciding on the validity of the
claims in question. (See Novatians.) — Ileiid. Biiek.
NOTHING. Idols are often called nothings, non-en-
tities. " Ye which rejoice in a thing of nought," Amos
G: 13. And Esther, (Apoc. 14: 11.) "0 Lord, give not
thy sceptre unto them that be nothing;" deliver not over
thy people to those gods that are nothing. Paul says,
"We know that an idol is nothing in the world," 1 Cor.
8: A.— Calmet.
NOURISH. (1.) To furnish with food. Gen. 47: 12.
Acts 12: 20. (2.) Kindly to bring up. Acts 7: 21. (3.)
To care, or use all proper means to make to grow, Isa.
44: 14. And to be nonrishedm the word of faith and good
doctrine, is to be affectionately and carefully instructed in
the true principles of the gospel, and well experienced in
its power, for the edification, progress in holiness, and
spiritual comfort of the soul, 1 Tim. 4:6. Jesus Christ, and
his fulness, as exhibited in the doctrines and promises of
the gospel, and applied by the Holy Ghost, are the nourish-
mcnt by which the saints are delightfully instructed, com-
forted, and strengthened to every good word and work,
Col. 2: 19.— Bronvi.
NOVATIANS ; a numerous body of Protestant Dissen-
ters from the church of Rome, in the third century, who,
notwithstanding the representations of their adversaries,
have some just claims to be regarded as the pure, uncor-
rupted, and apostolic church of Christ. They called
themselves Cathari, that is, the pure ; but they received
their name of Novatians from their adversaries, after their
distinguished leader, Nmatian, who, in the year 251, was
ordained the pastor of a church in the city of Rome, which
maintained no fellowship with the (so called) Catholic
party.
Those who are in any tolerable degree conversant with
theological controversy, will scarcely need be appri;;ed
how much caution is necessary to guard against being
misled by the false representations which diflerent parti.'s
give of each other's principles and conduct. Novatian '.s
said to have refused to receive into the communion of the
church any of those persons, who, in the time of persecu-
tion, had been induced through fear of suflerings or death
to apostatize from their profession, and otfer sacrifices to
the heathen deities ; a principle which he founded upon a
mistaken view of Heb. 6: 4 — 6. We may readily con-
ceive how interesting and difficult a subject this must
have been to all the churches of Christ in those distressing
times, and the danger that must have arisen from laying
down any fixed rule of conduct that should apply to all
cases that would come before them ; or even verging to-
wards an extreme on either side of this question.
This is certain, as Dr. Muenscher observes, that '■ the
Novatians declared their communitv to be the only true
church," and required such as came over to them from
the Catholics and other sects to be baptized anew ; be-
cause all others had become corrupt, by recemng formal
NOV
[ 873
NOV
and lapsed professors to fellowship. Yet, the Novatians
did not denj' but a person falling into any sin, how griev-
ous soever, might obtain pardon by repentance ; for they
themselves recommended repentance in the strongest
terms.
The following is the account of Novatian, given by the
late Mr. Robinson, in his Ecclesiastical Researches, p.
126. No one who knows the lax principles of Mr. Ro-
binson on Christian doctrine and communion, can, for a
moment, suspect him of an undue predilection for the
principles of Novatian. "He was," says he, "an elder
in the church of Rome, a man of extensive learning,
holding the same doctrine as the church did, and publish-
ed several treatises in defence of what he believed. His
address was eloquent and insinuating, and his morals ir-
reproachable. He saw whh extreme pain the intolerable
depravity c>f the church. Christians within the space of
a very few years were caressed by one emperor and per-
secuted by another. In seasons of prosperity, many per-
sons rushed into the church for base purposes. In times
of adversity, they denied the faith, and reverted again to
idolatry. When the squall was over, away they came
again to the church, with all their vices, to deprave others
by their examples. The bishops, fond of proselytes, en-
couraged all this ; and transferred the attention of Chris-
tians from the old confederacy for virtue to vain shows at
Easter, and other Jewish ceremonies, adulterated too with
paganism. On the death of bishop Fabian, Cornelius, a
brother elder, and a violent partizan for taking in the mul-
titude, was just in nomination. Novatian opposed him ;
but, as CorneUus carried his election, and he saw no pros-
pect of reformation, but, on the contrary, a tide of im-
morality pouring into the church, he withdrew, and a
great many with him. Cornelius, irritated by Cyprian,
who was just in the same condition, through the remon-
strance of ^artuous men at Carthage, and who was exas-
perated beyond measure with one of his own elders,
named Novatus, who had quitted Carthage, and gone to
Rome to espouse the cause of Novatian, called a council
and got a sentence of excommunication passed against
Novatian. In the end, Novatian formed a church, and
was elected bishop. Great numbers followed his example,
and all over the empire Puritan churches were constituted
and flourished through the succeeding two hundred years.
Afterwards, when penal laws obliged them to lurk in cor-
ners, and worship God in private, they were distinguished
by a variety of names, and a succession of them continued
till the Reformation." (See Waldenses, and Mennonhes.)
The same author, afterwards adverting to the vile ca-
lumnies with which the Catholic writers have in all ages
delighted to asperse the character of Novatian, thus pro-
ceeds to vindicate him : '' They say Novatian was the
first anti-pope ; and yet there was at that time no pope
in the modern sense of the word. They tax Novatian
with being the parent of an innumerable multitude of
congregations of Puritans all over the empire ; and yet he
had no other influence over any than what his good ex-
ample gave him. People everywhere saw the same cause
of complaint, and groaned for relief ; and when one man
made a stand for virtue, the crisis had arrived ; people
saw the propriety of the cure, and applied the same means
to their own relief. They blame this man and all the
churches for the severity of their discipline ; yet this se-
vere discipline was the only coercion of tlie primitive
churches, and it was the exercise of this that rendered ci-
vil coercion unnecessary."
Novatian appears to have been possessed of superior
talents ; — Mosheim terms him " a man of uncommon
learning and eloquence ;" — and he wrote several works,
of which only two are now extant. One of them is upon
the subject of the Trinity. It is divided into thirty-one
sections ; the first eight relate to the Father, and treat
of his nature, power, goodness, justice, &c., with the
worship due to him. The following twenty sections re-
late to Christ ■, the Old Testament prophecies concerning
him ; their actual accomplishment ; his nature ; how the
Scriptures prove his divinity ; confutes the Sabellians ;
shows that it was Christ who appeared to the patriarchs,
Abraham, Jacob, Moses, ice. The twenty-ninth section
treats of the Holv Spirit ; how promised ; given by
Christ ; his offices and operations on the souls of men
and in the church. The last two sections recapitulate the
arguments before adduced. The work appears to have
been written in the year 257, six years afler his separation
from the Catholic church. The other tract is upon the sub-
ject of " Jewish Meats," addressed in the form of a letter
to his church, and written either during his banishment
or retreat ill the time of persecution. It opens up the typi-
cal law of Moses, and while he proves its abolition, is
careful to guard his Christian brethren against supposing
that they were therefore at liberty to eat of things sacri-
ficed to idols.
The doctrinal sentiments of the Novatians appear to
have been very scriptural, and the discipline of their
churches strict, perhaps, to an extreme,
Dr. Lardner, in his Credibility of the Gospel History,
(ch 47.) has been at considerable pains in comparing the
various and contradictory representations that have been
given of Novatian and his followers, and has exonerated
them from a mass of obloquy, cast upon them by the
Catholic party. Though Novatian and his principles were
condemned by that party, he still continued to be support-
ed by a numerous body in various places, separated from
the Catholic church. They had among them persons of
considerable note, and of eminent talents. Among these
were Agelius, Acesius, Sisinnius, and Marcian, all of
Constantinople. Socrates mentions one Mark, bishop of
the Novatians in Scythia, who died in the year 439. In
fact, the pieces written against them by a great variety
of authors of the Catholic church, such as Ambrose, Pa-
eian, and others, the notice taken of them by Dionysius,
Basil, and Gregory Nazianzen, and the accounts given of
them by Socrates and Sozomen, in their ecclesiastical his-
tories, are proofs of their being numerous, and that church-
es of this denomination were to be found in most parts of
the world in the fourth and fifth centuries. " The vast ex-
tent of this sect," says Dr. Lardner, " is manifest from
the names of the authors who have mentioned them, or
written against them, and from the several parts of the
Roman empire in which they were found."
The Novatians suffered severely by persecution, both
from the Catholics on the one hand, and by the Arians on
the other, as each of the rival parties rose to power. So-
crates, the historian, who seems to have been intimately
acquainted with the aff'airsof the Novatians, says that the
toleration which this class of Christians at length obtained
of Valens, the Arian emperor, in 370, they owed under
providence to one Blarcian, a presbyter of their church in
Constantinople, a man of learning and piety, who tutored
two daughters of the emperor. This historian particularly
mentions the liberality and Icindness which the Novatians
exercised towards such of the orthodox party as were the
subjects of persecution, while they themselves were tole-
rated ; a trait in their history which even Milner is oblig-
ed to admit "reflects an amiable lustre on the character
of these Dis.senters ;" and for showing which benevolence,
they actually incurred the displeasure of the reigning
party. (See Waldenses.) — Jones' Historxf of the Chris-
tian Church ; Mosheim; Milner; Muencher' s Dogmatic Hisr
tory.
NOVICE. (See Neophyte.)
NOVITIATE ; a year of probation appointed by the
monastic orders for the trial of religious, whethf r or no
they have a vocation, and the necessary qualities for liv-
ing up to the rule, the observation whereof they are to
bind themselves to by vow. The novitiate lasts a year at
least ; in some houses more. It is esteemed the bed of
the civil death of a novice, who expires to the world by
profession. — Hend. Buck.
NOWELL, (Alexander, D. D.,) a learned divine of
the sixteenth century, was born at Read, Lancashire,
(Eng.,) in 1511, and educated at Cambridge. He early
distinguished himself for learning, piety, and zeal for re-
formation. At Westminster school he trained up youth in
Protestant principles. In 1550 he was made prebendary
of Westminster, by Edward VI.; but on the accession of
queen Mary, he was marked as a victim, and with diffi-
culty escaped to Frankfort, Germany, in 1577. On the
accession of Elizabeth he was the first of the English ex-
iles who returned home, and subsequently enjoyed i^any
OAK
[ 879 ]
OAK
preferments. He was a zealous writer, and frequent
preacher ; for thirty years together he preached in Lent
the first and last sermons, before the queen, with whom he
is said to have dealt faithfully. In the disputes with the
Puritans he took moderate ground. He was chosen prin-
cipal of Brazen-Nose college, Oxford, in 1595, but resigned
his office in a few months. He died February 13, 1601-2,
at the age of ninety, retaining the perfect use of his senses
and faculties to the last.
Besides several pieces of controversy with the Roman-
ists,- dean Nowell published, at the request of the secretary
Cecil, a much esteemed catechism of the doctrine of the
church of England, which received the sanction of the
convocation ; and in which, says bishop Cooper, " you may
see all the parts of true religion received, the difficulties
expounded, the truth declared, and the corruptions of the
church of Kome rejected." — Middletoit, ii. p. 304.
NUMBER ; (1.) A reckoning of persons or things, whe-
ther they he few or many, Gen. 34: 30. (2.) A society or
ccmpany, Luke 22: 3. Acts 1: 17. So Matthias was man-
bered, that is, by suffrages :he was added to the society of
the apostles, Acts 4: 26. The number of the Antichristian
beast is six hundred and sixty-six. The numeral letters con-
tained in his Greek name, Lateinos, Latin, or in his He-
brew one, Eomiith, or Romish, or in Setliua, which signifies
MYSTERY, when added together amount to just six hundred
and sixty-six. God numbered Belshazzar's kingdom, and
finished it; allowed it to continue for the years he had
determined, and not one day more, Dan. 5: 26. He num-
bers men to the slaughter when he sets them apart by his
providence to destruction and death, as a shepherd does
his sheep to be slain, Isa. 65: 12. We tuimber our days
when we seriously consider how frail, and short and un-
certain our life is; how great the necessity and business
of our souls ; and what hinderances of it are in our way,
Ps. 90: 12.— Btohih.
NUMBERS ; a canonical book of the Old Testament,
being the fourth of the Pentateuch, or five books of Moses ;
and receives its denomination from the numbering of the
families of Israel by Moses and Aaron, who mustered the
tribes, and marshalled the army, of the Hebrews in (heir
passage through the wilderness.
A great pa.rt of this book is historical, relating several
remarkable events which happened in that journey, and
also mentioning various of their journeyings in the wilder-
ness. This book comprehends the history of about thirty-
eight years, though the greater part of the things recorded
fell out in the first and last of those years ; it does not
appear when those things were done which are recorded in
the middle of the book. (See Pentateuch.) — Watson.
NUN ; in Roman Catholic countries, a woman, who
devotes herself, in a cloister or nunnery, to a religious life.
(See the article Monk.)
There were women, in the ancient Christian church,
who made public profession of virginity, before the monas-
tic life was known in the world, as appears from the writ-
ings of Cyprian and Tertullian. These, for distinction's
sake, are sometimes called ecclesiastical virgins, and were
commonly enrolled in the canon, or raatricula of the
church. They difi'ered from the monastic virgins chiefly
ia this, that they lived privately in their fathers' houses,
whereas the others lived in communities ; but their profes-
sion of virginity was not so strict as to make it criminal
for them to marry afterwards, if they thought fit.
As to the consecration of virgins, it had some things
peculiar m it : it was usually performed publicly in the
church by the bishop. The virgin made a public profes-
sion of her resolution, and then the bishop put upon her
the accustomed habit of sacred virgins. One part of this
habit was a veil, called the sacrum velamen ; another was a
kind of mitre or coronet worn upon the head. At present,
when a woman is to be made a nun, the habit, veil, and
ring of the candidate are carried to the altar ; and she her-
self, accompanied by her nearest relations, is conducted to
the bishop, who, after mass and an anthem, (ihe subject
of which is, " that she ought to have her lamp lighted,
because Ihe bridegroom is coming to meet her,") pronoun-
ces the benediction ; then she rises up, and ihe bishop
consecrates the new habit, sprinkling it with holy water.
When the candidate has put on her religious habit, she
presents herself before the bishop, and sings on her knees
AnciUa Chrisli sum, &c., " The bride of Christ I am," &c. ;
then she receives the veil, and afterwards the ring, by
which she is married to Christ ; and, lastly, the crown of
virginity. When she is crowned, an anathema is de-
nounced against all who shall attempt to make her break
her vows.
In some few instances, perhaps, it may have happened
that nunneries, monasteries, &c., may have been useful as
well to morality and religion as to literature ; in the gross,
however, they have been highly prejudicial ; and however
well they might be supposed to do when viewed in theory,
in fact they are unnatural and impious. It was surely far
from the intention of providence to seclude youth and
beauty in a cloister, or to deny them the innocent enjoy-
ment of their years and sex. (See Monastery.) — Hend.
Buck.
NUNCIOS ; persons sent by the pope on foreign mis-
sions relative to ecclesiastical affairs. They were dis-
patched to provincial synods and foreign courts when
subjects of great importance were to be agitated ; they
presided at the synods ; they convoked, and gave decisions
in the most important ecclesiastical affairs. England
freed herself from this intrusion in the twelfth century, by
having the archbishop of Canterbury declared perpetual
legate. At the time of the Reformation, four permanent
nunciatnrae were forced upon the Germans ; and, in spite
of the struggles and opposition of the clergj', pope Pius
VI. established one at Munich as late as 1785. — Hend.
Buck.
NURSE. The nurse in an eastern family is always an
important personage. Modern travellers inform us, that
in Syria she is considered as a sort of second parent, whe-
ther she has been foster-mother or otherwise. She always
accompanies the bride to her husband's house, and ever
remains there an honored character. Thus it was in an-
cient Greece. This will s^rve to explain Gen. 24; 59:
" And they sent away Rebekah their sister, and her nurse."
In Hindostan the nurse is not looked upon as a stranger,
but becomes one of Ihe family, and passes the remainder
of her life in the midst of the children he has suckled, by
whom she is honored and cherished as a second mother.
In many parts of Hindostan are mosques and mausoleums,
built by the Mohammedan princes, near the sepulchres of
their nurses. They are excited by a grateful affection to
erect these structures in memory of those who with mater-
nal anxiety watched over their helpless infancy ; thus it
has been from time immemorial. (See Mother.)— Watson,
o.
OAK. The religious veneration paid to this tree, by
the original natives of Britain in the time of the druids, is
well known to every reader of British history. We have
reason to think that this veneration was brought from Ihe
East ; and that the druids did no more than transfer Ihe
sentiments their progenitors had received in oriental coun-
tries. It should appear that the patriarch Abraham re-
sided under an oak, or a grove of oaks, which our transla-
tors render the plain of Mamre ; and that he planted a
grove of this tree, Gen. 13: 18. In fact, since in hot coun-
tries nothing is more desirable than shade, nothing more
refreshing than the shade of a tree, we may easily suppose
the inhabitants would resort for such enjoyment to
Where'er ttie oak's tliick branctiea spreaJ
A deeper, darker stiade.
Oaks, and groves of oaks, were esteemed proper places for
religiovis services ; altars were set up under them ; (Jf*"-
24: 26.) and, probably, in the East as well as in the W est,
appointments to meet at conspicuous oaks were maae, ana
OAT [8!
many affairs were transacted or treated of tinder tlieir
shade, as we read in Homer, Theocritus, and other poets.
It was common among the Hebrews to sit under oaks,
Judg. 6: 11. 1 Kings 13: 14. Jacob buried idolatrous
images under an oak ; (Gen. 35: 4.) and Deborah, Rebe-
kah's nurse, was buried under one of these trees, Gen. 35:
8. See 1 Chron. 10: 12. Abimelech was made king un-
der an oak, Judg. 9: 6. Idolatry was practised under
oaks, Isa. 1: 29. 57: 5. Hos. 4: 13. Idols were made of oaks,
Isa. 44: 14. (See Baal, Dkdids, and Groi-es.) — Watson.
OAKES, (Ukian,) president of Harvard college, was
born in England, in 1631, and brought to America in his
childliood. A sweetness of disposition exhibited itself
early and remained with him through life. He was gra-
duated at Harvard college, in 1649. He soon went to
England, and was settled in the ministry at Titchfield, in
Hampshire.
Such was his celebrity for learning and piety, that the
church and society of Cambridge, on the decease of Mr.
Mitchell, in 1668, sent a messenger to England to invite him
to become their minister. He was also placed at the head
of Harvard college, April 7, 1675, still however retaining
the pastoral care of his flock. But February 2, 1680, the
corporation appointed him president, and persuaded him
to be inaugurated, and to devote hiuftelf exclusively to
this object. He died July 25, 1681, aged forty-nine.
Blr. Oakes was a man of extensive erudition and distin-
guished usefulness. He excelled equally as a scholar, as
a divine, and as a Christian. By his contemporaries he
was considered as one of the most resplendent lights that
ever shone in this part of the world. With all his great-
ness, he was very humble, like the full ear of corn, which
hangs near the ground. In the opinion of Dr. Mather,
America never had a greater master of the true, pure, Ci-
ceronian Latin, of his skill in which language a specimen,
from one of his commencement orations, is preserved in
the Magnalia. He published an artillery election sermon,
entitled. The Unconquerable, All-conquering, and more
than Conquering Christian Soldier, 1672 ; election sermon,
1673 ; a sermon at Cambridge on the choice of their mili-
tary officers ; a fast sermon ; and an Elegy on the Death
of Rev. Mr. Shepard, of Charlestown, 1677, pathetic and
replete with imagery. Holmes' Histonj of Cambridge i
Belkiwp ; Elliot. — Allen.
OATH ; a solemn invocation of a superior power, ad-
mitted to be acquainted with all the secrets of our hearts,
with our inward thoughts as well as our outward actions,
to witness the truth of what we assert, and to inflict his
vengeance upon us if we assert what is not true, or pro-
mise what we do not mean to perform. Almost all na-
tions, whether savage or civilized, whether enjoying the
light of revelation or led only by the light of reason, know-
ing the importance of truth, and willing to obtain a barrier
against falsehood, have had recourse to oaths, by which
they have endeavored to make men fearful of uttering lies,
under the dread of an avenging Deity. Among Christians,
an oath is a solemn appeal for the truth of our assertions,
the sincerity of our promises, and the fidelity of our en-
gagements, to the one only God, the Judge of the whole
earth, who is everywhere present, and sees, and hears, and
knows, whatever is said, or done, or thought, in any part
of the world. Such is the Being whom Christians, when
they take an oath, invoke to bear testimony to the truth of
their words, and the integrity of their hearts. Surely,
then, if oaths be a matter of so much moment, it well be-
hooves us not to treat them with levity, nor ever to take
them without due consideration. Hence we ought, with
the utmost vigilance, to abstain from mingling oaths in
our ordinary discourse, and from associating the name of
God with low or disgusting images, or using it on trivial
occasions, as not only a profane levity in itself, but tending
to destroy that reverence for the Supreme Majesty which
ought to prevail in society, and to dwell in our own hearts.
" The forms of oaths," says Dr. Paley, " like other reli-
gious ceremonies, have in all ages been various ; consist-
ing, however, for the most part of some bodily action, and
of a prescribed form of words." Among the Jews, the
juror held up his right hand towards heaven, Ps. 144: 8.
Rev. 10: 5. The same form is retained in Scotland still.
Among the .lews, also, an oath of fidelity was taken by the
10 I DBA
Servant's ptittiiig his hand under the thigh of his lordj
Gen. 24: 2. Among the Greeks and Romans, the form
varied with the subject and occasion of the oath : in pri-
vate contracts, the parties took hold of each other's handSj
while they swore to the performance ; or they touched the
altar of the god by whose divinity they swore : upon more
solemn occasions, it was the custom to slay a victim ; and
the beast being struck down, with certain ceremonies and
invocations, gave birth to the expression, ferire pactum ;
and to otir English phrase, translated from this, of " stinking
a bargain." The form of oaths in Christian countries is
also very different ; but in no country in the world worse
contrived, either to convey the meaning or impress the
obligation of an oath, than in our own. The juror with
us, after repeating the promise or affirmation which the:
oath is intended to confirm, adds, " So help me God j" ori
more frequently, the substance of the oath is repeated to
the juror by the magistrate, who adds in the conclusion,
" So help yoit God." The energy of this sentence resides
in the particle so ■■ So, that is, hac lege, upon condition of
my speaking the truth, or performing this promise, and
not otherwise, may God help me ! The juror, whilst he
hears or repeats the words of the oath, holds his right hand
uix)n a Bible, or other book containing the gospels, and at
the conclusion kisses the book.
This obscure and elliptical form, together with the levity
and frequency of them, has brought about a general inad-
vertency to the obligation of oaths, which, both in a reli-
gious and political view, is much to be lamented; and it
merits public consideration, whether the requiring of oaths
upon so many frivolous occasions, especially in the cus-
toms, and in the qualification of petty offices, has any
other efi'ect than to make such sanctions cheap in the
minds of the people. A pound of tea cannot travel regu-
larly from the ship to the consumer, without costing half a
dozen oaths at least ; and the same security for the due
discharge of their office, namely, that of an oath, is re-
quired from a petty constable and the chief justice of the
United States.
Oaths, however, are lawful ; and, whatever be the form,
the signification is the same. Historians have justly re-
marked, that when the reverence for an oath began to
diminish among the Romans, and the loose Epicurean
.system, which discarded the belief of providence, was
introduced, the Roman honor and prosperity from that
period began to decline. The Quakers refuse to swear
upon any occasion, founding their scruples concerning the
lawfulness of oaths upon onr Savior's prohibition, "Swear
not at all," Matt. 5: 34. But it seems our Lord there re-
ferred to the vicious, wanton, and unauthorized swearing
in common discourse, and not to judicial oaths ; for he
himself answered, when interrogated, upon oath, Matt. 26:
63, 64. Mark 14: 61. The apostle Paul also makes use
of expressions which contain the nature of oaths, Rom. 1:
y. 1 Cor. 15: 31. 2 Cor. 1: 18. Gal. 1: 20. Heb. 6: 13—17.
The administration of oaths supposes that God will pu-
nish false swearing with more severity than a simple lie,
or breach of promise ; for which belief there are the follow-
ing reasons: 1. Perjury is a sin of greater deliberation. 2.
It violates a superior confidence. 3. God directed the Isra-
elites to swear by his name ; (Deut. 6: 13. 10: 20.) and was
pleased to confirm his covenant with that people by an
oath ; neither of which, it is probable, he would have done,
had he not intended to represent oaths as having some
meaning and effect beyond the obligation of a bare pro-
mise. (See PEKTORy, and Name of the LoRn. — Watson.
OBADIAH, the prophet, is thought to have been the
same as the governor of Ahab's house; (1 Kings 18: 3,
fee) and some are of opinion, he was that Obadiah whom
Josiah made overseer of the works of the temple, 2 Chron.
34: 12. Indeed, the age in which this prophet lived is
very uncertain. Some think that he was contemporary
with Hosea, Amos, and Joel ; whilst others are of opinion
that he lived in the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and that
he delivered his prophecy about B. C. 585, soon after the
destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar.
His book, which consists of a single chapter, is written
with great beauty and elegance, and contains predictions
of the utter destruction of the Edomites, and of the future
restoration and prosperity of the Jews. — Watson.
OBL
[881 ]
occ
OBEAH ; a specits of witchcraft practised among the
negroes, the apprehension of which, operating upon their
superstitious fears, is frequently attended with disease and
AeMh.— Hend. BikJc.
OBED-EDOM ; son of Jeduthun, a Levite, m whose
house the ark of tlie Lord abode, and brought a blessing
with it, 1 Chron. 16: 38. In 2 Sam. 6; 10. he is called the
Giltite, probably because he was of Gath Rimmon, a city
of the Levites beyond Jordan, Josh. 21: 24, 25. — Calmet.
OBEDIENCE ; the performance of the commands of a
superior. In religion, it must be animated by love.
Obedience to God may be considered, 1. As virtual,
which consists in a belief of the gospel, of the holiness
and equity of its precepts, of the truth of its promises, and
a true repentance of all our sins — 2. Actual obedience,
which is the practice and exercise of the several graces
and duties of Christianity. — 3. Perfect obedience, which is
the exact conformity of our hearts and lives to the law of
God, without the least imperfection. This last is peculiar
to a glorified state, though it should be our aim in this.
The obligation we are under to obedience arises, 1.
From the relation we stand in to God as creatures, Ps. 95:
6. — 2. From the law he hath revealed to us in his word,
Ps. 119: 3. 2 Pet. 1: 5, 7.-3. From the blessings of his
providence we are constantly receiving. Acts 14: 17. Ps.
145. — 4. From the love and goodness of God in the grand
work of redemption, 1 Cor. 6: 20.
As to the nature of this obedience, it must be, 1. Active,
not only avoiding what is prohibited, but performing what
is commanded. Col. 3: 8, 10. — 2. Personal, for though
Christ has obeyed the law for us as a covenant of works,
yet he hath not abrogated it as a rule of life, Rom. 7: 22.
3: 31.— 3. Sincere, Ps. 51: 6. 1 Tim. 1: 5.-4. Affection-
ate, springing from love and not from terror, 1 John 5: 19.
2: 5. 2 Cor. 5: 14.— 5. Diligent, not slothfuUy, Gal. 1; 16.
Ps. 18: 44. Bom. 12: 11. — 6. Conspicuous and open, Phil.
2: 15. Matt. 5: 16.— 7. Universal; not one duty, but
all, must be performed, 2 Pet. 1: 5, 10. — 8. Perpetual, at
all times, places, and occasions, Rom. 2: 7. Gal. 6: 9.
The advantages of obedience are these: 1. It adorns
the gospel, Tit. 2: 10. — 2. It is evidential of grace, 2 Cor.
5: 17. — 3. It rejoices the hearts of the ministers and peo-
ple of God, 3 John 2. 2 Thess. 1: 19, 20.-4. It silences
gainsayers, 2 Pet. 1: 11, 12. — 5. Encourages the saints,
while it reproves the lukewarm, Matt. 5: 16. — 6. Affords
peace to the subject of it, Ps. 25: 12, 13. Acts 24: 16.-7.
It powerfully recommends religion, as that which is both
delightful and practicable. Col. 1: 10. — 8. It is the forerun-
ner and evidence of eternal glory, Rom. 6: 22. Rev. 22:
14. See Holiness ; Sanctification ; Charnock's IVor/is,
vol. xi. p. 1212; TiUotson's Servians, set. 122, 123; Saurin's
Sermons, vol. i. ser. 4 ; Eidglei/'s Body of Divinity, qu. 92 ;
Dn'ight's Theology, Walker's Sermons; Fuller's Works;
Works of Robert Hall.—Hend. Buck.
OBEDIENCE OF CHRIST, is generally divided into
active and passive. His active obedience implies what he
did ; his passive whaX he suffered. Some divines distin-
guish these. They refer our pardon to his passive, and
our title to glory to his active obedience : though Dr. Owen
observes, that it cannot be clearly evinced that there is
any such thing, in propriety of speech, as passive obedi-
ence : obeying is doing, to which passion or suffering doth
not belong.
Of the active obedience of Christ, the Scriptures assure
us that he look upon him the form of a servant, and
really became one, Isa. 49: 3. Phil. 2: 5. Heb. 8. He was
subject to the law of God. " He was made under the
law :" the judicial or civil law of the Jews, the ceremonial
law, and the moral law, Matt. 17: 24, 27. Luke 2: 22. Ps.
40: 7, 8. He was obedient to the law of nature ; he was
in a state of subjection to his parents ; and he fulfilled the
commands of his heavenly Father as it respected the first
and second table.
His obedience, 1. Was voluntary, Ps. 40: 6. — 2. Com-
plete, 1 Pet. 2: 22. — 3. Wrought out in the room and
stead of his people, Rom. 10: 4. 5: 19. — 4. Well pleasing
and acceptable in the sight of God. — 5. Followed by a glo-
rious reward, Phil. 2: 9. (See Atonement.) — Hend. Buck.
OBLATI; lay brothers in monasteries, who ojffref/ their
services to the church, as bell-ringers, &c. They wore a
111
religious habit, and were admitted by ihe ceremony of
placing the bell-rope round their necks, as indicative of
the service they were expected to perfonn. Broughton't
Diet.— Williams.
OBLATION ; an offering. (See Sacrifice.)
OBLIGATION, is that by which we are bound to the per-
formance of any action. 1. Rational obligalioti is \\\a.lv!\\\c\i,
arises from reason, abstractedly taken, to do or forbear
certain actions. — 2. Authoritative obligation is that which
arises from the commands of a superior, or one who has
a right or authority to prescribe rules to others. — 3. Moral
obligation is that by which we are bound to perform that
which is right, and to avoid that which is wrong. It is a
moral necessity of doing actions or forbearing them ; that
is, such a necessity as whoever breaks through it, is, ipso
facto, worthy of blame for so doing. (See Moral Obli-
gation.) We find, however, that the generality of men
are so far sunk in depravity, that a sense of moral obliga-
tion is nearly or quite lost. Still, however, their losing the
sense of it does not render the obligation less strong.
"Obligation to virtue is eternal and immutable, but the
sense of it is lost by sin." See Warburton's legation, vu\.
i. pp. 38, 46, fee. ; Paky's Moral Philosophy, vol. i. p. 54 ;
Witherspoon's Moral Philosophy ; Robinson's Preface to the
fourth volume of Saurin's Sermons ; Mason's Christian Mo-
rals, vol. ii. ser. 23, p. 256 ; Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 52 ;
Grove's Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 60; Mackintosh's Progress of
Ethical Philosophy ; Dn'ight's Theology ; Fuller's Works ;
Works of Robert Hall ; New Living Temple.— Hend. Buck.
OBSERVATION. (See Mind.)
OCCAM, or OcKUAM, (William,) a divine and philoso-
pher, called the Invincible Doctor, was born at Ockham,
in Surry, in the fourteenth century ; was educated at
Merton college, Oxford, under Duns Scotus : became a
Franciscan friar, and archdeacon of Stow, but resigned his
preferment ; wrote boldly against the pope, for which he
was excommunicated ; and died at Munich in 1347. He
is the founder of the scholastic sect of the Nominalists. —
Davenport ; Mosheim.
OCCOM, (Samson,) an Indian preacher, was born at
Mohegan, on Thames river, near Norwich, Connecticut,
about the year 1723. When Occom was a boy, Mr. Jew-
ett, the minister of New London, now Montville, was ac-
customed to preach once a fortnight at Mohegan, During
the religious excitement about 1739 and 1710, several mi-
nisters visited these Indians, and the Indians repaired to
the neighboring churches. Occom at this period became
the subject of permanent religious impressions. From
this time he was desirous of becoming the teacher of his
tribe. He could then read by spelling, and in a year or two
learned to read the Bible. At the age of nineteen he went
to the Indian school of Mr. Wheelock, of Lebanon, and
remained with him four years. He afterwards, in 174S,
kept a school in New London ; but soon went lo Blonlauk,
on Long Island, where he taught a school among the In-
dians ten or eleven years, at the same time being the reli-
gfbus teacher of the Indians in their own language, and
preaching also to the Skenecock or Yenecock Indians, dis-
tant thirty miles. During a revival among the Montauks
many became Christians. He was ordained by the Suholk
presbytery, August 29, 1759, and was from this lime a
regular member of the presbytery.
In 1766, Mr. Wheelock sent him to England with Mr.
Whitaker, the minister of Norwich, to promote the inte-
rests of Moor's Indian charity school. He was the first
Indian preacher who \nsiled England. The houses in
which he preached were thronged. Between February
16, 1766, and July 22, 1767, he preached in various parts
of the kingdom between three hundred and four hundred
sermons. Large charitable donations were obtained, and
the school was soon transplanted to Hanover, New Hamp-
shire, and connected with Dartmouth college.
After his return, Occom sometimes resided at Mohegan,
and was ofien emploved in missionary labors among dis-
tant Indians. In 1786 he removed to Brotherton, near
Ulica, New York, in the neighborhood of the Stockbridge
Indians, who were of the Mohegan root, and who had for-
meilv been under the instruction of Mr. Sergeant and Mr.
Edwards. A few of the Jlohegans and other Indians ol
Connecticut, Long l.sland, and Rhode Island, removed
OF F
[ 882
OIN
about the same time. The Oneidas gave them a tract ol
land. In the last years of his life he resided with the In-
dians at New Stockbridge, near Brotlrerlon, -where he died,
in July, 1792, aged sixty-nine.
Dr.Dwight says, " I heard Mr. Occom twice. His dis-
courses, though not proofs of superior talents, were de-
cent; and his utterance in some degree eloquent. His
character at limes labored under some impmations; yet
there is good reason to believe, that most, if not all, ol
them were unfounded; and there is satisfactory evidence,
that he was a man of piety ." An account of the Montauk
]^^'''n'l^Xit!::^^'ti:':J^:^^ d-eath,¥c-.:is-m perfect conformity to and fulfilment o^
Closes Paul an Cd ian at New Haven, September 2, those prophecies, which foretod that however they might
Moses raui, an inuidu, „..'.. '^ .,.. _ profess to wish for the great deliverer, yet when he came
they would overlook him, and stumble at him. — Brown;
Calmet ; Comprehensive Commentary .
OFFERING, or Oblation, denotes whatever is sacri-
ficed or consumed in the worship of God. For an account
of the various offerings under the law, the reader is refer-
On the other hand, we should not take otTence without
ample cause ; but endeavor, by our exercise of chanty,
and perhaps by our increase of knowledge, to think favor-
ably of what is dubious, as well as honorably of what is
laudable.
It was foretold of the Messiah, that he should be " a
stone of stumbling, and a rock of offence." Perhaps pre-
dictions of this kind are among the most valuable which
providence has preserved to us ; as we see by them, that
we ought not to be discouraged because the Jews, the na-
tural people of the Messiah, rejected him, and still reject
him ; since the very offence they take at his humiliation,
1772
BueVs Ordination Sermon ; Historical Collections,
IV. p. 68 ; V. 13 ; ix. 89, 90 ; x. 105 ; DrnghCs Travels, ii.
p. 112.—^/;™.
CECOLAMPADIUS, (John.) an eminent German re-
former, was born, in 1482, at Weinsberg, in Francoma.
He was converted to the Protestant faith by reading the
Zrcr^.:i:i:^V^S^o^i^ -d .o the book of levlticus. (see also SACKiPtcE.)-
embraced the ooinions of Zuinglius respecting the sacra- Hend. Btick. ■
ni^n contributed much to the progress of ecclesiastical OFFICES OF CHKIST, are generally considered as
reform ai^ddkdii 1531. threefold. 1. A prophet to enlighten, warn, and instruct,
Sampadiuswasrf in John 6: 14. 3: 2.-2. A priest to sympathize intercede,
e undertaking of any business he was very circumspect ; and make alonemeM for his P<=oplf ' ^f ^,- ff^-^"^°-/.-^-
the „ . - . ,
nor was there any thing more pleasing to him, than to
spend his time in reading and commenting. His publica-
tions are numerous, consisting chiefly of Annotations on
the Holy Scriptures. — Davenport; Hcnd. Buck.
ECONOMISTS ; a sect of infidel French philosophers,
of whom Dr. Duquesnai was the founder. He so ingra-
tiated himself with Louis XV. that he used to call him
his thinker; and gained the affections of the people, under
pretence of promoting economy in the state. According
to the abbe Barruel, however, the real object of the major-
ity of the society was to subvert Christianity, by circulating
the writings of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other infidels.
This they did by printing extracts from these popular au-
thors, and circulating them through the kingdom by hawk-
ers and pedlers, who had them for little or nothing, that
they might undersell all other literature. Their secret
meetings, for preparing and revising these tracts, were
held at baron Holbach's. In some of these tracts their
object was disguised ; in others they were so bold as to
avow their object under such titles as "Christianity un-
masked," kc. They also attempted schools, for the
avowed intention of preparing children for trade and me-
chanic arts, in which the same writings were read and
circulated. Among the members of their secret club were
D'Alembert, Turgot, Condorcet, Diderot, La Harpe, and La
Moignon, keeper of the seals, who, on his dismissal from
that oflice, shot himself. (See Illuminati, and Philoso-
rmsTS.) Sup. to 3d cd. of Ency. Brit., ii. p. 307.— Williams.
ffiCONOMY. (See Covenant, and DisrENSATioN.)
OFFENCE. The original word, {.■skmidalizo,} in oi^i;
version usually rendered offend, literally signifies to cause
to stumble, and by an easy metaphor, to occasion a fall into
sin, Matt. 5: 29. It may therefore apply to ourselves as
well as to others. Malt. 18; 6 — 14. Hence the noun, skan-
dalon, signifies not only an oflence, in our common use of
that word; but also a stumbling-stone, a trap, a snare, or
whatever impedes our path to heaven. Malt. 18: 17. Rom.
14: 13. 1 Cor. 10: 32. Sometimes offence is taken unrea-
sonably ; men, as St. Peter says, stumble at the word, being
disobedient. Hence we read of the offence of the cross. Gal.
5: 11. 0: 12. To positive iruth or duty we must adhere,
even at the hazard of giving offence ; but a woe is on us
if we give it without necessity of this holy nature. Rom.
14: 13—21. 1 Cor. 8: 9—13.
Offence may be cither active or passive. We may give
offence by our conduct, or v.e may receive offence from
the conduct of others. We should be very carefnl to avoid
giving just cause of offence, that we may not prove impedi-
ments to others in their reception of the truth, in their pro-
gress in sanctification, in their peace of mind, or in their
general course toward heaven. We shoidd abridge or deny
ourselves in .some things, rather than, by exercising our li-
berty to the utmost, give uneasiness to Christians weaker in
•r.ir.J, ur weakci in the faith, than ourselves, '1 Cor. 10: 32.
A king to reign in, rule over, protect, deliver, and bless
them, Zech. 11: 9. Ps. 2: 6. (See articles Intekcession,
Mediator, &c.) — Hend. Buck.
OFFICERS, (CiiuKcn.) (See Chuech; Deacon; El-
der ; Bishop.)
OG, king of Bashan, was a giant, of the race of the Ee-
phaim. We may judge of his stature by the length of his
bed, which was long preserved in Rabbath, the capital of
the Ammonites, Deut. 3; 11. (See Bed.)
Og and Sihon were the only kings that withstood Moses,
Num. 21: 33. Their country was given to the tribes of
Gad, Reuben, and half the tribe of Manasseh. (See Ba-
shan.1 — Calmet.
OG'ILVIE, (John,) a Scotch divine and poet, was born
in 1733 ; was educated at the university of Aberdeen, from
which he obtained a doctor's degree ; was for more than
half a century minister of Midmar, in Aberdeenshire ; and
died in 1814, respected for his piety and talents. His po-
etical powers were by no means incon.siderable. His chief
works are. Sermons' ; Poems ; Britannia, an epic poem ;
Philosophical and Critical Observations on Compositions ;
and Examination of the Evidence of Trophecy .—Daveit-
port.
OIL. The Hebrews commonly anointed themselves
with oil : they anointed also their kings, prophets, and
high-priests with an unction of pecuUar richness and sa-
credness. (See Olive ; Unction ; and Ointment.) The
oil of. gladness, (Ps. 45: 7. Isa. 61: 3.) was the perfumed
oil with which the Hebrews anointed themselves on days
of rejoicing and festivity.
Oil was also used for food and medicine. Moses .says
(Deut. 32: 13.) that God made his people to suck oil and
honey out of the rocks ; that is, that in the midst of dreary
deserts, he abundantly provided them with all things not
only necessary, but agreeable. James directs that the sick
should be anointed with oil in the name of the Lord, by
the elders of the church. Jam. 5: U.— Calmet.
OINTMENT. As perfumes are seldom made up among
us in the form of ointment, but mostly in that of essence,
while ointments are rather medical, we do not always dis-
cern the beauty of those comparisons in Scripture, in which
ointments are mentioned. "Dead flies, though but small
insects, cause the ointment of the apothecary— it should be,
the fragrant unguent of the perfumer— to emit a fetid va-
por ; so does a small proportion of folly, or perverseness,
overpower by its fetor the fragrance of wisdom and glory,"
Eccl. 10: 1. (See Flies.)
Ointments and oils were used in warm countnes after
bathing ; and as oil was the first recipient of fragrance,
probably from herbs, &c., steeped in it, many kinds of un-
guents not made of oil, (olive oil,) retained that appella-
tion. As the plants imparted somewhat of their color as
well as of their fragrance, hence the expression green oil,
&,r.. in the Hebrew: (See Alabaster.)— Cff/mer.
OLD
[ 883 J
OLD
OLD ; ancknt. We say the Okl Testament, by way of
cnntradislinction from the New. Moses was the minister
uf the Old Testament, of the old age of the letter; but
Christ is ihe Mediator of the New Testament, or of the
new covenant ; not of the letter, but of the spirit, Heb. 9:
15—20.
Old age is promised as a blessing by God to those who
maintain obedience to his commands ; and it is probable
that providence did, and still does, w-atch over and prolong
the lives of eminently pious men. It was formerly thought
a great blessing to come to the gj-ave in a good old age, or
"as a shock of corn fully ripe ;" and though "they are
not to be heard, who feign that Ihe old fathers did took
only for transitory promises," yet we think we may ven-
\ure to say they did on various occasions expect peculiar
mercies from God, even in this life; and that their ex-
pectations were not disappointed. Old age was entitled to
pei;uliar honor, and no douht, when men lived to the age
'jf several hundred years, the wisdom they must needs
liave acquired, the influence they must needs have pos-
ses.sed over the younger part of the community, must have
been much greater than they are among ourselves. Very
venerable must have been the personal appearance of a
patriarch of three or four hundred years, or even of half
that age, in the eyes of his family, and of his descendants,
whether immediate or remote.
There is nothing more decidedly recorded than the re-
spect paid among the ancients to old age ; of which Gre-
cian story affords highly pleasing proofs ; and that it was
cqual-nmong the Orientals we learn from various allusions
in the book of Job, the Proverbs, &:c.
Old is spoken of what is decaying; (Isa. 50: 9. Heb.
<S: 13.) of what has been destroj'ed; (2 Pet. 2; 5.) of for-
mer times, Lam. 1: 7.
The old man, (Rom. 6: 6.) the old Adam, in a" moral
sense, is our derived corrupted nature, which we ought to
crucify with Jesus Christ, that the body of sin may die in
as. In Col. 3: 9. the apostle enjoins us " to put oti' the o'.d
man with his deeds, and to put on the new man, which is
renewed in knowledge after the image of him that created
him." And in Eph. 4: 22. we are instructed " to put off
the old m-tn, which is corrupt according to the deceitful
Justs." — Calmf.l ; Bronm ; Sntnrdwj Ercnins.
CiLDCASTLE, (Sir John,) afterwards called lord Cob-
liam, was born in the reign of Edward III. Of his early
life, few particulars are known. Marrying the niece and
heiress of Henry lord Cehham, he obtained his peerage,
and displayed the same virtue and pnti-iolism which his
illustrious father-in-law had evinced in oppo.-iilion to the
Syranny of Tichard II- The famous statute against pro-
visors having, during the feehle goTcrnment of Richardj
been greatly disregarded, lord Cohhani attempted the revi-
val of it : and by his spirited and conclusive arguments, so
effectually inllnenced the parliament, as to secure his otv
ject. About two years after, lord Cobhnm distinguished
himself by- another imponant effort in the same cause. In
conjunction with Sir Pachard Story, Sir Thomas Latimer,
and others, he drew up a number of articles, which, in
the form of a remonstrance against the corruptions of the
clerg}', they presented to the house of commons. In addi-
tion to these instances of public spirit, he put himself to
great expense in collecting, transcribing, and dispersing
ijic works of Wickliffe. He also incurred considerable
charges by maintaining itinerant preachers in the diocesses
of Canterbury, London, Rochester, and Hereford. These
undisguised efforts at reformation drew upon him the
resentment of the Romish clergy, to whom he was
more obnoxious than any other individual in the king-
dom.
Lord Cobham is reported by historians to have been a
brave and experienced officer. Bayle says, " In all adven-
turous acts of worldly manhood, he was ever fortunate,
doughty, noble, and valiant." By his military talents he ac-
quired the esteem both of Henry IV. and Henry V. " He
was," says Guthrie, " one of the bravest men and best offi-
cers in England ; he had served with great reputation in
France ; and the opinion of his valor, joined to that of his
honesty and piety, had gained him prodigious popularity."
He was also the/rsf noble author, as well as martyr, in
England, in the cause of reformation. In the convocation
assembled during the fu.-t year of the reign of Henry V.,
the principal subject of debate was, the growth of heresy.
Thomas Arundel, a prelate equally remarkable for zeal
and bigotry, was at this time archhi.shop of Canterbury.
Lord Cobham being considered as the head of the VVickliU-
ites, it was presumed, that, if his destruction could be e;"-
fectod, it would strike a salutary terror into his arlhcrenls ■
but as ho was known to be in favor with the king, ano'
al.so highly popular, it was deemed prudent to dissemble
for a while. The archbishop, therelore, contented himself,
for the present, by requesting his majesty to send commis-
sioners to Oxford, to inquire into the growth of heresy,
with which the king complied. The commissioners having
made inquiry, reported to the archbishop, who informed
the convocation, that the increase of heresy was especially
owing to lord Cobham, who encouraged scholars from Ox
ford, and other places, to propagate heretical opinion!
throughout the countiy. The archbishop, accompanied
hy a large body of the clergy, waited upon Henrj-, and
having laid before him the offence of lord Cobham, begged,
in all hiimilifi/ and charity, that his majesty 7vould suffer
them, for Christ's sake, to put him to death. To this meek
and humane request, tlic king replied, that he thought such
violence more destructive of truth than of error ; that he
himself would reason with lord Cobham ; and, if that
should prove ineffectual, he would leave him to the cen-
sure of the church.
Henry, having sent for lord Cobham, endeavored to
persuade him to retract his errors ; but, to the reasoning
and exhortation of the king, he returned the following an-
swer ; — " I ever was a dutiful subject to your majesty, and
I hope ever shall be. Next to God, I profess obedience to
my king. But as for the spiritual dominion of the pope,
I never could see on what foundation it is claimed, nor
can I pay him any obedience. As sure as God's word is
true, to me it is fully evident, that he is the great Antichrist
foretold in holy writ." This answer so exceedingly dis-
pleased the king, that he gave the archbish'ip leave to pro-
ceed against lord Cobham with the utmost extremity ; or,
as Bayle saj-s, " according to the devilish decrees, which
they call the laws of the holy church." On the 11th of
.September, the day fixed for his appearance, the primate
and his associates sat in consistory ; when loril Cobliam
not appearing, the archbi.shop excommunicated him, and
c-.i!led in the civil power to assist him, agreeably to the
late enacted law.
Conceiving himself to be now in danger, Cobham drew
up a confession of his faith, which he presented to the
King ; who coldly ordered it to be given to the archbishop.
Being again cited to appear betbrc the archbishop, and re-
fusing compliance, he was committed to the Tower by the
Icing's order. Having remained .six months in the Tower,
willioiu the archbishop and his clergy coming to any con-
cUision al.xiut him, lord Cobham saved them the trouble of
farther deliberation, by escaping from the Tower, and fly-
ipg into Wales.
In the year 1114, the king set a price of a ihotisand
marks u pen the head of Cobham, and promised a perpetual
exemption from taxes to any town that should secure him.
During four yeai-s, lord Cobham continued an exile in
Wales; hut at length his enemies engaged the lord Powis
in their interest, who, by means of his tenants, secured
and delivered up the noble fugitive to his mortal eneni}',
the archbishop of Canterbury.
His fate was now- precipitated with all the ardor of ec-
clesiastical zeal. He received sentence of death, both as
a heretic and a traitor. On the day appointed for his exe-
cution, he was brought out of the Tower with his arms
bound behind him, but with a cheerful countenance. At-
rived at the place of execution, he devoutly fell upon his
knees, and implored of God the forgiveness of his enemies.
He then stood up, and briedy a<idressing the multitude,
exhorted them to continue steadfast in the observance of
the laws of God, as contained in the Scriptures ; and sub-
mitted to his fate with the intrepidity of a hero, and the
resignation of a martyr. He was hung up alive, by the
middle, with iron chains, on the gallows which had been
prepared ; under which a fire being made, he was burned
to death.
Thus perished the illustrious Cobham ; his Ufe the or
OLI
[ 8S4 ]
0 M K
nament, his death the disgrace of his times ! — Jones' Chris.
Biog. ; Ivimey's Hist, of the Eng. Baptists.
OLIVE-TREE, (Heb. vit, Gr. klaia, Matt. 21: 1. Jam.
3: 12.) Paul, in his epistle to the Romans, (11: 24.) dis-
tinguishes two kinds of dive-trees ; ( 1 ) the wild and naXa-
lal, agrielaios ; and (2.) those under care ami culture.
The caltivaled olive-tree is of a moderate height, its
trunk knottyr ite bark smooth, and ash-colored ; its wood
is selid and yellowish ; the leaves are oblong, almost like
those of the willow, of a green color, dark on ihe upper
side, aryd white on the under side. In the month of June
it pats out while fiowfrs that grow in bunches. Each
flower is of one piece, widening upwards, and dividing into
four parts ; the fruit oblong and plump. It is first green,
then pale, and when it is quite ripe, black. In the flesh
of it is inclosed a hard stone, full of an oblong seed. The
■wild ohve is smaller in all its parts.
Canaan much abounded with olives. It seems almost
every proprietor, whether kings or subjects, had their
olive-yards. The olive-branch was, from most ancient
times, used as the symbol of reconciliation and peace-
The sacred writers often use similes taken from the olive.
— Watson; Calmet.
OLIVES) (Mound of,)- is east of Jerusalem, and sepa-
rated from the city by the brook Cedron, and the valley of
Jehoshaphat. Josephns says, it is five stadia (or furlongs}
from Jerusalem ; Luke says, a Sabbath day's journey ;.
i. e. aboat eight furlongs. Acts 1: 12. The mottnt of Olives
has three summits, ranging from north to south } from the
middle summit our Savior ascended into heaven ; oi> the
south summit Solomon built temples to his idols ; the
Borth summit is distant two furlongs from the nridollemost.
This is the highest, and is commonly called Galilee, oj
Viri Gali]5ei,from the expression used by the angels, "ye
men- of Galilee."
In the time of king Uzziah, the mount of Olives was so-
shattered by an earthquake, that half the earth on the
western side fell, and rolled four furlongs, or five hundred
paces, toward the opposite mountain on the east ; so that
the earth blocked up the highways, and covered the king's
gardens. Joseph. Antiq. lib. ix. cap. 11. and Zech. 14: 5.
The olpve is still foutid growing i« patches at the foot of
the mount to which it gives its nPiUie ; and " as a sponta-
neous produce, unijiterruptedly resulting from the original
growth of this part of the mountain-, it is impossible," says
Dr. E. D. Clarke, "to view even these trees with i-ndiSer-
ence." Titus cut down ail the wood irt the neighborhood
of Jerusalem ; but there would seem to have been con-
stan-tly springing u-p a succession of these bardy trees.
"It is traly a curious and interesting fact," adds the
learned traveler, "that, duiri-ng a period of little mere
than two thousand years, Hebrews, Assyrians, Romans,
Moelems, and Christians, have been successively in pos-
session of the roclty mountains of Palestine ; yet, the olive
still vindicates its paternal soil, and is found, at tlris day,
upon the same spot which was called by the Hebrew
writers mount Olivet and the monnt of Olives, eleven
centuries before the Christian era," 2 Sam. 15: 30. Zech.
14: 4.
Tile names of the various districts f>f this mount deserve
attention, as, (1.) Geth-semani, the place of oil-presses;
(2.) Bethany, the house of dates ; (3.) Belhphage, the
house of green figs, and probably other names in difi'erent
places. The tatmudt.sts say, that on tlie mount of Olivet
were shops, kept by the children of Canaan, of which
shops some were in Bethany ; and that under tv/o large
cedars which stood there, were four shops, where things
necessary for puiification were constantly on sale, such as
doves or pigeons for the \\-omen, kc. Probably, tlwse
shops were supplied by country persons, who hereby
avoided paying rent for their sittings in the tcinple. There
was also a collection of water at Bethany, cm this mount ;
which was by some u^ed as a place of purification.
Though this mount was nameii from its olive-trees, ye»
it abounded in other trees also. It was a station for sig-
nals, which were communicated from hence by lights and
flames, on various occasions. They were made of long
staves of cedar, caiies, pine wood, with coarse flax, which,
while on fire, were shaken about till they were answered
from other signals. ,
Towards the south appears the lake Asphaltites, a nobfe
expanse of water, seeming to be within a short ride from
the city ; but the real distance is much greater. Lofty
mountains inclose it with prodigious grandeur. To the
north are seen the verdant and fertile pastures of the plain
of Jericho, watered by the Jordan, whose course may be
distinctly diseemed.
" So commanding is the view of Jerusalem afibrded in
this situation, (says Dr. E. D. Clarke,) that the eye roams
over all the streets, and around the walls, as if i-s the sur-
vey of a plan or model of the city . The r-nost conspicuous
object in the city is the mosque, erected upon the sile and
foundations of the temple of Solomon-" (See Jebtts-ai-em.)
Henee the observation of the evangelist, (Luke 19: 37.)
that Jesiis beheld the city, and wept over it, acquires addi-
tional force.
What is said in Midras TeEim, by rabbi Jarma, is e.Ti-
tremely remarkable : " The Divine Blajesty stood three
years and a half on mount Olivet, saying, " Seek ye the
Lord, while he may be found ; call on him, while he Ih
near." Is this the language of a Jew? — Calmet ; WotMn--
OMEGA ; the last letter of the Greek alphabet- (See
Alpha.)
OMEN is a word which, in. its proper sense, signifies a
sign or indication of some future event, especially of an
alarming nature. Against the belief of omens it is ob-
served, that it is contrary to every principle of sound phi-
losophy ; aad- whoever has studied the writings of Pau-J
must be eonvin^ed that it is inconsistent witl» the spiriB
of genuine Christianity.
We cannot pretend to discuss the- subject here, but wilF
present the reader with a quotation on the other side of
the question. " Tbcugh it be trive," says Mr. Toplady^
" that all omens are not worthy of observation, and thougli
they should- never be so regarded as w shock our fortitude,
or diminish, our confidence in God, still they are not to be
constantly despised. Small incidents have sometimes
been prelusive to great events } nor is there any supersti-
tion in lioticing these apparent prognostications, thougli
there may be much, superstition in being either too indis-
crrmiTKitely or too deeply swayed by them." Toplady't
Wm-f;s, vol. iv. p. 192.-— J/enrf. Buck.
OMER, or GoMER ; a measure of capacity among the
Hebrews ; six pinls very nearly ; the te»t!j part of aa
ephah. — Calmet. "
OMN-IPOTEKCE: of gov is hi-s almighty powesv
This is essential to his nature aa an inftnite, independent,
and perfect being. Glorisns amd awful attribute I
The power of God is divided iiUo absolute, and ordinate,
craefxnl. Absolute, is that whereby God is able to do thaii
which he will not do, but is possible to be done. Ordinata.
is that whereby he doeth that which he hath decreed to do-
The pov/er of God may be more especially seem, 1. Ii»
creation, Rom. i: 20. Gen.. 1. 2- In the preservation
cf his creatures, Heb. 1: 3. Col. 1: 16, 17. Job 26. 3.
In the redemption of men by Christ, Luke 1:35, 37. Eph.
1: 19-. 4. In the conversion of sinners, Ps. 110: 3. 2
Cor. 4: 7. Rom. 1: 16. 5. In the coivtinuatioi\ and suc-
cess of the gospel in the workl, Matt. 13: 31, 32. 6. Tiv
the final perseveraace of the saints, 1 Pet 1: 5. 7. In the
resurrection of the dead, 1 Cot. 15. 8. In, making the
righteous happy forever, and punishing the wicked, Phil.
3: 21. Matt. 25: 34, &c. See Gill's B,idy of Die., vol.
i. oct. edit. p. 77 ; ChaDwck's Works, vol. i. p. 423 ;. Sau-
rin's Sermons, vol. i. p. 157 ; Tillmsou's Scrmrms, set. 152 j
Utright's Theology ; Watson's Instittttes. — Hend. Buck.
OMNIPRESENCE OF GOD, is his ubiquity, or his
being present in every place.
This may be argued from his infinity, (Ps. 139.) his
power, which is eveiywhere, (Heb. 1: 3.) his providence,
(Acts 17: 27, 28.) which supplies all. As he is a Spirit,
he is so omnipresent as not to be mixed with the crea-
ture, or divided, part in one place, and part in another ;
nor is he multiplied or extended, but is essentially present
everywhere.
Some striking passages on the ubiquity of the divine
presence may be found in the writings of some of the
Greek philosophers, arising out of this nation, that God
was the soul of the world ; but their very connexion with
this speculation, notwithstanding the imposing phrase oc-
OM N
[ 685
O U N
Casionally adopted, strikiugly marks the diffeience be-
tween their most exalted views, and those of the Hebrew
prophets on this subject. These defective notions are
confessed by Gibbon, a writer not disposed to undervalue
their attainments : " The philosophers of Greece deduced
their morals from the nature of man, rather than from that
of God. They meditated, however, on the divine nature,
as a very curious and important speculation ; and, in the
profound inquiry, they displayed the strength and weak-
ness of the human understanding. Of the four most con-
siderable sects, the Stoics and the Platonicians endeavor-
ed to reconcile the jarring interests of reason and piety.
They have left us the most sublime proofs of the existence
and perfections of the First Cause ; but as it was impos-
sible for them to conceive the creation of matter, the
rvorkman, in the Stoic philosophy, was not sufficiently dis-
tinguished from the tvork ; whilst, on the contrary, the
spiritual God of Plato and his disciples resembled more
an idea than a substance."
Similar errors have been re%'ived in the infidel philoso-
phy of modern times, from Spinoza down to the later off'-
spring of the German and French schools. The same re-
mark applies also to the Oriental philosophy, which pre-
sents at this day a perfect view of the boasted wisdom of
ancient Greece, which was " brought to nought" by " the
foolishness" of apostolic preaching. But in the Scriptures
there is nothing confused in the doctrine of the divine
ubiquity. God is everywhere, but he is not every thing.
All things have their being in him, but he is distinct from
all things ; he fills the universe, but is not mingled with
it. He is the intelligence which guides, and the power
■which sustains ; but his personality is preserved, and he
is independent of the works of his hands, however vast
and noble. So far is his presence from being bounded by
the universe itself, that, as we are taught in the passage
above quoted from the Psalms, were it possible for us to
wing our way into the immeasurable depths and breadths
of space, God would there surround us, in as absolute a
sense as that in which he is said to be about our bed and our
path in that part of the world where his will has placed us.
On this, as on all similar subjects, the Scriptures u.se
terms which are taken in their common-sense acceptation
among mankind ; and though the vanity of the human
mind disposes many to seek a philosophy in the doctrine
thus announced deeper than that which its popular terras
convey, we are bound lo conclude, if we would pay but a
common respect to an admitted revelation, that, where no
manifest figure of speech occurs, the truth of the doctrine
lies in the lenor of the terras by which it is expressed.
Otherwise there would be no revelation, we do not say, of
the modus, (for that is confessedly incomprehensible,) but
of the fact. In the case before us, the terms presence and
place are used according to common notions ; and must be
so taken, if the Scriptures are intelligible. Metaphysical
refinements are not scriptural doctrines, when they give
to the terms chosen by the Holy Spirit nn acceptation out
of their general and proper use, and make them the signs
of a perfectly distinct class of ideas ; if, indeed, all dis-
tinctness of idea is not lost in the attempt. It is therefore
iu the popular and just, because scriptural, manner, that
we are to conceive of the omnipresence of God.
If we reflect upon ourselves, we may observe that we
fill but a small space, and that our knowledge or power
reaches but a little way. We can act at one time in one
place only, and the sphere of our influence is narrow at
largest. Would we be witnesses to what is done at any
distance from us, or exert there our active powers, we
must remove ourselves thither. For this reason we are
necessarily ignorant of a thousand things which pass
around us, incapable of attending and managing any
great variety of affairs, or performing at the same time
any number of actions, for our own good, or for the bene-
fit of others. Although we feel this to be the present
condition of our being, and the limited state of our intelli-
gent and active powers, yet we can easily conceive there
may exist beings more perfect, and whose presence may
extend far and wide : any one of whom, present in what
are to us various places, at the same time, may know
at once what is done in all these, and act in all of
them ; and thus be able to regard and direct a variety of
aflairs at the same instant : and who further being quali-
fied, by the purity and activity of their nature, lo pass
from one place to another with great case and swifines.<:,
may thus fill a large sphere of action, direct a great vari-
ety of aflairs, confer a great number of benefits, and ob-
serve a multitude of actions at the same time, or in so
swiff a succession as to us would appear but one instant.
Thus, we may readily believe, do the angels of God excel.
We can further conceive this extent of presence, and of
ability for knowledge and action, to admit of degrees of
ascending perfection approaching to infinite. And when
we have thus raised our thoughts to the idea of a being,
who is not only present throughout a large enr pire, but
throughout our world ; and not only in every part of our
world, but in every part of all the numberless :uns and
worlds which roll in the starry heavens ; who is not only
able to enliven and actuate the plains, animals, and men
who live upon this globe, but countless varieties of crea-
tures everywhere in an immense universe ; yea, whose
presence is not confined to the universe, immeasurable as
that is by any finite mind, but who is present everywhere
in infinite space ; and who is therefore able lo create still
new worlds, and fill them wiih proper inhabitants, attend,
supply, and govern them all : when we have thus gradu-
ally raised and enlarged our conceptions, we have the best
idea we can form of ihe universal presence of the great
Jehovah, who filleth heaven and earth. All creatures
live and move and have their being in him. And the
inmost recesses of Ihe human heart can no more exclude
his presence, or conceal a thought from his knowledge,
than the deepest caverns of the earth.
We cannot, it is true, see him with our bodily eyes, be-
cause he is a pure Spirit ; yet this is not any proof that
he is not present. A judicious discourse, a scries of kind
actions, convince us of the presence of a friend, a person
of prudence and benevolence. We cannot seethe present
mind, the seat and principle of these qualities; yet the
constant regular motion of the tongue, the hand, and the
whole body, (which are the instruments of our souls, as
the material universe and all the various bodies in it are
the instruments of the Deity,) will not sufi'er us to doubt
that there is an inteUigent and benevolent principle with-
in the body which produces all these skilful motions and
kind actions. The sun, the air, the earth, and the waters,
are no more able to move themselves, and produce all
that beautiful and useful variety of plants, and fruits, and
trees, with which our earth is covered, than the body of a
man, when the soul hath left it, is able to move itself,
form an instrument, plough a field, or build a house. If
the laying out judiciously and well cultivating a small
estate, sowing it with proper grain at the best lime of the
year, watering it in due season and quantities, and ga-
thering in the fruits when ripe, and laying them up in the
best manner, — if all these etfects prove the estate to have
a manager, and the manager possessed of skill and
strength, — certainly the enlightening and warming the
whole earth b)' the sun, and so directing its motion, and
the motion of the earth, as to produce in a constant useful
succession day and night, summer and winter, seed-time
and harvest; Ihe watering the earth coi^iinually by the
clouds, and thus bringing forth immense quantities of
herbage, grain, and fruits: certainly all these effects con-
tinually produced, must prove that a Being of the great-
est power, wisdom, and benevolence is continually present
throughout our world, which he thus supports, moves,
actuates, and makes fruitful.
Were God to speak to us ever)' month frcmi heaven,
and with a voice loud as thunder declaie that lie observes,
provides for, and governs us ; this would not be a proof,
in the judgment of sound reason, by many degrees so
valid : since much less wisdom and power are required to
form such sounds in the air, than to produce these cfl'ects;
and to give, not merely verbal declarations, but .substan-
tial evidences of his presence and care over us. In every
part and place of the universe, with which wc are ac-
quainted, we perceive the exertion of a power, which we
believe, mediately or immediately, to proceed from the
Deity. For instance: in what part or point of space, that
has ever been explored, do we not discover aiiraction ?
In what regions do we not find light 1 Tn what ncccssible
UMN
886 ]
OMN
portion of our globe do we not meet with gravity, magne-
tism, electricity ; together with the properties also and
powers of organized substances, of vegetable or of ani-
mated nature? Nay, further, what kingdom is there of
nature, what corner of space, in which there is any thing
that can be examined by us, where we do not fall upon
contrivance and design? The only reflection, perhaps,
which arises in our minds from this view of the world
around us, is, that the laws of nature everywhere pre-
vail ; that they are uniform and universal. But what do
wc mean by the laws of nature, or by any law ? Effects
are produced by power, not bv laws. A law is not self-
imposed. A law cannot execute itself. A law refers us
to an author and agent. The laws of nature are nothing
more nor less than the regular methods of incessant divine
operation. In the mineral, vegetable, animal, intellectual,
and moral world, God is continually present, working,
according to the peciiliar constitution and conditions he
has assigned to each.
Among metaphysicians, it has been matter of dispute,
v.'hether God is present everywhere by an infinite exten-
sion of his essence. This is the opinion of Newton, Dr.
S. Clarke, and their followers ; others have objected to
this notion, that it might then be said, God is neither in
heaven nor in earth, but only a part of God in each. The
former opinion, however, appears most in harmony with
the Scriptures ; though the term extension, through the
inadequacy of language, conveys too material an idea.
The objection just stated is wholly grounded on notions
taken from material objects, and is therefore of little
weight, because it is not applicable to an immaterial sub-
stance. That we cannot comprehend how God is fully,
and completely, and undividedly present everywhere,
need not surprise us, when we reflect that the manner in
which our own minds are present with our bodies is as
incomprehensible as the manner in which the Supreme
Mind is present ^^ith every thing in the universe.
From the consideration of this attribute we should learn
to fear and reverence God, Fsal. 89: 7. To derive conso-
lation in the hour of distress, Isa. 42: 2. Ps. 4G: 1. To
be active and diligent in holy services, Fsal. 119: 168.
See CharnocKs Wor}:s, vol. i. p. 210 ; Abemetht/s Sermons,
ser. 7; Howe's Works, vol. i. pp. 108, 110; Sm/rin's Ser-
mons, vol i. ser. 3 ; Gill's Body of Dio., b. i ; S'per.t., vol.
viii. nos. 565, 571 ; Tillolson's Sermom, ser. 151 ; Taylor's
Holy Living ; Dmi-ihVs Theology.— Hend. Buck; Watson.
OMNISCIENCE OF GOD is that perfection by which
he knows all things; and is, 1. Infinite knowledge, Ps.
117: 5. 2. Eternal, generally called foreknowledge,
Acts 15: 18. Isa. 46: 10. Ep'.i. 1: 4. Acts 2: 23. 3. Uni-
versal, extending to all persons, times, places, and things,
Ilcb. 4: 13. Ps. 50: 10, kc. 4. Perfect, relating to what
is past, present, and to come. He knows all, indepen-
dently, distinctly, infallih'y, and p"rpetuaUy, .Ter. 10: 6. 7.
Rcim. 11: 33. 5. This knowledge is peculiar to himself,
(Mark 13: 32. Job 36: 4.) and not communicable to any
creamre. 6. It is incoriprehensible to nshow God knows
all things, yet it is evident that he does ; for to suppose
otherwise is to suppos; him an imper.fect being, and di-
rectlv contrary to the revelation he has given of himself,
Ps. 139: 6. 1 John 3: 20. Job 23: 24. 21: 22.
This attribute of God is constantly connected in Scrip-
ture with his ouuiipvesence, and forms a part of almost
every description of that attribute ; for, as God is a Spi-
rt., and therefore intelligent, if he is everywhere, if no-
thing con ex.:lude him, not even the most solid bodies,
nor the minds of intelligent beings, then are all things
naired and opened to the eyes of him with whom we have
10 do. Where he acts, he is ; and whcr; he is, he per-
ceives. He understands and considers things abscUuely,
and as they are in their own natures, powers, properties,
differences, together with all the circumstances b.'lnnging
to (hem. " Known unto him are all his worlcs from the
beginnins of the world," rather, (ap' aio'ios,} from nil eter-
rit'j known, before they were made, in their po.ssible,
ai'.J known, now they are made, in their actual, er'stence.
In Psalm 94, the knowledge of God is argued frnni the
e(,r,imunication of it to men: " Underst:in;l, ye br:uisU
iiiriong the people ; and, ye fools, wlien will y ;..• v.r:r?
He that planted the ear, shall he not )v\, ■ lie ilml
formed the eye, shall he not sec? He that chastiseth the
heathen, shall not he correct ? He that teacheth man
knowledge, shall not he know?" This argument is as
easy as it is conclusive, obliging all who acknowledge a
First Cause, to admit his perfect inteUigenee, or to take
refuge in atheism itself. For if God gives wisdom to the
wise, and knowledge to inen of understanding j if he
communicates this perfection to his creatures, the infe-
rence must be that he himself is possessed of it in a much
more eminent degree than they ; that his knowledge is
deep and intimate, reaching to the very essence of things,
theirs but slight and superficial ; his clear and distinct,
theirs confused and dark ; his certain and infallible, theirs
doubtful and liable to mistake ; his easy and perma-
nent, theirs obtained « ith much pains, and soon lost again
by the defects of memory or age ; his universal and ex-
tending to all objects, theiis short and narrow, reaching
only to some few things, while that which is wanting can-
not be numbered ; and therefore, as the heavens are high-
er than the earth, so, as the prophet has told us, are his
ways above our ways, and his thoughts above our thoughts.
On the subject of the divine omniscience, many fine
sentiiuents are to be found in the writings of pagans ;
for an intelligent First Cause being in any sense admitted,
it was most natural and obviousto ascribe to him a perfect
knowledge of all things. They acknowledged that no-
thing is hid from God, who is intimate to our minds, and
mingles himself with our very thoughts ; nor were they
all unaware of the practical tendency of such a doctrine,
and of the motive it affords to a cautions and virtuous
conduct. But among them it was not held, as by the sa-
cred writers, in connexion with other right views of the
divine nature, which are essential to give to this its full
moral effect. Not only on this subject does the manner
in which the Scriptures state the doctrine far transcend
that of the wisest pagan theists ; but the moral of the
sentiment is infinitely more comprehensive and impressive.
It is connected with man's state of trial ; with a holy
law, all the violations of which, in thought, word, and
deed, are both infallibly known, and strictly marked ;
with promises of grace, and of a mild and protecting go-
vernment as to alUvho have sought and found the mercy
of God in forgiving their sins and admitting them into his
family. The wicked are thus reminded, that their hearts
are searched, and their sins noted ; that the eyes of the
Lord are upon their ways; and that their most secret
works will be brought to light in the day when God the
Witness shall become God the Judge. But as to the
righteous, the eyes of the Lord are said to be over them ;
that they are kept by him who never slumbers or sleeps ;
that he is never far from them ; that liis eyes run to and
fro throughout the whole earth, to show himself strong in
their behalf; that foes, to them invisible, are seen by lus
eye, and controlled by his arm ; and that this great at-
tribute, so appalling to wicked men, aflbrds to them, not
only the most influential reason for a perfectly holy tem-
per and conduct, but the strongest motive to trust, and
joy, and hope, amidst the changes and afflictions of the
present life.
Socrates, as ivell as other philosophers, could express
themselves well, so long as they expressed themselves
generally, on this subject. The former could say, " Let
your own frame instruct you. Does the mind inhabiMng
your body dispose and govern it with ease? Ought you
not then to conclude, that the Universal Mind with equal
ease actu,ates and governs universal nature ; and that,
when you can at once consider the interests of the Athe-
nians at home, in Egypt, and in Sicily, it is not too much
for the divine wisdom to take care of the universe ? These
reflections will soon convince you, that the greatness ot
the divine mind is such as at once to see all things, hear
all things, be present everywhere, and direct all the
affairs of the world." These views are just, but they
wanted that connexion with others relative both to the di-
vine nature and government, which we see only m the
Bible, to render them influential ; they neither gave cor-
rect moral distinclinr.s nor led to a virtuous practice ; no,
not in Socrates, who, on some subjects, and especially on
the personality of the Deitv and his independence on matter,
raised himself far abbve'the rest of his philosophic bie
ONE
[ 887
ONI
*!ii'en, but in moral feeling nnd practice was perhaps as
censurabk as they. (See Pkescience.) See Charnock's
Works, vol. i. p. 271 ; Abermlhi/s Sermons, vol i. pp. 290,
306 ; Iio?ve's Works, vol. i. pp. 102, 103 ; Gill's Div., vol.
i. p. 8-5, Oct. ; Dwight's Theology.— Hend. Buck ; Watson.
ON, or AvEN ; a city of Egypt, situated in the land of
Goshen, on the east of the Nile, and about five miles
from the modern Cairo. It was called Heliopolis by the
Greeks, and Bethshemeth by the Hebrews ; (Jer. 43: 13.)
both of which names, as well as its Egyptian one of On,
imply the city or house of the sun. The inhabitants of
this city are represented by Herodotus as the wisest of the
Egyptians ; and here Closes resided, and received that
education which made him " learned in all the wisdom
of the Egyptians." But, notwithstanding its being the
seat of the sciences, such were its egregious idolatries,
ihat it was nicknamed Aven, or Beth-Aven, " the house
of vanity," or idolatry, by the Jews.
It was predicted by Jerenriah, (43: 13.) and by Ezekiel,
(30: 17.) that this place, with its temples and inhabitants,
should be destroyed ; which was probably fulfilled by
Nebuchadnezzar. (See Nora.) Most of the ruins of
this once famous city, described by Slrabo the geographer,
are buried in the accumulation of the soil ; but that which
marks its site, and is, perhaps, the most ancient work at
this time existing in the world, in a perfect stale, is a
column of red granite, seventy feet high, and covered
with hieroglyphics. Dr. E. D. Clarke has given a very
good representation of this column ; to whom, also, the
curious reader is referred for a learned dissertation on the
characters engraved upon it. — Watson.
ON AN ; son of Judah, and grandson of tlie patriarch
Jacob. He was given in marriage to Tamar, after the death
of his brother Ur, but was destroyed by the Lord, for the
criminal mode in which he evaded compliance with the
law of the Levirate. (See JIakriage, and Levirate.)
The infamous crime of Onan is to this day stamped
with his name. Public attention has recently been drawn
to its extensive prevalence and dire effects by the publica-
tion of a Treatise on the Diseases of Onanism , which appear-
ed in New York, in 1832, from the press of Collins and
Hannay. It is a translation from the French of Tissot ;
and the American editor, in his preface, aflirms, that this
crime is more frequently a source of diseases in both sexes
than is generally supposed, and from which students
at our public seminaries of learning are not always ex-
empt. Those young persons, parents, and guardians, who
would learn the real and dreadful evils which arise from
the practice of self-pollution, and which stamp upon it the
terrible seal of the divine displeasure, are referred fur
ample evidence to the above-named work. — Calmct.
ONE ; (1.) one only, besides which there is no other of
the kind ; so God is one ; and Christ is the one Mediator
and Master ; but in the phrase God is one, (Gal 3: 20.) it
may denote one of the parties to be reconciled, 1 Tim.
2:5. Eccl. 12: 11. (2.) The same either in substance;
so the divine persons are one ; (1 John 5: 7. John 10: 30.)
or in number ; thus all the world had one language after the
Hood ; (Gen. 1 1: 1 .) or in kind ; thus one plague was on the
Philistines and their lands ; (1 Sam. ti: 4.) or in object ; so
Paul that planted the churches, and ApoUos that watered
them, were one in their general office and aim as ministers
of Christ, 1 Cor. 3: 8. (3.) United together; so Christ
and his people are one; they are ont; by his representing
ihem in the covenant of grace, and are united to him
by his Spirit dwelhng in them, and by their faith and love
10 him, their intimate fellowship with him, and their like-
ness to him : and they are one among themselves. They
are all members of his one mystical body, have one Lord,
one spirit, one faith, one baptism, one hope ; love one ano-
ther, possess tlie same privileges, have the same kind of
views, aims, and works ; (John 17: 21, 23. Rom. 12: 5.
Eph. 4; 3 — 6.) and they are of one heart, and mind, and
nwulh, when they ardently love one another as Christians,
and have much the same views of divine truth, and much
the same profession and manner of speech. Acts 4: 32.
Rom. 15: 0. God made but one woman, though, having
the residue of the Spirit, he had power to create multi-
tudes, that he might seek a godly seed, have children law-
fully produced, and rcligiou.sly eJucaied, Mai. 2: 15. To
have one lot, and one imrse, is to be joined in the closest
fellowship, Prov. 1: 14 Brown,
ONESIMUS was a Phrygian by nation, a slave to
Philemon, and subsequently a disciple of the apostle Paul.
Onesimus having run away from his master, and also
having robbed him, (Philem. 5: 18.) went to Rome while
St. Paul was there in prison the first lime. As Onesimus
knew him by repute, (his master Philemon being a Chris-
tian,) perhaps from mere curiosity, he sought him out.
St. Paul brought him lo a sense of the greatness of his
crime, instructed him, baptized him, and sent him back to
his master Philemon with a letter, inserted among St.
Paul's epistles, which is universally acknowledged as ca-
nonical. (See Philemon.)
This letter had all the good success he could desire.
Philemon not only received One.simus as a faithful ser-
vant, but rather as a brother and a friend. A Utile time
after, he sent him back to Rome to St. Paul, that he might
continue to be serviceable to him in his prison. And we
see that after this, Onesimus was employed to carry such
epistles as the apostle wroie at that time. He carried, for
example, that which was written to the Colossians, while
St. Paul was yet in his bonds. He is said to have died a
martyr. — Watson ; Calmet.
ONESIPHORUS ; one of the primitive Christians, of
whom the most honorable mention is made by the apostle
Paul, in 2 Tim. 1: 16, and ch. 5: 19. He appears to have
been a citizen of Ephesus, and member of the church
there ; for Paul tells Timothy, that " he knew in how
many things he had ministered to him at Ephesus," 2
Tim. 1: 18. Onesiphorus came to Rome in the year of
Christ 65, when Paul was a second time imprisoned for
the faith, at a moment, too, when almost all the rest of his
friends had forsaken him and fled. Here he had a fine
opportunity of evincing his attachment to the cause of
Christ, by succoring his faithful servant, w'hich he did so
nobly and generously, that the affectionate heart of Paul
was quite overwhelmed by a sense of his kindness, and
he poured it out in the most ardent wishes, '■ that the
Lord would grant mercy to him and his household in the
last day," a day in which all the human race will stand in
need of mercy, 2 Tim. 1: 18. — Jones.
ONION; (iiatsal, Num. 11: 5.) a well-known garden
plant with a bulbous root. Onions and garlics were
highly esteemed in Egypt ; and not without reason, this
country being admirably adapted to their culture. The
allium cepa, called by the Arabs basal, Hasselquist thinks
one of the species oi' onions for which the Israelites long-
ed. He would infer this from the quantities still used in
Egypt, and their goodness. " Whoever has tasted onions
in Egypt," says he, " must allow that none can be had
better in any part of the universe. Here they are sweet ;
in other countries they are nauseous and strong. Here
they are soft ; whereas in the northern and other parts
they are hard, and their coats so compact that they are
difficult of digestion. Hence they cannot in any place be
eaten with less prejudice, and more satisfaction, than in
Egypt."
The Egj'ptians are reproached with swearing by the
leeks and onions of their gardens. Juvenal, as well as
Lucian, ridicules some of these superstitious people who
did not dare to eat leeks, garlic, or onions, for fear of in-
juring their gods : —
Quis nescit, Votusi Btfthynice, quatia demens
./Egyptus porlenta cottt ?
Porrnm et cepa ne/as violare aut/rmigere morsu ;
O sajtclas gcntes quibits h<Be tuiscuntur in hortis
Numina ! Sal. xv,
" How Egypt, mad wilh supenjlition grown,
Mattes gods of monsters, but too well Is known.
'Tis mortal sin an onion to devour ;
Each clove of garlic has a sacred power.
Religious nation, sure ! and hlest abodes.
Where ev^ry garden is o'errun with gods !"
Hence arises a question, how the Israelites durst ven-
ture to violate the national worship, by eating those sacred
plants. We may answer, in the first place, thai whatever
might be the case of the Egyptians in later ages, it is not
probable that they were arrived at such a jiitch of super-
stition in the time of Moses ; for we find no indications
OPtt
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ORA
of this in Herodotus, tke most ancient of the Greek his-
torians : secondly, the writers here quoted appear to be
mistaken in imagining these plants to have been gerie-
rally the objects of religious worship. The priests, in-
deed, abstained from the use of them, and several other
vegetables ; and this might give rise to the opinion of
their being reverenced as divinities : but the use ot them
was not prohibited to the people, as is plain from the testi-
monies of ancient authors, particularly of Diodorus Si-
culus. — Watson. T TVT u
ONO ; a city of Benjamin, 1 Chron. 8: 12. In Neh.
6: 2, we have mention of " the valley of Ono," which
probably was not far from the city.— Ca/»ie(.
ONYX ; (sheham, Gen. 2; 12. Exod. 25: 7. 28: 9, 20.
35: 27. 39: 6. 1 Chron. 29: 2. Job 28: 1(3. Ezek. 28: 13.)
a precious stone, so called from the Greek onux, the nail,
to the color of which it nearly approaches. It is first
mentioned with the gold and bdellium of the river Pison
in Eden ■ but the meaning of the Hebrew word is not
easily det'ermiued. The Septuagint render it, in different
places, the sardius, heryl, sapphire, emerald, &c. Such
names are often ambiguous, even in Greek and Latin,
and no wonder if they are more so in Hebrew.
In 1 Chron. 29: 2, onyx stones are among the things
prepared by David for the temple. The author of " Scrip-
lure Illustrated" observes, upon this passage, that " the
word onyx is equivocal ; signifying, first, a precious stone
or gem ; and, secondly, a marble called in Greek onychites,
which Pliny mentions as a stone of Caramania. Anti-
quity gave both these stones this name, because of their
resemblance to the n;ul of the fingers. The onyx of the
high-priest's pectoral was, no doubt, the gem onyx ; the
stone prepared by David was the marble onyx, or rather
tmychus ; for one would hardly think that gems of any
kind were used externally in such a building, but varie-
gated marble may readily be admtted." Harris; Carpen-
ter; Abbott. — WatsoH.
OPEN. God's eyes and ears being open denotes his
exact observation of men's conduct, his regard to his peo-
ple's case, and his readiness to answer their praj'ers,
Neh. 1: 6.' Jer. 32: 19. 1 Pet. 3: 12. His hands and trea-
sures are opened when, by his power and goodness, he libe-
rally confers favors on his creatures, Ps. 101: 28. Deut.
28: 12. God opens his armory when, in his providence, he
raises armies, and furnishes them with weapons of war
to execute his just wrath on sinners, Jer. 1: 25. He opens
his lips against men when, by his word and providence,
he, in a plain and powerful manner, convinces them ot
their guiU, Job 11: 5. He opens the heart when he en-
hghtens the eye of the understanding to discern revealed
truths, and thereby determines the will to receive Jesus
and his salvation into the soul, Luke 24: 32—45. Acts
26: 18. 16: 14. He opens men's ears when he renders
them attentive to his word and providence, Job 3(5: 10 —
15. He opens their lips when he gives them encourage-
ment to pray, and reason to praise him ; and by his
Spirit gives a holy freedom in these exercises, Ps. 51: 15.
Under the gospel, men with open face behold the glory of
the Lord ; they see divine truths clearly, and stripped of
ceremonial veils, even as the sight of any thing in a glass
is much more distinct and clear than to see them only by
their shadows, 2 Cor. 3: 18. — Brown.
OPHEL; the name given to a part of mount Zion,
rising higher than the rest ; at the eastern extremity, near
to the temple, and a little to the south of it, 2 Chron. 27:
3. Neh. 3: 2fi. 11:21. It is also mentioned Mic. 4: 8,
though our translators have rendered the words, " Thou,
O tower of the flock," literally " lower of Ophel." It was
naturally strong by its situation, and had a wall of its
own, by which it was separated from the rest of Zion.
Bishop LoKtUs Notes on Isaiah 32: 14. — Jones.
OPHIR ; a son of Joktan, whose descendants peopled
the district between Mesha and Sephar, a mountain of the
East, Gen. 10: 26, 30. Mesha is taken to be mount Masius
in Mesopotamia ; and Sephar the country of the Sephar-
vaites, or Saspires, which divided Media from Colchis. —
— Calmet. .
OPHIR ; a country much celebrated in Scripture, on
account of the immense quantities of gold and precious
stones which king Solomon imported from thence for
the use of the temple, 1 Kings 9: 28. 10: 11. 2 Chron.
8: 18.
In the same direction with Ophir lay Tarshish ; the
voyage to both places being accomplished under one, and
always, as it would seem, in the same space of lime,
three years ; by which it may be inferred that, notwith-
standing the imperfect navigation of the limes, they must
be at a considerable distance from the ports of Judea.
In what region of the earth we should search for the
famous ports of Tarshish and Ophir, is an inquiry which
has long exercised the industry of learned men. They
were early supposed to be situated in some part of India,
and the Jews were held to be one of the nations which
traded with that country. But the opinion more generally
adopted is, that Solomon's fleets, after passing the straits
of Babelmandel, held their course along the south-east
coast of Africa, as far as the kingdom of Sofala, a country
celebrated for its rich mines of gold and silver, (from
which it has been denominated the Golden Sofala, by
Oriental writers,) and abounding in all the other articles
which composed the cargoes of the Jewish ships. This
opinion, which the accurate researches of M. D'Anville
rendered highly probable, seems now to be established
with the utmost certainly by a late learned traveller, Mr.
Bruce ; who by his knowledge of the monsoons in the
Arabian gulf, and his attention to the ancient mode of
navigation, both in that sea and along the African coast,
has not only accounted for the extraordinary length of
time which the fleets of Solomon took in going and re-
turning, but has shown, from circumstances mentioned
concerning the voyage, that it was not made to any place
in India. See Dr. Eobertson's Ancient India, p. 9 ; and the
article Tarshish. — Calmet ; Watson ; Jones.
OPHITES. (See Serpentinuns.)
OPHRAH ; a city of Benjamin, Josh. 18: 23. 1 Sam.
13: 17. In the prophet Micah, (1: 10.) we have a temple
mentioned as the house of Ophrah, where the paranomasia
cleariy points at dust, as the import of this name : " In
the temple of Ophrah (dust) roll thyself in the dust." But
this phrase might be adopted by the prophet, by reason of
the similarity of sound, though not of sense, between the
two words. — Calmet.
OPINION, is that judgment which the mind forms of
any proposition, for the truth or falsehood of which there
is not sufficient evidence to produce absolute belief.—
Essaj/ on the Formation of Opinions ; Hend. Buck.
OPPRESSION, is the spoiling or taking away of men's
property by constraint, terror, or force, without having
any right thereto ; working on the ignorance, weakness,
or fearfulness of the oppressed. Men are guilty of op-
pression, when they ofler violence to the bodies, property,
or consciences of others ; when they crush or overburden
others, as the Egyptians did the Hebrews, Exod. 3: 9.
There may be oppression which maligns the character, or
studies to vex another, yet does not aflect his life : as
there is much persecution, for conscience' sake, which is
not fatal, though distressing. God is the avenger of all
oppression. — Calmet.
ORACLE, denotes something delivered by supernatu-
ral wisdom. The term is also used in the Old Testament
to signify the most holy place from whence the Lord
revealed his will to ancient Israel, 1 Kings 6: 5, 19—
21,23. . , , ,
I. Divine Oracles.— When the word occurs in the plural
number, as it raostlv does, it denotes the revelations con-
tained in the sacred' writings, of which the nation of Israel
were the depositaries. So Moses is said by Stephen to
have received the " lively oracles" to give unto the Isra-
elites. These oracles contained the law, both moral and
ceremonial, with all the types and promises relating to
the Messiah which are to be found in the writings of
Moses. They also contained all the intimations of the
divine mind which he was pleased to communicate by
means of the succeeding prophets, who prophesied before-
hand of the coming and of the sufferings of the Messiah,
with the glory that should follow. The Jews were a
highly-privileged people in many and various respjits;
(Rom 9: 4, 5.) but the apostle Paul mentions it as their
chief advantage that " unto them were committed the
oracles of God," Rom. 3: 2. "AVhat nation," says Moses,
OR A
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OR A
" is there that hath statutes and judgments so righteous
as all this law which I set before you this day?" Deut. 4:
8. The psalmist David enumerates their excellent pro-
perties under various epithets ; such as the law of the
Lord, his testimony, his statutes, his commandments, his
judgments, &c. Their properties are extolled as perfect,
sure, right, pure, clean, true, and righteous altogether ;
more to be desired than much fine gold ; sweeter than
honey and the honey-comb. Their salutary eflects are also
mentioned ; such as their converting the soul, making
wise the simple, rejoicing the heart, enlightening the eyes ;
and the keeping of them is connected with a great reward.
Psalm 19. The hundred and nineteenth Psalm abounds
with praises of the lively oracles, the word of the living
God ; it abounds with the warmest expressions of love to
it, of delight in it, and the most fervent petitions for divine
illumination in the knowledge of it. Such was the esteem
and veneration which the faithful entertained for the
li.'ely oracles under the former dispensation, when they
had only Moses and the prophets ; how, then, ought they
to be prized by Christians, who have al.so Christ and his
apostles ! See Irving on the Oracles of Go/I.
II. Pagan Oracles. — Among the heathen, (where impos-
ture supplied the place of revelation,} the term oracle is
usually taken to signify an answer, generally couched in
very dark and ambiguous terms, supposed to be given by
demons of old, either by the mouths of their idols, or by
those of their priests, to the people, who consulted them
on things to come. Oracle is also used for the demon who
gave the answer, and the place where it was given.
Seneca defines oracles to be enunciations by the mouths
of men of the will of the gods ; and Cicero simply calls
them, deorum oratio, the language of the gods. Among
the pagans they were held in high estimation ; and
they were consulted on a variety of occasions, pertain-
ing to national enterprises and private life. When
they made peace or v.'ar, enacted laws, reformed states,
or changed the constitution, they had in all these cases
recourse to the oracle by public authority. Also, in
private life, if a man wished to marry, if he proposed
to take a journey, or to engage in any business of
iiTiportance, he repaired to the oracle for counsel. Man-
kind have had always a propensity to explore futurity;
and conceiving that future events were known to their
gods, who possessed the gift of prophecy, they sought in-
formation and advice from the oracles, which, in their
opinion, were supernatural and divine communications.
The institution of oracles seemed to gratify the prevalent
curiosity of mankind, and proved a source of immense
wealth, as well as authority and influence, to those who
had the command of them. Accordingly, every nation,
in which idolatry has subsisted, had its oracles, by means
of which imposture practised on superstition and cre-
dulity
1 . The principal oracles of antiquity are, that of Abas,
mentioned by Herodotus ; that of Amphiaraus, at Oropus
in Macedonia ; that of the Branchidse at Didymeum ; that
of the camps at Lacedremon ; that of Dodona ; that of Ju-
piter Amnion ; that of Nabarca, in the country of the
Anariaci, near the Caspian sea; that of Trophonius,
mentioned by Herodotus ; that of Chrysopolis ; that of
Claros, in Ionia; that of Amphilochus at Blallos ; that of
Petarea ; that of Pella in Macedonia ; that of Phaselides
in Cilicia ; that of Sinope in Paphlagonia ; that of Orpheus'
head at Lesbos, mentioned by Philostratus. But of all
oracles, the oracle of Apollo Pythius at Delphi was the
most celebrated ; this was consuhed in the dernier resort
by most of the princes of those ages.
2. Blost of the pagan deities had their appropriate ora-
cles. Apollo had the greatest number : such as those of
Claros. of the BrancWdo?, of the suburbs of Daphne at
Antioch, of Delos, of Argos, of Troas, jEolis, &c., of
BaiK in Italy, and others in Cilicia, in Egj'pt, in the Alps,
in Thrace, at Corinth, in Arcadia, in Laconia, and in many
other places enumerated by Van Dale. Jupiter, besides
that of Dodona and some others, the honor of which he
shared with Apollo, had one in Boeotia under the name of
Jupiter the Thunderer, and another in Elis, one at Thebes
and at Meroe, one near Antioch, and several others.
jEsculapius was consulted in Cilicia, at ApoUonia, in the
113
isle of Cos, at Epulaurus, Pergamus, Rome, and else-
where. Mercury had oracles at Patra.s, upon Haemon
and in other places ; Mars, in Thrace, Egypt, and el.se-
where ; Hercules, at Cadiz, Athens, in Egypt, at Tivoli
in Mesopotamia, where he issued his oracles by dreams^
whence he was called Somnialis. Isis, Osiris and Sera-
pis delivered in like manner their oracles by dreams as
we learn from Pausanias, Tacitus, Arrian, and other wri-
ters ; that of Amphilochus was also delivered by dreams ■
the ox Apis had also his oracle in Egj'pt. The gods
called Cabiri, had their oracle in Bceotia. Diana, the
sister of Apollo, had several oracles in Egypt, Cilicia,
Ephesus, &c. Those of Fortune at Praeneste, and of the
Lots at Antium, are well known. The fountains also de-
livered oracles, for to each of them a divinity was ascribed .-
such was the fountain of Castalia at Delphi, another of
the same name in the suburbs of Antioch, and the pro-
phetic fountain near the temple of Ceres in Achaia.
Juno had several oracles : one near Corinth, one at Nysa,
and others at different places. Latona had one at Butis
in Egypt ; Leucothea had one in Colchis ; Jlemnon in
Egypt ; Machaon at Gerania in Laconia ; Minerva had
one in Egypt, in Spain, upon mount jEtna, at Mycenae
and Colchis, and in other places. Those of Neptune were
at Delphos, at Calauria, near Neocesarea, and elsewhere.
The nymphs had theirs in the cave of Corycia. Pan had
several, the most famous of which was that in Arcadia.
That of the Palici was in Sicily. Pluto had one at Nysa.
Saturn had oracles in several places, hut the most famous
were those of Cumae in Italy, and of Alexandria in Egypt.
Those of Venus were dispersed in several places, at Gaza,
upon mount Libanus, at Paphos, in Cyprus, A:c. Serapis
had one at Alexandria, consulted by Vespasian. Venus
Aphacite had one at Aphaca, between Heliopolis and By-
blus. Geryon, the three-headed monster, slain by Hercu-
les, had an oracle in Italy near Padua, consulted by Tibe-
rius ; that of Hercules was at Tivoli, and was given by
lots, like those at Praeneste £md Antium. The demi-gods
and heroes had likewise their oracles ; such were those of
Castor and Pollux at Lacedaemon, of Amphiaraus, of Mop-
sus in Cilicia, of Ulysses, Amphilochus, Sarpedon in
Troas, Hermione in Macedonia, Pasiphae in Laconia,
Chalcas in Italy, Aristaeus in Boeotia, Autolycus at Sinope,
Phryxus among the Colchi, Zamolxis among the Getoe,
Hephaestion the minion of Alexander, and Antinous,
&c. (See Gods.)
3. The responses of oracles were delivered in a variety
of ways : at Delphi, they interpreted and put into verse
what the priestess pronounced in the time of her furor.
Sir. Bayle observes that at first this oracle gave its an-
swers in verse ; and that it fell at length to prose, upon
people's beginning to laugh at the poorness of its versifi-
cation. The Epicureans made this the subject of their
jests, and said, in raillery, it was surprising enough, that
Apollo, the god of poetry, should be a much worse poet
than Homer, whom he himself had inspired. By the rail-
leries of these philosophers, and particularly by the Cynics
and Peripatetics, the priests were at length obliged to de-
sist from the practice of versifying the responses of the
Pylhia, which, according to Plutarch, was one of the
principal causes of the declension of the oracle of Delphos.
At the oracle of Amnion, the priests pronounced the re-
sponse of their god ; at Dodona, the response was issued
from the hollow of an oak ; at the cave of Trophonius, the
oracle was inferred from what the suppliant said before
he recovered his senses ; at Blemphis, they drew a good or
had omen, according as the ox Apis received or rejected
what was presented to him. which was also the case with
the fishes of the fountain of Limyra. The suppliants who
consulted the oracles were not allowed to enter the sanc-
tuaries where they were given ; and, accordingly, care
was taken that neither the Epicureans nor Christians
should come near them. In several places, the oracles
were given by letters scaled up, as in that of Mopsus, and
at Mallus in Cilicia. Oracles were frequently given by
lot, the mode of doing which was as follows : the lots were
a kind of dice, on which were engraven certain characters
or words, whose explanations they were to seek on tables
made for the purpose. The way' of using these dice lor
knowing futuritv. was differeni, according to the places
0 R A
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OR A
where they were used. In some temples, the person
threw them himself; in others, they were dropped from a
box ; whence came the proverbial expression, " the lot is
fallen." This playing with dice was always preceded by
sacrifices and other customary ceremonies. The ambi-
guity of the oracles in their responses, and their double
meaning, contributed to their support.
4. Ablancourt observes that the study or research of
the meaning of oracles was but a fruitless thing ; and that
they were never understood till after their accomplish-
ment. Historians relate, that Crcesas was tricked by the
ambiguity and equivocation of the oracle.
That delivered to Pyrrhus, which is comprised in this
Latin verse,
" Credo equideni JBacidas Romanos vincere posse,*'
had the same advantage ; for, according to the rules of
syntax, either of the two accusatives may be governed by
the verb, and the verse be explained, either by saying the
Romans shall conquer the jEacidiE, of whom Pyrrhus was
descended, or those shall conquer the Romans. When
Alexander fell sick at Babylon, some of his courtiers who
happened to be in Egypt, or who went thither on purpose,
passed the night in the temple of Serapis, to inquire if it
would not be proper to bring Alexander to be cured by
him. The god answered, it was better that Alexander
should remain where he was. This in all events was a
very prudent and safe answer. If the king recovered his
health, what glory must Serapis have gained by saving
him the fatigue of his journey ! If he died, it was but
saying he died in a favorable juncture after so many con-
quests ; which, had he lived, he could neither have en-
larged nor preserved. This is actually the construction
they put upon the response ; whereas had Alexander un-
dertaken the journey, and died in the temple, or by the
way, nothing could have been said in favor of Serapis.
when Trajan had formed the design of his expedition
against the Parthians, he was advised to consult the ora-
cle of Heliopolis, to which he had no more to do but send
a note under a seal. That prince, who had no gi-eat faith
in oracles, sent thither a blank note ; and they returned
him another of the same kind. By this Trajan was con-
vinced of the divinity of the oracle ! He sent back a se-
cond note to the god, in wliich he inquired whether he
should return to Rome after finishing the war he had in
view. The god, as Macrobius tells the story, ordered a
vine, which was among the ofl'erings of his temple, to be
divided into pieces, and brought to Trajan. The event
justified the oracle ; for the emperor dying in that war, his
hones were carried to Rome, which had been represented
by that broken vine. As the priests of that oracle knew
Trajan's design, which was ao secret, they happily devised
that response, which, in all events, was capable of a fa-
f orable interpretation, whether he routed and cut the Par-
thians in pieces, or if his army met with the same fate.
Sometimes the responses of the oracles were mere banter,
as in the case of the man who wished to know by what
means he might become rich, and who received for answer
from the god, that he had only to make himself master of
all that lay between Sicyon and Corinth. Another, want-
ing a cure for the gout, was answered by the oracle, that
he was to drink nothing but cold water.
5. There are two points in dispute on the subject of
oracles ; namely, whether they were human, or diabolical
machines ; and whether or not they ceased upon the pub-
lication or preaching of the gospel. Most of the fathers
of the church, it is said, supposed that the devil issued
oracles ; and looked on it as a pleasure he took to give
dubious and equivocal answers, in order to have a handle
to laugh at them. Vossius allows that it was the devil
who spoke in oracles ; but thinks that the obscurity of his
answers was owing to his ignorance as to the precise cir-
cumstances of events.
Father Balthus, a Jesuit, wrote a treatise in defence of
the fathers with regard to the origin of oracles ; but with-
out denymg the imposture of the priests often blended
frith the oracles. Dr. Middleton, in his " Examination,"
&c., thinks himself warranted to pronounce from the au-
thority of the best and wisest of the heathens themselves,
and the evidence of plain facts, which arc recorded of
those oracles, as well as from the nature of the thing
itself, that they were all mere imposture, wholly invented
and supported by human craft, without any supernatural
aid or interposition whatsoever. He alleges, that Cicero,
speaking of the Delphic oracle, the iBost revered of any
in the heathen world, declares, that nothing was become
more contemptible, not only in his days, but long before
him ; that Demosthenes, who lived about three hundred
years earlier, afiirmed of the saiue oracle, in a public
speech to the people of Athens, that it was gained to the
interests of king Philip, an enemy to that city ; that the
Greek historians tell us how, on several other occasions,
it had been corrupted by money, to serve the views of
particular persons and parties, and the prophetess some-
times had been deposed for bribery and lewdness ; that
there were some great sects of philosophers, who, on prin-
ciple, disavowed the authority of all oracles ; agreeably to
all which Strabo tells us, that divination in general and
oracles had been in high credit among the ancients, but
in his days were treated with much contempt ; lastly, that
Eusebius also, the great historian of the primitive church,
declares, that there were six hundred writers among the
heathens themselves who had pubhcly written against the
reality of them.
Plutarch alleges two reasons for the ceasing of oracles :
the one was Apollo's chagrin ; who, it seems, took it in
dudgeon to be interrogated about so many trifles. The
other was, that in proportion as the genii, or demons, who
had the management of the oracles, died, and became ex-
tinct, the oracles must necessarily cease. He adds a third
and more natural cause for the ceasing of oracles ; name-
ly, the forlorn state of Greece, ruined and desolated by
wars ; for, hence, the smallness of the gains let the priests
sink into a poverty and contempt too bare to cover the
fraud. That the oracles were silenced about or soon after
the time of our Savior's advent, may be proved, says Dr,
Leland. in the first volume of his learned work on " The
Necessity and Advantage of Revelation," &c., from eX'
press testimonies, not only of Christian but of heathen au
thors. Lucan, who wrote his " Pharsalia" in the reign
of Nero, scarcely thirty years after our Lord's crucifixion
laments it as one of the greatest misfortunes of that age.
that the Delphian oracle, which he represents as one of the
choicest gifts of the gods, was become silent. In like
manner, Juvenal says,
Ddphis oracuia cessant.
El genus hunianu3n damnat caligo fuiuri.
Sat. vi. 554.
" Since Delphi now, if we may credit fame,
Gives no responses, and a long darlc night
Conceals the future hour from mortal sight."
GiFFORD.
Lucian says, that when he was at Delphi, the oracle gave
no answer, nor was the priestess inspired. This likewise
appears from Plutarch's treatise, why the oracles cease to
give answers, already cited ; whence it is also manifest,
that the most learned heathens were very much at a loss
how to give a tolerable account of it. Porphyry, in a pas-
sage cited from him by Eusebius, says, "the city of Rome
was overrun with sickness, jEsculapius and the rest of
the gods having withdrawn their converse with men ; be-
cause since Jesus began to be worshipped, no man had-
received any public help or benefit from the gods."
0. With respect to the origin of pagan oracles, they
were probably imitations, first, of the answers given to
the holy patriarchs from the divine presence or Shechinah,
and secondly, of the responses to the Jewish high-priest
from the mercy-seat ; for all paganism is a parody of the
true religion.
See Vandale and Fontenelle's Hist, de Orac. ; Potter's
Greek Antiquities, vol. i. b. 2, ch. 7 ; Edwards' Hist, of
Red., p. 408 ; Farmer on Mir., p. 281, 285 ; Middleton's
Examination; Enc. Brit, and .4m., article Oracle ; Tooke's
Pantheon. — Watson ; Hend. Buck.
ORAL ; delivered by the mouth ; not written. (See
Tradition.) — Hend. Buck.
ORANGEMEN ; the name given by the Irish Catholics
to their Protestant countrymen, on account of their adhe-
rence to the house of Orange. — Hend. Buck.
ORD
[891 j
ORD
ORATORY ; a name given by Christians to certain
places of religious worship.
In ecclesiastical antiquity, the term oikoi eukthioi, houses
of prayer, or oratories, is frequently given to churches in
general, of which there are innumerable instances in an-
cient Christian writers. But in some canons the name
oratory seems confined to private chajjels, or places of
worship set up for the convenience of private families, yet
still depending on the parochial churches, and differing
from them in this, that they were only places of prayer,
but not for celebrating the communion ; for if that were
at any time allowed to private families, yet, at least upon
the great and solemn festivals, they were to resort for
communion to the parish churches.
Oratory is used among the Romanists for a closet, or
little apartment near a bedchamber, furnished with a
little aUar, crucifix, &c. for private devotion. — Hend.
Buck.
ORATORY, Pkiests of the. There were wo bodies
of these ; one in Italy, the other in France.
The Priests of the Oratory in Italy had ioi .heir founder
St. Philip de Neri, a native of Florence, who, in the year
1548, founded at Rome the confraternity of the Holy Tri-
nity. This society originally consisted of but fifteen poor
persons, who assembled in the church of St. Savior, every
first Sunday in the month, to practise the exercises of
piety described by the huly founder. Afterwards their
number increasing by the addition of several persons of
distinction to the society, St. Philip proceeded to establish
a hospital for the reception of poor pilgrims, who, coming
to Rome to visit the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, were
obliged, for want of a lodging, to lie in ftie streets and at
the doors of churches. For this purpose, pope Paul IV. gave
to the society the parochial church of St. Benedict, close
by which was built an hospital so large, that in the jubi-
lee year 1600, it received four liundred and forty-four
thousand five hundred men, and twenty-five thousand five
hundred women, who came in pilgrimage to Rome.
The Priests of the Oratory in France were established
on the model of those in Italy, and owe their rise to cardi-
nal Berulle, a native of Cliampagne, who resolved upon
this foundation in order to revive the splendor of the ec-
clesiastical state, which was greatly sunk through the mi-
series of the civil wars, the increase of heresies, and a
general corruption of manners. To this end he assembled
a community of ecclesiastics, in 1611, in the suburb of St.
James. They obtained the king's letter patent for their
establishment ; and, in 1G13, pope Paul V. approved this
congregation, under the title of the Oratory of Jesus.
This congregation consisted of two sorts of persons ;
the one, as it were, incorporated ; the other only associates :
the former'governed the houses of this institute ; the latter
were only employed in forming themselves to the life and
manners of ecclesiastics. And this was the true spirit of
this congregation, in which they taught neither human
learning nor theology, but only the virtues of the ecclesi-
astical life. It nevertheless contained the philosopher
Malebranche, the orientalist Morin, and the celebrated
critic, Richard Simon. — Hend. Buck.
ORDER; method; the regular process of performing
a thing. Nothing can be more beautiful in religion aud
morals than order. The neglect of it exposes us to the
inroads of vice, and often brings upon us the most per-
plexing events. Whether we consider it in reference to
ourselves, our families, or the church, it is of the greatest
importance.
As to the first, order should be attended to as it respects
our principles, (Heb. 13: 9. James 1: 8.) our tempers,
(Prov. 17: 14. Eph. 4: 31.) our conversation, (Col. 4: 6.)
our business, (Prov. 22: 29.) our time, (Ps. 90: 12. Eccles.
3: 1.) our recreations, and our general conduct, Phil. 1:
27. 2 Pet. 1: 5, &c.
2. As it regards our families, there should be order as
to the economy or management of its concerns, (Matt. 12:
2.5.) as to devotion, and the time of it, (Jos. 24: 15.) as to
the instruction thereof, Eph. 6: 1. Gen. 18: 19. 2 Tim.
1:5.
3. In respect to the church, order should be observed as
10 the admission of members, (2 Cor. 6: 15.) as to the ad-
mmistration of its ordinances, (1 Cor. 14: 33, 40.) as to
the attendance on its worship, (Ps, 27: 4.) as to our beha-
vior therein. Col. 1: 10. Matt. 5: 10.
To excite us to the practice of this duty, we should con-
sider that God is a God of order ; (1 Cor. 14: 33.) his works
are all in the exactest order; (Eph. 1: 11. Ps. 104: 25.
Eccl. 3: 11.) heaven is a place of order, Rev. 7: 9. Jesus
Christ was a most beautiful example of regularity. The
advantages of order are numerous. " The observance of
it," says Dr. Blair, " .serves to correct that negligence which
makes us omit some duties, and that hurry and precipi-
tancy which makes us perform others imperfectly. Our
attention is thereby directed to its proper objects. We
follow the straight jiath which Providence has pointed out
to us ; in the course of which all the difi'erent business of
life presents itself regularly to us on every side." Ser.,
vol. ii. p. 23 ; Works of Hannah More. — Hend. Buck.
ORDERS, by way of eminency, or holy orders, de-
note a character peculiar to ecclesiastics, whereby they
are set apart for the ministry. This the Romanists make
their sixth sacrament. In no reformed church are theie
more than three orders, viz., bishops, priests, and deacons.
In the Romish church there are seven, exclusive of the
episcopate ; all which the council of Trent enjoins to be
received and believed on pain of anathema. They are
distinguished into petty or secular orders, and major or
sacred orders. Orders, the petty or minor, are four, viz.,
those of door-keepers, exorcist, reader, and acolyth. Sa-
cred, or major, are deacon, priest, and bishop. — Hend.
Buck.
ORDERS, (Religious,) are congregations or societies of
monasteries, living under the same superior, in the same
manner, and wearing the same habit. Religious orders
may be reduced to five kinds, viz., monks, canons, knights,
mendicants, and regular clerks. White order denotes the
order of regular canons of St. Augustine. Black order
denotes the order of St. Benedict. Orders, religious mili-
tary, are those instititted in defence of the failh, and pri-
vileged to say mass, and who are prohibited marriage, &c.
Of this kind are the knights of Malta, or of St. John of
Jerusalem. Such also were the knights templars, the
knights of Calatrave, of St. Lazarus, Teutonic knights,
&c. — Hend. Buck.
ORDINANCE ; an institution established by lawful au-
thority. Religious ordinances must be instituted by the
great institutor of religion, or they are not binding: minor
regulations are not properly ordinances. Ordinances once
established are not to be varied by human caprice, or
mutability.
Human ordinances, estiiblished by national laws, may
be varied by other laws, because the inconveniences aris-
ing from them can only be determined by experience.
Yet Christians are bound to submit to these institutions,
when they do not infringe on those established by divine
authority ; not only from the consideration, that if every
individual were to oppose national institutions, no society
could subsist ; but by the tenor of Scripture itself. Never-
theless, Christianity does not interfeie with political rights,
but leaves individuals, as well as nations, in full enjoy
ment of whatever advantages the constitution of a coun-
try secures to its subjects.
The course of nature is the ordinance of God ; its laws
are but " the ordinances of heaven ;" and every planet
obej's that impulse which the divine Governor has im-
pressed on it, Jer. 31: 36. — Calmer.
ORDINANCES OF THE GOSPEL, are institutions
of divine authority relating to the worship of God ; such
as baptism, IMatt. 28: 19. 2. The Lord's supper, 1 Cor.
11: 24, kc. 3. Public ministry, or preaching and reading
the word, Rom. 10: 15. Eph. 4: 13. Blark 16: 15. 4.
Hearing the gospel, Mark 4: 24. Rom. 10: 17. 5. Public
prayer," 1 Cor. 14: j5, 19. Matt. 6: 6. Ps. 5: ], 7. 6.
Singing of psalms. Col. 3: 16. Eph. 5: 19. 7. Fasting,
James 4: 9. Matt, 'a: 15. Joel 2: 12. 8 Solemn thanks-
giving, Ps. 50: 14. 1 Thess. 5: IS. See these differenl
articles ; also Means of Grace. — Hem!. Buck.
ORDINARY ; in the common and canon law, one who
has ordinary or immediate jurisdiction in ecclesiastical
matters. In England, the bishop of the diocese is com-
monly the ordinary. The ordinary of assizes and sessions
was formeriy a deputy of the bishop, appomted to give
0 R D
L 892
raalelaclors the neck-verbe; i. e. llie veiae which was
read by a party to entitle him to the benefit of clergy.
The ordinary of Newgate is a clergyman who attends on
condemned culprits. — Heiid. Buck.
ORDINATION ; the act of conferring holy orders ; of
initiating a person into the ministry, or of publicly recog-
nising the relation which has been entered into, by mutual
agreement, between a minister and a church.
In the church of England, ordination has always been
esteemed the principal prerogative of bishops, and they
still retain the function as a mark of their spiritual sove-
reignty in their diocese. Without ordination, no person
can receive any benefice, parsonage, vicarage, &;c. A
person must be twenty-three years of age before he can be
ordained deacon, or have any share in the ministry ; and
twenty-four before he can be ordained priest, and by that
means be permitted to administer the holy communion.
A bishop, on the ordination of clergymen, is to examine
them in the presence of the ministers, who, in the ordina-
tion of priests, hut not of deacons, assist him at the impo-
sition of hands ; but this is only done as a mark of assent,
not because it is thought necessary. In case any crime,
as drunkenness, perjury, forgery, &c., is alleged against
any one that is lo be ordained either priest or deacon, the
bishop ought to desist from ordaining him. The person
to be ordained is to bring a testimonial of his life and doc-
trine to the bishop, and lo give account of his faith in
Latin ; and both priests and deacons are obliged to sub-
scribe to the thirty-nine articles. In the Romish discipline
there was no such thing as a vague and absolute ordina-
tion ; but every one was to have a church, whereof he was
to be ordained clerk or priest. In the twelfth century they
grew more remiss, and ordained without any title or be-
nefice. The council of Trent, however, restored the an-
cient discipline, and appointed that none should be or-
dained but those who were provided with a benefice ;
which practice still obtains in England. The times of
ordination are the four Sundays immediately following
the Ember weeks ; being the second Sunday in Lent, Tri-
nity Sunday, and the Sundays following the first Wednes-
day after September 14, and December 13. These are
the stated times ; but ordination may take place at any
other time, according to the discretion of the bishop, or
circumstances of the case.
2. The reformed generally held the call of the people the
only thingessential to the validity of the ministry ; and teach
that ordination is only a ceremony, which renders the call
more august and authentic. Accordingly the Protestant
churches of Scotland, France, Holland, Switzerland, Ger-
many, Poland, Hungary, Denmark, &c. have no episcopal
ordination. For Luther, Cahdn, Bucer, Melancthon, kc,
and all the first reformers and founders of these churches,
who ordained ministers among them, were themselves
presbyters, and no other. And though in some of these
churches there are ministers called superintendents, or
bishops, yet these are only prinii inter pares, the first
among equals; not pretending to any superiority of orders.
Having themselves no other orders than what either pres-
byters gave them, or what was given them as presbyters,
they can convey no other to those they ordain. On this
ground the Protestant Dissenters plead that their ordi-
nation, though not episcopal, is the same with that of all
the illustrious Protestant churches abroad ; and object,
that a priest ordained by a popish bishop should be re-
ceived into the church of England as a valid minister,
rightfully ordained ; whilst the orders of another, ordained
by the most learned religious presbyter which any foreign
country can boast, are pronounced not valid, and he is
required to submit to be ordained afresh. In opposition
lo episcopal ordination, they urge that Timothy was or-
dained by the laying on of the hands of the presbytery ;
(1 Tim. 4: 14.) that iPaul and Barnabas were ordained by
certain prophets and teachers in the church of Antioch,
and not by any bishop presiding in that city ; (Acts 13: 1 —
3.) and that it is a well-known fact, that presbyters in the
church of Alexandria ordained even their own bishops for
more than two hundred years in the earliest ages of Chris-
tianity. They farther argue, that bishops and presbyters
are in Scripture the same, and not denominations of dis-
tinct orders or offices in the church, referring lo Philip. 1:
ORD
1. Tit. 1: 5, 7. Acts 20: 27, 28. 1 Pet. 5: 1, 2. To the
same purpose they maintain that the superiority of bishops
to presbyters is not pretended to be of divine, but of hu-
man, institution ; not grounded on Scripture, but only
upon the custom or ordinances of this realm, by the first
reformers and founders of the church of England ; nor by
many of its most learned and eminent doctors since. See
StUhngfleeVs Irenicum, in which the learned author affirms
and shows this to be the sentiment of Cranmer, and other
chief reformers both in Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth's
reign, of archbishop Whitgift, bishop Bridges, Lee, Hook-
er, Sutcliff, Hales, Chillingworth, &c. Moreover, the
book entitled the " Institution of a Christian Man," sub-
scribed by the clergy in convocation, and confirmed by
parliament, owns bishops and presbyters by Scripture to
be the same. Besides, the Protestant Dissenters think it
strange, that the validity of orders and ministrations
should be derived, as some have contended, from a suc-
cession of popish bishops ; bishops of a church, which, by
the definition of the nineteenth article of the church of
England, can be no part of the true visible church of
Christ, and bishops, likewise, who consider the Protestan
clergy, although ordained by Protestant bishops, as mere
common unconsecrated laymen.
3. Among dissenters, ordinations vary. In the esta-
blishment of Scotland, where there are no bishops, the
power of ordination is lodged in the presbytery. Among
the Wesleyan Methodists, the ordination of their minis-
ters is in the annual conference, with a president at its
head, and is by prayer without imposition of hands.
Among the Calvimstic Methodists, ordination is perform'
ed by the sanction and assistance of their own ministers.
Among the Independents and Baptists, the power of ordi-
nation lies in the suffrage of the people. The qualifica-
tions of the candidate are first known, tried, and approved
by the church. After which trial, the church proceeds to
give him a call to the ministry ; which he accepting,
the public acknowledgment thereof is signified by ordi-
nation, the mode of which is so well known as not to
need recital here.
4. Though the dissenters practise ordination, we find
they are not agreed respecting it. Some contend for the
power of ordination as belonging to the people ; the exer-
cise of which right by them constitutes a minister, and
confers validity on his public ministrations. Others sup-
pose it belongs to those who are already in office. We
shall here give an outline of the arguments on both sides.
According to the former opinion, it is argued that the
word ordain was originally equal to choose or appoint ; so
that if twenty Christians nominated a man to instruct
them once, the man was appointed or ordained a preacher
for the time. The essence of ordination lies in the volun-
tary choice and call of the people, and in the voluntaiy
acceptance of that call by the person chosen and called ;
for this affair must be by mutual consent and agreement,
which joins them together as pastor and people. And
this is to be done among themselves ; and pubhc ordina-
tion, so called, is no other than a declaration of that
Election and ordination are spoken of as the same ; the
latter is expressed and explained by the former. It is
said of Christ, that he ordained twelve ; (Mark 3: 14.) that
is, he chose them to the office of apostleship, as he him-
self explains it, John 6: 70. Paul and Barnabas are said
lo ordain elders in every church, (Acts 14: 23.) or to choose
them ; that is, they gave orders and directions to every
church as to the choice of elders over them : for sometimes
persons are said to do that which they give orders and di-
rections for doing ; as Moses and Solomon, with respect to
building the tabernacle and temple, though done by others ;
and Moses particularl)' is said to choose the judges,
(Exod. 18: 25-.) the choice being made under his direction
and guidance. The word that is used in Acts 14: 23, is
translated chosen in Cor. 2: 8, 19, where the apostle speaks
of a brother, {cheirotonetheis,) mho ivas chosen of the churches
to travel mth us, and is so rendered when ascribed to God,
Acts 10: 41. This choice and ordination, in primitive
times, was made two ways ; by casting lots and giving
votes, signified by stretching out of hands. Matthias was
chosen and ordained to be an apostle in the room of Judas
by casting lots : that, being an extraordinary office, re-
ORD
[ 893 J
OKI
quired an immediate inlerposilion of the Divine Being, a
lot being nothing more nor less than an appeal to God for
the decision of an affair. But ordinary officers, as elders
and pastors of churches, were chosen and ordained by the
votes of the people, expressed by stretching out their
hands ; thus it is said of the apostles : (Acts 14: 23.) When
they had ordained them elders in every church, (cheiroto-
tiesantes,) by taking the suffrages and votes of the mem-
bers of the churches, shown by the stretching out of their
hands, as the word signifies ; and which they directed
them to, and upon it declared the elders duly elected and
ordained.
Some, however, on this side of the question, do not go
so far as to say, that the essence of ordination lies in the
choice of the people, but in the solemn and public separa-
tion to oSice by prayer : still, however, they think that
ordination by either bishops, presbyters, or any superior
character, cannot be necessary to make a minister or
ordain a pastor in any particular church ; for Jesus Christ,
say they, would never leave the subsistence of his
churches, or the efficacy of his word and sacraments, to
depend on the uninterrupted succession of any office or
officer ; for then it would be impossible for any church to
know whether they ever have had any authentic minister;
for we could never be assured that such ordinations had
been rightly transmitted through seventeen hundred years.
A whole nation might be corrupted, and every bishop and
elder therein might have apostatized from the faith, as it
was in England, in the days of popery. To say, there-
fore, that the right of ordaining lies in men who are al-
ready in office, would drive us to hold the above-mentioned
untenable position of uninterrupted succession.
On the other side it is observed, that, although Chris-
tians have the liberty of choosing their own pastor, yet
they have no power or right to confer the office itself.
Scripture represents ordination to be the setting apart of
a per.son to the holy ministry, by the authority of Jesus
himself acting by the medium of men in office ; and this
solemn investing act is necessary to his being lawfully
accounted a minister of Christ. The original word (Acts
6: 3.) is katastesomen, which, according to Scapula, and the
best writers on the sacred language, signifies to put one
in rule, or to give him authority. Now, did this power
lodge in the people, how happens it that in all the epistles,
not a single word is to be found giving them any directions
about constituting ministers ? On the other hand, in the
epistles to Timothy and Titus, who were persons in office,
we find particular instruction given them to lay hands
suddenly on no man, to examine his qualifications before
they ordain him, and to take care that they commit the
office only to faithful men, who shall be able to teach
others also, Tit. 1: 5. 2 Tim. 4: 14. Acts 14: 23. Besides,
it is said, the primitive Christians evidently viewed this
matter in the same light. There is scarcely a single ec-
clesiastical writer that does not expressly mention ordina-
tion as the work of the elders, and as being regarded as a
distinct thing from the choice of the people, and subse-
quent to it.
Most of the foregoing remarks apply chiefly to the sup-
position that a person cannot be ordained in any other
way than as a pastor over a church. But here, also, we
find a difference of opinion.
On the one side it is said, that there is no Scripture au-
thority whatever for a person being ordained without
being chosen or nominated to the office of a minister by a
church. Elders and bishops were ordained in eveiy
church, not mthout any church. To ordain a man origi-
nally, says Dr. Campbell, was nothing else but in a solemn
manner to assign him a pastoral charge. To give him no
charge, and not to ordain him, were perfectly identical.
On the other side it is contended, that from these words,
" Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every
creature ; and, lo, I am with you always, even unto the
end of the world," it is evident that missionaries and itine-
rants must be employed in the important work of the
ministry ; that as such cannot be ordained over any par-
ticular church, there cannot be the least impropriety in
ordaining them for the church universal. Allowing that
they have all those talents, gifts, and grace, that constitute
a minister in the sight of God, who will dare say they
should not be designated by their brethren for l„ . admi-
nistration of those ordinances Christ has appointed in the
church ? Without allowing this, how many thousands
would be destitute of these ordinances ? Besides, these
are the very men whom God in general honors as the first
instruments in raising churches, over which stated pastors
are afterwards fixed. The separation of Saul and Barna-
bas, say they, was an ordination to missionary work, in-
cluding the administration of sacraments to the converted
heathen, as well as public in.struction. Acts 13: 1, 3. So
Timothy was ordained ; (1 Tim. 4: 14. Acts 16: 3.) and
there is equal reason, by analogy, to suppose that Titus
and other companions of Paul were similarly ordained,
without any of them having a particular church to take
under his pastoral care. So tliat they appear to have been
ordained to the work of the Christian ministry at large.
On the supposition, however, that they are instrument;;;
in forming a Christian church, they have no right to a.s-
sume the pastoral office without the consent of the mem-
bers ; and in order to their sustaining that office .scriptu-
rally, they must be publicly recognised and designated to
it. Their original designation did not, and could not in-
vest them with any such office. It merely recognised
their appointment to the missionary work generally.
When the pastor of a church resigns his charge, his
pastoral relation and characler to all intents and pur-
poses ceases. He cannot with the smallest degree of
reason or consistency go to any other church, and claim
to exercise the pastoral functions among them, (they
consenting thereto,) on the ground that he had been
publicly ordained to the office over the church which he
had left. The case is quite parallel with that of the mat-
rimonial connexion. Because a man has been once mar-
ried, he is not on this ground lo imagine that he may
lawfully cohabit with another woman, without previously
having the marriage relationship between them recog-
nised. The notion of an indelible official character derived
from ordination lo the pastoral functions, is a relic of that
corruption of primitive truth and simplicity, which for
ages overspread the Christian world, and from which we
still are far from being delivered by the Protestant Refor-
mation, and the light which has been thrown on such sub-
jects since that important epoch. See articles EnscorACY;
Imposition of Hands ; Independents ; and Ministerial
Call, in this work ; Jamas Onren's Pica for Scripture Ordi-
nation ; Doddridge's Tracts, vol. ii. pp. 253 — 257; Dr.
On-en's True Nature of a Gospel Church, pp. 78, 83 ; Bre-
kell's Essay on Ordination ; Watts' Rational Foundation of a
Christian Church, sec. 3 ; Dr. Cnmphell's Lectures on Ecclesi-
astical History, vol. i. p. 345; Gill's Body of Divinity, vol.
iii. p. 216, 8vo ed. ; Theological Magazine for 1802, pp.
33, 90, 167; Ewing's Remarks on Dick's Sermon, preached
before the Edinburgh Missionary Society, in 1801 ; Chap-
lin's Serm. 1816; Allen's Dudleian Lecture; Dn'ight's The-
ology; Fuller's IVorks. — M'alson ; Hend. Buck.
ORIENTAL PHILOSOPHY. The system which en-
deavors to explain the nature and origin of all things by
the principle of emanation from an eternal fountain of
being. (See Maui.)
Those who professed lo believe the Oriental philosophy,
were divided into three leading sects, which were subdi-
vided into others. Some imagined two eternal principles,
from whence all things proceeded : the one presiding ovei
light, the other over matter; and, by their perpetual con-
flict, explaining the mixture of good and evil that appears
in the universe. Others maintained, that the being which
presided over matter was not an eternal principle, but a
subordinate intelligence ; one of those which the Supreme
God produced. They supposed, that this being was
moved by a sudden impulse to reduce to order the rude
mass of matter which lay excluded from the mansions of ■
the Deity, and at last to create the human race. A third
sect entertained the idea of a triumvirate of beings, in
which the Supreme Deity was distinguished both from
the material evil principle, and from the Creator of this
sublunary world .
From blending the doctrines of the Oriental philosophy
with Christianity, the Gnostic sects, which were so nume-
rous in the first centuries, derive their origin. Other de-
nominations arose, which aimed to unite Judaism with
ORI
[ &04
O R T
Christianity. Many of ihe pagan philosophers, who were
converted to the Chi'islian religion, exerted all their art
and ingenuity to accommodate, ihe doctrines of the gospel
to their own scliemes of philosophy. In each age of the
church new systems were introduced, till, in process of
time, we find the Christian world divided into that variety
of heretical sentiment which is exhibited in these pages.
31osheim's Eccl. Hist., vol. ii. pp. 83—85 ; EiiJkJcVs Phi-
los., vol. ii. pp. 136 — 140. — Williams.
ORIGEN, one of the fathers of the church, v,'as born,
in 185, at Alexandria, and studied philosophy under Am-
monius, and theology under Clemens Alexandrinus.
Being persecuted by his diocesan Demetrius, he went !o
CtEsarea, and afterwards to Athens. During the persecu-
tion of Decius, he was imprisoned and tortured. He died
in 253. His great works are, the Hexapla ; Commenta-
ries on the Scriptures ; and a treatise against Celsus. (See
next article.) — Davenport.
ORIGENISTS ; the professed followers of Origen, a
Christian father of the second century, a man of great
talents, and a most indefatigable student; but having a
strong attachment to the Platonic philosophy, and a natu-
ral turn to mystical and allegorical interpretations, he
thereby greatly corrupted the simplicity of the gospel.
Three circumstances, however, render it very difficult to
ascertain exactly what his real sentiments were. 1. Being
a man of unquestionable talents and high character, his
genuine works were interpolated, and others written under
his name, in order to forge his .sanction to sentiments, of
which possibly he never heard. 2. There was another
Origen in the following age, (Lardner's Credibility, part ii.
vol. iii.) of much inferior fame, a disciple of Ammonias
Saccas, (see Ahmonians,) and possibly the true founder of
this sect, which certainly did not arise till after the death
of the first Origen. 3. Origen had many enemies, who
probably attributed to him various things which he did
not believe, in order either to injure his fame or bring his
character under censure. The following are, however,
the sentiments attributed to this sect, some of which were
unquestionably held by him, though others were, no
doubt, superadded, ehher by mistake or design.
1. A pre-existent state of human souls, prior to the
Mosaic creation, and perhaps from eternity ; which souls
were clothed with ethereal bodies suited to their original
dignity. (See Pke-existents.)
2. That souls were condemned to animate mortal bo-
dies, in order to expiate faults they had committed in a
pre-existent state ; for no other supposition appeared to
liim sufficient to account for their residence in these gross
ni.iterial bodies. See John 9: 2, 3.
3. That the soul of Christ was created before the begin-
ning of the world, and united to the Divine AVord in a
state of pristine glory. See Phil. 2; 5—7. This text, he
thought, must be understood of Christ's human soul, be-
cause it is unusual to propound the Deity as an example
of humility in Scripture.
4. That at the resurrection mankind will be again
clothed with ethereal bodies : for the elements of our ter-
restrial composition are such as most fatally entangle us
in vice, passioij, and misery. The purer the vehicle the
soul is united with, the more perfect is her life and opera-
tions. Besides, he who made all things assures us, he
made them good at first ; and, therefore, his recovery of
us to out lost happiness (which is the design of the gos-
pel) must restore us to far better bodies. See 1 Cor. 15:
42. 2 Cor. 5; 1.
5. That after long periods of time, the damned tliem-
selves shall be released from their torments, and restored
to a new state of probation : for the Deity has such re-
serves in his gracious providence, as will vindicate his
sovereign goodness and wisdom from all disparagenient.
Though sin has extinguished, or silenced the divine life,
yet it has not destroyed the faculties of reason and under-
standing, consideration and memory, which will serve the
life which is most powerful. If, therefore, the vigorous
attraction of the sensual nature be abated by a ceaseless
pain, these powers may resume the seeds of a better life
and nature. (See Universal Restohationists.)
6. That the earth, after its conflagration, shall become
habitable again, and be the mansion of men and other
animals, and that in eternal vicissitudes. See Heb. 1: 10
— 12, where, speaking both of the heavens and earth, the
inspired writer says, " as a vesture shalt thou change
them, and they shall be changed," &c. The fashion of the
jvorlil passes amaij like a turning scene, to exhibit a fresh
and new representation of things ; and if only the present
dress and appearance of things go off, the substance is
supposed to remain entire. (See Millenahians.)
Origen is also charged with Arianism ; and it must be
acknowledged, that his expressions were not always cor-
rect : yet the orthodox will by no means give him up, but
impute those expressions, either to the corruption of here-
tics, or to his unhappy defect of judgment. " Had the
justice of his judgment (says Mosheim) been equal to
the immensity of his genius, the fervor of his piety, his
indefatigable patience, his extensive erudition, and his
other eminent and superior talents, all encomium must
have fallen short of his merits." Mosheim's Eccl. Hist.,
vol. i. pp. 245, 270—278 ; Turner's Hist., pp. 106—111 ;
Robinson's Sib. Repos., 1834. — ]Villiams.
ORIGINAL SIN. (See Fall ; Sm.)
ORIGIN OF EVIL. (See Sin.)
ORION ; a constellation in the heavens just before the
sign Taurus. Chesil signifies, according to the ancient
Hebrews, that star of the second magnitude which astro-
nomers call the scorpion's heart. It appears at the begin-
ning of the autumnal equinox, and forebodes cold or
frost. Virgil calls it Nimbosus Orion. It also marks the
west. Hence the LXX. on Job 9: 9, and Theodotion on
Amos 5: 8, translate it vespenim. — Calmet.
ORMUZD ; Ihe good principle of the Magi, whose
symbol was light, and who was the author of all good.
(See Magi.)— //c«rf. Buck.
OROBIO, (Dr. Isaac ;) a learned Spanish physician,
who being maliciously accused of Judaism by a Moorish
servant, was seized by the papal inquisition, and after
being imprisoned three years, was subjected to six diffe-
rent modes of most exquisite torture. These may be
found at large described by Fox, in his Book of Blartyrs.
Orobio lay seventy days before his wounds were healed.
He was afterwards banished, and in his exile wrote and
published an account of his sutl'erings. — Fox, p. 137.
OROSIUS, (Paul,) a Spanish ecclesiastic of the fifth
century, was born at Tarragona, and was a disciple of St.
Augustine. The place and time of his decease are un-
known. His chief work is a History of Human Calami-
ties, in seven books, which was written at the request of
St. Augustine, and has had the honor of being translated
by Alfred the Great. — Davenport.
ORPAH ; a Moabitess, wife of Chilion, son of Elime-
lech and Naomi. (See Ruth.) — Calmet.
ORPHAN. The customary acceptation of the word
orphans, is well known to be that of '= children deprived
of their parents ;" but the force of the Greek word orpha-
nous, (rendered comfortless in our translation, John 14: 18.)
implies the case of those who have lost some dear pro-
tecting friend ; some patron, though not strictly a father :
and in this sense it is used, 1 Thess. 2: 17 : " We also,
brethren, being taken away from our care over you,"
aporphanisthentes. Corresponding to this import of the
word, it might be used by our Lord in the passage of
John's gospel. — Calmet.
ORTHODOXY ; (from orthos, right, and doxa, opinion ;)
soundness of doctrine or opinion in matters of religion.
The doctrines which are generally considered as orthodox
among us, are such as were generally professed at the
time of the Reformation, viz. the fall of mau, regeneration,
atonement, repentance, justification by free grace, 4:c.
Some have thought that, in order to keep error out of
the church, there should be some human form as a stan-
dard of orthodoxy, wherein certain disputed doctrines
shall be expressed in such determinate phrases as may be
directly levelled against such errors as shall prevail from
time to lime, requiring those especially who are to he
public teachers in the church to subscribe or virtually to
declare their assent to such formularies. But, as Dr.
Doddridge observes, 1. Had this been requisite, it is pro-
bable that the Scriptures would have given us some such
formularies as these, or some directions as to the manner
in which they should be drawn up, proposed, and received.
ORT
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2. It is impossible that weak and passionate men, who
have perhaps been heated in the very controversy thus
decided, sliouUi express themselves with greater propriety
than the apostles did. 3. It is plain, in fact, that this
practice has been the cause of great contention in the
Christian church, and such formularies have been the
grand engine of dividing it, in proportion to the degree in
which they have been multiplied and urged. 4. This is
laying a great temptation in the way of such as desire to
undertake the office of teachers in the church, and will be
most likely to deter and afflict those who have the great-
est tenderness of conscience, and therefore (being equal
in other respectsj best deserve encouragement. 5. It is
not likely to answer the end proposed, viz. the preserving
an uniformity of opinion ; since persons of Utile integrity
may satisfy their consciences, in subscribing what they
do not at all believe as articles of peace, or in putting the
most unnatural sense on the words. And whereas, in
answer to all these inconveniences, it is pleaded, that
such forms are necessary to keep the church from heresy,
and it is better there should be some hypocrites under
such forms of orthodoxy, than that a freedom of debate
and opinion should be allowed to all teachers ; the answer
is plain, that when any one begins to preach doctrines
which appear to those who attend upon him dangerous
and subversive of Christianity, it will be time enough to
proceed to such animadversion as the nature of his error
in their apprehension will require, and his relation to
them will admit. These remarks however are not appli-
cable to the use of simple confessions or declarations of
faith, the object of whiclvis to ascertain and promote Chris-
tian fellowship. The design of these is of course only to
state the sense in which we interpret and understand the
word of God. See Establishment ; and Subscription ;
Doddridge's Lectures, lee. 171 ; Walls' Orhodoxy mid Cha-
rity United ; Fuller's Works ; Works of Robert Hall ; Dun-
can and Miller on the Utiliti/ of Creeds. — Hend. Buck.
ORTLIBENSES ; an "heretical branch of the ancient
Waldenses, who denied the Trinity and the resurrection,
and were evidently grossly ignorant of the Scriptures.
Broughton's Did., from Gilles' History of the Waldenses. —
Williams.
ORTON, (Job,) author of the " Exposition of the Old
Testament," was born at Shrewsbury, in 1717. To his
parents, who were the patrons of piety and good men, he
was indebted for early instruction in the Christian faith,
and imbibed from them the principles of pure religion.
In his native town, he acquired a considerable portion of
cleissical learning. In his sixteenth year, he was put
under the tuition of Dr. Charles Owen, of Warrington,
who had usually with him a few young men designed for
the work of the ministry. In 1734, he was sent to Dr.
Doddridge's academy, at Northampton ; and after going
through the ordinary course of studies, he was, in 1739,
appointed assistant to the doctor in his academical labors,
and discharged the duties of his office with singular abili-
ty, prudence and success. In 1741, he was taken from
this situation to his native town, by the united voices of
the Presbyterian and Independent congregations, which
ji-ned to receive him as their pastor. On Dr. Doddridge's
decease, he was pressingly invited to succeed him in the
academy and congregation ; but this, as well as a call to
succeed Dr. Hughes in London, (a place which he never
•saw,) he declined, and continued his labors at Shrews-
bury. Before old age arrived, the nervous complaints
Mith which he was frequently troubled, made him con-
ceive himself unable to continue longer in the pastoral
office ; and, in 1765, while he was but in his forty-eighth
year, he resigned his charge. His infirmities gradually
increased, and his sufferings becoming at last exceedingly
acute, terminated in death, in July, 1783, in the sixty-
sixth year of his age.
Few men were more diligent than Mr. Orton, or more
conscientious in performing the various duties of his
office. He spoke the language of his heart, when he di-
rected the ministers, who were to preach his funeral ser-
mon, in the following words : — •" Let them assure my
hearers, that serving them in all their interests, especially
their best, was the delightful business of my life, and that
all my time and studies were directed tliis way." To the
end of his life, his heart was set on doing good ; and when
he had ceased to preach, conversation, letters, plans of ser
mons, were sent to his friends, and every private method
in his power was resorted to. With the same view, he
published books ; viz. " Discourses on Eternity, on Zeal, on
Christian Worship ;" " IMcditations for the Sacrament;"
and several volumes of Sermons. — His " Life of Pr. Dodd-
ridge," which is one of the most useful books to a Si^dent
and a minister, had been published before. The preacher
who has not read it has much pleasure to enjoy, and much
benefit to receive. His " Exposition of the Old Testa-
ment," in six vols, on the plan of Dr. Doddridge's Expo-
sition of the New, was not published till after his death
Jihtir' Chris. Biog.
OSIANDRIANS ; a denomination among the Luther-
ans, which was founded in the year 1550, by Andrew
Osiander, a celebrated German divine, whose doctrine
amounted to the following propositions: —
1. That Christ, considered in his human nature only,
could not by his obedience to the divine law obtain justi-
fication and pardon for sinners ; neither can we be justi-
fied before God by embracing and applying to ourselves,
through faith, the righteousness and obedience of the man
Christ. It is only through that eternal and essential
righteousness which dwells in Christ, considered as God,
and which resides in his divine nature, unite4 to the
human, that mankind can obtain complete justification.
2, That a man becomes a partaker of this divine right-
eousness by faith, since it is in consequence of this uniting
principle that Christ dwells in the heart of man with his
divine righteousness. Now, wherever this divine right-
eousness dwells, there God can behold no sin ; therefore,
when it is present with Christ in the hearts of the rege-
nerate, they are, on its account, considered by the Deity
as righteous, although they be sinners. Moreover, this
divine and justifying righteousiirss of Christ excites the
faithful to the pursuit of holiness, and to the practice of
virtue. — Hend. Buck.
OSSENIANS ; a denomination in the first century,
which taught that laith may and ought to be dissembled.
—Hend. Buck.
OSPREY ; (azaniah ;) a kind of eagle, whose flesh is
forbidden, Lev. 11: 13. It is thought to be the black
eagle, perhaps the Nisser Tookoar described by Bruce. —
Calmet.
OSSIFRAGE ; (percs.) Lev. 11: 13. Deut. 14: 12. In-
terpreters are not agreed on this bird ; some read " vul-
ture," others " the black eagle," others " the falcon."
The name peres, by which it is called in Hebrew, denotes
"to crush, to break ;" and this name agrees with our ver-
sion, which implies " the bone-breaker," which name is
given to a kind of eagle, from the circumstance of ils
habit of breaking the bones of ils prey, after it has eaten
the flesh : some say also, that he even swallou s the bones
thus broken. Onkelos uses a word which signifies
" naked," and leads us to the vulture : indeed, if we were
to take the classes of birds in any thing like a natural
order in the passages here referred to. the vulture should
follow the eagle as an unclean bird. The Sepinagint in-
0 ST
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tefpreter also renders vulture : and so do Munster, Schin-
dler, and the Zurick versions. — Watson.
OSTRICH ; joneh, in Arabic neamah, in Greek stroutho-
camelos. the camel-bird, and still in the East, says Niebuhr,
it is called thar edsjammel, "the camel-bird," Lev. 11: 16.
Deut. 14: 15. Job 30: 29. Isa. 13: 21. 34: 13. 43: 20. Jer.
50: 39. Lam. 4: 3. Mic. 1: 8 ; re,mim, Job 39: 13. The
first name in the places above quoted is, by our own
translators, generally rendered " owls." But it should be
recollected, says the author of " Scripture Illustrated," that
the owl is not a desert bird, but rather resides in places
not far from habitations, anl that it is not the companion
of serpents ; whereas, in several of these passages, the
joneh is associated with deserts, dry, extensive, thirsty de-
serts, and with serpents, which are their natural inhabi-
tants. Our ignorance of the natural history of the coun-
tries which the ostrich inhabits has undoubtedly perverted
the import of the above passages ; but let any one peruse
them afresh, and exchange the owl for the ostrich, and he
will immediately discover a vigor of description, and an
imagery much beyond what he had formerly perceived.
The Hebrew phrase, bat haiainah, means " the daughter
of vociferation," and is understood to be the female os-
trich, probably so called from the noise which this bird
makes. It is affirmed by travellers of good credit, that
ostriches make a fearful, screeching, lamentable noise.
Ostriches are inhabitants of the deserts of Arabia,
where they live chiefly upon vegetables ; lead a social and
inoffensive life, the male assorting with ihe female with
connubial fidelity. Their eggs are very large, some of
them measuring above five inches in diameter, and
weighing twelve or fifteen pounds. These birds are very
prolific, laying forty or fifty eggs at a clutch. They will
devour leather, grass, hair, stones, metals, or any thing
that is given to them ; but those substances which Ihe
coats of the stomach cannot act upon pass whole. It is
so unclean an animal as to eat its own ordure as soon as
it voids it. This is a sufficient reason, were others want-
ing, why such a fowl should be reputed unclean, and its
use as an article of diet prohibited.
" On the least noise," says Dr. Shaw, "or trivial occa-
sion, she forsakes her eggs, or her young ones ; to which
perhaps she never returns ; or if she does, it may be too
iaie either to restore life to the one, or to preserve the
lives of the others. Agreeably to this account the Arabs
meet sometimes with whole nests of these eggs undisturb-
ed : some of them are sweet and good, others are addle
and corrupted ; others again have their young ones of
ditTerent growth, according to the time, it may be presum-
ed, they have been forsaken of the dam. The Arabs often
meet with a few of the little ones no bigger than well-
grown pullets, half starved, straggling and moaning about
like so many distressed orphans for their mother. In this
manner the ostrich may be said to be hardened against
her young ones as though they were not hers ; her labor,
in hatching and attending them so far, being vain, without
fear, or the least concern of what becomes of them after-
wards. This want of affection is al.so recorded : (Lam. 4:
3.) 'the daughter of my people is become cruel, like os-
triches in the wilderness ;' that is, by apparently deserting
their own, and receiving others in return." Natural
affection and sagacious instinct are the grand instruments
by which providence continues the race of other animals :
biU no limits can be set to the wisdom and power of God.
He preserveth the breed of the ostrich without those
means, and even in a penury of all the necessaries of
life.
Notwithstanding the stupidity of this animal, its Crea-
tor hath amply provided for its safety, by endowing it
with extraordinary swiftness, and a surprising apparatus
for escnping from its enemy. They, when they raise
themselves up for flight, " laugh at the horse and his
rider." They afford him an opportunity only of admiring
at a distance the extraordinary agility and the stateliness
likewise of tlieir motions, the richness of their plumage,
and the great propriety there was in ascribing to them an
expanded quivering wing. Nothing certainly can be
more entertaining than such a sight, the wings, by their
rapid but unwearied vibrations, equally serving them for
sails and oars ; while their feet, no less assisting in con-
veying them out of sight, seem to be insensible of fatigue.
— Watson.
OTHNIEL ; sou of Kenaz of Judah, Josh. 15: 17.
Scripture says, Othniel was brother to Caleb, (Judg. 1: 13.)
meaning, probably, near relations, as cousins ; for it is
not likely they were literally brothers, since Othniel mar-
ried the daughter of Caleb. See Judges 3 ; also Achsah.
— Calmet.
OUCHES ; beazils, or sockets for fastening the precious
stones in the shoulder pieces of the high-priest's ephod.
These ouches, with their stones, served for buttons to fasten
the golden chains by which the breastplate was suspend-
ed, Exod. 28: 11, 25.— ^rraiw.
OVEN. (See Baking ; and Breah.)
OWEN, (John, D. D.,) a divine of such eminence as to
eclipse all the regal honors of his ancient house, was bom
in 1616, at Stadham, Oxfordshire. His father, descended
from the royal line of Wales, was a Puritan minister.
An early proficiency in elementary studies admitted John
Owen to the university when only twelve years of age.
Here he pursued his academical labors with unquencha-
ble ardor, allowing himself only four hours' sleep in a
night ; though he afterwards confessed, that his sole sti-
mulus to mental exertion was the ambitious hope of rising
to some distinguished station in church or state. How
often has the eye of Omniscience seen this odious mildew
sprinkled over the academic laurels of those who have
shone with envied lustre in the world !
Mr. Owen would, doubtless, have carried his point, had
not God in mercy convinced him of the sin of aiming at
his own glory, called him off from his former pursuits,
and induced him to consecrate his future life, with all his
talents, to the honor of God and the improvement of his
church. This rendered him averse to the superstitious
rites which Laud was then introducing into the univer-
sity ; and thus alienated from him all his former friends,
who fled from him as one infected with Puritanism ; a dis-
ease, in their eyes, more dreadful than the plague ; so
that he was at length obliged to leave the college. He
was thus thrown into the hands of the parliamentary
party, which so incensed his uncle, who had supported
him at the imiversity, that he forever abandoned him,
and settled his estate upon another person.
Mr. Owen, now cast upon the providence of God, went
to live with a gentleman as his chaplain ; btu he, though
the friend of this Puritan, being a zealous loyalist, went
into the king's army, and thus left his chaplain once more
to seek a maintenance. He went to London, where he
was a perfect stranger, and had to struggle through his
temporal difficulties with the additional burden of a trou-
bled spirit ; for after he first discovered the evil of sin, this
towering genius, who had been the admiration of the uni-
versity, was so broken down that, for three months, he
could hardly speak a word to any one ; and, for five years,
Ihe anguish of his mind embittered his life. Under this
burden, he went, one Lord's day, to hear the Rev. Mr.
Calamy, at Alderraanbury church ; but, after waiting
some time, a country minister, of whom he could never
afterwards receive the least information, ascended the
pulpit, and preached from Matthew 8: 26 : " Why are ye
fearful, O ye of little faith !" which happily removed all
his doubts, and introduced him to the enjoyment of that
sacred peace which, without interruption, blessed all his
future days.
His " Display of Arminianism" introduced him to
notice and esteem. Induced by the merits of this per-
formance, the committee for ejecting scandalous ministers
presented him to the living of Fordham, in Essex, where
he labored for a year and a half to the great satisfaction
and advantage of the parishioners. But the patron of
Ihe living removed him from it, which gave the inhabit-
ants of Coggeshall, about five miles distant, an opportunity
to invite him to become their minister; and as the earl of
Warwick, the patron, gave him the living, he consented,
and preached to a very judicious congregation of two
thousand persons, with great success. Here his researches
into the Scriptures induced him to abandon the Presbyte-
rian system of church government, and to adopt the prin-
ciples of the Independents ; so that he not only formed a
Congregational church, upon the plan which appeared to
OWE
[ 897 ]
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him to tc dictated by Christ, in the New Testament, but
became the mos^t able vindicator of those sentiments
which so much prevailed among Dissenters.
His name, like a rich perfume, could not be concealed,
so that he was now called to preach before the parliament ;
and on the 29th of April, 1616, delivered to them a dis-
course on Acts 2(i: 2. It was a bold and energetic appeal
to the wisdom and benevolence of the legislature, in be-
half of those parts of the empire which were destitute of
the light of evangelical instruction. Those who are only
acquainted with the general strain of Dr. Owen's writings,
would not suppose him capable of pouring forth that
flood of lucid, glowing, popular eloquence, which is dis-
played in this sermon. The day after the death of
Charles I. he was called to the difficult task of preaching
before the parliament again ; when he chose for his text
Jer. 15: 19, 20. Wisdom and fidelity joined to compose
this discourse. 5Ir. Owen shortly after attended Crom-
well to Ireland, where he presided in the college, and
preached in Dublin upwards of a year and a half. He
returned to his charge at Coggesball, but was soon called
to preach again at Whitehall, and afterwards to go into
Scotland. The house of commons at length presented
him to the deanery of Christ church, Oxford, and soon
after he was made doctor in divinity, and chosen vice-
chancellor in the university, which honorable post he
filled, with singular wisdom and prudence, during five
j-ears.
Thus, in the short space of ten years, we are called to
witness the most complete revolution in his affairs ; and
after having seen him persecuted for his conscientious
dissent from the church of his fathers, shunned by his
former friends, disowned by his relations, disappointed of
a good estate, driven from his college, cast upon the wide
world, called to struggle with adversity, under the depres-
sion of a wounded conscience, which consumed his mental
and corporeal vigor, we now behold him in the enjoyment
of a peace " which passeth all understanding," exulting
in the return of elasticity of mind, w'ith health of body,
filling the kingdom with the fame of his literary and reli-
gious eminence, introduced to the esteem of the highest
characters and authorities in his country, and exalted to
the first post which the church of England then knew, by
presiding over that university from which he had sepa-
rated. History has seldom furnished a more effectual
antidote against despondency in adverse circumstances,
or a more animated exhortation to follow conscience and
principle, wherever they may appear to lead.
Dr. Conant being elected vice-chancellor, Dr. Owen took
his leave of the university with an address, which pre-
sents a singularly beautiful combination of the jealousy
which a learned and laborious man feels for his honest
fame, with the humility of a Christian, absorbed in the
honor and inieresls of his God. The fortunes and pros-
pects of the university, when first it fell into the hands of
the parliament party, are finely depicted, while the im-
provements which had been made during the five years of
his chancellorship are hinted at with much delicacy. He
now retired to his own private estate at Stadham, his
birthplace ; but the persecution, which followed the resto-
ration, compelled him to take refuge in London, where he
published his '• Animadversions on a Popish Book, entitled
Fiat Lux ;" which recommended him to the esteem of
chancellor Hyde. This celebrated man informed the doctor,
that " he had deserved the best of any English Protestant
of late years, and that the church was bound to own and
advance him," at the same time offering him advance-
ment if he would accept it ; expressing his surprise that a
man of such talents and literature should adopt the novel
opinion of Independency. Owen offered to prove that the
Christian church knew no other system of ecclesiastical
polity for several ages after Christ, against any bishop
whoiri his lordship should appoint to argue the question
with him. (See Independents.)
This learned man, however, not finding himself com-
'ortable in England, was about to accept the invitation
from the Independents in New England, to preside over
the collese they were establishing, but he w.is stopped by
particular orders from the king; and when he was invited
to fill the chair of professor of divinity in ihe United Pro-
113
vinces, love for his runntry induced him to waive the
honor. He set up a lecture in Lonclon, as soon as king
Charles' indulgence rendered ft practicable ; and while
many eminent citizens resorted to his oral instruction, the
books which he from time to time published gained him
the admiration and esteem of the learned and the great,
among w'hom are particularly mentioned the earls of
Orrery and Anglesey, lords WiUoughby, Wharton, and
Berkeley, and Sir John Trevor. The duke of York and
king Charles II. sent for him, and conversed with him
concerning the Dissenters and liberty of conscience, which
the king declared was right ; and, as a testimony of his
sense of the injustice done to the persecuted, gave the doc-
tor a thousand guineas to be distributed among the suf-
ferers. When he applied to his tutor. Dr. Barlow, bishop
of Lincoln, in behalf of good John Bunyan, who was en-
during a long and cruel imprisonment, the bishop declined
releasing the worthy Baptist, though he had given the In-
dependent an assurance, -'that he would deny him no-
thing that he could legally do." His learned labors pro-
cured him the acquaintance and esteem of many eminent
foreigners ; some of whom took a voyage to England to
converse with this distinguished Briton ; while others,
having read his Latin treatises, learned the English lan-
guage, that they might be able to read the rest of his
works ; which, indeed, are sufficiently valuable to repay
the labor of acquiring the most difficult language which
has been spoken since the confusion of tongues.
When, exhausted by his excessive exertions of body and
mind, he was unable to preach, he retired to Kensington,
near London ; but even here he was incessantly writing,
whenever he was able to sit up. He afterwards removed
to a house of his own at Ealing; where, eiuploying his
thoughts on the glories which were now opening upon his
view, he composed his "Meditations on the Glory of
Christ." Writing to a friend, at this time, he says, "I
am going to him whom my soul has loved, or rather who
has loved me with an everlasting love, which is the whole
ground of all my consolation. I am leaving the ship of
the church in a storm, but whilst the great Pilot is in it,
the loss of a poor under-rower will be inconsiderable.
Live and pray, and wait and hope patiently, and do not
despond ; the promise stands invincible, that he will
never leave us nor forsake us." He died on Bartholo-
mew day, 24th of August, 1683, in the sixty-seventh year
of his age.
He is described as tall in his person, with a grave, ma-
jestic, and comely a.spect, and the air and deportment of a
gentleman. He is said to have been very pleasant and
cheerful in his social intercourse, having a great command
of his passions, especially that of anger ; but in his writ-
ings, the irritation of those contentious days sometimes
appears. Even Anthony Wood was compelled to ac-
knowledge, that " he was a person well skilled in the
tongues, rabbinical learning, and Jewish rites ; that he
had a great command of his English pen, and was one of
the fairest and genteelest writers that appeared agiinst
the church of England." His knowledge of ecclesiasiical
history and polemical theology was profound. The acu-
men with which he detected the most specious, and the
force with which he crushed the most formidable heresies,
were, if possible, still surpassed by the accuracy with
which he stated iind explained the most profound discove-
ries of revelation, and the sanctity with which he directed
every truth to the purification of the heart, and the reicu-
latioii of the life. In his " Exposition of-lhe Hundred and
Thirtieth Psalm," he has developed the wise and benevo-
lent purpose of God, in the mental conQicts which the au-
thor endured, and proved himself qualified thereby to
guide the trembling steps of the returning sinner to the
God of pardon ; while his treatises " On the Mortification
of Sin in Believers." '-On Spiritual Mindeduess." and
" On the Glory of Christ," prove him equally fined to
guide the Christian in his more advancej stages, and to
show him how " to finish his course with joy, sn ns to ob-
taiu an abundant entrance into the everlasting kingdom
of our Lord Jesus Christ." But bis grand work is his
" Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews." To this, the
studies of his life were more or less directed : and, thougii
this epistle mav safely be pronounced the most di:ticuit oi
PAC
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all the didactic books of Scripture, no part of the sacred
writings has received so perfect an elucidation in the Eng-
lish, or perhaps in any otirer language.
This extraordinary man was as much beyond his age
in political as in theological science ; for he not only defend-
ed the doctrine of toleration, while it was most cruelly vi-
olated by the Stuarts ; but when the Presbyterians were
in the plenitude of their power, he addressed to the par-
liament a discourse in favor of this truly Christian and
divine doctrine ; in which he went on as large and gene-
rous principles as Mr. Locke afterwards did. Following
Roger Williams, he has triumphantly proved that the Mo-
loch, which had shed the blood of so many myriads of
saints, founds its. boasted rights upon a cloud.
But that which crowns the name of Owen with most
resplendent and imperishable honors, is, that possessing
a handsome estate, and laboring in the noblest employ-
ments of a literary life, he did not feel himself exempt
from the duty of preaching the gospel amidst the dangers
and inconveniences of persecution ; but delivered, with a
simple, engaging eloquence, those divine truths from
which he derived the solace of his days, and which he
adorned by an unblemished life.
His works in folio are, " The Exposition of the Epistle
to the Hebrews," in four volumes ; " The Perseverance
of Saints ;" " A Treatise on the Holy Spirit ;" and a vo-
lume of Sermons and Tracts. Twenty-one publications
in quarto, devoted either to the vindication of the Chris-
tian doctrines, or to tlie defence of independent churches.
In octavo, there are thirty pieces, some of them of con-
siderable extent, and several of very distinguished excel-
lence. The whole have lately been reprinted in twenty-
eight volumes octavo. See Orme^s Life of Owen ; Bague
and Bennett's History of the Dissenters ; and Janes! Chris.
Biog. — Hend. Buck.
OWEN, (Henry,) a learned divine of the church of
England, was bom in 1716. He was educated at the
grammar-school of Ruthin, in Denbighshire, whence he
was removed to Jesus college, Oxford. His attention was
priinarily directed towards the medical profession ; but,
changing his purpose, he took orders, and, after various
preferments, became rector of St. Olave, Hart street, and
vicar of Edmonton, in Middlesex. He was a learned man,
and died in the year 1795, at the age of seventy-nine.
His works are, " Harmonia Trigonometrica ;" " The In-
tent and Propriety of the Scripture Miracles ;" " Observa-
tions on the Four Gospels ;" " Directions to Students in
Divinity ;" "Inquiry into the State of the Septuagint Ver-
sion of the Old Testament ;" " Critica Sacra ; or, a Short
Introduction to Hebrew Criticism ; " CoUatio Codicis Cot-
toniani Geneseos, cum editione Romana a viro clarissimo
Johanne Ernesto Grabe," deemed the most ancient manu-
script in Europe ; " Critical Disquisitions;" "The Modes
of Quotation used by the Evangelical Writers." Nichols'
Literorij Anec. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
OWEN, (John,) secretary of the British and Foreign
Bible society, was born, about 1765, in London, and was
educated at St. Paul's school and Cambridge. Having
taken orders, he became a popular preacher, and obtained
from bishop Porteus the living of Paggleshaui, in Essex,
and the curacy of Fulham. On the institution of the
British and Foreign Bible society, he became one of the
secretaries, and for eighteen years was the most active
of its members. He died September 26, 1822. Among
his works are, Travels in different Parts of Europe ; The
Christian Monitor ; The Fashionable World displayed ;
and a Vindication of the Bible Society. — Davenport.
OWL. There are several varieties of this species,
all too well known to need a particular description.
They are nocturnal birds of prey, and have their eyes
better adapted for discerning objects in the evening or
twilight than in the glare of day,
1. Cus, (Lev. U: 17. Deut. 14: 16. Psalm 102: 6.) is m
our version rendered "the little owl." I>r. Geddes thinks
this bird the cormorant ; and as it begins the list of water-
fowl, and is mentioned always in the same contexts with
gnat, confessedly a water-bird, his opinion may be
2. Inshuph, Lev. 11: 17. Deut. 14: 16. Isa. 34: 11. In
the two first places our translators render this " the great
owl," which is strangely placed after the little owl, and
among water-birds. " Our translators," says the author
of " Scripture Illustrated," "seem to have thought the
owl a convenient bird, as we have three owls in two ver
ses." Some critics think it means a species of night-bird,
because the word may be derived from nesheph, which sig-
nifies The twilight, the time when owls fly about. But this
interpretation, says Parkhurst, se«ms very forced ; and
since it is mentioned among water-fowls, and the I.XX.
have, in the first and last of those texts, rendered it by
ilris, we are disposed to adopt it here, and think the evi-
dence strengthened by this, that in a Coptic version of Lev.
11: 17, it is called ip or hip, which, with a Greek termina
tion, would very easily make ibis.
3. Qttepun, which occurs only in Isa. 34: 15, is in our
version rendered " the great owl." 4. Silit, (Isa. 34: 14.)
in our version "the screech-owl." The root signifies
night ; and as undoubtedly a bird frequenting dark places
and ruins is referred to, we must admit some kind of
owl.
A place of lonely desolation, where
The screectling tribe and pelicans abide,
And the dun ravens croaic mid niins drear,
And moaning owls from man tlie farltiest liide-
Watson.
OX ; ( hequer ;) the male of horned cattle of the beeve
kind, at full age, when fit for the plough. Younger ones
are called bullocks. Michaelis, in his elaborate work on
the laws of Moses, has proved that castration was never
practised.
The rural economy of the Israelites led them to value
the ox as by far the most important of domestic animals,
from the consideration of his great use in all the opera-
tions of farming. In the patriarchal ages, the ox consti-
tuted no inconsiderable pWtion of their wealth. Thus
Abraham is said to be very rich in cattle, Gen. 24: 35.
]\Ien of every age and country have been much indebted
to the labors of this animal. For many ages the hopes
of oriental husbandmen depended entirety on their labors.
This was so much the case in the time of Solomon, that
he observes, in one of his proverbs, " Where no oxen are,
the crib is clean," or rather empty ; " but much increase
is by the strength of the ox," Prov. 14: 4. The ass, in
the course of ages, was compelled to bend his stubborn
neck to the yoke, and share the labors of the ox ; but still
the preparation of the ground in the time of spring de-
pended chiefly on the more powerful exertions of the
latter.
When this animal was employed in bringing home the
produce of the harvest, he was regaled with a mixture of
chaflT, chopped straw, and various kinds of grain, moisten-
ed with acidulated water. But among the Jews, the ox
was best fed when employed in treading oirt the corn ; for
the divine law, in many of whose precepts the benevolence
of the Deity conspicuously shines, forbade to muzzle him,
and, by consequence, to prevent him from eating what he
would of the grain he was employed to separate from the
husks. The ox was also compelled to the labor of drag-
ging the cart or wagon. The number of oxen common-
ly yoked to one cart appears to have been two, Num. 7:
3, 7, 8. 1 Sam. 6: 7. 2 Sara. 6: 3, 6.
The wild-ox, (tail, Deut. 14: 5.) is supposed to be the
oryx of the Greeks, which is a species of large stag. —
Watson ; Calmet ; Abbott ; Carpenter ; Dr. Harris.
P.
PACIFICATION, (Edicts of ;) certain edicts of the stances, the reformed religion. The first was granted by
sovereigns o"" France, tclerating, under certain circum- Charles IX., 1562, and repeated next year at Amboise,
PAG
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[AG
and again five years after in the edict of Lonjumeau ;
but six months after the latter, they were all revoked, and
all Protestant ministers were banished. In 1570, he again
made peace with them, and yet in two years after ordered
the Parisian massacre, and took part in the slaughter.
Such are the tender mercies of tyrants.
In 157fi, Henry III. made peace with the Protestants by
r.uch an edict, which so displeased the Guissian faction,
that they formed a league in defence of popery, and oblig-
ed him to revoke it. In 1598, Henry IV. published the
famous edict of Nantes, which, being confirmed by Louis
XIII. and Louis XIV., was finally destroyed, in 1685, by
the latter, who was the glory of despotism and of France !
jDrimghton's Diet. — M^dlisnis.
PADAN-ARAM; the plains of Aram. (See Auam, and
SIesopotamia.) — Calmet.
PjEDOBAPTISM; {(mm pais, a child, and bnptixo, to
immer.'se:;) the baptism of children. (See Baptism.)
P.EDOBAPTISTS ; those who practise the baptism
of children, irrespective of personal faith. (See Bap-
tism.)
PAGANISM ; the religious worship and discipline of
pagans, or the adoration of idols and false gods. (Sen
Pagans.) The theology of the pagans, according to them-
selves, as S '.sevola and Varro, was of three sorts.
The first iif these may well be called nvjthnhgicsl, or fa-
bulous, 05 ti eating of the theology and genealogy of their
deities, in which they say such things as are unworthj' of
di-ity; ascrising to them thefts, murders, adaltede-s, and
all'manner nf crimes; and therefore this kind of theology
is condemnei by the wiser sort of heathens as nugatory
and scandah us. The writers of this sort of theology were
Sanchoniathii, the Phoenician ; and of the Grecians, Or-
pheus, Hesiod, Pherecyde, &c.
The second sort, called physical, or natural, was studied
and taught by the philosophers, who, rejecting the multi-
filicity of gods, introduced by the poets, brought their the-
wlogy to a more natural and rational form, and supixjsed
!.hat there was but one Supreme God, which the}' coni-
inonly make to be the sun ; at least, an emblem of him,
liut at too great a distance to mind the affairs of the world ;
nnd therefore devised certain demons, which they consi-
dered as mediators between the Supreme God and man ;
and the (doctrines of these deninns, to which the apostle is
thought to allude in 1 Tim. ■!: 1, were what the philoso-
phers had a concern with, and who treat of their nature,
.-■ISce, and regard to men; as did Thates, Pythagoras,
Plato, and the Stoics.
The third sort, called political, or civil, was instituted
by legislalors, statesmen, and politicians- the first amon"
the Romans was Nu na Pomp 1 u» th s diieflj re | 1
their gods, temples altars sacr hces, and r t of w !•
and was properly their idolatry, the care of which belojp
ed to the priests ; and this was enjoined the common peo
pie, to keep them in obedience to the civil state.
Thus things continued in the Gentile world until the
light of the gospel was sent among them: the limes be-
fore were times of ignoranr.e, as the apostle calls them :
they were ignorant of the true GoH, and of the worship
of him; and of the Messiah, and salvation by hira. Their
state is truly described, (Eph. 2; 12.) that they were then
" without Christ ; aliens from the commonwealth of Isra-
el; strangers from the covenants of promise; having no
hope, and without God in the world ;" and, consequently,
their theology was insufficient for their salvation.
The rites of paganism were as various and absurd as
the objects of their worship. In general, they had some
idea of the necessity of an atonement for their sins ; and
that " without shedding of blood there is no remission."
In many cases, and on all emergencies, they were appre-
hensive that the sacrifice must be, at least, of equal digni-
ty with the sinner; and hence, among many nations, both
ancient and modern, from the worshippers of Moloch to
the South Sea Islanders, the practice (.sometimes carried
to great enormity) of human sacrifices, which have stain-
ed the altars of almost all the nations upon earth.
The peculiarities of many nations and systems have
been already noticed in these pages, and others are to fol-
low.
One thing is very remarkable, that as the heathen be-
came more refined, they became more idolatrous. St.
Paul says, "The world by wisdom knew not God;"(l
Cor. 1: 21.) and it is most certain that their science never
led to the unity of God ; inuch less to rational notions of
our duty to God, or love to our fellow-creatures, as such
considered. So soon as they began to entertain reverential
ideas of the Divine Majesty, they supposed him too great
to notice us, or for us to notice him ; and as to our fellow-
creatures, thej' always confined their love to family, tribe,
or country. They "neither feared God, nor regarded
man." (See HEATUE^f.) The reader will find some ad-
mirable reflections on the growth of heathenism among
modern Christians, in the third volume of the Rev. W.
Jones' Works. (See Heathen, Idolatrv, Polstueism,
Govs.)— Head. Buck; Williams.
PAGANS; the heathen ; so called by the early Chris-
tians, because, when Constanline and his successors for-
bade the worship of heathen deities in the cities, its ad-
herents retired to the villages, (pm^!. hence pagarti, villagers
or countrymen,) where they could practise their rites in
security. — Ilend. Buck.
PAOODA or Pagod • a name given by the East Indians
!e e [ les where they worship their gods. "The
\ ] irnnh sajs Mr Boardman, " are the mosl
prominent and expensive of all the sacred b i Id ngs
They are solid structures, built of brick, and plastered.
Some of them are gilt throughout, whence they arc called
golden pagodas.
" The largest pagoda in Tavoy is about fifty feet in di-
ameter, and perhaps one hundred an I fifty feet high. That
■which is most frequented is not so large. It stands on a
base somewhat elevated above the adjacent surface, and
is surrounded by a row of more than forty small pago-
das, about six feet high, standing on the same elevated
PAI
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PAL
Dase. In various niclics round the central are small ala-
baster images. Both the central and the surrounding pa-
godas are gilt from the summit to the base, and each one
is surrounded with an umbrella of iron, which is also
gilt. Attached to the umbrella of the central pagoda is
a row of small bells or jingles, which, when there is even
a slight breeze, keep a continual chiming. A low wall
surrounds the small pagodas, outside of which are tem-
ples, pagodas of various sizes, and other appendages of
pagoda worship, sacred trees or thrones, sacred bells to be
rung by worshippers, and various figures of fabulous
things, creatures, and persons mentioned in the Burman
sacred books. Around these is a high wall, within which
no devout worshipper presumes to tread without putting
off his shoes. It is considered holy ground. Outside this
wall are perhaps twenty Zayats, and a kyoung. The
whole occupies about an acre of ground.
" The total number of pagodas in Tavoy is immense.
Large and small, they probably exceed a thousand. Be-
fore leaving America, I used to pray that pagodas might
be converted into Christian chiu-ches. But I did not know
that they were solid monuments of brick or stone, without
any cavity or internal apartments. They can become
Christian churches only by being demolished and built
anew."
The Dagong pagoda at Rangoon is the most magnifi-
cent in Burmah. A description of it is given by Mrs.
Judson. See her Memoir, and the Cltristmn Offering.
PAIN. (See Affliction.)
PAINE, (Thomas,) a political writer and deist, was
born in Norfolk, England, in 1737 ; his father, a Quaker,
■was a sta)Tnaker. He followed the same bnstness ; and
then became an exciseman in Sussex, but was dismissed
for misconduct.
He came to Philadelphia in 1774, and in January, 1775,
he was employed by Mr. Aitken to edit the Pennsylvania
Magazine. After the war commenced, he, at the sugges-
tion of Dr. Rush, wrote his celebrated pamphlet of Com-
mon Sense, recommending independence. For this tract
the legislature of Pennsylvania v^oted him five hundred
pounds. He vras also elected by congress in April, 1777,
clerk to the committee on foreign affairs ; he chose to call
himself " secretary for foreign affairs." At this period
he wrote the Crisis. For divulging some official secrets
he lost his office in January, 1779. In 1780, he was clerk
of the assembly of Pennsylvania ; in 1785, congress voted
him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York
gave him five hundred acres of land, the confiscated es-
tate of Davol, a royalist, at New Rochelle. There was
on 1 ; a stone house, one hundred and twenty by twenty-
eight feet.
In 1787, he went to Paris and London. In answer to
Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution he wrote his
Rights of Man. In September, 1792, he was a member
from Calais of the national convention of France. Vo-
ting against the sentence on the king, he offended the ,Ia-
cobins, and in December, 1793, was thrown into prison for
eleven months. His political writings have simplicity,
force, and pungency ; his theological are shallow, slan-
derous, and obscene.
He had written the first part of his Age of Reason
against Christianity, and committed it to Joel Barlow ;
the second part was published in 1795, after his release.
At this period he was habitually drunk. He returned to
America in October, 1802, bringing with him as a com-
panion the wife of De Bonneville, a French bookseller.
having separated from his second wife. He died at Net*
York, June 8, 1809, aged seventy-two.
This unhappy unbeliever died in contempt and mise-
ry. His disgusting vices, his intemperance and pro-
fligacy, made him an outcast from all respectable society.
He is represented as irritable, vain, cowardly, filthy, envi-
ous, malignant, dishonest, and drunken. In the distress
■ of his last sickness he frequently called out, " Lord Jesus !
help me." Dr. Manley asked him whether, from his cal-
ling so often upon the Savior, it was to be inferred thai
he believed the gospel. He replied at last, " I have no
wish to believe on that subject." Mr. Cheetham publish-
ed an account of his life. — Aliens Erskine ; Fuller'^
Wmhs.
PAINTING THE FACE, 2 Kings 9: 30. (See Eyes.)
PALESTINE, taken in a limited sense, denotes the
country of the Philistines or Palestines ; which was that
part of the Land of Promise extending along the Mediter-
ranean sea, from Gaza south to Lydda north. Palestine,
taken in a more general sense, signifiesthe whole country
of Canaan, as well beyond, as on this side, Jordan :
though frequently it is restrained to the country on this
side that river : so that in later times the words Judea
and Palestine were synonymous. We find also the name
of Syria Palestina given to the Land of Psomise, and
even sometimes this province is comprehended in Coele-
Syria, or the Lower Syria. Herodotus is the most ancient
writer known who speaks of Syria Palestina. He places
it between Phosnicia and Egypt. (See Canaan.) — Calmei.
PALEY, (William, D. D.,) an eminent divine, the son
of a clergyman, was born, in 1745, at Peterborough, and
was educated, as a sizer, at Christ college, Cambridge, ol
which he became a fellow in 1766. For ten subsequent
years he resided at the university ; but in 1776, he obtain-
ed the vicarages of Dalston, in Cumberland, and Appleby,
m Westmoreland. Within the next nine years he became
a prebendary, archdeacon, and chancellor of Carlisle.
In 1785, he published his " Principles of Moral and Po^
litical Philosophy," in two volumes, octavo, with a highly
liberal dedication to his episcopal patron. This work is
said to stand unrivalled for its simplicity, and the perti-
nency of its illnstrattons, as well as for the vigor and dis-
crimination by which it is characterized ; and though ex-
ceptions have justly been made to certain definitions and
principles therein laid down, it could not fail to establish
his reputation as an author of the first class.
In 1790, Mr. Faley published his " Horae Paulinae, or
the Truth of the Scripture History of St. Paul evinced by
a Comparison of the Epistles which bear bis name with
the Acts of the Apostles, and with one another ;" which
he dedicated to Dr. Law, then bishop of Killala. It fur-
nishes a line of argument of the highest importance on
the subject of the Evidences of Christianity.
He was a great friend to the abolition of the slave-trade ;
and, in 1789, when the first great discus.sion in the house
of commons was expected, he drew up a short, but appro-
priate and judicious treatise, entitled, " Comments against
the Unjust Pretensions of Slave Dealers and Holders to
be indemnified by pecuniary Allowances at the Public
Expense, in case the Slave-Trade should be Abolished ;"
and sent it to the committee. The bishop of Durham, en-
tertaining great respect for him, presented him with the
valuable rectory of bishop Wearmouth, worth twelve thou-
sand pounds a year.
In 1794, he published his "View of the Evidences of
Christianity," inthree volumes, duodecimo, which contains
PAL
[ 901
PAL
afl able, popular view of the historical argument for the
truth of the Christian religion. It is drawn up with his
usual perspicuity and dialectic skill, and is now generally
regarded as the most complete summary on the subject
that has ever appeared.
In 1800, Dr. Paley was attacked by a violent nephralgic
complaint. During the period of this excruciating disor-
der, he finished his celebrated work, entitled " Natural
Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes
of the Deity, collected IVom the Appearances of Nature ;"
a work highly celebrated for the justness of its reflections,
and the benevolence, good sense, and piety which it
breathes. He still entered into society with his wonted
zest, and his conversation was lively and animated, pious
and devout. In December, 1804, his friends perceived his
valuable life drawing to a rapid close. He died on the
25th of May, 1805.
Among his friends, no man was more highly, or more
justly esteemed, than Dr. Paley ; and his literary attain-
ments were exceeded only by his many amiable traits of
frankness and good humor. In private life, he appears
to have exhibited very little of the gravity of the philoso-
pher, being fond of company and amusement. As a writer.
Dr. Paley was less solicitous to delight the ear than to inform
the understanding ; yet few authors have written so pleas-
ingly on similar subjects ; and there is, both in his con-
ceptions and language, a peculiarity of manner which
marks the native vigor of his mind. After his death, a
volume of his sermons was published in octavo, and his
entire works have been repeatedly published in various
forms, in four, five, or six volumes. Life hy Meadleij ;
Jones^ Chris. Biog.^Hend. Buck ; Davenport.
PALM ; a measure of four fingers' breadth, or three
inches and six hundred and forty-eight thousandths, Heh.
Tophach, Exod. 25: 25. The Heb. Zereth, (Exod. 28: 1(3.)
is often translated paltn, though it signifies a half-cubit, and
contains three ordinary palms ; which ought to be observed,
that two measures so unequal may not be confounded.
We find in Isa. 40: 12, an expression that proves the Ze-
reth, or palm, to signify the extent of the hand from the
end of the thumb to the end of the little finger : " Who
hath measured the waters in the hollow of his hand, and
meted out heaven with a span?" a zereth. — Calmet.
PALMER, (Ei.mu,) a preacher of deism, was gradua-
ted at Dartmouth college in 1787. He was the head of the
Columbian Illuminati, a deistical company at New York,
established about 1801, consisting of ninciy-five members.
Its professed aim was lo promote " moral science," against
rehgious and political imposture. The Temple of Reason
was a weekly paper, of which the principal editor was
one Driscoll, an Irishman, who had been a Romish priest,
and who removed with his paper to Philadelphia. Mr.
Palmer delivered lectures, or preached against Christiani
ty. But, according to Mr. Cheetham, he was " in the small
circle of his church more priestly, more fulminating,"
than Laud and Gardiner of England ; " professing to
adore reason, he was in a rage if any body reasoned with
him." He was blind from his youth. He died three
years before Paine, at Philadelphia, in March, 1806, aged
forty-two. He published an Oration, July 4, 1797 ; The
Principles of Nature, IS02.— Allen.
PALMER-WORM. Bochart is of opinion that the He-
brew gezem is a kind of locust, furnished with very sharp
teeth, with which it gnaws off grass, corn, leaves of trees,
and even their bark. The Jews support this idea, by de-
riving the word from giiz, or gazaz, to cut, to shear, to
mince ; and Pisidas compares a swarm of locusts lo a
sword with ten thousand edges.- But notwithstanding this,
the LXX. rea.Akampe, and the Vulgate eruca,or caterpillar,
which rendering is supported by Fuller and Michaelis
Caterpillars also begin their ravages before locusts, which
seems to coincide with the nature of the creature here in-
tended : " That which the palmer-worm haih left hath the
locust eaten ; and that which the locust halh left hath the
canker-worm eaten ; and that which the canker-worm halh
left halh the caterpillar eaten," Joel 1: 1. — Calmet.
PALM-SUNDAY J the Sunday next before Easter ; so
called from palm branches being strewed on the road by
the multitude, when our Savior made his triumphal entry
into Jerusalem. — Hcnd. Buck.
PALM-TREE. This tree is called tainar, from its
straight, upright growth, for which it seems more remark-
able than any other tree : it sometimes rises to the height
of a hundred feet.
The palm is one of the most beautiful trees of the ve-
getable kingdom. The stalks are generally full of rug-
ged knots, which are the vestiges of the decayed leaves : and becomes ligneous. To this bark the leaves are close-
for the trunk is not solid like other trees, but its centre is ly joined, which in the centre rise erect ; but after ihey are
filled with pith, round which is a tough bark full of strong advanced above the vagina that surrounds tbem, they ex-
fibres when young, which, as the tree grows old, hardens pand very tvide on every side the stem ; and as the older
PAL
[ 902 ]
PAN
leaves decay, the stalk advances in height. The leaves,
when the tree has grown to a size for bearing fruit, are six or
eight feet long ; are very broad when spread out, and are
used for coverip.g the tops of houses, and similar purposes.
The fruit, which is called " date," grows below the
leaves in clusters ; and is of a sweet and agreeable taste.
The diligent natives, says Mr. Gibbon, celebrated, either
in verse or prose, the three hundred and sixty uses to
which the trunk, the branches, the leaves, and the fruit
were skilfully applied. The extensive importance of the
dale-tree, says Dr. Clarke, is one of the most curious sub-
jects to which a traveller can direct his attention. A con-
siderable part of the inhabitants of Egypt, of Arabia, and
Persia, subsist almost entirely on its fruits. They boast
also of its medicinal virtues. Their camels feed upon the
date stone. From the leaves they make couches, baskets,
bags, mats, and brushes ; from the branches, cages for
their poultry, and fences for their gardens ; I'rom the fibres
of the houghs, thread, ropes, and rigging ; from the sap
is prepared a spirituous liquor ; and the body of the tree
furnishes fuel : it is even said, that from one variety of
the palm-tree, the "phoenix farinifera," meal has been ex-
tracted, which is found among the fibres of the trunk, and
has been used for fuel.
The palm-tree arrives at its greatest vigor about thirty
years after transplantation, and continues so seventy
years afterwards, bearing yearly fifteen or twenty clusters
of dates, each of them weighing fifteen or twenty pounds.
After this period, it begins gradually to decline, and usu-
ally falls about the latter end of its second century. " To
be exalted," or " to flourish like the palm-tree," are as
just and proper expressions, suitable to the nature of this
plant, as " to spread about hke a cedar," Psal. 92: 11.
The root of the palm-tree produces a great number of
suckers, which, spreading upward, form a kind of forest.
It was under a little wood of this kind, as Calmet thinks,
that the prophetess Deborah dwelt between Ramah and
Bethel, Judg. 4: 5. And probably to this multiplication
of the palm-tree, as he suggests, the prophet alludes, when
he says, " The righteous shall flourish like a palm-tree,"
(Psal. 92: 12. comp. Psal. 1: 3.) rather than to its tower-
ing height, as Dr. Shaw supposes.
Palm branches were also used as emblems of victory,
both by believers and idolaters. The reason given by
Plutarch and Aulus Gellius, why they were so among the
latter, is the nature of the wood, which so powerfully re-
sists incumbent pressure. But, doubtless, believers, by
bearing palm branches after a victory, or in triumph,
meant to acknowledge the Supreme Author of their suc-
cess and prosperity, and to carry on their thoughts to the
great conqueror over sin and death. Comp. 1 Mac. 13: 51.
2 Mac. 10: 7. John 12: 13. Rev. 7: 9.
This tree was formerly of great value and esteem
among the Israelites, and so very much cultivated in Ju-
dea, that, in after times, it became the emblem of that
country, as may be seen in a medal of the emperor Ves-
pasian upon the conquest of Judea. It represents a
captive woman sitting under a palm-tree, with this inscrip-
tion, " /«(/cn capln f^ and upon a Greek coin, likewise, of
his son Titus, struck upon the like occasion, we see a
shield suspeni'i-d upon a palm-tree, with a victory writing
upon it. Pliny also calls Judea po^mi's iiiclyfa, " renowned
for palms." Jericho, in particular, was called "the city
of palms," (Deut. 31: 3. 2 Chron. 28: 15.) because, n's
Josp'hus, Strabo, and Pliny have remarked, it anciently
abounded in palm-trees.
As the Greek name for this tree signifies also the fabu-
lous bird, called the phcenix, some of the fathers have
supposed that the Psalmist (92: 12.) alludes to the 1 Mier,
and on his authority have made the phcenix an eiiihh m
of a resurrection. Tertullian calls it a full and striking
emblem of this hope. But the tree, also, seems to have
been considered as emblematical of the revivification of
the huinan body, from its being found in some burial-
places in the East. In the colder climate of England,
the yew-tree is substituted in its place. — Calmet ; Watson,
PALSY ; a disorder which deprives the limbs of sen-
sation or motion, or both, and makes them useless to the
patient. AVhen one entire side of the body is affected, it is
called hemiplegia. If one half of the body, the upper or
lower, it is called paraplegia. If confined to a single limb
or set of muscles, it is called simply paralysis.
It is only in the slighter degrees of palsy in which me-
dical aid can hope to afford much relief In general
there is little prospect of a cure. The parts deprived of
motion and sense, gradually waste and become withered.
When it is a consequence of apoplexy, it ends in death,
though the patient may linger for years. Imbecility of
mind usually attends it ; nor is this to be wondered at,
since in all cases its iminediate cause is a compression on
the brain. (See Medicine.)
Our Savior cured several paralytics by his word alone.
See Matt. 4: 24. 8: G. 9: 2. Mark 2: 3, 4. Luke 5: 18.
The sick man who was lying near the pool at the sheep-
market for thirty-eight years was a paralytic, John 5: 5.
— Calmet ; Thomas^ Domestic Medicive.
PAMPHILUS, a Christian martyr under Galeriu.s, was
a native of Phoenicia, of such extensive learning that he
was called a second Origen. He was received into the
body of the clergy at Csesarea, where he established a li-
brary, and lived in the practice of every Christian virtue.
He copied most of the works of Origen with his own
hand; and, assisted by Eusebius, gave a correct copy of
the Old Testament, which had suffered greatly from the
ignorance or negligence of former transcribers. He like-
wise gave lectures on literary and religious subjects in an
academy established by him for that purpose, until A. D.
307, when he was apprehended and carried before Urban,
the governor of Palestine. Urban, having in vain en-
deavored to turn him to paganism, ordered him to be tor-
tured severely, and to be imprisoned ; which was accor-
dingly done. He was afterwards beheaded. — Fox, p. 56.
PAMPHYLIA ; a province of Asia Minor, having
Cilicia east, Lycia west, Fisidia north, and the Mediterra-
nean south. It is opposite to Cyprus, and the sea between
the coast and the island is called the sea of Pamphylia.
The chief city of Pamphylia was Perga, where Paul and
Barnabas preached, Acts" 13- 13. 14: 21.— Calmet.
PARCRATIUS, or Panchass, a Christian martyr, born
at Phrygia, was beheaded at Rome, in the persecution un-
der Galerius. — Fox, p. 56.
PANDECTS ; properly a juridical term, signifying a
complete collection or digest of laws. It was used, how-
ever, by Papias, as a denomination of the Old and New
Testaments. — Hrnd. Bnr.k.
PANTALEON, a Christian martyr under Galerius,
was a native of Nicomedia. His father, from whom he
received his education, was a pagan ; his mother, a Chris-
tian. Having applied himself to the study of medicine,
he became eminent in his profession, and was appointed
physician to the emperor Galerius. He was one of the
most benevolent of men, and succes.sful of practitioners.
His reputallon roused the jealousy of the pagan physi-
cians, who accused him to the emperor. Galerius finding
him a Christian, ordered him to be tortured, and then be-
headed, which was done, A. D. 305 —Fnx. p. 55.
PANTHEISM; a sort of philosophical atheism, which
considers the universe as an immen.se animal.
' Whose bndy na
nd God Itie soul.'
This, according to the learned Cudworth, was the sys-
tem of Orpheus and other early Greeks ; for he calls the
material world " the body of Jupiter." As, however, this
is said in verse, and all poets claim a license for idolatry ;
and more especially as considerable doubt rests upon the
authenticity of the verses a.scribed to him, others deny the
charge. But, certain it is, that the mysteries of pagan-
ism, and the secret doctrines of the philosophers, all lean-
ed this way. From this notion, also, probably arose the
(kietrine of two first pnn -.iples in the Oriental philosophy ;
PAP
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PAR
and from thence the error of the Manichseans and other
early heretics ; also the notions of the Indian Brahmins
and Chinese literati.
The system has in modern times been taken up by Spi-
nosa and Thomas Hobbes ; and whether or not Pope him-
self believed it, he has dressed it up in all the charms of
poesy, both in his Essay on Man and Universal Prayer :
nor is Thompson's "varied God" easily to be understood
on other principles. (See Sfinosaism.) Cvdjcorth^s Intel-
lectual System, book iv.ch. 17 ; Enfield's Philosopluj, yo].i.fp.
12t>-7 ; Douglas on Errors regarding Heligion. — Williams.
PAPAS; (the ancient Greek pappas, papa, father ;) the
name at present given to the priests of the Greek church :
in Russia they are called popes. In the third and fourth
centuries, the name was given to all the bishops ; but in
the ninth, it was appropriated exclusively to the four eas-
tern patriarchs. In the west, however, the bishop of
Rome determined to have the exclusive use of the title ;
but it required the iron hand of Gregory VII. to carry the
plan into effect. He assembled some Italian bishops at
Rome, in 1073, and formed them into a council, which ex-
communicated the emperor Henry, and declared that no
one had any right to the title of pope but the Roman pon-
tiff.—i/enii. Buck.
PAPER-REED; (nunut j) Exod. 2: 3. Job 8: 11. Isa.
8: 2. 35: 7. When the outer skin, or bark, is taken off,
there are several films, or inner pellicles, one within ano-
ther. These, when separated from the stalk, were laid on
a table artfully matched and flatted together, and moist-
ened with the water of the Nile, which, dissolving the
glutinous juices of the plant, caused them to adhere
closely together. They were afterwards pressed, and then
dried in the sun, and thus were prepared sheets or leaves
for writing upon in characters marked by a colored liquid
passing through a hollow reed. The best papyrus was
called liieratike, or paper of the priests. On this the sa-
cred documents of Egypt were written. Ancient books
were written on papyrus, and those of the New Testa-
ment among the rest. In the fourth century, however,
these sacred writings are found on skins. This was pre-
ferred for durabihty ; and many decayed copies of the
New Testament, belonging to libraries, were early tran,^-
ferred to parchment. Finally came paper, the name of
which was taken from the Egyptian reed ; but the ma-
terials of which it was fabricated were cotton and linen.
(See Bulrush, and Book.) — JVatson.
PAPHOS ; a celebrated city of Cyprus, lying on the
western coast of the island, where Venus (who from
hence took the name of Paphia) had her most ancient and
most famous temple ; and here the Roman proconsul,
Sergius Paulus, resided, w'hom St. Paul converted to
Christianity, Acts 13: 6. — Watson.
PAPIST ; one who adheres to the communion of the
pope and church of Rome. (See Pofe, and Popery.) —
Hetid. Buck.
PARABLE ; (paraMi, formed from parahulein, to cast
side by side, to compare ;) an illustration, or allegorical
instruction, founded on something real or apjarent in na-
ture or history, from which a moral is drawn, by com-
paring it with some other thing m which the people are
more immediately concerned. (See Allegori-.) Aristotle
defines parable, a similitude drawn from form to form.
Cicero calls it a collation ; others, a simile. F. de Colo-
nia calls it a rational fable ; but it may be founded on
real occurrences, as many parables of our Savior were.
The Hebrews call it meshel, from a word which signifies
either to predominate or to assimilate ; the Proverbs of So-
lomon are by them also called 7neshalim, parables, or pro-
verbs.
In the New Testament, the word parable is used vari-
ously : in Luke 4: 23, for a proverb, or adage ; in Matt.
15: 15, for a thing darkly and figuratively expressed ; in
Heb. 9: 9, &c., for a type ; in Luke 14: 7, Ice, for a spe-
cial instruction ; in Matt. 24: 32, for a similitude or com-
parison.
Parable, according to the eminently learned bishop
Lowth, is that kind of allegory which consists of a con
tinned narration of a fictitious or accommodated event,
applied to the illustration of some important truth. The
Greeks call these ainoi, allegories, or apologues ; the Latins,
fabula, or " fables ;" and the writings of the Phrygian
sage, or those composed in imitation of him, have acquir-
ed the greatest celebrity. Nor has our Savior himself
disdained to adopt the same method of instruction ; of
whose parables it is doubtful whether they excel most in
wisdom and utiUty, or in sweetness, elegance, and per-
spicuity. As the appellation of parable has been applied
to his discourses of this kind, the term is now restricted
from its former extensive signification to a more con-
fined sen.se. But this species of composition occurs very
frequently in the prophetic poetry, and particularly in
that of Ezekiel. If to us they should sometimes appear
obscure, we must remember, that, in those early times
when the prophetical writings were indited, it was uni-
versally the mode throughout all the eastern nations to
convey sacred truths under mysterious figures and repre-
sentations. In order to our forming a more certain judg
ment upon this subject, Dr. Lowth has briefly explained
some of the primary qualities of the poetic parables ; so
that, by considering the general nature of them, we may
decide more accurately on the merits of particular ex
amples.
It is the first excellence of a parable to turn upon an
image well known and applicable to the subject, the mean-
ing of which is clear and definite ; for this circumstance
will give it perspicuity, which is essential to every species
of allegory. If the parables of the sacred prophets are
examined by this rule, they will not be found deficient.
They are in general founded upon such imagery as is
frequently used, and similarly applied by way of meta-
phor and comparison in the Hebrew poetry. Examples
of this kind occur in the parable of the deceitful vine-
yard, (Ifa. 5: 1 — 7.) and of the useless vine ; (Ezek. 15.
19: 10 — 14.) for under this imagery the ungrateful people
of God are more than once described, Ezek. 19: 1 — 9.
31, 16, 23. Moreover, the image must not only be apt
and familiar, but it must be also elegant and beauti-
ful in itself; since it is the purpose of a poetic parable,
not only to explain more perfectly some proposition, but
frequently to give it some animation and splendor. As
the imagery from natural objects is in this respect supe-
rior to all others, the parables of the sacred poets consist
chiefly of this kind of imagery. It is also essential to
the elegance of a parable, that the imagery should not
only be apt and beautiful, but that all its parts and ap-
pendages should be perspicuous and pertinent. Of all
these excellencies, there cannot be more perfect examples
than the parables that have been just specified ; to which
we may add the well-known parable of Nathan, (2 Sam.
12: 1 — 4.) although written in prose, as well as that of
Jotham, (Judges 9: 7 — 15.) which appears to be the most
ancient extant, and approaches somewhat nearer to the
poetical form. It is a'so the criterion of a parable, that
it be consistent throug lOUt, and that the literal be never
cont unded with the fig irative sense ; and in this respect
PAR
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it maleiially ililfeis from that species of allegory calleil
the continued metaphor, Isa. 5: 1 7.
The wisdom of our Lord is therefore manifest in adopt-
ing this mode of instruction. If a degree of obscurity
attaches to it, even this is not without its uses. It is just
that kind of difficulty which is demanded by human na-
ttire, foi its trial, exercise, and improvement. It serves
to discover who love the truth, and who are indifferent to
it ; who are willing to search for it as for hid treasure,
and to lift up their voice in prayer for understanding, and
who are not. It is admirably adapted also to excite at-
Jention, to stimulate curiosity, to exercise the judgment,
and through the medium of the imagination to lodge truth
permanently in the heart.
Messrs. Ballon and Whittemore have published on the
Parables, endeavoring to explain them on Universalist
principles. It is time that a better work appeared. The
field is rich. Christian Soldier for 1833 ; Works of Han-
tiah More ; Proudfit on the Parables. — Watson.
PARABOLIANA, in the ancient Christian church,
were certain persons who employed themselves in visiting
the sick-, the nuinber of which, in the church of Alexan-
dria, amounted to five or six hundred. The Greeks ap-
plied a kindred term (paraboloi) to those who hired them-
selves out to fight with wild beasts in the amphitheatre ;
and this office was considered, especially in times of pub-
lic jicstilence, as a work of similar danger. Broughton's
Diet, from Binsham's Antiq. — Williams.
Paraclete ; an advocate or comforter; generally
applied to the third person in the Trinity, John 15: 26.
(See Holt Ghost.)— Hend. Buck.
PARADISE, according to the original meaning of the
terip, whether it be of Hebrew, Chaldee, or Persian deri-
vation, signifies " a place inclosed for pleasure and de-
light. The LXX., or Greek translators of the Old Testa-
ment, make use of the word paradise, when they speak
of the garden of Eden, which Jehovah planted at the
creation, and in which he placed our first parents. There
are three places in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament
where this word is found, namely, Neh 2: 8. Cant. 4: 13.
Eccl. 2: 5. The term paradise is obviously used in the
New Testament as another word for heaven ; by our Lord,
(Luke 23: 43.) by the apostle Paul, (2 Cor. 12: 4.) and in
the Apocalvpse, 2: 7. (See Eden, and Adam.)— Watson.
PARIBUS, (David, D. D.,) a celebrated divine and re-
former, was born Dec. 20, 1548, at Francolstein, in Silesia,
and educated at Hermsberg and Heidelberg. He entered
on his ministry in 1571, at a village called Schlettenbaeh,
which he soon exchanged for Hemsbach, in the diocese
of Worms. It was a stormy time, owing to the contests
between the papists and Protestants, Lutherans and
Calvinists, and in 1577, Parous lost his place in conse-
quence of being a sacramentarian, or Calvinist. He
went first to Frankentale, and three years after to Witzin-
gen ; but in 1584, prince Casimir made him a professor
at Heidelberg. In 1586, he commenced authorship by the
publication of his Method of the Ubiquitarian Controversy.
(See Ubiquitaei.\ns.) In 1589, he published the German
Bible, with notes. He rose to the highest professorship
in theology, and his fame drew students to the university
from the remotest parts of Hungary and Poland. He
died June, 1622.
ParcEUs was willing to yield many things for the sake
of peace, yet he was a determined enemy to all innova-
tion. He used to say with Luther of turbulent reformers,
"From a vain-glorions doctor, a litigious pastor, and use-
less questions, may the good Lord deliver his church !"
His exegetical works, (among which is his Commentary
on Romans, whose anti-monarchical principles gave such
ofl^nce to king James I., and the university of Oxford,)
were published by his son at Frankfort, 1647, in three
vols, folio. — Middlelon, vol. ii. 401.
PARAN, Desert of ; a " a great and terrible wilder-
ness" which the children of Israel entered after leaving
mount Sinai, (Num. 10: 12. Deut 1: 19.) and in which
thirty-eight of their forty years of wandering were spent.
It extended from mount Sinai on the south, to the southern
border of the land of Canaan on the north ; having the
desert of Shur, with its subdivisions, the deserts of Etham
and Sin, on the west, and the eastern branch of the Red
sea, the desert of Zin and mount Seir, on the east.
Burckhardt represents this desert, which he entered from
that of Zin, or valley of El Araba, about the parallel of Su-
ez, as a dreary expanse of calcareous soi7, covered with
black flints.— Watson.
PARAPHRASE ; an explanation of some text in
clearer and more ample terms, wherein more regard is
had to an author's meaning than his words. (See Com-
mentary.)— Hend. Buck.
PARDON ; the act of forgiving an ofl^ender, or remov-
ing the guilt of sin, that the punishment due to it may not
be inflicted.
Of the nature of pardon, it may be observed, that the
Scripture represents it by various phrases : a lifting up,
or taking away sin, (Ps. 32: 1.) a covering of it, (Ps. 85:
2.) a non-imputation of it, (Ps. 32: 2.) a blotting it out,
(Ps. 43: 25.) a non-remembrance of it, Heb. 8: )2. Isa.
43: 25. 1. It is an act of free grace, Ps. 51: 1. Isa. 43:
25. 2. A point of justice, God having received satisfac-
tion by the blood of Christ, 1 John 1:9. 3. A complete
act, a forgiveness of all the sins of his people, 1 John 1:
7. Ps. 1()3: 2, 3: 4. An act that will never be repealed,
Mic. 7: 19.
The author or cause of pardon is not any creature,
angel, or man ; but God. Ministers preach and declare
that there is remission of sins in Christ ; but to pretend
to absolve men is the height of blasphemy, 1 Thess. 2:
4. Rev. 13: 5, 6. (See Absolution ; Inddlgences.) There
is nothing that man has, or can do, by which pardon can
be procured: wealth cannot buy pardon, (Prov. 11: 4.)
human works or righteousness cannot merit it, (Rom. 11:
6.) nor can water baptism wash away sin. It is the pre-
rogative of God alcne to forgive, (Mark 2: 7.) the first
cause of which is his own sovereign grace and mercy,
Eph. 1: 7. The meritorious cause is the blood of Christ,
Heb. 9: 14. 1 John 1:7. It is to be sought by prayer.
Pardon of sin and justification are considered by some
as the same thing ; and it must be confessed that there is
a close connexion ; in many parts they agree, and it is
without doubt that every sinner who shall be found par-
doned at the great day, will likewise be justified; yet
they have been distinguished thus : — 1. An innocent per-
son, when falsely accused and acquitted, is justified, but
not pardoned ; and a criminal may be pardoned, though
he cannot be justified or declared innocent. Pardon is
of men that are sinners, and who remain such, though
pardoned sinners ; but justification is a pronouncing per-
sons righteous, as if they had never sinned. 2. Pardon
frees from punishment, but does not entitle to everlasting
life ; but justification does, Rom. 5. If we were only
pardoned, we should, indeed, escape the pains of hell, but
could have no claim to the joys of heaven ; for these are
more than the most perfect works of man could merit ;
therefore they must be what the Scripture declares — " the
gift of God."
After all, however, though these two may be distin-
guished, yet they cannot be separated ; and, in reality,
one is not prior to the other ; for he that is pardoned by
the death of Christ, is at the same time justified by his
life, Rom. 5: 10. Acts 13: 38, 39. (See Grace ; Mercy ;
Atonement ; Justification.) Charnock's Works, vol ii.
p. 101; Gill's Body of Div., article Pardon; Orven on
Psalm 130 ; Herveifs Works, vol. ii. p. 352 ; Dwight's
Theology : Fvller's Works ; Griffin on Atonement, Appendix.
—Hend. Buck.
PARENTS ; a name appropriated to immediate pro-
genitors, as father and mother.
The duties of parents to children relate to their health,
their maintenance, their education, and morals. Many
rules have been delivered respecting the health of chil-
dren, which cannot be inserted here ; yet we shall just
observe, that, if a parent wishes to see his progeny
healthy, he must not indulge them in every thing their
little appetites desire ; not give them too much sleep,
nor ever give them strong liquors. He must accustom
them to industry and moderate exercise. Their food and
clothing should be rather light. They should go to rest
soon, and rise early ; and, above all, should, if possible,
be inspired with a love of cleanliness.
As to their maintenance, it is the parent's duty to pro-
PAR
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PAR
vide every thing for them that is necessary until they be
capable of providing for themselves. They, therefore,
who live in habits of idleness, desert their families, or by
their negligent conduct reduce them to a state of indi-
gence and distress, are violating the law of nature and
of revelation, 1 Tim. 5: 8.
In respect to their education and morals, great care
should be taken. As it relates to the present life, habits
of courage, application, trade, prudence, labor, justice,
contentment, temperance, truth, benevolence, cJcc, should
be formed. Their capacities, age, temper, strength, inclina-
tion, should be consulted, and advice given suitable to these.
As it relates to a future life, their minds should be informed
as to the being of God, his perfections, glory, and the
mode of salvation by Jesus Christ. They should be cate-
chised ; allured to a cheerful attendance on divine wor-
ship ; instructed in the Scriptures ; kept from bad compa-
ny ; prayed with and for ; and, above all, a good example
set them, Prov. 22; G. Eph. 6: 1, 2.
Nothing can be more criminal than the conduct of some
parents in the inferior classes of the community, who ne-
ver restrain the desires and passions of their children,
suffer them to live in idleness, dishonesty, and profana-
tion of the Lord's day, the consequence of which is often
an ignominious end. So, among the great, permitting
their children to spend their time and their money as they
please, indulging them in perpetual public diversions, and
setting before them awful examples of gambling, indo-
lence, blasphemy, drinking, and almost every other vice.
What IS this but ruining theii' children, and " bequeath-
ing to posterity a nuisance ?"
But, while we would call upon parents to exercise their
authority, it must not be understood that children are to
be entirely at their disposal under all circumstances, es-
pecially when they begin to think for themselves. Though
a parent has a right over his children, yet he is not to be
a domestic tyrant, consulting his own will and passions
in preference to their intere.st. In fact, his right over
them is at an end when he goes beyond his duty to them.
" For parents," as Mr. Paley observes, " have no natural
right over the lives of their children, as was absurdly
allowed to Roman fathers ; nor any to exercise unprofita-
ble severities ; nor to command the commission of crimes;
for these rights can never be wanted for the purposes of
a parent's duty. Nor have parents any right to sell their
children into slavery ; to shut up daughters and younger
sons in nunneries and monasteries, in order to preserve
entire the estate and dignity of the family ; or to use any
arts, either of kindness or unkindness, to induce them to
make choice of this way of life themselves ; or in coun-
tries where the clergy are prohibited from marriage, to
put sons into the church for the same end, who are never
likely to do or receive any good in it sufficient to com-
pensate for this sacrifice ; nor to urge children to marria-
ges from which they are averse, nnth the view of exalting
or enriching the family, or for the sake of connecting es-
tates, parties, or interests ; nor to oppose a marriage in
which the child would probably find his happiness, from a
motive of pride or avarice, of family hostility or personal
pique." (See Religious Euucation.) Foley's Moral
Phi!osiiphy,\o\.\. p. 345 — 370; James' Family Monitor;
Jfrment's Discourses ; Stennett's Discourses on Domestic Du-
lles, dis. 5 ; Beatlie's Elements of Moral Science, vol. ii. pp.
139, 148; Doddridge's Lectures, lect.74; Sanri7i' s Sermons ;
Miss Edgenwrth and Mrs. Hamilton ; Searh's Christian Fa-
rent ; Dwight's TIteology ; Father's Boole ; but, above all,
Anderson on the Domestic Constitution. — Hend. Buck.
PARIS, (Matthew,) an English historian, wai a Bene-
dictine monk at St. Albans, into which order he entered
in 1217. He died in 1259. Matthew Paris was an uni-
versal scholar, and a man of great probity. His History
is a valuable work. — Davenport.
PARISH, (Elijah, D. D.,) minister of Byfield, Mass.,
was born in Lebanon, Conn., Nov. 7, 1762, and graduated
at Dartmouth college in 1785. He was ordained in 1787.
After being the minister of Byfield nearly forty years, he
died, Oct. 14, 1825, aged sixty-two.
He published, besides Sermons, a History of New Eng-
land, with Dr. Morse, 1804 ; with Dr. M'Clure, Memoirs
of Eleazer Wheelock, 8vo, 1811 ; Gazetleerof the Eastern
III
Continent ; Modern Geogiaphy ; Gazetteer of the Bible.
A volume of Sermons was published after his death —
Allen.
PARKER, (Abp. Matthew,) a learned prelate, was
born, in 1504, at Norwich ; was educated at Cambridge •
and was successively chaplain to Anne Boleyn, dean o^
Stoke Clare, master of Bennet college, and dean of Lin-
coln. In the reign of IMary he was in great danger of be-
ing brought to the slake. Elizabeth raised him to the see
of Canterbury, which he filled with honor to himself. He
died in 1575. Parker took a share in the reformed litur-
g}-, and the Bishop's Bible ; published editions of some
of the old English historians ; and wrote De Antiquitam
Britannicce EcclesiEB, and some works of less importance.
He is spoken of as pious, sober, temperate ; extremely
modest, but immovable in the distribution of justice, and
fearless in what he considered a good cause. In his dis-
position, he was most generous and charitable ; some of
his benefactions were most magnificent. His numerous
writings give evidence of extensive erudition, and in va-
rious other ways he manifested the enthusiasm of a
scholar. — Middleton, vol. ii. 171 ; Davenport.
PARKER, (Samuel, D. D.,) bishop of the Protestant
Epi.scopal church in New England, was born at Ports-
mouth, N. H., in 1745, and was graduated at Harvard
college, in 1764. He was afterwards nine years an in
structer of youth in Newburyport and other towns. In
1773, he was ordained \>y the bishop of London, and Blay
19, 1775, was estabhshed as assistant minister at Trinity
church, Boston, of which he became the rector in 1779.
During the revolutionary war the other Episcopal clergy
men quitted the country, but he remained at his post, and
his church was saved from dispersion. After the death
of bishop Bass he was elected his successor ; but he was
at the head of the Episcopal churches but a few months.
He died suddenly, at Boston, Dec. 6, '804, aged fifty-nine.
Distinguished for his benevolence, he was in a peculiar
manner the friend of the poor, who in his death mourned
the loss of a father. He published a Sermon at the elec
tion, 1793 ; before the asylum, 1803 ; and some othei
occasional discourses. — Allen.
PARKER, (Isaac, LL. D.,) chief justice of Massachusetts,
was born in Boston, in 1768, and graduated at Harvard
college, in 1786. He commenced the practice of law in the
district of Maine, and was elected a member of congress.
In 1806, he was appointed a judge of the supreme court,
and in 1814, chief justice, as the successor of Mr. Sewall,
of which ofiice he with high reputation and faithfulness
discharged the duties sixteen years. On Sunday, May
25, 1830, he was suddenly attacked with the apoplexy, of
which he died the next morning. May 26, aged sixty-two.
He was a distinguished scholar and friend of literature.
For eleven years he was a trustee of Bowdoin college, and
for twenty years an overseer of Harvard college. He
was a man of great moral worth, and a firm believer in
the Christian religion. He published a sketch of the cha-
racter of judge Parsons, 1813. — Allen.
PARKHURST, (John,) a divine, was born, in 1723,
at Catesby, in Northamptonshire ; was educated at Rug-
by school, and Clare hall, Cambridge ; and died in 1707.
He is the author of a Hebrew Lexicon ; a Greek Lexi-
con ; an Address to Wesley ; and the Divinity and Pre-
existence of Christ demonstrated. — Davenport.
PARLOR ; that room in a house where the master or
his family customarily speak with visitors : but whether
the word rendered parlor has always this import in the
Hebrew, may be doubtful. Compare Judg. 3: 20. ISam.
0: 22.— Calmet.
PARNELL, (Thomas,) a divine and poet, was born,
in 1679, at Dublin ; was educated at Trinity college, in
that city; obtained, in 1705, 1713, and 1716, the archdea-
conry of Clogher, a prebend in Dublin cathedral, and the
vicarage of Finglass ; and died at Chester, in 1717. He
was the friend of Swift and Pope, the latter of whom gave
the works of Parnell to the press. — Davenport.
PARR, (Samuel, LL.D.,) one of the most profound of
Greek scholars, was born, in 1746, at Harrow on the Hill,
and was educated at the grammar-school ol that jiace,
and at Emanuel college, Cambridge. Having, in conse-
quence of his youth, been disappointed of bo
ing head
PAR
[ 90G ]
PAR
ir xsler at Harrow, he established a seminary at Slan-
Diore ; which, however, he ultimately gave up, and was
successively master of Colchester and Norwich grammar-
schools. His first church preferment was the rectory of
Asterby, which he obtained in 1780 ; and the following
year he received the degree of doctor of laws. He sub-
sequently received the perpetual curacy of Hatton, the
living of Grafl'ham, in Huntingdonshire, and a prebend
of St. Paul's cathedral.
In curious and elegant classical knowledge, Dr. Parr
seems to be entitled to the lead among the scholars of his
day. It is to be regretted, however, that he did not exert
his literary powers on subjects of adequate and perma-
nent interest ; on which account his sermons and tracts,
.hough written with extraordinary vigor and elegance,
will fail to secure lasting attention. Though somewhat
too much of a politician for a divine, he evinced singular
benevolence and benignity in his general deportment.
His works, among which are various Sermons, the Preface
to Bellendenus, and a Letter from Irenopolis, have been
collected since his decease, and published in eight vols,
octavo, together with Memoirs of his Life, and Writings,
and a selection from his correspondence, by John John-
son, M. D., 1828. He died March 26, 1825, in his se-
venty-ninth year. — Davenport.
PAREY, (William,) some lime president and theo-
logical tutor at Wymondley academy, Herts, was born in
the year 1751, at Abergavenny, in Monmouthshire. He
was the eldest of twelve children, most of whom died
young. When he was about seven years of age, he re-
moved with his father to London, where he attended the
ministry of Dr. Samuel Stennctt. It is not ascertained
at what period he first felt the importance of religion ;
but, at the age of seventeen, he publicly professed his at-
tachment to Christianity, by becoming a member of the
church at Stepney, then under the pastoral care of Mr.
Brewer, by whom, at the age of twenty, he was introduc-
ed to the academy at Homerton. Under the instructions
of Drs. Condor, Gibbons, and Fisher, Mr. Parry remained
during six years, pursuing, with unremitting ardor and
persevering industry, the studies to which he had devoted
nimself. He was ordained at Little Baddovv, Essex, in
Ihe year 1780. To his suggestion and benevolent activi-
ty, while resident at Baddow, may be attributed the forma-
tion of " The Benevolent Society, for the Relief of Ne-
tessitous Widows and Children of Protestant Dissenting
Ministers, in the Counties of Essex and Herts ;" also " The
Essex Union," whose object is to promote ihe extension
if the gospel in the county. In the year 1791, when an
apposition was made to an application of the dissenters,
for a repeal of the Test and Corporation acts, more espe-
cially by the noblemen, gentlemen, and clergy of the county
cf Warwick, he animadverted, with great eloquence and
force, on their resolutions, in three letters, addressed to
the earl of Alyesfoid. The pamphlet on the Inspiration
of the New Testament appeared in the year 1797, and
has obtained for its author an extensive reputation.
Shortly after its publication, proposals were made to
Mr. Parry, by the trustees of W. Coward, Esq., to become
theological tutor in the dissenting academy, which had for
some years been conducted at Northampton and Daven-
try, by Drs. Doddridge and Ashworth. An earnest desire
of extended usefulness led Mr. Parry to accept those
proposals ; and, in the year 179fl, he took an affectionate
farewell of his beloved flock at Baddow, after having la-
bored amongst them for twenty years, with great accep-.
tance and fidelity. Mr. Parry entered on his new and
important office at Wymondley, (to which place the acade-
my was removed,) with all that intense application which
naturally resulted from the high sense he entertained of
its responsibility. As a lecturer, Mr. Parry was distin-
guished by perspicuity and classical simplicity ; and, by a
happy union of dignity and aifection, he secured the love
and Veneration of the students intrusted to his care.
In undertaking the office of tutor, Mr. Parry did not
resign that of a minister of Christ. Immediately after his
settlement at Wymondley, a small chapel was erected on
the premises, where a congregation was raised, and a
church formed, over which he presided as pastor, till the
time of his decease. With the exception of a charge de-
livered at the ordination of one of his students, Mr. Parry
appeared but once in the character of an author, after his
removal to Wymondley, which was in a work of a con-
troversial kind, with Dr. Williams, of Rotherham, " On
the Origin of Moral Evil." It had been his intention to
write a History of the Dissenters, a work for which he
was well qualified, and for which he had made considera-
ble preparation ; but a painful nervous affection coming
on, his design was interrupted, and never afterwards re-
sumed. He died in Nov. 1818.
The death-bed of Mr. Parry was one of calm and holy
triumph ; he rested with unshaken confidence on the rock
of ages, and entered with a smile the gloomy valley,
which was to conduct him to the regions of everlasting
day. He had just closed his sixty-fourth year.
The writings of Mr. Parry are characterized by clear-
ness of conception, with great accuracy and felicity of ex-
pression.— Jones' Chris. Biog.
PARSEES. (See Gdebkes.)
PARSIMONY. (See Covetoitsness.)
PARSON ; (persona ecchsice ;) one that hath full posses-
sion of all the rights of a parochial church. He is called
parson, (persona,) because by his person the church, which
is an invisibte body, is represented, and he is in himself a
body corporate, in order to protect and defend the rights
of the church, which he personates. There are in the
church of England three ranks of clergymen below that
of a dignitary, viz. parson, vicar, and curate. Parson is
the first, meaning a rector, or he who receives the great
tithes of a benefice. Clergyman may imply any person
ordained to serve at the altar. Parsons are always
priests, whereas clergymen are often only deacons. (See
Clersy ; CuBATE.) — Ifcnd. Back.
PARSONS, (Jonathan,) minister in Newburyport,
JIass., was graduated at Yale college in 1729, having
given indications of an uncommon genius. Soon after
he began to preach, he was ordained minister of Lyme,
Conn., where he continued several years. The last thirty
years of his life were spent at Newburyport, in one of the
largest congregations in America. His labors wereince*'
sant, and he sometimes sunk under his exertions. During
his last sickness he enjoyed the peace of a Christian.
He expressed his unwavering assurance of an interest in
the favor of God through the Redeemer. He died July
19, 1776, aged about sixty-six.
Mr. Parsons was a Presbyterian. As a preacher he
was eminently useful. During some of the first years of
his ministry his style was remarkably correct and ele-
gant ; but after a course of years, when his attention was
occupied by things of greater importance, his manner of
writing was less polished, though perhaps it lost nothing
of its pathos and energy. In his preaching he dwelt
much and with earnestness upon the doctrines of grace,
knowing it to be the design of the Christian religion to
humble the pride of man and to exalt the grace of God.
He labored to guard his people both against the giddy
wildness of enthusiasm, and the licentious tenets of Anti-
nomian delusion. His invention was fruitful, his imagi-
nation rich, his voice clear and commanding, varying
with every varying passion, now forcible, majestic, terri-
fying, and now soft, and persuasive, and melting. His
zealous and indefatigable exertions were not in vain.
During his ministry at Lyme, at a period of uncommon
effusion of God's Spirit of grace, he indulged the belief,
that near two hundred of his people were renewed in the .
dispositions of their minds, and enlightened by the truth
PAR
[907]
PAH
is it is in Jesus ; and his labors at Newburyport were at-
tended by a happy revival of religion. He was eminent
as a scholar, for he was familiar with the classics, and he
was skilled in the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages.
He was accounted a dexterous and niasterly reasoner.
He published a Sermon at Boston Lecture, 1742 ; Good
News from a far Country, in seven discourses, 1750 ; Ob-
servations, itc, 1757 j Manna gathered in the Morning,
1761 ; Infant Baptism from Heaven, in two discourses,
1765 ; a Sermon on the Death of G. Whitfield, 1770 ;
Freedom from Civil and Ecclesiastical Tyraliny the Pur-
chase of Christ, 1771 ; sixty Sermons on various subjects,
in two volumes, 8vo, 1780. SearVs Sermon .-ii ki<: Death.
—Allen.
PARSONS, (TuEOPHiLus, LL. D.,) chiel justice of
Massachusetts, the son of Rev. Moses Parsons, of Byfield,
was born Feb. 21, 1750. After graduating at Harvard
college, in 1769, he studied law with judge Bradbury, of
Falmouth, now Portland, and kept the grammar-school.
When the town was burnt by the British, he returned to
his father's, and soon opened an office in Newburyport.
In 1779, he was a member of the convention which framed
the constitution of Massachusetts ; he was also in 1789 a
member of the slate convention, which adopted the con-
stitution of the United States. He removed to Boston in
1800. After an extensive practice of thirty-five j'ears he
succeeded chief justice Dana, in 1806. He died at liis
residence in Boston, Oct. 30, 1813, aged sixty-three. He
was not more remarkable for his deep learning, than for
the keenness of his wit. His repartees were often very
cutting. Not only was he a profound lawyer, but an ex-
cellent classical scholar and a sldlful mathematician.
His political influence, in the party divisions of his day,
was very great.
Of his belief in Christianity he made a profession in
his last years, joining the church in Boston, of which Dr.
Kirkland was the pastor. •' I examined," he was accus-
tomed to say to his friends, " the proof, and weighed the
objections to Christianity, many years ago, with the accu-
racy of a lawyer ; and the result was so entire a convic-
tion of its truth, that I have only to regret that my belief
has not more completely influenced my conduct." Two
days before his death, he repeated his strong conviction to
Dr. Kirkland in the foUowingterms : " I could as soon doubt
the existence of God himself, as the truth of the Chris-
tian religion." The judgment of such a man ought to be
generally known. The first six volumes of the Jlassachu-
setts Reports contain many of his judicial decisions, which
were respected not only at home, hut in Europe, as pre-
eminent in wisdom. In the opinion of judge Parker, had
he lived in England, he would have been made lord
chancellor, or lord chief justice. Parker's Sketch ; Knapp''s
Biog. Sketches, 37 — 77 ; Christian Disciple, vol. ii. — Allen.
PARSONS, (Levi,) missionary to Palestine, the son of
a minister, was born in Goshen, Mass., July 18, 1792.
At the age of sixteen he became a Christian, and while
he was a member of college he became earnestly desirous
to be a missionary. During three revivals of religion his
eflorts were made extensively useful.
He was graduated at Middlebury in 1S14, and studied
theology at Andover. After being ordained in Sept. 1817,
he was an agent of the Board of Missions. In Nov.
1819, he sailed with Mr. Fisk for Palestine, and arrived
at Smyrna in Jan. 1820 ; after passing half a year at
Sc'.o, he proceeded to Jerusalem, where he remained from
Feb. to May, 1821. In Dec. he went with Mr. Fisk to Al-
exandria, where he died in great peace and triumph, Feb.
10, 1822, aged twenty-nine. He was a good scholar, and
very amiable and interesting in his manners, and de-
voted to his benevolent work. His Life was written by his
brother-in-law, D. O. Morton, 1824. — Allen.
PART, Portion, frequently signifies the source of
satisfaction, or happiness. "The Lord is the portion of
mine inheritance," Psal. 16: 5. 142: 5. "The Lord's
portion is his people ; Jacob is the lot of his inheritance,"
Deut. 32: 9. But with this diflerence ; God makes
and constitutes the happiness of his people, but his peo-
ple cannot augment God's happiness or glory.
Part or portion also signifies recompense, or punish-
ment : " This is the portion of a wicked man from God,
and the heritage appointed unto him by God," Job 20: 29.
Psal. 63: 10. 11: 6. The Lord shall "appoint him
his portion with the hypocrites," Matt. 24: 51. "What
part hath he that believeth with an infidel?" 2 Cor 6: 15
(See next article.) — Calmet.
PARTAKE ; to receive a share. The saints are par-
takers of Christ and of the heavenly calling. By receivin"
Jesus Christ and his Spirit into their hearts, they possess
them and their blessings and influences as their own, and
are efl'ectually called to the heavenly glory, Heb. 3: 1
14. 6: 4. 'They are partakers of God's promises and
benefits ; they have an interest in all the promises, and
shall receive every blessing therein contained, Eph. 3: 6.
1 Tim. 6: 2. They are partakers of the (Heine nature, and
of Christ's holiness, when, through union to Christ and
fellowship with him in his righteousness and spirit, their
nature is conformed to Christ, 2 Pet. 1: 4. They partake
of Christ's sufferings, and of the afflictions of the gospel,
when they are persecuted for their adherence io the truth
and example of Christ, 1 Pet. 4: 13. 2 Cor. 1: 7. 2 Tim.
1: 8. They partake of the grace of Paul, and other mi-
nisters, when they receive spiritual edification from their
ministiy, Phil. 1: 7. Hypocrites are partakers of the
Holy Ghost. Some of them in the apostolic age enjoyed
his miraculous gifts and operations ; and in every
age they receive such convictions, or other influences, as
are separable from a state of grace, Heb. 6; 4. Men be-
come partakers in other men's sins, by contriving, con-
senting, inclining to, rejoicing in, assisting to commit, or
.sharing the profits or pleasures of their sin ; or by occa-
sioning them by an evil example, or offensive use of
things indifferent ; by provoking or tempting to, or not
doing all we can to hinder their sin ; or by commanding
exciting, or hiring men to sin ; or by defending, extenu
ating, or commending their sin ; by neglecting to reprove,
and promote the proper punishment of sin ; and by not
mourning over and praying against sin, Rev. 18: 4
Eph. 5: 11. — Brown.
PARTHENAI, (Anne de,) an accomplished and pious
lady, the wife of Anthonj' de Pons, count of JMarenues.
was duchess of Ferrara, daughter of Lewis XII., and
one of the brightest ornaments of the court of Reuee de
France. She was a protectress of learning, and was her-
self, on account of her abilities and accomplishments, the
delight of every society into which she entered. She un-
derstood Greek and Latin, and took great pleasure in
conversing with theologians, and reading the Scriptures,
which induced her to turn Protestant. — Bctham.
PARTHIA is thought to have been originally a pro-
vince of Media, on its eastern side, which was raised into
a distinct kingdom by Arsaces, B. C. 250. It soon ex-
tended itself over a great part of the ancient Persian em-
pire, and is frequently put for that empire in Scripture,
and other ancient writings. Parthia maintained itself
against all aggressors for nearly five hundred years, bnt
in A. D. 226, one of the descendants of the ancient Per-
sian kings united it to the ancient empire, and Persia re-
sumed its ancient name and dynasty.
It is said the Parthians were either refugees or exiles
from the Scythian nations. Jews from among them were
present at Jerusalem at the Pentecost. Acts 2: 9. — Calmet.
PARTRIDGE, (kra, 1 Sam. 26: 20. Jcr. 17: li ;
perdix, Ecclus. 11: 30.) In the first of these places David
says, "The king of Israel is come out to hunt a pait-
ridge on the luountains ;" and in the second, " The part-
ridge sitteth" on eggs, "and produceth," or hatcheth,
" not ; so he that getteth riches, and not by right, .shall
leave them in the midst of his days, and at his end shall
be contemptible." This passage does not necessarily im-
ply that the partridge hatches the eggs of a stranger, but
only that she often fails in her attempts to bring forth her
young. To such disappointments she is greatly exposed
from the position of her nest on the ground, where her
egg"! are often spoiled by the wet, or crushed by the fool.
So .1 " that broods over his ill-gotten gains will often find
them unproductive ; or, if he leaves them, as a bird oc-
casionally driven from her nest, may be despoiled of their
possession.
As to the hunting of the partridge, which. Dr. Shaw ot^
serves, is the greater, or red-legged kind, the traveller
PAS
[ 908 ]
PAS
says, " The Arabs liave another, though a more laborious
method of catching these birds ; for, observing that they
become languid and fatigued after they have been hastily
put up twice or thrice, they immediately run in upon
them, and knock them down with their ztmattys, or blud-
geons as we should call them." Precisely in this manner
Saul hunted David, coming hastily upon him, putting him
up incessantly, in hopes that at length his strength and
resources would fail, and he would become an easy prey
to his pursuer. Forskal mentions a partridge whose
name in Arabic is Icurr ; and Latham says, that, in the
province of Andalusia in Spain, the name of the partridge
is churr ; both taken, no doubt, like the Hebrew, from its
note. — Watson.
FARVAIM ; the name of a region, (2 Chron. 3: 6.)
thought to be the same as Ophir. — Calmet.
PASAGINIANS ; {Fasagini ;) a denomination which
arose in the twelfth century, called also The Circumcised.
Mo.sheiin says the meaning of the term is unknown ; but
they seem to have been a remnant of the Nazarenes,
(which .see,) and their distinguishing tenets were: — 1.
That the observation of the law of Moses, in every thing,
except the offering of sacrifices, was obligatory upon
Christians. 2. That Christ was no more than i\ie first and
purest creature of God, which was the doctrine of the Semi-
Arians. They had the utmost aversion to the dominion
and discipline of the church of Rome. Mosheivi's E. H.
vol. iii. pp. 127-8. — WUliams.
PASCAL, (Blaise,) " perhaps the most brilliant in-
tellect that ever lighted on this lower world," was born at
Clermont, in the province of Auvergne, on the 19th of
June, 1623. He was descended from one of the best fami-
lies in that province. As soon as Blaise Po.scal was able
to speak, he discovered marks of extraordinary capacity,
which he evinced, not only by the general pertinency and
acnteness of his replies, but particularly by the questions
which he asked concerning the nature of things, and his
reasonings upon them ; which were much superior to what
is common at his age. His mother having died in 1626,
his father, who was an excellent scholar, and an able
mathematician, and who lived in habits of intimacy with
several persons of the greatest learning and science at
that time in France, determined to take upon himself the
whole charge of his son's education.
Before young Pascal had attained his twelfth year, two
circumstances occurred which deserve to be recorded, as
they discovered the turn, and evinced the superiority of
his mind. Having remarked one day, at table, the sound
produced by a person accidentally striking an eartheni-
ware plate with a knife, and that tlie vibrations were im-
mediately stopped by putting his hand on the plate, he
became anxious to investigate the cause of this phenome-
non, and employed himself in making a number of expe-
riments on sound, the result of which he committed to
writing, so as to form a little treatise on the subject, which
was was found very correct and ingenious. The other
occurrence was his first acquisition, or, as it might not
improperly be termed, his invention of geometry. His
father, though very fond of the mathematics himself, had
studiously kept from him every means of becoming ac-
q Jainted with them. This he did, partly in conformity to
the maxim he had hitherto followed, of keeping his son
superior to his task ; and partly, from an apprehension
that a science so engaging, and at the same time so ab-
stracted, and which was on that account peculiarly suited
to the turn of his son's mind, would probably absorb too
much of his attention, and stop the progress of his other
studies, if he were once initiated into it. But the activity
of a penetrating and inquisitive mind is not to be so easily
restrained. As from respect to his father's authority,
however, he had so far regarded his prohibition as to pur-
sue this study only in private, and at his hours of recrea-
tion, he went on for some time undiscovered ; but, one
day, while he was employed in this manner, his father ac-
cidentally entered the room, unobserved by Pascal, who
was wholly intent on the subject of his investigation. His
father stood for some time unperceived, and observed,
with the greatest astonishment, that his son was surround-
ed with geometrical figures, and was then actually em-
ployed in finding out the proportion of the angles formed
by a triangle, one side of which is produced ; which is the
subject of the thirty-second proposition in the First Book
of Euclid. His father at length asked him what he was
doing. The son, surprised and confused to find his fa-
ther was there, told him he wanted to find out this and
that, mentioning the difl'erent parts contained in that theo-
rem. His father then asked how he came to inquire
about that. He replied he had found out such a thing,
naming some more simple problems ; and thus, in reply
to different questions, he showed that he had gone on his
own investigations, totally unassisted, from the most sim-
ple definition in geometry, to Euclid's thirty-second posi-
tion. His subsequent progress perfectly accorded with
this extraordinary elicitation of his talents. Pascal gave
his son Euclid's Elements to peruse at his hours of recre-
ation. He read them, and understood them without any
assistance. His progress was so rapid that he was soon
admitted to the meetings of a society of which his father,
Roberval, and some other celebrated mathematicians were
members, and from which originated the Royal academy
of sciences at Paris.
During Pascal's residence with his father at Rouen, and
while he was only in his nineteenth year, he invented his
famous arithmetical machine, by which all numerical cal-
culations, however complex, can be made by the mechani-
cal operation of its different parts, without any arithmeti-
cal skill in the person who uses it. He had a patent for
this invention in 1649. His studies however began to be
interrupted when he had reached his eighteenth year by
.some symptoms of ill health, which were thought to be
the effect of intense application, and which never after-
wards entirely quitted him, so that he sometimes used to
say, that from the time he was eighteen, he had never
passed a day without pain. But Pascal, though out of
health, was still Pascal ; ever active, ever inquiring, and
satisfied only with that for which an adequate reason could
be assigned. Having heard of the experiments instituted
by Torricelli, to find out the cause of the rise of water in
fountains and pumps, and of the mercury in the barome-
ter, he was induced to repeat them, and to make others
to satisfy himself on the subject.
In 1654, he invented his aiithmetical triangle, for the
solution of problems respecting the combinations of stakes
in unfinished games of hazard ; and long after that he
wrote his " Demonstrations of the Problems relating to
the Cycloid," besides several pieces on other subjects in
the higher Ijranches of the mathematics, for which his
genius was probably most fitted. Pascal, though not rich,
was independent in his circumstances ; and as his pecu-
liar talents, his former habits, and the state of his health,
all called for retirement, he did well to embrace it. From
1655, therefore, he associated only with a few fiiends of
the same religious opinions with himself, and lived for
the most part in privacy in the society of Port Royal.
About that time there were dissensions between the Jan-
seni-sts and the Jesuits ; and as Pascal was a Jansenist,
he engaged in the controversy. It was during the agi-
tation of this affair, respecting Arnauld, that Pascal, un-
der the fictitious name of Louis de Montalte, published the
first of the " Letters of a Provincial to one of his
Friends," in which he ridicules the assemblies that were
held on that occasion, with a poignancy of wit and elo-
quence, of which the French language had at that time
furnished no example. In this letter, and the five follow-
ing, the provincial writes an account to his friend of the
visits he has made to various persons, both among the
Jansenists and the Jesuits, in order to find out the nature
of the dispute, and the meaning of the terms that are em-
ployed. The absurdity of several of these, the injustice
of the proposed censure, the conformity of Arnauld's sen-
timents with Scripture and the fathers, and, above all,
the duplicity of the Jesuitical party, or rather parties, who
united in their enmity against him, are admirably expos-
ed. In the next six letters he lays open the false mo-
rality of the Jesuits, by the recital of an interview with
one of their casuists, who teaches him the maxims and
opinions of their most approved writers, in their own
words, which he is represented as hearing with astonish-
ment and surprise. The remarks he is represented to
make in the course of the conversation, and his additional
PAS
[ 909 ]
PAS
observations to his friend, contain a complete develop-
ment of their iniquity with the keenest satire, in language
at once elegant, correct, and intelligible to every capacity.
The encomiums Voltaire has bestowed on this produc-
tion, coincide with those of his friend, D'Alembert. Both
of them, however, blame Pascal for not equally ridiculing
the doctrines of the Jansenists, whom Voltaire falsely re-
presents as being competitors with the Jesuits for political
interest and power. (See Jesuits.) Pascal's controversy
with the Jesuits was not confined to the Provincial Letters,
for he wrote some masterly papers to the curates of Paris
and Rouen, and which were called "Factums."
Bui Pascal's bodily infirmities now increased ; and as
his health declined, he became more reserved in his in-
tercourse with others, and feehng increasing impressions
of the vanity of life, and the obligation of Christians to
benevolence, he carried his self-denial to an unusual de-
gree of austerity. In order to check the emotions of a
passion to which he felt himself subject, he wore round
his body a cincture of iron, set with sharp points, which
he used lo strike with his hand, when he was conscious
of those feelings of pride which he so strongly condemn-
ed. It must be, however, observed, that Pascal did not
imagine his religion was to consist merely in outward ob-
servances ; nor did he ascribe to his own merit the
changes he had experienced in his disposition.
What may be called the last illness of this great man
began in June, 11)02, not without suspicion of poison. He
■was desirous that the sacrament should be administered
to him. The last words he uttered were, "May God ne-
ver forsake me !" and on the 19th of August, 1(562, aged
thirtjMiine years and three months, he expired.
Towards the close of his life, he had occupied himself
wholly in religious meditation, committing to writing
such pious and moral reflections as occurred to him.
These were published aAer his death, under the title of
"Pensees de M. Pascal, sur la Religion, et sur quelques
autres Sujets ;" that is, " Pascal's Thoughts on Religion,
and other Subjects." They are contained in thirty-two
chapters, and have been greatly admired by philosophers
for their profundity. They have been translated into
English, and will well repay the reader's attention. The
best edition was published at Edinburgh, about the year
1825, (and republished in the U. S.) edited by Craig, with
a life prefixed. The whole of Pascal's works were col-
lected together and published at Paris in 1779, under the
superintendence of the abbe Bossuet. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
PASSALORYNCHITES ; a branch of the Blontanists,
(which see,) .I'ho held it necessary to observe a perpetual
silence ; wherefore they are said (no doubt in ridicule)
to have kept their finger constantly upon their mouth,
and dared not open it even to say their prayers ; and from
this circumstance arose the denomination, the name of
which, according to Broughton, is derived from passahs,
a nail, and rin, the nostril, which looks as if they put their
linger (or finger nail perhaps) to their iwse rather than
mouth. It seems, however, that they were a prudent, cau-
lioas sect, more ready lo hear than to speak. Brovghtoiis
Did . — Williams.
PASSION. This word has several very different signi-
fications. First, it signifies the passion or suffering of
Christ : " To whom also he showed himself alive after
his passion," Acts 1: 3. Secondly, it signifies shameful
pas.sion.s, (Rom. 1: 26.) toAvhich those are given up, whom
Go.l abandons to their own desires, Rom. 7: 5. 1 Thess.
■1: .5. Thirdly, passion, in its general import, signifies
every feeling of the mind occasioned by an extrinsic
cause. It is used to describe a violent commotion or agi-
tation of the mind ; emotion, zeal, ardor, or even of ease
wherein a man can conquer his desires, or hold them
in subjection. (See Affections.)
As to the yiumber of the passions, Le Brun makes them
about twenty: (1.) attention; ('2.} admiration ; (3.) as-
tonishment ; (4.) veneration ; (5.) rapture ; (6.) joy, with
tranquillity; (7.) desire ; (8.) laughter ; (9.) acute pain ;
(10.) pains, simply bodily; (11.) sadness; (12.) weep-
ing; (13.) compassion; (14.) scorn ; (15.) horror; (16.)
terror or fright; (17.) anger; (18.) hatred; (19.) jea-
lousy; (20.) despair. All these may be represented on
canvais by the pencil. Some make their number greater,
adding aversion, love, emulation, tec. &c. ; the.se, how-
ever, may be considered as inchided in the above list.
They are divided by some into public and private ; proper
and improper ; social and selfish passions.
The original of the passions are from impressions on
the senses ; from the operations of reason, by which good
or evil are foreseen ; and from the recollections of me-
mory.
The objects of the passions are mostly things sensible,
on account of their near alliance to the body ; but objects
of a spiritual nature also, though invisible, have a ten-
dency to excite the passions ; such as the love of God,
heaven, hell, eternity, &c.
As to the imwceiicy of the passions : in themselves they
are neither good nor evil, but accordin.g to the good or ill
use that is made of them, and the degrees to which they
rise.
The usefulness of the passions is considerable, and were
given us for a kind of spring or elasticity to correct the
natural sluggishness of the corporeal part. They gave
birth to poetry, science, painting, music, and all the polite
arts, which minister to pleasure ; nor are they less ser-
viceable in the cause of religion and truth. "They,"'
says Dr. Watts, " when sanctified, set the powers of the
understanding at work in the search of divine truth and
religious duty ; they keep the soul fixed to divine things ;
render the duties of holiness much easier, and tempta-
tions to sin much weaker ; and render us more like Christ,
and fitter for bis presence and enjoyment in heaven."
As to the regulation of the passions : lo know whether
they are under due restraints, and directed to proper ob-
jects, we must inquire whether they influence our opi-
nions ; run before the understanding ; are engaged in tri-
fling, and neglectful of important objects ; express them-
selves in an indecent manner ; and whether they disorder
our conduct. If this be the case, they are out of their due
bounds, and will become sources of trial rather than in-
struments of good. To have them properly regulated, we
should possess knowledge of our duty, take God's word
for our rule, be much in praj'er and dependence on the
Divine Being.
Lastly, we should stifhj the passions. To examine
them accurately, indeed, requires much skill, patience,
observation, and judgment ; but to form any proper idea
of the human mind, and its various operations ; to detect
the errors that arise from healed temperament and intel-
lectual excess ; to know how to touch their various
strings, and to direct and employ them in the best of all
services ; I say, to accomplish these ends, the study of
the passions is of the greatest consequence.
" Amidst the numerous branches of knowledge," says
Sir. Cogan, '• which claim the attention of the human
mind, no one can be more important than this. What
ever most intimately concerns ourselves must be of the
first moment. An attention, therefore, to the workings
of our own minds ; tracing tiie power which external ob-
jects have over us ; discovering the nature of our emo-
tions and aftections ; and comprehending the reason of
our being afl'ected in a particular manner, must have a
direct influence upon our pursuits, our characters, and our
happiness. It may with justice be advanced, that the
happiness of ourselves in this department is of much
greater utility than abstruser speculations concerning the
nature of the human soul, or even the most accurau
knowledge of its intellectual powers : for it is according as
the passions and afltciions are excited and directed to-
wards the objects investigated by our intellectual naiures,
that we become useful to ourselves and others ; that we
rise into respectability, or sink into contempt ; that we
diffuse or enjoy happiness, diffuse or suffer misery. An
accurate analysis of these passions and afl^ections. there-
fore, is to the moralist what the science of anatomy is to
the surgeon. It constitutes the first principles of rational
practice ; it is, in a moral view, the anatomy of the heart ;
it discovers why it beats, and how it beats ; indic.ites ap-
pearances in a sound and healthy state ; detects diseases
with their causes ; and it is infinitely more fortunate in
the power it communicates of applying suitable remecUes.
See Hutcheson, Walls, Le Brun, Cogan, and Darau m
the Passions ; Maclaurin's Essays ; Groves Moral Phthso-
PAS
[ &10 ]
PA S
phy, Vol. i. ch. 7 j Ecid's Active Powers of Man ; Brown's
Lectures ; Fordijces Elements of Mor. Phil. ; Burke on the
Sublime and Beautiful, p. 50 ; Spurzheim's Works ; Foster's
Essays; Saurin's Sermons; Irving's Orations^ and Argu-
ment ; Abercrombie on the Moral Feelings ; Natural History
e/ Enthusiasm ; and Fanaticism. — Calmet ; Hend. Buck.
PASSIVE OBEDIENCE OF CHRIST. (See Obedi-
ence, and SuFFERiNos of Christ.) — Hend. Buck.
PASSIVE POWER ; a phrase employed to denote a
power of producing change, not actively, but negatively.
Dr. Williams, who has revived the use of it in theology,
understands by it what some philosophers have denomi-
tiated malum metapfiysicum, by which is meant the imme-
diate cause of defectibility, mutability, or limitation in
creatures. Every created being and property must ne-
ressarily be limited. Limitation is as essentially an
attribute of a creature, as infinity is of the Creator. This
.imitedness implies defectibility, fallibleness, and muta-
bility. It is to this principle, which is entirely of a nega-
tive character, that evil is ultimately to be referred. It
rs not communicated to the creature by his Maker, nor
could any act of will or power prevent its connexion with
uny created nature, any more than such an act of will or
power could change the very essence of ereatureship, or
cause an uncaused being. And, as ibe principle itself
is not communicated, or caused by the Creator, so neither
are its results. They can be traced no higher than to the
being in whom they are developed. To himself alone
must every one ascribe them ; to himself as a creature, in
relation to the principle ; but to himself as sinful in rela-
tion to the moral results. Gilbert's Life of Dr. Williams,
note c. — Hend. Buck.
PASSIVE PRAYER, among the mystic divines, is a
total suspension or ligature of the intellectual faculties, in
virtue whereof the soul remains of itself, and, as to its
own power, impotent with regard to the producing of any
effects. Th6 passive state, according to Fenelon, is only
passive in the same sense as contemplation ; i. e. it does
not exclude peaceable, disinterested acts, but only unquiet
ones, or such as tend to our own interest. In the passive
stale the soul has not properly any activity, any sensation
of its own. It is a mere flexibility of the soul, to which
the feeblest impulse of grace gives motion. (See Mystic,
and Quietism.) — Hend. Buck.
PASSOVER ; (Heb. pesach, Gr. pasclw ;} a solemn fes-
tival of the Jews, instituted in commemoration of iheir
coming out of Egypt. The night before their departure,
the destroying angel, who put to death the first-born of the
Egyptians, pffs.serf ocer the houses of the Hebrews, with-
out entering therein ; because they were marked with the
blood of the lamb, which was killed the evening before,
and which, for this reason, was called the paschal lamb.
The "following is what God ordained concerning the
passover : the month of the coming out of Egypt (Nisan)
was to be the first month of the sacred or ecclesiasti-
cal year ; and the fourteenth day of this month, between
the two evenings, that is, between the sun's decline and
its setting ; or rather, according to our reckoning, be-
tween three o'clock in the afternoon and six in the eve-
ning, at the equinox, they were to kill the paschal lamb,
and to abstain from leavened bread. The day following,
being the fifteenth, reckoned from six o'clock of the pre-
ceding evening, was the grand feast of the passover, which
continued seven days ; but only the first and seventh days
were peculiarly solemn. The slain lamb was to be with-
out defect, a male, and of that year. If no lamb could
be found, they might take a kid. They killed a lamb or
a kid in each family ; and if the number of the family
was not sufficient to eat the lamb, they might associate
two families together. With the blood of the lamb they
sprinkled the door-posts and lintel of every house, that the
destroying angel at the sight of the blood might pass over
them. They were to eat the lamb the same night, roast-
ed, with unleavened bread, and a sallad of wild lettuces,
or bitter herbs. It was forbid to eat any part of it raw,
or boiled ; nor were they to break a bone ; but it was to
be eaten entire, even with the head, the feet, and the bow-
els. If any thing remained to the day following, it was
"hrown into the fire, Exod. 12: 16. Num. 9: 12. John
19: 36. They who ate it were to be in the posture of tra-
vellers, having their reins girt, shoes on their feet, states
in their handi:, and eating in a hurry. This last part of
the ceremony was btlt little observed ; at least, it *as of
no obligation after that night when they came ont of
Egypt. During the whole eight days of the passover no
leavened bread was to be used. They kept the first and
last day of the feast ; yet it was allowed to dress victuals,
which was forbidden on the Sabbath day. The obliga-
tion of keeping the passover was so strict, that whoevef
should neglect it was condemned to death, Num. 9: 13.
But those who had any lawful impediment, as a journey,-
sickness. Or uncleanness, voluntary or invohifitafy, foj?
example, those who had been present at a funeral, (See,
were to defer the celebration of the passover till the se-
cond month of the ecclesiastical year, the fourteenth day
of the month Jair, which answers to April and May. We
see an example of this postponed passover under Heze-
kiah, 2 Chron. 30: 2, 3, kc.
It has been thought a fainous question, whether our
Savior kept the legal and Jewish passover the last year of •
his life. Some have thought that the supper he ate with
bis disciples on the evening when he instituted the sa-
crament of his body and blood, was an ordinary meal,
without a paschal lamb. Others, that he anticipated the
passover, keeping it on the Thursday evening, while the
other Jews kept it on the Friday. Others have advanced
that the Galileans kept the passover on Thursday, as
Christ did ; but that the other Jews kept it on Friday.
It is, however, Ihe most general opinion of the Christian
church, as well Greek as Latin, that our Savior kept the
legal passover on the Thursday evening, as well as the
rest of the Jews. The principal difficulty in the way of
this opinion is found in the gospel of John, who says that
Jesus being at Ihe table with his disciples, "before the
feast of the passover, when Jesus knew that his hour was
come," John 13: 1, 18: 28. 19: 14, 31. Hence Calmet,
in a very elaborate dissertation on our Savior's last
passover, has endeavored to show, that our Savior did not
celebrate the passover the last year of his life. In this
opinion he is supported by several of the ancients. But
it has one fatal objection ; it contradicts the express lan-
guage of the evangelists. Hence .some of the modem
neologists, as Paulas, De AVelte, Winer, and Brelschneider,
have affirmed that the evangelist John contradicts not
only the other evangelists, but himself. But tbc whole
difficulty has been completely cleared up by J. H. Rauch,
who, by an accurate comparison of the accour.ts of Mo-
ses, of Josephus, and of the evangelists, has lihown that
Jesus, according to the law and custom of the Jews, held
the paschal meal with his disciples in the first, not the last
hour of the 14th of Nisan ; (Lev. 23: 5.) that is, on Thurs-
day evening, while the festival, or " feast of the passover,"
which occupied seven days, (Lev. 23: 6—8.) did not be-
gin till the Friday evening following. The hour of be-
ginning, and different senses of the word "passover,"
have not been properly considered by the objectors.
The word pascha, or passover, is taken, (1.) For the
passing over of the destroying angel ; (2.) For the paschal
lamb. (3.) For the meal at which it was eaten. (4.) For
the festival instituted in memory of the coming out of
Egypt, and the passage of the destroying angel. (.5.) For
all Ihe victims offered during the paschal solemnity. (6.)
For the nnleavencd bread eaten during the eight days of
the passover. (7.) For all the ceremonies of this solemnity.
The modern Jews observe in general the ceremonies
practised by their ancestors in the celebration of the
passover. Whilst the lemple was in existence, the Jews
brought their lambs thither, and there sacrificed them ;
and they offered iheir blood to Ihe priest, who poured it
out at the foot of Ihe allar.
The paschal lamb was an illustrious type of Christ,
who became a sacrifice for the redemption of his church
from sin and misery ; but resemblances between the type
and antitype have been strained by many writers into a
great number of fanciful particulars. It is enough for us
to be assured, that as Christ is called " our passover ;"
and the " Lamb of God," without " spot," by the " sprink-
ling of whose blood" we are delivered from guilt and pu-
nishment; and as faith in him is represented to us as
"eating the flesh of Christ," with evident allusion to the
PAT
[ 911
PAT
eating of the paschal sacrifice ; so, in these leading par-
ticulars, the mystery of our redemption was set forth.
The paschal lamb therefore prefigured the oflering of the
spotless Son of God, the appointed " propitiation for the
sins of the whole world ;" by virtue of which, when
received by faith, we are delivered from the bondage of
guilt and misery, and nourished with strength for our
heavenly journey to that land of rest, of which Canaan,
as early as the days of Abraham, became the divinely
instituted figure. See Exod. 12. Brown's Vict. ; article
Feast ; and M' En-en on lite Types, p. 127. — Robinson's
Bib. Repos. 1834; Hend. Buck; Calmet ; Watson.
PASTOK ; literally a shepherd ; figuratively a stated
minister appointed to watch over and instruct a congre-
gation.
Jesus Christ's description of an evangelical pastor,
(Matt. 24; 45.) includes two things, faithfulness and pru-
dence. " If a minister be faithful, he deceives not oth-
ers ; and if he be prudent, he is not apt to deceive him-
self. His prudence sufl^'ers not deceivers easily to impose
upon him ; and his faithfulness will not sutler him know-
ingly to impose upon his people. His prudence will ena-
ble him to discern, and his faithfulness oblige him to dis-
tribute wholesome food to his flock. But more particularly.
" 1. Ministerial faithfulness includes pure and spiritual
aims and intentions for God, Phil. 2: 20, 21. 2. Personal
sincerity, or integrity of heart, Neh. 9: 8. 1 Cor. 2: 12.
3. Diligence in the discharge of duty. Matt. 25: 21. 1
Tim. 4: 2. 4. Impartiality in the administrations of
Christ's house, 1 Tim. 5: 21. 5. An unshaken constancy
and perseverance to the end. Rev. 2: 10. But the Lord's
servants must not only be faithful, but prudent, discreet,
and wise. Fidelity and honesty make a good Christian ;
but the addition of prudence to fidelity makes a good stew-
ard. Faithfulness will fix the eye upon the right end ;
but it is prudence must direct to the proper means of at-
taining it. The use of prudence to a minister is un-
speakably great ; it not only gives clearness and perspi-
cacity to the mind, by freeing it from passions and corpo-
real impressions, enabling it thereby to apprehend what
is best to he done, but enables it in its deliberations about
the means to make choice of the most apt and proper ;
and directs the application of them in the fittest season,
without precipitation by too much haste, or hazard by too
tedious delay.
" 1. Prudence will direct us to lay a good foundation
of knowledge in our people's souls, by catechising and in-
structing them in the principles of Christianity, without
which we labor in vain. 2. Ministerial prudence disco-
vers itself in the choice of such subjects as the need of our
people's souls most require. 3. It will not only direcl us
in the choice of our subjects, but of the language, too, in
which we dress and deliver them to the people. 4. It
will show us of what great use our own affections are for
the moving of others; and will therefore advise us, that,
if ever we expect the truths we preach should operate up-
on the hearts of others, we must first have them impressed
on our own hearts, Phil. 3: 18. 5. It will direct us to be
careful, by the strictness and gravity of our deportment,
to maintain our esteem in the consciences of our people.
0. It will excite us to seek a blessing from God upon our
studies and labors, as knowing all our ministerial success
entirely depends thereupon," 1 Cor. 3: 7. See Flavers
Character of an Evangelical Pastor, in the second volume
of his works, p. 763, fol. ed. ; and books under article
Minister of the Gospel. — Hend. Buck.
PASTORAL THEOLOGY; that department of theo-
logical science which relates to the practical duties of the
ministerial office. Lectures on the subject are delivered
at universities of Germany, the Dissenting colleges of
England, and the theological seminaries of the United
States. It has been treated more or less at large in Bur-
net's and Gerard's Pastoral Care ; Baxter's Reformed Pastor ;
Mason's Student and Pastor ; Bridge's Christian Ministri/ ;
Miller's Clerical Manners ; Robinson's Bibl. Repns. See
fforks under JMinister of the Gospel. — Hend. Buck.
PATARA ; a maritime city of Lycia, where Paul, go-
ing from Philippi to Jerusalem, found a ship bound for
Phoenicia, in which he sailed, (Acts 21: 1.) A. D. 58. —
Calwet.
PATERNOSTER ; 1. The Latin for Oar Father, or the
Lord's prayer. 2. Every tenth large bead in the rosary
which Catholics use at their devotions: at this they re-
peat the Lord's prayer ; but at the intervening small
ones, only an Ave Maria, i. e. Hail, Mary ! 3. The ro-
sary itself. — Hend. Buck.
PATH ; the general course of any moving body. So
■we say, the path of the sun in the heavens ; and to this
the wise man compares the path of the just, which is, he
says, like daybreak ; it increases in light and splendor
till perfect day. It may be obscure, feeble, dim, at first,
but afterwards it shines in full brilliancy, Prov. 4: 18.
The course of a man's conduct and general behavior is
called the path in which he walks, by a very easy meta-
phor: and as when a man walks from place to place in
the dark, he may be gladof alight to assist in directing his
sleps, so the word of God is a light to guide those in iheir
course of piety and duly, who otherwise might wander, oi
be at a loss for direction. Wicked men, and wicked wo
men, are said to have paths full of snares. The dispen
sations of God are his paths, Psal. 25: 10. The precept:
of God are paths, Psal 17: 5. 65: 4. The phenomen;.
of nature are paths of God; (Psal 77: 19. Isa. 43: Ifi.^
and to those depths which are beyond human inspeclior,
the course of God in his providence is hkened. If hii
paths are obscure in nature, so they may be in providenc< ,
and in grace too. May he show us, with increasing
clearness, " the path of life !" (See Causey.) — Calmet.
PATHROS; (Jer. 44: 1, 15. Ezek. 29: 14. 30: 14.) oH
of three ancient divisions of Egypt, which answered \s3
the Greek Thebais. — Calmet.
PATIENCE ; that calm and unruffled temper wi "a
which a good man bears the evils of life.
" Patience," says an eminent writer, " is apt to 1 3
ranked by many among the more humble and obscui "
virtues, belonging chiefly to ih;'se who groan on a sick
bed, or who languish in a prison ; but in every circum-
stance of life, no virtue is more important both to duty
and to happiness. It is not confined to a situation of con-
tinued adversity : it principally, indeed, regards the disa-
greeable circumstances which are apt to occur : but pros-
perity cannot be enjoyed, any more than adversity sup-
ported, without it. It must enter into the temper, and
form the habit of the soul, if we would pass through the
world with tranquillity and honor."
" Christian patience," says Mason, " is essentially dif-
ferent from insensibility, whether natural, artificial, or
acquired. This, indeed, sometimes passes for patience,
though it be in reality quite another thing ; for patience
signifies suffering. Now if you inflict ever so much pain
on the body of another, if he is not sensible of it, it is no
pain to him ; he suffers nothing; consequently calmness
under it is no patience. This insensibility is sometimes
natural. Some, in the native temperament of their mind
and body, are much less susceptible of pain than others
are. There are different degrees of insensibility in men,
both in their animal and mental frame ; so that the same
event may be a great exercise of patience to one man.
which is none at all to another ; as the latter feels little or
no pain from that wound inflicted on the body or mind
which gives the most exquisite anguish to the former.
Again ; there is an artificial insensibility, such as is pro-
cured by opiates, which blunt the edge of pain ; and theie
is an acquired insensibility, or that which is attained by
the force of principles strongly inculcated, or by long cus-
tom. Such was the apathy of the Stoics, who obstinately
maintained that pain was no evil, and therefore bore it
with amazing firmness, which, however, was very difle-
rent from the virtue of Christian patience, as appears
from the principles from which they respectively proceed-
ed ; the one springing from pride, the other from humili-
ty." Christian patience, then, is something difl'erent
from all these. " It is not a careless indolence, a stupid
insensibility, mechanical bravery, constitulional fortitude,
a daring stoutness of spirit, resulting from fatalism, phi-
losophy, or pride : — it is derived from a divine agency,
nourished by heavenly truth, and guided by scriptural
rules."
" Patience," says Mr. Jay, " must be displayed under
provocations. Our opinions, reputations, connexions, offi-
PAT
[912]
PAT
ces, business, render us widely vulnerable. The charac-
ters of men are various ; their pursuits and their interests
perpetually clash ; some try us by their ignorance, some
by their folly ; some by their perverseness ; some by their
malice. Here, then, is an opportunity for the triumph of
patience. We are very susceptive of irritation ; anger is
eloquent ; revenge is sweet : but to stand calm and col-
lected ; to suspend the blow which passion was urgent to
strike ; to drive the reasons of clemency as far as they
will go i^to bring forward fairly in view the circumstances
of mitigation ; to distinguish between surprise and de-
liberation, infirmity and crime : or if infliction be deemed
necessary, to leave God to be both the judge and the exe-
cutioner ; this a Christian should labor after. His peace
requires it. People love to sting the passionate : they
who are easily provoked, commit their repose to the keep-
ing of their enemies ; they lie down at their feet and in-
vite them to strike. The man of temper places himself
beyond vexatious interruption. 'He that hath no rule
over his own spirit is like a city that is broken down, and
without walls,' into which enter, over the ruins, serpents,
vagrants, thieves, enemies ; while the man who in pa-
tience possesses his soul, has the command of himself,
places a defence all around him, and forbids the entrance
of such Unwelcome company to offend or discompose.
His wisdom requires it. ' He that is slow to anger is of
great understanding; but he that is hasty of spirit, exalt-
eth folly.' Wisdom gives us large, various, comprehen-
fiive views of things ; the very exercise operates as a di-
version, affords the mind time to cool, and furnishes num-
berless circumstances tending to soften severity. His
dignity requires it. ' It is the glory of a man to pass by
a transgression.' The man provoked to revenge is con-
quered, and loses the glory of the struggle ; while he who
forbears comes oflf victor, crowned with no common lau-
rels. A flood assails a rock, and rolls ofi' unable to make
an impression ; while straws and boughs are borne off in
triumph, carried down the stream, driven and tossed.
Examples require it. What provocations had Joseph re-
ceived from his brethren ? But he scarcely mentions the
crime, so eager is he to announce the pardon. David
says ' they rewarded me evil for good ; but as for me,
when they were sick, my clothing was sackcloth.' Ste-
phen, dying under a shower of stones, prays for his ene-
mies : ' Lord, lay not this sin to their charge.' But a
greater than Joseph, or David, or Stephen, is here. Go to
the foot of the cross, and behold Jesus, suffering for us.
Every thing conspired to render the provocation heinous ;
the nature of the offence, the meanness and obligation of
the offenders, the righteousness of his cause, the grandeur
of his person ; and all these seemed to call for vengeance.
The creatures were eager to punish. Peter drew his
sword ; the sun resolved to shine on such criminals no
Jonger ; the rocks asked to crush them ; the earth trem-
bles under the sinful load ; the very dead cannot remain
in their graves. He suffers them all to testify their sym-
pathy, but forbids their revenge ; and, lest the Judge of
all should pour forth his fury, he cries, ' Father, forgive
them, for they know not what they do !'
■'2. Patienceistobedisplayedinsufferingaffliction. This
is another field in which patience gathers glory. Afflic-
tion comes to exercise our patience, and to distinguish it.
' The trial of 5'our faith worketh patience,' not only in
consequence of the divine blessing, but by the natural
operation of things ; use makes perfect ; the yoke is ren-
dered easy by being worn ; and those parts of the body
which are most in action are the most strong and solid ;
and, therefore, we are not to excuse improper dispositions
under affliction, by saying, ' It was so trying, who could
help it?' This is to justify impatience by what God
sends on purpose to make you patient.
"3. Patience is to be exercised under delays. We as
naturally pursue a desired good, as we shuii an appre-
hended evil : the want of such a good is as grievous as the
pressure of such an evil ; and an ability to bear the one is
as needful a qualification as the fortitude by which we
endure the other. It therefore equally belongs to patience
to wait, as to suffer. God does not always immediately
mdulge us with an answer to our prayers. He hears, in-
leed, as soon as we knock : but he does not open the
door : to stand there resolved not to go without a blessing,
requires patience ; and patience cries, ' Wait on the
Lord ; be of good courage, and he shall strengthen thine
heart : wait, I say, on the Lord.' "
We have, however, the most powerful motives to ex-
cite us to the attainment of this grace. 1 . God is a God
of patience, Rom 15: H 2. It is enjoined by the gospel,
Eom. 12: 12. Luke 21: 19. 3. The present state of man
renders the practice of it absolutely necessary, Heb. 10:
36. 4. The manifold inconvenience of impatience is a
strong motive, John 4. Psal. 106. 5. Eminent exam-
ples of it, Heb. 12: 2. 6: 12. Job 1: 22. 6. Reflect that
all our trials will terminate in triumph, James 5: 7, 8.
Rom. 2: 7. Barrorv's Work, vol. iii. ser. 10 ; Jmfs Ser-
mons, \o\. i. ser. 2; Massillon's Sermons; Mason's Chris-
tian Morals, vol. i. ser. 3 ; Blair's Sermons, vol. iii. ser. 11 ;
Bishop Home's Discourses, vol. ii. ser. 10 ; Bishop Hopkins'
Death. Disarmed, pp. 1, 120 ; Works of Hannah More ;
Dnnghi's Theology. — Hend. Buck.
PATIENCE OF GOD, is his long-suffering or forbear-
ance. He is called the God of patience, not only because
he is the author and object of the grace of patience, but
because he is patient or long-suffering in himself, and to-
wards his creatures. It is not, indeed, to be considered
as a quality, accident, passion, or affection in God as in
creatures, but belongs to the very nature and essence of
God, and springs from his goodness and mercy, Rom. 2:
4. It is said to be exercised towards his chosen people,
(2 Pet. 3: 9. Rom. 3: 25. Isa. 30: 18. 1 Tim. 1: 16.)
and towards the ungodly, Rom. 2: 4. Eccl. 8: 11. The
end of his forbearance to the wicked, is, that they may be
without excuse ; to make his power and goodness visible ;
and partly for the sake of his own people, Gen. 18: 32.
Rev. 6: 11. 2 Pet. 3: 9. His patience is manifested by
giving warnings of judgments before he executes them,
Hos. 6: 5. Amos 1: 1. 2 Pet. 2: 5. In long delaying
his judgments, Eccl. 8: 11. In often mixing mercy with
them. There are many instances of his patience record-
ed in the Scriptures ; with the old world, (Gen. 6: 3.) the
inhabitants of Sodom, (Gen. 18.) in Pharaoh, (Exod. 5.)
in the people of Israel in the wilderness, (Acts 13: 18.) in
the Amorites and Canaanites, (Gen. 15: 15. Lev. 18: 28.)
in the Gentile world, (Acts 17: 30.) in fruitless professors,
(Luke 13: 6, 9.) in Antichrist, Rev. 2: 21. 13: 6. 18: 8.
See Charnnck's Works, vol. i. p. 780 ; Gill's Body of Div.,
vol.i. p. 130; Saurin's Sermons; Bossiiet's do. ; R. Walker's
do. ; .Jay's do. ; Wolfe's do. ; Tillolson's do. — Hend. Buck.
PATIVIOS ; a small rocky island in the jEgean sea,
about eighteen miles in circumference ; which, on ac-
count of its dreary and desolate character, was used by
the Roman emperors as a place of confinement for crimi-
nals. To this island St. John was banished by the em-
peror Domitian ; and here he had his revelation, recorded
in the Apocalypse. (See Apocalypse.) — Watson.
PATRIARCHS ; (from the Greek patria, family, and
archon, head, or ruler ;) heads of families ; a name applied
chiefly to those who lived before Moses, who were both
priests and princes, without peculiar places fitted for wor-
ship, Acts 2: 29. 7: 8, 9. Heb. 7: 4.
Patriarchs, in church history, are ecclesiastical dignita-
ries, or bishops, so called from their paternal authority in
the church. It obtained first among the Jews, as the title
of the presidents of the sanhedrim, which exercised a
general authority over the Jews of Syria and Persia, after
the destruction of Jerusalem. The patriarchate of Tibe-
rias, for the western Jews, subsisted till the year 415 ;
that of Babylon, for the eastern Jews, till 1038. When
introduced into the Christian church, the power of patri-
archs was not the same in all, but differed according to
the different customs of countries, or the pleasure of
kings and councils. Thus the patriarch of Constantino-
ple grew to be a patriarch over the patriarchs of Ephesus
and Caesarea, and was called the ecumenical and universal
patriarch; and the patriarch of Alexandria had some
prerogatives which no other patriarch but himself enjoy-
ed ; such as the right of consecrating and approving of
every single bishop under his jurisdiction.
The patriarchate has ever been esteemed the supreme
dignity in the church : the bishop had only under him the
territory of the city of which be was bishop ; the me-
I
PAT
tropoUtan super ulcudeJ a province, and had for suffra-
gans the bishops of his province ; the primate was the
chief of what was then called a diocese, and had several
metropolitans under him ; and the patriarch had under
him several dioceses, composing one exarchate, and the
primates themselves were under him. (See Chukch,
Gkeeii.)
At present, the Greek church is governed by /ojo-jatri-
archs, viz., those of Constantinople, Jerusalem, AuJioch, and
Alexandria. The last three are equal and independent,
but they acknowledge the superiority of the other, and his
authority, in so far that nothing important can be under-
taken in the regulation of spiritual affairs without his
consent.
The patriarch of Constantinople is elected, by plurality
of votes, by the metropolitan and neighboring bishops,
•and presented to the Sultan for institution. This favor is
seldom refused, if he bring with him the usual presents,
w hich have varied, according to the varieties of wealth or
avarice, from twenty thousand to thirty thousand dol-
lars. But having conceded this formality in the elec-
tion, the sultan retains the unmitigated power of deposi-
tion, banishment, or execution ; and it is needless to add,
that even the paltry exaction" on institution is motive suffi-
cient for the frequent exertion of that power ; and it has
sometimes happened, that the patriarch, on some trilling
dispute, has been obliged to purchase his confirmation in
office. He possesses the privilege (in name, perhaps,
rather than reality) of nominating his brother patriarchs:
and, after their subsequent election by the bishops of their
respective patriarchates, of confirming the election ; but
the iarut of the sultan is still necessary to give authority
both to themselves, and even to every bishop whom they
may eventually appoint in the execution of their office.
The election of the other patriarchs, as they are further
removed from the centre of oppression, is less restrained,
and their deposition less freqitent. But this comparative
security is attended by little power or consequence ; and
two at least of the three are believed to number very few
subjects who remain faithful to the orthodox church.
The patriarch of Antioch has two rivals who assume the
same title and dignity ; the one as the head of the Syrian
Jacobite church, the other as the Maronite patriarch, or
head of the Syrian Catholics. The patriarch of Alexan-
dria, who resides generally at Cairo, has also his Coptic
rival ; and the few who are subject to him are chiefly
found in the villages or capital of Lower Egypt. The"
patriarchs of Antioch and Jerusalem reside chiefly at
Constantinople, and enjoy very slender and precarious
revenues. Echc. Een. July, 1S31. — Heiid Buck.
PATRICIANS ; followers of Patricius, of the same age
as the preceding, A. D. 410, 412. These are charged
with believing, that the devil made man's body altogether ;
and that therefore a Christian may kill himself to get rid
of it.
These tales, though they originated with the saints and
fathers of the church, may seem too ridiculous to be believ-
ed in the nineteenth century; and, it is probable, they were
founded on hearsay ; and yet the recent existence of Mug-
glftnnians and Southcoitians shows, tliat nothing is too ri-
diculous to find credit with some ptopl.. Turner's Hist.
pp. lS'i-9.— Williams.
PATRICK, (Simon,) bishop of Ely, geatly distinguish-
ed lor his learning and piety, was born at Gainsborough,
in Lincolnshire, 1626. He received his early education
in his native place ; but at the age of eighteen, was ad-
mitted into Queen's college, Cambridge, where he studied
with great diligence and unceasing perseverance. At the
usual time he took the degrees of master of arts and
bachelor of arts, and was chosen fellow of his college ;
and very shortly after received holy orders from Hall,
bishop of Norwich, in his retirement at Heigham, after
his ejection from his bishopric. He was soon afterwards
receive 1 as chaplain into the family of Sir Walter St.
John, of Battersea, who gave him that living in 1058. In
1661, he was elected, by a majority of fellows, master of
Queen's college, in opposition to a royal mandamus, ap-
pointing Mr. Anthony Sparrow to that place ; but the
affair, being brought before the king and council, was
soon decided in favor of Mr. Sparrow ; and some of the
115
[ 913 1 TAT
fellows, if not all, who had formerly agreed with Mr
Patriclc, were ejected. His next preferment was the rec-
tory of St. Paul's, Covcnt garden, given him by the earl
of Bedford, in 16C2, where he endeared himself to the pa-
rishioners by his uniform conduct; by his exemplary-
piety ; by his frequent attendance on them during the
dreadful and ravaging plague of 1G65 ; and, above all,
by his prayers, his excellent advice, and his anxious con
cern for the welfare of their immortal souls. In 1G66,
he received from the university at Oxford the degree of
D. D. He was made chaplain in ordinary to the king
about the same time.
In the year 1668, hs published his "Friendly Debate,
between a Conformist and a Non-conformist;" which was
answered by the dissenters. In 1672, he was made pre-
bendary of Westminster, and dean of Peterborough in
1679. There he completed and published the " History
of the Church of Peterborough." In 16S0, the lord
chancellor Finch offered him the living of St. Martin's-in-
the-Fields, but he refused it, and recommended it to Dr.
Thomas Tenison. During the reign of James the Second,
Dr. Patrick was one of those champions who defended
the Protestant religion against the papists. At the revo-
lution, in 1688, great u.'ie was made of the dean, who was
very active in settling the affairs of the church. He was
called upon to preach before the prince and princess of
Orange ; and soon afterwards was appointed one of the
commissioners for the review of the liturgy. In 1()89, he
was created bishop of Chichester, and employed, with
others of the new bishops, to compose the disorders of the
church of Ireland. In the year 1691, he was translated
to the see of Ely- On the 31st of Jlay, 1707, Dr. Patrick
expired, at the advanced age of eighty.
Bishop Patrick was a sincere Christian, an excellent
scholar, a judicious commentator, an able writer, and a
worthy, honest man. His style of writing was easy and
pleasant ; his attachment to truth inviolable and active.
His works are replete with sound sense and true religion ;
and his " Sennons," " Tracts against Poperj'," and '• Para-
phrases and Commentaries upon the Holy Scriptures,"
justly entitle him to the eulogy of Burnet, " that he was
an honor to the church, and to the age in which he lived.'"
See Life of Patricl;.— Jones' CJiris. Biog.
PATRIPASSIANS, or P,\tropas5ian's ; a name applied
to the Monarchians, Noetians, Praxeans, Sabellians, and
all others, who, believing the Father and Son to be one per-
son, and believingalso that the latter sufiered and died, are
charged with maintaining that the Father himself sulfered.
For the Trinitarians thus reasoned : — '•' If the Son suflered,
and he was the same person as the Father, then must tin;
Father have also suffered." But their opponents ui.l iHit
admit this: they confined the sufferings of Christ to his
human nature, and admitted only, that the Father (or di-
vine nature) suffered by sympathy with the humanity of
Jesus. It does not appear, however, that this senliiuert
created any schisiu in the church. (See Pkaxeans.) Mo-
.slieim's E. H. vol. i. pp. 234-5. — Williams.
PATRISTICS ; {tlieologia palrislica ;) that branch cf
historical theology which treats particularly of the lives
and doctrines of the fathers of the church. It is at present
studied with unusual zeal in Germany, where, at Tubin-
gen, a cheap " Bibliotheca Patrum Latinornni" was pub-
lished in 1827. (See A.valysis of THEor.oev.) — I{end. Buck.
PATRONAGE, or Advowson; a sort of incorporeal he-
reditament, con.sisting in the riglit of presentation lo a
church, or ecclesiastical benefice. Advowson signifies the
taking into protection, and therefore is synonymous with
patronage ; and he who has the right of advowson is call-
ed the patron of the church. — Ilend. Buck.
PATTERSON, (Robert, LL. D.,) president of the
American Phihisophical society, was born in the north of
Ireland, Slay 30, 1713. In 176S, lie emigrated to PhUa-
delphia. In 1774, he was appointed principal of the aca-
demy at Wilmington. Delaware. lu the revolutionary
war he acted as brigade major. In 1779, he was appoiul-
ed professor of mathematics in the university of Pennsyl-
vania, and then vice-provost. In 180-3, he was apponited
director of the mint of the United Stales. In 1319, tie was
chosen president of the American Peace society. He >1ieU
July 22, 1821, aged eighty-one
P AU
L 914 ]
PAU
A remarkable traif, of BIr. Patterson's character, and its
crowning excellence, was his fervent piety. It influenced
all his conduct from his youth. He was an elder of the
Scotch Presbyterian church nearly half a century. In the
Transactions of the Philosophical Society he published
many papers. ^-(4//fn.
PAUL. It has frequently been observed, that the dis-
pensation of the gospel was committed, in the first instance,
to men of no rank or reputation in the world. A few per-
sons were selected from the walks of humble life, to be the
followers of Jesus Christ ; and to them principally was de-
legated the sacred office of bearing witness to the history
of his life, and promulgating the doctrines of salvation.
Such was the will of him, who devised the plan of redemp-
tion ; such was the determination of infinite wisdom. As
if to prove, beyond the semblance of a doubt, that the
power which gave efl'ect to the preaching of the gospel
was the power of God, the foolish things of this world were
chosen to confound the wise, and the weak to overturn the
mighty.
Yet was not this rule so universally observed as to re-
main wilhoat exception, even in the first ages of the
church. Within two or three years after the ascension of
our Lord, there was found in the number of the apostles a
young man of splendid talents and of uncommon attain-
ments. He was ordained to be a special instrument of
Heaven in extending, far beyond the limits of Judea, the
doctrines of the cross, and in bringing the Gentiles to the
fold of Christ.
When we reflect upon the circumstances of his conver-
sion, the manner in which he was commissioned, and the
great end for which he was made a minister of the truth,
we must naturally conclude that St. Paul would present a
character of singular interest to the members of the church,
in every future period of the world. The records of anti-
quity furnish many proofs of the marked respect, which
in those times was paid to his memory. In addition to the
minute history of his labors, which, for a certain period, is
to be found in the New Testament, many particulars have
been transmitted to us, which, if not absolutely certain,
have a measure of probability ; and if they prove nothing
else, may at least be admitted to prove the interest excited
by his life and doctrines.
1. Personal ijifirmities of St. Paul. — He is represented as
a man of low stature, and inclining to stoop, of a grave
countenance, and a fair complexion ; his eyes are said to
have possessed a certain suavity of expression, his nose to
have been gracefully aquiline, his forehead nearly bald,
his beard thick, and, as he advanced in life, like the hair
on his head, somewhat silvered by age. He is derided by
Lucian, as the high-nosed, bald-pated Galilean. Notwith-
standing the abundance of his labors, his constitution is
thought to have been infirm, and he is mentioned by Je-
rome as much afflicted with the head-ache. Some writers
have imagined that he had a defect in his eyes, and that,
when speaking, he was apt to fail either in the command
of words, or in the power of articulation ; but these are, at
the best, only vague conjectures. The passages cited from
the epistles in support of them are far from conclusive.
His bodily presence is, indeed, said to have been weak,
and his speech contemptible : but the charge is of little
■jalue, as it came from his enemies; it might possibly be
true — it might easily be false. That he had some personal
infirmity, which was visible to others, and which exposed
him to many trials, may be inferred from his epistle to the
Galatians : " Ye know how through infirmity of the flesh I
preached the gospel unto you at the first ; and my tempta-
tion, which was in the flesh, ye despised not nor rejected: hut
received me as an angel of God, even as Jesus Christ."
He doubtless alludes in this place to that thorn in the flesh,
mentioned in the second epistle to the Corinthians. Of its
nature we can knoiv nothing, for nothing is revealed ; and
the conjectures of the ancients are of little more account
than those of the moderns. The passage which follows
the verses just cited, " I bear you record, that, if it had
been possible, ye would have plucked out your own eyes,
and have given them to me," sufficiently attests the love
of the Galatians, but it proves nothing more.
Whatever were the infirmities of this apostle, he pos-
sessed certain qnalUies ^ hicli, when sanctified by grace.
fitted him for the first station in the church of Chiist, aua
he was favored with the peculiar grace and blessing of
God. This man of three cubits in height, as Chrysostom
tells us, was tall enough to touch the heavens ; his conver-
sation was there, and thence he derived those pure lessons
of religion and morals, that loftiness of principle, that fer-
vor of feeling, that ardent and inextinguishable hope of
immortality, which animated his own conduct, and aflbrd-
ed instruction and consolation to every coming age. If
any reader of St. Paul should have discovered nothing of
excellence in his character, and nothing to be admired in
the counsels which selected this apostle for the defence
and propagation of the gospel, let him be assured that he
has much to learn. He resembles the heedless traveller,
who perceives nothing in his progress but the soil and the
pebbles around him' It is to patient research that the
scenery unveils its beauties, and spreads the secret trea-
sures of its interior magnificence.
2. Character of St. Paul, before and after his conversion. —
The following remarks of Hug on the character of this
apostle, are equally just and eloquent : " This most violent
man, having such terrible propensities, whose turbulent
impulses rendered him of a most enterprising character,
would have become nothing better than a John of Gishala,
a blood-intoxicated zealot, (empneon apailis kai phonou,)
breathing out threatenings and slaughter, (Acts 9: 1.) had
not his whole soul been changed. The harsh tone of his
mind inclined him to the principles of Pharisaism, which
had all the appearance of severity, and was the predomi-
nant party among the Jews. Nature had not wilhholden
from him the external endowments of eloquence, although
he afterwards spoke very modestly of them. Longinus
reckons him among the greatest orators of antiquity.
At Lystra he was deemed the tutelar god of eloquence.
This character, qualified for great things ; but not master
of himself from excess of internal power, was an extreme
of human dispositions, and, according to the natural
course, was prone to absolute extremities. His religion
was a destructive zeal, his anger was fierceness, his fury
required victims. A ferocity so boisterous did not natu-
rally qualify him for a Christian, nor for a philanthropist ;
but, least of all, for a quietly enduring man. He, never-
theless, became all this on his conversion to Christianity,
and each bursting emotion of his mind subsided directly
into a well-regulated and noble character. Formerly hasty
and irritable, now spirited and resolved ; formerly violent,
now full of energy and enterprising; once ungovernably
refractory against every thing which obstructed him, now
only persevering ; once fanatical and morose, now only
serious ; once cruel, now only firm ; once a harsh zealot,
now fearing God ;, formerly unrelenting, deaf to sympathy
and commiseration, now himself acquainted with tears,
which he had seen without eflfect in others. Formerly the
friend of none, now the brother of mankind, benevolent,
compassionate, sympathizing ; yet never weak, always
great ; in the midst of sadness and sorrow manly and
noble ; so he showed himself at his deeply inovmg depar-
ture from Miletus : (Acts 20.) it is like the departure of
Moses, like the resignation of Samuel, sincere and heart-
felt, full of self-recollection, and in the midst of pain full
of dignity.
"His writings area true expressionof this character, with
regard to the tone predominant in them. Severity, manly
seriousness, and sentiments which ennoble the heart, are
interchanged with mildness, affability, and sympathy :
and their transitions are such as nature hegets in the heart
of a man penetrated by his subject, noble and discerning.
He exhorts, reproaches and consoles again ; he attacks
with energy, urges with impetuosity, then again he speaks
kindly to the soul ; he displays his finer feelings for the
welfare of others, his forbearance and his fear of afflicting
any body : all as the subject, time, opposite dispositions,
and circumstances require. There prevails throughout in
them an importuning language, an earnest and lively
communication. Rom. 1:26 — 32. is a comprehensive and
vigorous description of morals. His antitheses, (Rom. 2:
21—24. 2 Cor. 4: 8—12. 6: 9—11. 9; 22— 30.) his enume-
rations, (1 Cor. 13: 4—10. 2 Cor. 6: 4—7. 2 Tim. 3: 1—5.
Eph. 4: 4—7. 5: 3—6.) his gradations, (Rom. 8: 29, 30.
Tit, 3: 3, 4.) the interrogations, exclamations, and compari
I
PAU
[915]
PAU
sons, sometimes animate his language even so as to give
a visible existence to it.
" That, however, which \to principally perceive in Paul,
and from which his whole actions and operations become
intelligible, is the peculiar impression which the idea of a
Universal religion has wrought upon his mind. This idea
of establishing a religion for the world had not so pro-
foundly engrossed any soul, nowhere kindled so much
vigor, and projected it into such a constant energ)'. In
ihis he was no man's scholar ; this he had immediately
recei\'^d from the Spirit of his JIaster ; il was a spark of
the divine light which enkindled him. It %vas this which
never allowed him to remain in Palestine and in Syria,
which so powerfully impelled him to foreign parts. The
portion of some others was Judea and its environs : but
his mission was directed to the nations, and his allotment
was the whole of the heathen world. Thus he began his
career among; the diflerent nations of Asia Minor, and
when this limit also became too confined for him, he went
with equal confidence to Europe, among other nations,
ordinances, sciences, and customs; and here likewise he
finally, wrth the same indefatigable spirit, circulated his
plans, even to the pillars of Hercules. In this manner
Paul prepared, the overthrow of two religions, that of his
ancestors, and that of the heathens."
3. History of St. Paul. — The Scripture histor)', to which
we refer our readers, (Acts 8 — 28.) ends with the release of
St. Paul from his two years' imprisonment at Rome, A. D.
63; and no aacieiU author has left us any particulars of
the remaining part of this apostle's life. It seems proba-
ble, that, immediately after he recovered his liberty, he went
lo Jerusalem^ and that afterwards be travelled through A.sia
Miner, Crete, Macedonia, and Greece, confirming his con-
verts, and regulating the affairs of the different churches
which he had planted in those countries. Whether at this
lime he also preached the gospel in Spain, as some have
imagined, is very uncertain. It was the unanimous tradi-
tion of the church, that St. Paul returned to Rome, that he
underwent a second imprisonment there, and at last was
put to death by the emperor Nero. Tacitus and Suetonius
have mentioned a dreadful fire which happened at Rome iu
the time of Nero. It was believed, though probably with-
out any reason, that tlic emperor himself was the author
of that fire ; but, to remove the odium from himself, he
cjiose to attribute it to the Christians ; and, to give some
color to that unjust imputation, he persecuted them with
the utmost cruelt3'. In this persecution St. Peter and St.
Paul suflered tnartyrdooi, probably A. D. fio ; and if we
may credit Suipiiius Severus, a writer of the fifth century,
the former was crucified, and the latter beheaded.
He was the principal instrument under Providence of
spreading the gospel among the Gentiles ; and his labors
lasted through many years, and reached over a vast extent
of country. (See Illyricum.) Though emphatically styled
the great Apostle of the Gentiles, he began his ministry,
in almost every city, by preaching in the synagogue of
the Jews ; and though he owed by far the greater part of
iii« persecutions to the opposition and malice of that proud
and obstinate people, whose resentment he particularly
incurred by maintaining that the Gentiles were to be ad-
mitted to an indiscriminate participation of the benefits of
the new dispensation, yet it rarely happened in any place,
that some of the Jews did not yield to his arguments, and
embrace the gospel. He watched with paternal care over
the churches which he had founded ; and was always
ready to strengthen the faith, and regulate the conduct, of
his converts, by such directions and advice as their cir-
cumstances might require.
4. His Epistles. — The exertions of St. Paul in the cause
of Christianity were not confined to personal instruction :
he also wrote fourteen epistles to individuals or churches,
which are now extant, and form a part of our canon. (See
Epistles.) These letters furnish evidence of the soundness
and sobriety of his judgment. His morality is everywhere
calm, pure, and rational ; adapted to the condition, the ac-
tivity, and the business of social life, and of its various rela-
tions; free from the over-scrupulousness and austerities of
superstition, and from, what was more perhaps to be appre-
hended, the abstractions of quietism, and the soarings or
extravagancies of fanaticism. His judgment concerning a
hesitating conscience, his opinion of the moral mdillerency
of certain actions, yet of the prudence and even the duty of
compliance, where non-compliance would produce evil
effects upon the minds of the persons who observed it, arc
all in proof of the calm and discriminatingcharacter of his
mind ; and the universal applicability of his precepts af-
fords strong presumption ol'his divine inspiration.
What lord Lyttleton has remarked of the preference
ascribed by St. Paul to rectitude of principle above every
other reHgious accomphshment, is weighty; "Though I
speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not
charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cym-
bal," &c., 1 Cor. 13: 1 — 3. " Did ever enthusiast prefer
that universal benevolence, meant by charity here, (which,
we may add, is attainable by every man,) to faith and ".o
miracles, to those religious opinions which he had sm-
braced, and to those supernatural graces and gifts which
he imagined he had acquired, nay, even the merit of mar-
tyrdom? Is it not the genius of FAthusiasm to set moral
virtues infinitely below the merit 'A' faith ; and of all moral
virtues to value that least which is most particularly en-
forced by St. Paul, a spirit of candor, moderation, and
peace ? Certainly, neither the temper nor the opinions of
a man subject to fanatic delusions are to be foimd in this
passage. His letters, i.ideed, everj'where di.scover great
zeal and earnestness in the cause iu which he was en-
gaged ; that is to say, he was convinced of the truth of
what he taught; he was deeply impressed, but not more
so than the occasion merited, with a sense of its impor-
tance. This produces a corresponding animation and so-
iicilude in the exercise of his ministry. But would not
these considerations, supposing them to have been well
founded, have holden the same place, and produced the
same effect, in a mind the strongest and the most sedate ?
Here, then, we have a man of liberal attainments, and in
other respects of sound judgment, who had addicted his
life to the service of the gospel- We see him, in the pro-
secution of his purpose, travelling from country to country,
enduring every species of hardship, eiicouniering every
extremity of danger, assaulted by the populace, punished
by the magistrates, scourged, beaten, stoned, left for dead ;
expecting, wherever he came, a renewal of the same treat-
ment, and the same dangers; yet, when driven from one
city, preaching in the next; spending his whole time in
the employment ; sacrificing to it his pleasures, his ease,
his safely; persisting in this course to old age, unaltered
by the experience of pervcrseness, ingratitude, prejudice,
desertion ; unsubdued by anxicly, want, labor, persecu-
tions ; unwearied by long confinement; undismayed by
the pro.spect of death. Such wets St. Paul ; and such
were ' the proofs of apostleship found in him.' "
5. Stijle of his n-ritinss. — There is a pa-ssage in St. Peter
which is commonly understood to imply that some parts
of St. Paul's epistles are hard to be understood; and this
has been advanced again and again, as if every thing he
wrote were of dangenius tendency, unless guarded by in-
terpretations and comments. We concede cheerfully that
(for reasons hereafter to be assigned) there are difficulties
in the writings of St. Paul peculiar to himself; but ws
must beg leave to affirm that tlie assertion commonly at-
tributed to St. Peter, never was made by St. Peter. The
usual error on this subject arises solely from the want cf
grammatical accuracy in the translation. The passage
correctly translated runs thus : ■■ Even as our beloved bn
ther Paul also, according to the wisdom given unto him,
hath written unto you ; as also in all his epistles, speaking
in them of these things; (i. e. the coming of the last day,
the di.ssolution of the elements, the judgment of the quick
and dead, (cc. ;) among nhich things, (en tois, not en hais.)
are some hard to be understood." The difficulty con-
sists not in Paufs manner of treating the subjects, (1 Cor.
2: 13.) but in the subjects themselves, when compared with
the limits of the human understanding.
Paul's powerful and diversifiedcharacter of mind seems
to have combined the separate excellencies of all the other
sacred authors: the loftiness of Isaiah; the devotion of
Da\nd ; the pathos of Jeremiah , the vehemence of Ezeki-
el ; the didactic gravity of Moses ; the elevated mora i y
and practical good sense, though somewhat more bigmj
colored, of St. James , the sublime conceptions and deep
f AU
[ 916 J
PAY
views of St. John ; the noble energies and burning zeal of
St. Peter. To all these he added his own strong argument-
ative powers, depth of thought, and intensity of feeling.
Yet his style is often abrupt, and sometimes obscure : his
reasoning, though generally clear, is, as the best critics
allow, sometimes involved, perhaps owing to the sudden-
ness of his transitions, the rapidity of his ideas, the sensi-
bility of his soul. The apostle is often carried away by
the impetnons fervor and loftiness of his rarnd. On such
occasions to confine his excursive spirit within the limits
of regular argumentation, would be to chain down the
ocean in the proudest swelling and grandeur of its waves.
But we can scarcely consider this as a defect. It may de-
ter the idle; it may supply an excuse for indolence ; but
if it invite the more studious to a serious examination of
his writings, the result will be beneficial : many passages,
apparently involved, will be clearly comprehended, and
the order of the reasoning distinctly seen. It was the
opinion of Epiphanius, that the alleged complication of St.
Paul's discourses was only in appearance ; and we will
venture to add with oar author, that if any of them should
remain after all obscure and intricate, yet some lesson of
practical wisdom will be the reward of examination ;
some position of piety, some aphorism of virtue, easy from
its brevity, intelligible from its clearness, and valuable
from its weight. No person ever yet repented of consult-
ing the pages of St. Paal. They are, as has been justly
stated, " a golden mine, in which the diligent workman, the
deeper he digs, the more he will discover ; the further he
examines, the more he will find." — LT/tilttmi an tTie Conver-
sion of Si. Paul ; PaJei/s Emdences, and Ilures Pnieliiia ;
Hug's Introduaimi ; Hannah More on the CharacUr and
Writings of St. Fail! ; British Bemem, 1815; Etickminstfr's
Ser7nons ; Saturday Eiren/ng ; NeandVY ; IVatson.
PAULIANISTS ; a sen so called from their founder,
Paulus Samosalenns, a iiaiivc i>f Snniosata, elected bishop
of Antioch, in 2ii2. His doctrine seems lo have amounted
to this : that the Son and Ihe Holy Ghost exist in God in the
same manner as the faculties of reason and activity do in
man ; that Christ was born a mere m-an ; but that the reason
or wisdom of the Father descendeil into him, and by him
wrought miracles upon enilh, and instntcted the nations;
and, finally, that on account of this union of the divine Word
with the man Jesus, Christ might, though improperly, be
called God. It is also said that he did not baptize in the
name of the Father and the Son, fee. ; for w'hich reason tlie
council of Kice ordered those baptized by him to be re-bap-
tized. Being condemned by Dionysius Alexandrinus in a
council, he abjured his errors to avoid deposition ; but soon
after he resumed thera, and was actually deposed by an-
other eonndl, A. D. 30y. He may be considered as the fa-
ther of the modern Soeinians ; and his errors are severely
condemned by tlic conncil of Nice, whose creed differs a lit-
tle from that now used under the same namein the church of
England. The creed agreed upon by the Nicene fathers,
witii a view to the errors of Paulus Samosalenus, con-
cludes thus : — " But those who say there was a time when
he was not, and that he was not before he was born,
the Catholic and apostolic chtrrch anathematize." — Hmd.
Bud.
PAULICIAT^S; a numerous body of Greek Protestant
Dissenters in the sixth and following centuries, so called,
it is supposed, from Paulus, a native of jirmenia; or, as
others believe, on account of their attachment to the doc-
trines of the apostle Paul, when all was corrupt and dege-
nerate around them. In the seventh century, one Constan-
tine revived this drocrpuig body, which had suffered much
from the violence of its adversaries, and was ready to ex-
pire under Ihe severity of the imperial edicts, and that
zeal with whicli they were caiTied into execution. The
Paulicians, however, by their number, and the countenance
of the emperor Niccphorns, A. D. 602, became formidable
to all the East, But the cruel rage of pei-secmiou, which
had for some years been suspended, broke forth with re-
doubled violence A. D. 811— S20, under the reigns of Mi-
chael Curopalates, and Leo V., who inSicted capital pu-
nishment on such of the Paulicians as refused to return into
the bosom of the church. The empress Theodora, tutoress
of the emperor Michael, in 815, would oblige them either
to be converted, or to quit the empire j upon which several
of them were put to death, and more retired among the Sara-
cens ; but they were neither all exterminated nor banished.
Some of them entered into a league with the Saracens,
and choosing for their chief an officer of the greatest reso-
lution and valor, whose name was Carbens, (hey declared
against the Greeks a war, which was carried on for fifty
years with the greatest veliemenee and fury. During^
these sad commotions, the Paulicians, towards the conclu-
sion of this century, spread abroad their doctrines among
the Bulgarians: many of them, either from a principle of
zeal for the propagation of their opinions, or from a natu-
ral desire of flyiirg from (he persecntion which they suffered"
under the Grecian yoke, retired abont the close of the cle^
venth century from Bulgaria and Thrace, and formed set-
tlements in oiher countries. Their first migration was into
Italy ; whence, in process of time, they sent colonies inta
almost all the other provinces of Europe, and formed gra-
dually a considerable number of religious assemblies, whc7
adhered to their doctrine, and who were afterwards perse-
cuted with the utmost vehemence by the Roman ponliflis.
In Italy ihc}' were called Patarini, from a certain place
called Patana, being a part of the city of Milan, where
they held their assemblies; and Gnthari, or Gazari, from
Gazaiia, or the Lesser Tartary. In France they were
called All/igenses. (See CoNSTANTirfE Svivanus.}
The first religious assembly the Paulicians had formed
in Ettrope, i.5 said to have been discovered at Orleans in
1017, under the reign of Robert, when many of them were
condemned to be burned alive. They have been accusecS
of Manichtcism ; but there is reason to believe this was
only a slanderous report raised against them by their
enemies ; and that they were, for the most part, men who
were disgusted with the doctrines and ceremonies of hu-
man invention, and desirous of returning to the apostolic
doctrine and practice. They refused to worship the vir-
gin Mary and the cross, which was sufStjient in those ages
to procure for them the name of atheists ; and they also
refused to partake of the sacraments of the Greek and Ro-
man chnrches, which will account for the allegation that
they rejected them altogether, though it is barely possible
that some may, like Ihe Quakers and some other sects,
actnally have discarded them, as outward ordinances.
(See Cathari ; Novatiass ; and Waldenses.) Moshcim'i
Churrh History., vol. ii. p. 363; Gibbon's Suline and Fall,
ilfec. ; and Jones' Hist, of the Christian Church. — Hcnd. Buck.
PAVILION ; a royal tent. It is a word which usually
gives us the idea of an edifice, small but handsome ; it is
therefore liable to be misunderstood in 1 Kings 20: 12, 16.
"Benhadad and others v:ere drinking m pavilions." — Calmct.
PAYSON, (Edwarb, C I>.,) a distinguished minister
of Portland, Maine, was the son of th« Eev. Seth Pay-
son, D. D. He was born in Eiiidge, New Hampshire,
July 25, 1783; was graduated at Harvard college in 1803^
and for three 3'ears was the teacher of an academy aE
Portland. At this period the death of a brolher had a fa-
vorable influence on his religious character, and he en-
gaged with a pious zeal, which continneit through life,,
in the cause of Jesus Christ. He was ordained, as the
colleague of Mr. Kellogg, Dec. 16, 1807 ; he afterwards
became (he sole pastor of a new ehnrch. During about
twenty years he was exclusively devoted lo the work of
the ministry with increasing usefulness, being the instru-
ment of the conversion to the Christian faith of hundreds
of his hearers. He repeatedly declined invitations to re-
move to Boston and New York. He died, October 22,
1827, aged forty-four.
In his distressing sickness he displayed, in the most in-
teresting and impressive manner, the power of Christian
faith. Smitten down in the midst of his days and useful-
ness, he was entirely resigned to the divine will, for he
perceived distinctlj', that the infinite wisdom of God could
not err in the direction of events, and it w'as his joy that
God reigneth. His mind rose over bodily pain, and in ihe
strong visions of eternity he seemed almost to lose the
sense of suffering.
In a letter to his sister, September 19, 1827, he says,
" Were I to adopt the figurative language of Eunyan, I
might dale this letter from the land of Bealah, of which I
have been for some weeks a happy inhabitant. The ce-
lestial city is full in my view. Its glories beam upon me,
PEA
[ 917 ]
PEA
its odors are wafted lo me, its sounds strike upon my ears,
and its spirit is breathed into my heart. Nothing sepa-
rates me from it but the river of death, which now appears
but as an insignificant rill, that may be crossed at a single
step, whenever God shall give permission. The Sun of
Kighteousness has gradually been drawing nearer and
nearer, appearing larger and brighter as he approached,
and now he fills the whole hemisphere ; pouring forth a
fljod of glory, in which I seem to Uoat lilie an insect in the
beams of the sun ; exulting, yet almost trembling, while I
gaze on this excessive brightness, and wondering, with
unutterable wonder, why God should deign thus to shine
upon a sinful worm. A single heart and a single tongue
seem altogether inadequate to my wants : I want a whole
heart for every separate emotion, and a whole tongue lo
express that emotion."
Among his uncommon intellectual powers, a rich, philo-
sophical, and consecrated imagination was the most con-
spicuous. Without any of the graces of the orator, his
preaching had the most vivid eloquence of truth and feel-
ing. In his prayers especially there was a solemnity, ful-
ness, originality, variety, pathos, and sublimity, .seldom
equalled. His eloquent address to the Bible society has
been published as one of the tracts of the American Tract
society. He published a discourse on the Worth of the Bi-
ble ; an Address to Seamen ; and a thanlisgi ving sermon. A
memoir of his life, by Asa Cummin gs, was published, second
edition, 1830; a volume of sermons, 8vo, 1828; another
volume, r2mo, 1831 ; another to families, 1833. — Allen.
PEABODY, (Oliver,) minister of Natick, Massachu-
setts, and missionary to the Indians, was born in Boxford,
in 1698, and graduated at Harvard college, in 1721. He
was pious in early life, and while in college was preparing
for the ministry.
Employed by the commissioners for propagating the
gospel, he preached first at Natick, August C, 1721. There
were then but two families of white people in the town.
The Indian church, which the apostolic Eliot had founded,
was now extinct, the Indian preacher, Daniel Tahhowom-
pait, having died in 1710 ; and all records were lost. A
new church was formed, December 3, 1729, consisting of
three Indians and five white persons, and Ee was ordained
at Cambridge, December 17. Through his influence many
of the Indians were induced to abandon their savage mode
of living, and to attend to husbandry as the means of sub-
sistence ; he had the happiness to see niany of the Indian
families with comfortable houses, cultivated fields, and
flourishing orchards. But his chief aim was to teach
them the religion of Jesus Christ. There were added to
the church in the first year twenty-two persons, several of
whom were Indians ; in July, 1743, he stated, that in the
two preceding years about fifty had been received into the
church. Against the vice of intemperance among the In-
dians he set himself with great zeal and much success.
During his residence at Natick he baptized one hundred
and eighty-nine Indians, aiul four hundred and twenty-two
whites ; and he received to the church thirty-five Indians
and thirty whites ; and there died two hundred and fifty-
six Indians, one of whom was a hundred and ten years
old. During one season he went on a mission to the IVIo-
hegans. He died in great peace, February 2, 1752, aged
tiftv-three.
Mr. Peabody was eminently pious, and greatly beloved
and lamented. He published Artillery Election Sermon,
1732 ; on a Good and Bad Hope of Salvation, 1742. Pa-
nnpHst, vol. vii. pp. 49 — 56. — Allen.
PEACE ; that state in which persons are exposed to nb
sort of violence to interrupt their tranquillity. 1. Social
peace is mutual agreement one with another, whereby we
forbear injuring one another, Ps. 31: 14. 132. — 2. Eccle-
siastical peace is freedom from contentions, and rest from
persecutions, I.sa. 11: 13. 32: 17. Rev. 12: 14.— 3. Spiritu-
al peace is deliverance from sin, by which we were at en-
miiy with God ; (Rom. 5: 1.) the result of which is peace
in the conscience, Heb. 10: 22. This peace is the gift of
God through Jesus Christ, 2 Thess. 3: 16. It is a blessing
of great importance, Ps. 119: 163. It is denominated per-
fect ; (Isa. 26: 3.) inexpressible ; (Phil. 4: 7.) permanent;
(Job 34: 29. John 10: 22.) eternal, Isa. 57: 2. Heb. 4: 9.
(Sec Happixess.)
Peace is a word used in Scripture generally, for qd...(
and tranquillity, public or private : but often fur every
kind and degree of prosperity and happiness ; as to "go
in peace;" to " die in peace;" "God give you peace ;''
" Peace be within this house ;" " Pray fur the peace of
Jerusalem." Paul in the introduction of his epistles gene-
rally ivishes grace and peace to the faithful, to whom he
writes. Our Savior recommends to his disciples, to have
peace with all men, and with each other. God promises
his people to water them as with a river of peace, (Isa. 68:
12.) and to make with them a covenant of peace, Ezek.
34: 2.5. See also Isa. 9: 7. — Hcnd. Buck; Calmet.
PEACE, Religious; a name given to two famous
treaties, both in the time of the Reformation : one con-
cluded July 22, 1532, and called the Etligioics Peace uf Nil-
remherg ; the other, concluded September 26, 1555, and
called the Religious Pence of Au^sbnri;. — Hend. Buck.
PEACOCK;'' {tavaciim, 1 Kings 10:' 22. 2 Chron. 9: 21.)
a bird distinguished by the length of its tail, and the bril-
liant spots with which it is adorned; which display all
that dazzles in the sparkling lustre of gems, and all that
astonishes in the rainbow. Yet its cry is !;o harsh and
disagreeable, that it has been said to have '■ the head of a
serpent, the train of an angel, and the voice of a devil."
The peacock is a bird originally from India; thence
brought into Persia and Media. Aristophanes meniions
Persian peacocks ; and Suidas calls the peacock the iile-
dian bird. From Persia it was gradually dispersed into
Judea, Egypt, Greece, and Europe. If the fleet of Solo-
mon visited India, tliey might easily procure this bird,
whether from India itself, or from Persia ; and certainly
the bird by its beauty was likely to attract attention,, and
to be brought among other rarities of natural history by
Solomon's servants, who would be instructed to collect
every curiosity in the countries they visited. — M'alson.
PEARCE, (ZiCHARY, D. D.,) bishop of Rochester, a
prelate of distinguished learning and piety, was born in
Holborn, London, 1690. He received his education at
Westminster grammar-school ; after which he was sent to
Trinity college, Cambridge, where hS obtained a fellow-
ship through the interest of the lord chief justice Parker,
afterwards earl of Macclesfield. The same patronage also
procured him a living in Essex, and the vicarage of St.
Martin's-in-the-Fields, London. In 1739, he was promoted
to the vacant deanery of Winchester. Nine years after,
the bishopric of Bangor was bestowed on him, not only
without solicitation, but contrary to his wishes, which
pointed entirely to a private life. Though translated to
Rochester, with the deanery of Westminster annexed, in
1756, his anxiety to retire from the high station to which
he was thus involuntarily raised, vvas so sincere, as well
as strong, that, at length, in 1768, the government yielded
to his repeated request, and allowed him to resign the
more valuable appointment, his deanery, in favor of L.\
Thomas ; retaining, however, the bishopric, to the reti-ing
from which there existed .some objections of an ecclesiasti-
cal nature. He died in 1774.
Bishop Pearce was as distinguished tor his charity and
munificence, as for his learning. He enriched the widows'
college, in the immediate neighborhood of his pabce, at
Bromley, by a do.nation of five thousand pound.s, while his
tracts on theological subjects are numerous and valuable.
Of the.se the principal are, '■ A Commentary on the Gospels
and Acts of the Apostles." in twovolnmes, quirto; "Let-
ters to Dr. Conyers Middleton, in defence of Dr. Water-
land ;" " A Reply to Woolston, on the Miracles ;" "A Re-
view of the Text of Milton ;" an edition of " Longinus on
the Sublime," with a Latin translation annexed ; and an-
other of Cicero's OlF.ces ; also four volumes of sermons,
iVc. Life preftxedln his Cnmmentarij . — Jnms^ Chris. Bio^.
PEARCE, '(SiM'-'EL, A. M..) one of the loveliest exem-
plifications of Christian character, was bom at Plymouth,
(Eng.,) July 20, 1766. The principles of retiii'm were
early instilled into his mind, and at the age n." sixteen he
beca:ne a subject of renewing grace. In 178ft, he entpred
the B:ip;ist academy at Bristol. In 1790, he wa-s ordained
pastor of the Cannon-street church, Binningha.n. to wliinh
he was recommended by the late Rev. Robert HnM. then
one of his tutors. His ministry there was ule.s.s.'d xvnth
almost one continual revival of religion fjr eis; it yeai"s.
PEA
[ S18
PEL
About the year 1792, the mind of Mr. Pearce became
much exercised on the subject of missions. When the
Northampton and Leicester Missionary society was form-
ed, he was present, and entered with his whole heart into
its interests. In 1794, he offered himself to its committee,
to be sent out to India. His soul thirsted for the work ;
but the committee, after the most serious and mature deli-
beration, though fully satisfied as to his qualifications, and
greatly approving his spirit, were unanimously of opinion
that he ought not to go ; not merely on account of his con-
ne.tions at home, but on account of the mission itself,
which required his assistance in the station he already
occupied. His efforts for the cause at home were indeed
assiduous and persevering. He made repeated journeys
to increase its funds, and strove in every way to stir up
the minds of his brethren to its importance. In these ef-
forts he was very successful, as also in the discharge of
his pastoral dutie.'i.
]\Ir. Pearce died of consumption, October 10, 1799.
During all his sickness, which was of a year's continu-
ance, and very severe, he was constantly stayed up by the
hand of his Lord, and cheered with the most blissful pros-
pects. " Blessed be his dear name," said he, " who shed
his blood for me. He helps me to rejoice at times with
ioy unspeakable. Now I see the value of the religion of
the cross. It is a rebgion for a dying sinner. It is all the
most guilty and the most wretched can desire. Yes, I
taste its sweetness, and enjoy its fulness, with all the
gloom of a death-bed before me j and far rather would I
be the poor emaciated and emaciating creature that I am,
than be an emperor with every earthly good about him,
but without a God."
There have been few men, says Fuller, in whom has
been united a greater portion of the contemplative and the
active ; holy zeal and genuine candor ; spirituality and
rationality ; talents that attracted almost universal ap-
plause, and the most unaffected modesty ; faithfulness In
bearing testimony against evil, with the tenderest compas-
sion 10 the soul of the evil-doer; fortitude that would en-
counter any difficulty in the way of duty, without any
thing boisterous, noisy, or overbearing ; deep seriousness
with habitual cheerfulness ; and a constant aim to promote
the highest degrees of piety in himself and others, with a
readiness to hope the best of the lowest ; not breaking the
bruised reed, nor quenching the smoking flax.
The governing principle in Mr. Pearce, beyond all
doubt, was holy love. It is not enough to say of this affec-
tionate spirit, that it formed a prominent feature in his
character — it was rather the life-blood that animated the
whole system. He seemed, as one of his friends observed,
to be baptized in it. It was hnhj love that gave the tone to
his general deportment, as a son, a subject, a neighbor, a
Christian, a minister, a pastor, a friend, a husband, and
a father. This it was that produced in him that lovely
uniformity of character, which constitutes the beauty of
holiness.
The Memoir of this excellent man, by Andrew Fuller,
(of which it has been said, "it is difficult to tell which
is most admirable, the description, or the character de-
scribed,") has passed through numerous editions both in
Europe and America. — Fuller's Memoir of Pearce.
FEARL; a hard, white, shining body, usually round-
i.sh, found in a shell-fish resembling an oysler. The ori-
ental pearls have a fine polished gloss, and are tinged
with an elegant blush of red. They are esteemed in the
East beyond all other jewels.
The Arabians, Persians, and Turks, use the word mero-
varid to signify pearls, from which the word margariles, or
margarita, used by the Greeks and Latins, seems to be de-
rived. The finest pearls are fished up in the Persian gulf,
and on the coast of Bahrein, so called from the city of tliat
name, on the borders of Arabia; and Idumea and Pales-
tine being not far distant, it is not to be wondered at that
pearls were well known to Job, and the Hebrews. They
are ' 'so found in other places ; many in America.
Pearls are certainly very different things from precious
stones ; yet the Greek term, margariles, seems to be used,
in a more general sense, for jewels, or splendid gems. So,
in IMatt. 7:6," cast not your pearls." Jewels, — diamonds,
if known to the ancients, would answer the import of tlia
passage as well as pearls. So, the parts of a building,
pearls ; but pearls are unfit things for walls and gates ;
(Rev. 21.) many kinds of precious stones are more suita-
ble ; and perhaps the parable of the merchant seeking
goodly pearls, (Matt. 13.) might be understood in a more
extensive sense, as importing valuable jewels of whatever
kind. Such appears to be the application of the Chaldee
and Arabic words, which yet properly signify pearls. — •
Watson; Calmel.
PEARSON, (John, D. D.,) bishop of Chester, a learned
and pious prelate of the seventeenth century, was the soft
of an English divine, rector of Snoring, Norfolk, where he
was born in 1612. He was educated at Eton, from whence
he proceeded to King's college, Cambridge, and was or-
dained in 1639, in Salisbury cathedral. He now became
chaplain to lord keeper Finch, who presented him to the
living of Torrington, Suffolk ; but on the success of the
parliamentarian party, he was one of the ministers ejected
on account of their monarchical principles. In 1650, how-
ever, he was appointed to St. Clement's, Eastcheap, in the
city of London, and after the restoration, became, in suc-
cession, lady Margaret professor of divinity, and master
of Jesus college, in the university of Cainbridge, with the
rectory of St. Christopher's, London, and a stall in the
cathedral of Ely. In 1662, he was removed to the master-
ship of Trinity college, and in the course of the same year
assisted in the revision of the bturgy ; a task for which his
previous publicatious had announced him to be peculiarly
well qualified. In 1763, he was raised to the vacant see
of Chester, over which diocess he continued to preside till
his death, in 1686.
The work by which be is principally known, is his cele-
brated "Exposition of the Apostles' Creed," originally de-
livered by him, in a series of sermons or lectures, from the
pulpit of St. Clement's. This elaborate and learned work
first appeared in 1659, and was republished in folio, 1676,
since which time it has gone through at least a dozen edi-
tions, and still sustains its reputation. It is used as a
text-book at the universities, and is regarded as one of the
principal standards of appeal on doctrinal matters in the
church of England. — Hend. Buck ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
PEIRCE, (James,) a very learned divine, and eminent
minister among the Protestant Dissenters, was born in
London, 1673. Losing his parents early, he was placed
under the care of Mr. Matthew Mead, of Stepney, who
had him educated along with his own sons, under his own
roof; after which, he went to Utrecht, where he had his
first academical institution. He afterwards removed to
Leyden, where he studied for some lime ; and having
passed at these two celebrated universities between five
and six years, attending the lectures of Witsiu.s, Leydeck-
er, Gra^vius, Spanheim, and other learned men, he returned
to England. On his return, he took up his abode for some
time in London, and set up a Sabbath evening lecture at
Miles' lane, which he continued for two years, when he
accepted an invitation from a congreg^ation of Dissenters
at Cambridge to become their pastor. In 1713 he was
unanimously invited by the three Dissenting congregalion.s
in Exeter, to succeed one of their ministers, lately deceased,
the surviving ministers joining the people in the invitation.
He accepted the invitation, and accordingly settled in that
city, where his residence for the first three years proved
exceedingly agreeable to him ; and, during this peiiod, he
published his "Vindication of the Protestant Dissenters;"
but a dispute arising in consequence of his refusing, in
conjunction with Mr. Hallelt, to subscribe certain articles
of belief respecting the doctrine of the Trinity, they were
both ejected, and driven to the necessity of building a cha-
pel for themselves. A controversy ensued, in which Mr.
Peirce greatly distinguished himself; but he continued his
ministry at Exeter to the period of his death, in 1726.
His publications are numerous, amounting in all to
about twenty-four. But that by which he is best known
is his Continuation of Mr. Hallett's Paraphrase and Notes
on the Epistle to the Hebrews, quarto. He also gave to
the public a volume containing Fifteen Sermons on Vari-
ous Occasions, and au Essay on the ancient Practice of
giving the Euchari.-^t to Children. — Jones' Chris. Biog.
PELAGIANS ; a sect which arose in the fifth century,
and opposed with warmth certain receiveil notions respect
PEL
[ 919
PEL
ing origiaal sin, and the necessity of divine grace. They
maintained, it is said, the following doctrines : — 1. That
Adam was by nature mortal ; and, whether he had sinned
or not, would certainly have died. — 2. That the conse-
quences of Adam's sin were confined to his own person. —
3. That new-born infants are in the same situation with
Adam before the fall. — 4. That the law qualified men for
the kingdom of heaven, and was founded upon equal pro-
mises with the gospel. — 5. That the general resurrection
of the dead does not follow in virtue of our Savior's resur-
rection.— fi. That the grace of God is given according to
our merits. — 7. That this grace is not granted for the per-
formance of every moral act ; the liberty of the will and
information in points of duty being sufficient. — 8. That
faith is not an effect, but the cause of election to salvation.
Pelagius was a British monk, of some rank, and very
exalted reputation. He, with his friend Celestius, travelled
to Rome, where they resided very early in the fifth centu-
ry. On the approach of the Goths, they retired to Africa,
where Celestius remained, with a view of gaining admit-
tance as a presbyter into the church of Carthage. Pelagi-
us proceeded to Palestine, where he enjoyed the favor and
protection of John, bishop of Jerusalem.
The Pelagian controversy, which began with the doc-
trines of grace and original sin, was extended to predesti-
nation, and excited continual discord and division in the
church. It must however be recollected, that we are ac-
quainted with the sentiments of Pelagius only through the
medium of his opponents ; and that it is possible they were
much misrepresented. (See Augustine.)
Isidore, Chrysostom, and Augustine strenuously opposed
these opinions ; and the latter procured their condemna-
tion in a synod held at Carthage in 412. They were, how-
ever, favorably received at Rome ; and pope Zozimus was
at the head of the Pelagian party : but his decision against
the African bishops, who had opposed Pelagianisra, was
disregarded by them, and the pontiff yielded at length to
their reasonings and remonstrances, and condemned the
men whom he had before honored with his approbation.
The council of Ephesus likewise condemned the opinions
of Pelagius and Celestius ; and the emperor Honorius, in
418, published an edict, which ordained that the leaders
of the sect should be expelled from Rome, and their fol-
lowers exiled.
The followers of Arminius have often been represented
as Pelagians, or at least as Semi-Pelagians. It may there-
fore serve the cause of truth, says Mr. Watson, to exhibit
the appropriate reply which the Dutch Arminians gave to
this charge when urged against them at the synod of Dort,
and which they verified and maintained by arguments
and authorities that were unanswerable. In their con-
cluding observations they say, " From all these remarks
a judgment may easily be formed at what an immense
distance our sentiments stand from the dogmatical asser-
tions of the Pelagians and Semi-Pelagians on the grace of
God in the conversion of vtan. Pelagius, in the first in-
stance, attributed all things to nature : but we acknow-
ledge nothing but grace. When Pelagius was blamed for
not acknowledging grace, he began indeed to speak of it,
but it is evident that by grace he understood the power of
nature as created by God, that is, the rational will : but by
grace we understand a supernatural gift. Pelagius, when
afterwards pressed with passages of Scripture, also admit-
ted this supernatural grace ; but he placed it solely in the
external teaching of the law : though we affirm that God
offers his word to men, yet we likewise affirm that he in-
wardly causes the understanding to believe. Subsequent-
ly Pelagius joined to this external grace that by wliich sins
are pardoned : we acknowledge not only the grace by which
sins are forgiven, but also that by which men are assisted
to refrain from the commission of sin. In addition to his
previous concessions, Pelagius granted that the grace of
Christ was requisite beside the two kinds which he had
enumerated ; but he attributed it entirely to the doctrine
and example of Christ that we are aided in our endeavors
not to commit sin : we likewise admit that the doctrine
and example of Christ afford us some aid in refraining
from sin, but in addition to their influence we also place
the gift of the Holy Sniri' v.ith which God endues us, and
which enhghtens our understandings, and confers strength
and power upon our will to abstain from sinning. When
Pelagius afterwards owned the assistance of divine power
inwardly working in man by the Holy Spirit, he placed it
solely in the enlightening of the understanding : but we
beheve, that it is not only necessary for us to know or un-
derstand what we ought to do, but that it is also requisite
for us to implore the aid of the Holy Spirit that we may
be rendered capable of performing, and may delight in the
performance of, that which it is our duty to do. Pelagius
admitted grace ; but it has been a question with some
whether he meant only illumination, or, beside this, a
power communicated to the will ; he admitted grace, but
he did this only to show that by means of it man can
mith greater ease act aright : we, on the contrary, affirm
that grace is bestowed, not that we may^ be able with
greater ease to act aright, (which is as though we can do
this even without grace,) but that grace is absolutely ne-
cessary to enable us to act at all aright. Pelagius assert-
ed, that man, so far from requiring the aid of grace for the
performance of good actions, is, through the powers im-
planted in him at the time of his creation, capable of ful-
filling the whole law, of loving God, and of overcoming
all temptations : we, on the contrary, assert that the grace
of God is required for the performance of every act of pie-
ty. Pelagius declared, that by the works of nature man
renders himself worthy of grace : but we, in common with
the church universal, condemn this dogma. When Pela-
gius afterwards himself condemned this tenet, he under-
stood by grace, partly natural grace, which is antecedent
to all merit, and partly remission of sins, which he ac-
knowledged to be gratuitous ; but he added, that through
works performed by the powers of nature alojie, at least
through the desire of good and the imperfect longing after
it, men merit that spiritual grace by which they are as-
sisted in good works : but we declare, that men will that
which is good on account of God's prevenience or go-
ing before them by his grace, and exciting within them a
longing after good ; otherwise grace would no longer be
grace, because it would not be gratuitously bestowed, but
only on account of the merit of man."
That many, adds Mr. Watson, who have held some
tenets in common with the true Arminians, have been,
in different degrees, followers of Pelagius, is well known ;
but the original Arminians were in truth as far from
Pelagian or Semi-Pelagian errors, granting the opinions
of Pelagius to be fairly reported by his adversaries, as
the Calvinists themselves. This is also the case with
the whole body of Wesleyan Methodists, and of the cog-
nate societies to which they have given rise, both in Great
Britain and America.
If these last statements of Mr. Wat.son be correct, then
it would seem to follow, that the radical difference between
the Arminians and Calvinists is reduced to the single
question. Is faith foreseen, the cause, or the consequence of
the divine purpose of election to salvation > Or, in other
words, is election conditional ; or is it perfectly gratuitous ?
\s ii of n-orks ? ov of grace 1 But if, as is conceded, the
first longing after good is of grace, and every subsequent
step in its pursuit, what difference remains? — Hend. Buck ;
Wa/son. See also Scott's Synod of Dort.
PELEG, son of Eber, was born A. M. 1757. His father
named him Peleg, (division,) because in his time the earth
was divided. Gen. 10: 25. 11: 16. Whether Noah had be-
gun to distribute the earth among his descendants, some
years before the buildingof Babel ; or, that Peleg was born
the year that Babel was begun ; or, that Eber, by a spirit
of prophecy, named his son Peleg, some years before this
time ; or, that the name was given to him at a later period
of his hfe, as a commemorative appellation, on recollection,
is not certainly known ; though it seems most likely that ho
was not born at the time of the dispersion. — Calmet.
PELICAN; (kaath, a vomiter. Lev. 11: 18. Dent. 14:
17. Ps. 102: 7. Isa. 34: U. Zeph. 2: 14.) a very remarka-
ble aquatic bird, of the size of a large goose. Its color is
a grayish white, except that the neck looks a little yellow-
ish, and the middle of the back feathers are blackish.
The bill is long, and hooked at the end, and has under it a
lax membrane, extended to the throat, which makes a bag
or sack, capable of holding a very large quantity. Feed-
ing her young from this bag has so much the appearance
PEL
[ 920 ]
PEN
of feeding them with her own blooJ, that it caused this fa-
bulous opinioQ to be propigated and made the pelican an
emblem of paternal, as the stork had been before chosen,
more justly, of filial affection. The voice of this bird is
aarsh and dissonant, which some saj' resembles that of a
man grievously complaining. David compares his groan-
mg to it, Ps. 102: l.— n'ntsm.
PELLA ; a city bevond Jordan, placed by Pliny in the
Decapolis, and by Slephanus in Coalu-Syria. There is no-
thing inconsistent in this, however, nor in what others af-
firm, that Pella was in Ferea, in Batanea, or in the coun-
try of Basan. It was situated between Jabesh and Gerasa,
six miles from the former. — It was also one of the ten cities
of the Decapolis, Matt. 4: 25. Mark 5: 20.
Josephus relates, that under the reign of Alexander Jan-
nceus, the Jews were masters of Pella, and destroyed it,
because the inhabitants would not embrace Judaism. The
first Christians, having been forewarned by our Savior
that Jerusalem should be demolished, took refuge at Pella,
as related by Eusebins, as soon as they saw the fire of war
against the F.omans kindled. — Calniet.
PELLICAN, (CaNRADE';) an eminent divine, born at
Rubeao, in Sweden, 1178. He was kept at school until
he was liiirleen years of ase, when his parents sent him to
Heidelberg, where he studied sixteen months ; he then
entered a monastery. Some time after, he returned to
Heidelberg, and thence went to Tubingen, where his suc-
cess in study commanded great admiration. His profi-
ciency in Hebrew was indeed surprising. Having provi-
dentially become the owner of a Bible in that tongue,
about the middle of July, he applied with such zeal to its
perusal, that, by the en.l of the October following, he had
finished it ; selected the roots; and arranged them in the
form of a concordance. In the year 1501, he was ordained
presbyter. In this year, he lost both his parents ; on
which occasion he transcribed the seven penitential psalms
in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin ; to which he subjoined many
appropriate prayers. The year following, he received the
degree of D. D. at Basil, and was made divinity lecturer at
the convent. About this time, he assisted in the prepara-
tion of Augustine's works for the press.
While Pellican continued a friar, he was universally
esteemed for his learning and integrity ; but when it
pleased God to convince him of the errors and absurdities
of the papal church, and he began publicly to expose
them, he was directly made the object of its hate and per-
secution. About the year 1518, when Luther and Erasmus
were promulgating some of their writings, Pellican de-
clared himself of their persuasion. He had once visited
Rome itself; and the sight of the stupid and preposterous
superstitions which there passed before him, contributed
not a little to his conversion. The senate of Bas'l, observ-
ing his great abilities, chose him joint lecturer in divinity
with fficolampadius, in that city. In 1526, having by the
desire of Zuinglius gone to Zurich, for the purpose of
hearing the lectures of Leo Judce on Hebrew, he renounced
popery, and was soon after married. In 1527, he pub-
lished an edition of the Hebrew Bible, with the comments
of Aben Ezra, and K. Salamon.
He diligently applied himself to the study of the Tur-
kish language, that he might be useful to some who had
become his neighbors, by efforts for their conversion to
the Christian faith. During thirty years, he was Hebrew
professor at Zurich, where he was universally admired for
ins extensive learning and unwearied labors. He died
in 1550, in the seventy-eighth year of his age.
His w'orks consisted principally of lectures and anno-
tations upon the Scriptures; translations from the Greek,
Latin, Hebrew, and Chaldee ; also, an exposition of seve-
ral of the books of the Old Testament, together with a
translation from Ludovicus Vives, designed to convince
the Jews of the truth of Christianity.
The characteristics of Pellican were sincerity, candor,
uprightness, and humility, rendering him eminent in pub-
lic life, and in private most amiable. — Middleion, vol. ii. 60.
PEMBROKE, (Anne, Countess of,) daughter and sole
heir to George Clifford, earl of Cumberland, was born at
Skipton castle, in Craven, in 1589. To endowments na-
turally of a high order, she added all those accomplish-
ments which her high rank and extensive wealth brought
within her reach. According to bishop Rainbow, "she
could discourse with virtuosos, travellers, scholars, mer-
chants, divines, statesmen, and good housewives in any
kind." But she preferred " the study of those noble Bere-
ans, and those honorable women, who searched the Scrip-
tures daily ; with Mary, she chose the better part of hear-
ing the doctrine of Christ."
She was twice married : her first husband was Richard,
earl of Dorset ; her second, Philip, earl of Pembroke and
Montgomery. She survived the latter forty-five years,
during which time she employed herself in a constant se-
ries of good works, extensive charities, and generosity to
learned men ; also in erecting sacred edifices ; a noble
hospital, and many other stately buildings, both for the
honor of her family and for the public good.
While she was very exemplary in her observance of the
public duties of religion, she was no less diligent in her
private devotions ; whicli she constantly performed in her
private oratory three times a day. She was careful also
that none of her servants should be remiss or negligent in
their religious observances. In her intercourse with others
she was condescending, and ever strove to obliterate front)
their minds any consciousness of inferiority. This great
and excellent lady died in 1674, aged eighty-five.— Betham.
PEN; a well known instrument used in writing. Reeds
were formerly employed for this purpose, instead of quills.
The Arabians, Persians, Turks, Greeks, and other Orien-
tals, still write with reeds.
From the size and general appearance of some of the
ancient reeds, as preserved in pictures found at Hercula-
neum, we may perceive how easily the same word, shcheth,
might denote the sceptre, or badge of authority, belonging
to the chief of a tribe, and a pen for writing. For, al-
though the two instruments are sufficiently distinct among
us, yet, where a long rod of cane, or reed, perhaps, was
(like a general's truncheon, or baton, in modern days) the
ensign of command, and a lesser rod of the same nature
was formed into a pen and used as such, they had consi-
derable resemblance. This may account for the phraseolo-
gy and parallelism, in Judg. 5: 14.
Out of Machir, came down governors ; (lesislalora ;)
Out of Zebnlun, ttiey that hold the shebeth of tlie acribea.
The ancients also used styles to write on tablets covered
with wax. The Psalmist says, (Psal. 45: 1.) "My tongue .
is the pen of a ready writer." The Hebrew signifies ra-
ther a style ; which was a kind of bodkin, made of iron,
brass, or bone, sharp at one end, the other formed like a
little spoon, or spatula. The sharp end was used for wri-
ting letters, the other end expunged them. The writer
could put out, or correct, what he disliked, and yet no era-
sure appear, and he could write anew as often as he pleas-
I
PEN
[ 921
PEN
ed on the same place. Scripture alludes to this custom ;
(2 Kings 21: 13.) " I will blot out Jerusalem as men blot
out writing from their writing tablets.''
Jeremiah says, '■ The sin of Judah is wjitten with a
pen of iron and with the point of a diamond. It is graven
upon the table of their heart ;" or, engraven on their
heart, as on writing tablets. The Hebrew says, with a
graver of shamir. — Calmet.
PENANCE ; a punishment, either voluntary or im-
posed by authority, for the faults a person has commit-
ted.
Penance is one of the seven sacraments of the Romish
church. Besides fasting, alms, abstinence, and the like,
which are the general conditions of penance, there are
others of a more particular kind ; as the repeating a cer-
tain number of ave-marias, paternosters, and credos ;
wearing a hair shirt, and giving one's self a certain num-
ber of stripes. In Italy and Spain, it is usual to see
Christians almost naked, loaded with chains, and lashing
themselves at everv step. (See Popery.) — Hend. Buck.
PENFIELD, (Thomas ;) a Christian philanthropist of
Savannah, Georgia. His benefactions laid the founda-
tion of the Mercer Institute, Green county, Georgia. Ano-
ther monument of his charity is the Penfield Mariner's
church, in Savannah, erected at a co.st of eight thousand
dollars. He also left a large property to other Christian
charities, such as education, foreign and domestic missions,
&c. — New York Bap. Eepos. 1834.
PENIEL, or Penuel ; a city beyond Jordan, near the
ford on the brook Jabbok, where Jacob, on his return from
Mesopotamia, rested, and wrestled with an angel. Gen.
32: 30. (See Jabeok.) — Cabntt.
PENITENCE is sometimes used for a state of repen-
tance, and sometimes for the act of repenting. (See Ee-
PENTiNrE.) It is also used for a discipline or puuishment
attending repentance, more usually called ^e««;ice. It also
gives title to several religious orders, consisting either of
converted debauchees and reformed prostitutes, or of per-
sons who devote themselves to the office of reclaiming
them. (See article Penitents.) — Hmd. Buck.
PENITENTIAL ; an ecclesiastical book retained among
the Romanists, in which is prescribed what relates to the
imposition of penance, and the reconciliation of penitents.
There are various penitentials ; as the Roman penitential,
that of the venerable Bede, that of pope Gregory III., &c.
—Hetid. Buck.
PENITENTIARY ; in the ancient Christian church, a
name given to certain presbyters or priests, appointed in
every church to receive the private confessions of the peo-
ple, in order to facilitate public di«cipline, by acquainting
them what sins were to be expiated by public penance,
and to appoint private penance for such private crimes as
were not proper to be publicly censured.
Penitentiary, also, in the court of Rome, is an office in
which are examined and delivered out the secret bulls,
dispensations, &c. Penitentiary is also an officer in some
cathedrals vested with power from the bishop to absolve
in cases referred to him.
The term is also applied among Protestants to such
houses as have been established for the reception and re-
Ibrmation of females who have been seduced from the
path of virtue ; as " The London Female Penitentiary."
This most important and useful institution is supported
by voluntary contributions, patronized by their majesties,
and conducted on truly Christian principles, by means of
■which numbers of miserable outcasts have not only been
recovered to the proprieties of moral conduct, but have
given satisfactory evidence of genuine conversion to God.
In the United States it is applied to all those prisons
which are constructed on reformatory principles, whether
the convicts be men or Women. The happiest results
have flowed from the efforts of the Prison Discipline Soci-
ety directed to this point. — Hend. Buck.
PENITENTS ; certain fraternities of religious of both
sexes among the Roman Catholics. The Male Penitents
are distinguished by the color of their garments, white,
black, blue, &c. The Black Penitents (called the Brethren
of Mercy, instituted 1488) attended criminals to theirexecu-
tion. The Female Penitents are chiefly reformed prosti-
tutes, as the Penitents of St. Magdalen, at Paris and Mar-
116
seilles, the Converts of the Name of Jesus at Seville, &c.
Broughton's Diet. — Williams.
PENN, (WiLi-iAM,) the founder and legislator of Penn
sylvania, whom Montesquieu denominates the modern Ly
curgus, was the son of admiral Penn ; was born, in 1644,
in London ; and was educated at Christ church, Oxford.
As something remarkable is usually said of all great
men in the early part of their lives, so it was said of Wil-
liam Penn, that, while here and alone in his chamber, be-
ing then eleven years old, he was suddenly surprised with
an inward comfort, and, as he thought, an external glory,
in the room, which gave rise to religious emotions, during
which he had the strongest conviction of the being of a
God, and that the soul of man was capable of enjoying
communication with him. He believed, also, that the seal
of divinity had been put upon him at this moment, or that
he had been awakened or called upon to a holy Ufe. But
whatever was the external occasion, or whether any or
none, or whatever were the particular notions which he is
.said to have imbibed at this period, certain it is, that while
he was at Chigwell school, his mind was seriously im-
pressed on the subject of religion.
At college he imbibed the principles of Quakerism,
which, a few years afterwards, be publicly professed.
Being accidentally on business at Cork, he heard that
Thomas Loe (a layman of Oxford, and the person who
first confirmed his early religious impressions) was to
preach at a meeting of the Quakers in that city. Accor
dingly he attended. The preacher at length rose, and
thus began: "There is a faith which overcomes the
world, and there is a faith which is overcome by thf
world." On this subject he enlarged in so impressive f
manner, that William was quite overcome. Penn nov
became openly a Quaker. He was, in consequence, twic/
turned out of doors by his father. In 1668, he began t(
preach in public, and to write in defence of the doctrines
which he had embraced. For this he was thrice impri
soned, and once brought to trial. It was during his firs
imprisonment that he wrote "No Cross, No Crown." Ii
1677 he visited Holland and Germany, to propagate hi-
principles. He preached much on the continent, was wel
received, made many converts to his system, and, a
Frankfort, wrote his "Letter to the Churches of Jesa-
throughout the World ;" and, at Rotterdam, " A Call, o,
Summons, to Christendom !"
In Blarch, 1680-81, he obtained from Charles II. a grai .
of that territory which now bears the name of Pennsylvf
nia; in lieu of the debt due by the government to his fc
ther, and which he was induced to do, from a desire t
spread the principles and doctrines of the Quakers; and I
raise a virtuous empire in the new land, which should dil
fuse its example far and wide to the remotest ages. Jj
1682, he embarked for his new colony ; and in the foUoi/
ing year he founded Philadelphia.
He also divided his land into counties ; laid out towi
ships ; reserved a thousand acres for Fox, the founder of th--
Quakers; received nev reinforcements of settlers; ap
pointed sheriffs to the d.ffercnt counties ; and issued writ,,
to them for calling assemblies in the ensuing spring
Whilst thus engaged, ne was not, however, indifferent U
his personal religion. To glorify God was the great ob
ject of his life ; and ^e was never so delighted as when be
thought that object was most effectually promoted. lu
1683, he proceeded m the organization of the settlement.
The assembly met ; juries were appointed ; the erection
of Philadelphia was commenced and prosecuted wuh
PEN
[ Q22 ]
PER
gfeat vigor, and he made a journey of discovery into the
interior of Pennsylvania; and sent to the Free Society of
traders the natural history of that settlement. In lti84,
having received accounts of fresh persecutions in England,
he determined on repairing thither to use his influence
with the court to stop them. In the mean time he settled
the system of discipline for his own religious societies at
Pennsylvania ; held conferences, and made treaties with
the Indians ; forwarded the building of his city ; wrote a
farewell epistle to his friends ; provided for the govern-
ment in his absence, and then embarked for England,
where he arrived in health and safety. So much was he
in favor with James II., that, after the revolution, he was
more than once arrested on suspicion of plotting to restore
the exiled monarch ; but he at length succeeded in esta-
blishing his innocence. He visited America for the last
lime in 1699, and returned in 1701. The rest of his life
was passed in tranquillity. He died July 30, 1718. His
works have been collected in two folio volumes. Memoirs
by Clarkson. — Davenport ; Ilciid. Buck.
PENNY; {denarius ;) a Roman coin, equal in value to
seven-pence three farthings, sterling, or twelve and one
half cents. As this was a single coin, perhaps we should
do well, in translating, to express it by a coin of our own,
as near to it in value as possible ; say, for instance, a shil-
ling.— Calmet.
PENTATEUCH, (from ))cn(e, five,andUuchos, an instru-
ment or volume,) signifies the collection of the five instru-
ments or books of Moses, which are Genesis, Exodus, Le-
viticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. (See BIoses.)
Some modern writers, among whom is Gesenius, have
asserted that Bloses did not compose the Pentateuch, be-
cause the author always speaks in the third person ;
abridges his naiTalion, like a writer who collected from
ancient memoirs ; sometimes interrupts the thread of his
discourse; (for example. Gen. 4: 23.) and gives an ac-
count of the death of Moses al the end, &c. It is alleged,
also, of the text of the Pentateuch, that there are some
places that are defective ; (for example, in Exod. 12: 8.)
Lastly, they think they observe certain strokes in the Pen-
tateuch which can hardly agree with BIoscs, who was
born and bred in Egypt ; as what he says of the earthly
paradise, of the rivers that watered it and ran through it ;
of the cities of Babylon, Erech, Resen, and Calnch ; of
the gold of Pison ; of the bdeUium, of the stone of So-
hem, or onyx stone, which was to be found in that coun-
try. Add to these what he says concerning the ark of
Noah, of its construction, of the place where it rested,
of the wood wherewith il was built, of the bitumen of
Babylon, &c. These particulars, observed with such cu-
riosity, seem to them to prove that the author of the Pen-
tateuch lived beyond the Euphrates. They therefore
would allow it no higher date than about the time of the
Babylonian captivity ; thus denpng not only its divine
inspiration, but even its authenticity. On these, and simi-
lar grounds. Dr. Cooper, of South Carolina, assails it, in
his Letter to professor Silllman.
But in answer to these objections, it is justly observed,
that these books are, by the most ancient writers, ascribed
to Moses, and it is confirmed by the authority of heathen
writers themselves, that they are his writing ; besides
this, we have the unanimous testimony of the whole Jew-
ish nation ever since Moses' time. Innumerable texts of
the Pentateuch imply that it was written by him ; and the
book of Joshua, and the other succeeding parts of Scrip-
ture, furnish the fullest corroboration, especially the posi-
tive testimony of ourLord. It is probable, however, that
Ezra published a new edition of the books of Moses, in
which he added those pas.sages that Moses did not write.
(See Bible ; Moses, Books of ; Inspiration.) The rea-
der will find this whole question discussed with ample
learning and ability in the North American Review for
April, 1826 ; and the Biblical Repository for October, 1832.
Also an admirable article in the American Baptist Ma-
gazine for 1832.
The legislator of the Jews, then, was the author of the
Pentateuch, an immortal work, wherein he paints the
marvels of his reign with the majestic picture of the go-
vernment and religion which he established ! Who before
our modern infidels ever ventured to obscure this incon-
testable fact ? Who ever sprang a doubt about this among
the Hebrew.s ? What greater reasons have there ever
been to attribute to Momammed his Alcoran, to Plato hia
Republic, to Zenophon his Anabasis, or to Herodotus his
History ? Rather let us say. What work in any age ever
appeared more truly to bear the name of its real author?
II is not an ordinary book, which, like many others, may
be easily hazarded under a fictitious name. It is a sacred
book, which the Jews have always read with a veneration
that remains after seventeen hundred years' exile, calami*
ties, and reproach. In this book the Hebrews included
all their science ; it was their civil, political, and sacred
code ; their only treasure, their calendar, their annals ;
the only title of their sovereigns and pontiflTs ; the alone
rule of pohty and worship: by consequence it must be
formed with their monarchy, and necessarily have the
same epoch as their government and rehgion, &c. Moses
speaks only truth, though infidels charge him with impos-
ture. But what an impostor most he be, who first spoke
of the Divinity in a manner so sublime, that no one since,
during almost four thousand years, has been able to sur-
pass him ! What an impostor must he be whose writings
breathe only virtue ; whose style, equally simple, aflecting,
and sublime, in spite of the rudeness of those first ages,
openly displays an inspiration altogether divine I See
Ainstvorth and Kidder on the Pentateuch ; Prideaux's Con,,
vol. i. pp. 342, 345, 573, 575 ; Marsh's Authenticity of the
Five Books of Moses considered ; Warburton's Divine Lega-
tion ; Dr. Graves' Lectures on the Pentateuch, and on the last
Four Books in^ the Old Testament ; Jenkins' Reasonableness of
Christianity ; Watson's Apology, let. 2 and 3 ; Faber's Ho-
rce Mosaica;, or a View of the Mosaical Records ; Home's In-
troduction f Warne's Critical do. to the Polygloit Bible ; and
Bhmt OH the Veracity of the Scriptures. — Hend. Buck.
PENTECOST ; a solemn festival of the Jews ; so call-
ed, because it was celebrated on the fiftieth day after the
sixteenth of Nisan, which was the second day of the pass-
over. The Hebrews call it the feast of weeks, because it
was kept seven weeks after the passover. They then
oflered the first-fruits of the wheat-harvest, which was
then completed ; besides which, they presented at the
temple seven lambs of that year, one calf, and two rams
for a burnt-oflfering ; two lambs for a peace-offering ; and
a goat for a siii-oflering. Lev. 23: 15, 16. Exod. 34: 22.
Deut. 16: 9, 10.
The feast of Pentecost was instituted among the Isra-
elites, first, to oblige them to repair to the temple of the
Lord, there to acknowledge his absolute dominion over
the whole country, by offering him the first-fruits of the
harvest ; and, secondly,«lo commemorate and give thanks
to God for the law which he had given them from Sinai,
on the fiftieth day after their coming out of Egypt.
The modern Jews celebrate the Pentecost for two days.
They deck the synagogues, where the law is read, and
their own houses, with garlands of flowers. They hear
an oration in praise of the law, and read from the Penta-
teuch and prophets lessons which have a relation to this
festival, and accommodate their prayers to the same oc-
casion. It was on the feast of Pentecost that the Holy
Ghost descended in the miraculous manner, related Acts
2. It fell on the first day of the week. — Watson.
PEOR, or Phogor; a famous mountain beyond Jordan,
which Eusebius places between Heshbon and Livias. The
mountains Nebo, Pisgah, and Peor, were near one ano-
ther, and probably of the same chain of mountains. It
stood very favorably for a distant prospect ; " a prospect
station in an open place," Num. 23: 28. We may say the
same of Beth Peor, (Deut. 3: 29.) which appears to have
been on an eminence ; as the valley in which Israel abode j
was over agaim^t it, chap. 4: 46. It was a temple, we may
suppose, with a village at least around it. — Calmet.
PEPUTIANS. (See Montanists.)
PERCY, (Thomas,) an eminent prelate, related to the
Northumberland family, was born, in 1728, at Bridge-
north, in Shropshire ; was educated at Christ church, Ox-
ford ; became chaplain to the king in 1769, dean of Car-
lisle in 1778, and bishop of Dromore in 1782. He died in
1811. Of his works the principal are, The Hermit of
Warkworth, a poem ; a new Translation of Solomon's
Song; and the Reliques of English Poetry. — Davenport.
PER
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PEREA, (from Gr.peran, beyond,) signifies the country
beyond Jordan, or east of that river, especially on the
south. Josephus says that it had its limits, at Philadel-
phia east, the Jordan west, Macheron south and Pella
north. Sometimes the word Perea is taken in a more ex-
tensive signification, for the whole country beyond Jordan,
It was inclosed on the east by mountains, which divided
it from Arabia Deserta. — Calmet.
PEREANS. (See Eufhratesians.)
PEREZ-UZZA; the breach of Uzzah, 2 Sam. 6: 8. 1
Chron. 13: 11.
PERFECTION ; that state or quality of a thing, in
which it is free from defect or redundancy. According
to some, it is divided into physical or natural, whereby a
thing has all its powers and faculties ; a.nimoral, or an emi-
nent degree of goodness and piety .
The terra perfection, says the great Witsius, i.s not
always used in the same sense in the Scriptures. 1. There
is a perfection of sincerity, whereby a man serves God
without hypocrisy. Job 1: 1. Is. 3S: 3. 2. There is a per-
fsctiou of parts, subjective with respect to the whole man,
(lThess.5: 23.) and objective with respect to the whole law,
when all the duties prescribed by God are observed, Ps.
119: 128. Luke 1: 6. 3. There is a ooiiparanue perfection
ascribed to those who are advanced in knowledge, faith,
and sanctification, in comparison of tliose who are still
infants and untaught, 1 John 2: 13. 1 Cor. 2: 6. Phil. 3:
15. 4. There is an e»fl»^e/sra? perfection. The righteous-
ness of Christ being imputed to the believer, he is com-
plete in him, and accepted of God as perfect through
Christ, Col. 2: 10. Eph. 5: 27. 2 Cor. 5: 21. 5. There is
also a perfection of degree, by which a person performs
all the commands of God, with the full exertion of all his
powers, without the least defect. This is what the law of
God requires, hut what the saints do not attain to in this
life, though we willingly allow them all the other kinds
above mentioned, Rom. 7: 21. Phil. 3: 12. 1 John 1: 8.
The Son of God commands his disciples (Matt. 5: 48.)
to be perfect, even as their Father in heaven is perfect.
Not that we can ever attain His perfection, but we ought
constantly to be making aivances towards it : we ought
always to propose it to ourselves as our pattern, in thee.\-
ercise of all virtue, and especially his mercy and charily.
Hence Luke says in the parallel passage, " Be ye there-
fore merciful, as your Father also is merciful," Luke ti:
36. In Blatt. lU; 21, our Savior says, that he who would
be perfect must forsake all and follow him ; and in Luke
6: 40, that the disciple who would arrive at perfection
must become like his master. Paul often exhorts his dis-
ciples to be perfect ; that is, to acquire the perfection of
Christianity, both in theory and practice, to be convinced
of the excellence of it, and to press on toward its attain-
ment, 1 Cor. 1: 10. 11: 10, (Sec.
Witsii CEcmwnda Fmderum Dei, lib. iii. cap. 12, § 124 ;
Bates'' Works, p. 557, (tec. ; Burgh's Dignity of Human Na-
ture ; Law and IVesley on Perfection ; Doddridge's Lectures,
lectlU'e 181 ; Channing's WorJiS ; Irving's Orations and Ar-
guments ; Discourses of Sir Joshua Reynolds ; Works of Han-
nah More ; Works of Robert Hall. — Hend. Buck ; Calmet.
PERFECTIONISTS ; a term sometimes applied to the
followers of Mr. Wesley, who hold it possible to attain
perfection, in a certain sense, in the present life. (See
Methodists.) — Williams.
PERFECTIONISTS ; a modern sect in New England,
who believe that every individual action is either wholly
sinful, or wholly righteous ; and that every being in the
universe, at any given time, is either entirely holy or
entirely wicked. Consequently, they unblushingly main-
tain that they themselves are free from sin. In support
of this doctrine they say that Christ dwells in and controls
believers, and thus secures their perfect holiness ; that
the body of Christ, which is the church, is nourished and
guided by the life and wisdom of its head. Hence they
condemn the greatest portion of the religion in the world
named Christianity, as the work of Antichrist. " All
the es.sential features of Judaism," they say, " and of
its successor, popery, may be distinctly traced in nearly
every form of Protestantism; and although we rejoice in
I the blessings which the Reformation has given us, we re-
I gard it as rightly named, the Reformation, it being an im-
provemeitt of Antichrist, not a restoration of Christiani-
ty." This last opinion, which has some foundation in
truth, has been long held, variously modified, in different
parts of the Christian world.
An attempt has recently been made to propagate the views
of this sect through the medium of a paper published at
New Haven, Connecticut, and entitled. The Perfectionist
PERFECTIONS OF GOD. (See Attributes of God.)
PERFUME S. The use of perfumes was common among
the Hebrews, and the Orientals generally, before it was
known to the Greeks and Romans. Moses also speaks of
the art of the perfumer, in Egypt, and gives the composi-
tion of two perfumes, (Exod. 30; 25.) of which one was
to be offered to the Lord, on the golden altar ; and the
other (Exod. 30: 34, &c.) to be used for anointing the
high-priest and his sons, the tabernacle, and the vessels
of divine service, Exod. 30; 23. (See Incense ; Censer.)
The Hebrews had also perfumes for embalming their
dead. The composition is not exactly known, but they
used myrrh, aloes, and other strong and astringent drugs,
proper to prevent infection and corruption. (See Oint-
ment ; Embalm.)
In addition to these perfumes, there are others noticed
in Scripture. Those, for example, which king Hezekiah
preserved in his repositories. Judith perfumed her face
when she was to appear before Holofernes ; and they pre-
pared the virgins which were to appear before the kings
of Persia, for six months together, by the use of oil of
myrrh, and for six other months, by various perfumes,
and sweet-scented oils, Esth. 2; 12. The spouse in the
Canticles commends the perfumes of her lover ; who in
return says, that the perfumes of his spouse surpass the
most excellent odors. He names particularly the spike-
nard, the cana aromatica, cinnamon, myrrh, and aloes,
as composing these perfumes. These instances show the
taste of the ancient Hebrews, which was, and stdl is, the
taste of the Orientals, who made much use of scents and
perfumes. They prove also, that both men and women
used them. It may also be observed, that to abstain from
perfumes, scents, and unctions, was esteemed a part of
mortification. See Esth. 14; 2. Dan. 10; 3. (See Savor,
and Triumph.) — Calmet.
PERGA ; a city of Pamphylia, Acts 13: 14. This is
not a maritime city, and Paul must have gone up the river
Caystrus to it, or else must have gone on foot. It was
one of the most considerable cities in Pamphylia ; and
when that province was divided into two parts, this city
became the metropolis of one part, and Side of the other.
There was, on a neighboring mountain, a very famous tem-
ple of Diana, surnamed PergiFa, from the city. — Calmet.
PERGAMUS ; a city of Troas, very considerable in
the time of John the evangelist. Rev. 2: 12, 13. This
city was, for the the space of one hundred and fifty years,
the capital of a kingdom of the same name founded by
Philetffirus, B. C. 283 ; who treacherously made use of
the treasures committed to his care by Lysimachus after
the battle of Ipsus, and, seizing on Pergamus, established
an independent kingdom. After Philetaerus were five
kings of the same race ; the last of whom, Attains Philo-
pater, left his kingdom, which comprehended Jlysia, JEo-
lis, Ionia, Lydia, and Caria, to the Roman empire ; to
which it belonged when the first Christian church was es-
tablished there. This church earlv became corrupted by
the Nicolaitans, for which it was" reproved by St. John,
and charged quickly to repent, Rev. 2: 14 — 16.
y
PER
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Fergamus, now called Bergamo, like most other places
which have been cursed by the presence of the Turks, is
reduced to comparative decay, containing a poor popula-
tion, who are too indolent or too oppressed to profit by the
richness of their soil and the beauty of the climate. The
number of inhabitants, however, is si ill said to amount
to thirty thousand, of whom three thousand are Greek
Christians. Many remains of former magnificence are
still to be found ; amongst which are those of several
Christian churches. It is about sixty miles north of Smyr-
na. The celebrated physician Galen was a native of this
place. — Watsmi.
PERIPATETICS. (See Akistotelians.)
PERKINS, (WiLi.iAH,) an eminent divine of the
church of England, was born at Maton, in Warwickshire,
England, 1558. He was educated in Christ college, Cam-
bridge. In his early life, he gave proofs of great genius
and philosophic research ; but in his habits was exceed-
ingly wild and profligate. After his conversion, he was
distinguished for his tender sympathy, and skill in opening
the human heart ; so that he became the instrument of
salvation to many.
At the age of twenty-four, he was chosen fellow of
Christ college, and entered into holy orders. He was
soon after chosen rector of St. Andrew's parish, in Cam-
bridge, where, in all his efforts, he displayed a mind ad-
mirably adapted to his station. While his discourses were
suited to the capacity of the common people, the pious
scholar could not but admire them. They were said to be
" all law, and all gospel ;" so well did he unite the charac-
ters of a Boanerges and a Barnabas. He was an able casu-
ist ; and was resorted to by afflicted consciences far and
near.
So far was he from considering his field of effort circum-
scribed, he improved every opportunity to do good. On
one occasion, jierceiving a young inan who was about to
ascend the ladder to be executed exceedingly distressed,
he endeavored to console him ; but to no effect. He then
said, "Man, what is the matter with thee? art thou afraid
of death?" "Ah! no," said the malefactor; "but of a
worse thing." " Then come down," said Mr. Perkins,
" and thou shalt see what the grace of God can do to
strengthen thee." Mr. Perkins then took him by the
hand, and, kneeling down with him at the foot of the lad-
der, so fen'ently acknowledged sin, its aggravations, and
its terrible desert, that the poor culprit burst into tears of
contrition. He then proceeded to set forth the Lord Jesus
Christ, as the Savior of every believing penitent ; which
he was enabled to do with such success, that the poor
creature continued indeed to shed tears ; but they were
now tears of love, gratitude, and joy, flowing from a per-
suasion that his sins were cancelled by the Savior's blood.
He afterwards ascended the ladder with composure, while
the spectators lifted up their hands and praised God for
such a glorious display of his sovereign grace.
Mr. Perkins died in 1602, in the forty-fourth year of his
age. During his last sickness, which was very severe,
he was remarkably patient. Having heard a friend pray
for the mitigation of his pains, he cried out, " Hold ! hold !
do not pray so ; but pray the Lord to give me faith and
patience, and then lay on me just what he please."
His works, which were numerous, were published in
two volumes folio. Many of them were translated into
a variety of foreign languages. — Middhton, vol. ii. p. 322.
PERJURY, is the taking of an oath, in order to tell or
confirm a falsehood. This is a very heinous crime, as it is
treating the Almighty with irreverence ; denying, or at
least discarding his omniscience ; profaning his name,
and violating truth. It has always been esteemed a very
detestable thing, and those who have been proved guilty
of it, have been looked upon as the pests of society. fSee
Oath.)— Hm'?. Buck.
PERIZZITES, orPHEKES^i ; ancient inhabitants of Pa-
lestine, who had mingled with the Canaanites, or were
themselves descendants of Canaan. Having no fixed
habitations, and living sometimes in one country, and
sometimes in another, they were called Perizzites, which
signifies scattered or dispersed. There were some of them
on each side of the river Jordan, in the mountains, and in
the plains, Gen. 13: 7. Josh. 17: 15. 1 Kings 9: 20. 2
Chron. 8: 7. The Perizzites are mentioned by Ezra, aftet
the return from Babylon ; and several Israelites had mar-
ried wives from among them, Ezra 9. l.-~Calmet.
PERMISSION OF SIN. (See Sin, and Patience op
God.)
PERPETUA, (VivEA ;) a Christian martyr under the
persecution of Severus, at the beginning of the third cen-
tury. She was a lady of Carthage, of high rank, and at
the time when she was accused, about twenty-two years
of age. In her martyrdom, she afforded an illustrious ex-
ample of Christian fortitude. She was married, and had
an infant son ; she was the favorite child of a pagan fa-
ther, who importuned her to turn from the Christian faith,
and to whom her constancy appeared but absurd obstina-
cy ; every entreaty, every threat was employed ; .she en-
countered the terrors of a crowded court, in which certain
conviction awaited her ; she was scourged, and imprison-
ed ; the tenderest feelings of filial and maternal love were
appealed to; but in vain. "God's will must be done,"
was her language, and she remained immovable. Not
was she less firm in the final scene, when in a crowded
amphitheatre, together with Felicitas, .she was thrown to
a mad bull. By his attack she was stunned ; but the fatal
stroke was left to an unskilful gladiator, whose trembling
hand she herself, with a martyr's courage, guided to her
throat. Felicitas suffered with her. — Betham ; Fox, p. 23.-
PERSECUTION, is any pain or affliction which a per-
son designedly inflicts upon another ; and, in a more re-
strained sense, the sufferings orChristians on account of
their religion.
Persecution is threefold. 1. Menial, when the spirit of
a man rises up and malignantly opposes another. 2. Ver-
bal, when men give hard words and deal in uncharitable
censures. 3. Actual or open, by the hand ; such as the
dragging of innocent persons before the tribunal of jus-
tice. Matt. 10: 18. The unlawfulness of persecution for
conscience' sake must appear plain to every one that pos-
sesses the least degree of thought or of feeling. " To
banish, imprison, plunder, starve, hang, and burn men
for religion," says the shrewd Jortin, " is not the gospel of
Christ ; it is the gospel of the devil. Where persecution be-
gins, Christianity ends. Christ never used any thing that
looked like force or violence except once ; and that was to
drive bad men ourof the temple, and not to drive them in."
We know the origin of it to be from the prince of dark-
ness, who began the dreadful practice in the first family
on earth, and who, more or less, has been carrying on the
same work ever since, and that almost among all parties.
The Quakers, Moravians, and Baptists claim a glorious
exception. Roger Williams has the honor of being the
first in modern times, who took the right ground in regard
to liberty of conscience. It was he who, in 1642, cleared
the subject from the subtleties of a thousand years of dark-
ness, and held up to Christian abhorrence in all its forms
the "Bloody Tenet," (as he justly called it,) of persecu-
tion for conscience' sake. John Owen, John Milton, John
Locke, and a host of later writers have followed in his
steps. (See Religious Liberty, and Toleration.)
" Persecution for conscience' salce," says Dr. Doddridge,
" is every way inconsistent; because, 1. It is founded on
an absurd supposition, that one man has a right to judge
for another in matters of religion. 2. It is evidently op-
posite to that fundamentJl principle of morality, that we
should do to others as we could reasonably desire they
should do to us. 3. It is by no means calculated to an-
swer the end which its patrons profess to intend by it. 4.
It evidently tends to produce a great deal of mi.schief and
confusion in the world. 5. The Christian religion must,
humanly speaking, be not only obstructed, but destroyed,
should persecuting principles universally prevail. 6. Per-
secution is so far from being required or encouraged by
the gospel, that it is most directly contrary to many of its
precepts, and indeed to the whole of it."
The great part who have fallen a prey to this diabolical
spirit have been Christians ; a short account of whose suf-
ferings we shall here give, as persecuted by the Jews,
by heathens, and by those of the same name.
I. Persecution of Christians by the Jems. — Here we need
not be copious, as the New Testament will inform the rea-
der more particularly how the first Christians su'ffered
PER
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PER
for the c^e of truth. Jesus Christ himself was exposed
to it in t"greatest degree. The four evangelists record
the dreadful scenes, which need not here be enlarged on.
After his death, the apostles suffered every evil which the
malice of the Jews could invent, and their mad zeal exe-
cute. They who read the Acts of the Apostles, will find
that, like their Master, they were despised and reject-
ed of men, and treated with the utmost indignity and con-
tempt.
IT. Pc-rsecution of Christians hy the Heathen. — Histori-
ans usually reckon ten general persecutions, thus stated
by Mr. Broughton :— 1. Under Nero, A. D. 04 — 68.
2. Under Domitian, 95, 96. 3. Under Trajan, 97—116.
4. Under Antoninus Pius, 136 — 156. 5. Under Severus,
ici9_211. 0. Under Maximinus, 235. 7. Under Uecius,
249—251. 8. Under Valerian, 257— 260. 9. Under Au-
relian, 273— 275. 10. Under Diocletian, 302— 312. Oth-
ers reckon them somewhat differently. In the above reck-
oning there are some omissions. The Christians were perse-
cuted under Adrian from 118 to 1211, and again in 129;
under Marcus Aurelius, from 161 to 174 : and, in short,
for two hundred and sixty years from the death of Christ,
they had but short intervals of rest from persecution ; for
when the einperors themselves were not sanguinary, there
were al ways inferior magistrates, who, under some pretence
or other, harassed the poor inoffensive Christians. It is
supposed three millions perished in three centuries. (See
Toleration.)
The first persecution was under the emperor Nero,
thirty-one j-ears after our Lord's ascension, when that
emperor, having set fire to the city of Rome, threw the
odium of that execrable action on the Christians. First :
Those were apprehended who openly avowed themselves
to be of that sect ; then by them were discovered an im-
mense multitude, all of whom were convicted. Their
death and tortures were aggravated by cruel derision and
sport ; for they were either covered with the skins of wild
beasts, and torn in pieces by devouring dogs, or fastened
to crosses, and wrapped up in combustible garments, that,
when the daylight failed, they might, like torches, serve to
dispel the darknessof the night. For this tragical spectacle
Nero lent his own gardens ; and exhibited at the same
time the public diversions of the circus ; sometimes dri-
ving a chariot in person, and sometimes standing as a
spectator, while the shrieks of women, burning to ashes,
supplied music for his ears. 2. The second general per-
secution was under Domitian. in the year 95, when forty
thousand were supposed to have suffered martyrdom. 3.
The third began in the third year of Trajan, in the year
100, and was carried on with great violence for several
years. 4. The fourth was under Antoninus, began in 136,
when the Christians were banished from their bouses, for-
bidden to show their heads, reproached, beaten, hurried
from place to place, plundered, imprisoned, and stoned.
5. The fifth began in the year 199, under Severus, when
great cruelties were committed. In this reign happened
the martyrdom of Perpetua and Felicitas, and their com-
panions. (See Pekpetua.) 6. The sixth began with the
reign of Maximinus, in 235. 7. The seventh, which was
the most dreadful ever known, began in 250, imder the
emperor Decius, when the Christians were in all places
driven from their habitations, stripped of their estates, tor-
mented with racks, kc. 8. The eighth began in 257, un-
der Valerian. Both men and women suffered death ; some
by scourging, some by the sword, and some by fire. 9.
The ninth was under Aurelian, in 273 ; but this was in-
considerable, compared with the others before mentioned.
JO. The tenth began in the nineteenth year of Diocletian,
302. In this dreadful persecution, which lasted ten years,
houses filled with Christians were set on fire, and whole
droves were tied together with ropes, and thrown into the
sea. It is related that seventeen thousand were slain in
one month's time ; and that during the contiiuiance of
this persecution, in the province of Egypt alone, no less
than one hundred and forty-four thousand Christians died
by the violence of their persecutors ; besides seven hun-
dred thousand that died through the fatigues of banish-
ment, or the public works to which they were condemned.
III. Ferseailion of Christians by those of /he same name. —
This began almost as soon as the comipt alliance of the
Catholic church (so called) with the state. Christianity,
primitive and pure, gave no countenance to it whatever.
Numerous were the perseciitions inflicted on the Catha-
ri ovPure, and different sects, from Constantine's time to the
Reformation ; but when Martin Luther arose, and opposed
the errors and ambition of the church of Rome, and the
sentiments of this good man began to spread, the pope
and his clergy joined all their forces to hinder their pro-
gress. A general council of the clergy was called ; this
was the famous council of Trent, which was held for near
eighteen successive years, for the purpose of establishing
popery in greater splendor, and preventing the Reforma-
tion. The friends to the Reformation were anathematized
and excommunicated, and the life of Luther was often in
danger, though at last he died on the bed of peace. From
time to time mnumerable schemes were suggested to over-
throw the reformed church, and wars were set on foct for
the same purpose. The Invincible Armada, as it was
vainly called, had the same end in view. The Inquisition,
which was established in the twelfth century against the
Waldenses, (see Inquisition,) was now more effectually
set to work. Terrible persecutions were carried on in va-
rious parts of Germany, and even in Bohemia, which con-
tinued about thirty years, and the blood of the saints was
said to flow like rivers of water. The countries of Poland,
Lithuania, and Hungary, were, in a similar manner, de-
luged with Protestant blood. In
and in the Low Countries, for many years the most ama-
zing cruelties were exercised under the merciless and un-
relenting hands of the Spaniards, to whom the inhabitants
of that part of the world were then in subjection. Father
Paul observes, that these Belgic martyrs were fifty-thou-
sand ; but Grotius and others observe, that there were
one hundred thousand who sufl"ered by the hand of the exe-
cutioner. Herein, however, Satan and his agents failed
of their purpose ; for, in the issue, great part of the Ne-
therlands shook off the Spanish yoke, and erected them-
selves into a separate and independent state, which has
ever since been considered as one of the principal Protes-
tant countries of the universe.
FRANCE.
No country, perhaps, has ever produced more martyrs
than this. After many cruelties had been exercised against
the Protestants, there was a most violent persecution of
them in the year 1572, in the reign of Charles IX. Many
of the principal Protestants were invited to Paris under a
solemn oath of safety, upon occasion of the marriage of
the king of Navarre with the French king's sister. The
queen dowager of Navarre, a zealous Protestant, how-
ever, was poisoned by a pair of gloves before the marriage
was solemnized. Coligui, admiral of France, was basely
murdered in his own house, and then thrown out of the
window to gratify the malice of the duke of Guise : his
head was afterwards cut off, and sent to the king and
queen-mother; and his body, after a thousand indignities
offered to it, hung by the feet on a gibbet. After this, the
murderers ravaged the whole city of Paris, and butchered
in three days above ten thousand lords, gentlemen, presi-
dents, and people of all ranks. A horrible scene of things,
says Thuanus, when the very streets and passages resoun
dcd with the noise of those that met together for murder
and plunder ; the groans of those who were dying, and
the shrielcs of such as were just going to be butchered,
were everywhere heard ; the bodies of the slain thrown oul
of the windows; the courts and chambers of the houses
filled with them ; the dead bodies of others dragged
through the streets ; their blood running through thechan
nels in such plenty, that torrents seemed to empty thenr
selves in the neighboring river: in a word, an innumera
ble multitude of men, women with child, maidens, chil
dren, were all involved in one common destruction, and
the gates and entrancesof the king's palace all besmeared
with their blood. From the city of Paris the massacre
spread throughout the whole kingdom. In the city of
Meaux they threw above two hundred into gaol ; and after
they had ravished and killed a great number of women,
and plundered the houses of the Protestants, ihey executed
PER
[ 926 ]
PER
(heir fury on those they had imprisonej ; and calling them
one by one, Ihey were killed, as Tliuanus expresses, like
5heep in a market. In Orleans, they murdered above five
hundred men, women, and children, and enriched thera-
,5elves with the spoil. The same cruelties were practised
at Angeirs, Troyes, Bonrges, La Charite, and especially at
Lyons, where they inhumanly destroyed above eight hun-
dred Protestants ; children hanging on their parents'
necks ; parents embracing their children ; putting ropes
about the necks of some, dragging them through the
streets, and throwing them, mangled, torn, and half de:^>l,
into the river. According to Thuanus, above thirty tlir.u-
sand Protestants were destroyed in this massacre ; or, as
others affirm, above one hundred thousand. But what ag-
gravates these scenes with still greater wantonness and
cruelty, was the manner in which the news was received
at Kome. When the letters of the pope's legate were read
in the assembly of the cardinals, by which he assured the
pope that all was tran.sacted by the express will and com-
mand of the king, it was immediately decreed that the
pope should march with his cardinals to the church of St.
Mark, and in the most solemn manner give thanks to God
for so great a blessing conferred on the see of Rome and
the Christian world ; and that, on the Monday after, so-
lemn mass should be celebrated in the church of Minerva,
at which the pope, Gregory XIII., and cardinals were pre-
sent ; and that a jubilee should be published throughout
the whole Christian world, and the cause of it declared to
be, to return thanks to God for the extirpation of the ene-
mies of the truth and church in France. In the evening
the cannon of St. Angelo were fired to testify the public
joy ; the whole city illuminated with bonfires ; and no one
sign of rejoicing omitted that was usually made for the
greatest victories obtained in favor of the Koman church !
But all these persecutions were, however, far exceeded
in cruelty by those which took place in the time of Louis
XIV. It cannot he pleasant to any man's feelings, who
has the least humanity, to recite these dreadful scenes of
horror, cruelty, and devastation ; but to show what super-
stition, bigotry, and fanaticism are capable of producing,
and for the purpose of holding up the spirit of persecution
to contempt,, we shall here give as concise a detail as pos-
sible. The troopers, soldiers, and dragoons, went into the
Protestants' houses, where they marred and defaced their
household stuff; broke their looking-glasses and other
utensils ; threw about their com and wine ; sold what they
could not destroy ; and thus, in four or five days, the Pro-
testants were stripped of above a million of money. But
this was not the worst : they turned the dining-rooms of
gentlemen into stables for horses, and treated the owners
of the houses where they quartered with the greatest cru-
elly, lashing them about, not suffering them to eat or
drink. When they saw the blood and sweat run down
their faces, they sluiced them with water, and, putting
over their heads kettle-drums turned upside down, 'they
made a continual din upon them, till these unhappy crea-
tures lost their senses. At Negreplisse, a town near
Montauhan, they hung up Isaac Favin, a Protestant citi-
zen of that place, by his armpits, and tormented him a
whole night by pinching and tearing olf his flesh with pin-
cers. They made a great fire round about a boy, twelve
years old, who, with hands and eyes lifted up to heaven,
cried out, '■ My God, help me !" and when they found the
youtr resolved to die rather than renounce his religion,
they snatched him from the fire just as he was on the point
of being burnt. In .several places the soldiers applied red-
hot irons to the hands and feet of men, and the breasts of
women. At Nantes, they hung up several women and
maids by their feet, and others by their armpits, and thus
exposed them to public view stark naked. They botind
mothers that gave suck to posts, and let their sucking in-
fants lie languishing in their sight for several days and
nights, crying and gasping for life. Some they bound be-
fore a great fire, and being half roasted, let them go ; a
punishment worse than death. Amidst a thousand hide-
ous cries, they hung np men and women by the hair, and
some by their feet, on hooks in chimneys, and smoked them
with wisps of wet hay till they were suffocated. They
tied some under the arms with ropes, and plunged them
again and again into wells : they bound others, put them
to the torture, and with a funnel filled them wiUtwine till
"y made .»
them say they consented to be Catholics. They stripped *
the fumes of it took away their reason, when ^rey made
them naked, and, after a thousand indignities, stuck them
with pins and needles from head to foot. If any, to es-
cape these barbarities, endeavored to save themselves by
flight, they pursued them into the fields and woods, where
they shot at them like wild beasts, and prohibited them
from departing the kingdom (a cruelty never practised by
Nero or Diocletian) upon pain of confiscation of effiscts,
the galleys, the lash, and perpetual imprisonment. With,
these scenes of desolation and horror the popish clergy
feasted their eyes, and made only matter of laughter and
sport of them ! ! !
ENGLAND
has also been the seat of much persecution. Though
Wickliffe, the first reformer, died peaceably in his bed,
yet such was the malice and spirit of persecuting Kome,
that his bones were ordered to be dug up, and cast upon
a dunghill. The remains of this excellent man were ac-
cordingly dug out of the grave, where Ihey had lain un-
disturbed four-and-forty years. His bones were burnt,
and the ashes cast into an adjoining brook.
In the reign of Henry VIII., Bilney, Bayman, and many
other reformers, were burnt ; but when queen Mary came
to the throne, the most severe persecutions took place.
Hooper and Rogers were burnt in a slow fire. Saunders
was cruelly tormented a long time at the stake before he
expired. Taylor was put into a barrel of pitch, and fire
set to it. Eight illustrious persons, among whom was
Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, were sought out, and burnt
by the infamous Bonner, in a few days. Sixty-seven
persons were this year, A. D. 1555, burnt, amongst whom
were the famous Protestants, Bradford, Ridley, Latimer,
and Philpot. In the following year, 1556, eighty-five per-
sons were burnt. Women suffered ; and one, in the
flames, which burst her w-omb, being near her time of de-
livery, a child fell from her into the fire, which being
snatched out by some of the observers more humane than
the rest, the magistrate ordered the babe to be again thrown
into the fire and burnt. Thus even the unborn child was'
burnt for heresy. O God, what is human nature when
left to itself! Ala.s, dispositions ferocious as infernal then
reign and usurp the heart of man !
The queen erected a commission court, which was fol-
lowed by the destruction of near eighty more. Upon the
whole, the number of those w'ho sulTered death for the re-
formed religion in this reign, were no less than two hun-
dred and seventy-seven persons ; of whom were five bi-
shops, twenty-one clergymen, eight gentlemen, eighty-four
tradesmen, one hundred husbandmen, laborers, and ser-
vants, fifty-five women, and four children. Besides these,
there were fifty-four more under prosecution, seven of
whom were whipped, and sixteen perished in prison.
Nor was the reign of Elizabeth free from this persecu-
ting spirit. If any one refused to consent to the least ce-
remony in worship, he was cast into prison, where many
of the most excellent men in the land perished. Two
Protestant Baptists were burnt, and many banished.
She also, it is said, put two Brownists to death ; and though
her whole reign was distinguished for its political prospe-
rity, yet it is evident that she did not understand the rights
of conscience ; for it is said that more sanguinary laws
were made in her reign than in any of her predecessors,
and her hands were stained with the blood both of papists
and Puritans.
James I. succeeded Elizabeth : he published a procla-
mation, commanding all Protestants to conform strictly,
and without any exception, to all the rites and ceremonies
of the church of England. Above five hundred clergy
were immediately silenced, or degraded, for not comply-
ing. Some were excommunicated, and some banished
the country. The Dissenters were distressed, censured,
and fined, in the Star-Chamber. Two persons were burnt
for heresy, one at Smithfield, and the other at Litchfield.
Worn out with endless vexations, and unceasing persecu
tions, many retired into Holland, and from thence to Ame-
rica. It is witnessed by a judicious historian, that, in this
and some following reigns, twenty-two thousand persons
were banished from England by persecution, to America.
fER
[ 927 1
In Charles I.'s time arose the persecuting Laud, who
was the occasion of distress to numbers. Dr. Leighton,
for writing a book against the hierarchy, was fined ten
thousand pounds, perpetual imprisonment, and whipping.
He was whipped, and then placed in the pillory ; one of
his ears cut off; one side of his nose slit ; branded on the
cheek with a red-hot iron, with the lettei-s S. S. ; whipped
a second time, and placed in the pillory. A fortnight after-
■wards, his sores being yet uncurcd, he had the other ear
cut off, the other side of his nose slit, and the other cheek
branded. He continued in prison till the long parliament
set him at liberty. About four years afterwards, William
Prynne, a barrister, for a book he wrote against the sjmrts
on the Lord's day, was deprix-^d from practising at Lin-
coln's Inn, degraded from his degree at Oxford, set in the
pillory, had his ears cut off, imprisoned for life, and fined
five thousand pounds.
Nor were the Presbyterians, when their government
came to be established in England, free from the charge
of persecution. In 1645 an ordinance was published, sub-
jecting all who preached or wrote against the Presbyterian
directory for public worship to a fine not exceeding fifty
pounds ; and imprisonment for a year, for the third of-
fence, in using the Episcopal book of common prayer,
even in a private family. In the following year the Pres-
byterians applied to parliament, pressing them to enforce
uniformity in religion, and to extirpate popery, prelacy,
heresy, schism, &c., but their petition was rejected ; yet
in 1648 the parliament, ruled by them, published an ordi-
nance against heresy, and determined that any person who
maintained, published, or defended the following erroi-s,
should suffer death. These errors were, 1. Denying the
being of a God. 2. Denying his omnipresence, omnis-
cience, &:c. 3. Denying the Trinity in any way. 4. De-
nying that Christ had two natures. 5. Denying the resur-
rection, the atonement, the Scriptures. In New England,
at the same time, persecuting principles were avowed, de-
fended, and acted upon, by the Congregationalists. Laws
were passed against the Quakers and Baptists, and many
of both sects were imprisoned, fined, whipped, and ba-
nished. Among the latter was the illustrious Roger Wil-
liams. Two Quakers were put to death.
In Charles II. 's reign the act of uniformity passed, by
which two thousand clerg)Tnen were deprived of their
benefices. Then followed the conventicle act, and the Ox-
ford act, under which, it is said, eight thousand persons
were imprisoned and reduced to want, and many to the
grave. In this reign also, the Quakers were much perse-
cuted, and numbers of them imprisoned.
Thus we see how England has bled under the hands of
bigotry and persecution ; nor was toleration enjoyed until
William III. came to the throne, who showed himself a
warm friend to the rights of con.science. The accession
of the present royal family was auspicious to religious
liberty ; and as their majesties have always befriended
toleration, the spirit of persecution has been long curbed.
lUELAND
has likewise been drenched with the blood of the Protes-
tants, forty or fifty thousand of whom were cruelly mur-
dered in a few days in different parts of the kingdom, in
the reign of Charles I. It began on the 23d of October,
1641. Having secured the principal gentlemen, and seiz-
ed their effects, they murdered the common people in cold
blood, forcing many thousanus to fly from their houses
and settlements naked into the bogs and woods, where
they perished with hunger and cold. Some they whipped
to death, others they stripped naked, and exposed to shame,
and then drove them, like herds of swine, to perish in the
mountains : many hundreds were drowned in rivers, some
had their throats cut, others were dismembered. With
some the execrable villains made themselves sport, trying
who could hack the deepest into an Englishman's flesh ;
wives and young virgins abused in the presence of their
nearest relations ; nay, they taught their children to strip
and kill the children of the English, and dash out their
brains against the stones. Thus many thousands were
massacred in a few days, without distinction of age, sex,
or quality, before they suspected their danger, or had
time to provide for their defence.
P£R
SCOTI,AND, SPAI.V, kt.
Besides the above-mentioned persecutions, there have
been several others carried on in diflferent parts of the
world. Scotland, for many years together, has been the
scene of cruelty and blood.^lied, till it was delivered by
the monarch at the revoUuion. Spain, Italy, the val-
leys of Piedmont, and other places, have been the seats of
much persecution. Popery, we see, has had the greatest
hand in this mischievous work. It has to answer, also,
for the lives of millions of Jews, Mohammedans, and
barbarians. When the Bloors conquered Spain in the
eighth century, they allowed the Christians the free exer-
cise of their religion ; but in the fifteenth century, when
tlis iMoors were overcome, and Ferdinand subdued the
Jlorlscoes, the descendants of the above Moors, many
thousands were forced to be baptized, or burnt, massacred,
or banished, and their children sold for slaves ; besides
innumerable Jews, who shared the same cruelties, chiefly
by means of the infernal courts of the Inquisition. A
worse slaughter, if possible, was made among the natives
of Spanish America, where fifteen inillions are said to
have been sacrificed to the genius of popery in about for-
ty years. It has been computed that fifty millions of Pro-
testants have at difierent times been the victims of the
persecutions of the papists, and put to death for their re-
ligious opinions. Well, therefore, might the inspired pen-
man say, that at mystic Babylon's destruction " was found
in her the blood of prophets, of saints, and of all that was
slain upon the earth!" Rev. 18: 24.
To conclude this artice, who can peruse the account
here given without feeUng the most painful emotions, and
dropping a tear over the madness and depravity of man-
kind ? Does it not show us what human beings are capa-
ble of when influenced by superstition, bigotry, and preju-
dice ? Have not these baneful principles metamorphosed
men into infernals ; and enii' -ly extingui.'shed all the
feelings of humanity, the dictau s of conscience, and the
voice of reason ? Alas ! what h::.s sin done to make man-
kind such curses to one another ? Merciful God! by thy
great power suppress this worst of all evils, and let truth
and love, meekness and forbearance, universally pre-
vail ! (See Martyr ; Toleration ; Religious Liberty.)
Roger Williams^ Bloody Tenet ; Limhorch's Introduction to
his History of the Inquisition ; Dutch Marlyrology ; Me-
itmirs of the Persecutions of the Protestants in France, by Lew-
is De EnaroUes ; Combers History of the Parisian JSlassaae
of St. BartholoMcrv ; A. Robinson's History of Persecution ;
Lockman's History of Popish Perscc. ; Clark's Looking-glass
for Persecutors ; Doddridge's Sermon on Persecution ; Jortin's
ditto, vol. iv. ser. 9; Bower's Lives of the Popes; Fox's
Martyrs ; Wodrom's History of the Sufferings of the Church
of Scotland ;,NeaVs History of the Puiituns, and of Nen<
England ; Backus' History of New England ; History of the
Bohemian Persecutions ; Jones' History of the Christian
Church ; Benedict's History of the Baptists ; Ivimey's do. :
Knomles' Memoir of Roger Williams ; Bancroft's History of
the United States, vol.'i. — IVilliams ; Hend. Buck.
PERSEVERANCE, is the continuance in any design,
state, opinion, or course of action. The perseverance of
the saints is their continuance in a slate of grace to a
state of glory. This doctrine has aflbrded considerable mat-
ter for controversy between the Calvinists and Arminians.
We shall briefly here state the arguments and objections.
And, first, the perfections of God are considered as
strong arguments to prove this doctrine. God, as a Being
possessed of infinite love, faithfulness, wisdom, and power,
can hardly be supposed to suffer any of his people finallv
to fall into perdition. This would be a reflection on his
attributes, which are all pledged for their good, as a fa-
ther of his family. His love to his people is unchangea-
ble, and, therefore, they cannot be the objects of it at one
time and not at another, John 13: 1. Zeph. 3: 17. Jer. 31:
3. His faithfulness to them and to his promise is not
founded upon their merit, but his own will and goodness;
this, therefore, cannot be violated, Blal. 3: 6. Num. 23:
19. His wisdom foresees every obstacle in the way, and
is capable of removing it, and directing them into the
right path. It would be a reflection on his wisdom, alter
choosing a riglit end, not to choose right means in accom-
PER
[ 928
PER
plishing the same, Jer. 10: 6, 7. His power is insupera-
ble, and is absolutely and perpetually displayed in their
preservation and protection, 1 Pet. 1: S.
2. Another argument to prove this doctrine, is their
union to Christ, and what he has done for them. They
are said to be chosen in him, (Eph. 1: 4.) united to him,
(Eph. 1: 23.) the purchase of his death, (Rom. 8: 34. Tit.
2: 14.) the objects of his intercession, Rom. 5: 10. 8:
34. 1 John 2: 1, 2. Now if there be a possibility of
their finally falling, then this choice, this union, his death
and intercession may all be in vain, and rendered abor-
tive ; an idea as derogatory to the divine glory, and as
dishonorable to Jesus Christ, as possibly can be.
3. It is argued from the work of the Spirit, which is to
communicate grace and strength equal to the day, Phil.
1: b. 2 Cor. 1: 21, 22. If, indeed, divine grace were de-
pendent on the will of man, if by his own power he had
brought himself into a state of grace, then it might follow
that he might relapse into an opposite state, when that
power at any time was weakened ; but as the persever-
atice of the saints is not produced by any native princi-
ples in themselves, but by the agency of the Holy Spirit,
enlightening, confirming, and establishing them, of course,
Ihey must persevere, or otherwise it would be a reilection
on this Divine Agent, Rom. 8: 9. 1 Cor. 6: 11. John 4:
14. 16: 14.
4. Lastly, the declarations and promises of Scripture
are very numerous in favor of this doctrine, (Job 17: 9.
Psal. 94: 14. 125. Jer. 32: 40.- John 10: 28. 17: 12. 1
Cor. 1: 8, 9. 1 Pet. 1: 5. Prov. 4: 18.) all which could not
be true, if this doctrine were false.
There are objections, however, to this doctrine, which
we must state. 1. There are various threatenings de-
nounced against those who apostatize, Ezek. 3: 20. Heb.
C: 3, 6. Psal. 135: 3—5. Ezek. 18: 24. To this it is an-
swered, that some of these texts do not so much as sup-
pose the falling away of a truly good man ; and to all of
Ihom it is said, that they only show what would be the
consequence ;/ such should fall away ; but cannot prove
that it ever in fact happens.
2. It is foretold as a future event that some should fall
away. Matt. 24: !2, 13. John 15: 6. M.itt. 13: 20, 21. To
the first of these passages it is answered, that their love
might be said to wax cold without totally ceasing ; or there
might have been an outward zeal and show of love where
there never was a true faith. To the second it is answer-
ed, that persons may be said to be in Christ only by an
external profession, or mere members of the visible
church, John 15: 2. Matt. 13: 47, 48. As to Matt. eh. 13:
20, 21, it is replied, that this may refer to the joy with
which some may entertain the offers of pardon, who ne-
ver, after all, attentively considered them.
3. It is objected that many have in fact falien away, as
David, Solomon, Peter, Alexander, Hymena;us, fee. To
which it is answered, that David, Solomon, .and Peter's
fall, were not total ; and as to the others, there is no proof
of their ever being true Christians.
4. It is urged that this doctrine supersedes the use of
means, and renders exhortations unnecessary. To which
it may be answered, that perseverance itself implies the
u.se of means, and that the means are equally appointed
as well as the end ; nor has it ever been found that true
Christians have rejected them. They consider exhorta-
tions and admonitions to be some of the means they are
to atlend to in order to promote their holiness : Christ and
his apostles, though they often asserted this doctrine, yet
reproved, exhorted, and made use of means. (See Ex-
HORTATIOM ; MeANS.)
5. Lastly, it is objected that this doctrine gives great en-
couragement to carnal security and presumptuous sin. To
which it is answered, that this doctrine, like many others,
may he abused by hypocrites, but cannot be so by those
who are truly saints, it being the very nature of grace to
lead to righteousness. Tit. 2: 10, 12. Their knowledge
leads to veneration ; their love animates to duty ; their
faith purifies the heart ; their gratitude excites to obedi-
ence ; yea, all their principles have a tendency to set be-
fore them the evil of sin, and the beauty of holiness. See
Beza's Principles ; Wliitby and Gill on the Five Points ;
Cole on the Sovereignty of God ; Booth's Reign of Grace ;
Doddridge's Lectures, lee. 179 ; Turretini Comp. Theologia,
loc. 14. p. 156 ; CEconomia Witsii, lib. iii. cap. 13 ; Tojila-
difs Worhs, vol. v. p. 476 ; Bidglei/s Body of Divinity, qu.
79; Wesley ; Fletcher ; Clarke; Watson; Bunting; Bangs;
Hall's Help to Zion's Travellers; Newton's Works; Dwight's
Theology ; Fuller's Works ; Griffin's Park Street Lectures ;
Scott's Synod of Dort. — Heml. Buck.
PERSIA ; an ancient kingdom of Asia, bounded on the
north by Media, on the west by Susiana, on the east by
Carmania, and on the south by the Persian gulf. The
Persians became very famous from the time of Cyrus, the
founder of the Persian monarchy. Their ancient name
was Elamites, and in the time of the Roman emperors
they went by the name of Parthians; but now Persians.
(See Cyrus ; Darius ; Ahasuerus ; and for the religion
of the ancient Persians, Magi.) — Watson.
PERSIAN CHRISTIANS. That the gospel was early
planted in Persia, we have the most unequivocal evidence
in the terrible persecution of Christians which began there
in A. D. 330, whereby, in forty years, about two hundred and
fifty of the clergy, and sixteen thousand others, of both
sexes, were martyred in the cause of Christ, though many
of them have been considered as heretics by the church of
Roiue, being of the Nestorian and Jacobite communions.
In the seventh century, they fell under the scourge of Mo-
hammedan tyranny and persecution, whereby many were
driven to seek a refuge in India, particularly on the coasts
of Travancore, while the great mass of the population
apostatized to Mohammed ; a circumstance that Mr.
Yeates very naturally attributes to their not having the
Scriptures in their own language till very recently.
In the middle of the last century, a version of the gos-
pels was made by order of Nadir Shah, who, when it was
read to him, treated it with contempt and ridicule ; but
since the commencement of the present century, the Rev.
H. Martyn has translated the whole New Testament. It
was completed in the year in which he died; (1812 ;) and
has been presented to the king of Persia by the British
ambassador, and favorably received. Notwithstanding
both persecution and apostasy, the number of Christians
in Persia is said to be still .very considerable, and to com-
prise Georgians, Armenians, Nestorians, Jacobites, and
Romish Christians.
" The number of these (Persian) Christians amounts to
about ten thousand. They have an archbishop and three
bishops. The former resides at Mosul ; one of the bishops
at Chosrabad ; another at Meredeen ; and the third at Di-
arbekir. By the Mohammedans they are called Naza-
renes, and Syrians by the Arabs ; but among themselves
Ebrians, or Beni Israel, which name denotes their relation
to the ancient Jewish Christian church, as does also their
present language, being very like the Hebrew. They
have no connexion whatever with either Greek or Roman
churches.
" They hold the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity : and
declare Jesus Christ to be ' the way, the truth, and the
life ;' and that through him alone they are delivered from
the wrath to come, and are made heirs of eternal life.
They acknowledge only the two sacraments, but bt)th in
the full sense and import of the Protestant church.
" They have at Chosrabad a large church, nearly of the
size and appearance of the Scotch kirk at Madras, which
is a fine building. Through fear of the Blohammedans,
who insult and oppress them, they assemble for divine
worship between the hours of five and seven on Sunday
mornings ; and in the evenings between six and eight.
There are also daily services at the same hours. The
women and men sit on opposite sides of the church."
Of the native Mohammedan inhabitants we shall only
remark, that they are Schiites, of the sect of Ali, and have,
among them some remains of the ancient Magi ; (see
Gaurs, Magi, and Parsers ;) with a sect of modern infidels,
called SooFEEs, to which the curious reader may also turn.
Buchanan's Researches, pp. 167 — 176 ; Yeates' Indian Church
Histon/, pp. 40 — 47 ; Life of the Rev. H. Martyn ; Lon-
don Missionary Register, 1822, p. 45;' 1823, p. 25.~Wil-
Hams.
PERSON ; one who exercises the functions of a rational,
in.elligent nature. Some have been offended at the term,
applied to the Trinity, as unwarrantable. The term
PET
[929 J
PET
person, when applied to Deity, is certainly used in a sense
somewhat different from that in which we apply it to
one another; bnt when it is considered that the Greek
words hypostasis and prosopoii, to whicli it answers, are, in
the New Testament, applied to the Father and Son, (Heb.
1: 3. 2 Cor. 4: (i.) and that the personal pronouns are
used by our Lord, (John 14: 26.) ii can hardly be condemned
as unscriptural and improper. There have been warm de-
bates between the Greek and Latin churches about the words
hypostmis and persona : the Latin, concluding that the
word hypostasis signified substance or essence, thought that
lo assert that there were three divine hypostases, was to
say that there were three Gods. On the other hand, the
Greek church thought that the word person did not suffi-
ciently guard against the Sabellian notion of the same in-
dividual Being sustaining three relations; whereupon
each part of the church was ready to brand the other with
heresy, till, by a free and mutual conference in a synod at
Alexandria, A. D. 362, they made it appear that it was
but a mere contention about the grammatical sense of a
word ; and then it was allowed by men of temper on both
sides, that either of the two words might be indilferently
used. See Beza's Principles of the Christian Religion ;
Owen on the Spirit; Marci Medulla, 1, 5, ^ 3 ; Ridgley's
Divinity, qu. 1 1 ; Hurrion on the Spirit, p. 140 ; Doddridge's
Lectures, lee. 159 ; Gill on the Trinity, p. 93 ; Watts'
Works, vol. V. p. 48, 208 ; GilVs Body of Divinity, vol. i. p.
205, Bvo ; Edwards' History of Redemption, p. 51, note ;
HorcB Sol. vol. ii. p. 20 ; Stuart's Letters to Channing ;
Keith^ Norton, and Winslow, on the Trinity. — Ilend. Buck.
PERSUASION; the act of influencing the judgment
and passions by arguments or motives. It is different
from conviction. Conviction affects the understanding
only ; persuasion the will and practice. It is more exten-
sively used than conviction, which last is founded on de-
monstration, natural or supernatural. But all things of
which we may be persuaded are not capable of demon-
stration. Eloquence is but the art of persuasion. (See
Eloquence.) Blair' s Rlutoric ; Campbell; IVhately ; Mau-
ry's Principles of Eloquence ; Pulpit Orator. — Ilend. Buck.
PESTALOZZI, or Pestai-cz, (Henry,) celebrated for
having introduced a new method of education, was born,
in 1745, at Zurich, in Switzerland. After having studied
theology and jurisprndence, he relinquished his views with
respect to the church and the bar, to cultivate his own
small property. Witnessing the wretchedness of the
pea.santry, he became anxious to ameliorate Iheir situation
by cultivating their mental faculties on Christian princi-
ples. In the pursuit of his benevolent purpose he pub-
lished several works, and considerably injured his fortime.
It was not till 1798, however, that his plans were patron-
ized by the Helvetic government. Under that patronage
he for several years conducted an institution, which has
acquired extensive celebrity. He died February 27, 1827.
— Davenport.
PESTILENCE, or plague, generally is used by the He-
brews for all epidemic or contagious diseases. The pro-
phets usually connect together sword, pestilence, and fa-
mine, being three of the most grievous inflictions of the
Almighty upon a guilty people, 2 Sam. 24: 12. (See Dis-
eases, and Pl-igue.) — Watson.
PETER, the great apostle of the circumcision, was the
son of Jona, and bom at Bethsaida, a town situated on
the western shore of the lake of Gennesareth ; but in what
particular year we are not informed, John 1: 42, 43. His
original name was Simon or Simeon, which his divine
Master, when he called him to the apostleship, changed
for that of Cephas, a Syriae word, signifyi ng a stone or rock ;
in Latin, peira, from whence is derived the term Peter.
He was a married man, and had his house, his mother-
in-law, and his wife, at Capernaum, on the lake of Gen-
nesareth, Matt. 8: 14. Mark 1: 29. Luke 4: 38. He had
also a brother of the name of Andrew, who had been a
disciple of John the Baptist, and was called to the know-
ledge of the Savior prior to himself. Andrew was present
when the venerable Baptist pointed his disciples to Jesus,
and added, " Behold the Lamb of God that taketh away the
sin of the world ;" and meeting Simon shortly afterwards,
said, " We have found the Messiah," and then brought
him to Jesus, John 1: 41. When the two brothers had
117
passed one day with the Lord Jesus, they took Iheir leava
of him, and returned to their ordinary occupation of fish
ing. This appears to have taken place in the thirtieth
year of the Christian era.
Towards the end of the same year, as Jesus was one
morning standing on tire shore of the lake of Gennesareth,
he saw Andrew and Peter engaged about their employ-
ment. The miracle he then wrought, was no doubt in-
tended for a sign to the four disciples of what success
should afterwards follow their ministry in preaching the
doctrine of his kingdom ; and therefore Jesus said unto
them, " Follow me, and I will make you fishers of men ;"
on which they quitted their boats and nets, and thence-
forth became the constant associates of the Savior, during
the whole of his public ministry, Luke 18: 28. From this
instant we find St. Peter on almost every occasion evinc-
ing the strength of his faith in Jesus as the Messiah, and
the most extraordinary zeal in his service, of which many
examples are extant in the gospels.
When Jesus in private asked his disciples, first, what
opinion the people entertained of him ; next, what was
their own opinion ; " Simon Peter answered and said.
Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God," Matt. 16:
16. Having received this answer, Jesus declared Peter
blessed on account of his faith ; and in allusion to the
signification of his name, added, " Thou art Peter, and
upon this rock I will build my church ; and I will give
thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatsoever
thou shalt bind on earth," ice. Many think these things
were spoken to St. Peter alone, for the purpose of confer-
ring on him privileges and powers not granted to the rest
of the apostles. But others, with more reason, suppose
that, though Jesus directed his discourse to St. Peter, it
was intended for them all ; and that the honors and pow-
ers granted to St. Peter by name were conferred on them
all equally. For no one will say that Christ's church was
built upon St. Peter .singly : it was built on the founda-
tion of all the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ him-
self being the chief corner-stone. As little can any one
say that the power of binding and loosing was confined to
St. Peter, seeing it was declared afterwards to belong to
all the apostles. Matt. 18; 18. John 20: 23. To these
things add this, that as St. Peter made his confession in
answer to a question which Jesus put to ail the apostles,
that confession was certainly made in the name of the
whole ; and, therefore, what Jesus said to him in reply
was designed for the whole without distinction ; except-
ing this, which was peculiar to him, that he was to be
the first who, after the descent of the Holy Ghost, should
preach the gospel to the Jews, and then to the Gentiles :
an honor which was conferred on St. Peter in the expres-
sion, " I will give thee the keys," &c.
St. Peter was one of the three apostles whom Jesus ad-
mitted to witness the resurrection of Jairus' daughter, and
before whom he was transfigured, and with whom he re-
tired to pray in the garden the night before he sufiered.
He was the person who. in the fervor of his zeal for his
Master, cut ofl'the ear of the high-priest's slave, when the
armed band came to apprehend him.
Yet this same Peter, a few hours after that, denied his
Master three different times in the higli-priest's palace,
and that with oaths. In the awful defection of the apostle
on this occasion we have melancholy proof of the power
of human depravity even in regenerate men, and of the
weakness of human resolutions when left to oursclrcs.
St. Peter was fully warned by his divine Master of his a^>
preaching danger ; but, confident in his own strength, he
declared himself ready to accompany his Lord to prison and
even to death. After the third denial, ''Jesus turned
and looked upon Peter ;" that look pierced him to the heart ;
and, stung with deep remorse, "he went out, and wept
bitterly." St. Peter, however, obtained forgiveness ; and
when Jesus had risen from the dead, he ordered the glad
tidings of his resurrection to be conveved to St. Peter by
name: "Go, tell my disciples and Peter," Mark 16: S.
He afterwards received repeated assurances of his Sa-
vior's love, (John 21: 1—22.) and from that time nmform-
ly showed the greatest zeal and fortitude in his Sl.ister s
service, Acts 1: 15. 2: 14—43. 3: 1—26. i-^-^: '—-■:•
S: 14. 9: 32—43. !0: 1-48. II: 1—30. 12: 1— O- i^- '•
PET
[ 930 ]
FH A
In the Acts of the Apostles, no mention is made of St.
Peter after the council of Jerusalem. But from Gal. 2: 11.
it appears that after that council he was with St. Paul at
Antioch. He is likewise mentioned by St. Paul, 1 Cor. 1:
12. 3: 22. It is generally suppcsed that after St. Peter
was at Antioch with St. Paul, he retarned to Jerusalem.
"What happened to him after that is not told in the Scrip-
tures ; but Eusebius informs us that Origen w.-ote to this
purpose : St. Peter is supposed to have preached to the
Jews of the dispersion in Pontns, Galatia, Bithynia, Cap-
padocia, and Asia ; and, at length, coming to Rome, was
crucified with his head downwards.
If the reader wishes to see the evidence from antiquity,
on which Peter's having been at Rome rests, he will find
it fully set forth by Lardner, who concludes his inquiry as
follows : " This is the general, uncontradicted, disimerest-
ed testimony of ancient writers in the several parts of the
world, Greeks, Latins, Syrians. As our Lord's prediction
concerning the death of Peter is recorded in one of the four
gospels, it is very likely that Christians would obseiTe the
accomplishment of it, which must have been in some
place. And about this place, there is no difference among
Christian writers of ancient times. Never any other place
was named, besides Rome ; nor did any other city ever
glory in the martyrdom of St. Peter. It is not for our ho-
nor, nor for our interest, either as Christians or Protes-
tants, to deny the truth of events, ascertained by early and
well-attested tradition. If any make an ill nse of such
facts, we are not acconntable for it. We are not, from a
dread of such abuses, to overthrow the credit of all his-
tory, the consequences of which would be fatal."
2. We are indebted to this apostle for two epistles,
which constitute a valuable part of the inspired writings.
The first epistle of St. Peter has always been considered
as canonical ; and in proof of its genuineness we may ob-
serve that it is referred to by Clement of Rome, Hennas,
and Polyearp ; that we are assured by Eusebius, that it
was quoted by Papias ; and that it is expressly mentioned
by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, Origen,
and most of the later fathers. The authority of the second
epistle of Peter was for some time dispaled, as we learn
from Origen, Eusebius, and Jerome ; but since the fonrlh
centnry it has been universally received, except by the
Syriac Christians. It is addressed to the same persons as
the former epistle, and the design of it was to encourage
them to adhere to the genuine faith and practice of the
gospel. Leighton mi Peter. — Watson; Calmet.
PETER-PENCE, was an annual tribute of one penny,
paid at Rome, out of every family at the feast of St. Peter.
Thus Ina, the Saxon king, when he went in pilgrimage to
Rome, about the year V40, gave it to the pope, partly as
alms, and partly in recompense of a house erected in
Rome for English pilgrims. It continued to be paid gene-
rally until the time of king Henry VIII., when it was en-
acted, that henceforth no persons shall pay any pensions,
Peter-pence, or other impositions, to the use of the bishop
and see of Rome. — Hend. Bnck.
PETER THE HERMIT, memorable as having been
the author of the Crusades, was bom at Amiens, about the
middle ot the eleventh century. He quitted the profession
of arms to become a hermit, in which capacity he made,
about 1093, a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Indignant at
the insults to which the Christians were subjected^ he ori-
ginated the plan of expelling the infidels from Palestine.
History has recorded the success -with which he preached
it after his return to Europe. He led the first irregular
band of crusaders, but he displayed little talent, and most
of bis followers were destroyed. He died, in 1115. abbot
of New Moutier, in the territory oCL\e^e— Davenport.
PETERS, (Hugh,) minister of Salem, Massachusetts,
a celebrated preacher of the seventeenth century, was the
son of a Cornish merchant ; was educated at Trinity col-
lege, Cambridge ; and, after having been on the stage and
in the church, became, in 1R35, a resident in America.
After a very active ministry of five years at Salem, he re-
turned to England. There he supported the cause of the
parliament, for which he was executed in ICtiO. He wrote
Discourses ; and a Last Legacy to his Daughter. Allen ;
Davenport.
PETHOR i a city of Mesopotamia, of which the pro-
phet Balaam was a native. The Hebrews call this city
Pethura. Ptolemy calls it Pachora ; and Eusebius, Pa-
thara. He places it in the Upper Mesopotamia. — Watson.
PETITION, according to Dr. Walls, is the fourth part
of prayer, and includes a desire of deliverance from evil,
and a request of good things to be bestowed. On both
these accounts petitions are to be ofltred np to God, not
only for ourselves, bat for our fellow-creatures also. This
part of prayer is frequently called intercession. (See
Prayer. )^ffMrf. Buck.
PETROBRUSSIANS ; the followers of Peter de Bruis,
(or Bruys,) a reformer in Languedoc and Provence, in the
early part of the eleventh century. He is said to have
taught, 1. That no persons were to be baptized before they
came to the full use of their reason ; that is, he rejected
infant baptism. 2. That it was an idle superstition tE>
build churches (i. e. superb and expensive buildings) fur
the service of God, who will accept of a sincere worship
wherever it is ofi'ered ; and that such churches had no pe>-
culiar sanctity attached to them by consecration. 3. That
crucifixes should be destroyed, as instruments of idolatry
and superstition. 4. That the real body and blood of
Christ were not in the eucharist ; but were only repre-
sented in that holy ordinance by the elements, as figures
and symbols. 5. That the oblations, prayers, and good
works of the living, could be in no respect advantageous
to the dead. (See Bkuis, Peter he.) Mosheim's Eccles.
Hist., vol. iii. p. 116 ; Hmveis' Church Hi$t., vol. ii. p. 224,
. — Williams.
PETROJOANNITES, were followers of Peter John,
or Peter Joannis ; that is, Peter the son of John, who flou-
rished in the twelfth century. His doctrine was not known
till after his death, when his body was taken out of his
grave, and burnt. His opinions were, that he alone had
the knowledge of the true sense wherein the apostles
preached the gospel ; that the reasonable .soul is not the
form of man ; that there is no grace infused by baptism ;
and that Jesus Christ was pierced with a lance on the
cross before he expired. — Hend. Buck.
PETZELIANS, or Pcescitelians ; a modern sect, so
called from Petzel, or Pceschel, a priest of Brennau, who
was their founder. They appear to have adopted the po-
litical principles of the Spenceans, and probably their infi-
delity. They are charged with sacrificing a number of
men, and some females, particularly a girl of thirteen, on
Good Friday. They are said to have congregations in
various parts of Upper Austria, and many have been ar-
rested, bat we are not aware how punished. A similar
sect seems to have broken out in Switzerland, who are
charged with the like enormities. Fhilmithropic Gazette
for 1817, pp. 150, 172, 189, 303 ; also for 1823, p. 126.—
WilHavis.
PHARAOH ; a common name of the kings of Egypt.
We meet with it as early as Gen. 12: 15. Josephus says,
that all the kings of Egypt, from Minaeus, the founder of
Memphis, who lived several ages before Abraham, always
had the name of Pharaoh, down to the time of Solomon,
for more than three thou.sand three hundred years. He
adds, (hat in the Egyptian language the word Pharaoh
means king, and that these princes did not assume the
name until they ascended the throne, at which time ihey
quitted their former name. — Watsmi.
PHARISEES; the most celebrated of all the Jewish
sects, which is supposed to have subsisted above a century
before the appearance of our Savior. They derived the
name of their sect from the Hebrew pharash, ■which means
separated, because they separated themselves, not only
from the Gentiles, but from all other Jews ; but their se-
paration consisted chiefly in certain distinctions respecting
food and religious ceremonies ; and does not appear to
have interrupted the uniformity of rehgions worship, in
which the Jews of every sect united. The dissensions
between the schools of Hiilet and Shammai, a little before
the Christian era, increased the number and power of the
Pharisees. Hiliel and Shammai were two great and emi-
nent teachers in the Jewish schools. Hiliel was born one
hundred and twelve years before Christ. Having acquired
profound knowledge of the most diflScult points of the law,
he becaiTie master of the chief school in Jerusalem, and
laid the foundation of the Talmud. Shammai, one of the
PH A
[&31J
Pltl
disciples of HUlel, deserted his school, and formed a col-
lege, in which he taught doctrines contrary to his master.
He rejected the oral law, and followed the written law
only in its literal sense. (See CARAitES.) These schools
long disturbed the Jewish church by violent contests : the
party of Hillel was at last victorious.
The Pharisees, by their apparent sanctity of manners,
had rendered themselves extremely popular among the
mullitwde j and the great, who feared their artifice, were
obliged to court their favor. Hence they obtained the
highest offices, bolh in the state and priesthood, and had
great weight, both in public and private affairs. It ap-
pears, from the frequent mention which is made by the
evangelists of the scribes and Pharisees in conjunction,
that the greater number of Jewish teachers (for they were
(lie scribes) were at that time of this sect.
The principal doctrines of the Pharisees are as follow ; —
That the oral law, which they suppose God delivered to Mo-
ses ty an angel on mount Sinai, and which was preserved
by tradition, isof equal authority with the written law. (See
Rabbinists.) That by observing both these laws, a man
may not only obtain justification with God, but perform
meritorious works of supererogation. That fasting, alms-
giving, ablutions, and confessions, are a sufficient atone-
ment for sin. That thoughts and desires are not sinful,
unless they are carried into action. They believed in
firedestjnatioffl, acknowledged the immortality of the soul,
future rewards and punishments, the existence of good
and evil angels, and the resurrection of the body. (See
Metempsychosis.)
It is a well known fact, that the resurrection of the body
was commonly believed among the Jews, even in the most
degenerate period of their history. This is manifest from
the story of the seven brethren, who, with their mother, were
put to death by Antiochus Epiphanes in one day ; (2 Mac.
7. 12; 43, 44.) to which story the writer of the epistle to
the Hebrews, in chap. 11: 35, clearly alludes, saying,
" Others were tortured, not accepting deliverance, that thty
might obtain a better resurrection." And when .Martha, the
sister of Lazarus, was told that her brother should rise
again, she answered, " I knorv thai he shall rise again in
the resurrection at the last day," (John U; 23, 24.) which
implies, that this doctrine was at that time a well-known
and acknowledged truth. Luke also says expressly, that
the Pharisees confess the resurrection, Acts 23: 3. And Paul,
speaking before Felix of his hope towards God, says,
"•Which they theinselves (the Pharisees) also allow, that
there shall he a resurrection, both of the just and unjust, Acts
24: 15. If the doctrine of the resurrection, as held by the
Pharisees, had been nothing more than the Pythagorean
transmigration, it is beyond all credibility that such testi-
mony would have been home of it.
The state of future felicity in which the Pharisees be-
lieved, however, was very gross : they imagined that
.men in the next world, as well as in the present, were to
eat and drink, and enjoy the pleasures of love, each being
reunited to his former wife. Hence the Sadducees, who
believed in no resurrection, and supposed our Savior to
£e?.eh it as a Pharisee, very shrewdly urged the difficulty
of Usposing of the woman who in this world had been the
wife of seven husbands. Had the resurrection of Chris-
tianity been the Pharisaical resurrection, this difficulty
would have been insurmountable ; and accordfngly we
find the people, and even some of the Pharisees themselves,
struck with the manner in which our Savior removed it.
The peculiar manners of this sect are strongly marked
in the writings of the evangelists, and confirmed by the
testimony of the Jewish authors. According to the latter,
they fasted the second and fifth days of the week, and put
thorns at the bottom of their robes, that they might prick
their legs as they walked. They lay upon boards covered
with flint-stones, and tied thick cords about their waists.
They pjid tithes as the law prescribed, and gave the thir-
tieth and fiftieth part of their fruits ; adding voluntary
sacrifices to those which were commanded. They were
very exact in performing their vows. The talmudic
books mention several distinct classes of Pharisees, among
whom was the Truncated Pharisee, who, that he might ap-
pear in profound meditation, as if destitute of feet, scarce-
ly lifted them from the ground ; and the Mortar Pharisee,
who, that his contemplations might not be disturbed
wore a deep cap in the shape of a mortar, which would
only permit him to look upon the ground at his feet.
Thus did they study to captivate the admiration of the
vulgar ; and under the veil of singular piety, they often
disguised the most licentious manners. Calmet's Diet, by
Tayhr ; Stackhotise'r, History of the Bible, vol. v. pp. 122,
413 ; Jennings^ Jewish Anliq., book i. chap. 10 ; Hornets In-
troduction, vol. i. pp. 166 — 170. — Mend. Buck; Williams.
PHARPAR. (See Abana.)
PHEBE ; a Christian female of the port of Corinth,
called Cenchrea, Rom. 16: 1, 2. It is thought that, in
quality of deaconess, she was employed by the church in
some ministrations suitable 1o her sex and condition ; as
to visit and instruct the Christian women, and attend them
in their sickness, and distribute alms to them in their ne-
cessities.— Wntson.
PHENICIA ; a province of S)Tia, the limits of which
have been diffisrently represented. Sometimes it has been
defined as extending from north to south, from Orthosia
as far as Pelusium. At other times its southern limit is
said to have been mount Carmel and Ptolemais. It is
certain that, from the conquest of Palestine by the He-
brews, its limits were narrow, containing no part of the
country of the Philistines, which occupied all the coast
from mount Carmel along the Mediterranean, as far as the
borders of Egypt. It had also very little extent on the
land side, because the Israelites, who possessed all Galilee,
confined it to the coast of the Mediterranean sea. The
chief cities of Phenicia were Sidon, Tyre, Ptolemais, Ec-
dippe, Sarepta, Berythe, Biblos, Tripoli, Orthosia, Siraira,
Aradus. They formerly had possession of some cities in
Libanus : and sometimes the Greek authors comprehend
all Judea under the name Phenicia.
Phenicia may be considered as the birth-place of com-
merce, if not also of letters and the arts. It was a Pheni-
cian who introduced into Greece the knowledge and the
use of letters. Phenician workmen built the temple of
Solomon ; Phenician sailors navigated his ships ; Pheni-
cian pilots directed them : and beibre other nations had
ventured to lose sight of their own shores, colonies of Phe-
nicians were established in the most distant parts of Eu-
rope, Asia, and Africa. These early advantages were
owing, doubtless, in part to their own enterprising charac-
ter, and in part also to their central situation, which ena-
bled them to draw into their own narrow territory all th«
commerce between the East and the West. Bochart hai
labored to show that they sent colonies to almost all Ih«
isles and coa.sts of the Mediterranean sea; but the most
famous of all their colonies was that of Carthage. — Watson
PHIBESETH; a town of Egypt, Ezek. 30; 17. Tin
Seventy call it Bubastus, which was situate on the Pelusi
ac branch of the Nile. — Calmct.
PHILADELPHIA; {brotherly love ;) a city of Lydia, in
Asia Minor, and one of the seven churches of Asia. II
derived its name from Attains Philadelphus, its founder;
and was seated on an arm of mount Tmolus, by the river
Cogamus, about twenty-five miles south-east of Sardis,
and seventy, in nearly the same direction, from Smyrna.
It suffered greatly, in common with all this part of Asia,
in the terrible earthquake during the reign of Tiberius,
and in the seventeenth year of the Christian era. I nas,
however, retained a better fate than most of its neighbors ;
for under the name of Alahsher, or the city of God, it is
still a place of some repute, chiefly supported by trrjle, it
being in the route of the caravans to Smyrna.
"Among the Greek colonies and churches ol Asia,"
says Gibbon, "Philadelphia is still erect, a column in a
scene of ruins." Thus the sceptical historian himself
bears witness to the fulfilment of prophecy. See Rev. 3;
10. Although this city is now in ihe possession of^the
Turks, it has about a thousand Thristian inhabitants,
chiafly Greeks ; who have five churches, with a resident
bishop, and inferior clergv. — Wntsnn.
PHILADELPHIAN SOCIETY; a sect or society of
the seventeenth centur>', so called fit m an English female,
whose name was Jane Leadly. (See Leadlvans.)—
Hend. Buck. , , -
PHILANTHROPY ; compounded of philosv.na antnro-
pos, which signify the love of manUmd. It diners irora
PHI
932 J
PHI
benevolence only in this, that benevolence extends to every
being that has life and sense, and is of course susceptible
of pain and pleasure ; whereas philanthropy cannot com-
prehend more than the human race. It differs from friend-
ship, as this affection subsists only between a few indivi-
duals, whilst philanthropy comprehends the whole human
species. It is a calm sentiment, which in most men hardly
sver rises to the warmth of affection, and certainly not to
the heat of passion. (See Love.) — Heml. Bmli.
PHILEMON; a rich citizen of Colosse, in Phrygia,
who, Calmet thinks, was converted to the Christian faith,
wrrh Apphia his wife, by Epaphras, a disciple of Paul ;
but, as Mr. Taylor remarks, it would appear from the ex-
pression in Philem. verse 19, " thou owest to me even thy
own self besides," that Philemon was really a convert of
Pau'. ; unless we could admit that the apostle had formerly
been the means of saving his life ; for which we have no
warrant. Some have supposed that Archippus was sen
to Philemon ; and as the apostle terms him "our fellow-
soldier," it is possible, that the connexion had been of
long standing, and consequently, much intercourse might
have taken place between Paul and Philemon, distinct
from any reference to Philemon's situation at Colosse.
Lightfoot has this thought ; and Michaelis adapts it ; but,
if Archippus were fellow-soldier of Paul the aged, he was
too old tO' be son to Philemon : not to insist, that no reason
can be assigned why this son is distinguished from the
rest of Philemon's family. He might be brother to Phile-
mon, (or, to Apphia,) and living with him, is placed after
Apphia ; but before the young folks of the family, to whom
he was uncle. This conjecture seems to be the most pro-
bable ; and it agrees with the sirpposable time of life at
which Archippus had (lately) been chosen to an office of
deaconship. Or was he a young preacher ?
Though it is usually saiil that Paul bad converted and
baptized Onesimus, the run-away slave of Philemon, (see
Onesimus,) at Rome ; yet from the phrase, (Col. 4: 9.)
" who is one of you," Mr. Taylor infers that Onesimus
had professed Christianity before his elopement ; (so Epa-
phras is called one of themselves, ch. 1: 7.) othenvise, he
could be no member of the church at Colosse : and very
likely, this transgression of a professor had not only mor-
tified Philemon extremely, but had scandaUzed the church,
and had become publicly notorious among the heathen
also. But H may here mean only " of your city."
Philemon was undoubtedly a man of property ; and,
like Gaius, the lady Electa, and Phebe, he exercised
great hospitality towards Christian brethren, especially
evangelists. But, from the direction of the apostle " to
prepare him a lodging" (comp. Wacknight, et at. in he.)
in a hired house, iu the city, v/here he might receive
all visitors, it appears that Philemon's premises were not
very extensive.
Philemon might have been a: deacon in one of the church-
es at Colosse, but the term " fellow-laborer" is not suffi-
cient to prove that he was a bishop ; though it implies a
previous personal knowledge, and perhaps much confiden-
tial communication, between the parties. If we might
add a personal knowledge of Philemon, by those also who
salute him in Paul's letter — Timothy, Epaphras, Mark,
Aristarchus, Demas, Luke — it would greatly heighten our
conception of this good man's character, and suggest a va-
riety of occasions on which he might have rendered the
brethren services equally extensive and important, —
Calmei.
PHILIP, or Herod-Puilif ; (Hark 6: 17. Luke 3: 19.
Matt. U: 3.) son of Herod the Great. (See Ageippa ; He-
Kou ;. and Herodias.) — Calnu-t.
PHILIP, the apostle, was a native of Bethsaida in Gali-
lee. Jesus Christ having seen him, said to him, " Follow
me," John I: 43: 41. Philip followed him ; he was pre-
sent at the marriage of Canain Galilee. Philip was called
at the beginning of our Savior's mission. He is men-
tioned, Luke 6: 13. Matt. 10: 3. John (x 5—7. Some
Gentiles having a curiosity to see Jesus a litlle before his
passion, addressed themselves to Philip, (John 12: 21, 22.)
who mentioned it to Andrew, and these two to Christ. At
the last supper Philip desired the Savior to show them the
Father, John 14: 8 — 10. This i.s all that we find concern-
ing Philip in the gospel.
2. Philip, the second of the seven deacons, (Acts 6: S.)
was, some say, of Csesarea in Palestine. It is certain his
daaghters lived in that city. Acts 21: 8, 9. After the death
of Stephen, all the Christians, except the apostles, having
left Jenisalem, and being dispersed in several places, Phi-
lip went to preach at Sebaste or Samaria, where he per-
formed several miracles, and convertEd many persons,
Acts 8: 1 — 3, &c. He baptized them : but informed the
a^Jostles at Jerusalem that Samaria had received the wortS
of God, that they might come and communicate the Holy
Ghost to them. Peter and John came thither for that pur-
pose. Philip was, probably, at Samaria, when an ange?
commanded him to go on the road that leads from Jeru-
salem to Old Gaza. Philip obeyed, and there met with an
Ethiopian eun-uch, belonging to Candace, queen of Ethi-
opia, whom he converted and baptized. Acts 8: 26. Beingf
come out of the water, the Spirit of the Lord took away
Phihp, and the eunuch saw him no more. — Watson.
PHILIPISTS ; a sect or party among the Lutherans,
the followers of Philip Blelancthon. He had strenuously
opposed the Ubiquists, who arose in his time ; and the dis-
pute growing stifl hotter after his death, the university of
Wittenberg, who espoused Melaix:thon's opinion, Avere
called by the Flacians, who attacked it, Philipisa.—HerKl,
Buck.
PHILIPPI ; a city of Macedonia, so called from Philip,
king of Macedon, who repaired and beautified it : whence'
it lost its former name of Dathos.
Paul here introduced the gospel, A. D. 52. In Acts 16;
12, Lulie says, " We came to Philippi, which (say ouy
translators) is the cMef city of that part of Macedonia, and
a colony :" but this translation rcqnires correction, tor
this effect: " Philippi, a city of the first part of Macedo>
nia ;" or Macedonia Prima. The province of Macedonia
had undergone several changes, and had been divided in-
to various portions, which had received various names--
Blr. Taylor has produced a medal' which reads MA-
KEDONON PROTES, "of the first part of Macedo-
nia ;" which" is a complete justification of the evange-
list's description of this district. Amphipolis was (or
had been) the chief city of the district in which Philippi
stood. (Livy, lib. xlv. c. 29.) Further, the sacred writer
says, Philippi was " a colony ;" intending, no doubt, ai
Roman colony ; but, as this was a favor Philippi seems-
to have had little reason to expect, having fonnerly oppos-
ed the interest of the Ca^sarean i-mperisl femily, the learneii
have been embarrassed by the title here given it. How-
ever, after long perplexities among the critics. Providence
brought to light some coins, in which it is recorded under'
this character : and one of which makes express mention,
that J'ulins Cassar himself had bestowed the dignity and
advantages of a colony on the city of Philippi, which Au-
gustus afterwards confirmed and arigmenied. The inscrip-
tion is, €Oho?na Avevsia juLm fhilip;);. This corroborates
the character given to Philippi by Luke ; and proves that it
had been a colony for many years, tlinugh no author but
himself, whose writings have reached us, has mentioned
it under that character ; or has given ns reason to infer at
what time it might be thus honorably distinguished .
(See Lydia.) Paul and Silas, notwithstanding the shame-
ful persecution they here experienced, foiinded a flourishing
church. This church was at first left by Paul and Silas
under tlie ministrations and direction of Luke, whose age
and experience qualified him for that diSicult office. He
continued there a long while, probably several years,
though he modestly omits all mentioi-i- of his services,
Comp. Acts 16: 11. et seq. with chap 20: 6.
2. The converted Philippians were always full of gra-
titude for the faith they had received from God, by the
ministry of Paul. They assisted him on several occa-
sions ; (Phil. 4: 16.) sent him money while in Achaia ; and
being informed that he was a prisoiier at Rome, they sent
a deputation to him by Epaphroditus, one of their bishops,
(Phil. 1: 1. i: 12, 18. A. D. 61.) who went a second time,^
and carried with him the epistle which is still remaining;
and in which the apostle opens his whole heart, opens the
glory of the gospel as the means of holiness, and highly
commends their liberality. — Calmet.
PHILISTINES, or Puilistim ; a people 'who are com-
monly said to have deseemled from Casluhim, the son of
PHI
[ 933 ]
PHI
MizraiDi or Mizr, who peopled Egypt. The Philistines, it
is probable, continued with their progenitors in Egypt un-
til they were sufficiently numerous and powerful to stretch
themselves along the coast of Canaan ; doubtless by driv-
ing out that portion of the family of Ham. It is certain
that, in the time of Abraham, the Canaanites were in pos-
session of the rest of the land, to which they gave their
name : but the extreme south of Philistia, or Palestine, was
even then possessed by the Philistine.^, whose king, Abime-
lech, reigned at Gerar. After this, in the time of Joshua,
we find their country divided into five lordships or princi-
palities; namely, Gaza, Askelon, Ashdod, Gath, and Ek-
ron ; giving sometimes also, as it appears, the title of king
to their respective rulers : Achish being termed king of
Gath, I Sam. 21: 10. The time of their coming to Pales-
tine is unknown; but they had been long in Canaan when
Abraham came thither, in the year of the world 2083.
The name Philistine is not Hebrew. The Septuagint ge-
nerally translate it hallophuloi, strangers. The Pelethites
and Cherethites were also Philistines ; and the Septuagint
sometimes translate Cherethim, Kretai, Cretes. They
were not of the cursed seed of Canaan. However, Joshua
did not forbear to give their land to the Hebrews, and to
attack them by command from the Lord, because they
posses.sed a country promised to Israel. But these conquests
of Joshua must have been ill maintained, since, under
the judges, under Saul, and at the beginning of the reign
of David, the Philistines had their kings, and their lords,
whom they called Sazenim ; since their state was divided
into five little kingdoms, or satrapies ; and since they op-
pressed the Israelites during the government of the high-
priest Eli, and of Samuel, and during the reign of Saul,
for about a hundred and twenty years, from A. ]\I. 2848
to A. M. 2960. True it is, that Shamgar, Samson, Samuel,
and Saul, opposed them and kUled some of their people,
but did not reduce their power. They continued inde-
pendent till the time of David, who subdued them, (2 Sam.
5: 17. 8; 1, 2, &c.) though they often revolted in succeed-
ing reigns, 2 Chron. 21: 16. 26: 6, 7. 28: 18. 2 Kings
18:8.
Esar-haddon, successor to Sennacherib, besieged Ash-
dod, or Azoth, and took it by the arms of his genera)
Thasthan, or Tartan. Psarametichus, king of Egypt,
took the same city after a siege of twenty-nine years, ac-
cording to Herodotus. During the siege of Tyre, w'hich
held out thirteen years, Nebuchadnezzar used part of hi.s
army to subdue the Ammonites, the Moabites, the Egyp-
tians, and other nations bordering on the Jews. There is
great probability that the Philistines could not withstand
him, but were reduced to his obedience, as well as the
other people of Syria, Phenicia, and Palestine. After-
wards, they fell under the dominion of the Persians ; then
under that of Alexander the Great, who destroyed the city
of Gaza, the only city of the Phenicians that dared to op-
pose him. After the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes,
the Asmoneans took by degrees several cities from the
country of the Philistines, which they subjected. Tryphon,
regent of the kingdom of Syria, gave to Jonathan, the As-
monean, the government of the whole coast of the Medi-
terranean, from Tyre to Egypt; consequently, all the
country of the Philistines.
2. The land of the Philistines bordered on the west and
.south-west of Judea, and lies on the south-east point of the
Mediterranean sea. The country to the north of Gaza is
very fertile ; and, long after the Christian era, it possessed
a very numerous population, and strongly fortified cities.
No human probability, says Keith, could have existed, in
the time of the prophets, or at a much more recent date,
of its eventual desolation. But it has belied, for many
ages, every promise which the fertility of its soil, and the
excellence both of its climate and situation, gave for many
preceding centuries of its permanency as a rich and well-
cultivated region. And the voice of prophecy, which was
not silent respecting it, proclaimed the fate that awaited
it, in terms as contradictory, at the time, to every natural
suggestion, as they are descriptive of what Philistia now
actually is. " I will stretch out my hand upon the Philis-
tmes, and destroy the remnant of the sea-coasts," Ezek.
25: 16. Jer. 47: 5. " Thus sailh the Lord, For three trans-
gressions of Gaza, and for four, I will not turn away the
punishment thereof. I will send a fire upon the wall of
Gaza, which shall devour the palaces thereof And 1 will
cut off the inhabitant from Ashdod, and him that holdeth
the sceptre from Ashkelon ; and I will turn my hand
against Ekron ; and the remnant of the Philistines shall
perish, saith the Lord God," Amos 1; 6, 7, 8. Zeph. 2: 4—
6. Zech.9: 5.
The land of the Philistines partakes of the general
desolation common to it With Judea and other neigh-
boring states. But its aspect presents some existing
peculiarities, which travellers fail not to particularize,
and which, in reference both to the state of the country
and the fate of its difRrent cities, the prophets fail
not to discriminate as justly as if their description had
been drawn both with all the accuracy which ocular
observation, and all the certainty which authenticated
history, could give. Volney, (though, like one wlio in
ancient times was instrumental to the fulfilment of a
special prediction, " he meant not so, neither did his heart
think so,") from the manner in which he generalizes his
observations, and marks the peculiar features of the uiSe-
rent districts of Syria, with greater acuteness and perspi-
cuity than any other traveller whatever, is the ever read''
purveyor of evidence in all the cases which come wilhm
the range of his topographical description of the wide field
of prophecy : while, at the same tiinc, from his known,
open, and zealous hostility to the Chribijaii cause, his tes-
tiinony is alike decisive and unquestionable : and the vin-
dication of the truth of the scriptural preilictions may
safely be committed to this redoubted champion of infide-
lity. " The ruins of white .marble, sometimes found at
Gaza, prove that it was formerly the abode of luxury and
opulence. It has shared in the general destniclion ; and,
notwithstanding its proud title of the capital of Palestine,
it is now no more than a defenceless village, peopled b)',
at most, only two thousand inliabitants. The sea-coast,
by which it was formerly washed, is every day removing
farther from the deserted ruins of Ashkelon. Amidst
the various successive ruins, those of Edzoud," Ashdod,
" so powerful under the Philistines, are now remarkable
for their scorpions."
There is yet another city which WEis noted by the pro-
phets, the very want of any information respecting which,
and the absence of its name from several modern map3
of Palestine, while the sites of other mined cities are
marked, are really the best confirmation of the truth of
the prophecy that could possibly be given. " Ekron shall
be rooted up," Zeph. 2: 4 — C. It is rooted up. It was one
of the chief cities of the Philistines ; but, though Gaza still
exists, and while Ashkelon and Ashdod retain their
names in their ruins, the very name of Ekron is missing.
Keith on the Evidence of Propheaj. — U'ntsoti.
PHILLIPS, (Samuel.) minister of Andovcr, Mass.,
was born in Salem, in 1690. He -was graduated at Har-
vard college in 170S ; began to preach in the south and
new parish of Andover, April 30, 1710 : and was ordained
Oct. 17th. He continued faithfully to discharge the du-
ties of the sacred office for sixty years, till his death, June
5, 1771, aged eighty-one. Being sincerely attached to
those views of religious truth which were embraced by
the first fathers of New England, he could not quietly see
the efforts that were made to pervert the faith, which he
was persuaded was once delivered to the saints. He ex-
erted himself both by his preaching and his writings to
guard his people against the intrusion of error.
He published a \Vord in Season, or the duty of a people
to take the onth of allegiance to a gloriou.s" God, 1727;
Advice to a Child, 1729 ; the History of the Savior ; the
Orthodox Christian, or a child well" instructed, 1738 ; a
Minister's Address to his People, 1739 ; Artillery Election
Sermon, 1741 ; Living Water to be had for a.sking ; Elec-
tion Sermon, 1750; the Sinner's Refusal to come unto
Christ reproved ; the Necessity of God's drawing in order
to men's coming unlo Christ ; Convention Sermcn. 1753 ;
at the ordination of N. Holt ; at the instalment of S.
Ch.nndler, 1759 ; Seasonable Advice to a Young Neighbor,
1761 ; Address to Young People, in a dialogue ; a Sermon
to Young People, 1763; on Justification, 1766 ; Sin of
Suicide contrary to nature, 1767. — Allen.
PHILLIPS, (JoBN, LL. D.,) founder of the academy
PHI
[ 934
PHI
In Exeter, New Hampshire, was boro in Andover, Mas-
sachusetts, 1719. He was graduated at Harvard col-
lege, in 1735. For several years he was a member of
the council of New Hampshire. April 21, 1778, he, with
his brother, Samuel Phillips of Andover, founded and li-
berally endowed the academy in that town, which was
incorporated in 1780. In 1789, he farther gave to this in-
stitution twenty thousand dollars. The academy, called
Phillips' Exeter academy, of which he was the sole foun-
der, was incorporated in 1781, with a fund of fifteen thou-
sand pounds. He died in April, 1795, aged seventy-six,
bequeathing to this academy two-thirds of all his estate,
and one-third of the residue to the seminary at Andover,
particularly for the benefit of pious youth. Mr. Phillips
was an orthodox professor. Morsels Geog.; Holmes' An-
nals, ii. 404 ; Constitut. of Andover Theolog. Seminary. —
Allen.
PHILLffS, (Samuel, LL.D.,)lieutenant governor of Mas-
sachusetts, was born at Andover, in 1751, and graduated at
Harvard college, in 1771. He was a member of the pro-
vincial congress in 1775, and of the house of representatives
till the year 1780, when he assisted in framing the consti-
tution of Massachusetts. On its adoption, he was elected
a member of the senate, and was its president from 1785
to 1801. Being appointed justice of the court of common
pleas for Essex in 1781, he held his office till 1797, when
his declining health induced his resignation. He was
chosen lieutenant governor in 1801, and died February 10,
1802, aged fifty.
Such was his superiority to the pride of wealth and of
power, and such his benevolence and humility, that when
honored with public applause and raised to eminence, he
would frequently spend the interval between the morning
and evening services of the Sabbath in the house of God,
for the purpose of reading some pious boolc to those
whose distant habitations prevented them from returning
home. He was careful to impart religious instruction, to
his family, and he led its daily devotions with humility,
fervor, and eloquence. He appeared to be continually
governed by love to the Supreme Being, and by the desire
of imitating his benevolence and doing good. His deep
views of evangelical doctrine and duty, of human depra-
vity and mediatorial mercy, formed his heart to humility,
condescension, and kindness, and led him continually to
depend on the grace of God through the atonement of his
Son.
He projected the academy at Andover, and was much
concerned in establishing that, as well as the academy at
Exeter, which were founded by his father and uncle. To
these institutions he was a distinguished benefactor. His
exertions to effect their establishment bring him the
highest honor, for he was the natural heir of the founders.
After his death, his widow, Phebe Phillips, and his
son, John Phillips of Andover, evinced the same attach-
ment to the interests of learning and religion, by uniting
with Samuel Abbot, and three others of a most liberal and
renevolent spirit, in founding the theological seminary in
Andover, which was opened in September, 1808. By
Euch acts of most honorable munificence has the family
which bears the name of Phillips proved to the world,
that the blessing of wealth may fall into hands which
shall employ it for the best of purposes. Tappan's Fun.
Siirm.— Allen.
PHILLIPS, (William,) lieutenant governor of Massa-
chusetts, and a Christian philanthropist, was born April
10, 1750, being an only son. His feeble health prevented
his receiving a public education. He engaged in mer-
cantile pursuits with his father, on whose death a large
fortune came into his hands. In 1772, he made a profes-
sion of religion ; in 1794, he was chosen a deacon of the
Old South church, where he officiated until his death.
For several years, while Strong and Brooks were gover-
nors, he was the heutenant governor of the state. He died
May 26, 1817, aged seventy-seven.
D'acon Phillips was an active member of many chari-
table societies. He was, at the time of his decease, presi-
dent of the Massachusetts Bible Society. For a series of
years, his charities had been from eight to eleven thousand
dollars annually. Many widows and fatherless chiMrnn
were by him rescued from want. He bequeathed to Phil-
lips' academy fifteen thousand dollars ; to the theological
institution at Andover, ten thousand ; to the society for
propagating the gospel among the Indians, the Massachu-
setts Bible Society, the Foreign Mission Board, the Con-
gregational Society, the Education Society, and the Mas-
sachusetts General Hospital, each five thousand ; to the
Medical Dispensary, three thousand ; to the Female Asy-
lum, and the A.sylum for Boys, each two thousand; in all,
sixty-two thousand dollars. — Allen.
PHILOSOPHISTS ; a name given to several persons
in France who entered into a combination to overturn the
religion of Jesus, and eradicate from the human heart
every religious sentiment. The man more particularly to
whom this idea first occurred, was Voltaire, who, being
weary (as he said himself) of hearing people repeat that
twelve men were sufficient to establish Christianity, re-
solved to prove that one might be sufficient to overturn it.
Full of this project, he swore, before the year 1730, to de-
dicate his life to its accomplishment ; and, for some time,
he flattered himself that he should enjoy alone the glory
of destroying the Christian religion. He found, however,
that associates would be necessary ; and from the nume-
rous tribe of his admirers and disciples, he chose D'Alem-
bert and Diderot as the most proper persons to co-operate
with him in his designs. But Voltaire was not satisfied
with their aid alone. He contrived to embark in the same
cause Frederick H., king of Prussia, who wished to be
thought a philosopher, and who, of course, deemed it ex-
pedient to talk and write against a religion which he had
never studied, and into the evidence of which he had pro-
bably never deigned to inquire. This royal adept was
one of the most zealous of Voltaire's coadjutors, till he
discovered that the philosophists were waging war with
the throne as well as with the altar. This, indeed, was
not originally Voltaire's intention. He was vain ; he
loved to be caressed by the great ; and, in one word, he
was, from natural disposition, an aristocrat, and an admi-
rer of royalty. But when he found that almost every
sovereign but Frederick disapproved of his impious pro-
jects, as soon as he perceived their issue, he determined
to oppose all the governments on earth rather than forfeit
the glory, with which he had flattered himself, of van-
quishing Christ and his apostles in the field of contro-
versy.
He now set himself, with D'Alembert and Diderot, to
excite universal discontent with the established order of
things. For this purpose they formed secret societies,
assumed new names, and employed an enigmatical lan-
guage. Thus Frederick was called Lnc ; D'Alembert,
Protagoras, and sometimes Bertrand ; Voltaire, Eaton;
and Diderot, Platon, or its anagram Tonpla ; while the
general term for the conspirators was Cacovcc. In their
secret meetings thev professed to celebrate the mysteries
of Mijthra ; and thAr great object, as they professed to
one another, wa,s to confound the wretch, meaning Jesus
Christ. Hence their secret watchword was Ecrasez VIn-
fame, " Crush the Wretch." If we look into some of the
books expressly written for general circulation, we shall
there find the following doctrines ; some of them standing
alone in all their naked horrors, others surrounded by
sophistry and meretricious ornaments, to entice the mind
into their net before it perceives their nature. ■' The Uni-
versal Cause, that God of the philosophers, of the Jews,
and of the Christians, is but a chimera and a phantom.
The phenomena of nature only prove the existence of God
to a few prepossessed men : so far from bespeaking a God,
they are but the necessary effects of matter prodigiously
diversified. It is more reasonable to admit, with Manes,
of a twofold God, than of the God of Christianity. We
cannot know whether a God really exists, or whether
there is the smallest difference between good and evil, or
vice and virtue. Nothing can be more absurd than to
believe the sonl a spiritual being. The immortality of
the soul, so far from stimulating man to the practice of
virtue, is nothing but a barbarous, desperate, fatal tenet,
and contrary to all legislalion. All ideas of justice and
injustice, of virtue and vice, of glory and infamy, are
purely arbitrary, and dependent on custom. Conscience
and remorse are nothing but the foresight of those physi-
cal penalties to whicli crimes expose us. The man who
PHI
[ 935 ]
PHI
is above the law, can commit, Without remorse, the disho-
nest act that may serve his purpose. The fear of God, so
far from being the beginning of wisdom, should be the
beginning of folly. The command to love one's parents
IS more the work of education than of nature. Modesty
is only an invention of refined voluptuousness. The law
which condemns married people to live together, becomes
barbarous and cruel on the day they cease to love one
another." These extracts from the secret correspondence
and the public writings of these men, will suffice to show
us the nature and tendency of the dreadful system they
had formed.
The philosophists were diligently employed in attempt-
ing to propagate their sentiments. Their grand Encyclo-
pedia was converted into an engine to serve this purpose.
Voltaire proposed to establish a colony of philosophists at
Cleves, who, protected by the king of Prussia, might pub-
lish their opinions without dread or danger ; and Frederick
v,as disposed to take them under his protection, till he
disctvered that their opinions were anarchical as well as
impious, when he threw them ofi", and even wrote against
them. They contrived, however, to engage the ministers
of the court of France in their favor, by pretending to
have nothing in view but the enlargement of science, in
works which spoke indeeed respectfully of revelation,
while every discovery which they brought forward was
meant to undermine its very foundation. When the
throne was to be attacked, and even when barefaced athe-
ism was to be promulgated, a number of impious and li-
centious pamphlets were dispersed (for some time none
knew how) from a secret society formed at the hotel
d'Holbach, at Paris, of which Voltaire was elected hono-
rary and perpetual presideiit. To conceal their design,
which was the diffusion of their infidel sentiments, they
called them.selves Economists. (See Illujiinati.)
The books, however, that were issued from this club,
were calculated to impair and overturn religion, morals,
and government ; and which, indeed, spreading over all
Europe, imperceptibly took possession of public opinion.
As soon as the sale was sufficient to pay the expenses,
inferior editions were printed and given away, or sold at
a very low price ; circulating libraries of them formed,
and reading societies instituted. While they constantly
denied these productions to the world, they contrived to
give them a false celebrity through their confidential agents
and correspondents, who were not themselves always
trusted with the entire secret. By degrees they got pos-
session nearly of all the reviews and periodical publica-
tions ; established a general intercourse, by means of
hawkers and pedlars, with the distant provinces ; and in-
stituted an office to supply all schools with teachers : and
thus did they acquire unprecedented dominion over every
species of literature, over the minds of all ranks of people,
and over the education of youth, without giving any alarm
to the world. The lovers of wit and polite literature were
caught by Voltaire ; the men of science were perverted,
and children corrupted in the first rudiments of learning,
by D'Alembert and Diderot ; stronger appetites were fed
by the secret club of baron Holbach ; the imaginations of
the higher orders were set dangerously afloat by Montes-
quieu ; and the multitude of all ranks was surprised, con-
founded, and hurried away by Rosseau. Thus was the
public iTiind in France completely corrupted, and which,
no doubt, greatly accelerated those dreadful events which
have since transpired in that country. — Hend. Buck.
PHILOSOPHY, (from phihs and snphia,) properly de-
notes the love, or desire of wisdom. Pythagoras was the
first who devised this name, because he thought no man
was wise, but God only ; and that learned men ought
rather to be considered as lovers of wisdom, than really
wise. 1. Natural philosophy is that science which leads us
to contemplate the nature, causes, and effects of the material
works of God. (See Man.) — 2. Moral philosophy is the
science of manners, the knowledge of our duty and feli-
city. The various articles included in the latter are ex-
plained in their places in this work. — 3. Mental philosophy
is the science of mind, or of the different mental powers,
affections, and associations. 4. Divine philosophy is the
higher science of theolog)' ; especially the divine plan of
salvation by Christ, 1 Cor. 2: 6—16. 1 Pet. 1: 10—12.
Milton has eloquently described the natture and influence
of the latter study.
How ctiarming is Divine Philosopht ;
Not harsh, anJ crabbed, as dull fools suppose,
But musical as is Apollo'i? lute,
And a perpetual feasl of neclared sweets,
Where no crude surfeit reigns.
A knowledge of the animal, vegetable, and mineral
kingdoms, or the science of natural history, was always
an object of interest. We are informed that Solomon
himself had given a description of the animal and vegeta-
ble kingdoms, 1 Kings 4: 33. Traces of philosophy,
strictly so called, that is, the system of prevailing moral
opinions, may be found in the book of Job, in the tiiirty-
seventh, thirty-ninth, and seventy-third Psalms ; also in
the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, but chiefly in the
apocryphal book of Wisdom, and the writings of the son
of Sirach. During the captivity, the Jews acquired many
new notions, particularly from the Mahestani, and appro-
priated them, as occasion offered, to their own purposes.
They at length became acquainted with the philosophy of
the Greeks, which makes its appearance abundantly in
the book of Wisdom. After the captivity, the language
in which the sacred books were written was no longer ver-
nacular. Hence arose the need of an interpreter on the
sabbatic year, a time when the whole law was read, and
also on the Sabbath in the synagogues, which some think
had been recently erected, in order to make the people
understand what was read. These interpreters learned the
Hebrew language at the schools. The teachers of these
schools, who, for the two generations preceding the time
of Christ, had maintained some acquaintance svith the
Greek philosophy, were not satisfied with a simple inter-
pretation of the Hebrew idiom, as it stood, but shaped the
interpretation so as to render it conformable to their philo-
sophy. Thus arose contentions, which gave occasion for
the various sects of Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes.
Anciently, learned men were denominated among the
Hebrews hekmion, as among the Greeks they were
called sophoi, wise men. In the time of Christ, the com-
mon appellative for men of that description was gram-
mateus, a scribe. They were addressed by the honorary
title of robbi, " great," or " master." The Jews, in
imitation of the Greeks, had their seven wise men, who
were called rabboni. Gamaliel was one of the num-
ber. They called themselves the children of wisdom ;
expressions which correspond very nearly to Greek phi-
losopkos. Matt. 11: 19. Luke 7: 35. The heads of sects
were called " fathers ;" the disciples were denominated
" sons," or " children ;" Matt. 12: 27. 23: 1—9. The
Jewish teachers, at least some of them, had private lec-
ture-rooms ; but they also taught and disputed in syna-
gogues, in temples, and, in fact, wherever they could find
an audience. The method of these teachers was the same
with that which prevailed among the Greeks. Any disci-
ple who chose might propose questions, upon which it
was the duty of the teachers to remark and give their opi-
nions, Luke 2: 46. The teachers were not invested with
their functions by any formal act of the church, or of the
civil authority : they were self-constituted. They received
no other salary than some voluntary present from the dis-
ciples, which was called an ''honorary," ((/me, honorarium,
1 Tim. 5: 17.) They acquired a subsistence, in the main,
by the exercise of some art or handicraft. That they took
a higher seat than their auditors, although it was probably
the case, does not follow, as is sometimes supposed, from
Luke 2: 46. According to the talmudlsts, they were
bound to hold no conversation with women, and to refuse
to sit at table \vilh the lower class of people, Matt. 9- 11.
John 4: 27. The subjects on which they taught were nu-
merous, commonly intricate, and of no great consequence ;
of which there are abundant examples in the Talinud.
St. Paul bids the Colossians beware lest any man should
spoil them " through philosophy and vain deceit ;" that
is, a vain and deceitful philosophy, such as was popular
in that day, and had been compounded out of all pre-
ceding systems, Grecian and Oriental. An explanation
of this philosophy is given under Cabala ; and Gnostics.
But popular as this sort of philosophy may have been,
we may say with truth, that the scheme which flat-
PHI
[ 936 ]
PHR
tcred the vanity of human wisdom, and wliicU strove to
conciliate all opinions, has died away, and is forgoUen ;
while the gospel, the uupresuming, the uncompromising
doctrine ol' the gospel, aided by no human wisdom, and
addressing itself not merely to the head, hut to the heart,
has triumphed over all systems and all philosophers ; and
still leads its followers to that true knowledge which some
have endeavored to teach " after the tradition of men, after
the rudiments of the world, and not after Christ." (See,
also, the articles Piiilosophists ; and Neology.)
It ought to be remarked, however, that the progress of
true science, on the principles of the Baconian philosophy,
by observation, experiment, and induction, is found in the
end always to correspond with, and corroborate the trttth
of the Scriptures. One philosophical objection after ano-
ther, raised during the crude state of the several sciences,
has in turn disappeared as the science became perfected,
and its crudities purged away. Between true science
and true Christianity the harmony is perfect. See Duug-
las on the Ailonnccment of Society ; Douglas on the Truths uf
Religion, and on Errors regarding Religion ; Chalmers'
Works ; Works of Robert Hall ; Works of Andretv Fuller ;
Dick on the Philosophy of Religion, iSrc. &c. ; Slnittlemorth on
the Consistency of Revelation ; Natural History of Enthusi-
asm ; Saturday Evening ; the Bridgewatcr Treatises ; Way-
land's Discourses. — Hcnd. Buck ; Watson.
PHILPOT, (John,) a very learned English divine and
martyr under Edward VI. and Mary, was bom near Win-
chester. He was educated at New college, Oxford. After
leaving Oxford, he travelled through Italy, where, on ac-
count of his religion, he was brought into danger. On
returning to England, he received the preferment of arch-
deacon of Winchester. During the time of Edward, his
labors were abundant and successful. He was well fur-
nished, both by nature and grace, for his calling, and he
devoted himself with an uncompromising zeal to the ad-
vancement of pure and undefllcd religion. For both
learning and piety, he was esteemed as among the fore-
most of the English reformers.
But he was soon called to stem the current of papal ty-
ranny and corruption. On the accession of Mary, a convo-
cation of bishops and dignitaries was held, for the purpose
of changing the established religion from Protestantism to
popery. The learned archdeacon, and a few others, bore
a noble testimony against the design. For his exertions,
notwithstanding the promised freedom of debate, he was
imprisoned a year and a half. He was then sent to bish-
op Bonner, and other commissioners, who confined him in
the bishop's coal-house. He here met with every insult ;
was once confined from morning till night in the stocks ;
was examined some fifteen or sixteen times ; and though
he firmly and unanswerably defended his cause, was met
only with taunts and abusive epithets. Yet, in all this
persecution, the consolations of the Holy Spirit were abun-
dantly administered to him ; insomuch that on one occa-
sion Bonner said to him, " I marvel that you are so
merry in prison, singing in your naughtiness," &c.
After his condemnation, he suflered many indignities in
Newgate. But he was soon brought to the stake. He
kissed the wood, and said, " Shall I disdain to suffer at
this stake, when my Lord and Savior refused not to suffer
a most vile death upon the cross for me ?" When he was
bound to it, he repeated the hundred and sixth, seventh,
and eighth Psalms, and prayed most fervently ; till at
length, in the midst of the flames, with great meekness
and joy, he gave up his spirit to God. — Middleton, vol. i.
p. 428.
PHINEHAS, son of Eleazar, and grandson of Aaron,
was the third high-priest of the Jews, (A. M. 2571, to
about A. M. 2590,) and is particularly commended in
Scripture for zeal in vindicating the glory of God, when
the Midianites had sent their daughters into the camp of
Israel, to tempt the Hebrews to fornication and idolatry.
Num. 23: 7.
For his conduct upon this occasion the Lord promised
the priesthood to Phinehas by a perpetual covenant ; evi-
dently including this tacit condition, that his children
should continue faithful and obedient. It continued in the
race of Phinehas, down to the high-priest Eli, for about
three hundred and thirty-five years, when it passed into
the family of Ithamar ; and again reverted to the family
of Eleazar under the reign of Saul, who, having pat to
death Abimelech and the other priests of Nob, gave the
high-priesthood to Zadok, of the race of Phinehas. The
priesthood continued in his family until after the captivi'
ty of Babylon, and even to the destruction of the temple.
— Calmet.
PHOCAS, bishop of Pontus, a Christian martyr of the
third century, under Trajan, for refusing to sacrifice to
Neptune, was put to death by being first cast into a hot
lime-kiln, and afterwards thrown into a scalding bath.
— iv).r, p. 16.
PHOTINIANS ; a sect in the fourth century, who de-
nied the divinity of our Lord. They derive their name
from Photinus, their founder, who was bishop of Sermium,
and a disciple of Marcellus. Photinus published, in the
year 343, his notions respecting the Deity, which were re-
pugnant both to the orthodox and Arian systems. He
asserted that Jesus Christ was born of the Holy Ghost and
the virgin Mary ; that a certain divine emanation, which
he called the Word, descended upon him ; and that, be-
cause of the union of the divine Word with his human
nature, he was called the Son of God, and even God him-
self; and that the Holy Ghost was not a person, but
merely a celestial virtue proceeding from the Deity. —
Hend. Buck.
PHRENOLOGY. The literal signification of this term
is, a discourse concerning the mind. By phrenology,
however, is usually understood that system of mental and
moral philosophy, which recognises the brain as the con-
geries or collection of organs, by which the mental and
moral faculties are manifested, during the connexion of
the mind and the body. It makes no pretensions to ascer-
tain the nature of the mind itself, nor to determine whe-
ther it be material or immaterial, destined to immortality,
or to perish with the body. Wisely does it leave these in-
teresting inquiries to be solved by knowledge of a different
kind, derived from divine revelation.
As phrenology, in its influence upon other branches of
science, such as morals, theology, medicine, legislation,
and education, is by many regarded as the greatest and
most important discovery of modern times, it may be proper
here to introduce the history of its origin and progress.
The honor of the discovery is unquestionably due to Dr.
Gall, of Vienna. Dr. Spurzheim and Mr. Combe, however,
merit the praise of having been the most successful culti-
vators of the science.
Dr. Gall, from an early age, was disposed to observa-
tion. He noticed the fact, that his brothers, and sisters,
and school-fellows, were each distinguished by some pecu-
liarity of talent or disposition. He found that the scho-
lars with whom he had the greatest difficulty in com-
peting, were those who learned by heart with much faci-
lity ; and such individuals frequently gained from him,
by their repetitions, the places of honor and commenda-
tion, to which he had justly gained a title by the merit
of his original compo.sitions. His school-fellows so gifted
were observed to have prominent eyes; and subsequently,
in similar cases, he found this to be uniformly true.
This fact, we are told, suggested to him the propriety of
looking to the heads around him for the organs, either of
intellect or of sentiment. From the first, he referred the
cause to the brain, and not to the bones of the head, as
has been sometimes represented by the opponents of the
system.
Dr. Gall studied the metaphysical writers with but little
satisfaction. Being fully convinced there was a natural
difference between individuals as to talents and disposi-
tions, and finding those writers not acknowledging this
principle, but speaking of all men as born with equal
mental faculties and moral susceptibilities, and maintain-
ing that the differences observable between them were
owing either to education or to accidental circumstances,
he laid aside all reliance upon their theories, and devoted
himself to the study of nature. " He visited prisons, and
resorted to schools ; he was introduced to the courts of
princes, to colleges, and the seats of justice ; and wher-
ever he heard of an individual distinguished in any parti-
cular way, either by remarkable endowment or deficiency,
he observed and studied the development of his head.
PHR
[ 937
PHY
In this manner, by an almost imperceptible induction, he
conceived himself warranted in believing that particular
mental powers are indicated by particular configurations
of the head." Anatomical investigations next occupied
his attention, and he made several important discoveries
respecting the structure of the brain and nerves. The
fibrous constitution of the brain has, by him and Dr. Spur-
zheim, been demonstrated to the satisfaction of all anato-
mists, even of those who continue opposed to the peculiar
doctrines of phrenology.
Dr. Gasper Spuezheih began the study in 1800, as a
student of Dr. Gall, and has been an indefatigable laborer
in the field of phrenological investigation, and at all events
a successful advocate of truth and humanity. He has
lectured in France, Great Britain, Ireland, and the United
Stales. He arrived in New York in July, 1832, and pro-
ceeded to Boston, where, after lecturing several weeks, he
fell a victim to his generous ardor. His powers of analy-
sis were great ; and much of the order and harmony of
the science may be fairly attributed to him. Nor were
his moral sentiments less valuable or endearing. In this
country, he was received enthusiasm, entertained with
cordiaHty, and lamented with sincere esteem and heartfelt
sorrow. His writings however still live.
Phrenology, it should be repeated, does not assent nor
imply that the mind is material, or that it cannot exist
and act separately from the body. It only states that
while united with the body, it employs material organs
for its manifestation. It is impossible to define the nature
of the soul, or to decide upon its duration merely by phi-
losophic research. Would we know the truth on these
recondite subjects, we must consult a higher source; and
by faith in divine revelation, we may have our desires
gratified in the most satisfactory manner, Blatt. 10: 28.
We may believe that the mind uses the eye to see, the
ear to hear, the hand to feel, and the brain to think ; and
if so, why not one part of the brain to enjoy the pleasures
of friendship, another part to raise the emotion of benevo-
lence, and still another to quicken the energy of resent-
ment?
The brain is, therefore, a congeries of organs : these are
numerous and multiform : phrenology collects and ar-
ranges them in three great classes. The first class em-
braces those organs which give rise to the animal pro-
pensities, and are nine or ten in number. The second class
contains those of the moral feelings or sentiments, twelve
in number. The third class comprehends the intellec-
tual organs or faculties, which are subdivided into the
knovviiig and the reflecting organs. Generally speaking,
it is said the animal propensities are situated in the lower
and posterior parts of the head, the moral sentiments in the
superior lateral parts, and the intellect in front. All arise
from the medulla oblongata at the base of the skull, and
are mostly extended to the surface of the cranium. The
following are the various organs in their order ; which, it
should be remembered, are all double ; that is to say, that
one of each name exists on either side of the brain.
Class I. — Organs of the Propensities.
1. Amativeness ;
2. Philoprogenitiveness ;
3. Inhabitiveness ;
4. Adhesiveness ;
5. Combativeness ;
6. Destructiveness ;
7. Secretiveness ;
8. Acquisitiveness ;
9. Constructiveness ;
* Alimentiveness.
Class IL — Organs of the Sentiments.
10. Self-Esteem;
11. Love of Approbation ;
12. Cautiousness ;
13. Benevolence :
14. Veneration :
15. Firmness :
16. Con.scientiousness :
17. Hope ;
18. Wonder, or Marvellousne.ss •
118
19
Ideality ;
20.
Mirth, or Wit J
21.
Imitation.
Class III.— Organs of Intellect
Part I
— PERCEPTIVK FACt7I.TIB.S.
22.
Individuality ;
23.
Form ;
21.
Size;
25.
Weight ;
2(i.
Color ;
27.
Locality ;
28.
Number, or Numeration ;
29.
Order ;
30,
Eventuality ;
31.
Time ;
32.
Tunc ;
33.
Language.
Part II
— Refiecting Faculties,
34.
Comparison j
35.
Casualty.
See Foreign Quarterly Revierp, No. III., rrith Notes by Dr.
Spiirzheim ; Judson's Alphabet of Phrenology ; Dewhttrst's
Comparative Phrenology ; IVorks of Dr. Gall ; Spi/rzheitn's
Works ; G. Combe on the Constitution of Man ; Dr. A. Combe
on the Principles of Physiology ; and on ^lental Derange-
ment ; Levison on Mental Culture ; Brigham on Health.
PHEYGIA, was the largest kingdom of Asia Minor:
it had Bithynia north ; Pisidia and Lycia south ; Galatia
and Cappadocia east ; and Lydia and Mysia west. Chris-
tianity was planted in this country by Paul, Acts 16: 6.
18: i-i.—Calmet.
PHRYGIANS, or Cataphrygians; a sect in the seconij
century, so called, as being of ilie country of Phrygia.
They were orthodox in the main, setting aside this,
that they took Montanus for a pn.phet, and Priscilla and
Maximilla for true prophetesses, lo he consulted in every
thing relating to religion ; as supposing the Holy Spirit
had abandoned the church. (See Montanists.j — Hend.
Buck.
PHUT, the third son of Ham, (Gen, 10: 6.) is though,
to have peopled either the canton of Phtemphu, Phtemph-
ti, or Phtembuti, of Pliny and Ptolemy, whose capital was
Thara, in Lower Egypt, inclining towards Libya ; or the
canton called Phtenotes, of which Buthas was the capital
The prophets often speak of Phut. In the time of Jere^
miah, (46: 9.) this province was subject to Necho, king of
Egypt; and Nahum (3: 9.) reckons them among those
who ought to come to the assistance of No-Aramon.
Calmet.
PHYLACTERY, in general, was a name given by the
ancients to all kinds of charms, spells, or characters which
they wore about them, as amulets, to preserve them from
dangers or diseases.
Phylactery particularly denoted a slip of parchment,
wherein was written some text of Holy Scripture, particu-
^3t^-s •
larly of the decalogue, which the more devout people
among the Jews wore on the forehead, the breast, or the
neck, as a mark of their religion.
The primitive Christians also gave the name Phylacte-
ries to the cases wherein they inclosed the relics of their
dead. Phylacteries are mentioned in the New Testament,
and appear to have been very common among ihe Phari-
sees in our Lord's time.
The phylacteries used by Ihe modern Jews are of three
kinds; of each of which there is a .specimen in the library
PHY
938 ]
PHY
of the duke of Sussex. They are used for the head, the
arm, and attached to the door-post. They consist of por-
tions of Scripture, taken from the Pentateuch, selected
according to the situation for which they are destined,
written upon very fine vellum, in a very small square
character, and with a particular kind of ink. (See Fkont-
LETS ; and Mezuzih.)
It seems the Pharisees used to "make broad their phy-
lacteries." This some understand of the knots of the
thongs by which they were fastened, which were tied very
artificially in the form of Hebrew letters ; and that the
pride of the Pharisees induced them to have these knots
larger than ordinary, as a peculiar ornament. The Pha-
risees are farther said to " enlarge the borders of their
garments," la kraspeda ton himalioii, I\Iatt. 23: 5. These
kraspeda were the fringes which the Jews are commanded
to wear upon the borders of their garments. Num. 15: 38,
39. These were worn by our Savior, as appears from the
following passage : "Behold, a woman, which was dis-
eased with an issue of blood twelve years, came behind
him, and touched the hem of his garment," kraspcdon tou
himatiov, Matt. 9: 20. 14: 36. It should have been ren-
dered " the fringe." The Pharisees are censured by our
Savior for enlarging these fringes of their garments,
which we may suppose they did partly Irom pride, and
partly from hypocrisy, as pretending thereby an extraor-
dinary regard for the precepts of the law. It is reported
by Jerome, as quoted by Godwin, that they used to have
fringes extravagantly long ; sticking thorns in them, that,
by pricking their legs as they walked, they might put
them in mind of the law. Bibliotheca Svssexiana. — Hend.
Buck ; Watson.
PHYSICIAN ; (1.) One who practises medicine, Mark
5: 26. (2.) An embalmer of dead bodies. Gen. 50: 2. (3.)
Such as comfort and relieve from distress by their advice
and counsel. Job 13: 4. Jesus Christ is called a physician ;
by the application of his word, his blood, and his Spirit, he
removes the guilt, the ignorance, hardness, and other spi-
ritual diseases of men's souls, Matt. 9: 12.
Among the Assyrians, Chaldeans, Egyptians, Libyans,
and Greeks, we have hints of skilful physicians ; but till
Hippocrates the Coan, about A. M. 3540, digested medi-
cine into a kind of system, it was very little considered.
Aretaeus the Cappadocian long afterward further improved
it. Galen, who lived in the .second century of the Chris-
tian era, put the art into a still clearer order ; but by pre-
tending to found every thing on the four elements, and the
humors, and by his cardinal qualities, and the like, he
embarrassed u with unintelligible jargon. Between the
sixth and ninth centuries of Christianity, the art of medi-
cine was in a manner lost ; but from that to the thirteenth,
the Arabs cultivated it with a great deal of pomp. It was
not, hov.'ever, until within these two centuries past, that it
was handled in a proper manner ; nor is it so even now,
except among the Europeans of the Christian name. (See
the following article; and Medicine.) — Works of Robert
Hall, vol. ii. p. 485 ; Bron-n.
PHYSIOLOGY, (Human.) By etymolog>' and original
acceptation, physiology means ifle doctrine of nature, and
i s not verj appropriately applied to that limited division
of natural science, which has for its object the various
fcrmn and phenomena of life, the condition and laws un-
der which this state exists, and the causes which are
active in producing and maintaining it. A foreign writer
has proposed for this division the more accurate term of
" biology," or science of life.
I. Importance of the study. — The importance of this
science to all classes of mankind is most obvious. The
wisdom of the injunction, know thyself, has been admitted
for ages, and yet, so far as a knowledge of the human
frame is concerned, the maxim is forgotten in practice.
No science is more neglected than this. The term physi-
ology is used (we follow Dr. Alcott) to include much that
in strictness of language belongs to anatomy.
The person who should occupy a dwelling seventy,
eighty, or a hundred years, and yet be unable to tell the
number of its apartments, or the nature, character. Ace. of
its materials, — perhaps even the number of its stories, —
would be thought inexcusably ignorant. Yet, with the
exception of medical men, and here and there an indivi-
dual belonging to the other professions, there is scarcely
one person in a thousand who knows any thing about the
elementary materials, the structure, or even the number
of apartments in the present habitation of his mind. But
is it not strange, that during the progress of a life which
is often protracted nearly a hundred years, while we be-
come acquainted with thousands of fellow-beings, and
millions of objects in the vegetable and mineral world, we
should remain profoundly ignorant of our own physical
frame, and die even without being once introduced to
ourselves ?
How an education ever came to be regarded as either
liberal or complete without a knowledge of physiology, is
inconceivable. We know, indeed, what obstacles igno-
rance and prejudice have thrown in the way of improve-
ment generally, and we know how these obstacles have
always been met ; but the question will still recur, " Why
have individuals been found ready and willing to sacrifice
property, and health, and reputation, and life, for every
thing else, rather than the knowledge of themselves ?"
Is it because there is nothing in the human structure
and economy to gratify curiosity, or excite wonder?
There are few who are not fond of natural science m most
of its departments ; especially natural history. And is
there no pleasure to be derived from the study of that ani-
mal which has been represented to be, above all others,
"fearfully and wonderfully made?" Does it afford no
pleasure to study the structure and functions of the sto-
mach and liver, and other organs concerned in changing
a mass of beaten food — perhaps some of the coarser vege-
tables— into blood ? — of the heart, and arteries, and veins,
which convey this iluid, to the amount of three gallons,
through all parts of the body once in four minutes ? — of
the lungs, which restore the half spoiled blood to its wonted
purity, as fast as it is sent into them, and enable it to pur-
sue a healthful course through its ten thousand channels?
— of the brain, and especially the nerves, which, by their
innumerable branches, spread themselves over ever)' soft
part of the human system, (and some of the harder parts,)
which they can possibly penetrate, in such numbers that
we can nowhere insert the point of the finest needle with-
out piercing them?— of the skin, every square inch of
which contains the mouths or extremities of a million of
minute vessels ? — Is all this uninteresting ?
Is it for want of a connexion with other sciences?
Does it illustrate none of the mechanical laws ? What
then shall we say of the joint by which the head is united
to the neck in a way whic^j human art never originated,
if it could even imitate it ? — of the joints at the elbows
and wrists which admit of such numerous and complicated
motions? — of the structure and motion of the lungs and
their bony covering? — of the heart, the muscles, &c. ?
Even the wonders of the human hand, an instrument
which we constantly put in requisition, have rarely been
told, or its functions understood.
Have we no interest in observing the chemical laws,
which, to some extent, operate within the S)'stem in the
formation and combination of those fluids which we call
the saliva, the gastric juice, the bile, the pancreatic fluid ; —
in the changes of food into chyme, of chyme into blood,
of blood, or the particles which it holds in solution, into
solid masses ; — in the change which the blood undergoes
in the lungs, and many other mysterious processes ?
Above all, is there nothing to arrest our attention in the
manner by which that unknown principle which we caWlife,
is able to resist — often successfully, for seventy or eighty
years — the tendency of the solids and fluids to decompo-
sition and putrefaction, and the delicate membranes of the
body to bear the weight of the incumbent atmosphere,
resting upon them at the rate of fifteen pounds to the
square inch ? Is there no wisdom displayed in the con-
struction of so complicated, and yet so wonderful a ma-
chine, and in endowing it with the power of retaining an
average heat of ninety-six or ninety-eight degrees, whether
the surrounding atmosphere he heated to one hundred de-
grees or cooled to thirty-two, or even to a much lower point ?
Is there, moreover, no mental discipline involved in the
study of physiology ? Is it the exclusive province of ma-
thematical science to invigorate and discipline the mental
powers
PHY
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PHY
Half the labor, to speak quite within bounds, of every
educator of our race, from the mother and infant school
teacher to the magistrate and the minister of religion, is
lost, and worse than lost, for want of a thorongh know-
ledge of this subject.
If man is ever to be elevated to the highest and happi-
est condition which his nature will permit, it must be, in
no small degree, by the improvemertt, I might say, the
redemption of his physical powers. But knowledge on
any subject must always precede improvement.
It is probably owing to ignorance of the nature, struc-
ture, powers and purposes of the digestive apparatus,
more tlian to any other single cause, that so much mis-
chief is done to the young by excess, or impropriety in
eating and drinking. Not that correct information on
this point would lead at once to correct practice ; but no
reform can be expected until there is a conviction of its
necessity ; for we cannot appeal to the conscience with
any prospect of success, so long as that conscience remains
unenlightened. The morning star that must usher in
this day of real improvement, and lead man to the highest
and happiest condition of which he is susceptible, by shed-
ding light around and within him, and, under God, leading
him home to himself, is physiology, or a thorougli know-
ledge of his own nature. (See Wan.)
Do parents feel the force of those arguments derived
from a regard ts the welfare of the generations that are to
follow them, whose every characteristic of body or mind
is to be affected by themselves and their conduct ; and
whose happiness must be graduated by the measure of
attention which we, of the present generation, pay to the
development of our physical frames ?
Dr. Rush supposed, that merely as friends to our country,
we ought, in the formation of habits as well as in every
individual action, to have a wise and sacred regard to the
welfare of the hundredth generation that may succeed us ;
and he believed that we were no more justifiable in doing
or neglecting to do any thing which should have a ten-
dency to injure the species, however remotely, than if the
effects of our conduct were confined to the very next ge-
neration. He probably supposed that the evils which are
entailed on our offspring by excessive or improper eating
or drinking, or by improprieties in dress, affected every
successive generation ; and unless corrected, must continue
to be transmitted ; aggravated, perhaps, by a continuance
of the same habits and causes which began the mischief,
until our physical natures shall be greatly degenerated.
And is not this doctrine sound ? But if so, is it not to a
community, as Christians, that the appeal is strongest ?
There are very few individuals to be found, adds Dr.
Alcott, who do not sometimes yield to indulgences or ex-
cesses, either at the solicitation of their own appetite, or
in compliance with the customs which prevail around
them, the tendency of which is to diminish their vigor, if
not to impair their health for life. I am just now speaking
of errors in diet, drink, exerci.se, &c., without the remotest
reference to those grosser eiToi^ to which I wish it was no
part of my busine.ss to advert. On the latter subject much
might be said. I might speak of the prevalence of solita-
ry, as well as social vice, in boarding and high schools,
and even in too many instances in colleges. There is too
much evidence, that some of these supposed sources of
moral purity are little more, to many of their inmates,
than hotbeds of physical and moral pollution ; and this,
toD. in spite of all the efforts which instructers at this pe-
riod of their pupils' age, and under the circumstances
which often exist, can possibly make. Some striking
facts might here be presented ; facts which should awaken
every teacher and parent to renewed effort to devise means
for meeting this tremendous and increasing evil.
It is not supposed that a knowledge of physiology would
be the means of coixecting either common or gross errors
at once ; but, until a knowledge of the laws whi»h govern
the human frame becomes so common that every parent
and teacher can perceive how ever}' abuse of the consti-
tution mu.st, of necessity, sooner or later bring punishment
upon him who commits it, or upon his posterity, no radical
or effectual reformation can be expected. There must be
a familiarity between parents and children, on these sub-
ject.*!, which has rarely, if ever, yet existed ; and the child
must be trained to see the sword of the avenger stretched
out by permission of his Father in heaven, against every
form of abuse of that body which was intended to be a
"temple of the Holy Spirit ;" and of its every passion and
appetite. We have no other safeguard.
Next to the mother, a knowledge of the human frame
is important to the teacher. This is true, whether his
office be to instruct merely, a few hours in the day, or to
educate. Those M'ho have their pupils constantly under
their care, as in some of our boarding or select schools,
may be considered as substitutes for the time for parents ;
any remarks which go to show the obligations which pa-
rents are under, to understand the physical- constitutions
of their children, would be er[ually applicable to their cir-
cumstances.
Those, also, who are concerned in the instruction either
of the young or the old on the Sabbath merely, should not
remain ignorant on this subject. Some of the greatest
mistakes, arising from ignorance of physiology, are here
made. A minister might almost as well wear out a fine
pair of lungs in preaching to the wind, as in attempting
to gain the attention of a set of hearers who have just
eaten a hearty dinner, on the Sabbath, especially if they
are people who are in the habit of using a great deal of
exercise in the progress of their ordinary occupations.
Would he labor with any considerable hope of doing good,
his first step must be to try to break up the wretched cus
tom of gorging ourselves with fond on this day; whether
by an increase of variety to tempt the palate, or simply
an increase of quantity. Laboring people often say they
feel a keener appetite on Sunday than on other days ; but
it arises rather from ennui ; at least, it is a nwrbid feeling,
and should never be indulged. (See Atte.ntion.)
In the appendix to the " First Annual Report of the
Society for promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institu-
tions," a valuable work, every page of which goes to
prove the necessity of a knowledge of our own physical
frames, we find the following eloquent language pn this
subject : " Modern education conducts the student round
the universe ; bids him scale the heights of nature, and
drop his fathom line among the deep soundings of h?r
abyss, compassing the vast, and analyzing the minute ;
and yet never ccmducts him over the boundary of that
world of living wonders which constitutes him man, and
is at once the abode of his mind, the instrument of its
action, and the subject of its sway. Why, we a.sk, shall
every thing else be studied, while the human frame is
passed over as a noteless, forgotten thing — that master-
piece of divine mechanism, pronounced by its author
'wonderfully made,' and ' curiously wrought ;' — a temple
fitted up by God, and gloriously garnished for the resi-
dence of an immflrtal inhabitant, bearing his own image,
and a candidate for a ' building of God, eternal in the
heavens V "
There is one objection to the study of physiology, which
deserves a moment's consideration. It is said that .so
certainly as people begin to attend to this subject, they
begin to fancy themselves diseased, and to regulate their
diet, take medicine, &c. Now that it should lead them
to regulate their diet so far as to form judicious habits, is
no objection to its introduction, but the contrary ; for fen
things are more necessary. But it is a mistake tosuppcse
that the study ofour own franr, induces us to fancy our-
selves sick, and to lake medicine. It is the study of dis
cases, or rather, the mere reading of books on practice, and
on the nature and power of medicine, before yvE know any
THINS about OCR OWN sTRUcTUEE, that produccs these re-
sults.
In short, there are no weighty objections to the course
of study here recommended. For so long as we have
bodies, it is our duty to understand them. If there be
among us any individuals who have so far become ethe-
real as not to require food, dr'ink, rest, air, warmth, and
exercise, these, and these alone, are justified in neglecting
the study of physiology.
II. Objects and method of study. — In investigating the
nature of living beings, various objects of inquiry present
themselves, and various modes of proceeding may be
adopted. We may examine their structure ; the number,
form, size, relative position and connexion of the organs,
PHY
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PIC
by the assemblage of which they are constructed ; their
texture ; that is, the primary animal tissues which com-
pose the various organs, and their mode of union ; their
elementary composition; or the number, nature, and
combinations, of the elsments into which they can be re-
solved: lastly, their living phenomena ; the vital properties
'with which all the primary tissues are endowed, the offi-
ces or functions executed by the organs, and the mutual
influences and diversified dependencies, which, regulating
the order and succession of these living operations, cuin-
bine so many partial and subordinate motions into one
beautiful and harmonious whole.
It is the business of the anatomist to demonstrate the
structure and unravel the texture of animal bodies ; tlieir
csmposition falls within the department of the chemist ;
and their vital phenomena occupy the labors of the physi-
ologist. Anatomy, therefore, teaches the organization of
animals, while physiology unfolds the nature of life. The
third division forms a kind of border territory, lying be-
tween the domains of chemistry and physiology, alter-
nately occupied and cultivated by both. Under the name
of animal chemistry, it has received, of late years, a con-
stantly increasing share of attention, and produced im-
portant accessions to our knowledge of the composition
and operations of animal bodies.
Anatomy and physiology should be cultivated together :
we should combine observation of the function with exa-
mination of the organization. It should be borne in mind,
that every organ has its living phenomena and its use,
and that the chief ultimate object, even of anatomy, is to
learn the nature of the function. Strictly speaking, struc-
ture alone is learned by dissection : the vital properties
of organic textures, and the functions of organs, are
found out by observation. Anatomy, however, tmfolds
facts, of which the knowledge is absolutely necessary in
appreciating the results of observation. It affords the
only clue capable of guiding us through the multiplied and
varied movements all going on together in the living mi-
crocosm, and of thus enabling us to discriminate the pro-
per share of each organic apparatus.
Haller, the father and founder of modem physiology,
has furnished the best example, both for the method of
cultivating the subject, and of treating It in writing. He
had devoted thirty years to the dissection of human bodies
and those of animals, and to observation, and to every va-
riety of experimental research, before he began to com-
pose his Ehmmta Physiologic. In this matchless work, a
full anatomical description of every organ, drawn from
his own dissections, precedes the history of its functions.
I know no anatomical descriptions, says Dr. Lawrence,
superior to these ; none deserving of more implicit confi-
dence. To regard this work as a mere i^egister of opinions
has always appeared to me very unjust : it contains new
and accurate information on almost every part of the sub-
ject. It is no slight proof of its merits, that, although pub-
lished in the middle of the last century, it yet remains the
book of authority.
Anatomy and physiology are the ground-work of pa-
thology, or the science of disease. Disease is a relative
term, implying a comparison with a state of health, and
presupposing a knowledge of that state. To anatomy, or
science of healthy structure, is opposed morbid anatomy,
or science of diseased structure ; to physiology, or doctrine
of healthy functions, pathology, or doctrine of diseased
manifestations. Morbid anatomy shows us the di.seases ;
pathology, their external signs or symptoms. Often, no
change of structure is observable; the deviations from
the healthy condition elude our means of inquiry. The
organ is then said to be functionally disordered.
Thus we find that anatomy, physiology, morbid anato-
my, and pathology, are mutually related and intimately
connected. Although called separate sciences, they are,
in truth, parts of one system ; and we must never lose
sight of their mutual bearings. On the foundation of
these four departments of knowledge or science, is raised
the practice of medicine, or the healing art ; overlooking
the artificial distinctions of physic, surgery, and so forth.
Mr. Hunter, of whom we here present an engraving,
was the first in England who investigated disease in a
strictly philosophic method : bringing to bear on it the
clear and steady lights of anatomy and physiology. He
began by discarding all the doctrines of the schools, and
resorted at once to nature. Instead of creeping timidly
along the coast of truth, he boldly launched into the great
ocean of discovery, steering by the polar star of observa-
tion, and trusting to the guidance of his own genius.
III. Jieligioiis tendency of the study. — No subject hae : een
more warmly contested, Dr. Lawrence observes, than the
doctrine oi final causes; which, however, has suffered
more from the ill-judged efforts of its friends, than from
the attacks of its enemies. — We can hardly conceive that
any per.son, who did not feel a difficulty in believing that
a watch was formed for the purpose of showing the hour,
could seriously doubt that our stomachs were expressly
constructed for digestion, our eyes for seeing, and the rest
of our organs for the purposes which they so admirably
fulfil. The philosophic naturalist, guided by comparative
anatomy, discovers, at every step, striking peculiarities in
the economy of animals, founded on corresponding ar-
rangements of organization. We must take refuge either
in verbal quibbles, or in an exaggerated and unreasonable
scepticism, if we refuse to recognise in this relation between
peculiarity of strticture and function those designs and
adaptations of exalted power and wisdom, in testimony of
which all nature cries aloud through all her works.
Many things are, indeed, at present, inexplicable to us :
the offices of many parts, even in the human body, are
still hidden from us. But the ends, or final purposes of the
Creator, will be placed in the strongest light by selecting
any animal of marked peculiarity in its economy, and com-
paring together its structure and mode of life. Let a per-
son who knows the natural history of the mole, attentively
contemplate its skeleton : and if he should still withhold
his belief in final purposes, he would probably coincide in
opinion with a celebrated member of the French academy
of sciences, who declared that it was as absurd to suppose
the eye intended for seeing, as to imagine that Stones were
created for breaking heads ! American Annals of Educa-
tion ; Combe's Principles of Physiology ; Paxton's Anatomy ;
Anatomical Class Bool: ; Physiological Class Book ; Dnnglison's
Physiology ; Combe on the Constitution of Man ; Lawrence's
Lectures ; Spurzheim on Education ; Porter's Catechism of
Health : Levison on Mental Culture ; Cuvier's Animal King-
dom ; Paley''- Natural Theology.
PICARDS ; a sect which arose in Bohemia, in the fif-
teenth century. Picard, the author of this sect, from
whom it derived its name, drew after him, as has been
generally said, a number of men and women, pretending
he would restore them to the primitive state of innocence
wherein man was created ; and accordingly he assumed
the title of Nen Adam. (See Adamites.)
Such is the account which various writers, relying on
the authorities of ^neas Sylvius and Varillas, have giv-
en of the Picards. Some, however, doubt whether a sect
of this denomination, chargeable with such wild princi<-
pies and such licentious conduct, ever existed. It appears
probable that the reproachful representations of the writers
just mentioned, were calumnies invented and propagated
in order to disgrace the Picards, merely because they de-
serted the communion, and protested against the errors of
the church of Rome. Lasitius informs us that Picard,
together with forty other persons, besides women and
children, settled in Bohemia, in the year 1418. Balbinus.
the Jesuit, in his "Epitome Rerum Bohemicarcm," Ub.
ii., gives a similar account, and charges on the Picards
none of the extravagances or crimes ascribed to Ihem by
PIE
[941 ]
PIE
Sylvius. Schlecta, secretary of Ladislaus, king of Bohe-
mia, in his letters to Erasmus, gives a particular account
of the Picartis. Prom this account it appears that they
■were no other than the Vaudois, or WalJenses, that fled
from persecution in their own country, and sought refuge
in Bohemia. M. De Beausobre has shown that they were
both of the same sect, though under different denomina-
tions. Besides, it is certain that the Vaudois were settled
in Bohemia in the year 1178, where some of them adopt-
ed the rites of the Greek, and others those of the Latin
church. The former were pretty generally adhered to till
the middle of the fourteenth centur,', when the establish-
ment of the Latin rites caused great disturbance. On the
commencement of the national troubles in Bohemia, on
account of the opposition of the papal power, the Picards
more publicly avowed and defended their religious opi-
nions ; and they formed a considerable body in an island
by the river Laimitz, or Lausnecz, in the district of Be-
chin, and, recurring to arms, were defeated by Zisca.
See Jones' History of the Christian Church. — Hend. Buck.
PIETISTS, (Catholic.) The Brethren and Sisters of
the Pious and Christian Schools, founded by Nic. Barre
in 1678, were so called. They devoted themselves to the
education of poor children of both sexes. Mosheim's E. II.
vol. V. p. 17.5. — ]\^Uiams.
PIETISTS, (Protestant ;) a denomination in the se-
venteenth century, which owed its origin to " the pious
and learned Spener," as Dr. Mosheim calls him, who
formed private devotional societies at Frankfort, in order
to cultivate vital and practical religion ; and published a
book, entitled " Pious Desires," which greatly promoted
this object. His followers laid it down as an essential
ma.xim, that none should be admitted into the mini.stry
but those, who not only had received a proper education,
but were also distinguished by their wisdom and sanctity
of manners, and had hearts filled with divine love. Hence
they proposed an alteration in the schools of divinity,
which embraced the following points : — 1. That the scho-
lastic theology, which reigned in the academies, and was
composed of intricate and disputable doctrines, and ob-
scure and unusual forms of expressions, should be totally
abolished. 2. That polemical divinity, which compre-
hended the controversies subsisting between Christians of
dirferenl communions, should be less eagerly studied, and
less frequently treated, though not entirely neglected. 3.
That all mixture of philosophy and human science with
divine wisdom, was to be most carefully avoided ; (i. e.
that pagan philosophy and classical learning should be
Kept distinct from, and by no means supersede, biblical
theology.) But, 4. That, on the contrary, all those stu-
dents who were designed for the ministry, should be ac-
customed from their early youth to the perusal and study
of the Holy Scriptures, and be taught a plain system of
theology, drawn from these unerring sources of truth. 5.
That the whole course of their education was to be so di-
rected as to render them useful in life, by the practical
power of their doctrine, and the commanding influence of
their example.
Such in substance is Mosheim's account of the meditat-
ed reforms in the public schools. But it was not intended
to confine the.'^e reforms to students and the clergy. Re-
ligious persons of every class and rank were encouraged
to meet in what were called biblical colleges, or colleges
of piety, (we might call them prayer meetings,) where
.some exercised in reading the Scriptures,, singing, and
prayer, and others engaged in the exposition of the Scrip-
tures ; not in a dry and critical way, but in a strain of
practical and experimental piety, whereby they mutually
edified each other. This practice, which always more or
less obtains where religion flourishes, (as, for instance, at
the Reformation,) raised the same sort of outcry as at the
rise of Blethodism ; and those who entered not into the
spirit of the design, were eager to catch at every instance
of weakness or imprudence, to bring disgrace on that,
which, in fact, brought disgrace upon themselves, as luke-
warm and formal Christians. " In so saying. Master,
thou reproachest us also."
This work began about 1(570. In 1691, Dr. Spener re-
moved from Dresden to Berlin, where he propagated the
same principle.', which widely spread, and were well sup-
ported in many parts of Germany by the excellent profes
sor Francke, and others. This raised a considerable con
troversy, in which the Pietists were charged with many
errors : of these, the chief was, thai " divine influence is
necessary to the right understanding of the Scriptures ;"
a proposition, which is either false or true, as it is diffe-
rently understood. For if it be referred to a literal, criti-
cal, or even mystical, understanding of them, it is mani-
festly false, and certainly was not maintained in this sense
by any judicious Pietist : but they taught, that without
such help, no man can enter into the spirit of them ; no
man can relish or enjoy those parts which relate to the
divine life, and the experience of the Christian : for so
saith St. Paul : — " The natural man receiveth not the
things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness unto
him ; neither can he know them, because they are spiritu-
ally discerned." See 1 Cor. 2: 12 — 14. (See Affec-
tions.)
Another thing which gave great offence was, that they
renounced the vain amusements of the world. Thus,
dancing, pantomimes, public sports, theatrical diversions,
the reading of humorous and comical books, with several
other kinds of pleasure and entertainment, were prohibit-
ed by the Pietists, as unlawful and unseemly ; and, there-
fore, by no means of an indifferent nature.
The will of God is to Christians the only rule of morals,
and to this it is evident that their opponents, with all their
clamor, dared not appeal.
The term Pietist, which at first was given to these good
people in derision, " was afterwards," says Mosheim,
" applied to all who, distinguished by excessive severity
of manners, or who, regardless o{ truth and opinion, were
only intent upon practice, and turned the whole vigor of
their efforts towards the attainment of rehgious feelings
and habits." This sentence, very unworthy of Dr. Mo
sheim, is neither consistent with itself nor with fact. If
they were "o;i/y intent on practice," how could they turn
" their whole vigor towards the attainment of religious
feelings and habits?" Or, if their "whole vigor were
turned to these, how could they be only intent upon prac-
tice ?" But that they were regardless of truth, is mani-
festly false : for, as Dr. Haweis observes, " no men more
rigidly contended for, or taught more explicitly, the funda-
mental doctrines of Christianity ;" particularly in the ar-
ticles of justification by faith, and sanctification.
But the most offensive of all their errors, real or sup-
posed, was, '• that no person that was not himself a mo-
del of piety and divine love, was qualified to be a public
teacher of piety, or a guide to others, in the way of salva-
tion." This was so offensive to the carnal clergy of the
Lutheran church, who, it seems, at this time were not a
few, that they raised the cry of heresy, and charged them
(strange as it may seem) with making void the efficacy
of the divine word ! (See Neology.) Mosheim's E. H.,
vol. V. pp. 312—324 ; Haweis' Church Hist., vol. iii. pp. 64
— 74; Middleton's Biog. Evan., vol. iv. pp. 121 — 125;
Life of Spener; Life of Francke. — Williams.
PIETY, or godliness ; another name for personal reli-
gion. It consists in a firm belief, and in right concep-
tions of the being, perfections, and providence of God ;
with suitable affections to him, resemblance of his nioraj
perfections, and a constant obedience to his will. The
different articles included in this definition, such as know-
ledge, veneration, love, resignation, 6cc. are explained in
their proper places in this work. — Hend. Buck.
PIETY, Early. Youth, says Mr. Jay, is a perioC
which presents the fewest obstacles to the practice of
godliness, whether we consider our external circum
stances, our nature, powers, or our moral habits. In that
season we are most free from those troubles which imbit-
ter, those schemes which engross, those engagementi
which hinder us in more advanced and connected life.
Then the body possesses health and strength ; the memory
is receptive and tenacious ; the fancy glows ; the mind is
lively and vigorous ; the understanding is more docile ;
the affections are more easily touched and moved ; we are
more accessible to the influence of joy and sorrow, hope
and fear ; we engage in an enterprise with more expecta-
tion and ardor and "zeal. Under the legal economy, the
first was to be chosen for God ; the first-born of man, the
PI E
[ 942 ]
PIL
first-bom of beasts, the first-fruits of the field. It was an
honor becoming the God they worshipped, to serve him
first. This duty the young alone can spiritualize and ful-
fil, by giving Him who deserves all their lives the first-
born of their days, and the first-fruits of their reason and
their affection. And never have they such an opportunity
to prove the goodness of their motives as they then pos-
sess. See an old man ; what does he offer ? his riches ?
but he can use them no longer. His pleasures? but he
can enjoy them no longer. His honor ? but it is withered
on his brow. His authority ? but it has dropped from his
feeble hand. He leaves his sins ; but it is because they
will no longer bear him company. He flies from the
world ; but it is because he is burnt out. He enters the
temple ; but it is as a sanctuary ; it is only to take hold of
the horns of the altar ; it is a refuge, not a place of devo-
tion, he seeks. But they who consecrate to him their
youth, do not profanely tell him to suspend his claims
till the rest are served ; till they have satisfied the world
and the flesh, his degrading rivals. They do not send
him forth to gather among the stubble the gleanings of
life, after the enemy has secured the harvest. They are
not like those, who, if they reach Immanuel's land, are
forced thither by shipwreck : they sail thither by inten-
tion.
Consider the beneficial influence of early piety over
the remainder of our days. Youth is the spring of life,
and by this will be determined the glory of summer, the
abundance of autumn, the provision of winter. It is the
morning of life ; and if the sun of righteousness does not
dispel the moral mists and fogs before noon, the whole
day generally remains overspread and gloomy. Piety in
youth wU have a good influence over our bodies ; it will
preserve them from disease and deformity. Sin variously
tends to the injury of health ; and often by intemperance
the constitution is so impaired, that late religion is unable
to restore what early religion would have prevented.
Early piety will have a good influence to secure us from
all those dangers to which we are exposed in a season of
life the most perilous. Conceive of a youth entering a
world like this, destitute of the presiding, governing care
of religion ; his passions high, his prudence weak, impa-
tient, rash, confident without experience ; a thousand
avenues of seduction opening around him, and a syren
voice singing at the entrance of each ; pleased with ap-
pearances, and embracing them for realities, joined by
evil company, and ensnared by erroneous publications :
these hazards exceed all the alarm I can give. How ne-
cessary, therefore, that we should trust in the Lord with
our hearts, and lean not to our own understanding ; but
in all our ways acknowledge him, that he may direct our
paths !
Early piety will have a beneficial influence in form-
ing our connexions, and establishing our plans for life.
It will teach us to ask counsel of the Lord, and arrange
all under the superintendency of Scripture. Those chan-
ges which a person who becomes religious in manhood
is obliged to make, are alw.ays very embarrassing. With
what difficulty do some good men establish family wor-
ship, after living, in the view of children and servants, so
long in the neglect of it ! But this would have been
avoided, had they early followed the example of Joshua :
— " As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord."
Hew hard is it to disentangle ourselves from associates
with whom we have been long familiar, and who have
proved a snare to ou r souls ! Some evils indeed are
remediless ; persons have formed alliances which they
cannot dissolve : but they did not walk by the rule, " Be
ye not unequally yoked together with unbelievers ;" they
are now wedded to misery all their days ; and repentance,
instead of visiting them like a faithful friend, to chide
them when they do wrong, and withdraw, is quartered
upon them for life. An early dedication to God, there-
fore, renders a religious life more easy, pleasant, and safe.
It is of unspeakable advantage also under the calamities
of life. It turns the curse into a blessing; it enters the
house of mourning and soothes the troubled mind ; it pre-
pares us for all, sustains us in all, sanctifies us by all, and
• delivers us from all. Finally, it will bless old age : we
shall look back with pleasure on some instances of useful-
ness ; to some poor traveller, to whom we have been a
refreshing stream ; some deluded wanderer, we guided in-
to the path of peace. We shall look forward, and see the
God who has guided us with his counsel, and be enabled
to say, " Henceforth there is laid up for me a crown of
righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous Judge, shall
give me at that day ; and not to me only, but unto all
them that love his appearing." Jay's Ser., vol. i. ser. 5 ;
Jenning!:', Evans', Doddridge's, Jeniieiit's, and Thornton's
Sermons to Yovng People ; Sri/son's Address to Youth j
Buck's Young Christian's Guide ; Pike's Persuasives to Early
Piety ; John Foster's Essay on the Importance of Religion ;
Remains and Sernwns of Charles Wolfe ; Works of Hannah
More ; Philip's Manly Piety ; Hawes' Lectures to Young
Men ; Young Man's Own Book. — Hend. Buck.
pigeon!' (See Dove.)
PI-HAHIP>OTH. The Hebrew pi answers to the mo-
dern Arabic word fum, signifying " mouth ;" and is gene-
rally applied to the passes in the mountains. In the Eng-
lish and Septuagint versions, Hahiroth is taken as a pro-
per name ; and the whole word would imply the mouth v
or pass of Hahiroth or Hiroth, whatever particular origin
or signification may belong to that word. The name,
however, sufficiently explains the situation of the children
of Israel ; who were hemmed in at this place, between
the sea in front, and a narrow mountain-pass behind ;
which no doubt encouraged Pharaoh to make his attack
upon them in so disadvantageous a position ; thinking
that they must inevitably fall an easy prey into his hands,
or be cut to pieces : when their deliverance, and his own
destruction, were unexpectedly wrought by the parting of
the waters of the sea. The place where this miracle is
supposed to have happened, is still called Bahral-Kolsum,
or the sea of Destruction ; and just opposite to the situa-
tion which answers to the opening called Pi-hahiroth, is a
bay, where the north cape is called Ras Musa, or the
cape of Moses. That part of the western or Heroopoli-
tan branch of the Red sea where, from these coincidences,
the passage most probably took place, is described by
Bruce as about three leagues over, with fourteen fathoms
of water in the channel, nine at the sides, and good an-
chorage everywhere. The farther side is also represent-
ed as a low sandy coast, and an easy landing-place. (See
Red Sea.) — Watson.
PILATE. It is not known of what country or family
Pontius Pilate was, but it is believed that he was of Rome,
or, at least, of Italy. He was sent to govern Judea in
the room of Gratus, A. D. 26, or 27. He presided over
this province for ten years, from the twelfth or thirteenth
year of Tiberius, to the twenty-second of the same em-
peror.
He is represented, both by Philo and Josephus, as a
man of an impetuous and obstinate temper, and, as a
judge, one who used to sell justice, and, for money, to
pronounce any sentence that was desired. The same au-
thors make mention of his rapines, his injuries, his mur-
ders, the torments that he inflicted upon the innocent, and
the persons he put to death without any form of process.
Philo, in particular, describes him as a man that exercis-
ed an excessive cruelty during the whole time of his go-
vernment ; who disturbed the repose of Judea ; and was
the occasion of the troubles and revolt that followed.
St. Luke acquaints us, that Pilate had mingled the
blood of the Galileans with their sacrifices ; and that the
matter having been related to Jesus Christ, he introduced
the subject into his discourse, Luke 13. The reason why
Pilate treated them in this manner, while sacrificing in
the temple, is not known. At the time of our Savior's
passion, Pilate made some attempts to deliver him out of
the hands of the Jews. He knew the reasons of their en-
mity against him. Matt. 27: 18. His wife also, having
had a dream that alanned her, requested he would not
stain his hands with the blood of that just person, verse
19. He therefore attempted to appease the wrath of the
Jews by scourging Jesus ; (John 19: 1. Matt. 27: 26.) and -
also tried to take him out of their hands by proposing to
deliver him or Barabbas, on the day of the passover.
Lastly, he thought to discharge himself from pronouncing
judgment against him, by sending him to Herod, king of
Galilee, Luke 23: 7, 8. When he saw all this would not
I'lL
L 9« ]
PI L
satisfy the Jews, and that they even threatened him in
some manner, saying, he could be no friend to the empe-
ror if he suffered Jesus to be set at liberty, (John 19: 12 —
15.) he caused water to be brought, and washed his hands
before all the people, and publicly declared himself inno-
cent of the blood of that just person. Matt. 27: 23, 24.
Yet at the same time he delivered him to his soldiers, that
they might crucify him.
This was enough to justify Jesus Christ, as Calmet ob-
serves, and to prove that he held him as innocent; but it
was not enough to vindicate the conscience and integrity
of a judge, whose duty it was as well to assert the cause
of oppressed innocence, as to punish the guilty. He or-
dered the inscription to be placed over the head of our
Savior, (John 19: 19.) and when requested by the Jews to
alter it, peremptorily refused. He also gave leave for the
removal of our Lord's bodj', and to place a guard over the
.sepulchre, Matt. 27: 65. These are all the particulars
that we learn concerning Pilate from the writers of the
gospels.
The extreme reluctance of Pilate to condemn Christ,
considering his merciless character, is signally remarka-
ble, and still more his repeated protestations of the inno-
cence of his prisoner; although, on occasions of massacre,
he made no scruple of confounding the innocent with the
guilty. But he was unquestionably influenced by the
overruling providence of God, to make the righteousness
of his Son appear as clear as the noonday, even when
condemned and executed as a malefactor, by the fullest,
the most authentic, and the most public evidence: 1. By
the testimony even of his judges, Pilate and Herod, after
examination of evidence. 2. By the message of Pilate's
wife, delivered to him on the tribunal. 3. By the testi-
mony of the traitor Judas, who hanged himself in despair,
for betraying the innocent blood. 4. By the testimony of
the Roman centurion and guard, at his crucifixion, to his
divinity and righteousness. And, 5, Of his fellow-sufl'erer
on the cross. Never was innocence so attested as his in-
nocence.
Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Eusebiiis, and after them se-
veral others, both ancient and modern, assure us that it
was formerly the custoin for Roman magistrates to pre-
pare copies of all verbal processes and judicial acts, which
they passed in their several provinces, and to send them
to the emperor. And Pilate, in compliance with the cus-
tom, having sent word to Tiberius of what had passed re-
lating to Jesus Christ, the emperor wrote an account of it
to the senate, in a manner that gave rea.son to judge that
he thought favorably of the religion of Jesus Christ, and
showed that he should be willing for them to confer divine
honors upon him ; but the senate was not of the same
opinion, and so the matter dropped. It appears by what
Justin says of these acts, that the miracles of Christ were
mentioned there, and even that the soldiers had divided
his garments among them. Eusebius insinuates that they
spoke of his resurrection and ascension. Tertullian and
Justin refer to these acts with so much confidence, as
would make oue believe they had read and handled them.
However, neither Eusebius nor Jerome, who were both
inquisitive and understanding persons, nor any other au-
thor who wrote afterwards, seems to have seen them, at
least not the true and original acts. For as to what we
have now in great number, they are not authentic, being
neither ancient nor uniform. There are also some pre-
tended letters of Pilate to Tiberius, giving a history of our
Savior; but they are universally allowed to be spurious.
Pilate being a man who, by his excessive cruellies and
rapine, had disturbed the repose of Judea, during the
whole time of his government, was at length deposed by
Vitellius, the proconsul of Syria, A. D. 36, and sent to
Rome, to give an account of his conduct to the emperor.
But, though Tiberius died before Pilate arrived at Rome,
yet his successor Caligula banished him to Vienne in Gaul,
where he was reduced to such extremity that he laid vio-
lent hands upon himself The evangelists call him go-
vernor, though in reality he was nothing more than pro-
curator of Judea, not only because governor was a name
of general use, but because Pilate, in effect, acted as one,
by taking upon him to judge in criminal matters, as his
predecessors had done, and as other procurators in the
small provinces of the empire, where there was no procon-
sul, constantly did. — Watson.
PILGRIM ; in an ecclesiastical sense, one who travels
through foreign countries to visit holy places, and to pay
his devotion to the relics of dead saints. The word is
formed from the Flemish pelgrim, or Italian pdegrino,
which signifies the same ; and those originally from the
Latin pe/egrinus, a stranger or traveller. — Hoid. Buck.
PILGRIMAGE ; a kind of religious disciphne, which
consists in taking a journey to some holy place, in order
to adore the relics of some deceased saint. Pilgrimages
began to be made about the middle ages of the church,
but they were most in vogue after the end of the eleventh
century, w'hen every one was for visiting places of devo-
tion, not excepting kings and princes ; and even bishops
made no difficulty of being absent from their churches on
the same account. The places most visited were Jerusa-
lem, Rome, Tours, and ComposteUa.
As to the latter place, we find that in the year 1428, un-
der the reign of Henry VI., abundance of licenses were
granted for the crown of England to captains of English
ships, for carrying numbers of devout persons thither to
the shrine of St. James ; provided, however, that those
pilgrims should first take an oath not to take any thing
prejudicial to England, nor to reveal any of its secrets,
nor to carry out witli them any more gold or silver than
what would be sufficient for their rea.sonable expenses.
In that year nine hundred and twenty-six persons went from
England on the said pilgrimage. Of late years the greatest
numbers have resorted to Loretto, in order to visit the
chamber of the blessed virgin, in which she was born, and
brought up her son Jesus till he was twelve years of age !
In almost every country where popery has been esta-
blished, pilgrimages have been common. In England the
shrine of Thomas-a-Becket was the chief resort of the
pious ; and in Scotland, St. Andrew's, where, as tradition
informs us, was deposited a leg of the holy apostle. In
Ireland they have been continued even down to modern
times ; and many parts of that country are sacred to ex-
traordinarj' worship and pilgrimage. From the begin-
ning of May till the middle of August every year, crowds
of popish penitents resort to an island near the centre of
Lough Fin, or White lake, in the county of Donegal, to
the ainount of three or four thousand. These are mostly
of the poorer sort, and many of them are proxies for those
who are richer; some of whom, however, together with
simie of the priests and bishops on occasion, make their
appearance there. When the pilgrim comes within sight
of the holy lake, he must uncover his hands and feet, and
thus walk to the water side, and is taken to the island for
sixpence. Here there are two chapels, and fifteen other
houses ; to which are added confessionals, so contrived,
that the priest cannot see the person confessing. The
penance varies according to the circumstances of the peni-
tent ; during the continuation of which (which is some-
times three, six, or nine days) he subsists on oatmeal,
sometimes made into bread. He traverses sharp stones
on his bare knees or feet, and goes through a variety of
other forms, paying sixpence at every difterent confession.
When all is over, the priest bores a gimblet hole through
the top of the pilgrim's stall', in which he fastens a cross
peg ; gives him as many holy pebbles out of the lake as
he cares to carry away, for amulets to be presented to his
friends, and so dismisses him, an object of veneration to
all other papists not thus initiated ; who no sooner see
the pilgrim's cross in his hands, than they kneel down to
get his blessing.
Pilgrimage is not peculiar to Roman Catholic countries.
The Mahometans place a great part of their religion in it.
Mecca is the grand place to which they go ; and this pil-
grimage is so necessary a point of practice, that, accord-
ing to a tradition of 3Iahoniet, he who dies without per-
forming it, may as well die a Jew or a Christian: and
the same is expressly commanded in the Koran. ^^ hat
is principally reverenced in this place, and gives .sanctity
to the whole, is a square stone building, called the Kaaba.
Before the time of Mahomet this temple was a place of
worship for the idolatrous Arabs, and is saiJ to have con-
tained no less than three hundred and sixty dillerent ima-
ges, equalling in number the day, of the Arabian year.
PIN
[ 944 ]
PtT
rhey were all destroyed by Mahomel, who sanctified the
Kaaba, and appointed it to be the chief place of worship
for all true believers. The Mussulmen pay so great a
veneration to it, that they believe a single sight of its sa-
cred walls, without any particular act of devotion, is as
aieritorious in the sight of God as the most careful dis-
;harge of one's duty for the space of a whole year in any
jther temple.
To this ternple every Mahometan who has health and
means sufficient, ought once, at least, in his life, to go on
pilgrimage ; nor are women excused from the perform-
ance of this duty. The pilgrims meet at different places
near Mecca, according to the different parts from whence
ihey come, during the months of Shawal and Dhu'lkaada,
being obliged to be there by the beginning of Dhu'lhajja ;
ivhich month, as its name imports, is peculiarly set apart
for the celebration of this solemnity.
The men put on the ibram, or sacred habit, which con-
sists only of two woollen wrappers, one wrapped about the
middle, and the other thrown over their shoulders, hav-
ing their heads bare, and a kind of slippers which cover
neither the heel nor the instep, and so enter the sacred
territory in their way to INlecca. While they have this
habit on, they must neither hunt nor fowl ; (though they
are allowed to fish ;) which precept is so punctually ob-
served, that they will not kill vermin if they find them on
their bodies : there are some noxious animals, however,
which they have permission to kill during the pilgrimage,
as kites, ravens, .scorpions, mice, and dogs given to bite.
During the pilgrimage, it behooves a man to have a con-
stant guard over his words and actions ; to avoid all quar-
relling or ill language, all converse with women, and all
obscene discourse ; and to apply his whole attention to
the good work he is engaged in.
The pilgrims having arrived at Mecca, immediately
visit the temple, and then enter on the performance of the
prescribed ceremonies, which consist chiefly in going in
procession round the Kaaba, in running between the
mounts Safa and Bleriya, in making the station on mount
Arafat, and slaying the victims and shaving their heads
in the valley of Mina.
In heathen countries, the two most memorable places
of resort are the temple of the grand Lama in Thibet, and
the temple of Juggernaut at Orissa, in Bengal. (See La-
MAisM, and HiNDOoisM.) — Jlend. Buck.
PILLAR, properly means a column raised to support a
building ; but in Scripture the term mostly occurs in a
metaphorical or figurative sense. Thus we have a pil-
lar of cloud, a pillar of fire, a pillar of smoke, &c. ; signi-
fiying a cloud, a fire, a smoke raised up towards heaven
in the form or shape of a pillar, Exod. 13: 21. Judges
20: 40. Job speaks of the pillars of heaven and the pillars
of the earth; (Job 9: 6. 26: 11.) which are strong meta-
phorical expressions, that suppose the heavens and the
earth to be an edifice raised by the hand of the Almighty
Creator, and founded upon its basis. St. Paul speaks of
the Christian church under the similitude of a pillar or
column, on which the truth, or doctrine of the glorious
gospel, is inscribed, 1 Tim. 3: 15. See Eobinsm's Bibl.
Eepns. for 1832.— Watson.
PILLOWS. The prophet speaks of " sewing pillows
to arm-holes." There is here, probably, an allusion to the
easy indulgence of the great. To this day in the East they
cover the floors of their houses with carpets : and along
lie sides of the wall or floor, a range of narrow beds or
ii\attresscs is often placed upon these carpets ; and, for
their further ease and convenience, several velvet or da-
mask bolsters are placed upon these carpets or mattresses ;
indulgences that seem to be alluded to by the stretching
of themselves upon couches, and by " the sewing of pil-
lows to arm-holes," Ezek. 13: 18. Amos 6: 4. (See Di-
van.)— Walson.
PINE-TREE. The pine appears in our translation
three times, Neh. 8: 15. Isaiah 41: 19. 60: 13. Nehemi-
ah, (8: 15.) giving directions for observing the feast of ta-
bernacles, says, " Fetch olive branches, pine branches,
myrtle branches, and branches of thick trees, to make
booths." The Hebrew phrase ohs shemin means literally
" branches of oily or gummy plants." The LXX. say cypress.
Scheuchzer says the Turks call the cypress zemin. The
author of " Scripture Illustrated" says, " I should prefer
the whole species called jasmin, on account of its verdure,
its fragrance, and its flowers, which are highly esteemed,
The word jasmin and jasemin of the Turks, resembles
strongly the shemen of the Hebrew original here. The
Persians also name this plant semen and simsyk." The
authority, however, of the Septuagint must prevail.
In Isaiah (41: 19. 60: 13.) the Hebrew word is tliedfier,
a tree, says Parkhurst, so called from the springiness or
elasticity of its wood. Luther thought it the elm, which
is a lofty and spreading tree ; and Dr. Stock renders it
the ash. After all, it may be thought advisable to retain
the pine. La Roche, describing a valley near to mount
Lebanon, has this observation : — " La continuelU verdure
des pins ei des clienes verds fait toujours sa beauts. ^^ — Watson.
PINNACLE of the temple. Matt. 4: 5. This pinna-
cle Calmet supposes to be the gallery, or parapet, on the
top of the buttresses, which surrounded the roof of the
temple, properly so called ; and he remarks, that in Pa-
lestine the roofs of all houses were covered with terraces,
or platforms ; around which was a low wall, to prevent
any one falling down, Deut. 22: 8. Josephus too says,
the roof of the temple was defended by tall golden spikes,
to hinder birds from alighting upon it, that they might not
defile it with their dung. It is by no means probable,
however, that the temptation of Jesus to throw himself
down among the people at worship, took place on any
part of the roof of the temple. It is much more likely
that the place was in some more accessible, though ele-
vated part, to which there was a passage by stairs ; for,
as to the very vague, though common, notion of the per-
son of Jesus being carried through the air by the power
of the devil, it is by no means probable. The account
given by Hegisippus of the death of James the Less, may
illustrate this incident of the temptation. He went up in-
to a gallery, whence he could be heard by the people, and
from whence he was thrown down, without being instantly
killed. — Calmet.
PIOUS FRAUDS. (See Frauds.)
PISGAH ; a part of mount Nebo ; so called, being,
in all probability, a distinct, and most hkely the highest,
summit of that mountain. Here Moses climbed to view
the land of Canaan; and here he died. (See Nebo.) —
Watson.
PISIDIA ; a province of Asia Minor, having Lycaonia
north, Pamphylia south, Cilicia and Cappadocia east, and
the province of Asia west. Paul preached at Antioch, its
capital, (Acts 13: 14.) and throughout Pisidia, 14: 24. —
Calmet.
PISON, or PmsoN ; one of the four great rivers that wa-
tered Paradise, Gen. 2: 11, 12. (See Eden.) — Calmet.
PITCH. In the English Bible there are two Hebrew
words which are rendered "pitch" — zepheth, (Exod. 2: 3.
Isa. 34: 9.) and chemer ; (Gen. 6: 14.) the latter of which
is again rendered slime, in Gen. 11: 3. and 14: 10. They
are both thought to be used for asphallum or bitumen, a brit-
tle substance, of a black or brownish color, and of a con-
sistence somewhat harder than pitch.
The ancients were well acquainted with this substance,
which is nothing more than mineral tar in an indurated or
hardened state. It is found on the surface of volcanic
productions ; and it floats in solid pieces, and in considera-
ble abundance, on the Asphaltic lake, which has thence
received its name.
It is also found near ancient Baoylon, and there is reason
to suppose that the mortar so celebrated among the an-
cients, and with which the walls of Babylon were cement-
ed, was nothing more than a preparation of this substance,
Gen. 11: 3. We are informed by Herodotus, that a com-
position of heated bitumen mixed with the tops of reeds,
was used by the ancients as a cement. This account is
confirmed by modern travellers, who assert that the re-
mains of buildings have been discovered, in which bitumen
was formerly thus employed. It was doubtless the pitch
used by Noah for closing the interstices of the ark ; (Gen.
11: 14.) and by the mother of Moses, to render the vessel
in which she placed her infant son on the Nile (Exod. 2:
3.) water-proof The Arabs still use it for similar pur-
poses. (See Babylon.)
Josephus states that bitumen was used among the ingre-
PL A
[ 945
PL A
dienls for embalming ihe dead. — Abbott's Scripture Natural
History.
FITHOM ; one of the cities built by the children of Isra-
el for Pharaoh in Egypt, during their servitude, Exort. 1:
11. — This is, probably, the Palhumos mentioned by Hero-
dotus, (lib. ii.) which he places on the canal made by the
kings Necho and Darius, to join the Red sea with the Nile.
We find also. In ihe ancient geographers, that there was
an arm of the Nile called Pathmelicus, Phatmicus, Phat-
nicus, or Phatniticus. Marsham makes Pithom the same
as Pelusium, or Damietta. — Calmet.
PITY, is generally defined to be the uneasiness we feel
at the unhappiness of others, prompting us to compassion-
ate them, with a desire of their relief.
God is said to pitij them that fear him, as a father pitieth
his children. The father, sa3's Mr. Henry, pities his chil-
dren that are weak in knowledge, and instructs them ; pi-
ties them when they are froward, and bears with them ;
pities them when they are sick, and comforts them ; (Isa.
66: 13.) when they are fallen, and helps them up again ;
when they have offended, and forgives them ; when they
are wronged, and rights them. Thus the Lord pitieth
them that fear him, Ps. 103: 13. (See Compassion of
Gov.)— Hend. Buck.
PLAGUES OF EGYPT. The design of these visita-
tions, growing more awful and tremendous in their pro-
gress, was to make Pharaoh know, and confess, that the
God of the Hebrews was the supreme Lord, and to exhibit
his power and his justice in the strongest light to all the
nations of the earth ; (Exod. 9: 16. 1 Sam. 4: 8, iScc.) to
execute judgment upon the Egyptians, and upon all their
gods, inanimate and bestial, for their cruelty to the Israel-
ites, and for their grovelling polytheism and idolatry,
Exod. 7: 14—17. 12: 12.
1. The Nile was the principal divinity of the Egyptians.
According to Heliodorus, they paid divine honors to this
river, and revered it as the first of their gods. Thsy de-
clared him to be the rival of heaven, since he watered the
country without the aid of the clouds and rain. His prin-
cipal festival was at the summer solstice, when the inun-
dation commenced; at which season, in the dogdays, by
a cruel idolatrous rite, they sacrificed red-haired persons,
principally foreigners, to Typhon, or the power that pre-
sided over tempests, at Busiris, Heliopolis, kc, by burning
them ahve, and scattering their ashes in the air, for the
good of the people, as we learn from Plutarch. Hence
Bryant infers the probability, that these victims were
chosen from among the Israelites, during their residence
in Egypt. The judgment then inflicted upon the river,
and all the waters of Egypt, in the presence of Pharaoh
and of his servants, as foretold, — when, as soon as Aaron
had smitten the waters of the river, they were turned into
blood, and continued in that state for seven days, so that
all the fish died, and the Egyptians could not drink of the
waters of the river, in which ihey delighted as the most
wholesome of all waters, but were forced to dig wells for
pure water to drink — was a significant sign of God's dis-
pleasure for their senseless idolatry in worshipping the
river and its fish, and also " a manifest reproof of that
bloody edict whereby the infants were slain," Wisd. 11: 7.
2. In the plague of frogs, their sacred river itself was
made an active instrument of their punishment, together
with another of their gods. The frog was one of their sa-
cred animals, consecrated to the sun, and considered as an
emblem of divine inspiration in its inftalions.
3. The plague of lice, which was produced without any
pre^us intimation to Pharaoh, was peculiarly oflensive
to a people so superstitiously nice and cleanly as the
Egyptians; and, above all, to their priests, who used to
shave their whole body every third day, that neither louse,
nor any other vermin, might be found upon them while
employed in serving their gods, as we learn from Herodo-
tus ; and Plutarch informs us, that they never wore wool-
len garments, but linen only, because linen is least apt to
produce lice. This plague, therefore, was particularly dis-
graceful to the magicians themselves ; and when they tried
to imitate it, but failed, on account of the minuteness of
the objects, (not like serpents, water, or frogs, of a sensible
bulk that could be handled,) they were forced to confess
that this was no human feat of legerdemain, but rather " the
iiy
finger of God." Thus were "the illusions of their magic
put domi, and their vaunting in wisdom reproved with
disgrace," Wisdom 17: 7. "Their folly was manifest unto
all men," in absurdly and wickedly attempting at first to
place the feats of human art on a level with the stupen-
dous operations of divine power, in the two first plagues ;
and being foiled in the third, by shamefully miscarrying,
they exposed themselves to the contempt of their admirers.
Philo, the Jew, has a fine observation on the plagues of
Egypt : " Some, perhaps, may inquire. Why did God pu-
nish the country by such minute and contemptible animals
as frogs, lice, flies, rather than by bears, lions, leopards, or
other kinds of savage beasts which prey on human flesh ?
Or, if not by these, why not by the Egyptain asp, whose
bite is instant death ? But let him learn, if he be ignorant,
first, tliat God chose rather to correct than to destroy the
inhabitants ; for, if he desired to annihilate Ihem utterly,
he had no need to have made use of animals as his auxi-
liaries, but of the divinely inflicted evils of famine and pes-
tilence. Next, let him further learn that lesson so neces-
sary for every state of life, namely, that men, when they
war, seek the most powerful aid to supply their own
weakness ; but God, the highest and the greatest power,
who stands in need of nothing, if at any tiine he chooses
to employ instruments, as it were, to inflict chastisement,
chooses not the strongest and greatest, disregarding their
strength, but rather the mean and the minute, whom he
indues with invincible and irresistible power to chastise
offenders."
The first three plagues were common to the Egyptians
and the Israelites, to convince both that " there was none
like the Lord ;" and to wean the latter from their Egyptian
idolatries, and induce them to return to the Lord their God.
And when this end was answered, the Israelites were ex-
empted from the ensuing plagues ; for the Lord severed
the land of Goshen from the rest of Egypt; whence the
ensuing plagues, confined to the latter, more plainly .ap-
peared to have been inflicted by the God of the Hebrews,
(Exod. 8: 20 — 23.) to convince both more clearly of " the
goodness and severity of God;" (Rom. 11: 22.) that "great
plagues remain tor the ungodly, but mercy embraceth Ihe
righteous on every side," Ps. 32: 10.
4. The visitation of flies, of the gad-fly, or hornet, was
more intolerable than any of the preceding. (See Flies.)
Egypt, we learn from Herodotus, abounded with prodi-
gious swarms of flies, or gnats ; but this was in the heat
of summer, during the dogdays; whence this fly is called
by the Septuagint hiuomuia, the dog-fly. But the appointed
time of this plague was in the middle of winter; and, ac-
cordingly, this plague extorted Pharaoh's partial consent.
5. A second breach of promise on the part of Pluiraoh
drew down a plague of a more deadly description than the
preceding. The fifth plague of murrain destroyed all the
cattle of Egj'pt, but of " the cattle of the Israelites died not
one." It was immediately inflicted by God himself, after
previous notification, and without the agency of Moses
and Aaron, to manifest the divine indignation at Pharaoh's
falsehood. And though the king sent and found that not
one of the Israelites was dead, yet his heart was hardened
this sixth time also, and he would not let the people go,
Exod. 9: 1—7.
6. At length, after Pharaoh had repeatedly abused the
gracious respites and warnings vouchsafed to him and his
servants, a sorer set of plagues, aflTecling themselves, be-
gan to l3e inflicted; and Moses now, for the first time,
appears as the execulioner of divine vengeance ; fur in the
presence of Pharaoh, by the divine command, he sprinkled
ashes of the furnace towards heaven, and it became a boil,
breaking forth with blains upon man and upon beast.
And the magicians could not stand before Moses because
of the boil, which afi'ected them and all the Eg>"ptians,
Exod. 9: 8 — 11. This was a very significant plague : the
furnace from which the ashes were taken aptly represented
"the iron furnace" of Egyptian bondage; {Dent. 4: 20.)
and the scattering of the ashes in the air might have re-
ferred to the usage of the Egyptians in their Typhoman
sacrifices of human victims ; while it convened another of
the elements, and of their gods, the air, or ether, into an
instrument of their chastisement. And now '• the Lord,^^
for Ihe first time, "hardened the hcnrt c.f 1 haraoh,
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after he had so repeatedly hardened it himself, " and he
hearkened not unto them, as the Lord had foretold unto
Moses," Exod. 9; 12. Though Pharaoh probably felt the
scourge of the boil, as well as his people, it did not soften
nor humble his heart ; and when he wilfully and obsti-
nately turned away from the light, and shut his eyes
against the luminous evidences vouchsafed to him of the
supremacy of the God of the Hebrews, and had twice
broken his promise when he was indulged with a respite,
and dealt deceitfully, he became a just object of punish-
ment ; and God now began to increase the hardness or
obduracy of his heart. And such is the usual and the
righteous course of his providence ; when nations or indivi-
duals despise the warnings of Heaven, abuse their best
gifts, and resist the means of grace, God then " delivers
them over to a reprobate" or uudiscerning " mind, to work
all uncleanness with greediness," Rom. 1: 28.
7. In the tremendous plague of hail, the united elements
of air, water, and fire, were employed to terrify and punish
the Egj'ptians by their principal divinities. This plague
was formally announced to Pharaoh and his people : " I
will at this season send all my plagues upon thine heart,
and upon thy servants, and upon thy people, that thou
mayest know that there is none like me in all the earth.
For now I could stretch out ray hand, and smite thee and
thy people with pestilence," or destroy thee at once, like
thy cattle with the murrain, "and thou shouldest be cut
otF from the earth ; but, in truth, for this cause have I pre-
served thee, that 1 might manifest in thee my power, and
that my name might be declared throughout the whole
earth," Exod. 9: 13 — 16. This rendering of the passage
is more conformable to the context, the Chaldee para-
phrase, and to Philo, than the received translation, " For
now I will stretch out my hand, that I may smite thee and
thy people with pestilence ;" for surely Pharaoh and his
people were not smitten with pestilence ; and " they were
preserved" or kept from immediate destruction, according
to the Septuagint, dielerethh, " to manifest the divine
power," by the number and variety of their plagues. Still,
however, in the midst of judgment, God remembered mer-
cy ; he gave a gracious warning to the Egyptians, to avoid,
if they chose, the threatened calamity. And this warning
had some effect : " He that feared the word of the Lord
among the servants of Pharaoh, made his servants and his
cattle flee into the houses ; and he that regarded not the
word of the Lord, left his servants and his cattle in the
field," Exod. 9: 17—21. But it may be asked. If all the
cattle of the Egyptians were destroyed by the foregoing
plague of murrain, as asserted Exod. 9: 6, how came there
to be any cattle left ? Surely the Egyptians might have
recruited their stock from the land of Goshen, where "not
one of the cattle of the Israelites died." And this justifies
the supposition, that there was some respite, or interval,
between the several plagues, and confirms the conjecture
of the duration of the whole, about a quarter of a year.
And that the warning, in this case, was respected by many
of the Egyptians, we may infer from the number of chari-
ots and horsemen that went in pursuit of the Israelites aC
tervvards, Exod. 9: 27 — 35. In this instance, there is a
remarkable suspension of the judicial infatuation. Pha-
raoh had humbled himself, and acknowledged his own
and his people's guilt, and the justice of the divine plague :
the Lord, therefore, forbore this time to harden his heart.
But he abused the long-sufl'erance of God, and this addi-
tional respite ; he sinned yet more, because he now sinned
wilfully, after he had received information of the truth ;
he relapsed, and hardened his own heart a seventh time.
He became, therefore, " a vessel of wrath fitted to destruc-
tion," Heb. 10: 26. Rom. 9: 22.
8. The design of the eighth and the ensuing plagues,
was to confirm the faith of the Israelites : " That thou
mayest tell in the ears of thy son, and of thy son's son,
what I have wrought in Egypt, and my signs which I
have done among them ; that ye may know how that I am
the Lord." This plague of locusts, inflicted on the now
devoted Egyptians and their king, completed the havoc
begun by the hail; by this "the wheat and rye were de-
stroyed, and every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the
trees which the hail had left : andJhere remained not any
verdure in the trees, nor in the herbs of the field, through-
out the land of Egypt. Very grievous were they ; befort
them were no such locusts as they, neither after them shall
there be such," Exod. 10: 3 — 15. (See Locusts.)
9. The awful plague of darkness over all the land of
Egypt, for three days, " a thick darkness which might be
felt," in the emphatic language of Scripture, was inflicted
on the Egyptians, and their chief god, the sun; and was,
indeed, a most significant sign of the divine displeasure,
and of that mental darkness under which they now la-
bored. Their consternation thereat is strongly represented
by their total inaction ; neither rose any from his place for
three days, petrified, as they were, with horror, Ps. 78: 49.
This terrific and horrible plague compelled Pharaoh to
relax ; he oflered to let the men and their families go ; but
he wished to keep the flocks and herds as security for their
return ; but Moses peremptorily declared, that not a hoof
should be left behind. Again " the Lord hardened Pha-
raoh's heart, so that he would not let them go," Exod. 10:
21—27.
10. The tenth plague was announced to Pharaoh with
much solemnity, Exod. 11: 4 — 8. Such a threat, delivered
in so high a tone, both in the name of the God of Israel
and of Moses, did not fail to exasperate the infatuated
Pharaoh, and he said, " Get thee from me ; take heed
to thyself ; see my face no more : for in the day thou
seest my face, thou shalt die. And Moses said, Be it so
as thou hast spoken ; I will see thy face no more. And
he went out from Pharaoh in great anger," Exod. 10: 28,
29. 11: 8. " And at midnight the Lord smote all the first-
born in the land of Egypt ; and there was a great cry in
Egypt, for there was not a house in which there was not
one dead," Exod. 12: 1 — 30. It is evident, from the ex-
treme urgency of the occasion, when all the Egyptians
apprehended total destruction, if the departure of the Isra-
elites was delayed any longer, that Pharaoh had no per-
sonal interview with Moses and Aaron, which would have
wasted time, and was quite unnecessary ; he only sent
them a peremptory mandate to be gone on their own
terms. " And the children of Israel did according to the
word of Moses ; and they (not borrowed, as the word is
wrongly rendered in the common English version) asked
of the Egyptians jewels of silver, and jewels of gold, and
raiment. And the Lord gave the people favor in the sight
of the Egyptians, so that they freely gave what they re-
quired, and they spoiled the Egyptians," (Exod. 12: 31 —
36.) as originally foretold to Abraham ; (Gen. 15: 14.) and
to Moses before the plagues began. This was an act of
perfect retributive justice, to make the Egyptians pay for
the long and laborious services of the Israelites, whom
they had unjustly enslaved, in violation of their charter.
(See Borrow.)
The Israelites were thrust out of Egypt on the fifteenth
day of the first month, " about six hundred thousand men
on foot, besides women and children. And a mixed mul-
titude went up also with them ; and flocks and herds, even
very much cattle," Exod. 12: 37, 38. Num. 11: 4. 33: 3.
" And they went out with a high hand ; for the Lord went
before them by day, in a pillar of a cloud, to lead them the
way ; and by night in a pillar of fire, to give them light,
to go by day and night. He took not away the pillar of
the cloud by day, nor the pillar of fire by night, from be-
fore the people," Exod. 13: 22. Num. 9: 15—23. And the
motion or rest of this divine guide regulated their marches,
and their stations or encampments, during the whole of
their route, Num. 10: 33—36. (See Red Se\.)— Watson.
PLASTIC NATURE ; an absurd doctrine, which some
have thus described : " It is an incorporeal created sub-
stance, endued with a vegetative life, but not with sensation
or thought ; penetrating the whole created universe, being
coextended with it ; and, under God, moving matter, so as
to produce the phenomena which cannot be solved by me-
chanical laws : active for ends unknown to itself, not being
expressly conscious of its actions, and yet having an ob-
scure idea of the action to be entered upon."
To this it has been answered, that as the idea itself is
most obscure, and, indeed, inconsistent, so the foundation
of it is evidently weak. It is intended by this to avoid the
inconveniency of subjecting God to the trouble of some
changes in the created world, and the meanness of others.
But it appears that, even upon this hypothesis, he would
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Mill be the author of them 5 besides, that to Omnijxitence
nothing is troublesome, nor those things mean, wlien con-
sidered as part of a system, which alone might appear to
be so. Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 37 ; Cudnvrth's InteHec-
iual Systevu, pp. 149, 172 ; Morels Immortality of the Soul.,
I. iii. c. 12 ; iJoj/'s Wisdom of God^ pp. 51, 52 ; Lord Man-
boddo's Ancient Metaphysics ; Yoang^s Essay on (fe Poivers
and Mechanism of Nature. — Hend. Buck.
PLATONICS, New. (See New Platonics.)
PLATONISTS. The Platonic philosophy is denomi-
nated from Plato, who was born about B. C. 426. He
founded the old academy on the opinions of Heraclitus,
Pythagoras, and Socrates ; and by adding the information
be had acquired to their discoveries, he established a sect
of philosophei's, who were esteemed more perfect than any
who had before appeared in the world. (See Academy.)
The outlines of Plato's philosophical system were as fol-
lows : — that there is one &od, eternal, immutable, and im-
material ; perfect in wisdom and goodness, omniscient,
and omnipresent: that this all-perfect Being formed the
universe out of a mass of eternally pre-existing matter, to
which he gave form and arrangement : that there is in
matter a necessary, but blind and refractory force, which
resists the will of the supreme Artificer, so that he cannot
perfectl}' execute his designs -, and this is the cause of the
mixture of good and evil which is found in the material
world : that the soul of man was derived by emanation
from God ; but that this emanation was not immediate,
but through the intervention of the soul of the world,
which was itself debased by some material admixture :
that the relation which the human soul, in its original
constitution, bears to matter, is the source of moral evil ;
that when God formed the universe, he separated from the
soul of the world inferior souls, equal in number to the
stars, and assigned to each its proper celestial abode :
that tliosc seuls were sent down to earth to be imprisoned
tn mortal bodies; hence arose the depravity and misery
to which human nature is liable : that the soul is immor-
tal ; and by disengaging itself from all animal passions,
and rising above sensible objects to the contemplation of
the world of intelligence, it may be prepared to return to
its original habitation : that matter never suffers anni-
hilation, but that the world will remain forever ; and that
by the action of its animating principle it accomplishes
certain periods, within which every thing returns to its
iincient place and state. This periodical revolution of na-
ture is called the Platonic, or great year.
The Platonic system makes the perfection of morality
to consist in living in conformity to the will of God, the
<'nlT standard of truth, and teaches that our highest good
consists in the contemplation and hnoivledge of the Su-
preme Being. In this divine Being Plato admitted a sort
of Trinity, of three hypostases. The first he considers as
self-existent, calling him, by way of eminence, to on, '.he
Being, or to hen, the One. The only attribute which he
acknowledged in this person was goodness ; and therefore
he frequently styles him, to agathon, the Good. The second
he considered as nous, the Mind, or logos, the Wisdom or Rea-
son of the former, and the demiourgos, maher of the n-orld.
The third he always speaks of as psuche, the Soul of the
world. He taught that the second is a necessary emana-
tion from the first, and the third from the second, or per-
haps from both ; comparing these emanations to those of
light and heat from the sun.
From the above use of logos for the second person of the
Platonic trinity, it has been thought that St. John borrowed
the term from Plato ; but it is not likely that this apostle
was conversant with his writings, and therefore both tf
clerc and Dr. Campbell think it more probable that he
took it from the Old Testament.
The end of all knowledge, or philosophy, according to
Plato, was to make us resemble the Deity as much as is
compatible with human nature. This likeness consists in
the possession and practice of all the moral virtues. After'
the death of Plato, many of his disciples deviated from his
doctrines. His school was then divided into the oid, the
middle, and the new academy. The old academy strictly
adhered to his tenets. The middle academy partly receded
from his system, without entirely deserting it. (See Aca-
demy.) The new academy almost entirel3' relinquished
the original doctrines of Plato, and verged towards the
sceptical philosophy. (See New PLiTONrcs.)
An infusion of Flatonism, though in a perverted form,
is seen in the philosophy most prevalent in the times of
the apostles. It was judaized by the contemplative Helle-
nists, and, through them, their native Judaism was plate-
nized. The eclectic philosophy added other ingredients to
the compound, from the Oriental systems. All hov.-ever
issued in pride, and the domination of bewildering and
monstrous imaginations, Rom. 1: 21. 1 Cor. 1: 19 — 31.
(See Philosophy.) — Watson.
PLAY. This word is in frequent use in Scripture, anl
is made to express all kinds of diversions, as dancing,
sportive exercise, toying, and amusements proper for re-
creating and diverting the mind. The word zmha!;, which
signifies to play, is also commonly used for laughing,
mocking, jeering, insulting.
There is no mention in Scripture of any particular sorts
of plays ; neither games of hazard, nor theatrical repre-
sentations, nor races either of horses or chariots, nor com-
bats of men or of beasts. The Israelites were a laborious
people, who confined almost all their diversions to the
pleasures of the countrj', and to those of the festivals of
the Lord, their religious journeys, and their enjoyments in
the lempl-e.
This observation, however, refers to the time when the
law was maintained; the ancient periods of the Hebrew
republic. For when they grew irregular, they adopted
the utmost excesses of idolatrous nations ; their wicked
and shameful sports and diversions. From the time of
the Grecians, after the death of Alexander the Great, un-
der the government of the kings of Syria and Judah, they
began to study the sports and exercises of the Grechans.
There were gymnasia, ov schools of exercise, in Jerusa-
lem, and places where they practised the exeix?ises of the
Greeks, wrestling, racing, quoits, kc, 1 Mac. 5: 16. 2
Mac. 4: 13 — 15. And when the Romans succeeded the
Greeks, Herod built theatres and amphitheatres in the ci-
ties of Palestine, and instituted all sorts of games. (See
G.^MES.) — Cahitct.
PLAYFAIR, (JonN.) an eminent mathematician and
natural philosopher, was born, in 1740, at Dundee ; was
educated at St. Andrew's; resigned a living, and became
mathematical professor at Edinburgh ; and died July 20,
1819. Playfair was celebrated as a geologist, and a stre-
nuous defender of the Huttonian system. Among his
works are. Elements of Geometry ; Outlines of Philoso-
phy; Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory; and a System
of Geography. — Davenport; Ency. Amer.
PLEASURE ; the delight which arises in the mind
from the contemplation or enjoyment of something agreea-
ble. (See Hafimness.) — Hend. Buck.
PLEDGE ; a security or assurance given for the perform-
ance of a contract. When a man of veracity pledges his
word, his atTirmation becomes an assurance that he will
fulfil what he has promised. But as the word of every
man is not equally vaUd, in matters of importance, it be-
comes necessary that a valuable article of some kind
should be deposited, as a bond on his part. So Judah
gave pledges to Tamar, Gen. 38: 17. Under the law the
taking of pledges was regulated : the millstone was not to
be taken in pledge, (Deut. 24: 6.) nor was the person taking
a pledge to enter the house to fetch it, (ver. 10.) nor to de-
tain necessary raiment after sunset ; (ver. '-' """^J^^
the widow's raiment to be taken in pledge, ver. l'- "
mild, how benevolent are these directions. " e nuo
some reproached that they take their brothers pieage, (.job
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22: 6.) that they take the widow's ox ia pledge, (24: 3, 9.)
that they do not restore the pledge, (as the law directed,
Deut. 24: 18.) Ezek. 18: 7, 12. 33: 15.— Calmet.
PLEIADES ; seven stars, anciently in the Ball's tail,
but on modern globes in the shoulder, and which appear
at the beginning of spring. Job speaks of the Pleiades :
(chap. 38: 31. 9: 9.) " Canst thou bind the sweet influence
of the Pleiades ?" Hebrew Chima : Can you hinder the
Pleiades from rising in their seasori ? He gives them the
name — the sweet influences of Chima, because of the
a-greeableness of the spring season. Jerome has translated
Chima by Hyades, (Job 9: 9.) and by Pleiades, (Job 38;
S-l.) and by Arcturus, the Bear's tail, Amos 5: 8. Aquila
sometimes translates it in the same manner. The Bear is
one of the most northern constellations ; but Chima rather
signifies the Pleiades. — Calmet.
PLENARY INSPIRATION. (See Inspiration.)
PLINY, (the Younger,) or Caius Ckcilius Plinius Se-
CUNDUS, the nephew and adopted son of the elder Pliny,
was born, in A. D. 61 or 62, at Como ; was a pupil of
Quintilian ; and pleaded successfully as an advocate in
his nineteenth year. He was, successively, tribune of the
people, prefect of the treasury, consul, proconsul in Pontus
and Bithynia, and augur ; and died, universally esteemed,
in 115. His Letters, and his Panegyric on Trajan, are the
only parts of his writings that remain. — Davenport.
PLOUGH. The Syrian plough, which was probably
used in all the regions around, is a very simple frame,
and commonly so light, that a man of moderate strength
might carry it in one hand. Volney states that in Syria it
is often nothing else than the branch of a tree cut below a
bifurcation, and used without wheels. It is drawn by
asses and cows, seldom by oxen. And Dr. Russell informs
us, the ploughing of Syi-ia is often performed by a little
cow, at most with two, and sometimes only by an as.s.
In Persia it is for the most part drawn by one ox only,
and not unfrequently even by an ass, although it is more
ponderous than in Palestine. With such an imperfect in-
strument, the Syrian husbandman can do little more than
scratch the surface of his field, or clear away the stones or
weeds that encumber it, and prevent the seed from reach-
ing the soii.
The ploughshare is a " piece of iron, broad, but not
large, which tips the end of the shaft." So much does it
resemble the short sword used by the ancient warriors,
that it may, with very little trouble, be converted into that
deadly weapon ; and When the work of destruction is over,
reduced again into its former shape, and applied to the pur-
poses of agriculture. In allusion to the first operation, the
prophet Joel summons the nations to leave their peaceful
employments in the cultivated field, and buckle on their
armor : " Beat your ploughshares into swords, and your
pruning-hooks into spears," Joel 3: 10. This beautiful
image the prophet Isaiah has reversed, and applied to the
establishment of that profound and lasting peace which is
to bless the church of Clirist in the latter days : " And they
shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their spears
into pruning-hooks ; nation shall not lift up sword against
nation, neither shall they learn war any more," Isa. 2: 4.
The plough used in Syria is so light and simple in its
construction, that the husbandman is under the necessity
of guiding it with great Care, bending over it, and loading
it with his own weight, else the share would glide along
the surface without making any incision. His mind
should be wholly intent on his work, at once to press the
plough into the ground, and direct it in a straight line.
" Let the ploughman," said Hesiod, "attend to his charge,
and look before him ; not turn aside to look on his associ-
ates, but make straight furrows, and have his mind atten-
tive to his work." To such careful and incessant exertion
our Lord alludes in that declaration, " No man having ptrt
his hand to the plough, and looking back, is fit for the
kingdom of God," Lulie 9: 62. — IVatson.
PLURALIST ; one that holds more than one ecclesias-
tical benefice with cure of souls. Episcopalians contend
there is no impropriety in a presbyter holding more than
one ecclesiastical benefice. Others, on the contrary, af-
firm that this practice is exactly the reverse of the primi-
tive churches, as well as the instructions of the apostle.
Tit. 1: 5. Instead of a plurality of churches to one pastor,
they say, we ought to have a plurality of pastors to one
church, Acts 14: 23. The system of pluralities, which oh-
tains to such an extent in England, arose out of am obso-
lete law, by which a poor clergyman was enabled, if he
obtained the bishop's consent, to hold two or more livings
tinder the nominal value of eight pounds sterling. By the
canon law, thirty miles was prescribed as the greatest dis-
tance at which two livings could be lield together ; but the
practice which has prevailed for more than a century, ia
to consider the thirty miles as forty-five,. In consequence
of the c^eration of this system, upwards of two thousand
parishes are deprived of their right of possessing resident
incumbents. — Henii. Euck.
PNEUMATOLOGY ; the doctrine of spiritual existence-
(See Soul.) — Hend. Buck.
PNEUMATO-MACHISTS ; a name given to Maced'o-
nius, bishop of Constantinople, and his adherents, in the
middle of the fourth century, who denied that the Holy
Spirit was equal in essence and dignity to God the Father.
They were condemned as teachers of heresy by the council
of Alexandria, in 362. — Hend. Buck.
POCOCKE, (Edward, D. D.,) an eminent orientalist, was'
born, in 1604, at Oxford; was ediicated at Thame school,
and at Magdalen hall and Corpus Christi college, Oxford j.
twice visited the Levant, on one of which occasions he was
chaplain to the British factory at Aleppo ; was Hebrew
professor at Oxford, rector of Childrey, and canon of Christ
church ; and died in 1691. Among his works are. Speci-
men Historiae Arabum ; Abulfaragius Historia Dynastia-
rum ; and Commentaries on the Minor Prophets. — Da-
vetipmt.
POCOCKE, (Bp. Eichard,) a clergyman and oriental tra-
veller, distantly related to the subject of the foregoing arti-
cle, was bom at Southampton, in 1704, where his father
was master of a free school. He received his educatioa
at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, and look the degree of
doctor of laws in 1733. He undertook a voyage to the
Levant in 1737 ;. and after visiting Egypt, Arabia, Pales-
tine, and other countries, he returned home through Italy
and Germany, in 1742. He published, in 1743-.5, " A
Description of the East," twovolumes folio, comprising an
account of those parts of the world in which he had travel-
led, and containing much curious information. He ob- ,
tained preferment in Ireland, being promoted to the see of
Ossory in 1756 ; whence, in 1765, he was trarislated to El-
phin and Meath. He died of apoplexy, the same year.
Aikiu's Gen. Biog. — Jones^ Chris. Biog.
POETRY, (Hebrew.) (See Music.) That a collection
of writings, substantiating their claims to the most remote
antiquity, and containing subjects of the most inspiring:
and devotional kind, should exhibit specimens of the poetic
art, is what we might naturally be prepared to expect ;
yet, it does not appear that the subject excited that at-
tention, or produced that admiration, and that minute in-
vestigation to which it is entitled, till the time of bishop
Lowth, who has illustrated it with singular elegance, abili-
ty, and success.
According to that learned prelate, there are four prin-
cipal characteristics of Hebrew poetry. First, the alpha-
betical, in which certain lines or verses begin with the same
letter of the alphabet, or with the letters of the alphabet in
regular succession. Secondly, the ^oraWic ; the constitu-
ent principles of which are the sententious, the figurative,
and the sublime. Thirdly, the parallelism ; consisting in
a certain equality or resemblance between the members of
each period, so that in two lines, or members of the same
period, things for the most part shall answer to things, and
words to words, as if fitted to each other by a kind of rule
or measure.
Of this parallelism there are three species •. the syn/my-
POE
[ 949
E-OL
mous, when the same sentiment is repeated in different but
equivalent terms, which is done in a great varietj' of
forms; the antithetic, when a thing is illustrated by its
contrary being opposed to it — sentiments being opposed to
sentiments, words to words, singulars to singulars ; and
the synthetic or constructive, to which he refers all that does
not coiTie within the two former classes. It generally con-
sists of verses somewhat longer than usual, and in which
the sentences answer to each other, not by the iteration of
the same image or sentiment, or the opposition of their
contraries, but merely by the form of construction. Others
have divided the parallelism into parallel lines gradationnl,
parallel lines antithetic, parallel lines synthetic, and parallel
lines introverted. See Bishop Jtbb and Home's Introd., vol.
ii. p. 424 ; the former of whom has, at considerable length,
attempted to show that much of lhe.se species of construc-
tion are found in the New Testament as well as the Old.
Bishop Lowth further reduces the various productions
of the Hebrew poets to the following classes : — 1. Prophetic
poetry ; 2. Elegiac poetry ; 3. Didactic poetry j 4. Lyric po-
etry; 5. Idyllic poetry; 6. Dramatic poetry.
On the nature of the Hebrew metre much has been
■written, but nothing like a satisfactory result has yet been
arrived at. This may, in a great measure, be ascribed to
the difficulties under which we labor in endeavoring to
ascertain and fix the true pronunciation of the Hebrew
language. Attempts have been made to determine the
nature of the rhythm or quantity by Meibomius, Gomarus,
Leclerc, and others on the continent, and especially by
bishop Hare in England ; but they have all failed to prove
that the poetical compositions of Scripture are constructed
on any principles similar to those of Latin and Greek verse ;
and it has been well remarked by bishop Lowth, that since
the regulation of the metre of any language must depend
upon these two particulars — the number and length of the
syllables — the knowledge of which is utterly unattainable
in the Hebrew, he who attempts to restore the true and
genuine Hebrew versification, erects an edifice without a
foundation.
The Hebrew poets were men inspired of God ; and
among them we find kings, lawgivers, and prophets.
Jacob was a poet, as appears from his farewell benediction
on his sons. And it appears to be extremely probable
that the honorable appellation Nebi, equally denoted a
prophet, a poet, and a musician, as the poets principally
were. Bloses, Barak, David, Solomon, Hezekiah, Job,
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and most of the prophets, composed po-
ems, or pieces in verse ; the most beautiful, the most ma-
jestic, and the most sublime ! The expression, the senti-
ments, the figures, the variety, the action, every thing is
surprising !
Paul gives a pagan poet the name of prophet ; (Tit. 1:
12 : " One of themselves, even a prophet of their own,
said," Jcc.) because, among the heathen, poets were
thought to be inspired by Apollo. They spoke by enthu-
siasm. Oracles were originally deUvered in verse. Poets
were interpreters of the will of the gods.* The poet quoted
by Paul, is Epimenides, whom the ancients esteemed to be
inspired, and favored by the gods.
The same apostle quotes the poet Aratus, a native, as
well as himself, of Cilicia. Acts 17: 28 : We are the chil-
dren (the race) of God. This is part of a longer passage,
whose import is, "We must begin from Jupiter, whom we
must by no means forget. Every thing is replete with
Jupiter. He fills the streets, the public places, and as-
semblies of men. The whole sea and its harbors are full
of this god, and all of us in all places have need of Jupi-
ter." It Tas certainly not to prove the being or to en-
hance thu merit of Jupiter, that Paul quotes this passage.
But he has delivered out of bondage, as we may say, a
truth w'.iich this poet had uttered, withont penetrating its
true mi;aning. The apostle used it to prove the existence
of the true God, to a people not convinced of the divine
aulhoriiy of the Scriptures, and who would have rejected
such pioofs as he might have derived from thence.
Poets, like other men, could only draw comparisons
from objects with which they were conversant ; hence we
have in Scripture many allusions to the phenomena of
nature, as extant in the countries where the writers re-
sided; storms, tempests, earthquakes, thunder and light-
ning, &c. The shepherd king describes the Lfird as bla
shepherd, who leads him in security j not as his steers-
man, who brings him safely inlo port ; lor he was liitle
acquainted with nautical affairs. Very few are the de-
scriptions of the sea, or its inhabitants, in Job, althouah
the writer ransacks earth, and heaven, with wonderful sci-
ence. Poets who dwelt in tents have little reference to
extensive architecture. — But, to understand their lan-
guage, It is necessary to acquire as intimate a knowledge
as possible of the things they knew ; and even when they
treat of things spiritual or celestial ; because they are sig-
nified by means of terrestrial objects or incidents ; and
the just understanding of one may lead to a just under-
standing of the other. Divine inspiration itself, however
superhuman it may be, must, nevertheless, speak to men
in the language of men, or the instruction it means 'o con-
vey will continue a perfect blank.
Of the longer poems of Sacred Writ, Solomon's Song is
a beautiful performance ; while the book of Job, the long-
est of all the Hebrew poems, is most sublime. Late writers
have done much to illuslrate it ; yet much remains to be
done. We must here conclude these brief and imperfect
hints on the subject of Hebrew poetry. Those who desire
further information, may consult bishop Hare's Metrical
Version of the Psalms, supported by Drs. Grey, Edwards,
kc, and opposed by bishop Lowth, whose IjCclurcs on
Hebrew Poetry deservedly enjoy an established reputa-
tion : to these we should add bishop Jebb's Sacred Litera-
ture, Sir W. Jones' Dissertation on the Asiatic Poetry,
with others,— Cfl/mf?. See also N. A. Jieiieu', Oct. 1830.
POGGIO BRACCIOLINI, an Italian writer of the fif-
teenth century, who contributed powerfully to the revival
of classical studies, was born, in 1380, at Terranova, in
Tuscany ; was educated at Florence ; was appointed apos-
tolical secretary by Boniface IX., and held that office un-
der seven other popes ; discovered many ancient manu-
scripts in monasteries ; was appointed chancellor of the
Florentine republic, and died in 1459. Poggio was a man
of eminent talent, but of licentious morals, and a satirical
and quarrelsome disposition. His principal works are, a
History of Florence ; Dialogues on Nobility ; and Funeral
Orations. — Davenport.
POLE, (Cardinal Reginald,) a statesman and ecclesias-
tic, descended from the royal family of England, was bom,
in 1500, at Stourton castle, in Staflordshire ; was educated
at Sheen monastery, and Magdalen college, Oxford ; op-
posed the divorce oi" Henry VIII. from Catharine of Arra-
gon ; was papal legate to England, archbishop of Can-
terbur)', and chancellor of both universities, during the
reign of Mary ; and died in 1558, shortly after that queen.
He wrote various controversial and theological works. —
Davenport.
POISON, \'EN0M ; whatever substance violently deranges
the healthful functions of the animal system, and tends, if
unchecked, to produce death. That there is a great vari-
ety of vegetable and mineral poisons, as hemlock, arsenic,
ikc, is sufficiently known ; but what the Scripture usually
calls poison is that liquor which asps, serpents, dragons,
vipers, kc. convey by their bite, for the killing of other
animals. What is poisonous and destructive to some ani-
mals, however, is harmless and medicinal to otheis.
Wickedness in false doctrine, wicked language, or evil
courses, are likened to poison or vmnm : how hurtful and
deadly to men's souls and bodies ! how sinners delight in
it, and are fond of infecting others with it ! how they have
it in or under their lips or tongue, in their heart, and ever
ready to be vented! Dent. 32. 33. Ps. 58: 4. Eom. 3: 13.
James 3: 8. The destructive judgments of God are likened
to poison ; how often they come insensibly on men '. how
they spread, torment, and destroy them ! Job d: 4, and 20:
16. — Brorvn.
POLL; a HE.<D, Num. 1; 2. Ezebiel's visionary priests
polling or cutting short the hair of their heads, but not
shaving them, may import their avoiding eveni- mark of
efieminacy, on the one hand, and every heathenish and
monkish custom of superstition on the other, Ezek. 44:
20. This idea is however conjecinral. — Bron-n.
POLLOK, (Robert, A. 31.,) a disiinsuished Christian
poet, was born at Muirhouse. parish of Eaglesham, about
eleven miles southeast of Glasgow, October 19, 1<98.
POL
[ 950
POL
In 1813, he commenced study with reference .0 the Chris-
tian ministry ; and in 1815, entered the university of
Glasgow, where, having attended the classes five years,
he received the degree of master of arts. In the autumn
of 1822, he became a student of the»logy, in the seminary
of the United Secession church, and after the usual at-
tendance at the hall, in 1827, was licensed to preach. In
all his literary course he was very assiduous ; and though
he suffered considerably from impaired health, does not
seem to have suspected that he was preparing to be a vic-
tim of intense application. About the time he completed
his studies, he published that poem which fixed his title
to distinction,—" The Course of Time."
His first public discourse, which was delivered on the
.3d of May, 1827, is spoken of as a most brilliant and in-
teresting effort ; which, while it discovered a mind of ex-
traordinary power and promise, at the same time gave in-
dications that the church would too soon be deprived of its
service. Such was the fatigue occasioned by this single
exertion, that he was immediately confined to his bed ;
and although in a few days he was partially restored, he
preached afterwards only three times.
It was soon manifest that consumption was preying up-
on his constitution. He now devoted himself to the pur-
suit of health, and received kind attentions from gentle-
men of high distinction. AVhile on a journey lo Italy,
having proceeded as far as Plymouth, (Eng.) he found his
health inadequate to the exertion, and therefore took up
his residence at Devonshire place, Sliirley common, near
Southampton. He here expired on the 18th September,
1827. His death was that of the true Christian ; charac-
terized by a calm faith in that religion he had preached,
and a cheerful hope in that redemption which had been
the theme of his song.
The reception which the " Course of Time" has met with
from the public, is a sufficient testimony to the talents of
its lamented author. His name is now recorded among
the list of those illustrious Scotsmen, who have done ho-
nor to their country ; who, from obscurity, have secured
for themselves an unfading reputation ; and who will be
remembered by distant generations with enthusiasm and
admiration. — Fiske's Memoir of Pollok.
POLLUX ; a tutelar deity of mariners in ancient times,
(Acts 28; 11.) whose image was placed either at the prow
or stern of the ship. — ffalson.
POLONES FRATRES. (See Socinians.)
POLYCARF ; one of the apostolical fathers, and a
Christian martyr under Antoninus. He was for more than
eighty years pastor of the church of Smyrna, to which
he appears to have been recommended by St. John ; who,
according to archbishop Usher, directed one of the seven
apocalyptical epistles to him, under the title of the Angel
of the Church of Smyrna.
The persecution growing violent in that city, a general
outcry was raised for the blood of Polycarp. On this, he
withdrew privately into a neighboring village, where he
lay concealed for some time, continuing night and day in
prayer for the peace of the church. The most diligent
search was, in the mean time, made for him, without^
effect. But when his enemies proceeded to put some of
his brethren to the torture, with the view of compelling
them to betray him, he could no longer remain concealed.
"The Lord's will be done," was his pious ejacnlation ;
on which, he made a surrender of himself to his enemies,
saluting them with a cheerful countenance, and invited
them to refresh themselves at his table, only soliciting, on
his own behalf, one hour for prayer. His request was
granted, and his devotions were prolonged to double that
period, with such sweetness and fervor, that all who heard
him were struck with admiration, and the soldiers re-
pented of their erfand. Having ended his prayer, he was
set upon an ass, and conveyed to the place of judgment.
He was met on the way by some of the magistrates, who
took him into their carriage, and tried to persuade him to
abjure his profession ; but he was unyielding. On his
approaching the place of execution, the proconsul, asham-
ed of putting to death so aged and venerable a man, urg-
ed him to blaspheme Christ. It was then that be answer-
ed, " Eighty-six years have I served him, during all
which time he never did me injury ; how then caul blas-
pheme my King and my Savior V When further urged,
his answer was, " I am a Christian !" When threatened
with wild beasts, he said, " Bring them forth." When
with fire, he reminded them of the eternal fire that await-
ed the ungodly. His last address to God had more of
praise in it than of prayer. He expired at the stake,
A D. 166. — Clissold's Last Hours, &c., p. 3 ; Fuller's Works,
vol. ii. p. 21.
POLYGAMY ; the state of having more wives than one
at the same time. (See Marriage.)
The circumstances of the patriarchs living in polygamy,
and their not being reproved for it, has given occasion for
some modern writers to suppose that it is not unlawful :
but it is answered, that the equality in the number of males
and females born into the world intimates the intention
of God that one woman should be assigned to one man :
" for," says Dr. Paley, "if to one man be allowed an ex-
clusive right to five or more women, four or more men
must be deprived of the exclusive possession of any ;
which could never be the order intended. The equality,
indeed, is not quite exact. The number of male infants
exceeds that of females in the proportion of nineteen to
eighteen, or thereabouts ; but this excess provides for the
greater consumption of males by war, sea-faring, and
other dangerous or unhealthy occupations. It seems also
a significant indication of the divine will, that he at first
created only one woman to one man. Had God intended
polygamy for the species, it is probable he would have
begun with it ; especially as by giving to Adam more
wives than one, the multiplication of the human race
would have proceeded with a quicker progress.
" Polygamy not only violates the constitution of nature,
and the apparent design of the Deity, but produces to the
parties themselves, and to the public, the following bad
effects: contests and jealousies amongst the wives of the
same husband ; distracted affections, or the loss of all af-
fection in the husband himself ; a voluptuousness in the
rich, which dissolves the vigor of their intellectual as weU
as active faculties, producing that indolence and imbecili-
ty, both of mind and body, which have long characterized
the nations of the East; the abasement of one half of
the human species, who, in countries v here polygamy ob-
tains, are degraded into instruments of physical pleasure
to the other half; neglect of children ; anil the manifold
and sometimes unnatural mischiefs which arise from a
scarcity of women. (See Marriage.)
" To compensate for these evils, polygamy does not offer
a single advantage. In the article of population, which
it has been thought to promote, the community gain no-
thing ; (nothing, I mean, compared with a state in which
marriage is nearly universal ;) for the question is not,
whether one man will have more children by five or more
wives than by one ; but whether these five wives would
not bear the same or a greater number of children to five
separate Jiusbands. And as to the care of children when
produced, and the,sending of Ihem into the world in situ-
ations in which they may be likely to form and bring up
families of their own, upon which the increase and suc-
cession of the human species in a great degree depend,
this is less provided for and less practicable, where twenty
or thirty children are to be supported by the attention and
fortunes of one father, ihan if they were divided into five
or six families, to each of which were assigned the indus-
try and inheritance of two parents. Whether simultane-
ous polygamy was permitted by Ihe law of Moses seems
doubtful ; (Dcut. 17: 16. 21: 13.) but whether permitted
or not, it was certainly practised by the Jewi.sh [latriarchs,
both before that law and under it. The permission, if
there were any, might be like that of divorce, ' for the
hardness of their heart,' in condescension to their esta-
blished indulgences, rather than from the general recti-
tude or propriety of the thing itself.
" The state of manners in Judea had probably under-
gone a reformation in this respect before the time of Christ;
for in the New Testament we meet with no trace or men-
tion of any such practice being tolerated. For which
reason, and because it was likewise forbidden amongst
the Greeks and Romans, we cannot ctpect lo find any ex-
press law upon the subject in the Christian cotle. The
words of Christ (Matt. 19; 9.) may be construed by an
POL
[951 J
POM
easy implication to prohibit polygamy ; for if ' whoever
putteth away his wile, and marrielh another, committeth
adultery,' he who inarrieth another, without putting away
the first, is no less guilty of adultery ; because the adul-
tery does not consist in the repudiation of the first wife,
(for however unjust or cruel that may be, it is not adul-
tery,) but entering into a second marriage during the le-
gal existence and obligation of the first. The several
passages in St. Paul's writings which speak of marriage,
always suppose it to signify the union of one man with
one woman, Rom. 7: 2, 3. 1 Cor. 7: 12, 14, 16. The
manners of diiferenl countries have varied in nothing
more than in their domestic constitutions. Less polished
and more luxurious nations have either not perceived the
bad eB'ects of polygamy, or, if they did perceive them,
they who in such countries possessed the power of reform-
ing the laws, have been unwilling to resign their own
gratifications. Polygamy is rltained at this day among
the Turks, and throughout every part of Asia in which
Christianity is not professed. In Christian countries it is
universally prohibited. In Sweden it is punished with
death. In England, besides the nullity of the second
marriage, it subjects the offender to transportation or im-
prisonment and branding for the first offence, and to capi-
tal punishment for the second. And whatever may be
said in behalf of polygamy, when it is authorized by the
law of the land, the marriage of a second wife, during the
lifetime of the first, in countries where such a second
marriage is void, must be ranked with the most danger-
ous and cruel of those frauds by which a woman is cheat-
ed out of her fortune, her person, and her happiness."
Thus far Dr. Paley. We shall close this article with >\te
words of an excellent writer on the same side of the sub-
ject: —
" When we reflect," says he, " that the primitive insti-
tution of marriage limited it to one man and one woman ;
that this institution was adhered to by Noah and his sons,
amidst the degeneracy of the age in which they lived, and
in spite of the example of polygamy whicTi the accursed
race of Cain had introduced ; when we consider how very
few (comparatively speaking) the examples of this prac-
tice were among the faithful ; how much it brought its
own punishment with it ; and how dubious and equivocal
those passages are in which it appears to have the sanc-
tion of the divine approbation ; when to these reflections
we add another, respecting the limited views and tempo-
rary nature of the more ancient dispensations and institu-
tions of religion ; how often the imperfections and even
vices of the patriarchs and people of God in old time are
recorded, without any express notification of their crimi-
nality ; how much is said to be commanded, which our
reverence for the holiness of God and his law will only
suffer us to suppose were for wise ends permitted ; how
frequently the messengers of God adapted themselves to
the genius of the people to whom they were sent, and the
circumstances of the times in which they lived ; above
all, when we consider the purity, equity, and benevolence
of the Christian law, the explicit declarations of our Lord
and his apostle Paul respecting the institution of marriage,
its design and limitation ; when we reflect, too, on the
testimony of the most ancient fathers, who could not
piissibly be ignorant of the general and common practice
of the apostolic church ; and, finally, when to these con-
siderations we add those which are founded on justice to
the female sex, and all the regulations of domestic econ>
my and national policy, we must wholly condemn the rt-
vival of polygamy." Pahy's Mot. Phil., vol. i. p. 319—
325 ; Madan's Thelyphthora ; Tamers', Wilh\ Peim's, R.
Hill's, Palmer's, and Hameis' Answers to Madan, Mon. Rev.,
vol. Ixiii. p. 338, and also vol. Ixix ; Beallie's Ek. of Mor.
Science, vol. ii. p. 127—129; Dwight's Theology; Ander-
son on the Domestic Constitvtion. — Hend. Buck.
POLYGLOTT. (See Bible, Polvglott.)
POLYTHEISM; ((mm polus, many, and tfieos, God ;)
the doctrine of a plurality of gods, or invisible powers su-
perior to man. (See Gods, Idolatky, Pagans.)
From the accounts given us by the best writers of an-
tiquity, it seems that though the polytheists believed hea-
ven, earth, and hell, were all filled with divinities, yet
there was ona who was considered as supreme over all
the rest, or, at most, that there were but two self-existent
gods, from whom they conceived all the other divinities
to have descended in a manner analogous to human gene-
ration. It appears, however, that the vulgar pagans con-
sidered each divinity as supreme, and unaccountable
within his own province, and therefore entitled to worship,
which rested ultimately in himself The philosophers, on
the other hand, seem to have viewed the inferior gods as
accountable for every part of their conduct to him who
was their sire and sovereign, and to have paid to them
only that inferior kind of devotion which the church of
Rome pays to departed saints. The vulgar pagans were
sunk in the grossest ignorance, from which statesmen,
priests, and poets exerted their utmost influence to
keep them from emerging ; for it was a maxim, which,
however absurd, was universally received, " that there
were many things true in rehgion which it was not conve-
nient for the vulgar to know ; and some things which,
though false, it was expedient that they should believe."
It was no wonder, therefore, that the vulgar should be
idolaters and polytheists. The philosophers, however,
were still worse ; they were wholly " without excuse, be-
cause that, when they knew God, they glorified him not
as God ; neither were thankful, but became vain in their
imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Pro-
fessing themselves wise, they became fools, and worship-
ped and served the creature more than the Creator, who
is Gjd, blessed forever," Rom. 1: 20, 21, 22, 25. See
lift of books under article Idolatry ; Prideaux's Con., vol,
'.. pp. 177, 179 ; Kavies' Sketches of the Histmy of Man ;
Bishop Law's Theory of Religion, pp. 58, 65—68, 94, 296 ;
article Polytheism in Enc. Brit. ; Farmer on the Worship
of Human Spirits ; Dwight's Theology. — Hend. Buck.
POMEGRANATE ; {reman, Num. 13: 23. 20: 5. 1
Sam. 14: 2, iScc.) a low tree, growing very common ia
Palestine, and in other parts of the East. Its branches
are very thick and bushy : some of them are armed with
sharp thorns. They are garnished with narrow spear-
shaped leaves. Its flowers are of an elegant red color,
resembling a rose. It is chiefly valued for the fruit,
which is as big as a large apple, is quite round, and has
the general qualities of other summer fruits, allaying
heat and quenching thirst.
The high estimation in which it was held by the people
of Israel, may be inferred from its being one of the three
kinds of fruit brought b)' the spies from Eshcol to Moses
and the congregation in the wilderness, (Num. 13: 23. 20:
5.) and from its being specified by that rebellious people
as one of the greatest luxuries which they enjoyed in
Egypt, the want of which they felt so severely in the sandy
desert. The pomegranate, classed by Moses with wheat
and barley, vines and figs, oil-olive and honey, was, in his
account, one principal recommendation of the promised
land, Deut. 8: 8. The form of this fruit was so beautiful, as
to be honored with a place at the bottom of the hi^h-priest's
robe ; (Exod. 28: 33. Ecclus. 45: 9.) and was the principal
ornament of the stately columns of Solomon's temple.
The inside is full of small kernels, replenished with a
generous liquor. In short, there is scarcely any part of
the pomegranate which does not delight and recreate the
senses. — Watson.
POIMORYANS ; certain Russian dissenters, who be
lieve that Antichrist is already come ; reigns in the
world unseen, that is, spiritually ; and has put an end in
the church to every thing that is holy. This, by the way,
seems no more than is asserted by St. John : (1st Ep. ch.
4: 3.) — "This is that spirit of Antichrist, whereof ye have
heard that it should come, and even now already is it ia
the world." It is probable, that Russian dissenters, as
well as others, consider the secular spirit of their ch- rch
I'stablishmenl as the very spirit of Antichrist, blasting
every thing that is truly spiritual and holy. They are
zealous in opposing the innovations of Nikon, with regard
to the church books ; prefer a life of celibacy and soli-
tude, and rebaptize their converts from other seels. (See
Russian Church, and Raszolriks.) Pinkerton's Greek
Ch., ^.330— Williams.
POMPONIA, (Gr^cina,) the wife of Plautius, a Roman
general, who commanded in England, in the year 15, is
thought, from a sentence in the Annals of Tacitus, to have
POO
[ 952 ]
POP
been a Chrlslian, and the first in Britain. Tacitus says,
" Also Pomponia Gripcina, an illustrious woman, married to
Plautius, (who, on his return from Britain, entered the city
with the pomp of an Ovatian,)bin accused of a foreign su-
perstition, was left to the decision of her husband." The
wife of Plautius, and Claudia Ruffina, are supposed to be
of the saints that were in Cresar's household, mentioned
by Paul, Phil. 4: 22. Claudia is celebrated by Martial
for her admirable beauty and learning, in the following
epigram : —
" From painted Briioiia how was Claudia born !
The fair barbarian ! how do arts adorn !
When Roman charms a Grecian soul commend,
Athens and Rome may for the dame contend."
Speed, a very ancient British author, says that " Claudia
sent Paul's writings, which she calls spiritual manna, un-
to her friends in Britain, to feed their souls with the bread
of life ; and also the writings of Martial, to instruct their
minds with those lessons best fitting to produce moral vir-
tues :" which Speed thinks was the occasion of this line
in Martial's works : —
" And Britons now, they say, our verses learn to eing."
Gildas, the most ancient and authentic British historian,
who wrote about A. D. 564, in his book called De Vict.
Aurelli Ainbrossii, affirms, that the Britons received the
gospel under Tiberius, the emperor under whom Christ
suffered ; and that many evangelists were sent from the
apostles into this nation, who were the first planters of the
gospel ; and which, he elsewhere says, continued with
them until the cruel persecution of Diocletian the empe-
ror, about A. D. 290. — Jvimey's Hist, of the EjigUsh Baptists.
POMPEY, surnamed the Great, was one of the most
celebrated generals of the Roman commonwealth. His
relation to the Jewish history will be found stated in the
articles Aristobulus, and Hyrcanus. — Calmet.
PONET, or PovNET, (John,) bishop of Winchester,
was born 1516, in the county of Kent, (Eng.,) and re-
ceived his education in King's college, Cambridge. In
1551, he was consecrated bishop of Rochester, and within
a year after, through the favor of king Edward VI, was
preferred to the see of Winchester. He is spoken of as a
man of great ingenuity, extensive erudition, and eminent
piety. In sentiment he was a decided Calvinist.
He was the author of " King Edward's Catechism," a
manual of great repute in its day. He published several
other works also, both in English and in Latin.
When queen Mary came to the crown, he retired to
Stratsburgh, in Germany, where he died in 1556, aged
forty years. — Middlcton, vol. i. p. 469.
PONTIFF, or High-Priest ; a person who has the su-
perintendence and direction of divine worship, as the offer-
ing of sacrifices, and other religious solemnities. The
Romans had a college of pontiff's, and over these a sove-
reign pontiff", instituted by Numa, whose function it was
to prescribe the ceremonies with which each god was to be
worshipped, compose the ritnals, direct the vestals, and for
a good while to perform the business of augury, till, on
some superstitious occasion, he was prohibited intermed-
dling therewith. The Jews, too, had their pontiflTs; and
among the Romanists the pope is styled the sovereign
pontiff".— HfHrf. Buck.
PONTIFICATE, is used for the state or dignity of a
pontiff", or high-priest ; but more particularly, in modern
writers, for the reign of a pope. — Ilend. Buck.
FONTUS ; a province in Asia Minor, having the Eux-
ine sea north, Cappadocia south, Paphlagonia and Galatia
east, and the Lesser Armenia west. It is thought that
Peter preached here, because he addresses his first epistle
to the faithful of this and of the neighboring provinces. —
Calmet.
POOLE, (Matthew,) an eminent non-conformist mi-
nister, was born in "York, (England,) 1624. He received
his education, and took his degree at Emmanuel college,
Cambridge. Having attached himself to the Presbyteri-
ans, he entered into the ministry, and about the year 1648,
became rector of St. Michael le Querne, in London. In
1657, when Richard Cromwell succeeded his father in the
chancellorship at Oxford, Mr. Poole was incorporated mas-
ter of arts in that university. In 1660, after the restoration
of Charles II., he published a sermon upon John 4: 23, 24,
preached before the mayor of London, against re-establish-
ing the liturgy of the church of England ; and refusing to
comply with the act of uniformity, in 1662, he was ejected
from his rectory. He submitted to the law with a com-
mendable resignation ; and sat down to his studies upon his
paternal estate, resolving to employ his pen in the service
of religion in general, regardless of the particular disputes
among Protestants. He now devoted himself to a labori-
ous and useful work, entitled " Synopsis Criiicorum Bibli-
cum," which was published in 1669, and the following
years. In the midst of this employment, he testified his
zeal against popery in a number of works. His name
was in the list among those that were to be cut off", print-
ed in the depositions of Titus Oates, concerning the popish
plot ; and an incident having happened, which gave him
great apprehension of d^ger, he retired into Holland,
where he died in 1679.
His works were numerous, consisting principally of an-
notations on the Scriptures ; his " Synopsis ;" and pubU-
cations against popery. He is spoken of as profound in
learning, strict in piety, and universal in his charity. He
was more especially distinguished as a commentator.
Mr. Cecil observes, " Commentators are excellent where
there are but few difficulties ; but they leave the harder
knots still untied ; but after all, if we must have commen-
tators, as we certainly must, Poole is incomparable, and I
had almost said, abundant of himself." — MiddUton, vol. iii.
POOR. This word often denotes the humble, afflicted,
mean in their own eyes, low in the eyes of God. Not so
much a man destitute of the good things of the earth, as a
man sensible of his spiritual misery and indigence, who
applies for succor to the mercy of God. In this sense the
greatest and richest men of the world are on a level with
the poorest, in the eyes of God.
One of the characters of the Messiah was, to judge the
poor, (Ps. 72: 2, 4.) and to preach the gospel to them, Isa.
11: 4. Matt. 11:.5. Hence, Jesus chose disciples that were
poor, and the greater part of the first believers were really
poor men, as we may see in their history.
Solomon says, (Prov. 22: 2.) " The rich and poor meet
together ;" and they are like each other in one thing — God
created them both ; and both riches and poverty are of his
bestowing. Hence the rich should not be supercilious,
nor the poor despondent ; both are equal in the eyes of
God, Prov. 29: 13. Amos (8: 6.) reproaches the IsraeUtes
with having sold the poor for a contemptible price ; as
for shoes and sandals. Probably the rich actually thus
sold their poor debtors, for things of no value. It is never
allowed a Christian to prefer a rich before a poor man,
only because he is rich, and to think better of him, to
judge him more worthy of esteem and consideration, ra-
ther than he who has not the same advantages of the
goods of fortune, James 2: 1.
Poverty was considered by the Jews as a great evil, and
a punishment from God. Job speaks of it as of a prison,
and a state of bondage, chap. 36: 8. And Isaiah (48: 10.)
compares it to a furnace or crucible, wherein metals are
purified.
Nothing is more earnestly recommended in Scripture
than alms and compassion to the poor. (See Alms.) —
Calmet.
POOR PILGRIMS ; an order that started up in the
year 1500. They came out of Italy into Germany bare-
footed and bareheaded, feeding all the week, except on
Sundays, upon herbs and roots sprinkled with salt. They
stayed not above twenty-four hours in a place. They went
by couples, begging from door to door. This penance
they undertook voluntarily ; some for three, others for five
or seven years, as they pleased, and then returned home
to their callings. — Hend. Buck.
POPE ; the title of the supreme pontiff", or head of the
Romish church. It is derived from a Greek word, signify-
ing father, and was, at an early period, given to all bishops,
as appears from the ancient ecclesiastical writers, and is
still given to every priest in Russia. But about the end
of the eleventh century Gregory VIII., in a council held
at Rome, ordered that the title should be applied exclu-
sively to the bishop of Rome. What was thus arrogantly
claimed has long been conceded, and is now enjoyed with-
POP
[ 953 ]
POP
out dispute, and without envy. He is commonly address-
ed as Most Holy Father. (See Antichrist.)
Pope, electors of. — The first five centuries the people and
clergy together, and sometimes the clergy alone, with the
consent of the people, chose the pope by plurality of
voices; until after the death of pope Simplicius, in 483.
Odoacer, king of the Herules and Italy, made a law, that
none should be chosen without first acquainting the prince
whom they had a mind to choose. This law was abolished
about twenty years after, in the fourth council of Rome,
under pope Symmachus, by the consent of king Theodoric,
in 502. But that prince, turning Arian, afterwards reas-
suraed the right, and did himself name pope Felix IV.
The Gothic princes followed his example, only allowing
the clergy to choose ; but he was not to ascend the chair
till confirmed by them. Justinian, who overturned the
empire of the Goths, and also his successors, retained the
same privilege, and demanded money of the pope elect to
confirm his election. But Constantius Pogonatus freed
them from this imposition in 681. Nevertheless the em-
perors did still keep a share in the election ; so that the
popes were not consecrated without their consent : until
the French emperor, Louis le Debonnaire, in 824, and his
successors, Lotharius I. and Louis II., in 864, restored the
popes to Iheir former liberty. In the tenth age, the mar-
quis of Etruria and count de Tuscanella, with the gran-
dees of Rome, chose and deposed popes as they pleased,
as did the emperor Otho the Great, and his son and grand-
son in that same age. St. Henry, duke of Bavaria, their
successor, restored the popes to their privileges again in
1014, leaving the election to the clergy and people of
Rome ; but his son and grandson, Henry III. and IV.,
reassumed the power of choosing or deposing the popes,
which occasioned wars between them and the emperors
about the investitures, the emperors setting up anti-popes,
which occasioned a schism in the church of Rome. But
after the time of Innocent II., and that the controversy
between Peter de Leon, called Anaclete, and Victor IV.
was extinguished, the cardinals and principal of the clergy
of Rome chose pope Celestine II. by their own authority
in 1143; and the rest of the clergy having parted with
their pretensions, Honorius HI., in 1216, or, according to
others, Gregory X., in 1274, ordered that the election should
be made in the conclave, since which time the cardinals
hav« still kept possession.
Pope, ttwile of election. — Nine or ten days after the fune-
ral of the deceased pope, the cardinals enter the conclave,
which is generally held in the Vatican, in a long gallery,
where cells of boards are erected, covered with purple
cloth, one for each cardinal, who is, during this time, al-
lowed only two servants, except in ceise of sickness. They
are guarded by the militia of Rome, who hinder all inter-
course of letters from without, and the dishes also are in-
spected by a master of the ceremonies, lest any letters
should be concealed in the meat. At length it hath ob-
tained among them to premise certain articles, which they
think necessan,' for the better government of the church, and
every one swears to observe them if he .should be chosen.
The election is made by scrutiny, access, or adoration.
The first is, when the cardinal writes the name of him
whom he votes for in a scroll of five pages, on the first
whereof he writes, " Ego eligo in summum pontificem re-
verendissimum Dominum meum cardinalem." But this
is written by one of his servants, that the cardinal may
not be discovered by his hand. On this fold two others
are doubled down, and sealed with a private seal. On the
fourth the cardinal \vrites his own name, and covers it
••iinh the fifth folding. Then sitting in order on benches
in the chapel, with their scrolls in their hands, they ascend
to the altar by turns ; and, after a short prayer on their
knees, throw the scroll into a chalice upon the table ; by it
the first cardinal bishop sitting on the right, and the first
cardin.il deacon on the left side ; and the cardinals being
returned to their places ; the cardinal bishop turns out the
scrolls into a plate, which he holds in his left hand, and
gives them as they come to the cardinal deacon, who reads
them with an audible voice, while the cardinals note down
how many voices every person hath ; and then the master
of the ceremonies burns the scrolls in a pan of coals, that
it mav not be known for whom any one gives his voice ;
120
and if two-thirds of the number present agree, the election
is good ; and he on whom the two-thirds falls is declared
pope.
When the choice is made by access, the cardinals rise
from their places, and going towards him whom they
would have elected, each says, " Ego accedo ad reveren-
dissimum Dominum." And the adoration is much in the
same manner, only the cardinal approaches him whom he
would have chosen with a profound reverence ; but both
the one and the other must be confirmed by the scrutiny.
There was another way, of choosing by compromise :
when the difterehces ro.se so high that they could not be
adjusted in the conclave, they referred the choice to three
or five, giving them leave to elect any, whom all, or the
majority, should chouse, provided it were determined
within the time that a candle lighted by common consent
should continue.
There is yet a fifth way of election, called by inspira-
tion, viz., when the first cardinal arises in the chapel, and
after an exhortation to choose a capable person, names
such an one, to which if two-thirds agree, he is reckoned
legally chosen. Which being performed by any of these
methods, he is led into the vestry clothed in his pontifica-
libus ; then carried into the chapel, seated on the altar,
and the cardinals, performing the ceremony of adoration,
kis-s his feet, hands, and mouth ; alter which all the doors
and gates of the conclave are opened, and the pope, show-
ing himself to the people, blesses them ; the cardinal dea-
con proclaiming with a loud voice to them in these words :
" Annuncio vobis gaudiam magnum, papara habemus.
Reverendissimus Dominus cardinalis — electus est in sum-
mum pontificem, et elegit sibi nomen." This being done,
he descends into St. Peter's church, the cardinals with a
cross going before him ; and then coming to the high al-
tar, lakes off' his mitre, kneels and prays awhile, and re-
turns thanks to God and the blessed apostles, &c.
Pope, inauguration of. — When one of the cardinals is
chosen pope, the masters of the ceremonies come to his
cell to acquaint him with the news of his promotion ;
whereupon he is conducted to the chapel, and clad in the
pontifical habit, then receives the adoration, that is, the
respects paid by the cardinals to the pope. After which
he is carried to St. Peter's church, and placed upon the
altar of the holy apostles, where the cardinals come a se-
cond time to the adoration ; from thence he is conducted
to his apartment ; and some days after is performed the
ceremony of his coronation, before the door of St. Peter's
church, where is erected a throne, upon which the new
pope ascends, has his mitre put off, and a crown put on
his head in presence of all the people. Afterwards is the
cavalcade, from St. Peter's church to St. John de Lateran,
whereat all the ambassadors, princes, and lords assist,
mounted on horseback, and richly clad. Next before the
pope go the two cardinal deans with their red caps ; and
the other cardinals come after, two and two, followed by
the patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, and prothonotaries.
When the pope is come to St. John de Lateran, the arch-
bishop of that church presents him with two keys, one of
gold, and the other of silver ; then all the canons paying
their obeisance, and kissing his feel, he gives the general
benediction.
Pope, jurisdiction of. — The pope's jurisdiction extends to
all the provinces called the Ecclesiastical Estate, which
takes in Campagna di Roma, the patrimony of St. Peter,
Terra Sabina, Umbria or duchy of Spolelo, the marquisate
of Ancona, the duchy ofUrhin, Romagnia, Boulonois, the
duchy of Ferrara, the territory of Perusa, Le Contado de
Citta Castello. In the patrimony of St. Peter are, the duchy
of Castro, the cities of Caprarola, Ronciglione, ice, which
belong to the duke of Parma ; and the duchy of Bracciano,
which has its particular duke. Between Romagna and
the duchy of Urbin is the little republic of St. Marin.
But to return to the dominion of the pope : la Campagna
di Roma hath for principal cities Rome, Ostia, Palestrina,
Frescati, Albano, Tivoli, Terracina. &c. The patrimony
of St. Peter, the cities of Porto, Civita-Vecchia, Viterbo,
fee. The principal cities of Terra Sahino are. Magliauo,
Vescovio, &c. Umbria, in the duchy of Spoleto. has Spo-
leto, Apisa, Todi, &c. The marquisate of Ancona con-
tains the cities of Ancona, Fermo, Onr Lady ft Loretta,
POP
[ 954
Pop
Ascoli, Jesi, &c. The duchy of Urbin hath four conside-
rable cities, Urbin, Senigaglia, St. Leo, &c. La Romag-
nia hath Ravenna, Cervia, Faenza, &c. The principal city
of the Boulonois is Bolonia la Grasse. The duchy of Fer-
rara comprehends Ferrara, Comachio, fee. The territory
of Orvietta hath Aquapendente, Orvietta, &c. ; and that
of Perusia takes in Perugia, Citta de Pieve, &c. ; and in
Contado stands Citta di Castello.
As to the government of the pope's dominion. He go-
verns the province of Rome himself ; but all the other
provinces are governed by legates or vice-legates. Besides
which, every province has a general, who commands the
soldiers ; and each city a governor, chosen by the pope.
But the podeslas and other officers are chosen by the mha-
bitants ; except the forts, castles, and ports, whose offi-
cers, as well as governors, depend upon the pope's choice.
Popes, nwks relating to. — The principal writers who
record the lives and transactions of the popes, are, — Anas-
tasiiis, surnamed the Bibhothecariu.s, or the Librarian, who
lived in the ninth century, and records the lives of the
popes from Peter to Nicholas L, who died in 867. His
work is full of legendary stories. It was first published at
Mentz, in 1602. The best edition is that of Bianchini, at
Rome, 1718 — 1735, four vols, folio and quarto ; Platina,
who wrote in the fifteenth century, who foUott's Anastasi-
us, and others, and brings down the lives to 1471. His
work was published at Venice in 1479; an abridgment of
it in English, by Sir Paul Ricaut, appeared about 1700.
They were brought down by Onuphrius Passevinius to the
year 1566. His work was published in 1567.
In English, the reader will find much information re-
specting them in Dupin's Ecclesiastical History. Bow-
yer's History of the Popes, which began to be published in
1748, and was finished in a very imperfect manner, in
1751, in quarto, is the only original work entirely devoted
to this department of ecclesiastical history in our language.
Unfortunately, it is not always to be depended on, espe-
cially in the last volumes. Baronius, Bellarmine, and the
other church historians, are full of references to the lives
and transactions of the popes. One of the best epitomes of
lives of the popes, is a work in German, by C. \V. J.
"VValch, of Gottingen, which appeared in English, under
the title of " A Compendious History of the Popes, from
the Foundation of the See of Rome to the Present Time ;"
Lond. 1759, 8vo. It is brief, but impartial, and the fruit
of much research. Sir Paul EicauCs Introd. to Platina ;
Oiiuphr. Passevin. — Hcnd. Buck.
POPERY, comprehends the religious doctrines and
practices adopted and maintained by the church of Rome.
The following summary, extracted chiefly from the de-
crees of the council of Trent, continued under Paul III.,
Julius III., and Pius IV., from the year 1545 to 1503, by
successive sessions, and the creed of pope Pius IV. sub-
joined to it, and bearing date ]>fovember, 1504, may not be
unacceptable to the reader. One of the fundamental te-
nets strenuously maintained by popish writers, is the infal-
libility of the church of Rome ; though they are not agreed
whether this privilege belongs to the pope or a general
council, or to both united ; but they pretend that an infal-
lible living judge is absolutely necessary to determine
controversies, and to secure peace in the Christian church.
However, Protestants allege, that the claim of infallibility
in any church is not justified by the authority of Scripture,
much less docs it pertain to the church of Rome ; and that
it is inconsistent with the nature of religion, and the per-
sonal obligations of its professors ; and that it has proved
ineSectual to the end for which it is supposed to be
granted, since popes and councils have disagreed in mat-
ters of importance, and they have been incapable, with the
advantage of this pretended infallibility, of maintaining
union and peace.
Another essentia! article of the popish creed is the su-
premacy of ihe pope, or his sovereign power over the uni-
versal church. (See Supremacy.)
Farther, the doctrine of the seven sacraments is a pecu-
liar and distinguishing doctrine of the church of Rome :
these are, baptism, confirmation, the eucharist, penance,
extreme unction, orders, and matrimony.
The council of Trent (sess. 7, can. 1 .) pronounces an
anathema on those who say that the sacraments are more
or fewer than seven, or that any one of the above nurabet
is not truly and properly a sacrament. And yet it does
not appear that they amounted to this number before the
twelfth century, when Hugo de St. Victore and Peter
Lombard, about the year 1144, taught that there were se-
ven sacraments. The council of Florence, held in 1438,
was the first council that determined this number. These
sacraments confer grace, according to the decree of the
council of Trent, (sess. 7, can. 8.) ex opere operate, by the
mere administration of them : three of them, viz. baptism,
confirmation, and orders, are said (can. 9.) to impress an
indeliblo character, ao that they cannot be repeated with'
out sacrilege ; and the efficacy of every sacrament depends
on the intention of the priest by whom it is administered.
(Can. 11.) Pope Pius expressly enjoins that all these sa-
craments should be administered according to the received
and approved rites of the Catholic church. With regard
to the eucharist, in particular, we may here observe, that
the church of Rome holds the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion ; the necessity of paying divine worship to Christ,
under the form of the consecrated bread or host ; the pro-
pitiatory sacrifice of the mass, according to their ideas of
which, Christ is truly and properly offered as a sacrifice
as often as the priest says inass ; it practises, likewise,
solitary mass, in which the priest consecrates, communi-
cates, and allows communion only in one kind, viz. the
bread to the laity. (Sess. 14.)
The doctrine of merits is another distinguishing tenet
of popery ; with regard to which the council of Trent has
expressly decreed, (sess. 6, can. 32.) that the good works
of justified persons are truly meritorious ; deserving not
only an increase of grace, but eternal life, and an increase
of glory ; and it has anathematized all who deny this doc-
trine. Of the same kind is the doctrine of satisfactions ;
which supposes that penitents may truly satisfy, by the
afflictions they endure under the dispensations of provi-
dence, or by voluntary penances to which they submit, for
the temporal penalties of sin to which they are subject,
even after the remission of their eternal punishment.
(Sess. 6. can. 30, and sess. 14, can. 3 and 9.) In this con-
nexion we may mention the popish distinction of venial
and mortal sins .- the greatest evils arising from the for-
mer, are the temporary pains of purgatory ; but no man,
it is said, can obtain the pardon of the latter, without con-
fessing to a priest, and performing the penances which he
imposes.
The council of Trent (sess. 14, can. 1.) has expressly
decreed, that every one is accursed who shall affirm that
penance is not truly and properly a sacrament instituted
by Christ in the universal church, for reconciling those
Christians to the Divine Majesty, who have fallen into sin
after baptism ; and this sacrament, it is declared, consists
of two parts — the matter and the form : the matter is the
act of the penitent, including contrition, confession, and
satisfaction ; the form of it is the act of absolution on the
part of the priest. Accordingly it is enjoined, that it is
the duty of every man who hath fallen after baptism, to
confess his sins once a year, at least, to a priest ; that this
confession is to be secret ; for public confession is neither
commanded nor expedient ; and that it must be exact and
particular, including every kind and act of sin, with all
the circum-stances atlending it. When the penitent has so
done, the priest pronounces an absolution, which is not
conditional or declarative only, but absolute and judicial.
This secret or auricular confession was first decreed and
established in the fourth council of Lateran, under Inno-
cent III., in 1215. (Cap. 21.) And the decree of this coun-
cil was afterwards confirmed and enlarged in the council
of Florence, and in that of Trent, which ordains, that con-
fession was instituted by Christ ; that by the law of God it
is necessary to salvation, and that it has always been
practised in the Christian church. As for the penances
imposed on the penitent by way of satisfaction, they
have been commonly the repetition of certain forms of de-
votion, as paternosters, or .ive-marias, the payment of
stipidated sums, pilgrimages, fasts, or various species of
corporeal discipline. But the most formidable penance, in
the estimation of many who have belonged to the Roman
communion, has been the temporary pains of purgatory.
But under all the penalties which are inflicted or threatened
POP
[ 'j55 J
PUR
In the Romish church, it has provided relief by its indul-
gences, and by its prayers or masses for the dead, per-
formed professedly for relieving and rescuing the souls
that are detained in purgatory.
Another article that has been long authoritatively en-
joined and observed in the church of Rome, is the celibacy
of her clergy. This was first enjoined at Rome by Gre-
gory VII., about the year 1074, and established in England
fcy Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, about the year
1175; though his predecessor Lanftanc had imposed it
upon the prebendaries and clergy that lived in towns.
And though the council of Trent was repeatedly petitioned
by several princes and states to abolish this restraint, the
obligation of celibacy was rather established than relaxed
by this council ; for they decreed, that marriage, contracted
after a vow of continence, is neither lawful nor valid ; and
thus deprived the chui'ch of the possibility of ever restoring
marriage to the clergy. For if marriage, after a vow, be
in itself unlawftil, the greatest authority upon earth cannot
dispense with it, nor permit marriage to the clergy who
have already vowed continence. (See Celibacy.)
To the doctrines and practices above recited, may be
further added, the worship of images, of which Protestants
accuse the papists. But to this accusation the papist re-
plies, that he keeps images by him to preserve in his mind
the memory of the persons represented by them, as people
are wont to preserve the memory of their deceased friends
by keeping their pictures. He is taught, he says, to use
them, so as to cast his eyes upon the pictures or images,
and thence to raise his heart to the things represented, and
there to employ it in meditation, love, and thanksgiving,
desire of imitation, Aic, as the object requires.
These pictures or images have this advantage, that they
inform the mind, by one glance, of what in reading might
require a whole chapter ; there being no other difference
between them than that reading represents leisurely and
by degrees, and a picture all at once. Hence he finds a
convenience in saying his prayers with some devout pic-
tures before him, he being no sooner distracted, but the
sight of these recalls his wandering thoughts to the right
object ; and as certainly brings something good into his
mind, as an immodest picture disturbs his heart with filthy
thoughts. And because he is sensible that these holy pic-
tures and images represent and bring to his mind such
objects as in his heart he loves, honors, and venerates, he
cannot but upon that account love, honor, and respect the
iiTiages themselves.
The council of Trent likewise decreed, that all bishops
and pastors who have the care of souls do diligently in-
struct their flocks, " that it is good and profitable to desire
the intercession of saints reigning with Christ in heaven."
And this decree the papists endeavor to defend by the fol-
lowing observations. They confess that we have but one
Mediator of redemption, but affirm that it is acceptable to
God that we should have many mediators of intercession.
Moses (they say) was such a mediator for the Israelites;
Job for his three friends ; Stephen for his persecutors.
The Romans were thus desired by Paul to be his media-
tors ; so were the Corinthians ; so the Ephesians ; (Ep. to
Rom. Cor. Eph.) so almost every sick man desires the
congregation to be his mediators, by remembering him in
Ilieir prayers. And so the papist desires the blessed in
heaven to be his mediators ; that is, that they would pray
to God for him. But between these living and dead me-
diators there is no similarity: the living mediator is pre-
sent, and certainly hears the request of those who desire
him to intercede for them ; the dead mediator is as cer-
tainly absent, and cannot possibly hear the requests of all
those who at the same instant may be begging him to
intercede for them, unless he be possessed of the divine
attribute of omnipresence ; and he who gives that attribute
to any creature is unquestionably guilty of idolatry. And
as this decree is contrary to one of the first principles of
natural religion, so does it receive no countenance from
Scripture, or any Christian writer of the three first centu-
ries. Other practices peculiar to the papists are, the reli-
gious honor and respect that they pay to sacred relics ; by
which they understand not only the bodies and parts of
the bodies of the saints, but any of those things that ap-
pertained to them, and which they touched; and the cele-
bration of divine service in an unknown tongue : to which
purpose the council of Trent hath denounced an anathema
on any one who shall say that mass ought to be celebrated
only in the vulgar tongue ; (sess. 2.5, and sess. 22, can.
9.) though the council of Lateran, under Innocent HI.,
in 1215, (can. 9.) had expressly decreed, that, because in
many parts within the same city and diocese there are
many people of diflTerent manners and rites mixed toge-
ther, but of one faith, the bishops of such cities or dioceses
should provide fit men for celebrating divine ofiices, accor-
ding to the diversity of tongues and rites, and for adminis-
tering the sacraments.
• We shall only add, that the church of Rome maintains,
tliat unwritten traditions ought to be added to the Holy
Scriptures, in order to supply their defect, and to be re-
garded as of equal authority ; that the books of the Apo-
crypha are canonical Scripture ; that the Vulgate edition
of the Bible is to be deemed authentic ; and that the Scrip-
tures are to be received and interpreted according to that
sense which the holy mother church, to whom it belongs
to judge of the true sense, hath held, and doth hold, and
according to the unanimous consent of the fathers.
Such are the principal and distinguishing doctrines of
popery, most of which have received the sanction of the
council of Trent, and that of the creed of pope Pius IV.,
which is received, professed, and sworn to, by every one
who enters into holy orders in the church of Rome ; and
at the close of this creed we are told, that the faith con-
tained in it is so absolutel)' and indispensably necessary,
that no man can be saved without it.
It is one of the worst properties of popery that it has no
natural tendency to improve ; that it evidently stands still
in the career of ages ; that whilst other orbs are brighten-
ing more and more unto the perfect day, it remains the
same cheerless, changeless, and opaque spot on the face of
an illuminated sk)'.
See Antichrist ; Jesuits ; Roman Catholics in XT. S. ;
Butler's Ee77umscenccs ; Smith's Errors of the Church of Borne
detected ; Campbell's Lectures on Ecclesiastical History ; Ben-
nett's Confutation of Popery ; Sermons at Sailers' Hall against
Popery ; Bishop Burnet's Travels, &c. ; Moore's View of
Society and Manners in Italy ; Dr. Middleton's Letters from
Rome ; Stevenson's Historical and Critical View of some of
the Doctrines of the Church of Rome ; Moore's Travels of an
Irish Gentleman ; Second Travels, do. ; Gavin's Protestant ;
Text Book of Popery ; Nctv York Protestant ; Ilon-e's Chris-
tian Register ; .Tones' Church History, and Lectures ; Natu-
ral History of Enthusiasm, Fanaticism, dec. ; Villiers' Essay
on the Reformation nf Luther : Fletcher's Lectures on the Ro-
man Cathjilic Religion ; Birt on Popery ; Worhs of Robert
Hall ; Fuller's IVorks ; Douglas on Errors regarding Reli-
gion ; Thomas' Lectures on the Sei'en Sacrcmunts of the
Church of Rome ; Wharton and Carroll ; Father Clement;
Browrdee, Hughes, and Brecheuridgc ; American Quarterly
Register; Smith's Fall of Babylon.— Ilend. Buck.
POPOFTCHINS; a name given to the different sects of
Russian dissenters who recognise the validity of ordina-
tion as given in the established church, and receive most
of their priests from that communion. Those who have
no priests at all, or who do not acknowledge the validity
of church ordination, are termed Bez-Popoftchins, or No-
Priesters. — Head. Buck.
PORPHYRY, or Pokphykius, a philosopher, whose ori-
ginal name was Blalchus, was born. A. D. 233, at Tyre ;
studied under Origen and Longinus ; became a disciple of
Plotinus ; and died, in 304, at Rome. His works against
the Christians, to the number of fifteen, are lost. Among
his extant productions are, a Life of Pythagoras ; a Trea-
tise on Abstinence from Animal Food ; and Questions on
Homer. — Davenport.
PORSON, (Richard,) an eminent hellenist and critic,
was born, in 1759, at East Ruston, in Norfolk ; was edu-
cated at Eton, and at Trinity college, Cambridge ; was
elected Greek professor in 1793 ; became librarian of the
London institution ; and died September 19, ISOS. In
profound knowledge of Greek, critical powers, and acute-
ness, Porson had few equals. Among his works are,
Letters to Archdeacon Travis ; editions of ^schylus, and
some of the plays of Euripides ; and Tracts and JlisceUa-
neous Criticisms. — Davenport.
POR
L 956
POS
■pORTER, (Ebenezer, D. D. ;) late president of the the-
ological seminary, Andover, Blass. Dr. Porter was con-
nected with the seminary from 1814 to the time of his
death, April 8, 1834. He was previously pastor of a
Congregational church in Washington, Conn. Br. Porter
bequeathed a handsome properly to religious uses ; among
other bequests, he gave fifteen thousand dollars to the
American Education society. An account of his life,
and many of his manuscripts, will probably be published.
He published several valuable Sermons, the Young Prea-
cher's Manual, a Rhetorical Reader, an Analysis of Rhe-
torical Delivery, and Lectures on Homiletics and Preach-
ing; also an abridgment of Owen on Spiritual Mind-
edness, and on the one hundred and thirtieth Psalm. —
Boston Rerorda, 1834; Ain. Qnar. Observer, 1834.
PORTERS OF THE TEMPLE. The Levites dis-
charged the office of porters of the temple both day and
night, and had the care both of the treasure and offerings.
The office of porter was in some sort military ; properly
speaking, they were the soldiers of the Lord, and the
guards of his bouse, to whose charge the several gates of
the courts of the sanctuary were appointed by lot, 1 Chron.
26: 1, 13, 19. " They waited at every gate ; and were
not permitted to depart from their service ;" (2 Chron. 35:
15.) and they attended by turns in their courses, as the
other Levites did, 2 Chron. 8: 14. Their proper business
was to open and shut the gates, and to attend at them by
day, as a sort of peace-officers, in order to prevent any
tumult among the people ; to keep strangers, and the ex-
communicated and unclean persons, from entering into
the holy court ; and, in short, to prevent whatever might
be prejudicial to the safety, peace, and purity of the holy
place and service. They also kept guard by night about
the temple and its courts ; and they are said to have been
twenty-four in number, including three priests, who stood
sentry at so many different places.
There was a superior offii.er over the whole guard, call-
ed by Maimonides, " the man of the mountain of the
house ;" he walked the round as often as he pleased ;
when he passed a sentinel that was standing, he said,
" Peace be unto you ;" but if he found one asleep, he
struck him, and he had liberty to set fire to his garment.
This custom may, perhaps, be alluded to in the following
passage : — " Behold, I come as a thief," that is, unawares ;
"blessed is he that watcheth and keepelh his garments,"
Rev. 16: 15. Psalm 134. seems to be addressed to these
watchmen of the temple, " who by night stand in the
house of the Lord :" in which they are exhorted to employ
their waking hours in acts of praise and devotion. — IVatson.
PORTESSE, PoRTJSSE, Porteocs, for the word is
variously spelled in the old English writers, was the
breviary, which contained not only the office of the mass,
but all the services of the church, except the form of
marriage. — Hend. Btick.
PORTEUS, (Beiley,) an eminent and beloved prelate,
of the church of England, was born, in 1731 at York, and
entered as a sizer at Christ college, Cambridge, where
he obtained a fellowship. After having been chaplain to
archbishop Seeker, he was, successively, rector of Hunton,
prebendary of Peterborough, rector of Lambeth, king's
chaplain, ancf master of St. Cross hospital, near Winches-
ter. To Hunton he was much attached, and enjoyed
with peculiar pleasure the delights of retirement ; but,
though retired, he was not indolent. He discharged with
zeal all the duties of his parish ; preached almost every
morning ; lectured almost every afternoon ; and by his
visits, alike to the poor and the rich, he gained the affec-
tions of all his parishioners. On the 20th of December,
1776, he kissed the king's hand, on his promotion to the
see of Chester ; a preferment on his own part perfectly un-
solicited, and so entirely unlooked for, that till a short
time before it happened, he had not the smallest expecta-
tion of it.
The time however arrived, when the bishop of Chester
was destined to fill a still more distinguished situation in
the English church. The high character he had long
maintained ; his zeal, his activity, his judgment, his pow-
ers of usefulrless in every branch of his profession, and
all these illustrated and adorned by a most unblemishecl
life, and the most conciliating and attracting manners,
naturally marked hira out as the person best qualified to
supply the vacancy, which had for some time been ex-
pected, in the see of London. Accordingly, the very next
day after the death of Dr. Lowth, which took place at the
palace at Fulham, the 3d of November, 1787, the bishop,
who was then at Hunton, received, by a king's messen-
ger, a letter from Mr. Pitt, appointing him to that digni-
ty. This appointment, like all that he had before filled,
was, on his own part, perfectly unsought for and unso»
licited. He now prosecuted a plan, which he had long
had much at heart, for improving the condition of the ne-
gro slaves employed in the cultivation of the West India
islands, and particularly for their better instruction in re-
ligious knowledge. In 1798, he prepared and delivered
his admirable course of lectures on the gospel of St. Mat-
thew.
It is well known that a society has been long establish-
ed, under the title of " The Society for Promoting Chris-
tian Knowledge," which the bishop zealously and actively
supported. Of the British and Foreign Bible society, he
was also a vice-president. He died in 1808. Among his
works are, Sermons ; a Life of Seeker ; and a Seatonian
prize poem on Death. — Davenport ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
POSITIVE INSTITUTES. The nature of a positive
law essentially differs from that of a moral law. The
matter of a moral law, whether it be of the nature of a re-
quirement or of a prohibition, commends itself as holy,
just, and good, and must, therefore, be unchangeable, and
of perpetual obligation ; but a positive law, whether to do
or to omit, has nothing either of good or evil in itself, and
is binding only by virtue of .its being enacted ; and, there-
fore, may be changed at the wilt of the lawgiver.
" Moral precepts," says bishop Butler, ■' are precepts,
the reason of which we do not see ; positive precepts are
precepts, the reason of which we do not see. Moral duties
arise out of the nature of the case itself, prior to external
command ; positive duties do not arise out of the nature of
the case, but from external command ; nor would they be
duties at all, were it not for such command, received from
him whose creatures and subjects we are."
" Positive precepts," says president Edwards, " are the
greatest, and most proper trials of obedience ; because in
them the mere authority and will of the legislator is the
sole ground of the obligation, and nothing in the nature
of the things themselves ; and, therefore, they are the
greatest trial of any person's respect to that authority
and will." (See Institutions.)
Dr. Gerard observes, " A total disregard to the positive
and external duties of religion, or a very great neglect of
them, is justly reckoned more blamable, and a stronger
evidence of an unprincipled character, than even some
transgressions of moral obligation. Even particular posi-
tive precepts, as soon as they are given by God, have
something moral in their nature. Suppose the rights
which are enjoined by them perfectly indifferent before
they were enjoined ; yet, from that inoment, they cease to
be indifferent. The divine authority is interposed for the
observance of them. To neglect them is no longer to for-
bear an indifferent action ; or to do a thing in one way
rather than another, which has naturally no greater pro-
priety : it is very different ; it is to disobey God ; it is to
despise his authority ; it is to resist his will. Can any
man believe a God, and not acknowledge that disobedi-
ence to him, and contempt of his authority, is immoral,
and far from the least heinous species of immorality."
POT
[ 957 ]
P 0 W
Pres. Edwards^ Works; Guard's Sermons; Sutler's Analo-
gy ; Hoadhyon the Lord's Supper ; Foote's Letters to Hoadley ;
Sherlock's Prescrv. agaitist Popery ; Goodivin's Works ; Pp.
Taylor's Dur.tor Dub.; Bradbury's Duty and Doc. of Bapt. ;
Dr. Clarke's Expos. Ch. Catechism ; Chapin's Letters ;
Booth's PcEdobap. Exam. ; Prey's Essays on Chris. Bapt.
POSSESSION OF THE DEVIL. (See Demoniacs.)
POST ; a messenger or regulated courier, appointed to
carry with expedition the dispatches of princes, or the let-
ters of private persons in general, Job 9: 25. jer. 51: 31.
2 Chron. 30: 6. Esther 3: 13, &c. It is thought that the
Use of posts is derived from the Persians. Diodorus Sicu-
lus observes, that the kings of Persia, in order to have in-
telligence of what was passed through all the provinces
of their vast dominions, placed sentinels at eminences, at
convenient distances, where towers were built. These
sentinels gave notice of public occurrences from one to
another, with a very loud and shrill voice, by which news
was transmitted from one extremity of the kingdom to
another with great expedition. But as this could not
be practised, except in the case of general news, which it
was expedient that the whole nation should be acquainted
with, Gyrus, as Xenophon relates, appointed couriers and
places for post-horses, building on purpose, on all the high-
roads, houses for the reception of the couriers, where they
were lo deliver their packets to the next, and so on. This
they did night and day, so that no inclemency of weather
was to stop them ; and they are represented as moving
with astonishing speed. In the judgment of many they
went faster than cranes could fly. Herodotus owns, that
nothing swifter was known for a journey by land. Xer-
xes, in his famous expedition again.st Greece, planted
posts from the iEgean sea to Shushan, or Siisa, to send
notice thither of what might happen to his army ; he plac-
ed these messengers from station to station, to convey his
packets, at such distances from each other as a horse
might easily travel. — Watson.
POSTIL ; a gloss or marginal note. It is a word that
came into use in the middle ages. It is compounded of
the Latin preposition post, after, and the pronoun ilia, that,
and signifies that it follows after the text. The postilla
seem originally to have been short explanations of the
gospel or epistle of the day. These sometimes found
their way into writing, and appeared either as marginal
notes, or short explanatory notes. Dupinsays, "they for the
most part give grammatical explications of the words, and
take notice of any little trifle." Nicholas de Lyra entitles
his commentary on the whole Scriptures, " Postillte Perpetu-
ate ; sive brevice Commentaria in Universa Biblia." These pos-
tils, however, are not entitled to Dupin's censure. — H. Buck.
POTAMIENA ; a Christian martyr under Severus, in
the beginning of the third century. She was a slave, of
great beauty ; but for not reciprocating the passion of her
master, she was given up as a Christian to the prefect of
Egypt. She was scourged ; and, unmoved by threats, was
led to the fire and burnt, together with her mother Mar-
cella. Scalding pitch was poured upon her body, which
she bore with great patience. Basilides, her executioner,
became her convert, and sufl'ered martyrdom.
POTIPHAR ; an oflicer of the court of Pharaoh, king
(if Egypt: (Gen. 37: 36.) general of his troops, according
to the Vulgate ; but chief of his victuallers, or cooks, ac-
cording to the Hebrew. — Calmtt.
POTSHERD ; a broken fragment, or piece of an earth-
era vessel ; not a brittle pot only, but a piece of a pot ;
a pot already broken. Isa. 45: 9. — Calmet.
POTTER; a maker of earthern vessels, of which there
is frequent mention made in Scripture. Jeremiah (IR: 3.)
represents him while at work as sitting on two stones.
Homer says that the potter turns the wheel with his
hands ; but at the present day it is turned by another.
When God would show his rightful dominion over sinful
men, and his power over their hearts, he has recourse to the
similitude of a potter, who makes what he pleases of his
clay ; of this a vessel of honor, of that a vessel of disho-
nor : now forming it, then breaking it ; now preserving it,
and then rejecting it. See Ps. 2: 9. Kom. 9: 21. Jer.
18: 2, 3. ice— Calmet.
POTTER'S FIELD. (See Aceldama.)
POTTER (John,) a learned prelate, was born, about
1672, at Wakefield ; «as educated at the free school there,
and at University college, Oxford ; was made bishop of
Oxford in 1715, and archbishop of Canterbury in 1737,
and died in 1747. He wrote Archa;ologia Grsca ; and
various theological works ; and edited Clemens Alexandri-
nus, and Lycophron's Alexandra. — Davettport.
POTTER, (Robert,), a divine and poet, was born in
1721 ; was educated at Emanuel college, Cambridge ; and
was for some years vicar of Scarning, after which he ob-
tained the livings of Loweslofl' and Kessingland, and a
prebend in the cathedral of Norwich. He died in 1804.
His original poetry consists of a volume of Poems, and two
Odes from Isaiah, and is much above mediocrity. But
he is best known by his spirited versions of jEschylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides. — Davenport.
POVERTY is that state or situation opposed to riches,
in which we are deprived of the conveniences of life. In-
digence is a degree lower, where we want the necessaries,
and is opposed to superfluity. Want seems rather to ar-
rive by accident, implies a scarcity of provision, rather
than a lack of money, and is opposed to abundance.
Need and necessity relate less to the situation of life than
the other three words, but more to the relief we expect, or
the remedy we seek ; with this diflerence between the
two, that need seems less pressing than necessity.
Poverty has been sanctified by Christ in his own per-
son, and in that of his parents ; in that of his apostles, and
of the most perfect of his disciples. Solomon besought
the Lord to give him neither poverty nor riches, (Prov.
30: 8.) looking on each extreme as a dangerous rock to
virtue.
2. Poverty of mind is a state of ignorance, or a mind
void of religious principle and enjoyment. Rev. 3: 17.
3. Poverty of spirit consists in an inward sense and
feeling of our wants and defects; a conviction of our
wretched and forlorn condition by nature ; with a depen-
dence on divine grace and mercy for pardon and accep-
tance. Matt. 5: 3. It must be distinguished from a poor
spiritedness, a sneaking fearfulness, which bringeth a
snare. It is the effect of the operation of the divine Spi-
rit on the heart; (John 16: 8.) is attended with submission
to the divine will ; contentment in our situation ; meek-
ness and forbearance as to others, and genuine humility
as to ourselves. It is a spirit approved of by God, (Isa.
66: 2.) evidential of true religion, (Luke 18: 13.) and ter-
minates in endless felicity, Jlatt. 5: 3. Isa. 57: 15. Ps.
34: 18. Dunlop's Ser., vol. ii. lee. 1; Barclay's Diet.;
South's Ser., vol. x. ser. 1 ; Spcct., no. 464, vol. vi ; Robert
Harris' Ser., ser. 3. part 3 ; Pascal's Thoughts; Cecirs Pe-
mains; Robinson's Bit). Repos., 1833. — [Tend. Buck ; Calmet.
POWER ; the ability of perlbrming a thing. It is in a
sovereign degree an attribute of Deity. God is all-pow-
erful. It means sometimes a right, privilege or dignity ;
(John 1: 12.) sometimes absolute authority ; (Matt. 28: 18.)
sometimes the exertion, or act of power, as of the Holy
Spirit, (Eph. 1: 19.) of angels, or of human governments,
magistrates, cVc. ; (Rom. 13: 1.) and perhaps it generally
includes the idea of dignity, superiority. So, the body is
sown in weakness, but raised in power. — Calmet.
POWER OF GOD. (See Om.nifotenxe,)
POWERS OF THE MIND, are those faculties by
which we think, reason, judge, &c. (See Phrenology,
and Soul.)
"They are so various," says Dr. Reid, "so many, so
connected, and complicated in most of their operations,
that there never has been any division of them pronosed
which is not liable to considerable objections. The most
common division is that of understanding and will.
Under the will we comprehend our active powers, and
all that lead to action, or influence the mind lo act, such
as appetites, pas.sions, aflections.
The understanding comprehends our contemplative
powers, by which we perceive objects ; by which we crn-
ceive or remember them; by which we analyze or con-
pound them ; and by which we judge and reason con-
cerning them. Or the intellectual powers are cc mmonly
divided into simple apprehension, judgment, and reason-
ing." See Peid on the Active Powers ; also on the Human
Mind, and the Intellectual Pmvcrs ; Ijucke on the Under-
standing ; Stewart, Bronn, Abercrombie, and Vpham cm
PR A
953 ]
PR A
Infellecit at Philosophy ; Chalmers on the Moral and Intelhc-
iual Constitu/ion of Man ; and works on Phrenology.
For the influence Christianity has had on the moral
and intellectual powers, see White's admirable Sermons,
ser. 9 ; and Wayland's Discourses. — Ilend. Buck.
PRACTICAL WORKS ; such books as treat of and
tend to promote Christian practice. With some great ex-
ceptions, works of this class are, from their very nature,
of a more temporary character than any other theological
production. Generally speaking, they are, and must l>e,
adapted to the peculiar circumstances of their own age ;
they must be specially addressed to correct its prevailing
evil tendencies ; they must pre-eminently promote those
parts of the Christian character which are least cultivated.
They must also, in their external form, partake in some
measure of the habits of the times. Such as are founded
on a deep knowledge of human nature, and animated with
genuine piety, must indeed benefit other ages, since hu-
man nature remains essentially the same ; but their most
direct influence belongs to the age in which they are
written. Subsequently they may often form individuals:
transfused into their minds, they are reproduced in other
shapes, but are themselves withdrawn from circulation.
Their body perishes ; while the soul which gave it life mi-
grates into another and another frame, and thus continues
often to diffuse an extensive blessing, when the very name
under which they originally appeared is forgotten. Fu-
sei/'s Historical Inquirij, p. 11 — 180. — Hend. Buck.
PRAISE ; an acknowledgment made of the excellency
or perfection of any person or action, with a commenda-
tion of the same.
" The desire of praise," says an elegant writer, " is
generally connected with all the finer sensibilities of hu-
man nature. It affords a ground on which exhortation,
counsel, and reproof can work a proper effect. To be en-
tirely destitute of this passion, betokens an ignoble mind,
on which no moral impression is easily made ; for where
there is no desire of praise, there will also be no sense of
reproach ; but while it is admitted to he a natural, and in
many respects an useful principle of action, we are to ob-
serve that it is entitled to no more than our secondary re-
gard. It has its boundary set, by transgressing which, it
is at once transformed from an innocent into a most dan-
gerous passion. When, passing its natural line, it be-
comes the ruling spring of conduct; when the regard
which we pay to the opinions of men encroaches on that
reverence which we owe to the voice of conscience and
the sense of duty ; the love of praise, having then gone
out of its proper place, instead of improving, corrupts ;
and, instead of elevating, debases our nature." Young's
Love of Fame ; Blair's Sermons, vol. ii. ser. 6; Jortin's
Diss., diss. 4, passim ; Wilherforce' s Tract. View, ch. 4,
sec. 3 ; Smith's Theory of Moral Sent., vol. i. p. 233 ;
Fitzosborne's Letters, let. 18 ; Foster's Essays ; Bnckminster' s
Sermons ; Works of Hannah More ; Abercromhie on the
Moral Feelings ; Am. Annals of Education. — Hend. Buck.
PRAISE OF GOD; the acknowledging his perfections,
works, and benefits. Praise and thanksgiving are gene-
rally considered as synonymous, yet some distinguish
them thus : — Praise properly terminates in God, on ac-
coun; of his natural excellencies and perfections, and is
that act of devotion by which we confess and admire his
several attributes ; but thanksgiving is a more contracted
duty, and imports only a grateful sense and acknowledg-
ment of past mercies. We praise God for all his glorious
acts of every kind, that regard either us or other men ;
for his very vengeance, and those judgments which he
sometimes sends abroad in the earth ; but we thank him,
properly speaking, for the instances of his goodness alone,
and for such only of these as we ourselves are some way
concerned in. (See Thanksgiving.) Bishop Atterbury's
Semum on Psalm 1: 14; Saurin's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 14;
Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 146 ; Works of Robert Hall. — Hend.
Buck.
PRAYER has been well defined, the offering up of our
desires unto God, for things agreeable to his will, in the
name or through the mediation of Jesus Christ, by the
help of the Holy Spirit, with a confession of our sins, and
a thankful acknowledgment of his mercies.
1. Prayer is in itself a becoming acknowledgment of
the all-sufficiency of God, and of our dependence upon
him. It is his appointed mean.s for the obtaining of both
temporal and spiritual blessings. He could bless his
creatures in another way : but he will be inquired of, to
do for them those things of which they stand in need,
Ezek. 36: 37. It is the act of an indigent creature, seek-
ing relief from the fountain of mercy. A sense of want
excites desire, and desire is the very essence of prayer.
"One Ihing have T desired of the Lord," says David:
" that will I seek after." Prayer without desire is like
an altar without a sacrifice, or without the fire from hea-
ven to consume it. When all our wants are supplied,
prayer will be converted into praise ; till then Christians
must live by prayer, and dwell at the mercy-seat. God
alone is able to hear and to supply their every want.
The revelation which he has given of his goodness lays a
foundation for our asking with confidence the blessings
we need, and his ability encourages ns to hope for their
bestowment. " 0 thou that hearest prayer ; unto thee
shall all flesh come," Ps. IJ5: 2.
2. Prayer is a spiritual exercise, and can only be per-
formed acceptably by the assistance of the Holy Spirit,
Rom. 8: 26. "The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomi-
nation to the Lord, but the prayer of the upright is his de-
light." The Holy Spirit is the great agent in the world
of grace, and without his special influence there is no ac-
ceptable prayer. Hence he is called the Spirit of grace
and of supplication : for he it is that enables us to draw
nigh unto God, filling our mouth with arguments, and
teaching ns to order our cause before him, Zech. 12: 10.
3. All acceptable prayer must be oflfered in faith, or a
believing frame of mind. " If any man lack wisdom, let
him ask of God, who giveth to all men liberally and up-
braideth not, and it shall be given him. But let him ask
in faith, nothing wavering : for let not the wavering man
think that he shall receive any thing of the Lord," James
1: 5 — 7. " He that comelh unto God must believe that he
is, and that he is a rewarder of them that diligently seek
him," Heb. 11: 6. It must be offered in the name of
Christ, believing in him as revealed in the word of God,
placing in him all our hope of acceptance, and exercising
unfeigned confidence in his atoning sacrifice and preva-
lent intercession.
4. Prayer is to be offered for " things agreeable to the
will of God." So the apostle says: "This is the confi-
dence that we have in him, that, if we ask any thing ac-
cording to his will, he heareth us ; and if we know that
he hear us, whatsoever we ask, we know that we have
the petitions that we desired of him," 1 John 5: 14, 15.
Our prayers must therefore be regulated by the revealed
will of God, and come within the compass of the promi-
ses. These are to be the matter and the ground of our
supplications. What God has not particularly promised,
he may nevertheless possibly bestow ; but what he has
promised he will assuredly perform. Of the good things
promised to Israel of old not one failed, but all came to
pass ; and in due time the same shall be said of all the
rest.
5. All this must be accompanied with confession of our
sins, and thankful acknowledgment of God's mercies.
These are two necessary ingredients in acceptable prayer,
" I prayed," says the prophet Daniel, " and made confes-
sion." Sin is a burden, of which confession unloads the
soul. " Father," said the returning prodigal, " I have
sinned against heaven and in ihy sight." Thanksgiving
is also as necessary as confession; by the one, we lake
shame to ourselves ; by the other, we give glory to God.
By the one, we abase the creature ; by the other we exalt
the Creator. In petitioning favors from God, we act like
dependent creatures; in confession, like sinners; but in
thanksgiving, like angels.
The reason on which this great and efficacious duty
rests, has been a subject of some debate. On this point,
however, we have nothing stated in the Scriptures. From
them we learn only, that God has appointed it ; that he
enjoins it to be offered in faith, that is, faith in Christ,
whose atonement is the meritorious and procuring cause
of all the blessings to which our desires can be directed ;
and that prayer so offered is an indispensable condition
of our obtaining the blessings for which we ask. As a
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tnatter of inference, however, we may discover some
glimpses of the reason in the divine mind on which its ap-
pointment rests. That reason has sometimes heen said to
be the moral preparation and state of fitness produced in
the soul for the reception of the divine mercies which the
act and, more especially, the habit of praj'er must induce.
Against this stands the strong and, in a scriptural view,
fatal objection, that an efficiency is thus ascribed to the
mere act of a creature to produce those great and, in
many respects, radical changes in the character of man,
which we are taught, by inspired authority, to refer to the
direct influences of the Holy Spirit. What is it that fits
man for forgiveness, but simply repentance ? Yet that
is expressly said to be the "gilt" of Christ, and supposes
strong operations of the illuminating and convincing Spi-
rit of Truth, the Lord and Giver of spiritual life ; and if
the mere acts and habit of prayer had efhcieucy enough
to produce a scriptural repentance, then every formalist
attending with ordinary seriousness to his devotions must,
in consequence, become a penitent. Again : if we pray
for spiritual blessings aright, that is, with an earnestness
of desire which arises from a due apprehension of their
importance, and a preference of them to all earthly good,
who does not see that this implies such a deliverance from
the earthly and carnal disposition which characterizes our
degenerate nature, that an agency far above our own,
however we may employ it, must be supposed? or else,
if our own prayers could be efficient up to this point, we
naight, by the continual application of this instrument,
complete our regeneration, independent of that grace of
God, which, after all, this theory brings in. It may in-
deed be said, that the grace of God operates by our prayers
to produce in us a state of moral fitness to receive the
blessings we ask. But this gives up the point contended
for, the moral efficiency of prayer ; jind refers the effi-
ciency to another agent working by our prayers as an in-
strument. Still, however, it may be affirmed, that the
Scriptures nowhere represent pra)'er as an iustrument for
improving our moral state, in any other way than as the
means of bringing into the soul new supplies of spiritual
life and strength. It is therefore more properly to be con-
sidered as a condition of our obtaining that grace by which
such effects are wrought, than as the instrument by
which it effects them. In fact, all genuine acts of prayer
depend upon a grace previously bestowed, and from which
alone the disposition and the power to pray proceed. So
it was said of Saul of Tarsus, " Behold, he prayeth !" He
prayed in fact then for the first time ; but that was in
consequence of the illumination of his mind as to his spi-
ritual danger, effected by the miracle on the way to Da-
mascus, and the grace of God which accompanied the
miracle. Nor does the miraculous character of the means
by which conviction was produced in his mind, affect the
relevancy of this to ordinary cases. By whatever means
God may be pleased to fasten the conviction of our spirit-
nal danger upon our minds, and to awaken us out of the
long sleep of sin, that conviction must precede real prayer,
and comes from the influence of his grace, rendering the
means of conviction effectual. Thus it is not the prayer
■■vhieh produces the conviction, but the conviction which
E^ives birth to the prayer ; and if we pursue the matter i^-
lo its subsequent stages, we shall come to the same result.
We pray for what we feel we want ; that is, for something
not in our possession ; we obtain this either by imparla-
tion from God, to whom we look up as the only Being
able to bestow the good for which we ask him ; or else we
obtain it, according to this theory, by some moral effi-
■ ciency being given to the exercise of prayer to work it in
us. Now, the latter hypothesis is in many cases mani-
festly absurd. We ask for pardon of sin, for instance ;
but this is an act of God done for us, quite distinct from
any moral change which prayer may be said to produce in
us, whatever efficiency we may ascribe to it ; for no such
change in us can be pardon, since that must proceed from
the party offended. We ask for increase of spiritual
strength ; and prayer is the expression of that want. But
if it supply this want by its own moral efficiency, it must
supply it in proportion to its intensity and earnestness ;
which intensity and earnestness can only be called forth
by the degree in wliich the want is felt ; so that the case
supposed is contradictory and absurd, as it makes the
sense of want to be in proportion to the supply which
ought to abate or remove ii. And if it be urged, that
prayer at least produces in us a fitness for the supply of
spiritual strength, because it is excited hy a sense of our
wants, the answer is, that the fitness contended for con-
sists in that sense of want itself which must be produced
in us by the previous agency of grace, or we should never
pray for supplies. There is, in fact, nothing in prayer
simply which appears to have any adaptation, as an instru-
ment, to efleet a moral change in man, although it should
be supposed to be made use of by the mfluencc of the
Holy Spirit. The word of God is properly an instrument,
because it contains the doctrine which that Spirit explains
and applies, and the motives to faith and obedience which
he enforces upon the conscience and affections ; and al-
tliough prayer brings these truths and motives before us,
prayer cannot properly be said to be an instrument of our
regeneration, because that which is thus brought by prayer
to bear upon our case is the word of God itself introduced
into our prayers, which'derive their sole influence in that
respect from that circumstance. Prayer simply is the ap-
plication of an insufficient to a sufficient Being for the
good which the former cannot otherwise obtain, and which
the latter only can supply ; and as that supply is depen-
dent upon prayer, and in the nature of the thing conse-
quent, prayer can in no good .sense be said to be the in-
strument of supplying our wants, or fitting us for their
supply, except relatively, as a mere condition appointed
by the Donor.
If we must inquire into the reason of the appointment
of prayer, and it can scarcely be considered as a purely
arbitrary institution, that reason seems to be, the preser-
vation in the minds of men of a solemn and impressive
sense of God's agency in the world, and the dependence
of all creatures upon him. Pcviectly pure and glorified
beings, no longer in a state of probation, and therefore
exposed to no temptations, may not need this institution ;
but men in their fallen state arc- < onstantly prone to forget
God ; to rest in the agency of second causes ; and to build
upon a sufficiency in themselves. This is at once a denial
to God of the glory which he rightly claims, and a de-
structive delusion to creatures, who, in forsaking God as
the object of their constant affiance, trust but in broken
reeds, and attempt to drink from " broken cisterns which
can hold no water." It is then equally in mercy tons, as
in respect to his own honor and acknowledgment, that the
Divine Being has suspended so many of his blessings, and
those of the highest necessity to us, upon the exercise of
prayer ; an act which acknowledges his uncontrollable
agency, and the dependence of all creatures upon him ;
our insufficiency, andhis fulness ; and lays the foundation
of that habit of gratitude and thanks:.'iving which is ai
once so ameliorating toouromi feelin::s. and so conducive
to a cheerful obedience to the will of ijod. And if this
reason for the injunction of prayer is nowhere in Scripture
stated in so many words, it is a principle uniformly sup-
posed as the foundation of the whole scheme of religion
which they have revealed.
To this duty objections have been sometimes offered, at
which it may be well at least to glance. One has been
grounded upon a supposed predestination of all things
which come to pass; and the argument is, that as this
estabhshed predetermination of all things cannot be alter-
ed, prayer, which supposes that God will depart from it,
is vain and useless. The answer which a pious predc.'ti-
narian would give to this objection is, that the argument
drawn from the predestination of God lies with the same
force against every other human eflbrt, as against prayer;
and that as God's predetermination to give food to man
does not render the cultivation of the earth useless and
impertinent, so neither does the predestination of thing.s
shut out the necessity and efficacy of prayer. It would
also be urged, that God has ordained the means as well as
the end ; and although he is an unchangeable Being, it is
a part of the unchangeable system which he has estalilish-
ed. that prayer shall be heard and accepted. Thase who
have not these views of predestination will answer the
objection dilierently ; for if the premises of sucli a pre-
destination as is assumed by the obicciion. and conceded
ZSh.
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:n the answer, be allowed, the answer is unsatisfactory.
The Scriptures represent God, for instance, as purposing
to inflict a judgment upon an individual or a nation,
which purpose is often changed by prayer. In this case
either God's purpose must be denied, and then his threat-
enings are reduced to words without meaning; or the
purpose must be allowed, in which case either prayer
brealts in upon predestination, if understood absolutely,
or it is vain and useless. To the objection so drawn out
it is clear that no answer is given by saying that the
means as well as the end are predestinated, since prayer
in such cases is not a means to the end, but an instru-
ment of thwarting it ; or is a means to one end in oppo-
sition to another end, which, if equally predestinated with
the same absoluteness, is a contradiction. The true an-
swer is, that although God has absolutely predetermined
some things, there are others, which respect his govern-
ment of free and accountable agents, which he has
hypothetically predetermined. The true immutability of
God consists, not in his adherence to such purposes, but in
his never changing the principles of his administration ;
and he may therefore, in perfect accordance with his pre-
ordination of things, and the immutability of his nature,
purpose to do, under certain conditions dependent upon
the free agency of man, what he will not do under others;
and for this reason, that an immutable adherence to the
principles of a wise, just, and gracious government re-
quires it. Prayer is in Scripture made one of these con-
ditions ; and if God has established it as one of the prin-
ciples of his moral government to accept prayer, in every
case in which he has given us authority to ask, he has
not, we may be assured, entangled bis actual government
of the world with the bonds of such an eternal predestina-
tion of particular events, as either to redtice prayer to a
mere form of words, or not to be able himself, consistently
with his decrees, to answer it, whenever it is encouraged
by his express engagements.
A second objection is, that as God is infinitely wise and
good, his wisdom and justice will lead him to bestow
" whatever is fit for us without praying ; and if any thing
be not fit for us, we cannot obtain it by praying." To
this Dr. Paley very well replies, " that it may be agreea-
ble to perfect wisdom to grant that to our prayers which
it would not have been agreeable to the same wisdom to
have given us without praying for." This, independent
of the question of the authority of the Scriptures which
explicitly enjoin prayer, is the best answer which can be
given to the objection ; and it is no small confirmation of
it, that it is obvious to every reflecting man, that for God
to withhold favors till asked for, " tends," as the same
writer observes, " to encourage devotion among his ra-
tional creatures, and to keep up and circulate a know-
ledge and sense of their dependency upon him." But it
is urged, " God will always do what is best from the mo-
ral perfection of his nature, whether we pray or not."
This objection, however, supposes that there is hut one
mode of acting for the best, and that the divine will is ne-
cessarily determined to that mode only ; " both which po-
sitions," says Paley, "presume a knowledge of univei'sal
nature, much beyond what we are capable of attaining."
It is, indeed, a very unsatisfactory mode of speaking, to
say, God will always do what is best : since we can con-
ceive him capable in all cases of doing what is still better
for the creature, and also that the creature is capable of
receiving more and more from his infinite fulness forever.
All that can be rationally meant by such a phrase is, that,
in the circumstances of the case, God will always do what
is most consistent with his own wisdom, holiness, and
goodness ; but then the disposition to pray, and the act
of praying, add a new circumstance to every case, and of-
ten bring many other new circumstances along with them.
It supposes humility, contrition, and trust, on the part of
the creature ; and an acknowledgment of the power and
compassion of God. and of the merit of the atonement of
Christ: all which are manifestly new positions, so to
speak, of the circumstances of the creature, which, upon
the very principle of the objection, rationally understood,
must be taken into consideration.
But if the efficacy of prayer as to ourselves be granted,
its influence upon the case of others is said to be more dif-
ficult to conceive. This may be allowed without at al]
affecting the duty. Those who bow to the authority of
the Scriptures will see, that the duty of praying for our-
selves and for others rests upon the same divine appoint-
ment ; and to those who ask for the reason of such inter-
cession in behalf of others, it is sufficient to reply, that
the efiicacy of prayer being established in one case, there
is the same reason to conclude that our pra)'ers may bene-
fit others, as any other effort we may use. It can only be
by divine appointment that one creature is made depen-
dent upon another for any advantage, since it was doubt-
less in the power of the Creator to have rendered each in-
dependent of all but himself. Whatever reason, there-
fore, might lead him to connect and interweave the in-
terests of one man with the benevolence of another, will
be the leading reason for that kind of mutual dependence
which is implied in the benefit of mutual prayer. AVere
it only that a previous sympathy, charity, and good-will,
are implied in the duty, and must, indeed, be cultivated in
order to it, and be strengthened by it, the wisdom and be-
nevolence of the institution would, it is presumed, be ap-
parent to every well-constituted mind. That all prayer
for others must proceed upon a less perfect knowdedge of
them than we have of ourselves, is certain ; that all our
petitions must be, even in our own mind, more conditional
than those which respect ourselves, though many of these
must be subjected to the principles of a general adminis-
tration, which we but partially apprehend ; and that all
spiritual influences upon others, when they are subject to
our prayers, will be understood by us as acting in har-
mony with their free agency, must also be conceded ; and,
therefore, when others are concerned, our prayers may
often be partially or wholly fruitless. He who believes
the Scriptures will, however, be encouraged by the de-
claration, that " the effectual fervent prayer of a righteous
man," for his fellow-creatures, " availeth much ;" and he
who demands something beyond mere authoritative declara-
tion, as he cannot deny that prayer is one of those instru-
ments by which another may be benefited, must acknow-
ledge that, like the giving of counsel, it may be of great
utility in some cases, although it should fail in others ;
and that as no man can tell how much good counsel may
influence another, or in many cases say whether it has
ultimately failed or not, so it is with prayer. It is a part
of the divine plan, as revealed in his word, to give many
blessings to man independent of his own prayers, leaving
the subsequent improvement of them to himself. They
are given in honor of the intercession of Christ, man's
great " Advocate ;" and they are given, subordinately, in
acceptance of the prayers of Christ's church, and of right-
eous individuals. And when many or few devout indi-
viduals become thus the instruments of good to commu-
nities, or to whole nations, there is no greater mystery in
this than in the obvious fact, that the happiness or misery
of large masses of mankind is often greatly affected by the
wisdom or the errors, the skill or the incompetence, the
good or the bad conduct, of a few persons, and often of
one. Wilkins, Henry, Watts on Prayer; Tomisend's Nine
Sermons on Prayer ; Paley's Moral Phil., vol. ii. p. 31 ; Ma-
son's Student and Pastor, p. 87 ; Wollaston's Eeligion of Na-
ture, pp. 122, 124 ; Paley's JVorks ; Price's Works ; Magee
on Atonement, notes ; H. More on Edueation and Prayer ;
Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser. 6 ; Smith's System of Prayer ;
Scamp's Sermon on Family Peligion ; Works of Andrew Ful-
ler ; Works of Robert Hall ; Bickersteth on Prayer ; Ward-
law's Sermons on Prayer ; Douglas' Thoughts on Prayer ;
Ward's Farewell Letters ; Am. Bap. Mag., 1829 ; Natural
History of Enthusiasm ; Chalmers' Sermons. — Watson.
PRAXEANS ; the followers of Praxeas, a man of con-
siderable talents, about the end of the second century.
He was the founder of the Monarchians, or Patripassians,
as they were called by the orthodox ; but it does not ap-
pear that he ever allowed, in any proper sense, that God
the Father suffered. Dr. Lardner thinks, that his system
very nearly resembled that of the indwelling scheme. (See
Pre-existence.) Lardner's Heretics, pp. 412 — 414. — IVil-
liams.
PREACHER ; one who discourses publicly on religious
subjects. (See articles Declamation, Eloquence, Minis-
ter, and Sermon.) — Hend. Buck.
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PREACHING, is publicly discoursing on any reli-
gious subject. It is impossible, in the compass of this
work, to give a complete history of this article from the
beginning down to the present day. This must be con-
sidered as a desideratum in theological learning. Mr.
Robinson, in his second volume of " Claude's Essay,"
has prefixed a brief dissertation on this subject, an abridg-
ment of which we shall here insert, with a few occasional
alterations.
From the sacred records we learn, that when men be-
gan to associate for the purpose of worshipping the Deity,
Enoch prophesied, Jude 14, 15. We have a very short
account of this prophet and his doctrine ; enough, how-
ever, to ccajvince us that he taught the principal truths of
natufSlan. revealed religion. Conviction of sin was in
his doctrine, and communion with God was exemplified in
his conduct, Gen. 5: 24. Heb. 11: 5, 6. From the days
of Enoch to the time of Moses, each patriarch worshipped
God with his family ; probably several assembled at new
moons, and alternately instructed the whole company.
Noah, it is said, was a preacher of righteousness, 2 Pet.
2; 5. 1 Pet. 3: 19, 20. Abraham commanded his house-
hold, after him, to keep the way of the Lord, and to do
justice and judgment ; (Gen. 18: 19.) and Jacob, when his
house lapsed to idolatry, remonstrated against it, and ex-
horted them, and all that were with him, to put away
siraoge gods, and to go up with him to Bethel, Gen. 10.
25: 2, 3. Melchizedek, also, we may consider as the fa-
ther, the pnnce, and the priest of his people, publishing
the glad tidings of peace and salvation, Gen. 18. Heb. 7.
Moses was a most eminent prophet and preacher, raised
up by the authority of God ; and by whom, it is said, came
the law, John 1: 17. This great man had much at heart
the promulgation of his doctrine ; he directed it to be in-
scribed on pillars, to be transcribed in books, and to be
taught both in public and private by word of mouth, Deut.
28: 8. 6: 9. 21: 19. 17: 18. Num. 5: 23. Deut. 4: 9.
Himself set the example of each ; and how he and Aaron
sermonized, we may see by several parts of his writings.
The first discourse was heard with profound reverence
and attention ; the last was both uttered and received in
raptures, Exod. 4: 31. Deut. 33: 7, 8. Public preaching
does not appear under this economy to have been attach-
ed to the priesthood : priests were not officially preach-
ers ; and we have innumerable instances of discourses
delivered in religious assemblies by men of other tribes
besides that of Levi, Ps. 68: 11. Joshua was an Ephraim-
ite ; but being full of the spirit of wisdom, he gathered the
tribes to Shechem, andharangued the people of God, Deut.
34: 9. Joshua 34. Solomon was a prince of the house
of Judah, Amos a herdsman of Tekoa ; yet both were
preachers, and one at least was a prophet, 1 Kings 2.
Amos 7: 14, 15. When the ignorant notions of pagans,
the vices of their practice, and the idolatry of their pre-
tended worship, were in some sad periods incorporated
into the Jewish religion by the princes of that nation, the
prophets and all the seers protested against this apostasy,
and ihey were persecuted for so doing. Shemaiah preach-
ed to Kehoboam, the princes, and all the people at Jeru-
salem, 2 Chron. 12: 5. Azariah and Hanani preached to
Asa andhis army, 2 Chron. 15: 1, &c. 16:7. Blichaiah
to Ahab. Some of them opened schools, or houses of in-
struction, and there to their disciples they taught the pure
religion of Moses. At Naioth, in the suburbs of Ramah,
there was one where Samuel dwelt ; there was another at
Jericho, and a third at Bethel, to which Elijah andElisha
often resorted. Thither the people went on Sabbath days,
and at new moons, and received public lessons of piety
and morality, 1 Sam. 19: 18. 2 Kings 2: 3, 5. 4: 2, 3.
Through all this period there was a dismal confusion of
the useful ordinance of public preaching. Sometimes
they had no open vision, and the word of the Lord was
precious or scarce : the people heard it only now and
then. At other times they were left without a teaching
priest, and without law. And, at other seasons, again, iti-
nerants, both princes, priests, and Levites, were sent
through all the country to carry the book of the law, and
to teach in the cities. In a word, preaching flourished
when pure religion grew; and when the last decayed, the
first was suppressed. Moses had not appropriated preach-
121
ing to any order of men : persons, places, times, and man
ners, were all left open and discretional. Many of the
discourses were preached in camps and court.?, in streets,
schocls, cities, and villages, sometimes with great com-
posure and coolness, at other times with vehement action
and rapturous energy ; sometimes in a plain, blunt style,
at other times in all the magnificent pomp of eastern alle-
gory. On some occasions, the preachers appeared in pub-
lic with visible signs, with implements of war, yokes of
slavery, or something adapted to their subject. They
gave lectures on these, held them up to view, girded them
on, broke them in pieces, rent their garments, rolled in
the dust, and endeavored, by all the methods they could
devise, agreeably to the customs of their countr)-, to im-
press the minds of their auditors with the nature and im-
portance of their doctrines. These men wer» highly es-
teemed by the pious part of the nation ; and princes
thought proper to keep seers and others, who w ere scribes,
who read and expounded the law, 2 Chron, 34: 29, 30.
35: 15. Hence false prophets, bad men who found it
worth while to affect to be good, crowded the courts of
princes. Jezebel, an idolatress, had four hundred pro-
phets of Baal ; and Ahab, a pretended worshipper of Je-
hovah, had as many pretended prophets of his own pro-
fession, 2 Chron. 18: 5.
When the Jews were carried captive into Babylon, the
prophets who were with them inculcated the principles of
religion, and endeavored to possess their minds with an
aversion to idolatry ; and to the success of preaching we
may attribute the reconversion of the Jews to the belief
and worship of one God ; a conversion that remains to
this day. The Jews have since fallen into horrid crimes,
but they have never since this period lapsed into idolatry,
Hos. 2, 3. Ezek. 2, 3, 34. There were not wanting, how-
ever, multitudes of false prophets among them, whose
characters are strikingly delineated by the true prophets,
and which the reader may see in the thirteenth chapter of
Ezekiel, fifty-sixth of Isaiah, and twenty-third of Jere-
miah. Wlien the seventy years of the captivity were ex-
pired, the good prophets and preacheis, Zerubbabel, Josh-
ua, Haggai, and others, having confidence in the word^f
God, and aspiring after their natural, civil, and reli-
gious rights, endeavored by all means to extricate them-
selves and their countrj'raen from that mortifying state
into which the crimes of their ancestors had brought them.
They wept, fasted, prayed, preached, prophesied, and at
length prevailed. The chief instruments were Nehemiah
and Ezra : the first was governor, and reformed their civil
state ; the last was a scribe of the law of the God of hea-
ven, and addressed himself to ecclesiastical matters, in
which he rendered the noblest service to his country, and
to all posterity. He collected and collated manuscripts
of the sacred writings, and arranged and published the
holy canon in its present form. To this he added a se-
cond work, as necessary as the former: he revived and
new-modelled public preaching, and exemplified his plan
in his own person. The Jews had almost lost in the se-
venty years' captivity their original language : that was
now become dead ; and they spoke a jargon made up of
their own language and that of the Chaldeans and other
nations with whom they had been confounded. Formerly
preachers had only explained subjects ; now they were
obliged to explain words ; words which, in the sacred code,
were become obsolete, equivocal, or dead. Houses were
now opened, not for ceremonial worship, as sacrificing,
for this was confined to the temple ; but for moral obe-
dience, as praying, preaching, reading the law, divine
worship, and social duties. These houses were called syna-
gogues : the people repaired thither morning and evening
for prayer ; and on Sabbaths and festivals the law was
read and expounded to them. We have a short but beau-
tiful description of the manner of Ezra's first preaching,
Neh. 8. Upwards of fifty thousand people assembled in
a street, or large square, near the water-gaic. It was
cariy in the morning of a Sabbath day. A pulpit of wooil,
in the fashion of a small tower, was placed there on pijr-
pose for the preacher ; and this turret was supportc.l by
a scaflbld, or temporary gallery, where, in a wing on me
right hand of the pulpit, sat six of the principal preachers j
and in another, on the left, seven. Thirteen other pnn-
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[962]
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eipa! leaj hers, niul many Levites, were present also on
scafl'olds erected for the purpose, alternately to officiate.
When Ezra ascended the pulpit, he produced and opened the
book of the law, and the whole congregation instantly rose
up from their seats, and stood. Then he offered up prayer
and praise to God, the people bowing their heads, and wor-
shipping the Lord with their faces to the ground ; and, at
the close of the prayer, with uplifted hands, they solemnly
pronounced, Amen, amen. Then, all standing, Ezra, as-
sisted at times by the Levites, read the law distinctly, gave
the sense, and caused them to understand the readings
The sermons delivered so affected the hearers, that they
wept excessively ; and about noon the sorrow became so
exuberant and immeasurable, that it was thought neces-
sary by the governor, the preacher, and the Levites, to re-
strain it. " Go your way," said they ; " eat the fat, drink
the sweet, send portions unto them for whom nothing is
prepared." The wise and benevolent sentiments of these
noble souls were imbibed by the whole congregation, and
fifty thousand troubled hearts were calmed in a moment.
Home they returned, to eat, to drink, to send portions, and
to make mirth, because they had understood the words
that were declared unto them. Plato was alive at this
time, teaching dull philosophy to cold academics ; but
what was he, and what was Xenophon, or Demosthenes,
or any of the pagan orators, in comparison with these
men ? From this period to that of the appearance of Je-
sus Christ, public preaching was universal : synagogues
were multiplied, vast numbers attended, and ciders and
rulers were appointed for the purpose of order and in-
struction.
The most celebrated preacher that arose before the ap-
pearance of Jesus Christ, was John the Baptist. He was
commissioned from heaven to be the harbinger of the
Messiah. He took Elijah for his model ; and as the times
were very much like those in which that prophet lived, he
chose a doctrine and a method very much resembling those
of that venerable man. His subjects were few, plain, and
important. His style was vehement, his images bold, his
deportment solemn, his actions eager, and his morals
strict ; but this bright morning star gave way to the illus-
trious Sun of Righteousness, who now arose on a benight-
ed world. Jesus Christ certainly was the piince of preach-
ers. Who but can admire the simplicity and majesty of
his style, the beauty of his images, the alternate softness
and severity of his address, the choice of his subjects, the
gracefulness of his deportment, and the indefatigableness
of his zeal ? Let the reader charm and solace himself in
the. study and contemplation of the character, excellency,
and dignity of this best of preachers, as he will find them
driineated by the evangelists.
The apostles exactly copied their divine Blaster. They
formed multitudes of religious societies, and were abun-
dantly successful in their labors. They confined their at-
tention to religion, and left the school to dispute, and poli-
ticians to intrigue. The doctrines they preached they sup-
ported entirely by evidence ; and neither had nor required
such assistance as human laws or worldly policy, the elo-
quence of the schools or the terror of arms, the charms of
money or the tricks of tradesmen, could afford them.
The apostles being dead, every thing came to pass as
they had foretold. The whole Christian system under-
went a rniserable change ; preaching shared the fate of
other institutions, and this glory of the primitive church
was now generally degenerated. Those writers whom we
call the fathers, however held up to view by some as mo-
dels of imitation, do not deserve that indiscriminate praise
ascribed to them. Christianity, it is true, is found in their
writings ; but how sadly incorporated with pagan philoso-
jihy and Jewish allegory ! It must, indeed, be allowed,
that, in general, the simplicity of Christianity was main-
tained, though under gradual decay, during the first three
centuries. The next five centuries produced many pious
and excellent preachers both in the Latin and Greek
churches, though the doctrine continued to degenerate.
The Greek pulpit was adorned with some eloquent ora-
tors. Basil, bishop of Ca;sarca, John Chrysostom, preach-
er at Antioch, and afterwards patriarch (as he was called)
of Constantinople, and Gregory Nazianzen, who all flou-
rished in the fourth centurv seem to have led tl ' '"oeV.-.M,
of preaching in the Greek church ; Jerome and Augustine
did the same in the Latin church. For some time,
preaching was common to bishops, elders, deacons, and
private brethren, in the primitive church ; in process, it
was restrained to the bishop, and to such as he should ap-
point. They called the appointment ordination; and at
last attached I know not what ideas of mystery and influ-
ence to the word, and of dominion to the bishop who pro-
nonnced it. When a bishop or preacher travelled, he
claimed no authority to exercise the duties of his function,
unless we were invited by the churches where he attended
public worship. The first preachers differed much in pul-
pit action ; the greater part used very moderate and sober
gesture. They delivered their sermons all extempore,
while there were notaries who took down what they
said. Sermons in those days were all in the vulgar
tongue. The Greeks preached in Greek, the Latins
in Latin. They did not preach by the clock, (so to
speak,) but were short or long as they saw occasion,
though an hour was about the usual time. Sermons were
generally both preached and heard standing; but some-
times both speaker and auditors sat, especially the aged
and the infirm. The fathers were fond of allegory ; for Ori-
gen, that everlasting allegorizer, had set them the exam-
ple. Before preaching, the preacher usually went into a
vestry to pray, and afterwards to speak to such as came
to salute him. He prayed with his eyes shut, in the pul-
pit. The first words the preacher uttered to the people,
when he ascended the pulpit, was, " Peace be with you,"
or, " The love of our Lord Jesus Christ, the grace of God,
and the fellowship of the Holy Ghost, be with you all;" to
which the assembly at first added, " Amen ;" and, in af-
ter times, they answered, " And with thy spirit." Dege-
nerate, however, as these days were in comparison with
those of the apostles, yet they were golden ages in com-
parison with the times that followed, when metaphysical
reasonings, mystical divinity, yea, Aristotelian categories,
and reading the lives of saints, were substituted in the
place of sermons. The pulpit became a stage, where lu-
dicrous priests obtained the vulgar laugh by the lowest
kind of wit, especially at the festivals of Christmas and
Easter.
But the glorious Reformation was the offspring of
preaching, by which mankind were informed: there was
a standard, and the religion of the times was put to trial
by it. The avidity of the common people to read Scrip-
ture, and to hear it expounded, was wonderful : and the
papists were so fully convinced of the benefit of frequent
public instruction, that they who were justly called " un-
preaching prelates," and whose pulpits, to use an expres-
sion of Latimer, had been " bells without clappers" for
many a long year, were obliged for shame to set up regu-
lar preaching again.
The church of Rome has produced some great preach-
ers since the Reformation, but not equal to the reformed
preachers ; and a question naturally arises here, which it
would be unpardonable to pass over in silence, concerning
the singular effect of the preaching of the reformed, which
was general, natioiial, universal reformation.
In the darkest times of popery there had arisen, now
and then, some famous popular preachers, who had zea-
lously inveighed against the vices of their times, and
whose sermons had produced sudden and amazing effects
on their auditors ; but all these effects had died away with
the preachers who produced them, and all things had gone
back into the old state. Law, learning, commerce, soci-
ety at large, had not been improved. Here a new scene
opens : preachers arise less popular, perhaps less indefati-
gable and exemplary ; their sermons produce less striking
immediftte effects ; and yet their auditors go away, and
agree by whole nations to reform.
Jerome Savonarola, Jerome Narni, Capistran, Connecte,
and many others, had produced by their sermons great
immediate effects. When Connecte preached, the ladies
lowered their head-dresses, and committed quilled caps by
hundreds to the flames. When Narni taught the populace
in Lent, from the pulpits of Rome, half the city went from
his sermons, crying along the streets, " Lord, have mercy
upon US; Christ, have mercy upon us!" so that in only
one r)ass'n"-week. two thousand crowns-wo"tli of ropes
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"^'cre sold to make scourges with ; and when he preached
before the pope to cardinals and bishops, and painted the
crime of non-residence in its own colors, he frightened
thirty or forty bishops who heard him instantly home to
their dioceses. In the pulpit of the university of Sala-
manca, he induced eight hundred students to quit all
worldly prospects of honor, riches, and pleasures, and to
become penitents in divers monasteries. Some of this
class were martyrs too. We know the fate of Savonaro-
la, and more might be added ; but all lamented the mo-
mentary duration of the effects produced by their labors.
Narni himself was so disgusted with his office, that he i-e-
nounced preaching, and shut himself up in his cell to
mourn over his irreclaimable contemporaries ; for bishops
went back to court, and rope-makers lay idle again.
Our reformers taught all the good doctrines which had
been taught by these men, and they added two or three
more, by which they laid the axe to the root of apostasy,
and produced general reformation. Instead of appealing
to popes, and canons, and founders, and fathers, they only
quoted them, and refeiTed their auditors to the Holy Scrip-
tures for ?(W!>, Pope Leo X. did not know this when he
told Ptierio, who complained of Luther's heres}', "Friar
Martin had a fine genius!" They also taught the people
what little they knew of Christian liberty ; and so led them
into a belief that they might follow their own ideas in re-
ligion, without the consent of a confessor, a diocesan, a
pope, or a council. They went farther, and laid the stress
of all religion on justifying faith. This obliged the peo-
ple to get acquainted with Christ, tlie object of their faith ;
and thus they were led into the knowledge of a character
altogether different from what they saw in their old guides ;
a character which it is impossible to know, and not to ad-
mire and imitate. The old papal popular sermons had
gone off like a charge of gunpowder, producing only a
fright, a bustle, and a black face ; but those of the nene
iearmnge, as the monks called thein, were small hearty
seeds, which, being sown in the honest hearts of the mul-
titude, and watered with the dew of heaven, softly vege-
tated, and imperceptibly unfolded blossoms and fruits of
inestimable value.
These eminent servants of Christ excelled in various
talents, both in the pulpit and in private. Knox came
down like a thunder-storm; Calvin resembled a whole
day's set rain; Beza was a shower of the softest dew.
Old Latimer, in a coarse frieze gown, trudged afoot, his
Testament hanging at one end of his leathern girdle, and
his spectacles at the other, and without ceremony instruct-
ed the people in rustic style from a hollow tree ; while the
courtly Ridley, in satin and fur, taught the same princi-
ples in the cathedral of the melropolis- Cranmer, though
a timorous man, ventured to give king Henry VIII. a New
Testament, with the label, " Whoremongei-s and adulter-
ers God will judge ;" while Knox, who said " there was
nothing in the pleasant face of a lady to affray him," as-
sured the queen of Scots, that, " if there were any spark
of the Spirit of God, yea, of honesty and wisdom in her,
she would not be offended with his affirming in his ser-
mons, that the diversions of her court were diabolical
crimes; evidences of impiety or insanity." These men
were not all accomplished scholars ; but they all gave
proof enough that they were honest, hearty, and disinte-
rested in the cause of religion.
All Europe produced great and excellent preachers, and
some of the more studious and sedate reduced their art of
public preaching to a system, and taught rules of a good
sermon. Bishop Wilkins enumerated, in 1646, upwards
of sixty who had written on the subject. Several of these
are valuable treatises, full of edifying instructions ; but all
are on a scale too large, and, by affecting to treat of the
whole office of a minister, leave that capital branch, pub-
lic preaching, unfinished and vague.
One of the most important articles of pulpit science, that
which gives life and energy to all the rest, and without
which all the rest are nothing but a vain parade, is either
neglected or exploded in all these treatises. It is essential to
the ministration of the divine word by public preaching,
that preachers be allowed to form principles of their own,
and that their sermons contain their real sentiments, the
fruits of their own intense thought and meditation. Preach-
ing cannot be in a good state in those communities, wheix
the shameful traffic of buying and selling manu.script ser-
mons is carried on. Moreover, all the animating encou-
ragements that arise from a free, unbiassed choice of the
people, and from their unconlaminated, disinterested ap-
plause, should be left open to stimulate a generous youth
to excel. Command a man to utter what he has no incli-
nation to propagate, and what he does not even believe •
threaten him, at the same lime, with all the miseries of
life, if he dare to follow his own ideas, and to promulge
his own sentiments, and you pass a sentence of death oa
all he says. He does declaim, but all is languid and cold,
and he lays his system out as an undertaker does the
dead.
Since the reformers, we have had multitudes who have
entered into their views with disinterestedness and .suc-
cess; and, in the present times, both in Europe and
in America, names could be mentioned which would
do honor to any pulpit ; for though there are too many
who do not fill up that important station with proportion-
ate piety and talents, yet we have men who are conspicu-
ous for their extent of knowledge, depth of experience,
originality of thought, fervency of zeal, consistency of de-
portment, and great usefulness in the Christian church.
May their numbers still be increased, and their exertions
in the cause of truth be eminently crowned with the divine
blessing ! See Roliinsmi's Claude, vol. ii., preface ; and
books recommended under article Minister. — Htiid. Buck.
PREACHING FRIARS. (See Dominicans.)
PRE ADAMITES ; a denomination given to the inhabi-
tants of the earth, conceived by some people to have lived
before Adam.
Isaac de la Pereyra, in 1655, published a book to evince
the reality of Preadamites, bj' which he gained a conside-
rable number of praselytes to the opinion ; but the answer
of Demarets, profes.sor of theology at Groningeu, publish-
ed the year following, put a stop to its progress, though
Pereyra made a reply.
His system was this. The Jews he calls Adamites, and
supposes them to have issued from Adam ; and gives the
title freadamitis to the Gentiles whom he supposes to
have been a long time before Adam. But this being ex-
pressly contrary to the first words of (Jenesis, Pereyra had
recourse lo the fabulous antiquities of the Egyjitians and
Chaldeans, and to some idle rabbins, who imagined there
had been another world before that described by Moses. He
was apprehended by the inquisition in Flanders, and very
roughly used, though in the service of the dauphin. But
he appealed from their sentence lo Rome, whither he went
in the time of Alexander VII., and where he printed a re-
traction of his book of Preadamites.
The arguments against the Preadamites are these. The
sacred history of Moses assures us that Adam and Eve
were the first persons that were created on the earth. Gen.
1: 26. 2: 7. Our Savior confirmed this when he said,
" From the beginning of the creation God made them,
male and female," JIark 10: 6. It is undeniable ihat he
speaks this of Adam and Eve, because in the next verse
he uses the same words as those in Gen. 2; 4 ; •' There-
fore shall a man leave his father and mother, and cleave
unto his wife." It is also clear from Gen: 3: 20, where it
is said, that "Adam called his wife's name Eve, tccause
she was the mother of all lining ;" that is, she was the
source and root of all men and women in the world ; which
plainly intimates that there was no other woman that was
such a mother. Finally, Adam is expressly called twice,
by the apostle Paul, Ihe first man, 1 Cor. 15: 45, 47. — Hcnd.
Buck.
PRECEPT ; a rule given by a superior ; a direction or
command. The precepts of religion, says Saurin, are as
essential as the doctrines ; and religion will as certainly
sink if the morality be subverted, as if the theology be
undermined. The doctrines are onlj' proposed to us as
the ground of our duty. (See Doctrine ;Law; and
Positive Institutions.) — Hend. Buck.
PRECISIANS ; one of the names given lo the Puritans,
or those who, about the time of the Commonwealth, dis-
covered by their conduct that they were in earnest on the
subject of religion. They were called precise, because
they condemned swearing, plays, gaming, and drinking,
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(lancing, and other worldly recreations on the Lord's day,
and the time-serving, careless, and corrupt religion which
was then in fashion. — Heiid. Buck.
PREDESTINARIANS ; those who believe in predesti-
nation. (See Predestination.) — Hend. Buck.
PREDESTINATION. The word predestinate is of
Latin original, (j>ra:destim,) and signifies in that tongue to
deliberate beforehand with one's self how one shall act,
and, in consequence of such deliberation, to form a set-
tled plan, or predetermine where, when, how, and by
whom any thing shall be done, and to what end it shall
be done. So the Greek word proorizo, which exactly an-
swers to the English word predestinate, and is rendered
by it, (Acts 4: 28. Rom. 8: 29, 30. 1 Cor. 2: 7. Eph. 1: 5,
11.) signifies to resolve what shall be done, and before the
thing resolved on is actually effected ; to appoint it tosome
certain use, and direct it to some determinate end. (See
Decrees of God.)
This doctrine has been the occasion of considerable
disputes and controversies among divines. On the one
side it has been observed, that it is impossible to reconcile
it with our ideas of the justice and goodness of God, that
it makes God to be 'he author of sin, destroys moral dis-
tinction, and renders all our efforts useless.
Predestinar'ans deny these consequences, and endeavor
to prove th.s doctrine from the consideration of the per-
fections jf the divine nature, and from Scriptirre testimo-
ny. If his knowledge, say they, be infinite and unchange-
able' he must have known every thing from eternity. If
we allow the attribute of prescience, the idea of a decree
must certainly be believed also; for how can an action
that is really to come to pass be foreseen, if it be not de-
termined either to do or to .suffer it ? God knew every
Shing from the beginning ; but this he could not have
known if he had not so determined it. If, also, God be
iafinitely wise, it cannot be conceived that be would leave
things at random, and have no plan. He is a God of or-
der, and this order he observes as strictly in the moral as
in the natural world, however confused things may appear
to us. To conceive otherwise of God, is to degrade him,
and is an insult 'tO his perfections. If he, then, be wise
and unchangeal)le, no new idea or pni"pose can arise in
his mind ; no alteration of his plan can take place, upon
condition of bis creatures acting in this or that way. (See
Foreknowledge ; Prescience.)
To say that this doctrine makes him the author of sin is
not justifiable. We all allow omnipotence to be an attri-
bute of Deity, and that by this attribute he could have
prevented sin from entering into the world, had he chosen
it ; yet we see he did not. Now be is no more the author
of sin in one case than the other. May we not ask. Why
does he suffer those inequalities of providence ? why per-
mit whole natrons to lie in idolatry for ages ? why leave
men to the most cniel barbarities ? why punish the sins
of the fathers in the children ? In a word, why permit
the v."orld at large to be subject to pains, crosses, losses,
evils of (rvery kind, and that for so many thousands of
years ? And, yet, will any dare call the Deity unjust ?
The fact is, our finite minds know but little of the ways
of God, Rom. 11: 33— 3fi.
But, supposing there are difilculties in this subject, (and
what subject is without?) the Scripture abounds with pas-
sages which at once prove the doctrine, Matt. 25: 34. Rom.
8:29,30. Eph. 1: 3, (J, 11. 2 Tim. 1, 9. 2 Thess. 2: 13.
1 Pet. 1: 1, 2. John 6: 37. John 17: 2—24. Rev. 13: 8.
17: 8. Dan. 4: 33. 1 Thess. 5: 19. Matt. 11: 26. Exod.
4: 21. Prov. 16: 4. Acts 13: 48.
The moral uses of this doctrine are these : 1. It hides
pride from man. 2. Excludes the idea of chance. 3.
Exalts the grace of God. 4. Renders salvation certain.
5. Afibrds believers great consolation. See Decrees of
God ; Election ; King, Topladi/, Cooper, mid Tucker, ra
Predestination ; Burnet on 17th Art. ; 'iVhithj and Gill on
the Five Points ; Wesley's Fred, considered ; Hill's Logica
Wesleiensis ; Edwards on the Will ; Polhill on the Decrees ;
Edwards' Veritas Redux; Snurin's Sermons, vol. v. ser. 13;
J>r. Williams' Sermon on Fredestinnfion ; Dr. Hamilton on
Election ; Douglas on the Truths of Religion ; Fuller's
Works,- Dn'igiifs Theohgy.^Hcnd. Buck.
PRE-EMINENCE ; higher power and honor. In all
things, in nature, in person, in office, work, power, and
honor, Christ has the pre-eminence above angels and men,
or any other creature, Col. 1: 13. A man has no pre-emi'
nence above a beast as to his body ; he is liable to the same
diseases and death. Eccl. 3; 19. — Brorcn.
PRE-EXISTENCE OF JESUS CHRIST, is his eiis-
tence before he was bom of the virgin Mary. That he
really did exist before, is plain, from John 3: 13. 6: 50.
&c. 17: 1. 8: 58. 1 John 1: 4 ; but there liave been dif-
ferent opinions respecting this existence.
Dr. Watts supposes, that the doctrine of the pTe-existence
of the soul of Christ explains dark and difficult scriptures,
and discovers many beauties and proprieties of expres'
sion in the word of God, which on any other plan lie un-
observed. For instance, in Col. 1: 15, &:c. Christ is de-
scribed as the image of the invisible God, the first-born
of every creature. His being the image of the invisible God
cannot refer merely to his divine nature ; for that is as
invisible in the Son as in the Father : therefore it seems
to refer to his pre-existent soul in union with the Godhead,
Again : when man is said to be created in the image of
God, (Gen. 1, 2.) it may refer fo the God-man, toChrist ira
his pre-existent state. God says, " Let us make man in
our image, after our likeness." The word is redoubled,
perhaps to intimate that Adam was made in the likeness
of the human soul of Christ, as well as that he bore some-
thing of the image and resemblance of the divine nature.
On the other side it is affirmed, that this doctrine of
the pre-existence of the human soul of Christ weakens
and subverts that of his personality. 1. A pure intelli-
gent spirit, say they, the first, the most ancient, and the
most excellent of creatures, created before the foundation
of the world, so exactly resembles the second person of
the Arian trinity, that it is impossible to show the least
difference, except in name. 2. The pre-existem intelli*
gence supposed in this doctrine is so confounded with
those other intelligences called angels, that there is great
danger of mistaking this human soul for an angel, and so
of making the person of Christ to consist of three natures.
3. If Jesus Christ had nothing in common like the rest of
mankind, except a body, how could this semi-conformity
make him a real man ? 4. The passages quoted in proof
of the pre-existence of the human soul of Jesas Christ
are of the same sort with those which others allege in
proof of the pre-existence of all human souls. 5. This
opinion, by ascribing the dignity of the work of redemp-
tion to his subhme human soul, detracts from the deity
of Christ, and renders the last as passive as the first ac-
tive. 6. This notion is contrary to Scripture. St. Paul
says, in all things it behooved him to be made like his bre-
thren : he partook of all our infirmities, except sin. St.
Luke says, he increased in stature and in wisdom, Heb.
2: 17. Luke 2: 52. See articles Jesus Christ, and In-
dwelling ScHEJiE J Robinson's Claude, vol. i. pp. 214, 311 j
Watts' Works, vol. v. pp. 274, 385 ; Gill's Body of Divini-
ty, vol. ii. p. 51 ; Robinson's Plea, p. 140 ; Fleming's Chris-
tology ; Simpson's Apology for the Trinity, p. 190 ; Haw
kerH Sermon on the Dieinity of Christ, yip. 44,45- — Hend.
Buck.
PRE-EXISTIANI ; a term applied to those who hold
the hypothesis of the pre-existence of souls, or the doctrine
that, at the beginning of the world, God created the souls
of all men, which, however, are not united to the body
till the individuals for whom they are destined are begot-
ten or bom into the world. This was the opinion of Py-
thagoras, Plato, and his followers, and of the cabalists
among the Jews. The doctrine was taught by Justin
Martyr, Origen, and others of the fathers, and has been
the common opinion of mystics, both of ancient and mo-
dern times. Such as hold the immediate creation of the
human soul at the moment of the production of the body,
are called creatiani ; and those who believe in its natti-
ral propagation by the parents, tradieciaHi.-^Hetid. Buck.
FREMONSTRANTES, or PR.a;inoNSTRATENSES ; a re-
ligious order of regular canons, instituted in 1120 by S.
N'orbert, and thence called Norbertines. The rule they
followed was that of St. Augustine, with some slight al-
terations, and an addition of certain severe laws, whose
authority did not long survive their founder.
They first came into England A, D, U4i'. Tl..i: fi:-l
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monastery, called New-house, was erected in Lincolnshire,
by Peter de Saulia, and dedicated to St. Martial. In the
reign of Edward I. this order had twenty-seven monaste-
ries in England. — Head. Buck.
PREPARE; (1.) To make ready. Josh. 1: 11. (2.)
To fit and qualify, Rom. 9: 23. (3.) To appoint. Matt.
20: 23. (4.) To direct, establish, 1 Chron. 29: 18. God
prepares mercy and truth for men when he graciously ful-
fils his promises and blesses them, Ps. 61: 7. To prepare
the may of the Lord Jesus is to consider the predictions con-
cerning him, lay aside every prejudice against him, and
readily receive him as the promised Blessiah and Savior
of the world, Isa. 40: 3. To prepare the heart is to mortify
its various lusts, and put it into a frame of holy submis-
sion to, and earnest longing for, a God in Christ, 1 Sam.
7: 3. 1 Chron. 29: 18. The preparation of the heart and the
ansjver of the tongue are both from the Lord: the arranging
and fixing of the thoughts and inclinations of the heart
about civil, and much more about spiritual things, and
the giving ability to speak readily, distinctly, and to edifi-
cation, are from the Lord, as his free gift and effectual
work, Prov. 16: 1.
The preparation day on which Christ sufiered was not
the preparation of the passover, for that was the day be-
fore, but for the Sabbath of the passover week, Blatt. 27:
62. John 19: 14. — Brmvn ; Robinson's Bibl. Repos.
PRESBYTER. (See next article; and articles Bishop,
Deacon, Elder.)
PRESBYTERIANISM. The title Presbyterian comes
from the Greek word presbuteros, which signifies senior,
or elder, intimating that the government of the church in
the New Testament was by presbyteries, that is, by asso-
ciation of ministers and ruling elders, possessed all of
equal powers, without any superiority among them, either
in office or order. The Presbyterians believe, that the
authority of their ministers to preach the gospel, to ad-
minister the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper,
and to feed the flock of Christ, is derived from the Holy
Ghost by the imposition of the hands of the presbytery ;
and they oppose the independent scheme of the common
rights of Christians by the same arguments which are
used for that purpose by the Episcopalians. They affirm,
however, that there is no order in the church, as establish-
ed by Christ and his apostles, superior to that of presby-
ters ; that all ministers, being ambassadors of Christ, are
equal by their commission ; that presbyter and bishop,
though different words, are of the same import ; and thai
prelacy was gradually established upon the primitive prac-
tice of making the moderator, or speaker of the presby-
tery, a permanent officer.
These positions they maintain against the Episcopalians
by the following arguments. — They observe, that the apos-
tles planted churches by ordaining bishops and deacons in
every city ; that the ministers which in one verse are call-
ed bishops, are in the next, perhaps, denominated presby-
ters ; that we nowhere read in the New Testament of bi-
shops, presbyters, and deacons, in any one church ; and
that, therefore, we are under the necessity of concluding
bishop and presbyter to be two names for the same church
officer. (See Episcopacy.)
" The identity of the office of bishop and presbyter be-
ing thus clearly established, it follows, that the presbyterate
is the highest permanent office in the church, and that
every faithful pastor of a flock is successor to the apostles
in every thing in which they were to have any successors.
In the apostolic office there were indeed some things pecu-
liar and extraordinary, sucti as their immediate call by
Christ, their infallibility, their being witnesses of our Lord's
resurrection, and their unlimited jurisdiction over the whole
world. These powers and privileges could not be convey-
ed by imposition of hands to any successors, whether
called presbyters or bishops ; but as rulers or office-bearers
in particular churches, we have the confession of ' the
very chiefest apostles,' Peter and John, that they were no-
thing more than presbyters, or parish ministers. This
being the case, the dispute which has been so warmly agi-
tated concerning the validity of Presbyterian ordination
may be soon decided ; for if the ceremony of ordination
be at all essential, it is obvious that such a ceremony per-
formed by presbyters mjist be valid, as there is no higher
order of ecclesiastics in the church by whom it can be per-
formed. Accordingly we find, that Timothy himself,
though said to be a bishop, was ordained by the laying on
of the hands of a presbytery. At that ordination, indeed,
St. Paul presided, but he could preside only as primus in
paribus ; for we have seen that, as permanent officers in
the church of Christ, the apostles themselves were no
more than presbyters. If the apostles' hands, were im-
posed for any other purpose, it must have been to commu-
nicate those charismata, or miraculous gifts of the Holy
Spirit, which were then so frequent ; but which no mn-
dern presbyter or bishop will pretend to give, unless his
understanding be clouded by the grossest ignorance, or
perverted by the most frantic enthusiasm."
The members of the church of Scotland are strict Pres-
byterians. Their mode of ecclesiastical government was
brought thither from Geneva by John Knox, the famous
Scotch reformer, and who has been styled the apostle of
Scotland.
Their doctrines are Calvinistic, as may be seen in the
confession of faith, and the larger and shorter catechisms ;
though it is supposed that the clergy, when composing in-
structions, either for their respective parishes, or the pub-
lic at large, are no more fettered by the confession, than
the clergy of the church of England are by the thirty-nine
articles. Many in both communities, it seems, lake a
more extensive latitude than their formulns altow them.
(See Church of Scotland.)
As to the church government among the Scotch Presby-
terians, no one is ignorant, that, from the first dawn of the
Reformation among us till the era of the revolution, there
was a perpetual struggle between the court and the people,
for the establishment of an episcopal or a presbyterian
form : the former model of ecclesiastical polity was pa-
tronized by the house of Stuart on account of the support
which it gave to the prerogatives of the crown ; the latter
was the favorite of the majority of the people, perhaps
not so much on account of its superior claim to apostoli-
cal institution, as because the laity are mixed with the
clergy in church judicatories, and the two orders, which
under episcopacy are kept so distinct, incorporated, as it
were, into one body. (See Church of ScorLAND.) See
Hall's View of a Gospel Church ; Enry. Brit., art. Pkesbv-
TERIANS ; Brown's Vindication of the Frtsbyti rian Form of
Church Government ; Scotch Confession and Directory. For
the other side of the question, and against Presbyterian
church government, see articles Brownists ; Indepen-
dents ; CoNSREr.ATioNALisTS ; and Episcof.ict. — H. Buci.
PRESBYTERIANS, (Dissenting ;) those in Scotland,
who, though holding the principles of Presbyterian church
government, have separated from the kirk, and are formed
into several distinct bodies. (See Relief ; Seceders; and
Synod; Reformed Presbyterian.) — Hend. Buck.
PRESBYTERIANS, (English.) The first adherents
of this form of church government in England were those
Protestants who returned from Frankfort, to which place
they had fled for refuge in the reign of qneen Mary. There
they became acquainted with the Geneva platform, and,
returning to their native country in the time of Elizabeth,
they at first met in private houses, and afterwards more
publicly, on which occasions the wor.ship was coulucled
agreeably to the forms of the Geneva service-book. The
first Presbyterian place of worship that was built was at
Wandsworth, in Surry, where also they formed a presby-
tery. Other presbyteries were then rapidly constituted in
most of the counties in England; and, in a short time,
the number of the Presbyterians is said to have amounted
to a hundred thousand. In the time of Cromwell they
held the famous Westminster assembly, consisting of a
hundred and fifty ministers, of whom, however, seven
were Independents. They now hoped that Presbyterianism
would be made the established religion of England by an
act of parliament ; but a law was enacted, grr-nting free
toleration to every one to think and worship as hi' pleased,
which proved a great eyesore to the Presbyier'ans, who
had e.N peeled to see their opponents, especially the Inde-
pendents, completelv crushed.
About the beginning of last century, though the Inde-
pendents had greatly "augmented, both the size and nnm-
ber of the Presbvterian congregations were nearly donbia
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those of the former; but the gradual iucrease of Arinini-
nn and Arian sentiments, and the consequent diminution
of interest in their preaching, powerfully operated on the
slate of their congregations, as those who could not be
satisfied with anti-evangelical and dry moral discourses
left them, and joined the Independents. This deteriorating
course issued, with many, in downright Socinianism. Bli-
nisters of tax and dubious sentiments were at first associa-
ted as lecturers, or co-pastors witli older ministers of or-
thodox views ; and as these died, they naturally canae to
be possessed of the entire charge of the congregations.
Their seminaries also became infected with heresy ; and
from these fountains poisoned streams were let in upon
the churches. Trustees of Arian or Socinian opinions ap-
pointed ministers holding these opinions over orthodox
congregations, contrary to their wishes and solicitations.
Endowments, that were founded expressly with the view
of maintaining the preaching of the doctrines of our
Lord's Deity and atonement, and other doctrines therewith
connected ; in other words, the doctrines contained in the
Assembly's confessions and catechisms, were appropriated
to the support of a system which the founders would have
held in utter abhorrence. In this way have upwards of
one hundred and seventy chapels come into the hands of
ine present generation of Socinians, who, in order to re-
tain them, most disingenuously arrogate to themselves the
name of Presbyterians, though they have nothing in the
shape of Presbyterian church government ; and, what is
of infinitely greater moment, not so much as a shred of
those doctrinal principles which distinguished the old
Presbyterians, and, as just noticed, to transmit which to
posterity they endowed these chapels. What with these
endowments, and what with charities which have been
similarly alienated from their original purpose, the Socini-
ans have in their hands an annual amount of not less than
seven thousand pounds, besides the proceeds of fifty thou-
sand pounds, left by Dr. Williams, for the support of or-
thodox sentiments. Yet, notwithstanding all this temporal
provision, pseudo-Presbyterianism is struggling for its ex-
istence, disturbed as it is on the one hand by the influence
of enlightened criticisms, and the zealous promulgation
of Christian doctrine ; and, on the other, paralyzed by the
torpedo touch of infidelity, with which it is but too gene-
rally found to be in contact.
There exists in England, both in the metropolis and in
diflerent counties, a number of Presbyterian congrega-
tions, which have no connexion with the Socinians, but
are in communion with the church of Scotland, or the
Scotch Seceders. These are, therefore, carefully to be dis-
tinguished from the English Presbyterians.— //(■«(/. Bucl;.
PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED
STATES.* This denomination is to be considered as
the off'spring of the church of Scotland. It commenced
its organized existence in the American colonies about the
beginning of the eighteenth century. The ministers of
■whom we first hear as preaching and laying the founda-
tion of churches, were the Rev. Frnncis BI'Kcmic and
the Rev. John Hampton, the former from the north of Ire-
land, the latter from Scotland. These gentlemen appear
to have been sent to this country by a respectable body of
pious dissenters in the city of London, for the purpose of
preaching the gospel in the middle and southern colonies.
They came in 1699, and fixed their residence on the eas-
tern shore of Virginia, near the borders of Maryland, and
went preaching in every direction, as the disposition of
the people, i r other circumstances, invi'.ed their evangeli-
cal labors. The Quakers of Pennsylvania were disposed
to open their arms to ail denominations of professing Chris-
tians who might be inclined to settle among Ihcm ; and
the Roman Catholics of Maryland, being colonized under
a chatter which compelled them to exercise universal tole-
ration to^\ ard Protestant sects, also afforded an asylum to
Presbyterians flying from persecution on the other side of
the Atlantic. It was on account of these circumstances
that Pennsylvania and Maryland were selected as the first
seats of Presbyterian enterprise and organization.
So far as i;5 now known, the first Presbyterian churcli
that was orgiir.iz.^d, and furnished with a place of worship
•Ttii3 article was prepareil fn llie Encyclnpedia tiy the tt'iv. Dr.
Miller, of Princeton Tlieological Seminary.
in the American colonics, was in the city of Philadelphia.
This took place about the year 1703. The next year (1704)
a presbytery was formed, under the title of the presbytery
of Philadelphia ; and we almost immediately hear of
churches founded at Snow Hill, in Maryland, Newcastle,
in Delaware, and Charleston, in South Carolina. Among
the members of the first presbytery were the Rev. Messrs.
Francis M'Kemie, John Wilson, Jedediah Andrews, Na-
thaniel Taylor, George M'Nish, John Hampton, and Samu-
el Davis. Mr. Andrews was from New England, and had
graduated at Harvard college, eight years before. The
rest were all emigrants from Scotland or Ireland. Wilson
seems to have been settled at Newcastle, in Delaware j
M'Nish at Minokin and Wicomico, in Somerset county,
Blaryland ; Hampton at Snow Hill ; and Davis in the sou-
thern part of Delaware, or the contiguous part of Mary-
land.
As early as 1716, the Presbyterian body had so far in-
creased that a synod was constituted, comprising four
presbyteries. These presbyteries bore the following titles :
— 1. The presbytery of Philadelphia; 2. The presbytery
of Newcastle ; 3. The presbytery of Snow Hill ; 4, The
presbytery of Long Island. Shortly before this arrange-
ment took place, a number of churches, with their minis-
ters, in East and West Jersey, and on Long Island, hitherto
Congregationalists, had connected themselves with the
Presbyterian church.
After the formation of the synod in 1716, the body went
on increasing, receiving additions, not only by emigrants
from Scotland and Ireland, but also from natives of Eng-
land and Wales, who came to the middle colonies, and
were thrown by circumstances in the neighborhood of
Presbyterian churches ; and also from natives, or their
descendants, of France, Holland, Switzerland, who pre-
ferred the Presbyterian form of worship or government.
To these may be added a number from New England,
who were induced by local considerations, or other circum-
stances, to connect themselves with the Presbyterian body.
The consequences of the ministers, and others composing
this denomination, coming from so many different coun-
tries, and being bred up in so many various habits, while
the body was thereby enlarged, tended greatly to diminish
its harmony. It soon became apparent that entire unity
of sentiment did not prevail among them, respecting the
examination of candidates for the ministry on experimen-
tal religion, and also respecting strict adherence to presby-
terial order, and the requisite amount of learning in those
who sought the ministerial oflice. Frequent conflicts on
these subjects occurred in diflerent presbyteries. Parties
were formed. Those who were most zealous for strict or-
thodoxy, for adherence to presbyterial order, and for a
learned ministry, were called the " old side ;"' while those
who laid a greater stress on vital piety than on any other
qualification, and who undervalued ecclesiastical order
and learning, were called the " new side," or " new lights."
And although, in 1729, the whole body adopted the West-
minster confession of faith and catechisms as the stan-
dards of the church, still it was found that a faithful and
uniform adherence to these standards could not be in all
cases secured. The parlies, in the progress of collision,
became more excited and ardent ; prejudices were indulg-
ed ; misrepresentations took ])lace ; and every thing
threatened the approach of serious alienation, if not of a
total rupture. While things were in this stale of unhappy
excitement, Mr. Whitfield, in 1739, paid his second visit
to America. The extensive and glorious revival of re-
ligion which took place under his ministrj', and that of
his friends and coadjutors, is well known. Among the
ministers of the Presbyterian church, as well as among
those of New England, this revival was differently
viewed; the "old side" men, looking too much at some
censurable irregularities, which mingled themselves with
the genuine woric of God, were too ready to pronounce
the whole a delusion ; while the " new side" men with zeal
and ardor declared in favor of the ministry of AVhitfield
and the revival. This brought on the crisis. Undue warmth
of feeling and speech, and improper inferences, were ad-
mitted on both sides. One act of violence led to another,
until, at length, in 1711, the synod was rent asunder; and
the synod of New York, composed of '■' new side" men, was
PRE
[967 ]
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set up in opposition to that of Philadelphia, wliich retained
the original name, and comprehended all the "old side"
men who belonged to the general body.
These synods remained in a state of separation for se-
venteen years. At length, however, a plan of reunion
was agreed upon. Several years were spent in negotia-
tion. Mutual concessions were made. The articles of
union in detail were happily adjusted ; and tlie synods
were united, under the title of the " Synod of New York
and Philadelphia," in the year 1758. Among the ministers
who were most conspicuous during this period of growth
and conflict, from 1716 till 175S, were some of those men-
tioned above, who still survived ; together with the Rev.
William Tennent, the elder ; his four sons, Gilbert, Wil-
liam, John, and Charles ; president Dickinson, of Eliza-
bethtown ; president Burr, of Newark ; president Davies ;
president Edwards ; the Blairs ; president Finley, tec. Sec. ;
all of whomrankedas "newside"men. The Rev. Messrs.
John and Samuel Thompson, Dr. Francis Allison, Mr.
Robert Cross, and several others, were among the most
distinguished on the " old side."
The Presbyterian body, after the union in 1758, went
on increasing in numbers, in harmony, and in general edi-
fication, until the close of the revolutionary war, when
they could reckon about one hundred and seventy minis-
ters, and a few more churches, chiefly in the states of
New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Mary-
land, Virginia, and the Carolinas. At the meeting of the
" Synod of New York and Philadelphia," in May, 1785,
finding the independence of the United States established,
that judicatory began to take those steps for revising the
public standards of the church, which issued in their adop-
tion and establishment on the present plan. The com-
mittee appomted to effect this revisal were Dr. Wither-
spoon. Dr. Rodgers, Dr. Robert Smith, Dr. Patrick Alli-
son, Dr. Samuel S. Smith, Dr. John Woodhull, Dr. Robert
Cooper, Dr. James Satta, Dr. George Duffield, and Dr.
Matthew Wilson. The complete adjustment of this busi-
ness occupied several years. In May, 1788, the synod
completed the revision and arrangement of the public
standards, and ordered them to be printed and distributed
for the government of all the judicatories of the church.
This new arrangement consisted in dividing the body as
it formerly stood into four synods, viz. the synod of New
York and New Jersey, the synod of Philadelphia, the sy-
nod of Virginia, and the synod of the Carolinas ; and con-
stituting over these, as a bond of union, a " General
Assembly," in all essential particulars after the model of
the General Assembly of the church of Scotland. The
Westmiaster confession of faith, after so modifying the
Iwentieth, twenty-first, and twenty-third chapters as to ex-
punge every thing favorable to the civil establishment of
religion, and the right of the civil magistrate to interfere
in the aff'airs of the church, was solemnly adopted as a
summary of the faith of the Presbyterian church ; the
Westminster larger and shorter catecfiisms, with one small
alteration in the latter, were also adopted as manuals of
instruction ; and a form of government and discipline,
and a directory for the public worship of God, drawn
chiefly from the formularies of the church of Scotland,
completed the system. The next year (1789) the first
General Assembly of the Presbyterian church in the Uni-
ted States met in Philadelphia, and was opened with a
sermon by the Rev. Dr. Witherspoon, who presided until
the first moderator of that body (the Rev. Dr. Rodgers)
was chosen.
Since the date of the revisal and arrangement just men-
tioned, no alteration has been made either in the cont'es-
sion of faith, or the catechisms of the church. The form
of government and discipline have subsequently under-
gone two revisions ; the last, of any extent, in 1821 .
The doctrine of the Presbyterian church in the United
States is strictly Calvinistic. The Westminster confession
of faith and catechisms are universally known to bear this
character ; to have been drawn up by zealous friends of
that system ; and to have been expressly intended to form
a barrier against Pelagian and Arminian errors.
At the first meeting of the General Assembly, in 1789,
there were about one hundred and eighty or one hundred
and ninety ministers belonging to the whole Presbyterian
body. These were distributed into four synods, and se*
venteen presbyteries, embracing a large number of vacant
congregations. The increase of this denomination of
Christians, since that time, has been constant and rapid.
It now (1834) embraces twenty-two synods ; one hundred
and eleven presbyteries ; about nineteen hundred ordained
ministers; about two hundred and fifty licentiates ; about
the same number of candidates for license, under the care
of presbyteries ; considerably above two hundred and
thirty thousand communicants ; and five or six hundred
vacant churches.
Of the above-mentioned ministers about one-third of the
whole number reside in the stale of New York ; the next
largest number in Pennsylvania ; and the third in order,
as to the extent of Presbyterian population, stands the
state of Ohio.
Of this body the General Assembly is the highest judica-
tory. It is the bond of union over the whole ; the source
of general counsel and advice ; and the ultimate resort in
the way of reference or appeal, in all cases of difficulty
which may occur in the inferior judicatories. This as-
sembly is formed by an equal delegation of ministers and
ruling elders from each pre.sbytery. Every presbytery,
consisting of not more than twenty-four ministers, is enti-
tled to be represented in the General Assembly by one mi-
nister and one ruling elder. Every presbytery consisting
of more than twenty-four, and not more than forty-eight,
is entitled to be represented by two ministers and two ru-
ling elders ; and so on, for every additional twenty-four
members. The General Assembly meets annually, in the
city of Philadelphia, on the third Thursday of May ; and
commonly remains in session about two weeks.
The General Assembly of this church has, under itsim-
tnediate care, two theological seminaries ; one at Prince-
ton, New Jersey, founded in 1812, and now containing up-
wards of one hundred and twenty pupils ; another at Al-
leghany Town, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, containing
upwards of thirty pupils. The former has three profes-
sors, and an assistant teacher. The latter has, for the pre-
sent, only two professors, in consequence of the decease
of a professor elect. There are also, within the bounds
of the church, six other theological seminaries : one at
Auburn, in the state of New York, containing about fifty
pupils, and furnished with three professors ; one at Prince
Edward, in Virginia, containing about thirty pupils, and
having three professors j one at Columbia, South Carohna,
having three professors, and about thirty pupils ; one at
Hanover, Indiana, having three professors, the number of
theological pupils not accurately known ; the Lane semi-
nary, near Cincinnati, Ohio, having three professors, the
number of theological students not known ; and one at Mary-
ville, Tennessee, having two professors, the number of
theological students also unknown. Of the six last men-
tioned seminaries, only one (that of Prince Edward, Vir-
ginia) has any connexion with the General Assembly ;
and the connexion in respect to that is but partial. The
synods of Virginia and North Carolina, which are united
in its support, choose its professors, and its board of di-
rectors. It makes an annual report to the General Assem-
bly, and is, to a certain extent, under its supervision ; all
the rest are founded by, or placed under the direction of,
inferior judicatories.
There are a few churches and ministers belonging to
this body in Massachusetts and New Hampshire. The
rest of them are found scattered throughout all the states
and territories south and west of New England.
There is, under the care and direction of the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian church, a " Board of Mis-
sions," which, under different forms, has been in operation
for nearly half a century : and also a " Board of Educa
tion," which has now under its care nearly four hundred
students in training for the holy ministry.
Confession of Faith, and Form of Government of the
Presbyterian Church in the United Stales; the Assemilp's
Digest ; Miller's Life of Dr. Rodgers ; Two Chapters of the
Early History of the Presbyterian Church, contained in the
third and fourth volumes of the Rev. Dr. Green's Christiaii
Advocate ; Fraud's History of Pennsylvania ; Trumbull's
History of Connecticut ; Smith's History of ^ew Jersey ;
Ramsay's History of South Carolina; M' Motion's Htstorg
PRE
[ 968 J
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0/ Marijlani ; Holmes' American Annals ,- Original MSS.
in Philadelphia.
PRESBYTERIANS, (Cumberland;) a body of North
Amerrcan Preshyterians, who reside principally in the
states of KeiUiicky and Tennessee, and the adjacent ter-
ritories. The causes which led to its formation are the
following: About the year ISOO, a very great revival of
religion took place within the bounds of the synod of Ken-
tucky, in consequence of which a greater number of new
congregations were formed than it was possible to supply
with regularly educated ministers. To remedy this evil,
it was resolved to license men to preach who were apt to
teach, and sound in the faith, though they had not gone
through any course of classical study. This took place
at the Transylvania presbytery ; but as many of its
members were dissatisfied with the proposed innovation,
an appeal was made to the synod, which appointed a com-
mission to examine into the circumstances of the case; the
result of whose report was a prohibition of the labors of
uneducated ministers, which led the opposite party to
form themselves into an independent presbytery, which
look its name from the district of Cumberland, in which
it was constituted.
As to doctrinal views, they occupj' a kind of middle
ground between Calvinists and Arminians. They reject
the doctrine of eternal reprobation, and hold the univer-
sality of redemption, and that the Spirit of God operates
on the world, or as coextensively as Christ has made the
atonement, in such a manner as to leave all men inexcu-
sable. The number of their congregations amounts to
sixty. — Hend. Buck.
PRESCIENCE OF GOD. (See Omniscience ; Foke-
KNowLEDGE.) On this subject three leading theories have
been resorted to, in order to evade the difficulties which are
supposed to be involved in the opinion commonly received.
The chevalier Ramsay, amonghis other speculations, holds
itamatterof choice in God, to think of finite ideas ; andsimi-
lar opinions, though variously worded, have been occasion-
ally adopted. Tn substance these opinions are, that though
the knowledge of God be infinite as his power is infinite, there
is no more reason to conclude, that his knowledge should
be always exerted to the full extent of its capacity, than
that his power should be employed to the extent of his
omnipotence ; and that if we suppose him to choose not to
know some contingencies, the infiniteness of his know-
ledge is not thereby impugned. To this it may be an-
swered, that the infinite power of God is in Scripture re-
presented, as in the nature of things it must be, as an infi-
nite capacity, and not as infinite in act ; but that the know-
ledge of God is on the contrary never represented there to
us as a capacity to acquire knowledge, but as actually
comprehending all things that are, and all things that can
be. 2. That the notion of God's choosing to know some
things, and not to know others, supposes a reason why he
refuses to know any class of things or events ; which rea-
son, it would seem, can only arise out of their nature and
circumstances, and therefore supposes at least a partial
knowledge of them, from w-hich the reason for his not
choosing to know them arises. The doctrine is therefore
somewhat contradictory. But, 3. It is fatal to this opi-
nion, that it does not at all meet the difficulty arising out
of the question of the consistency of divine prescience,
and the free actions of men ; since some contingent actions,
for which men have been made accountable, we are sure,
have been foreknown by God, because by his Spirit in the
prophets they were foretold ; and if the freedom of man
can in these cases be reconciled to the prescience of God,
there is no greater difficulty in any other case which can
possibly occur.
A second theory is, that the foreknowledge of contingent
events, being in its own nature impossible, because it im-
plies a contradiction, it does no dishonor to the divine Be-
mg to affirm, that of such events he has, and can have,
no prescience whatever ; and thus the prescience of God,
as to moral actions, being wholly denied, the difficulty in
question is got rid of. To this the same answer must be
given as to the former. It does not meet the case, so long
as the Scriptures are allowed to contain prophecies of re-
wardable and punishable actions. The great fallacy in
the argument, that the certain prescience of a moral action
destroys its contingent nature, lies in supposing thai coti-
tingency and certainty are the opposites of each other. It
is, perhaps, unfortunate, that a word which is of figurative
etymology, and which consequently can only have an ideal
application to such subjects, should have grown into com-
mon use in this discussion, because it is more liable, on
that account, to present itself to different minds under dif-
ferent shades of meaning. If, however, the term contin-
gent in this controversy has any definite meaning at all,
as applied to the moral actions of men, it must mean
their freedom, and stands opposed, not to certainty, but to
necessity. A free action is a voluntary one ) and an ac
tion which results from the choice of the agent, is distin>
guished from a necessary one in this, that it might not
have been, or have been otherwise, according to the self-
determining power of the agent. It is with reference to
this specific quality of a free action, that the terra contin-
gency is used ; it might have been otherwise, in other
words, it was not necessitated. Contingency in moral ac-
tions is, therefore, their freedom, and is opposed, not to
certainty, but to constraint. The very nature of this con-
troversy fixes this as the precise meaning of the term.
The question is not, in point of fact, about the certainty
of moral actions, that is, whether they will happen or not ;
but about the nature of them, whether free or constrained,
whether they must happen or not. Those who advocate
this theory care not about the certainty of actions, simply
considered, that is, whether they will take place or not ;
the reason why they object to a certain prescience of mo-
ral actions is this — they conclude that such a prescience
renders them necessary. It is the quality of the action
for which they contend, not whether it will happen or not.
If contingency meant uncertainty, the sense in which such
theorists take it, the dispute would be at an end. But
though an uncertain action cannot be foreseen as certain,
a free, unnecessitated action may ; for there is nothing in
the knowledge of the action, in the least, to affect its na-
ture. Simple knowledge is, in no sense, a cause of action,
nor can it be conceived to be casual, unconnected with ex-
erted power : for mere knowledge, therefore, an action re-
mains free or necessitated, as the case may be. A neces-
sitated action is not made a voluntary one by its being
foreknown ; a free action is not made a necessary one.
Free actions foreknown will not, therefore, cease to be
contingent. But how stands the case as to their certainty ?
Precisely on the same ground. The certainty of a neces-
sary action foreknown, does not result from the know-
ledge of the action, but from the operation of the necessi-
tating cause ; and, in like manner, the certainty of a free
action does not result from the knowledge of it, which is
no cause at all, but from the voluntary cause, that is, the
determination of the will. It alters not the case in the
least, to say that the voluntary action might have been
otherwise. Had it been otherwise, the knowledge of it
would have been otherwise ; but as the will, which gives
birth to the action, is not dependent upon the previous
knowledge of God, but the knowledge of the action upon
foresight of the choice of the will, neither the will nor the
act is controlled by the knowledge ; and the action, though
foreseen, is still free or contingent. The foreknowledge
of God has then no influence upon either the freedom or
the certainty of actions, for this plain reason, that it is
knowledge, and not influence ; and actions may be cer-
tainly foreknown, without their being rendered necessary
by that foreknowledge. But here it is said, " If the result
of an absolute contingency be certainly foreknown, it can
have no other result ; it ra«no( happen otherwise." This
is not the true inference. It 7vill not happen otherwise ;
but, it may be asked. Why can it not happen otherwise ?
Can is an expression of potentiality ; it denotes power or
possibility. The objection is, that it is not possible that
the action should otherwise happen. But why not? What
deprives it of that power ? If a necessary action were in
question, it could not otherwise happen than as the neces-
sitating cause shall compel ; but then that would arise
from the necessitating cause solely, and not from the pre-
science of the action, wluch is not causal. But if the
action be free, and it enter into the very nature of a vo-
luntary action to be unconstrained, then it might have
happened in a thousand other ways, or not have happened
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at all 1 the foreknow leJge of it no more affects its nature
in this case than in the other. All its potentiaUty, so to
speali, still remains, independent of foreknowledge, which
neither adds to its power of happening otherwise, nor di-
minishes it. But then we are told, that " the prescience
of it, in that case, must be uncertain." Not unless any
person can prove, that the divine prescience is unable to
dart through all the worlrings of the human mind, all its
comparison of things in the judgment, all the influences
of motives on the affections, all the hesitances and bait-
ings of the will, to its final choice. " Such knowledge is
too wonderful for us," but it is the knowledge of Him
"whounderstandeth the thoughts of man afaroB'." " But
if a contingency will have a given result, to that result it
must be determined." Not in the least. We have seen that
it cannot be determined to a given result by mere precog-
nition ; for we have evidence in our own minds that mere
knowledge is not causal to the actions of another. It is de-
termined to its result by the will of the agent ; but even in
that case, it cannot be said, that it must be determined to
that result, because it is of the nature of freedom to be un-
constrEiined : so that here we have an instance in the case
of a free agent that he rai// act in some particular manner ;
but it by no means follows from what will be, whether
foreseen or not, that it must be.
The third theory amounts, in brief, to this, that the
foreknowledge of God must be .supposed to differ so much
from any thing of the kind which we perceive in ourselves,
and from any ideas which we can possibly form of that
property of the divine nature, that no argument respecting
it can be grounded upon our imperfect notions ; and that
all controversy on subjects connected with it, is idle and
fruitless. But though foreknowledge in God should be
admitted to be something ol a "very different nature" to
the same quality in man, yet, as it is represented as some-
thing equivalent to foreknowledge, whatever that some-
thing may be, since in consequence of it prophecies have
actually been uttered and fulfilled, and of such a kind,
too, as relate to actions for which men have in fact been
held accountable; all the original difficulty of reconcihng
contingent events to this something, of which human
foreknowledge is a " kind of shadow," as " a map of
China is to China itself," remains in full force. The dif-
ficulty is shifted, but not removed. It may, therefore, be
certainly concluded, if at least the Holy Scriptures are to
be our guide, that the omniscience of God comprehends
his certain prescience of all events however contingent ;
and if any thing more were necessary to strengthen the
argument above given, it might be drawn from the irra-
tional, and, above all, the unscriptural consequences,
which would follow from the denial of this doctrine.
These are forcibly staled by president Edwards : — " It
would follow from this notion, (namely, that the Almighty
doth not foreknow what will be the result of future con-
tingencies,) that as God is liable to be continually repent-
ing what he has done, so he must be exposed to be con-
stantly changing his mind and intentions as to his future
conduct ; altering his measures, relinquishing his old de-
signs, and forming new schemes and projections. For
his purposes, even as to the main parts of his scheme,
namely, such as belong to the state of his moral kingdom,
must be always liable to be broken, through want of fore-
sight ; and he must be continually putting his system to
rights, as it gets out of order, through the contingence of
the actions of moral agents : he must be a Being who,
instead of being absolutely immutable, must necessarily
be the subject of infinitely the most numerous acts of re-
pentance, and changes of intention, of any being whatso-
ever ; for this plain reason, that his vastly extensive
charge comprehends an infinitely greater number of those
things which are to him contingent and uncertain. In
such a situation he must have little else to do, but to mend
broken links as well as he can, and ^e rectifying the dis-
jointed frame and disordered movements, in the best man-
ner the case will allow. The Supreme Lord of all things
must needs be under great and miserable disadvantages,
in governing the world which he has made, and has the
care of. through his being utterly unable to find out
things of chief importance, which hereafter shall befall his
system ; which, if he did but know, he might make sea-
122
sonable provision for. In many cases, there may be very
great necessity that he should make provision, in the
manner of his ordering and disposing things, for some
great events which are to happen, of vast and extensive
influence, and endless consequence to the universe ; which
he may see afterwards, when it is too late, and may wish
in vain that he had known beforehand, that he might have
ordered his affairs accordingly. And it is in the power of
man, on these principles, by his devices, purposes, and
actions, thus to disappoint God, break his measures, make
him continually to change his mind, subject him to vexa-
tion, and bring him into confusion." (See Foreknow-
ledge ; Decrees of God ; Predesti.-.ation.) — JVatson.
PRESCRIPTION, in theology, was a kind of argument
pleaded by Tertullian and others in the third century
against erroneous doctors. This mode of arguing has
been despised by some, both because it has been used by
papists, and because they think that truth has no need of
such a support. Others, however, think that if it can be
shown that any particular doctrine of Christianity was
held in the earliest ages, even approaching the apostolic,
it must have very considerable weight ; and, indeed, that
it has so, appears from the universal appeals of all parties
to those early times in support of their particular opinions.
The Bible however is the true test. — fiend. Buck.
PRESENT; (1.) At hand, and within view, as to
place, 1 Sara. 13: 15. (2.) Just now, as to lime, 1 Cor. 4:
11. God is represented as present when he utters his
mind, displays his glory, favor, or wrath, or some symbol
of his presence: so he is represented as present in heaven,
(Ps. 16: 11.) in Canaan, (John 1: 3.) in the courts of the
temple, (Ps. 100: 2.) in the church, (Gen. 4: Itj.) in his
noted providences, (Isa. 19: 1, and 61: 1.) and in his or-
dinances and fellowship with him, Luke 13: 26. Ps. 51:
11. God in Christ is present with the saints in the ordi-
nancesof the gospel, in the influences of gracCj and con-
tinued care of his outward providence, Ps. 46: 1. Matt.
18: 20. To be present with the Lord is to be in heaven,
enjoying the immediate view of his glory and fruition of
his love, 2 Cor. 5: 8. To be present in spirit is to be near
in respect of direction, will, and inclination, 1 Cor. 5: 3.
This present world is one abounding with fleshly delights,
and with troubles, temptations, and corruptions. Tit. 2: 12.
The present truth is the truth greatly opposed, and which
is so difficult, and yet much for the honor of Christ, to be
cleaved to in principle and practice, 2 Pet. 1: 12 — Brown.
PRESENT ; (1.) To show ; and to arraign in the pre-
sence or view, 1 Sam. 17: 16. Acts 23: 33. (2.) To offer ;
(Matt. 2: 11.) and so a present is a gift, rendered to testify
regard or subjection, or to procure or confirm friendship,
1 kings 4: 21. 2 Kings 17: 3. Kings offer presents to
Christ when they give their hearts to him, believing in
and obeying him, and give up their people and wealth to
his service, Ps. 72: 10. Ministers present their hearers as
chaste virgins before Christ, when, by their means, they
come to appear at his judgment-seat, sound in principle,
lively in faith, single in affection to Christ, and holy in
their lives and conversation, 2 Cor. 11: 2. Col. 1: 22, 28.
— Brown.
PRESS. This word is often used in Scripture not only
for the machine by which grapes are squeezed, but also
for the vessel, or vat, into which the wine runs from the
press ; that in which it is received and preserved.
Whence proceed these expressions : he digged a ifine-press
in his vineyard ; your presses shall run over with wine; thy
presses shall burst out with new wine ; to draw out of the press ;
Zeeh they slew at the wine-press of Zeeh. It was a kind of
subterraneous cistern, in which the wine was received
and kept, till it was put into jars or vessels, of earth or
wood.
We read in several titles of the Psalms, as 8, SO, S3: 1,
" for the presses," [on Gitlilh, Eng. Tr.] which is differ-
ently explained. Some think that these psalms are songs
of rejoicing for the vintage, and were chiefly sung at the
feast of tabernacles, after the harvest and the vintage.
Others think that giltith signifies an instrument ot music.
The fathers explain this in a spiritual sense, of the church
of Christ, the mystical vine, in which the press is built,
according to the description of our Savior in ihe gospel.
Calmet thinks the Hebrew may be translated, " a psaim
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addressed to the master of music, who presided over the
band of Gittites." In the temple were several bauds of
singers, of which some might be of the city Gath — Gath-
ites. — Cahnei.
PRESUMPTION, as it relates to the mind, is a suppo-
sition formed before examination. As it relates to the
conduct or moral action, it implies arrogance or irreve-
rence. As it relates to religion in general, it is a bold
and daring confidence in the goodness of God, without
obedience to his will.
Presumptuous sins must be distinguished from sins of
infirmity, or those failings peculiar to human nature ;
(Eccl. 7: 20. 1 John 1: 8, 9.) from sins done through ig-
no,a7ice ; (Luke 12: 48.) and from sins into which men
are hurried by sudden and violent temptation, Gal. 6: 1.
The ingredients which render sin presumptuous are,
knowledge, (John 15: 22.) deliberation and contrivance,
(Prov. 6: 14. Ps. 36: 4.) obstinacy, (Jer. 44: 16. Deut. 1:
13.) inattention to the remonstrances of conscience, (Acts
7: 51.) opposition to the dispensations of Providence,
(2 Chron. 28: 22.) and repeated commission of the same
sin, Ps. 78: 17.
Presumptuous sins are numerous ; such as profane
swearing, perjury, theft, adultery, drunkenness, Sabbath-
breaking. iVc. These may be more particularly consider-
ed as presumptuous sins, because they are generally com-
mitted against a known law, and so often repeated. Such
sins are most heinous in their nature, and most pernicious
in their eflects. They are said to be a reproach to the
Lord; (Num. 15:3.) they harden the heart; (lTim.4: 2.)
draw down judgments from heaven ; (Num. 15: 31.) even
when repented of, are seldom pardoned without some Visi-
ble testimony of God's displeasure, 2 Sam. 12: 10.
As it respects professors of religion, as one observes,
they sin presumptuously, (1.) when they take up a profes-
sion of religion without principle ; (2.) when they profess to
ask the blessing of God, and yet go on in forbidden cours-
es ; (3.) when they do not take religion as they find it in
the Scriptures ; (4.) when they make their feeUngs the test
of their religion, without considering the difference be-
tween animal passion and the operations of the Spirit of
God; (5.) when they run into temptation; (6.) when they
indulge in self-confidence and self-complacency ; (7.) when
they bring the spirit of the world into the church ; (8.)
when they form apologies for that in some which they
condemn in others ; (9.) when, professing to believe in the
doctrines of the gospel, they live licentiously ; (10.) when
Ihey create, magnify, and pervert their troubles ; (11.)
when they arraign the conduct of God as unkind and un-
just. See R. Walker's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 3 ; South's Ser-
mons, vol. vii. ser. 10, 11, and 12 ; Tillotson's Sermons, ser.
147; Saurin's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 11; Goodwin on the
Aggravations of Sin; Fuller's Works; Paky's Sermons;
Bishop Hopkins on the NnWrc, Banger, and Cure of Pre-
mmptunus Sins. See his works. — Hend. Buck.
PRtETORIUM ; a name given in the gospels to the
house in which dwelt the Roman governor of Jerusalem,
Matt. 27: 27. Blark 15: 16. John 18: 28, 33. Here he sat
in his judicial capacity, and here Jesus was brought before
him. Paul speaks also of the prsetorium (or palace) at
Rome, in which he gave testimony to Christ, Phil, 1: 13.
Some think, that by this he means the palace of tlie em-
peror Nero ; and others, that he means the place where
the Roman praetor sat to administer justice, that is, his
tribunal. It is certain that the emperor's palace did not
bear the name of tribunal ; but Paul, being accustomed to
call by this name the governor's palace at Jerusalem,
might give it to the emperor's at Rome. — CaJmet.
PREVAIL; (1.) To have the advantage of, or power
over, Judg. 16: 5. (2.) To rise higher. Gen. 7: 18, 20.
Jesus prevail d to open the sealed boolr of his Father's
purposes : he had sufficient knowledge and authority for
that work, Rev. 6: 5. The word of God prevails when, by
the Holy Ghost, it gains the attention of multitudes, con-
verts them to Christ, and disposes them to lay aside their
sinful practices. Acts 19: 20. Jacob's blessings, particu-
larly cf Joseph, prevailed above the blessings of his progeni-
tors in the extent of the plainness, and the nearness of
their accomplishment. None of his seed were excluded
from the blessing, as in the case of Abraham and Isaac.
In his blessing, Canaan was particularly divided ; and by
the increase of his posterity, there was a nearer prospect
of their inheriting it, Gen. 49: 26. Wicked men prevail
when permitted to act as they please in dishonoring God
and afflicting his people, Ps. 9: 19. Iniquities prevail
against a saint when the apprehensions of his guilt greatly
afiright and distress him, or his powerful corruptions lead
him, contrary to his inclination and the convictions of his
judgment, to commit sin, Ps. 15: 3. — Broivn.
PREVENT; (1.) To come before one is expected or
sought. Job 30; 27. (2.) To go before, or be sooner, Ps.
119: 147., One is happily prevented when distress is hin-
dered, and favors come unasked ; (Job 3: 12. Ps. 18: 18.)
or unhappily, when snares and afflictions come unexpect-
ed, 2 Sam. 22: 6.— Brown.
PRICE, (RicHAKD, LL. D.,) a philosopher and divine,
was born in Waks, February 22, 1723, the son of a
Calvinistic minister. He was educated at an academy
near London. In 1757, he became the pastor of a dis-
senting congregation at Newington Green, and in 1769,
the pastor at Hackney. In his rebgious sentiments he
was an Arian, having at an early age imbibed the views
of Mr. Jones, his school teacher. He died March 19,
1791, aged sixty-seven.
He published c. Review of the Principal Questions in
Morals; Four Dissertations; Observations on Annuities,
&c. ; Discussion concerning Materialism and Necessity, in
a correspondence with Dr. Priestley ; and two volumes of
sermons.
Dr. Price's publications on religious subjects are not
numerous. His sermons contain much good sense. His
" Essays on Providence and Prayer" display great talents ;
and his " Questions on Morals" are considered as the
ablest defence of the system of Cudworth and Clarke. In
the controversy with Dr. Priestley, on Materialism, he dis-
played great ability.
The doctor was always distinguished for his amiable de-
portment in private life. There was a simplicity and a
naivete in his character, very remarkable in a man who
had mingled so much with the world. His piety was sin-
cere, and, in his family prayer, his devotion was ardent.
Of literary honors he enjoyed great abundance. His
correspondents included many of the most eminent cha-
racters in England, in America, and in France. His
works, which procured for him great respect in America,
were, Observations on Civil Liberty, and the Justice of the
War with America, 1776 ; Additional Observations, 1777 ;
and the Importance of the American Revolution, and the
means of making it useful to the world, 1784. His ne-
phew, William Morgan, has written his life, and described
his excellent character. — Allen ; Jones' Chris. Biog.
PRICE, (Jonathan D.,) a physician and missionary to
Burmah, was ordained in Philadelphia, May 20, 1821.
He arrived early in the next year at Rangoon.
When liis medical character was known at court, he was
ordered to repair to Ava, the capital, where he was intro-
duced to the Iting, who gave him a house. When the
British invaded Burmah, he and Mr. Judson were thrown
into prison, June 8, 1824. He was confined, and subject
to dreadful sufferings till February or March, 1826, when
he was released and employed to negotiate a treaty with
the British, who had advanced near to the capital.
After the war he resided at Ava, in the favor of the
emperor ; he engaged in the tuition of several scholars ;
and by his lectures hoped to shake the foundation of
Boodhisra. He fell a victim to pulmonary consumption,
February 14, 1828, dying in the hope of that precious
gospel he wished to impart to the heathen. Amer. Bap.
Mag. ; Memoir of Mrs. Judson. — Allen.
PRIDE, is inordinate and unreasonable self-esteem,
attended with insolence and rude treatment of others.
"It is sometimes," says a good writer, "confounded
with vanity, and sometimes with dignity ; but to the
former passion it has no resemblance, and in many cir-
cumstances it differs from the latter. Vanity is the parent
of loquacious boasting ; and the person subject to it, if his
pretences be admitted, has no inclination to insult the
company. The proud man, on the other hand, is natu-
rally silent, and, wrapt up in his own importance, seldom
speaks but to make his audience feel their inferiority."
PRI
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Pride is the high opinion ihal a poor, little, contracted soul
entertains of itself. Dignity consists in just, great, and
uniform actions, and is the opposite to meanness.
2. Pride manifests itself by praising ourselves, adorning
our persons, attempting to appear before others in a supe-
rior light to what we are ; contempt and slander of others ;
envy at the excellencies others possess ; anxiety to gain
applause ; distress and rage when slighted ; iinpatience of
contradiction, and opposition to God himself.
3. The evil effects of pride are beyond computation.
It has spread itself universally in all nations, among
all characters ; and as it was the first sin, as some
suppose, that entered into the world, so it seems the
last to be conquered. It may be considered as the
parent of discontent, ingratitude, covetousness, poverty,
presumption, passion, extravagance, bigotry, war, and
persecution. In fact, there is hardly an evil perpetrated
but what pride is connected with it in a proximate or re-
mote sense.
4. To suppress this evil, we should consider what we
are. "If we could trace our descents," says Seneca, "we
should find all slaves to come from princes, and all princes
from slaves. To be proud of knowledge, is to be blind
in the light ; to be proud of virtue, is to poison ourselves
with the antidote ; to be proud of authority, is to make
our rise our downfal." The imperfection of our nature,
our scanty knowledge, contracted powers, narrow concep-
tions, and moral inability, are strong motives to excite us
to humility. We should consider, also, what punishments
this sin has brought on mankind. See the cases of Pha-
raoh, Haman, Nebuchadnezzar, Herod, and others. How
particularly is it prohibited ; (Prov. Iti: 18. 1 Pet. 5: 5.
James 4: 6. Prov. 29: 23.) what a torment it is to its pos-
sessor ; (Esther's: 13.) how soon all things of a sublunary
nature will end ; how disgraceful it renders us in the
sight of God, angels, and men ; what a barrier it is to our
felicity and communion with God; how fruitful it is of
discord j how it precludes our usefulness, and renders us
really contemptible. (See Hu.mii.itt.) Bron-n's Philosophy
of the Mind ; Blair's Sermons ; IVorks of Robert Hall. — ■
Hen<i. Buck.
PRIDE AUX, (John, D. D. ;) bishop of Worcester.
This great divine was born at Stowford, in Devonshire,
on the 17th of September, 1578. His father having a
numerous family, with very little to support them, the ex-
penses of his education, after he had been instructed in
writing and reading at home, were defrayed by a lady of
the same parish. He was sent to school, where he con-
tinued till he had acquired some knowledge of the Latin
language ; he then travelled, on foot, to Oxford, and en-
gaged himself in some menial capacity in Exeter college,
dividing his time between the servile offices of the kitch-
en and those studies which afterwards rendered him so
eminent.
On account of his abilities and learning, he was admit-
ted a member of the college in 1596. He took the degrees
in arts and divinity ; and, after having been some years
fellow, was, in l(5l2, chosen rector of his college. In
If) 15, he was made Regius professor of divinity, by virtue
of which place he became canon of Christ church, and
rector of Ewelme, in Oxfordshire, and afterwards filled
the office of vice-chancellor for several years. He was
consecrated bishop of Worcester, at Westminster, the 19th
of December following, 1611. From his adherence and
support of Charles the First, during the great rebellion, he
became so impoverished, that he was obliged to sell his
library to support himself and his family. He was a man
of most unassuming and gentle manners ; of excellent
conduct, and great integrity and piety of mind ; quite re-
gardless of worldlj' concerns, and careless and often im-
prudent in worldly matters. He died of a fever, at Bre-
dan, in AVorcestershire. at the house of his son-indaw, Dr.
Henry Sutton, on the 30th of July, 1630, leaving to his
children no legacy but God's blessing and a " fathers
prayers," as he himself expresses it in his will.
He was an excellent linguist, possessing a wonderful
memory ; and so profound a divine, that some have called
him, "Columna fidei orthodoxae, et JNIalleus Herelicorum,
Patrum Pater ;" and " Ingens Scholae et Academic oracu-
lura." His works were as much esteemed as his learning.
See Sketch of the Life of Prideaux ; also, Midihton's Evan-
gelical Biography. — Jones' C iris. Biog.
PRIDEAUX, (HUMFUREV, D. D.,) a learned divine and
historian, was born at Padstow, in Cornwall, in 1648. He
was educated at Westminster school, and Christ church,
Oxford ; and while at the university, he published the
Ancient Inscriptions from the Arundelian JIarbles, imder
the title of " Marmora Oxoniensia," which recommended
him to the patronage of the lord chancellor Finch, after-
wards earl of Nottingham, who gave him a living near
Oxford, and afterwards a prebend in Norwich cathedral.
He was subsequently promoted to tlie archdeaconry of
Suffolk ; and in 1702, made dean of Norwich. An incu-
rable weakness having incapacitated him for the public
offices of the ministry, he resigned his church preferment,
and devoted his time to the study of sacred literature. He
was highly respected, and often consulted on the afiairs
of the church. His death took place on the first of No-
vember, 1724.
Besides his great work, entitled " The Old and New
Testament connected in the History of the Jews, and
neighboring Nations," of which there are many editions,
he was the author of " The Life of Mahomet, with a Let-
ter to the Deists," octavo, and " Ecclesiastical Tracts,"
octavo, &c. &c. Biog. Brit. — To/if.^' Chris. Biog.
PRIEST; a per.son set apart for the performance of
sacrifice, and other offices and ceremonies of rehgion.
Before the promulgation of the law of jMoses, the first
born of every lamily, the fathers, the princes, and the
kings, were priests. Thus Cain and Abel, Noah, Abra-
ham, Jlelchizedek, Job, Isaac, and Jacob, offered them-
selves their own sacrifices. Among the Israelites, after
their departure from Egypt, the priesthood was confined to
one tribe ; and it consisted of three orders, the high-priest,
priests, and Levites.
The Lord having reserved to himself the first-born of
Israel, because he had preserved them from the hand of
the destroying angel in Egypt, by way of exchange and
compensation, he accepted the tribe of Levi for the service
of his tabernacle, Num. 3: 41. Thus the whole tribe of
Levi was appointed to the sacred ministry, bnt not all in
the same manner; for of the three .sons of Levi, Gershom,
Kohath, and Jlerari, the heads of the three great families,
the Lord chose the family of Kohath, and out of this fa-
mily the house of Aaron, to exercise the functions of the
priesthood. All the rest of the family of Kohath, even the
children of JMoses, and their descendants, remained among
the Levites.
The high-priest was at the head of all religious affairs,
and was the ordinary judge of all difficulties that belonged
thereto, and even of the general jus-
tice and judgment of the Jew'ish na-
tion, Deut. 17: 8—12. 19: 17. 21: 5.
33: 9, 10. Ezek. 44: 24. He only
had the privilege of entering the
sanctuar)' once a year, on the day
of solemn expiation, to make atone-
ment for the sins of the whole peo-
ple. Lev. 16: 2, kc. He was to be
born of one of his own tribe, whom
his father had married a virgin ; and
was to be exempt from corporal de-
fect. Lev. 21: 13. In general, no
priest who had any defect of this
kind could oiler sacrifice, or enter
the holy place, to present the shew-
bread. But he was to be maintained
by the sacrifices offered at the taber-
'nacle. Lev. 21: 22.
tiigivrnesi. Qgij^ [jj^j^ appropriated to the person
of the high-priest the oracle of his truth : so that when he
was habited in the proper ornaments of his dignity, and
with the urim and thummim, he answered questions pro-
posed to him, and God discovered to him secret and future
things. He was forbidden to mourn for the death of any
of his relations, even for his father or mother : or to enter
into any place where a dead body Iny. that he might not
contract, or hazard the contraction, of uncleanness. He
could not marry a widow, nor a woman who had been di-
vorced, nor a harlot bnt a virgin only of his own race
PR I
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PR I
He was to observe a strict continence during the wliole
time of his service.
The ordinary priests
served immediately at the
altar, killed, skinned, and of-
fered the sacrifices. They
kept up a perpetual fire on
the altar of burnt-sacrifices,
and in the lamps of the
golden candlestick in the
sanctuary ; they kneaded
the loaves of shew-bread,
baked them, oflered them
on the golden altar in the
sanctuary, and changed
them every Sabbath day.
Every day, night and morn-
ing, a priest, appointed by
casting of lots at the begin-
ning of the week, brought
into the sanctuary a smok-
ing censer of incense, and
set it on the golden table,
otherwise called the altar
of incense.
The priesthood was made hereditary in the family of
Aaron ; and the first-born of the oldest branch of that fa-
mily, if he had no legal blemish, was always the high-
priest. This divnie appointment was observed with con-
siderable accuracy till the Jews fell under the dominion
of the Romans, and had their faith corrupted by a false
philosophy. Then, indeed, the high-priesthood was
sometimes set up to sale, and, instead of continuing for
life, as it ought to have done, it seems, from some passages
in the New Testament, to have been nothing more than
an annual office. There is sufficient reason, however, to
believe, that it was never disposed of but to some descend-
ant of Aaron capable of filling it, had the older branches
been extinct. In the time of David, the inferior priests
were divided into twenty-four companies, who were to
serve in rotation, each company by itself, for a week.
The order in which the several courses were to serve was
determined by lot ; and each course was, in all succeeding
ages, called by the name of its original chief. (See
Pbiesthood.)
The advocates of hierarchical claims, whether in tlie
Eomish, Greek, or Protestant churches, assume that
Chi-istian ministers are entitled to be regarded as suc-
ceeding to the same relation to the church, with that which
was sustained by the priesthood under the Jewish econo-
my. Hence the terms and offices peculiar to the ancient
priests, are conceived to be analogous to the functions and
designations of the Christian ministry. On this assump-
tion, it is contended that the duties performed, and the
authority exercised, under the direct sanction of the Most
High, are now transferred to those who are duly qualified,
by a certain order of succession, to discharge the offices
of the ministry under the present dispensation. It has,
however, been satisfactorily proved, that the Christian
ministry is not a priesthood ; that Christ is the only and
the all-sufficient priest of the Christian church ; and that
the Levitical terms employed in the New Testament,
which do not apply exclusively to Christ, belong equally
to all true Christians.
As hiereiis means 07ie mlw offers sacrifices, and as sacri-
fices have been abolished since the offering of the one
perfect and all-sufficient sacrifice, it follows, that, in the
strict and official sense, there are no '' sacrificers" under
the present dispensation. If, therefore, the claims of the
Christian ministers are made to rest upon a precise ana-
logy to those founded upon the priestly functions of an
abrogated dispensation, it surely becomes the advocates
of such claims to prove from the Christian Institute, that
the conceived analogy exi.sts. But where is the proof?
There is not a single passage in " the book" of apostles
and evangelists, to support the assumption. Nowhere
are the ministers of tlie gospel represented as " sacri-
ficers ;" nowhere is provision made for such a succession,
as in any respect similar to the Levitical, and still less the
Aaronical priesthood. To the prophets, and rulers of the
synagogues, it is admitted that there are allusions de-
scriptive of ministerial duties ; for the work of instruction
was the appropriate business of these ecclesiastical func-
tionaries, and not performing the services of a prescribed
ritual. But sacerdotal dignities are never ascribed to
Christian presbyters, and the principles in which the ap-
propriation originated, may be evidently traced to the
working of that antichristian power which produced at
length "the mystery of iniquity," and "the man of sin."
The conclusions involved in this argument are subver-
sive of all those " high church" pretensions which, in
more than one hierarchy, have been the immediate sources j
of arrogant and unholy domination. The doctrine of pre- i
rogatives, whether regal or pontifical, has been for ages I
upheld by the advocates of despotism, on most indefensible '
grounds; and the " divine right" by which kings reign,
and priests "lord it over God's heritage," has been in-
debted for its main support to the same assumption and
analogy ! Judaizing, in one form or another, has been
the {proton pseudos) first delusion under the dispensa-
tion of him who was " meek and lowly of heart." The is.^
first disciples required special illumination, to emancipate *^
their minds from the secular spirit they had imbibed.
The first errors that troubled the churches, and perverted
the gospel, arose from the notion of amalgamating Judaism J
with Christianity. The decree of the " apostles, and' I
elders, and brethren," though " it seemed good to the |
Holy Ghost," did not eradicate the tendency that led to
" the beggarly elements" of the abohshed economy. One
of the earliest indications of the rising spirit of Antichrist
appeared in the principle that made one class of ministers
superior to another, and found its convenient prototype in
the high-priest's supremacy. The analogy led to its con-
summation by most appropriate encroachments, till one
bishop became the supreme pontiff, and the imagined re-
semblance was complete. Judaizing is the basis of Pro-
testant hierarchies ; and the Old Testament, abused and
perverted, furnishes the principal sources, both of the il-
lustrations and the authority, by which the mighty appa-
ratus of ecclesiastical polity and priestly dominion is sup-
ported. See Stratlen's Book of the Priesthood ; Howitt on
Priestcraft ; Divighfs Theology ; Cong. Mag.,Feb. 1831. —
Cabnet ; Hend. Buck.
PRIESTHOOD. We may distinguish four kinds of
priesthood. (1.) That of kings, princes, heads of fami-
lies, and the first-bom. This may be called a natural
priesthood, because nature and reason teach us, that the
honor of offering sacrifices to God should belong to the
most mature in understanding, and the greatest in digni-
ty. (2.) The priesthood, according to the order of Mel-
chizedek, which does not differ from that now mentioned,
but in its dignity ; because Melchizedek was raised up of
God to represent the priesthood of Jesus Christ. Or, the
priesthood of Melchizedek combined in the same person
the right of the kingly and of the priestly offices, with
that of the first-born, to exercise the priesthood ; or, he
was at once king, priest, and prophet, that is, anlhoritative
teacher, in every sense of the term. (See MELcmzED-EK.)
(3.) The priesthood of Aaron and his family, which sub-
sisted as long as the religion of the Jews. (4.) The
priesthood of Jesus Christ, and of the new law, which is
infinitely superior to all others, in its duration, its dignity,
its prerogatives, its object, and its power. The priest-
hood of Aaron was to end, but that of Jesus Christ is
everlasting. That of Aaron was limited to his own farnily,
was exercised only in the temple, and among only one
people; its object was bloody sacrifices and purifications,
which were only external, and could not remit sins ; but
the priesthood of Jesus Christ includes the entire Christian
church, spread over the face of the whole earth, and
among all nations of the world. The epistle to the He-
brews should be considered by those, who would compre-
hend the excellence of the priesthood of the new law
above that of the law of Moses, Heb. 4: 14, &c. ; also
chap. 5—9. See 1 Pet. 2: 5—<i.—Calmet.
PRIESTLEY, (Joseph, LL.D.,) an eminent dissenting
divine and experimental philosopher, was born, in 1733, at
Fieldhead, in Yorkshire. His father was a cloth dresser.
At tbe age of nineteen he had acquired in the schools to
which he had been sent, and by the aid df private instruc-
PR 1
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PKI
tion, a good knowledge of Greek, Latin, and Hebrew,
French, Italian, and German ; he had also begun to read
Arabic, and learned Chaldee and Syriae. With these at-
tainments, and others in mathematics, natural philosophy,
and morals, he entered the academy of Daventry, under
Dr. Ashworth, in 1752, with a view to the Christian mi-
nistry. Here he spent three years. The students were
referred to books on both sides of every question, and re-
quired to abridge the most important works. The tutors,
Mr. Ashworth and Mr. Clark, being of different opinions,
and the students being divided, subjects of dispute were
continually discussed. He had been educated in Calvin-
ism, and in early life he suffered great distress from not
finding satisfactory evidence of the renovation of his mind
by the Spirit of God. He had a great aversion to plays
and romances. He attended a weekly meeting of young
men for conversation and prayer. But, before he went
(0 the academy, he became an Arminian, though he re-
tained the doctrine of the trinity and of the atonement.
At the academy he embraced Arianism. Perusing Hart-
ley's Observations on Man, he was fixed in the belief of
the doctrine of necessity. By reading Lardner's Letter on
the Logos he afterwards became a Socinian.
After having been tutor at Warrington, and pastor to
various congregations, and having acquired considerable
reputation as an experimentalist and author, he became
companion to the earl of Shelburne. At the end of a
seven years' residence with that nobleman, he received a
pension, and settled, in 1780, at Birmingham. There he
proceeded actively with his philosophical and theological
researches, and was also appointed pastor to a dissenting
congregation.
In 1791, however, the scene changed. His religious
principles, and his avowed partiality to the French revo-
lution, excited the hatred of the high church and tory
party, and in the riots which look place in July, his house,
library, manuscripts, and apparatus, were committed to
the flames by the infuriated mob, and he was exposed to
great personal danger. Quitting Birmingham, he suc-
ceeded Dr. Price at Hackney ; but, in 1794, conceiving
himself to be not secure from popular rage, he embarked
for North America. He took up his abode at Northum-
berland, in Pennsylvania. For two or three winters after
his arrival he delivered lectures on the evidences of Chris-
tianity, in Philadelphia. He died in calmness, and in the
full vigor of his mind, Feb. 6, 1801, aged seventy. He
dictated some alterations in his manuscripts half an hour
before his death.
He was amiable and affectionate in the intercourse of
private and domestic life. Few men in modern times
have written so much, or with such facility ; yet he seldom
spent more than six or eight hours in a day in any labor,
which required much mental exertion. A habit of regu-
larity extended itself to all his studies. He never read a
book without determining in his own mind when he would
finish it ; and at the beginning of every year he arranged
the plan of his literary pursuits and scientific researches.
He labored under a great defect, which, however, was not
a very considerable impediment to his progress. He
sometimes lost all ideas both of persons and things, with
which he had been conversant.
He always did immediately what he had to perforin.
Though he rose early and despatched his more serious
pursuits in the morning, yet he was as well qualified for
mental exertion at one time of the day as at another. All
seasons were equal to him, early or late, before dinner or
after. He could also write without inconvenience by the
parlor fire, with his wife and children about him, and oc-
casionally talking to them. In his family he ever main-
tained the worship of God. Asa schoolmaster and pro-
fessor he was indefatigable.
■With respect to his religious sentiments his mind un-
derwent a number of revolutions ; but he died in the So-
cinian faith, which he had many years supported. He
was a materialist and necessitarian. He maintained,
that all volitions are the necessary result of previous cir-
cumstances, the will being always governed by motives ;
and yet he opposed the Calvinistic doctrine of predestina-
tion. (Sec Materialism.) The basis of his necessitari-
an ihciiry was Hartley's Observations on Man.
As a philosopher his fame principally rests upon his
pneumatic inquiries. His works extend to between se-
venty and eighty volumes. Among them are Lectures on
General History ; on the Theory and History of Lan-
guage ; and on the Principles of Oratory and Criticism ;
Charts of Biography and His'ory ; Disquisitions relating
lo Matter and Spirit ; Hartleian Theory of the Human
Mind ; History of the Corruptions of Christianity ; Letters
to a Philosophical Unbeliever ; Institutes of Natural and
Revealed Religion ; History of Electricity ; History of
Vision, Light, and Colors ; and Experiments and Obser-
vations on different Kinds of Air. He also wrote many
defences of Unitarianism, and contributed largely to the
Theological Repository. After his arrival in this country
he published a Comparison of the Institutions of the JIo-
saic Religion with those of the Hindoos ; Jesus and Socra
tes compared; several Tracts against Dr. Linn, whowTote
against the preceding pamphlet; Notes on the Scriptures,
four vols. ; History of the Christian Church, six vols. ; se-
veral pamphlets on philosophical subjects, and in defence
of the doctrine of Phlogiston. Dr. Priestley's Life was pub-
lished in 1806, in two volumes. The memoirs were writ-
ten by himself to the year 1787, and a short continua-
tion by his own hand brings them to 1795. Am. Ency. ; Spi-
rit of the Pilgrims ; Douglas on Errors. — Davenport ; Allen.
PRIMACy ; the highest post in the church. The Ro-
manists contend that Peter, by our Lord's appointment,
had a primacy or sovereign authority and jurisdiction over
the apostles. This, however, is denied by the Protestants,
and that upon just grounds.
Dr. Barrow observes, that there are several sorts of
primacy which may belong to a person in respect of oth-
ers. 1. A primacy of worth or personal excellency. 2.
A primacy of reputation and esteem. 3. A primacy of
order or bare dignity and precedence. 4. A primacy of
power and jurisdiction.
As for the first of these, a primacy of worth, we may
well grant it to Peter, admitting that probably he did ex-
ceed the rest of his brethren in personal endowments and
capacities ; particularly in quickness of apprehension,
boldness of spirit, readiness of speech, charity to our Lord,
and zeal for his service.
2. As to a primacy of repute, which Paul means when
he speaks of those who had a special reputation, of those
who seemed to be pillars, of the supereminent apostles,
(Gal. 2:0,9. 2 Cor. 11:5. 12: 11.) this advantage can-
not be refused him, being a necessary consequent of those
eminent qualities resplendent in him, and of the illustrious
performances achieved by him beyond the rest. This
may be inferred from that renown which he hath had
from the beginning ; and likewise from his being so con-
stantly ranked in the first place before the rest of his bre-
thren.
3. As to a primacy of order or hare dignity, importing
that commonly, in all meetings and proceedings, the other
apostles did yield him the precedence, may be questioned ;
for this does not seem suitable to ihe gravity of such per-
sons, or their condition and circumstances, to stand ujxin
ceremonies of respect ; for our Lord's rules seem to ex-
clude all semblance of ambition, all kind of inequality and
distance between his apostles. But yet this primacy may
be granted as probable upon divers accounts of use and
convenience ; it might be useful to preserve order, and lo
promote expedition, or to prevent confusion, distraction,
and dilatory obstruction in the management of things.
4. As to a primacy imporling a superiority in com-
mand, power, or jurisdiction, this we have great reason to
deny upon the following considerations: — 1. For such a
power it was needful that a commission from God, its
founder, should be granted in absolute and perspicuous
terms ; but no such commission is extant in Scripture.
2. If so illustrious an office was instituted by our Savior,
it is strange, that nowhere in the evangelical or apostoli-
cal history there should be any express mention of that
institution. 3. If Peter had been instituted sovereign of
the apostolical senate, his office and state had been in na-
ture and kind very distinct from the common office ol the
other apostles, as the office of a king from the office of any
subject ; and probably would have been signified by some
distinct name, as Ihat of archaposlle, arch-pastor, the vi-
PEI
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PR I
car of Christ, or the like ; but no such name or title was
assumed by him, or was by the rest attributed to him. 4.
There was no office above that of an apostle known to the
apostles or priiuitive church, Eph. 4: 11. 1 Cor. \2: 2S.
5. Our Lord himself declared against this kind of prima-
cy, prohibiting his apostles to affect, to seek, to assume,
or admit a superiority of power, one above another, Luke
22: 14—24. Mark 9: 35. 6. We do not find any pecu-
liar administration committed to Peter, nor any privilet;e
conferred on him which was not also granted to the olhor
apostles, John 20: 23. Mark 16: 15. 7. When Peter
wrote two catholic epistles, there does not appear in either
of them any intimation or any pretence to this arch-apos-
tolical power. 8. In all relations which occur in Si--ri,.-
tiire about controversies incident of doctrine or practice,
there is no appeal made to Peter's judgment or allegation
of it as decisive, no argument is built on his authority. 9.
Peter nowhere appears intermeddling as a judge or go-
vernor paramount in such cases ; yet where he doth him-
self deal with heretics and disorderly persons, he proceed-
eth not as a pope, decreeing, but as an apostle, warning,
arguing, and persuading against them. 10. The conside-
ration of the apostles proceeding in the conversion of peo-
ple, in the foundation of churches, and in administration
of their spiritual affairs, will e.xclude any probability of
Peter's jurisdiction over them. They went about their
business, not by order or license from Peter, but accord-
ing to special direction of God's Spirit, 11. The nature
of the apostolic ministry, their not being fi.ted in one place
of residence, but continually moving about the world;
the state of things at that time, and the manner of Peter's
life, render it unlikely that he had such a jurisdiction over
the apostles as some assign him. 12. It was indeed most
requisite that every apostle should have a complete, abso-
lute, independent authority in managing the duties and
concerns of the office, that he might not anywise be ob-
structed in the discharge of them, not clogged with a need
to consult others, not hampered with orders from those
who were at a distance. 13. The discourse and behavior
of Paul towards Peter doth evidence that he did not ac-
knowledge any dependence on him, or any subjection to
him. Gal. 2: 11. 11. If Peter had been appointed sove-
reign of the church, it seems that it should have been
requisite that he should have outlived all the apostles ; for
otherwise, the church would have wanted a head, or there
must have been an ine-xtricable controversy who that head
was. But Peter died long before John, as all agree, and
perhaps before divers others of the apostles.
From these arguments, we tnust sec what little ground
the church of Rome hath to derive the supremacy of the
pope from the supposed primacy of Peter. Barrorv's
IVorks, vol. i. p. 557.— fffHrf. Buck.
PPJMATE ; an archbishop who is invested with a ju-
risdiction over other bishops. (See Archbishop.) — Hend.
Buck.
PEIMITIVE CHRISTIANS ; those who lived in the
first ages of Christianity, especially the apostles and im-
mediate followers of our Lord. We think the term should
be limited to the first century, or at most the second ; to
guard against abuses, which early crept in, being cited
(as is now the case too often) for example and authority.
In tnith nothing should be regarded as primitive, which
is not snnctioned by the New Testament. — Hend. Buck.
PRINCE, is sometimes taken for the chief, the princi-
pnl : as the princes of the families, of the tribes, of the
houses of Israel ; the princes of the Levites, of the people,
of the priests ; the princes of the synagogue, or as,sembly ;
the princes of the children of Reuben, of Judah, &c. Also,
for the king, the sovereign of a country, and his principal
officers : the princes of the army of Pharaoh ; Phicol,
prince of the army of Abimelech.
For the transgression of a land its princes are many ; the
pretenders to royally or high power are numerous, and
are soon cut ctf, Prov. 28: 2. The princes and thousands
of Judah denote the same thing, the governor being put for
the governed, or whole body, Matt. 2: 6. Mic. 5:2. God
is called the Prince of the host, and Prince of princes ; he
rides over all, and in a peculiar manner was the governor
of the Jewish nation, Dan. 8: 11, 25. Jesus Christ is the
Prince of I he kings of the earth; in his person he surpasses
every creature in excellence, and he bestows rule and au-
thority on men as he sees fit, Rev. 1: 5. He is the Prince
of life: as God, he is the author and disposer of all life,
temporal, spiritual, and eternal ; as Mediator, he purchas-
es, bestows, and brings men to everlasting happiness,
Acts 2 15. He is the Prince of peace : he is the God of
peace: he purchased peace for guilty man, he made peace
between Jews and Gentiles ; he left peace to his disciples
and peuple ; and he governs his church in the most peace-
ful manner, Isa. 9: 6.
The " prince of this world," is the devil, who boasts
of having all the kingdoms of the earth at his disposal,
John 12: 31. 14:30. \(r. II.— Calmet ; Brown.
PRINCE, (Tho>ij(,s,) minister in Boston, was born at
Sandwich, May 15, 1687, and was graduated at Harvard
college in 1707. Having determined to visit Europe, he
sailed for England, April 1, 1709. For some years he
preached at Combs, in Suffolk, where he was earnestly in-
vited to continue ; but his attachment to his native coun-
try was too strong to be resisted. He arrived at Boston,
July 20, 1717, and was ordained pastor of the Old Sou.h
church, as colleague with Dr. Sewall, his classmate, Oct.
1, 1718. In this station his fine genius, improved by dili-
gent study, polished by an extensive acquaintance with
mankind, and employed to the noblest purposes of life,
rendered him an ornament to his profession, and a rich
blessing to the church. He died Oct. 22, 1758, aged se-
venty-one.
In his last sickness he expressed a deep sense of his
sinfulness, and a desire of better evidence that he was fit
to dwell in heaven. When his speech failed him, as he
was asked, whether he was submissive to the divine will,
and could commit his soul to the care of Jesus, he lifted
up his hand to express his resignation and confidence in
the Savior. From his youth he had been influenced by
the fear of God. He was an eminent preacher, for his
sermons were rich in thought, perspicuous and devotional,
and he inculcated the doctrines and duties of religion as
one who felt their importance. In the opinion of Dr.
Chauncy, no one in New England had more learning, ex-
cept Cotton Mather. Firmly attached to the faith once
delivered to the saints, he was zealous for the honor of his
divine Master.
In private life he was amiable and exemplary. It was
his constant endeavor to imitate the perfect example of
his Master and Lord. He was ready to forgive injuries,
and return good for evil.
Mr. Prince began in 1703, while at college, and continu-
ed more than fifty years, a collection of public and private
papers relating to the civil and religious history of New
England. His collection of manuscripts was destroyed
by the British during the late war, and thus many impor-
tant facts relating to the history of this country are irre-
coverably lost. His publications were numerous ; con-
sisting of Sermons ; an Account of the First Appearance of
the Aurora Borealis ; a Chronological History of New Eng-
land, in the form of annals, in 1736 ; and three numbers of
the second volume, in 1755. In this work it was his inten-
tion to give a summary account of transactions and occur-
rences relating to this country, from the discovery of Gos-
nold, in 1602, to the arrival of governor Belcher, in 1730 ;
but he brought the history down only to 1633. He pub-
lished also an Account of the Revival of Religion in Bos-
ton, in the Christian History, 1714 ; and the New England
Psalm Book, revised and improved, 1758. Wisner^s Hist.
0. South.— Allen.
PRINCIPALITY. (1.) Royal state, or the attire of the
head marking the .same, Jer. 13: 18. (2.) Chief rulers.
Tit. 3: 1. (30 Good angels, Eph. 1: 21. 3: 10. (4.) Bad
angels, Eph. 6: 12. Col. 2: 15. — Brown.
PRINCIPLE ; an essential truth from which others are
derived ; the ground or motive of action. (See Disposi-
tion, and DocTKiN'E.) — Hend. Buck.
PRIOR ; the head of a convent ; next in dignity to an
abbot. — Hend. Buck.
PRISCILLA, or Prisca ; (2 Tim. 4: 19.) a Christian
woman, well known in the Acts, and in Paul's epistles;
sometimes placed before her husband Aquila. Their
house was so thoroughly Christianized, that Paul calls it
a church. (See Aquila.) — Calmet.
PRO
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PRO
PRISCILLIANISTS ; the followers of Priscillian, in
the fourth century, a Spaniard by birth, and bishop of
Abila. Ke is said to have adopted the tenets of the Mani-
chseans : it is more certain that he was cruelly persecuted,
even unto death, for his opinions.
Their principal accuser, Ithacius, seems to have been
capable of every thing he charged on them ; for Sulpicius
Severus, who was by no means favorable to their doc-
trines, says of him, that " he was audacious, talkative, im-
pudent, luxurious, and a slave to his belly."
The part which Martin, bishop of Tours, took in this
business, redounds much to his honor. He '■ blamed
Ithacius (says Mr. Miller) for bringing the heretics as
criminals before the emperor, and intreated Maximus to
abstain from the blood of the unhappy men ; he said, it
was abundantly sufficient that, having been judged here-
tics by the sentence of the bishops, they were expelled
froiTi the churches ; and that it was a new and unheard
.::' evil, for a secular judge to interfere in matters purely
ecclesiastical. These were Christian sentiments j and
deserve to be here mentioned, as describing an honest,
though unsuccessful resistance made to the first attempt
which appeared in the church of punishing heresy with
death." Moslieims E. H., vol. i. pp. 427 — 429 ; Milner's
Cli. Hist., vol. ii. p. lS8.— ]Villiams.
PRISON ; a place for confining evil-doers, Luke 23: 19.
To it are compared whatever tends to restrict liberty, and
renders a person disgraceful and wretched ; as (1.) A low,
obscure, and afflicted condition, Eccl. 4: 11. (2.) The state
of restraint in which God keeps Satan from seducing man-
kind, Rev. 20: 7. (3.) The state of spiritual thraldom in
which sinners are kept by the curse of the law, and by
Satan and their own lusts, Isa. 42: 7. (4.) Custody,
out of which men cannot move, and in which they are
shut up as evil-doers, Isa. 53: 8. Perhaps, in allusion to
this, David calls the cave in which he was, as if one buri-
ed alive, a ^son, Ps. 142: 7. (5.) Hell, where damned
sinners are shamefully and miserably, but securely con-
fined, 1 Pet. 3: 19. Such as are shut up in any of these,
or are in a captive condition, are called prisoners, Isa.
49: 9. Ps. 69: 33. Job 3: IH.—Bromi.
PROBABILISTS, is a sect or division amongst the
Catholics, who adhere to the doctrine o( probable opinions ;
holding, that a man is not alw^ays obliged to take the more
probable side ; but may take the less probable, if it be but
barely probable. The Jesuits and Molinists are strenuous
Probabilists. Those who oppose this doctrine, and assert
that we are obliged, on pain of sinning, always take the
more probable side, are called Probabilionists. The Jan-
senists, and particularly the Port-Royalists, are Probabi-
lionists
Tbe doctrine of probabilities was very convenient to the
Jesuits, since it allowed them to follow any course of con-
duct for which they could find a plausible excuse ; that
is. a small degree of probability in its favor : such as the
opinion of some one person of reputed wisdom, though all
others might condemn it.
From tliis sprang the doctrine of philosophical sin, that
is, an action not expressly forbidden, however contrary it
ii\ay be to equity and justice ; though this is, in fact, a
Jesuitical quibble, for every thing contrary to these is
forbidden by the moral law. (See Jesuits.) Mosheim's
E. H. vol. iv. p. 230 ; v. p. I<i0.— Williams.
PROBATION, Moral ; that state in which the charac-
ter of men is formed and developed in action preparatory
10 judgment. It is the state antecedent to a state of retri-
bution. Blore strictly speaking, moral probation is that
experimental trial which lays the foundation for approba-
tion or disapprobation ; praise or blame ; reward or pu-
nishment. It involves obligations to obedience ; exposure
to temptations ; commands and prohibitions ; promises on
the one hand to encourage to duty ; threatenings on the
other to deter from sin ; with a certainty of final retribu-
tions according to the character produced imder these va-
rious means, and visibly proved by the course of action
pursued by the individual. This is the state which is de-
nominated moral probation ; and in such a state is man-
kind under the law of God, and the mediatorial reign of
Christ ; or, in the customary language of the New Testa-
ment, under the kingdom of heaven, Matt. 13: 10 — 52.
(See Moral Agencv ; Moral Obliqation ; RESPCNsmiLt"
TY; and Retribution, FuTi'RE.)
PROBATION, among di.-.-.enters, signifies the state of
a student or minister while supplying a vacant church,
with a view, on their approval of his character and talents,
to his taking the pastoral oversight of them. Probation,
in a monastic sense, the year of a novitiate, which a reli-
gious must pass in a convent, to prove his virtue and vo-
cation, and whether he can bear tbe severities of the rule.
— Ilend. Buck.
PROBATIONER; in the church of Scotland, a student
in divinity, who, bringing a certificate from a professor in
an university of his good morals, and his having perform-
ed his exercises to approbation, is admitted to undergo
several trials before the presbytery, and upon his acquit-
ting himself properly in these, receives a license to preach.
—H,wl. Bnclc.
PROBITY; honesty, sincerity, or veracity. "It con-
sists in the habit of actions useful to society, and in the
constant ob.servance of the laws which justice and con-
science impose upon us. The man who obeys all the
laws of society with an exact punctualitj', is not, there-
fore, a man of probity ; laws can only respect the external
and definite parts of human conduct; but probity respects
our more private actions, and such as it is impossible in
all cases to define ; and it appears to be in morals what
charity is in religion. Probity teaches us to perform in
society those actions which no external power can oblige
us to perform, and is that quality in the human mind
from which we claim the performance of the rights com-
monly called imperfect." — Hend. Buck.
PROBUS, a Christian martyr under Diocletian and
Maximian, in the beginning of the fourth century, was
born at Sida, in Pamphylia. He was repeatedly called up
before Maximus, the governor of Cilicia, and commanded
to sacrifice to the heathen deiti.,s. But he invariabl)- re-
fused, and his conduct was marked by the strongest de-
cision. He was on one occa.'^ion scourged, both on his
back and belly; which only called forth from the intrepid
man the remark, " The more n)y body sufl'ers and loses
blood, the more my soul will grow vigorous, and be a
gainer." After an inelfeclual attempt to destroy hira by
means of wild beasts, he was finally slain by a sword, re-
joicing to sufier persecution for righteousness' sake. — Fox,
p. 43.
PROCESSION; a ceremony in the Romish church,
consisting of a formal march of the clergy and people,
putting up prayers, kc, and in this manner visiting some
church, &c. They have processions of the host or sacra-
ment ; of our Savior to mount Calvary ; of the rosarj',
&c.
Processions are said to be of pagan origin. The Ro-
mans, when the empire was distressed, or after some vic-
tory, used constantly to order processions, for several days
together, to be made to the temples, to beg the assistance
of the gods, or to return them thanks.
The first processions mentioned in ecclesiastical history,
are those set on foot at Constantinople, by Chrysostom.
The Arians of that city being forced to hold their meet-
ings without the town, went thither night and morning,
singing anthems. Chrysostom, to prevent their pervert-
ing the Catholics, set up counter processions, in which the
clergy and people marched by night, singing prayers and
hymns, and carrying crosses and flambeaux. From .this
period the custom of processions was introduced among
the Greeks, and afterwards among the Latins; but they
have subsisted longer, and been more frequently used, in
the Western than in the Eastern church. — Head. Bud:.
PROCESSION OF THE HOLY GHOST; a term made
use of in reference to the Holy Ghost, as proceeding from ihe
Father, or from the Father and the Son. Itisfoundedon that
passage in John 15: 2d : ■' When the Comforter is come,
whom I will send unto you from the Father, even the Spirit
of Truth, which proceedeih from the Father, he shall testify
of me." (See also 1 Cor. 2: 12.) This procession is
here evidently distinguished from his mission ; for it is
said, '■ Whom I will send to you from the Father, even the
Spirit of Truth which proceeds from the Father."
Dr. W^atts, indeed, observes, that the procession of the
Holy Ghost from the Father, respects not his nature or
PRO
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substance, but his mission only ; and that as no distinct
and clear ideas can be formed of this procession, it must
be given up as popish, scholastic, inconceivable, and
indefensible. But, it is answered, what clear idea can be
given us of the original, self-existent, eternal being of
the Father? Shall we, therefore, deny him to be without
beginning or end, and to be self-existent, because we know
not how he is so ? If not, why must we give up the pro-
"•ession of the Spirit, because we know not the mode of it ?
We can no more explain the manner how the Spirit
proceeds from the Father, than we can explain the eternal
generation and hypostatical union of the two natures of
the Son. We may say to the objector, as Gregory Nazi-
anzen said to his adversary, " Do you tell me how the Fa-
ther is unbegotten, and I will attempt to tell you how the
Son is begotten, and the Spirit proceeds."
About the eighth and ninth centuries, there was a very
warm dispute between the Greek and Latin churches,
whether the Spirit proceeded from the Father only, or from
the Father and the Son ; and the controversy arose to such
a height, that they charged one another with heresy and
Echism, when neither side well understood what they con-
tended for. The Latin church, however, has not scrupled
to say that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the
Son ; but the Greek church chooses to express it thus :
the Spirit proceeds from the Father, by or through the Son,
or he receives of the Son, Gal. 4: 6. See Holy Ghost ;
Bishop Pearson on the Creed, p. 324 ; Watts' Works, 8vo
ed. vol. V. p. 199 ; Hurrion on the Holy Spirit, p. 204 ;
Sidgleij's Div., qu. H; Dr. Lightfoot's Works, vol. i. p.
i82.—Hend. Buck.
PEOCLIANITES ; the adherents of Froclus, a Phry-
gian philosopher, who, about the year 194, put himself at
the head of a band of Montanists, and spread the errors
of IMontanus at Rome, and especially in Phrygia, where,
about two hundred years afterwards, they formed a most
dangerous sect, and greatly disturbed the peace of the
churches. Proclus denied that Paul was the author of the
epistle to the Hebrews. — Hend. Buck.
PROCTORS OF THE CLERGY, in the English ec-
clesiastical constitution, are those among the clergy who
are chosen, in each diocese, to sit and vote in the house
of convocation. — Hend. Buck.
PRODIGAL; profuse, wasteful, extravagant. The read-
er, no doubt, has always discerned tenderness and affec-
tion in the manner in which the father, in the parable of
the prodigal son, (Luke 15.) receives the young man, his
son, when returning home; but the honor implied in
some circumstances of his reception, acquires additional
spirit, from an occurrence recorded by major Rooke.
English readers, observing the " rau.sic and dancing,"
heard by the elder son, are ready to imagine that the fa-
mily, or a part of it, was dancing to the music, because
such would be the ca.se among ourselves ; whereas, the
fact is, that not only a band of music, but a band of
dancers also, according to Eastern usage, was hired,
whose agility was now entertaining the numerous compa-
ny of friends, invited by the father on this joyful occasion.
This, then, is an additional expression of honor done the
prodigal ; and to our Lord's auditory would convey the
idea, not merely of the delight expressed by the father on
his son's arrival, but also, that he treated him as if he had
come back from some honorable pilgrimage ; that he for-
got his misbehavior in going away, and felt only his wis-
doni in returning; that besides treating him with the best
in the house, he had put himself to further expenses, and
had introduced him honorably, not only to his family
again, but to his friends around, whom he had assembled
to grace his reception. This, too, adds a spirit to the
elder brother's expression : " thou never gavest me a kid,
th^at I might make merry with my friends ;" and as this
fete was given in the evening, it agrees with the circum-
stance of the elder brother's return from the field ; imply-
ing, no doubt, his labors there ; which certainly are not
forgotten by himself, when he says, " these many years do
I serve thee." — Calmet.
PROFANE; a term used in opposition to /jo?i/. A pro-
fane person is one who treats sacred things as if they were
common ; the history of nations is profane as distinguish-
ed from that contained in the Bible ; profane writings are
such as have been composed by heathens, in contradistinc
tion from the sacred books of Scripture, and the writings
of Christian authors. — Hend. Buck.
PROFESSION. Christians are required to make a pro-
fession of their faith, 1. Boldly, Rom. 1: 16.-- -2. Expli-
citly, Matt. 5: 16.— 3. Constantly, Heb. 10: 23.-4. Yet
not ostentatiously, but with humility and meekness.
Among the Romanists, it denotes the entering into a re-
ligious order, whereby a person offers himself to God by
a vow of inviolably observing obedience, chastity, and
poverty. — Hend. Buck.
PROFESSOR ; a term commonly used in the religious
world, to denote any person who makes an open acknow-
ledgment of the reUgion of Christ, or who outwardly
manifests his attachment to Christianity.
All real Christians are professors, but all professors are
not real Christians. In this, as in all other things of worth
and importance, we find counterfeits. There are many
who become professors, not from principle, from investiga-
tion, from love to the truth ; but from interested motives,
prejudice of education, custom, influence of connexions,
novelty, &c., as Saul, Jehu, Judas, Demas, the foolish vir-
gins, ice. See article Christian ; Jay's Sermons, ser. 9 ;
Mead's Almost Christian ; Bellamy's True Religion delineat-
ed ; Shepherd's Sincere Co7ivert, and on the Parable of
the Ten Virgins ; Seeker's Nonsuch Professor ; Walker's
Sermons ; Drvight's Theology ; Fuller's Works ; Barr's
Help to Professing Christians. (See Affections. )^^i?eK(i.
Buck.
PROMISE, is a solemn asseveration, by which one
pledges his veracity that he shall perform, or cause to be
performed, the thing which he mentions.
The obligation of promises arises from the necessity of
the well-being and existence of society. " Virtue re-
quires," as Dr. Doddridge observes, " that promises be
fulfilled. The promisee, i. e. the person to whom the
promise is made, acquires a property in virtue of the pro-
mise. The uncertainty of property would evidently be
attended with great inconvenience. By failing to fulfil
ray promise, I either show that I was not sincere in mak-
ing it, or that I have little constancy or resolution, and
either way injure my character, and consequently my use-
fulness in life.
" Promises, however, are not binding, 1 . If they were
made by us before we came to such exercise of reason as
to be fit to transact affairs of moment ; or if by any dis-
temper or sudden surprise we are deprived of the exercise
of our reason at the time when the promise is made. —
2. If the promise was made on a false presumption, in
which the promiser, after the most diligent inquiry, was
imposed upon, especially if he were deceived by the fraud
of the promisee. — 3. If the thing itself be vicious ; for
virtue cannot require that vice should be committed. — 4.
If the accomplishment of the promise be so hard and
intolerable, that there is reason to believe that, had it been
foreseen, it would have been an excepted case. — 5. If the
promise be not accepted, or if it depend on conditions
not performed." See Doddridge's Lect., lee. 69 ; Grot, de
Jure, lib. ii. cap. 11 ; Paley's Mor. Phil., vol. i. ch. 5 ;
Grove's Mor. Phil., vol. ii. c. 12, p. 2 ; Watts' Serm., ser.
20 ; Dymond's Essays ; Verplanck on Contracts. — Hend.
Buck.
PROMISES OF GOD, are the kind declarations of his
word, in which he hath assured us he will bestow blessings
upon his people.
The promises contained in the sacred Scriptures may be
considered, 1. Divine as to their origin. — 2. Suitable as to
their nature. — 3. Abundant as to their number. — 4. Clear
as to their expression. — 5. Certain as to their accomplish-
ment. The consideration of them should, 1. Prove an
antidote to despair. — 2. A motive to patience.— 3. A call
for prayer. — 4. A spur to perseverance. See Clark on the
Promises ; a book that Dr. Watts says " he could dare
put into the hands of every Christian, among all their di-
vided sects and parties in the world ;" Buck's Serm., ser.
1 1 .—Hend. Buck.
PROOF ; trial, temptation. God proved the Israelites
to see if they would walk in his ways, Exod. 20: 20.
After he had proved them and afflicted them he had pity
on them, Deut. 8: IC. As gold and silver are tried in
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the furtacc, so God proves the heart, Prov. 17; 3. —
Calmet.
PROPAGANDA ; a society founded at Ptome, by pope
Gregory XV., iu 1622. It con.sisted, according to some,
of twelve cardinals and a few prelates ; or, as others would
have it, of thirteen cardinals, two priests, one monk, and
one secretary. Mosheira mentions eighteen cardinals, and
several ministers and officers of the pope. It was design-
ed to propagate the religion of Rome throughout the
world. Its riches are adequaie to the most exten.'iive un-
dertakings. Its printing office is furnished with types of
all the important languages of the globe, and is altogether
the first establishment of the kind now existing. A mag-
nificent and immense library is also attached to the Pro-
paganda. In 1627, Urban VIII. connected with it a col-
lege or seminary ibr the fropagation of the faith, for the
purpose of educating missionaries. All the important
languages of the globe are taught here. The expenses of
the seminary are said to amount to fifty thousand dollars
annuall)''. The Propaganda has of late been supposed to
be impoverished, nor is this improbable ; but the emperor
of Austria has made extraordinary efforts to raise it again.
The king of Spain has devoted fifty thousand dollars to
its support, and a kind of cent society has lately grown up
in France to raise its declining funds.
The Congregation of ihe Priests of Foreign Missions was
instituted by Vincent De Paul ; confirmed by the arch-
bishop of Paris in 1(326 ; sanctioned by the pope in 1632 ;
and by the king of France in 1642.
A seminary of foreign missions, according to abbe
Tessin, was founded at Paris in 1663, by Bernard de St.
Theresa, a barefooted Carmelite, a bishop of Babylon,
seconded by sundry persons, zealous for their religion.
This institution is yet in full operation, and is intimately
connected with the Propaganda of Rome.
In 1707, Clement VI. ordered the principals of all reli-
gious orders to appoint certain numbers of their respective
orders to prepare for the service of foreign missions, and
to hold themselves ready, in case of necessity, to labor in
any part of the world. Of these orders there are three,
which distinguished themselves specially in the spread of
Romanism ; viz. the Capuchins, the Carmelites, and the Je-
suits. (See those articles.)
It appears that a new Propaganda has recently been
established in France. At what precise period this asso-
ciation was formed, or what station it holds in Ihe Roman
church, we are not informed. Its seat is in France. It
has a superior council in France, and a particular council at
Marseilles. It consists of two divisions, each having its
own central council. That of the northern division is
sealed at Paris, that of the southern at Lyons. The total
receipts of this new Propaganda in 1828, were two hun-
dred and sixty-nine thousand six hundred and thirty-three
dollars ; of which one hundred and twenty thousand dol-
lars were sent to America. (See Church of Rome ; Pope-
ry ; Roman Catholics in the United States.) — Report ap-
pended to Memoirs of American. Missionaries; An. Qiiar.
Register.
PROPHECY; a word derived from propheteia, and in
its original import signifies the prediction of future events.
It is thus defined by VVitsius : " A knowledge and mani-
festation of secret things, which a man knows not from
his own sagacity, nor from the relation of others, but by
an extraordinary revelation of God from heaven." It is
prophecy according to this definition we shall here consider.
. I. Prophecy (with the power of working miracles) may
be considered as the highest evidence that can be given
of a supernatural communion with the Deity. The ways
by which the Deity made known his mind were various ;
such as by dreams, visions, angels, symbolic representa-
tions, impulses on the mind. Num. 12: 6. Jer. 31: 26.
Dan. 8: 16, 17. Hence, among the professors of almost
every religious system, there have been numberless pre-
tenders to the gift of prophecy. Pagans had their oracles,
augurs, and soothsayers; modern idolaters their necro-
mancers and diviners ; and the Jews, Christians, and Mo-
hammedans, their prophets. The pretensions of pagans and
impostors have, however, been justly exposed ; while the
Jewish and Chri.siian prophecies carry with them evident
marks of their validity.
123
The distinction between the prophecies of Scripture and
the oracles of heathenism is marked and essential. In
the heathen oracles we cannot discern any clear and une-
quivocal tokens of genuine prophecy. They were desti-
tute of dignity and importance, had no connexion with
each other, tended to no object of general concern, and
never looked into times remote from their own. We read
only of some few predictions and prognostications, scatter-
ed among the writings of poets and philosophers, most
of which, besides being very weakly authenticated, appear
to have been answers to questions of merely local, person-
al, and temporary concern, relating to the issue of aff'airs
then actually in hand, and to events speedily to be deter-
mined. Far from attempting to form any chain of prophe-
cies, respecting things far distant as to time or place, or
matters contrary to human probability, and requiring su-
pernatural agency to effect them, the heathen priests' and
soothsayers did not even pretend to a systematic and con-
nected plan. They hardly dared, indeed, to assume the
prophetic character in its full force, but stood trembling,
as it were, on the brink of futurity, conscious of their ina-
bihty to venture beyond the depths of human conjecture.
Hence their predictions became so fleeting, so futile, so
uninteresting, that, though they were collected together as
worthy of preservation, they soon fell into disrepute and
almost total oblivion. (See Oracles.) The Scripture
prophecies, on the other hand, constitute a series of divine
predictions, relating principally to one grand object, of
universal importance, the work of man's redemption, and
carried on in regular progression through the patriarchal,
Jewish, and Christian dispensations, with a hariaony and
uniformity of design, clearly indicating one and the same
divine Author. They speak of the agents to be employed
in it, and especially of the great agent, the Redeemer him-
self; and of those mighty and awful proceedings of Provi-
dence as to the nations of the earth, by which judgment
and mercy are exercised with reference both to the ordina-
ry principles of moral government, and especially to this
restoring economy, to its struggles, its oppositions, and its
triumphs. They all meet in Christ, as in their proper
centre, and in him only ; however many of the single
lines, when considered apart, may be Imagined to have
another direction, and though they may pass through in-
termediate events, Rev. 19: 10. 1 Pet. 1: 10 — 12.
If we look into the prophetic writings, says Bishop
Kurd, we find that prophecy is of a prodigious extent ;
that it commenced from the fall of man, and reaches to
the consummation of all things ; that for many ages it
was delivered darkly to a few persons, and with large in-
tervals from the date of one prophecy 10 that of another ;
but, at length, became luore clear, more frequent, and w:is
uniformly carried on in the line of one people, separated
from the rest of the world, — among other reasons assign-
ed, for this principally, to be the repository of the divine
oracles ; that, with some intermission, the spirit of pro-
phecy subsisted among that people to the coming of Christ ;
that he himself and his apostles exercised this power in
the most conspicuous manner, and left behind them many
predictions, recorded in the books of the New Testament,
which profess to respect very distant events, and even run
out to the end of time, or, in St. John's expression, to that
period " when the mystery of Goil shall be perfected.'"
Further, beside the extent of this prophetic scheme, the
dignity of the Person whom it concerns deserves our con-
sideration. He is described in terms which excite the
mosl august and magnificent ideas. He is spoken of. in-
deed, sometimes as being " the seed of the woman," and
as "the Son of man ;" yet so as being at the same time
of more than mortal extraction. He is even represented
to us as being superior to men and angels; as far above
all principality and power ; above all (ha! is accountea
great, whether in heaven or in earth ; as the word and
wisdom of God ; as the eternal Son of the Father ; as the
Heir of all things, by whom he made the worlds ; as the
brightness of his glorv, and the express image of his per-
son. \Vc have no words to denote greater ideas than
these ; the mind of man cannot elevate itself to noWer
conceptions. Of such transcendent worth and excellence
is that Jesus said to be, to whom all the prophets bear wit-
ness! (See Jesus Christ.)
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Lasuy, the declared purpose for which the Messiah, pre-
figured by so long ' a train of prophecy, came into the
world, corresponds to all the rest of the representation. It
was not to deliver an oppressed nation from civil tyranny,
or to erect a great civil empire, that is, to achieve one of
those acts which history accounts most heroic. No: it
was not a mighty state, a victor people,
Non res Romana perititraque regna,
that was worthy to enter into the contemplation of this
divine Person. It was another and far sublimer purpose,
which he came to accomplish ; a purpose, in comparison
of which all our policies are poor and little, and all the
performances of man as nothing. It was to deliver a
world from ruin ; to abolish sin and death ; to purify and
immortalize human nature ; and thus, in the most exalted
senje of the words, to be the Savior of men and the bless-
ing of all nations. There is no exaggeration in this ac-
count : a spirit of prophecy pervading all time, character-
izing one Person, of the highest dignity, and proclaiming
the accomphshment of one purpose, the most beneficent,
the most divine, the imagination itself can project. Such
is the scriptural delineation of that economy which we
call prophetic.
The advantage of this species of evidence belongs then
exclusively to the Christian revelation. Heathenism never
made any clear and well-founded pretensions to it. Mo-
hammedanism, though it stands itself as a proof of the
truth of Scripture prophecy, is unsupported by a single
prediction of its own.
II. The objection which has been raised to Scripture
prophecy, from its supposed obscurity, has no solid foun-
dation. There is, it is true, a prophetic language of sym-
bol and emblem ; but it is a language which is definite
and not equivocal in its meaning, and as easily mastered
as the language of poetry, by attentive persons. This,
however, is not always used. The style of the prophecies
of Scripture very often differs in nothing from the ordina-
ry style of the Hebrew poets ; and, in not a few cases, and
those too on which the Christian builds most in the argu-
ment, it speaks in the plainness of historical narrative.
Some degree of obscurity is essential to prophecy : for
the end of it was not to gratify human curiosity, by a de-
tail of future events and circumstances ; and too great
clearness and speciality might have led to many artful
attempts to fulfil the predictions, and so far the evidence
of their accomplishment would have been weakened. The
two great ends of prophecy are, to excite expectation be-
fore the event, and then to confirm the truth by a striking
and unequivocal fulfilment ; and it is a sufficient answer
to the allegation of the obscurity of the prophecies of
Scripture, that they have abundantly accomplished those
objects, among the most intelligent and investigating, as
well as among the simple and unlearned, in all ages. It
cannot be denied, for instance, leaving out particular
cases which might be given, that by means of these pre-
dictions the expectation of the incarnation and appearance
of a divine Restorer was kept up among the people to
whom they were given, and spread even to the neighbor-
ing nations ; that as these prophecies multiplied, the hope
became more intense ; and that at the time of our Lord's
coming, the expectation of the birth of a very extraordina-
ry person prevailed, not only among the Jews, but among
other nations. This purpose was then sufficiently answer-
ed, and an answer is given to the objection. In like man-
ner prophecy serves as the basis of our hope in things yet
to come ; in the final triumph of truth and righteousness
on earth, the universal establishment of the kingdom of
our Lord, and the rewards of eternal life to be bestowed at
his second appearing. In these all true Christians agree ;
and their hope could not have been so uniformly supported
in all ages and under all circumstances, had not the pro-
phecies and predictive promises conveyed with sufficient
clearness the general knowledge of the good for which
they looked, though many of its particulars be unrevealed.
The second end of prophecy is, to confirm the truth by the
subsequent event. Here the question of the actual fulfil-
ment of Scripture prophecy is involved ; and it is no argu-
ment against the unequivocal fulfilment of several prophe-
cies, that many have doubled or denied what the believers
in revelation have on this subject so strenuously contended
for. How few of mankind have read the Scriptures with
serious attention, or been at the pains to compare their
prophecies with the statements in history. How few,
especially of the objectors to the Bible, have read it in this
manner ! How many of them have confessed unblush-
ingly their unacquaintance with its contents, or have prov-
ed what they have not confessed by the mistakes and mis-
representations into which they have fallen ! As for the
Jews, the evident dominion of their prejudices, their
general averseness to discussion, and the extravagant prin-
ciples of .interpretation they have adopted for many ages,
which set all sober criticism at defiance, render nugatory
any authority which might be ascribed to their denial of
the fulfilment of certain prophecies in the sense adopted
by Christians. We may add to this, that among Chris-
tian critics themselves there may be much disagreement.
Eccentricities and absurdities are found among the learn-
ed in every department of knowledge, and much of this
waywardness and affectation of .singularity has infected
interpreters of Scripture. But, after all, there is a truth
and reason in every subject, which the understandings of
the generality of men will apprehend and acknowledge
whenever it is fully understood and impartially consider-
ed ; to this in all such cases the appeal can only be made,
and here it may be made with confidence. Instances of
the signal fulfilment of numerous prophecies are scattered
through various articles in this volume ; so that it is not
necessary to repeat them here.
III. A few words on the double sense of prophecy may,
however, be added. For want of a right apprehension of
the true meaning of this somewhat unfortunate term
which has obtained in theology, an objection of another
kind has been raised, as though no definite meaning could
be assigned to the prophecies of Scripture. Nothing can
be more unfounded. The equivocations of the heathen
oracles manifestly arose from their ignorance of future
events, and from their endeavors to conceal that ignorance
by such indefinite expressions as might be equally appli-
cable to two or more events of a contrary description.
But the double sense of the Scripture prophecies, far from
originating in any doubt or uncertainty as to the fulfil-
ment of them in either sense, springs from a foreknow-
ledge of their accomplishment in both ; whence the pre-
diction is purposely so framed as to include both events,
which, so far from being contrary to each other, are typical
the one of the other, and are thus connected together by a
mutual dependency or relation. This has often been satis-
factorily proved, with respect to those prophecies which
referred, in their primary sense, to the events of the Old
Testament, and, in their f^urther and more complex signifi-
cation, to those of the New : and 9^ 'his double accom-
plishment of some prophecies 15 grounded our firm expec-
tation of the completion of others, which remain yet un-
fulfilled in their secondary sense, but which we justly con-
sider as equally certain in their issue as those which
are already past. Sq far, then, from any valid objection
lying against the credibility of the Scripture prophecies
from these seeming ambiguities of meaning, we may urge
them as additional proofs of their coming from God. For,
who but the Being that is infinite in knowledge and in
counsel could so construct predictions as to give them a
twofold application to events distant from, and, to human
foresight, unconnected with, each other ? What power less
than divine could so frame them, as to make the accom-
plishment of them, in one instance, a solemn pledge
and assurance of their completion in another instance,
of still higher and more universal importance ? Where
will the scoffer find any thing like this in the artifi-
ces of heathen oracles, to conceal their ignorance, and
to impose on the credulity of mankind ? (See Ora-
cles.)
IV. The manifold use of prophecy. As prophecy is so
striking a proof of a supernatural communion with the
Deity, and is of so early a date, we may rest assured it
was given for many important ends. " The uses of pro-
phecy," says Dr. Jortin, " besides gradually opening and
unfolding the things relating to the Messiah, and the
blessings which by him should be conferred upon man-
kind, are many, great, and manifest.
PRO
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"1. It served to secure the belief of a God, and of a
providence.
" As God is invisible and spiritual, there was cause to
fear, that, in the first and ruder ages of the world, when
men were busier in cultivating the earth than in cultivat-
ing arts and sciences, and in seeking the necessaries of
life than in the study of morality, they might forget their
Creator and Governor ; and, therefore, God maintained
amongst them the great article of faith in him, by mani-
festations of himself; by sending angels to declare his
will ; by miracles, and by prophecies.
" 2. k was intended to give men the profoundest vene-
ration for that amELzing knowledge from which nothing
was concealed, not even the future actions of creatures,
and the things which as yet were not. How could a man
hope to hide any counsel, any design or thought, fi'oni
such a Being ?
" 3. It contributedtokeepup devotion and true religion,
the religion -of the heart, which consists partly in enter-
taining just and honorable notions of God and of his per-
fections, and which is a more rational and a more accepta-
ble service than rites and ceremonies,
" 4. It excited men to rely upon God, and to love him
who condescended to hold this mutual intercourse with his
creature.":, and to permit themtoconsult him, as one friend
asks advice of another.
"5. It was intended to keep the people, to whom God
revealed himself, from idolatry ; a sia to which the Jews
would be inclined, bath from the disposition to it which
they had acquired in Egj'pt, and from the contagion of
bad example.
"The people of Israel were strictly forbidden to consu It
the diviners and the gods of other nations, and to use any
enchantments and wicked arts ; and that they might have
DO temptation to it, God permitted them to apply to him
and to his prophets, even upon small occasions ; and he
raised up amongst them a succession of prophets, to whom
they might have recourse for advice and direction. These
prophets wer* reverenced abroad as well as at home, and
consulted by foreign princes; and, in times of the captivi-
ty, they were honored by great kings, and advanced to
high stations."
As it respects us, prophecy connected witli miracles
affords evidence of the truth of revelation, as well as of a
superintending providence. This evidence, loo, is a grow-
ing evidence. " The divine design, uiiiformly pursued
through a series of successive generations, opens with a
greater degree of clearness, in proportion to the lapse of
time and the number of events. An increase of age is
an addition to its strength ; and the nearer we approach
the point towards which the dispensations of God unvary-
ingly tend, the more clearly shall we discern the wonder-
ful regularity, consistency, and beauty, of this stupendous
plan for universal good. Of the great us", of prophecies
which have been fulfilled, as a direct and strong argu-
ment to convert unbelievers to Christianity, and to esta-
blish Cliristlans in the faith, we hax-e the most ample
proofs. Our Lord himself made very frequent appeals
to prophecy, as evidence of his divine mission : he refer-
red the Jews to their own Scriptures, as most fully
and clearly bearing witness of himself Upon them he
grounded the necessity of his sufferings; upon ihera he
settled the faith of the disciples at Emmaus, and of the
, apostles at Jerusalem. The same source supplied the
eloquence of St. Peter and St. Paul, and the means with
which Apollos ' mightily convinced the Jews.' This was
a powerful instrument of persuasion in the succeeding
ages of the church, when usH bv the primitive apologists.
Upon this topic were employed the zeal and diligence, not
only of Justin Martyr, but TertuUian, Cyprian, and Au-
gustine. It would never have been so frequently employ-
ed, if it had not been -veil adapted to the desired end ; and
that it did most completely answer this end, by the con-
version of unbelievers, is evident from the accounts of
Scripture, and the records of the primitive church.
V. Plain examples of the fulfilment of prophecy. Our
limits will not permit us to give a copious account
of the various prophecies which have been remarkably
fulfilled : but whoever has examined profane history with
any degree of attention, and compared it with the predic-
tions of Scripture, must, if he be not blinded by prejudice,
and hardened by infidelity, be convinced of the truth of
prophecy by its exact accomplishment. It is in vain to
say that these prophecies were delivered since the events
have taken place ; for we see the prophecies, the latest
whereof were delivered about seventeen hundred years
ago, and some of them above three thousand years ago,
fulfilling at this very time ; and cities, and countries, and
kingdoms, in the very same condition, and all brought
about in the very same manner, and with the very same
circumstances, as the prophets had foretold. " We see,"
says bishop Newton, " the descendants of Shem and Ja-
pheth ruling and enlarged in Asia and Europe, and per-
haps m America, and ' the curse of servitude' still attend-
ing the wretched descendants of Ham, in Africa. We see
the posterity of Ishmael ' multipUed exceedingly,' and
become ' a great nation' in the Arabians ; yet living like
' wild men,' and shifting from place te place in the wil-
derness ; ' their hand against every man, and every man's
hand against them ;' and stiil dwelling an independent
and free people, 'in the presence of all their brethren,'
and in the presence of all their enemies. We see the
family of Esau totally extinct, and that of Jacob subsist-
ing at this day ; ' the sceptre departed from Judah,' and
the people living nowhere in authorit}', everywhere in
subjection; the Jews still dwelling alone among the na-
tions, while ' the remembrance of Amalek is utterly put
out from uiider heaven.' We see the Jews severely pu-
ni.shed for their infidelity and disobedience to their great
prophet like unto Moses ; ' plucked from off their own
land, and removed into all the kingdoms of the earth ;
oppressed and spoiled evermore;' and made a ' proverb
and a by-word among all i4ations.' We see ' Ephraim so
broken as to be no more a people,' while the whole nation
is comprehended under the name of Judah ; the Jews
wonderfully preserved as a distinct people, while their
great conquerors are everywhere destroyed; their land
lying desolate, and themselves cut off from being the peo-
ple of God, while the Gentiles are advanced in their room.
We see Nineveh so completely destroyed that the place
thereof is not and cannot be known; Babylon made 'a
desolation forever,' a possession for the bittern, and pools
of water ; Tyre become ' like the top of a rock, a place
for fishers to spread their nets upon ;' and Egypt, ' a base
kingdoin, the basest of the kingdoms,' and still tributary
and subject to strangers. We see, of the four great em-
pires of the world, the fourth and last, which was greater
and more powerful than any of the fonuer, divided in the
western part thereof into ten lesser kingdoms ; and among
them a power with a triple crown 'differs from the first,'
with ' a mouth speaking verj' great things,' and with ' look
more stout than his fellows, speaking great words against
the Must High, wearing out the saints of the 31ost High,
ajjd changing times and laws.' AVe see a power ' cast
down the truth to the ground, and prosper, and practise,
and destroy the holy people, not regarding the God of his
fathers, nor the desire of wives, but honoring Blaliuzzim,'
gods-protectors, or saints-protectors, ' and causing' the
priests of Maliuzzim ' to rule over many, and to divide the
land for gain.' We see the Turks 'stretching forth their
h.and over the countries,' and particularly ' over the land
of Egypt, the Libyans at their steps,' and the Arabians
still ' escaping out of their hand.' We see the Jews ' led
away captive into all nations, and Jerusalem trodden
down of the Gentiles,' and likely to continue so ' until the
times of the Gentiles be fulfilled,' as the Jews are by a
constant miracle preserved a distinct people for the com-
pletion of other prophecies relating to them. We see one
' who opposeth and exalteth himself,' above all laws, divine
and human, 'sitting as God in the chui-ch of God, and
showing himself that he is God, whose coming is after the
working of Satan, with all power, and signs, and lying
wonders, and with all deceivableness of unrighteousness.'
We see a great apostasy in the Christian church, which
consists chiefly in the worship of demons, angels, or de-
parted saints, and is promoted ' through the hypocrisy of
liars, forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain
from meats.' We see the seven churches of Asia lying
in the same foriorn and desolate condition that the angel
had signified to St. John, their 'candlestick removed ou'
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of its place,' their churches turned into mosques, their
worship into superstition. In short, we see the character
of ' the beast and the false prophet,' and ' the whore of
Babj n,' now exemplified in every particular, and in a
city I ..-It is seated ' upon seven mountains ;' so that if the
bishoji f Rome had sat for his picture, a greater resem-
blance and likeness could not have been drawn.
" For these things we have the attestation of past, and
the experience of present times ; and we cannot well be
deceived, if we will only believe our own eyes and obser-
vation. We actually see the completion of many of the
prophecies in the state of men and things around us ; and
we have the prophecies themselves recorded in books,
which books have been read in public assembhes these
seventeen hundred or two thousand years, have been dis-
persed into several countries, have been translated into
several languages, and quoted and commented upon by
diiferent nations, so that there is no room to snspect so
much as a possibility of forgery or illusion." See also
the several articles referred to in this work.
VI. Rules for correctly understanding the prophecies. —
In order to understand the prophecies, and to form a
right judgment of the argument for the truth of Christi-
anity, we must not consider thein singly and apart, but as
a grand whole, or a chain reaching through several thou-
sand years, yet manifestly subservient to one and the same
end. This end is no other than the establishment of the
universal empire of truth and righteousness under the do-
minion of Jesus Christ. We are not, indeed, to suppose
that each of the prophecies recorded in the Old Testament
expressly points out and clearly characterizes Jesus Christ ;
yet, taken as a v;hole, this grand system refers to him ;
for " the testimony of Jesus is the spirit of prophecy." All
the revolutions of divine providence have him for their
scope and end. Is an empire, or kingdom, erected? that
empire, or kingdom, is erected with a view, directly or in-
directly, to the kingdom of the Messiah. Is an empire, or
kingdom, subverted or overthrown? that empire, or king-
dom, is overthrown in subserviency to the glory of his king-
dom and empire, which shall know neither bounds nor end,
but whose hmits shall be no other than the limits of the uni-
verse, and whose end no other than the days of eternity. Je-
.'us Christ, then, is the only person that ever existed in whom
all the prophecies meet as in a centre. In order, therefore,
to oppose error and confront the infidel, we must study the
prophecies not as independent of each other, but as connect-
ed ; for " the argument from prophecy," says bishop Hurd,
" is not to be formed from theconsideration of single prophe-
cies, but from all the prophecies taken together, and consi-
dered as making one system ; in which, from the mtstual
dependence and connexion of its parts, preceding prophe-
cies prepare and illustrate those which follow ; and these,
again, reflect light on the foregoing : just as in any philoso-
phical system, that which shows the soUdily of it is the har-
mony and correspondence of the whole, not the application
of it in particular instances.
" Hence, though the evidence be but small from the com-
pletion of any one prophecy taken separately, yet that evi-
dence being always something, the amount of the whole
evidence re.-^ulling from a great number of prophecies, all
relative to the same design, may be considerable ; like
many scattered rays, which, though each be weak in it-
self, yet, concentred into one point, shall form a strong
light, and strike the sense very powerfully. Still more ;
this evidence is not merely a growing evidence, but is in-
deed multiplied upon us, from the number of reflect-
ed lights which the several component parts of such
a system reciprocally throw upon each, till, at length,
the conviction rise rnito a high degree of mora! certain-
ty."
Farther ; in order to understand the prophecies, we must
endeavor to find ont the true subject of prophecy ; that is,
precisely what the prophets speak of, and the characters
that are applied to that subject. The literal sense should
be always kept in view, and a knowledge of oriental cus-
toms attained. The beginning and end of the prophetic
sermons must be carefully observed. The time, as near
as possible, of the prediction should be ascertained. An
acquaintance with the method of salvation by Christ will
greatly assist us in this work. The mind must be unpre-
judiced, and we should be well acquainted with the Scrip-
tures at large. These rules, with dependence on the di-
vine teaching, will assist us in understanding the prophe-
cies. See Bishop Nentmi's Dissertations on the Prophecies /
Bishop Sherlock's Use and Intent of Frophecij ; Bishop Hunts
Sermons on the Prophecies ; Sir Isaac Nsmton's Ohsereatio?iS
an the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse ; Graifs Key
to the Old Testament ; Simpson's Key to the Prophecies ; II'
lustrations of Prophecy ; Vilringa's Typus Doctrince Prophe-
tica ; Gill on the Prophets ; Ettrick's second Exodus, or Be-
marks on the Prophecies of the East Times ; Kett's History
of the Interpreter of Prophecy ; Dr. J. P. Smith on the In-
terpretation of Prophecy ; Keith on the Evidence of Prophe
cy, and on the Signs of the Times ; Natural History of En'
thnsiasm ; and Robinson's Bibl. Eepos. See also the works
of Mede, Smith, Halifax, Apthorp, Davidson, Faber, Fiilhr,
Hall, and Douglas, on the suijecL—Hend. Buck; Wat'
son.
PROPHESYINGS ; religious exercises of the clergy
in the reign of queen Elizabeth, instituted for the purpose
of promoting knowledge and piety. The ministers of a.
particular division, at a .set time, met together in some
church of a market or other large town, and there each'
in their order explained, according to their abilities, some
portion of Scripture allotted to them before. This done, s
moderator made his observations on what had been said,
and determined the true sense of the phice, a certain space
of lime being fixed for despatching the whole. These in-
stitutions, like all others, liowever, it seems, were some-
times abused, by iri'egutarity, disputations, and divisions.
The queen put them down for no other reason, but because
they enlightened the people's minds in the Scriptures, and
encouraged their inquiries after truth ; her majesty being
always of opinion that knowledge and learning in the lai-
ty would only endanger their peaceable submission to her
absolute will and pleasure." Neal's History of the Puritans. — ■
Hend. Buck.
PROPHET ; a person who foretells future events. It
is particularly applied to such inspired persons among the
Jews as were commissioned by God to declare his will anij
purposes to that people. (See PRopnECT.)
Scripture often gives to prophets the name of men of
God, or of angels (that is, messengers) of the Lord. The
verb nibba, which we translate to prophesy, is of very greaS
extent. Sometimes it signifies to foretell what is loeome ;
at other times, to interpret, to promulge, or to sing in
strains of sacred music, the prophetic declarations of
Scripture, 1 Sam. 18: 10. 10: 5,6. God says to Woses^
(Exod. 7: 1.) " Aaron thy brotlier shall be thy prophet ;"
he shall explain thy sentiments to the people. Scripture
does not withhold the name of prophet from impostors,
although they falsely boasted of inspiration. Paul, (Tit.
1: 12.) quoting a heathen poet, calls him a prophet. So
we read, (1 Chron. 25: 1.) that the sons of Asaph were ap-
pointed to prophesy upon harps.
The term prophecy is also used (1 Cor. 11: 4, 5. IJ: 1,
&c.) either for explaining Scripture, speaking to the
church in public by way of exhortation, or singing the
praises of God in the language of inspiration.
The Hebrew prophets present a succession of men at
once the most singular and the most venerable that ever
appeared, in so long a line of time, in the world. They
had special communion with God ; they laid open the
scenes of the future ; they were ministers of the promised
Christ. They upheld religion and piety in the worst times,
and at the greatest risks ; and their disinterestedness was
only equalled by their patriotism. To succeeding ages
they have left a character consecrated by holiness, and
" visions of the Holy One." -Tvhich still unveil to the
church his most glorious attributes, and his deepest de-
signs. "Prophecy," says the apostle Peter, "came not of
old time by the will of man : but holy men of God spake
as they were moved by the Holy Ghost," 2 Pet. 1: 21.
They flourished in a continued succession during a period
of more than a thousand years, recl;oning from Moses to
Malachi, all co-operating in the same designs, uniting in
one spirit to deliver the same doctrines, and to predict the
same blessings to mankind. The great object of prophecy
was, as has been before observed, a description of the Bles-
siah, and of his kingdom. Matt. 20: 56. Luke 1: 70. 18:
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31. 24:44. John 1:45. Acts 3: 18, 24. 10:43. 13:29.
15: 15. 28: 23. 1 Pet. 1: 10—12. Their claims to a di-
vine commission were demonstrated by the intrinsic ex-
cellency of their doctrine ; by the disinterested zeal and
Undaunted courage with which they prosecuted their minis-
try, and persevered in their great design ; and by the unim-
peachable integrity of their conduct. But even those cre-
dentials of a divine mission were still further confirmed
by the exercise of miraculous powers, and by the comple-
tion of many less important predictions which they utter-
ed, Dent. 13; 1—3. 18: 22. Joshua 10: 13. 1 Sam. 12:
8. 2 Kings 1: 10. Isa. 38: 8. 62: 4, 9. 1 Sam. 9: 6. 1
Kings 13: 3. .ler. 28: 9. Ezek. 33: 33. They were the
established oracles of their country, and consulted upon
nil occasions when it was necessary to collect the divine
will on any civil or religious question. These illustrious
personages were likewise as well the types as the harbin-
gers of that greater Prophet whom they foretold ; and in
the general outline of their character, as well as in par-
ticular events of their lives, they prefigured to the Jews
the future Teacher of mankind. Like him, also, they la-
bored by every exertion to instruct and reclaim ; reproving
and threatening the sinful, however exalted in rank, or
encircled by power, with fearless confidence and sincerity,
becoming " men of God." (See PRopnEcv.)
The manner in which the prophets published their pre-
dictions was, either by uttering tliem aloud in some public
place, or by affixing them on the gates of the temple, (Jer.
7: 2. Ezek. 3: 10.) where they might be generally seen
and read. Upon some important occasions, when it was
necessary to rouse the fears of a disobedient people, and
to recall them to repentance, the prophets, as objects of
universal attention, appear to have walked about publicly
in sackcloth, and with every external mark of humiliation
and sorrow. They then adopted extraordinary modes of
expressing their convictions of impending wrath, and en-
deavored to awaken the apprehensions of their country by
the most striking illustration of threatened punishment.
Thus Jeremiah made bonds and yokes, and put them upon
his neck, (Jer. 27.) strongly to intimate the subjection that
God would bring on the nations whom Nebuchadnezzar
should subdue. Isaiah likewise walked naked, that is,
without the rough garment of the prophet, and barefoot,
jis a sign of the distress that awaited the Egyptians, Isa.
20. So Jeremiah broke the potter's vessel, (Jer. 19.) and
Ezekiel publicly removed his household goods from the
city, (2 Kings 25: 4, 5. Ezek. 12: 7.) more forcibly to re-
present by these actions some correspondent calamities
ready to fall on nations obnoxious to God's wrath ; this
mode of expressing important circumstances by action
being customary and familiar among all eastern nations.
— Hold. Buck : Cabnet ; Watson ; HiWiouse.
PROPHETS, (False.) See Ihpostoks ; Messiah ; and
Josephus^ History of The Jetrs. — Hend. Suck.
PROPHETS, Sons of the ; an appellation given to
young men who were educated in the schools or colleges
under a proper master, who was commonly, if not always,
an inspired prophet, in the knowledge of religion, and
in sacred music, and thus were qualified to be public
preachers, 1 Sam. 10, 11. 2 Sam. 19. 2 Kings 2.— Hend.
Buck.
PROPITIATION ; a sacrifice offered to God to avert
the punishment of sin, and secure the bestowraent of his
favor. Among the Jews, there were both ordinary and
public sacrifices, as holocausts, &c., offered by way of
thanksgiving ; and extraordinary ones, offered by persons
guilty of any crime, by way of propitiation.
The Romish church believe the mass to be a sacrifice
of propitiation for the lining and the dead. The reformed
churches allow of no propitiation, but that one offered by
Jesus on the cross, whereby divine justice is appeased, and
our sins forgiven, Rom. 3: 25. 1 John 2: 2.
As it respects the unbloody propitiatory sacrifice of the
mass above mentioned, little need be said to confute such
a doctrine. Indeed, it is owned in the church of Rome,
that there is no other foundation for the belief of it than
an unwritten tradition. There is no hint in the Scripture
of Christ's offering his body and blood to his Father at his
institution of the eucharist. It is also a manifest contra-
diction to St. Paul's doctrine, who teaches, that without
shedding of blood there is no remission ; therefore th^re
can be no remission of sins in the mass. The sacrifice
of Christ, according to the same apostle, is not to be re-
pealed. A second oblation would be superfluous : conse-
quently the pretended true and proper sacrifice of the mass
must be superfluous and useless.
The propitiation made by Jesus Christ alone is that which
atones for and covers our guilt, as the mercy-seat hid the
tables of the law. All this is expressed in most explicit
terms in the following passages : " And he is the propitia-
tion for our sins," 1 John 2: 2. " Herein is love, not that
we loved God, but that he loved us, and sent his Son to be
the propitiation for our sins," 1 John 4: 10. " Whom Goa
hath set forth to be a propitiation, through faith in his
blood," Rom. 3; 25. The word used in the two former
passages is liilasmos ; in the last hilasterion. Both are from
the verb hilaskd, so often Used by Greek writers to express
the action of a person who, in some appointed S'ay, turn-
ed away the wrath of a deity ; and therefore connot bear
the sense which Socinus would put upon it, — the destruc-
tion of sin. This is not supported by a single example.
AVith all Greek authorities, whether poets, historians, or
others, the word means to propitiate, and is, for the n-st
part, construed with an accusative case, designating the
person whose displeasure is averted. As this could not be
denied, Crellius comes to the aid of Socinus, and contends
that the sense of this word was not to he taken from its
common use in the Greek tongue, but from the Hcllenis-
lie use of it in the Greek of the New Testament, the
LXX., and the Apocrypha. But this will not serve him ;
for both by the LXX., and in the Apocrypha, it is
used in the same sense as in the Greek classic writers,
Num. 5: 8. Ezek. 44: 27. 45: 19. See also 2 Mac. 3:
33.
The propitiatory sense of the ivord hilu.smos being thus
fixed, the modern Socinians have conceded, in their note
on 1 John 2: 2. in their " Improved Version," that it
means the " pacifying of an offended party ;" but they
subjoin, that Christ is a propitiation, because by his gos-
pel he brings sinners to repentance, and thus averts the
divine displeasure. The concession is importanl ; autlthe
comment cannot weaken it, because of its absurdity ; for,
in that interpretation of propitiation, Moses, or any of the
apostles, or any minister of the gospel now, who succeeds
in bringing sinners to repentance, is as truly a propitiation
for sin as Christ himself. On Rom. 3: 25, however, the
authors of the Improved Version continue to follow their
master Socinus, and translate the passage, ''whom God
hath set forth as a mercy-seat in his own blood," and lay
great .stress upon this rendering, as removing that counte-
nance to the doctrine of atonement by vicarious sufferings
which the common translation aflbrds. ■ But so little is to
be gained by taking it in this sense in this passage, that
this rendering is adopted by several orthodox commenta-
tors as expressing, by a figure, or rather by cm]jhalically
supplying a type to the antitype, the doctrine of our
Lord's atonement. Some able critics have, however, ar-
gued, from the force of the context, that ihe word ought
to be taken actively, and not merely declaraiively ; not as
" propitiatory," but as '• a propitiation ;" which, says Gro-
tius, is shown by the mention which is afterwards made
of blood, 10 which the power of propitiation is ascribed.
Others supply thuma or hierion, and render it expiatory sa-
crifice. But, whichever of these renderings be adopted,
the same doctrine is held forth to us. The covering of
the ark was rendered a propitiatory, or mercy-seat, only by
the blood of the victims sprinkled before and upon it ; and
when the apostle s.ays, that God balli set forth Jesus
Christ to be a propitiatory, he immediately .adds, having
the ceremonies of the temple in his view, '' through faiili
in his blood." The text, therefore, contains no exhibition
of any means of obtaining mercy but through the blood
of sacrifice, according to the rule laid down in the epistle
to the Hebrews, "Without shedding of hUw.l ihcre is no
remission ;" and is in strict accordance with Ephesi.Tn.s I:
7 : " We have redemption through his bloo.l, the remission
of sins." It is only by his blood, that Christ reconciles us
to God.
Unable as they who deny the vicarious nature of the
sufferings of Christ arcj to evade the testimony of the above
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passages which speak of our Lord as " a propitiation,"
their next resource often is to deny the existence of wrath
in God, in the hope of proving that propitiation, in a pro-
per sense, cannot be the doctrine of Scripture, whatever
may be the force of the mere terms wliich the sacred
writers employ. In order to give plausibility to their
statement, they pervert the opinion of the orthodox, and
argue as though it formed a part of the doctrine of
Christ's propitiation and oblation for sin, to represent God
as naturally an implacable and vengeful being, and only
made placable and disposed to show mercy, by satisfaction
being made to his displeasure through our Lord's suf-
ferings and death. This is as contrary to Scripture as it
is to the opinions of all sober persons who hold the doc-
trine of Christ's atonement. The true questions are,
indeed, not whether God is love, or whether he is of a
placable nature ; but whether God is holy and just ;
whether we, his creatures, are under law or not ; whether
this law has any penalty, and whether God, in his judicial
ct-aracter, is bound to execute and uphold that law. As
the justice of God is punitive, (and if it is not punitive,
his laws are a dead letter,) then is there wrath in God;
then is God angry with the wicked ; then is man, as a sin-
ner, obnoxious to this anger ; and so a propitiation be-
comes necessary to turn it away from him. Nor are these
terms unscriptural ; they are used in the New Testament
as emphatically as in the Old ; though the former is, in a
special sense, a revelation of the mercy of God to man.
John declares, that if any man believeth not on the Son
of God, " the wrath of God abideth upon him ;" and St.
Paul affirms, that " the wrath of God is revealed from
heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of
men." The day of judgment is, with reference to the un-
godly, said to be "the day of wrath ;" God is called " a
consuming fire;" and, as such, is the object of "reve-
rence and godly fear." Nor is this his displeasure light,
and the consequences of it a trifling and temporary incon-
venience. When we only regard the consequences which
have followed sin in society, from the earliest ages, and in
every part of the world, and add to these the many direct
and fearful inflictions of punishment which have proceed-
ed from the " Judge of the whole earth," then, to use the
language of Scripture, " our flesh may well tremble be-
cause of his judgments." But when we look at the fu-
ture state of the wicked as represented in Scripture,
though it is expressed generally, and surrounded with the
mystery of a place, and a condition of being, unknown to
us in the present state, all evils which history has crowded
into the lot of man appear insignificant in comparison of
banishment from God, separation from good men, public
condemnation, torment of spirit, "weeping, wailing, and
gnashing of teeth," " everlasting destruction," "everlast-
ing fire." Let men talk ever so much or eloquently of
the pure benevolence of God, they cannot abolish the facts
recorded in the history of human suffering in this world as
the effects of transgression ; nor can they discharge these
fearful comminalions from the pages of the book of God.
These cannot be criticised away ; and if it is '• Jesus who
saves us from this wrath to come," that is, from those ef-
fects of the wrath of God which are to co.Tie, then, but for
him, we should have been liable to them. That principle
in God, from which such effects follow, the Scriptures call
wrath ; and they who deny the existence of wrath in God,
deny, therefore, the Scriptures.
It by no means follows, however, that this wrath is a
passion in God; or that, though we contend that the awful
attribute of his justice requires satisfaction, in order to the
forgiveness of the guilty, we afford reason to any to charge
us with attributing vengeful affections to the divine Being.
"Our adversaries," says bishop Stillingfleet, " first make
opinions for us, and then show that thej' are unreasonable.
They first suppose that anger in God is to be considered as
a passion, and that passion a desire of revenge; and then
tell us, that if we do not prove that this desire of revenge
can be satisfied by the sufferings of Christ, then we can
never prove the doctrine of satisfaction to be true ; where-
as, we do not mean, by God's anger, any such passion,
but the 3'ust declaration of God's will to punish, upon our
provocationof himbyour sins; we do not make the desig'i
of the satisfaction to be that God may please himself in
revengmg the sins of the guilty upon the most innocent
person, because we make the design of punishment not to
be the satisfaction of anger as a desire of revenge, but to
be the vindication of the honor and rights of the offended
person, by such a way as he himself shall judge satisfac-
tory to the ends of his government." (See Expiation ;
Atonement ; and books under that article.) — Hend. Buck ;
Watson.
PROPITIATORY; the merct-seat; which see. See
also Atonement, and Propitiation.
PROPORTION OF FAITH. (See Analogy of Faith.)
PROSELYTE, (proselutos,) signifies a stranger, a fo-
reigner; the Hebrew word ger, or geker, also denotes a
stranger, one who comes from abroad, or from another
place. In the language of the Jews, those were called by
this name who came to dwell in their country, or who
embraced their religion, being not Jews by birth. In the
New Testament thej' are called sometimes proselytes, and
sometimes Gentiles, fearing God, Acts 2: 5. 10: 2, 22. 13;
16, 50.
The Jews distinguish two kinds of proselytes. The
first, proselytes of the gate ; the others, proselytes of jus-
tice or righteousness. The first dwelt in the land of Isra-
el, or even out of that country, and, without obliging
themselves to circumcision, or to any other ceremony of
the law, feared and worshipped the true God, observing
the rules imposed on Noah. These were, according to the
rabbins, 1. To abstain from idolatry ; 2. From blasphe-
my ; 3. From murder ; 4. From adultery ; 5. From theft ;
6. To appoint just and upright judges ; 7. Not to eat the
flesh of any animal cut off while it was alive. The privi-
leges of proselytes of the gate were, first, that through ho-
liness they might have hope of eternal life. Secondly,
they could dwell in the land of Israel, and share in the
outward prosperities of it.
Proselytes of justice or of righteousness, were those con-
verted to Judaism, who had engaged themselves to receive
circumcision, and to observe the whole law of Moses.
Thus were they admitted to all the prerogatives of the
people of the Lord. The rabbins inform us, that before
circumcision was administered to them, and before they
were admitted into the religion of the Hebrew.s, they were
examined about the motives to their conversion ; whether
the change was voluntary, or whether it proceeded from
interest, fear, ambition, & 
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