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Group I. Classification of Nature 


FISHES, 


BY 


DAVID STARR JORDAN 


or? 
President of Leland Stanford Junior University 


With 18 Colored. Plates and 673 illustrations 


“Tt is good luck to any man to 
be on the good side of the man 
that knows Fish.’—J/zaak Walton. 


SM AN 
JUL 23 1984 


NEW YORK 
HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
1907 


BNASG o4 


CopyriGHT, 1997) 
BY 
_ HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 


_ 


110.0 CHIR es 

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PREFATORY NOTE 


Tuts work contains virtually all the non-technical material 
contained in the author’s “Guide to the Study of Fishes.” It 
lacks the considerable portion relating to the structure and 
classification of fishes, which is intended rather for the technical 
student of ichthyology. 

The present volume contains substantially all which the 
author would have written had his original purpose been to 
cover the subject of fishes in a general natural history of animals. 
The fishes used as food and those sought by anglers in America 
are treated fully, and proportionate attention is paid to all 
the existing as well as all extinct families of fishes. 

Notwithstanding the relative absence of technical material 
in the present volume, the writer hopes that it may still be 
valuable to students of ichthyology, though his chief aim has 
been to make it interesting to nature-lovers and anglers, and 
instructive to all who open its pages. 

Davip STARR JORDAN. 

June 15, 1907- 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER TI. 


THE LIFE OF THE FISH (Lepomis megalotis). 
PAGE 


What is a Fish ?—The Long-eared Sunfish.—Form of the Fish.—Face of the 
Fish.—How the Fish Breathes.—Teeth of the Fish.—How the Fish Sees. 
—Color of the Fish.—The Lateral Line.—The Fins of the Fish.—The 
Skeleton of the Fish—The Fish in Action—The Air-bladder.—The 
iBraimeonthesbish«——ihe dishys ANest/. 2.2 crfeutsjovelanels siatslierersione sie craters ais 3 


CHAPTER II. 
THE EXTERIOR OF THE FISH. 


Form of Body.—Measurement of the Fish—The Scales or Exoskeleton.— 
Ctenoid and Cycloid Scales ——Placoid Scales —Bony and Prickly Scales. 
—Lateral Line.—Function of the Lateral Line.—The Fins of Fishes.— 
IMIS Seer te esp term ienoneene Sissies a Sea's, 82/9) Saas re diene, She ieiSla aeeromces ances 16 


CHAPTER III. 


THE DISSECTION OF THE FISH. 


The Blue-green Sunfish.—The Viscera.—Organs of Nutrition.—The Alimen- 
tary Canal.—The Spiral Valve,—Length of the Intestine.—The Eggs of } 
Bishes:— Protection ol thesVouny.. 6 cic ass ssicis cece se eceeuene cs 26 


CHAPTER IV. 
INSTINCTS, HABITS, AND ADAPTATIONS. 


The Habits of Fishes.—Irritability of Animals.—Nerve-cells and Fibers.— 
The Brain or Sensorium.—Reflex Action.—Instinct.—Classification of 
Instincts.—Variability of Instincts —Adaptations to Environment.— 
Flight of Fishes —Quiescent Fishes.——Migratory Fishes.—Anadromous 
RASHES UOT ACIDS Ole RIGS Pat ys cyayers, ciccoys #16 G00: 8 evan sha shee Renee ere 39 


CHAPTER V. | 
ADAPTATIONS OF FISHES. 


Spines of the Catfishes—Venomous Spines.—The Lancet of the Surgeon- 
fish.—Spines of the Sting-ray.—Protection through Poisonous Flesh of 
Vv 


14) 


7 


~- 


vi Contents 


Fishes.—Electric Fishes——Photophores or Luminous Organs.—Photo- 
phores in the Iniomous Fishes——Photophores of Porichthys.—Globe- 
fishes —Remoras.—Sucking-disks of Clingfishes—Lampreys and Hog- 
fishes. — The Swordfishes.— The Paddle-fishes.— The Sawfishes. — 
> Peculiarities of Jaws and Teeth—The Angler-fishes—The Unsymmet- 
rical’ Eyes of Plounders. -- &. .:.)4)0 .<' «<stemintersteterse is ears erent neers 


CHAPTER VI. 
COLORS OF FISHES. 


Pigmentation.—Protective Coloration—Protective Markings.—Sexual 
Coloration—Nuptial Coloration—Coral-reef Fishes—Recognition 
Marks.—Intensity of Coloration—Fading of Pigments in Spirits.— 
Variation:in;Patterny 5 <s:st- scien eta nel ales oe ae ee 


CHAPTER VII. 
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES. 


Zoogeography.—General Laws of Distribution.—Species Absent through 
Barriers.—Species Absent through Failure to Maintain Foothold.— 
Species Changed through Natural Selection —Extinction of Species.— 
Barriers Checking Movements of Marine Species—Temperature the 
Central Fact in Distribution—Agency of Ocean Currents.—Centers of 
Distribution —Distribution of Marine Fishes—Pelagic Fishes——Bas- 
salian Fishes —Littoral Fishes —Distribution of Littoral Fishes by Coast. 
Lines—Minor Faunal Areas.—Equatorial Fishes most Specialized.— 
Realms of Distribution of Fresh-water Fishes —Northern Zone — Equa- 
torial Zone—Southerm Zonel so. se «oe cele civics © ts o> 4 a) vole ee 


CHAPTER VIII. 
BARRIERS TO DISPERSION OF RIVER FISHES. 


The Process of Natural Selection—Local Barriers—Favorable Waters 
Have Most Species-——Watersheds.—How Fishes Cross Watersheds.— 
The Suletind—The Cassiquiare —Two-Ocean Pass.—Mountain Chains, 
—Upland Fishes.—Lowland Fishes—Cuban Fishes—Swampy Water- 
sheds.—The Great Basin of Utah.—Arctic Species in Lakes.—Causes of 
Dispersion stall\in Opera tncperare pie cttitsie teins at see el aicrerstatalerteriern setae ot 


CHAPTER IX. 


FISHES AS FOOD FOR MAN, 


The Flesh of Fishes —Relative Rank of Food-fishes—Abundance of Food- 
fishes — Variety of Tropical Fishes —Economic Fisheries.—Angling. ... 


PAGE 


5r 


79 


“90 


106 


129 


Contents 


CHAPTER X. 
THE MYTHOLOGY OF FISHES. 


Vil 


PAGE 


The Mermaid.—The Monkfish_—The Bishop-fish.—The Sea-serpent...... 


CHAPTER XI. 
THE COLLECTION OF FISHES. 
How to Secure Fishes.—How to Preserve Fishes.—Value of Formalin.— 
Records of Fishes.—Eternal Vigilance. ............ 00. cece seen eees 
CHAPTER XII. 
THE LEPTOCARDII, OR LANCELETS. 
The Lancelet.—Habits of Lancelets——Species of Lancelets.—Origin of 
ILEMREN AI Sc coco oh Cp LORE R OM ORO Is bAGen OpRODRDAC OD oGhGoUoUe 
CHAPTER XIII. 
THE CYCLOSTOMES, OR LAMPREYS. 


The Lampreys.—Structure of the Lamprey.—Supposed Extinct Cyclo- 
stomes.—Orders of Cyclostomes.—The Hyperotreta, or Hagfishes.—The 
Hyperoartia, or Lampreys.—Food of Lampreys.—Metamorphosis of 
Lampreys.—Mischief Done by Lampreys.—Migration or ‘‘Running”’ of 
Lampreys:. «. 1% O06 OU oC DOC POD OG CEE re OD coiwias Cody AO OAD OOO ae 


CHAPTER XIV. 


THE CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII, OR SHARK-LIKE FISHES.— 


TRUE SHARKS. 


The Sharks.—Characters of Elasmobranchs.—Classification of Elasmo- 
branchs.—Subclasses of Elasmobranchs.— The Selachii.—Order Notidani. 
—Family Hexanchide.—Family Chlamydoselachide.—Order Astero- 
spondyli—Suborder Cestraciontes.—Family Heterodontide.—Suborder 
Galei—Family Scyliorhinide—The Lamnoid, or Mackerel-sharks.— 
Family Mitsukurinide, the Goblin-sharks—Family Alopiide, or 
Thresher-sharks.—Family Pseudotriakide.—Family Lamnidze.—Man- 
eating Sharks.—Family Cetorhinide, or Basking Sharks.—Family 
Rhineodontide.—The Carcharioid Sharks, or Requins.—Family 
Sphyrnide, or Hammer-head Sharks.—The Order of Tectospondyli— 
Suborder Cyclospondyli.Family Squalide.—Family Dalatiide — 
Family Echinorhinide.—Suborder Rhine.—Family Pristiophoride, or 
Saw-sharks.—Suborder Batoidei, or Rays.—Pristidide, or Sawfishes.— 
Rhinobatide, or Guitar-fishes.—Rajide, or Skates.—Narcobatide, or 
Torpedoes.—Petalodontide.—Dasyatide, or Sting-rays.—Myliobatide. 
—Family Psammodontide.—Family Mobulidz 


197 


163 


167 


Viil Contents 


CHAPTER XV. 
THE HOLOCEPHALI, OR CHIMARAS. 
PAGE 


The Chimeras.—Relationship of Chimazras.—Family Chimeride#.—Rhino- 
chimiridze:—Ostracophorinn ou. e.< «> os s10/e.winielaiel ele bettie eet iainis Site iets 218 


CHAPTER XVI. 
THE CROSSOPTERYGII. 


Class Teleostomi—Subclass Crossopterygii—Order of Amphibians.—The 
Fins of Crossopterygians.—Orders of Crossopterygians.—Haplistia.— 
Rhipidistia —Megalichthyide.—Order Actinistia.—Order Cladistia.— 
Whe Polypteri dees... isis /ox.1- sco. 60 at ieee ete tate eee eee 224 


CHAPTER XVII. 


SUBCLASS DIPNEUSTI, OR LUNGFISHES. 


The Lungfishes.—Classification of Dipnoans.—Order Ctenodipterini.— 
Order Sirenoidei—Family Ceratodontide.—Lepidosirenide.—Kerr on 
the Habits of Lepidosiren.—Arthrodires.—Cycli@................++- 235 


CHAPTER XVIII. 
THE GANOIDS. 


Subclass Actinopteri.—The Series Ganoidei.—Classification of Ganoids.— 
Order Lysopteri.—The Paleoniscide.—The Platysomida.—The Doryp- 
teride. —The Dictyopygide.—Order Chondrostei.—Order Selachostomi: 
the Paddle-fishes—Order Pycnodonti.—Order Lepidostei—Family 
Lepidosteide.—The Bowfins: Amiide................eceeeescaeees 246 


CHAPTER XIX. 
ISOSPONDYLI. 


The Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—Order Isospondyli—The Classifi- 
cation of the Bony Fishes.—Relationships of Jsospondyli—The Clu- 
peoides.— The Leptolepide.— The Elopide.—The Albulide.— The 
Chanide.—The Hiodontide.—The Pterothrissida.—The Ctenothrissi- 
de.—The Notopteride.—The Clupeide.—The Dorosomatidae.—The 
Engraulidide.— Gonorhynchidea.— The Osteoglosside.— The Panto- 
Gontide, ... «:s.9\g enslave ameerabereetsteeantnta mee Sletnna areata oleae ebere tatety amas. chur» 264 


CHAPTER XX. 
SALMONID. 


The Salmon Family.—Coregonus, the Whitefish.—Argyrosomus, the Lake 
Herring.—Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Oncorhynchus, 


Contents ix 


, PAGE 
the Quinnat Salmon.—The Parent-stream Theory.—The Jadgeska 
Hatchery.—Salmon-packing.—Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon. 
—The Atlantic Salmon.—The Ouananiche.—The Black-spotted Trout. 
—The Trout of Western America.—Cut-throat or Red-throated Trout. 
—Hucho, the Huchen.—Salvelinus, the Charr.—Cristivomer, the Great 
Lake Trout.—The Ayu, or Sweetfish—Cormorant-fishing.—Fossil 
RSEVEETI ONG Chee Octo ote orci n shayeh aberrant er ae tceu aaa eae eRe a uere tl ciafensuae ciate 285 


CHAPTER XXI. 
THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT. 


The Grayling, or Thymallide.—The Argentinide.—The Microstomide.— 
The Salangide, or Icefishes—The Haplochitonide.—Stomiatide.— 
Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—Aulopide.—The Lizard-fishes. — 
Ipnopide.— Rondeletiida.—Myctophide.—Chirothricide.—Maurolici- 
dz.—The Lancet-fishes.—The Sternoptychide.—Order Lyopomi...... 343 


CHAPTER XXII. 
THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES. 


The Eels.—Order Symbranchia.—Order Apodes, or True Eels.—Suborder 
Archencheli—Suborder Enchelycephali—Family Anguillide—Food 
of the Eel—Larva of the Eel —Species of Eels —Pug-nosed Eels — 
Conger-eels—The Snake-eels.—Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.— 
Family Moringuide.—Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Order 
Lyomeri,or\Giipers:—Order Heteromi.. . 2... 2s.cescs decease ocrees 362 


CHAPTER XXIII. 


SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI. 


Ostariophysi.—The Heterognathi—The Eventognathi.—The Cyprinide. — 
Species of Dace and Shiner.—Chubs of the Pacific Slope-—The Carp and 
Goldfish.—The Catostomida.—Fossil Cyprinida.—The Loaches...... 378 


CHAPTER XXIV. 
THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES. 


The Nematognathi.—Families of Nematognathi—The Silurida.—The Sea 
Catfish.—The Channel Cats.—Horned Pout.—The Mad-toms.—The Old 
World Catfishes—The Sisoride—The Plotoside—The Chlariidae.— 
The Hypophthalmide or Pygidiidae. —The Loricariide7.—The Callichthy- 
idee.—Fossil Catfishes—Order Gymnonoti.............000----e0000- 396 


x Contents 


CHAPTER XXV. 
THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI. 


PAGE 
Order Scyphophori—The Mormyride2.—The Haplomi.—The Pikes.—The 
Mud Minnows.—The Killifishes—Amblyopsidea.—Kneriide, ete.-—The 
Galaxiide.— Order Xenomiin.. <.. oi. 5. « siois'e wiejnisiotelelate ete iaints telat eeeinienaes 407 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI. 
Order Acanthopterygii, the Spiny-rayed Fishes.—Suborder Synentognathi. 
—The Garfishes: Belonidee.—The Flying-fishes: Exoccetide.......... 424 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI. 
Suborder Percesoces.—The Silversides: Atherinide.—The Mullets: Mugi- 
lide.—The Barracudas: Sphyraenida.—Stephanoberycide.—Crosso- 
gnathide.—Cobitopside.—Suborder Rhegnopteri................... 432 


CHAPTER XXVIII. 


PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHIJ, LOPHOBRANCHII, AND 
HY POSTOMIDES. 


Suborder Hemibranchii—The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteide.—The Aulo- 
rhynchide.—Cornet-fishes: Fistulariidae.—The Trumpet-fishes: Aulo- 
stomidae.—The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphosida.—The Shrimp-fishes: 
Centriscida.—The Lophobranchs.—The Solenostomide.—The Pipe- 
fishes: Syngnathide.—The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.—Suborder Hy- 
postomides, the Sea-moths: Pepgaside....- 25. >. sj<0-+ oss meyers 442 


CHAPTER XXIX. 
SALMOPERC4 AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL GROUPS. 


Suborder Salmoperce, the Trout-perches: Percopsid#.—Erismatopteride. 
—Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lampridida.—Suborder Zeoidea. 
~—Amphistiide.—The John Dories: Zeida.—Grammicolepide........ 456 


CHAPTER XXX. 
BERYCOIDEI. 


The Berycoid Fishes.—The Alfonsinos: Berycide.—The Soldier-fishes: 
Holocentride.—The Polymixiide.—The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocen- 


Contents 


CHAPTER XXXI, 
PERCOMORPHI. 


Suborder Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches ——The Mackerel Tribe: 
Scombroidea.—The True Mackerels: Scombridz.—The Escolars: Gem- 
pylidae.—Scabbard and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopide and Trichiuride.— 
The Paleorhynchidze.—The Sailfishes: Istiophorida.—The Swordfishes: 


CHAPTER XXXII. 
| CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS. 


The Pampanos: Carangide.—The Papagallos: Nematistiida—The Blue- 
fishes: Cheilodipteridea—The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentride.—The 
Butter-fishes : Stromateide.—The Ragfishes: Icosteida —The Pomfrets: 
Bramide.—The Dolphins: Coryphenide.—The Menide.—The Pem- 
pheridze.—Luvaride.—The Square-tails: Tetragonurida.—The Crested 


PAGE 


2HSINTGES. 3, 65: Cone eae dicho nid oG often Os od OM eS Sr oe 473 


IByavovekatsl aes 1L(0} 0) nek Ee nee ade Anat cidocd macho maciocecu 487 


CHAPTER XXXIII. 
PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES. 


Percoid Fishes.—The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderide.—The Pigmy Sun- 
fishes: Elassomidae.—The Sunfishes: Centrarchidee.—Crappies and Rock 
Bass.—The Black Bass.—The Saleles: Kuhliida.—The True Perches: 
Percide.—Relations of Darters to Perches.—The Perches.—The Dar- 


POLS ME UMCOSUO MALT CS esp oyrefer ee 1,6) <isileysSlsisifesfaraatece oye. aberele a sleueele sta) atscapaererers 508 


CHAPTER XXXIV. 
THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES. 


The Cardinal-fishes: Apogonide.—The Anomalopide.—The Asineopide.— 
The Robalos: Oxylabracida—The Sea-bass: Serranidee.—The Jew- 
fishes —The Groupers.—The Serranos.—The Flashers: Lobotidae.— 
—tThe Big-eyes: Priacanthide.—The Histiopteride.—The Snappers: 
Lutianide.—The Grunts: Hemulide.—The Porgies: Sparide.—The 
Picarels: Méenide—The Mojarras: Gerrida.—The © Rudder-fishes: 


TGQWDINOSIGES.. «6 prota om ans extn CO OO SOOO OREO RAG Occ asc once ac 531 


CHAPTER XXXV. 
THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR RELATIVES. 


The Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullida.—The Croakers: Scienidze.—The 
Sillaginide, etc —The Jawfishes: Opisthognathide, ete-—The Stone- 
wall Perch: Oplegnathide.—The Swallowers: Chiasmodontide.—The 
Malacanthide.—The Blanquillos: Latilide—The Bandfishes: Cepoli- 


dz,—The Cirrhitide.—The Sandfishes: Trichodontide............... 565 


Xil Contents 


CHAPTER XXXVI. 
LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI. 


The Labyrinthine Fishes.—The Climbing-perches: Anabantida.—The Gou- 
ramis: Osphromenide#.—The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalide.— 
Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes—The Embiotocide............. 


CHAPTER XXXVII. 
CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI. 


Suborder Chromides.—The Cichlide.—The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentride. 
—Suborder Pharyngognathi—The Wrasse Fishes: Labrida.—The 
Pasrot-fishes::Scarlda, (.s.0\.0.0 sien testo he ot OEE Ne sare cae cea E a Toc epee 


CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
THE SQUAMIPINNES. 


The Squamipinnes.—The Scorpidide.—The Boarfishes: Antigoniidze.—The 
Arches: Toxotide.—The Ephippide.—The Spade-fishes: Ilarchidae.— 
The Platacide.—The Butterfly-fishes: Chaetodontide.—The Pygzide. 
—The Moorish Idols: Zanclide.—The Tangs: Acanthurida.—Suborder 
Amphacanthi, the wiganid cect oar er cris rg Ae alee eheneloreieie testes tattle ieee 


CHAPTER XXXIX. 
SERIES PLECTOGNATHI. 


The Plectognaths.—The Scleroderms.—The Trigger-fishes: Balistidae.—The 
File-fishes: Monacanthide.—The Spinacanthide.—The Trunkfishes: 
Ostraciida.—The Gymnodontes.—The Triodontida.—The Globefishes: 
Tetraodontidz.—The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontida.—The Head-fishes: 
1 Colt (ot MARGOT C9 G0 CMD OC oOo ORE. HOMIE SOM ONT at POS Oe 


CHAPTER XL. 
PAREIOPLIT2, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES. 


The Mailed-cheek Fishes.—The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpenida.—The Skil- 
fishes: Anoplopomide.—The Greenlings: Hexagrammidw.—The Flat- 
heads or Kochi: Platycephalida—The Sculpins: Cottide.—The Sea- 
poachers: Agonide.—The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteride—The Sea- 
snails: Liparidide—The Baikal Cods: Comephoride.—Suborder Cra- 
niomi: the Gurnards, Triglida.—The Peristediide—The Flying Gur- 
nards: Cephalacanth ides tnrmmere ita mre east wine nielts isi irl \>/< wie wine ts 


PAGE 


579 


59t 


608 


622 


Contents Xili 


CHAPTER XLI. 
GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TNIOSOMI. 


PAGE 
Suborder Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiida—Suborder Discocephali, the 
Shark-suckers: Echeneididea.—Suborder Txniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes. 
—The Oarfishes: Regalecidae—The Dealfishes: Trachypteridz....... 670 


CHAPTER XLII. 
SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA. 


The Flatfishes.—Optic Nerves of Flounders.—Ancestry of Flounders.—The 
Flounders: Pleuronectide.—The Turbot Tribe: Bothine.—The Halibut 
Tribe: Hippoglossine.—The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectine.—The Soles: 
Soleida.—The Broad Soles: Achirinz.—The European Soles (Soleinz). 
——Dheplonpue-nshes-| Cynoglossinae. «so sieieis = /isieielsiieis eieis) or area 6or 


CHAPTER XLIII. 
SUBORDER JUGULARES. 


The Jugular-fishes.—The Weevers: Trachinide.—The Nototheniide.—The 
Leptoscopide.—The Star-gazers: Uranoscopide.—The Dragonets: Cal- 
horiymide:—Mhe Dactyloscopides.. i)... Gece ie wes cieliein sale ee wince os 709 


CHAPTER XLIV. 


THE BLENNIES: BLENNIID2. 


The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiine, Sticheinie, etc——The Quillfishes: 
Ptilichthyidea.—The Blochiidea.—The Patezcide, etc-—The Gadopside, 
etc.—The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadide.—The Eel-pouts: Zoarcide.— 
The Cusk-eels: Ophidiidae—Sand-lances: Ammodytide.—The Pearl- 
fishes: Fierasferidae —The Brotulide.—Ateleopodide.—Suborder Hap- 
lodoci;—Suborder Xenoptery gil. 5... cso ees vole weieiw onesie ase 717 


CHAPTER XLV. 
OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI. 


Order Opisthomi.—Order Anacanthini—The Codfishes: Gadida.—The 
Hakes: Merluciide.—The Grenadiers: Macrouride................-. 739 


CHAPTER XLVI. 
ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS. 


The Angler-fishes.—The Fishing-frogs: Lophiide.—The Sea-devils: Cera- 
tiida.—The Frogfishes: Antennariidw.—The Batfishes: Ogeocephalide. 748 


COLORED PLATES 


FISHES FROM A POOL IN THE CORAL REEF AT APIA, SAMOA.. ....--..... Frontispiece 
PAGE 
FISHES OF THE CORAI. REEFS, SAMOA, FAMILY LABRIDZE. .............-.-+0-5- 80 
DAMSEL-FISHES (POMACENTRIDZ) FROM CORAL REEFS, SAMOA, SHOWING 
OTRECOGNERTON  WVUAR KS 2 ov 5. 2152.3, «she eVepeiesebare teen ensrepebelaimuero cle lapeinraeale ora" aiatay chats 84 
STORGEONM(AGIPENSER! (SUURIO)) oe oe os eisieteie rector eel sieselereleteineietate teh steterataalalasoetatotane 256 
KERN River’ CE ROUL,  SALMOLGILBERTD (JORDAN) luc) yi steertaiicietertateterel aye) leva) veletete 322 
GoLpEN Trout OF VOLCANO CREEK, SALMO ROOSEVELTI EVERMANN ..........- 324 
GOLDEN Trout OF SODA CREEK, SALMO WHITEI EVERMANN... ..----.+..+5--- 326 
PERCH-LIKE FISHES OF THE CORAL REEFS, SAMOA.....------s2cceecteeeeesees 544 
SOQUETEAGUE* \WEAKEISH (CYNOSCION IREGATIS) |< <<. <<.5.5)2 010 siete oleic e}ecleiatera emis eisucins 566 
OGEANOES WATOVIETATA (IUACEPEDE)) woe oe 1s sini sisi © «iors 2 vie siete tire neler sistas 574 
TABRID AS OF) THE) CORAL REERS: SAMOA. 02 <0 cae csisae og oe ei elsloisieicieiieielaiei J4 aye) 600 
AB RID LOR UTE CORAL ICRERS: | SAMOAS. s s)'c.cicrafercusls sia s/= ene = uc ls nib an abo ebebepe ere teneeiars 602 
PSEUDOSCARUS OR CALLYODON LATAxX JORDAN & SEALE. TYPE. .............. 606 
HISHES TO RMUME EC ORATOR RS SAMOS (cf cisteyeiniaysieiclslelmiene rics \s << +e ela sel e/epeneretataenene 614 
WARTATIONS SING MEE COLOR (OR CMISHES ai lel eics! sic) 4isig! lol r= ininja vlnis\« «7~ 41s ets aie ieCoeees 644 
USES VOMCORAT: EOOLS) GAMOM she «<1 5 alse sie visie ateysin-s o = 6 arars/o: se) nis tepals el eee 646 
Fiyinc GURNARD; BAT-FISH. (CEPHALACANTHUS VOLITANS, (LINNEUS).......... 668 
BISHES OF THE CORAL, REEES, SAMOA. coc cece cece neice ces wie neemens ols slalaieias 714 


CHAPTER I 


THE LIFE (OF THE, FISH 


A POPULAR ACCOUNT OF THE LIFE OF THE LONG-EARED 
SUNFISH, LEPOMIS MEGALOTIS 


HAT is a Fish ?—A fish is a back-boned animal which 
lives in the water and cannot ever live very long 
anywhere else. Its ancestors have always dwelt in 

water, and most likely its descendents will forever follow their 

example. So, as the water is a region very different from the 
fields or the woods, a fish in form and structure must be quite 
unlike all the beasts and birds that walk or creep or fly above 
ground, breathing air and being fitted to live in it. There are 

a great many kinds of animals called fishes, but in this all of 

them agree: all have some sort of a back-bone, all of them 

breathe their life long by means of gills, and none have fingers 
or toes with which to creep about on land. 

The Long-eared Sunfish.—If we would understand a fish, 
we must first go and catch one. This is not very hard to do, for 
there are plenty of them in the little rushing brook or among the 
lilies of the pond. Let us take a small hook, put on it an angle- 
worm or a grasshopper,—no need to seek an elaborate artificial 
fly,—and we will go out to the old “‘swimming-hole”’ or the deep 
eddy at the root of the old stump where the stream has gnawed 
away the bank in changing its course. Here we will find 
fishes, and one of them will take the bait very soon. In one 
part of the country the first fish that bites will be different from 
the first one taken in some other. But as we are fishing in 
the United States, we will locate our brook in the centre of popu- 


lation of our country. This will be to the northwest of Cincin- 
I 


‘(anbsouyeyy) syojpbau suuodaT ‘ysyung poive-3u0T—'T “OI 


gag —CIPEIMUS “A “HAA Att WOLD) 


The Life of the Fish 3 


nati, among the low wooded hills from which clear brooks flow 
over gravelly bottoms toward the Ohio River. Here we will catch 
sunfishes of certain species, or maybe rock bass or catfish: any 
of these will do for our purpose. But one of our sunfishes is 
especially beautiful—mottled blue and golden and scarlet, with 
a long, black, ear-like appendage backward from his gill-covers— 
and this one we will keep and hold for our first lesson in fishes, 
It is a small fish, not longer than your hand most likely, but it 
can take the bait as savagely as the best, swimming away with 
it with such force that you might think from the vigor of its 
pull that you have a pickerel or a bass. But when it comes out 
of the water you see a little, flapping, unhappy, living plate of 


Fic. 2.—Long-eared Sunfish, Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque). (From Clear Creek, 
Bloomington, Indiana.) Family Centrarchide. 

brown and blue and orange, with fins wide-spread and eyes 

red with rage. 

Form of the Fish.—And now we have put the fish into a 
bucket of water, where it lies close to the bottom. Then we take 
it home and place it in an aquarium, and for the first time we 
have a chance to see what it is like. We see that its body is 
almost elliptical in outline, but with flat sides and shaped on the 
lower parts very much like a boat. This form we see is such as 
to enable it to part the water as it swims. We notice that its 
progress comes through the sculling motion of its broad, flat tail. 


4 The Life of the Fish 


Face of a Fish.—When we look at the sunfish from the front 
we see that it has a sort of face, not unlike that of higher animals. 
The big eyes, one on each side, stand out without eyelids, but the 
fish can move them at will, so that once in a while he seems to 
wink. There isn’t much of a nose between the eyes, but the 
mouth is very evident, and the fish opens and shuts it as 
it breathes. We soon see that it breathes water, taking it in 
through the mouth and letting it flow over the gills, and then 
out through the opening behind the gill-covers. 

How the Fish Breathes.—If we take another fish—for we shall 
not kill this one—we shall see that in its throat, behind the mouth- 
cavity, there are four rib-like bones on each side, above the 
beginning of the gullet. These are the gill-arches, and on each 
one of them there is a pair of rows of red fringes called the gills. 
Into each of these fringes runs a blood-vessel. As the water 
passes over it the oxygen it contains is absorbed through the 
skin of the gill-fringe into the blood, which thus becomes puri- 
fied. In the same manner the impurities of the blood pass out 
into the water, and go out’ through the gill-openings behind. 
The fish needs to breathe just as we do, though the apparatus of 
breathing is not the same. Just as the air becomes loaded with 
impurities when many people breathe it, so does the water in our 
jar or aquarium become foul if it is breathed over and over again 
by fishes. When a fish finds the water bad he comes to the sur- 
face to gulp air, but his gills are not well fitted to use undissolved 
air as a substitute for that contained in water. The rush of a 
stream through the air purifies the water, and so again does the 
growth of water plants, for these in the sunshine absorb and 
break up carbonic acid gas, and throw out oxygen into the water. 

Teeth of the Fish.—On the inner side of the gill-arch we 
find some little projections which serve as strainers to the water. 
These are called gill-rakers. In our sunfish they are short and 
thick, seeming not to amount to much but in a herring they are 
very long and numerous. 

Behind the gills, at the opening of the gullet, are some round- 
ish bones armed with short, thick teeth. These are called pharyn- 
geals. They form a sort of jaws in the throat, and they are useful 
in helping the little fish to crack shells. If we look at the mouth 
of our live fish, we shall find that when it breathes or bites it moves 


The Life of the Fish is 


the lower jaw very much as a dog does. But it can move the 
upper jaw, too, a little, and that by pushing it out in a queer 
fashion, as though it were thrust out of a sheath and then drawn 
in. If we look at our dead fish, we shall see that the upper jaw 
divides in the middle and has two bones on each side. On one 
bone are rows of little teeth, while the other bone that lies behind 
it has no teeth at all. The lower jaw has little teeth like those 
of the upper jaw, and there is a patch of teeth on the roof of the 
mouth also. In some sunfishes there are three little patches, 
the vomer in the middle and the palatines on either side. 

The tongue of the fish is flat and gristly. It cannot move it, 
scarce even taste its food with it, nor can it use it for making a 
noise. The unruly member of a fish is not its tongue, but its tail. 

How the Fish Sees.—To come back to the fish’s eye again. 
We say that it has no eyelids, and so, if it ever goes to sleep, it 
must keep its eyes wide open. Theirisis brown orred. The pupil 
is round, and if we could cut open the eye we should see that the 
crystalline lens is almost a perfect sphere, much more convex than 
the lens in land animals. We shall learn that this is necessary 
for the fish to see under water. It takes a very convex lens or 
even one perfectly round to form images from rays of light 
passing through the water, because the lens is but little more 
dense than the water itself. This makes the fish near-sighted. 
He cannot see clearly anything out of water or at a distance. 
Thus he has learned that when, in water or out, he sees anything 
moving quickly it is probably something dangerous, and the 
thing for him to do is to swim away and hide as swiftly as 
possible. 

In front of the eye are the nostrils, on each side a pair of 
openings. But they lead not into tubes, but into a little cup 
lined with delicate pink tissues and the branching nerves of 
smell. The organ of smell in nearly all fishes is a closed sac, 
and the fish does not use the nostrils at all in breathing. But 
they can indicate the presence of anything in the water which is 
good to eat, and eating is about the only thing a fish cares for. 

Color of the Fish.— Behind the eye there are several bones on the 
side of the head which are more or less distinct from the skull 
itself. These are called membrane bones because they are 
formed of membrane which has become bony by the deposition 


6 The Life of the Fish 


in it of salts of lime. One of these is called the opercle, or 
gill-cover, and before it, forming a right angle, is the pre- 
opercle, or false gill-cover. On our sunfish we see that the 
opercle ends behind in a long and narrow flap, which looks 
like an ear. This is black in color, with an edging of scarlet 
as though a drop of blood had spread along its margin. 
When the fish is in the water its back is dark greenish-looking, 
like the weeds and the sticks in the bottom, so that we cannot 
see it very plainly. This is the way the fish looks to the fish- 
hawks or herons in the air above it who may come to the stream 
to look for fish. Those fishes which from above look most like 
the bottom can most readily hide and save themselves. The 
under side of the sunfish is paler, and most fishes have the belly 
white. Fishes with white bellies swim high in the water, and the 
fishes who would catch them lie below. To the fish in the water 


Fie. 3.—Common Sunfish, Lupomotis gibbosus (Linneus). Natural size. (From 
life by R. W. Shufeldt.) 

all outside the water looks white, and so the white-bellied fishes 

are hard for other fishes to see, just as it is hard for us to see a 

white rabbit bounding over the snow. 


The Life of the Fish 7 


But to be known of his own kind is good for the sunfish, and 
we may imagine that the black ear-flap with its scarlet edge 
helps his mate and friends to find him out, where they swim on 
his own level near the bottom. Such marks are called recognition- 
marks, and a great many fishes have them, but we have no 
certain knowledge as to their actual purpose. 

We are sure that the ear-flap is not an ear, however. No 
fishes have any external ear, all their hearing apparatus being 
buried in the skull. They cannot hear very much: possibly a 
great jar or splash in the water may reach them, but whenever 
they hear any noise they swim off to a hiding-place, for any dis- 
turbance whatever in the water must arouse a fish’s anxiety. 
The color of the live sunfish is very brilliant. Its body is cov- 
ered with scales, hard and firm, making a close coat of mail, 
overlapping one another like shingles on a roof. Over these is a 
thin skin in which are set little globules of bright-colored matter, 
green, brown, and black, with dashes of scarlet, blue, and white 
as well. These give the fish its varied colors. Some coloring 
matter is under the scales also, and this especially makes the 
back darker than the lower parts. The bright colors of the sun- 
fish change with its surroundings or with its feelings. When it 
lies in wait under a dark log its colors are very dark. When it 
rests above the white sands it is very pale. When it is guarding 
its nest from some meddling perch its red shades flash out as it 
stands with fins spread, as though a water knight with lance at 
rest, looking its fiercest at the intruder. 

When the sunfish is taken out of the water its colors seem to 
fade. - In the aquarium it is generally paler, but it will sometimes 
brighten up when another of its own species is placed beside it. 
A cause of this may lie in the nervous control of the muscles 
at the base of the scales. When the scales lie very flat the color has 
one appearance. When they rise a little the shade of color seems 
to change. If you let fall some ink-drops between two panes of 
glass, then spread them apart or press them together, you will 
see changes in the color and size of the spots. Of this nature is 
the apparent change in the colors of fishes under different con- 
ditions. Where the fish feels at its best the colors are the richest. 
There are some fishes, too, in which the male grows very brilliant 
in the breeding season through the deposition of red, white, biack, 


-_ 


8 The Life of the Fish 


or blue pigments, or coloring matter, on its scales or on its head 
or fins, this pigment being absorbed when the mating season is 
over. This is not true of the sunfish, who remains just about 
the same at all seasons. The male and female are colored 
alike and are not to be distinguished without dissection. If we 
examine the scales, we shall find that these are marked with fine 
lines and concentric stric, and part of the apparent color is due 
to the effect of the fine ines on the light. This gives the bluish 
lustre or sheen which we can see in certain lights, although we 
shall find no real blue pigment under it. The inner edge of each 
scale is usually scalloped or crinkled, and the outer margin of 
most of them has little prickly points which make the fish seem 
rough when we pass our hand along his sides. 

The Lateral Line.—Along the side of the fish is a line of 
peculiar scales which runs from the head to the tail. This is 


Fic. 4.—Ozorthe dictyogramma (Herzenstein). A Japanese blenny, from Hakodate: 
showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait characteristic of many fishes of 
the north Pacific. 


called the lateral line. If we examine it carefully, we shall see 
that each scale has a tube from which exudes a watery or 
mucous fluid. Behind these tubes are nerves, and although not 
much is known of the function of the tubes, we can be sure that 
in some degree the lateral line is a sense-organ, perhaps aiding 
the fish to feel sound-waves or other disturbances in the water. 

The Fins of the Fish.—The fish moves itself and directs its 
course in the water by means of its fins. These are made up of 
stiff or flexible rods growing out from the body and joined to- 
gether by membrane. There are two kinds of these rays or rods 
in the fins. One sort is without joints or branches, tapering to 
a sharp point. The rays thus fashioned are called spines, and 
they are in the sunfish stiff and sharp-pointed. The others, 


— 


The Life of the Fish 9 


known as soft rays, are made up of many little joints, and most 
of them branch and spread out brush-like at their tips. In the 
fin on the back the first ten of the rays are spines, the rest are 
soft rays. In the fin under the tail there are three spines, and in 
each fin at the breast there is one spine with five soft rays. In 
the other fins all the rays are soft. 

The fin on the back is called the dorsal fin, the fin at the end 
of the tail is the caudal fin, the fin just in front of this on the 
lower side is the anal fin. The fins, one on each side, just behind 
the gill-openings are called the pectoral fins. These correspond 
to the arms of man, the wings of birds, or the fore legs of a turtle 
or lizard. Below these, corresponding to the hind legs, is the 
pair of fins known as the ventral fins. If we examine the bones 
behind the gill-openings to which the pectoral fins are attached, 
we shall find that they correspond after a fashion to the shoulder- 
girdle of higher animals. But the shoulder-bone in the sunfish 
is joined to the back part of the skull, so that the fish has 
not any neck at all. In animals with necks the bones at the 
shoulder are placed at some distance behind the skull. 

If we examine the legs of a fish, the ventral fins, we shall 
find that, as in man, these are fastened to a bone inside called 
the pelvis. But the pelvis in the sunfish is small and it is placed 
far forward, so that it is joined to the tip of the ‘“‘collar-bone”’ of 
the shoulder-girdle and pelvis attached together. The caudal 
fin gives most of the motion of a fish. The other fins are mostly 
used in maintaining equilibrium and direction. The pectoral 
fins are almost constantly in motion, and they may sometimes 
help in breathing by starting currents outside which draw water 
over the gills. 

The Skeleton of the Fish.—The skeleton of the fish, like that 
of man, is made up of the skull, the back-bone, the limbs, and 
their appendages. But in the fish the bones are relatively 
smaller, more numerous, and not so firm. The front end of the 
vertebral column is modified as a skull to contain the little 
brain which serves for all a fish’s activities. To the skull are 
attached the jaws, the membrane bones, and the shoulder- 
girdle. The back-bone itself in the sunfish is made of about 
twenty-four pieces, or vertebrae. Each of these has a rounded 
central part, concave in front and behind. Above this is a 


ste) The Life of the Fish 


channel through which the great spinal cord passes, and above 
and below are a certain number of processes or projecting 
points. To some of these, through the medium of another set of 
sharp bones, the fins of the back are attached. Along the sides 
of the body are the slender ribs. 

The Fish in Action.—-The fish is, like any other animal, a 
machine to convert food into power. It devours other animals 
or plants, assimilates their substance, takes it over into itself, 
and through its movements uses up this substance again. The 
food of the sunfish is made up of worms, insects, and little fishes. 
To seize these it uses its mouth and teeth. To digest them it 
needs its alimentary canal, made of the stomach with its glands 
and intestines. If we cut the fish open, we shall find the stomach 
with its pyloric ceca, near it the large liver with its gall- 
bladder, and on the other side the smaller spleen. After the 
food is dissolved in the stomach and intestines the nutritious 
part is taken up by the walls of the alimentary canal, whence 
it passes into the blood. 

The blood is made pure in the gills, as we have already seen. 
To send it to the gills the fish has need of a little pumping-engine, 
and this we shall find at work in the fish as in all higher animals. 
This engine of stout muscle surrounding a cavity is called the 
heart. In most fishes it is close behind the gills. It contains 
one auricle and one ventricle only, not two of each as in man. 
The auricle receives the impure blood from all parts of the body. 
It passes it on to the ventricle, which, being thick-walled, is 
dark red in color. This passes the blood by convulsive action, 
or heart-beating, on to the gills. From these the blood is col- 
lected in arteries, and without again returning to the heart it 
flows all through the body. The blood in the fish flows slug- 
gishly. The combustion of waste material goes on slowly, and 
so the blood is not made hot as it is in the higher beasts and 
birds. Fishes have relatively little blood; what there is is 
rather pale and cold and has no swift current. 

If we look about in the inside of a fish, we shall find close 
along the lower side of the back-bone, covering the great artery, 
the dark red kidneys. These strain out from the blood a cer- 
tain class of impurities, poisons made from nerve or muscle 
waste which cannot be burned away by the oxygen of respiration. 


The Life of the Fish iii 


The Air-bladder.—In the front part of the sunfish, just above 
the stomach, is a closed sac, filled with air. This is called the 
air-bladder, or swim-bladder. It helps the fish to maintain its 
place in the water. In bottom fishes it is almost always small, 
while fishes that rise and fall in the current generally have a 
large swim-bladder. The gas inside it is secreted from the 
blood, for the sunfish has no way of getting any air into it from 
the outside. 

But the primal purpose of the air-bladder was not to serve 
as a float. In very old-fashioned fishes it has a tube connecting 
it with the throat, and instead of being an empty sac it is a true 
lung made up of many lobes and parts and lined with little blood- 
vessels. Such fishes as the garpike and the bowfin have lung- 
like air-bladders and gulp air from the surface of the water. 

In the very little sunfish, when he is just hatched, the air- 
bladder has an air-duct, which, however, is soon lost, leaving 
only a closed sac. From all this we know that the air-bladder 
is the remains of what was once a lung, or additional arrange- 
ment for breathing. As the gills furnish oxygen enough, the 
lung of the common fish has fallen into disuse and thrifty Nature 
has used the parts and the space for another and a very different 
purpose. This will serve to help us to understand the swim- 
bladder and the way the fish came to acquire it as a substitute 
for a lung. 

The Brain of the Fish.—The movements of the fish, like those 
of every other complex animal, are directed by a central ner- 
vous system, of which the principal part is in the head and is 
known as the brain. From the eye of the fish a large nerve 
goes to the brain to report what is in sight. Other nerves go 
from the nostrils, the ears, the skin, and every part which has 
any sort of capacity for feeling. These nerves carry their mes- 
sages inward, and when they reach the brain they may be trans- 
formed into movement. The brain sends back messages to the 
muscles, directing them to contract. Their contraction moves 
the fins, and the fish is shoved along through the water. To 
scare the fish or to attract it to its food or to its mate is about 
the whole range of the effect that sight or touch has on the 
animal. These sensations changed into movement constitute 
what is called reflex action, performance without thinking of 


aE 
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C3ppmnys “AL “YW Aq ast, wos) 


‘OZIS [BINjUN 


*(snauury) 


snsoqqub syowodny ‘ysyung uourml0j—’e 


“OLY 


The Life of the Fish 19 


what is being done. With a boy, many familiar actions may be 
equally reflex. The boy can also do many other things “of his 
own accord,” that is, by conscious effort. He can choose among 
a great many possible actions. But a fish cannot. If he is 
scared, he must swim away, and he has no way to stop himself. 
If he is hungry, and most fishes are so all the time, he will spring 
at the bait. If he is thirsty, he will gasp, and there is nothing 
else for him to do. In other words, the activities of a fish are 
nearly all reflex, most of them being suggested and immediately 
directed by the influence of external things. Because its 
actions are all reflex the brain is very small, very primitive, and 
very simple, nothing more being needed for automatic move- 
ment. Small as the fish’s skull-cavity is, the brain does not 
half fill it. 

The vacant space about the little brain is filled with a fatty 
fluid mass looking like white of egg, intended for its protection. 
Taking the dead sunfish (for the live one we shall look after 
carefully, giving him every day fresh water and a fresh worm 
or snail or bit of beef), if we cut off the upper part of the skull 
we shall see the separate parts of the brain, most of them lying 
in pairs, side by side, in the bottom of the brain-cavity. The 
largest pair is near the middle of the length of the brain, two 
nerve-masses (or ganglia), each one round and hollow. If we 
turn these over, we shall see that the nerves of the eye run into 
them. We know then that these nerve-masses receive the 
impressions of sight, and so they are called optic lobes. In 
front of the optic lobes are two smaller and more oblong nerve- 
masses. These constitute the cerebrum. This is the thinking 
part of the brain, and in man and in the higher animals it makes 
up the greater part of it, overlapping and hiding the other ganglia. 
But the fish has not much need for thinking and its fore-brain 
or cerebrum is very small. In front of these are two small, 
slim projections, one going to each nostril. These are the olfac- 
tory lobes which receive the sensation of smell. Behind the 
optic lobes is a single small lobe, not divided into two. This 
is the cerebellum and it has charge of certain powers of motion. 
Under the cerebellum is the medulla, below which the spinal 
cord begins. The rest of the spinal cord is threaded through 
the different vertebrae back to the tail, and at each joint it sends 


14 The Life of the Fish 


out nerves of motion and receives nerves of sense. Everything 
that is done by the fish, inside or outside, receives the attention 
of the little branches of the great nerve-cord. 

The Fish’s Nest.—The sunfish in the spawning time will 
build some sort of a nest of stones on the bottom of the eddy, 
and then, when the eggs are laid, the male with flashing eye and 
fins all spread will defend the place with a good deal of spirit. 
All this we call instinct. He fights as well the first time as 
the last. The pressure of the eggs suggests nest-building to 
the female. The presence of the eggs tells the male to defend 
them. But the facts of the nest-building and nest protection are 
not very well understood, and any boy who can watch them and 
describe them truly will be able to add something to science. 


CHAPTER It 


THE EXTERIOR OF THE FISH 


ORM of Body.—With a glance at the fish as a living 
organism and some knowledge of those structures 
which are to be readily seen without dissection, we 
are prepared to examine its anatomy in detail, and to note some 
of the variations which may be seen in different parts of the 
great group. 

In general fishes are boat-shaped, adapted for swift progress 
through the water. They are longer than broad or deep and 
the greatest width is in front of the middle, leaving the com- 
pressed paddle-like tail as the chief organ of locomotion. 

But to all these statements there are numerous exceptions. 
Some fishes depend for protection, not on swiftness, but on the 
thorny skin or a bony coat of mail. Some of these are almost 
globular in form, and their outline bears no resemblance to that 


Fic. 6.—Pine-cone Fish, Monocentris japonicus (Houttuyn). Waka, Japan. 


of a boat. The trunkfish (Ostracion) in a hard bony box has 
no need of rapid progress. 


15 


16 The Exterior of the Fish 


Fic. 7.—Porcupine-fish, Diodon hystrix (Linneus). Tortugas Islands. 


Ve 


Fic. 8. 
Fic. 8.—Thread-eel, Nemichthys avocetta Jordan and Gilbert. Vancouver Island. 
Fic. 9.—Sea-horse, Hippocampus hudsonius Dekay, Virginia. 


The Exterior of the Fish I 


oa 
/ 


) 
Fig. 11.—Anko or’ Fishing-frog, Lophius litulon (Jordan). Matsushima Bay, Japan. 
(The short line in all cases shows the degree of reduction; it represents an 


inch of the fish’s length.) 


18 The Exterior of the Fish 


The pine-cone fish (Monocentris japonicus) adds strong fin- 
spines to its bony box, and the porcupine fish (Diodon hystrix) 
is covered with long prickles which keep away all enemies. 

Among swift fishes, there are some in which the body is 
much deeper than long, as in Antigonta. Certain sluggish fishes 
seem to be all head and tail, looking as though the body by 
some accident had been omitted. These, like the headfish 
(Mola mola) are protected by a leathery skin. Other fishes, as 
the eels, are extremely long and slender, and some carry this 
elongation to great extremes. Usually the head is in a line 
with the axis of the body, but in some cases, as the sea-horse 
(Hippocampus), the head is placed at right angles to the axis, 
and the body itself is curved and cannot be straightened with- 
out injury. The type of the swiftest fish is seen among the 
mackerels and tunnies, where every outline is such that a racing 
yacht might copy it. 

The body or head of the fish is said to be compressed when 
it is flattened sidewise, depressed when it is flattened vertically. 
Thus the Peprilus (Fig. 10) is said to be compressed, while the 
fishing-frog (Lophius) (Fig. 11) has a depressed body and head. 
Other terms as truncate (cut off short), attenuate (long-drawn 
out), robust, cuboid, filiform, and the like may be needed in 
descriptions. 

Measurement of the Fish.—As most fishes grow as long as 
they live, the actual length of a specimen has not much value 
for purposes of description. The essential point is not actual 
length, but relative length. The usual standard of measure- 
ment is the length from the tip of the snout to the base of the 
caudal fin. With this length the greatest depth of the body, 
the greatest length of the head, and the length of individual parts 
may be compared. Thus in the Rock Hind (Epinephelus 
adscensionis), fig. 12, the head is contained 2$ times in the 
length, while the greatest depth is contained three times. 

Thus, again, the length of the muzzle, the diameter of the eye, 
and other dimensions may be compared with the length of the 
head. In the Rock Hind, fig. 12, the eye is 5 in head, the snout 
is 43 in head, and the maxillary 2%. Young fishes have the 
eye larger, the body slenderer, and the head larger in proportion 
than old fishes of the same kind. The mouth grows larger 


The Exterior of the Fish 1g 


with age, and is sometimes larger also in the male sex. The 
development of the fins often varies a good deal in some fishes 
with age, old fishes and male fishes having higher fins when 


Fic. 12.—Rock Hind or Cabra Mora of the West Indies, Epinephelus adscensions 
(Osbeck), Family Serranide. 


such differences exist. These variations are soon understood by 
the student of fishes and cause little doubt or confusion in the 
study of fishes. 

The Scales, or Exoskeleton.—The surface of the fish may be 
naked as in the catfish, or it may be covered with scales, prickles, 
shagreen, or bony plates. The hard covering of the skin, when 
present, is known as the exoskeleton, or outer skeleton. In the 
fish, the exoskeleton, whatever form it may assume, may be 
held to consist of modified scales, and this is usually obviously 
the case. The skin of the fish may be thick or thin, bony, 
horny, leathery, or papery, or it may have almost any inter- 
mediate character. When protected by scales the skin is usually 
thin and tender; when unprotected it may be ossified, as in the 
sea-horse; horny, as in the headfish; leathery, as in the catfish; 
or it may, as in the sea-snails, form a loose scarf readily de- 
tachable from the muscles below. 

The scales themselves may be broadly classified as ctenoid, 
cycloid, placoid, ganoid, or prickly. 

Ctenoid and Cycloid Scales—Normally formed scales are 
rounded in outline, marked by fine concentric rings, and crossed 
on the inner side by a few strong radiating ridges and folds. 


20 The Exterior of the Fish 


They usually cover the body more or less evenly and are imbri- 
cated like shingles on a roof, the free edge being turned back- 
ward. Such normal scales are of two types, ctenoid or cycloid, 
Ctenoid scales have a comb-edge of fine prickles or cilia; cycloid 
scales have the edges smooth. These two types are not very 
different, and the one readily passes into the other, both being 
sometimes seen on different parts of the same fish. In general, 
however, the more primitive representatives of the typical fishes, 
those with abdominal ventrals and without. spines in the fins, 
have cycloid or smooth scales. Examples are the salmon, 
herring, minnow, and carp. Some of the more specialized 
spiny-rayed fishes, as the parrot-fishes, have, however, scales 
equally smooth, although somewhat different in structure. 
Sometimes, as in the eel, the cycloid scales may be reduced to 
mere rudiments buried in the skin. 

Ctenoid scales are beset on the free edge by little prickles or 
points, sometimes rising to the rank of spines, at other times 
soft and scarcely noticeable, when they are known as ciliate or 
eyelash-like. Such scales are possessed in general by the more 
specialized types of bony fishes, as the perch and bass, those 
with thoracic ventrals and spines in the fins. 

Placoid Scales.—Placoid scales are ossified papilla, minute, 
enamelled, and close-set, forming a fine shagreen. These are 
characteristic of the sharks, and in the 
most primitive sharks the teeth are evidently 
modifications of these primitive structures. 
Some other fishes have scales which appear 
shagreen-like to sight and feeling, but only 
the sharks have the peculiar structure to 
which Agassiz gave the name of placoid. 
The rough prickles of the filefishes and 


Fig. 13.—Scales of 


some sculpins are not placoid, but are re- Acanthoessus bronni 
duced or modified ctenoid scales, scales nar- (Agassiz). (After 
rowed and reduced to prickles. ain 

Bony and Prickly Scales—Bony and prickly scales are 


found in great variety, and scarcely admit of description or 
classification. In general, prickly points on the skin are modifi- 
cations of ctenoid scales. Ganoid scales are thickened and cov- 
ered with bony enamel, much like that seen in teeth, otherwise 


The Exterior of the Fish 21 


essentially like cycloid scales. These are found in the garpike 
and in many genera of extinct Ganoid and Crossopterygian 
fishes. In the line of descent the placoid scale preceded the 
ganoid, which in turn was followed by the 
cycloid and lastly by the ctenoid scale. Bony 
scales in other types of fishes may have noth- 
ing structurally in common with ganoid scales 
‘or plates, however great may be the superficial 
resemblance. 

The distribution of scales on the body may 
vary exceedingly. In some fishes the scales 
Fie. 14.—Cycloid are arranged in very regular series; in others 

Bale they are variously scattered over the body. 
Some are scaly everywhere on head, body, and fins. Others 
may have only a few lines or patches. The scales may be 
everywhere alike, or they may in one part or another be greatly 
modified. Sometimes they are transformed into feelers or tactile’ 
organs. The number of scales is always one of the most valu- 
able of the characters by which to distinguish species. 

Lateral Line.—The lateral line in most fishes consists of a 
series of modified scales, each one provided with a mucous tube 
extending along the side of the body from the head to the caudal 
fin. The canal which pierces each scale is simple at its base, but 
its free edge is often branched or ramified. In most spiny-rayed 
fishes it runs parallel with the outline of the back. In most 
soft-rayed fishes it follows rather the outline of the belly. It is 
subject to many variations. In. some large groups (Gobide, 
Pecilude) its surface structures are entirely wanting. In scale- 
less fishes the mucous tube lies in the skin itself. In some 
groups the lateral line has a peculiar position, as in the flying- 
fishes, where it forms a raised ridge bounding the belly. In 
many cases the lateral line has branches of one sort or another. 
It is often double or triple, and in some cases the whole back 
and sides of the fish are covered with lateral lines and their 
ramifications. Sometimes peculiar sense-organs and occasionally 
eye-like luminous spots are developed in connection with the 
lateral line, enabling the fish to see in the black depths of the 
sea. These will be noticed in another chapter. 

The Lateral Line as a Mucous Channel.—The more primitive 


22 The Exterior of the Fish 


condition of the lateral line is seen in the sharks and chimeras, 
in which fishes it appears as a series of channels in or under 
the skin. These channels are filled with mucus, which exudes 
through occasional open pores. In many fishes the bones 
of the skull are cavernous, that is, provided with cavities filled 


Fig. 15.—Singing Fish (with many lateral lines), Porichthys porosissimus (Cuv. 
and Val.). Gulf of Mexico. 


with mucus. Analogous to these cavities are the mucous chan- 
nels which in primitive fishes constitute the lateral line. 

Function of the Lateral Line.—The general function of the 
lateral line with its tubes and pores is still little understood. 
As the structures of the lateral line are well provided with 
nerves, it has been thought to be an organ of sense of some 
sort not yet understood. Its close relation to the ear is beyond 
question, the ear-sac being an outgrowth from it. 

“The original significance of the lateral line,”’ according to 
Dr. Dean,* ‘‘as yet remains undetermined. It appears inti- 
mately if not genetically related to the sense-organs of the head 
and gill region of the ancestral fish. In response to special 
aquatic needs, it may thence have extended farther and farther 
backward along the median line of the trunk, and in its later 
differentiation acquired its metameral characters.” In view 
of its peculiar nerve-supply, ‘‘the precise function of this entire 
system of organs becomes especially difficult to determine. 
Feeling, in its broadest sense, has safely been admitted as its 
possible use. Its close genetic relationship to the hearing 
organ suggests the kindred function of determining waves of 
vibration. These are transmitted in so favorable a way in 
the aquatic medium that from the side of theory a system of 


* Fishes Recent and Fossil, p. 52. 


— 


— 


The Exterior of the Fish 23 


hypersensitive end-organs may well have been established. 
The sensory tracts along the sides of the body are certainly 
well situated to determine the direction of the approach of 
friend, enemy, or prey.” 

The Fins of Fishes.—The organs of locomotion in the fishes 
are known as fins. These are composed of bony or cartilaginous 
rods or rays connected by membranes. The fins are divided 
into two groups, paired fins and vertical fins. The pectoral fins, 
one on either side, correspond to the anterior limbs of the higher 
vertebrates. The ventral fins below or behind them represent 
the hinder limbs. Either or both pairs may be absent, but 
the ventrals are much more frequently abortive than the pec- 
torals. The insertion of the ventral fins may be abdominal, as 
in the sharks and the more generalized of the bony fishes, thoracic 
under the breast (the pelvis attached to the shoulder-girdle) or 
jugular, under the throat. When the ventral fins are ab- 
dominal, the pectoral fins are usually placed very low. The 
paired fins are not in general used for progression in the water, 
but serve rather to enable the fish to keep its equilibrium. 
With the rays, however, the wing-like pectoral fins form the 
chief organ of locomotion. 

The fin on the median line of the back is called the dorsal, 
that on the tail the caudal, and that on the lower median line 
the anal fin. The dorsal is often divided into two fins or even 
three. The anal is sometimes divided, and either dorsal or 
anal fin may have behind it detached single rays called finlets. 

The rays composing the fin may be either simple or branched 
The branched rays are always articulated, that is, crossed by 
numerous fine joints which render them flexible. Simple rays 
are also sometimes articulate. Rays thus jointed are known 
as soft rays, while those rays which are neither jointed nor 
branched are called spines. A spine is usually stiff and sharp- 
pointed, but it may be neither, and some spines are very slen- 
der and flexible, the lack of branches or joints being the 
feature which distinguishes spine from soft ray. 

The anterior rays of the dorsal and anal fins are spinous in 
most fishes with thoracic ventrals. The dorsal fin has usu- 
ally about ten spines, the anal three, but as to this there is 
much variation in different groups. When the dorsal is di- 


24 The Exterior of the Fish 


vided all the rays of the first dorsal and usually the first ray of 
the second are spines. The caudal fin has never true spines, 
though at the base of its lobes are often rudimentary rays 
which resemble spines. Most spineless fishes have such rudi- 
ments in front of their vertical fins. The pectoral, as a rule, 
is without spines, although in the catfishes and some others a 
single large spine may be developed. The ventrals when ab- 
nominal are usually without spines. When thoracic: each 
usually, but not always, consists of one spine and five soft 
rays. When jugular the number of soft rays may be reduced, 
this being a phase of degeneration of the fin. In writing de- 
scriptions of fishes the number of spines may be indicated by 
Roman numerals, those of the soft rays by Arabic. Thus 
D. XII-I, 17 means that the dorsal is divided, that the an- 
terior portion consists of twelve spines, the posterior of one 
spine and seventeen soft rays. In some fishes, as the catfish or 
the salmon, there is a small fin on the back behind the dorsal 
fin. This is known as the adipose fin, being formed of fatty 
substance covered by skin. In a few catfishes, this adipose fin 
develops a spine or soft rays. 

Muscles.—The movements of the fins are accomplished by 
the muscles. These organs lie along the sides of the body, 
forming the flesh of the fish. They are little specialized, and 
not clearly differentiated as in the higher vertebrates. 

With the higher fishes there are several distinct systems of 
muscles controlling the jaws, the gills, the eye, the different 
fins, and the body itself. The largest of all is the great lateral 
muscle, composed of flake-like segments (myocommas) which 
correspond in general with the number of the vertebrae. In 
general the muscles of the fish are white in color. In some 
groups, especially of the mackerel family, they are deep red, 
charged with animal oils. In the salmon they are orange-red, 
a color also due to the presence of certain oils. 

In a few fishes muscular structures are modified into electric 
organs. These will be discussed in a later chapter. 


CHAPTER III 
THE DISSECTION OF THE FISH 


E Blue-green Sunfish.—The organs found in the 
abdominal cavity of the fish may be readily traced 
in a rapid dissection. Any of the bony fishes may 
be chosen, but for our purposes the sunfish will serve 
as well as any. The names and location of the principal 
organs are shown in the accompanying figure, from Kellogg’s 
Zoology. It represents the blue-green sunfish, A pomotis cya- 
nellus, from the Kansas River, but in these regards all the 
species of sunfishes are alike. We may first glance at the dif- 
ferent organs as shown in the sequence of dissection, leaving a 
detailed account of each to the subsequent pages. 

The Viscera.—Opening the body cavity of the fish, as shown 
in the plate, we see below the back-bone a membranous sac 
closed and filled with air. This is the air-bladder, a rudiment 
of that structure which in higher vertebrates is developed as a 
lung. The alimentary canal passes through the abdominal cavity 
extending from the mouth through the pharynx and ending at 
the anus or vent. The stomach has the form of a blind sac, and 
at its termination are a number of tubular sacs, the pyloric 
czeca, which secrete a digestive fluid. Beyond the pylorus ex- 
tends the intestine with one or two loops to the anus. Con- 
nected with the intestine anteriorly is the large red mass of the 
liver, with its gall-bladder, which serves as a reservoir for bile, 
the fluid the liver secretes. Farther back is another red glandu- 
lar mass, the spleen. 

In front of the liver and separated from it by a membrane 
is the heart. This is of four parts. The posterior part is a 
thin-walled reservoir, the sinus venosus, into which blood 
enters through the jugular vein from the head and through 
the cardinal vein from the kidney. From the sinus venosus 


it passes forward into a large thin-walled chamber, the auricle, 
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The Dissection of the Fish oe) 


Next it flows into the thick-walled ventricle, whence by the 
rhythmical construction of its walls it is forced into an arterial 
bulb which lies at the base of the ventral aorta, which carries 
it on to the gills. After passing through the fine gill-filaments, 
it is returned to the dorsal aorta, a large blood-vessel which ex- 
tends along the lower surface of the back-bone, giving out branches 
from time to time. 

The kidneys in fishes constitute an irregular mass under the 
back-bone posteriorly. They discharge their secretions through 
the ureter to a small urinary bladder, and thence into the uro- 
genital sinus, a small opening behind the anus. Into the same 
sinus are discharged the reproductive cells in both sexes. 

In the female sunfish the ovaries consist of two granular 
masses of yellowish tissue lying just below and behind the swim- 
bladder. In the spring they fill much of the body cavity and 
the many little eggs can be plainly seen. When mature they 
are discharged through the oviduct to the urogenital sinus. In 
some fishes there is no special oviduct and the eggs pass into the 
abdominal cavity before exclusion. 

In the male the reproductive organs have the same position 
as the ovaries in the female. They are, however, much smaller 
in size and paler in color, while the minute spermatozoa appear 
milky rather than granular on casual examination. A vas defe- 
rens leads from each of these organs into the urogenital sinus. 

The lancelets, lampreys, and hagfishes possess no genital 
ducts. In the former the germ cells are shed into the atrial 
cavity, and from there find their way to the exterior either 
through the mouth or the atrial pore; in the latter they are shed 
directly into the body cavity, from which they escape through 
the abdominal pores. In the sharks and skates the Wolffian 
duct in the male, in addition to its function as an excretory duct, 
serves also as a passage for the sperm, the testes having a direct 
connection with the kidneys. In these forms there is a pair 
of Miullerian ducts which serve as oviducts in the females; they 
extend the length of the body cavity, and at their anterior end | 
have an opening which receives the eggs which have escaped 
from the ovary into the body cavity. In some bony fishes as 
the eels and female salmon the germ cells are shed into the body 
cavity and escape through genital pores, which, however, may 


28 The Dissection of the Fish 


not be homologous with abdominal pores. In most other bony 
fishes the testes and ovaries are continued directly into ducts 
which open to the outside. 

Organs of Nutrition.—The organs thus shown in dissection 
we may now examine in detail. 

The mouth of the fish is the organ or series of structures first 
concerned in nutrition, The teeth are outgrowths from the 


Fic. 17.—Black Swallower, Chiasmodon niger Johnson, containing a fish larger 
than itself. Le Have Bank, 


skin, primarily as modified papillz, aiding the mouth in its various 
functions of seizing, holding, cutting, or crushing the various kinds 
of food material. Some fishes feed exclusively on plants, some 
on plants and animals alike, some exclusively on animals, some 
on the mud in which minute plants and animals occur. The 
majority of fishes feed on other fishes, and without much regard 
to species or condition. With the carnivorous fishes, to feed repre- 
sents the chief activity of the organism. In proportion to the 
voracity of the fish is usually the size of the mouth, the sharp- 
ness of the teeth, and the length of the lower jaw. 

The most usual type of teeth among fishes is that of villiform 
bands. Villiform teeth are short, slender, even, close-set, making 
a rough velvety surface. When the teeth are larger and more 
widely separated, they are called cardiform, like the teeth of a 
wool-card. Granular teeth are small, blunt, and sand-like. Ca- 
nine teeth are those projecting above the level of the others, 
usually sharp, curved, and in some species barbed. Sometimes 


The Dissection of the Fish 29 


the canines are in front. In some families the last tooth in 
either jaw may be a “posterior canine,”’ serving to hold small 
animals in place while the anterior teeth crush them. Canine 
teeth are often depressible, having a hinge at base. 

Teeth very slender and brush-like are called setiform. Teeth 
with blunt tips are molar. These are usually enlarged and fitted 
for crushing shells. Flat teeth set in 
mosaic, as in many rays and in the 
pharyngeals of parrot-fishes, are said 
to be paved or tessellated. Knife-like 
teeth, occasionally with serrated edges, 
are found in many sharks. Many 
fishes have incisor-like teeth, some 
flattened and truncate like human 
teeth, as in the sheepshead, sometimes 
with serrated edges. Often these teeth 
are movable, implanted only in the 
skin of the lips. In other cases they 
are set fast in the jaw. Most species 
with movable teeth or teeth with ser- 

rated edges are herbivorous, while 

Fic, 18.—Jaws of a Parrot- trong incisors may indicate the choice 

fish, Sparisoma aurofrenatum m 

(Val). Cuba. of snails and crabs as food. Two or 
more of these different types may be 

found in the same fish. The knife-like teeth of the sharks are 
progressively shed, new ones being constantly formed on the 
inner margins of the jaw, so that the teeth are marching to be 
lost over the edge of the jaw as soon as each has fulfilled its 
function. In general the more distinctly a species is a fish- 
eater, the sharper are the teeth. Usually fishes show little dis- 
crimination in their choice of food; often they devour the young 
of their own species as readily as any other. The digestive 
process is rapid, and most fishes rapidly increase in size in the 
process of development. When food ceases to be abundant the 
fishes grow more slowly. For this reason the same species will 
grow to a larger size in large streams than in small ones, in lakes 
than in brooks. In most cases there is no absolute limit to 
growth, the species growing as long as it lives. But while some 
species endure many years, others are certainly very short- 


3 The Dissection of the Fish 


lived, and some may be even annual, dying after spawning, per- 
haps at the end of the first season. 

Teeth are wholly absent in several groups of fishes. They 
are, however, usually present on the premaxillary, dentary, and 
pharyngeal bones. In the higher forms, the vomer, palatines, 
and gill-rakers are rarely without teeth, and in many cases the 
pterygoids, sphenoids, and the bones of the tongue are similarly 
armed. 

No salivary glands or palatine velum are developed in fishes. 
The tongue is always bony or gristly and immovable. Some- 
times taste-buds are developed on it, and sometimes these are 
found on the barbels outside the mouth. 

The Alimentary Canal.—The mouth-cavity opens through the 
pharynx between the upper and lower pharyngeal bones into the 


Fic. 19.—Sheepshead (with incisor teeth), Archosargus probatocephalus (Wal- 
baum). Beaufort, N. C. 

cesophagus, whence the food passes into the stomach. The intes- 
tinal tract is in general divided into four portions—ocesophagus, 
stomach, small and large intestines. But these divisions of the 
intestines are not always recognizable, and in the very lowest 
forms, as in the lancelet, the stomach is a simple straight tube 
without subdivision, 

In the lampreys there is a distinction only of the cesoph- 
agus with many longitudinal folds and the intestine with but 


The Dissection of the Fish 31 


one. In the bony fishes the stomach is an enlarged area, either 
siphon-shaped, with an opening at either end, or else forming 
a blind sac with the openings for entrance (cardiac) and exit 
(pyloric) close together at the anterior end. In the various 
kinds of mollets (Mugil) and in the hickory shad (Dorosoma), 
fishes which feed on minute vegetation mixed with mud, the 
stomach becomes enlarged to a muscular gizzard, like that of a 
fowl. Attached near the pylorus and pouring ‘their secretions 
into the duodenum or small intestine are the pyloric ceca. 
These are tubular sacs secreting a pale fluid and often almost as 
long as the stomach or as wide as the intestine. These may be 
very numerous as in the salmon, in which case they are likely to 
become coalescent at base, or they be few or altogether wanting. 

Besides these appendages which are wanting in the higher 
vertebrates, a pancreas is also found in the sharks and many 
other fishes. This is a glandular mass behind the stomach, its 
duct leading into the duodenum and often coalescent with the 
bile duct from the liver. The liver in the lancelet is a long 
diverticulum of the intestine. In the true fishes it becomes a 
large gland of irregular form, and usually but not always pro- 
vided with a gall-bladder as in the higher vertebrates. Its 
secretions usually pass through a ductus cholodechus to the 
duodenum. 

The spleen, a dark-red lymphatic gland, is found attached 
to the stomach in all fish-like vertebrates except the lancelet. 

The lining membrane of the abdominal cavity is known as the 
peritoneum, and the membrane sustaining the intestines from 
the dorsal side, as in the higher vertebrates, is called the mesen- 
tery. In many species the peritoneum is jet black, while in 
related forms it may be pale in color. It is more likely to be 
black in fishes.from deep water and in fishes which feed on 
plants. 

The Spiral Valve.-—In the sharks or skates the rectum or 
large intestine is peculiarly modified, being provided with a spiral 
valve, with sometimes as many as forty gyrations. A spiral 
valve is also present in the more ancient types of the true fishes 
as dipnoans, crossopterygians, and ganoids. This valve greatly 
increases the surface of the intestine, doing away with tie neces- 
sity for length. In the bowfin (Amza) and the garpike (Lepr- 


32 The Dissection of the Fish 


sosteus) the valve is reduced to a rudiment of three or four con- 
volutions near the end of the intestine. In the sharks and 
skates the intestine opens into a cloaca, which contains also 
the urogenital openings. In all fishes the latter lie behind the 
orifice of the intestine. In the bony fishes and the ganoids 
there is no cloaca. 

Length of the Intestine.—In all fishes, as in the higher ver- 
tebrates, the length of the alimentary canal is coordinated with 
the food of the fish. In those which feed upon plants the intes- 


Fic. 20.—Stone-roller, Campostoma anomalum (Rafinesque). Family Cyprinide. 
Showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about the air-bladder. 


tine is very long and much convoluted, while in those which 
feed on other fishes it is always relatively short. In the 
stone-roller, a fresh-water minnow (Campostoma) found in the 
Mississippi Valley, the excessively long intestines filled with 
vegetable matter are wound spool-fashion about the large air- 
bladder. In all other fishes the air-bladder lies on the dorsal 
side of the intestinal canal. 


Fic. 21.—Skeleton of the Cow-fish, Lactophrys tricornis (Linnzeus). 


The Organs of Reproduction 33 


The Eggs of Fishes.—The great majority of fishes are ovipa- 
rous, the eggs being fertilized after deposition. The eggs are laid 
in gravel or sand or other places suitable for the species, and the 
milt containing the sperm-cells of the male is discharged over or 
among them in the water. <A very small quantity of the sperm- 
fluid may impregnate a large number of eggs. But one sperm- 
cell can enter a particular egg. In a number of families the 
species are ovoviviparous, the eggs being hatched in the ovary 
or in a dilated part of the oviduct, the latter resembling a real 
uterus. In some sharks there is a structure analogous to 


Ve 
= — 


= 
Fig. 22.—White Surf-fish, viviparous, with young, Cymatogaster aggregatus 
Gibbons. San Francisco, 


the placenta of higher animals, but not of the same structure 
ororigin. Inthe case of viviparous fishes actual copulation takes 
place and there is usually a modification of some organ to effect 
transfer of the sperm-cells. This is the purpose of the sword- 
shaped anal fin in many top-minnows (Peciliide), the fin itself 
being placed in advance of its usual position. In the surf-fishes 
(Embiotocide) the structure of part of the anal fin is modified, 
although it is not used as an intromittent organ. In the Elas- 
mobranchs, as already stated, large organs of cartilage (claspers) 
are developed from the ventral fins. 

In some viviparous fishes, as in the rockfishes (Sebastodes) 
and rosefishes (Sebastes), the young aie very minute at birth. 


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The Organs of Reproduction a5 


In others, as the surf-fishes (Embiotocidz), they are relatively 
large and few in number. In the viviparous sharks, which con- 
stitute the majority of the species of living sharks, the young 
are large at birth and prepared to take care of themselves. 
The eggs of fishes vary very much in size and form. In 


Fic. 24 —Egg of Callorhynchus antarcticus, the Bottle-nosed Chimera. (After 
Parker and Haswell.) 


those sharks and rays which lay eggs the ova are deposited in 
a horny egg-case, in color and texture suggesting the kelp in 
which they are laid. The eggs of the bull-head sharks (Heterodon- 
tus) are spirally twisted, those of the cat-sharks (Scyliorhinide) 
are quadrate with long filaments at the angles. Those of rays 
are wheelbarrow-shaped with four ‘“‘handles.” One egg-case 


~ Se 


uly ies ae ae 


Je. 25.—Egg of the Hagfish, Myaine limosa Girard, showing threads for attach- 
ment. (After Dean.) 


of a ray may sometimes contain several eggs and develop 
several young. The eggs of lancelets are small, but those of 
the hagfishes are large, ovate, with fibres at each side, each with 
a triple hook at tip. The chimera has also large egg-cases, 
oblong in form. 

In the higher fishes the eggs are spherical, large or small 
according to the species, and varying in the firmness of their 


36 The Organs of Reproduction 


outer walls. All contain food-yolk from which the embryo in 
its earlier stages is fed. The eggs of the eel (Anguilla) are micro- 
scopic. According to Gunther 25,000 
eggs have been counted in the herring, 
155,000 in the lumpfish, 3,500,000 in 
the halibut, 635,200 in the sturgeon, 
and 9,344,000 in the cod. Smaller 
numbers are found in fishes with 
large ova. The red salmon has 
about 3500 eggs, the king salmon 
about 5200. Where an oviduct is 
present the eggs are often poured out 
in glutinous masses, as in the bass. 
When, as in the salmon, there is no 
oviduct, the eggs lie separate and 
do not cohere together. It is only 
with the latter class of fishes, those 
in which the eggs remain distinct, 
that artificial impregnation and 
Se aa hatching is practicable. In this re- 

Shark Heterodontus philippi gard the value of the salmon and 

(Lacépéede). (After Parker and trout is predominant. In some fishes, 


Haswell.) especially those of elongate form, as 
the needle-fish (Tylosurus), the ovary of but one side is 
developed. 


Protection of the Young.—In most fishes the parents take 
no care of their eggs or young. In some catfishes (Platystacus) 
the eggs adhere to the under surface of the female. In the 
sea-horses and pipefishes a pouch is formed in the skin, usually 
underneath the tail of the male. Into this the eggs are thrust, 
and here the young fishes hatch out, remaining until large enough 
to take care of themselves. In certain sea catfishes (Galeichthys) 
the male carries the eggs in his mouth, thus protecting them 
from the attacks of other fishes. In numerous cases the male 
constructs a rough nest, which he defends against all intruders, 
against the female as well as against outside enemies. The 
nest-building habit is especially developed in the sticklebacks 
(Gasterosteid@), a group in which the male fish, though a pygmy 
in size, is very fierce in disposition. 


Fic. 27. —Development of the Horsehead-fish, Selene vomer (Linneus). Family Carangide. (After Li 


itken.) 


oi 


CHAPTER IV 
INSTINCTS, HABITS, AND ADAPTATIONS 


E Habits of Fishes.—The habits of fishes can hardly 
be summarized in any simple mode of classification. 
In the usual course of fish-life the egg is laid in the 
early spring, in water shallower than that in which the parents 
spend their lives. In most cases it is hatched as the water 
grows warmer. The eggs of the members of the salmon and 
cod families are, however, mostly hatched in cooling waters. 
The young fish gathers with others of its species in little schools, 
feeds on smaller fishes of other species or of its own, grows and 
changes until maturity, deposits its eggs, and the cycle of life 
begins again, while the old fish ultimately dies or is devoured. 

Irritability of Animals.—All animals, of whatever degree of 
organization, show in life the quality of irritability or response 
to external stimulus. Contact with external things produces 
some effect on each of them, and this effect is something more 
than the mere mechanical effect on the matter of which the 
animal is composed. In the one-celled animals the functions 
of response to external stimulus are not localized. They are 
the property of any part of the protoplasm of the body. In the 
higher or many-celled animals each of these functions is spe- 
cialized and localized. <A certain set of cells is set apart for each 
function, and each organ or series of cells is released from all 
functions save its own. 

Nerve-cells and Fibres.—In the development of the indi- 
vidual animal certain cells from the primitive external layer 
or ectoblast of the embryo are set apart to preside over the rela- 
tions of the creature to its environment. These cells are highly 
specialized, and while some of them are highly sensitive, others 
are adapted for carrying or transmitting the stimuli received by 


the sensitive cells, and still others have the function of receiv- 
38 


Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 39 


ing sense-impressions and of translating them into impulses of 
motion. The nerve-cells are receivers of impressions. These 
are gathered together in nerve-masses or ganglia, the largest 
of these being known as the brain, the ganglia in general being 
known as nerve-centres. The nerves are of two classes. The 
one class, called sensory nerves, extends from the skin or other 
organ of sensation to the nerve-centre. The nerves of the other 
class, motor nerves, carry impulses to motion. 

The Brain, or Sensorium.—The brain or other nerve-centre 
sits in darkness, surrounded by a bony protecting box. To this 
main nerve-centre, or sensorium, come the nerves from all parts 
of the body that have sensation, the external skin as well as the 
special organs of sight, hearing, taste, and smell. With these 
come nerves bearing sensations of pain, temperature, muscular 
effort—all kinds of sensation which the brain can receive. These 
nerves are the sole sources of knowledge to any animal organism. 
Whatever idea its brain may contain must be built up through 
these nerve-impressions. The aggregate of these impressions 
constitute the world as the organism knows it. All sensation is 
related to action. If an organism is not to act, it cannot feel, 
and the intensity of its feeling is related to its power to act. 

Reflex Action.—These impressions brought to the brain by 
the sensory nerves represent in some degree the facts in the 
animal’s environment. They teach something as to its food 
or its safety. The power of locomotion is characteristic of 
animals. If they move, their actions must depend on the indi- 
cations carried to the nerve-centre from the outside; if they feed 
on living organisms, they must seek their food; if, as in many 
cases, other living organisms prey on them, they must bestir 
themselves to escape. The impulse of hunger on the one hand 
and of fear on the other are elemental. The sensorium receives 
an impression that food exists in a certain direction. At once 
an impulse to motion is sent out from it to the muscles necessary 
to move the body in that direction. In the higher animals 
these movements are more rapid and more exact. This is 
because organs of sense, muscles, nerve-fibres, and the nerve- 
cells are all alike highly specialized. In the fish the sensation 
is slow, the muscular response sluggish, but the method remains 
the same. This is simple reflex action, an impulse from the 


40 Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 


environment carried to the brain and then unconsciously re- 
flected back as motion. The impulse of fear is of the same 
nature. Reflex action is in general unconscious, but with ani- 
mals, as with man, it shades by degrees into conscious action, 
and into volition or action ‘‘done on purpose.”’ 

Instinct.__Different animals show differences in method or 
degree of response to external influences. Fishes will pursue 
their prey, flee from a threatening motion, or disgorge sand or 
gravel swallowed with their food. Such peculiarities of dif- 
ferent forms of life constitute the basis of instinct. 

Instinct is automatic obedience to the demands of conditions 
external to the nervous system. As these conditions vary with 
each kind of animal, so must the demands vary, and from this 
arises the great variety actually seen in the instincts of different 
animals. As the demands of life become complex, so do the in- 
stincts. The greater the stress of environment, the more perfect 
the automatism, for impulses to safe action are necessarily ade- 
quate to the duty they have to perform. If the instinct were 
inadequate, the species would have become extinct. The fact 
that its individuals persist shows that they are provided with 
the instincts necessary to that end. Instinct differs from other 
allied forms of response to external condition in being hereditary, 
continuous from generation to generation. This sufficiently dis- 
tinguishes it from reason, but the line between instinct and reason 
and other forms of reflex action cannot be sharply drawn. 

It is not necessary to consider here the question of the origin 
of instincts. Some writers regard them as “inherited habits,” 
while others, with apparent justice, doubt if mere habits or 
voluntary actions repeated till they become a “‘second nature” 
ever leave a trace upon heredity. Such investigators regard 
instinct as the natural survival of those methods of automatic 
response which were most useful to the life of the animal, the 
individual having less effective methods of reflex action perish- 
ing, leaving no posterity. 

Classification of Instincts. The instincts of fishes may be 
roughly classified as to their relation to the individual into 
egoistic and altruistic instincts. 

Egoistic instincts are those which concern chiefly the indi- 
vidual animal itself. To this class belong the instincts of feed- 


Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 41 


ing, those of self-defense and of strife, the instincts of play, the 
climatic instincts, and environmental instincts, those which direct 
the animal’s mode of life. 

Altruistic instincts are those which relate to parenthood and 
those which are concerned with the mass of individuals of the 
same species. The latter may be called the social instincts. 
In the former class, the instincts of parenthood, may be included 
the instinct of courtship, reproduction, home-making, nest- 
building, and care for the young. Most of these are feebly 
developed among fishes. 

The instincts of feeding are primitively simple, growing com- 
plex through complex conditions. The fish seizes its prey by 
direct motion, but the conditions of life modify this simple 
action to a very great degree. 

The instinct of self-defense is even more varied in its mani- 
festations. It may show itself either in the impulse to make 
war on an intruder or in the desire to flee from its enemies. 
Among carnivorous forms fierceness of demeanor serves at once 
in attack and in defense. 

Herbivorous fishes, as a rule, make little direct resistance 
to their enemies, depending rather on swiftness of movement, 
or in some cases on simple insignificance. To the latter cause 
the abundance of minnows, anchovies, and other small or feeble 
fishes may be attributed, for all are the prey of carnivorous 
fishes, which they far exceed in number. 

The instincts of courtship relate chiefly to the male, the 
female being more or less passive. Among many fishes the 
male makes himself conspicuous in the breeding season, spread- 
ing his fins, intensifying his pigmented colors through mus- 
cular tension, all this supposedly to attract the attention of the 
female. That this purpose is actually accomplished by such 
display is not, however, easily proved. In the little brooks in 
spring, male minnows can be found with warts on the nose or 
head, with crimson pigment on the fins, or blue pigment on the 
back, or jet-black pigment all over the head, or with varied com- 
bination of all these. Their instinct is to display all these to 
the best advantage, even though the conspicuous hues lead to 
their own destruction. 

The movements of many migratory animals are mainly con- 


42 Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 


trolled by the impulse to reproduce. Some pelagic fishes, espe- 
cially flying fishes and fishes allied to the mackerel, swim long 
distances to a region favorable for a deposition of spawn. Some 
species are known only in the waters they make their breeding 
homes, the individuals being scattered through the wide seas at 
other times. Many fresh-water fishes, as trout, suckers, etc., for- 
sake the large streams in the spring, ascending the small brooks 


Fic. 28—Jaws of Nemichthys avocetta Jordan and Gilbert. 


where they can rear their young in greater safety. Still others, 
known as anadromous fishes, feed and mature in the sea, but 
ascend the rivers as the impulse of reproduction grows strong. 
An account of these is given in a subsequent paragraph. 

Variability of Instincts.— When we study instincts of ani- 
mals with care and in detail, we find that their regularity is 
much less than has been supposed. There is as much variation 
in regard to instinct among individuals as there is with regard 
to other characters of the species. Some power of choice is 
found in almost every operation of instinct. Even the most 
machine-like instinct shows some degree of adaptability to new 
conditions. On the other hand, in no animal does reason show 
entire freedom from automatism or reflex action. “The funda- 
mental identity of instinct with intelligence,’ says Dr. Charles 
O. Whitman, “is shown in their dependence upon the same 
structural mechanism (the brain and nerves) and in their re- 
sponsive adaptability.” 

Adaptation to Environment.—In general food-securing struc- 
tures are connected with the mouth, or, as in the anglers, are 
hung as lures above it; spines of offense and defense, electric 
organs, poison-glands, and the like are used in self-protection; 
the bright nuptial colors and adornments of the breeding sea- 
son are doubtfully classed as useful in rivalry; the egg-sacs, 
nests, and other structures or habits may serve to defend the 
young, while skinny flaps, sand or weed-like markings, and 


Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 43 


many other features of mimicry serve as concessions to the en- 
vironment. 

Each kind of fishes has its own ways of life, fitted to the con- 
ditions of environment. Some species lie on the bottom, flat, 
as a flounder, or prone on their lower fins, as a darter or a stone- 
roller. Some swim freely in the depths, others at the surface 
of the depths. Some leap out of the water from time to time, 
as the mullet (Wugil) or the tarpon (Tarpon atlanticus). 

Flight of Fishes.—Some, fishes called the flying-fishes sail 
through the air with a grasshopper-like motion that closely imi- 
tates true flight. The long pectoral fins, wing-like in form, 
cannot, however, be flapped by the fish, the muscles serving 


Fic. 29.—Catalina Flying ish, Cypsilurus californicus (Cooper). Santa Barbara. 


only to expand or fold them. These fishes live in the open sea 
or open channel, swimming in large schools. The small species 
fly for a few feet only, the large ones for more than an eighth 
ofamile. These may rise five to twenty feet above the water. 
The flight of one of the largest flying fishes (Cypsilurus calt- 
fornicus) has been carefully studied by Dr. Charles H. Gilbert 
and the writer. The movements of the fish in the water are 
extremely rapid. The sole motive power is the action under 
the water of the strong tail. No force can be acquired while 
the fish is in the air. On rising from the water the movements 


44 Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 


of the tail are continued until the whole body is out of the water. 
When the tail is in motion the pectorals seem in a state of rapid 
vibration. This is not produced by muscular action on the 
fins themselves. It is the body of the fish which vibrates, the 
pectorals projecting farthest having the greatest amplitude of 
movement. While the tail is in the water the ventral fins are 
folded. When the action of the tail ceases the pectorals and 
ventrals are spread out wide and held at rest. They are not 
used as true wings, but are held out firmly, acting as parachutes, 
enabling the body to skim through the air. When the fish 
begins to fall the tail touches the water. As soon as it is in the 
water it begins its motion, and the body with the pectorals 
again begins to vibrate. The fish may, by skimming the water, 
regain motion once or twice, but it finally falls into the water 
with a splash. While in the air it suggests a large dragon-fly. 


Fig. 80.—Sand-darter, Ammocrypta clara (Jordan and Meek). Des Moines River. 


The motion is very swift, at first in a straight line, but is later 
deflected in a curve, the direction bearing little or no relation 
to that of the wind. When a vessel passes through a school 
of these fishes, they spring up before it, moving in all directions, 
as grasshoppers in a meadow. 

Quiescent Fishes.—Some fishes, as the lancelet, lie buried in 
the sand all their lives. Others, as the sand-darter (Ammocrypta 
pellucida) and the hinalea (Julis gaimard), bury themselves in 
the sand at intervals or to escape from their enemies. Some live 
in the cavities of tunicates or sponges or holothurians or corals 
or oysters, often passing their whole lives inside the cavity of 
one animal. Many others hide themselves in the interstices of 
kelp or seaweeds. Some eels coil themselves in the crevices of 
rocks or coral masses, striking at their prey like snakes. Some 
sea-horses cling by their tails to gulfweed or sea-wrack. Many 


Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 45 


_ little fishes (Gobiomorus, Carangus, Psenes) cluster under the 
stinging tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war or under 
ordinary jellyfishes. In the tide-pools, whether rock, coral, 
or mud, in all regions multitudes of little fishes abound. As 
these localities are neglected by most collectors, they have 
proved of late years a most prolific source of new species. 


Fie. 31.—Pearl-fish, Fierasfer acus (Linnzus), issuing from a Holothurian. 
Coast of Italy. (After Emery.) 


The tide-pools of Cuba, Key West, Cape Flattery, Sitka, Una- 
laska, Monterey, San Diego, Mazatlan, Hilo, Kailua and Waianz 
in Hawaii, Apia and Pago-Pago in Samoa, the present 
writer has found peculiarly rich in rock-loving forms. Even 
richer are the pools of the promontories of Japan, Hakodate 
Head, Misaki, Awa, Izu, Waka, and Kagoshima, where a whole 
new fish fauna unknown to collectors in markets and sandy 
bays has been brought to light. Some of these rock-fishes are 
left buried in the rock weeds as the tide flows, lying quietly 
until it returns. Others cling to the rocks by ventral suckers, 
while still others depend for their safety on their powers of 
leaping or on their quickness of their movements in the water. 
Those of the latter class are often brilliantly colored, but the 
others mimic closely the alge or the rocks. Some fishes live in 
the sea only, some prefer brackish water. Some are found only 


46 Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 


in the rivers, and a few pass more or less indiscriminately 
from one kind of water to another. 

Migratory Fishes.—The movements of migratory fishes are 
mainly controlled by the impulse of reproduction. Some pelagic 
fishes, especially those of the 
mackerel and flying-fish families, 
swim long distances to a region 
favorable for the deposition of 
spawn. Others pursue for equal 
distances the schools of men- 
haden or other fishes which serve 
as their prey. Some species 
are known mainly in the waters 
they make their breeding homes, 
as in Cuba, Southern Cali- 
fornia, Hawaii, or Japan, the 
individuals being scattered at 
other times through the wide 
seas. i 

Anadromous Fishes. — Many 
fresh-water fishes, as trout and 
suckers, forsake the large streams 
in the spring, ascending the 
small brooks where their young 
can be reared in greater safety. 
Still others, known as anadromous 
Fie. 32. — Portuguese Man-of-war fishes, feed and mature in the 

Fish, Gobiomorus gronovii. Family sea, but ascend the rivers as the 

Boe impulse of reproduction grows 
strong. Among such fishes are the salmon, shad, alewife, stur- 
geon, and striped bass in American waters. The most remark- 
able case of the anadromous instinct is found in the king salmon 
or quinnat (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha) of the Pacific Coast. 
This great fish spawns in November, at the age of four years 
and an average weight of twenty-two pounds. In the Columbia 
River it begins running with the spring freshets in March and 
April. It spends the whole summer, without feeding, in the 
ascent of the river. By autumn the individuals have reached 
the mountain streams of Idaho, greatly changed in appearance, 


Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 47 


discolored, worn, and distorted. The male is humpbacked, with 
sunken scales, and greatly enlarged, hooked, bent, or twisted 
jaws, with enlarged dog-like teeth. On reaching the spawning 
beds, which may be a thousand miles from the sea in the 
Columbia, over two thousand in the Yukon, the female de- 
posits her eggs in the gravel of some shallow brook. The 
male covers them and scrapes the gravel over them. Then both 
male and female drift tail foremost helplessly down the stream; 
none, so far as certainly known, ever survives the reproductive 
act. The same habits are found in the five other species of 
salmon in the Pacific, but in most cases the individuals do not 
start so early nor run so far. The blue-back salmon or redfish, 
however, does not fall far short in these regards. The salmon 
of the Atlantic has a similar habit, but the distance traveled is 
everywhere much less, and most of the hook-jawed males drop 
down to the sea and survive to repeat the acts of reproduction. 

Catadromous fishes, as the true eel (Anguilla), reverse this 
order, feeding in the rivers and brackish estuaries, apparently 
finding their usual spawning-ground in the sea. 

Pugnacity of Fishes.—Some fishes are very pugnacious, al- 
ways ready for a quarrel with their own kind. The stickle- 
backs show this disposition, especially the males. In Hawaii the 
natives take advantage of this trait to catch the Uu (Myripristis 


Fie, 33.—Squaw-fish, Ptychocheilus oregonensis (Richardson). Columbia River. 


murdjan), a bright crimson-colored fish found in those waters. 
The species lives in crevices in lava rocks. Catching a live one, 
the fishermen suspend it by a string in front of the rocks. It 
remains there with spread fins and flashing scales, and the others 
come out to fight it, when all are drawn to the surface by a 


48 Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 


concealed net. Another decoy is substituted and the trick 
is repeated until the showy and quarrelsome fishes are all 
secured. 

In Siam the fighting-fish (Betta pugnax) is widely noted. The 
following account of this fish is given by Cantor:* 

“When the fish is in a state of quiet, its dull colors pre- 
sent nothing remarkable; but if two be brought together, or if 
one sees its own image in a looking-glass, the little creature 
becomes suddenly excited, the raised fins and the whole body 
shine with metallic colors of dazzling beauty, while the pro- 
jected gill membrane, waving like a black frill round the throat, 
adds something of grotesqueness to the general appearance. In 
this state it makes repeated darts at its real or reflected antag- 
onist. But both, when taken out of each other’s sight, instantly 
become quiet. The fishes were kept in glasses of water, fed 
with larvae of mosquitoes, and had thus lived for many months. 
The Siamese are as infatuated with the combats of these fish 
as the Malays are with their cock-fights, and stake on the issue 
considerable sums, and sometimes their own persons and fami- 
lies. The license to exhibit fish-fights is farmed, and brings a 
considerable annual revenue to the king of Siam. The species 
abounds in the rivulets at the foot of the hills of Penang. The 
inhabitants name it ‘Pla-kat,’ or the ‘fighting-fish’; but the 
kind kept especially for fighting is an artificial variety culti- 
vated for the purpose.” 

A related species is the equally famous tree-climber of India 
(Anabas scandens). In 1797 Lieutenant Daldorf describes his 
capture of an Anabas, five feet above the water, on the bark of 
a palm-tree. In the effort to do this, the fish held on to the 
bark by its preopercular spines, bent its tail, inserted its anal 
spines, then pushing forward, repeated the operation. 


* Cantor, Catal. Malayan Fishes, 1850, p. 87. Bowring, Siam, p. 155, gives 
a similar account of the battles of these fishes. 


6> 


‘OPIS ROU OY} Wosy ‘uONRIg [RoIFopoIgT BSI ST, “Tes Jo sjood-opryz— ‘Fe ‘oly 


stranded 


the fishes 


*hotograph by O. E. Meddaugh.)—Page 50. 


yawn, the high water, after a rain, falling, leaves 


Running up a stream to s 
d 


Kelsey Creek, Clear Lake, California, April 29, 1899. 


fish. Ptychocheilus grandis Agassiz. 


Squaw 


34a, 


hig 


eS 


CHAPTER V 


ADAPTATIONS OF FISHES 

PINES of the Catfishes.—The catfishes or horned pouts 
(Siluride) have a strong spine in the pectoral fin, one 

or both edges of this being jagged or serrated. This 

spine fits into a peculiar joint and by means of a slight downward 
or forward twist can be set immovably. It can then be broken 
more easily than it can be depressed. A slight turn in the opposite 
direction releases the joint, a fact known to the fish and readily 
learned by the boy. The sharp spine inflicts a jagged wound. 


Fig. 35 —Mad-tom, Schilbeodes furiosus Jordan and Meek. Showing the poisoned 
pectoral spine. Family Siluride. Neuse River. 


Pelicans which have swallowed the catfish have been known to 
die of the wounds inflicted by the fish’s spine. When the catfish 
was first introduced into the Sacramento, according to Mr. Will 
S. Green, it caused the death of many of the native ‘‘Sacra- 
mento perch” (Archoplites interruptus). This perch (or rather 
bass) fed on the young catfish, and the latter erecting their 
pectoral spines in turn caused the death of the perch by tear- 
ing the walls of its stomach. In like manner the sharp dorsal 
and ventral spines of the sticklebacks have been known to cause 
the death of fishes who swallow them, and even of ducks. In 
Puget Sound the stickleback is often known as salmon-killer. 
51 


52 Adaptations of Fishes 


Certain small catfishes known as stone-cats and mad-toms 
(Noturus, Schilbeodes), found in the rivers of the Southern and 
Middle Western States, are provided with special organs of 
offense. At the base of the pectoral spine, which is sometimes 
very jagged, is a structure supposed by Professor Cope to be a 
poison gland the nature of which has not yet been fully ascer- 
tained. The wounds made by these spines are exceedingly 
painful like those made by the sting of a wasp. They are, 
however, apparently not dangerous. 

Venomous Spines.—Many species of scorpion-fishes (Scor- 
pena, Synanceia, Pelor, Pterois, etc.), found in warm seas, 
as well as the European weavers. (Trachinus), secrete poison 


Fig. 86—Black Nohu, or Poison-fish, Emmydrichthys vulcanus Jordan. A species 
with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava among which it 
lives. Family Scorpenide. From Tahiti. 

from under the skin of each dorsal spine. The wounds made 

by these spines are very exasperating, but are not often danger- 

ous. In some cases the glands producing these poisons form an 
oblong bag excreting a milky juice, and placed on the base of 
the spine. 

In Thalassophryne, a genus of toad-fishes of tropical America, 
is found the most perfect system of poison organs known among 
fishes. The spinous armature of the opercle and the two spines 
of the first dorsal fin constitute the weapons. The details are 
known from the dissections of Dr. Gunther. According to his* 
observations, the opercle in Thalassophryne ‘is very narrow, 


* Gunther, Introd. to the Study of Fishes, p. 192. 


Adaptations of Fishes 5 


vertically styliform and very mobile. It is armed behind with 
a spine eight lines long and of the same form as the hollow 
venom-fang of a snake, being perforated at its base and at its 
extremity. A sac covering the base of the spine discharges its 
contents through the apertures and the canal in the interior of 
the spine. The structure of the dorsal spines is similar. There 
are no secretory glands imbedded in the membranes of the sacs 
and the fluid must be secreted by their mucous membrane. The 
sacs are without an external muscular layer and situated im- 
mediately below the thick, loose skin which envelops the spines 
at their extremity. The ejection of the poison into a living 
animal, therefore, can only be effected as in Synanceia, by the 
pressure to which the sac is subjected the moment the spine 
enters another body.” 

The Lancet of the Surgeon-fish.—Some fishes defend themselves 
by lashing their enemies with their tails. In the tangs, or surgeon- 
fishes (Teuthis), the tail is provided with a tormidable weapon, 


Fig 37.—Brown Tang, Teuthis bahianus (Ranzani). Tortugas, Florida. 


a knife-like spine, with the sharp edge directed forward. This 
spine when not in use slips forward into a sheath. The fish, 
when alive, cannot be handled without danger of a severe cut. 

In the related genera, this lancet is very much more blunt 
and immovable, degenerating at last into the rough spines of 
Balistapus or the hair-like prickles of Monacanthus. 


54 Adaptations of Fishes 


Spines of the Sting-ray.—JIn all the large group of sting- 
rays the tail is provided with one or more large, stiff, barbeG 
spines, which are used with great force by the animal, and are 
capable of piercing the leathery skin of the sting-ray itself. 
There is no evidence that these spines bear any specific poison, 
but the ragged wounds they make are always dangerous and 
often end in gangrene. It is possible that the mucus on the 
surface of the spine acts as a poison on the lacerated tissues, 
rendering the wound something very different from a simple cut. 

Protection Through Poisonous Flesh of Fishes. —JIn certain 
groups of fishes a strange form of self-protection is acquired by 


Fic. 38.—Common Filefish, Stephanolepis hispidus (Linnwus). Virginia. 


the presence in the body of poisonous alkaloids, by means of 
which the enemies of the species are destroyed in the death 
of the individual devoured. 

Such alkaloids are present in the globefishes (Tetraodontide), 
the filefishes (Wonacanthus), and in some related forms, while 
members of other groups (Batrachoidide) are under suspicion in 
this regard. The alkaloids produce a disease known as cigua- 
tera, characterized by paralysis and gastric derangements. 
Severe cases of ciguatera with men, as well as with lower 
animals, may end fatally in a short time. 

The flesh of the filefishes (Stephanolepis tomentosus), which 


ye 


Adaptations of Fishes 55 


the writer has tested, is very meager and bitter, having a de- 
cidedly offensive taste. It is suspected, probably justly, of be- 
ing poisonous. In the globefishes the flesh is always more or 
less poisonous, that of Tetraodon hispidus, called muki-muki, 
or death-fish, in Hawaii, is reputed as excessively so. The poi- 
sonous fishes have been lately studied in detail by Dr. Jacques 
Pellegrin, of the Museum d’Histoire Naturelle at Paris. He 
shows that any species of fish may be poisonous under certain 
circumstances, that under certain conditions certain species are 
poisonous, and that certain kinds are poisonous more or less at 


Tetraodon meleagris (Lacépéde). Riu Kiu Islands. 


Fig. 39. 


all times. The following account is condensed from Dr. Pelle- 
grin’s observations. 

The flesh of fishes soon undergoes decomposition in hot 
climates. The consumption of decayed fish may produce 
serious disorders, usually with symptoms of diarrhcea or erup- 
tion of the skin. There is in this case no specific poison, but 
the formation of leucomaines through the influence of bacteria. 
This may take place with other kinds of flesh, and is known as 
botolism, or allantiasis. For this disease, as produced by the 
flesh of fishes, Dr. Pellegrin suggests the name of ichthyosism. 
It is especially severe in certain very oily fishes, as the tunny, 
the anchovy, or the salmon. The flesh of these and other fishes 
occasionally produces similar disorders through mere indiges- 
tion. In this case the flesh undergoes decay in the stomach. 


56 Adaptations of Fishes 


In certain groups (wrasse-fishes, parrot-fishes, etc.) in the 
tropics, individual fishes are sometimes rendered poisonous by 
feeding on poisonous mussels, holothurians, or possibly polyps, 
species which at certain times, and especially in their spawning 
season, develops alkaloids which themselves may cause cigua- 
tera. In this case it is usually the very old or large fishes which 
are liable to be infected. In some markets numerous species 
are excluded as suspicious for this reason. Such a list is in 
use in the fish-market of Havana, where the sale of certain 
species, elsewhere healthful, or at the most suspected, was rigidly 


Fie. 40 —The Trigger-fish, Balistes carolinensis Gmelin. New York. 


prohibited under the Spanish régime. A list of these suspicious 
fishes has been given by Prof. Poey. 

In many of the eels the serum of the blood is poisonous, but 
its venom is destroyed by the gastric juice, so that the flesh 
may be eaten with impunity, unless decay has set in. To eat 
too much of the tropical morays is to invite gastric troubles, 
but no true ciguatera. The true ciguatera is produced by a 
specific poisonous alkaloid. This is most developed in the 
globefishes or puffers (Tetraodon, Spheroides, Tropidichthys, etc.). 
It is present in the filefishes (Monacanthus, Alutera, etc.), prob- 
ably in some toadfishes (Batrachotdes, etc.), and similar com- 
pounds are found in the flesh of sharks and especially in sharks’ 
livers. 


- 


Adaptations of Fishes Sif 


These alkaloids are most developed in the ovaries and testes, 
and in the spawning season. Thev are also found in the liver 
and sometimes elsewhere in the body. In many species other- 
wise innocuous, purgative alkaloids are developed in or about 
the eggs. Serious illness has been caused by eating the roe of 
the pike and the barbel. The poison is less virulent in the 
species which ascend the rivers. It is also much less developed 
in cooler waters. For this reason ciguatera is almost confined 
to the tropics. In Havana, Manila, and other tropical ports it 
is of frequent occurrence, while northward it is practically un- 
known as a disease requiring a special name or treatment. On 
the coast of Alaska, about Prince William Sound and Cook Inlet, 


&. 
ne 
See 
Up avsncee Oa Cut Gee) 
Seaccaece wp eyseee 
eaareeoes 


Fic. 41.—Numbfish, Narcine brasiliensis Henle, showing electric cells. 
Pensacola, Florida. 


a fatal disease resembling ciguatera has been occasionally pro- 
duced by the eating of clams. ~ 

The purpose of the alkaloids producing ciguatera is con- 
sidered by Dr. Pellegrin as protective, saving the species by the 
poisoning of its enemies. The sickness caused by the specific 
poison must be separated from that produced by ptomaines and 
leucomaines in decaying flesh or in the oil diffused through it. 
Poisonous bacteria may be destroyed by cooking, but the alka- 
loids which cause ciguatera are unaltered by heat. 

It is claimed in tropical regions that the germs of the bu- 
bonic plague may be carried through the mediation of fishes 
which feed on sewage. It is suggested by Dr. Charles B. Ash- 


ae 


58 Adaptations of Fishes 


mead that leprosy may be so carried. It is further suggested 
that the custom of eating the flesh of fishes raw almost uni- 
versal in Japan, Hawaii, and other regions may be responsible 
for the spread of certain contagious diseases, in which the fish 
acts as an intermediate host, much as certain mosquitoes spread 
the germs of malaria and yellow fever. 

Electric Fishes.—Several species of fishes possess the power 
to inflict electric shocks not unlike those of the Leyden jar. 
This is useful in stunning their prey and especially in confound- 
ing their enemies. In most cases these electric organs are 
evidently developed from muscular substance. Their action, 
which is largely voluntary, is in its nature like muscular action. 
The power is soon exhausted and must be restored by rest and 
food. The effects of artificial stimulation and of poisons are 
parallel with the effect of similar agents on muscles. 

In the electric rays or torpedos (Narcobatide) the electric 
organs are large honeycomb-like structures, ‘‘ vertical hexag- 


lic. 42.—Electrie Catfish, Torpedo electricus (Gmelin). Congo River. 
(After Boulenger.) 


onal prisms,’’ upwards of 400 of them, at the base of the pec- 
toral fins. Each prism is filled ‘‘ with a clear trembling jelly-like 
substance.’’ These fishes give a shock which is communicable 
through a metallic conductor, as an iron spear or the handle of 
a knife. It produces a peculiar and disagreeable sensation not 
at all dangerous. It is said that this living battery shows all 
the known qualities of magnetism, rendering the needle mag- 
netic, decomposing chemical compounds, etc. In the Nile is 
an electric catfish (Torpedo electricus) having similar powers. 
Its electric organ extends over the whole body, being thickest 
below. It consists of rhomboidal cells of a firm gelatinous 
substance. 

The electric eel (Electrophorus electricus), the most powerful 


EEE 


Adaptations of Fishes 59 


of electric fishes, is not an eel, but allied rather to the sucker or 
carp. It is, however, eel-like in form and lives in rivers of Brazil 


and Guiana. The electric organs are in two pairs, one on the back 


of the tail, the other on the 
anal fin. These are made up 
of an enormous number of 
minute cells. In the electric 
eel, as in the other electric 
fishes, the nerves supplying 
these organs are much larger 
than those passing from the 
spinal cord for any other pur- 
pose. In all these cases 
closely related species show 
no trace of the electric powers. 
Dr. Gilbert has described 
the electric powers of species 
of star-gazer (Astroscopus 
y-grecum and A. zephyreus), 
the electric cells lying under 
the naked skin of the top of 
the head. Electric power is 
ascribed to a species of cusk 
(Urophycts regius), but this 
perhaps needs verification. 
Photophores or Luminous 
Oigans.—Many fishes, chiefly 
of the deep seas, develop 
organs for producing light. 
These are known as luminous 
organs, phosphorescent or- 
gans, or photophores. These 
are independently developed 
in four entirely unrelated 
groups of fishes. This differ- 
ence in origin is accompanied 
by corresponding difference 


fia a 


‘pues oy} UL Surpyyos (s7yvqnb sndovsoysy) 10ze5-1vJQ— SF “OT 


CIPPIMYS “AM UW Aq oy] VOI) 


in structure. The best-known 


type is found in the Iniomi, including the lantern-fishes and 


their many relatives. 


/ 


These may have luminous spots, differ- 


60 Adaptations of Fishes 


entiated areas round or oblong which shine star-like in the 
dark. These are usually symmetrically placed on the sides of 


Fig. 44.—Headlight Fish, .#ihoprora lucida Goode and Bean. Gulf Stream. 


the body. They may have also luminous glands or diffuse areas 
which are luminous, but which do not show the specialized 
structure of the phosphorescent spots. These glands of similar 
nature to the spots are mostly on the head or tail. In one 


Fic. 45.—Corynolophus reinhardti (Liitken), showing luminous bulb (modified 
after Liitken). Family Ceratiide. Deep sea off Greenland. 


genus, thoprora, the luminous snout is compared to the head- 
light of an engine. 


Adaptations of Fishes 61 


Entirely different are the photophores in the midshipman 
or singing-fish (Porrchthys), a genus of toad-fishes or Batra- 
choidide. This species lives near the shore and the luminous 
spots are outgrowths from pores of the lateral line. 

In one of the anglers (Corynolophus reinhardtt) the complex 
bait is said to be luminous, and luminous areas are said to 
occur on the belly of a very small shark of the deep seas of 


él od 


aé 
Fie, 46.—Etmopterus lucifer Jordan and Snyder. Misaki, Japan. 


Japan (Etmopterus lucifer). This phenomenon is now the sub- 
ject of study by one of the numerous pupils of Dr. Mitsukuri. 
The structures in Corynolophus are practically unknown. 

Photophores in Iniomous Fishes.—In the Iniom7 the luminous 
organs have been the subject of an elaborate paper by Dr. 
R. von Lendenfeld (Deep-sea Fishes of the Challenger. Ap- 
pendix B). These he divides into ocellar organs of regular 
form or luminous spots, and irregular glandular organs or 
luminous areas. The ocellar spots may be on the scales 
of the lateral line or on other definite areas. They may be 
raised above the surface or sunk below it. They may be simple, 
with or without black pigment, or they may have within them - 
a reflecting surface. They are best shown in the Myctophide 
and Stomiatide, but are found in numerous other families in 
nearly all soft-rayed fishes of the deep sea. 

The glandular areas may be placed on the lower jaw, on the 
barbels, under the gill cover, on the suborbital or preorbital, 
on the tail, or they may be irregularly scattered. Those about 
the eye have usually the reflecting membrane. 

In all these structures, according to Dr. von Lendenfeld, the 
whole or part of the organ is glandular. The glandular part 
is at the base and the other structures are added distally. . The 
primitive organ was a gland which produced luminous slime. 


62 Adaptations of Fishes 


To this in the process of specialization greater complexity has 
been added. 

The luminous organs of some fishes resemble the supposed 
original structure of the primitive photophore, though of 
course these cannot actually represent it. The simplest type 
of photophore now found is in Astronesthes, in the form of 
irregular glandular luminous patches on the surface of the skin. 


opeirirere 
EN Pere prt 
SEE Epa 


4 


Fie. 47 —Aryyropelecus olfersi Cuvier. Gulf Stream. 


There 1s no homology between the luminous organs of any insect 
and those of any fish. ; 
Photophores of Porichthys.—Entirely distinct in their origin 
are the luminous spots in the midshipman (Porichthys notatus), 
a shore fish of California. These have been described in detail 
by Dr. Charles Wilson Greene (late of Stanford University, now 
of the University of Missouri) in the Journal of Morphology, 
XV., p. 667. These are found on various parts of the body in 
connection with the mucous pores of the lateral lines and about 
the mucous pores of the head. The skin in Porichthys is naked, 
and the photophores arise from a modification of its epidermis. 
Each is spherical, shining white, and consists of four parts—the 


Adaptations of Fishes 63 


lens, the gland, the reflector, and the pigment. As to its func- 
tion Prof. Greene observes: 

“T have kept specimens of Porichthys in aquaria at the Hop- 
kins Seaside Laboratory, and have made numerous observations 
on them with an effort to secure ocular proof of the phospho- 
rescence of the living active fish. The fish was observed in 
the dark when quiet and when violently excited, but, with a 
single exception, only negative results were obtained. Once 
a phosphorescent glow of scarcely perceptible intensity was 
observed when the fish was pressed against the side of the 
aquarium. Then, this is a shore fish and quite common, and 
one might suppose that so striking a phenomenon as it would 
present if these organs were phosphorescent in a small degree 
would be observed by ichthyologists in the field, or by fisher- 
men, but diligent inquiry reveals no such evidence. 

“ Notwithstanding the fact that Porichtlhys has been observed 
to voluntarily exhibit only the trace of phosphorescence men- 
tioned above, still the organs which it possesses in such num- 
bers are beyond doubt true phosphorescent organs, as the fol- 
lowing observations will demonstrate. A live fish put into an 
aquarium of sea-water made alkaline with ammonia water ex- 
hibited a most brilliant glow along the location of the well- 
developed organs. Not only did the lines of organs shine 
forth, but the individual organs themselves were distinguish- 
able. The glow appeared after about five minutes, remained 
prominent for a few minutes, and then for twenty minutes 
gradually became weaker until it was scarcely perceptible. 
Rubbing the hand over the organs was followed always by a 
distinct increase in the phosphorescence. Pieces of the fish 
containing the organs taken five and six hours after the death 
of the animal became luminous upon treatment with ammonia 
water. 

“Electrical stimulation of the live fish was also tried with 
good success. The interrupted current from an induction coil 
was used, one electrode being fixed on the head over the brain 
or on the exposed spinal cord near the brain, and the other 
moved around on different parts of the body. No results fol- 
lowed relatively weak stimulation of the fish, although such 
currents produced violent contractions of the muscular system 


64 Adaptations of Fishes 


of the body. But when a current strong enough to be quite 
painful to the hands while handling the electrodes was used 
then stimulation of the fish called forth a brilliant glow of light 
apparently from every well-developed photophore. All the 
lines on the ventral and lateral surfaces of the body glowed 
with a beautiful light, and continued to do so while the stimu- 
lation lasted. The single well-developed organ just back of 
and below the eye was especially prominent. No luminosity 
was observed in the region of the dorsal organs previously de- 
scribed as rudimentary in structure. I was also able to produce 


ate ee La o DS Fea 
' CT a ale bl ett ot ia 


Birt bad ba hte te tana be tater, Se 


Fie. 48.—Luminous organs and lateral line of Midshipman, Porichthys notatus 
Girard. Family Batrachoidide. Monterey, California. (After Greene.) 


the same effect by galvanic stimulation, rapidly making and 
breaking the current by hand. 

“The light produced in Porichthys was, as near as could be 
determined by direct observation, a white light. When pro- 
duced by electric stimulation it did not suddenly reach its 
maximal intensity, but canie in quite gradually and disappeared 
in the same way when the stimulation ceased. The light was 
not a strong one, only strong enough to enable one to quite 
easily distinguish the apparatus used in the experiment. 

‘An important fact brought out by the above experiment is 
that an electrical stimulation strong enough to most violently 
stimulate the nervous system, as shown by the violent con- 
tractions of the muscular system, may still be too weak to 
produce phosphorescence. This fact gives a physiological con- 


Adaptations of Fishes 65 


firmation of the morphological result stated above that no 
specific nerves are distributed to the phosphorescent organs. 
“T can explain the action of the electrical current in these 
experiments only on the supposition that it produces its effect 
by direct action on the gland. 
“The experiments just related were all tried on specimens of 
the fish taken from under the rocks where they were guarding 


PSY] LS, 
[Dupe 


se SS} 
Nets ae 


Fic. 49.—Cross-section of a ventral phosphorescent organ of the Midshipman, 
Porichthys notatus Girard. 1, lens; gl, gland; r, reflector; bl, blood; p, pig- 
ment. (After Greene.) 

the young brood. Two specimens, however, taken by hooks 

from the deeper water of Monterey Bay, could not be made to 

show phosphorescence either by clectrical stimulation or by 
treatrnent with ammonia. These specimens did not have the 
high development of the system of mucous cells of the skin 
exhibited by the nesting fish. My observations were, how- 


66 Adaptations of Fishes 


ever, not numerous enough to more than suggest the possibility 
of a seasonal high development of the phosphorescent organs. 
“Two of the most important parts of the organ have to do 
with the physical manipulation of light—the reflector and the 
lens, respectively. The property of the reflector needs no dis- 
cussion other than to call attention to its enormous develop- 
ment. The lens cells are composed of a highly refractive sub- 
stance, and the part as a whole gives every evidence of light 
refraction and condensation. The form of the lens gives a 
theoretical condensation of light at a very short focus. That 
such is in reality the case, I have proved conclusively by exami- 
nation of fresh material. If the fresh fish be exposed to direct 


Fic. 50—Section of the deeper portion of phosphorescent organ of Porichthys 
notatus, highly magnified. (After Greene.) 


sunlight, there is a reflected spot of intense light from each 
phosphorescent organ. This spot is constant in position with 
reference to the sun in whatever position the fish be turned 
and is lost if the lens be dissected away and only the reflector 
left. With needles and a simple microscope it is comparatively 
easy to free the lens from the surrounding tissue and to examine 
‘it directly. When thus freed and examined in normal saline, I 
have found by rough estimates that it condenses sunlight to a 
bright point a distance back of the lens of from one-fourth to 
one-half its diameter. I regret that I have been unable to make 
precise physical developments. 

‘The literature on the histological structure of known phos- 
phorescent organs of fishes is rather meager and unsatisfactory. 
Von Lendenfeld describes twelve classes of phosphorescent 
organs from deep-sea fishes collected by the Challenger expe- 


Adaptations of Fishes 67 


dition. All of these, however, are greater or less modifications 
of one type. This type includes, according to von Lendenfeld’s 
views, three essential parts, z.e., a gland, phosphorescent cells, 
and a local ganglion. These parts may have added a reflector, 
a pigment layer, or both; and all these may be simple or com- 
pounded in various ways, giving rise to the twelve classes. 
Blood-vessels and nerves are distributed to the glandular por- 
tion. Of the twelve classes direct ocular proof is given for 
one, i.e., ocellar organs of Myctophum which were observed by 
Willemoes-Suhm at night to shine ‘like a star in the net.’ Von 
Lendenfeld says that the gland produces a secretion, and he 
supposes the light or phosphorescence to be produced either 
by the ‘burning or consuming’ of this secretion by the phos- 
phorescent cells, or else by some substance produced by the 
phosphorescent cells. Furthermore, he says that the phos- 
phorescent cells act at the ‘will of the fish’ and are excited 
to action by the local ganglion. 

‘Some of these statements and conclusions seem insufficiently 
grounded, as, for example, the supposed action of the phos- 
phorescent cells, and especially the control of the ganglion 
over them. In the first place, the relation between the ganglion 
and the central nervous system in the forms described by von 
Lendenfeld is very obscure, and the structure described as a 
ganglion, to judge from the figures and the text descriptions, 
may be wrongly identified. At least it is scarcely safe to 
ascribe ganglionic function to a group of adult cells so poorly 
preserved that only nuclei are to be distinguished. In the 
second place, no structural character is shown to belong to the 
‘phosphorescent cells’ by which they may take part in the 
process ascribed to them.* 

‘The action of the organs described by him may be explained 
on other grounds, and entirely independent of the so-called 
‘ganglion cells’ and of the ‘ phosphorescent cells.’ 


* The cells which von Lendenfeld designates ‘phosphorescent cells’ have 
as their peculiar characteristic a large, oval, highly refracting body imbedded in 
the protoplasm of the larger end of theclavate cells. These cells have nothing 
in common with the structure of the cells of the firefly known to be phos- 
phorescent in nature. In fact the true phosphorescent cells are more probably 
the ‘ gland-cells’ found in ten of the twelve classes of organs which he 
describes. 


a 


68 Adaptations of Fishes 


‘““Phosphorescence as applied to the production of light by a 
living animal is, according to our present ideas, a chemical action, 
an oxidation process. The necessary conditions for producing it 
are two—an oxidizable substance that is luminous on oxida- 
tion, i.e., a photogenic substance on the one hand, and the pres- 
ence of free oxygen on the other. Every phosphorescent organ 
must have a mechanism for producing these two conditions; 
all other factors are only secondary and accessory. If the 
gland of a firefly can produce a substance that is oxidizable 
and luminous on oxidation, as shown as far back as 1828 by 
Faraday and confirmed and extended recently by Watasé, it is 
conceivable, indeed probable, that phosphorescence in Myctophum 
and other deep-sea forms is produced in the same direct way, 
that is, by direct oxidation of the secretion of the gland found 
in each of at least ten of the twelve groups of organs described 
by von Lendenfeld. Free oxygen may be supplied directly 
from the blood in the capillaries distributed to the gland 
which he describes. The possibility of the regulation of the 
supply of blood carrying oxygen is analogous to what takes 
place in the firefly and is wholly adequate to account for any 
‘flashes of light’ ‘at the will of the fish.’ 

‘“In the phosphorescent organs of Porichthys the only part 
the function of which cannot be explained on physical grounds 
is the group of cells called the gland. If the large granular 
cells of this portion of the structure produce a secretion, as seems 
probable from the character of the cells and their behavior 
toward reagents, and this substance be oxidizable and luminous 
in the presence of free oxygen, i.e., photogenic, then we have 
the conditions necessary for a light-producing organ. The 
numerous capillaries distributed to the gland will supply free 
oxygen sufficient to meet the needs cf the case. Light pro- 
duced in the gland is ultimately all projected to the exterior, 
either directly from the luminous points in the gland or reflected 
outward by the reflector, the lens condensing all the rays into 
a definite pencil or slightly diverging cone. This explanation 
of the light-producing process rests on the assumption of a 
secretion product with certain specific characters. But com- 
paring the organ with structures known to produce such a sub- 
stance, i.e., the glands of the firefly or the photospheres of Eu- 


Adaptations of Fishes 69 


phausia, it seems to me the assumption is not less certain than 
the assumption that twelve structures resembling each other in 
certain particulars have a common function to that proved for 
one only of the twelve. 

“Tam inclined to the belief that whatever regulation of the 
action of the phosphorescent organ occurs is controlled by the 
regulation of the supply of free oxygen by the blood-stream 
flowing through the organ; but, however this may be, the essen- 
tial fact remains that the organs in Porichthys are true phos- 
phorescent organs.”’ (GREENE.) 

Other species of Porichthys with similar photophores occur 
in Texas, Guiana, Panama, and Chile. The name midshipman 
alludes to these shining spots, compared to buttons. 

Globefishes.—The globefishes (Tetraodon, etc.) and the por- 
cupine-fishes have the surface defended by spines. These fishes 
have an additional safeguard through the instinct to swallow 
air. When one of these fishes is seriously disturbed it rises to 


Fie. 51.—Sucking-fish, or Pegador, Leptecheneis naucrates (Linnzus). Virginia. 


the surface, gulps air into a capacious sac, and then floats belly 
upward on the surface. It is thus protected from other fishes, 
although easily taken by man. The same habit appears in some 
of the frog-fishes (Antennarius) and in the Swell sharks (Cepha- 
loscyllium). 

The writer once hauled out a netful of globefishes (Tetrao- 
don hispidus) from a Hawaiian lagoon. As they lay on the bank 
a dog came up and sniffed at them. As his nose touched them 
they swelled themselves up with air, becoming visibly two or 
three times as large as before. It is not often that the lower 
animals show surprise at natural phenomena, but the attitude 
of the dog left no question as to his feeling. 

Remoras.—The different species of Remora, or shark-suckers, 
fasten themselves to the surface of sharks or other fishes and 
are carried about by them often to great distances. These 


70 Adaptations of Fishes 


fishes attach themselves by a large sucking-disk on the top of 
the head, which is a modified spinous dorsal fin. They do not 
harm the shark, except possibly to retard its motion. , If the 
shark is caught and drawn out of the water, these fishes often 
instantly let go and plunge into the sea, swimming away with 
great celerity. 

Sucking-disks of Clingfishes.— Other fishes have sucking- 
disks differently made, by which they cling to rocks. In the 
gobies the united ventrals have some adhesive power. The 
blind goby (Typhlogobius californiensis) is said to adhere to rocks 
in dark holes by the ventral fins. In most gobies the adhesive 
power is slight. In the sea-snails (Liparidide) and lumpfishes 

(Cyclopteride) the united ventral fins are modified into an 


“a rn. 


Fie. 52.—Clingfish, Caularchus meandricus (Girard). Monterey, California. 


elaborate circular sucking-disk. In the clingfishes (Gobtesocide) 
the sucking-disk lies between the ventral fins and is made in 
part of modified folds of the naked skin. Some fishes creep 
over the bottom, exploring it with their sensitive barbels, as 
the gurnard, surmullet, and goatfish. The suckers (Catostomus) 
test the bottom with their thick, sensitive lips, either puckered 
or papillose, feeding by suction. 

Lampreys and Hagfishes.—The lampreys suck the blood of 
other fishes to which they fasten themselves by their disk-like 
mouth armed with rasping teeth. 

The hagfishes (A/yxine, Eptatretus) alone among fishes are 
truly parasitic. These fishes, worm-like in form, have round 
mouths, armed with strong hooked teeth. They fasten them- 
selves at the throats of large fishes, work their way into the 
muscle without tearing the skin, and finally once inside devour 
all the muscles of the fish, leaving the skin unbroken and the 
viscera undisturbed. These fishes become living hulks before 


eee 


ee 


oa 


Adaptations of Fishes 71 


they die. If lifted out of the water, the slimy hagfish at once 
slips out and swims quickly away. In gill-nets in Monterey 
Bay great mischief is done by hagfish (Polistotrema stoutt). It 
is a curious fact that large numbers of hagfish eggs are taken 
from the stomachs of the male hagfish, which seems to be 


Fie. 58. —Hagfish, Polistotrema stouti (Lockington). 


almost the only enemy of his own species, keeping the numbers 
in check. 

The Swordfishes.—In the swordfish and its relatives, the sail- 
fish and the spearfish, the bones of the anterior part of the 
head are grown together, making an efficient organ of attack. 
The sword of the swordfish, the most powerful of these fishes, 
has been known to pierce the long planks of boats, and it is 
supposed that the animal sometimes attacks the whale. But 


. stories of this sort lack verification. 


The Paddle-fishes.—In the paddle-fishes (Polyodon spatula and 
Psephurus gladius) the snout is spread out forming a broad 
paddle or spatula. This the animal uses to stir up the mud 
on the bottoms of rivers, the small organisms contained in 
mud constituting food. Similar paddle-like projections are 
developed in certain deep-water Chimeras (Harriottia, Rhino- 
chimera), and in the deep-sea shark, MWitsukurina. 

The Sawfishes.—A certain genus of rays (Pristis, the saw- 
fish) and a genus of sharks (Pristiophorus, the saw-shark), pos- 
sess a similar spatula-shaped snout. But in these fishes the 
snout is provided on either side with enamelled teeth set in 
sockets and standing at right angles with the snout. The 
animal swims through schools of sardines and anchovies, strikes 


(44 


(Avq Joyyy) ‘ueysnpulyT jo syynour soaANy ‘weyyeT uoushz sysig ‘YSyaeg uviIpuy—fe “91 


Adaptations of Fishes a3 


right and left with this saw, destroying the small fishes, who 
thus become an easy prey. These fishes live in estuaries and 
river mouths, Pristis in tropical America and Guinea, Pristi- 
ophorus in Japan and Australia. Inthe mythology of science, the 


Fig. 55.—Saw-shark, Pristiophorus japonicus Ginther. Specimen from 
Nagasaki. 


sawfish attacks the whale, but in fact the two animals never 
come within miles of each other, and the sawfish is an object of 
danger only to the tender fishes, the small fry of the sea. 

Peculiarties of Jaws and Teeth.—The jaws of fishes are sub- 
ject to a great variety of modifications. In some the bones are 
joined by distensible ligaments and the fish can swallow other 
fishes larger than itself. In other cases the jaws are excessively 
small and toothless, at the end of a long tube, so ineffective in 
appearance that it is a marvel that the fish can swallow any- 
thing at all. 

In the thread-eels (Nemichthys) the jaws are so recurved 
that they cannot possibly meet, and in their great length seem 
worse than useless. 

In some species the knife-like canines of the lower jaw pierce 
through the substance of the upper. 

In four different and wholly unrelated groups of fishes the 
teeth are grown fast together, forming a horny beak like that of 
the parrot. These are the Chimeras, the globefishes (Tetroadon), 
and their relatives, the parrot-fishes (Scarus, etc.), and the 
stone-wall perch (Oplegnathus). The structure of the beak 
varies considerably in these four cases, in accord with the dif- 
ference in the origin of its structures. In the globefishes the 


74. Adaptations of Fishes 


jaw-bones are fused together, and in the Chimzras they are 
solidly joined to the cranium itself. 

The Angler-fishes.—In the large group of angler-fishes the first 
spine of the dorsal fin is modified into a sort of bait to attract 
smaller fishes into the capacious mouth below. This structure 
is typical in the fishing-frog (Lophius), where the fleshy tip of 
this spine hangs over the great mouth, the huge fish lying on 
the bottom apparently inanimate as a stone. In other related 
fishes this spine has different forms, being often reduced to a 
vestige, of little value as a lure, but retained in accordance 
with the law of heredity. In a deep-sea angler the bait is 
enlarged, provided with fleshy streamers and a luminous body 
which serves to attract small fishes in the depths. 

The forms and uses of this spine in this group constitute a 
very suggestive chapter in the study of specialization and ulti- 
mate degradation, when the special function is not needed or 
becomes ineffective. 

Similar phases of excessive development and final degrada- 
tion may be found in almost every group in which abnormal 
stress has been laid on a particular organ. Thus the ventral 
fins, made into a large sucking-disk in Liparis, are lost alto- 
gether in Paraliparis. The very large poisoned spines of Pterois 
become very short in A ploactis, the high dorsal spines of Citula 
are lost in Alectis, and sometimes a very large organ dwindles 
to a very small one within the limits of the same genus. An 
example of this is seen in the poisoned pectoral spines of 
Schilbeodes. 

The Unsymmetrical Eyes of Flounders.—In the two great 
families of flounders and soles the head is unsymmetrically 
formed, the cranium being twisted and both eyes placed on the 
same side. The body is strongly compressed, and the side pos- 
sessing the eyes is uppermost in all the actions of the fish. 
This upper side, whether right or left, is colored, while the eye- 
less side is white or very nearly so. 

It is well known that in the very young flounder the body 
rests upright in the water. After a little there is a tendency to 
turn to one side and the lower eye begins its migration to the 
other side, the interorbital bones or part of them moving before 


oa 


Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 75 


it. In most flounders the eye seems to move over the surface 
of the head, before the dorsal fin, or across the axil of its first 
ray. In the tropical genus Platophrys the movement of the eye 
is most easily followed, as the species reach a larger size than 
do most flounders before the change takes place. The larva, 
while symmetrical, is in all cases transparent. 

In a recent study of the migration of the eye in the winter 


Fic. 57. 


Fies. 56, 57.—Larval stages of Platophrys podas, a flounder of the Mediterranean, 
showing the migration of the eye. (After Emery.) 


flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus) Mr. Stephen R. Wil- 
liams reaches the following conclusions: 

1. The young of Limanda ferruginea (the rusty dab) are 
probably in the larval stage at the same time as those of Pseu- 
dopleuronectes americanus (the winter flounder). 

2. The recently hatched fish are symmetrical, except for the 
relative positions of the two optic nerves. 

3. The first observed occurrence in preparation for meta- 
morphosis in P. americanus is the rapid resorption of the part 
of the supraorbital cartilage bar which lies in the path of the 
eye. 

4. Correlated with this is an increase in distance between 


76 Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 


the eyes and the brain, caused by the growth of the facial carti- 
lages. 

5. The migrating eye moves through an arc of about 120 
degrees. 


Fig. 58.—Platophrys lunatus (Linneus), the Wide-eyed Flounder. Family 
Pleuronectide. Cuba. (From nature by Mrs. H. C. Nash.) 


6. The greater part of this rotation (three-fourths of it in 
P. americanus) is a rapid process, taking not more than three 
days. 

7. The anterior ethmoidal region is not so strongly influ- 
enced by the twisting as the 


ocular region. => = 


8. The location of the olfac- SS. 
tory nerves (in the adult) shows Fie. 59.— Young Flounder, just 
that the morphological midline — batched, with symmetrical eyes. 


= “ After 5S. R. Williams. 
follows the interorbital septum. Vie rare 


g. The cartilage mass lying in the front part of the orbit of 
the adult eye is a separate anterior structure in the larva. 

10. With unimportant differences, the process of meta- 
morphosis in the sinistral fish is parallel to that in the dextral 
fish. 

11. The original location of the eye is indicated in the adult 
by the direction first taken, as they leave the brain, by those 
cranial nerves having to do with the transposed eye. 


Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations Ty, 


12. The only well-marked asymmetry in the adult brain is 
due to the much larger size of the olfactory nerve and lobe of 
the ocular side. 

13. There is a perfect chiasma. 

14. The optic nerve of the migrating eye is always anterior 
to that of the other eye. 

“The why of the peculiar metamorphosis of the Pleuro- 
nectide is an unsolved problem. The presence or absence of 
a swim-bladder can have nothing to do with the change of 
habit of the young flatfish, for P. americanus must lose its air- 
bladder before metamorphosis begins, since sections showed no 


Fie. 61.—Larval Flounder, Pseudopleuronectes americanus. (After S.R. Williams.) 


evidence of it, whereas in Lophopsetta maculata, ‘the window- 
pane flounder,’ the air-sac can often be seen by the naked eye 
up to the time when the fish assumes the adult coloration, and 
long after it has assumed the adult form. 

“Cunningham has suggested that the weight of the fish 
acting upon the lower eye after the turning would press it 
toward the upper side out of the way. But in all probability the 
planktonic larva rests on the sea-bottom little if at all before 
metamorphosing. Those taken by Mr. Williams into the labora- 
tory showed in resting no preference for either side until the eye 
was near the midline. 


78 Instincts, Habits, and Adaptations 


Fig. 62.—Japanese Sea-horse, Hippocampus mohniket Bleeker. 


Misaki, Japan. 


CHAPTER VI 
THE COLORS OF FISHES 


¥ IIGMENTATION.—The colors of fishes are in general pro- 
duced by oil sacs or pigment cells beneath the epidermis 
ec’ i=) or in some cases beneath the scales. Certain metallic 
ades, silvery blue or iridescent, are produced, not by actual 
pigment, but, as among insects, by the deflection of light from 
the polished skin or the striated surfaces of the scales. Certain 
fine striations give an iridescent appearance through the inter- 
ference of light. 

The pigmentary colors may be divided into two general 
classes, ground coloration and ornamentation or markings. 
Of these the ground color is most subject to individual or local 
variation, although usually within narrow limits, while the 
markings are more subject to change with age or sex. On the 
other hand, they are more distinctive of the species itself. 

Protective Coloration.— The ground coloration most usual 
among fishes is protective in its nature. In a majority of fishes 
the back is olivaceous or gray, either plain or mottled, and the 
belly white. To birds looking down into the water, the back 
is colored like the water itself or like the bottom below it. To 
fishes in search of prey from below, the belly is colored like 
the surface of the water or the atmosphere above it. In any 
case the darker colored upper surface casts its shadow over 
the paler lower parts. 

In shallow waters or in rivers the bottom is not uniformly 
colored. The fish, especially if it be one which swims close 
to the bottom, is better protected if the olivaceous surface is 
marked by darker cross streaks and blotches. These give the 
fish a color resemblance to the weeds about it or to the sand 
and stones on which it lies. As a rule, no fish which lies on 
the bottom is ever quite uniformly colored. 

In the open seas, where the water seems very blue, blue 
79 


_ 2h 


80 The Colors of Fishes 


colors, and especially metallic shades, take the place of oliva- 
ceous gray or green. As we descend into deep water, especially 
in the warm seas, red pigment takes the place of olive. Ata 
moderate depth a large percentage of the fishes are of vari- 
ous shades of red. Several of the large groupers of the 
West Indies are represented by two color forms, a shore 
form in which the prevailing shade is olive-green, and a 
deeper-water form which is crimson. In several cases an inter- 


/ eX 
SS 


éX ) %, YS 
mh eos 


MI 


Fic, 63.—Garibaldi (scarlet in color), Hypsypops rubicunda (Girard). La Jolla, 
San Diego, California. 


mediate-color form also exists which is lemon-yellow. On 
the coast of California is a band-shaped blenny (A podichthys 
flavidus) which appears in three colors, according to its sur- 
roundings, blood-red, grass-green, and olive-yellow. The red 
coloration is also essentially protective, for the region inhab- 
ited by such forms is the zone of the rose-red alge. In the 
arctic waters, and in lakes where rose-red algeze are not found, 
the red-ground coloration is almost unknown, although red 
may appear in markings or in nuptial colors. It is possible 
that the red, both of fishes and alge, in deeper water is related 
to the effect of water on the waves of light, but whether this 
should make fishes red or violet has never been clearly under- 


1 HALICHGERES TRIMACULATUS (QUOY & GAIMARD) 
2 HALICHG@RES DAYDALMA (JORDAN & SEALE) 
3 HALICHGZRES OPERCULARIS (GUNTHER) 


FISHES OF THE CORAL REEFS, SAMOA.» FAMILY LABRIDA® 


The Colors of Fishes 81 


stood. It is true also that where the red in fishes ceases violet- 
black begins. 

In the greater depths, from 500 to 4000 fathoms, the ground 
color in most fishes becomes deep black or violet-black, sometimes 
with silvery luster reflected from the scales, but more usually 
dull and lusterless. This shade may be also protective. In 
these depths the sun’s rays scarcely penetrate, and the fish and 
the water are of the same apparent shade, for black coloration 
is here the mere absence of light. 

In general, the markings of various sorts grow less distinct 
with the increase of depth. Bright-red fishes of the depths are 
usually uniform red. The violet-black fishes of the oceanic 
abysses show no markings whatever (luminous glands excepted), 
and in deep waters there are no nuptial or sexual differences in 
color. 

Ground colors other than olive-green, gray, brown, or silvery 
tarely appear among fresh-water fishes. Marine fishes in the 
tropics sometimes show as ground color bright blue, grass- 
green, crimson, orange-yellow, or black; but these showy colors 
are almost confined to fishes of the coral reefs, where they are 
often associated with elaborate systems of markings. 

Protective Markings——The markings of fishes are of almost 
every conceivable character. They may be roughly grouped 
as protective coloration, sexual coloration, nuptial coloration, 
recognition colors, and ornamentation, if we may use the latter 
term for brilliant hues which serve no obvious purpose to the 
fish itself. 

Examples of protective markings may be seen everywhere. 
The flounder which lies on the sand has its upper surface cov- 
ered with sand-like blotches, and these again will vary according 
to the kind of sand it imitates. It may be true sand or crushed 
coral or the detritus of lava, in any case perfectly imitated. 

Equally closely will the markings on a fish correspond with 
rock surroundings. With granite rocks we find an elaborate 
series of granitic markings, with coral rocks another series of 
shades, and if red corals be present, red shades of like appear- 
ance are found on the fish. Still another kind of mark indi- 
cates rock pools lined with the red calcareous alge called coral- 
lina. Black species are found in lava masses, grass-green ones 


2g 


“SOATT JL WIA JO S}Jo]O OY} Ul ‘SasSeUE [v10D OF 9OUE|QUTOSOT 
‘apwuadsosg Aur,“ (Snaruuy) Psoan.t1ae paoupulig ‘ysty UOslog 10 ‘njon—'"F9 “OTT 


Suimoys ‘vourng ‘vidy wos uouttoadg 


The Colors of Fishes 83 


among the fronds of ulva, and olive-green among Sargassum 
or fucus, the markings and often the form corresponding to the 
nature of the alge in which the species makes its home. 

Sexual Coloration.—In many groups of fishes the sexes are 
differently colored. In some cases bright-red, blue, or black 
markings characterize the male, the female having similar 
marks, but less distinct, and the bright colors replaced by olive, 


Fie. 65.—Lizard-skipper, Alticus saliens (Forster). A blenny which lies out of 
water on lava-rocks, leaping from one to another with great agility. From 
nature; specimen from Point Distress, Tutuila Island, Samoa. (About one- 
half size.) 


brown, or gray. In a few cases, however, the female has marks 
of a totally different nature, and scarcely less bright than those 
of the male. 

Nuptial Coloration. — Nuptial colors are those which appear 
on the male in the breeding season only, the pigment after- 
wards vanishing, leaving the sexes essentially alike. Such 
colors are found on most of the minnows and dace (Cyprinide) 
of the rivers and to a less degree in some other fresh-water 
fishes, as the darters (Etheostomine) and the trout. In the 


84 The Colors of Fishes 


minnows of many species the male in spring has the skin charged 
with bright pigment, red, black, or bright silvery, for the most 
part, the black most often on the head, the red on the head 
and body, and the silvery on the tips of the fins. At the same 
time other markings are intensified, and in many species the 
head and sometimes the body and fins are covered with warty 
excrescences. These shades are most distinct on the most vigor- 


Fie. 66.—Blue-breasted Darter, Etheostoma camurum (Cope), the most brilliantly 
colored of American river-fishes. Cumberland Gap, ‘Tennessee. 


ous males, and disappear with the warty excrescences after the 
fertilization of the eggs. 

Nuptial colors do not often appear among marine fishes, and 
in but few families are the sexes distinguishable by differences 
in coloration. 

Recognition-marks.— Under the head of “recognition-marks”’ 
may be grouped a great variety of special markings, which may 
be conceived to aid the representatives of a given species to 
recognize each other. That they actually serve this purpose is 
a matter of theory, but the theory is plausible, and these mark- 
ings have much in common with the white tail feathers, scarlet 
crests, colored wing patches, and other markings regarded as 
recognition-marks among birds. 

Among these are ocelli, black- or blue-ringed with white or 
yellow, on various parts of the body; black spots on the dorsal 
fin; black spots below or behind the eye; black, red, blue, or 
yellow spots variously placed; cross-bars of red or black or green, 
with or without pale edges; a blood-red fin or a fin of shining 
blue among pale ones; a white edge to the tail; a yellow, blue, 
cr red streamer to the dorsal fin, a black tip to the pectoral 


1 ABUDEFDUF LEUCOPOMUS (CUVIER & VALENCIENNES) 
2 ABUDEFDUF UNIOCELLATUS (QUOY & GAIMARD) 
3 ABUDEFDUF TAUPU JORDAN & SEALE. TYPE 
DAMSEL FISHES (POMACENTRIDA) FROM THE CORAL REEFS, SAMOA, 


SHOWING ‘‘RECOGNITION MARKS” 


The Colors of Fishes 85 


or ventral; a hidden spot of emerald in the mouth or in the 
axil; an almost endless variety of sharply defined markings, 
not directly protective, which serve as recognition-marks, if not 
to the fish itself, certainly to the naturalist who studies it. 

These marks shade off into an equally great variety for which 
we can devise no better name than “ornamentation.’”’ Some 
fishes are simply covered with brilliant spots or bars or reticu- 
lations, their nature and variety baffling description, while no 
useful purpose seems to be served by them, unless we stretch 
still more widely the convenient theory of recognition-marks. 

In many cases the markings change with age, certain bands, 
stripes, or ocelli being characteristic of the young and gradu- 
ally disappearing. In such cases the same marks will be found 
permanent in some related species of less differentiated colora- 
tion. In such cases it is safe to regard them as ancestral. 

In case of markings on the fins and of elaborate ornamenta- 
tion in general, it is best defined in the oldest and most vigorous 
individuals, becoming intensified by degrees. The most bril- 
liantly colored fishes are found about the coral reefs. Here 
may be found species of which the ground color is the most 
intense blue, others are crimson, grass-green, lemon-yellow, 
jet-black, and each with a great variety of contrasted mark- 
ings. The frontispiece of this volume shows a series of such 
fishes drawn from nature from specimens taken in pools of the 
great coral reef of Apia in Samoa. These colors are not pro- 
tective. The coral masses are mostly plain gray, and the fishes 
which lie on the bottom are plain gray also. Nothing could 
be more brilliant or varied than the hues of the free-swimming 
fishes. What their cause or purpose may be, it is impossible to 
say. It is certain that their intense activity and the ease with 
which they can seek shelter in the coral masses enable them to 
defy their enemies. Nature seems to riot in bright colors where 
her creatures are not destroyed by their presence. 

Intensity of Coloration.—In general, coloration is most in- 
tense and varied in certain families of the tropical shores, and 
especially about coral reefs. But in brilliancy of individual 
markings some fresh-water fishes are scarcely less notable, 
especially the darters (Etheostomine) and sunfishes (Centrar- 
chide) of the streams of eastern North America. The bright 


86 The Colors of Fishes 


hues of these fresh-water fishes are, however, more or less con- 
cealed in the water by the olivaceous markings and dark blotches 
of the upper parts. 

Coral-reef Fishes.—The brilliantly colored fishes of the trop- 
ical reefs seem, as already stated, to have no need of pro- 
tective coloration. They save themselves from their enemies 
in most cases by excessive alertness and activity (Chetodon, 
Pomacentrus), or else by burying themselves in coral sand (/ulis 
gaimard), a habit more frequent than has been suspected. 
Every large mass of branching coral is full of lurking fishes, 
some of them often most brilliantly colored. 

Fading of Pigments in Spirits.—In the preservation of speci- 
mens most red and blue pigments fade to whitish, and it requires 
considerable care to interpret the traces which may be left of 
red bands or blue markings. Yet some blue pigments are abso- 
lutely permanent, and occasionally blood-red pigments persist 
through all conditions. Black pigment seldom changes in 
spirits, and olivaceous markings simply fade a little without 
material alteration. It is an important part of the work of the 
systematic ichthyologist to learn to interpret the traces of the 
faded pigment left on specimens he may have occasion to ex- 
amine. In such cases it is more important to trace the mark- 
ings than to restore the ground color, as the ground color is 
at once more variable with individuals and more constant in 
large groups. y 

Variation in Pattern.—Occasionally, however, a species is 
found in which, other characters being constant, both ground 
color and markings are subject to a remarkable range of varia- 
tion. In such cases the actual unity of the species is open to 
serious question. The most remarkable case of such variation 
known is found in a West Indian fish, the vaca, which bears 
the incongruous name of Hypoplectrus unicolor. In the typical 
vaca the body is orange with black marks and blue lines, the 
fins checkered with orange and blue. In a second form the 
body is violet, barred with black, the head with blue spots and 
bands. In another form the blue on the head is wanting. In 
still another the body is yellow and black, with blue on the 
head only. In others the fins are plain orange, without checks, 
and the body yellow, with or without blue stripes and spots, and 


The Colors of Fishes 


= —. 


Fie. 67.—Snake-eels, Liuwranus semicinctus (Lay and Bennett), and Chlevastes colubrinus (Boddaert), from Riu Kiu Islands, Japan. 


ishes 


4 


The Colors of I 


88 


‘eidy 38 jJooxy [P10Q—"S9 “Pl 


F 


The Colors of Fishes 89 


sometimes with spots of black or violet. In still others the body 
may be pink or brown, or violet-black, the fins all yellow, part 
black or all black. Finally, there are forms deep indigo-blue in 
color everywhere, with cross bands of indigo-black, and these 
again may have bars of deeper blue on the head or may lack 
these altogether. 1 find no difference among these fishes ex- 
cept in color, and no way of accounting for the differences in 
this regard. 

Certain species of puffer (Tetraodon setosus, of Panama, and 
Tetraodon nigropunctatus, of Polynesia) show similar remark- 
able variations, being dark gray with white spots, but varying 
to indigo-blue, lemon-yellow, or sometimes having coarse blotches 
of either. Lemon-yellow varieties of several species are known, 
and these may be due to a failure of pigment, a sort of semi- 
albinism. True albinos, individuals wholly without pigment, are 
rare among fishes. In some cases the markings, commonly 
black, will be replaced by a deep crimson which does not fade 
in alcohol. This change happens most frequently among the 
Scorpemde. An example of this is shown on colored plate 
facing page 644. The Japanese okose or poison-fish (Inimicus) 
is black and gray about lava-rocks. In deeper water among 
red alge it is bright crimson, the color not fading in spirits, the 
markings remaining the same. In still deeper water it is lemon- 
yellow. 


CHAPTER VII 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FISHES 


1 omy £7, |OOGEOGRAPHY.—Under the head of distribution we 
c. (4 =) consider the facts of the actual location of species 
asmees] of organisms on the surface of the earth and the 
laws by which their location is governed. This constitutes 
the subject-matter of the science of zoogeography. In physical 
geography we may prepare maps of the earth or of any part of 
it, these bringing to prominence the physical features of its 
surface. Such maps show here a sea, there a plateau, here a 
mountain chain, there a desert, a prairie, a peninsula, or an 
island. In political geography the maps show their physical 
features of the earth as related to the people who inhabit 
them and the states or powers which receive or claim their 
allegiance. In zoogeography the realms of the earth are con- 
sidered in relation to the species or tribes of animals which 
inhabit them. Thus series of maps could be drawn representing 
those parts of North America in which catfishes or trout or 
sunfishes are found in the streams: In like manner the distri- 
bution of any particular fish as the muskallonge or the yellow 
perch could be shown on the map. The details of such a map 
are very instructive, and their consideration at once raises a 
series of questions as to the cause behind each fact. In science 
it must be supposed that no fact is arbitrary or meaningless. 
In the case of fishes the details of the method of diffusion of 
species afford matters of deep interest. These are considered 
in a subsequent chapter. 

The dispersion of animals may be described as a matter of 
space and time, the movement being continuous but modified 
by barriers and other codnitions of environment. The ten- 


dency of recent studies in zoogeography has been to consider 
90 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes gI 


the facts of present distribution as the result of conditions in 
the past, thus correlating our present knowledge with the past 
relations of land and water as shown through paleontology. 
Dr. A. E. Ortmann well observes that ‘‘Any division of the 
earth’s surface into zoogeographical regions which starts 
exclusively from the present distribution of animals without 
considering its origin must always be unsatisfactory.” We 
must therefore consider the coast-lines and barriers of Tertiary 
and earlier times as well as those of to-day to understand the 
present distribution of fishes. 

General Laws of Distribution —The general laws governing 
the distribution of all animals are reducible to three very simple 
propositions. 

Each species of animal is found in every part of the earth 
having conditions suitable for its maintenance, unless 

(a) Its individuals have been unable to reach this region 
through barriers of some sort; or, 

(b) Having reached it, the species is unable to maintain 
itself, through lack of capacity for adaptation, through severity 
of competition with other forms, or through destructive condi- 
tions of environment; or else, 

(c) Having entered and maintained itself, it has become so 
altered in the process of adaptation as to become a species dis- 
tinct from the original type. 

Species Absent through Barriers.—The absence from the Jap- 
anese fauna of most European or American species comes under 
the first head. The pike has never reached the Japanese lakes, 


though the shade of the-lotus leaf in the many clear ponds 
would suit its habits exactly. The grunt* and porgiest+ of 


our West Indian waters have failed to cross the ocean and there- 
fore have no descendants in Europe or Asia. 

Species Absent through Failure to Maintain Foothold. — Of 
species under (b), those who have crossed the seas and not found 
lodgement, we have, in the nature of things, no record. Of the 
existence of multitudes of estrays we have abundant evidence. 
In the Gulf Stream off Cape Cod are every year taken many 
young fishes belonging to species at home in the Bahamas and 
which find no permanent place in the New England fauna. In 


* Hemulon, + Calamus. 


1 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 


g2 


Fic. 


69 —Map of the Continents, 


10) 


> 


ocene time. 


(After Ortmann.) 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 93 


like fashion, young fishes from the tropics drift northward in the 
Kuro Shiwo to the coasts of Japan, but never finding a per- 
manent breeding-place and never joining the ranks of the Japa- 
nese fishes. But to this there have been, and will be, occasional 
exceptions. Now and then one among thousands finds per- 
manent lodgement, and by such means a species from another 
region will be added to the fauna. The rest disappear and 
leave no trace. A knowledge of these currents and their in- 
fluence is eventual to any detailed study of the dispersion of 
fishes. 

The occurrence of the young of many shore fishes of the 
Hawaiian Islands as drifting plankton at a considerable distance 
from the shores has been lately discovered by Dr. Gilbert. 
Each island is, in a sense, a “sphere of influence,” affecting 
the fauna of neighboring regions. 

Species Changed through Natural Selection.—In the third class, 
that of species changed in the process of adaptation, most 
insular forms belong. As a matter of fact, at some time or 
another almost every species must be in this category, for isola- 
tion is a source of the most potent elements in the initiation 
and intensification of the minor differences which separate re- 
lated species. It is not the preservation of the most useful 
features, but of those which actually existed in the ancestral 
individuals, which distinguish such species. Natural selection 
must include not only the process of the survival of the fittest, 
but also the results of the survival of the existing. This means 
the preservation through heredity of the traits not of the species 
alone, but those of the actual individuals set apart to be the 
first in the line of descent in a new environment. In hosts of 
cases the persistence of characters rests not on any special use- 
fulness or fitness, but on the fact that individuals possessing 
these characters have, at one time or another, invaded a cer- 
tain area and populated it. The principle of utility explains 
survivals among competing structures. It rarely accounts for 
qualities associated with geographical distribution. 

Extinction of Species. — The extinction of species may be 
noted here in connection with their extension of range. Prof. 
Herbert Osborn has recognized five different types of elimina- 
tion. 


94 The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 


1. That extinction which comes from modification or pro- 
gressive evolution, a relegation to the past as the result of a 
transmutation into more advanced forms. 2. Extinction from 
changes of physical environment which outrun the powers of 
adaptation. 3. The extinction which results from competition. 
4. The extinction from extreme specialization and limitation 
to special conditions the loss of which means extinction. 5. 
Extinction as a result of exhaustion. As an illustration of No. 1, 
we may take almost any species which has a cognate species on 
the further side of some barrier or in the tertiary seas. Thus 
the trout of the Twin Lakes in Colorado has acquired its present 
characters in the place of those brought into the lake by its actual 
ancestors. No. 2 is illustrated by the disappearance of East 
Indian types (Zanclus, Platax, Toxotes, etc.) in Italy at the end of 
the Eocene, perhaps for climatic reasons. Extinction through 
competition is shown in the gradual disappearance of the Sacra- 
mento perch (Archoplitis interruptus) after the invasion of the 
river by catfish and carp. From extreme specializaion certain 
forms have doubtless disappeared, but no certain case of this 
kind has been pointed out among fishes, unless this be the 
cause of the disappearance of the Devonian mailed Ostracophores 
and Arthrodires. It is not likely that any group of fishes 
has perished through exhaustion of the stock of vigor. 

Barriers Checking Movement of Marine Fishes.—The limits 
of the distribution of individual species or genera must be 
found in some sort of barrier, past or present. The chief bar- 
riers which limit marine fishes are the presence of land, the 
presence of great oceans, the differences of temperature arising 
from differences in latitude, the nature of the sea bottom, and 
the direction of oceanic currents. That which is a barrier to 
one species may be an agent in distribution to another. The 
common shore fishes would perish in deep waters almost as surely 
as on land, while the open Pacific is a broad highway to the 
albacore or the swordfish. 

Again, that which is a barrier to rapid distribution may be- 
come an agent in the slow extension of the range of a species. 
The great continent of Asia is undoubtedly one of the greatest 
of barriers to the wide movement of species of fish, yet its long 
shore-line enables species to creep, as it were, from bay to bay, 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 95 


or from rock to rock, till, in many cases, the same species is 
found in the Red Sea and in the tide-pools or sand-reaches of 
Japan. In the North Pacific, the presence of a range of half- 
submerged volcanoes, known as the Aleutian and the Kurile 
Islands, has greatly aided the slow movement of the fishes of 
the tide-pools and the kelp. To a school of mackerel or of 
flying-fishes these rough islands with their narrow channels 
might form an insuperable barrier. 

Temperature the Central Fact in Distribution.—It has long 
been recognized that the matter of temperature is the central 
fact in all problems of geographical distribution. Few species 
in any group freely cross the frost-line, and except as borne by 


Yaw. 


Fie. 70.—Japanese file-fish, Rudarius ercodes Jordan and Snyder. Wakanoura, 
Japan, Family Monacanthide. 


oceanic currents, not many extend their range far into waters 
colder than those in which the species is distinctively at home. 
Knowing the average temperature of the water in a given region 
we know in general the types of fishes which must inhabit it. 
It is the similarity in temperature and physical conditions 
which chiefly explains the resemblance of the Japanese fauna 
to that of the Mediterranean or the Antilles. This fact alone 


96 The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 


must explain the resemblance of the Arctic and Antarctic 
faunz, there being in no case a barrier in the sea that may not 
some time be crossed. Like forms lodge in like places. 

Agency of Ocean Currents.—We may consider again for a 
moment the movements of the great currents in the Pacific as 
agencies in the distribution of species. 

A great current sets to the eastward, crossing the ocean 
just south of the equator. It extends past Samoa and passes 
on nearly to the coast of Mexico, touching the Galapagos Islands, 
Clipperton Island, and especially the Revillagigedos. This 
may account for the number of Polynesian species found on 
these islands, about which they are freely mixed with immi- 
grants from the mainland of Mexico. 

From the Revillagigedos* the current moves northward 
and westward, passing the Hawaiian Islands and thence onward 
to the Ladrones. The absence in Hawaii of most of the charac- 
teristic fishes of Polynesia and Micronesia may be in part due 
to the long detour made by these currents, as the conditions 
of life in these groups of islands are not very different. North- 
east of Hawaii is a great spiral current, moving with the hands 


-of the watch, forming what is called Fleurieu’s Whirlpool. 


This does not reach the coast of California. This fact may 
help to account for the almost complete distinction in the shore 
fishes of Hawaii and California. 

No other group of islands in the tropics has a fish fauna 
so isolated as that of Hawaii. The genera are largely the 
ordinary tropical types. The species are largely peculiar to 
these islands. 

The westward current from Hawaii reaches Luzon and For- 
mosa. It is deflected to the northward and, joining a north- 
ward current from Celebes, it forms the Kuro Shiwo or Black 
Stream of Japan, which strews its tropical species in the rock 
pools along the Japanese promontories as far as Tokio, Then, 
turning into the open sea, it passes northward to the Aleutian 
Islands, across to Sitka. Thence it moves southward as a cold 


* Clarion Island and Socorro Island. 

+ A few Mexican shore fishes, Chetodon humeralis, Galeichthys dasycephalus, 
Hypsoblennius parvipinnis, have been wrongly accredited to Hawaii by some 
misplacement of labels. 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 97 


current, bearing Ochotsk-Alaskan types southward as far as 
the Santa Barbara Islands, to which region it is accompanied 
by species of Aleutian origin. A cold return current seems to 
extend southward in Japan, along the east shore perhaps as 
far as Matsushima. A similar current in the sea to the west of 
Japan extends still further to the southward, to Noto, or beyond. 

It is, of course, not necessary that the movements of a 
species in an oceanic current should coincide with the direction 
of the current. Young fishes, or fresh-water fishes, would be 
borne along with the water. Those that dwell within floating 
bodies of seaweed would go whither the waters carry the drift- 
ing mass. But free-swimming fishes, as the mackerel or flying- 
fishes, might as readily choose the reverse direction. Toa free- 
swimming fish the temperature of the water would be the only 
consideration. It is thus evident that a current which to certain 
forms would prove a barrier to distribution, to others would be 
a mere convenience in movement. 

In comparing the Japanese fauna with that of Australia, we 
find some trace of both these conditions. Certain forms are 
perhaps excluded by cross-currents, while certain others seem 
to have been influenced only by the warmth of the water. <A 
few Australian types on the coast of Chile seem to have been 
carried over by the cross-currents of the South Atlantic. 

It is fair to say that the part taken by oceanic currents in 
the distribution of shore fishes is far from completely demon- 
strated. The evidence that they assist in such distribution 
is, in brief, as follows: 

1. The young of shore fishes often swim at the surface. 

2. The young of very many tropical fishes drift northward 
in the Gulf Stream and the Japanese Kuro Shiwo. 

3. The faunal isolation of Hawaii may be correlated with 
the direction of the oceanic currents. 

Centers of Distribution.—We may assume, in regard to any 
species, that it has had its origin in or near that region in which 
it is most abundant and characteristic. Such an assumption 
must involve a very large percentage of error or of doubt, but 
in considering the mass of species, it may represent essential 
truth. In the same fashion we may regard a genus as being 
autochthonous or first developed in the region where it shows 


98 The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 


the greatest range or variety of species. Those regions where 
the greatest number of genera are thus autochthonous may be 
regarded as centers of distribution. So far as the marine fishes 
are concerned, the most important of these supposed centers are 
found in the Pacific Ocean. First of these in importance is the 
East-Indian Archipelago, with the neighboring shores of India. 
Next would come the Arctic Pacific and its bounding islands, 
from Japan to British Columbia. Third in importance in this 
regard is Australia. Important centers are found in temperate 
Japan, in California, the Panama region, and in New Zealand, 
Chili, and Patagonia. The fauna of Polynesia is almost entirely 
derived from the Indies; and the shore fauna of the Red Sea, 
the Bay of Bengal, and Madagascar, so far as genera are con- 
cerned, seems to be not really separable from the Indian fauna 
generally. 

I know of but six genera which may be regarded as autoch- 
thonous in the Red Sea, and nearly all of these are of doubtful 


Fie. 71.—Globe-fish, Tetraodon setosus Rosa Smith. Clarion Island, Mexico. 


value or of uncertain relation. The many peculiar genera de- 
scribed by Dr. Alcock, from the dredgings of the Investigator 
in the Bay of Bengal, belong to the bathybial or deep-water 
series, and will all, doubtless, prove to be forms of wide dis- 
tribution. 

In the Atlantic, the chief center of distribution is the West 
Indies; the second is the Mediterranean. On the shores to the 
northward or southward of these regions occasional genera have 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 99 


found their origin. This is true especially of the New England 
region, the North Sea, the Gulf of Guinea, and the coast of 
Argentina. The fish fauna of the North Atlantic is derived 
mainly from the North Pacific, the differences lying mainly 
in the relative paucity of the North Atlantic. But in certain 
groups common to the two regions the migration must have 
been in the opposite direction, exceptions that prove the rule. 

Distribution of Marine Fishes.—The distribution of marine 
fishes must be indicated in a different way from that of the 
fresh-water forms. The barriers which limit their range fur- 
nish also their means of dispersion. In somecases proximity 
overbalances the influence of temperature; with most forms 
questions of temperature are all-important. 

Pelagic Fishes.—Before consideration of the coast-lines we 
may glance at the differences in vertical distribution. Many 
species, especially those in groups allied to the mackerel family, 
are pelagic—that is, inhabiting the open sea and ranging 
widely within limits of temperature. In this series some species 
are practically cosmopolitan. In other cases the genera are ~ 
so. Each schcol or group of individuals has its breeding place, 
and from the isolation of breeding districts new species may be 
conceived to arise. The pelagic types have reached a species 
of equilibrium in distribution. Each type may be found where 
suitable conditions exist, and the distribution of species throws 
little light on questions of distribution of shore fishes. Yet 
among these species are all degrees of localization. The pelagic 
fishes shade into the shore fishes on the one hand and into the 
deep-sea fishes on the other. 

Bassalian Fishes.—The vast group of bassalian or deep-sea 
fishes includes those forms which live below the line of ade- 
quate light. These too are localized in their distribution, and 
to a much greater extent than was formerly supposed. Yet as 
they dwell below the influence of the sun’s rays, zones and 
surface temperatures are nearly alike to them, and the same 
forms may be found in the Arctic or under the equator. Their 
differences in distribution are largely vertical, some living at 
greater depths than others, and they shade off by degrees from 
bathybial into semi-bathybial, and finally into ordinary pelagic 
and ordinary shore types. Apparently all of the bassalian fishes 


100 The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 


are derived from littoral types, the changes in structure being 
due to degeneration of the osseous and muscular systems and 
of structures not needed in deep-sea life. 

The fishes of the great depths are soft in substance, some of 
them blind, some of them with very large eyes, all black in 
color, and very many are provided with luminous spots or areas. 
A large body of species of fishes are semi-bathybial, inhabiting 
depths of 20 to 100 fathoms, showing many of the characters 
of shore fishes, but far more widely distributed. Many of the 
remarkable cases of wide distribution of type belong to this 
class. In moderate depths red colors are very common, cor- 
responding to the zone of red alge, and the colors in both 


SB - 
Fia. 72. —Sting-ray, Dasyatis sabina Le Sueur. Galveston. : 
cases are perhaps determined from the fact that the red rays 
of light are the least refrangible. 

A certain number of species are both marine and fresh water, 
inhabiting estuaries and brackish waters, while some more 
strictly marine ascend the rivers to spawn. In none of these. 
cases can any hard and fast line be drawn, and some groups 
which are shore fishes in one region will be represented by semi- 
bathybial or fluviatile forms in another.* 


* The dragonets (Callionymus) are shore fishes of the shallowest waters in 
Europe and Asia, but inhabit considerable depths in tropical America. The 
sea-robins (Prionotus) are shore fishes in Massachusetts, semi-bathybial fishes 
at Panama, Often Arctic shore fishes become semi-bathybial in the Temper- 
ate Zone, living in water of a given temperature. A long period of cold 
weather will sometimes bring such to the surface. 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes IOI 


Littoral Fishes.—The shore fishes are in general the most 
highly specialized in their respective groups, because exposed 
to the greatest variety of selecting conditions and of competi- 
tion. Their distribution in space is more definite than that of, 
the pelagic and bassalian types, and they may be more defi- 
nitely assigned to geographical areas. 

Distribution of Littoral Fishes by Coast-lines. — Their distri- 
bution is best indicated, not by realms or areas, but as form- 
ing four parallel series corresponding to the four great north 
and south continental outlines. Each of these series may be 
represented as beginning at the north in the Arctic fauna, 
practically identical in each of the four series, actually identical 
in the two Pacific series. Passing southward, forms are arranged 
according to temperature. One by one in each series, the 
Arctic types disappear; subarctic, temperate, and semi-trop- 
ical types take their places, giving way in turn to south-tem- 
perate and Antarctic forms. The distribution of these is modi- 
fied by barriers and by currents, yet though genera and species 
may be different, each isotherm is represented in each series by 
certain general types of fishes. 


ZZ oy, 


mn 
2 


Fic. 73.—Green-sided Darter, Diplesion blennioides Rafinesque. Clinch River. 
Family Percide. 


Passing southward the two American series, the East At- 
lantic and the East Pacific, pass on gradually through temperate 
to Antarctic types. These are analogous to those of the Arctic, 
and in a few cases they are generally identical. The West 
Pacific (East Asian) series is not a continuous line on account 
of the presence of Australia, the East Indies, and Polynesia. 
The irregularities of these regions make a number of subseries, 
which break up the simplicity expressed in the idea of four 


102 The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 


parallel series. Yet the fauna of Polynesia is strictly East 
Indian, modified by the omission or alteration of species, and 
that of Australia is Indian at the north, and changes to the 
southward much as that of Africa does. In its marine fishes, 
it does not constitute a distinct ‘“‘realm.” The East Atlantic 
(Europe-African) series follows the same general lines of change 
as that of the West Atlantic. It extends, however, only to the 
South Temperate Zone, developing no Antarctic elements. The 
relative shortness of Africa explains in large degree, as already 
shown, the similarity between the tropical elements in the two 
Old-World series, as the similarity in tropical elements in the 
two American series must be due to a former depression of the 
connecting Isthmus. The practical unity of the Arctic marine 
fauna needs no explanation in view of the present shore lines 
of the Arctic Ocean. 


Minor Faunal Areas.—The minor faunal areas of shore fishes 
may be grouped as follows: 


East Atlantic. East Pacific. West Pacific. 
Icelandic, Arctic, Arctic, 
British, Aleutian, Aleutian, 
Mediterranean, Sitkan, Kurile, 
Guinean, Californian, Hokkaido, 
Cape. San Diegan, Nippon, 
Sinaloan, Chinese, 
West Atlantic. Panamanian, East Indian, 
Greenlandic, Peruvian, Polynesian, 
New England, Revillagigedan, Hawaiian, 
Virginian, Galapagan, Indian, 
Austroriparian, Chilian, Arabian, 
Floridian, Patagonian. Madagascarian, 
Antillzan, Cape, 
Caribbean, North Australian, 
Brazilian, Tasmanian, 
Argentinan, New Zealand, 
Patagonian. Antarctic. 


Equatorial Fishes Most Specialized. —In general, the dif- 


ferent types are most highly specialized in equatorial waters. 
The processes of specific change, through natural selection or 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 103 


other causes, if other causes exist, take place most rapidly there 
and produce most far-reaching modification. As elsewhere 
stated, the coral reefs of the tropics are the centers of fish-life, 
the cities in fish-economy. The fresh waters, the arctic waters, 
the deep sea and the open sea represent forms of ichthyic back- 
woods, regions where change goes on more slowly, and in them 
we find survivals of archaic or generalized types. For this rea- 
son the study in detail of the distribution of marine fishes of 
equatorial regions is in the highest degree instructive. 

Realms of Distribution of Fresh-water Fishes.—If we consider 
the fresh-water fishes alone we may divide the land areas of 
the earth into districts and zones not differing fundamentally 
with those marked out for mammals and birds. The river 
basin, bounded by its shores and the sea at its mouth, shows 
many resemblances, from the point of view of a fish, to an 
island considered as the home of ananimal. It is evident that 
with fishes the differences in latitude outweigh those of con- 
tinental areas, and a primary division into Old World and New 
World would not be tenable. 

The chief areas of distribution of fresh-water fishes we may 
indicate as follows, following essentially the grouping proposed 
by Dr. Gtinther:* 

Northern Zone.—With Dr. Giinther we may recognize first 
the Northern Zone, characterized familiarly by the presence of 
sturgeon, salmon, trout, white-fish, pike, lamprey, stickleback, 
and other species of which the genera and often the species are 
identical in Europe, Siberia, Canada, Alaska, and most of the 
United States, Japan, and China. This is subject to cross- 
division into two great districts, the first Europe-Asiatic, the 
second North American. These two agree very closely to the 
northward, but diverge widely to the southward, developing a 
variety of specialized genera and species, and both of them pass- 
ing finally by degrees into the Equatorial Zone. 

Still another line of division is made by the Ural Mountains 
in the Old World and by the Rocky Mountains in the New. In 
both cases the Eastern region is vastly richer in genera and 
species, as well as in autochthonous forms, than the Western. 
The reason for this lies in the vastly greater extent of the river 


* ‘‘Tntroduction to the Study of Fishes.” 


104 The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 


basins of China and the Eastern United States, as compared with 
those of Europe or the Californian region. 

Minor divisions are those which separate the Great Lake 
region from the streams tributary to the Gulf of Mexico; and 
in Asia, those which separate China from tributaries of the 
Caspian, the Black, and the Mediterranean. 

Equatorial Zone.—The Equatorial Zone is roughly indicated 
by the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Its essential feature 
is that of the temperature, and the peculiarities of its divisions 
are caused by barriers of sea or mountains. 

Dr. Ginther finds the best line of separation into two 
divisions to lie in the presence or absence of the great group 
of dace or minnows,* to which nearly half of the species of fresh- 
water fishes the world over belong. The entire group, now 
spread everywhere except in the Arctic, South America, Aus- 
tralia, and the islands of the Pacific, seems to have had its 
origin in India, from which region its genera have radiated in 
every direction. 

The Cyprinoid division of the Equatorial Zone forms two 
districts, the Indian and the African. The Acyprinoid division 
includes South America, south of Mexico, and all the islands of 
the tropical Pacific lying to the east of Wallace’s line. . This 
line, separating Borneo from Celebes and Bali from Lompoe, 
marks in the Pacific the western limit of Cyprinoid fishes, as 
well as that of monkeys and other important groups of land 
animals. This line, recognized as very important in the distribu- 
tion of land animals, coincides in general with the ocean current 
between Celebes and Papua, which is one of the sources of the 
Kuro Shiwo. 

In Australia, Hawaii, and Polynesia generally, the fresh- 
water fishes are derived from marine types by modification of 
one sort or another. In no case, so far as I know, in any island 
to the eastward of Borneo, is found any species derived from 
fresh-water families of either the Eastern or the Western Conti- 
nent. Of course, minor subdivisions in these districts are formed 
by the contour lines of river basins. The fishes of the Nile differ 
from those of the Niger or the Congo, or of the streams of Mada- 


* Cyprinide. 


The Geographical Distribution of Fishes 105 


gascar or Cape Colony, but in all these regions the essential 
character of the fish fauna remains the same. 

Southern Zone.—The third great region, the Southern Zone, 
is scantily supplied with fresh-water fishes, and the few it pos- 
sesses are chiefly derived from modifications of the marine 
fauna or from the Equatorial Zone to the north. Three districts 
are recognized—Tasmania, New Zealand, and Patagonia. 


a ea 


CHAPTER VIII 


BARRIERS TO DISPERSION OF RIVER FISHES 


E Process of Natural Selection.— We can say, in 
general, that in all waters not absolutely uninhabit- 
able there are fishes. The processes of natural 
selection have given to each kind of river or lake species of 
fishes adapted to the conditions of life which obtain there. 
There is no condition of water, of bottom, of depth, of speed 
of current, but finds some species with characters adjusted 
to it. These adjustments are, for the most part, of long stand- 
ing; and the fauna of any single stream has as a rule been 
produced by immigration from other regions or from other 
streams. Each species has an ascertainable range of distribu- 
tion, and within this range we may be reasonably certain to 
find it in any suitable waters. 


Fic 74.—Slippery-dick or Doncella, Halicheres bivittatus Bloch, a fish of the 
coral reefs, Key West. Family Labride. 


But every species has beyond question some sort of limit to 
its distribution, some sort of barrier which it has never passed 
in all the years of its existence. That this is true becomes 
evident when we compare the fish fauna of widely separated 


rivers. Thus the Sacramento, Connecticut, Rio Grande, and 
106 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 107 


St. John’s Rivers have not a single species in common; and 
with one or two exceptions, not a species is common to any 
two of them. None of these * has any species peculiar to itself, 
and each shares a large part of its fish fauna with the water- 
basin next to it. It is probably true that the faunas of no two 
distinct hydrographic basins are wholly identical, while on 
the other hand there are very few species confined to a single 
one. The supposed cases of this character, some twenty in 
number, occur chiefly in the streams of the South Atlantic 
States and of Arizona. All of these need, however, the con- 
firmation of further exploration. It is certain that in no case 
has an entire river faunay originated independently from the 
divergence into separate species of the descendants of a single 
type. 

The existence of boundaries to the range of species implies, 
therefore, the existence of barriers to their diffusion. We may 
now consider these barriers and in the same connection the 
degree to which they may be overcome. 

Local Barriers.—Least important to these are the barriers 
which may exist within the limits of any single basin, and 
which tend to prevent a free diffusion through its waters of 
species inhabiting any portion of it. In streams flowing south- 
ward, or across different parallels of latitude, the difference in 
climate becomes a matter of importance. The distribution of 
species is governed very largely by the temperature of the water. 
Each species has its range in this respect,—the free-swimming 
fishes, notably the trout, being most affected by it; the mud- 
loving or bottom fishes, like the catfishes, least. The latter can 
reach the cool bottoms in hot weather, or the warm bottoms in 
cold weather, thus keeping their own temperature more even than 
that of the surface of the water. Although water communica- 
tion is perfectly free for most of the length of the Mississippi, 
there is a material difference between the faunz of the stream 
in Minnesota and in Louisiana. This difference is caused chiefly 
by the difference in temperature occupying the difference in 
latitude. That a similar difference in longitude, with free 


* Except possibly the Sacramento. 
+ Unless the fauna of certain cave streams in the United States and Cuba 


be regarded as forming an exception. 


—_—— Oe 


> 


108 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


water communication, has no appreciable importance, is shown 
by the almost absolute identity of the fish faunze of Lake Winne- 
bago and Lake Champlain. While many large fishes range 
freely up and down the Mississippi, a majority of the species 
do not do so, and the fauna of the upper Mississippi has more 
in common with that of the tributaries of Lake Michigan than 
it has with that of the Red River or the Arkansas. The in- 
fluence of climate is again shown in the paucity of the fauna 
of the cold waters of Lake Superior, as compared with that 
of Lake Michigan. The majority of our species cannot endure 
the cold. In general, therefore, cold or Northern waters con- 
tain fewer species than Southern waters do, though the num- 
ber of individuals of any one kind may be greater. This is 
shown in all waters, fresh or salt. The fisheries of the Northern 
seas are more extensive than those of the tropics. There are 
more fishes there, but they are far less varied in kind. The 
writer once caught seventy-five species of fishes in a single 


= ienete Temata aes 


Vic. 75.—Peristedion miniatum Goode and Bean, a deep-red colored fish of 
the depths of the Gulf Stream. 


haul of the seine at Key West, while on Cape Cod he obtained 
with the same net but forty-five species in the course of a week's 
work. Thus it comes that the angler, contented with many 
fishes of few kinds, goes to Northern streams to fish, while the 
naturalist goes to the South. 

But in most streams the difference in latitude is insignificant, 
and the chief differences in temperature come from differences 
in elevation, or from the distance of the waters from the colder 
source. Often the lowland waters are so different in character 
as to produce a marked change in the quality of their fauna. 
These lowland waters may form a barrier to the free movements 


. 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 109 


of upland fishes; but that this barrier is not impassable is 
shown by the identity of the fishes in the streams * of the uplands 
of middle Tennessee with those of the Holston and French 
Broad. Again, streams of the Ozark Mountains, similar in 
character to the rivers of East Tennessee, have an essentially 
similar fish fauna, although between the Ozarks and the Cum- 
berland range lies an area of lowland bayous, into which such 
fishes are never known to penetrate. We can, however, imag- 
ine that these upland fishes may be sometimes swept down 
from one side or the other into the Mississippi, from which 
they might ascend on the other side. But such transfers cer- 
tainly do not often happen. This is apparent from the fact 
that the two faunas } are not quite identical, and in some cases 
the same species are represented by perceptibly different varie- 
ties on one side and the other. The time of the commingling of 
these faunz is perhaps now past, and it may have occurred 
only when the climate of the intervening regions was colder 
than at present. 

The effect of waterfalls and cascades as a barrier to the dif- 
fusion of most, species is self-evident; but the importance of 
such obstacles is less, in the course of time, than might be ex- 
pected. In one way or another very many species have passed 
these barriers. The falls of the Cumberland limit the range of 
most of the larger fishes of the river, but the streams above it 
have their quota of darters and minnows. It is evident that 
the past history of the stream must enter as a factor into this 
discussion, but this past history it is not always possible to 
trace. Dams or artificial waterfalls now check the free move- 
ment of many species, especially those of migratory habits; 
while conversely, numerous other species have extended their 
range through the agency of canals. 


* For example, Elk River, Duck River, etc. 

+ There are three species of darters (Cottogaster copelandi Jordan, Hadrop- 
terus evides Jordan and Copeland, Hadropterus scierus Swain) which are now 
known only from the Ozark region or beyond and from the uplands of Indiana, 
not yet having been found at any point between Indiana and Missouri. These 
constitute perhaps isolated colonies, now separated from the parent stock 
in Arkansas by the prairie districts of Illinois, a region at present uninhabitable 
for these fishes. But the non-occurrence of these species over the intervening 
areas needs confirmation, as do most similar cases of anomalous distribution. 

t Thus, Dorosoma cepedianum Le Sueur and Pomolobus chrysochloris Rafi- 
nesque have found their way into Lake Michigan through canals. 


110 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


Every year fishes are swept down the rivers by the winter’s 
floods; and in the spring, as the spawning season approaches, 
almost every species is found working its way up the stream. 
In some cases, notably the Quinnat salmon * and the blueback 
salmon,f the length of these migrations is surprisingly great. 
To some species rapids and shallows have proved a sufficient 
barrier, and other kinds have been kept back by unfavorable 
conditions of various sorts. Streams whose waters are always 
charged with silt or sediment, as the Missouri, Arkansas, or 
Brazos, do not invite fishes; and even the occasional floods of 
red mud such as disfigure otherwise clear streams, like the Red 
River or the Colorado (of Texas), are unfavorable. Extremely 
unfavorable also is the condition which obtains in many rivers 
of the Southwest, as, for example, the Red River, the Sabine, 
and the Trinity, which are full from bank to bank in winter 
and spring, and which dwindle to mere rivulets in the autumn 
droughts. 

Favorable Waters have Most Species.—In general, those streams 
which have conditions most favorable to fish life will be found 
to contain the greatest number of species. Such streams invite 
immigration; and in them the struggle for existence is indi- 
vidual against individual, species against species, and not a 
mere struggle with hard conditions of life. Some of the condi- 
tions most favorable to the existence in any stream of a large 
number of species of fishes are the following, the most important 
of which is the one mentioned first: Connection with a large 
hydrographic basin; a warm climate; clear water; a moderate 
current; a bottom of gravel (preferably covered by a growth 
of weeds); little fluctuation during the year in the volume of 
the stream or in the character of the water. 

Limestone streams usually yield more species than streams 
flowing over sandstone, and either more than the streams of 
regions having metamorphic rocks. Sandy bottoms usually are 
not favorable to fishes. In general, glacial drift makes a suit- 
able river bottom, but the higher temperature usual in regions 
beyond the limits of the drift gives to certain Southern streams 
conditions still more favorable. These conditions are all well 


* Oncorhynchus tschawytscha Walbaum. 
+ Oncorhynchus nerka Walbaum. 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes ite 


realized in the Washita River in Arkansas, and in various trib- 
utaries of the Tennessee, Cumberland, and Ohio; and in these, 
among American streams, the greatest number of species has 
been. recorded. 

The isolation and the low temperature of the rivers of New 
England have given to them a very scanty fish fauna as com- 
pared with the rivers of the South and West. This fact has 
been noticed by Professor Agassiz, who has called New England 
a “zoological island.” * 

In spite of the fact that barriers of every sort are some- 
times crossed by fresh-water fishes, we must still regard the 
matter of freedom of water communication as the essential one 
in determining the range of most species. The larger the river 
basin, the greater the variety of conditions likely to be offered 
in it, and the greater the number of its species. In case of the 
divergence of new forms by the processes called “natural selec- 
tion,” the greater the number of such forms which may have 
spread through its waters; the more extended any river basin, 
the greater are the chances that any given species may some- 
times find its way into it; hence the greater the number of 
species that actually occur in it, and, freedom of movement 
being assumed, the greater the number of species to be found 
in any one of its affluents. 

Of the six hundred species of fishes found in the rivers of the 
United States, about two hundred have been recorded from 
the basin of the Mississippi. From fifty to one hundred of 
these species can be found in any one of the tributary streams 
of the size, say, of the Housatonic River or the Charles. In 
the Connecticut River there are but about eighteen species per- 
manently resident; and the number found in the streams of 
Texas is not much larger, the best known of these, the Rio 
Colorado, having yielded but twenty-four species. 

The waters of the Great Basin are not rich in fishes, the 

* “In this isolated region of North America, in this zoological island of 
New England, as we may call it, we find neither Lepidosteus, nor Amia, nor 
Polyodon, nor Amblodon (A plodinotus), nor Grystes (Micropterus) , nor Centrar= 
chus, nor Pomoxis, nor Ambloplites, nor Calliurus (Chenobryitus}, nor Carpiodes, 
nor Hyodon, nor indeed any of the characteristic forms of North American 


fishes so common everywhere else, with the exception of two Pomotis (Lepomis), 
one Boleosoma, and a few Catostomus.’’—Acassiz, Amer. Journ. Sct. Arts, 1854. 


112 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


species now found being evidently an overflow from the Snake 
River when in late glacial times it drained Lake Bonneville. 
This postglacial lake once filled the present basin of the Great 
Salt Lake and Utah Lake, its outlet flowing northwest from 
Ogden into Snake River. The same fishes are now found in 
the upper Snake River and the basins of Utah Lake and of 
Sevier Lake. In the same fashion Lake Lahontan once occu- 
pied the basin of Nevada, the Humboldt and Carson sinks, with 
Pyramid Lake. Its drainage fell also into the Snake River, 
and its former limits are shown in the present range of species. 
These have almost nothing in common with the group of species 
inhabiting the former drainage of Lake Bonneville. Another 
postglacial body of water, Lake Idaho, once united the lakes 
of Southeastern Oregon. The fauna of Lake Idaho, and of the 
lakes Malheur, Warner, Goose, etc., which have replaced it, is 
also isolated and distinctive. The number of species now known 
from this region of these ancient lobes is about 125. This list is 
composed almost entirely of a few genera of suckers,* minnows, fT 
and trout.t None of the catfishes, perch, darters, or sunfishes, 
_ moon-eyes, pike, kullifishes, and none of the ordinary Eastern 
types of minnows § have passed the barrier of the Rocky Moun- 
tains. 

West of the Sierra Nevada the fauna is still more scanty, 
only about seventy species being enumerated. This fauna, ex- 
cept for certain immigrants || from the sea, is of the same general 
character as that of the Great Basin, though most of the species 
are different. This latter fact would indicate a considerable 
change, or “evolution,” since the contents of the two faunz 
were last mingled. There is a considerable difference between 
the fauna of the Columbia and that of the Sacramento. The 
species which these two basins have in common are chiefly 
those which at times pass out into the sea. The rivers of Alaska 
contain but few species, barely a dozen in all, most of these 
being found also in Siberia and Kamchatka. In the scanti- 

* Catostomus, Pantosteus, Chasmistes. 

t Gila, Ptychocheilus, etc. 

t Salmo clarkit and its varieties. 

§ Genera Notropis, Chrosomus, etc. 


|| As the fresh-water surf-fish (Hysterocarpus traski) and the species of 
salmon. 


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114 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


ness of its faunal list, the Yukon agrees with the Mackenzie 
River, and with Arctic rivers generally. 

There can be no doubt that the general tendency is for 
each species to extend its range more and more widely until 
all localities suitable for its growth are included. The various 
agencies of dispersal which have existed in the past are still 
in operation. There is apparently no limit to their action. 
It is probable that new “colonies” of one species or another 
may be planted each year in waters not heretofore inhabited 
by such species. But such colonies become permanent only 
where the conditions are so favorable that the species can hold 
its own in the struggle for food and subsistence. That the 
various modifications in the habitat of certain species have been 
caused by human agencies is of course too well known to need 
discussion here. 

Watersheds. We may next consider the question of water- 
sheds, or barriers which separate one river basin from an- 
other. 

Of such barriers in the United States, the most important 
and most effective is unquestionably that of the main chain 
of the Rocky Mountains. This is due in part to its great 
height, still more to its great breadth, and most of all, perhaps, 
to the fact that it is nowhere broken by the passage of a river. 
But two species—the red-throated or Rocky Mountain trout * 
and the Rocky Mountain whitefisht—are found on both sides 
of it, at least within the limits of the United States; while many 
genera, and even several families, find in it either an eastern or a 
western limit to their range. In a few instances representative 
species, probably modifications or separated branches of the 
same stock, occur on opposite sides of the range, but there are 
not many cases of correspondence even thus close. The two 
faunas are practically distinct. Even the widely distributed 
red-spotted or “dolly varden”’ trout { of the Columbia River 
and its affluents does not cross to the east side of the moun- 
tains, nor does the Montana grayling § ever make its way to the 
West. In Northern Mexico, however, numerous Eastern river 
fishes have crossed the main chain of the Sierra Madre. 


* Salmo clarki Richardson. t Salvelinus malma (Walbaum), 
+ Coregonus williamsont Girard. § Thymallus tricolor Cope. 


. a 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 115 


How Fishes Cross Watersheds. —It is easy to account for 
this separation of the faune; but how shall we explain the 
almost universal diffusion of the whitefish and the trout in 
suitable waters on both sides of the dividing ridge? We may 
notice that these two are the species which ascend highest in 
the mountains, the whitefish inhabiting the mountain pools 
and lakes, the trout ascending all brooks and rapids in search of 
their fountainheads. In many cases the ultimate dividing ridge 
is not very broad, and we may imagine that at some time spawn 
or even young fishes may have been carried across by birds or 
other animals, or by man, or more likely by the dash of some 
summer whirlwind. Once carried across in favorable circum- 
stances, the species might survive and spread. 

The following is an example of how such transfer of spe- 
cies may be accomplished, which shows that we need not be 
left to draw on the imagination to invent possible means of 
transit. 

The Suletind.— There are few watersheds in the world 
better defined than the mountain range which forms the ‘‘ back- 
bone” of Norway. I lately climbed a peak in this range, the 
Suletind. From its summit I could look down into the valleys 
of the Lara and the Bagna, flowing in opposite directions to op- 
posite sides of the peninsula. To the north of the Suletind is 
a large double lake called the Sletningenvand. The maps show 
this lake to be one of the chief sources of the westward-flowing 
river Lara. This lake is in August swollen by the melting of 
the snows, and at the time of my visit it was visibly the source 
of both these rivers. From its southeastern side flowed a 
large brook into the valley of the Bagna, and from its south- 
western corner, equally distinctly, came the waters which fed 
the Lara. This lake, like similar mountain ponds in all north- 
ern countries, abounds in trout; and these trout certainly have 
for part of the year an uninterrupted line of water communica- 
tion from the Sognefjord on the west of Norway to the Chris- 
tianiafjord on the southeast,—from the North Sea to the Baltic. 
Part of the year the lake has probably but a single outlet 
through the Lara. A higher temperature would entirely cut 
off the flow into the Bagna, and a still higher one might dry 
up the lake altogether. This Sletningenvand, with its two 


116 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


outlets on the summit of a sharp watershed, may serve to 
show us how other lakes, permanent or temporary, may else- 
where have acted as agencies for the transfer of fishes. We 
can also see how it might be that certain mountain fishes should 
be so transferred while the fishes of the upland waters may 
be left behind. In some such way as this we may imagine that 
various species of fishes have attained their present wide range 
in the Rocky Mountain region; and in similar manner perhaps 
the Eastern brook trout * and some other mountain species ¢ 
may have been carried across the Alleghanies. 

The Cassiquiare.—Professor John C. Branner calls my atten- 
tion to a marshy upland which separates the valley of the La 
Plata from that of the Amazon, and which permits the free 
movement of fishes from the Paraguay River to the Tapajos. 
It is well known that through the Cassiquiare River the Rio 
Negro, another branch of the Amazon, is joined to the Orinoco 
River. It is thus evident that almost all the waters of eastern 
South America form a single basin, so far as the fishes are con- 
cerned. 

As to the method of transfer of the trout from the Columbia 
to the Missouri, we are not now left in doubt. 

Two-Ocean Pass.—To this day, as the present writer and 
later Evermann and Jenkins t have shown, the Yellowstone and 
Snake Rivers are connected by two streams crossing the main 
divide of the Rocky Mountains from the Yellowstone to the Snake 
across Two-Ocean Pass. 

Prof. Evermann has described the locality as follows: 

““Two-Ocean Pass is a high mountain meadow, about 8,200 
feet above the sea and situated just south of the Yellowstone 
National Park, in longitude 110° 10’ W., latitude 44° 3’ N. 
It is surrounded on all sides by rather high mountains except 
where the narrow valleys of Atlantic and Pacific creeks open 


* Salvelinus fontinalis Mitchill. 

+ Notropis rubricroceus Cope, Rhinichthys atronasus Mitchill, etc. 

t Evermann, A Reconnoissance of the Streams and Lakes of Western 
Montana and Northwestern Wyoming, in Bull. U.S. Fish. Comm., XI, 1891, 
24-28, pls. 1 and 1; Jordan, The Story of a Strange Land, in Pop. Sci. 
Monthly, Feb., 1892, 447-458; Evermann, Two-Ocean Pass, in Proc. Ind. Ac. 
Sci., 1892, 29-34, pl. 1; Evermann, Two-Ocean Pass, in Pop. Sci. Monthly, 
June, 1895, with plate. 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes i 


out from it. Running back among the mountains to the north- 
ward are two small canyons down which come two small streams. 
On the opposite is another canyon down which comes another 
small stream. The extreme length of the meadow from east 
to west is about a mile, while the width from north to south 
is not much less. The larger of the streams coming in from 
the north is Pacific Creek, which, after winding along the western 
side of the meadow, turns abruptly westward, leaving the meadow 
through a narrow gorge. Receiving numerous small affluents, 
Pacific Creek soon becomes a good-sized stream, which finally 
unites with Buffalo Creek a few miles above where the latter 
stream flows into Snake River. 

“Atlantic Creek was found to have two forks entering the 
pass. At the north end of the meadow is a small wooded canyon 
down which flows the North Folk. This stream hugs the bor- 
der of the flat very closely. The South Fork comes down the 
canyon on the south side, skirting the brow of the hill a little 
less closely than does the North Fork. The two, coming to- 
gether near the middle of the eastern border of the meadow, 
form Atlantic Creek, which after a course of a few miles flows 
into the Upper Yellowstone. But the remarkable phenomena 
exhibited here remain to be described. 

“Each fork of Atlantic Creek, just after entering the 
meadow, divides as if to flow around an island, but the stream 
toward the meadow, instead of returning to the portion from 
which it had parted, continues its westerly course across the 
meadow. Just before reaching the western border the two 
streams unite and then pour their combined waters into Pacific 
Creek; thus are Atlantic and Pacific creeks united and a con- 
tinuous waterway from the Columbia via Two-Ocean Pass to 
the Gulf of Mexico is established. 

“Pacific Creek is a stream of good size long before it enters 
the pass, and its course through the meadow is in a definite 
channel, but not so with Atlantic Creek. The west bank of 
each fork is low and the stream is liable to break through any- 
where and thus send part of its water across to Pacific Creek. 
It is probably true that one or two branches always connect 
the two creeks under ordinary conditions, and that following 
heavy rains or when the snows are melting, a much greater 


ti 


118 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


portion of the water of Atlantic Creek crosses the meadow 
to the other side. 

“Besides the channels already mentioned, there are several 
more or less distinct ones that were dry at the time of our visit. 
As already stated, the pass is a nearly level meadow covered 
with a heavy growth of grass and many small willows one to 
three feet high. While it is somewhat marshy in places it has 
nothing of the nature of a lake about it. Of course, during 


Ht 


Fic. 77.—Silver Surf-fish (viviparous), Hypocritichthys analis (Agassiz). Monterey. 


wet weather the small springs at the borders of the meadow 
would be stronger, but the important facts are that there is 
no lake or even marsh there and that neither Atlantic nor 
Pacific Creek has its rise in the meadow. Atlantic Creek, in 
fact, comes into the pass as two good-sized streams from op- 
posite directions and leaves it by at least four channels, thus 
making an island of a considerable portion of the meadow. 
And it is certain that there is, under ordinary circumstances, 
a continuous waterway through Two-Ocean Pass of such a 
character as to permit fishes to pass easily and readily from 
Snake River over to the Yellowstone, or in the opposite direc- 
tion. Indeed, it is quite possible, barring certain falls in the 
Snake River, for a fish so inclined, to start at the mouth of the 
Columbia, travel up that great river to its principal tributary, 
the Snake, thence on through the long, tortuous course of that 
stream, and, under the shadows of the Grand Teton, enter the 
cold waters of Pacific Creek, by which it could journey on up to 


. 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 119 


the very crest of the great continental divide,—to Two-Ocean 
Pass; through this pass it may have a choice of two routes to 
Atlantic Creek, in which the downstream journey is begun. Soon 
it reaches the Yellowstone, down which it continues to Yel- 
lowstone Lake, then through the lower Yellowstone out into 
the turbid waters of the Missouri; for many hundred miles it 
may continue down this mighty river before reaching the 
Father of Waters, which will finally carry it to the Gulf of 
Mexico—a wonderful journey of nearly 6,000 miles, by far the 
longest possible fresh-water journey in the world. 

“We found trout in Pacific Creek at every point where we 
examined it. In Two-Ocean Pass we found trout in each of 
the streams and in such positions as would have permitted 
them to pass easily from one side of the divide to the other. 
We also found trout in Atlantic Creek below the pass, and in 
the upper Yellowstone they were abundant. Thus it is cer- 
tain that there is no obstruction, even in dry weather, to pre- 
vent the passage of trout from the Snake River to Yellowstone 
Lake; it is quite evident that trout do pass over in this way; 
and itis almost certain that Yellowstone Lake was stocked with 
trout from the west via Two-Ocean Pass.’-—-EVERMANN. 

Mountain Chains.— The Sierra Nevada constitutes also a 
very important barrier to the diffusion of species. This is, 
however, broken by the passage of the Columbia River, and 
many species thus find their way across it. That the waters 
to the west of it are not unfavorable for the growth of 
Eastern fishes is shown by the fact of the rapid spread of the com- 
mon Eastern catfish,* or horned pout, when transported from 
the Schuylkill to the Sacramento. The catfish is now one of the 
important food fishes of the San Francisco markets, and with 
the Chinaman its patron, it has gone from California to Hawaii. 
The Chinese catfish, described by Bleeker as Ameturus can- 
tonensis, was doubtless carried home by some Chinaman return- 
ing from San Francisco. In like fashion the small-mouthed 
black bass is now frequent in California streams, as is also the 
blue-green sunfish, Apomotis cyanellus, introduced as food for 
the bass. 


* Ameiurus nebulosus Le Sueur: Ameiurus catus Linnzus. 


120 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


The mountain mass of Mount Shasta is, as already stated, 
a considerable barrier to the range of fishes, though a number 
of species find their way around it through the sea. The lower 
and irregular ridges of the Coast Range are of small importance 
in this regard, as the streams of their east slope reach the sea 
on the west through San Francisco Bay. Yet the San Joaquin 
contains a few species not yet recorded from the smaller rivers 
of southwestern California. 

The main chain of the Alleghanies forms a barrier of im- 
portance separating the rich fish fauna of the Tennessee and 
Ohio basins from the scantier faunz of the Atlantic streams. 
Yet this barrier is crossed by many more species than is the 
case with either the Rocky Mountains or the Sierra Nevada. It 
is lower, narrower, and much more broken,—as in New York, 
in Pennsylvania, and in Georgia there are several streams which 
pass through it or around it. The much greater age of the 
Alleghany chain, as compared with the Rocky Mountains, seems 
not to be an element of any importance in this connection. Of 
the fish which cross this chain, the most prominent is the brook 
trout,* which is found in all suitable waters from Hudson’s 
Bay to the head of the Chattahoochee. 

Upland Fishes.—A few other species are locally found in 
the head waters of certain streams on opposite sides of the range. 
An example of this is the little red “fallfish,”+ found only in the 
mountain tributaries of the Savannah and the Tennessee. We 
may suppose the same agencies to have assisted these species 
that we have imagined in the case of the Rocky Mountain trout, 
and such agencies were doubtless more operative in the times 
immediately following the glacial epoch than they are now. 
Prof. Cope calls attention also to the numerous caverns existing 
in these mountains as a sufficient medium for the transfer of 
many species. I doubt whether the main chains of the Blue 
Ridge or the Great Smoky can be crossed in that way, though 
such channels are not rare in the subcarboniferous limestones 
of the Cumberland range. In the brooks at the head waters of 
the Roanoke River about Alleghany Springs in Virginia, fishes 
of the Tennessee Basin are found, instead of those characteristic 


* Salvelinus fontinalis. 
+ Notropis rubricroceus Cope. 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes I21 


of the lower Roanoke. In this case it is likely that we have 
to consider the results of local erosion. Probably the divide has 
been so shifted that some small stream with its fishes has been 
cut off from the Holston and transferred to the Roanoke. 

The passage of species from stream to stream along the 
Atlantic slope deserves a moment’s notice. It is under present 
conditions impossible for any mountain or upland fish, as the 
trout or the miller’s thumb,* to cross from the Potomac River 
to the James, or from the Neuse to the Santee, by descending 
to the lower courses of the rivers, and thence passing along 
either through the swamps or by way of the sea. The lower 
courses of these streams, warm and muddy, are uninhabitable 
by such fishes. Such transfers are, however, possible farther 
north. From the rivers of Canada and from many rivers of 
New England the trout does descend to the sea and into the 
sea, and farther north the whitefish does this also. Thus these 
fishes readily pass from one river basin to another. As this is 
the case now everywhere in the North, it may have been the 
case farther south in the time of the glacial cold. We may, I 
think, imagine a condition of things in which the snow-fields 
of the Alleghany chain might have played some part in aiding 
the diffusion of cold-loving fishes. A permanent snow-field on 
the Blue Ridge in western North Carolina might render almost 
any stream in the Carolinas suitable for trout, from its source 
to its mouth. An increased volume of colder water might carry 
the trout of the head streams of the Catawba and the Savannah 
as far down as the sea. We can even imagine that the trout 
reached these streams in the first place through such agencies, 
though of this there is no positive evidence. For the presence 
of trout in the upper Chattahoochee we must account in some 
other way. 

It is noteworthy that the upland fishes are nearly the same 
in all these streams until we reach the southern limit of possible 
glacial influence. South of western North Carolina the faunze 
of the different river basins appear to be more distinct from 
one another. Certain ripple-loving types are represented by 
closely related but unquestionably different species in each 


* Cottus ictalops Rafinesque. 


122 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


river basin, and it would appear that a thorough mingling of 
the upland species in these rivers has never taken place. 

The best examples of this are the following: In the Santee 
basin are found Notropis pyrrhomelas, Notropis niveus, and No- 
tropis chloristius; in the Altamaha, Notropis xenurus and Notro- 
pis callisemus; in the Chattahoochee, Notropis hypselopterus and 
Notropis eurystomus; in the Alabama, Notropis ceruleus, Notro- 
pis trichroistius, and Notropis callistius. In the Alabama, Es- 
cambia, Pearl, and numerous other rivers is found Notropts cer- 


costigma, This species descends to the sea in the cool streams of © 


the pine woods. Its range is wider than that of the others, and 
in the rivers of Texas it reappears in the form of a scarcely dis- 
tinct variety, Notropis venustus. In the Tennessee and Cumber- 
land, and in the rivers of the Ozark range, is Notropts galacturus; 
and in the upper Arkansas Notropis camurus,—all distinct species 
of the same general type. Northward, in all the streams from 
the Potomac to the Oswego, and westward to the Des Moines and 
the Arkansas, occurs a single species of this type, Notropis 
whipplei, varying eastward into Notropis analostanus. But this 
species is not known from any of the streams inhabited by any 
of the other species mentioned, although very likely it is the 
parent stoék of them all. 

Lowland Fishes.—With the lowland species of the Southern 
rivers it is different. Few of these are confined within narrow 
limits. The streams of the whole South Atlantic and Gulf 
Coast flow into shallow bays, mostly bounded by sand-spits or 
sand-bars which the rivers themselves have brought down. In 
these bays the waters are often neither fresh nor salt; or, rather, 
they are alternately fresh and salt, the former condition being 
that of the winter and spring. Many species descend into these 
bays, thus finding every facility for transfer from river to river. 
There is a continuous inland passage in fresh or brackish waters, 
traversable by such fishes, from Chesapeake Bay nearly to 
Cape Fear; and similar conditions exist on the coasts of Louisi- 
ana, Texas, and much of Florida. In Perdido Bay I have found 
fresh-water minnows* and silversidesf living together with 
marine gobiest and salt-water eels.§ Fresh-water alligator 


* Notropis cercostigma, Notropis xe@nocephalus. } Gobiosoma molestum. 
+ Labidesthes sicculus. § Myrophis punctatus. 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 123 
gars * and marine sharks compete for the garbage thrown over 
from the Pensacola wharves. In Lake Pontchartrain the fauna 
is a remarkable mixture of fresh-water fishes from the Missis- 
sippi and marine fishes from the Gulf. Channel-cats, sharks, 
sea-crabs, sunfishes, and mullets can all be found there to- 
gether. It is therefore to be expected that the lowland fauna 
of all the rivers of the Gulf States would closely resemble that 
of the lower Mississippi; and this, in fact, is the case. 

The streams of southern Florida and those of southwestern 
Texas offer some peculiarities connected with their warmer 
climate. The Florida streams contain a few peculiar fishes; ft 
while the rivers of Texas, with the same general fauna as those 
farther north, have also a few distinctly tropical types,t immi- 
grants from the lowlands of Mexico. 

Cuban Fishes.—The fresh waters of Cuba are inhabited by 
fishes unlike those found in the United States. Some of these 
are evidently indigenous, derived in the waters they now in- 
habit directly from marine forms. Two of these are eyeless 
species,§ inhabiting streams in the caverns. They have no 
relatives in the fresh waters of any other region, the blind 
fishes || of our caves being of a wholly different type. Some of 
the Cuban fishes are common to the fresh waters of the other 
West Indies. Of Northern types, only one, the alligator gar,4 
is found in Cuba, and this is evidently a filibuster immigrant from 
the coasts of Florida. 

Swampy Watersheds. — The low and irregular watershed 
which separates the tributaries of Lake Michigan and Lake 
Erie from those of the Ohio is of little importance in determining 
the range of species. Many of the distinctively Northern fishes 
are found in the headwaters of the Wabash and the Scioto, 
The considerable difference in the general fauna of the Ohio 
Valley as compared with that of the streams of Michigan is due 
to the higher temperature of the former region, rather than 


* Lepisosteus tristechus. 

+ Jordanella, Rivulus,:Heterandria, etc. 

} Heros, Tetragonopterus. 

§ Lucifuga and Stygicola, fishes allied to the cusk, and belonging to the 
family of Brotulide. 

|| Amblyopsis, Typhlichthys. 

{ Lepisosteus tristechus. 


i 


124 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


to any existing barriers between the river and the Great Lakes. 
In northern Indiana the watershed is often swampy, and in 
many places large ponds exist in the early spring. 

At times of heavy rains many species will move through con- 
siderable distances by means of temporary ponds and brooks. 
Fishes that have thus emigrated often reach places ordinarily 
inaccessible, and people finding them in such localities often 
imagine that they have ‘‘rained down.”’ Once, near Indian- 
apolis, after a heavy shower, I found in a furrow in a corn-field 
a small pike,* some half a mile from the creek in which he 
should belong. The fish was swimming along in a temporary 
brook, apparently wholly unconscious that he was not in his 
native stream. Migratory fishes, which ascend smallstreams to 
spawn, are especially likely to be transferred in this way. By 
some such means any of the watersheds in Ohio, Indiana, or 
Illinois may be passed. 


Fie. 78.—Creekfish or Chub-sucker, Hrimyzon sucetta (Lacépéde). Nipisink 
Lake, Illinois. Family Catostomide. 

It is certain that the limits of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan 
were once more extended than now. It is reasonably prob- 
able that some of the territory now drained by the Wabash 
and the Illinois was once covered by the waters of Lake Michi- 
gan. The ciscot of Lake Tippecanoe, Lake Geneva, and the 
lakes of the Oconomowoc chain is evidently a modified de- 
scendant of the so-called lake herring.{ Its origin most likely 


* Esox vermiculatus Le Sueur. t+ Argyrosomus sisco Jordan. 
t Argyrosomus artedi Le Sueur. 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 125 


dates from the time when these small deep lakes of Indiana 
and Wisconsin were connected with Lake Michigan. The 
changes in habits which the cisco has undergone are consider- 
able. The changes in external characters are but trifling. The 
presence of the cisco in these lakes and its periodical disappear- 
ance—that is, retreat into deep water when not in the breeding 
season—have given rise to much nonsensical discussion as to 
whether any or all of these lakes are still joined to Lake Michigan 
by subterranean channels. Several of the larger fishes, properly 
characteristic of the Great Lake region,* are occasionally taken 
in the Ohio River, where they are usually recognized as rare 
stragglers. The difference in physical conditions is probably the 
sole cause of their scarcity in the Ohio basin. 

The Great Basin of Utah.—The similarity of the fishes in the 
different streams and lakes of the Great Basin is doubtless to be 
attributed to the general mingling of their waters which took 
place during and after the Glacial Epoch. Since that period the 
climate in that region has grown hotter and drier, until the over- 
flow of the various lakes into the Columbia basin through the 
Snake River has long since ceased. These lakes have become 
isolated from each other, and many of them have become salt 
or alkaline and therefore uninhabitable. In some of these lakes 
certain species may now have become extinct which still remain 
in others. In some cases, perhaps, the differences in surround- 
ings may have caused divergence into distinct species of what was 
once one parent stock. The suckers in Lake Tahoe 7 and those 
in Utah Lake are certainly now different from each other and from 
those in the Columbia. The trout t in the same waters can be 
regarded as more or less tangible species, while the white- 
fishes§ show no differences at all. The differences in the present 
faunas of Lake Tahoe and Utah Lake must be chiefly due to 
influences which have acted since the Glacial Epoch, when the 
whole Utah Basin was part of the drainage of the Columbia. 

Arctic Species in Lakes.—Connected perhaps with changes 

* As Lota maculosa; Percopsis guttata; Esox masquinongy. 

} Catostomus tahoensis, in Lake Tahoe; Catostomus macrocheilus and dis- 
cobolus, in the Columbia; Catostomus fecundus, Catostomus ardens; Chasmistes 
liorus and Pantosteus generosus, in Utah Lake. 


} Salmo henshawi and virginalis. 
§ Coregonus williamsoni. 


126 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


due to glacial influences is the presence in the deep waters of the 
Great Lakes of certain marine types,* as shown by the explora- 
tions of Professor Sidney I. Smith and others. One of these is a 
genus of fishes, of which the nearest allies now inhabit the Arctic 
Seas. In his review of the fish fauna of Finland,} Professor A. J. 
Malmgren finds a number of Arctic species in the waters of Fin- 
land which are not found either in the North Sea or in the southern 
portions of the Baltic. These fishes are said to “agree with their 
‘forefathers’ in the Glacial Ocean in every point, but remain 
comparatively smaller, leaner, almost starved.”” Professor Lovén§ 
also has shown that numerous small animals of marine origin are 
found in the deep lakes of Sweden and Finland as well as in the 
Gulf of Bothnia. These anomalies of distribution are explained 
by Lovén and Malmgren on the supposition of the former con- 
tinuity of the Baltic through the Gulf of Bothnia with the Glacial 
Ocean. During the second half of the Glacial Period, according 
to Lovén, “the greater part of Finland and of the middle of 
Sweden was submerged, and the Baltic was a great gulf of the 
Glacial Ocean, and not connected with the German Ocean. By 
the gradual elevation of the Scandinavian Continent, the Baltic 
became disconnected from the Glacial Ocean and the Great 
Lakes separated from the Baltic. In consequence of the gradual 
change of the salt water into fresh, the marine fauna became 
gradually extinct, with the exception of the glacial forms men- 
tioned above.”’ 

It is possible that the presence of marine types in our Great 
Lakes is to be regarded as dtte to some depression of the land 
which would connect their waters with those of the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. On this point, however, our data are still incomplete. 

To certain species of upland or mountain fishes the depression 
of the Mississippi basin itself forms a barrier which cannot be 
passed. The black-spotted trout,|| very closely related species 


* Species of Mysis and other genera of Crustaceans, similar to species 
described by Sars and others, in lakes of Sweden and Finland. 

} Triglopsis thompsoni Girard, a near ally of the marine species Oncocottus 
quadricornis L. 

t Kritisk Ofversigt af Finlands Fisk-Fauna, Helsingfors, 1863. 

§ See Giinther, Zoological Record for 1864, p. 137. 

|| Salmo fario L., in Europe; Salmo labrax Pallas, etc., in Asia; Salmo 
gairdneri Richardson, in streams of the Pacific Coast; Salmo perryi, in Japan; 


Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes W277 


of which abound in all waters of northern Asia, Europe, and 
western North America, has nowhere crossed the basin of the 
Mississippi, although one of its species finds no difficulty in passing 
Bering Strait. The trout and whitefish of the Rocky Moun- 
tain region are all species different from those of the Great Lakes 
or the streams of the Alleghany system. To the grayling, the 
trout, the whitefish, the pike, and to arctic and subarctic 
species generally, Bering Strait has evidently proved no serious 
obstacle to diffusion; and it is not unlikely that much of the close 
resemblance of the fresh-water faunze of northern Europe, Asia, 
and North America is due to this fact. To attempt to decide 
from which side the first migration came in regard to each group 
of fishes might be interesting; but without a wider range of facts 
than is now in our possession, most such attempts, based on guess- 
work, would have little value. The interlocking of the fish faunas 
of Asia and North America presents, however, a number of inter- 
esting problems, for migrations in both directions have doubtless 
taken place. 

Causes of Dispersion Still in Operation.—One might go on 
indefinitely with the discussion of special cases, each more or less 
interesting or suggestive in itself, but the general conclusion is in 
allcases the same. The present distribution of fishes is the result 
of the long-continued action of forces still in operation. The 


_ species have entered our waters in many invasions from the Old 


World or from the sea. Each species has been subjected to the 
various influences implied in the term “natural selection,”’ and 
under varying conditions its representatives have undergone 
many different modifications. Each of the six hundred fresh- 
water species we now know in the United States may be con- 
ceived as making every year inroads on territory occupied by 
other species. If these colonies are able to hold their own in 
the struggle for possession, they will multiply in the new condi- 
tions, and the range of the species becomes widened. If the 
surroundings are different, new species or varieties may be formed 
with time; and these new forms may again invade the territory 
of the parent species. Again, colony after colony of species 


Salmo clarki Richardson, throughout the Rocky Mountain range to the Mexican 
boundary and the headwaters of the Kansas, Platte, and Missouri. 


128 Barriers to Dispersion of River Fishes 


after species may be destroyed by other species or by uncongenial 
surroundings. 

The ultimate result of centuries on centuries of the restlessness 
of individuals is seen in the facts of geographical distribution. 
Only in the most general way can the history of any species be 
traced; but could we know it all, it would be as long and as event- 
ful a story as the history of the colonizaticn and settlement of 
North America by immigrants from Europe. But by the fishes 
each river in America has been a hundred times discovered, its 
colonization a hundred times attempted. In these efforts there 
is no co-operation. Every individual is for himself, every struggle 
a struggle of life and death; for each fish is a cannibal, and to each 
species each member of every other species is an alien and a 
savage. 


i ccomeenecttetinenttitemmmmmenentiadinedtitenn cna titania eee 


CHAPTER IX 


FISHES AS FOOD FOR MAN 


HE Flesh of Fishes.—Among all races of men, fishes 
i yy] are freely eaten as food, either raw, as preferred by 
the Japanese and Hawaiians, or else as cooked, 
salted, dried, or otherwise preserved. 

The flesh of most fishes is white, flaky, readily digestible, 
and with an agreeable flavor. Some, as the salmon, are charged 
with oil, which aids to give an orange hue known as salmon 
color. Others have colorless oil which may be of various con- 
sistencies. Some have dark-red flesh, which usually contains 
a heavy oil which becomes acrid when stale. Some fishes, as 
the sharks, have tough, coarse flesh. Some have flesh which is 
watery and coarse. Some are watery and tasteless, some dry 
and tasteless. Some, otherwise excellent, have the muscular 
area, which constitutes the chief edible part of the fish, filled 
with small bones. 

Relative Rank of Food-fishes——The writer has tested most 
of the noted food-fishes of the Northern Hemisphere. When 


Fia, 79.—Eulachon, or Ulchen. Thaleichthys pretiosus Girard. Columbia River. 
Family Argentinida. 

properly cooked (for he is no judge of raw fish) he would place 

first in the ranks as a food-fish the eulachon, or candle-fish 

(Thaleichthys pacificus). 


129 


| 


OO eee 


SL ee me 


130 Fishes as Food for Man 


This little smelt, about a foot long, ascends the Columbia 
River, Frazer River, and streams of southern Alaska in the 
spring in great numbers for the purpose of spawning. Its flesh 
is white, very delicate, charged with a white and very agree- 


Fig. 80.—Ayu, or Japanese Samlet, Plecoglossus altivelis Schlegél. Tanagawa, 
Tokyo, Japan. 
able oil, readily digested, and with a sort of fragrance peculiar 
to the species. 2 
Next to this he is inclined to place the ayu (Plecoglossus 
altivelis), a sort of dwarf salmon which runs in similar fashion 
in the rivers of Japan and Formosa. The ayu is about as large 


Fig, 81.—Whitefish, Coregonus clupeiformis Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich. 


as the eulachon and has similar flesh, but with little oil and no 
fragrance. 
Very near the first among sea-fishes must come the pampano 


Fishes as Food for Man 131 


(Trachinotus carolinus) of the Gulf of Mexico, with firm, white, 
finely flavored flesh. 

The red surmullet of Europe (Mullus barbatus) has been 
long famed for its delicate flesh, and may perhaps be placed 
next. Two related species in Polynesia, the munu and the 


RERONS Ase aes, 

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Wiens 


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Fic. 82.—Golden Surmullet, Mullus auratus Jordan & Gilbert. 
Woods Hole, Mass. 
kumu (Pseudupeneus bifasciatus and Pseudupeneus porphyreus), 
are scarcely inferior to it. 
Side by side with these belongs the whitefish of the Great 
Lakes (Coregonus clupetformis). Its. flesh, delicate, slightly 


Fie. 83.—Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus maculatus Mitchill. 
Family Scombride. Key West. 


gelatinous, moderately oily, is extremely agreeable. Sir John 
Richardson records the fact that one can eat the flesh of this 
fish longer than any other without the feeling of cloying. The 
salmon cannot be placed in the front rank, because, however 
excellent, the stomach soon becomes tired of it. The Spanish 
mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus), with flesh at once rich and 
delicate, the great opah (Lampris luna), still richer and still 


GEL aseg—(Cipusog “Ty “sp Aq ydeasojoyg) 
‘sq, FLITE Burysiom goyseur npnpouoy, ut uoumoodg -(uljoury) vunp sudo ‘ysyuoow; 10 ‘yedQ— Fg “pI 


Fishes as Food for Man 138 


more delicate, the bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix) similar but a 
little coarser, the ulua (Carangus sem), the finest large food-fish 
of the South Seas, the dainty California poppy-fish, miscalled 
‘‘Pampano”’ (Palometa simillima), and the kingfish firm and 


Fig. 85.—Bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix (L.). New York. 


well-flavored (Scomberomorus cavalla), represent the best of the 
fishes allied to the mackerel. 

The shad (Alosa sapidissima), with its sweet, tender, finely 
oily flesh, stands also near the front among food-fishes, but it 
sins above all others in the matter of small bones. The weak- 
fish (Cynoscion nobilis) and numerous relatives rank first among 


Fie. 86 —Robalo, Centropomus undecimalis (Bloch). Florida. 


those with tender, white, savorous flesh. Among the bass and 
perch-like fishes, common consent places near the first the 
striped bass (Rocus lineatus), the bass of Europe (Dicentrarchus 
labrax), the susuki of Japan (Lateolabrax japonicus), the red 
tai of Japan (Pagrus major and P. cardinalis), the sheep’s-head 
(Archosargus probatocephalus), the mutton-fish or Pargo Criollo 
of Cuba (Lutianus analis), the European porgy (Pagrus pagrus), 


1344 Fishes as Food for Man 


the robalo (Centropomus undecimalis), the uku (Aprion vires- 
cens) of Hawaii, the spadefish (Chetodipterus faber), and the 
black bass (Micropterus dolomieu). 


Fic. 87.—Spadefish, Chetodipterus faber (L.). Virginia. 


a 


DY. ) NY a i 
yy - ‘S 


PANY 
“ 


Fic. 88.—Small-mouthed Black Bass, Micropterus dolomieu (Lacépéde). 
Potomac River. 


The various kinds of trout have been made famous the world 
over. All are attractive in form and color; all are gamy; all 


—~-< 


Fishes as Food for Man 35 


have the most charming of scenic surroundings, and, finally, all 
are excellent as food, not in the first rank perhaps, but well 
above the second. Notable among these are the European 


Fig. 89.—Speckled Trout (male), Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). New York. 


Fic. 90.—Rainbow Trout, Salmo irideus Gibbons. Sacramento River, California. 


Fic. 91.—Rangeley Trout, Salvelinus oquassa (Girard). Lake Oquassa, Maine. 


charr (Salvelinus alpinus), the American speckled trout or charr 
(Salvelinus fontinalis), the Dolly Varden or malma (Salvelinus 
malma), and the oquassa trout (Salvelinus oquassa). Scarcely 


136 Fishes as Food for Man. 


less attractive are the true trout, the brown trout, or forelle 
(Salmo fario), in Europe, the rainbow-trout (Salmo irideus), 


Fic. 92 —Steelhead Trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson. Columbia River. 


the steelhead (Salmo gairdneri), the cut-throat trout (Salmo 
clarkiz), and the Tahoe trout (Salmo henshawt), in America, 


lie 93—Tahoe Trout, Salmo henshawi Gill & Jordan. Lake Tahoe, California. 


and the yamabe (Salmo perryi) of Japan. Not least of all 
these is the flower of fishes, the grayling (Thymallus), of differ- 
ent species in different parts of the world. 


Fie 94—The Dolly Varden Trout, Salvelinus malma (Walbaum). Lake Pend 
d’Oreille, Idaho. (After Evermann.) 

Other most excellent food-fishes are the eel (Anguilla species), 

the pike (Esox lucius), the muskallonge (Esox masquinongy), 

the sole of Europe (Solea solea), the sardine (Sardinella pilchar- 


Fishes as Food for Man HOY 


dus), the atka-fish (Pleurogrammus monopterygius) of Bering 
Sea, the pescado blanco of Lake Chapala (Chirostoma estor and 
other species), the Hawaiian mullet (Mugil cephalus), the channel 


Fie, 95.—Alaska Grayling, Thymallus signifer Richardson. Nulato, Alaska. 


Fig. 97—Atka-fish, Pleurogrammus monopterygius (Pallas). Atka Island. 


catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), the turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), 
the barracuda (Sphyrena), and the young of various sardines and 
herring, known as whitebait. Of large fishes, probably the 


—— 


138 Fishes as Food for Man 


swordfish (Xiphias gladius), the halibut (Hippoglossus hippo- 
glossus), and the king-salmon, or quinnat (Oncorhynchus tschawy- 
tscha), may be placed first. Those people who feed on raw fish 


Fie. 98.—Pescado blanco, Chirostoma humboldtianum (Val.). Lake Chalco, 
City of Mexico. 


prefer in general the large parrot-fishes (as Pseudoscarus jordani 
in Hawaii), or else the young of mullet and similar species. 
Abundance of Food-fishes.—In general, the economical value 
of any species depends not on its toothsomeness, but on its 
abundance and the ease with which it may be caught and pre- 


Fic. 99.—Red Goatfish, or Salmonete, Pseudupeneus maculatus Bloch. 
Family Mullide (Surmullets). 


served. It is said that more individuals of the herring (Clupea 
harengus in the Atlantic, Clupea pallast in the Pacific) exist than 
of any other species. The herring is a good food-fish and when- 
ever it runs it is freely sought. According to Bjorns6n, wherever 
the school of herring touches the coast of Norway, there a village 
springs up, and this is true in Scotland, Newfoundland, and 


Fishes as Food for Man 139 


from Killisnoo in Alaska to Otaru in Japan, and to Strielok in 
Siberia. Goode estimates the herring product of the North 
Atlantic at 1,500,000,000 pounds annually. In 1881 Professor 
Huxley used these words: 


Fic. 100.—Great Pariah, or Guacamaia, Pseudoscarus guacamaia 
Bloch & Schneider. Florida. 


“It is said that 2,500,000,000 or thereabout of herrings 
are every year taken out of the North Sea and the Atlantic. 
Suppose we assume the number to be 2,000,000,000 so as to be 
quite safe. It is a large number undoubtedly, but what does 


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Anaya aioe 
eK an) 9%, Z 


2 PSS Aa aA a 
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Fie. 101.—Striped Mullet, Mugil cephalus (L.). Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


it come to? Not more than that of the herrings which may be 
contained in one shoal, if it covers half a dozen square miles, 
and shoals of much larger size are on record. It is safe to say 
that scattered through the North Sea and the Atlantic, at one 
and the same time, there must be scores of shoals, any one of 


SS —————————— 


a 


140 Fishes as Food for Man 


which would go a long way toward supplying the whole of man’s 
consumption of herrings.” 
The codfish (Gadus callarias in the Atlantic; Gadus macro- 


Fic. 102.—Mutton-snapper, or Pargo criollo, Lutianus analis (Cuy. & Val.). 
Key West. 


Fic. 103.—Herring, Clupea harengus lL. New York. 


Fic. 104.—Codfish, Gadus callarias L. Eastport, Maine. 


cephalus in the Pacific) likewise swarms in all the northern seas, 
takes the hook readily, and is better food when salted and dried 
than it is when fresh. 


Fishes as Food for Man 141 


Next in economic importance probably stands the mackerel 
of the Atlantic (Scomber scombrus), a rich, oily fish which bears 
salting better than most. 


Fic. 105.—Mackerel, Scomber scombrus L. New York. 


Not less important is the great king-salmon, or quinnat (On- 
corhyachus tschawytscha), and the still more valuable blue-back 
salmon, or red-fish (Oncorhynchus nerka). 


Fic. 106.—-Halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus (Linneus). St. Paul Island, 
Bering Sea. (Photograph by U. 8. Fur Seal Commission.) 


The salmon of the Atlantic (Salmo salar), the various species 
of sturgeon (Acipenser), the sardines (Sardinella), the halibut 
(Hippoglossus), are also food-fishes of great importance. 


142 Fishes as Food for Man 


Variety of Tropical Fishes.—In the tropics no one species is 
represented by enormous numbers of individuals as is the case 
in colder regions. On the other hand, the number of species 
regarded as food-fishes is much greater in any given port. In 
Havana, about 350 different species are sold as food in the mar- 
kets, and an equal number are found in Honolulu. Upward of 
600 different species appear in the markets of Japan. In Eng- 
land, on the contrary, about 50 species make up the list of fishes 
commonly used as food. Yet the number of individual fishes 
is probably not greater about Japan or Hawaii than in a similar 
stretch of British coast. 

Economic Fisheries—Volumes have been written on the eco- 
nomic value of the different species of fishes, and it is not the 
purpose of the present work to summarize their contents. 


Fic. 107 —Fishing for Ayu with Cormorants in the Tanagawa, near Tokyo. 
(After photograph by J. O. Snyder by Sekko Shimada.) 

Equally voluminous is the literature on the subject of catch- 
ing fishes. It ranges in quality from the quaint wisdom of the 
‘‘Compleat Angler’’ and the delicate wit of ‘ Little Rivers’’ to 
elaborate discussions of the most economic and effective forms 
and methods, of the beam-trawl, the purse-seine, and the cod- 


Fishes as Food for Man 143 


fish hook. In general, fishes are caught in four ways—by baited 
hooks, by spears, by traps, and by nets. Special local methods, 
such as the use of the tamed cormorant * in the catching of the 
ayu, by the Japanese fishermen at Gifu, may be set aside for 
the moment, and all general methods of fishing come under 
one of these four classes. Of these methods, the hook, the 
spear, the seine, the beam-trawl, the gill-net, the purse-net, the 
sweep-net,, the trap and the weir are the most important. The 
use of the hook is again extremely varied. In the deep sea 
long, sunken lines are sometimes used for codfish, each bait- 
ed with many hooks. For pelagic fish, a baited hook is drawn 
swiftly over the surface, with a ‘“‘spoon’’ attached which 
looks like a living fish. In the rivers a line is attached to 
a pole, and when fish are caught for pleasure or for the joy of 
being in the woods, recreation rises to the dignity of angling. 
Angling may be accomplished with a hook baited with an earth- 
worm, a grasshopper, a living fish, or the larva of some insect. 
The angler of to-day, however, prefers the artificial fly, as being 
more workmanlike and also more effective than bait-fishing. 
The man who fishes, not for the good company of the woods 
and brooks, but to get as many fish as possible to eat or sell, is 
not an angler but a pot-fisher. The man who kills all the trout 
he can, to boast of his skill or fortune, is technically known as 
a trout-hog. Ethically, it is better to lie about your great 
catches of fine fishes than to make them. For most anglers, 
also, it is more easy. 

Fisheries—With the multiplicity of apparatus for fishing, 
there is the greatest variety in the boats which may be used. 
The fishing-fleet of any port of the world is a most interesting 


* The cormorant is tamed for this purpose. A harness is placed about 
its wings and a ring about the lower part of its neck. Two or three birds 
may be driven by a boy ina shallow stream, a small net behind him to drive 
the fish down the river. In a large river like that of Gifu, where the cor- 
morants are most used, the fishermen hold the birds from the boats and fish 
after dark by torchlight. The bird takes a great interest in the work, darts 
at the fishes with great eagerness, and fills its throat and gular pouch as 
far down as the ring. Then the boy takes him out of the water, holds him 
by the leg and shakes the fishes out into a basket. When the fishing is over 
the ayu are preserved, the ring is taken off from the bird’s neck, and the zako 
or minnows are thrown to him for his share. These he devours greedily. 


144 Fishes as Food for Man 


object, as are also the fishermen with their quaint garb, plain 
speech, and their strange songs and calls with the hauling in of 


the net. 
For much information on the fishing apparatus in use in 


Fig. 108.—Fishing for Ayu in the Tanagawa, Japan. Emptying the pouch of 
the cormorant. (Photograph by J. O. Snyder.) 


America the reader is referred to the Reports of the Fisheries in 
the Tenth Census, in 1880, under the editorship of Dr. George 
Brown Goode. In these reports Goode, Stearns, Earle, Gilbert, 
Bean, and the present writer have treated very fully of all eco- 
nomic relations of the American fishes. In an admirable work 
entitled ‘‘American Fishes,’’ Dr. Goode, with the fine literary 


Fishes as Food for Man 145 


touch of which he was master, has fully discoursed of the game- 
and food-fishes of America with especial reference to the habits 
and methods of capture of each. To these sources, to Jordan 
and Evermann’s ‘‘ Food and Game Fishes of North America,” 
and tomany other works of similar purport in other lands, the 
reader is referred for an account of the economic and the 
human side of fish and fisheries. 

Angling.—It is no part of the purpose of this work to de- 
scribe the methods or materials of angling, still less to sing its 
praises as a means of physical or moral regeneration. We may 
perhaps find room for a first and a last word on the subject; the 
one the classic from the pen of the angler of the brooks of Staf- 
fordshire, and the other the fresh expression of a Stanford stu- 
dent setting out for streams such as Walton never knew, the 
Purissima, the Stanislaus, or perchance his home streams, the 
Provo or the Bear. 

*« And let me tell you, this kind of fishing with a dead rod, 
and laying night-hooks, are like putting money to use; for they 
both work for the owners when they do nothing but sleep, or 
eat, or rejoice, as you know we have done this last hour, and 
sat as quietly and as free from cares under this sycamore as 
Virgil’s Tityrus and his Melibceus did under their broad beech- 
tree. No life, my honest scholar,—no life so happy and so 
pleasant as the life of a well-governed angler; for when the 
lawyer is swallowed up with business and the statesman is pre- 
venting or contriving plots, then we sit on the cowslip-banks, 
hear the birds sing, and possess ourselves in as much quietness 
as these silent silver streams which we now see glide so quietly 
by us. Indeed, my good scholar, we may say of angling, as 
Dr. Boteler said of strawberries, ‘Doubtless God could have made 
a better berry, but doubtless God never did’; and so, if I might 
be judge, ‘God never made a more calm, quiet, innocent recrea- 
tion than angling.’ 

“T’ll tell you, scholar, when I sat last on this primrose-bank, 
and looked down these meadows, I thought of them as Charles 
the Emperor did of Florence, ‘That they were too pleasant to 
be looked on but only on holidays.’ 

“Gentle Izaak! He has been dead these many years, but 
his disciples are still faithful. When the cares of business lie 


— 


é 


i 


146 Fishes as Food for Man 


heavy and the sound of wheels jarring on cobbled streets grows 
painful, one’s fingers itch for the rod; one would away to the 
quiet brook among the pines, where one has fished so often. 
Every man who has ever got the love of the stream in his blood 
feels often this longing. 

‘‘Tt comes to me each year with the first breath of spring. 
There is something in the sweetness of the air, the growing 
things, the ‘robin in the greening grass’ that voices it. Duties 
that have before held in their performance something of pleas- 
ure become irksome, and practical thoughts of the day’s work 
are replaced by dreamy pictures of a tent by the side of a moun- 
tain stream—close enough to hear the water’s singing in the 
night. Two light bamboo rods rest against the tent-pole, and 
a little column of smoke rising straight up through the branches 
marks the supper fire. Jack is preparing the evening meal, 
and, as I dream, there comes to me the odor of crisply browned 
trout and sputtering bacon—was ever odor more delicious? 
I dare say that had the good Charles Lamb smelled it as I have, 
his ‘ Dissertation on Roast Pig’ would never have been written. 
But then Charles Lamb never went a-fishing as we do here in 
the west—we who have the mountains and the fresh air so 
boundlessly. 

‘And neither did Izaak Walton for that matter. He who is 
sponsor for all that is gentle in angling missed much that is 
best in the sport by living too early. He did not experience 
the exquisite pleasure of wading down mountain streams in 
supposedly water-proof boots and feeling the water trickling in 
coolingly; nor did he know the joy of casting a gaudy fly far 
ahead with a four-ounce rod, letting it drift, insect-like, over 
that black hole by the tree stump, and then feeling the sea- 
weed line slip through his fingers to the whirr of the reel. And, 
at the end of the day, supper over, he did not squat around a 
big camp-fire and light his pipe, the silent darkness of the moun- 
tains gathering round, and a basketful of willow-packed trout 
hung in the clump of pines by the tent. Izaak’s idea of fishing 
did not ccmprehend such joy. With a can of worms and a 
crude hook, he passed the day by quiet streams, threading the 
worms on his hook and thinking kindly of all things. The 
day’s meditations over, he went back to the village, and, may- 


Fishes as Food for Man 147 


hap, joined a few kindred souls over a tankard of ale at the 
sign of the Red Lobster. But he missed the mountains, the 
water rushing past his tent, the bacon and trout, the camp- 


Fic. 109 —Fishing for Tai, Tokyo Bay. (Photograph by J. O. Snyder.) 


fire—the physical exaltation of it all. His kind of fishing was 
angling purely, while modern Waltons, as a rule, eschew the 
worm. 


148 Fishes as Food for Man 


‘‘To my mind, there is no real sport in any kind of fishing 
except fly-fishing. This sitting on the bank of a muddy stream 
with your bait sunk, waiting for a bite, may be conducive to 
gentleness and patience of spirit, but it has not the joy of action 
in which a healthy man revels. How much more sport is it to 
clamber over fallen logs that stretch far out a-stream, to wade 
slipping over boulders and let your fly drop caressingly on 
ripples and swirling eddies and still holes! It is worth all the 
work to see the gleam of a silver side as a half-pounder rises, 
and, with a flop, takes the fly excitedly to the bottom. And 
then the nervous thrill as, with a deft turn of the wrist, you 
hook him securely—whoever has felt that thrill cannot forget 
it. It will come back to him in his law office when he should 
be thinking of other things; and with it will come a longing 
for that dear remembered stream and the old days. That is 
the hold trout-fishing takes on a man. 

“Tt is spring now and I feel the old longing myself, as I 
always do when life comes into the air and the smell of new 
growth is sweet. I got my rod out to-day, put it together, 
and have been looking over my flies. If I cannot use them, I 
can at least muse over days of the past and dream of those to 
come.” (WALDEMAR YOUNG.) 


; 


CHAPTER X 


THE MYTHOLOGY OF FISHES 


which have no existence in fact and yet appear in 
popular literature or in superstition. 

The mermaid, half woman and half fish, has been one 
of the most tenacious among these, and the manufacture of 
their dried bodies from the head, shoulders, and ribs of a 
monkey sealed to the body of a fish has long been a profitable 
industry in the Orient. The sea-lion, the dugong, and other 
marine mammals have been mistaken for mermaids, for their 
faces seen at a distance and their movements at rest are not 
inhuman, and their limbs and movements in the water are 
fishlike. 

In China, small mermaids are very often made and sold to 
the curious. The head and torso of a monkey are fastened 
ingeniously to the body and tail of a fish. It is said that Lin- 
nzus was once forced to leave a town in Holland for question- 
ing the genuineness of one of these mermaids, the property of 
some high official. These monsters are still manufactured for 
the ‘‘ curio-trade.”’ 

The Monk-fishMany strange fishes were described in the 
Middle Ages, the interest usually centering in some supposed 
relation of their appearance with the affairs of men. Some of 
these find their way into Rondelet’s excellent book, “ Histoire 
Entiére des Poissons,” in 1558. Two of these with the accom- 
panying plate of one we here reproduce. Other myths less 
interesting grew out of careless, misprinted, or confused ac- 
counts on the part of naturalists and travelers. 

“Tn our times in Norway a sea-monster has been taken after 
a great storm, to which all that saw it at once gave the name of 
149 


150 The Mythology of Fishes 


monk; for it had a man’s face, rude and ungracious, the head 
shorn and smooth. On the shoulders, like the cloak of a monk, 
were two long fins instead of arms, and the end of the body was 
finished by a long tail. The picture I present was given me by 
the very illustrious lady, Margaret de Valois, Queen of Navarre, 


Fie. 110.—“ Le monstre marin en habit de Moine.” (After Rondelet.) 


who received it from a gentleman who gave a similar one to 
the emperor, Charles V., then in Spain. This gentleman said 
that he had seen the monster as the portrait shows it in Nor- 
way, thrown by the waves and tempests on the beach at a place 
called Dieze, near the town called Denelopoch. I have seen a 
similar picture at Rome not differing in mien. Among the sea- 
beasts, Pliny mentions a sea-mare and a Triton as among the 
creatures not imaginary. Pausanias also mentions a Triton.” 
Rondelet further says: 


The Mythology of Fishes 151 


The Bishop-fish— ‘I have seen a portrait of another sea- 
monster at Rome, whither it had been sent with letters that 
affirmed for certain that in 1531 one had seen this monster in 
a bishop’s garb, as here portrayed, in Poland. Carried to the 
king of that country, it made 
certain signs that it had a 
great desire to return to the 
sea. Being taken thither it 
threw itself instantly into the 
water.” 

The Sea-serpent.—A myth of 
especial persistency is that of 
the sea-serpent. Most of the 
stories of this creature are sea- 
man’s yarns, sometimes based 
on a fragment of wreck, a long 
strip of kelp, the power of sug- 
gestion or the incitement of 
alcohol. But certain of these 
tales relate to real fishes. The 
sea-serpent with an uprearing 
red mane like that of a horse 
is the oarfish (Regalecus), a 
long, slender, fragile fish com- 
pressed like a ribbon and 
reaching a length of 25 feet. 
We here present a photograph 
of an oarfish (Regalecus rus- Fic. 111,—“ Le monstre marin en habit 

2 Oe d’ Evéque.” (After Rondelet.) 
selli) stranded on the Cali- 
fornia coast at Newport in Orange County, California. A figure 
of a European species (Regalecus glesne) is also given showing the 
fish in its uninjured condition. Another reputed sea-serpent is 
the frilled shark (Chlamydoselachus angineus), which has been 
occasionally noticed by seamen. The struggles of the great 
killer (Orca orca) with the whales it attacks and destroys has 
also given rise to stories of the whale struggling in the embrace 
of some huge sea-monster. This description is correct, but the 
mammal is a monster itself, a relative of the whale and not a 
reptile. 


COTE: 


ecceen 


PRT 


3 


Suoqsmayy “gq “OQ Aq ydvasojoyq) "BD “OD esuBig ‘qaodMoN ye Yyoueq oy} UO ‘yjassnt snoapbay ‘YsyavO—eIL “YLT 


The Mythology of Fishes 153 


It is often hard to account for some of the stories of the sea- 
serpent. A gentleman of unquestioned intelligence and sincer- 
ity lately dercribed to the writer a sea-serpent he had seen at 
short range, too feet long, swimming at the surface, and with 
a head as large as a barrel. I do not know what he saw, but I 
do know that memory sometimes plays strange freaks. 

Little venomous snakes with flattened tails (Platyurus, 
Pelamis) are found in the salt bays in many tropical regions of 
the Pacifi¢ (Gulf of California, Panama, East Indies, Japan), 
but these are not the conventional sea-serpents. 

Certain slender fishes, as the thread-eel (Nemichthys) and 
the wolf-eel (Anarrhichthys), have been brought to naturalists 
as young sea-serpents, but these of course are genuine fishes. 

Whatever the nature of the sea-serpent may be, this much 
is certain, that while many may be seen, none will ever be 
caught. The great swimming reptiles of the sea vanished at 
the end of Mesozoic time, and as living creatures will never be 
known of man. 

As a record of the Mythology of Science, we may add the 
following remarks of Rafinesque on the imaginary garpike 
(Litholepis adamantinus), of which a specimen was painted for 
him by the wonderful brush of Audubon: 

“This fish may be reckoned the wonder of the Ohio. It is 
only found as far up as the falls, and probably lives also in the 
Mississippi. I have seen it, but only at a distance, and have 
been shown, some of its singular scales. Wonderful stories are 
related concerning this fish, but I have principally relied upon 
the description and picture given me by Mr. Audubon. Its 
length is from 4 to 10 feet. One was caught which weighed 
400 pounds. It lies sometimes asleep or motionless on the 
surface of the water, and may be mistaken for a log or snag. It 
is impossible to take it in any other way than with the seine 
or a very strong hook; the prongs of the gig cannot pierce the 
scales, which are as hard as flint, and even proof against lead 
balls! Its flesh is not good to eat. It is a voracious fish. Its 
vulgar names are diamond-fish (owing to its scales being cut 
like diamonds), devil-fish, jackfish, garjack, etc. The snout 
is large, convex above, very obtuse, the eyes small and black; 
nostrils small, round before the eyes; mouth beneath the eyes, 


154 The Mythology of Fishes 


transversal with large angular teeth. Pectoral and abdominai 
fins trapezoidal. Dorsal and anal fins equal, longitudinal, with 
many rays. Th» whole body covered with large stone scales, 
lying in oblique rows; they are conical, pentagonal pentedral, 
with equal sides, from half an inch to one inch in diameter, 
brown at first but becoming the color of turtle-shell when dry. 
They strike fire with steel and are ball-proof!”’ 


> 


ij 


(CAvq 109; V) 


“‘purlsun ‘ayysvomoN 


‘sniueosy ausayb snoapbay “Ysyreg Sseusepyj—sTT “SLT 


Te 


Ualasoarabdparyy yay 


gSt 


*punog yosng 


“qaoq{iy) ay uRpsor 7729000 


shyjyouman ‘[ee-pwayT— PIL “OWT 


iy 


PES = 


CHAPTER XI 


CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES 


well ice * is a natural emaaae a “the mind which 

Ww}) always strives to make orderly disposition of its 
knowledge and so to discover the reciprocal relations and 
interdependencies of the things it knows. Classification pre- 
supposes that there do exist such relations, according to 
which we may arrange objects in the manner which facilitates 
their comprehension, by bringing together what is like and 
separating what is unlike, and that such relations are the 
result of fixed inevitable law. It is therefore taxonomy (raézs, 
away; vopos, law) or the rational, lawful disposition of observed 
facts.” 

A perfect taxonomy is one which would perfectly express 
all the facts in the evolution and development of the various 
forms. It would recognize all the evidence from the three ances- 
tral documents, paleontology, morphology, and ontogeny. It 
would consider structure and form independently of adaptive 
or physiological or environmental modifications. It would 
regard as most important those characters which had existed 
longest unchanged in the history of the species or type. It 
would regard as of first rank those characters which appear first 
in the history of the embryo. It would regard as of minor 
importance those which had arisen recently in response to 
natural selection or the forced alteration through pressure of 
environment, while fundamental alterations as they appear one 
after another in geologic time would make the basal characters 
of corresponding groups in taxonomy. In a perfect taxonomy 
or natural system of classification animals would not be divided 
into groups nor ranged in linear series. We should imagine 


* Key to North American Birds. ° 
157 


158 The Collection of Fishes 


The collect6r can, if he thinks best, use all kinds of fishing 
tackle for himself. In Japan he can use the “dabonawa’”’ long 
lines, and secure the fishes which were otherwise dredged by 
the Challenger and Albatross. If dredges or trawls are at his 
hand he can hire them and use them for scientific purposes. 
He should neglect no kind of bottom, no conditions of fish life 
which he can reach. 

Especially important is the fauna of the tide-pools, neg- 
lected by almost all collectors. As the tide goes down, espe- 
cially on rocky capes which project into the sea, myriads of 
little fishes will remain in the rock-pools, the alge, and the clefts 
of rock. In regions like California, where the rocks are buried 
with kelp, blennies will lie in the kelp as quiescent as the 
branches of the alge themselves until the flow of water returns. 

A sharp three-tined fork will help in spearing them. The 
water in pools can be poisoned on the coast of Mexico with the 


milky juice of the ‘‘hava’’ tree, a tree which yields strychnine.” 


In default of this, pools can be poisoned by chloride of lime, 
sulphate of copper, or, if small enough, by formalin. Of 
all poisons the commercial chloride of lime seems to be most 
effective. By such means the contents of the pool can be 
secured and the next tide carries away the poison. The 
water in pools can be bailed out, or, better, emptied by a 
siphon made of small garden-hose or rubber tubing. On 
rocky shores, dynamite can be used to advantage if the col- 
lector or his assistant dare risk it and if the laws of the 
country do no prevent. 

Most effective in rock- pol work is the help of the small 
boy. In all lands the collector will do well to take him into 
his pay and confidence. Of the hundred or more new species 
of rock-pool fishes lately secured by the writer in Japan, fully 
two-thirds were obtained by the Japanese boys. Equally 
effective is the ‘‘muchacho”’ on the coasts of Mexico. 

Masses of coral, sponges, tunicates, and other porous or 
hollow organisms often contain small fishes and should be care- 
fully examined. On the coral reefs the breaking up of large 
masses is often most remunerative. 

The importance of securing the young of pelagic fishes by 
tow-nets and otherwise cannot be too strongly emphasized. 


ij 


=_— 


The Collection of Fishes 159 


How to Preserve Fishes.—Fishes must be permanently pre- 
served in alcohol. Dried skins are far from satisfactory, except 
as a choice of difficulties in the case of large species. 

Dr. Gunther thus describes the process of skinning fishes: 

“Scaly fishes are skinned thus: With a strong pair of scissors 
an incision is made along the median line of the abdomen from 
the foremost part of the throat, passing on one side of the base 
of the ventral and anal fins to the root of the caudal fin, the 
cut being continued upward to the back of the tail close to 
the base of the caudal. The skin of one side of the fish is then 
severed with the scalpel from the underlying muscles to the 
median line of the back; the bones which support the dorsal 
and caudal are cut through, so that these fins remain attached 
to the skin. The removal of the skin of the opposite side is 
easy. More difficult is the preparation of the head and scapu- 
lary region. The two halves of the scapular arch which have 
been severed from each other by the first incision are pressed 
toward the right and left, and the spine is severed behind the 
head, so that now only the head and shoulder bones remain 
attached to the skin. These parts have to be cleaned from 
the inside, all soft parts, the branchial and hyoid apparatus, 
and all smaller bones being cut away with the scissors or scraped 
off with the scalpel. In many fishes which are provided with 
a characteristic dental apparatus in the pharynx (Labroids, 
Cyprinoids), the pharyngeal bones ought to be preserved and 
tied with a thread to their specimen. The skin being now 
prepared so far, its entire inner surface as well as the inner side 
of the head are rubbed with arsenical soap; cotton-wool or 
some other soft material is inserted into any cavities or hol- 
lows, and finally a thin layer of the same material is placed 
between the two flaps of the skin. The specimen is then dried 
under a slight weight to keep it from shrinking. 

“The scales of some fishes, as for instance of many kinds of 
herrings, are so delicate and deciduous that the mere handling 
causes them to rub off easily. Such fishes may be covered 
with thin-paper (tissue paper is the best) which is allowed to 
dry on them before skinning. There is no need for removing 
the paper before the specimen has reached its destination. 

“Scaleless fishes, as siluroids and sturgeons, are skinned in 


160 The Collection of Fishes 


the same manner, but the skin can be rolled up over the head; 
such skins can also be preserved in spirits, in which case the 
traveler may save to himself the trouble of cleaning the head. 

“Some sharks are known to attain to a length of thirty feet, 
and some rays to a width of twenty feet. The preservation of 
such gigantic specimens is much to be recommended, and 
although the difficulties of preserving fishes increase with their 
size, the operation is facilitated, because the skins of all sharks 
and rays can easily be preserved in salt and strong brine. 
Sharks are skinned much in the same way as ordinary fishes. 
In rays an incision is made not only from the snout to the end 
of the fleshy part of the tail, but also a second across the widest 
part of the body. When the skin is removed from the fish, 
it is placed into a cask with strong brine mixed with alum, 
the head occupying the upper part of the cask; this is necessary, 
because this part is most likely to show signs of decomposition, 
and therefore most requires supervision. When the preserving 
fluid has become decidedly weaker from the extracted blood 
and water, it is thrown away and replaced by fresh brine. After 
a week’s or fortnight’s soaking the skin is taken out of the cask 
to allow the fluid to drain off; its inner side is covered with a 
thin layer of salt, and after being rolled up (the head being 
inside) it is packed in a cask the bottom of which is covered 
with salt; all the interstices and the top are likewise filled with 
salt. The cask must be perfectly water-tight.” 

Value of Formalin.—In the field it is much better to use 
formalin (formaldehyde) in preference to alcohol. This is an 
antiseptic fluid dissolved in water, and it at once arrests decay, 
leaving the specimen as though preserved in water. If left 
too long in formalin fishes swell, the bones are softened, and 
the specimens become brittle or even worthless. But for ordi- 
nary purposes (except use as skeleton) no harm arises from two 
or three months’ saturation in formalin. The commercial 
formalin can be mixed with about twenty parts of water. On 
the whole it is better to have the solution too weak rather than 
too strong. Too much formalin makes the specimens stiff, 
swollen, and intractable, besides too soon destroying the color. 

Formalin has the advantage, in collecting, of cheapness 
and of ease in transportation, as a single small bottle will make 


ij 


| 


The Collection of Fishes 161 


a large amount of the fluid. The specimens also require much 
less attention. An incision should be made in the (right) side 
of the abdomen to let in the fluid. The specimen can then be 
placed in formalin. When saturated, in the course of the day, 
it can be wrapped in a cloth, packed in an empty petroleum 
can, and at once shipped. The wide use of petroleum in all 
parts of the world is a great boon to the naturalist. 

Before preservation, the fishes should be washed, to remove 
slime and dirt. They should have an incision to let the fluid 
into the body cavity and an injection with a syringe is a useful 
help to saturation, especially with large fishes. Even decay- 
ing fishes can be saved with formalin. 

Records of Fishes—The collector should mark localities 
most carefully with tin tags and note-book records if possible. 
He should, so far as possible, keep records of life colors, and 
water-color sketches are of great assistance in this matter. In 
spirits or formalin the life colors soon fade, although the pat- 
tern of marking is usually preserved or at least indicated. A 
mixture of formalin and alcohol is favorable to the preserva- 
tion of markings. 

In the museum all specimens should be removed at once 
from formalin to alcohol. No substitute for alcohol as a per- 
manent preservative has been found. The spirits derived 
from wine, grain, or sugar is much preferable to the poisonous 
methyl or wood alcohol. 

In placing specimens directly into alcohol, care should be 
taken not to. crowd them too much. The fish yields water 
which dilutes the spirit. For the same reason, spirits too dilute 
are ineffective. On the other hand, delicate fishes put into 
very strong alcohol are likely to shrivel, a condition which may 
prevent an accurate study of their fins or other structures. It 
is usually necessary to change a fish from the first alcohol used 
as a bath into stronger alcohol in the course of a few days, the 
time depending on the closeness with which fishes are packed. 
In the tropics, fishes in alcohol often require attention within 
a few hours. In formalin there is much less difficulty with 
tropical fishes. 

Fishes intended for skeletons should never be placed in 
formalin. A softening of the bones which prevents future 


162 The Collection of Fishes 


exact studies of the bones is sure to take place. Generally 
alcohol or other spirits (arrack, brandy, cognac, rum, sake 
“vino”’) can be tested with a match. If sufficiently concen- 
trated to be ignited, they can be safely used for preservation 
of fishes. The best test is that of the hydrometer. Spirits 
for permanent use should show on the hydrometer 40 to 60 
above proof. Decaying specimens show it by color and smell 
and the collector should be alive to their condition. One rot- 
ting fish may endanger many others. With alcohol it is neces- 
sary to take especial pains to ensure immediate saturation. 
Deep cuts should be made into the muscles of large fishes as 
well as into the body cavity. Sometimes a small distilling 
apparatus is useful to redistil impure or dilute alcohol. The 
use of formalin avoids this necessity. 

Small fishes should not be packed with large ones; small 
bottles are very desirable for their preservation. All spinous 
or scaly fishes should be so wrapped in cotton muslin as to 
prevent all friction. 

Eternal Vigilance——The methods of treating individual 
groups of fishes and of handling them under different climatic 
and other conditions are matters to be learned by experience. 
Eternal vigilance is the price of a good collection, as it is said 
to be of some other good things. Mechanical collecting—pick- 
ing up the thing got without effort and putting it in alcohol 
without further thought—rarely serves any useful end in science. 
The best collectors are usually the best naturalists. The col- 
lections made by the men who are to study them and who are 
competent to do so are the ones which most help the progress 
of ichthyology. The student of a group of fishes misses half 
the collection teaches if he has made no part of it himself. 


ii 


CHAPTER XII 


THE LEPTOCARDII, OR LANCELETS 


E Lancelet.—The lancelet is a vertebrate reduced to 
its very lowest terms. The essential organs of ver- 
tebrate life are there, but each one in its simplest form 
unspecialized and with structure and function feebly differen- 
tiated. The skeleton consists of a cartilaginous notochord in- 
closed in a membranous sheath. There is no skull. No limbs, 
no conspicuous processes, and no vertebree are present. The heart 
is simply a long contractile tube, hence the name Leptocardii 
(from Aeztos, slender; xapdia, heart). The blood is colorless. 
There is a hepatic portal circulation. There is no brain, the 
spinal cord tapering in front as behind. The water for respira- 
tion passes through very many gill-slits from the pharynx into 
the atrium, from which it is excluded through the atripore in 
front of the vent. A large chamber, calléd the atrium, extends 
almost the length of the body along the ventral and lateral 
regions. It communicates with the pharynx through the gill- 
slits and with the exterior through a small opening in front 
of the vent, the atripore. The atrium is not found in forms 
above the lancelets. 

The reproductive organs consist of a series of pairs of seg- 
mentally arranged gonads. The excretory organs consist of 
a series of tubules in the region of the pharynx, connecting the 
body-cavity with the atrium. The mouth is a lengthwise slit 
without jaws, and on either side is a row of fringes. From this 
feature comes the name Czrrostomi, from cirrus, a fringe of 
hair, and croua, mouth. The body is lanceolate in form, sharp 
at either end. From this fact arises a third name, Amphioxus, 
from audi, both; ogvs, sharp. Dorsal and anal fins are de- 


veloped as folds of the skin supported by very slender rays. 
163 


164 The Leptocardii, or Lancelets 


There are no other fins. The alimentary canal is straight, and 
is differentiated into pharynx and intestine; the liver is a blind 
sac arising from the anterior end of the intestine. A pigment 
spot in the wall of the spinal cord has been interpreted as an 
eye. Above the snout is a supposed olfactory pit which some 
have thought to be connected with the pineal structure. The 
muscular impressions along the sides are very distinct and it 
is chiefly by means of the variation in numbers of these that 
the species can be distinguished. Thus in the common lance- 
let of Europe, Branchiostoma lanceolatum, the muscular bands 
are 35+14+12=61. In the common species of the Eastern 
coasts of America, Branchiostoma caribeum, these are 35 +14 

9=58, while in the California lancelet, Branchiostoma cali- 
forniense, these are 44+16+9=69. 

Habits of Lancelets.—Lancelets are slender translucent worm- 
like creatures, varying from half an inch (Asymmetron lucaya- 
num) to four inches (Branchiostoma californiense) in length. 
They live buried in sand in shallow waters along the coasts of 
warm seas. One species, Amphioxides pelagicus, has been taken 
at the depth of tooo fathoms, but whether at the bottom 
or floating near the surface is not known. The species are very 
tenacious of life and will endure considerable mutilation. Some 
of them are found on almost every coast in semi-tropical and 
tropical regions. . 

Species of Lancelets.—The Mediterranean species ranges north- 
ward to the south of England. Others are found as far north 
as Chesapeake Bay, San Diego, and Misaki in Japan, where is 
found a species called Branchiostoma belchert. The sands at 
the mouth of San Diego Bay are noted as producing the largest 
of the species of lancelets, Branchiostoma californiense. From 
the Bahamas comes the smallest, the type of a distinct genus, 
Asymmetron lucayanum, distinguished among other things by 
a projecting tail. Other supposed genera are Amphioxides 
(pelagicus), dredged in the deep sea off Hawaii and supposed 
to be pelagic, the mouth without cirri; Epigonichthys (cultellus), 
from the East Indies, and Heteropleuron (bassanum), from Bass 
Straits, Australia. These little animals are of great interest 
to anatomists as giving the clue to the primitive structure of 
vertebrates. While possibly these have diverged widely from 


The Leptocardii, or Lancelets 165 


their actual common ancestry with the fishes, they must ap- 
proach near to these in many ways. Their simplicity is largely 
primitive, not, as in the Tunicates, the result of subsequent 
degradation. 

The lancelets, less than a dozen species in all, constitute a 
single family, Branchiostomide. The principal genus, Branchi- 
ostoma, is usually called Amphioxus by anatomists. But while 


Fig. 115.—California Lancelet, Branchiostoma californiense Gill. 
(From San Diego.) 


the name Ampluioxus, like lancelet, is convenient in vernacular 
use, it has no standing in systematic nomenclature. The name 
Branchiostoma was given to lancelets from Naples in 1834, by 
Costa, while that of Amphioxus, given to specimens from Corn- 
wall, dates from Yarrell’s work on the British fishes in 1836. 
The name Amphioxus may be pleasanter or shorter or more 
familiar or more correctly descriptive than Branchiostoma, but 
if so the fact cannot be considered in science as affecting the 
duty of priority. 

The name Acraniata (without skull) is often used for the 
lower Chordates taken collectively, and it is sometimes applied 
to the lancelets alone. It refers to those chordate forms which 
have no skull nor brain, as distinguished from the Cramzota, 
or forms with a distinct brain having a bony or cartilaginous 
capsule for its protection. 

Origin of Lancelets.—It is doubtless true, as Dr. Willey sug- 
gests, that the Vertebrates became separated from their worm- 
like ancestry through ‘“‘the concentration of the central nervous 
system along the dorsal side of the body and its conversion 


166 The Leptocardii, or Lancelets 


into a hollow tube.” Besides this trait two others are common 
to all of them, the presence of the gill-slits and that of the noto- 
chord. The gill-slits may have served primarily to relieve the 
stomach of water, as in the lowest forms they enter directly into 
the body-cavity. The primitive function of the notochord is 
still far from clear, but its ultimate use of its structures in 
affording protection and in furnishing a fulcrum for the muscles 
and limbs is of the greatest importance in the processes of life. 


eS 


CON Yin VA 


Fic. 116.—Gill-basket of Lamprey. 


CHAPTER XIII 


THE CYCLOSTOMES, OR LAMPREYS 


A) 


HE Lampreys.—Passing upward from the lancelets and 
setting aside the descending series of Tunicates, we 
Ew} have a long step indeed to the next class of fish-like 
vertebrates. During the period this great gap represents. in 
time we have the development of brain, skull, heart, and other 
differentiated organs replacing the simple structures found in 
the lancelet. 

The presence of brain without limbs and without coat-of- 
mail distinguishes the class of Cyclostomes, or lampreys (xuKAos, 
round; oroya, mouth). This group is also known as Marsipo- 
branchi (uapoiniov, pouch; fpayyos, gill); Dermopteri (dépua, 
skin; zrepor, fin); and Myzontes (uvfaw@, to suck). It includes 
the forms known as lampreys, slime-eels, and hagfishes. 

Structure of the Lamprey.—Comparing a Cyclostome with a 
lancelet we may see many evidences of specialization in struc- 
ture. The Cyclostome has a distinct head with a cranium 
formed of a continuous body of cartilage modified to contain a 
fish-like brain, a cartilaginous skeleton of which the cranium 
is evidently a differentiated part. The vertebrae are undeveloped, 
the notochord being surrounded by its membranes, without 
bony or cartilaginous segments. The gills have the form of 
fixed sacs, six to fourteen in number, on each side, arranged 
in a cartilaginous structure known as “branchial basket” (fig. 
116), the elements cf which are not clearly homologous with the 
gill-arches of the true fishes. Fish-like eyes are developed on the 
sides of the head. There is a median nostril associated with 
a pituitary pouch, which pierces the skull floor. An ear-capsule 
is developed. The brain ‘s composed of paired ganglia in 


general appearance resembling the brain of the true fish, but 
167, 


168 The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 


the detailed homology of its different parts offers considerable 
uncertainty. The heart is modified to form two pulsating 
cavities, auricle and ventricle. The folds of the dorsal and 
anal fins are distinct, supported by slender rays. 

The mouth is a roundish disk, wth rasping teeth over its 
surface and with sharper and stronger teeth on the tongue. 
The intestine is straight and simple. The kidney is represented 
by a highly primitive pronephros and no trace exists of an 
air-bladder or lung. The skin is smooth and naked, some- 
times secreting an excessive quantity of slime. 

From the true fishes the Cyclostomes differ in the total 
absence cf limbs and of shoulder and pelvic girdles, as well as 
of jaws. It has been thought by some writers that the limbs 
were ancestrally present and lost through degeneration, as in 
the eels. Dr. Ayers, following Huxley, finds evidence of the 
ancestral existence of a lower jaw. The majority of observers, 
however, regard the absence of limbs and jaws in Cyclo- 
stomes as a primitive character, although numerous other features 
of the modern hagfish and lamprey may have resulted from 
degeneration. There is no clear evidence thatthe class of 
Cyclostomes, as now known to us, has any great antiquity, and 
its members may be all degenerate offshoots from types of 
greater complexity of structure. 

Supposed Extinct Cyclostomes.— No fossil Cyclostomes are 
known. The strange forms called Conodontes, thought for a 
time to be teeth of lampreys, are probably teeth of worms, or 
perhaps appendages of Trilobites. The singular fossil, Paleo- 
spondylus, once supposed to be a lamprey, it is certain belongs 
to some higher order. 

Orders of Cyclostomes.—The known Cyclostomes are natu- 
rally divided into two orders, the Hyperotreta, or hagfishes, and 
the Hyperoartia, or lampreys. These two orders are very dis- 
tinct from each other. While the two groups agree in the general 
form of the body, they differ in almost every detail, and there is 
much pertinence in Lankester’s suggestions that each should 
stand as a separate class. The ancestral forms of each, as well 
as the intervening types if such ever existed, are left unrecorded 
in the rocks. 

The Hyperotreta, or Hagfishes.—The Hyperotreta (umfpoa, pal- 


The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 169 


ate; rperos, perforate), or hagfishes, have the nostril highly 
developed, a tube-like cylinder with cartilaginous rings pene- 
trating the palate. In these the eyes are little developed and 
the species are parasitic on other fishes. In Polistotrema stouti, 
the hagfish of the coast of California, is parasitic on large fishes, 
rockfishes, or flounders. It usually fastens itself at the throat 
or isthmus of its host and sometimes at the eyes. Thence it 
works very rapidly to the inside of the body. It there devours 
all the muscular part of the fish without breaking the skin or 
the peritoneum, leaving the fish a living hulk of head, skin, and 
bones. It is especially destructive to fishes taken in gill-nets. 
The voracity of the Chilean species Polistotrema dombeyi is equally 
remarkable. Dr. Federico T. Delfin finds that in seven hours a 
hagfish of this species will devour eighteen times its own weight 
of fish-flesh. The intestinal canal is a simple tube, through 
which most of the food passes undigested. The eggs are large, 
each in a yellowish horny case, at one end of which are barbed 
threads by which they cling together and to kelp or other objects. 
In the California hagfish, Polistotrema stouti, great numbers of 
these eggs have been found in the stomachs of the males. 
Similar Habits are possessed by all the species in the two 
families, Myxinide and Eptatretide. In the Myxinide the 


Fie. 117.—California Hagfish, Polistotrema stouti Lockington. 


gill-openings are apparently single on each side, the six gills 
being internal and leading by six separate ducts to each of 
the six branchial sacs. The skin is excessively slimy, the ex- 
tensible tongue is armed with two cone-like series of strong 


’ teeth. About the mouth are eight barbels. 


170 The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 


Of Myxine, numerous species are known—Myxine glutinosa, 
in the north of Europe; Myxine limosa, of the West Atlantic; 
Myxine australis, and several others about Cape Horn, and 
Myxine garmani in Japan. All live in deep waters and none 
have been fully studied. It has been claimed that the hagfish 
is male when young, many individuals gradually changing to 
female, but this conclusion lacks verification and is doubtless 
without foundation. 

In the Eptatretide the gill-openings, six to fourteen in number, 
are externally separate, each with its own branchial sac as in 
the lampreys. 

The species of the genus Eptatretus (Bdellostoma, Heptatrema, 
and Homea, all later names for the same group) are found only 
in the Pacific, in California, Chile, Patagonia, South Africa, and 
Japan. In general appearance and habits these agree with the 
species of Myxine. The species with ten to fourteen gill-openings 
(dombey1: stouti) are sometimes set off as a distinct genus (Polis- 
totrema), but in other regards the species differ little, and fre- 
quent individual variations occur. Eptatretus burgeri is found 
in Japan and Eptatretus forsteri in Australia. 

The Hyperoartia, or Lampreys.—In the order Hyperoartia, or 
lampreys, the single nostril is a blind sac which does not pene- 
trate the palate. The seven gill-openings lead each to a sepa- 
tate sac, the skin is not especially covered with mucus, the eyes 
are well developed in the adult, and the mouth is a round disk 
armed with rasp-like teeth, the comb-like teeth on the tongue 
being less developed than in the hagfishes. The intestine in 
the lampreys has a spiral valve. The eggs are small and are 
usually laid in brooks away from the sea, and in most cases the 
adult lamprey dies after spawning. According to Thoreau, “it 
is thought by fishermen that they never return, but waste 
away and die, clinging to rocks and stumps of trees for an in- 
definite period, a tragic feature in the scenery of the river-bottoms 
worthy to be remembered with Shakespeare’s description of 
the sea-floor.” This account is not far from the truth, as re- 
cent studies have shown. 

The lampreys of the northern regions constitute the family 
of Petromyzonide. The larger species (Petromyzon, Entosphenus) 
live in the sea, ascending rivers to spawn, and often becoming 


i| 


The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 171 


land-locked and reduced in size by living in rivers only. Such 
land-locked marine lampreys (Petromyzon marinus unico'or) breed 
in Cayuga Lake and other lakes in New York. The marine forms 
reach a length of three feet. Smalle- lampreys of other genera 
six inches to eighteen inches in length remain all their lives in 
the rivers, ascending the little brooks in the spring, clinging to 
stones and clods of earth till their eggs are deposited. These 
are found throughout northern Europe, northern Asia, and 
the colder parts of North America, belonging to the genera 
Lampeira and Ichthyomyzon. Other and more aberrant genera 
from Chile and Australia are Geotria and Mordacia, the latter 
forming a distinct family, Mordaciide. In Geotria, a large and 
peculiar gular pouch is developed at the throat. In Macroph- 
thalmia chilensis from Chile the eyes are large and conspicuous. 

Food of Lampreys.—The lampreys feed on the blood and flesh 
of fishes. They attach themselves to the sides of the various 
species, rasp off the flesh with their teeth, sucking the blood 
till the fish weakens and dies. Preparations made by students 
of Professor Jacob Reighard in the University of Michigan show 
clearly that the lamprey stomach contains muscular tissue as well 
as the blood of fishes. The river species do a great deal of mis- 


an Bg 


Fig. 118.—Lamprey, Petromyzon marinus L. Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


chief, a fact which has been the subject of a valuable investiga- 
tion by Professor H. A. Surface, who has also considered the 
methods available for their destruction. The flesh of the lam- 
prey is wholesome, and the larger species, especially the great 
sea lamprey of the Atlantic, Petromyzon marinus, are valued as 
food. The small species, according to Prof. Gage, never feed on 
fishes. 

Metamorphosis of Lampreys.—All lampreys, so far as known, 
pass through a distinct metamorphosis. The young, known as 
the Ammocetes form, are slender, eyeless, and with the mouth 


172 The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 


narrow and toothless. From Professor Surface’s paper on ‘“‘ The 
Removal of Lampreys from the Interior Waters of New York” 
we have the following extracts (slightly condensed) : 

“In the latter part of the fall the young lampreys, Petro- 
myzon marinus unicolor, the variety land-locked in the lakes 
of Central New York, metamorphose and assume the form of 
the adult. They are now about six or eight inches long. The 
externally segmented condition of the body disappears. The 


SAENY, 
fis ee 


in Ava islets 


Fia. 119. Fic. 120. ~ Fig, 121. 


Fic. 119.—Petromyzon marinus unicolor (De Kay). Mouth of Lake Lamprey, 
Cayuga Lake. (After Gage.) 

Fic. 120.—Lampetra wilderi Jordan & Evermann, Larval brook lamprey in its 
burrow in a glass filled with sand. (After Gage.) 

Fic. 121.—Lampetra wilderi Jordan & Evermann. Mouth of Brook Lamprey. 
Cayuga Lake. (After Gage.) 


eyes appear to grow out through the skin and become plainly 
visible and functional. The mouth is no longer filled with verti- 
cal membranous sheets to act as a sieve, but it contains nearly 
one hundred and fifty sharp and chitinous teeth, arranged in 
rows that are more or less concentric and at the same time 
presenting the appearance of circular radiation. These teeth 
are very strong, with sharp points, and in structure each has 
the appearance of a hollow cone of chitin placed over another 
cone or papilla. A little below the center of the mouth is the 
oral opening, which is circular and contains a flattened tongue 
which bears finer teeth of chitin set closely together and arranged 
in two interrupted (appearing as four) curved rows extending 


The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 13 


up and down from the ventral toward the dorsal side of the 
mouth. Around the mouth is a circle of soft membrane final’y 
surrounded by a margin of fimbriz or small fringe. This com- 
pletes the apparatus with which the lamprey attaches itself 
to its victims, takes its food, carries stones, builds and tears 
down its nest, seizes its mate, holds itself in position in a strong 
current, and climbs over falls. 

Mischief Done by Lampreys.—‘‘ The most common economic 
feature in the entire life history of these animals is their feeding 
habits in this (spawning) stage, their food now consisting wholly 
of the blood (and fle=h) of fishes. A lamprey is able to strike 
its suctorial mouth against a fish, and in an instant becomes so 
firmly attached that it is very rarely indeed that the efforts of 
the fish will avail to rid itself of its persecutor. When a lam- 
prey attaches itself to a person’s hand in the aquarium, it can 
only be freed by lifting it from the water. Asa rule it will drop 
the instant it is exposed to the open air, although often it will 
remain attached for some time even in the open air, or may 
attach itself to an object while out, of water. 

“Nearly all lampreys that are attached to fish when they 
are caught in nets will escape through the meshes of the nets, 
but some are occasionally brought ashore and may hang on 
to their victim with bulldog pertinacity. 

“The fishes that are mostly attacked are of the soft-rayed 
species, having cycloid scales, the spiny-rayed species with 
ctenoid scales being most nearly immune from their attacks. 
We think there may be three reasons for this: rst, the fishes 
of the latter group are generally more alert and more active 
than those of the former, and may be able more readily to dart 
away from such enemies; 2d, their scales are thicker and stronger 
and appear to be more firmly imbedded in the skin, consequently 
it is more difficult for the lampreys to hold on and cut through 
the heavier coat-of-mail to obtain the blood of the victim; 
3d, since the fishes of the second group are wholly carnivorous 
and in fact almost exclusively fish-eating when adult, in every 
body of water they are more rare than those of the first group, 
which are more nearly omnivorous. According to the laws 
and requirements of nature the fishes of the first group must 
be more abundant, as they become the food for those of the 


174 The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 


second, and it is on account of their greater abundance that 
the lampreys’ attacks on them are more observed. 

‘‘ There is no doubt that the bullhead, or horned pout (Ametu- 
rus nebulosus), is by far the greatest sufferer from lamprey 
attacks in Cayuga Lake. This may be due in part to the slug- 
gish habits of the fish, which render it an easy victim, but it 
is more likely due to the fact that this fish has no scales and 
the lamprey has nothing to do but to pierce the thick skin and 
find its feast of blood ready for it. There is no doubt of the 
excellency of the bullhead as a food-fish and of its increasing 
favor with mankind. It is at present the most important 
food- and market-fish of the State (New York), being caught 
by bushels in the early part of June when preparing to spawn. 
As we have observed at times more than ninety per cent. of 
the catch attacked by lampreys, it can readily be seen how 
very serious are the attacks of this terrible parasite which is 
surely devastating our lakes and streams. 

Migration or “ Running” of Lampreys.—‘‘ After thus feeding 
to an unusual extent, their reproductive elements (gonads) be- 
come mature and their alimentary canals commence to atrophy. 
This duct finally becomes so occluded that from formerly being 
large enough to admit a lead-pencil of average size when forced 
through it, later not even liquids can pass through, and it 
becomes nearly a thread closely surrounded by the crowding 
reproductive organs. When these changes commence to ensue, 
the lampreys turn their heads against the current and set out 
on their long journeys to the sites that are favorable for spawn- 
ing, which here may be from two to eight miles from the lake. 
In this migration they are true to their instincts and habits 
of laziness in being carried about, as they make use of any avail- 
able object, such as a fi_h, boat, etc., that is going in their direc- 
tion, fastening to it with their suctorial mouths and being 
borne along at their ease. During this season it is not infre- 
quent that as the Cornell crews come in from practice and lift 
their shells from the water, they find lampreys clinging to the 
bottoms of the boats, sometimes as many as fifty at one time. © 
They are likely to crowd up all streams flowing into the lake, 
inspecting the bed of the stream as they go. They do not 
stop until they reach favorable spawning sites, and if they 


SLI 


MOBO ‘ANT eyourey]y[IA, (oovjang “vy 
“iq, Aq ydevasojoyd v 


WIOI} Peytpow) 


yoorq 8 Surpusose 


H ‘Jorg Aq poysyqng "WMIg “Ww 


‘snypjuapiy snuaydsoyusy 


‘soudure'y wosaIG~ 


GOT “OL 


gLlt 


Coorjang “vy “EH ‘Jorg Aq ydeaFoj0yd woay poytpoy) 
“(Any acy sopoovun snurwmu wozhmoia) sXeaduey Lq poXoagsop ‘anong oT snsoynqau snimouy ‘soysyywy— Esl “OM 


The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 177 


find unsurmountable obstac‘es in their way, such as vertical 
falls or dams, they turn around and go down-stream until they 
find another, up which they go. This is proved every spring 
by the number of adu!t lampreys which are seen temporarily 
in Fall Creek and Cascadilla Creek. In each of these streams, 
about a mile from its mouth, there is a vertical fall over 
thirty feet in height which the lampreys cannot surmount, and 
in fact they have never been seen attempting to do so. After 
clinging with their mouths to the stones at the foot of the 
falls for a few days, they work their way down-stream, care- 


Fie 124—Kamchatka Lamprey, Lampetra camtschatica (Tilesius). Kamchatka. 


fully inspecting all the bottom for suitable spawning sites. 
They do not spawn in these streams because there are too many 
rocks and no sand, but finally enter the only stream (the Cayuga 
Lake inlet) in which they find suitable and accessible spawn- 
ing sites. 

“The three-toothed lampreys (Entosphenus tridentatus) of 
the West Coast climb low falls or rapids by a series of leaps, 
holding with their mouths to rest, then jumping and striking 
again and holding, thus leap by leap gaining the entire distance. 

“The lampreys here have never been known to show any 
tendency or ability to climb, probably because there are no 
rapids or mere low falls in the streams up which they would 
tun. In fact, as the inlet is the only stream entering Cayuga 
Lake in this region which presents suitable spawning condi- 
tions and no obstructions, it can be seen at once that all the 
lampreys must spawn in this stream and its tributaries. 

“In ‘running’ they move almost entirely at night, and if 
they do not reach a suitable spawning site by daylight, they 
will cling to roots or stones during the day and complete their 
journey the next night. This has been proven by the positive 


178 The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 


observation of individuals. Of the specimens that run up 
early in the season, about four-fifths are males. Thus the 
males do not exactly precede the females, because we have 
found the latter sex represented in the stream as early in the 
season as the former, but in the earlier part of the season the 
number of the males certainly greatly predominates. This pro- 
portion of males gradually decreases, until in the middle of 
the spawning season the sexes are about equally represented, 
and toward the latter part of the season the females continue 
to come until they in turn show the greater numbers. Thus 
it appears very evident in general that the reproductive in- 
stinct impels the most of the males to seek the spawning ground 
before the most of the females do. However, it should be said 
that neither the males nor the females show all of the entirely 
sexually mature features when they first run up-stream in the 
beginning of the season, but later they are perfectly mature 
and ‘ripe’ in every regard when they first appear in the stream. 
When they migrate, they stop at the site that seems to suit their 
fancy, many stopping near the lake, others pushing on four 
or five miles farther up-stream. We have noted, however, 
that later in the season the lower courses become more crowded, 
showing that the late comers do not attempt to push up-stream 
as far as those that came earlier. Also it thus follows, from 
what was just said about late-running females, that in the latter 
part of the season the lower spawning beds are especially crowded 
with females. In fact, during the early part of the month of 
June we have found, not more than half a mile above the lowest 
spawning bed, as many as five females on a spawning nest with 
but one male; and in that immediate vicinity many nests 
indeed were found at that time with two or three females and 
but one male. 

‘‘ Having arrived at a shoal which seems to present suitable 
conditions for a spawning nest, the individual or pair commences 
at once to move stones with its mouth from the centre to the 
margin of an area one or two feet in diameter. When many 
stones are thus placed, especially at the upper edge, and they 
are cleaned quite free of sediment and alge, both by being 
moved and by being fanned with the tail, and when the proper 
condition of sand is found in the bottom of the basin thus formed, 


|. 


The Cyclostomes, or Lampreys 179 


tf 


it is ready to be used as a spawning bed or nest. <A great many 
nests are commenced and deserted. This has been left as a 
mystery in publications on the subject, but we are well con- 
vinced that it is because the lampreys do not find the requi- 
sites or proper conditions of bottom to supply all their needs 
and fulfill all conditions for ideal sites. 


CHAPTER XIV 


THE CLASS ELASMOBRANCHII OR SHARK-LIKE 
FISHES.—TRUE SHARKS 


Sharks.—The gap between the lancelets and the 
lampreys is a very wide one. Assuming the primi- 
tive nature of both groups, this gap must represent the 
period necessary for the evolution of brain, skull, and elaborate 
sense organs. The interspace between the lampreys and the 
nearest fish-like forms which follow them in an ascending scale 
is not less remarkable. Between the lamprey and the shark 
we have the development of paired fins with their basal attach- 
ments of shoulder-girdle and pelvis, the formation of a lower 
jaw, the relegation of the teeth to the borders of the mouth, 
the development of separate vertebre along the line of the 
notochord, the development of the gill-arches, and of an ex- 
ternal covering of enameled points or placoid scales. 

These traits of progress separate the Elasmobranchs from 
all lower vertebrates. For those animals which possess them, 
the class name of Pisces or fishes has been adopted by numerous 
authors. If this term is to be retained for technical purposes, 
it should be applied to the aquatic vertebrates above the lim- 
preys and lancelets. We may, however, regard fish as a popular 
term only, rather than to restrict the name to members of a class 
called Pisces. From the bony fishes, on the other hand, the 
sharks are distinguished by the much less specialization of the 
skeleton, both as regards form and substance, by the lack of 
membrane bones, of air-bladder, and of true scales, and by 
various peculiarities of the skeleton itself. The upper jaw, for 
example, is formed not of maxillary and premaxillary, but of 
elements which in the lower fishes would be regarded as belonging 


to the palatine and pterygo'd series. The lower jaw is formed 
180 


The Class Elasmobranchii or Shark-like Fishes 181 


not of several pieces, but of a cartilage called Meckei’s cartilage, 
which in higher fishes precedes the development of a separate 
dentary bone. These structures are sometimes called primary 
jaws, as distinguished from secondary jaws or true jaws de- 
veloped in addition to those bones in the Actinopteri or typical 
fishes. In the sharks the shoulder-girdle is attached, not to 
the skull, but to a vertebra at some distance behind it, leaving 
a distinct neck, such as is possessed or retained by the verte- 
brate higher than fishes. The shoulder-girdle itself is a con- 
tinuous arch of cartilage, joining its fellow at the breast of the 
fish. Other peculiar traits will be mentioned later. 

Characters of Elasmobranchs.—The essential character of the 
Elasmobranchs as a whole are these: The skeleton is cartilagi- 
nous, the skull without sutures, and the notochord more or 
less fully replaced or inclosed by vertebral segments. The jaws 
are peculiar in structure, as are also the teeth, which are usually 
highly specialized and found on the jaws only. There are no 
membrane bones; the shoulder-girdle is well developed, each 
half of one piece of cartilage, and the ventral fins, with the 
pelvic-girdle, are always present, always many-rayed, and 
abdominal in position. The skin is covered with placoid scales, 
or shagreen, or with bony bucklers, or else it is naked. It is 
never provided with imbricated scales. The tail is diphycercal, 
heterocercal, or else it degenerates into a whip-like organ, a 
form which has been called leptocercal. The gill-arches are 5s, 
6, or 7 in number, with often an accessory gill-slit or spiracle. 
The ventral fins in the males (except perhaps in certain primi- 
tive forms) are provided with elaborate cartilaginous appen- 
dages or claspers. The brain is elongate, its parts well separated, 
the optic nerves interlacing. The heart has a contractile 
arterial cone containing several rows of valves; the intestine 
has a spiral valve; the eggs are large, hatched within the body, 
or else deposited in a leathery case. 

Classification of Elasmobranchs.—The group of sharks and 
their allies, rays, and Chimezeras, is usually known collective y as 
Elasmobranchii (éhac os, blade or plate; Bpayyos, gill). Other 
names applied to all or a part of this group are these: Selachii 
(ceAa@yos, a cartilage, the name also used by the Greeks for the 
gristle-fishes or sharks); Plagiostomi (xlayios, oblique; croya, 


182 The Class Elasmobranchii or Shark-like Fishes 


mouth); Chondropterygit (yovépos, cartilage; zrepvt, fin); and 
Antacea (avraxaios, sturgeon). They represent the most 
primitive known type of jaw-bearing vertebrates, or Gnatho- 
stomi (yvados, jaw; crouza, mouth), the Chordates without jaws 
being sometimes called collectively Agnatha (a-yvados, without 
jaws). These higher types of fishes have been also called 
collectively Lyrifera, the form of the two shoulder-girdles taken 
together being compared to that of a lyre. Through shark- 
like forms all the higher vertebrates must probably trace their 
descent. Sharks’ teeth and fin-spines are found in all rocks 
from the Upper Silurian deposits to the present time, and while 
the majority of the genera are now extinct, the class has 
had a vigorous representation in all the seas, later Palzozoic, 
Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, as well as in recent times. 

Most of the Elasmobranchs are large, coarse-fleshed, active 
animals feeding on fishes, hunting down their prey through 
superior strength and activity. But to this there are many 
exceptions, and the highly specialized modern shark of the 
type of the mackerel-shark or man-eater is by no means a fair 
type of the whole great class, some of the earliest types being 
diminutive, feeble, and toothless. 

Subclasses of Elasmobranchs.—With the very earliest recog- 
nizable remains it is clear that the Elasmobranchs are already 
divided into two great divisions, the sharks and the Chimeras. 
These groups we may call subclasses, the Selachii and the Holo- 
cephali, or Chismopnea. 

The Selachii, or sharks and rays, have the skull hyostylic, 
that is, with the quadrate bone grown fast to the palate which 
forms the upper jaw, the hyomandibular, acting as suspen- 
sorium to the lower jaw, being articulated directly to it. 

The palato-quadrate apparatus, the front of which forms 
the upper jaw in the shark, is not fused to the cranium, although 
it is sometimes articulated with it. There are as many external 
gill-slits as there are gill-arches (5, 6, or 7), and the gills are 
adnate to the flesh of their own arches, without free tips. The 
cerebral hemispheres are grown together. The teeth are sepa- 
rated and usually strongly specialized, being primitively modified 
from the prickles or other defences of the skin. There is no 
frontal holder or bony hook on the forehead of the male. 


The Class Elasmobranchii or Shark-like Fishes 18 3 


The subclass Holocephalt, or Chimeras, differ from the sharks 
in all this series of characters, and its separation as a distinct 
group goes back to the Devonian or even farther, the earliest 
known sharks having little more in common with Chimeras 
than the modern forms have. 

The Selachii—There have been many efforts to divide the 
sharks and rays into natural orders. Most writers have con- 
tented themselves with placing the sharks in one order (Squali 
or Galet or Pleurotremi) having the gill-openings on the side, 
and the rays in another (Raje, Batoidet, Hypotrema) having 
the gill-openings underneath. Of far more importance than 
this superficial character of adaptation are the distinctions 
drawn from the skeleton. Dr. Gill has used the attachment 
of the palato-quadrate apparatus as the basis of a classification. 
The Opistharthri (Hexanchide) have this structure articulated 
with the postorbital part of the skull. In the Prosarthri (Hetero- 
doniide) it is articulated with the preorbital part of the skull, 
while in the other sharks (Anarthri) it is not articulated at all. 
But these characters do not appear to be always important. 
Chlamydoselachus, for example, differs in this regard from 
Heptranchias, which in other respects it closely resembles. Yet, 
m general, the groups thus characterized are undoubtedly 
natural ones. 

The sharks are among the earliest fishes to appear in the 
rocks, and from primitive sharks all the higher groups of 
fishes are descended. The earliest known and lowest in 


Fre. 125.—Cladoselache fyleri (Newberry), restored. Middle Devonian of Ohio, 
(After Dean.) 


structure constitute the order Pleuropterygit (Cladoselachide), 
typified by Cladoselache fyleri from the middle Devonian of 
Ohio. 


— a ee EE ee EEE ooo ll 
ll a 


184 The True Sharks 


Order Notidaai—We may recognize as a distinct order a 
primitive group of recent sharks, a group of forms finding its 
natural place somewhere between the Cladoselachide and Hetero- 
dontide, both of which groups long preceded it in geological 
time. 

It has been lately announced that a ruaimentary sixth gill- 
arch exists in Heterodontus. This would show the close affinity 
of these two primitive groups, Notidani and Cestraciontes, and 
the latter should be removed from the Asterospondyli, The 
presence of five species in the Squalide perhaps indicates affinity 
with Heterodontus. The fact that Cestractontes were the only 
sharks living in the Triassic, soon followed by Notidani and later 
by squaloid and galeoid sharks, seems to be significant. 

The name Notidani (Notidanus, vwridavos, dry back, an old 
name of one of the genera) may be retained for this group, 
which corresponds to the Diplospondyli of Hasse, the Opis- 
tharthri of Gill, and the Protoselachtt of Parker and Haswell. 
The Notidani are characterized by the primitive structure of 
the spinal column, which is without calcareous matter, the centra 
being imperfectly developed. There are six or seven branchial 
arches, and in the typical forms not in Chlamydoselachus) the 
palato-quadrate or upper jaw art-culates with the postorbital 


Fic. 126. —Griset or Cow-shark, Hexanchus griseus (Gmelin). Currituck Inlet, N.C. 


region of the skull. The teeth are of primitive character, of 
different forms in the same jaw, each with many cusps. The 
fins are without spines, the pectoral fin having the three basal 
cartilages (mesopterygium with propterygium and metapte- 
rygium) as usual among sharks. 

The few living forms are of high interest. The extinct species 
are numerous, but not very different from the living species. 


The True Sharks 185 


Family Hexanchide.—The majority of the living Notidanoid 
sharks belong to the family of Hexanchide. These sharks have 
six or seven gill-openings, one dorsal fin, and a relatively simple 
organization. The bodies are moderately elongate, not eel- 
shaped, and the palato-quadrate articulates with the post- 
orbital part of the skull. The six or eight species are found 
sparsely in the warm seas. The two genera, Hexanchus, with 
six, and Heptranchias, with seven vertebre, are found in the 
Mediterranean. The European species are Hexanchus griseus, 
the cow-shark, and Heptranchias cinereus. The former crosses 
to the West Indies. In California, Heptranchias maculatus 


Fig. 127.—Teeth of Heptranchias indicus Gmelin, 


and Hexanchus corinus are occasionally taken, while Heptran- 
chias deani is the well known Aburazame or oil shark of Japan. 
Heptranchias indicus, a similar species, is found in India. 

Fossil Hexanchide exist in large numbers, all of them re- 
ferred by Woodward to the genus Notidanus (which isa later 
name than Hexanchus and Heptranchias and intended to in- 
clude both these genera), differing chiefly in the number of gil’- 
openings, a character not ascertainable in the fossils. None 
of these, however, appear before Cretaceous time, a fact which 
may indicate that the simplicity of structure in Hexanchus and 
Heptranchias is a result of degeneration and not altogether a 
mark of primitive simplicity. The group is apparently much 


186 The True Sharks 


younger than the Cestraciontes and little older than the Lam- 
noids, or the Squaloid groups. Heptranchias microdon is com- 
mon in English Cretaceous rocks, and Heptranchias primigenius 
and other species are found in the Eocene. 

Family Chlamydoselachide.—Very great interest is attached to 
the recent discovery by Samuel Garman of the frilled shark, 
Chlamydoselachus anguineus, the sole living representative of 
the Chlamydoselachide. 


Fig. 128.—Frill-shark, Chlamydoselachus anguineus Garman. From Misaki, 
Japan. (After Gunther.) 


This shark was first found on the coast of Japan, where it 
is rather common in deep water. It has since been taken off 
Madeira and off the coast of Norway. It is a long, slender, 
eel-shaped shark with six gill-openings and the palato-quadrate 
not articulated to the cranium. The notochord is mainly 
persistent, in part replaced by feeble cyclospondylic vertebral 
centra. Each gill-opening is bordered by a broad frill of skin. 
There is but one dorsal fin. The teeth closely resemble those 
of Dittodus or Didymodus and other extinct Ichthyotomt. The 
teeth have broad, backwardly extended bases overlapping, 
the crown consisting of three slender curved cusps, separated 
by rudimentary denticles. Teeth of a fossil species, Chlamy- 
doselachus lawleyi, are recorded by J. W. Davis from the Pliocene 
of Tuscany. 

Order Asterospondylii—The order of Asterospondyli comprises 
the typical sharks, those in which the individtial vertebre are 
well developed, the calcareous lamelle arranged so as to radiate, 
star-fashion, from the central axis. All these sharks possess 
two dorsal fins and one anal fin, the pectoral fin is normally 


The True Sharks 187 


developed, with the three basal cartilages; there are five gill- 
openings, and the tail is heterocercal. 


Fic. 129.—Bullhead-shark, Heterodontus francisci (Girard). San Pedro, Cal. 


Suborder Cestraciontes.—The most ancient types may be set 
off as a distinct suborder under the name of Cesiraciontes or 
Prosarthrt. 


SSO 


Fic. 130.—Lower jaw of Heterodontus philippi. From Australia. Family Hetero- 
dontide. (After Zittel.) 


These forms find their nearest allies in the Notidant, which 
they resemble to some extent in dentition and in having the 
palato-quadrate articulated to the skull although fastened 


188 The True Sharks 


farther forward than in the Notidani. Each of the two dorsal 
fins has a strong spine. 

Family Heterodontide. — Among recent species this group 
contains only the family of Heterodontide, the bulihead sharks, 
or Port Jackson sharks. In this family the head is high, with 
usually projecting eyebrows, the lateral teeth are pad-like, 
ridged or rounded, arranged in many rows, different from the 


Fig. 131. Fic. 182. 


Fig. 181,—Teeth of Cestraciont Sharks. (After Woodward.) d, Synechodus 
dubrisianus Mackie; e, Heterodontus canaliculatus Egerton; f, Hybodus 
striatulus Agassiz. (After Woodward.) 

Fig. 182.—Egg of Port Jackson Shark, Heterodontus philippr (Lacépéde). (After 
Parker & Haswell.) 


pointed anterior teeth, the fins are large, the coloration is strongly 
marked, and the large egg-cases are spirally twisted. All 
have five gill-openings. The living species of Heterodontide 
are found only in the Pacific, the Port Jackson shark of Australia, 
Heterodontus philippt, being longest known. Other species 
are Heterodontus francisct, common in California, Heterodontus 
japonicus, in Japan, and Heterodontus zebra, in China. These 
small and harmless sharks at once attract attention by their 
peculiar forms. In the American ‘species the jaws are less 


The True Sharks 189 


contracted than in the Asiastic species, called Heterodontus. 
For this reason Dr. Gill has separated the former under the 
name of Gyropleurodus. The differences are, however, of slight 
value. The genus Heterodontus first appears in the Jurassic, 
where a number of species are known, one of the earliest 
being Heterodontus falcifer. 

The discussion of the long array of fossil Heterodontide and 
allied families may be here omitted. It is an interesting fact 
that the only sharks known to exist in the Triassic period 
belong to this family from which all recent sharks are descended. 

Very lately the discovery has been made that in sharks of 
this group a rudiment of a sixth gill-segment exists. This 
demonstrates a close relation to the Notidant. 

Suborder Galei—The great body of recent sharks belong to 
the suborder Galez, or Euselachit, characterized by the astero- 
spondylous vertebre, each having a star-shaped nucleus, and 
by the fact that the palato-quadrate apparatus or upper jaw 
is not articulated with the skull. The sharks of this suborder 
are the most highly specialized of the group, the strongest and 
largest and, in general, the most active and voracious. They 
are of three types and naturally group themselves about the 
three central families Scylliorhinide, Lamnide, and Carchariide 
(Galeorhinide). 

The Asterospondyli are less ancient than the preceding groups, 
but the modern families were well differentiated in Mesozoic 
times. 

Among the Gale: the dentition is less complex than with 
the ancient forms, although the individual teeth are more 
highly specialized. The teeth are usually adapted for biting, 
often with knife-like or serrated edges; only the outer teeth 
are in function; as they are gradually lost, the inner teeth are 
moved outward, gradually taking the place of these. 

We may place first, as most primitive, the forms without 
nictitating membrane. 

Family Scylliorhinide.— The most primitive of the modern 
families is doubtless that of the Scylliorhinide, or cat-sharks. 
This group includes sharks with the dorsal fins both behind 
the ventrals, the tail not keeled and not bent upward, the 
spiracles present, and the teeth small and close-set. The species 


190 The True Sharks 


are small and mostly spotted, found in the warm seas. All 
of them lay their eggs in large cases, oblong, and with long 
filaments or strings at the corners. The cat-sharks, or rous- 
settes, Scylliorhinus canicula and Catulus stellaris, abound in 
the Mediterranean. Their skin is used as shagreen or sand- 
paper in polishing furniture. The species of swell-sharks 
(Cephaloscylium) (C. uter, in California; C. ventriosus, in Chile; 
C. laticeps, in Australia; C. wmbratile, in Japan) are short, 
wide-bodied sharks, which have the habit of filling the capacious 
stomach with air, then floating belly upward like a globe-fish. 
Other species are found in the depths of the sea. Scyllio- 
rhinus, Catulus, and numerous other genera are found fossil. 
The earliest is Paweoscyllium, in the Jurassic, not very dif- 
ferent from Scylliorhinus, but the fins are described as more 
nearly like those of Ginglymostoma. 

Close to the Scylliorhinide is the Asiatic family, Hemi- 
scyllide, which differs in being ovoviviparous, the young, 
according to Mr. Edgar R. Waite, hatched within the body. 
The general appearance is that of the Scylliorhinide, the body 
being elongate. Chiloscyllium is a well-known genus with sev- 
eral species in the East Indies. Chiloscyllium modestum is the 
dogfish of the Australian fishermen. The Orectolobide are thick- 
set sharks, with large heads provided with fleshy fringes. -Orec- 
tolobus barbatus (Crossorhinus of authors) abounds from Japan 
to Australia. 

Another family, Ginglymostomide, differs mainly in the 
form of the tail, which is long and bent abruptly upward at 
its base. These large sharks, known as nurse-sharks, are found 
in the warm seas. Ginglymostoma cirrhatum is the common 
species with Orectolobus. Stegostoma tigrinum, of the Indian 
seas and north to Japan, one of several genera called tiger- 
sharks, is remarkable for its handsome spotted coloration. 
The extinct genus Pseudogaleus (voltai) is said to connect the 
Scylliorhinide with the Carchariotd sharks. 

The Lamnoid or Mackerel Sharks.—The most active and most 
ferocious of the sharks, as well as the largest and some of the 
most sluggish, belong to a group of families known-collectively 
as Lamnoid, because of a general resemblance to the mackerel- 


The True Sharks 1gI 


shark, or Lammna, as distinguished from the blue sharks and 
white sharks allied to Carcharias (Carcharhinus). 

The Lamnoid sharks agree with the cat-sharks in the absence 
of nictitating membrane or third eyelid, but differ in the an- 
terior insertion of the first dorsal fin, which is before the ven- 
trals. Some of these sharks have the most highly specialized 
teeth to be found among fishes, most effective as knives or as 
scissors. Still others have the most highly specialized tails, 
either long and flail-like, or short, broad, and muscular, fitting 
the animal for swifter progression than is possible for any other 
sharks. The Lamnoid families are especially numerous as 
fossils, their teeth abounding in all suitable rock deposits from 
Mesozoic times till now. Among the Lamnoid sharks numerous 
families must be recognized. 

The most primitive is perhaps that of the Odontaspidide 
(called Carchartide by some recent authors), now chiefly ex- 
tinct, with the tail unequal and not keeled, and the teeth slender 
and sharp, often with smaller cusps at their base. Odontaspis 
and its relatives of the same genus are numerous, from the 
Cretaceous onward, and three species are still extant, small 
sharks of a voracious habit, living on sandy shores. Odon- 
taspis littoralis (also known as Carcharias littoralis) is the com- 
mon sand-shark of our Atlantic coast. Odontaspis taurus is 
a similar form in the Mediterranean. 

Family Mitsukurinide, the Goblin-sharks. — Closely allied to 
Odontas pis is the small family of Mitsukurinide, of which a single 
living species is known. The teeth are like those of Odontaspis, 
but the appearance is very different. 

The goblin-shark, or Tenguzame, Mitsukurina owstoni, is a 
very large shark rarely taken in the Kuro Shiwo, or warm “ Black 
Current’”’ of Japan. It is characterized by the development 
of the snout into a long flat blade, extending far beyond the 
mouth, much as in Polyodon and in certain Chimeras. Several 
specimens are now known, all taken by Capt. Alan Owston 
of Yokohoma in Sagami Bay, Japan. The original specimen, 
a young shark just born, was presented by him to Professor 
Kakichi Mitsukuri of the University of Tokyo. From this 
our figure was taken. The largest specimen now known is in 
the United States National Museum and is fourteen feet in 


zor : 
‘oAyoy, Jo Aqisuoatup, wucdwuy oy} ur uouroods Zunok v WoT “uEpslo~ MWo}smMo DUINYNS] TY ‘(ouBznSuay) Yavy -Ul[qon— est “OMT i 


The True Sharks 193 


length. In the Upper Cretaceous is a very similar genus, 
Scapanorhynchus (lewis, etc.), which Professor Woodward thinks 
may be even generically identical with Mitsukurina, though 
there is considerable difference in the form of the still longer 
rostral plate, and the species of Scapanorhynchus differ among 
themselves in this regard. 

Mitsukurina, with Heterodontus, Heptranchias, and Chlamy- 
doselache, is a very remarkable survival of a very ancient form. 


Fic. 184.—Scapanorhynchus lewisi Davis. Family Mitsukurinide. Under side 
of snout. (After Woodward.) 


It is an interesting fact that the center of abundance of all 
these relics of ancient life is in the Black Current, or Gulf Stream, 
of Japan. 

Family Alopiide, or Thresher Sharks.—The related family of 
Alopiide contains probably but one recent species, the great 
fox-shark, or thresher, found in all warm seas. In this species, 
Alopias vulpes, the tail is as long as the rest of the body and 
bent upward from the base. The snout is very short, and 
the teeth are small and close-set. The species reaches a length 
of about twenty-five feet. It is not especially ferocious, and the 
current stories of its attacks on whales probably arise from 
a mistake of the observers, who have taken the great killer, 
Orca, for a shark. The killer is a mammal, allied to the por- 
poise. It attacks the whale with great ferocity, clinging to 
its flesh by its strong teeth. The whale rolls over and over, 
throwing the killer into the air, and sailors report it as a thresher. 
As a matter of fact the thresher very rarely if ever attacks 
any animal except small fish. It is said to use its tail in round- 
ing up and destroying schools of herring and sardines. Fossil 
teeth of thresher-sharks of some species are found from the 
Miocene. 

Family Pseudotriakide.—The Pseudotriakide consist of two 
species. One of these is Pseudotriakis microdon, a large shark 


194 The True Sharks 


with a long low tail, long and low dorsal fin, and small teeth. 
It has been only twice taken, off Portugal and off Long Island. 
The other, the mute shark, Pseudotriakis acrales, a large shark 
with the body as soft as a rag, is in the museum of Stanford 
University, having been taken by Mr. Owston off Misaki. 

Family Lamnidez.—To the family of Lamnide proper belong 
the swiftest, strongest, and most voracious of all sharks. The 
chief distinction lies in the lunate tail, which has a keel on 
either side at base, asin the mackerels. This 
form is especially favorable for swift swim- 
ming, and it has been independently de- 
veloped in the mackerel-sharks, as in the 
macker<ls, in the interest of speed in move- 
ment. 

The porbeagle, Lamna cornubica, known 
as salmon-shark in .Alaska, has long been 
noted for its murderous voracity. About ite ioe S reneh of hoa 
Kadiak Island it destroys schools of na cuspidata Agassiz. 

; : Oligocene. Family 

salmon, and along the coasts of Japan, and [amnide. (After Nich- 
especially of Europe and across to New lon.) 
England, it makes its evil presence felt among the fishermen. 
Numerous fossil species of Lamna occur, known by the long 
knife-like flexuous teeth, each having one or two small cusps 
at its base. 


Fre. 136.—Mackerel-shark, Iswropsis dekayi Gill. Pensacola, Fla. 


In the closely related genus, Jsurus, the mackerel-sharks, 
this cusp is wanting, while in Jsuropsis the dorsal fin is set 
farther back. In each of these genera the species reach a 
length of 20 to 25 feet. Each is strong, swift, and voracious. 


3 
7 
} 


TierPractoharks 195 


Tsurus oxyrhynchus occurs in the Mediterranean, [suropsis dekayi, 
in the Gulf of Mexico, and Jsuropsis glauca, from Hawaii and 
Japan westward to the Red Sea. 

Man-eating Sharks.—Equally swift and vastly stronger than 
these mackerel-sharks is the man-eater, or great white shark, 
Carcharodon carcharias. This shark, found 
occasionally in all warm seas, reaches a length 
of over thirty feet and has been known to 
devour men. According to Linnzus, it is the 
animal which swallowed the prophet Jonah. 
“Jonam Prophetum,”’ he observes, “ut veteris 

Herculem trinoctem, in hujus ventriculo tri- 

edd eos dui spateo beesisse, verosimile est.’’ 

(Agassiz). —_Mio- It is beyond comparison the most vo- 

eene. Family Lam- § = A : 

nide. (AfterNich- racious of fish-like animals. Near Soquel, 

eken:) California, the writer obtained a_ speci- 
men in 1880, with a young sea-lion (Zalophus) in its stomach. 
It has been taken on the coasts of Europe, New England, Caro- 
lina, California, Hawaii, and Japan, its distribution evidently 
girdling the globe. The genus Carcharodon is known at once by 
its broad, evenly triangular, knife-like teeth, with finely serrated 
edges, and without notch or cusp of any kind. But one species 
is now living. Fossil teeth are found from the Eocene. One of 
these, Carcharodon megalodon (Fig. 138), from fish-guano deposits 
in South Carolina and elsewhere, has teeth nearly six inches long. 
The animal could not have been less than ninety feet in length. 
These huge sharks can be but recently extinct, as their teeth 
have been dredged from the sea-bottom by the Challenger 
in the mid-Pacific. 

Fossil teeth of Lamna and Isurus as well as of Carcharodon 
are found in great abundance in Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. 
Among the earlier species are forms which connect these genera 
very closely. 

The fossil genus Otodus must belong to the Lammnide. Its 
massive teeth with entire edges and blunt cusps at base are 
common in Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. The teeth are 
formed much as in Lamna, but are blunter, heavier, and much 
less effective as instruments of destruction. The extinct genus 
Corax is also placed here by Woodward. 


190 The True Sharks 


Family Cetorhinide, or Basking Sharks.——The largest of all 
living sharks is the great basking shark (Cetorhinus maximus), 
constituting the family of Cetorhinide. This is the largest of 
all fishes, reaching a length of thirty-six feet and an enormous 


Fic. 188.—Carcharodon megalodon Charlesworth. Miocene. Family Lamnide 
(After Zittel.) , 


weight. It is a dull and sluggish animal of the northern seas, 
almost as inert as a sawlog, often floating slowly southward in 
pairs in the spring and caught occasionally by whalers for its 
liver. When caught, its huge flabby head spreads out wide on 
the ground, its weight in connection with the great size of the 
mouth-cavity rendering it shapeless. Although so clumsy 
and without spirit, it is said that a blow with its tail will crush 


we 


ij 


The True Sharks | 197 


an ordinary whaleboat. The basking shark is known on all 
northern coasts, but has most frequently been taken in the 
North Sea, and about Monterey Bay in California. From this 
locality specimens have been sent to the chief museums of 
Europe. In its external characters the basking shark has much 
in common with the man-eater. Its body is, however, rela- 


Fie. 189.—Basking Shark, Cetorhinus maximus (Gunner). France. 


tively clumsy forward; its fins are lower, and its gill-openings 
are much broader, almost meeting under the throat. The 
great difference lies in the teeth, which in Cetorhinus are very 
small and weak, about 200 in each row. The basking shark, 
also called elephant-shark and bone-shark, does not pursue its 
prey, but feeds on small creatures to be taken without effort. 
Fossil feeth of Cetorhinus have been found from the Creta- 
ceous, as also fossil gill-rakers, structures which in this shark 
are so long as to suggest whalebone. 

Family Rhineodontide. — The whale-sharks, Khineodontide, 
are likewise sluggish monsters with feeble teeth and keeled. 
tails. From Cetorhinus they differ mainly in having the last 
gill-opening above the pectorals. There is probably but one 
species, Rhineodon typicus, of the tropical Pacific, straying north- 
ward to Florida, Lower California, and Japan. 

The Carcharioid Sharks, or Requins._The largest family of re- 
cent sharks is that of Carchartide’ (often called Galeorhinide, 
or Galeide), a modern offshoot from the Lamnoid type, and 
especially characterized by the presence of a third eyelid, the 
nictitating membrane, which can be drawn across the eye from 


as 


198 The True Sharks 


below. The heterocercal tail has no keel; the end is bent up- 
ward; both dorsal fins are present, and the first is well in front 
of the ventral fins; the last gill-opening over the base of the 
pectoral, the head normally formed; these sharks are ovovivipa- 
rous, the young being hatched*in a sort of uterus, with or 
without placental attachment. 

Some of these sharks are small, blunt-toothed, and innocuous. 
Others reach a very large size and are surpassed in voracity 
only by the various Lamnide. 

The genera Cynzas and Mustelus, comprising the soft-mouthed 
or hound-sharks, have the teeth flat and paved, while well- 
developed spiracles are present. These small, harmless sharks 
abound on almost all coasts in warm regions, and are largely 
used as food by those who do not object to the harsh odor of 


Fic. 140.—Soup-fin Shark, Galeus zyopterus (Jordan & Gilbert). Monterey. 


shark’s flesh. The best-known species is Cynzas canis of the 
Atlantic. By aregular gradation of intermediate forms, through 
such genera as Khinotriacis and Triakis with tricuspid teeth, we 
reach the large sharp-toothed members of this family. Galeus (or 
Galeorhinus) includes large sharks having spiracles, no pit at the 
root of the tail, and with large, coarsely serrated teeth. One 
species, the soup-fin shark (Galeus zyopterus), is found on the 
coast of California, where its fins are highly valued by the 
Chinese, selling at from one to two dollars for each set. The 
delicate fin-rays are the part used, these dissolving into a finely 
flavored gelatine. The liver of this and other species is used 
in making a coarse oil, like that taken from the dogfish. Other 
species of Galeus are found in other regions, Galeus galeus being 
known in England as tope, Galeus japonicus abounding in Japan. 

Galeocerdo differs mainly in having a pit at the root of the 
tail. Its species, large, voracious, and tiger-spotted, are found 


owt 


The True Sharks 199 


in warm seas and known as tiger-sharks (Galeocerdo maculatus 
in the Atlantic, Galeocerdo tigrinus in the Pacific). 

The species of Carcharias (Carcharhinus of Blainville) lack 
the spiracles. These species are very numerous, voracious, 
armed with sharp teeth, broad or narrow, and finely serrated 
on both edges. Some of these sharks reach a length of thirty feet. 
They are very destructive to other fishes, and often to fishery 
apparatus as well. They are sometimes sought as food, more 
often for the oil in their livers, but, as a rule, they arc rarely 
caught except as a measure for getting rid of them. Of the 
many species the best known is the broad-headed Carcharias 
lamia, or cub-shark, of the Atlantic. This the writer has taken 
with a great hook and chain from the wharves at Key West. 
These great sharks swim about harbors in the tropics, acting as 


Fig. 141.—Cub-shark, Carcharias lamia Rafinesque. Florida. 


scavengers and occasionally seizing arm or leg of those who 
venture within their reach. One species (Carcharias nicara- 
guensis) is found in Lake Nicaragua, the only fresh-water shark 
known, although some run up the brackish mouth of the Ganges 
and into Lake Pontchartrain. Carcharias japonicus abounds in 
Japan. 
_ A closely related genus is Prionace, its species Prionace 
glauca, the great blue shark, being slender and swift, with the 
dorsal farther back than in Carcharias. Of the remaining 
genera the most important is Scoliodon, small sharks with 
oblique teeth which have no serrature. One of these, Scoliodon 
terre-nove, is the common sharp-nosed shark of our Carolina 
coast. Fossil teeth representing nearly all of these genera 
are common in Tertiary rocks. 

Probably allied to the Carchartide is the genus Corax, 
containing large extinct sharks of the Cretaceous with broad- 


200 The True Sharks 


triangular scrrate teeth, very massive in substance, and without 
denticles. As only the teeth are known, the actual relations 
of the several species of Corax 
are not certainly known, and 
they may belong to the Lam- 
mide. 

Family Sphyrnide, or Ham- 
mer-head Sharks.—The S phyrnz- 
de, or hammer-headed sharks, 
are exactly like the Carcha- 
rud@ except that the sides of 
the head ‘are produced, so as 
to give it the shape of a ham- Fic. 142.—Teeth of Corax 
mer or of a kidney, the eye Pine ataee 
being on the produced outer edge. The species are few, but 
mostly widely distributed; rather large, voracious sharks with 
small sharp teeth. 

The true hammer-head, Sphyrna zygena, Fig. 143, is common 
from the Mediterranean to Cape Cod, California, Hawaii, and 
Japan. The singular form of its head is one of the most ex- 
traordinary modifications shown among fishes. The bonnet-head 
(Sphyrna tiburo) has the head kidney-shaped or crescent-shaped. 
It is a smaller fish, but much the same in distribution and habits. 
Intermediate forms occur, so that with all the actual differences 
we must place the Sphyrnide@ all in one genus. Fossil hammer- 
heads occur in the Miocene, but their teeth are scarcely different 
from those of Carcharias. Spliyrna prisca, described by Agassiz, 
is the primeval species. 

The Order of Tectospondyli—The sharks and rays having no 
anal fin and with the calcareous lamellae arranged in one or 
more rings around a central axis constitute a natural group to 
which, following Woodward, we may apply the name of Tecto- 
spondyli. The Cyclospondyli (Squalide, etc.) with one ring 
only of calcareous lamellae may be included in this order, as 
also the rays, which have tectospondylous vertebre and differ 
from the sharks as a group only in having the gill-openings 
relegated to the lower side by the expansion of the pectoral 
fins. The group of rays and Hasse’s order of Cyclospondyli we 
may consider each as a suborder of Tectospondyli. The origin 


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202 The True Sharks 


- of this group is probably to be found in or near the Cestraciontes, 


as the strong dorsal spines of the Squalide resemble those 
of the Heterodontide. 

Suborder Cyclospondyli—In this group the vertebre have 
the calcareous lamelle arranged in a single ring about the cen- 
tral axis. The anal fin, as in all the tectospondylous sharks 
and rays, is wanting. In all the asterospondylous sharks, 
as in the Ichthyotomt, Acanthodet, and Chimeras, this fin is 
present. It is present in almost all of the bony fishes. All 
the species have spiracles, and in all are two dorsal fins. None 
have the nictitating membrane, and in all the eggs are hatched 
internally. Within the group there is considerable variety 
of form and structure. As above stated, we have a perfect 
gradation among Tectospondyli from true sharks, with the 
gill-openings lateral, to rays, which have the gill-opening on 
the ventral side, the great expansion of the pectoral fins, a 
character of relatively recent acquisition, having crowded the 
gill-openings from their usual position. 

Family Squalide.—The largest and most primitive family 
of Cyclospondyli is that of the Squalide, collectively known as 
dogfishes or skittle-dogs. In the Squalide each dorsal fin has 
a stout, spine in front, the caudal is bent upward and not keeled, 
and the teeth are small and varied in form, usually not all alike 
in the same jaw. 

The genus Squalus includes the dogfishes, small, greedy 
sharks abundant in almost all cool seas and in some tropical 


Fic. 144 —Dogfish, Squalus acanthias L. Gloucester, Mass. 


waters. They are known by the stout spines in the dorsal fins 
and by their sharp, squarish cutting teeth. They are largely 
sought by fishermen for the oil in their livers, which is used to 
adulterate better oils. Sometimes 20,000 have been taken in one 


ot 


The True Sharks 203 


haul of the net. They are very destructive to herrings and other 
food-fishes. Usually the fishermen cut out the liver, throwing 
the shark overboard to die or to be cast on the beach. In 
northern Europe and New England Squalus acanthias is abun- 
dant. Squalus sucklii replaces it in the waters about Puget 
Sound, and Squalus mitsukurit in Japan and Hawaii. Still 
others are found in Chile and Australia, The species of Squalus 
live near shore and have the gray color usual among sharks. 
Allied forms perhaps hardly different from Squalus are found in 
the Cretaceous rocks and have been described as Centrophoroides. 
Other genera related to Squalus live in greater depths, from 100 
to 600 fathoms, and these are violet-black. Some of the deep- 
water forms are the smallest of all sharks, scarcely exceeding a 


aé 
Fig. 145. —Etmopterus lucifer Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. 


foot in length. Etmopterus spinax lives in the Mediterranean, 
and teeth of a similar species occur in the Itaian Pliocene 
rocks. Etmopterus lucifer,* a deep-water species of Japan, has a 
brilliant luminous glandular area along the sides of the belly. 
Other small species of deeper waters belong to the genera 
Centrophorus, Centroscymnus, and Deania. In some of these 
species the scales are highly specialized, pedunculate, or having 
the form of serrated leaves. Some species are Arctic, the others 
are most abundant about Misaki in Japan and the Madeira 
Islands, two regions especially rich in semibathybial types. 
Allied to the Squalide is the small family of Oxynotide with 
short bodies and strong dorsal spine. Oxynotus centrina is found 
in the Mediterranean, and its teeth occur in the Miocene. 
Family Dalatiide.—The Dalatiid@, or scymnoid sharks, differ 
from the Squalide almost solely in the absence of dorsal spines. 
The smaller species belonging to Dalatias (Scymnorhinus, or 
Scymnus), Dalatias licha, etc., are very much like the dog- 


* Dr. Peter Schmidt has made a sketch of this little shark at night from a 
living example, using its own iight. 


204 The True Sharks 


fishes. They are, however, nowhere very common. The teeth 
of Dalatias major exist in Miocene rocks. In the genus 
Somniosus the species are of very much greater size, Somniosus 
microcephalus attaining the length of about twenty-five feet. 
This species, known as the sleeper-shark or Greenland shark, 
lives in all cold seas and is an especial enemy of the whale, from 
which it bites large masses of flesh with a ferocity hardly to be 
expected from its clumsy appearance. From its habit of feeding 
on fish-offal, it is known in New England as “ gurry-shark.”’ Its 
small quadrate teeth are very much lke those of the dogfish, 
their tips so turned aside as to form a cutting edge. The species 
is stout in form and sluggish in movement. It is taken for 
its liver in the north Atlantic on both coasts in Puget Sound 
and Bering Sea, and I have seen it in the markets of Tokyo. In 
Alaska it abounds about the salmon canneries feeding on the 
refuse. 

Family Echinorhinide.—The bramble-sharks, Echinorhinide, 
differ in the posterior insertion of the very small dorsal fins, 
and in the presence of scattered round tubercles, like the thorns 
of a bramble instead of shagreen. The single species, Echinorhi- 
nus sptnosus reaches a large size. It is rather 
scarce on the coasts of Europe, and was once 
taken on Cape Cod. The teeth of an extinct 
species, Echinorhinus richardi, are found in the 
Pliocene. 

Suborder Rhine.—The suborder Rhine in- 
cludes those sharks having the vertebra tecto- - 
spondylous, that is, with two or more series of 
calcified lamellae, as on the rays. They are 
transitional forms, as near the rays as the 
sharks, although having the gill-openings rather 
lateral than inferior, the great pectoral fins 
being separated by a notch from the head. 

The principal family is that of the angel- 
fishes, or monkfishes (Squatinide). In this : 
group the body is depressed and flat like that Ta oamrataaaiee 
of aray. The greatly enlarged pectorals form ES ei L. (After 

: : uméril. ) 
a sort of shoulder in front alongside of the 
gill-openings, which has suggested the bend of the angel’s wing. 


The True Sharks 205 


The dorsals are small and far back, the tail is slender with 
small fins, all these being characters shared by the rays. But 
one genus is now extant, widely diffused in warm seas. The 
species if really distinct are all very close to the European 
Squatina squatina. This is a moderate-sized shark of sluggish 
habit feeding on crabs and shells, which it crushes with its 
small, pointed, nail-shaped teeth. Numerous fossil species of 
Squatina are found from the Triassic and Cretaceous, Squatina 
alifera being the best known. 

Family Pristiophoride, or Sawsharks.— Another highly aber- 
rant family is that of the sawsharks, Pristiophoride. These are 
small sharks, much like the Dalatide in appearance, but with the 
snout produced into a long flat blade, on either side of which is a 


Fic. 147.—Sawshark, Pristiophorus japonicus Giinther. Specimen from Nagasaki. 


tow of rather small sharp enameled teeth. These teeth are smaller 
and sharper than in the sawfish (Pristis), and the whole animal 
is much smaller than its analogue among the rays. This saw 
must be an effective weapon among the schools of herring and 
anchovies on which the sawsharks feed. The true teeth are 
small, sharp, and close-set. The few species of ,sawsharks 
are marine, inhabiting the shores of eastern Asia and Aus- 
tralia. Pristiophorus japonicus is found rather sparsely along 
the shores of Japan. The vertebre in this group are also tecto- 
spondylous. Both the Squatina and Pristiophorus represent a 
perfect transition from the sharks and rays. We regard them 
as sharks only because the gill-openings are on the side, not 


1 


206 The True Sharks 


crowded downward to the under side of the body-disk. As 
fossil, Pristiophorus is known only from a few detached verte- 
bre found in Germany. 

Suborder Batoidei, or Rays.—The suborder of Batoidei, Raje, 
or Hypotrema, including the skates and rays, is a direct modern 
offshoot from the ancestors of tectospondylous sharks, its char- 
acters all specialized in the direction of life on the bottom with 
a food of shells, crabs, and other creatures less active than fishes. 

The single tangible distinctive character of the rays as a 
whole lies in the position of the gill-openings, which are directly 
below the disk and not on the side of the neck in all the sharks. 
This difference in position is produced by the anterior encroach- 
ment of the large pectoral fins, which are more or less attached to 
the side of the head. By this arrangement, which aids in giving 
the body the form of a flat disk, the gill-openings are limited 
and forced downward. In the Squatinide (angel-fishes) and 
the Pristiophoride (sawsharks) the gill-openings have an inter- 
mediate position, and these families might well be referred to 
the Batoidet, with which group they agree in the tectospondy- 
lous vertebre. 

Other characters of the rays, appearing progressively, are 
the widening of the disk, through the greater and greater de- 
velopment of the fins, the reduction of the tail, which in the 
more specialized forms becomes a long whip, the reduction, more 
and more posterior insertion, and the final loss of the dorsal 
fins, which are always without spine, the reduction of the teeth 
to a tessellated pavement, then finally to flat plates and the 
retention of the large spiracle. Through this spiracle the rays 
breathe while lying on the bottom, thus avoiding the danger of 
introducing sand into their gills, as would be done if they 
breathed through the mouth. In common with the cyclospon- 
dylous sharks, all the rays lack the anal fin. The rays rarely 
descend to’ great depths in the sea. The different members 
have varying relations, but the group most naturally divides 
into thick-tailed rays or skates (Sarcura) and whip-tailed rays 
or sting-rays (Masticura). The former are much nearer to the 
sharks and also appear earliest in geological times. 

Pristididz, or Sawfishes.—The sawfishes, Pristidid@, are long, 
shark-like rays of large size, having, like the sawsharks, the 


The True Sharks 207 


snout prolonged into a very long and strong flat blade, with 
a series of strong enameled teeth implanted in sockets along 
either side of it. These teeth are much larger and much less 
sharp than in the sawsharks, but they are certainly homolo- 
gous with these, and the two groups must have a common de- 
scent, distinct from that of the other rays. Doubtless when 
taxonomy is a more refined art they will constitute a small 
suborder together. This character of enameled teeth on the 
snout would seem of more importance than the position of the 
gill-openings or even the flattening and expansion of the body. 
The true teeth in the sawfishes are blunt and close-set, pave- 
ment-like as befitting a ray. (See Fig. 54.) 

The sawfishes are found chiefly in river-mouths of tropi- 
cal America and West Africa: Pristis pectinatus in the West 


Fic. 148.—Sawfish, Pristis pectinatus Latham, Pensacola, Fla. 


Indies; Pristis zephyreus in western Mexico; and Pristis pecti- 
natus in the Senegal. They reach a length of ten to twenty feet, 
and with their saws they make great havoc among the schools 
of mullets and sardines on which they feed. The stories of 
their attacks on the whale are without foundation. The writer 
has never found any of the species in the open sea. They 
live chiefly in the brackish water of estuaries and river-mouths. 

Fossil teeth of sawfishes occur in abundance in the Eocene. 
Still older are vertebra from’ the Upper Cretaceous at Maes- 
tricht. In Propristis schweinfurthi the tooth-sockets are 
not yet calcified. In Sclerorhynchus atavus, from the Upper 
Cretaceous, the teeth are complex in form, with a “crimped” 
or stellate base and a sharp, backward-directed enameled crown. 

Rhinobatide, or Guitar-fishes.— The Ahinobatide (guitar- 
fishes) are long-bodied, shovel-nosed rays, with strong tails; they 
are ovoviviparous, hatching the eggs within the body. The body, 
like that of the shark or sawfish, is covered with nearly uniform 
shagreen. The numerous species abound in all warm seas; they 
are olive-gray in color and feed on small animals of the sea- 


1 


208 The True Sharks 


bottoms. The length of the snout differs considerably in 
different species, but in all the body is relatively long and strong. 
Most of the species belong to Khinobatus. The best-known 
American species are Riunobatus lentiginosus of Florida and 
Rhinobatus productus of California. The names guitar-fish, 
fiddler-fish, etc., refer to the form of the body. Numerous 
fossil species, allied to the recent forms, occur from the Jurassic. 
Species much like Riinobatus occur in the Cretaceous and Eocene. 
Tamiobatis vetustus, lately described by Dr. Eastman from a 
skull found in the Devonian of eastern Kentucky, the oldest 
ray-like fish yet known, is doubtless the type of a distinct 
family, Tam‘obatide. It is more likely a shark however than 
a ray, although the skull has a flattened ray-like form. 


Fic. 149.—Guitar-fish, Rhinobatus lentiginosus Garman. Charleston, S. C. 


Closely related to the Rhinobatide are the Rhinide (Rham- 
phobatide), a small family of large rays shaped like the guitar- 
fishes and found on the coast of Asia. Rhina ancylostoma 
extends northward to Japan. ~ 

In the extinct family of Astrodermide, allied to the Rhino- 
batide, the tail has two smooth spines and the skin is covered 
with tubercles. In Belemnobatis sismonde the tubercles are 
conical; in Astrodermus platypterus they are stellate. 

Rajidez, or Skates.—The Rajid@, skates, or rays, inhabit the 
colder waters of the globe and are represented by a large number 
of living species. In this family the tail is stout, with two- 
rayed dorsal fins and sometimes a caudal fin. The skin is 
variously armed with spines, there being always in the male two 
series of specialized spinous hooks on the outer edge of the 
pectoral fin. There is no serrated spine or “sting,” and in 
all the species the eggs are laid in leathery cases, which are 


The True Sharks 209 


“wheelbarrow-shaped,”’ with a projecting tube at each of the 
four angles. The size of this egg-case depends on the size of 
the species, ranging from three to about eight inches in length. 
In some species more than one egg is included in the same case. 

Most of the species belong to the typical genus Raja, and 
these are especially numerous on the coasts of all northern 
regions, where they are largely used as food. . The flesh, although 
rather coarse and not well flavored, can be improved by hot 
butter, and as “raie au beurre noir’’ is appreciated by the 
epicure. The rays of all have small rounded teeth, set in a close 
pavement. 

Some of the species, known on our coasts as “ barn-door 
skates,’ reach a length of four or five feet. Among these are 
Raja levis and Raja ocellata on our Atlantic coast, Raja binocu- 


as 
Fia. 150.—Common®kate, Raja erinacea Mitchill. Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


lata in California, and Raja tengu in Japan. The small tobacco- 
box skate, brown with black spots, abundant on the New England 
coast, is Raja erinacea. The corresponding species in Cali- 
fornia is Raja inornata, and in Japan Raja kenojet. Numerous 
other species, Raja batis, clavata, circularis, fullonica, etc., 
occur on the coasts of Europe. Some species are variegated in 
color, with eye-like spots or jet-black marblings. Still others, 
living in deep waters, are jet-black with the body very soft and 


210 The True Sharks 


limp. For these Garman has proposed the generic name Mala- 
corhinus, a name which may come into general use when the 
species are better known. In the deep seas rays are found 
even under the equator. In the south-temperate zone the 
species are mostly generically distinct, Psammobatis being a 
typical form, differing from Raja. Discobatus sinensis, com- 
mon in China and Japan, is a shagreen-covered form, looking 
like a Rhinobatus. It is, however, a true ray, laying its eggs 
in egg-cases, and with the pectorals extending on the snout. 
Fossil Rajid@, known by the teeth and bony tubercles, are 
found from the Cretaceous onward. They belong to Raja and 
to the extinct genera Dynatobatis, Oncobatis, and Acanthobatis. 
The genus Arthropterus (rileyi), from the Lias, known from a 
large pectoral fin, with distinct cylindrical-jointed rays, may 
have been one of the Rajid@, or perhaps the type of a distinct 
family, Arthropteride. 

Narcobatide, or Torpedoes.—The torpedoes, or electric rays 
(Narcobatide), are characterized by the soft, perfectly smooth 


Fie, 151.—Numbfish, Narcine brasiliensis Henle, showing electric cells. 
Pensacola, Fla. 


skin, by the stout tail with rayed fins, and by the ovoviviparous 
habit, the eggs being hatched internally. In all the species is 
developed an elaborate electric organ, muscular in its origin 
and composed of many hexagonal cells, each filled with soft 


fluid. These cells are arranged under the skin about the back 
—_ 


The True Sharks 211 


of the head and at the base of the pectoral fin, and are capable 
of benumbing an enemy by means of a severe electric shock. 
The exercise of this power soon exhausts the animal, and a 
certain amount of rest is essential to recovery. 

The torpedoes, also known as crampfishes or numbfishes, 
are peculiarly soft to the touch and rather limp, the substance 
consisting largely of watery or fatty tissues. They are found 
in all warm seas. They are not often abundant, and as food 
they have not much value. 

Perhaps the largest species is Tetronarce occidentalis, the 
crampfish of our Atlantic coast, black in color, and said some- 
times to weigh 200 pounds. In California Tetronarce cali- 
fornica reaches a length of three feet and is very rarely taken, 
in warm sandy bays. Tetronarce nobiliana in Europe is much 
like these two American species. In the European species, 
Narcobatus torpedo, the spiracles are fringed and the animal 
is of smaller size. To Narcine belong the smaller numbfish, 
or “entemedor,”’ of tropical America. These have the spiracles 
close behind the eyes, not at a distance as in Narcobatus and 
Tetronarce. Narcine brasiliensis is found throughout the West 
Indies, and Narcine entemedor in the Gulf of California. Astrape, 
a genus with but one dorsal fin, is common in southern Japan. 
Fossil Narcobatus and Astrape occur in the Eocene, one speci- 
men of the former nearly five feet long. Vertebre of Astrape 
occur in Prussia in the amber-beds. 

Petalodontide.— Near the Squatinide, between the sharks 
and the rays, Woodward places the large extinct family of 
Petalodontide, with coarsely paved 
teeth each of which is elongate 
with a central ridge and one or 
more strong roots at base. The 
best-known genera are /anassa and 
Petalodus, widely distributed in 
Carboniferous time. /anassa is 

a broad flat shark, or, perhaps, 

Be a Adily Cotectrcne a skate, covered with smooth 

Family Petalodontide. (After shagreen. The large pectoral fins 
Nicholson.) 

are grown to the head; the rather 

large ventral fins are separated from them. The tail is small, 


212 The True Sharks 


and the fins, as in the rays, are without spines. The teeth 
bear some resemblance to those of Myliobatis. _Janassa is found 
in the coal-measures of Europe 
and America, and other genera 
extend upward from the Sub- 
carboniferous limestones, dis- 
appearing near the end of Car- 
boniferous time. Petalodus is Fig. 158 Spintec radicans Agas- 
equally common, but known ae sales eee orlon ae eee 
only from the teeth. Other Se Ce tek eae 
widely distributed genera are Ctenoptychius and Polyrhizodus. 

These forms may be intermediate between the skates and 
the sting-rays. In dentition they resemble most the latter. 

Similar to these is the extinct family of Pristodontide with 
one large tooth in each jaw, the one hollowed out to meet the 
other. It is supposed that but two teeth existed in life, but 
that is not certain. Nothing is known of the rest of the body 
in Pristodus, the only genus of the group. 

Dasyatide, or Sting-rays.—In the section A/asticura the tail 
is slender, mostly whip-like, without rayed dorsal or caudal 
fins, and it is usually armed with a very long spine with saw- 
teeth projecting backward. In the typical forms this is a 
very effective weapon, being wielded with great force and making 
a jagged wound which in man rarely heals without danger of 
blood-poisoning. There is no specific poison, but the slime 
and the loose cuticle of the spine serve to aggravate the irregu- 
lar cut. I have seen one sting-ray thrust this spine through 
the body of another lying near it in a boat. Occasionally two 
or three of these spines are present. In the more specialized 
forms of sting-rays this spine loses its importance. It be- 
comes very small and not functional, and is then occasionally 
or even generally absent in individuals. 

The common sting-rays, those in which the caudal spine 
is most developed, belong to the family of Dasyatide. This 
group is characterized by the small skate-like teeth and by 
the non-extension of the pectoral rays on the head. The skin is 
smooth or more or less rough. These animals lie flat on the sandy 
bottoms in nearly all seas, feeding on crabs and shellfish. All 
hatch the eggs within the body. The genus Urolophus has a 


The True Sharks 213 


rounded disk, and a stout, short tail with a caudal fin. It has a 
strong spine, and for its size is the most dangerous of the sting- 
rays. Urolophus halleri, the California species, was named for a 
young man who was stung by the species at the time of its first 
discovery at San Diego in 1863. Uvrolophus jamaicensis abounds 
in the West Indies, Urolophus mundus at Panama, and Urolo- 
phus fuscus in Japan. None of the species reach Europe. The 
true sting-ray (stingaree, or clam-cracker), Dasyatis, is more 
widely diffused and the species are very closely related. In 
these species the body is angular and the tail whip-like. Some 


Fie. 154 —Sting-ray, Dasyatis sabina Le Sueur. Galveston. 


of the species reach a length of ten or twelve feet. None have 
any economic value, and all are disliked by fishermen. Dasyatis 
pastinaca is common in Europe, Dasyatis centrura along our 
Atlantic coast, Dasyatis sabina ascends the rivers of Florida, 
and Dasyatis dipterura abounds in the bay of San Diego. Other 
species are found in tropical America, while still others (Dasyatis 
akajet, kuhlii, zugei, etc.) swarm in Japan and across India to 
Zanzibar. 

Pteroplatea, the butterfly-ray, has the disk very much broader 
than long, and the trivial tail is very short, its little spine more 
often lost than present. Different species of this genus circle 
the globe: Pteroplatea maclura, on our Atlantic coast; Ptero- 
platea marmorata, in California; Pteroplatea japonica, in Japan; 


214 The True Sharks 


and Pteroplatea altavela, in Europe. They are all very much 
alike, olive, with the brown upper surface pleasingly mottled 
and spotted. 

Sting-rays of various types, Teniura, Urolophus, etc., occur 
as fossils from the Eocene onward. A complete skeleton called 
Xiphotrygon acutidens, distinguished from Dasyatis by its 
sharp teeth, is described by Cope from the Eocene of Twin Creek 
in Wyoming. Vertebre of Urolophus are found in German Eocene. 
Cyclobatis (oligodactylus), allied to Urolophus, with a few long 
pectoral rays greatly produced, extending over the tail and 
forming a rayed wreath-like projection over the snout, is known 
from the Lower Cretaceous. 

Myliobatide. — The eagle-rays, Myliobatide, have the pec- 
toral fins extended to the snout, where they form a sort of rayed 
pad. The teeth are very large, flat, and laid in mosaic. The 
whip-like tail is much like that in the Dasyatide, but the spine 
is usually smaller. The eagle-like appearance is suggested 
by the form of the skull. The eyes are on the side of the head 
with heavy eyebrows above them. The species are destructive 
to clams and oysters, crushing them with their strong flat teeth. 

In Aétobatus the teeth are very large, forming but one row. 
The species Aétobatus narinari is showily colored, brown with 
yellow spots, the body very angular, with long whip-like tail. 
It is found from Brazil to Hawaii and is rather common. 


In Myliobatis the teeth are in several series. The species’ 


are many, and found in all warm seas. Myliobatis aquila is 
the eagle-ray of Europe, Myliobatis californicus is the batfish of 
California, and Myliobatis tobijet takes its place in Japan. 

In Khinoptera the snout is notched and cross-notched in 
front so that it appears as if ending in four lobes at the tip. 
These ‘‘cow-nosed rays,” or “whipparees,’’ root up the soft 
bottoms of shallow bays in their search for clams, much as a 
drove of hogs would do it. The common American species 
is Rhinopterus bonasus. Rhinoptera steindachnert lives in the 
Gulf of California. 

Teeth and spines of all these genera are common as fossils 
from the Eocene onwards, as well as many of the extinct genus, 
Ptychodus, with cyclospondylous vertebrae. Ptychodus mam- 
milaris, rugosus, and decurrens are characteristic of the Creta- 


The True Sharks 2105 


ceous of England. Myliobatis dixont is common in the Euro- 
pean Eocene, as is also Myliobatis toliapicus and Aétobatis 


Fig, 155.—Eagle-ray, Aétobatis narinari (Euphrasen). Cedar Keys, Fla. 


trregularis. Apocopodon seriacus is known from the Cretaceous 
of Brazil. 

Family Psammodontide. — The Psammodontide are known 
only from the teeth, large, flat, or rounded and finely dotted or 
roughened on the upper surface, as the name Psammodus (pa pos, 


216 The True Sharks 


sand; odovs, tooth) would indicate. The way in which the 
jaws lie indicates that these teeth belonged to rays rather than 
sharks. Numerous species have been described, mostly from 
the Subcarboniferous limestones. Archeobatis gigas, perhaps, 
as its name would indicate, the primeval skate, is from the 
Subcarboniferous limestone of Greencastle, Indiana. Teeth 
of numerous species of Psammodus and Copodus are found in 


Fia. 156.—Devil-ray or Sea-devil, Manta birostris (Walbaum). Florida. 


many rocks of Carboniferous age. Psammodus rugosus com- 
mon in Carboniferous rocks of Europe. 

Family Mobulidez.—The sea-devils, Mobulide, are the mightiest 
of all the rays, characterized by the development of the anterior 
lobe of the pectorals as a pair of cephalic fins. These stand 
up like horns or ears on the upper part of the head. The teeth 
are small and flat, tubercular, and the whip-like tail is with 
or without spine. The species are few, little known, and in- 
ordinately large, reaching a width of more than twenty feet 
and a weight, according to Risso, of 1250 pounds. When har- 
pooned it is said that they will drag a large boat with great 
swiftness. The manta, or sea-devil, of tropical America is 


The True Sharks 207 


Manta birostris. It is said to be much dreaded by the pearl- 
fishers, who fear that it will devour them “after enveloping 
them in its vast wings.’ It is not likely, however, that the 
manta devours anything larger than the pearl-oyster itself. 
Manta hamiltoni is a name given to a sea-devil of the Gulf of 
California. The European species Mobula edentula reaches a 
similarly enormous size, and Mobula hypostoma has been scantily 
described from Jamaica and Brazil. Mobula japonica occurs 
in Japan. A foetus in my possession from a huge specimen 
taken at Misaki is nearly a foot across. In Mobula (Cephaloptera) 
there are teeth in both jaws, in Manta (Ceratoptera) in the lower 
jaw only. In Ceratobatis from Jamaica (C. roberts?) there are 
teeth in the upper jaw only. Otherwise the species of the three 
genera are much alike, and from their huge size are little known 
and rarely seen in collections. Of Mobulide no extinct species 
are known. : 


CHAPTER XV 


THE HOLOCEPHALI, OR CHIM/ERAS 


HE Chimeras.— Very early in geological times, cer- 
tainly as early as the middle Silurian, the type of 
Chimeras diverged from that of the sharks. Hasse 
fences them directly from his hypothetical primitive Polyo- 
spondyli, by way of the Acanthodet. and Ichthyotomi. In any 
event the point of divergence must be placed very early in the 
evolution of sharks, and this suggestion is as likely as any other. 
The chief character of Chimeras is found in the autostylic skull, 
which is quite different from the hyostylic skull of the sharks. 
In the sharks and in all higher fishes the mandible is joined to the 
skull by a suspensorium of bones or cartilages (quadrate, sym- 
plectic, and hyomandibular bones in the Teleost fishes). To this 
arrangement the name hyostylic is given. In the Chimera there 
is no suspensorium, the mandible being directly attached to 
the cranium, of which the hyomandibular and quadrate elements 
form an integral part, this arrangement being called autostylic. 
The palato-quadrate apparatus, of which the upper jaw is the 
anterior part, is immovably fused with the cranium, instead 
of being articulated with it. This fact gives the name to the 
subclass Holocephali (oAos, whole or solid; «xe@adr, head). 
Other characters are found in the incomplete character of the 
back-bone, which consists of a scarcely segmented notochord 
differing from the most primitive condition imagined only 
in being surrounded by calcareous rings, no lime entering into 
the composition of the notochord itself. The tail is diphycercal 
and usually prolonged in a filament (leptocercal). The shoulder- 
girdle, as in the sharks, is free from the skull. The pectoral 


fins are short and broad, without segmented axis or archiptery- 
218 


The Holocephali, or Chimzras 219 


gium and without recognizable analogue of the three large 
cartilages seen in the sharks, the propterygium, mesopterygium, 
and metapterygium. In the mouth, instead of teeth, are de- 
veloped flat, bony plates called tritors or grinders, set endwise 
in the front of the jaws. The gills are fringe-like, free at the 
tips as in ordinary fishes, and there is a single external opening 
for them all as in true fishes, and they are covered with a flap 
of skin. These structures are, however, quite different from 
those of the true fishes and are doubtless independently de- 
veloped. There is no spiracle. The skin is smooth or rough. 
In the living forms and most of the extinct species there is a 
strong spine in the dorsal fin. The ventral fin in the male has 
complex, usually trifid, claspers, and an analogous organ, the 
cephalic holder, is developed on the front of the head, in the 
adult male. This is a bony hook with a brush of glistening 
enameled teeth at the end. The eggs are large, and laid in 
oblong or elliptical egg-cases, provided with silky filaments. 
The eggs are fertilized after they are extruded. Mucous chan- 
nels and lateral line are highly developed, being most complex 
about the head. The brain is essentially shark-like, the optic 
nerves form a chiasma, and the central hemispheres are large. 

The teeth of the Chimeras are thus described by Woodward, 
MOle2ss pps 30, 37): 

“Tn all the known families of Chimzroids, the dentition 
consists of a few large plates of vascular dentine, of which 
certain areas (‘tritors’) are specially hardened by the depo- 
sition of calcareous salts within and around groups of medullary 
canals, which rise at right angles to the functional surface. In 
most cases there is a single pair of such plates in the lower jaw, 
meeting at the symphysis, while two pairs are arranged to 
oppose these above. As a whole, the dentition thus closely 
resembles that of the typical Dipnoi (as has often been pointed 
out); and the upper teeth may be provisionally named pala- 
tine and vomerine until further discoveries shall have revealed 
their precise homologies. The structures are sometimes de- 
scribed as ‘jaws,’ and regarded as dentaries, maxilla, and 
premaxillz, but the presence of a permanent pulp under each 
tooth is conclusive proof of their bearing no relation to the 
familiar membrane-bones thus named in higher fishes.” 


, ie 


220 The Holocephali, or Chimeras 


Relationship of Chimezras.—As to the origin of the Chimeras 
and their relation to the sharks, Dr. Dean has this recent (‘‘ The 
Devonian Lamprey’’) and interesting word: 

“The Holocephali have always been a doubtful group, 
anatomy and paleontology contributing but imperfect evidence 
as to their position in the gnathostome phylum. Their em- 
bryology, however, is still undescribed, except in a brief note 
by T. J. Parker, and it is reasonably looked to to contribute 
evidence as to their line of descent. The problem of the relation- 
ships of the Chimeroids has long been of especial interest to 
me, and it has led me to obtain embryonic material of a Pacific 
species of one of these forms. It may be of interest in this 
connection to state that the embryology of this form gives 
the clearest evidence that the wide separation of the Selachii 
and Holocephali is not tenable. The entire plan of develop- 
ment in Chimera colliet is clearly like that of a shark. The 
ovulation is closely like that of certain of the rays and sharks: 
the eggs are large, the segmentation is distinctly shark-like; 
the circular blastoderm overgrows the yolk in an elasmobranchian 
manner. The early embryos are shark-like; and the later 
ones have, as T. J. Parker has shown, external gills, and I note 
further that these arise, precisely as in shark-embryos, from the 
posterior margin of the gill-bar. <A spiracle also is present. 
A further and most interesting developmental feature is the 
fact that the autostylism in Chimera is purely of secondary 
nature and is at the most of ordinal value. It is found that 
in a larva of Chimera measuring 45 mm. in length, the 
palato-quadrate cartilage is still separated from the skull by 
a wide fissure. This becomes gradually reduced by the con- 
fluence of the palato-quadrate cartilage with the skull, the 
fusion taking place at both the anterior and posterior ends of 
the mesal rim of the cartilage. The remains of the fissure are 
still well marked in the young Chimera, four inches in length; 
and a rudiment of it is present in the adult skull as a passage- 
way for a nerve. Regarding the dentition: it may also be 
noted in the present connection that the growth of the dental 
plates in Chimera suggests distinctly elasmobranchian con- 
ditions. Thus on the roof of the mouth the palatine plates 
are early represented by a series of small more or less conical 


The Holocephali, or Chimeras 221 


elements which resemble outwardly, at least, the ‘anlagen’ 
of the payement teeth in cestraciont sharks.” 

Family Chimzride.—The existing Chimeras are known also 
as spookfishes, ratfishes, and elephant-fishes. These are divided 
by Garman into three families, and in the principal family, the 
Chimeride, the snout is blunt, the skin without plates, and 
the dorsal fin is provided with a long spine. The flat tritors 


Fig. 157.—Skeleton of Chimera monstrosa Linnezus. (After Dean.) 


vary in the different genera. The single genus represented 
among living fishes is Chimera, found in cold seas and in the 
oceanic depths. The best-known species, Chimera colliei, the 
elephant-fish, or chimera of California, abounds in shallow 
waters of ten to twenty fathoms from Sitka to San Diego. 
It is a harmless fish, useless except for the oil in its liver, and 
of special interest to anatomists as the only member of the 
family to be found when desired for dissection. This species 
was first found at Monterey by Mr. Collie, naturalist of Captain 
Beechey’s ship, the Blossom. It is brown in color, with whitish 
spots, and reaches a length of 2} feet. As a shallow-water 
form, with certain differences in the claspers and in the tail, 
Chimera colliei is sometimes placed in a distinct genus, Hydro- 
lagus. Other species inhabit much greater depths and have 
the tail produced into a long filament. Of these, Chimera 
monstrosa, the sea-cat of the north Atlantic, has been longer 
known than any other Chimera. Chimera ajffinis has been 
dredged in the Gulf Stream and off Portugal. Chimera phan- 
tasma and Chimera mitsukurii are frequently taken in Japan, 


222 The Holocephali, or Chimeras 


and the huge jet-black Chimera purpurascens in Hawaii and 
Japan. None of these species are valued as food, but all impress 
the spectator with their curious forms. 

The fossil Chimeride, although numerous from Triassic 
times and referred to several genera, are known chiefly by their 
teeth with occasional fin-spines, frontal holders, or impressions 
of parts of the skeleton. The earliest of chimzroid remains has 


Fig. 158.—Elephant-fish, Chimera colliei Lay & Bennett. Monterey. 


been described by Dr. Charles D. Walcott * from Ordovician 
or Lower Silurian rocks at Cation City, Colorado. Of the species 
called Dictyorhabdus priscus, only parts supposed to be the 
sheath of the notochord have been preserved. Dr. Dean thinks 
this more likely to be part of the axis of a cephalopod shell. 
The definitely known Chimeride are mainly confined to the 
rocks of the Mesozoic and subsequent eras. Jschyodus priscus 
(avitus) of the sower Jura resembles a modern chimera, 
Granodus owent is another extinct chimera, and numerous 
fin-spines, teeth, and other fragments in the Cretaceous and 
Eocene of America and Europe are referred to Edaphodon. A 
species of Chimera has been recorded from the Pliocene of 
Tuscany, and one of Cal’orhynchus from the greensand of New 
Zealand. Other American Cretaceous genera of chimzeroids are 
Mylognathus, Bryactinus, Isotenia, Leptomylus, and Sphagepea. 
Dental plates called Rhynchodus are found in the Devonian. 
Rhinochimeride.—The most degenerate of existing chimeras 
belong to the family of Rhinochimeride, characterized by the 
long flat soft blade in which the snout terminates. This struc- 


* Bulletin Geol. Soc. America, 1892. 


The Holocephali, or Chimeras 223 


ture resembles that seen in the deep-sea shark, Mzitsukurina, 
and in Polyodon. In Rhinochimera pacifica of Japan the teeth 
in each jaw form but a single plate.. In Harriotta raleighana, 
of the Gulf Stream, they are more nearly as in Chimera. Both 
are bathybial fishes, soft in texture, and found in great depths. 
The family of Callorhynchide, or Antarctic Chimeras, includes 
the bottle-nosed Chimera (Callorhynchus callorhynchus) of the 
Patagonian region. In this species the snout is also produced, 
a portion being turned backward below in front of the mouth, 
forming a sensory pad well supplied with nerves. 

Ostracophori—In natural sequence the class or subclass of 
Ostracophores follows the sharks and Chimeeras. 

As all the Ostracophort are now extinct, we may here pass 
them by without further discussion, referring the reader to the 
full treatment in the ‘“‘Guide to the Study of Fishes.” These 
are most extraordinary creatures, jawless, apparently limb- 
less, and enveloped in most cases anteriorly in a coat of mail. 
In typical forms the head is very broad, bony, and horseshoe- 
shaped, attached to a slender body, often scaly, with small 
fins and ending in a heterocercal tail. What the mouth was 
like can only be guessed, but no trace of jaws has yet been 
found in connection with it. The most remarkable distinctive 
character is found in the absence of jaws and limbs in connec- 
tion with the bony armature. The latter is, however, sometimes 
obsolete. The back-bone, as usual in primitive fishes, is de- 
veloped as a persistent notochord imperfectly segmented. The 
entire absence of jaw structures, as well as the character of the 
armature, at once separates them widely from the mailed Arthro- 
dires of a later period. But it is by no means certain that 
these structures were not represented by soft cartilage, of which 
no traces have been preserved in the specimens known. 


CHAPTER XVI 
THE CROSSOPTERYGII 


LASS Teleostomi.—We may unite the remaining groups 
of fishes into a single class, for which the name Teleos- 
tomi (redeos, true; oroua, mouth), proposed by Bona- 

parte in 1838, may be retained. The fishes of this class are 
characterized by the presence of a suspensorium to the man- 
dible, by the existence of membrane-bones (opercles, sub- 
orbitals, etc.) on the head, by a single gill-opening leading to 
gill-arches bearing filamentous gills, and by the absence of 
claspers on the ventral fins. The skeleton is at least partly 
ossified in all the Teleostomi. More important as a primary 
character, distinguishing these fishes from the sharks, is the 
presence typically and primitively of the air-bladder. This 
is at first a lung, arising as a diverticulum from the ventral side 
of the cesophagus, but in later forms it becomes dorsal and is, 
by degrees, degraded into a swim-bladder, and in very many 
forms it is altogether lost with age. 

This group comprises the vast majority of recent fishes, 
as well as a large percentage of those known only as fossils. 
In these the condition of the lung can be only guessed. 

The Teleostomt are doubtless derived from sharks, their 
relationship being possibly nearest to the Jchthyotomi or to the 
primitive Chimeras. The Dipnoans among Teleostomi retain 
the shark-like condition of the upper jaw, made of palatal 
elements, which may be, as in the Chimera, fused with the cra- 
nium. In the lower forms also the primitive diphycercal or 
protocercal form of tail is retained, as also the archipterygium 
or jointed axis of the paired fins, fringed with rays on one or 
both sides. 


224 


4 


The Crossopterygii 2255 


We may divide the Teleostomes, or true fishes, into three 
subclasses: the Crossopterygi, or fringe-fins; the Dipneusti, or 
lung-fishes; Actinopteri, or ray-fins, including the Ganoidet and 
the Teleostez, or bony fishes. Of these many recent writers are 
disposed to consider the Crossopterygii as most primitive, and 
to derive from it by separate lines each of the remaining sub- 
classes, as well as the higher vertebrates. The Ganoidei and 
Teleostet (constituting the Actinoptert) are very closely related, 
the ancient group passing by almost imperceptible degrees into 
the modern group of bony fishes. 

Subclass Crossopterygii.— The earliest Teleostomes known 
belong to the subclass or group called after Huxley, Crossop- 
terygii (kpoocos, fringe; mrepuvé, fin). A prominent character of 
the group lies in the retention of the jointed pectoral fin or archip- 
terygium, its axis fringed by a series of soft rays. This char- 
acter it shares with the Jchthyotomi among sharks, and with 
the Dipneusti. From the latter it differs in the hyostylic cra- 
nium, the lower jaw being suspended from the hyomandibular, 
and by the presence of distinct premaxillary and maxillary 
elements in the upper jaw. In these characters it agrees with 
the ordinary fishes. In the living Crossopterygians the air- 
bladder is lung-like, attached by a duct to the ventral side 
of the cesophagus. The lung-sac, though specialized in struc- 
ture, is simple, not cellular as in the Dipnoans. The skeleton 
is more or less perfectly ossified. Outside the cartilaginous 
skull is a bony coat of mail. The skin is covered with firm 
scales or bony plates, the tail is diphycercal, straight, and end- 
ing in a point, the shoulder-girdle attached to the cranium is 
cartilaginous but overlaid with bony plates, and the branchios- 
tigals are represented by a pair of gular plates. 

In the single family represented among living fishes the 
heart has a muscular arterial bulb with many series of valves 
on its inner edge, and the large air-bladder is divided into two 
lobes, having the functions of a lung, though not cellular as in 
the lung-fishes. 

The fossil types are very closely allied to the lung-fishes, 
and the two groups have no doubt a common origin in Silurian 
times. It is now usually considered that the Crossopterygian 
is more primitive than the lung-fish, though at the same time 


226 The Crossopterygil 


more nearly related to the Ganoids, and through them to the 
ordinary fishes. 

Origin of Amphibians.—From the primitive Crossopterygit 
the step to the ancestral Amphibia, which are likewise mailed 
and semi-aquatic, seems a very short one. It is true that most 
writers until recently have regarded certain Dipneustans as 
the Dipteride as representing the parents of the Amphibians. 
But the weight of recent authority, Gill, Pollard, Boulenger, 
Dollo, and others, seems to place the point of separation of the 
higher vertebrates with the Crossopterygians, and to regard 
the lobate pectoral member of Polypterus as a possible source of 
the five-fingered arm of the frog. This view is still, however, ex- 
tremely hypothetical and there is still much to be said in favor 
of the theory of the origin of Amphibia from Dipnoans and in 


Fia. 159, —Shoulder-girdle 0! Polypterus bichir. Specimen from the White Nile. 


favor of the view that the Dipnoans are also ancestors of the 
Crossopterygians. 

In the true Amphibians the lungs are better developed 
than in the Crossopterygian or Dipnoan, although the lungs are 
finally lost in certain salamanders which breathe through epithe- 
lial cells. The gills lose, among the Amphibia, their primitive 
importance, although in Proteus anguineus of Austria and 
Necturus maculosus, the American ‘“‘mud-puppy’’ or water-dog, 
these persist through life. The archipterygium, or primitive 
fin, gives place to the chiropterygium, or fingered arm. In 


The Crossopterygii 227, 


this the basal segment of the archipterygium gives place to 
the humerus, the diverging segments seen in the most special- 
ized type of archipterygium (Polypterus) become perhaps radius 
and ulna, the intermediate quadrate mass of cartilage possibly 
becoming carpal bones, and from these spring the joints called 
metacarpals and phalanges. In the Amphibians and all higher 
forms the shoulder-girdle retains its primitive insertion at a 
distance from the head, and 
the posterior limbs remain 
abdominal. 

The Amphibians are there- 
fore primarily fishes with 
fingers and toes instead of 
the fringe-fins of their an- 
cestors. Their relations are 
really with the fishes, as 
indicated by Huxley, who 
unites the amphibians and ez 
fishes in a primary SEoup; Fic. 160. —Arm of a frog. 
Ichthyopsida, while reptiles 
and birds form the contrasting group of Sauropsida. 

The reptiles differ from the Amphibians through accelera- 
tion of development, passing through the gill-bearing stages 
within the egg. The birds bear feathers instead of scales, 
and the mammals nourish their young by means of glandular 
secretions. Through a reptile-amphibian ancestry the birds 
and mammals may trace back their descent from palozoic 
Crossopterygians. In the very young embryo of all higher 
vertebrates traces of double-breathing persist in all species, 
in the form of rudimentary gill-slits. 

The Fins of Crossopterygians.—Dollo and Boulenger regard 
the heterocercal tail as a primitive form, the diphycercal form 
being a result of degradation, connected with its less extensive 
use as an organ of propulsion. Most writers who adopt the 


theory of Gegenbaur that the archipterygium is the primitive 


form of the pectoral fin are likely, however, to consider the 
diphycercal tail found associated with it in the IJchthyotomi, 
Dipneusti, Crossopterygii as the more primitive form of the tail. 
From this form the heterocercal tail of the higher sharks and 


228 The Crossopterygil 


Ganoids may be derived, this giving way in the process of de- 
velopment to the imperfectly homocercal tail of the salmon, 
the homocercal tail of the perch, and the isocercal tail of the 
codfish and its allies, the gephyrocercal and the leptocercal tail, 
tapering or whip-like, representing various stages of degenera- 
tion. Boulenger draws a distinction between the protocercal 


Fia. 161.—Polypterus congicus, a Crossopterygian fish from the Congo River. Young, 
with external gills. (After Boulenger.) 


tail, the one primitively straight, and the diphycercal tail 
modified, like the homocercal tail, from an heterocercal ancestry. 

Orders of Crossopterygians.—Cope and Woodward divide the 
Crossopterygia into four orders or suborders, Haplistia, Rhipi- 
distia, Actinistia, and Cladistia. To the latter belong the exist- 
ing species, or the family of Polypteride, alone. Boulenger unites 
the three extinct orders into one, which he calls Osteolepida. 
In all three of these the pectorals are narrow with a single basal 
bone, and the nostrils, as in the Dipneustans, are below the 
snout. The differences are apparently such as to justify Cope’s 
division into three orders. ; 

Haplistia—In the Haplistia the notochord is persistent, and 
the basal bones of dorsal and anal fins are in regular series, 
much fewer in number than the fin-rays. The single family 
Tarrassiide is represented by Tarrasius problematicus, found 
by Traquair in Scotland. This is regarded as the lowest of the 
Crossopterygians, a small fish of the Lower Carboniferous, the 
head mailed, the body:with small bony scales. 

Rhipidistia—In the Khipidistia the basal bones of the median 
fins (“‘axonosts and baseosts’’) are found in a single piece, not 
separate as in the Haplistia. Four families are recognized, 
Holoptychude, Megalichthyide, Osteolepide, and Onychodontide, 
the first of these being considered as the nearest approach of 
the Crossopterygians to the Dipnoans. 


The Crossopterygil 229 


The Holoptychiide have the pectoral fins acute, the scales 
cycloid, enameled, and the teeth very complex. Holoptychius 
nobilissimus is a very large fish from the Devonian. Glyptolepis 
leptopterus from the Lower Devonian is also a notable species. 
Dendrodus from the Devonian is known from detached teeth. 

In the Ordovician rocks of Canon City, Colorado, Dr. Wal- 
cott finds numerous bony scales with folded surfaces and stellate 
ornamentation, and which he refers with some doubt to a 
Crossopterygian fish of the family Holoptychiide. This fish he 


Fia. 162.—Basal bone of dorsal fin, Holoptychius leptopterus (Agassiz). 
(After Woodward. ) 


names Eriptychius americanus. If this identification proves cor- 
rect, it will carry back the appearance of Crossopterygian fishes, 
the earliest of the Teleostome forms, to the beginning of the 
Silurian, these Cafion City shales being the oldest rocks in which 
remains of fishes are known to occur. In the same rocks are 
found plates of Ostracophores and other fragments still 
more doubtful. It is certain that our records in paleontology 
fall far short of disclosing the earliest sharks, as well as 
the earliest remains of Ostracophores, Arthrodires, or even 
Ganoids. | 

Megalichthyide —The Megalichthyide (wrongly called ‘‘ Rhizo- 
dontide’’) have the pectoral fins obtuse, the teeth relatively 
simple, and the scales cycloid, enameled. There are numer- 
ous species in the Carboniferous rocks, largely known from 
fragments or from teeth. Megalichthys, Strepsodus, Rhizo- 
dopsis, Gyroptychius, Tristichopterus, Eusthenopteron, Cricodus, 
and Sauripterus are the genera; Rhizodopsis sauroides from 
the coal-measures of England being the best-known species. 

The Osteolepide differ from the Megalichthyide mainly in 
the presence of enameled rhomboid scales, as in Polypterus and 


230 The Crossopterygil 


Lepisosteus. In Glyptopomus these scales are sculptured, in 
the others smooth. In Osteolepis, Thursius, Diplopterus, and 
Glyptopomus a pineal foramen is present on the top of the head. 
This is wanting in Parabatrachus (Megalichthys of authors). 
In Osteolepis, Thursius, and Parabatrachus the tail is heterocercal, 


Fia. 163 —G@Gyroptychius microlepidotus Agassiz. Devonian. Family Megalich- 
tiyide. (After Pander.) 

while in Diplopterus and Glyptopomus it is diphycercal. Osteo- 
lepis macrolepidotus and numerous other species occur in the 
Lower Devonian. Diplopterus agassizit is common in the same 
horizon. Megalichthys hibberti is found in the coal-measures, 
and Glyptopomus minimus in the Upper Devonian. Pal@osteus 
is another genus recently described. 

The Onychodontide are known from a few fragments of 
Onychodus sigmoides from the Lower Devonian of Ohio and 
Onychodus anglicus from England. 

Order Actinistia—In the Actinistia there is a single fin-ray 
to each basal bone, the axonosts of each ray fused in a single 


Fia. 164 —Calacanthus elegans Newberry. From the Ohio Carboniferous, showing 
air-bladder. (After Dean.) 


piece. The notochord is persistent, causing the back-bone 
in fossils to appear hollow, the cartilaginous material leaving 
no trace in the rocks. The genera and species are numerous, 
ranging from the Subcarboniferous to the Upper Cretaceous, 
many of them belonging to Calacanthus, the chief genus of the 


The Crossoptery gii 231 


single family Celacanthide. In Celacanthus the fin-rays are 
without denticles. Calacanthus granulatus is found in the 
European Permian. Celacanthus elegans of the coal-measures 
is found in America also. In Undina the anterior fin-rays are 
marked with tubercles. Undina penicillata and Undina gulo 
from the Triassic are well-preserved species. In Macropoma 
(Jewestensis) the fin-rays are robust, long, and little articulated. 


Military LA 
WK KK 


WN WRK 


Fie. 165.— Undina gulo eee Lias. Family Celacanthide. (After Woodward.) 


Other genera are Heptanema, Coccoderma, Libys, Diplurus, 
and Graphiurus. Diplurus longicaudatus was found by New- 
berry in the Triassic of New Jersey and Connecticut. 

Order Cladistia.—In the Cladistia the axis of the pectoral 
limb is fan-shaped, made of two diversified bones joined by 
cartilage. The notochord is restricted and replaced by ossi- 
fied vertebre. The axonosts of the dorsal and anal are in 
regular series, each bearing a fin-ray. The order contains the 
single family Polypteride. In this group the pectoral fin is 
formed differently from that of the other Crossopterygians, 
being broad, its base of two diverging bones with cartilage 
between. This structure, more specialized than in any other 
of the Crossopterygians or Dipneusti, has been regarded by 
Gill and others, as above stated, as the origin of the fingered 
hand (chiropterygium) of the frogs and higher vertebrates. 
The base of the diverging bones has been identified as the ante- 
cedent of the humerus, the bones themselves as radius and 
ulna, while the intervening non-ossified cartilage breaks up 
into carpal bones, from which metacarpals and digits ulti- 
mately diverge. This hypothesis is open to considerable doubt. 


232 The Crossopterygii 


The nostrils, as in true fishes, are superior. The body in these 
fishes is covered with rhombic enameled scales, as in the gar- 
pike; the head is similarly mailed, but, in distinction from the 
garpike, the anterior rays of the dorsal are developed as iso- 
lated spines. 

The young have a bushy external gill with a broad scaly 
base. The air-bladder is double, not cellular, with a large 
air-duct joining the ventral surface of the cesophagus. The 
intestine has a spiral valve. 


The cranium, according to Boulenger (‘‘ Poissons du Bassin 


du Congo,” p. 11), is remarkable for its generalized form, this char- 
acter forming a trait of union between the Ganoids and the primi- 
tive Amphibia or Stegocephali. Without considering Polypterus, 
it is not possible to interpret the homologies of the cranium 
of the amphibians and the sharks. 

The jaws are similar to those of the vertebrates higher than 
fishes. Tooth-bearing premaxillaries and dentaries are solidly 
joined at the front of the cranium, and united by a suture to 
the toothed maxillaries which form most of the edge of the 
mouth. Each half of the lower jaw consists of four elements, 
covering Meckel’s cartilage, which is ossified at the symphysis. 
These are the articular, angular, dentary, and splenial (coro- 
noid). Most of these bones are armed with teeth. The 
palato-suspensory consists of hyomandibular, quadrate, ecto- 
pterygoid, entopterygoid, metapterygoid, and 
palatine elements, the pterygoid elements bearing 
teeth. In Erpetoichthys only the opercle is dis- 
tinct among the gill-covers. In Polypterus there 
is a subopercle also; the suborbital chain is 
represented by two small bones. 

The gill-arches are four, but without lower 
pharyngeals. The teeth are conic and pointed, 

and in structure, according to Agassiz, they 
Fic. 166.— Lower ,. 
jaw of Polypte-differ largely from those of bony fishes, ap- 
eae 8 from broaching the teeth of reptiles. 

The external gill of the young, first discovered 
by Steindachner in 1869, consists of a fleshy axis bordered above 
and below by secondary branches, themselves fringed. In form 
and structure this resembles the external gills of amphibians. 


Se le sth eee —_— —— 


estes oe 


The Crossopterygil 233 


It is inserted, not on the gill-arches, but on the hyoid arch. 
Its origin is from the external skin. It can therefore not be 
compared morphologically with the gills of other fishes, nor 
with the pseudobranchie, but rather with the external gills 
of larval sharks. The vertebree are very numerous and bi- 


Fic, 167.—Polypterus congicus, a Crossopterygian fish from the Congo River. 
Young, with external gills. (After Boulenger.) 


concave as in ordinary fishes. Each of the peculiar dorsal 
spines is primitively a single spine, not a finlet of several pieces, 
as some have suggested. The enameled, rhomboid scales are 
in movable oblique whorls, each scale interlocked with its 
neighbors. 

The shoulder-girdle, suspended from the cranium by post- 
temporal and supraclavicle, is covered by bony plates. To the 
small hypercoracoid and hypocoracoid the pectoral fin is at- 
tached. Its basal bones may be compared to those of the 
sharks, mesopterygium, propterygium, and metapterygium, 
which may with less certainty be again called humerus, radius, 


Fic. 168.—Polypterus delhezi Boulenger. Congo River. 


and ulna. These are covered by flesh and by small imbricated 
scales. The air-bladder resembles the lungs of terrestrial 
vertebrates. It consists of two cylindrical sacs, that on the 
right the longer, then uniting in front to form a short tube, 
which enters the cesophagus from below with a slit-like glottis. 
Unlike the lung of the Dipneusti, this air-bladder is not cellu- 
lar, and it receives only arterial blood. Its function is to assist 
the respiration by gills without replacing it. 


234 The Crossopterygii 


The Polypteride.—All the Polypteride are natives of Africa. 
Two genera are known, no species having been found fossil. 
Of Polypterus, Boulenger, the latest authority, recognizes nine 
species: six in the Congo, Polypterus congicus, P. delhezi, P. 
ornatipinnis, P. weeksi, P. palmas, and P. retropinnis; one, Pp: 
lapradei, in the Niger; and two in the Nile, Polypterus bichir and 
P. endlicheri. Of these the only one known until very recently 
was Polypterus bichir of the Nile. 

These fishes in many respects resemble the garpike in 
habits. They live close on the mud in the bottom of sluggish 
waters, moving the pectorals fan-fashion. If the water is 
foul, they rise to the surface to gulp air, a part of which escapes 
through the gill-openings, after which they descend like a flash. 
In the breeding season these fishes are very active, depositing 
their eggs in districts flooded in the spring. The eggs are very 
numerous, grass-green, and of the size of eggs of millet. The 
‘flesh is excellent as food. 

The genus Erpetoichthys contains a single species, Erpetoich- 
thys calabaricus,* found also in the Senegal and Congo. This 


PVP NW 


Fic. 169, —Erpetoichthys calabaricus Smith. Senegambia. (After Dean.) 


species is very slender, almost eel-like, extremely agile, and, as 
usual in wriggling or undulating fishes, it has lost its ventral 
fin. It lives in shallow waters among interlaced roots of palms. 
When disturbed it swims like a snake. 


* This genus was first called Erpetotchthys, but the name was afterwards 
changed by its author, J. A. Smith, to Calamoichthys, because there is an 
earlier genus Erpichthys among blennies, and a Herpetoichthys among eels. 
But these two names, both wrongly spelled for Herpetichthys, are sufficiently 
different, and the earlier name should be retained. ‘‘A name in science is a 
name without necessary meaning” and without necessarily correct spelling. 
Furthermore, if names are spelled differently, they are different, whatever 
their meaning. The efforts of ornithologists, notably those of Dr. Coues, 
to spell correctly improperly formed generic names have shown that to do 
so consistently would throw nomenclature into utter confusion. It is well 
that generic names of classic origin should be correctly formed. It is vastly 
more important that they should be stable. Stability is the sole function 
of the law of priority. 


CHAPTER XVII 


SUBCLASS DIPNEUSTI,* OR LUNG-FISHES 


ae 


PIHE Lung-fishes. — The group of Dipneusti, or lung- 
ih fishes, is characterized by the presence of paired fins 

“ew +} consisting of a jointed axis with or without rays. 
The skull is autostylic, the upper jaw being made as in the 
Chimera of palatal elements joined to the quadrate and fused 
with the cranium, without premaxillary or maxillary. The 
dentary bones are little developed. The air-bladder is cellular, 
used as a lung in all the living species, its duct attached to the 


Fic. 170 —Shoulder-girdle of Weoceratodus forsteri Giinther. (After Zittel.) 


ventral side of the cesophagus. The heart has many valves in 
the muscular arterial bulb. The intestine has a spiral valve. 
The teeth are usually of large plates of dentine covered with 
enamel, and are present on the pterygo-palatine and splenial 
bones. The nostrils are concealed, when the mouth is closed, 
under a fold of the upper lip. The scales are cycloid, mostly 
not enameled. 

The lung-fishes, or Dipneusti (ois, two; zvezv, to breathe), 
arise, with the Crossopterygians, from the vast darkness of 

* This group has been usually known as Dipnoi, a name chosen by Johannes 
Miller in 1845. But the latter term was first taken by Leuckart in 1821 as 
a name for Amphibians before any of the living Dipneusti were known. We 
therefore follow Boulenger in the use of the name Dipneusti, suggested by 


Heckel in 1866. The name Dipnoan may, however, be retained as a ver- 


nacular equivalent of Dipneusti. 
235 


— 


236 Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 


Paleozoic time, their origin with that or through that of the 
latter to be traced to the Ichthyotomi or other primitive sharks. 
These two groups are separated from all the more primitive 
fish-like vertebrates by the presence of lungs. In its origin 
the lung or air-bladder arises as a diverticulum from the ali- 
mentary canal, used by the earliest fishes as a breathing-sac, 
the respiratory functions lost in the progress of further di- 
vergence. Nothing of the nature of lung or air-bladder is 
found in lancelet, lamprey, or shark. In none of the remaining 
groups of fishes is it wholly wanting at all stages of develop- 
ment, although often lost in the adult. Among fishes it is most 
completely functional in the Dipneusti, and it passes through 
all stages of degeneration and atrophy in the more specialized 
bony fishes. 

In the Dipneusti, or Dipnoans, as in the Crossopterygians 
and the higher vertebrates, the trachea, or air-duct, arises, as 
above stated, from the ventral side of the cesophagus. In the 
more specialized fishes, yet to be considered, it is transferred 
to the dorsal side, thus avoiding a turn in passing around the 
cesophagus itself. From the sharks these forms are further 
distinguished by the presence of membrane-bones about the 


head. From the Actinoptert (Ganoids and Teleosts) Dipnoans ~ 


and Crossopterygians are again distinguished by the presence 
of the fringe-fin, or archipterygium, as the form of the paired 
limbs. From the Crossopterygians the Dipnoans are most 
readily distinguished by the absence of maxillary and pre- 
maxillary, the characteristie structures of the jaw of the true 
fish. The upper jaw in the Dipnoan is formed of palatal ele- 
ments attached directly to the skull, and the lower jaw con- 
tains no true dentary bones. The skull in the Dipnoans, as 
in the Chimera, is autostylic, the mandible articulating directly 
with the palatel apparatus, the front of which forms the upper 
jaw and of which the pterygoid, hyomandibular and quadrate 
elements form an immovable part. The shoulder-girdle, as 
in the shark, is a single cartilage, but it supports a pair of super- 
ficial membrane-bones. 

In all the Dipnoans the trunk is covered with imbricated 
cycloid scales and no bony plates, although sometimes the 
scales are firm and enameled. The head has a roof of well- 


Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes onc 


developed bony plates made of ossified skin and not corre- 
sponding with the membrane-bones of higher fishes. The fish- 
like membrane-bones, opercles, branchiostegals, etc., are not 
yet differentiated. The teeth have the form of grinding-plates 
on the pterygoid areas of the palate, being distinctly shark-like 
in structure. The paired fins are developed as archipterygia, 
often without rays, and the pelvic arch consists of a single 
cartilage, the two sides symmetrical and connected in front. 
There is but one external gill-opening leading to the gill-arches, 
which, as in ordinary fishes, are fringe-like, attached at one 
end. In the young, as with the embryo shark, there is a bushy 
external gill, which looks not unlike the archipterygium pec- 
toral fin itself, although its rays are of different texture. In 
early forms, as in the Ganoids, the scales were bony and enam- 
eled, but in some recent forms deep sunken in the skin. The 
claspers have disappeared, the nostrils, as in the frog, open 
into the pharynx, the heart is three-chambered, the arterial 
bulb with many valves, and the cellular structure of the skin 
and of other tissues is essentially as in the Amphibian. 

The developed lung, fitted for breathing air, which seems 
the most important of all these characters, can, of course, be 
traced only in the recent forms, although its existence in all 
others can be safely predicated. Besides the development 
of the lung we may notice the gradual forward movement 
of the shoulder-girdle, which in most of the Teleostomous 
fishes is attached to the head. In bony fishes generally 
there is no distinct neck, as the post-temporal, the highest 
bone of the shoulder-girdle, is articulated directly with the 
skull. In some specialized forms (Balistes, Tetraodon) it is 
even immovably fused with it. In a few groups (Apodes, 
Opisthomi, Heteromi, etc.) this connection ancestrally possessed 
is lost through atrophy and the slipping backward of the 
shoulder-girdle leaves again a distinct neck. In the Amphib- 
jans and all higher vertebrates the shoulder-girdle is dis- 
tinct from the skull, and the possession of a flexible neck is 
an important feature of their structure. In all these higher 
forms the posterior limbs remain abdominal, as in the sharks 
and the primitive and soft-rayed fishes generally. In these 
the pelvis or pelvic elements are attached toward the middle 


238 Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 


of the body, giving a distinct back as well as neck. In the 
spiny-rayed fishes the ““back’’ as well as the neck disappears, 
the pelvic elements being attached to the shoulder-girdle, and 
in a few extreme forms (as Ophidion) the pelvis is fastened at 
the chin. 

Classification of Dipnoans.—By Woodward the Dipneusti are 
divided into two classes, the Szrenotdet and the Arthrodira. 
We follow Dean in regarding the latter as representative of a 
distinct class, leaving the Sirenoidet, with the Ctenodipterini, 
to constitute the subclass of Dipneusti. The Sirenoidei are 
divided by Gill into two orders, the Monopneumona, with one 
lung, and the Diplopneumona, with the lung divided. To the 
latter order the Lepidosirenide belong. To the former the 
Ceratodontide, and presumably the extinct families also belong, 
although nothing is known of their lung structures. Zittel 
and Hay adopt the names of Ctenodipterini and Sirenoidei for 
these orders, the former being further characterized by the very 
fine fin-rays, more numerous than their supports. 

Order Ctenodipterini. — In this order the cranial roof-bones 
are small and numerous, and the rays of the median fins are 
very slender, much more numerous than their supports, which 
are inserted directly on the vertebral arches. 

In the Uronemide the upper dentition comprises a cluster 
of small, blunt, conical denticles on the palatine bones; the 
lower dentition consists of similar denticles on the splenial 
bone. The vertical fins are continuous and the tail diphycercal. 
There is a jugular plate, asin Amia. The few species are found 
in the Carboniferous, Uronemus lobatus being the best-known 
species. 

In Dipteride there is a pair of dental plates on the palatines, 
and an opposing pair on the splenials below. Jugular plates 
are present, and the tail is usually distinctly heterocercal. 

In Phaneropleuron there is a distinct anal fin shorter than 
the very long dorsal; Phaneropleuron andersoni is known from 
Scotland, and Scaumenacia curta is found at Scaumenac Bay 
in the Upper Devonian of Canada. 

In Dipterus there are no marginal teeth, and the tail is 
heterocercal, not diphycercal, as in the other Dipnoans gener- 
ally. Numerous species of Dipterus occur in Devonian rocks. 


Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 239 


In these the jugular plate is present, asin Uronemus. Dipterus 
valenciennesi is the best-known European species. Dipterus 
nelsoni and numerous other species are found in the Chemung 
and other groups of Devonian rocks in America. 

In the Ctenodontide the tail is diphycercal, and no jugular 
plates are present in the known specimens. In Ctenodus and 
Sagenodus there is no jugular plate and there are no marginal 
teeth: The numerous species of Ctenodus and Sagenodus belong 


Fie. 171.—Phaneropleuron andersoni Huxley; restored; Devonian. (After Dean.) 


chiefly to the Carboniferous age. Ctenodus wagneri is found in 
the Cleveland shale of the Ohio Devonian. Sagenodus occiden- 
talis, one of the many American species, belongs to the coal- 
measures of I]linois. 

As regards the succession of the Dipneusti, Dr. Dollo re- 
gards Dipterus as the most primitive, Scaumenacia, Uronemus, 
Ctenodus, Ceratodus, Protopterus, and Lepidosiren following 
in order. The last-named genus he thinks marks the terminus 
of the group, neither Ganoids nor Amphibians being derived 
from any Dipnoans. 

Order Sirenoidei.— The living families of Dipneusti differ 
from these extinct types in having the cranial roof-bones re- 
duced in number. There are no jugular plates and no marginal 
teeth in the jaws. The tail is diphycercal in all, ending in a 
long point, and the body is covered with cycloid scales. To 
these forms the name Szrenotdei was applied by Johannes 
Muller. 

Family Ceratodontide. — The Ceratodontide have the teeth 
above and below developed as triangular plates, set obliquely 
each with several cusps on the outer margin. Nearly all the 
species, representing the genera Ceratodus, Gosfordia, and Con- 
chopoma, are now extinct, the single genus Neoceratodus still 
existing in Australian rivers. Numerous fragments of Cera- 
todus are found in Mesozoic rocks in Europe, Colorado, and 


240 Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung- 


India, Ceratodus latissimus, figured 
by Agassiz in 1838, being the best- 
known species. 

The abundance of the fossil teeth 
of Ceratodus renders the discovery of 
a living representative of the same 
type a matter of great interest. 

In 1870 the Barramunda of the 
rivers of Queensland was described 


Fig. 172.—Teeth of Ceratodus runcinatus Plie- 
ninger. Carboniferous. (After Zittel.) 


by Krefft, who recognized its rela- 
tionship to Ceratodus and gave it the 
name of Ceratodus forsteri. Later, 
generic differences were noticed, and 
it was separated as a distinct group 
by Castelnau in 1876, under the name 
of Neoceratodus (later called Epicera- 
todus by Teller). Neoceratodus forsteri 
and a second species, Neoceratodus mio- 
lepis, have been since very fully dis- 
cussed by Dr. Gunther and Dr. Krefft. 


Fig. 174 —Archipterygium of Neoceratodus 
Jorsteri Giinther, 


Ss 


hes 


Family Ceratodontide. (After Dean.) 


Australia, 


Fic. 173.—Neoceratodus forstert (Giinther). 


Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 241 


They are known in Queensland as Barramunda. They inhabit the 
rivers known as Burnett, Dawson, and Mary, reaching a length 
of six feet, and being locally much valued as food. From the 
salmon-colored flesh, they are known to the settlers in Queens- 
land as ‘“‘salmon.’’ According to Dr. Gtinther, “the Barra- 
munda is said to be in the habit of going on land, or at least 
on mud-flats; and this assertion appears to be borne out by 
the fact that it is provided with a lung. However, it is much 
more probable that it rises now and then to the surface of the 
water in order to fill its lung with air, and then descends again 
until the air is so much deoxygenized as to render a renewal 
of it necessary. It is also said to make a grunting noise which 
may be heard at night for some distance. This noise is proba- 
bly produced by the passage of the air through the cesophagus 
when it is expelled for the purpose of renewal. As the Barra- 
munda has perfectly developed gills besides the lung, we can 
hardly doubt that, when it is in water of normal composition 
and sufficiently pure to yield the necessary supply of oxygen, 
these organs are sufficient for the purpose of breathing, and 
that the respiratory function rests with them alone. But 
when the fish is compelled to sojourn in thick muddy water 
charged with gases, which are the 
products of decomposing organic 
matter (and this must be the case 
very frequently during the droughts 
which annually exhaust the creeks 
of tropical Australia), it commences 
to breathe air with its lung in the 
way indicated above. Ifthe medium 
in which it happens to be is perfectly 
unfit for breathing, the gills cease to 
have any function; if only in a less 
degree, the gills may still continue 
to assist in respiration. The Barra- 
munda, in fact, can breathe by either Beds Upderiew of a ae 
gills or lung alone or by both simul- — todus forsteri Giinther. (After 
taneously. It is not probable that Zittel.) 

it lives freely out of water, its limbs being much too flexible 
for supporting the heavy and unwieldy body and too feeble 


242 Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 


generally to be of much use in locomotion on land. How- 
ever, it is quite possible that it is occasionally compelled to 
leave the water, although we cannot believe that it can exist 
without it in a lively condition for any length of time. 

“Of its propagation or development we know nothing except 
that it deposits a great number of eggs of the size of those of 
a newt, and enveloped in a gelatinous case. We may infer 
that the young are provided with external gills, as in Pro- 
topterus and Polypterus. 

“The discovery of Ceratodus does not date farther back 
than the year 1870, and proved to be of 
the greatest interest, not only on account 
of the relation of this creature to the other 
living Dipneusti and Ganoidet, but also 
because it threw fresh light on those 
singular fossil teeth which are found in 
«\ strata of Triassic and Jurassic formations 
Fic. 176.—Lower jaw of in various parts of Europe, India, and 
Neoceratodus forsteri Giin- America. These teeth, of which there 
ther. (After Giinther.) ; 2 2 

is a great variety with regard to general 
shape and size, are sometimes two inches long, much longer 
than broad, depressed, with a flat or slightly undulated, always 

Lepidosirenide.—The family Lepidosirenide, representing the 
suborder Diploneumona, is represented by two genera of mud- 
fishes found in streams of Africa and South America. 
Lepidosiren paradoxa was discovered by Natterer in 1837 in 
tributaries of the Amazon. _It was long of great rarity in 


q Wig AA Ss 
Fig. 177.—Adult male of Lepidosiren paradoxa Fitzinger. (After Kerr.) 


collections, but quite recently large numbers have been ob- 
tained, and Dr. J. Graham Kerr of the University of Cambridge 
has given a very useful account of its structure and develop- 
ment. From his memoir we condense the following record 
of its habits as seen in the swamps in a region known as Gran 
Chaco, which lies under the Tropic of Capricorn. These swamps 


Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 243 


in the rainy season have a depth of from two to four feet, be- 
coming entirely dry in the southern winter (June, July). 

Kerr on the Habits of Lepidosiren.—The loalach, as the Lepi- 
dostren is locally called, is normally sluggish, wriggling slowly 
about at the bottom of the swamp, using its hind limbs in 
irregular alternation as it clambers through the dense vegeta- 
tion. More rapid movement is brought about by lateral 
strokes of the large and powerful posterior end of the body. 
It burrows with great facility, gliding through the mud, for 
which form of movement the shape of the head, with the 


Fre. 178 —Embryo(3 days before hatching’ and larva (13 days after hatching) 
of Lepidosiren paradoxa Fitzinger. (After Kerr.) 


upper lip overlapping the lower and the external nostril placed 
within the lower lip, is admirably adapted. It feeds on plants, 
algze, and leaves of flower-plants. The gills are small and quite 
unable to supply its respiratory needs, and the animal must 
rise to the surface at intervals, like a frog. It breathes with 
its lungs as continuously and rhythmically as a mammal, the 
air being inhaled through the mouth. The animal makes no 
vocal sound, the older observation that it utters a cry like 
that of a cat being doubtless erroneous. Its strongest sense is 
that of smell. In darkness it grows paler in color, the black 


244 Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 


chromatophores shrinking in absence of light and enlarging in 


the sunshine. In injured animals this reaction becomes much 


less, as they remain pale even in daylight. 

In the rainy season when food is abundant the Lepidosiren 
eats voraciously and stores great quantities of orange-colored 
fat in the tissues between the muscles. In the dry season it 
ceases to feed, or, as the Indians put it, it feeds on water. When 
the water disappears the Lepidosiren burrows down into the 
mud, closing its gill-openings, but breathing through the mouth. 
As the mud stiffens it retreats to the lower part of its burrow, 


Fic. 179 —Larva of Lepidosiren paradora 30 days after hatching. (After Kerr.) 


where it lies with its tail folded over its face, the body sur- 
rounded by a mucous secretion. In its burrow there remains 
an opening which is closed by a lid of mud. At the end of the 


Fie. 180.—Larva of Lepidosiren paradora 40 days after hatching. (After Kerr.) 


dry season this lid is pushed aside, and the animal comes out 
when the water is deep enough. When the waters rise the 
presence of Lepidosirens can be found only by a faint quivering 


Fic. 181 —Larva of Lepidosiren paradoxa 3 months after hatching. (After Kerr.) 


movement of the grass in the bottom of the swamp. When 
taken the body is found to be as slippery as an eel and as mus- 
cular. The eggs are laid in underground burrows in the black 


ee 


ee 


| 
| 
| 


Subclass Dipneusti, or Lung-fishes 245 


peat. Their galleries run horizontally and are usually two feet 
long by eight inches wide. After the eggs are laid the male 
remains curled up in the nest with them. In the spawning 
season an elaborate brush is developed in connection with the 
ventral fins. 

Protopterus, a second genus, isfound in the rivers of Africa, 
with three species, P. annectens, P. dollot, and P. ethiopicus. 

The genus has five gill-clefts, instead of four as in Lepidosiren. 
It retains its external gills rather longer than the latter, and 
its limbs are better developed. The habits of Protopterus are 
essentially like those of Lepidosiren, and the two types have 
developed along parallel lines doubtless from a common ancestry, 
No fossil Lepidosirenide are known. 


Fig. 182.—Protopterus dolloi Boulenger. Congo River. Family Lepidosirenide. 


Arthrodires.— The large group of Arthrodires consists of 
mailed and helmeted fishes with distinct jaws and other charac- 
ters separating them widely from the Ostracophores. In the 
latest view, that of Woodward and Eastman, these fishes con- 


Fie. 183.—An Arthrodire, Dinichthys intermedius Newberry, restored. Devonian. 


stitute an order of Dipnoans. As they are all extinct, the 
reader is referred to the ‘‘Guide to the Study of Fishes” for 
further discussion. . 

Cyclie.—The hypothetical suborder, Cycli@, based on the 
extinct genus Palgospondylus, may be similarly treated. 


CHAPTER XVIII 
THE GANOIDS 


‘UBCLASS Actinopteri. — In our glance over the taxon- 

omy of the earlier Chordates, or fish-like vertebrates, 

| we have detached from the main stem one after an- 

other a long series of archaic or primitive types. We have first 
set off those with rudimentary notochord, then those with retro- 
gressive development who lose the notochord, then those with- 
out skull or brain, then those without limbs or lower jaws. 
The residue assume the fish-like form of body, but still show 

great differences among themselves. We have then detached 
those without membrane-bones, or trace of lung or air-bladder. 

We next part company with those having the air-bladder a 

veritable lung, and those with an ancient type of paired fins, 

a jointed axis fringed with rays, and those having the palate 
still forming the upper jaw. We have finally left only those 

having fish-jaws, fish-fins, and in general the structure of the 

modern fish. For all these in all their variety, as a class or 

subclass, the name Actinopteri, or Actinopterygii, suggested by 
Professor Cope, is now generally adopted. The shorter form, 

Actinopteri, being equally correct is certainly preferable. This 

term (axris, ray; mrepov or zrepvé, fin) refers to the structure 

_of the paired fins. In all these fishes the bones supporting 
the fin-rays are highly specialized and at the same time con- 

cealed by the general integument of the body. In general 

two bones connect the pectoral fin with the shoulder-girdle. 

The hypercoracoid is a flat square bone, usually perforated 

by a foramen. Lying below it and parallel with it is the irregu- 

larly formed hypocoracoid. Attached to them is a row of bones, 

the actinosts, or pterygials, short, often hour-glass-shaped, 

which actually support the fin-rays. In the more specialized 


forms, or Teleosts, the actinosts are few (four to six) in number, 
246 


a | 


2 aan se ema 


The Ganoids 247 


but in the more primitive types, or Ganoids, they may remain 
numerous, a reminiscence of the condition seen in the Crossop- 
terygians, and especially in Polypterus. Other variations may 
occur; the two coracoids 
sometimes are imperfect 
or specially modified, the 
upper sometimes without 
a foramen, and the ac- 
tinosts may be distorted 
in form or position. 

The Series Ganoidei.— 
Among the lower Actz- 
nopter’ many archaic 
traits still persist, and 
in its earlier representa- 
tives the group ap- 
proaches closely to the 
Crossopterygii, although 
no forms actually inter- 
mediate are known either 
living or fossil. The 
great group of Actinopteri 
may be divided into two 
series or subclasses, the 
Ganoidei, or Chrondrostet, 
containing those forms, 
mostly extinct, which re- 
tain archaic traits of one 
sort or another, and the 


Fic. 184.—Shoulder-girdle of a Flounder, Para- Teleostet, or bony fishes, 
lichthys californicus (Ayres). = 


in which most of the 
primitive characters have disappeared. Doubtless all of the 
Teleostei are descended from a ganoid ancestry. 

Even among the Ganoidei, as the term is here restricted, 
there remains a very great variety of form and structure. The 
fossil and existing forms do not form continuous series, but rep- 
resent the tips and remains of many diverging branches perhaps 
from some Crossopterygian central stock. The group constitutes 
at least three distinct orders and, as a whole, does not admit of 


i 


248 The Ganoids 


perfect definition. In most but not all of the species the tail 
is distinctly and obviously heterocercal, the lack of symmetry 
of the tail in some Teleosts being confined to the bones and not 
evident without dissection. Most of the Ganoids have the 
skeleton still cartilaginous, and in some it remains in a very 
primitive condition. Usually the Ganoids have an armature 
of bony ‘plates, diamond-shaped, with an enamel like that 
developed on the teeth. In all of them the pectoral fim has 
numerous basal bones or actinosts. All of them have the air- 
bladder highly developed, usually cellular and functional as a 
lung, but connecting with the dorsal side of the gullet, not with 
the ventral side as in the Dipnoans. In all living forms there 
is a more or less perfect optic chiasma. These ancient forms 
retain also the many valves of the arterial bulb and the spiral 
valve of the intestines found in the more archaic types of fishes. 
But traces of some or all of these structures are found in some 
bony fishes, and their presence in the Ganoids by no means 
justifies the union of the Ganoids with the sharks, Dipnoans, 
and Crossopterygians to form a great primary class, Paletch- 
thyes, as proposed by Dr. Ginther. Almost every form of body 
may be found among the Ganoids. In the Mesozoic seas these 
fishes were scarcely less varied and perhaps scarcely less abundant 
than the Teleosts in the seas of to-day. They far exceed the 
Crossopterygians in number and variety of forms. Transitional 
forms connecting the two groups are thus far not recognized. So 
far as fossils show, the characteristic actinopterous fin with its 
reduced and altered basal bones appeared at once without in- 
tervening gradations. 

The name Ganoidei (yavos, brightness; ezdos, resemblance), 
alluding to the enameled plates, was first given by Agassiz to 
those forms, mostly extinct, which were covered with bony scales 
or hard plates of one sort or another. As the term was originally 
defined, mailed catfishes, sea-horses, Agonide, Arthrodires, 
Ostracophores, and other wholly unrelated types were included 
with the garpikes and sturgeons as Ganoids. Most of these 
intruding forms among living fishes were eliminated by Johannes 
Muller, who recognized the various archaic characters common 
to the existing forms after the removal of the mailed Teleosts. 
Still later Huxley separated the Crossopterygians as a distinct 


The Ganoids 249 


group, while others have shown that the Ostracophori and Arthro- 
dira should be placed far from the garpike in systematic classi- 
fication. Cope, Woodward, Hay, and others have dropped the 
name Ganoid altogether as productive of confusion through 
the many meanings attached to it. Others have kept it as 
a convenient group name for the orders of archaic Actinoptert. 
For these varied and more or less divergent forms it seems con- 
venient to retain it. As an adjective “ganoid’’ is sometimes 
used as descriptive of bony plates or enameled scales, some- 
in the sense of archaic, as applied to fishes. 

Classification of Ganoids.— The subdivision of the series 
of Ganoidei into orders offers great difficulty from the fact 
of the varying relationships of the members of the group 
and the fact that the great majority of the species are 
known only from broken skeletons preserved in the rocks. 
It is apparently easy to separate those with cartilaginous 
skeletons from those with these bones more or less ossified. It 
is also easy to separate those with bony scales or plates from 
those having the scales cycloid. But the one type of skeleton 
grades into the other, and there is a bony basis even to the 
thinnest of scales found in this group. Among the multitude 
of names and divisions proposed we may recognize six orders, 
for which the names Lysoptert, Chondrostei, Selachostomi, 
Pycnodonti, Lepidostet, and Halecomorphi are not inappropriate. 
Each of these seems to represent a distinct offshoot from the 
first primitive group. 

Order Lysopteri—tIn the most primitive order, called Lysop- 
teri (Avoos, loose; zrepor, fin) by Cope, Heterocerci by Zittel 
‘and Eastman, and the “ascending series of Chondrostei’’ by 
Woodward, we find the nearest approach to the Chondropter- 
ygians. In this order the arches of the vertebre are more or 
less ossified, the body is more or less short and deep, covered 
with bony dermal plates. The opercular apparatus is well 
developed, with numerous branchiostegals. Infraclavicles are 
present, and the fins provided with fulcra. Dorsal and anal 
fins are present, with rays more numerous than their supports; 
ventral fin with basal supports which are imperfectly ossified ; 
caudal fin mostly heterocercal, the scales mostly rhombic in 
form. All the members of this group are now extinct. 


250 The Ganoids 


The Palzoniscide.—The numerous genera of this order are 
referred to three families, the Paleoniscide, Platysomide, and 
Dictyopygide; a fourth family, Dorypteride, of uncertain re- 
lations, being also tentatively recognized. The family of 
Palzoniscide is the most primitive, ranging from the Devonian 
to the Lias, and some of them seem to have entered fresh 
waters in the time of the coal-measures. These fishes have 
the body elongate and provided with one short dorsal fin. The 
tail is heterocercal and the body covered with rhombic plates. 
Fulcra or rudimentary spine-like scales are developed on the 
upper edge of the caudal fin in most recent Ganoids, and often 
the back has a median row of undeveloped scales. A multi- 
tude of species and genera are recorded A typical form is 
the genus Palgoniscum,* with many species represented in the 
rocks of various parts of the world. The longest known species 
is Paleoniscum frieslebenense from the Permian of Germany 
and England. Paleoniscum magnum, sixteen inches long, occurs 


Fie. 185.—Palewoniscum frieslebenense Blainville. Family Palwoniscide. 
(After Zittel.) 


in the Permian of Germany. From Canobius, the most primi- 
tive genus, to Coccolepis, the most modern, is a continuous series, 
the .suspensorium of the lower jaw becoming more oblique, 
the basal bones of the dorsal fewer, the dorsal extending farther 
forward, and the scales more completely imbricate. Other 
prominent genera are Amblypterus, Eurylepis, Cheitrolepis, 
RKhadinichthys, Pygopterus, Elonichthys, <A@rolepis, Gyrolepis, 
Mvyriolepis, Oxygnathus, Centrolepis, and Holurus. 

The Platysomide.— The Platysomide are different in form, 
the body being deep and compressed, often diamond-shaped, 


* This word is usually written Palgoniscus, but Blainville, its author (1818), 
chose the neuter form. 


The Ganoids 251 


with very long dorsal and anal fins. In other respects they are 
very similar to the Palgoniscide, the osteology being the same. 
The Palgoniscide were rapacious fishes with sharp teeth, the 
Platysomide less active, and, from the blunter teeth, probably 
feeding on small animals, as crabs and snails. 

The rhombic enameled scales are highly specialized and 
held together as a coat of mail by peg-and-socket joints. The 
most extreme form is Platysomus, with the body very deep. 
Platysomus gibbosus and other species occur in the Permian 
rocks of Germany. Cheirodus is similar to Platysomus, but 
without ventral fins. Eurynotus, the most primitive genus, is 
remarkable for its large pectoral fins. Eurynotus crenatus occurs 


ANS 
ALS\UA YS ; 
Auks 

ry » 


cya} 
SN 
WAN 


Fia. 186.—Eurynotus crenatus Agassiz, restored. Carboniferous. Family 
Platysomide. (After Traquair.) 


in the Subcarboniferous of Scotland. Other genera are Meso- 
lepis, Globulodus, Wardichthys, and Chetrodopsts. 

Some of the Platysomide have the interneural spines pro- 
jecting through the skin before the dorsal fin. This condition 
is found also in certain bony fishes allied to the Carangide. 

The Dorypteride.—Dorypterus hoffmant, the type of the sin- 
gular Paleozoic family of Dorypteride, with thoracic or sub- 
jugular many-rayed ventrals, is Stromateus-like to all appear- 
ance, with distinct resemblances to certain Scombroid forms, 
but with a heterocercal tail like a ganoid, imperfectly ossified 
back-bone, and other very archaic characters. The body is 
apparently scaleless, unlike the true Platysomide, in which the 


252 The Ganoids 


scales are highly developed. A second species, Dorypterus 
althaust, also from the German copper shales, has been described. 


This species has lower fins than Dorypterus hoff- 
mant, but may be the adult of the same type. 
Dorypterus is regarded by ff Woodward as a spe- 
cialized offshoot from the Platysomide. The 
many-rayed ventrals and the i general form of the 
body and fins suggest affinity i with the Lampride. 

Dictyopygide.—In the Dic- tyopygide (Catoptert- 
de), the body is gracefully iW elongate, less com- 
pressed, the heterocercal tail HHP is short and abruptly 
turned upwards, the teeth ii are sharp and usually 
hooked, and the bony plates qual well developed. Of 
this group two genera are H \ recognized, each con- 


taining numerous species. In 
terus Redfield, not of Agassiz) 


Redfieldius (=Catop- 
the dorsal is inserted 


‘Nii; al 
tHe 
LY 
Ny 
\ 


sty 
Fie. 187.—Dasrypterus hoffmani Germar, restored. (After Hancock and Howse.) 


behind the anal, while in Dictyopyge this is not the case. Red- 
fieldius gracilis and other species are found in the Triassic of 
the Connecticut River. Dictyopyge macrura is found in the same 
region, and Dictyopyge catoptera and other species in Europe. 


The Ganoids 253 


Order Chondrosteii—The order Chondrostet (yorvdpos, carti- 
lage; ooreor, bone), as accepted by Woodward, is characterized 
by the persistence of the notochord in greater or less degree, 
the endoskeleton remaining cartilaginous. In all, the axonosts 
and baseosts of the median fins are arranged in simple regu- 
lar series and the rays are more numerous than the sup- 
porting elements. The shoulder-girdle has a pair of infra- 
clavicular plates. The pelvic fins have well-developed base- 
osts. The branchiostegals are few or wanting. In the living 
forms, and probably in all others, a matter which can never 
be ascertained, the optic nerves are not decussating, but form 
an optic chiasma, and the intestine is provided with a spiral 
valve. In all the species there is one dorsal and one anal fin, 
separate from the caudal. The teeth are small or wanting, 
the body naked or covered with bony plates; the caudal fin is 
usually heterocercal, and on the tail are rhombic plates. To 
this order, as thus defined, about half of the extinct Ganoids 
belong, as well as the modern degenerate forms known as stur- 
geons and perhaps the paddle-fishes, which are apparently derived 
from fishes with rhombic enameled scales. The species extend 
from the Upper Carboniferous to the present time, being most 
numerous in the Triassic. 

At this point in Woodward’s system diverges a descending 
series, characterized as a whole by imperfect squamation and 
elongate form, this leading through the synthetic type of Chon- 
drosteide to the modern sturgeon and paddle-fish, which are 
regarded as degenerate types. 

The family of Saurorhynchide contains pike-like forms, with 
long jaws, and long conical teeth set wide apart. The tail is 
not heterocercal, but short-diphycercal; the bones of the head 
are covered with enamel, and those of the roof of the skull form 
a continuous shield. The opercular apparatus is much reduced, 
and there are no branchiostegals. The fins are all small, without 
fulcra, and the skin has isolated longitudinal series of bony 
scutes, but is not covered with continuous scales. The principal 
genus is Saurorhynchus (=Belonorhynchus; the former being 
the earlier name) from the Triassic. Sawrorhynchus acutus from 
the English Triassic is the best known species. 

The family of Chondrosteide includes the Triassic precursors 


254 The Ganoids 


of the sturgeons. The general form is that of the sturgeon, 
but the body is scaleless except on the upper caudal lobe, and 
there are no plates on the median line of the skull. The oper- 
cle and subopercle are present, the jaws are toothless, and there 
are a few well-developed caudal rays. The caudal has large 
fulcra. The single well-known species of this group, Chondrosteus 
acipenserotdes, is found in the Triassic rocks of England and 
reaches a length of about three feet. It much resembles a 
modern sturgeon, though differing in several technical respects. 
Chondrosteus pachyurus is based on the tail of a species of much 
larger size and Gyrosteus mirabilis, also of the English Triassic, 


Fia. 188.—Chondrosteus acipenseroides Egerton. Family Chondrosteide. 
(After Woodward.) 


is known from fragments of fishes which must have been 18 
to 20 feet in length. 

The sturgeons constitute the recent family of Actpenseride, 
characterized by the prolonged snout and toothless jaws and 
the presence of four barbels below the snout. In the Aczpen- 
seride there are no branchiostegals and a median series of plates 
is present on the head. The body is armed with five rows of 
large bony bucklers,—each often with a hooked spine, sharpest 
in the young. Besides these, rhombic plates are developed 
on the tail, besides large fulcra. The sturgeons are the youngest 
of the Ganoids, not occurring before the Lower Eocene, one 
species, Acitpenser toliapicus occurring in the London clay. 
About thirty living species of sturgeon are known, referred 
to three genera: Actpenser, found throughout the Northern 
Hemisphere, Scaphirhynchus, in the Mississippi Valley, and 
Kessleria (later called Pseudoscaphirhynchus), in Central Asia 
alone. Most of the species belong to the genus Acipenser, which 
abounds in all the rivers and seas in which salmon are found. 
Some of the smaller species spend their lives in the rivers, ascend- 


The Ganoids 255 


ing smaller streams to spawn. Other sturgeons are marine, 
ascending fresh waters only for a moderate distance in the 
spawning season. They range in length from 24 to 30 feet. 

All are used as food, although the flesh is rather coarse 
and beefy. From their large size and abundance they possess 
great economic value. The eggs of some species are prepared 
as caviar. 

The sturgeons are sluggish, clumsy, bottom-feeding fish. 
The mouth, underneath the long snout, is very protractile, 
sucker-like, and without teeth. Before it on the under side 
of the snout are four long feelers. Ordinarily the sturgeon feeds 
on mud and snails with other small creatures, but I have seen 


Fie. 189.—Common Sturgeon, Acipenser sturio Mitchill. Potomac River. 


large numbers of Eulachon (Thaletchthys) in the stomach of 
the Columbia River sturgeon (Actpenser transmontanus). This 
fish and the Eulachon run in the Columbia at the same time, 
and the sucker-mouth of a large sturgeon will draw into it num- 
bers of small fishes who may be unsuspiciously engaged in 
depositing their spawn. In the spawning season in June these 
clumsy fishes will often leap wholly out of the water in their 
play. The sturgeons have a rough skin besides five series of 
bony plates which change much with age and which in very 
old examples are sometimes lost or absorbed in the skin. The 
common sturgeon of the Atlantic on both shores is Actpenser 
sturio. Acipenser huso and numerous other species are found 
in Russia and Siberia. The great sturgeon of the Columbia 
is Acitpenser transmontanus, and the great sturgeon of Japan 
Acipenser kikuchtt. Smaller species are found farther south, 
as in the Mediterranean and along the the Carolina coast. Other 
small species abound in rivers and lakes. Actpenser rubicundus 
is found throughout the Great Lake region and the Mississippi 
Valley, never entering the sea. It is four to six feet long, and 
at Sandusky, Ohio, in one season 14,000 sturgeons were taken 


256 The Ganoids 


in the pound nets. A similar species, Actpenser mikadot, is 
abundant and valuable in the streams of northern Japan. 


Fig. 190.—Lake Sturgeon, Acipenser rubicundus Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich. 


In the genus Acipenser the snout is sharp and conical, and 
the shark-like spiracle is still retained. 

The shovel-nosed sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus) 
has lost the spiracles, the tail is more slender, its surface wholly 
bony, and the snout is broad and shaped like a shovel. The 
single species of Scaphirhynchus abounds in the Mississippi 


Fic. 191 —Shovel-nosed Sturgeon. Scaphirhynchus platyrhynchus (Rafinesque). 
Ohio River. 


Valley, a fish more interesting to the naturalist than to the 
fisherman. It is the smallest of our sturgeons, often taken in 
the nets in large numbers. 

In Scaphyrhynchus the tail is covered by a continuous coat 
of mail. In Kessleria* fedtschenkot, rossikowt, and _ other 
Asiatic species the tail is not mailed. 

Order Selachostomi: the Paddle-fishes. — Another type of 
Ganoids, allied to the sturgeons, perhaps still further degenerate, 
is that of the paddle-fishes, called by Cope Selachostomi (céAayos, 
shark; 6roua, mouth). This group consists of a single family, 
Polyodontide, having apparently little in common with the 
other Ganoids, and in appearance still more suggestive of the 
sharks. The common name of paddle-fishes is derived from 
the long flat blade in which the snout terminates. This ex- 
tends far beyond the mouth, is more or less sensitive, and is 

* These species have also been named Pseudoscaphirhynchus. Kessleria 


is the earlier name, left undefined by its describer, although the type was 
indicated. 


—_< 


(OlYOLS AASNAdIOYV) NOHOWALS 


The Ganoids 27 


used to stir up the mud in which are found the minute organisms 
on which the fish feeds. Under the paddle are four very minute 


Fie. 192.—Paddle-fish, Polyodon spathula (Walbaum). Ohio River. 


barbels corresponding to those of the sturgeons. The vernacular 
names of spoonbill, duckbill cat, and shovel-fish are also derived 
from the form of the snout. The skin is nearly smooth, the tail 
is heterocercal, the teeth are very small, and a long fleshy flap 
covers the gill-opening. The very long and slender gill-rakers 


Fig. 193.—Paddle-fish, Polyodon spathula (Walbaum). Ohio River. 


serve to strain the food (worms, leeches, water-beetles, crusta- 
ceans, and alge) from the muddy waters from which they are 
taken. The most important part of this diet consists of En- 
tomostracans. The single American species, Polyodon spathula, 
abounds through the Mississippi Valley in all the larger 
streams. It reaches a length of three or four feet. It is often 
taken in the nets, but the coarse tough flesh, like that of our 
inferior catfish, is not much esteemed. In the great rivers of 
China, the Yangtse and the Hoang Ho, is a second species, 


Fie. 194—Psephurus gladius Giinther. Yangtse River. (After Ginther.) 


Psephurus gladius, with narrower snout, fewer gill-rakers, and 
much coarser fulecra on the tail. The habits, so far as known, 
are much the same. 

Crossopholis magnicaudatus of the Green River Eocene 
shales is a primitive member of the Polyodontide. Its rostral blade 


258 The Ganoids 


is shorter than that of Polyodon, and the body is covered with 
small thin scales, each in the form of a small grooved disk with 
several posterior denticulations, arranged in oblique series but 
not in contact. The scales are quadrate in form, and more 
widely separated anteriorly than posteriorly. As in Polyodon, 
the teeth are minute and there are no branchiostegals. The 
squamation of this fish shows that Polyodon as well as Actpenser 
may have sprung from a type having rhombic scales. The tail 
of a Cretaceous fish, Pholidurus disjectus from the Cretaceous 
of Europe, has been referred with doubt to this family of Poly- 
odontide. 

Order Pycnodonti—In the extinct order Pycnodontt, as rec- 
ognized by Dr. O. P. Hay, the notochord is persistent and with- 
out ossification, the body is very deep, the teeth are always 


Fic. 195—Gyrodus hexagonus Agassiz. Family Pycnodontide. 
Lithographie Shales. 


blunt, the opercular apparatus is reduced, the dorsal fin many- 
rayed, and the fins without fulcra. The scales are rhombic, 
but are sometimes wanting, at least on the tail. Many genera 
and species of Pycnodontide are described, mostly from Triassic 
and Jurassic rocks of Europe. Leading European genera are 
Pycnodus, Typodus (Mesodon), Gyrodus, and Paleobalistum. The 
numerous American species belong to Typodus, Calodus, 
Pycnodus, Hadrodus, and Uranoplosus. These forms have no 
affinity with Balistes, although there is some resemblance in 
appearance, which has suggested the name of Palgobalistum. 


The Ganoids 259 


Woodward places these fishes with the Semionotide and Ha- 
lecomorpht in his suborder of Protospondyli. It seems preferable, 
however, to consider them as forming a distinct order. 

Order Lepidostei—We may place, following Eastman’s edition 
of Zittel, the allies and predecessors of the garpike in a single 
order, for which Huxley’s name Lepidostet may well be used. 
In this group the notochord is persistent, and the vertebre are 
in various degrees of ossification and of different forms. The 


Fic. 196.—Mesturus verrucosus Wagner. Family Pycnodontide. 
(After Woodward.) 


opercles are usually complete, the branchiostegals present, and 
there is often a gular plate. There is no infraclavicle and the 
jaws have sharp teeth. The fins have fulcra, and the supports 
of the fins agree innumber with the rays. The tail is more or less 
heterocercal. The scales are rhombic, arranged in oblique series, 
which are often united above and below with peg-and-socket 
articulations. This group contains among recent fishes only the 
garpikes (Lepztsosteus). 

Family Lepisosteide.—The family of Lepisostetde, constituting 
the suborder Ginglymodi (yiyyAvyos, hinge), is characterized 
especially by the form of the vertebre. 

These are opisthoccelian, convex in front and concave behind, 
as in reptiles, being connected by ball-and-socket joints. The tail 
is moderately heterocercal, less so than in the Halecomor phi, and 
the body is covered with very hard, diamond-shaped, enameled 


260 The Ganoids 


scales in structure similar to that of the teeth. A number of 
peculiar characters are shown by these fishes, some of them 
having often been regarded as reptilian traits. Notable features 
are the elongate, crocodile-like jaws, the upper the longer, and 
both armed with strong teeth. The mandible is without pre- 
symphysial bone. The fins are small with large fulcra, and 
the scales are nearly uniform in size. 

All the species belong to a single family, Leptsosteide, which 
includes the modern garpikes and their immediate relatives, 
some of which occur in the early Tertiary. These voracious 
fishes are characterized by long and slender cylindrical bodies, 
with enameled scales and mailed heads and heterocercal tail. 
The teeth are sharp and unequal. The skeleton is well ossified, 
and the animal itself is extremely voracious. The vertebre, 
reptile-like, are opisthoccelian, that is, convex in front, concave 
behind, forming ball-and-socket joints. In almost all other 
fishes they are amphicoelian or double-concave, the interspace 
filled with gelatinous substance. The recent species, and per- 
haps all the extinct species also, belong to the single genus 
Lepisosteus (more correctly, but also more recently, spelled 
Lepidosteus). Of existing forms there are not many species, 


three to five at the most, and they swarm in the lakes, bayous, _ 


and sluggish streams from Lake Champlain to Cuba and along 
the coast to Central America. The best known of the species 
is the long-nosed garpike, Lepisosteus osseus, which is found 
throughout most of the Great Lake region and the Mississippi 
Valley, and in which the long and slender jaws are much longer 
than the rest of the head. The garpike frequents quiet waters 
and is apparently of sleepy habit. It often lies quiet for a long 
time, carried around and around by the eddies. It does not 
readily take the hook and seldom feeds in the aquarium. It 
feeds on crayfishes and small fishes, to which it is exceedingly 
destructive, as its bad reputation indicates. Fishermen every- 
where destroy it without mercy. Its flesh is rank and tough 
and unfit even for dogs. ; 

In the young garpike the caudal fin appears as a second 
dorsal and anal, the filamentous tip of the tail passing through 
and beyond it. 

The short-nosed garpike, Leptsosteus platystomus, is gener- 


— 


The Ganoids 261 


ally common throughout the Mississippi Valley. It has a short 
broad snout like the alligator gar, but seldom exceeds three feet 
in length. In size, color, and habits it agrees closely with the 
common gar, differing only in the form of the snout. The form 
is subject to much variation, and it is possible that two or more 
species have been confounded. 

The great alligator-gar, Lepisosteus tristechus, reaches a 
length of twenty feet or more, and is a notable inhabitant of 
the streams about the Gulf of Mexico. Its snout is broad and 
relatively wide, and its teeth are very strong. It is very de- 
structive to all sorts of food-fishes. Its flesh is worthless, and 
its enameled scales resist a spear or sometimes even shot. 


Fia. 197.—Alligator-gar, Lepisosteus tristechus (Bloch). Cuba. 


It breathes air to a certain extent by its lungs, but soon dies 


in foul water, not having the tenacity of life seen in Amza. 


Order Halecomorphi.—To this order belong the allies, living 
or extinct, of the bowfin (Amza), having for the most part 
cycloid scales and vertebrae approaching those of ordinary 
fishes. The resemblance to the Jsospondyli, or herring group, 
is indicated in the name (Halec, a herring; sopd7), form). The 
notochord is persistent, the vertebrz variously ossified. The 
opercles are always complete. The branchiostegals are broad 
and there is always a gular plate. The teeth are pointed, usually 
strong. There is no infraclavicle. Fulcra are present or 
absent. The supports of the dorsal and anal are equal in num- 
ber to the rays. Tail heterocercal. Scales thin, mostly cycloid, 
but bony at base, not jointed with each other. Mandible com- 
plex, with well-developed splenial rising into a coronoid process, 
which is completed by a distinct coronoid bone. Pectoral fin 
with more than five actinosts; scales ganoid or cycloid. In the 
living forms the air-bladder is connected with the cesophagus 
through life; optic chiasma present; intestine with a spiral 
valve. 


262 The Ganoids 


The Bowfins: Amiide.—The Amzid@ have the vertebrae more 
complete. The dorsal fin is many-rayed and is without distinct 
fulcra. The diamond-shaped enameled scales disappear, giving 
place to cycloid scales, which gradually become thin and mem- 
branous in structure. A median gular plate is developed be- 
tween the branchiostegals. The tail is moderately heterocercal, 

.and the head covered with a bony coat of mail. 

The family of Amide contains a single recent species, 
Amia calva, the only living member of the order Halecomor phi. 
The bowfin, or grindle, is a remarkable fish abounding in the 
lakes and swamps of the Mississippi Valley, the Great Lake 
region, and southward to Virginia, where it is known by the 
imposing but unexplained title of John A. Grindle. In the 
Great Lakes it is usually called “‘dogfish,’’ because even the 
dogs will not eat it, and “lawyer,” because, according to Dr. 
Kirtland, “it will bite at anything and is good for nothing 
when caught.”’ 

The bowfin reaches a length of two and one half feet, the 
male being smaller than the female and marked by an ocellated 
black spot on the tail. Both sexes are dark mottled green in 


Le 


Wy %%, eps 
neal hhc ohy 


Fic. 198.—Bowfin (female), Amia calva Linneeus. Lake Michigan. 


color. The flesh of the species is very watery, pasty, much 
of the substance evaporating when exposed to the air. It is 
ill-flavored, and is not often used as food. The species is 
very voracious and extremely tenacious of life. Its well-devel- 
oped lung enables it to breathe even when out of the water, and 
it will live in the air longer than any other fish of American 
waters, longer even than the horned pout (Ameziurus) or the 
mud-minnow (Umbra). As a game fish the grindle is one of 
the very best, if the angler does not care for the flesh of what he 
catches, it being one of the hardest fighters that ever took the hook. 


The Ganoids 263 


The Amide retain many of the Ganoid characters, though 
approaching more nearly than any other of the Ganoids to the 
modern herring tribe. For this reason the name Halecomor phi 
(shad-formed) was given to this order by Professor Cope. The 
gular plate found in Amia and other Ganoids reappears in 
the herring-like family of Elopide, which includes the tarpon 
and the ten-pounder. 


CHAPTER XIX 
ISOSPONDYLI 


HIHE Subclass Teleostei, or Bony Fishes.—The fishes which 
still remain for discussion constitute the great sub- 

MLDS) class or series of Teleostei (rededs, true; ocréor, bone), 
or bony fishes. They lack wholly or partly the Ganoid traits, 
or show them only in the embryo. The tail is slightly, if at all, 
heterocercal; the actinosts of the pectoral fins are few and large, 
rarely over five in number, except among the eels; the fulcra 
disappear; the air-bladder is no longer cellular, except in very 
rare cases, nor does it assist in respiration. The optic nerves 
are separate, one running to each eye without crossing; the 
skeleton is almost entirely bony, the notochord usually dis- 
appearing entirely with age; the valves in the arterial bulb 
are reduced in number, and the spiral valve of the intestines 
disappears. Traces of each of the Ganoid traits may persist 
somewhere in some group, but as a whole we see a distinct 
specialization and a distinct movement toward the fish type, 
with the loss of characters distinctive of sharks, Dipnoans, and 
Ganoids. In a general way the skeleton of all Teleosts corre- 
sponds with that of the striped bass, and the visceral anatomy 
is in all cases sufficiently like that of the sunfish (Fig. 16). 

The mesocoracoid or praeecoracoid arch, found in all Ganoids, 
persists in the less specialized types of bony fishes, although 
no trace of it is found in the perch-like forms. With all this, 
there is developed among the bony fishes an infinite variety 
in details of structure. For this reason the Teleostei must be 
broken into many orders, and these orders are very different 
in value and in degrees of distinctness, the various groups being 
joined by numerous and puzzling intergradations. 


264 


| 


Isospondyli 265 


Order Isospondyli—Of the various subordinate groups of 
bony fishes, there can be no question as to which is most primi- 
tive in structure, or as to which stands nearest the orders of 
Ganoids. Earliest of the bony fishes in geological time is the 
order of Isospondyli (?c0s, equal; ozovdvios, vertebra), contain- 
the allies, recent or fossil, of the herring and the trout. This 
order contains those soft-rayed fishes in which the ventral 
fins are abdominal, a mesocoracoid or precoracoid arch is de- 
veloped, and the anterior vertebrae are unmodified and essen- 
tially similar to the others. The orbitosphenoid is present in all 
typical forms. In certain forms of doubtful affinity (Imiom:) the 


mesocoracoid is wanting or lost in degeneration. Through 


the Isospondyli all the families of fishes yet to be considered 
are apparently descended, their ancestors being Ganoid fishes 
and, still farther back, the Crossopterygians. 

Woodward gives this definition of the /sospondyli: “ Noto- 
chord varying in persistence, the vertebral centra usually com- 
plete, but none coalesced; tail homocercal, but hamal supports 
not much expanded or fused. Symplectic bone present, mandible 
simple, each dentary consisting only of two elements (dentary 
and articulo-angular), with rare rudiments of a splenoid on the 
inner side. Pectoral arch suspended from the cranium; pre- 
coracoid (mesocoracoid) arch present; infraclavicular plates 
wanting. Pelvic (ventral) fins abdominal. Scales ganoid only 
in the less specialized families. In the living forms air-bladder 
connected with the cesophagus in the adult; optic nerves decus- 
sating (without chiasma), and intestine either wanting spiral 
valve or with an incomplete representative of it.” 

The Classification of the Bony Fishes.—The classification of 
fishes has been greatly complicated by the variety of names 
applied to groups which are substantially but not quite identical 
one with another. The difference in these schemes of classi- 
fication lies in the point of view. In all cases a single character 
must be brought to the front; such characters never stand 
quite alone, and to lay emphasis on another character is to 
make an alteration large or small in the name or in the bounda- 
ries of a class or order. Thus the Ostariophyst with the [so- 
spondyli, Haplomi, and a few minor groups make up the great 
division of the Abdominales. These are fishes in which the 


266 Isospondyli 


ventral fins are abdominal, that is, inserted backward, so that 
the pelvis is free from the clavicle, the two sets of limbs being 
attached to different parts of the skeleton. Most of the ab- 
dominal fishes are also soft-rayed fishes, that is, without con- 
secutive spines in the dorsal and anal fins, and they show a number 
of other archaic peculiarities. The Malacopterygians (uadaxos, 
soft; arepv&, fin) of Cuvier therefore correspond very nearly 
to the Abdominales. But they are not quite the same, as the 
spiny-rayed barracudas and mullets have abdominal ventrals, 
and many unquestioned thoracic or jugular fishes, as the sea- 
snails and brotulids, have lost, through degeneration, all of their 
fin-spines. 

In nearly but not quite all of the Abdominal fishes the 
slender tube connecting the air-bladder with the cesophagus 
persists through life. This character defines Miuller’s order 
of Physostomi (@uoods, bladder; croua, mouth), as opposed to 
his Physoclysti (@vods, bladder; «Aeioros, closed), in which this 
tube is present in the embryo or larva only. Thus the Thoracices 
and Jugulares, or fishes having the ventrals thoracic or jugular, 
together correspond almost exactly to the Acanthopterygians, 
(axavOa, spine; zrepvé, fin), or spiny-rayed fishes of Cuvier, or to 
the Physoclysti of Miller. The Malacopterygians, the Abdomi- 
nales, and the Physostomi are in the same way practically 
identical groups. As the spiny-rayed fishes have mostly ctenoid 
scales, and the soft-rayed fishes cycloid scales, the Physostomt 
correspond roughly to Agassiz’s Cyclotdet, and the Physoclysti 
to his Ctenozdet. ; 

But in none of these cases is the correspondence perfectly 
exact, and in any system of classification we must choose charac- 
ters for primary divisions so ancient and therefore so perma- 
nent as to leave no room for exceptions. The extraordinary 
difficulty of doing this, with the presence of most puzzling 
intergradations, has led Dr. Gill to suggest that the great body 
of bony fishes, soft-rayed and spiny-rayed, abdominal, thoracic, 
and jugular alike, be placed in a single great order which he 
calls Teleocephali (reeds, perfect; xed@adn, head). The aberrant 
forms with defective skull and membrane-bones he would sepa- 
rate as minor offshoots from this great mass with the name 
of separate orders. But while the divisions of Teleocephali 


eg 
ae eee eee ee 


Isospondyli 267 


are not strongly differentiated, their distinctive characters are 
real, ancient, and important, while those of the aberrant groups, 
called orders by Gill (as Plectognathi, Pediculati, Hemibranchit), 
are relatively modern and superficial, which is one reason why 
they are more easily defined. There seems to us no special 
advantage in the retention of a central order Teleocephali, 
from which the divergent branches are separated as distinct 
orders. 

While our knowledge of the osteology and embryology of 
most of the families of fishes is very incomplete, it is evident 
that the relationships of the groups cannot be shown in any 
linear series or by any conceivable arrangement of orders and 
suborders. The living teleost fishes have sprung from many 
lines of descent, their relationships are extremely diverse, and 
their differences are of every possible degree of value. The 
ordinary schemes have magnified the valué of a few common 
characters, at the’ same time neglecting other differences of 
equal value. No system of arrangement which throws these 
fishes into large groups can ever be definite or permanent. 

Relationships of Isospondyli—For our purposes we may divide 
the physostomous fishes as understood by Miller into several 
orders, the most primitive, the most generalized, and economically 
the most important being the order of Isospondyli. This order 
contains those bony fishes which have the anterior vertebrze 
unaltered (as distinguished from the Ostariophysi), the skull 
relatively complete, or at least not eel-like, the mesocoracoid 
typically developed, but atrophied in deep-sea forms and finally 
lost, the orbitosphenoid present. In all the species the ventral 
fins are abdominal and normally composed of more than six 
tays; the air-duct is developed. The scales are chiefly cycloid 
and the fins are without true spines. In many ways the order 
is more primitive than Nematognathi, Plectospondyli, or A podes. 
It is certain that it began earlier in geological time than any 
of these. On the other hand, the /sospondyli are closely con- 
nected through the Berycoidei with the highly specialized fishes. 
The continuity of the natural series is therefore interrupted by 
the interposition of the side branches of Ostariophysans and eels 
before considering the Haplomi and the other transitional forms. 
The forms called Inzom7, which lack the mesocoracoid and the 


268 Isospondyli 


orbitosphenoid, have been lately transferred to the Haplomi by 
Boulenger. This arrangement is probably a step in advance. 

Ganoid traits are present in certain families of [sospondyli. 
Among these are the gular plate (found in Ama and the Elopide), 
doubtless derived from the similar structure in earlier Ganoids; 
additional valves in the arterial bulb in the cellular air-bladder 
of Notopterus and Osteoglossum, the spiral intestinal valve 
in Chirocentride, and the ganoid scales of the extinct Lepto- 
lepide. 

The Clupeoidea.—The Jsospondyli are divisible into numerous 
families, which may be grouped roughly under three subdivisions, 
Clupeoidea, the herring-like forms; the Salmonoidea, the trout-like 
forms; and the /niomi, or lantern-fishes, and their allies. The 
last-named group should probably be removed from the order of 
Isospondyli. In the Clupeoidea, the allies of the great family 
of the herring, the shoulder-girdle is normally developed, retain- 
ing the mesocoracoid arch on its inner edge, and through the 
post-temporal is articulated above with the cranium. The fishes 
in this group lack the adipose fin which is characteristic of most 
of the higher or salmon-like families. 

The Leptolepide.—Most primitive of the Jsospondyli is the 
extinct family of Leptolepide, closely allied to the Ganoid families 
of Pholidophoride and Oligopleuride. It is composed of graceful, 


CS WA WEA Mn ea 
Oa \W0Ua« Lee Lie SS 
YS — SS . 
x 


Fie. 199.—Lept lepis dubius Blainville, Lithographic Stone. (After Woodward.) 


herring-like fishes, with the bones of the head thin but covered 
with enamel, and the scales thin but firm and enameled on their 
free portion. There are no fulcra and there is no lateral line. 
The vertebrae are well developed, but always pierced by the 
notochord. The genera are Lycoptera, Leptolepis, A:thalion, 
and Thrissops. In Lycoptera of the Jurassic of China the 


Isospondyli 269 


vertebral centra are feebly developed, and the dorsal fin short 
and posterior. In Leptolepis the anal is short and placed 
behind the dorsal. There are many species, mostly from the 
Triassic and lithographic shales of Europe, one being found 
in the Cretaceous. Leptolepis coryphenoides and Leptolepis 
dubius are among the more common species. <Athalion (knorrt) 
differs in the form of the jaws. In Thrissops the anal fin is 
long and opposite the dorsal. Thrissops salmonea is found 
in the lithographic stone; Thrissops exigua in the Cretaceous. 
In all these early forms there is a hard casque over the brain- 
cavity, as in the living types, Ama and Osteoglossum. 

The Elopide.—The family of Elopide contains large fishes 
herring-like in form and structure, but having a flat membrane- 


Fig. 200.—Ten-pounder, Elops saurus L. An ally Of the earliest bony fishes. 
Virginia. 


bone or gular plate between the branches of the lower jaw, as 
in the Ganoid genus Amia. The living species are few, abound- 
ing in the tropical seas, important for their size and numbers, 


Fig. 201.—A primitive Herring-like fish, Holcolepis lewesiensis, Mantell, restored. 
Family Elopide. English Chalk. (After Woodward.) 


though not valued as food-fishes save to those who, like the 
Hawaiians and Japanese, eat fishes raw. These people prefer 


270 Isospondyli 


for that purpose the white-meated or soft-fleshed forms like 
Elops or Scarus to those which yield a better flavor when cooked. 

The ten-pounder (Elops saurus), pike-like in form but with 
very weak teeth, is found in tropical America. Elops machnata, 
the jackmariddle, the awaawa of the Hawaiians, abounding in 
the Pacific, is scarcely if at all different. 

The tarpon, called also grande écaille, silver-king, and sabalo 
(Tarpon atlanticus), is a favorite game-fish along the coasts of 
Florida and Carolina. It takes the hook with great spirit, and 


Fig. 202.—Tarpon or Grande Ecaille, Tarpon atlanticus Cuv. & Val. Florida. 


as it reaches a length of six feet or more it affords much excite- 
ment to the successful angler. The very large scales are much 
used in ornamental work. 

A similar species of smaller size, also with the last ray of 
the dorsal very much produced, is: Wegalops cyprinoides of the 
East Indies. Other species occur in the South Seas. 

Numerous fossil genera related to Elops are found in the 
Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. Holcolepis lewesiensis (wrongly 
called Osmeroides) is the best-known European species. Numer- 
ous species are referred to Elopopsis. Megalops prisca and 
species of Elops also occur in the London Eocene. 

In all these the large parietals meet along the median line 
of the skull. In the closely related family of Spaniodontide 
the parietals are small and do not meet. All the species of 
this group, united by Woodward with the Elopide, are extinct. 
These fishes preceded the Elopide in the Cretaceous period. 
Leading genera are Thrissopater and Spaniodon, the latter 
armed with large teeth. Spaniodon blondeli is from the Creta- 


Isospondyli 271 


ceous of Mount Lebanon. Many other species are found in the 
European and American Cretaceous rocks, but are known from 
imperfect specimens only. 

Sardinius, an American Cretaceous fossil herring, may stand 
near Spaniodon. Rhacolepis buccalis and Notelops brama are 
found in Brazil, beautifully preserved in concretions of cal- 
careous mud supposed to be of Cretaceous age. 

The extinct family of Pachyrhizodontide is perhaps allied 
to the Elopide. Numerous species of Pachyrhizodus are found 
in the Cretaceous of southern England and of Kansas. 

The Albulide.—The Albulide, or lady-fishes, characterized by 
the blunt and rounded teeth, are found in most warm: seas. 


Fic. 203.—The Lady-fish, Albula vulpes (Linneus). Florida. 


Albula vulpes is a brilliantly silvery fish, little valued as food. 
The metamorphosis which the lava undergoes is very remark- 
able. It is probably, however, more or less typical of the 
changes which take place with soft-rayed fishes generally, though 
more strongly marked in A/bula and in certain eels than in 
most related forms. Fossils allied to Albula, Albula owent, 
Chanoides macropomus are found in the Eocene of Europe; 
Syntegmodus altus in the Cretaceous of Kansas. In Chanoides, 
the most primitive genus, the teeth are much fewer than in 
Albula. Plethodus and Thryptodus, with peculiar dental plates 
on the roof and floor of the mouth, probably constitute a dis- 
tinct family, Thryptodontide. The species are found in Euro- 
pean and American rocks, but are known from imperfect speci- 
mens only. 

The Chanide.— The Chanide, or milkfishes, constitute another 
small archaic type, found in the tropical Pacific. They are 


272 Isospondyli 


large, brilliantly silvery, toothless fishes, looking like enormous 
dace, swift in the water, and very abundant in the Gulf of 


Fia. 204 —Milkfish, Chanos chanos (L.). Mazatlan. 


California, Polynesia, and India. The single living species is 
the Awa, or milkfish, Chanos chanos, largely used as food 
in Hawaii. Species of Prochanos and Chanos occur in the 
Cretaceous, Eocene, and Miocene. Allied to Chanos is the 
Cretaceous genus Ancylostylos (gibbus), probably the type of 
a distinct family, toothless and with many-rayed dorsal. 

The Hiodontide.—The Hiodontide, or mooneyes, inhabit the 
rivers of the central portion of the United States and Canada. 


Fic. 205.—Mooneye, Hiodon tergisus Le Sueur. Ecorse, Mich. 


They are shad-like fishes with brilliantly silvery scales and very 
strong sharp teeth, those on the tongue especially long. They are 
very handsome fishes and take the hook with spirit, but the 
flesh is rather tasteless and full of small bones, much like that 


ce 


| 
! 
; 


Isospondyli 273 


of the milkfish. The commonest species is Hiodon tergisus. 
No fossil Hiodontide are known. 

The Pterothrisside.—The Pterothrisside are sea-fishes like 
Albula, but more slender and with a long dorsal fin. They live 


x I, 
\\\ \ XC zZ 
XN 

4 > pale 3 


Fic. 206.—Istiews grandis Agassiz. Family Pterothrisside. (After Zittel.) 


in deep or cold waters along the coasts of Japan, where they are 
known as gisu. The single species is Pterothrissus gissu. The 
fossil genus Istzeus, from the Upper Cretaceous, probably be- 
longs near the Pterothrisside. Istieus grandis is the best-known 


Fic. 207.—Chirothriz libanicus Pictet & Humbert. Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. 
(After Woodward.) 


species. Another ancient family, now represented by a single 
species, is that of the Chirocentride, of which the living type 
is Chirocentrus dorab, a long, slender, much compressed herring- 
like fish, with a saw-edge on the belly, found in the East Indies, 


274 Isospondyli 


in which region Chirocentrus polyodon occurs as a fossil. Numer- 
ous fossil genera related to Chirocentrus are enumerated by 
Woodward, most of them to be referred to the related family 
of Ichthyodectide (Saurodontide). Of these, Portheus, Ichthyodec- 
tes, Saurocephalus (Saurodon), and Gillicus are represented by 
numerous species, some of them fishes of immense size and great 
voracity. Portheus molossus, found in the Cretaceous of Nebraska, 
is remarkable for its very. strong teeth. Species of other genera 
are represented by numerous species in the Cretaceous of both 
the Rocky Mountain region and of Europe. 

The Ctenothrisside.—A related family, Ctenothrisside, is 
represented solely by extinct Cretaceous species. In this group 


Fic. 208.—Ctenothrissa vexillifera Pictet, restored. Mt. Lebanon Cretaceous. 
ter Woodward.) 


the body is robust with large scales, ctenoid in Ctenothrissa, 
cycloid in Aulolepis. The fins are large, the belly not serrated, 
and the teeth feeble. Ctenothrissa vexillifera is from Mount 
Lebanon. Other species occur in the European chalk. In the 
small family of Phractolemide the interopercle, according to 
Boulenger, is enormously developed. 

The Notopteride.—The Notopteride is another small family 
in the rivers of Africa and the East Indies. The body ends in 
a long and tapering fin, and, as usual in fishes which swim by 


Isospondyli 275 


body undulations, the ventral fins are lost. The belly is doubly 
serrate. The air-bladder is highly complex in structure, being 
divided into several compartments and terminating in two 
horns anteriorly and posteriorly, the anterior horns being in 
direct communication with the auditory organ. A fossil Notop- 
terus, N. prime@vus, is found in the same region. 

The Clupeide.—The great herring family, or Clupeide, com- 
prises fishes with oblong or herring-shaped body, cycloid scales, 
and feeble dentition. From related families it is separated 
by the absence of lateral line and the division of the maxillary 
into three pieces. In most of the genera the belly ends in a 
serrated edge, though in the true herring this is not very evident, 


Fie. 209 —Herring, Clupea harengus L. New York. 


and in some the belly has a blunt edge. Some of the species 
live in rivers, some ascend from the sea for the purpose of spawn- 
ing. The majority are confined to the ocean. Among all 
the genera, the one most abundant_in individuals is that of 
Clupea, the herring. Throughout the North Atlantic are im- 
mense schools of Clupea harengus. In the North Pacific on 
both shores another herring, Clupea pallasi, is equally abundant, 
and with the same market it would be equally valuable. As 
salted, dried, or smoked fish the herring is found throughout 
the civilized world, and its spawning and feeding-grounds have 
determined the location of cities. 

The genus Clupea, of northern distribution, has the vertebrae 
in increased number (56), and there are weak teeth on the vomer. 
Several other genera are very closely related, but ranging farther 
south they have, with other characters, fewer (46 to 50) vertebree. 
The alewife, or branch-herring (Pomolobus pseudoharengus), 
ascends the rivers to spawn and has become land-locked in 


13 


276 Isospondyli 


the lakes of New York. The skipjack of the Gulf of Mexico, 
Pomolobus chrysochloris, becomes very fat in the sea. The 
species becomes land-locked in the Ohio River, where it thrives 
as to numbers, but remains lean and almost useless as food. The 
glut-herring, Pomolobus estivalis, and the sprat, Pomolobus 
sprattus, of Europe are related forms. 

Very near also to the herring is the shad (Alosa sapidissima) 
of the eastern coasts of America, and its inferior relatives, the 


Fic. 210 —Alewife, Pomolobus pseudoharengus (Wilson). Potomac River. 


shad of the Gulf of Mexico (Alosa alabame); the Ohio River 
shad (Alosa ohiensis), very lately discovered, the Allice shad 
(Alosa alosa) of Europe, and the Thwaite shad (Alosa finta). 
In the genus Alosa the cheek region is v2ry deep, giving the 
head a form different from that seen in the herring. 

The American shad is the best food-fish in the family, pecu- 
liarly delicate in flavor when broiled, but, to a greater degree 
than occurs in any other good food-fish, its flesh is crowded 
with small bones. The shad has been successfully introduced 
into the waters of California, where it abounds from Puget 
Sound to Point Concepcion, ascending the rivers to spawn in 
May as in its native region, the Atlantic coast. 

The genus Sardinella includes species of rich flesh and feeble 
skeleton, excellent when broiled, when they may be eaten bones 


and all. This condition favors their preservation in oil as 


“sardines.”’ All the species are alike excellent for this pur- 
pose. The sardine of Europe is the Sardinella pilchardus, known 
in England as the pilchard. The ‘“Sardina de Espaiia”’ of 


Isospondyli 29, 


Cuba is Sardinella pseudohispanica, the sardine of California, 
Sardinella cerulea. Sardinella sagax abounds in Chile, and Sar- 
dinella melanosticta is the valued sardine of Japan. 

In the tropical Pacific occur other valued species, largely 
belonging to the genus Kowala. The genus Harengula contains 
small species with very large, firm scales which do not fall when 
touched, as is generally the case with the sardines. Most 
common of these is Harengula sardina of the West Indies. 
Similar species occur in southern Europe and in Japan. 

In Opisthonema, the thread-herring, the last dorsal ray is 
much produced, as in the gizzard-shad and the tarpon. The 
two species known are abundant, but of little commercial im- 
portance. Of greater value are the menhaden, or the moss- 
bunker, Brevodrtia tyrannus, inhabiting the sandy coasts from 
New England southward. It is a coarse and bony fish, rarely 


Fig. 211 —Menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe). Wood’s Hole, Mass, 


eaten when adult, although the young in oil makes acceptable 
sardines. It is used chiefly for oil, the annual yield exceeding 
in value that of wWhale-oil. The refuse is used as manure, a 
purpose for which the fishes are often taken without prepara- 
tion, being carried directly to the cornfields. From its abun- 
dance this species of inferior flesh exceeds in commercial value 
almost all other American fishes excepting the cod, the herring, 
and the quinnat salmon. 

One of the most complete of fish biographies is that of Dr. G. 
. Brown Goode on the “Natural and Economic History of Men- 
haden.”’ 

Numerous other herring-like forms, usually with compressed 
bodies, dry and bony flesh, and serrated bellies, abound in the 


278 Isospondyli 


tropics and are largely salted and dried by the Chinese. Among 
these are Jlisha elongata of the Chinese coast. Related forms 
occur in Mexico and Brazil. 

The round herrings, small herrings which have no serrations 
on the belly, are referred by Dr. Gill to the family of Dussu- 
miertide. These are mostly small tropical fishes used as food 
or bait. One of these, the Kobini-Iwashi of Japan (Stolephorus 
japonicus), with a very bright silver band on the side, has con- 
siderable commercial importance. Very small herrings of this 
type in the West Indies constitute the genus Jenkinsia, named 
for Dr. Oliver P. Jenkins, the first to study seriously the fishes 
of Hawaii. Other species constitute the widely distributed 
genera Etrumeus and Dussumieria, Etrumeus sardina is the 
round herring of the Virginia coast. Etrumeus micropus is 
the Etrumei-Iwashi of Japan and Hawaii. 

Fossil herring are plentiful and exist in considerable variety, 
even among the Clupeide as at present restricted. Histiothrissa 


Fig, 212.—A fossil Herring; Diplomystus humilis Leidy. (From a specimen obtained 
at Green River, Wyo.) The scutes along the back lost in the specimen. 
Family Cluperde, 


of the Cretaceous seems to be allied to Dussumieria and 
Stolephorus. Another genus, from the Cretaceous of Palestine, 
Pseudoberyx (syriacus, etc.), having pectinated scales, should 
perhaps constitute a distinct subfamily, but the general struc- 
ture is like that of the herring. More evidently herring-like 
is Scombroclupea (macrophthalma). The genus Diplomystus, 
with enlarged scales along the back, is abundantly represented 
in the Eocene shales of Green River, Wyoming. Species of 
similar appearance, usually but wrongly referred to the same 
genus, occur on the coasts of Peru, Chile, and New South Wales. 
A specimen of Diplomystus humilis from Green River is here 


;. 
3 
: 
. 


Isospondyli 279 


figured. Numerous herring, referred to Clupea, but belonging 
rather to Pomolobus, or other non-Arctic genera, have been 
described from the Eocene and later rocks. 

Several American fossil herring-like fishes, of the genus 
Leptosomus, as Leptosomus percrassus, are found in the Cretaceous 
of South Dakota 

Fossil species doubtfully referred to Dorosoma, but perhaps 
allied rather to the thread-herring (Opisthonema), being herrings 
with a prolonged dorsal ray, are recorded from the early Ter- 
tiary of Europe. Among these is Opisthonema doljeanum from 
Austria. 

The Dorosomatide.—The gizzard-shad, Dorosomatide, are 
closely related to the Clupeide, differing in the small contracted 
toothless mouth and reduced maxillary. The species are deep- 
bodied, shad-like fishes of the rivers and estuaries of eastern 
America and eastern Asia. They feed on mud, and the stomach 
is thickened and muscular like that of a fowl. As the stomach 
has the size and form of a hickory-nut, the common American 


se 
Fic. 213.—Hickory-shad, Dorosoma cepedianum (Le Sueur). Potomac River. 


species is often called hickory-shad. The gizzard-shad are all 
very poor food-fish, bony and little valued, the flesh full of 
small bones. The belly is always serrated. In three of the 
four genera of Dorosomatide the last dorsal ray is much produced 
and whip-like. The long and slender gill-rakers serve as strainers 
for the mud in which these fishes find their vegetable and ani- 
mal food. Dorosoma cepedianum, the common hickory-shad or 


280 Isospondyli 


gizzard-shad, is found in brackish river-mouths and ponds from 
Long Island to Texas, and throughout the Mississippi Valley 
in all the large rivers. Through the canals it has entered Lake 
Michigan. The Konoshiro, Clupanodon thrissa, 1s equally com- 
mon in China and Japan. 

The Engraulidide.—The anchovies (Engraulidide) are dwarf 
herrings with the snout projecting beyond the very wide mouth. 
They are small in size and weak in muscle, found in all warm 
seas, and making a large part of the food of the larger fish. 
The genus Engraulis includes the anchovy of Europe, Engraulis 
encrasicholus, with similar species in California, Chile, Japan, 
and Australia. In this genus the vertebrae are numerous, the 
bones feeble, and the flesh tender and oily. The species of 
Engraulis are preserved in oil, often with spices, or are made 
into fish-paste, which is valued as a relish. The genus Anchovia 
replaces Engraulis in the tropics. The vertebrae are fewer, the 


Fia, 214.—A Silver Anchovy, Anchovia perthecata (Goode & Bean), Tampa. 


bones firm and stiff, and the flesh generally dry. Except as 
food for larger fish, these have little value, although existing 
in immense schools. Most of the species have a bright silvery 
band along the side. The most familiar of the very numerous 
species is the silver anchovy, Anchovia browni, which abounds 
in sandy bays from Cape Cod to Brazil. Several other genera 
occur farther southward, as well as in Asia, but Engraulis only 
is found in Europe. Fossil anchovies called Engraulis are 
recorded from the Tertiary of Europe. 

Gonorhynchide.—To the Isospondyli belongs the small primi- 
tive family of Gonorhynchide, elongate fishes with small mouth, 
feeble teeth, no air-bladder, small scales of peculiar structure 
covering the head, weak dentition, the dorsal fin small, and 


uey ‘aue AY Weer ‘adop snjnaso snauobojoN—“eTZ “OIA 


282 Isospondyli 


posterior without spines. The mesocoracoid is present as in 
ordinary Jsospondyli. Gonorhynchus abbreviatus occurs in 
Japan, and Gonorhynchus gonorhynchus is found in Australia and 
about the Cape of Good Hope. Numerous fossil species occur. 
Charitosomus lineolatus and other species are found in the Cre- 
taceous of Mount Lebanon and elsewhere. Species without 
teeth from the Oligocene of Europe and America are referred 
to the genus Notogoneus. Notogoneus osculus occurs in the 
Eocene fresh-water deposits at Green River, Wyoming. It 
bears a very strong resemblance in form to an ordinary sucker 
(Catostomus), for which reason it was once described by the 
name of Protocatostomus. The living Gonorhynchide are all 
strictly marine. 

In the small family of Cromeriid@ the head and body are naked. 

The Osteoglossida.—Still less closely related to the herring 
is the family of Osteoglosside, huge pike-like fishes of the tropical 
rivers, armed with hard bony scales formed of pieces like mosaic. 
The largest of all fresh-water fishes is Arapaima gigas of the 
Amazon region, which reaches a length of fifteen feet and a 
weight of 4oo pounds. It has naturally considerable commer- 
cial importance, as have species of Osteoglossum, coarse river- 
fishes which occur in Brazil, Egypt, and the East Indies. 
Heterotis nilotica is a large fish of the Nile. In some or all 
of these the air-bladder is cellular or lung-like, like that of a 
Ganoid. 

Allied to the Osteoglosside is Phareodus (Dapedoglossus), 
a group of large shad-like fossil fishes, with large scales of 
peculiar mosaic texture and with a bony casque on the head, 
found in fresh-water deposits of the Green River Eocene. In 
the perfect specimens of Phareodus (or Dapedoglossus) testis the 
first ray of the pectoral is much enlarged and serrated on its 
inner edge, a character which may separate these fishes as a 
family from the true Osteoglosside. It does not, however, 
appear in Cope’s figures, none of his specimens having the 
pectorals perfect. In these fishes the teeth are very strong 
and sharp, the scales are very large and thin, looking like the 
scales of a parrot-fish, the long dorsal is opposite to the anal 
and similar to it, and the caudal is truncate. The end of the 
vertebral column is turned upward. 


Isospondyli 283 


Other species are Phareodus acutus, known from the jaws; 
P. cncaustus is known from a mass of thick scales with retic- 
ulate or mosaic-like surface, much as in Osteoglossum, and 
P. @quipennis from a small example, perhaps immature. 


Fic. 216—Phareodus testis (Cope). From a specimen 20 inches long collected at 
Fossil, Wyo., in the Museum of the Univ. of Wyoming. (Photograph by 
Prof. Wilbur C Knight.) 


Phareodus testis is frequently found well preserved in the shales 
at Fossil Station, to the northwestward of Green River. 
Whether all these species possess the peculiar structure of the 
scales, and whether all belong to one genus, is uncertain. 

In Eocene shales of England occurs Brychetus muelleri, a 
species closely related to Phareodus, but the scales smaller and 
without the characteristic reticulate or mosaic structure seen 
in Phareodus encaustus. 

The Pantodontide.—The bony casque of Osteoglossum is 
found again in the Pantodontide, consisting of one species, 
Pantodon buchholzi, a small fish of the brooks of West Africa. 


284 Isospondyli 


As in the Osteoglosside and in the Siluride, the subopercle is 
wanting in Pantodon. 

The Alepocephalide are deep-sea herring-like fishes very 
soft in texture and black in color, taken in the oceanic abysses. 
Some species may be found in almost all seas below the depth 


Fig. 217.—Alepocephalus agassizii Goode & Bean, Gulf Stream. 


of half a mile. Alepocephalus rostratus of the Mediterranean 
has been long known, but most of the other genera, Talis- 
mania, Mitchillina, Conocara, etc., are of very recent discovery, 
having been brought to the surface by the deep-sea dredging 
of the Challenger, the Albatross, the Blake, the Travailleur, 
the Talisman, the Investigator, the Hirondelle, and the Vio- 
lante. 


CHAPTER XX 
SALMONIDZA 


or allies of the salmon and trout, are characterized as a 
Ws) whole by the presence of the adipose fin, a struc- 
eure also retained in Characins and catfishes, which have no 
evident affinity with the trout, and in the lantern-fishes, lizard- 
fishes, and trout-perches, in which the affinity is very remote. 
Probably these groups all have a common descent from some 
primitive fish having an adipose fin, or at least a fleshy fold on 
the back. 

Of all the families of fishes, the one most interesting from 
almost every point of view is that of the Salmonide@, the salmon 
family. As now restricted, it is not one of the largest families, 
as it comprises less than a hundred species; but in beauty, 
activity, gaminess, quality as food, and even in size of indi- 
viduals, different members of the group stand easily with the 
first among fishes. The following are the chief external charac- 
teristics which are common to the members of the family: 

Body oblong or moderately elongate, covered with cycloid, in 
scales of varying size. Head naked. Mouth terminal or some- 
what inferior, varying considerably among the different species, 
those having the mouth largest usually having also the strongest 
teeth. Maxillary provided with a supplemental. bone, and 
forming the lateral margin of the upper jaw. Pseudobranchize 
present. Gill-rakers varying with the species. Opercula com- 
plete. No barbels. Dorsal fin of moderate length, placed 
near the middle of the length of the body. Adipose fin well 
developed. Caudal fin forked. Anal fin moderate or rather 
long. Ventral fins nearly median in position. Pectoral fins 
inserted low. Lateral line present. Outline of belly rounded. 
Vertebrz in large number, usually about sixty. 


285 


'" 


286 Salmonide 


The stomach in all the Salmonide@ is siphonal, and at the 
pylorus are many (15 to 200) comparatively large pyloric coeca. 
The air-bladder is large. The eggs are usually much larger 
than in fishes generally, and the ovaries are without special 
duct, the ova falling into the cavity of the abdomen before _ 
exclusion. The large size of the eggs, their lack of adhesive- 
ness, and the readiness with which they may be impregnated, 
render the Salmonide peculiarly adapted for artificial culture. 

The Salmonide are peculiar to the north temperate and 
Arctic regions, and within this range they are almost equally 
abundant wherever suitable waters occur. Some of the species, 
especially the larger ones, are marine and anadromous, living 
and growing in the sea, and ascending fresh waters to spawn. 
Still others live in running brooks, entering lakes or the sea 
when occasion serves, but not habitually doing so. Still others 
are lake fishes, approaching the shore or entering brooks in 
the spawning season, at other times retiring to waters of con- 
siderable depth. Some of them are active, voracious, and 
gamy, while others are comparatively defenseless and will not 
take the hook. They are divisible into ten easily recognized 
genera: Coregonus, Argyrosomus, Brachymystax, Stenodus, On- 
corhynchus, Salmo, Hucho, Cristivomer, Salvelinus, and Pleco- 
glossus. 

Fragments of fossil trout, very imperfectly known, are re- 
corded chiefly from Pleistocene deposits of Idaho, under the 
name of Rhabdofario lacustris. We have also received from 
Dr. John C. Merriam, from ferruginous sands of the same region, 
several fragments of jaws of salmon, in the hook-nosed condition, 
with enlarged teeth, showing that the present salmon-runs have 
been in operation for many thousands of years. Most other 
fragments hitherto referred to Salmonide belong to some other 
kind of fish. 

Coregonus, the Whitefish—The genus Coregonus, which in- 
cludes the various species known in America as lake whitefish, 
is distinguishable in general by the small size of its mouth, the 
weakness of its teeth, and the large size of its scales. The teeth, 
especially, are either reduced to slight asperities, or else are 
altogether wanting. The species reach a length of one to three 
feet. With scarcely an exception they inhabit clear lakes, 


_——- 


Salmonide 287 


and rarely enter streams except to spawn. In far northern 
regions they often descend to the sea; but in the latitude of the 
United States this is never possible for them, as they are unable 
to endure warm or impure water. They seldom take the hook, 
and rarely feed on other fishes. Numerous local varieties char- 
acterize the lakes of Scandinavia, Scotland, and Arctic Asia 
and America. Largest and most desirable of all these as a 
food-fish is the common whitefish of the Great Lakes (Coregonus 
clupetformis), with its allies or variants in the Mackenzie and 
Yukon. 

The species of Coregonus differ from each other in the form 
and size of the mouth, in the form of the body, and in the de- 
velopment of the gill-rakers. 

Coregonus oxyrhynchus—the Schnabel of Holland, Germany, 
and Scandinavia—has the mouth very small, the sharp snout 
projecting far beyond it. No species similar to this is found 
in America. 

The Rocky Mountain whitefish (Coregonus williamsoni) has 
also a small mouth and projecting snout, but the latter is blunter 


Fie 218 —Rocky Mountain Whitefish, Coregonus williamsoni Girard. 


and much shorter than in C. oxyrhynchus. This is a small 
species abounding everywhere in the clear lakes and streams of 
the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, from Colorado to 
Vancouver Island. It is a handsome fish and excellent as food. 

Closely allied to Coregonus williamsoni is the pilot-fish, 
shad-waiter, roundfish, or Menomonee whitefish (Coregonus 
quadrilateralis). This species is found in the Great Lakes, the 
Adirondack region, the lakes of New Hampshire, and thence 


288 Salmonidz 


northwestward to the Yukon, abounding in cold deep waters, its 
range apparently nowhere coinciding with that of Coregonus 
williamsont. 

The common whitefish (Coregonus clupeiformis) is the largest 
in size of the species of Coregonus, and is unquestionably the 
finest as an article of food. It varies considerably in appear- 
ance with age and condition, but in general it is proportionately 
much deeper than any of the other small-mouthed Coregont. 
The adult fishes develop a considerable fleshy hump at the 


Fic. 219 —Whitefish, Coregonus clupeiformis Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich. 


shoulders, which causes the head, which is very small, to appear 
disproportionately so. The whitefish spawns in November 
and December, on rocky shoals in the Great Lakes. Its food 
was ascertained by Dr. P. R. Hoy to consist chiefly of. deep- 
water crustaceans, with a few’ mollusks, and larve of water 
insects. ‘The whitefish,” writes Mr. James W. Milner, ‘“‘has 
been known since the time of the earliest explorers as pre- 
eminently a fine-flavored fish. In fact there are few table- 
fishes its equal. To be appreciated in its fullest excellence it 
should be taken fresh from the lake and broiled. Father Mar- 
quette, Charlevoix, Sir John Richardson—explorers who for 
months at a time had to depend upon the whitefish for their 
staple article of food—bore testimony to the fact that they never 
lost their relish for it, and deemed it a special excellence that 
the appetite never became cloyed with it.” The range of the 
whitefish extends from the lakes of New York and New England 
northward to the Arctic Circle. The ‘‘Otsego bass’”’ of Otsego 


Salmonide 289 


Lake in New York, celebrated by De Witt Clinton, is a local 
form of the ordinary whitefish. 

Allied to the American whitefish, but smaller in size, is the 
Lavaret, Weissfisch, Adelfisch, or Weissfelchen (Coregonus 
lavaretus), of the mountain lakes of Switzerland, Germany, and 
Sweden. Coregonus kennicotti, the muksun, and Coregonus nelsoni, 
the humpback whitefish, are found in northern Alaska and in the 
Yukon. Several other related species occur in northern Europe 
and Siberia. 

Another American species is the Sault whitefish, Lake Whiting 
or Musquaw River whitefish (Coregonus labradoricus). Its 
teeth are stronger, especially on the tongue, than in any of our 
other species, and its body is slenderer than that of the whitefish. 
It is found in the upper Great Lakes, in the Adirondack region, 
in Lake Winnipeseogee, and in the lakes of Maine and New 
Brunswick. It is said to rise to the fly in the Canadian lakes. 
This species runs up the St. Mary’s River, from Lake Huron to 
Lake Superior, in July and August. Great numbers are snared 
or speared by the Indians at this season at the Sault Ste. Marie. 

In the breeding season the scales are sometimes thickened 
or covered with small warts, as in the male Cyprinide. 

Argyrosomus, the Lake Herring.—In the genus Argyrosomuts 
the mouth is larger, the premaxillary not set vertical, but ex- 
tending forward on its lower edge, and the body is more elongate 
and more evenly elliptical. The species are more active and 
predaceous than those of Coregonus and are, on the whole, in- 
ferior as food. 

The smallest and handsomest of the American whitefish 
is the cisco of Lake Michigan (Argyrosomus hoyi). It is a 
slender fish, rarely exceeding ten inches in length, and its scales 
have the brilliant silvery luster of the mooneye and the lady- 
fish. 

The lake herring, or.cisco (Argyrosomus artedi), is, next to 
the whitefish, the most important of the American species. It 
is more elongate than the others, and has a comparatively large 
mouth, with projecting under-jaw. It is correspondingly more 
voracious, and often takes the hook. During the spawning 
season of the whitefish the lake herring feeds on the ova of the 
latter, thereby doing a great amount of mischief. As food 


290 Salmonide 


this species is fair, but much inferior to the whitefish. Its 
geographical distribution is essentially the same, but to a greater 
degree it frequents shoal waters. In the small lakes around 
Lake Michigan, in Indiana and Wisconsin (Tippecanoe, Geneva, 
Oconomowoc, etc.), the cisco has long been established; and 
in these waters its habits have undergone some change, as has 
also its external appearance. It has been recorded as a distinct 
species, Argyrosomus sisco, and its excellence as a game-fish has 
been long appreciated by the angler. These lake ciscoes remain 
for most of the year in the depths of the lake, coming to the 
surface only in search of certain insects, and to shallow water 
only in the spawning season. This periodical disappearance 
of the cisco has led to much foolish discussion as to the proba- 
bility of their returning by an underground passage to Lake 


— 


= 


SSIS 


sos: 


<a 


Fie. 220 —Bluefin Cisco, Argyrosomus nigripinnis Gill. Sheboygan. 


Michigan during the periods of their absence. One author, con- 
founding “‘cisco’’ with “siscowet,’’ has assumed that this under- 
ground passage leads to Lake Superior, and that the cisco is 
identical with the fat lake trout which bears the latter name. 
The name “lake herring’’ alludes to the superficial resemblance 
which this species possesses to the marine herring, a fish of quite 
a different family. 

Closely allied to the lake herring is the bluefin of Lake Michi- 
gan and of certain lakes in New York (Argyrosomus nigripinnis), 
a fine large species inhabiting deep waters, and recognizable 
by the blue-black color of its lower fins. In the lakes of central 
New York are found two other species, the so-called lake smelt 
(Argyrosomus osmeriformis) and the long-jaw (Argyrosomus 


: 
. 


Salmonide 291 


prognathus). Argyrosomus lucidus is abundant in Great Bear 
Lake. In Alaska and Siberia are still other species of the cisco 
type (Argyrosomus laurette, A. pusillus, A. alascanus); and in 
Europe very similar species are the Scotch vendace (Argyrosomus 
vandesius) and the Scandinavian Lok-Sild (lake herring), as 
well as others less perfectly known. 

The Tullibee, or “mongrel whitefish” (Argyrosomus tullibee), 
has a deep body, like the shad, with the large mouth of the 
ciscoes. It is found in the Great Lake region and northward, 
and very little is known of its habits. A similar species (Argy- 
rosomus cyprinoides) is recorded from Siberia—a region which 
is peculiarly suited for the growth of the Coregoni, but in which 
the species have never received much study. 

Brachymystax and Stenodus, the Inconnus.—Another little- 
known form, intermediate between the whitefish and the salmon, 


Fia. 221.—Ineonnu, Stenodus mackenziei (Richardson). Nulato, Alaska. 


is Brachymystax lenock, a large fish of the mountain streams of 
Siberia. Only the skins brought home by Pallas a century ago 
are yet known. According to Pallas, it sometimes reaches a 
weight of eighty pounds. 

Still another genus, intermediate between the whitefish and 
the salmon, is Stenodus, distinguished by its elongate body, 
feeble teeth, and projecting lower jaw. The Inconnu, or Mac- 
kenzie River salmon, known on the Yukon as “‘charr”’ (Stenodus 
mackenztet), belongs to this genus. It reaches a weight of twenty 
pounds or more, and in the far north is a food-fish of good 
quality. It runs in the Yukon as far as White Horse Rapids. 
Not much is recorded of its habits, and few specimens exist in 


292 Salmonide 


museums. A species of Stenodus called Stenodus leucichthys 
inhabits the Volga, Obi, Lena, and other northern rivers; but 
as yet little is definitely known of the species. 

Oncorhynchus, the Quinnat Salmon.—The genus Oncorlyn- 
chus contains the salmon of the Pacific. They are in fact, 
as well as in name, the king salmon. The genus is closely 
related to Salmo, with which it agrees in general as to the 
structure of its vomer, and from which it differs in the increased 
number of anal rays, branchiostegals, pyloric coeca, and gill- 
rakers. The character most convenient for distinguishing 
Oncorhynchus, young or old, from all the species of Salmo, is 
the number of developed rays in the anal fin. These in Onco- 
rhynchus are thirteen to twenty, in Salmo nine to twelve. 

The species of Oncorhynchus have long been known as anad- 
romous salmon, confined to the North Pacific. The species were 
first made known nearly one hundred and fifty years ago by that 
most exact of early observers, Steller, who, almost simultaneously 
with Krascheninnikoy, another early investigator, described and 
distinguished them with perfect accuracy under their Russian 
vernacular names. These Russian names were, in 1792, adopted 
by Walbaum as specific names in giving to these animals a 
scientific nomenclature. Five species of Oncorhynchus are well 
known on both shores of the North Pacific, besides one other 
in Japan. These have been greatly misunderstood by early 
observers on account of the extraordinary changes due to differ- 
ences in surroundings, in sex, and in age, and in conditions con- 
nected with the process of reproduction. 

There are five species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) in the waters 
of the North Pacific, all found on both sides, besides one other 
which is known only from the waters of Japan. These species 
may be called: (1) the quinnat, or king-salmon, (2) the blue- 
back salmon, or redfish, (3) the silver salmon, (4) the dog- 
salmon, (5) the humpback salmon, and (6) the masu; or (1) 
Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, (2) Oncorhynchus nerka, (3) Onco- 
rhynchus milktschitsch, (4) Oncorhynchus keta, (5) Oncorhynchus 
gorbuscha, (6) Oncorhynchus masou. All these species save the 
last are now known to occur in the waters of Kamchatka, as 
well as in those of Alaska and Oregon. These species, in all 
their varied conditions, may usually be distinguished by the 


—hiin=idine=d oo 


en anal 


iin 


Salmonidz 293 


characters given below. Other differences of form, color, and 
appearance are absolutely valueless for distinction, unless speci- 
mens of the same age, sex, and condition are compared. 

The quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha),* called 
quinnat, tyee, chinook, or king-salmon, has an average weight 
of 22 pounds, but individuals weighing 70 to 100 pounds are 
occasionally taken. It has about 16 anal rays, 15 to 19 branchi- 
ostegals, 23 (9 +14) gill-rakers on the anterior gill-arch, and 
140 to 185 pyloric coeca. The scales are comparatively large, 
there being from 130 to 155 in a longitudinal series. In the 
spring the body is silvery, the back, dorsal fin, and caudal fin 
having more or less of round black spots, and the sides of the 
head having a peculiar tin-colored metallic luster. In the fall 


Fic. 222,—Quinnat Salmon (female), Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum). 
Columbia River. 


the color is often black or dirty red, and the species can then 
be distinguished from the dog-salmon by its larger size and by 
its technical characters. The flesh is rich and salmon-red, 
becoming suddenly pale as the spawning season draws near. 
The blue-back salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka),t also called 
ted salmon, sukkegh, or sockeye, usually weighs from 5 to 8 
pounds. It has about 14 developed anal rays, 14 branchioste- 


* For valuable accounts of the habits of this species the reader is referred 
to papers by the late Cloudsley Rutter, ichthyologist of the Albatross, 
in the publications of the United States Fish Commission, the Popular 
Science Monthly, and the Overland Monthly. 

{ For valuable records of the natural history of this species the reader 
is referred to various papers by Dr. Barton Warren Evermann in the Bulletins 
of the United States Fish Commission and elsewhere. 


294 Salmonide 


gals, and 75 to 95 pyloric cceca. The gill-rakers are more numer- 
ous than in any other salmon, the number being usually about 


Fic. 223.—King-salmon grilse, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum). 
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) 


39 (16+23). The scales are larger, there being 130 to 140 in 
the lateral line. In the spring the form is plumply rounded, 
and the color is a clear bright blue above, silvery below, and 
everywhere immaculate. Young fishes often show a few round 
black spots, which disappear when they enter the sea. Fall 
specimens in the lakes are bright crimson in color, the head clear 
olive-green, and they become in a high degree hook-nosed and 
slab-sided, and bear little resemblance to the spring run. Young 
spawning male grilse follow the changes which take place in the 
adult, although often not more than half a pound in weight. 


Payette Lake, Idaho. 


Fic. 224.—Male Red Salmon in September, Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum), j 
; 
4 
J 


These little fishes often appear in mountain lakes, but whether 
they are landlocked or have come up from the sea is still un- 


Salmonide 295 


settled. These dwarf forms, called kokos by the Indians and 
benimasu in Japan, form the subspecies Oncorhynchus nerka 
kennerlyt. The flesh in this species is firmer than that of any 
other and very red, of good flavor, though drier and less rich 
than the king-salmon. 

The silver salmon, or coho (Oncorhynchus milktschitsch, or 
kisutch), reaches a weight of 5 to 8 pounds. It has 13 devel- 
oped rays in the anal, 13 branchiostegals, 23 (10 + 13) gill-rakers, 
and 45 to 80 pyloric coeca. There are about 127 scales in the 
lateral line. The scales are thin and all except those of the 
lateral line readily fall off. This feature distinguishes the species 
readily from the red salmon. In color it is silvery in spring, 
greenish above, and with a few faint black spots on the upper 
parts only. In the fall the males are mostly of a dirty red. 
The flesh in this species is of excellent flavor, but pale in color, 
and hence less valued than that of the quinnat and the red 
salmon. 

The dog-salmon, calico salmon, or chum, called saké in 
Japan (Oncorhynchus keta), reaches an average weight of about 
7 to 10 pounds. It has about 14 anal rays, 14 branchiostegals, 
24 (9+15) gillrakers, and 140 to 185 pyloric cceca. There are 
about 150 scales in the lateral line. In spring it is dirty 
silvery, immaculate, or sprinkled with small black specks, the 
fins ‘dusky, the sides with faint traces of gridiron-like bars. In 
the fall the male is brick-red or blackish, and its jaws are greatly 
distorted. The pale flesh is well flavored when fresh, but pale 
and mushy in texture and muddy in taste when canned. It is 
said to take salt well, and great numbers of salt dog-salmon are 
consumed in Japan. 

The humpback salmon, or pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gor- 
buscha), is the smallest of the American species, weighing from 
3 to 5 pounds. It has usually 15 anal rays, 12 branchiostegals, 
28 (134-15) gill-rakers, and about 180 pyloric cceca. Its scales 
are much smaller than in any other salmon, there being 180 
to 240 in the lateral line. In color it is bluish above, silvery 
below, the posterior and upper parts with many round black 
spots, the caudal fin always having a few large black spots 
oblong in form. The males in fall are dirty red, and are more 
extravagantly distorted than in any other of the Salmomnide. 


296 Salmonide 


The flesh is softer than in the other species; it is pale in color, 
and, while of fair flavor when fresh, is distinctly inferior when 
canned. 

The masu, or yezomasu (Oncorhynchus masou), is very similar 
to the humpback, the scales a little larger, the caudal without 


Fic. 225.—Humpback Salmon (female), Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum). 
Cook’s Inlet. 


black spots, the back usually immaculate. It is one of the smaller 
salmon, and is fairly abundant in the streams of Hokkaido, 
the island formerly known as Yezo. 

Of these species the blue-back or red salmon predominates 
in Frazer River and in most of the small rivers of Alaska, includ- 


Fic. 226 —Masu (female), Oncorhynchus masou (Brevoort). Aomori, Japan. 


ing all those which flow from lakes. The greatest salmon rivers 
of the world are the Nushegak and Karluk in Alaska, with the 
Columbia River, Frazer River, and Sacramento River farther 
south. The red and the silver salmon predominate in Puget 
Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and the Sacramento, and 
the silver salmon in most of the smaller streams along the coast. 
All the species occur, however, from the Columbia northward; 


Salmonide 297 


but the blue-back is not found in the Sacramento, Only the 
quinnat and the dog-salmon have been noticed south of San 
Francisco. In Japan keta is by far the most abundant species of 
salmon. It is known as saké, and largely salted and sold in the 
markets. Nerka is known in Japan only as landlocked in Lake Akan 
in northern Hokkaido. Mulktschitsch is generally common, and 
with masou is known as masu, or small salmon, as distinguished 
from the large salmon, or saké. Tschawytscha and gorbuscha are 
unknown in Japan. Masou has not been found elsewhere. 

The quinnat and blue-back salmon, the “noble salmon,” 
habitually “run” in the spring, the others in the fall. The 
usual order of running in the rivers is as follows: tschawytscha, 
nerka, milktschitsch, gorbuscha, keta. Those which run first go 
farthest. In the Yukon the quinnat runs as far as Caribou 
Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. The red salmon runs 
to “Forty-Mile,” which is nearly 1800 miles. Both ascend to 
the head of the Columbia, Fraser, Nass, Skeena, Stikeen, and 
Taku rivers. The quinnat runs practically only in the streams 
of large size, fed with melting snows; the red salmon only in 
streams which pass through lakes. It spawns only in small 
streams at the head of a lake. The other species spawn in 
almost any fresh water and only close to the sea. 

The economic value of the spring-running salmon is far 
greater than that of the other species, because they can be cap- 
tured in numbers when at their best, while the others are usually 
taken only after deterioration. 

The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied. 
Quinnat and silver salmon of all sizes are taken with the seine 
at almost any season in Puget Sound and among the islands 
of Alaska. This would indicate that these species do not go 
far from the shore. The silver salmon certainly’ does not. 
The quinnat pursues the schools of herring. It takes the 
hook freely in Monterey Bay, both near the shore and at a 
distance of six to eight miles out. We have reason to believe 
that these two species do not necessarily seek great depths, 
but probably remain not very far from the mouth of the rivers 
in which they were spawned. The blue-back or red salmon cer- 
tainly seeks deeper water, as it is seldom or never taken with the 
seine along shore, and it is known to enter the Strait of Fuca in 


298 Salmonide 


July, just before the running season, therefore coming in from 
the open sea. The great majority of the quinnat salmon, and 
probaby all the blue-back salmon, enter the rivers in the spring. 
The run of the quinnat begins generally at the last of March; 
it lasts, with various modifications and interruptions, until 
the actual spawning season in November, the greatest run being 
in early June in Alaska, in July in the Columbia, The run 
begins earliest in the northernmost rivers, and in the longest 
streams, the time of running and the proportionate amount 
in each of the subordinate runs varying with each different 
river. In general the runs are slack in the summer and increase 
with the first high water of autumn. By the last of August 
only straggling blue-backs can be found in the lower course of 
any stream; but both in the Columbia and in the Sacramento 
the quinnat runs in considerable numbers at least till October. 
In the Sacramento the run is greatest in the fall, and more run ; 
in the summer than in spring. In the Sacramento and the 
smaller rivers southward there is a winter run, beginning in 
December. The spring quinnat salmon ascends only those ! 
rivers which are fed by the melting snows from the mountains : 
and which have sufficient volume to send their waters well out @g 
to sea. Those salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults . 
j 
' 


- 
i _— 
ee 


(supposed to be at least three years old). Their milt and spawn 
are no more developed than at the same time in others of 
the same species which have not yet entered the rivers. It 
would appear that the contact with cold fresh water, when 
in the ocean, in some way causes them to run towards it, and 
to run before there is any special influence to that end exerted 
by the development of the organs of generation. High water . 
on any of these rivers in the spring is always followed by an : 
increased run of salmon. The salmon-canners think—and this 
is probably true—that salmon which would not have run till 
later are brought up by the contact with the cold water. The } 
cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not understood. We 
may call it an instinct of the salmon, which is another way of 
expressing our ignorance. In general it seems to be true that 
in those rivers and during those years when the spring run is 
greatest the fall run is least to be depended on. 

The blue-back salmon runs chiefly in July and early August, 


Salmonidz 299 


beginning in late June in Chilcoot River, where some were 
found actually spawning July 15; beginning after the middle 
of July in Frazer River. 

As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these 
species (quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and 
in the fall these young specimens are very numerous. We have 
thus far failed to notice any gradations in size or appearance 
of these young fish by which their ages could be ascertained. 
It is, however, probable that some of both sexes reproduce at 
the age of one year. In Frazer River, in the fall, quinnat male 
grilse of every size, from eight inches upwards, were running, 
the milt fully developed, but usually not showing the hooked 
jaws and dark colors of the older males. Females less than 
eighteen inches in length were not seen. All of either sex, large 
and small, then in the river had the ovaries or milt developed. 
Little blue-backs of every size, down to six inches, are also 
found in the upper Columbia in the fall, with their organs of 
generation fully developed. Nineteen-twentieths of these young 
fish are males, and some of them have the hooked jaws and red 
color of the old males. Apparently all these young fishes, like 
the old ones, die after spawning. 

The average weight of the adult quinnat in the Columbia, 
in the spring, is twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento, about 
sixteen. Individuals weighing from forty to sixty pounds are 
frequently found in both rivers, and some as high as eighty or 
even one hundred pounds are recorded, especially in Alaska, 
where the species tends torun larger. It is questionable whether 
these large fishes are those which, of the same age, have grown 
more rapidly; those which are older, but have for some reason 
failed to spawn; or those which have survived one or more 
spawing seasons. All these origins may be possible in individual 
eases. There is, however, no positive evidence that any salmon 
of the Pacific survives the spawning season. 

Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their 
ascent till death or the spawning season overtakes them. Doubt- 
less not one of them ever returns to the ocean, and a large pro- 
portion fail to spawn. They are known to ascend the Sacra- 
mento to its extreme head-waters, about four hundred miles. 
In the Columbia they ascend as far as the Bitter Root and Saw- 


300 Salmonide 


tooth mountains of Idaho, and their extreme limit is not known. 
This is a distance of nearly a thousand miles. In the Yukon 
a few ascend to Caribou Crossing and Lake Bennett, 2250 miles. 
At these great distances, when the fish have reached the spawn- _ 
ing grounds, besides the usual changes of the breeding season 
their bodies are covered with bruises, on which patches of white 
fungus (Saprolegnia) develop. The fins become mutilated, 
their eyes are often injured or destroyed, parasitic worms gather 
in their gills, they become extremely emaciated, their flesh 
becomes white from the loss of oil; and as soon as the spawning 
act is accomplished, and sometimes before, all of them die. 
The ascent of the Cascades and the Dalles of the Columbia 
causes the injury or death of a great many salmon. 

When the salmon enter the river they refuse to take bait, 
and their stomachs are always found empty and contracted. 


Fie. 227.—Red Salmon (mutilated dwarf male after spawning), Oncorhynchus 
nerka (Walbaum). Alturas Lake, Idaho 

In the rivers they do not feed; and when they reach the spawn- 
ing grounds their stomachs, pyloric coeca and all, are said to 
be no larger than one’s finger. They will sometimes take the 
fly, or a hook baited with salmon-roe, in the clear waters of the 
upper tributaries, but this is apparently solely out of annoyance, 
snapping at the meddling line. Only the quinnat and blue-back 
(there called redfish) have been found at any great distance 
from the sea, and these (as adult fishes) only in late summer 
and fall. 

The spawning season is probably about the same for all the 
species. It varies for each of the different rivers, and for different 
parts of the same river. It doubtless extends from July to 


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302 Salmonide 


December, and takes place usually as soon as the temperature 
of the water falls to 54°. The manner of spawning is probably 
similar for all the species. In the quinnat the fishes pair off; 
the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad, shallow ‘“‘nest”’ 
in the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, at a depth 
of one to four feet and the female deposits her eggs in it. 
They then float down the stream tail foremost, the only 
fashion in which salmon descend to the sea. As already 
stated, in the head-waters of the large streams, unquestionably, 
all die; it is the belief of the writer that none ever survive. 
The young hatch in sixty days, and most of them return to 
the ocean during the high water of the spring. They enter the 
river as adults at the age of about four years. 

The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted 
or not according to the species, and with the mouth about equally 
symmetrical in both sexes. As the spawning season approaches 
the female loses her silvery color, becomes more slimy, the 
scales on the back partly sink into the skin, and the flesh changes 
from salmon-red and becomes variously paler, from the loss of 
oil; the degree of paleness varying much with individuals and 
with inhabitants of different rivers. In the Sacramento the 
flesh of the quinnat, in either spring or fall, is rarely pale. In 
the Columbia a few with pale flesh are sometimes taken in 
spring, and an increasing number from July on. In Frazer 
River the fall run of the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning 
purposes, because so many are “‘white-meated.”’ In the spring 
very few are ‘‘ white-meated ”’; but the number increases towards 
fall, when there is every variation, some having red streaks 
running through them, others being red toward the head and 
pale toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be dis- 
tinguished externally, and the color is dependent on neither 
age nor sex. There is said to be no difference in the taste, but 
there is little market for canned salmon not of the conventional 
orange-color. 

As the season advances the difference between the males 
and females becomes more and more marked, and keeps pace 
with the development of the milt, as is shown by dissection. 
The males have (1) the premaxillaries and the tip of the lower 
jaw more and more prolonged, both of the jaws becoming finally 


Salmonide 303 


strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either they 
shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth 
cannot be closed. (2) The front teeth become very long and 
canine-like, their growth proceeding very rapidly, until they 
are often half an inch long. (3) The teeth on the vomer and 
tongue often disappear. (4) The body grows more compressed 
and deeper at the shoulders, so that a very distinct hump is 
formed; this is more developed in the humpback salmon, but 
is found in all. (5) The scales disappear, especially on the 
back, by the growth of spongy skin. (6) The color changes 
from silvery to various shades of black and red, or blotchy, 
according to the species. The blue-back turns rosy-red, the 
head bright olive; the dog-salmon a dull red with blackish bars, 
and the quinnat generally blackish. The distorted males are 


Fie. 229.—Quinnat Salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha (Walbaum). 
Monterey Bay. (Photograph by C. Rutter.) 


commonly considered worthless, rejected by the canners and 
salmon-salters, but preserved by the Indians. These changes 
are due solely to influences connected with the growth of the 
reproductive organs. They are not in any way due to the 
action of fresh water. They take place at about the same time 
in the adult males of all species, whether in the ocean or in the 
rivers. At the time of the spring runs all are symmetrical. 
In the fall all males, of whatever species, are more or less dis- 
torted. Among the dog-salmon, which run only in the fall, 
the males are hook-jawed and red-blotched when they first 
enter the Strait of Fuca from the outside. The humpback, 
taken in salt water about Seattle, have the same peculiarities. 
The male is slab-sided, hook-billed, and distorted, and is re- 


304 Salmonide 


jected by the canners. No hook-jawed females of any species 
have been seen. 

On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if play- 
ing. They always head towards the current, and this appear- 
ance of playing may be simply due to facing the moving tide. 
Afterwards they enter the deepest parts of the stream and 
swim straight up, with few interruptions. Their rate of travel 
at Sacramento is estimated by Stone at about two miles per 
day; on the Columbia at about three miles per day. Those 
which enter the Columbia in the spring and ascend to the moun- 
tain rivers of Idaho must go at a more rapid rate than this, as 
they must make an average of nearly four miles per day. 

As already stated, the economic value of any species depends 
in great part on its being a “spring salmon.” It is not gen- 
erally possible to capture salmon of any species in large num- 
bers until they have entered the estuaries or rivers, and the 
spring salmon enter the large rivers long before the growth 
of the organs of reproduction has reduced the richness of the 
flesh. The fall salmon cannot be taken in quantity until their 
flesh has deteriorated; hence the dog-salmon is practically 
almost worthless except to the Indians, and the humpback 
salmon was regarded as little better until comparatively re- 
cently, when it has been placed on the market in cans as “ Pink 
Salmon.” It sells for about half the price of the red salmon 
and one-third that of the quinnat. The red salmon is smaller 
than the quinnat but, outside the Sacramento and the Columbia, 
far more abundant, and at present it exceeds the quinnat in 
economic value. The pack of red salmon in Alaska amounted 
in 1902 to over two million cases (48 pounds each), worth whole- 
sale about $4.00 per case, or about $8,000,000. The other species 
in Alaska yield about one million cases, the total wholesale value 
of the pack for 1902 being $8,667,673. ° The aggregate value of 
the quinnat is considerably less, but either species far exceed in 
value all other fishes of the Pacific taken together. The silver 
salmon is found in the inland waters of Puget Sound for a 
considerable time before the fall rains cause the fall runs, and 
it may be taken in large numbers with seines before the season 
for entering the rivers. 

The fall salmon of all species, but especially of the dog- 


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Salmonide 305 


salmon, ascend streams but a short distance before spawning. 
They seem to be in great anxiety to find fresh water, and many 
of them work their way up little brooks only a few inches deep, 
where they perish miserably, floundering about on the stones. 
Every stream of whatever kind, from San Francisco to Bering 
Sea, has more or less of these fall salmon. 

The absence of the fine spring salmon in the streams of 
Japan is the cause of the relative unimportance of the river 
fisheries of the northern island of Japan, Hokkaido. It is 
not likely that either the quinnat or the red salmon can be 
introduced into these rivers, as they have no snow-fed streams, 
and few of them pass through lakes which are not shut off by 
waterfalls. For the same reason neither of these species is 
likely to become naturalized in the waters of our Eastern States, 
though it is worth while to bring the red salmon to the St. 
Lawrence. The silver salmon, already abundant in Japan, 
should thrive in the rivers and bays of New England. 

The Parent-stream Theory.—It has been generally accepted 
as unquestioned by packers and fishermen that salmon return 
to spawn to the very stream in which they were hatched. As 
early as 1880 the present writer placed on record his opinion 
that this theory was unsound. In a general way most salmon 
return to the parent stream, because when in the sea the parent 
stream is the one most easily reached. The channels and run- 
ways which directed their course to the sea may influence their 
return trip in the same fashion. When the salmon is mature 
it seeks fresh water. Other things being equal, about the same 
number will run each year in the same channel. With all this, 
we find some curious facts. Certain streams will have a run 
of exceptionally large or exceptionally small red salmon. The 
time of the run bears some relation to the length of the stream: 
those who have farthest to go start earliest. The time of running 
bears also a relation to the temperature of the spawning grounds: 
where the waters cool off earliest the fish run soonest. 

The supposed evidence in favor of the parent-stream theory 
may be considered under three heads: * (1) Distinctive runs in 


* See an excellent article by H. S. Davis in the Pacific Fisherman for July, 
1903. 


es 


306 Salmonidz 


various streams. (2) Return of marked salmon. (3) Intro- 
duction of salmon into new streams followed by their return. 

Under the first head it is often asserted of fishermen that 
they can distinguish the salmon of different streams. Thus the 
Lynn Canal red salmon are larger than those in most waters, 
and it is claimed that those of Chilcoot Inlet are larger than those 
of the sister stream at Chilcat. The red salmon of Red Fish Bay 
on Baranof Island are said to be much smaller than usual, and 
those of the neighboring Necker Bay are not more than one- 
third the ordinary size. Those of a small rapid stream near 
Nass River are more wiry than those of the neighboring large 
stream. The same claim is made for the different streams of 
Puget Sound, each one having its characteristic run. In all 
this there is some truth and perhaps some exaggeration. I have 
noticed that the Chilcoot fish seem deeper in body than those 
at Chilcat. The red salmon becomes compressed before spawn- 
ing, and the Chilcoot fishes having a short run spawn earlier 
than the Chilcat fishes, which have many miles to go, the water 
being perhaps warmer at the mouth of the river. Perhaps 
some localities may meet the nervous reactions of small fishes, 
while not attracting the large ones. Mr. H. S. Davis well 
observes that ‘‘until a constant difference has been demon- 
strated by a careful examination of large numbers of fish from 
each stream taken at the same time, but little weight can be 
attached to arguments of this nature.” 

It is doubtless true as a general proposition that nearly 
all salmon return to the region: in which they were spawned. 
Most of them apparently never go far away from the mouth of 
the stream or the bay into which it flows. It is true that salmon 
are occasionally taken well out at sea, and it is certain that the 
red-salmon runs of Puget Sound come from outside the Straits 
of Fuca. There is, however, evidence that they rarely go so 
far as that. When seeking shore they do not reach the original 
channels. 

In 1880 the writer, studying the salmon of the Columbia, 
used the following words, which he has not had occasion to 
change: 

“Tt is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some 
special instinct which leads them to return to spawn in the 


Salmonide 307 


same spawning grounds where they were originally hatched. 
We fail to find any evidence of this in the case of the Pacific- 
coast salmon, and we do not believe it to be true. It seems 
more probable that the young salmon hatched in any river 
mostly remain in the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty, 
or forty miles of its mouth. These, in their movements about 
in the ocean, may. come into contact with the cold waters of 
their parent rivers, or perhaps of any other river, at a consider- 
able distance from the shore. In the case of the quinnat and 
the blue-back their ‘instinct’ seems to lead them to ascend 
these fresh waters, and in a majority of cases these waters will 
be those in which the fishes in question were originally spawned. 
Later in the season the growth of the reproductive organs leads 
them to approach the shore and search for fresh waters, and 
still the chances are that they may find the original stream. 
But undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend, 
streams in which no salmon was ever hatched. In little brooks 
about Puget Sound, where the water is not three inches deep, 
are often found dead or dying salmon which have entered them 
for the purpose of spawning. It is said of the Russian River 
and other California rivers that their mouths, in the time of 
low water in summer, generally become entirely closed by sand- 
bars, and that the salmon, in their eagerness to ascend them, 
frequently fling themselves entirely out of water on the beach. 
But this does not prove that the salmon are guided by a mar- 
velous geographical instinct which leads them to their parent 
Tiver in spite of the fact that the river cannot be found. The 
waters of Russian River soak through these sand-bars, and 
the salmon instinct, we think, leads them merely to search for 
fresh waters. This matter is much in need of further investi- 
gation; at present, however, we find no reason to believe that 
the salmon enter the Rogue River simply because they were 
spawned there, or that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas 
River is more likely, on that account, to return to the Clacka- 
mas than to go up the Cowlitz or the Des Chutes.” 

Attempts have been made to settle this question by marking 
the fry. But this is a very difficult matter indeed. Almost 
the only structure which can be safely mutilated is the adipose 
fin, and this is often nipped off by sticklebacks and other med- 


308 Salmonide 


dling fish. The following experiments have been tried, accord- 
ing to Mr. Davis: 

In March, 1896, 5000 king-salmon fry were marked by 
cutting off the adipose fin, then set free in the Clackamas River. 
Nearly 400 of these marked fish are said to have been taken in 
the Columbia in 1898, and a few more in 1899. In addition a 
few were taken in 1898, 1899, and 1900 in the Sacramento 
River, but in much less numbers than in the Columbia. In the 
Columbia most were taken at the mouth of the river, where 
nearly all of the fishing was done, but a few were in the original 
stream, the Clackamas. It is stated that the fry thus Set free 
in the Clackamas came from eggs obtained in the Sacramento— 
a matter which has, however, no bearing on the present case. 

In the Kalama hatchery on the Columbia River, Washing- 
ton, 2000 fry of the quinnat or king-salmon were marked in 
1899 by a V-shaped notch in the caudal fin. Numerous fishes 
thus marked were taken in the lower Columbia in 1901 and 1902. 
A few were taken at the Kalama hatchery, but some also at the 
hatcheries on Wind River and Clackamas River. At the 
hatchery on Chehalis River six or seven were taken, the stream 
not being a tributary of the Columbia, but flowing into Shoal- 
water Bay. None were noticed in the Sacramento. The evi- 
dence shows that the most who are hatched in a large stream 
tend to return to it, and that in general most salmon return 
to the parent region. There is no evidence that a salmon hatched 
in one branch of a river tends to return there rather than to 
any other. Experiments of - Messrs. Rutter and Spaulding in 
marking adult fish at Karluk would indicate that they roam 
rather widely about the island before spawning. An adult 
spawning fish, marked and set free at Karluk, was taken soon 
after on the opposite side of the island of Kadiak. 

The introduction of salmon into new streams may throw 
some light on this question. In 1897 and 1898 3,000,000 young 
quinnat-salmon fry were set free in Papermill Creek near Olema, 
California. This is a small stream flowing into the head of 
Tomales Bay, and it had never previously had a run of salmon. 
In 1900, and especially in 1901, large quinnat salmon appeared 
in considerable numbers in this stream. One specimen weigh- 
ing about sixteen pounds was sent to the present writer for 


Salmonidz 309 


identification. These fishes certainly returned to the parent 
stream, although this stream was one not at all fitted for their 
purpose. 

But this may be accounted for by the topography of the 
bay. Tomales Bay is a long and narrow channel, about twenty 
miles long and from one to five in width, isolated from other 
rivers and with but one tributary stream. Probably the 
salmon had not wandered far from it; some may not have left it 
at all. In any event, a large number certainly came back to the 
same place. 

That the salmon rarely go far away is fairly attested. Schools 
of king-salmon play in Monterey Bay, and chase the herring 
about in the channels of southeastern Alaska. A few years 
since Captain J. F. Moser, in charge of the Albatross, set gill- 
nets for salmon at various places in the sea off the Oregon and 
Washington coast, catching none except in the bays. 

Mr. Davis gives an account of the liberation of salmon in 
Chinook River, which flows into the Columbia at Baker’s Bay: 

“Tt is a small, sluggish stream and has never been fre- 
quented by Chinook salmon, although considerable numbers 
of silver and dog salmon enter it late in the fall. A few years 
ago the State established a hatchery on this stream, and since 
1898 between 1,000,000 and+2,000,000 Chinook fry have been 
turned out here annually. The fish are taken from the pound- 
nets in Baker’s Bay, towed into the river in crates and then 
liberated above the dike, which prevents their return to the 
Columbia. When ripe the salmon ascend to the hatchery, 
some two or three miles farther up the river, where they are 
spawned. 

“The superintendent of the hatchery, Mr. Hansen, informs 
me that in 1902, during November and December, quite a 
number of Chinook salmon ascended the Chinook River. About 
150 salmon of both sexes were taken in a trap located in the river 
about four miles from its mouth. At first thought it would 
appear that these were probably fish which, when fry, had been 
liberated in the river, but unfortunately there is no proof 
that this was the case. According to Mr. Hansen, the season 
of 1902 was remarkable in that the salmon ran inshore in large 
schools, a thing which they had not done before for years. It 


310 Salmonide 


is possible that the fish, being forced in close to the shore, came 
in contact with the current from the Chinook River, which, 
since the stream is small and sluggish, would not be felt far from 
shore. Once brought under the influence of the current from 
the river, the salmon would naturally ascend that stream, 
whether they had been hatched there or not.” 

The general conclusion, apparently warranted by the facts 
at hand, is that salmon, for the most part, do not go to a great 
distance from the stream in which they are hatched, that most 
of them return to the streams of the same region, a majority to 
the parent stream, but that there is no evidence that they choose 
the parental spawning grounds in preference to any other, and 
none that they will prefer an undesirable stream to a favorable 
one for the reason that they happen to have been hatched in 
the former. 

The Jadgeska Hatchery.—Mr. John C. Callbreath of Wrangel, 
Alaska, has long conducted a very interesting but very costly 
experiment in this line. About 1890 he established himself 
in a small stream called Jadgeska on the west coast of Etolin 
Island, tributary to McHenry Inlet, Clarence Straits. This 
stream led from a lake, and in it a few thousand red salmon 
spawned, besides multitudes of silver salmon, dog-salmon, and 
humpback salmon. Making a dam across the stream, he helped 
the red salmon over it, destroying all of the inferior kinds which 
entered the stream. He also established a hatchery for the 
red salmon, turning loose many fry yearly for ten or twelve 
years. This was done in the expectation that all the salmon 

atched would return to Jadgeska in about four years. By 

destroying all individuals of other species attempting to run, it 
was expected that they would become extinct so far as the 
stream is concerned. 

The result of this experiment has been disappointment. 
After twelve years or more there has been no increase of red 
salmon in the stream, and no decrease of humpbacks and other 
humbler forms of salmon. Mr. Callbreath draws the con- 
clusion that salmon run at a much greater age than has been 
supposed—at the age of sixteen years, perhaps, instead of four. 
A far more probable conclusion is that his salmon have joined 
other bands bound for more suitable streams. It is indeed 


Salmonidz R11 


claimed that since the establishment of Callbreath’s hatchery 
on Etolin Island there has been a notable increase of the salmon 
run in the various streams of Prince of Wales Island on the 
opposite side of Clarence Straits. But this statement, while 
largely current among the cannerymen, and not improbable, 
needs verification. 

We shall await with much interest the return of the thou- 
sands of salmon hatched in 1902 in Naha stream. We may 
venture the prophecy that while a large percentage will return 
to Loring, many others will enter Yes Bay, Karta Bay, Moira 
Sound, and other red-salmon waters along the line of their 
return from Dixon Entrance or the open sea. 

Salmon-packing.—The canning of salmon, that is, the packing 
of the flesh in tin cases, hermetically sealed after boiling, was 
begun on the Columbia River by the Hume Brothers in 1866. 
In 1874 canneries were established on the Sacramento River, 
in 1876 on Puget Sound and on Frazer River, and in 1878 in 
Alaska. At first only the quinnat salmon was packed; after- 
wards the red salmon and the silver salmon, and finally the 
humpback, known commercially as pink salmon. In most 
eases the flesh is packed in one-pound tins, forty-eight of 
which constitute a case. The wholesale price in 1903 was for 
quinnat salmon $5.60 per case, red salmon $4.00, silver salmon 
$2.60, humpback salmon $2.00, and dog-salmon $1.50. It costs 
in round numbers $2.00 to pack a case of salmon. The very 
low price of the inferior brands is due to overproduction. 

The output of the salmon fishery of the Pacific coast amounts 
to about fifteen millions per year, that of Alaska constituting 
seven to nine millions of thisamount. Of this amount the red 
salmon constitutes somewhat more than half, the quinnat about 
four-fifths of the rest. 

In almost all salmon streams there is evidence of considerable 
diminution in numbers, although the evidence is sometimes 
conflicting. In Alaska this has been due to the vicious custom, 
now done away with, of barricading the streams so that the 
fish could not reach the spawning grounds, but might be all 
taken with the net. In the Columbia River the reduction 
in numbers is mainly due to stationary traps and salmon- 
wheels, which leave the fish relatively little chance to reach the 


312 Salmonide 


spawning grounds. In years of high water doubtless many 
salmon run in the spring which might otherwise have waited 
until fall. 

The key to the situation lies in the artificial propagation of 
salmon by means of well-ordered hatcheries. By this means the 
fisheries of the Sacramento have been fully restored, those of the 
Columbia approximately maintained, and a hopeful beginning 
has been made in hatching red salmon in Alaska. 

The preservation of salmon and trout depends rather on 
artificial hatching than on protection. 

Salmo, the Trout and Atlantic Salmon.— The genus Salmo 
comprises those forms of salmon which have been longest 
known. As in related genera, the mouth is large, and the 
jaws, palatines, and tongue are armed with strong teeth. The 
vomer is flat, its shaft not depressed below the level of the 
head or chevron (the anterior end). There are a few teeth on 
the chevron; and behind it, on the shaft, there is either a 
double series of teeth or an irregular single series. These teeth 
in the true salmon disappear with age, but in the others (the 
black-spotted trout) they are persistent. The scales are silvery 
and moderate or small in size. There are g to 11 developed 
tays in the anal fin. The caudal fin is truncate, or variously 
concave or forked. There are usually 40 to 70 pyloric cceca, 
11 or 12 branchiostegals, and about 20 (8+12) gill-rakers. 
The sexual peculiarities are in general less marked than in 
Oncorhynchus; they are also greater in the anadromous species 
than in those which inhabit .fresh waters. In general the 
male in the breeding season is redder, its jaws are prolonged, 
the front teeth enlarged, the lower jaw turned upwards at the 
end, and the upper jaw notched, or sometimes even perforated, 
by the tip of the lower. All the species of Salmo (like those of 
Oncorhynchus) are more or less spotted with black. Unlike 
the species of Oncorhynchus, the species of Salmo feed more or less 
while in fresh water, and the individuals for the most part 
do not die after spawning, although many old males do thus 
perish. 

The Atlantic Salmon.—The large species of Salmo, called 
salmon by English-speaking people (Salmo salar, Salmo trutta), 
are marine and anadromous, taking the place in the North 
Atlantic occupied in the North Pacific by the species of Onco- 


"7 


Salmonidze ae 


rhynchus. Two others more or less similar in character occur 
in Japan and Kamchatka. The others (trout), forming the 
subgenus Salar, are non-migratory, or at least irregularly 
or imperfectly anadromous. The true or black-spotted trout 
abound in all streams of northern Europe, northern Asia, and 
in that part of North America which lies west of the Mississippi 
Valley. The black-spotted trout are entirely wanting in eastern 
America—a remarkable fact in geographical distribution, perhaps 
explained only on the hypothesis of the comparatively recent 
and Eurasiatic origin of the group, which, we may suppose, has 
not yet had opportunity to extend its range across the plains, 
unsuitable for salmon life, which separate the upper Missouri 
from the Great Lakes. 

The salmon (Salmo salar) is the only black-spotted sal- 
monoid found in American waters tributary to the Atlantic. 
In Europe, where’ other species similarly colored occur, the 
species may be best distinguished by the fact that the teeth 
on the shaft of the vomer mostly disappear with age. ‘ From 
the only other species positively known, the salmon trout (Salmo 
trutta), which shares this character, the true salmon may be 
distinguished by the presence of but eleven scales between the 
adipose fin and the lateral line, while Salmo trutta has about 
fourteen. The scales are comparatively large in the salmon, 
there being about one hundred and twenty-five in the lateral 
line. The caudal fin, which is forked in the young, becomes, 
as in other species of salmon, more or less truncate with age. 
The pyloric cceca are fifty to sixty in number. 

The color in adults, according to Dr. Day, is “superiorly of 
a steel-blue, becoming lighter on the sides and beneath. Mostly 
a few rounded or X-shaped spots scattered above the lateral 
line and upper half of the head, being more numerous in the 
female than in the male. Dorsal, caudal, and pectoral fins 
dusky; ventrals and anal white, the former grayish internally. 
Prior to entering fresh waters these fish are of a brilliant steel- 
blue along the back, which becomes changed to a muddy tinge 
when they enter rivers. After these fish have passed into the 
fresh waters for the purpose of breeding, numerous orange 
streaks appear in the cheeks of the male, and also spots or 
even marks of the same, and likewise of a red color, on the body. 


314 Salmonide 


It is now termed a ‘redfish.’ The female, however, is dark 
in color and known as ‘blackfish.’ ‘Smolts’ (young river fish) 
are bluish along the upper half of the body, silvery along the 
sides, due to a layer of silvery scales being formed over the 
trout-like colors, while they have darker fins than the yearling 
‘ping,’ but similar bands and spots, which can be seen (as 
in the parr) if the example be held in certain positions of light. 
‘Parr’ (fishes of the year) have two or three black spots only 
on the opercle, and black spots and also orange ones along the 
upper half of the body, and no dark ones below the lateral line, 
although there may be orange ones which can be seen in its 
course. Along the side of the body are a series (12 to 15) of 
transverse bluish bands, wider than the ground color and crossing 
the lateral line, while in the upper half of the body the darker 
color of the back forms an arch over each of these bands, a 
row of spots along the middle of the rayed dorsal fin, and the 
adipose orange-tipped.”’ 

The dusky cross-shades found in the young salmon or parr 
are characteristic of the young of salmon, trout, grayling, and 
nearly all the other Salmonide. 

The salmon of the Atlantic is, as already stated, an anadro- 
mous fish, spending most of its life in the sea, and entering the 
streams in the fall for the purpose of reproduction. The time 
of running varies much in different streams and also in different 
countries. As with the Pacific species, these salmon are not 
easily discouraged in their progress, leaping cascades and other 
obstructions, or, if these prove impassable, dying after repeated 
fruitless attempts. 

The young salmon, known as the “parr,” is hatched in the 
spring. It usually remains about two years in the rivers, de- 
scending at about the third spring to the sea, when it is known 
as ‘‘smolt.’’ In the sea it grows much more rapidly, and becomes 
more silvery in color, and is known as “grilse.”’ The grilse 
rapidly develop into the adult salmon; and some of them, as in 
the case with the grilse of the Pacific salmon, are capable of 
reproduction, 

After spawning the salmon are very lean and unwholesome 
in appearance, as in fact. They are then known as “kelts.” 
The Atlantic salmon does not ascend rivers to any such dis- 


Salmonidz 315 


tances as those traversed by the quinnat and the blue-back. 
Its kelts, therefore, for the most part survive the act of spawn- 
ing. Dr. Day thinks that they feed upon the young salmon in the 
rivers, and that, therefore, the destruction of the kelts might 
increase the supply of salmon. 

As a food-fish the Atlantic salmon is very similar to the 
quinnat salmon, neither better nor worse, so far as I can see, 
when equally fresh. In both the flesh is rich and finely flavored ; 
but the appetite of man becomes cloyed with salmon-flesh sooner 
than with that of whitefish, smelt, or charr. In size the Atlan- 
tic salmon does not fall far short of the quinnat. The average 
weight of the adult is probably less than fifteen pounds. The 
largest one of which I find a record was taken on the coast of 
Ireland in 1881, and weighed 84? pounds. 

The salmon is found in Europe between the latitude of 45° 
and 75°. In the United States it is now rarely seen south of 
Cape Cod, although formerly the Hudson and numerous other 
rivers were salmon-streams. Overfishing, obstructions in the 
rivers, and pollution of the water by manufactories and by 
city sewage are agencies against which the salmon cannot cope. 

Seven species of salmon (as distinguished from trout) are 
recognized by Dr. Gunther in Europe, and three in America. 
The landlocked forms, abundant in Norway, Sweden, and 
Maine, which cannot, or at least do not, descend to the sea, are 
regarded by him as distinct species. ‘‘The question,’’ observes 
Dr Gunther, “whether any of the migratory species can be 
retained by artificial means in fresh water, and finally accom- 
modate themselves to a permanent sojourn therein, must be 
negatived for the present.’’ On this point I think that the 
balance of evidence leads to a different conclusion. These 
fresh-water forms (Sebago and Ouananiche) are actually salmon 
which have become landlocked. I have compared numerous 
specimens of the common landlocked salmon (Salmo salar 
sebago) of the lakes of Maine and New Brunswick with land- 
locked salmon (Salmo salar hardinz) from the lakes of Sweden, 
and with numerous migratory salmon, both from America and 
Europe. I see no reason for regarding them as specifically 
distinct. The differences are very trivial in kind, and not 
greater than would be expected on the hypothesis of recent 


316 Salmonide 


adaptation of the salmon to lake life. We have therefore on 
our Atlantic coast but one species of salmon, Salmo salar. The 
landlocked form of the lakes of Maine is Salmo salar sebago, 
The Ouananiche of Lake St. John and the Saguenay, beloved of 
anglers, is Salmo salar ouananiche. 

The Ouananiche.—Dr. Henry Van Dyke writes thus of the 
Ouananiche: ‘But the prince of the pool was the fighting 
Ouananiche, the little salmon of St. John. Here let me chant 
thy praise, thou noblest and most high-minded fish, the cleanest 
feeder, the merriest liver, the loftiest leaper, and the bravest 
warrior of all creatures that swim! Thy cousin, the trout, in 
his purple and gold with crimson spots, wears a more splendid 
armor than thy russet and silver mottled with black, but thine 
is the kinglier nature. 

“The old salmon of the sea who begat thee long ago in these 
inland waters became a backslider, descending again to the 
ocean, and grew gross and heavy with coarse feeding. But thou, 
unsalted salmon of the foaming floods, not landlocked as men call 
thee, but choosing of thine own free will to dwell on a loftier 
level in the pure, swift current of a living stream, hath grown 
in grace and risen to a better life. 

“Thou art not to be measured by quantity but by quality, 
and thy five pounds of pure vigor will outweigh a score of 
pounds of flesh less vitalized by spirit. Thou feedest on the 
flies of the air, and thy food is transformed into an aerial passion 
for flight, as thou springest across the pool, vaulting toward the 
sky. Thine eyes have grown large and keen by piercing through 
the foam, and the feathered hook that can deceive thee must 
be deftly tied and delicately cast. Thy tail and fins, by cease- 
less conflict with the rapids, have broadened and strengthened, 
so that they can flash thy slender body like a living arrow up 
the fall. As Launcelot among the knights, so art thou among 
the fish, the plain-armored hero, the sunburnt champion of all 
the water-folk.” 

Dr. Francis Day, who has very thoroughly studied these 
fishes, takes, in his memoir on ‘“‘The Fishes of Great Britain 
and Ireland,” and in other papers, a similar view in regard 
to the European species. Omitting the species with permanent 
teeth on the shaft of the vomer (subgenus Salar), he finds 


— 


Salmonidz 217 


among the salmon proper only two species, Salmo salar and 
Salmo trutta. The latter species, the sea-trout or salmon-trout 
of England and the estuaries of northern Europe, is similar to 
the salmon in many respects, but has rather smaller scales, 
there being fourteen in an oblique series between the adipose 
fin and the lateral line. It is not so strong a fish as the salmon, 
nor does it reach so large a size. Although naturally anadro- 
mous, like the true salmon, landlocked forms of the salmon- 
trout are not uncommon. These have been usually regarded 
as different species, while aberrant or intermediate individuals 
are usually regarded as hybrids. The salmon-trout of Europe 
have many analogies with the steelhead of the Pacific. 

The present writer has examined many thousands of Ameri- 
can Salmonide, both of Oncorhynchus and Salmo. While many 
variations have come to his attention, and he has been com- 
pelled more than once to modify his views as to specific dis- 
tinctions, he has never yet seen an individual which he had 
the slightest reason to regard as a “‘hybrid.’”’ It is certainly 
illogical to conclude that every specimen which does not corre- 
spond to our closet-formed definition of its species must therefore 
be a “hybrid”’ with some other. There is no evidence worth 
mentioning, known to me, of extensive hybridization in a state 
of nature in any group of fishes. This matter is much in need 
of further study; for what is true of the species in one region, 
in this regard, may not be true of others. Dr. Gtinther observes: 

“Johnson, a correspondent of Willughby, had already ex- 
pressed his belief that the different salmonoids interbreed; 
and this view has since been shared by many who have ob- 
served these fishes in nature. Hybrids between the sewin 
(Salmo trutta cambricus) and the river-trout (Salmo fario) were 
numerous in the Rhymney and other rivers of South Wales 
before salmonoids were almost exterminated by the pollutions 
allowed to pass into these streams, and so variable in their 
characters that the passage from one species to the other could 
be demonstrated in an almost unbroken series, which might 
induce some naturalists to regard both species as identical. 
Abundant evidence of a similar character has accumulated, 
showing the frequent occurrence of hybrids between Salmo 
fario and S. trutta. . . . In some rivers the conditions appear 


318 Salmonide 


to be more favorable to hybridism than in others in which 
hybrids are of comparatively rare occurrence. Hybrids be- 
tween the salmon and other species are very scarce everywhere.” 

Very similar to the European Salmo trutta is the trout of Japan 
(Salmo perryt), the young called yamabe, the adult kawamasu, 
or river-salmon. This species abounds everywhere in Japan, 
the young being the common trout of the brooks, black-spotted 
and crossed by parr-marks, the adult reaching a weight of ten 
or twelve pounds in the larger rivers and descending to the sea. 
In Kamchatka is another large, black-spotted, salmon-like 
species properly to be called a salmon-trout. This is Salmo 
mykiss, a name very wrongly applied to the cutthroat trout of 
the Columbia. 

The black-spotted trout, forming the subgenus Salar, difter 
from Salmo salar and Salmo trutta in the greater develop- 
ment of the vomerine teeth, which are persistent throughout 
life, in a long double series on the shaft of the vomer. About 
seven species are laboriously distinguished by Dr. Gunther 
in the waters of western Europe. Most of these are regarded 
by Dr. Day as varieties of Salmo fario. The latter species, 
the common river-trout or lake-trout of Europe, is found through- 
out northern and central Europe, wherever suitable waters 
occur. It is abundant, gamy, takes the hook readily, and is 
excellent as food. It is more hardy than the different species 
of charr, although from an esthetic point of view it must be 
regarded as inferior to all of the Salvelini. The largest river- 
trout recorded by Dr. Day weighed twenty-one pounds. Such 
large individuals are usually found in lakes in the north, well 
stocked with smaller fishes on which trout may feed. Far- 
ther south, where the surroundings are less favorable to trout- 
life, they become mature at a length of less than a foot, and a 
weight of a few ounces. These excessive variations in the size 
of individuals have received too little notice from students of 
Salmonide. Similar variations occur in all the non-migratory 
species of Salmo and of Salvelinus. Numerous river-trout have 
been recorded from northern Asia, but as yet nothing can be 
definitely stated as to the number of species actually existing. 

The Black-spotted Trout——In North America only the re- 
gion west of the Mississippi Valley, the streams of southeastern 


Salmonidz 319 


Alaska, and the valley of Mackenzie River have species of 
black-spotted trout. There are few of these north of Sitka in 
Alaska, although black-spotted trout are occasionally taken on 
Kadiak and about Bristol Bay, and none east of the Rocky 
Mountain region. If we are to follow the usage of the names 
“salmon” and “trout”’ which prevails in England, we should 
say that, in America, it is only these western regions which 
have any trout at all. Of the number of species (about twenty- 
five in all) which have been indicated by authors, certainly not 
more than about 8 to 1o can possibly be regarded as distinct 
species. The other names are either useless synonyms, or else 
they have been applied to local varieties which pass by degrees 
into the ordinary types. 

The Trout of Western America.—In the western part of America 
are found more than a score of forms of trout of the genus Salmo, 
all closely related and difficult to distinguish. There are represen- 
tatives in the headwaters of the Rio Grande, Arkansas, South 
Platte, Missouri, and Colorado rivers; also in the Great Salt Lake 
basin, throughout the Columbia basin, in all suitable waters from 
southern California and Chihuahua to Sitka, and even to Bristol 
Bay, similar forms again appearing in Kamchatka and Japan. 

Among the various more or less tangible species that may 
be recognized, three distinct series appear. These have been 
termed the cutthroat-trout series (allies of Salmo clarkiz), the 
rainbow-trout series (allies of Salmo trideus), and the steel- 
head series (allies of Salmo rivularis, a species more usually but 
wrongly called Salmo gairdnert). 

The steelhead, or rivularis series, is found in the coastwise 
streams of California and in the streams of Oregon and Washing- 
ton, below the great Shoshone Falls of Snake River, and north- 
ward in Alaska along the mainland as far as Skaguay. The 
steelhead-trout reach a large size (10 to 20 pounds). They 
spend a large part of their life in the sea. In all the true steel- 
heads the head is relatively very short, its length being contained 
about five times in the distance from tip of snout to base of 
caudal fin. The scales in the steelhead are always rather small, 
about 150 in a linear series, and there is no red under the throat. 
The spots on the dorsal fin are fewer in the steelhead (4 to 6 
rows) than in the other American trout. 


320 Salmonidez 


The rainbow forms are chiefly confined to the streams of 
California and Oregon. In these the scales are large (about 135 
in a lengthwise series) and the head is relatively large, forming 
nearly one-fourth of the length to base of caudal. These enter 
the sea only when in the small coastwise streams. Usually 
they have no red under the throat. The cutthroat forms are 
found from Humboldt Bay northward as far as Sitka, in 
the coastwise streams of northern California, Oregon, Wash- 
ington, and Alaska, and all the clear streams on both sides 
of the Rocky Mountains, and in the Great Basin and the 
headwaters of the Colorado. The cutthroat-trout have the 
scales small, about 180, and there is always a bright dash of © 
orange-red on each side concealed beneath the branches of the 
lower jaw. Along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada there 
are also forms of trout with the general appearance of rainbow- 
trout and evidently belonging to that species, but with scales 
intermediate in number (in McCloud River), var. shasta, or with 
scales as small as in the typical cutthroat (Kern River), var. 
gilberti. In these small-scaled forms more or less red appears 
below the lower jaw, and they are doubtless what they appear to 
be, really intermediate between clarkii and irideus, although 
certainly nearest the latter. A similar series of forms occurs in 
the Columbia basin, the upper Snake being inhabited by clarkiz 
and the lower Snake by clarkii and rivularis, together with a 
medley of forms apparently intermediate. 

It seems probable that the American trout originated i in 
Asia, extended its range to southeast Alaska, thence southward 
to the Fraser and Columbia, thence to the Yellowstone and 
the Missouri via Two-Ocean Pass; from the Snake River to the 
Great Basins of Utah and Nevada; from the Missouri south- 
ward to the Platte and the Arkansas, thence from the Platte 
to the Rio Grande and the Colorado, and then from Oregon 
southward coastwise and along the Sierras to northern Mexico, 
thence northward and coastwise, the sea-running forms passing 
from stream to stream. 

Of the American species the rainbow trout of California 
(Salmo irideus) most nearly approaches the European Salmo 
fario. It has the scales comparatively large, although rather 
smaller than in Salmo fario, the usual number in a longitudinal 


Salmonide 321 


series being about 135. The mouth is smaller than in other 
American trout; the maxillary, except in old males, rarely 
extending beyond the eye. The caudal fin is well forked, 
becoming in very old fishes more nearly truncate. The head 
is relatively large, about four times in the total length. The 
size of the head forms the be:t distinctive character. The 
color, as in all the other species, is bluish, the sides silvery in 
the males, with a red lateral band, and reddish and dusky 
blotches. The head, back, and upper fins are sprinkled with 
round black spots, which are very variable in number, those 
on the dorsal usually in about nine rows. In specimens taken 


Fic, 230.— Rainbow Trout (male), Salmo irideus shasta Jordan. (Photograph by 
Cloudsley Rutter.) 


in the sea this species, like most other trout in similar con- 
ditions, is bright silvery, and sometimes immaculate. This 
species is especially characteristic of the waters of California. 
It abounds in every clear brook, from the Mexican line north- 
ward to Mount Shasta, or beyond, the species passing in the 
Columbia region by degrees into the species or form known as 
Salmo masont, the Oregon rainbow trout, a small rainbow trout 
common in the forest streams of Oregon, with smaller mouth and 
fewer spots on the dorsal. No true rainbow trout have been 
anywhere obtained to the eastward of the Cascade Range or 
of the Sierra Nevada, except as artificially planted in the Tru- 
ckee River. The species varies much in size; specimens from 
northern California often reach a weight of six pounds, while 
in the streams above Tia Juana in Lower California the south- 


322 Salmonidz 


ernmost locality from which I have obtained trout, they seldom 
exceed a length of six inches. Although not usually an ana- 
dromous species, the rainbow trout frequently moves about in 
the rivers, and it often enters the sea, large sea-run specimens 
being often taken for steelheads. Several attempts have been 
made to introduce it in Eastern streams, but it appears to seek 
the sea when it is lost. It is apparently more hardy and 
less greedy than the American charr, or brook-trout (Salvelinus 


7 


Fie. 231.—Rainbow Trout (female), Salmo irideus shasta Jordan, 
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) 


fontinalis). On the other hand, it is distinctly inferior to the 
latter in beauty and in gaminess. 

In the Kings and Kern rivers of California occurs a beautiful 
trout, Salmo gilberti, a variant of Salmo trideus, but with smaller 
scales. In isolated streams with a bottom of red granite at the 
head-waters of the Kern are three species called ‘‘ golden trout,”’ 
all small and all brilliantly colored, each of the species being 
independently derived from Salmo gilbertt, the special traits 
fixed through isolation. These species are Salmo aguabonita 
Jordan, of the South Fork of the Kern, Salmo roosevelti Ever- 
mann of Volcano Creek, and Salmo whitet Evermann of Soda 
Creek. These rank with the most beautiful of all the many 
forms of trout, in which group their coloration is quite unique. 

In beauty of color, gracefulness of form and movement 


Pm 


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LOOUL YHAIM NAAM 


Salmonidz 323 


sprightliness when in the water, reckless dash with which it 
springs from the water to meet the descending fly ere it strikes 
the surface, and the mad and repeated leaps from the water 
when hooked, the rainbow trout must ever hold a very high rank. 
“The gamest fish we have ever seen,” writes Dr. Evermann, “was 
a 16-inch rainbow taken on a fly in a small spring branch tribu- 
tary of Williamson River in southern Oregon. It was in a 
broad and deep pool of exceedingly clear water. As the angler 
from behind a clump of willows made the cast the trout bounded 
from the water and met the fly in the air a foot or more above 
the surface; missing it, he dropped upon the water, only to 
turn about and strike viciously a second time at the fly just as 
it touched the surface; though he again missed the fly, the 
hook caught him in the lower jaw from the outside, and then 
began a fight which would delight the heart of any angler. His 
first effort was to reach the bottom of the pool, then, doubling 
upon the line, he made three jumps from the water in quick 
succession, clearing the surface in each instance from one to 
four feet, and every time doing his utmost to free himself from 
the hook by shaking his head as vigorously as a dog shakes a 
tat. Then he would rush wildly about in the large pool, now 
attempting to go down over the riffle below the pool, now 
trying the opposite direction, and often striving to hide under 
one or the other of the banks. It was easy to handle the fish 
when the dash was made up or down stream or for the opposite 
side, but when he turned about and made a rush for the protec- 
tion of the overhanging bank upon which the angler stood it 
was not easy to keep the line taut. Movements such as these 
were frequently repeated, and two more leaps were made. But 
finally he was worn out after as honest a fight as trout ever 
made.” : 

“The rainbow takes the fly so readily that there is no reason 
for resorting to grasshoppers, salmon-eggs, or other bait. It is 
a fish whose gaminess will satisfy the most exacting of expert 
anglers and whose readiness to take any proper line will please 
the most impatient of inexperienced amateurs.”’ 

The steelhead (Salmo rivularis) is a large trout, reaching 
twelve to twenty pounds in weight, found abundantly in river 
estuaries and sometimes in lakes from Lynn Canal to Santa 


324 Salmonidez 


Barbara. The spent fish abound in the rivers in spring at the 
time of the salmon-run. The species is rarely canned, but is 
valued for shipment in cold storage. Its bones are much more 
firm than those of the salmon—a trait unfavorable for canning 
purposes. The flesh when n>5t spent after spawning is excellent. 
The steelhead does not die after spawning, as all the Pacific 
salmon do. 

It is thought by some anglers that the young fish hatched 
in the brooks from eggs of the steelhead remain in mountain 
streams from six to thirty-six months, going down to the sea 
with the high waters of spring, after which they return to spawn 
as typical steelhead trout. I now regard this view as un- 
founded. In my experience the rainbow and the steelhead are 
always distinguishable: the steelhead abounds where the rain- 


Fic. 232.,—Steelhead Trout, Salmo rivularis Ayres. Columbia River. 


bow trout is unknown; the scales in the steelhead are always 
smaller (about 155) than in typical rainbow trout; finally, 
the small size of the head in the steelhead is always distinctive. 

The Kamloops trout, described by the writer from the upper 
Columbia, seems to be a typical steelhead as found well up the 
rivers away from the sea. Derived from the steelhead, but 
apparently quite distinct from it, are three very noble trout, 
all confined so far as yet known to Lake Crescent in northwestern 
Washington. These are the crescent trout, Salmo crescentis, 
the Beardslee trout, Salmo beardsleet, and the long-headed trout, 
Salmo bathecetor. The first two, discovered by Admiral L. A. 
Beardslee, are trout of peculiar attractiveness and excellence. 
The third is a deep-water form, never rising to the surface, 
and caught only on set lines. Its origin is still uncertain, and 
it may be derived from some type other than the steelhead. 


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Salmonidze 225 


Cutthroat or Red-throated Trout.— This species has much 
smaller scales than the rainbow trout or steelhead, the usual 
number in a longitudinal series being 160 to 170. Its head is 
longer (about four times in length to base of caudal). Its 
mouth is proportionately larger, and there is always a narrow 
band of small teeth on the hyoid bone at the base of the tongue. 
These teeth are always wanting in Salmo irideus and rivularis 
in which species the rim of the tongue only has teeth. The 
color in Salmo clarkit is, as in other species, exceedingly variable. 
In life there is always a deep-red blotch on the throat, between 
the branches of the lower jaw and the membrane connecting 
them. This is not found in other species, or is reduced to a 
narrow strip or pinkish shade. It seems to be constant in 
all varieties of Salmo clarkit, at all ages, thus furnishing a good 
distinctive character. It is the sign manual of the Sioux Indians, 
and the anglers have already accepted from this mark the name 
of cutthroat-trout. The cutthroat-trout of some species is 
found in every suitable river and lake in the great basin of 
Utah, in the streams of Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana, on 
both sides of the Rocky Mountains. It is also found throughout 
Oregon, Washington, Idaho, British Columbia, the coastwise 
islands of southeastern Alaska (Baranof, etc.), to Kadiak and 
Bristol Bay, probably no stream or lake suitable for trout-life 
being without it. In California the species seems to be com- 
paratively rare, and its range rarely extending south of Cape 
Mendocino. Large sea-run individuals analogous to the steelheads 
are sometimes found in the mouth of the Sacramento. In Wash- 
ington and Alaska this species regularly enters the sea. In Puget 
Sound it is a common fish. These sea-run individuals are more 
silvery and less spotted than those found in the mountain streams 
and lakes. The size of Salmo clarkit is subject to much variation. 
Ordinarily four to six pounds is a large size; but in certain 
favored waters, as Lake Tahoe, and the fjords of southeastern 
Alaska, specimens from twenty to thirty pounds are occasionally 
taken. 

Those species or individuals dwelling in lakes of considerable 
size, where the water is of such temperature and depth as in- 
sures an ample food-supply, will reach a large size, while those 
in a restricted environment, where both the water and food are 


326 Salmonide 


limited, will be small directly in proportion to these environing 
restrictions. The trout of the Klamath Lakes, for example, reach 
a weight of at least 17 pounds, while in Fish Lake in Idaho mature 
trout do not exceed 8 to 9} inches in total length or one-fourth 
pound in weight. In small creeks in the Sawtooth Mountains 
and elsewhere they reach maturity at a length of 5 or 6 inches, 
and are often spoken of as brook-trout and with the impression 
that they are a species different from the larger ones found in 
the lakes and larger streams. But as all sorts and gradations 
between these extreme forms may be found in the intervening 
and connecting waters, the differences are not even of sub- 
specific significance. 

Dr. Evermann observes: ‘‘The various forms of cutthroat- 
trout vary greatly in game qualities; even the same subspecies 
in different waters, in different parts of its habitat, or at different 


Fia. 233 Fie 234 
Fig. 233.—Head of adult Trout-worm, Dib thrium c rdicens Leidy, a parasite of 


Salmo clarkii. From intestine of white pelican, Yellowstone Lake. (After 
PF sa. SL Medion segments of Dib thrium c rdiceps. 
seasons, will vary greatly in this regard. In general, however, 
it is perhaps a fair statement to say that the cutthroat-trout 
are regarded by anglers as being inferior in gaminess to the 
Eastern brook-trout. But while this is true, it must not by any 
means be inferred that it is without game qualities, for it is 
really a fish which possesses those qualities in a very high degree. 
Its vigor and voraciousness are determined largely, of course, 
by the character of the stream or lake in which it lives. The 
individuals which dwell in cold streams about cascades and 
seething rapids will show marvelous strength and will make a 
fight which is rarely equaled by its Eastern cousin; while in 
warmer and larger streams and lakes they may be very sluggish 
and show but little fight. Yet this is by no means always true. 
In the Klamath Lakes, where the trout grow very large and 


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Salmonidz 327 


where they are often very logy, one is occasionally hooked 
which tries to the utmost the skill of the angler to prevent his 
tackle from being smashed and at the same time save the fish.” 

Of the various forms derived from Salmo clarkit some mere 
varieties, some distinct species, the following are among the 
most marked: 

Salmo henshawi, the trout of Lake Tahoe and its tributaries 
and outlet, Truckee River, found in fact also in the Humboldt 


Fig. 235.—Tahoe Trout, Salmo henshawi Gill & Jordan. Lake Tahoe, California. 


and the Carson and throughout the basin of the former glacial 
lake called Lake Lahontan. This is a distinct species from 
Salmo clarkiz and must be regarded as the finest of all the cut- 
throat-trout. It is readily known by its spotted belly, the 
black spots being evenly scattered over the whole surface of 
the body, above and below. This is an excellent game-fish, and 
from Lake Tahoe and Pyramid Lake it is brought in large num- 
bers to the markets of San Francisco. In the depths of Lake 
Tahoe, which is the finest mountain lake of the Sierra Nevada, 
occurs a very large variety which spawns in the lake, Salmo 
henshawt tahoensis. This reaches a weight of twenty-eight 
pounds. 

In the Great Basin of Utah is found a fine trout, very close 
to the ordinary cutthroat of the Columbia, from which it is 
derived. This is known as Salmo clarkii virginalis. In Utah 
Lake it reaches a large size. 

In Waha Lake in Washington, a lake without outlet, is found 
a small trout with peculiar markings called Salmo clarkit bou- 
viert. 

In the head-waters of the Platte and Arkansas rivers is the 
small green-back trout, green or brown, with red throat-patch 


328 Salmonide 


and large black spots. This is Salmo clarkit stomias, and it is 
especially fine in St. Vrain’s River and the streams of Estes Park. 


Fic. 236 —Green-back Trout, Salmo stomiasCope. Arkansas River, Leadville, Colo. 


In Twin Lakes, a pair of glacial lakes tributary of the Arkansas 
near Leadville, is found Salmo clarkii macdonaldi, the yellow- 
finned trout, a large and very handsome species living in deep 
water, and with the fins golden yellow. This approaches the 
Colorado trout, Salmo clarkii pleuriticus, and it may be derived 


Fig. 237 —Yellow-fin Trout of Twin Lakes, Salmo macdonaldi Jordan & Evermann. 
Twin Lakes, Colo. 


from the latter, although it occurs in the same waters as the 
very different green-back trout, or Salmo clarkii stomias. 

Two fine trout derived from Salmo clarkii have been lately 
discovered by Dr. Daniel G. Elliot in Lake Southerland, a moun- 
tain lake near Lake Crescent, but not connected with it, the 
two separated from the sea by high waterfalls. These have 
been described by Dr. Seth E. Meek as Salmo jordan, the 
‘spotted trout’? of Lake Southerland, and Salmo declivifrons, 
the ‘“‘salmon-trout.’”” These seem to be distinct forms or sub- 
species produced through isolation. 


j 


Salmonidze 329 


The Rio Grande trout (Salmo clarkii spilurus) is a large and 
profusely spotted trout, found in the head-waters of the Rio 


Fig. 238.—Rio Grande Trout, Salmo clarkiit spilurus Cope. Del Norte, Colo. 


Grande, the mountain streams of the Great Basin of Utah, and 
as far south as the northern part of Chihuahua. Its scales are 
still smaller than those of the ordinary cutthroat-trout, and the 
black spots are chiefly confined to the tail. Closely related to 


Fie. 289.—Colorado River Trout, Salmo clarkii pleuriticus Cope. 
Trapper’s Lake, Colo. 


it is the trout of the Colorado Basin, Salmo clarkii pleuriticus, 
a large and handsome trout with very small scales, much sought 
by anglers in western Colorado, and abounding in all suitable 
streams throughout the Colorado Basin. 

Hucho, the Huchen.— The genus Hucho has been framed 
for the Huchen or Rothfisch (Hucho hucho) of the Danube, a 
very large trout, differing from the genus Salmo in having no 
teeth on the shaft of the vomer, and from the Salvelini at least 
in form and coloration. The huchen is a long and slender, 
somewhat pike-like fish, with depressed snout and strong teeth. 

, 


330 Salmonidz 


The color is silvery, sprinkled with small black dots. It reaches 
a size little inferior to that of the salmon, and it is said to be 
an excellent food-fish. In northern Japan is a similar species, 


Fie. 240 —Ito, Hucho blackistoni (Hilgendorf). Hokkaido, Japan 


Hucho blackistoni, locally known as Ito, a large and handsome 
trout with very slender body, reaching a length of 2} feet. It 
is well worthy of introduction into American and European 
waters. 

Salvelinus, the Charr.—The genus Salvelinus comprises the 
finest of the Salmonide, from the point of view of the angler or 
the artist. In England the species are known as charr or char, 
in contradistinction to the black-spotted species of Salmo, which 
are called trout. The former name has unfortunately been 
lost in America, where the name “trout’’ is given indiscrimi- 
nately to both groups, and, still worse, to numerous other 
fishes (Muicropterus, Hexagrammos, Cynoscion, Agonostomus) 
wholly unlike the Salmonide in all respects. It is sometimes 
said that ‘‘the American brook-trout is no trout, nothing but 
a charr,” almost as though “charr”’ were a word of reproach. 
Nothing higher, however, can be said of a salmonoid than that 
it is a “charr.”’ The technical character of the genus Salve- 
linus lies in the form of its vomer. This is deeper than in Salmo; 
and when the flesh is removed the bone is found to be somewhat 
boat-shaped above, and with the shaft depressed and out of the 
line of the head of the vomer. Only the head or chevron is 
armed with teeth, and the shaft is covered by skin. 

In color all the charrs differ from the salmon and trout. 
The body in all is covered with round spots which are paler 
than the ground color, and crimson or gray.. The lower fins are 


Salmonidz 331 


usually edged with bright colors. The sexual differences are 
not great. The scales, in general, are smaller than in other 
Salmomde, and they are imbedded in the skin to such a degree 
as to escape the notice of casual observers and even of most 
anglers. 


“One trout scale in the scales I'd lay 
(If trout had scales), and ’twill outweigh 
The wrong side of the balances.’-—LoweE Lt. 


The charrs inhabit, in general, only the clearest and coldest 
of mountain streams and lakes, or bays of similar temperature. 
They are not migratory, or only to a limited extent. In northern 
regions they descend to the sea, where they grow much more 
rapidly and assume a nearly uniform silvery-gray color. The 
different species are found in all suitable waters throughout the 
northern parts of both continents, except in the Rocky Moun- 
tains and Great Basin, where only the black-spotted trout 
occur. The number of species of charr is very uncertain, as, 
both in America and Europe, trivial variations and individual 
peculiarities have been raised to the rank of species. More 
types, however, seem to be represented in America than in 
Europe. 

The only really well-authenticated species of charr in Euro- 
pean waters is the red charr, salbling, or ombre chevalier (Salve- 


Fic. 241.—Rangeley Trout, Salvelinus oquassa (Girard). Lake Oquassa, Maine. 


linus alpinus). This species is found in cold, clear streams in 
Switzerland, Germany, and throughout Scandinavia and the 
British Islands. Compared with the American charr or brook- 
trout, it is a slenderer fish, with smaller mouth, longer fins, 
and smaller red spots, which are confined to the sides of the 


392 Salmonide 


body. It is a “gregarious and deep-swimming fish, shy of 
taking the bait and feeding largely at night-time. It appears 
to require very pure and mostly deep water for its residence.” 
It is less tenacious of life than the trout. It reaches a weight of 
from one to five pounds, probably rarely exceeding the latter 
in size. The various charr described from Siberia are far too 
little known to be enumerated here. 

Of the American charr the one most resembling the European 
species is the Rangeley Lake trout (Salvelinus oquassa). The 
exquisite little fish is known in the United States only from 
the Rangeley chain of lakes in western Maine. This is very 
close to the Greenland charr, Salvelinus stagnalis, a beautiful 
species of the far north. The Rangeley trout is much slenderer 
than the common brook-trout, with much smaller head and 
smaller mouth. In life it is dark blue above, and the deep-red 
spots are confined to the sides of the body. The species rarely 
exceeds the length of a foot in the Rangeley Lakes, but in some 
other waters it reaches a much larger size. So far as is known 
it keeps itself in the depths of the lake until its spawning season 
approaches, in October, when it ascends the stream to spawn. 

Still other species of this type are the Sunapee trout, 
Salvelinus aureolus, a beautiful charr almost identical with the 


Fic. 242.—Sunapee Trout, Salvelinus awreolus Bean. Sunapee Lake, N. H. 


European species, found in numerous ponds and lakes of eastern 
New Hampshire and neighboring parts of Maine. Mr. Garman 
regards this trout as the offspring of an importation of the ombre 
chevalier and not as a native species, and in this view he may 
be correct. Salvelinus alipes of the far north may be the same 
species. Another remarkable form is the Lac de Marbre trout 
of Canada, Salvelinus marstoni of Garman. 


Salmonidz 232 


In Arctic regions another species, called Salvelinus narest, is 
very close to Salvelinus oquassa and may be the same. 

Another beautiful little charr, allied to Salvelinus stagnalis, 
is the Floeberg charr (Salvelinus arcturus). This species has 
been brought from Victoria Lake and Floeberg Beach, in the 


Fig. 248.—Speckled Trout (male), Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). New York. 


extreme northern part of Arctic America, the northernmost 
point whence any salmonoid has been obtained. 

The American charr, or, as it is usually called, the brook- 
trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), although one of the most beautiful 
of fishes, is perhaps the least graceful of all the genuine charrs. 
It is technically distinguished by the somewhat heavy head and 
large mouth, the maxillary bone reaching more or less beyond 
the eye. There are no teeth on the hyoid bone, traces at least 
of such teeth being found in nearly all other species. Its color 
is somewhat different from that of the others, the red spots 
being large and the black more or less mottled and barred with 
darker olive. The dorsal and caudal fins are likewise barred 
or mottled, while in the other species they are generally uniform 
in color. The brook-trout is found only in streams east of the 
Mississippi and Saskatchewan. It occurs in all suitable streams 
of the Alleghany region and the Great Lake system, from the 
Chattahoochee River in northern Georgia northward at least 
to Labrador and Hudson Bay, the northern limits of its range 
being as yet not well ascertained. It varies greatly in size, 
according to its surroundings, those found in lakes being 
larger than those resident in small brooks. Those found 


Capemys MA Ww ud Aq ayy wos) = ‘ezis Pwanyeu ‘(VY ORTTY) sypuyuol snuyayog “nor, YOO bre Ol 


ra 


Salmonidze 335 


farthest south, in the head-waters of the Chattahoochee, 
Savannah, Catawba, and French Broad, rarely pass the dimen- 
sions of fingerlings. The largest specimens are recorded from 
the sea along the Canadian coast. These frequently reach a 
weight of ten pounds; and from their marine and migratory 
habits, they have been regarded as forming a distinct variety 
(Salvelinus fontinalis tmmaculatus), but this form is merely 
a sea-run brook-trout. The largest fresh-water specimens rarely 
exceed seven pounds in weight. Some unusually large brook- 
trout have been taken in the Rangeley Lakes, the largest known 
to me having a reputed weight of eleven pounds. The brook- 
trout is the favorite game-fish of American waters, preéminent 
in wariness, in beauty, and in delicacy of flesh. It inhabits all 
clear and cold waters within its range, the large lakes and the 
smallest ponds, the tiniest brooks and the largest rivers; and 
when it can do so without soiling its aristocratic gills on the way, 
it descends to the sea and grows large and fat on the animals of 
the ocean. Although a bold biter it is a wary fish, and it often 
requires much skill to capture it. It can be caught, too, with 
artificial or natural flies, minnows, crickets, worms, grasshoppers, 
grubs, the spawn of other fish, or even the eves or cut pieces of 
other trout. It spawns in the fall, from September to late in 
November. It begins to reproduce at the age of two years, 
then having a length of about six inches. In spring-time the 
trout delight in rapids and swiftly running water; and in the 
hot months of midsummer they resort to deep, cool, and shaded 
pools. Later, at the approach of the spawning season, they 
gather around the mouths of cool, gravelly brooks, whither they 
resort to make their beds.* 

The trout are rapidly disappearing from our streams through 
the agency of the manufacturer and the summer boarder. In 
the words of an excellent angler, the late Myron W. Reed of 
Denver: “This is the last generation of trout-fishers. The 
children will not be able to find any. Already there are well- 
trodden paths by every stream in Maine, in New York, and in 
Michigan. I know of but one river in North America by the 
side of which you will find no paper collar or other evidence of 
civilization. It is the Nameless River. Not that trout will 

* Hallock. 


336 Salmonidz 


cease to be. They will be hatched by machinery and raised 
in ponds, and fattened on chopped liver, and grow flabby and 
lose their spots. The trout of the restaurant will not cease to 
be. He is no more like the trout of the wild river than the 
fat and songless reedbird is like the bobolink. Gross feeding 
and easy pond-life enervate and deprave him. The trout that 
the children will know only by legend is the gold-sprinkled, 
living arrow of the white water; able to zigzag up the cataract; 
able to loiter in the rapids; whose dainty meat is the glancing 
butterfly.” 

The brook-trout adapts itself readily to cultivation in arti- 
ficial ponds. It has been successfully transported to Europe, 
and it is already abundant in certain streams in England, in Cali- 
fornia, and elsewhere. 

In Dublin Pond, New Hampshire, is a gray variety without 
red spots, called Salvelinus agassizt. 

The “Dolly Varden” trout, or malma (Salvelinus malma), is 
very similar to the brook-trout, closely resembling it in size, form, 
color, and habits. It is found always to the westward of the 
Rocky Mountains, in the streams of northern California, Oregon, 


Fic. 245 —Malma Trout, or ‘ Dolly Varden,”’ Salvelinus malma (Walbaum). 
Cook Inlet, Alaska. 


Washington, and British Columbia, Alaska, and Kamtchatka, as 
far as the Kurile Islands. It abounds in the sea in the north- 
ward, and specimens of ten to twelve pounds weight are not 
uncommon in Puget Sound and especially in Alaska. The Dolly 
Varden trout is, in general, slenderer and less compressed than 
the Eastern brook-trout. The red spots are found on the back 
of the fish as well as on the sides, and the back and upper 
fins are without the blackish marblings and blotches seen in 


ar 


Salmonidz 337 


Salvelinus fontinalis. In value as food, in beauty, and in gami- 
ness Salvelinus malma is very similar to its Eastern cousin. 
In Alaska the Dolly Varden, locally known as salmon-trout, 
is very destructive to the eggs of the salmon, and countless 
numbers are taken in the salmon-nets of Alaska and thrown away 
as useless by the canners. In every coastwise stream of Alaska 


Fig. 246.—The Dolly Varden Trout, Salvelinus malma (Walbaum). Lake Pend 
d’Oreille, Idaho. (After Evermann.) 


the water fairly ‘“‘boils’”’ with these trout. They are, however, 
not found in the Yukon. In northern Japan occurs Salvelinus 
pluvius, the iwana, a species very similar to the Dolly Varden, 
but not so large or so brightly colored. In the Kurile region 
and Kamtchatka is another large charr, Salvelinus kundscha, 
with the spots large and cream-color instead of crimson. 
Cristivomer, the Great Lake Trout.—Allied to the true charts, 
but now placed by us in a different genus, Cristivomer, is the 


Fig. 247. —Great Lake Trout, Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum). Lake Michigan. 


Great Lake trout, otherwise known as Mackinaw trout, longe, 
or togue (Cristivomer namaycush). Technically this fish differs 
from the true charrs in havingon its vomer a raised crest behind 


338 Salmonide 


the chevron and free from the shaft. This crest is armed with 
strong teeth. There are also large hooked teeth on the hyoid 
bone, and the teeth generally are proportionately stronger than 
in most of the other species. The Great Lake trout is grayish in 
color, light or dark according to its surroundings; and the body 
is covered with round paler spots, which are gray instead of red. 
The dorsal and caudal fins are marked with darker reticula- 
tions, somewhat as in the brook-trout. This noble species is 
found in all the larger lakes from New England and New York to 
Wisconsin, Montana, the Mackenzie River, and in all the lakes 
tributary to the Yukon in Alaska. We have taken examples 
from Lake Bennett, Lake Tagish, Summit Lake (White Pass), 
and have seen specimens from Lake La Hache in British 
Columbia. It reaches a much larger size than any Salvelinus, 
specimens of from fifteen to twenty pounds weight being not 
uncommon, while it occasionally attains a weight of fifty to 
eighty pounds. As a food-fish it ranks high, although it may be 
regarded as somewhat inferior to the brook-trout or the whitefish. 
Compared with other salmonoids, the Great Lake trout is a slug- 
gish, heavy, and ravenous fish. It has been known to eat raw po- 
tato, liver, and corn-cobs,—refuse thrown from passing steamers. 
According to Herbert, “‘a coarse, heavy, stiff rod, and a powerful 
oiled hempen or flaxen line, on a winch, with a heavy sinker; a 
cod-hook, baited with any kind of flesh, fish, or fowl,—is the most 
successful, if not the most orthodox or scientific, mode of cap- 
turing him. His great size and immense strength alone give him 
value as a fish of game; but when hooked he pulls strongly and 
fights hard, though he is a boring, deep fighter, and seldom if 
ever leaps out of the water, like the true salmon or brook-trout.” 

In the depths of Lake Superior is a variety of the Great Lake 
trout known as the Siscowet (Cristivomer namaycush siskawitz), 
remarkable for its extraordinary fatness of flesh. The cause of 
this difference lies probably in some peculiarity of food as yet 
unascertained. 

The Ayu, or Sweetfish.— The ayu, or sweetfish, of Japan, 
Plecoglossus altivelis, resembles a small trout in form, habits, 
and scaling. Its teeth are, however, totally different, being 
arranged on serrated plates on the sides of the jaws, and the 
tongue marked with similar folds. The ayu abounds in all 


Salmonide 339 


clear streams of Japan and Formosa. It runs up from the sea 
like a salmon. It reaches the length of about a foot. The 


Fig 248 —Ayu. or Japanese Samlet, Plecoglossus altivelis Schlegel. Tamagawa, 
Tokyo, Japan. 

flesh is very fine and delicate, scarcely surpassed by that of 

any other fish whatsoever. It should be introduced into clear 

short streams throughout the temperate zones. 

In the river at Gifu in Japan and in some other streams 
the ayu is fished for on a large scale by means of tamed cor- 
morants. This is usually done from boats in the night by the 
light of torches. 

Cormorant-fishing.—The following account of cormorant- 
fishing is taken, by the kind permission of Mr. Caspar W. Whit- 
ney, from an article contributed by the writer to Outing, April, 
1902: 

Tamagawa means Jewel River, and no water could be clearer. 
It rises somewhere up in the delectable mountains to the eastward 
of Musashi, among the mysterious pines and green-brown fir-trees, 
and it flows across the plains bordered by rice-fields and mul- 
berry orchards to the misty bay of Tokyo. It is, therefore, a 
river of Japan, and along its shores are quaint old temples, each 
guarding its section of primitive forest, picturesque bridges, 
huddling villages, and torii, or gates through which the gods 
may pass. : 

The stream itself is none too large—a boy may wade it—but 
it runs on a wide bed, which it will need in flood-time, when the 
snow melts in the mountains. And this broad flood-bed is 


340 Salmonide 


filled with gravel, with straggling willows, showy day-lilies, 
orange amaryllis, and the little sky-blue spider-flower, which 
the Japanese call chocho, or butterfly-weed. 

In the Tamagawa are many fishes: shining minnows in the 
white ripples, dark catfishes in the pools and eddies, and little 
sculpins and gobies lurking under the stones. Trout dart 
through its upper waters, and at times salmon run up from the 
sea. 

But the one fish of all its fishes is the ayu. This is a sort 
of dwarf salmon, running in the spring and spawning in the 
rivers just as asalmon does. Butit is smaller than any salmon, 
not larger than a smelt, and its flesh is white and tender, and 
so very delicate in its taste and odor that one who tastes it 
crisply fried or broiled feels that he has never tasted real fish 
before. In all its anatomy the ayu is a salmon, a dwarf of its 
kind, one which our ancestors in England would have called 
a ‘“‘samlet.’’ Its scientific name is Plecoglossus altivelis. Ple- 
coglossus means plaited tongue, and altivelis, having a high sail; 
for the skin of the tongue is plaited or folded in a curious way, 
and the dorsal fin is higher than that of the salmon, and one poeti- 
cally inclined might, if he likes, call it a sail. The teeth of the 
ayu are very peculiar, for they constitute a series of saw-edged 
folds or plaits along the sides of the jaws, quite different from 
those of any other fish whatsoever. 

In size the ayu is not more than a foot to fifteen inches 
long. It is like a trout in build, and its scales are just as small. 
It is light yellowish or olive in color, growing silvery below. 
Behind its gills is a bar of bright shining yellow, and its adipose 
fin is edged with scarlet. The fins are yellow, and the dorsal 
fin shaded with black, while the anal fin is dashed with pale 
red. 

So much for the river and the ayu. It is time for us to go 
afishing. It is easy enough to find the place, for it is not more 
than ten miles out of Tokyo, on a fine old farm just by the ancient 
Temple of Tachikawa, with its famous inscribed stone, given by 
the emperor of China. 

At the farmhouse, commodious and hospitable, likewise clean 
and charming after the fashion of Japan, we send for the boy 
who brings our fishing-tackle. 


es aa eee aaa a & 


Salmonide 341 


They come waddling into the yard, the three birds with which 
we are to do our fishing. Black cormorants they are, each with 
a white spot behind its eye, and a hoarse voice, come of standing 
in the water, with which it says y-eugh whenever a stranger 
makes a friendly overture. The cormorants answer to the 
name of Ou, which in Japanese is something like the only word 
the cormorants can say. The boy puts them in a box together 
and we set off across the drifted gravel to the Tamagawa. Ar- 
rived at the stream, the boy takes the three cormorants out of 
the box and adjusts their fishing-harness. This consists of a 
tight ring about the bottom of the neck, of a loop under each 
wing, and a directing line. 

Two other boys take a low net. They drag it down the 
stream, driving the little fishes—ayu, zakko, haé, and all the 
rest—before it. The boy with the cormorants goes in advance. 
The three birds are eager as pointer dogs, and apparently full 
of perfect enjoyment. To the right and left they plunge with 
lightning strokes, each dip bringing up a shining fish. When 
the bird’s neck is full of fishes down to the level of the shoulders, 
the boy draws him in, grabs him by the leg, and shakes him 
unceremoniously over a basket until all the fishes have flopped 
out. 

The cormorants watch the sorting of the fish with eager 
eyes and much repeating of y-eugh, the only word they know. 
The ayu are not for them, and some of the kajikas and hazés 
were prizes of science. But zakko (the dace) and haé (the 
minnow) were made for the cormorant. The boy picks out 
the chubs and minnows and throws them to one bird and then 
another. Each catches his share on the fly, swallows it at one 
gulp, for the ring is off his neck by this time, and then says 
y-eugh, which means that he likes the fun, and when we are 
ready will be glad to try again. And no doubt they have tried 
it many times since, for there are plenty of fishes in the Jewel 
River, zakko and hae as well as ayu. 

Fossil Salmonide.—Fossil salmonide are rare and known 
chiefly from detached scales, the bones in this family being 
very brittle and easily destroyed. Nothing is added to our 
knowledge of the origin of these fishes from such fossils. 

A large fossil trout or salmon, called Rhabdofario lacustris, 


i, b 


342 Salmonide 


has been brought from the Pliocene at Catherine’s Creek, Idaho. 
It is known from the skull only. Thaumaturus luxatus, from the 
Miocene of Bohemia, shows the print of the adipose fin. As 
already stated, some fragments of the hooked jaws of salmon, 
from pleistocene deposits in Idaho, are in the museum of the 
University of California. 


Berane 


CHAPTER XXI 


THE GRAYLING AND THE SMELT 


HE Grayling, or Thymallide.—The small family of 
Thymallide, or grayling, is composed of finely organized 
fishes allied to the trout, but differing in having the 

frontal bones meeting on the middle line of the skull, thus 

excluding the frontals from contact with the supraoccipital. 

The anterior half of the very high dorsal is made up of un- 

branched simple rays. There is but one genus, 7hymallus, 

comprising very noble game-fishes characteristic of sub-arctic 
streams. 
The grayling, Thymallus, of Europe, is termed by Saint 

Ambrose “the flower of fishes.”” The teeth on the tongue, 


Fie. 249 —Alaska Grayling, Thymallus signifer Richardson. Nulato, Alaska. 


found in all the trout and salmon, are obsolete in the grayling. 
The chief distinctive peculiarity of the genus Thymallus is the 
great development of the dorsal fin, which has more rays (20 
to 24) than are found in any of the Salmonide, and the 
fin is also higher. All the species are gaily colored, the dorsal 


fin especially being marked with purplish or greenish bands 
343 


344 The Grayling and the Smelt 


and bright rose-colored spots; while the body is mostly purplish 
gray, often with spots of black. Most of the species rarely 
exceed a foot in length, but northward they grow larger. Gray- 
ling weighing five pounds have been taken in England; and 
according to Dr. Day they are said in Lapland to reach a weight 
of eight or nine pounds. The grayling in all countries frequent 
clear, cold brooks, and rarely, if ever, enter the sea, or even the 
larger lakes. They congregate in small shoals in the streams, 
and prefer those which have a succession of pools and shal- 
lows, with a sandy or gravelly rather than rocky bottom. The 
grayling spawns on the shallows in April or May (in England). 
It is non-migratory in its habits, depositing its ova in the 
neighborhood of its usual haunts. The ova are far more delicate 
and easily killed than those of the trout or charr. The grayling 
and the trout often inhabit the same waters, but not alto- 
gether in harmony. It is said that the grayling devours the 
eggs of the trout. It is certain that the trout feed on the 
young grayling. As a food-fish, the grayling of course ranks 
high; and it is beloved by the sportsman. They are considered 
gamy fishes, although less strong than the brook-trout, and 
perhaps less wary. The five or six known species of grayling 
are very closely related, and are doubtless comparatively recent 
ofishoots from a common stock, which has now spread itself 
widely through the northern regions. 

The common grayling of Europe (Zhymallus thymallus) 
is found throughout northern Europe, and as far south as the 
mountains of Hungary and northern Italy. The name Thymallus 
was given by the ancients, because the fish, when fresh, was 
said to have the odor of water-thyme. Grayling belonging to 
this or other species are found in the waters of Russia and Siberia. 

The American grayling (Thymallus signifer) is widely dis- 
tributed in British America and Alaska. In the Yukon it is 
very abundant, rising readily to the fly. In several streams 
in northern Michigan, Au Sable River, and Jordan River in 
the southern peninsula, and Otter Creek near Keweenaw in 
the northern peninsula, occurs a dwarfish variety or species with 
shorter and lower dorsal fins, known to anglers as the Michigan 
grayling (Thymallus tricolor). This form has a longer head, 
rather smaller scales, and the dorsal fin rather lower than in 


The Grayling and the Smelt 345 


the northern form (signifer); but the constancy of these charac- 
ters in specimens from intermediate localities is yet to be proved. 
Another very similar form, called Thymallus montanus, occurs 
in the Gallatin, Madison, and other rivers of Western Montana 
tributary to the Missouri. It is locally still abundant and one 
of the finest of game-fishes. It is probable that the grayling 
once hada wider range to the southward than now, and that 
so far as the waters of the United States are concerned it is 
tending toward extinction. This tendency is, of course, being 


X: 
Fic. 250 — Michigan Grayling, Thymailus tricolor Cope. Au Sable River, Mich. 


accelerated in Michigan by lumbermen and anglers. The 
colonies of grayling in Michigan and Montana are probably 
remains of a post-glacial fauna. 

The Argentinide.—The family of Argentinide, or smelt, is 
very closely related to the Salmonide, representing a dwarf 
series of similar type. The chief essential difference lies in the 
form of the stomach, which is a blind sac, the two openings 
near together, and about the second or pyloric opening there 
are few if any pyloric ceca. In all the Salmonide the stomach 
has the form of a siphon, and about the pylorus there are very 
many pyloric ceca. The smelt have the adipose fin and the gen- 
eral structure of the salmon. All the species are small in size, 
and most of them are strictly marine, though some of them 
ascend the rivers to spawn, just as salmon do, but not going 
very far. A few kinds become land-locked in ponds. Most of 
the species are confined to the north temperate zone, and a 
few sink into the deep seas. All that are sufficiently abundant 
furnish excellent food, the flesh being extremely delicate and 
often charged with a fragrant oil easy of digestion. 


346 The Grayling and the Smelt 


The best-known genus, Osmerus, includes the smelt, or 
spirling (éperlan), of Europe, and its relatives, all excellent food- 
fishes, although quickly spoiling in warm weather. Osmerus 
eperlanus is the European species; Osmerus mordax of our eastern 
coast is very much like it, as is also the rainbow-smelt, Osmerus 
dentex of Japan and Alaska. A larger smelt, Osmerus alba- 
trossis, occurs on the coast of Alaska, and a small and feeble 
one, Osmerus thaleichthys, mixed with other small or delicate 
fishes, is the whitebait of the San Francisco restaurants. The 
whitebait of the London epicure is made up of the young of 
herrings and sprats of different species. The still more delicate 
whitebait of the Hong Kong hotels is the icefish, Salanx chinensis. 


Fig. 251.—Smelt, Osmerus mordax (Mitchill). Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


Retropinna retropinna, so called from the backward insertion 
of its dorsal, is the excellent smelt of the rivers of New Zealand. 
All the other species belong to northern waters. Mesopus, 
the surf-smelt, has a smaller mouth than Osmerus and inhabits 
the North Pacific. The California species, Mesopus pretiosus, 
of Neah Bay has, according to James G. Swan, “the belly 
covered with a coating of yellow fat which imparts an oily 
appearance to the water where the fish has been cleansed or 
washed and makes them the very perfection of pan-fish.”” This 
species spawns in late summer along the surf-line. According 
to Mr. Swan the water seems to be filled with them. ‘‘ They 
come in with the flood-tide, and when a wave breaks upon the 
beach they crowd up into the very foam, and as the surf re- 
cedes many will be seen flapping on the sand and shingle, but 
invariably returning with the undertow to deeper water.” 
The Quilliute Indians of Washington believe that “the first 


The Grayling and the Smelt . 347 


surf-smelts that appear must not be sold or given away to be 
taken to another place, nor must they be cut transversely, but 
split open with a mussel-shell.”’ 

The surf-smelt is marine, as is also a similar species, Mesopus 
japonicus, in Japan. Mesopus olidus, the pond-smelt of Alaska, 
Kamchatka, and Northern Japan, spawns in fresh-water ponds. 

Still more excellent as a food-fish than even these exquisite 
species is the famous eulachon, or candle-fish (Thaleichthys 
pacificus). The Chinook name, usually written eulachon, is 
perhaps more accurately represented as ulchen. This little 
fish has the form of a smelt and reaches the length of nearly a 
foot. In the spring it ascends in enormous numbers all the 


rivers north of the Columbia, as far as Skaguay, for a short 
distance for the purpose of spawning. These runs take place 
usually in advance of the salmon-runs. Various predatory 
fishes and sea-birds persecute the eulachon during its runs, 
and even the stomachs of the sturgeons are often found full 
of the little fishes, which they have taken in by their sucker- 
like mouths. At the time of the runs the eulachon are ex- 
tremely fat, so much so that it is said that when dried and a 
wick drawn through the body they may be used as candles. 
On Nass River, in British Columbia, a stream in which their 
run is greatest, there is a factory for the manufacture of eula- 
chon-oil from them. This delicate oil is proposed as a substitute 
for cod-liver oil in medicine. Whatever may be its merits in 
this regard, it has the disadvantage in respect to salability 
of being semi-solid or lard-like at ordinary temperatures, re- 
quiring melting to make it flow as oil. The eulachon is a favorite 


nt eee tats iy CAs ini ghhesy 
4 Spe, sate gighigeee peor peg 
Aphid +f hie pate jeto 
Ae ote Epo 


7 ERY Ls eS 


oer Keele ond Vries 


on Vie ferred or foes Lxesae 


ties ha Cag coco Bre ae 
einen 
Late Bdts~ Pires, Rebeca 
Fars PH is 2 pee. aA es 
Pewitias wie ferene® Diy [lan Dert— 
ae came eed 


Vic. 253 —Page of William Clark’s handwriting with sketcn of the Eulachon 
(Thaleichthys pacificus), the first notice of the species Columbia River, 1805. 
(Expedition of Lewis & Clark.) (Reproduced from the original in the posses- 
sion of his granddaughter Mrs. Julia Clark Voorhis, through the courtesy of 
Messrs, Dodd, Mead & Company, publishers of the “ Original Journais of the 
Lewis and Clark Expedition.’’) a8 

3 


" 


The Grayling and the Smelt 349 


pan-fish in British Columbia. The writer has had considerable 
experience with it, broiled and fried, in its native region, and 
has no hesitation in declaring it to be the best-flavored food- 
fish in American waters. It is fat, tender, juicy, and richly 


flavored, with comparatively few troublesome bones. It does 


not, however, bear transportation well. The Indians in Alaska 
bury the eulachon in the ground in great masses. After the 
fish are well decayed they are taken out and the oil pressed 
fromthem. The odor of the fish and the oil is then very offensive, 
less so, however, than that of some forms of cheese eaten by 
civilized people. 

The capelin (\Jallotus villosus) closely resembles the eula- 
chon, differing mainly in its broader pectorals and in the peculiar 
scales of the males. In the male fish a band of scales above 


Yass: => 
a 


Fie. 254 —Capelin, Mallotus villosus L. Crosswater Bay. 


the lateral line and along each side of the belly become elongate, 
closely imbricated, with the free points projecting, giving the 
body a villous appearance. It is very abundant on the coasts 
of Arctic America, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific, and is 
an important source of food for the natives of those regions. 

This species spawns in the surf, and the writer has seen 
them in August cast on the shores of the Alaskan islands (as at 
Metlakahtla in 1897), living and dead, in numbers which seem 
incredible. The males are then distorted, and it seems likely 
that all of them perish after spawning. The young are 
abundant in all the northern fiords. Even more inordinate 
numbers are reported from the shores of Greenland. 

The capelin seems to be inferior to the eulachon as a food- 
fish, but to the natives of arctic regions in both hemispheres it 
is a very important article of food. Fossil capelin are found 


350 The Grayling and the Smelt 


in abundance in recent shales in Greenland enveloped in nodules 
of clay. In the open waters about the Aleutian Islands a small 
smelt, Therobromus callorhini, occurs in very great abundance 
and forms the chief part of the summer food of the fur-seal. 
Strangely enough, no complete specimen of this fish has yet 
been seen by man, although thousands of fragments have been 
taken from seals’ stomachs. From these fragments Mr. Frederick 
A. Lucas has reconstructed the fish, which must be an ally of 
the surf-smelt, probably spawning in the open ocean of the north. 

The silvery species called Argentina live in deeper water 
and have no commercial importance. Argentina silus, with 
prickly scales, occurs in the North Sea. Several fossils have 
been doubtfully referred to Osmerus. 

The Microstomide.—The small family of Microstomide con- 
sists of a few degraded smelt, slender in form, with feeble mouth 
and but three or four branchiostegals, rarely taken in the deep 
seas. Nansenia grenlandica was found by Reinhardt off the 
coast of Greenland, and six or eight other species of A/icrostoma 
and Bathylagus have been brought in by the deep-sea explora- 
tions. 

The Salangide, or Icefishes.—Still more feeble and insignifi- 
cant are the species of Salangide, icefishes, or Chinese whitebait, 
which may be described as Salmomde reduced to the lowest 
terms. The body is long and slender, perfectly translucent, 
almost naked, and with the skeleton scarcely ossified. The 
fins are like those of the salmon, the head is depressed, the jaws 
long and broad, somewhat like-the bill of a duck, and within 
there are a few disproportionately strong canine teeth, those 
of the lower jaw somewhat piercing the upper. The alimentary 
canal is straight for its whole length, without pyloric ceca. 
These little fishes, two to five inches long, live in the sea in 
enormous numbers and ascend the rivers of eastern Asia for 
the purpose of spawning. It is thought by some that they are 
annual fishes, all dying in the fall after reproduction, the species 
living through the winter only within its eggs. But this is 
only suspected, not proved, and the species will repay the care- 
ful study which some of the excellent naturalists of Japan are 
sure before long to give to it. The species of Salanx are known 
as whitebait, in Japan as Shiro-uwo, which means exactly the 


oe eee . 
Sind ae ee 


aii 


The Grayling and the Smelt 255 


same thing. They are also sometimes called icefish (Hingio), 
which, being used for no other fish, may be adopted as a group 
name for Salanx. 

The species are Salanx chinensis from Canton, Salanx hyalo 
crantus from Korea and northern China, Salanx microdon from 
northern Japan, and Salanx ariakensis from the southern island 
of Kiusiu. The Japanese fishes are species still smaller and 
feebler than their relatives from the mainland. 

The Haplochitonide.— The Haplochitonide are trout -like 
fishes of the south temperate zone, differing from the Salmonide 
mainly in the extension of the premaxillary until, as in the 
perch-like fishes, it forms the outer border of the upper jaw. 
The adipose fin is present as in all the salmon and smelt. Hap- 
lochiton of Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands is naked, 
while in Prototroctes of Australia and New Zealand the body, 
as in all salmon, trout, and smelt, is covered with scales. Proto- 
troctes marena is the yarra herring of Australia. The closely 
related family of Galaxizde, also Australian, but lacking the 
adipose fin, is mentioned in a later chapter. 


Fia. 255 —Icefish, Salanx hyalocranius Abbott, Family Salangide, 
Tientsin, China. 


Stomiatide. — The Stomiatide, with elongate bodies, have 
the mouth enormous, with fang-like teeth, usually barbed. Of 


Fic. 256 —Stomias feror Reinhardt. Banquereau. 


the several species Stomias ferox is best known. According to 
Dr. Boulenger, these fishes are true Isospondyli. 

Astronesthide is another small group of small fishes naked 
and black, with long canines, found in the deep sea. 

The Malacosteide is a related group with extremely dis- 


| , 


352 The Grayling and the Smelt 


tensible mouth, the species capable of swallowing fishes much 
larger than themselves. 

The viper-fishes (Chauliodontide) are very feeble and very 
voracious little fishes occasionally brought up from the depths. 
Chauliodus sloanei is notable for the length of the fangs. 

Much smaller and feebler are the species of the closely 
related family of Gonostonuide. Gonostoma and Cyclothone 
dwell in oceanic abysses. One species, Cyclothone elongata, 
occurs at the depth of from half a mile to nearly four miles 


Fig 257.—Chauliodus sloanet Schneider. Grand Banks. 


almost everywhere throughout the oceans. It is probably 
the most widely distributed, as well as one of the feeblest and 
most fragile, of all bassalian or deep-sea fishes. 

Suborder Iniomi, the Lantern-fishes.—The suborder Jniomi 
(iviov, nape; mos, shoulder) comprises soft-rayed fishes, in 
which the shoulder-girdle has more or less lost its com- 
pleteness of structure as part of the degradation consequent 
on life in the abysses of the sea. These features distinguish 
these forms from the true Jsospondyli, but only in a very few 
of the species have these characters been verified by actual 
examination of the skeleton. The mesocoracoid arch is wanting 
or atrophied in all of the species examined, and the orbito- 
sphenoid is lacking, so faras known. The group thus agrees in 
most technical characters with the Haplomz, in which group they 
are placed by Dr. Boulenger. On the other hand the relation- 
ships to the Isospondyli are very close, and the Iniomi have many 
traits suggesting degenerate Isospondyli. The post-temporal 
has lost its usual hold on the skull and may touch the occiput 
on the sides of the cranium. Nearly all the species are soft 
in body, black or silvery over black in color, and all that live 


) 
\ 
‘ 
A 
) 


The Grayling and the Smelt 353 


in the deep sea are provided with luminous spots or glands 
giving light in the abysmal depths. These spots are wanting in 
the few shore species, as also in those which approach most nearly 
to the Salmonide, these being presumably the most primitive 
of the group. In these also the post-temporal touches the back 
of the cranium near the side. In the majority of the [niomi 
the adipose fin of the Salmomide is retained. From the phos- 
phorescent spots is derived the general name of lantern-fishes 
applied of late years to many of the species. Most of these are 
of recent discovery, results of the remarkable work in deep- 
sea dredging begun by the Albatross and the Challenger. All 
of the species are carnivorous, and some, in spite of their feeble 
muscles, are exceedingly voracious, the mouth being armed 
with veritable daggers and spears. 

Aulopide.—Most primitive of the Iniomz is the family of 
Aulopide, having an adipose fin, a normal maxillary, and no 
luminous spots. The rough firm scales suggest those of the 
berycoid fishes. The few species of Aulopus and Chlorophthalmus 
are found in moderate depths. Aulopus purpurissatus is the 
“Sergeant Baker”’ of the Australian fishermen. 

The Lizard-fishes——The Synodontide, or lizard-fishes, have 
lizard-like heads with very large mouth. The head is scaly, a 
character rare among the soft-rayed fishes. The slender maxil- 


Fic 258 —Lizard-fish, Synodus fetens L. Charleston, S. C. 


lary is grown fast to the premaxillary, and the color is not black. 
Most of the species are shore-fishes and some are brightly colored. 
Synodus fetens is the common lizard-fish, or galliwasp, of our 
Atlantic coast. Synodus varius of the Pacific is brightly 
colored, olive-green and orange-red types of coloration exist- 
ing at different depths. Most of the species lie close to the 
bottom and are mottled gray like coral sand. A few occur in 


354 The Grayling and the Smelt 


oceanic depths. The “Bombay duck” of the fishermen of 
India is a species of Harpodon, H. nehereus, with large mouth 
and arrow-shaped teeth. The dried fish is used as a relish. 

The Benthosauride are deep-sea fishes of similar type, but 
with distinct maxillaries. The Bathypteroide, of the deep seas, 
resemble Aulopus, but have the upper and lower pectoral rays 
filiform, developed as organs of touch in the depths in which 
the small eyes become practically useless. 

Ipnopide.—In the Ipnopide the head is depressed above 
and the two eyes are flattened and widened so as to occupy 
most of its upper surface. These structures were at first sup- 
posed to be luminous organs, but Professor Moseley has thought 
them to be eyes. ‘‘They show a flattened cornea extending 
along the median line of the snout, with a large retina com- 
posed of peculiar rods which form a complicated apparatus 


—_ 


be Sais Cae ten 


Fig. 259.—Ipnops murrayi Giinther. 


destined undoubtedly to produce an image and to receive 
especial luminous rays.’’ The single species, Jpuops murrayi, 
is black in color and found at the depth of 24 miles in various 
seas. ; 
The existence of well-developed eyes among fishes des- 
tined to live in the dark abysses of the ocean seems at first con- 
tradictory, but we must remember that these singular forms 
are descendants of immigrants from the shore and from the 
surface. ‘In some cases the eyes have not been specially 
modified, but in others there have been modifications of a lumi- 
nous mucous membrane leading on the one hand to phosphor- 
escent organs more or less specialized, or on the other to such 
remarkable structures as the eyes of Jpnops, intermediate 
between true eyes and phosphorescent plates. In fishes which 
cannot see, and which retain for their guidance only the general 
sensibility of the integuments and the lateral line, these parts 
soon acquire a very great delicacy. The same is the case with 


te 


plea ws < 


The Grayling and the Smelt 255 


tactile organs (as in Bathypterois and Benthosaurus), and experi- 
ments show that barbels may become organs of touch adapted 
to aquatic life, sensitive to the faintest movements or the 
slightest displacement, with power to give the blinded fishes 
full cognizance of the medium in which they live.” 
Rondeletiide.—The Rondeletiide are naked black fishes with 
small eyes, without adipose fin and without luminous spots, 


ee eee 
Fic. 260 —Cetomimus gillii Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. 


taken at great depths in the Atlantic. The relationship of these 
fishes is wholly uncertain. 

The Cetomimide are near allies of the Rondeletiide, having 
the mouth excessively large, with the peculiar form seen in the 
tight whales, which these little fishes curiously resemble. 

Myctophid#.— The large family of Myctophide, or lantern- 
fishes, is made up of small fishes allied to the Aulopide, but 


Fic. 261.—Headlight Fish, Diaphus lucidus Goode and Bean. Gulf Stream. 


with the body covered with luminous dots, highly specialized 
and symmetrically arranged. Most of them belong to the 
deep sea, but others come to the surface in the night or during 
storms when the sunlight is absent. Through this habit they 
are often thrown by the waves on the decks of small vessels. 


7 


356 The Grayling and the Smelt 


Largely from Danish merchant-vessels, Dr. Litken has obtained 
the unrivaled collection of these sea-waifs preserved in the 
Museum of the University of Copenhagen. The species are 
all small in size and feeble in structure, the prey of the larger 


Fic. 262.—Lantern-fish, Myctophum opalinum Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. 


fishes of the depths, from which their lantern-like spots and 
large eyes help them to escape. The numerous species are now 
ranged in about fifteen genera, although earlier writers placed 
them all in a single genus Myctophum (Scopelus). 

In the genus Diaphus (d’thoprora) there is a large luminous 
gland on the end of the short snout, like the headlight of an 


Fie 268 —Lantern-fish, Ceratoscopelus madeirensis (Lowe). Gulf Stream. 


engine. In Dasyscopelus the scales are spinescent, but in most of 
the genera, as in Myctophum, the scales are cycloid and caducous, 
falling at the touch. In Diaphus the luminous spots are crossed 
by a septum giving them the form of the Greek letter @ (theta). 
One of the commonest species is Myctophum_, humboldti. 
Chirothricide.—The remarkable extinct family of Chiro- 
thricide may be related to the Synodontide, or Myctophide. 
In this group the teeth are feeble, the paired fins much 


The Grayling and the Smelt 357 


enlarged, and the ventrals are well forward. The dorsal fin, 
inserted well forward, has stout basal bones. Chirothrix libani- 
cus of the Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon is remarkable for its exces- 
sively large ventral fins. Telepholis is a related genus. Exo- 
cetoides with rounded caudal fin is probably the type of a 
distinct family, Exocetotdide, the caudal fin being strongly 
forked in Chirothrix. The small extinct group of Rhinellide is 
usually placed near the Myctophide. They are distinguished 
by the very long gar-like jaws; whether they possessed adipose 
fins or luminous spots cannot be determined. Rhinellus fur- 
catus and other species occur in the Cretaceous of Europe and 
Asia. Fossil forms more or less distinctly related to the Mycto- 


ay 


’ Fie 264 —Rhinellus furcatus Agassiz. Upper Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanou. 
(After Woodward.) 

phide are numerous. Osmeroides monasterit (wrongly called 

Sardinioides), from the German Cretaceous, seems allied to 

Myctophum, although, of course, luminous spots leave:no trace 

among fossils. Acrognathus boops is remarkable for the large 

size of the eyes. 

Maurolicide.— The Maurolicide are similar in form and 
habit, but scaleless, and with luminous spots more highly 
specialized. Maurolicus pennanti, the “Sleppy Argentine,’’ is 
occasionally taken on either side of the Atlantic. Other genera 
are Zalarges, Vinciguerria, and Valenciennellus. 

The Lancet-fishes.—The Plagyodontide (Alepisauride) con- 
tains the lancet-fishes, large, swift, scaleless fishes of the ocean 
depths with very high dorsal fin, and the mouth filled with 
knife-like teeth. These large fish are occasionally cast up by 
storms or are driven to the shores by the torments of a parasite, 
Tetrarhynchus, found imbedded in the flesh. 

It is probable that they are sometimes killed by being forced 
above their level by fishes which they have swallowed. In 
such cases they are destroyed through the reduction of pressure. 

Every part of the body is so fragile that perfect specimens 
are rare. The dorsal fin is readily torn, the bones are very 


358 The Grayling and the Smelt 


feebly ossified, and the ligaments connecting the vertebre are 
very loose and extensible, so that the body can be considerably 
stretched. ‘This loose connection of the parts of the body 
is found in numerous deep-sea fishes, and is merely the conse- 
quence of their withdrawal from the pressure of the water to 
which they are exposed in the depths inhabited by them. When 
within the limits of their natural haunts, the osseous, muscular, , 
and fibrous parts of the body will have that solidity which is 
required for the rapid and powerful movements of a predatory 
fish. That the fishes of this genus (Plagyodus) belong to the 
most ferocious of the class is proved by their dentition and the 
contents of their stomach.’’ (Gtnther.) Dr. Gtnther else- 


a si 


“eeniiact atiommestors 


~ YY 


eS 


Fic, 265. —Lancet-fish, Plagyodus ferox (Lowe). New York. 


where observes: ‘‘From the stomach of one example have been 
taken several octopods, crustaceans, ascidians, a young Brama, 
twelve young boarfishes (Capros), a horse-mackerel, and one 
young of its own species.” 

The lancet-fish, Plagyodus ferox, is occasionally taken on 
either side of the Atlantic and in Japan. The handsaw-fish, 
called Plagyodus e@sculapius, has been taken at Unalaska, off 
San Luis Obispo, and in Humboldt Bay. It does not seem to 
differ at all from Plagyodus ferox. The original type from Una- 
laska had in its stomach twenty-one lumpfishes (umicrotremus 
spinosus). This is the species described from Steller’s manu- 
scripts by Pallas under the name of Plagyodus. Another 
species, Plagyodus borcalis, is occasionally taken in the North 
Pacific. 

The Evermannellide is a small family of small deep-sea fishes 


The Grayling and the Smelt 359 


with large teeth, distensible muscles, and an extraordinary 
power of swallowing other fishes, scarcely surpassed by Chias- 
modon or Saccopharynx. Evermannella (Odontostomus, the latter 
name preoccupied) and Omosudis are the principal genera. 

The Paralepide are reduced allies of Plagyodus, slender, 
silvery, with small fins and fang-like jaws. As in Plagyodus, 
the adipose fin is developed and there are small luminous dots. 
The species are few and mostly northern; one of them, Sudis 
ringens, is known only from a single specimen taken by the 
present writer from the stomach of a hake (Merluccius produc- 
tus), the hake in turn swallowed whole by an albacore in the 
Santa Barbara Channel. The Sudis had been devoured by the 
hake, the hake by the albacore, and the albacore taken on 
the hook before the feeble Sudzs had been digested. 

Perhaps allied to the Plagyodontide is also the large family 
of Enchodontide, widely represented in the Cretaceous rocks of 


Fic. 266 —LHurypholis sulcidens Pictet, restored. Family Enchodontide. Upper 
Cretaceous of Mt. Lebanon. (After Woodward, as HL. boissierz.) 


Syria, Europe, and Kansas. The body in this group is elongate, 
the teeth very strong, and the dorsal fin short. LEnchodus 
lewesiensis is found in Mount Lebanon, Halec sternbergi in the 
German Cretaceous, and many species of Enchodus in Kansas; 
Cimolichthys dirus in North Dakota. 

Remotely allied to these groups is the extinct family of 
Dercetide from the Cretaceous of Germany and Syria. These 
are elongate fishes, the scales small or wanting, but with two 
or more series of bony scutes along the flanks. In Dercetis 
scutatus the scutes are large and the dorsal fin is very long. Other 
genera are Leptotrachelus and Pelargorhynchus. Dr. Boulenger 
places the Dercetid@ in the order Heteromt. This is an expression 
of the fact that their relations are still unknown. Probably 


360 The Grayling and the Smelt 


related to the Dercetide is the American family of Stratodontide 
with its two genera, Stradodus and Empo from the Cretaceous 


<S 


3 MAK 


F.G, 267 —Eurypholis freyeri Heckel. Family Enchodontide. Cretaceous. 
(After Heckel; the restoration of the jaws incorrect.) 


(Niobrara) deposits of Kansas. Empo nepaholica is one of the 
best-known species. 

The Sternoptychide.— The Sternoptychide differ materi- 
ally from all these forms in the short, compressed, deep body 
and distorted form. The teeth are small, the body bright 
silvery, with luminous spots. The species live in the deep 
seas, rising in dark or stormy weather. Sternoptyx diaphana is 
found in almost all seas, and species of Argyropelecus are almost 


Fic. 268.—Monstrous Goldfish (bred in Japan), Carassius auracus (Linneus). 
(After Giinther.) 


as widely distributed. After the earthquakes in 1896, which 
engulfed the fishing villages of Rikuzen, in northern Japan, 


The Grayling and the Smelt 361 


numerous specimens of this species were found dead, floating 
on the water, by the steamer Albatross. 

The Idiacanthide are small deep-sea fishes, eel-shaped and 
without pectorals, related to the Imiomz. 

Order Lyopomi.—Other deep-sea fishes constitute the order 
or suborder Lyopomi (Avos, loose; x@pa, opercle). These are 
elongate fishes having no mesocoracoid, and the preopercle 
rudimentary and connected only with the lower jaw, the large 


Fie, 269—Aldrovandia gracilis (Goode & Bean). Guadaloupe Island, West 
Indies. Family Halosauride. 


subopercle usurping its place. The group, which is perhaps to 


- be regarded as a degenerate type of [sospondyli, contains the 


single family of Halosauride, with several species, black in 
color, soft in substance, with small teeth and long tapering 
tail, found in all seas. The principal genera are Halosaurus 
and Aldrovandia (Halosauropsis). Aldrovandia macrochira is 
the commonest species on our Atlantic coast. 

Several fossil Halosauride are described from the Creta- 
ceous of Europe and Syria, referred to the genera Echidnocephalus 
and Enchelurus. Boulenger refers the Lyopomi to the suborder 
Heteromi, | 


CHAPTER XXII 


THE APODES, OR EEL-LIKE FISHES 


wahi/HE Eels.—We may here break the sequence from the 
‘ie i Isospondyli to the other soft-rayed fishes, to inter- 
S}| polate a large group of uncertain origin, the series 
or subclass of eels. 

The mass of apodal or eel-like fishes has been usually regarded 
as constituting a single order, the Apodes (a@, without; zoids, 
foot). The group as a whole is characterized by the almost 
universal separation of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, by 
the absence of the mesocoracoid arch on the shoulder-girdle, 
by the presence of more than five pectoral actinosts, as in the 
Ganoid fishes, by the presence of great numbers of undifferen- 
tiated vertebre, giving the body a snake-like form, by the 
absence in all living forms of the ventral fins, and, in all living 
forms, by the absence of a separate caudal fin. These structures 
indicate a low organization. Some of them are certainly results 
of degeneration, and others are perhaps indications of primitive 
simplicity. Within the limits of the group are seen other 
features of degeneration, notably shown in the progressive loss 
of the bones of the upper jaw and the membrane-bones of the 
head and the degradation of the various fins. The symplectic 
bone is wanting, the notochord is more or less persistent, the 
vertebral centra always complete constricted cylinders, none 
coalesced. But, notwithstanding great differences in these 
regards, the forms have been usually left in a single order, the 
more degraded forms being regarded as descended from the 
types which approach nearest to the ordinary fishes. From 
this view Professor Cope dissents. He recognizes several orders 
of eels, claiming that we should not unite all these various fishes 
into a single order on account of the eel-like form. If we do so, 


we should place in another order those with the fish-like form. 
362 


The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 363 


It is probable, though not absolutely certain, that the A podes 
are related to each other. The loss among them, first, of the con- 
nection of the post-temporal with the skull; second, of the 
separate caudal fin and its hypural support; third, of the distinct 
maxillary and premaxillary ; and fourth, of the pectoral fins, must 
be regarded as successive phases of a general line of degradation. 
The large number of actinosts, the persistence of the notochord, 
the absence of spines, and the large numbers of vertebrae seem 
to be traits of primitive simplicity. Special lines of degenera- 
tion are further shown by deep-sea forms. What the origin 
of the Apodes may have been is not known with any certainty. 
They are soft-rayed fishes, with the air-bladder connected by 
a tube with the cesophagus, and with the anterior vertebre not 
modified. In so far they agree with the Jsospondyli. In some 
other respects they resemble the lower Ostariophysi, especially 
the electric eel and the eel-like catfishes. But these resem- 
blances, mainly superficial, may be wholly deceptive; we have 
no links which certainly connect the most fish-like Apodes 
with any of the other orders. Probably Woodward’s sugges- 
tion that they may form a series parallel with the J/so- 
pondylt and independently descended from Tertiary Ganoids 
deserves serious consideration. Perhaps the most satisfactory 
arrangement of these fishes will be to regard them as constitut- 
ing four distinct orders for which we may use the names Sym- 
branchia (including Ichthyocephali and Holostomt), Apodes (in- 
cluding Enchelycephalt and Colocephali), Carencheli, and Lyo- 
mere. 

Order Symbranchia.—The Symbranchia are distinguished by 
the development of the ordinary fish mouth, the maxillary and 
premaxillary being well developed. The gill-openings are very 
small, and usually confluent below. These fresh-water forms 
of the tropics, however eel-like in form, may have no real 
affinity with the true eels. In any event, they should not be 
placed in the same order with the latter. 

The eels of the suborder Ichthyocephali (iy6us, fish; ce@adn, 
head) have the head distinctly fish-like. The maxillary, pre- 
maxillary, and palatines are well developed, and the shoulder- 
girdle is joined by a post-temporal to the skull. The body is 
distinctly eel-like, the tail being very short and the fins incon- 


364 The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 


spicuous. The number of vertebre is unusually large. The 
order contains the single family Monopteride, the rice-field eels, 
one species, Monopterus albus, being excessively common in 
pools and ditches from China and southern Japan to India. 

The eels of the suborder Holostomi (6Ads, complete; cropa, 
mouth) differ from these mainly in the separation of the shoulder- 
girdle from the skull, a step in the direction of the true eels. 
The Symbranchide are very close to the Monopteride in external 
appearance, small, dusky, eel-like inhabitants of sluggish ponds 
and rivers of tropical America and the East Indies. The gill- 
openings are confluent under the throat. Symbranchus mar- 
moratus ranges northward as far as Vera Cruz, having much the 
habit of the rice-field eel of Japan and China The Amphip- 
noid@, with peculiar respiratory structures, abound in India. 
Amphipnous cuchia, according to Gunther, has but three gill- 
arches, with rudimentary lamina and very narrow slits. To 
supplement this insufficient branchial apparatus, a lung-like 
sac is developed on each side of the body behind the head, open- 
ing between the hyoid and the first branchial arch. The inte- 
rior of the sac is abundantly provided with blood-vessels, the 
arterial coming from the branchial arch, whilst those issuing 
from it unite to form the aorta. Amphipnous has rudimentary 
scales. The other Holostomi and Ichthyocephali are naked and 
all lack the pectoral fin. 

The Chilobranchide are small sea-fishes from Australia, with 
the tail longer than the rest of the body, ae of much shorter 
as in the others. 

No forms allied to Symbranchus or iaseebee are record 
as fossils. 

Order Apodes, or True Eels. — In this group the shoulder- 
girdle is free from the skull, and the bones of the jaws are reduced 
in number, through coalescence of the parts. 

Three well-marked suborders may be recognized, groups per- 
haps worthy of still higher rank: Archencheli, Enchelycephali, 
and Colocephalt. 

Suborder Archencheli—The Archencheli, now entirely extinct, 
are apparently the parents of the eels, having, however, certain 
traits characteristic of the Jsospondyli. They retain the sepa- 
rate caudal fin, with the ordinary hypural plate, and Professor 


if 


The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 365 


Hay has recently found, in an example from the Cretaceous 
of Mount Lebanon, remains of distinct ventral fins. These 
traits seem to indicate an almost perfect transition from the 
Isospondyli to the Archenchelt. 

One family may be recognized at present, Urenchelyide. 

The earliest known eel, Urenchelys avus, occurs in the upper 
Cretaceous at Mount Lebanon. It represents the family Uren- 
chelyide, apparently allied to the Angwillide, but having .a 
separate caudal fin. Its teeth are small, conical, blunt, in 
many series. There are more than too vertebre, the last 
expanded in a hypural. Pectorals present. Scales rudiment- 
ary; dorsal arising at the occiput. Branchiostegals slender, 
not curved around the opercle. Urvenchelys anglicus is another 
species, found in the chalk of England. 

Suborder Enchelycephali. — The suborder Enchelycephali (éy- 
yedus, eel; xkedady, head) contains the typical eels, in which 
the shoulder-girdle is free from the skull, the palatopterygoid 
atch relatively complete, the premaxillaries wanting or rudi- 
mentary, the ethmoid and vomer coalesced, forming the front 
of the upper jaw, the maxillaries lateral, and the cranium with 
a single condyle. In most of the species pectoral fins are present, 
and the cranium lacks the combined degradation and speciali- 
zation shown by the morays (Colocephalt). 

Family Anguillide.—The most primitive existing family is that 
of the typical eels, Anguillide, which have rudimentary scales 
oblong in form, and set separately in groups at right angles with 
one another. These fishes are found in the fresh and brackish 
waters of all parts of the world, excepting the Pacific coast of 
North America and the islands of the Pacific. In the upper Great 
Lakes and the upper Mississippi they are also absent unless intro- 
duced. The species usually spawn in the sea and ascend the 
rivers to feed. But some individuals certainly spawn in fresh 
water, and none go far into the sea, or where the water is entirely 
salt. The young eels sometimes ascend the brooks near the sea 
in incredible numbers, constituting what is known in England 
as “‘eel-fairs.”” They will pass through wet grass to surmount 
ordinary obstacles. Niagara Falls they cannot pass, and 
according to Professor Baird “in the spring and summer the 
visitor who enters under the sheet of water at the foot of the 


a 


366 The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 


falls will be astonished at the enormous numbers of young 
eels crawling over the slippery rocks and squirming in the 
seething whirlpools. An estimate of hundreds of wagon-loads, 
as seen in the course of the perilous journey referred to, would 
hardly be considered excessive by those who have visited the 
spot at a suitable season of the year.’’ “At other times large 
eels may be seen on their way down-stream, although natu- 
rally they ‘are not as conspicuous then as are the hosts of the 
young on their way up-stream. Nevertheless it is now a well- 
assured fact that the eels are catadromous, that is, that the 


big. 270.—Common Eel, Anguilla chrisypa Rafinesque. Holyoke, Mass. 


old descend the watercourses to the salt water to spawn, and 
the young, at least of the female sex, ascend them to enjoy life 
in the fresh water.”’ 

The Food of the Eel.—Eels are among the most voracious 
of all fishes. They devour dead flesh and they will attack any 
fish small enough for them to bite. They are among the swiftest 
of fishes. They work largely at night, and devour spawn as well 
as grown fishes. 

“On their hunting excursions they overturn huge and small 
stones alike, working for hours if necessary, beneath which they 
find species of shrimp and crayfish, of which they are exceed- 
ingly fond. Of shrimps they devour vast numbers. Their noses 
are poked into every imaginable hole in their search for food, to 
the terror of innumerable small fishes. 

Larva of the Eel.—The translucent band-shaped larva of 
the common eel has been very recently identified and described 
by Dr. Eigenmann. It is probable that all true eels, Enchely- 


The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 367 


cephalt, pass through a band-shaped or leptocephalous stage, 
as is the case with Albula and other Isospondyli. In the con- 
tinued growth the body becomes firmer, and at the same time 


Fig. 271.—Larva of Common Eel, Anguilla chrisypa (Rafinesque), called Lepto- 
cephalus grassii. (After Eigenmann.) 

much shorter and thicker, gradually assuming the normal form 

of the species in question. 

In a recent paper Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann has very fully 
reviewed the life-history of the eel. The common species live 
in fresh waters, migrating to the sea in the winter. They 
deposit in deep water minute eggs that float at the surface. 
The next year they develop into the band-shaped larva. The 
young eels enter the streams two years after their parents drop 
down to the sea. It is doubtful whether eels breed in fresh 
water. The male eel is much smaller than the female. 

The eel is an excellent food-fish, the flesh being tender and 
oily, of agreeable flavor, better than that of any of its rela- 
tives. Eels often reach a large size, old individuals of five or 
six feet in length being sometimes taken. 

Species of Eels.—The different species are very closely related. 
Not more than four or five of them are sharply defined, and 
these mostly in the South Seas and in the East Indies. The 
three abundant species of the north temperate zone, Anguilla 
anguilla of Europe, Anguilla chrisypa of the eastern United States, 
and Anguilla japonica of Japan, are scarcely distinguishable. In 
color, size, form, and value as food they are all alike. 

Fossil species referred to the Anguillide are known from 
the early Tertiary. Anguilla leptoptera occurs in the Eocene 
of Monte Bolea, and Anguilla elegans in the Miocene of (Eningen 
in Baden. Other fossil eels seem to belong to the Nettasto- 
mide and Myride. 

Pug-nosed Eels.—Allied to the true eel is the pug-nosed eel, 
Simenchelys parasiticus, constituting the family of Szmen- 
chelytide. This species is scaled like a true eel, has a short, 


i! 


368 The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 


blunt nose, and burrows its way into the bodies of halibut and 
other large fishes. It has been found in Newfoundland and 


Fic. 272.—Pug-nosed Eel, Simenchelys parasiticus Gill. Sable Island Bank. 


Madeira. Another family possessing rudimentary scales is that 
of the Synaphobranchide, slender eels of the ocean depths, widely 
distributed. In these forms the gill-openings are confluent. 
Synaphobranchus pinnatus is the best-known species. 


Fic. 278.—Synaphobranchus pinnatus (Gronow). Le Have Bank. 


Conger-eels. — The Leptocephalide, or conger-eels, are very 
similar to the fresh-water eels, but are without scales and with 
a somewhat different mouth, the dorsal beginning nearer to the 
head. , 

The principal genus is Leptocephalus, including the common 
conger-eel (Leptocephalus conger) of eastern America and Europe 
and numerous very similar species in the tropics of both con- 
tinents. These fishes are strictly marine and, reaching the 
length of five or six feet, are much valued as food. The eggs 
are much larger than those of the eel and are produced in great 
numbers, so that the female almost bursts with their numbers. 
Dr. Hermes calculated that 3,300,000 were laid by one female 
in an aquarium. 

These eggs hatch out into transparent band-like larva, with 
very small heads formerly known as Leptocephalus, an ancient 
name which is now taken for the genus of congers, having 


The Apodes or Eel-like Fishes 309 


been first used for the larva of the common conger-eel. The 
loose watery tissues of these “‘ ghost-fishes’’ grow more and more 
compact and they are finally transformed into young congers. 


ZB Se ii on 


Fic. 274.—Conger-eel, Leptocephalus conger (L.). 


The Murenesocide are large eels remarkable for their strong 
knife-like teeth. Murenesox savanna occurs in the West 
Indies and in the Mediterranean, Murenesox cinereus in Japan, 
and Murenesox coniceps on the west coast of Mexico, all large 

\\ 


KK « WWW 


Fig. 275 —Larva of Conger-eel Peppcnalis conger), called Leptocephalus morrissi. 
(After Eigenmann.) 


and fierce, with teeth like shears. The A/yrid@ are small and 
worm-like eels closely allied to the congers, having the tail 
surrounded by a fin, but the nostrils labial. Myrus myrus is 
found in the Mediterranean. Species of Eomyrus, Rhyncho- 
rhinus, and Paranguilla apparently allied to Myrus occur in the 
Eocene. Other related families, mostly rare or living in the 
deep seas, are the Ilyophide, Heterocongride, and Dysommide. 
The Snake-eels—Most varied of the families of eels is the 
Ophichthyide, snake-like eels recognizable by the form of the 
tail, which protrudes beyond the fins. Of the many genera found 
in tropical waters several are remarkable for the sharply defined 
coloration, suggesting that of the snake. Characteristic species 
are Chlevastes colubrinus and Leiuranus semicinctus, two beauti- 
fully banded species of Polynesia, living in the same holes in 
the reefs and colored in the same fashion. Another is Calle- 


370 The Apodes or Eel-like Fishes 


chelys melanctenia. The commonest species on the Atlantic 
coast is the plainly colored Ophichthus gomest. 


Fic. 276 —Xyrias revulsus Jordan & Snyder. Family Ophichthyide. Misaki, Japan. 


In the genus Sphagebranchus, very slender eels of the reefs, 
the fins are almost wanting. 


Fig. 277.—Myrichthys pantostigmius Jordan & McGregor. Clarion Island. 


Allied to the Congers is the small family of duck-billed eels 
(Nettastomide) inhabiting moderate depths of the sea. WNet- 
tastoma bolcense occurs in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. The pro- 
duced snout forms a transition to the really extraordinary type 
of thread-eels or snipe-eels (Nemuchthyide), of which numerous 
genera and species live in the oceanic depths. In Nemtchthys 


oI PA LEEILILLLD YL PLPC OPP Lahaye, 


een 


Pale ate Ea scree 


Fia. 278.—Ophichthus ocellatus (Le Sueur). Pensacola. 


the long, very slender, needle-like jaws are each curved back- 
ward so that the mouth cannot by any possibility be shut. 
The body is excessively slender and the fish swims with swift 
undulations, often near the surface, and when seen is usually 


The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 371 


taken for a snake. The best-known species is Nemtchthys scolo- 
paceus of the Atlantic and Pacific. Nemichthys 
avocetta, very much like it, has been twice taken 
in Puget Sound. 

Suborder Colocephali, or Morays.—In the 
suborder Colocephals (xodos, deficient; cepadn, 
head) the palatopterygoid arch and the mem- 
brane-bones generally are very rudimentary. 
The skull is thus very narrow, the gill-struc- 
tures are not well developed, and in the chief 
family there are no pectoral fins. This group 
is very closely related to the Enchelycephali, 
from which it is probably derived. 

In the great family of morays (Murenide) 
the teeth are often very highly developed. The 
muscles are always very strong and the spines 
bite savagely, a live moray, four to six feet long, 

l being often able to drive men out of a boat. 
The skin is thick and leathery, and the colora- 
tion is highly specialized, the pattern of color 


Fic. 279. Fra. 280. 
Fic. 279 —Thread-eel, Nemichthys avocetta Jordan & Gilbert. Vancouver Island. 
Fig. 280 —Jaws of Nemichthys avocetta Jordan & Gilbert. 
being often elaborate and brilliant. In Echidna zebra for ex- 
ample the body is wine-brown, with cross-stripes of golden 
yellow. In Wurena each nostril has a barbel. Jurena helena, 
the oldest moray known, is found in Europe. In Gymnothorax, 
the largest genus, only the anterior nostrils are thus provided. 
Gymnothorax mordax of California is a large food-fish, as are 
also the brown Gymnothorax funebris and the spotted Gymno- 
thorax moringa in the West Indies. These and many other species 
may coil themselves in crevices in the reefs, whence they strike 
out at their prey like snakes, taking perhaps the head of a duck 
or the finger of a man. 


372 The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 


In many of the morays the jaws are so curved and the 
mouth so filled with knife-like teeth that the jaws cannot be 
closed. This fact, however, renders no assistance to their prey, 
as the teeth are adapted for holding as well as for cutting. 

In Enchelynassa bleekeri, a huge wine-colored eel of the South 
Seas, the teeth are larger than in any other species. Evenchelys 


Fia. 281.—Murwna retifera Garman. Charleston, 8. C. 


(macrurus) is remarkable for its extraordinary length of tail, 
Echidna for its blunt teeth, and Scuticaria, Uropterygius, and 
Channomurena for the almost complete absence of fins. In 
Anarchias (allardicet; knighti), the anal fin is absent. The flesh 
of the morays is rather agreeable in taste, but usually oily and 
not readily digestible, less wholesome than that of the true eels. 

The Myrocongride are small morays with developed pectoral 
fins. The species.are few and little known. 

Family Moringuide.—Structurally one of the most peculiar 
of the groups of eels is the small family of Moringuide of the 
East and West Indies. In these very slender, almost worm- 
like fishes the heart is placed very far behind the gills and 
the tail is very short. The fins are very little developed, and 
some forms, as Gordtchthys trretitus of the Gulf of Mexico, the 
body as slender as a whiplash, possess a very great number of 
vertebree. Moringua hawatiensis occurs in Hawaii, M. edwardst 
in the Bahamas. This family probably belongs with the morays 
to the group of Colocephali, although its real relationships are 
not wholly certain. 

Order Carencheli, the Long-necked Eels.—Certain offshoots from 
the Apodes so widely diverging in structure that they must 
apparently be considered as distinct orders occur sparingly 
in the deep seas. One of these, Derichthys serpentinus, the 


— 


€Le 


DpPiu. DLN J ATT 5 AT FT p 
i oN i ARE IgpAUq 7 pu.iaq LDLO U \—— ED, 
d y] DLOYIO wh. T 
rd) GS 


374 The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 


long-necked eel, constitutes the sole known species of the sub- 
= ' , , . 

order Curenchelt («xapa, head; ‘eyyedus, eel). In this group 

the premaxillaries and maxillaries are present as in ordinary 


Fig. 2838.—Gymnothorax jordani (Evermann & Marsh). Family Murenide. 
Puerto Rico, 


fishes, but united by suture and soldered to the cranium. As 
in true eels, the shoulder-girdle is remote from the skull. The 


PTR i 
eA ir 


ho WS 
ASA oa eee te 
Retreats Sua ee 
- 


Iie. 284.—Moray, Gy»mothorax moringa Bloch. Family Murenide, Tortugas. 


head is set on a snake-like neck. The single species representing 
the family Derichthyide was found in the abysmal depths of 
the Gulf Stream. 

Order Lyomeri, or Gulpers.—Still more aberrent and in many 
respects extraordinary are the eels of the order or suborder 
Lyomert (Avos, loose; jépos, part), known as ‘Gulpers.” 
These are degenerate forms, possibly degraded from some con- 
ger-like type, but characterized by an extreme looseness of 
structure unique among fishes. The gill-arches are reduced 
to five small bars of bone, not attached to the skull, the pala- 
topterygoid arch is wholly wanting, the premaxillaries are 


The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 375 


wanting, as in all true eels, and the maxillaries loosely joined 
to the skull. The symplectic bone is wanting, and the lower jaw 
is so hinged to the skull that it swings freely in various direc- 
tions. In place of the lateral line are singular appendages. 


a, 


Fic. 285 —Derichthys serpentinus Gill. Gulf Stream. 


Dr. Gill says of these fishes: “‘ The entire organization is peculiar 
to the extent of anomaly, and our old conceptions of the char- 
acteristics of a fish require to be modified in the light of our 
knowledge of such strange beings.’’ Special features are the 
extraordinary size of the mouth, which has a cavity larger than 
that of the rest of the body, the insertion of the very small 
eye at the tip of the snout, and the relative length of the tail. 
The whole substance is excessively fragile as usual with animals 


living in great depths and the color is jet black. Three species 


Fic. 286.—Gulper-eel, Gastrostomus bairdi Gill & Ryder. Gulf Stream. 


have been described, and these have been placed in two families, 
Saccopharyngide, with the trunk (gill-opening to the vent) much 
longer than the head, and Eurypharyngide, with the trunk very 
short, much shorter than the head. The best-known species 
is the pelican eel (Eurypharynx pelacanoides), of the coast of 
Morocco, described by Vaillant in 1882. Gastrostomus batrdt, 
very much like it, occurs in the great depths under the Gulf 
Stream. So fragile and so easily distorted are these fishes that 


376 The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 


m2) 


it is possible that all three are really the same species, for which 
the oldest name would be Saccopharynx ampullaceus. Of this 
form four specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, one of 
them six feet long, carried to the surface through having 
swallowed fishes too large to be controlled. To be carried above 
its depth in a struggle with its prey is one of the greatest dangers 
to which the abysmal fishes are subject. 

Order Heteromi.—The order of Heteromi (érepos, different; 
os, shoulder), or spiny eels, may be here noticed for want of 
a better place, as its affinities are very uncertain. Some writers 
have regarded it as allied to the eels; some have placed it among 
the Ganoids. Others have found affinities with the stickle- 
backs, and still others with the singular fresh-water fishes called 
Mastacembelus. The Heteromit agree with the eels, as well as 
with Mastacembelus, in having the scapular arch separate from 
the cranium. Unlike all the true eels, most of the species have 
true dorsal and anal spines, as in the Percesoces and Hemi- 
branchii. The ventral fins, when present, are abdominal and 
each with several spines in front, a character not found among 
the Acanthoptert. There is no mesocoracoid. 

The air-bladder has a duct, and the coracoids, much as in 
the Xenomi, are reduced to a single lamellar imperforate plate. 
The two groups have little else in common, however, and this 
trait is possibly primitive in both cases, more likely to have 
arisen through independent degeneration. The separation of 
the shoulder-girdle doubtless indicates no affinity with the eels, 
as the bones of the jaws are quite normal. Two families are 
known, both from the deep sea, besides an extinct family in 
which spines are not developed. 

The Notacanthide are elongate, compressed, ending in a band- 
shaped, tapering tail; the back has numerous free spines and 
few or no soft rays, and the mouth is normal, provided with 
teeth. The species of Notacanthus are few and scantily pre- 
served. Those of Macdonaldia are more abundant. Mac- 
donaldia challengeri is from the North Pacific, being once taken” 
off Tokio. The extinct family of Protonotacanthide differs in 
the total absence of dorsal spines and fin-rays; the single species, 
Pronotocanthus sahel-alme, originally described as a primitive 
eel, occurs in the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon. 


The Apodes, or Eel-like Fishes 477 


The Lipogenyide have a round, sucker-like mouth, with 
imperfect lower jaw, but are otherwise similar. Lipogenys 
gilli was dredged in the Gulf Stream. 


Fig. 287.—Notacanthus phasganorus Goode & Bean. Grand Banks. 


Dr. Boulenger has recently extended the group of Heteromi 
by the addition of the Dercetide, Halosauride (Lyopomi), and 
the Fierasferide. We can hardly suppose that all these forms 
are really allied to Notacanthus. 


td} 


CHAPTER XXIII 


SERIES OSTARIOPHYSI 


: 4 STARIOPHYSI.—A large group of orders, certainly of 
Ima): common descent, may be brought together under the 
r. Kad general name of Ostariophysi (é6arapiov, a small bone; 
6vaos, ate Gaited): These are in many ways allied to the Jso- 
spondyli, but they have undergone great changes of structure, 
some of the species being highly specialized, others variously 
degenerate. A chief character is shared by all the species. The 
anterior vertebre are enlarged, interlocked, considerably modi- 
fied, and through them a series of small bones connect the air- 
bladder with the ear. The air-bladder thus becomes apparently 
an organ of hearing through a form of connection which is 
lost in all the higher fishes. 

Inall the members of this group excepting perhaps the degraded 
eel-like forms called Gymnonoti, the mesocoracoid arch persists, 
a trait found in all the living types of Ganoids, as well as in the 
Teleost order of Isospondyli. Other traits of the Ostariophysan 
fishes are shared by the Jsospondyli (herring, salmon) and other 
soft-rayed fishes. The air-bladder is large, but not cellular. It 
leads through life by an open duct to the cesophagus. The ven- 
tral fins are abdominal in position. The pectorals are inserted 
low. A mesocoracoid arch is developed on the inner side of 
the shoulder-girdle. (See Fig. 288.) There are no spines on 
the fins, except in many cases a single one, a modified soft ray 
at front of dorsal or pectoral. The scales, if present, are cycloid 
or replaced by bony plates. 

Many of the species have an armature much like that of 
the sturgeon, but here the resemblance ends, the bony plates 
in the two cases being without doubt independently evolved. 
According to Cope, the affinities of the catfishes to the sturgeon 
are “seen in the absence of symplectic, the rudimentary maxillary 
378 


Series Ostariophysi 379 


bone, and, as observed by Parker, in the interclavicles. There is 
also a superficial resemblance in the dermal bones.’’ But it is 


Fig. 288.— Inner view of 
shoulder-girdle of the 
Buffalo-fish. Ictiobus bu- 
balus Rafinesque, show- 
ing the mesocoracoid 
(59). (After Starks.) 


not likely that any real affinity exists. 
The sturgeons lack the characteristic 
auditory ossicles, or ‘‘Weberian  ap- 
paratus,”’ which the catfishes possess in 
common with the carp family, the Cha- 
racins,and the Gymnonoti. These orders 
must at least have a common origin, 
although this origin is obscure, and fossil 
remains give little help to the solution of 
the problem. Probably the ancestors of 
the Ostartophyst are to be found among 
the allies of the Osteoglosside. Gill has 
called attention to the resemblance of 
Erythrinus to Amia. In any event, all the 
Ostariophyst must be considered together, 
as it is not conceivable that so complex 
a structure as the Weberian apparatus 


should have been more than once independently evolved. 


The branchiostegals, 


numerous among the Jsospondyli, are 


mostly few among the Ostariophyst. 
To the Ostartophysi belong the vast majority of the fresh- 
water fishes of the world. Their primitive structure is shown in 


Fic. 289 —Weberian app. 


aratus and air-bladder of Carp. (From Giinther, 
after Weber.) 


many ways; among others by the large number of vertebra 
instead of the usual twenty-four among the more highly special- 


ized families of fishes. 


| 


We may group the Ostariophyst under 


380 Series Ostariophysi 


four orders: Heterognathi, Eventognathi (Plectospondyli), Nema- 
tognatht, and Gymnonott. 

The Heterognathi.—Of these the order of Heterognathi seems 
to be the most primitive, but in some ways the most highly de- 
veloped, showing fewer traits of degeneration than any of the 
others. The presence of the adipose fin in this group and in 
the catfishes seems to indicate some sort of real affinity with 
the salmon-like forms, although there has been great change in 
other regards. 

The order Heterognatht, or Characini (érepos, different; yva- 
fos, jaw), contains those Ostariophysi which retain the meso- 
coracoid and are not eel-like, and which have the lower pharyn- 
geals developed as in ordinary fishes. In most cases an adipose 
fin is present and there are strong teeth in the jaws. There are 
no pseudobranchie, and, as in the Cyprinide, usually but three 
branchiostegals. The Characide constitute the majority of the 
fresh-water fishes in those regions which have neither Cyprinide 
nor Salmonide. Nearly four hundred species are known from 
the rivers of South America and Africa. A single species, 
Tetragonopterus argentatus, extends its range northward to the 
Rio Grande in Texas. None are found in Asia, Europe, or, with 
this single exception, in the United States. Most of them are 
small fishes with deep bodies and very sharp, serrated, incisor- 
like teeth. Some are as innocuous as minnows, which they very 
much resemble, but others are extremely voracious.and destruc- 
tive in the highest degree. Of the caribe, belonging to the 
genus Serrasalmo, known by its. serrated belly, Dr. Gunther 
observes : 

“Their voracity, fearlessness and number render them a 
perfect pest in many rivers of tropical America. In all the 
teeth are strong, short, sharp, sometimes lobed incisors, arranged 
in one or more series; by means of them they cut off a mouth- 
ful of flesh as with a pair of scissors; and any animal falling 
into the water where these fish abound is immediately attacked 
and cut to pieces in an incredibly short time. They assail 
persons entering the water, inflicting dangerous wounds before 
the victims are able to make their escape. In some localities 
it is scarcely possible to catch fishes with the hook and line, as 
the fish hooked is immediately attacked by the ‘caribe’ (as 


Series Ostariophysi 381 


these fish are called), and torn to pieces before it can be with- 
drawn from the water. The caribes themselves are rarely 
hooked, as they snap the hook or cut the line. The smell of 
blood is said to attract at once thousands of these fishes to the 
spot.” 

Two families of Heterognatht are recognized: the Erythri- 
nide, which lack the adipose fin, and the Characide, in which 
this fin is developed. The Erythrinide are large pike-like 
fishes of the South American rivers, robust and tenacious of 
life, with large mouths armed with strong unequal teeth. The 
best-known species is the Trahira (Huplias malabaricus). 

Among the Characide, Serrasalmo has been already noticed. 
Citharinus in Africa has very few teeth, and Curimatus in South 
America none at all. Namnnocharax in Africa is composed of 


a | 
paras 


SS 


SS 


PS SeTe 


Fie. 290.—Brycon dentex Giinther. Family Characide. Nicaragua. 


very diminutive fishes, Hydrocyon exceedingly voracious ones, 
reaching a length of four feet, with savage teeth. Many of the 
species are allies of Tetragonopterus, small, silvery, bream-like 
fishes with flat bodies and serrated incisor teeth. Most of these 
are American. A related genus is Brycon, found in the streams 
about the Isthmus of Panama. 

Extinct Characins are very rare. Two species from the Ter- 
tiary lignite of Sdo Paulo, Brazil, have been referred to Tetra- 
gonopterus—T. avus and T. ligniticus. 

The Eventognathi—The Eventognatht (ev, well; ev, within; 
yvabos, jaw) are characterized by the absence of teeth in the 
jaws and by the high degree of specialization of the lower phar- 


382 Series Ostariophysi 


yngeals, which are scythe-shaped and in typical forms are armed 
with a relatively small number of highly specialized teeth of 
peculiar shape and arranged in one, two, or three rows. In 
all the species the gill-openings are restricted to the sides; there is 
no adipose fin, and the broad, flat branchiostegals are but three 
in number. In all the species the scales, if present, are cycloid, 
and the ventral fins, of course, abdominal. The modification 
of the four anterior vertebre and their connection with the 
air bladder are essentially as seen in the catfishes. 

The name Plectospondyli is often used for this group (zAexros, 
interwoven; ozovdvaos, vertebra), but that term originally in- 
cluded the Characins as well. 

The Cyprinide.—The chief family of the Eventognathi and the 
largest of all the families of fishes is that of Cyprinide, comprising 


Fic. 291—Pharyngeal bones and teeth of European Chub, Leuciscus cephalus 
(Linnseus). (After Seelye.) 


200 genera and over 2000 species, found throughout the north tem- 


perate zone but not extending to the Arctic Circle on the north, ~ 


nor much beyond the Tropic of Cancer on the south. In this 
family belong all the fishes known as carp, dace, chub, roach, 
bleak, minnow, bream, and shiner. The essential character of the 
family lies in the presence of one, two, or three rows of highly 
specialized teeth on the lower pharyngeals, the main row con- 
taining 4, 5, 6, or 7 teeth, the others 1 to 3. The teeth of the 
main row differ in form according to the food of the fish. They 
may be coarse and blunt, molar-like in those which feed on shells; 


ances-an sidlinensinaseienean SS 


> 
os 
as ig aR nn — — 


a - — 
— 2%. ee 
a 


| 
| 


Series Ostariophysi 383 


they may be hooked at tip in those which eat smaller fishes; 
they may be serrated or not; they may have an excavated 
“grinding surface,’’ which is most developed in the species which 
feed on mud and have long intestines. In the Cyprinide, or 
carp family, the barbels are small or wanting, the head is naked, 
the caudal fin forked, the mouth is toothless and without suck- 
ing lips, and the premaxillaries form its entire margin. With 
a few exceptions the Cyprinide are small and feeble fishes. 
They form most of the food of the predatory river fishes, and 
their great abundance in competition with these is due to their 
fecundity and their insignificance. They spawn profusely and 
find everywhere an abundance of food. Often they check the 
increase of predatory fish by the destruction of their eggs. 

In many of the genera the breeding color of the males is 
very brilliant, rendering these little creatures for a time the 
most beautifully colored of fishes. In spring and early summer 
the fins, sides, and head in the males are often charged with pig- 
ment, the prevailing color of which is rosy, though often satin- 
white, orange, crimson, yellow, greenish, or jet black. Among 
American genera Chrosomus, Notropis, and Rhinichthys are most 
highly colored. Rhodeus, Rutilus, and Zacco in the Old World 
are also often very brilliant. 

In very many species, especially in America, the male in 
the breeding season is often more or less covered with small, 


DMM WHPPP PP? 
PARAM ANAM NHI) 
Dyn y 9) 


Hee 


Fic. 292.—Black-nosed Dace, Rhinichthys dulcis Girard. Yellowstone River. 


grayish tubercles or pearly bodies, outgrowths of the epidermis. 
These are most numerous on the head and fall off after the 
breeding season. They are most developed in Campostoma. 

The Cyprinide are little valued as food-fishes. The carp, 
largely domesticated in small ponds for food, is coarse and 


384 Series Ostariophysi 


tasteless. Most of the others are flavorless and full of small 
bones. One species, Opsartichthys uncirosiris, of Japan is an 
exception in this regard, being a fish of very delicate flavor. 

In America 225 species of Cyprinide are known. One hun- 
dred of these are now usually held to form the single genus 


y 


RPT 
ee 
AY 


Fie. 293 —White Chub, Notropis hudsonius (Clinton). Kilpatrick Lake, Minn. 


Notropts. This includes the smaller and weaker species, from 
two to seven inches in length, characterized by the loss, mostly 
through degeneration, of special peculiarities of mouth, fins, and 
teeth. These have no barbels and never more than four teeth 


\ “a < ee EAE Ay ers - Oe 
YORK hide oR Va a: 
eave: enone 


Yara 
Fig. 294.—Silver-jaw Minnow, Ericymba buccata Cope. Defiance, Ohio. 


in the main row. Few, if any, Asiatic species have so small 
a number, and in most of these the maxillary still retains its 
rudimentary barbel. But one American genus (Orthoden) has 
more than five teeth in the main row and none have more than 
two rows or more than two teeth in the lower row. By these 
and other peculiarities it would seem that the American species 
are at once less primitive and less complex than the Old World. 


Series Ostariophysi 385 


forms. There is some evidence that the group is derived from 
Asia through western America, the Pacific Coast forms being 
much nearer the Old World types than the forms inhabiting the 
Mississippi Valley. Not many Cyprinide are found in Mexico, 
none in Cuba, South America, Australia, Africa, or the islands 
to the eastward of Borneo. Many species are very widely 
distributed, many others extremely local. In the genus Notro- 
pts, each river basin in the Southern States has its series of different 
and mostly highly colored species. The presence of Notroptis 
niveus in the Neuse, Notropis pyrrhomelas in the Santee, Notro- 
pis zonisttus in the Chattahoochee, Notropis callistius, tri- 
chroistius, and stigmaturus in the Alabama, Notropts whtpplei in 


Fic. 295 —Silverfin, Notropis whipplei (Girard). White River, Indiana. 
Family Cyprinide. 


the Mississippi, Notropis galacturus in the Tennessee, and Notro- 
pis cercostigma in the Sabine forms an instructive series in this 
regard. These fishes and the darters (Etheostomine) are, among 
American fishes, the groups best suited for the study of local 
problems in distribution. 

Species of Dace and Shiner——Noteworthy species in other 
genera are the following: 

Largest and best known of the species of Notropis is the 
familiar shiner or redfin, Notropts cornutus, found in almost 
every brook throughout the region east of the Missouri River. 

Campostoma anomalum, the stone-roller, has the very long 
intestines six times the length of its body, arranged in fifteen 
coils around the air-bladder. This species feeds on mud and 
spawns in little brooks, swarming in early spring throughout 


Wh : 


386 Series Ostariophysi 


the Mississippi Valley, and is notable for its nuptial tubercles 
and the black and orange fins. 


In the negro-chub, Exoglossum maxillingua of the Pennsy]- 


» ili : 
) cae 


Fic. 296 —Stone-roller, Campostoma anomalum (Rafinesque). Family Cyprinide. 
Showing nuptial tubercles and intestines coiled about the air-bladder. 


vanian district, the rami of the lower jaw are united for their 
whole length, looking like a projecting tongue. 

The fallfish, Semotilus corporalis, is the largest chub of the 
Eastern rivers, 18 inches long, living in swift, clear rivers. It 
is a soft fish, and according to 
Thoreau “it tastes like brown 
paper salted’’ when itis cooked. 
Close to this isthe horned dace, 
Semotilus atromaculatus, and the 
horny head, Hybopsis kentucki- 
ensis, both among the most widely 
distributed of our river fishes. 
These are all allied to the gudgeon 
(Gobio gobio), a common boys’ fish : 
of the rivers of Europe, and much Fic. 297—Head of Day-chub, Ezo- 

glossum_ masillingua (Le Sueur). 
sought by anglers who can get _Shenandoah River. 
nothing better. The bream, 
Abramis, represented by numerous species in Europe, has a deep 
compressed body and a very long anal fin. It is also well repre- 
sented in America, the golden shiner, common in Eastern and 
Southern streams, being Abramis chrysoleucus. The bleak of 
Europe (Alburnus alburnus) is a “shiner’’ close to some of our 
species of Notropis, while the minnow of Europe, Phoxinus 
phoxinus, resembles our gorgeously colored Chrosomus erythro- 


Series Ostariophysi 387 


gaster. Other European forms are the roach (Rutilus rutilus), 
the chub (Leuciscus cephalus), the dace (Leuciscus leuciscus), 


Fic. 298.—Horned Dace, Semotilus atromaculatus (Mitchill). Aux Plaines River, 
Ills. Family Cyprinide. 


the ide ([dus idus), the red-eye (Scardinius erythropthalmus), 
and the tench (Tznca tinca). The tench is the largest of the 
European species, and its virtues with those of its more or less 


Fie. 299.—Shiner, Abramis chrysoleucus (Mitchill). Hackensack River, N. J. 


insignificant allies are set forth in the pages of Izaak Walton. 
All of these receive more attention from anglers in England 
than their relatives receive in America. All the American 
Cyprinide are ranked as “‘boys’ fish,’ and those who seek the 
trout or black bass or even the perch or crappie will not notice 
them. Thoreau speaks of the boy who treasures the yellow 


388 Series Ostariophysi 


perch as a real fish: ‘‘So many unquestionable fish he counts, 
then so many chubs which he counts, then throws away.”’ 

Chubs of the Pacific Slope.—In the Western waters are numer- 
ous genera, some of the species reaching a large size. The species 


Fic. 300 —The Squawfish, Ptychocheilus grandis Agassiz. (Photograph by 
Cloudsley Rutter.) 
of squawfish (Ptychocheilus lucius in the Colorado, Ptychocheilus 
grandis in the Sacramento, and Ptychocheilus oregonensis in the 
Columbia) reach a length of 4 or 5 feet or even more. These 
fishes are long and slender, with large toothless mouths and 
the aspect of a pike. 

Allied to these are the “hard tails’’ (Gila elegans and Gila 
robusta) of the Colorado Basin, strange-looking fishes scarcely 
eatable, with lean bodies, flat heads, and expanded tails. The 
split-tail, Pogonichthys macrolepidotus, is found in the Sacramento. 

In the chisel-mouth, Acrocheilus alutaceus, of the Columbia 
the lips have a hard cutting edge. In Meda, very small fishes 


AY 


Mi » ah Te )) Wee 


Fig 3801—Chub of the Great Basin, Leuciscus lineatus (Girard). Heart Lake, 
Yellowstone Park. Family Cyprinidae. 


of the Colorado Basin, the dorsal has a compound spine of 
peculiar structure. Many of the species of Western waters 
belong to the genus Leuciscus, which includes also many species 


ij 


' 


Series Ostariophysi 389 


of Asia and Europe. The common Japanese dace (Leuciscus 
hakuensis) is often found out in the sea, but, in general, 
Cyprimde are only found in fresh waters. The genus of 
barbels (Barbus) contains many large species in Europe and 
Asia. In these the barbel is better developed than in most 
other genera, a character which seems to indicate a primitive 
organization. barbus mosal of the mountains of India is said 
to reach a length of more than six feet and to have ‘“‘scales 
as large as the palm of the hand.” 

The Carp and Goldfish—tIn the American and European Cy- 
prinide the dorsal fin is few-rayed, but in many Asiatic species 
it is longer, having 15 to 20 rays and is often preceded by a ser- 
rated spine like that of a catfish. Of the species with long 
dorsal the one most celebrated is the carp (Cyprinus carpio). 
This fish is a native of the rivers of China, where it has been 
domesticated for centuries. Nearly three hundred years ago it 
was brought to northern Europe, where it has multiplied in 
domestication and become naturalized in many streams and 
ponds. Of late years the cultivation of the carp has attracted 
much attention in America. It has been generally satisfactory 
where the nature of the fish is understood and where expecta- 
tions have not been too high. 

The carp is a dull and sluggish fish, preferring shaded, tran- 
quil, and weedy waters with muddy bottoms. Its food con- 
sists of water insects and other small animals, and vegetable 
matter, such as the leaves of aquatic plants. They can be 
fed on much the same things as pigs and chickens, and they 
bear much the same relation to trout and bass that pigs and 
chickens do to wild game and game-birds. The carp is a very 
hardy fish, grows rapidly, and has immense fecundity, 700,000 
eggs having been found in the ovaries of a single individual. 
It reaches sometimes a weight of 30 to 4o pounds. As a food- 
fish the carp cannot be said to hold a high place. It is tolerated 
in the absence of better fish. 

The carp, either native or in domestication, has many ene- 
mies. In America, catfish, sunfish, and pike prey upon its eggs 
or its young, as well as water-snakes, turtles, kingfishes, cray- 
fishes, and many other creatures which live about our ponds 
and in sluggish streams. In domestication numerous varieties 


390 Series Ostariophysi 


of carp have been formed, the “leather-carp”’ (Lederkarpfen) 
being scaleless, others, “mirror-carp”’ (Spiegelkarpfen), having 
rows of large scales only along the lateral line or the bases of 
the fins. 

Closely allied to the carp is the goldfish (Carassius auratus). 
This is also a common Chinese fish introduced in domestication 
into Europe and America. The golden-yellow color is found 
only in domesticated specimens, and is retained by artificial 
selection. The native goldfish is olivaceous in color, and where 
the species has become naturalized (as in the Potomac River, 
where it has escaped from fountains in Washington) it reverts 
to its natural greenish hue. The same change occurs in the 
rivers of Japan. The goldfish is valued solely for its bright 
colors as an ornamental fish. It has no beauty of form nor 
any interesting habits, and many of our native fishes (Percide, 
Cyprinide) far excel it in attractiveness as aquarium fishes. 
Unfortunately they are less hardy. Many varieties and mon- 
strosities of the goldfish have been produced by domestication. 

The Catostomidea.—The suckers, or Catostomide, are an off- 
shoot from the Cyprinide, differing chiefly in the structure of the 
mouth and of the lower pharyngeal bones. 
The border of the mouth above is formed 
mesially by the small premaxillaries and 
laterally by the maxillaries. The teeth of 
the lower pharyngeals are small and very 
numerous, arranged in one series like the 
teeth of acomb. The lips are usually thick 
and fleshy, and the dorsal fin is more or less 
elongate (its rays eleven to fifty in number), 
characters which distinguish the suckers from 
the American Cyprinide generally, but not 
from those of the Old World. 

About sixty species of suckers are known, 
all of them found in the rivers of North 
America except two, which have been re- yyg 392—Lower pha- 
corded on rather uncertain authority from ryngeal of Placopha- 
Siberia and China. Only two or three of ees cece ee 
the species extend their range south of the 
Tropic of Cancer into Mexico or Central America, and none 


Series Ostariophysi 391 


occurs in Cuba nor in any of the neighboring islands. The 
majority of the genera are restricted to the region east of the 
Rocky Mountains, although species*of Catostomus, Chasmistes, 
Deltistes, Xyrauchen, and Pantosteus are found in abundance 
in the Great Basin and the Pacific slope. 

‘In size the suckers range from six inches in length to about 
three feet. As food-fishes they are held in low esteem, the flesh 
of all being flavorless and excessively full of small bones. Most 
of them are sluggish fishes; they inhabit all sorts of streams, 
lakes, and ponds, but even when in mountain brooks they 
gather in the eddies and places of greatest depth and least 
current. They feed on insects and small aquatic animals, 
and also on mud, taking in their food by suction. They are not 
very tenacious of life. Most of the species swarm in the spring 
in shallow waters. In the spawning season they migrate up 
smaller streams than those otherwise inhabited by them. The 


Fic. 303.—Creekfish or Chub-sucker, Erimyzon sucetta (Lacépéde). Nipisink 
Lake, Illinois. Family Catostomide. 


large species move from the large rivers into smaller ones; the 
small brook species go into smaller brooks. In some cases 
the males in spring develop black or red pigment on the body 
or fins, and in many cases tubercles similar to those found in 
the Cyprinide appear on the head, body, and anal and caudal 
fins. 

The buffalo-fishes and carp-suckers, constituting the genera 
Ictiobus and Carpiodes, are the largest of the Catostomide, and 


392 Series Ostariophysi 


bear a considerable resemblance to the carp. They have the 
dorsal fin many-rayed and the scales large and coarse. They 


Fig. 804.—Buffalo-fish, Ictiobus cyprinella (Cuy. & Val.). Normal, Ill. 


abound in the large rivers and lakes between the Rocky Mountains 
and the Alleghanies, one species being found in Central America 
and a species of a closely related genus (Myxocyprinus astaticus) 


Fic. 305.—Carp-sucker, Carpiodes cyprinus (Le Sueur). Havre de Grace. 


being reported from eastern Asia. They rarely ascend the 
smaller rivers except for the purpose of spawning. Although 
so abundant in the Mississippi Valley as to be of importance 
commerically, they are very inferior as food-fishes, being coarse 
and bony. The genus Cycleptus contains the black-horse, or 
Missouri sucker, a peculiar species with a small head, elongate 


Series Ostariophysi 393 


body, and jet-black coloration, which comes up the smaller 
rivers tributary to the Mississippi and Ohio in large numbers 


Fic. 806 —Common Sucker, Catostomus commersoni (Le Sueur). Ecorse, Mich. 


in the spring. Most of the other suckers belong to the genera 
Catostomus and Moxostoma, the latter with the large-toothed 
Placopharynx being known, from the red color of the fins, as 


Fic. 307. —California Sucker, Catostomus occidentalis Agassiz. (Photograph by 
Cloudsley Rutter.) 


red-horse, the former as sucker. Some of the species are very 
widely distributed, two of them (Catostomus commersom, Ert- 
myzon sucetta) being found in almost every stream east of the 
Rocky Mountains and Catostomus catostomus throughout Canada 
to the Arctic Sea. The most peculiar of the suckers in appear- 
ance is the harelip sucker (Quassilabia lacera) of the Western 
rivers. Very singular in form is the hump-back or razor-back 
sucker of the Colorado, Xyrauchen cypho. 

Fossil Cyprinide.—Fossil Cyprinide, closely related to exist- 
ing forms, are found in abundance in fresh-water deposits of the 
Tertiary, but rarely if ever earlier than the Miocene. Cyprinus 


394 Series Ostariophysi 


priscus occurs in the Miocene of Germany, perhaps showing that 
Germany was the original home of the so-called ‘German carp,” 
afterwards actually imported to Germany 
from China. Some specimens referred to 
Barbus, Tinca, Rhodeus, Aspius, and 
Gobio are found in regions now inhabited 
by these genera, and many species are 
referred to the great genus Leuciscus, Leu- 
ciscus aningensis from the Miocene of 
Germany being perhaps the best known. 
Several species of Leuciscus or related 
genera are found in the Rocky Mountain 
region. Among these is the recently de- 
scribed Leuciscus turnert. 

Fossil Catostomide are very few and 
chiefly referred to the genus Amyzon, 
supposed to be allied to Erimyzon, but Be nt Ona 
with a longer dorsal. Amyzon commune er, Catostomus macro- 
and other species are found in the Rocky —- “*#t!s 
Mountains, especially in the Miocene of the South Park in Colo- 
rado and the Eocene of Wyoming. Two or three species of 


Fie. 809 —Razor-back Sucker, meagre cypho (Lockington). Green River, 
Utah. 


Catostomus, known by their skulls, are found in the Pliocene 
of Idaho. 

’ The Loaches.—The Cobitide, or loaches, are small fishes, all 
less than a foot in length, inhabiting streams and ponds of 
Europe and Asia. In structure they are not very different from 
minnows, but they are rather eel-like in form, and the numerous 


Series Ostariophysi 395 


long barbels about the mouth strongly suggest affinity with 
the catfishes. The scales are small, the pharyngeal teeth few, 
and the air-bladder, as in most small catfishes, enclosed in a 
capsule. The loaches are all bottom fishes of dark colors, 
tenacious of life, feeding on insects and worms. ‘The species 
often bury themselves in mud and sand. They lie quiet on 
the bottom and move very quickly when disturbed much after 
the manner of darters and gobies. Species of Cobitis and Mis- 
gurnus are widely distributed from England to Japan. Nema- 
chilus barbatulus is the commonest European species. Cobitis 
tenia is found, almost unchanged, from England to the streams 
of Japan. 

Remains of fossil loaches, mostly indistinguishable from 
Cobitis, occur in the Miocene and more recent rocks. 

From ancestors of loaches or other degraded Cyprinide we 
may trace the descent of the catfishes. 

The Homalopteride are small loaches in the mountain streams 
of the East Indies. They have no air-bladder and the number 
of pharyngeal teeth (10 to 16) is greater than in the loaches, 
carp, or minnows. 


CHAPTER XXIV 


THE NEMATOGNATHI, OR CATFISHES 


ic waf/HE Nematognathi—The Nematognatht (vijpa, thread; 
} .* 2 | j yvados, jaw), known collectively as catfishes, are 

+} recognized at once by the fact that the rudimentary 
and usually toothless maxillary is developed as the bony base 
of a long barbel or feeler. Usually other feelers are found around 
the head, suggesting the “smellers’’ of a cat. The body is 
never scaly, being either naked and smooth or else more or less 
completely mailed with bony plates which often resemble 
superficially those of a sturgeon. Other distinctive characters 
are found in the skeleton, notably the absence of the subopercle, 
but the peculiar development of the maxillary and its barbel 
with the absence of scales is always distinctive. The symplectic 
is usually absent, and in some the air-bladder is reduced to a 
rudiment inclosed in a bony capsule. In almost all cases a 
stout spine exists in the front of the dorsal fin and in the front 
of each pectoral fin. This spine, made of modified or coalescent 
soft rays, is often a strong: weapon with serrated edges and 
capable of inflicting a severe wound. When the fish is alarmed, 
it sets this spine by a rotary motion in its socket joint. It can 
then be depressed only by breaking it. By a rotary motion 
upward and toward the body the spine is again lowered. The 
wounds made by this spine are often painful, but this fact is 
due not to a specific poison but to the irregular cut and to the 
slime of the spine. 

In two genera, Noturus and Schilbeodes, a poison-gland exists 
at the base of the pectoral spine, and the wound gives a sharp 
pain like the sting of a hornet and almost exactly like the'sting 
of a scorpion-fish. Most of the Nematognathi possess a fleshy 


or adipose fin behind the dorsal, exactly as in the salmon. In 
1I—I2 396 


a 


The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 397 


a few cases the adipose fin develops an anterior spine and 
occasionally supporting rays. 

All the Nematognatht are carnivorous bottom feeders, de- 
vouring any prey they can swallow. Only a few enter the 
sea, and they occur in the greatest abundance in the Amazon 
region. Upward of 1200 species, arranged in 150 genera, are 
recorded. They vary greatly in size, from two inches to six feet 
in length. All are regarded as food-fishes, but the species in 
the sea have very tough and flavorless. flesh. Some of the 
others are extremely delicate, with finely flavored flesh and a 
grateful absence of small bones. 

Families of Nematognathi—According to Dr. Eigenmann’s 
scheme of classification,* the most primitive family of Nema- 
tognathi is that of Dzplomystide, characterized by the pres- 
ence of a well-developed maxillary, as in other soft-rayed fishes. 
The single species, Diplomystes papillosus, is found in the waters 
of Chile. 

Similar to the Diplomystide in all other respects is the great 
central family of Siluride, by far the most numerous and im- 
portant of all the divisions of Nematognathi. 

The Siluride.—This group has the skin naked or imperfectly 
mailed, the barbels on the head well developed, the dorsal short, 
inserted forward, the adipose fin without spine, and the lower 
pharyngeals separate. All the marine catfishes and most of 
the fresh-water species belong to this group, and its members, 
some 7oo species, abound in all parts of the world where cat- 
fishes are known—‘‘a bloodthirsty and bullying race of rangers 
inhabiting the river bottoms with ever a lance at rest and ready 
to do battle with their nearest neighbor.” 

The Sea Catfish.—tIn the tropical seas are numerous species of 
catfishes belonging to Tachysurus, Arius, Galeichthys, Felich- 
thys, and other related genera. These are sleek, silvery fishes 
covered with smooth skin, the head usually with a coat of mail, 
pierced by a central fontanelle. Some of them reach a con- 
siderable size, swarming in sandy bays. None are valued as food, 
being always tough and coarsely flavored. Sea birds, as the 
pelican, which devour these catfishes are often destroyed by 


* A Revision of the South American Nematognathi, 1890, p. 7. 


398 The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 


the sudden erection of the pectoral spines. None of these are 
found in Europe or in Japan. Of the very many American 
species the gaff-topsail catfish (Felichthys felis), noted for its 


Fic. 310 —Gaff-topsail Cat, Felichthys felis (L.). Woods Hole. 


very high spines, extends farthest north and is one of the 
very largest species. This genus has two barbels at the chin. 
Most others have four. The commonest sea catfish of the 
Carolina coast is Galeichthys milbertt. In Tachysurus the teeth 


Fic. 811.—Sea Catfish, Galeichthys milberti (Cuv. & Val.). Pensacola. 


on the palate are rounded, in most of the others they are in 
villiform bands. 

In most or all of the sea catfish the eggs, as large as small 
peas, are taken into the mouth of the male and there cared 
for until hatched. 

The Channel Cats.—In all the rivers of North America east 
of the Rocky Mountains are found catfishes in great variety. 
The channel cats, [ctalurus, known most readily by the forked 
tails, are the largest in size and most valued as food. The tech- 


The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 399 


nical character of the genus is the backward continuation of the 
supraoccipital, forming a bony bridge to the base of the dorsal. 
The great blue cat, [ctalurus furcatus, abounds throughout the 
large rivers of the Southern States and reaches a weight of 150 
pounds or more. It is an excellent food and its firm flesh is read- 
ily cut into steaks. In the Great Lakes and northward is a very 
similar species, also of large size, which has been called [ctalurus 


be 
A 


Siig 5: 
(9 


Fig. 312.—Channel Catfish, Ictalwrus punctatus (Rafinesque). Illinois River. 
Family Siluride. 


lacustris. Another similar species is the willow cat, Ictalurus 
anguilla, The white channel-cat, Ictalurus punctatus, reaches a 
much smaller size and abounds on the ripples in clear swift 
streams of the Southwest, such as the Cumberland, the Alabama, 
and the Gasconade. It is a very delicate food-fish, with tender 
white flesh of excellent flavor. 

Horned Pout.—The genus Amezurus includes the smaller brown 
catfish, horned pout, or bullhead. The body is more plump and 
the caudal fin is usually but not always rounded. The many 
species are widely diffused, abounding in brooks, lakes, and 
ponds. Amezurus nebulosus is the best-known species, ranging 
from New England to Texas, known in the East as horned pout. 
It has been successfully introduced into the Sacramento, where 
it abounds, as well as its congener, Amezurus catus, the white 
bullhead, brought with it from the Potomac. The latter species 
has a broader head and concave or notched tail. All the species 
are good food-fishes. All are extremely tenacious of life, and 
all are alike valued by the urchin, for they will bite vigorously 
at any sort of bait. All must be handled with care, for the 
sharp pectoral spines make an ugly cut, a species of wound 


400 The Nematognathi, or Cattishes 


from which few boys’ hands in the catfish region are often 
free. 

In the caves about Conestoga River in Lancaster County, 
Pennsylvania, is a partly blind catfish, evidently derived from 


~ a 


(From life by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.) 


i 
. 
ne 
: 


€ 


4 


Fie. 318 —Horned Pout, Ameiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur). 


local species outside the cave. It has been named Grontas 
migrilabris, 
A few species are found in Mexico, one of them, ctalurus 


The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 401 


meridionalis, as far south as Rio Usamacinta on the boundary of 
Guatemala. 

Besides these, a large channel-cat of peculiar dentition, 
known as [stlarius balsanus, abounds in the basin of Rio Balsas. 
In Mexico all catfishes are known as Bagre, this species as 
Bagre de Rio. 

The genus Leptops includes the great yellow catfish, or 
goujon, known at once by the projecting lower jaw. It is a 
mottled olive and yellow fish of repulsive exterior, and it reaches 
a very great size. It is, however, a good food-fish. 

The Mad-toms.— The genera Noturus and Schilbeodes are 
composed of diminutive catfishes, having the pectoral spine 
armed at base, with a poison sac which renders its sting ex- 


Fic. 314 —Mad-tom, Schilbeodes juriosus Jordan & Meek. Showing the poisoned 
pectoral spine. Family Siluride. Neuse River. 


tremely painful though not dangerous. The numerous species 
of this genus, known as “mad-toms’’ and ‘‘stone cats,’’ live 
among weeds in brooks and sluggish streams. Most of them 
rarely exceed three inches in length, and their varied colors 
make them attractive in the aquarium. 

The Old World Catfishes——In the catfishes of the Old World 
and their relatives, the adipose fin is rudimentary or wanting. 
The chief species found in Europe is the huge sheatfish, or wels, 
Silurus glanis. This, next to the sturgeon, is the largest river fish 
in Europe, weighing 300 to 400 pounds. It is not found in Eng- 
land, France, or Italy, but abounds in the Danube. It isa lazy 
fish, hiding in the mud and thus escaping from nets. It is very 
voracious, and many stories are told of the contents of its 
stomach. A small child swallowed whole is recorded from 
Thorn, and there are still more remarkable stories, but not 


402 The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 


properly vouched for. The sheatfish is brown in color, naked, 
sleek, and much like an American Ameturus save that its tail _ 
is much longer and more eel-like. Another large catfish, known 
to the ancients, but only recently rediscovered by Agassiz and 
Garman, is Parasilurus artstotelis of the rivers of Greece. In 
China and Japan is the very similar Namazu, or Japanese catfish, 
Parastlurus asotus, often found in ponds and used as food. 
Numerous smaller related catfishes, Porcus (Bagrus), Pseudo- 
bagrus, and related genera swarm in the brooks and ponds of the 
Orient. ; 

In the genus Torpedo (Malapterurus) the dorsal fin is wanting. 
Torpedo electricus, the electric catfish of the Nile, is a species 
of much interest to anatomists. The shock is like that of a 
Leyden jar. The structures concerned are noticed on p. 58. 


Fic. 315.—Electric Catfish, Torpedo electricus (Gmelin). Congo River. 
(After Boulenger.) 


The generic name Torpedo was applied to the electric catfish 
before its use for the electric ray. 

In South America a multitude of genera and species cluster 
around the genus Pimelodus. Some of them have the snout 
very long and spatulate. Most of them possess a very long 
adipose fin. The species are generally small ir size and with 
smooth skin like the North American catfishes. Still other 
species in great numbers are grouped around the genus Doras. 
In this group the snout projects, bearing the small mouth at 
its end, and the lateral line is armed behind with spinous shields. 
All but one of the genera belong to the Amazon district, Syno- 
dontis being found in Africa. 

Concerning Doras, Dr. Gtnther observes: “These fishes 
have excited attention by their habit of traveling during the 
dry season from a piece of water about to dry up in quest of a 
pond of greater capacity. These journeys are occasionally 
of such a length that the fish spends whole nights on the way, 


The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 403 


and the bands of scaly travelers are sometimes so large that 
the Indians who happen to meet them fill many baskets of the 
prey thus placed in their hands. The Indians suppose that 
the fish carry a supply of water with them, but they have no 
special organs and can only do so by closing the gill-openings 
or by retaining a little water between the plates of their bodies, 
as Hancock supposes. The same naturalist adds that they 
make regular nests, in which they cover up their eggs with 
care and defend them, male and female uniting in this parental 
duty until the eggs are hatched. The nest is constructed, at 
the beginning of the rainy season, of leaves and is sometimes 
placed in a hole scooped out of the beach.” 

The Sisoride—The Szsoride are small catfishes found in 
swift mountain streams of northern India. In some of the 
genera (Pseudecheneis) in swift streams a sucking-disk formed 
of longitudinal plates of skin is formed on the breast. This 
enables these fishes to resist the force of the water. In one 
genus, Exostoma, plates of skin about the mouth serve the same 
purpose. 

The Bunocephalide are South American catfishes with the 
dorsal fin undeveloped and the top of the head rough. In 
Platystacus (Aspredo), the eggs are carried on the belly of the 
female, which is provided with spongy tentacles to which the 
eggs are attached. After the breeding season the ventral sur- 
face becomes again smooth. 

The Plotoside.—The Plotoside are naked catfishes, largely 
marine, found along the coasts of Asia. In these fishes the 
second dorsal is very long. Plotosus anguillarts, the sea catfish 
of Japan, is a small species striped with yellow and armed with 
sharp pectoral spines which render it a very disagreeable object 
to the fishermen. In sandy bays like that of Nagasaki it is 
very abundant. Allied to this is the small Asiatic family of 
Chacide. 

The Chlariide—The Chlariide are eel-like, with a soft skele- 
ton and a peculiar accessory gill. These abound in the swamps 
and muddy streams of India, where some species reach a length 
of six feet. One species, Chlarias magur, has been brought 
by the Chinese to Hawaii, where it flourishes in the same 


404 The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 


waters as Ameiurus nebulosus, brought from the Potomac and 
by Chinese carried from San Francisco. 

The Hypophthalmide and Pygidiide.—The Hypophthalmide 
have the minute air-bladder inclosed in a long bony capsule. 
The eyes are placed very low and the skin is smooth. The 
statement that this family lacks the auditory apparatus is not 
correct. The few species belong to northern South America. 

Allied to this group is the family Pygidiide with a differ- 
ently formed bony capsule and no adipose fin. The numerous 
species are all South American, mostly of mountain streams 
of high altitude. Some are very small. Certain species are 
said to flee for protection into the gill-cavity of larger cat- 


Fic. 316.—An African Catfish, Chlarias brevceps Boulenger. Congo River. 
Family Chlariide. (After Boulenger.) 


fishes. Some are reported to enter the urethra of bathers, 
causing severe injuries. The resemblance of certain species 
to the loaches, or Cobitide, is very striking. This similarity 
is due to the results of similar environment and necessarily 
parallel habits. The Argid@ have the capsule of the air-bladder 
formed in a still different fashion. The few species are very 
small, inhabitants of the streams of the high Andes. 

The Loricariide.—In the family of Loricariide the sides and 
back are armed with rough bony plates. The small air-bladder 
is still in a bony capsule, and the mouth is small with thick 
fringed lips. The numerous species are all small fishes of the 
South American waters, bearing a strong external resemblance 
to Agonide, but wholly different in anatomy. 

The Callichthyide.— The Callichthyide are also small fishes 
armed with a bony interlocking coat of mail. They are closely 
allied to the Pygiditde. The body is more robust than in the 
Callichthyide and the coat of mail is differently formed. The 
species swarm in the rivers of northern South America, where 


The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 405 


with the mailed Loricariide they 
form a conspicuous part of the 
fish fauna. 

Fossil Catfishes—Fossil catfishes 
are very few in number. Siluride, 
allied to Chlarias, Bagarius, Hetero- 
branchus, and other fresh-water 
forms of India, are foundin the late 
Tertiary rocks of Sumatra, and 
catfish spines exist in the Tertiary 
tocks of the United States. Verte- 
bree in the Canadian Oligocene have 
been referred by Cope to species of 
Ameturus (A. cancellatus and A. 
maconnelli). Rhineastes peltatus 
and six other species, perhaps allied 
to Pzmelodus, have been described 
by Cope from Eocene of Wyoming 
and Colorado. Bucklandium diluvir 
is found in the Eocene London 
clays, and several species apparently 
marine, referred to the neighbor- 
hood of Tachysurus or Arius, are 
found in Eocene rocks of England. 

There is no evidence that the 
group of catfishes has any great 
antiquity, or that its members were 
ever so numerous and varied as at 
the present time. The group is 
evidently derived from scaly ances- 
tors, and its peculiarities are due 
to specialization of certain parts 
and degeneration of others. 

There is not the slightest reason 
for regarding the catfishes as direct 
descendants of the sturgeon or 
other Ganoid type. They should 
rather be looked upon as a degener- 
ate and highly modified offshoot pre 317 —LZoricaria aurea 


Steindach- 


from the primitive Characins. ner, a mailed Catfish from Rio Meta, 
; Venezuela. Family Loricariide, 
(After Steindachner. ) 


toe 


a sa 


= ap aw i ae 


a er ae ll et a le 


Cw es a i i sil Lad ba Cal aid bat is Se aah 


DS 


Ss ee 


406 The Nematognathi, or Catfishes 


Order Gymnonoti.—At the end of the series of Ostariophysans 
we may place the Gymnonoti (yupvos, bare; v@ros, back). This 
group contains about thirty species of fishes from the rivers 
of South America and Central America. All are eel-like in 
form, though the skeleton with the shoulder-girdle suspended 
from the cranium is quite unlike that of a true eel. There is 
no dorsal fin. The vent is at the throat and the anal is ex- 
cessively long. The gill-opening is small as in the eel, and as 
in most elongate fishes, the ventral fins are undeveloped. The 
body is naked or covered with small scales. 

Two families are recognized, differing widely in appearance. 
The Electrophoride constitutes by itself Cope’s order of Glanen- 
cheli (yAavis, catfish; eyyeaAvs, eel). This group he regards 
as intermediate between the eel-like catfishes (Chlarias) and 
the true eels. It is naked and eel-shaped, with a short 
head and projecting lower jaw like that of the true eel. The 
single species, Electrophorus electricus, inhabits the rivers of 
Brazil, reaching a length of six feet, and is the most powerful of 
all electric fishes. Its electric organs on the tail are derived 
from modified muscular tissue. 

The Gymnotide are much smaller in size, with compressed 
scaly bodies and the mouth at the end of a long snout. The 
numerous species are all fishes without electric organs. FEzgen- 
mannia humboldti of the Panama region is a characteristic 
species. No fossil Gymnonoti are recorded. 


CHAPTER XXV 
THE SCYPHOPHORI, HAPLOMI, AND XENOMI 


RDER Scyphophori.— The Scyphophori (cxvgos, cup; 
@opew, to bear) constitutes a small order which lies 
apparently between the Gymnonoti and the Isospondyli. 
Boulenger unites it with the Jsospondyli. The species, about 
seventy-five in number, inhabit the rivers of Africa, where 
they are important as food-fishes. In all there is a deep 
cavity on each side of the cranium covered by a thin bony 
plate, the supertemporal bone. There is no symplectic bone, 
and the subopercle is very small or concealed. The gill-openings 
are narrow and there are no pharyngeal teeth. The air-bladder 
connects with the ear, but not apparently in the same way as 
with the Ostariophysan fishes, to which, however, the Scypho- 
phori are most nearly related. In all the Scyphophori the body 
is oblong, covered with cycloid scales, the head is naked, there 
are no barbels, and the small mouth is at the end of a long 
snout. All the species possess a peculiar organ on the tail, 
which with reference to a similar structure in Torpedo and 
Electrophorus is held to be a degenerate electric organ. Accord- 
ing to Gunther, “it is-without electric functions, but evidently 
representing a transitional condition from muscular substance 
to an electric organ. It is an oblong capsule divided into 
numerous compartments by vertical transverse septa and con- 
taining a gelatinous substance.” 

The Mormyride.— There are two families of Scyphophort. 
The Mormyrid@ have the ordinary fins and tail of fishes and the 
Gymnarchide are eel-like, with ventrals, anal and caudal wanting, 
Gymnarchus miloticus of the Nile reaches a length of six feet, 
and it is remarkable as retaining the cellular structure of the 
air-bladder as seen in the garpike and bowfin. It doubtless 


serves as an imperfect lung. 
407 


408 The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 


The best-known genus of Scyphophori is Mormyrus. Species 
of this genus found in the Nile were worshiped as sacred by 
the ancient Egyptians and pictures of Mormyrus are often 
seen among the emblematic inscriptions. The Egyptians did not 
eat the Mormyrus because with two other fishes it was accused 
of having devoured a limb from the body of Osiris, so that Isis 
was unable to recover it when she gathered the scattered re- 
mains of her husband. 

In Mormyrus the bones of the head are covered by skin, 
the snout is more or less elongated, and the tail is generally 
short and insignificant. One of the most characteristically 
eccentric species is Guathonemus curvirostris, lately discovered 
by Dr. Boulenger from the Congo. Fossil Mormyride are un- 
known. 

The Haplomi.—In the groups called Imiomi and Lyopomt, 
the mesocoracoid arch is imperfect or wanting, a condition 


Fic. 818.—Gnathonemus curvirosiris Boulenger. Family Mormyride. Congo 
River. (After Boulenger.) 


which in some cases may be due to the degeneration produced by 
deep-sea life. In the eels a similar condition obtains. Inthe group 
called Haplomi (anioos, simple; os, shoulder), as in all the 
groups of fishes yet to be discussed, this arch is wholly wanting at 
all stages of development. In common with the Jsospondyli and 
with soft-rayed fishes in general the air-bladder has a persistent 
air-duct, all the fins are without true spines, the ventral fins 
are abdominal, and the scales are cycloid. The group is a 
transitional one, lying almost equidistant between the Jsospondyli 
and the Acanthopterygii. Gill unites it with the latter and 
Woodward with the former. We may regard it for the present 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi — 409 


as a distinct order, although no character of high importance 
separates it from either. Hay unites the Haplomi with the 
Synentognatht to form the order of Mesichthyes, or transitional 
fishes, but the affinities of either with other groups are quite 
as well marked as their relation to each other. Boulenger unites 
the Inzomi with the Haplomz, an arrangement which apparently 
has merit, for the most primitive and non-degenerate [niomz, as 
Aulopus and Synodus, lack both mesocoracoid and orbitosphe- 
noid. These bones are characteristic of the Isospondyli, but are 
wanting in Haplomt. 

There is no adipose dorsal in the typical Haplomz, the dorsal 
is inserted far back, and the head is generally scaly. Most but 
not all of the species are of small size, living in fresh or brackish 
water, and they are found in almost all warm regions, though 
scantily represented in California, Japan, and Polynesia. The 
four families of typical Haplomi differ considerably from one 
another and are easily distinguished, although obviously re- 
lated. Several other families are provisionally added to this 
group on account of agreement in technical characters, but 
their actual relationships are uncertain. 

The Pikes—The Esocide have the body long and slender 
and the mouth large, its bones armed with very strong, sharp 
teeth of different sizes, some of them being movable. The 
upper jaw is not projectile, and its margin, as in the Salmonide, 
is formed by the maxillary. The scales are small, and the 
dorsal fin far back and opposite the anal, and the stomach 
is without pyloric ceca. There is but a single genus, Esox 
(Lucius of Rafinesque), with about five or six living species. 
Four of these are North American, the other one being found 
in Europe, Asia, and North America. 

All the pikes are greedy and voracious fishes, very destruc- 
tive to other species which may happen to be their neighbors; 
“mere machines for the assimilation of other organisms.” 
Thoreau describes the pike as ‘‘the swiftest, wariest, and most 
ravenous of fishes, which Josselyn calls the river-wolf. It is 
a solemn, stately, ruminant fish, lurking under the shadow of 
a lily-pad at noon, with still, circumspect, voracious eye; motion- 
less as a jewel set in water, or moving slowly along to take up 
its position; darting from time to time at such unlucky fish 


(From life by R. W. Shufeldt.) 


The Pike, Vsox-lucius L. 


319 


Fia. 


410 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenom1 411 


or frog or insect as comes within its range, and swallowing it 
at one gulp. Sometimes a striped snake, bound for greener 
meadows across the stream, ends its undulatory progress in 
the same receptacle.” 

As food-fishes, all the Esocide rank high. Their flesh is 
white, fine-grained, disposed in flakes, and of excellent flavor. 

The finest of the Esocide, a species to be compared, as a 
grand game fish, with the salmon, is the muskallunge (Esox 
masquinongy). Technically this species may be known by 
the fact that its cheeks and opercles are both naked on the 
lower half.. It may be known also by its great size and by its 


Fie. 320 —Muskallunge, Esox masquinongy Mitchill. Ecorse, Mich. 


color, young and old being spotted with black on a golden- 
olive ground. 

The muskallunge is found only in the Great Lake region, 
where it inhabits the deeper waters, except for a short time 
in the spring, when it enters the streams to spawn. It often 
reaches a length of ‘six feet and a weight of sixty to eighty 
pounds. It is necessarily somewhat rare, for no small locality 
would furnish food for more than one such giant. It is, says 
Hallock, “a long, slim, strong, and swift fish, in every way 
formed for the life it leads, that of a dauntless marauder.”’ 

A second species of muskallunge, Esox ohiensis, unspotted 
but vaguely cross-barred, occurs sparingly in the Ohio River 
and the upper Mississippi Valley. It is especially abundant 
in Chautauqua Lake. 

The pike (Esox lucius) is smaller than the muskallunge, and 
is technically best distinguished by the fact that the opercles 
are naked below, while the cheeks are entirely scaly. The 
spots and cross-bars in the pike are whitish or yellowish, and 
always paler than the olive-gray ground color. It is the most 


| 


412 The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 


widely distributed of all fresh-water fishes, being found from 
the upper Mississippi Valley, the Great Lakes, and New England 
to Alaska and throughout northern Asia and Europe. It 
reaches a weight of ten to twenty pounds or more, being a 
large strong fish in its way, inferior only to the muskallunge. 
In England Esox lucius is known as the pike, while its young 
are called by the diminutive term pickerel. In America the name 
pickerel is usually given to the smaller species, and sometimes 
even to Esox luctus itself, the werd being with us a synonym 
for pike, not a diminutive. 

Of the small pike or pickerel we have three species in the 
eastern United States. They are greenish in color and banded 
or reticulated, rather than spotted, and, in all, the opercles 
as well as the cheeks are fully covered with scales. One of 
these (Esox reticulatus) is the common pickerel of the Eastern 
States, which reaches a respectable size and is excellent as 
food. The others, Esox americanus along the Atlantic seaboard 
and Esox vermiculatus in the middle West, seldom exceed a foot 
in length and are of no economic importance. 

Numerous fossil species are found in the Tertiary of Europe, 
Esox lepidotus from the Miocene of Baden being one of the 


Fic. 321.—Mud-minnow, Umbra pygmawa (De Kay). New Jersey. 


earliest and the best known; in this species the scales are much 
larger than in the recent species. The fossil remains would seem 
to indicate that the origin of the family was in southern Europe, 
although most of the living species are American. 

The Mud-minnows.—Close to the pike is the family of Um- 
bride, or mud-minnows, which technically differ from the pikes 
only in the short snout, small mouth, and weak dentition. The 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi = 413 


mud-minnows are small, sluggish, carnivorous fishes living in 
the mud at the bottom of cold, clear streams and ponds. They 
are extremely tenacious of life, though soon suffocated in warm 
waters. The barred mud-minnow of the prairies of the middle 
West (Umbra limt) often remains in dried sloughs and bog- 
holes, and has been sometimes plowed up alive. Umbra pygmea, 
a striped species, is found in the Eastern States and Umbra 
cramert in bogs and brooks along the Danube. This wide break 
in distribution seems to indicate a former wide extension of 
the range of Umbride, perhaps coextensive with Esox. Fossil 
Umbride are, however, not yet recognized. 

The Killifishes——Most of the recent Haplomi belong to the 
family of Peciliide (killifishes, or Cyprinodonts). In this 
group the small mouth is extremely protractile, its margin 
formed by the premaxillaries alone much as in the spiny- 
rayed fishes. The teeth are small and of various forms accord- 
ing to the food. In most of the herbivorous forms they are 
incisor-like, serrate, and loosely inserted in the lips. In the 
species that eat insects or worms they are more firmly fixed. 
The head is scaly, the stomach without ceca, and the intes- 
tines are long in the plant-eating species and short in the 
others. There are nearly 200 species, very abundant from 
New England and California southward to Argentina, and 
in Asia and Africa also. In regions where rice is produced, 
they swarm in the rice swamps and ditches. Some of them 
enter the sea, but none of them go far from shore. Some 
are brilliantly colored, and in many species the males are quite 
unlike the females, being smaller and more showy. The largest 
species (Fundulus, Anableps) rarely reach the length of a foot, 
while Heterandria formosa, a diminutive inhabitant of the 
Florida rivers, scarcely reaches an inch. Some species are 
Oviparous, but in most of the herbivorous forms, and some of 
the others, the eggs are hatched within the body, and the anal 
in the male is modified into a long sword-shaped intromittent 
organ, placed farther forward than the anal in the female. 
The young when born closely resemble the parent. Most of 
the insectivorous species swim at the surface, moving slowly 
with the eyes partly out of water. This habit in the genus 
Anableps (four-eyed fish, or Cuatro ojos) is associated with an 


414 The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 


extraordinary structure of the eye. This organ is prominent 
and is divided by a horizontal partition into two parts, the 
upper, less convex, adopted for sight in the air, the lower in the 
water. The few species of Anableps are found in tropical 
America. The species of some genera swim near the bottom, 
but always in very shallow waters. Allare very tenacious of life, 
and none have any commercial value although the flesh is good. 


sonar ss 
ee : 


Fie. 322 —Four-eyed Fish, Anableps dovii Gill. Tehuantepec, Mexico. 


The unique structure of the eye of this curious fish has been 
carefully studied by Mr. M. C. Marsh, pathologist of the U. S. 
Fish Commission, who furnishes the following notes published 
by Evermann & Goldsborough: 

“The eye is crossed by a bar, like the diameter of a circle, 
and parallel with the length of the body. This bar is darker 
than the other external portions of the eyeball and has its edges 
darker still. Dividing the external aspect of the eye equally, 
it has its lower edge on the same level as the back of the fish, 
which is flat and straight from snout to dorsal, or nearly the 
whole length of the fish; so that when the body of the fish is just 
submerged the level of the water reaches to this bar, and the 
lower half of the eye is in water, the upper half in the air. Upon 
dissecting the eyeball from the orbit, it appears nearly round. 
A membranous sheath covers the external part and invests most 
of the ball. It may be peeled off, when the dark bar on the 
external portion of the eye is seen to be upon this membrane, 
which may correspond to the conjunctiva. The back portion 
of the eyeball being cut off, one lens is found. The lining of the 
ball consists, in front, of one black layer, evidently choroid. 
Behind there is a retinal layer. The choroid layer turns up 
anteriorly, making a free edge comparable to an iris. The 
free edge is chiefly evident in the lower part of the eye. A large 
pupil is left, but is divided by two flaps, continuations of the 
choroid coat, projecting from either side and overlapping. 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 415 


There are properly then two pupils, an upper and lower, sepa- 
rated by a band consisting of the two flaps, which may probably, 
by moving upward and downward, increase or diminish the 
size of either pupil; an upward motion of the flaps increasing 
the lower pupil at the expense of the other, and vice versa.”’ 
This division of the pupil into two parts permits the fish, 
when swimming at the surface of the water, as is its usual cus- 
tom, to see in the air with the upper portion and in the water 
with the lower. It is thus able to see not only such insects as 
are upon the surface of the water or flying in the air above, 
but also any that may be swimming beneath the surface. 
According to Mr. E. W. Nelson, “the individuals of this species 
swim always at the surface and in little schools arranged in 
platoons or abreast. They always swim headed upstream 
against the current, and feed upon floating matter which the 
current brings them. A platoon may be seen in regular for- 


Fic. 323.—Round Minnow, Cyprinodon variegatus Lacépéde. St. George Island, 
Maryland. 


mation breasting the current, either making slight headway 
upstream or merely maintaining their station, and on the qui 
vive for any suitable food the current may bring. Now and 
then one may be seen to dart forward, seize a floating food 
particle, and then resume its place in the platoon. And thus 


416 The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 


they may be observed feeding for long periods. They are 
almost invariably found in running water well out in the stream, 
or at least where the current is strongest and where floating 
matter is most abundant, for it is upon floating matter that 
they seem chiefly to depend. They are not known to jump out 
of the water to catch insects flying in the air or resting upon 
vegetation above the water surface, nor do they seem to feed 
to any extent upon all small crustaceans or other portions of 
the plankton beneath the surface. 

“When alarmed—and they are wary and very easily fright- 
ened—they escape by skipping or jumping over the water, 


LOTR 


> 
Se 


Wh 


é) x 
pee 


| ar Sie 
ee: 
ey 
Oy 


Fic. 324.—Everglade Minnow, Jordanella floride Goode & Bean, Everglades 
- of Florida. 


2 or 3 feet ata skip. They rise entirely out of the water, and at 
a considerable angle, the head pointing upward. In descending 
the tail strikes the water first and apparently by a sculling 
motion new impetus is acquired for another leap. This skipping 
may continue until the school is widely scattered. When a 
school has become scattered, and after the cause of their fright 
has disappeared, the individuals soon rejoin each other. First 
two will join each other and one by one the others will join them 
‘until the whole school is together again. Rarely do they at- 
tempt to dive or get beneath the surface; when they do they 
have great difficulty in keeping under and soon come to the 
surface again.” 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 417 


Of the many genera of Peciliide, top-minnows, and killi- 
fishes we may mention the following: Cyprinodon is made 


Fic. 325.—Mayfish, Fundulus majalis (L.) (male). Woods Hole. 


up of chubby little fishes of eastern America with tricuspid, 
incisor teeth, oviparous and omnivorous. Very similar to 


oa ig 
Fie. 326 —Mayfish, Fundulus majalis (female). Woods Hole. 


these but smaller are the species of Lebias in southern Europe. 
Jordanella floride of the Florida everglades is similar, but with 


Fic. 327.—Top-minnow, Zygonectes notatus (Rafinesque). Eureka Springs, Ark. 


the dorsal fin long and its first ray enlarged and spine-like. 
It strongly resembles a young sunfish. Most of the larger forms 


418 The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 


belong to Fundulus, a genus widely distributed from Maine 
to Guatemala and north to Kansas and southern California. 
Fundulus majalis, the Mayfish of the Atlantic Coast, is the . 
largest of the genus. Fundulus heterochitus, the killifish, the 
most abundant. Fundulus diaphanis inhabits sea and lake 


9 


Ny 4 


Vic. 828.—Death Valley Fish, Empetrichthys merriami Gilbert. Amargosa Desert, 
Cal. Family Peciliide. (After Gilbert.) 


indiscriminately. Fundulus stellifer of the Alabama is beauti- 
fully colored, as is Fundulus zebrinus of the Rio Grande. The } 
genus Zygonectes includes dwarf species similar to Fundulus, ’ 
and Adinia includes those with short, deep body. Goodea ‘* 
atripinnis with tricuspid teeth lives in warm springs in Mexico, 


The anal fin 


Fig. 329. —Sword-tail Minnow, male, Xiphophorus helleri Heckel. 
modified as an intromittent organ. Vera Cruz. 


and several species of Goodea, Gambusia, Pecilia, and other 
genera inhabit hot springs of Mexico, Central America, and 
Africa. The genus Gambusia, the top-minnows, includes nu- 
merous species with dwarf males having the anal modified. 
Gambusia ajffinis abounds in all kinds of sluggish water in 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi = 419 


the southern lowlands, gutters and even sewers included. It 
brings forth its brood in early spring. Viviparous and her- 
bivorous with modified anal are the species of Pecilia, abundant 
throughout Mexico and southward to Brazil; Mollienesia very 
similar, with a banner-like dorsal fin, showily marked, occurs 
from Louisiana southward, and Xzphophorus, with a sword- 
shaped lobe on the caudal, abounds in Mexico; Characodon and 
Goodea in Mexico have notched teeth, and finally, Heterandria 
contains some of the least of fishes, the handsomely colored 
males barely half an inch long. 

In Lake Titicaca in the high Andes is a peculiar genus (Ores- 
tias) without ventral fins. Still more peculiar is Empetrichthys 
merriamt of the desert springs of the hot and rainless Death 
Valley in California, similar to Orestias, but with enormously 
enlarged pharyngeals and pharyngeal teeth, an adaptation to some 
unknown purpose. Fossil Cyprinodonts are not rare from the 
Miocene in southern Europe. The numerous species are allied 
to Lebias and Cyprinodon, and are referred to Prolebias and 
Pachylebias. None are American, although two American extinct 
genera, Gephyrura and Proballostomus, are probably allied to this 
group. 

Amblyopside.—The cave-fishes, Amblyopside, are the most 
remarkable of the haplomous fishes. In this family the vent is 


Fig. 330.—Dismal Swamp Fish, Chologaster cornutus Agassiz. Supposed ancestor 
of Typhlichthys. Virginia. 

placed at the throat. The form is that of the Peciliide, but 
the mouth is larger and not protractile. The species are vivip- 
arous, the young being born at about the length of a quarter of 
an inch. 

In the primitive genus Chologaster, the fish of the Dismal 
Swamp, the eyes are small but normally developed. Cholo- 
gaster cornutus abounds in the black waters of the Dismal Swamp 


420 The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 


of Virginia, thence southward through swamps and rice-fields 
to Okefinokee Swamp in northern Florida. It is a small fish, 
less than two inches long, striped with black, and with the habit 
of a top-minnow. Other species of Chologaster, possessing 
eyes and color, but provided also with tactile papilla, are found 
in cave springs in Tennessee and southern Illinois. 

From Chologaster is directly descended the small blindfish 
Typhlichthys subterraneus of the caves of the Subcarboniferous 
limestone rocks of southern Indiana and southward to northern 
Alabama. As in Chologaster, the ventral fins are wanting. 
The eyes, present in the young, become defective and useless 
in the adult, when they are almost hidden by other tissues. 
The different parts of the eye are all more or less incomplete, 
being without function. The structure of the eye has been 
described in much detail in several papers by Dr. Carl H. Eigen- 


us 


by PAPE BLESS Spor 
3: ee ee cca 
Hig fee te seu rae 


ee 


Fig. 381.—Blind Cave-fish, Typhlichthys subterraneus Girard. Mammoth Cave, 
Kentucky. 
mann. As to the cause of the loss of eyesight two chief 
theories exist—the Lamarckian theory of the inheritance in the 
species of the results of disuse in the individual and the 
Weissmannian doctrine that the loss of sight is a result of 
panmixia or cessation of selection. This may be extended 
to cover reversal of selection, as in the depths of the great 
caves the fish without eyes would be at some slight advantage. 
Dr. Eigenmann inclines to the Lamarckian doctrine, but the 
evidence brought forward fails to convince the present writer 
that results of individual use or disuse ever become hered- 
itary or that they are ever incorporated in the characters 
of a species. In the caves of southern Missouri is an inde- 
pendent case of similar degradation. Troglichthys rose, the 
blindfish of this region, has the eye in a different phase of 
degeneration. It is thought to be separately descended from 


is 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi = 421 


some other species of Chologaster. Of this species Mr. Garman 
and Mr. Eigenmann have given detailed accounts from some- 
what different points of view. 

Concerning the habits of the blindfish (Troglichthys rose), 
Mr. Garman quotes the following from notes of Miss Ruth 
Hoppin, of Jasper County, Missouri: ‘‘For about two weeks 
I have been watching a fish taken from a well. I gave him 
considerable water, changed once a day, and kept him in an 
uninhabitated place subject to as few changes of temperature 
as possible. He seems perfectly healthy and as lively as when 
first taken from the well. If not capable of long fasts, he must 
live on small organisms my eye cannot discern. He is hardly 
ever still, but moves about the sides of the vessel constantly, 
down and up, as if needing the air. He never swims through 


Wy 
Vf 
Y 


Mf Wy 


Fic. 382.—Blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, Amblyopsis speleus (De Kay). 
Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. 


the body of the water away from the sides unless disturbed. 
Passing the finger over the sides of the vessel under water I 
find it slippery. I am careful not to disturb this slimy coating 
when the water is changed. ... Numerous tests convince 
me that it is through the sense of touch, and not through hear- 
ing, that the fish is disturbed; I may scream or strike metal 
bodies together over him as near as possible, yet he seems to 
take no notice whatever. If I strike the vessel so that the 
water is set in motion, he darts away from that side through 
the mass of water, instead of around in his usual way. If I 
stir the water or touch the fish, no matter how lightly, his 
actions are the same.”’ 

The more famous blindfish of the Mammoth Cave, Ambly- 
opsis speleus, reaches a length of five inches. It possesses 
ventral fins. From this fact we may infer its descent from 


422 The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 


some extinct genus which, unlike Chologaster, retains these 
fins. The translucent body, as in the other blindfishes, is 
covered with very delicate tactile papilla, which form a very 
delicate organ of touch. 

The anomalous position of the vent in Amblyopside occurs 
again in an equally singular fish, Aphredoderus sayanus, which 
is found in the same waters throughout the same region in 
which Chologaster occurs. It would seem as if these lowland 
fishes of the southern swamps were remains of a once much 
more extensive fauna. 

No fossil allies of Chologaster are known. 

Kneriide, etc.—The members of the order of Haplomz, recorded 
above, differ widely among themselves in various details of 
osteology. There are other families, probably belonging here, 
which are still more aberrant. Among these are the Kneriide, 
and perhaps the entire series of forms called Iniomt, most of 
which possess the osteological traits of the Haplomt. 

The family of Kunertide includes a few very small fishes of 
the rivers of Africa. 

The Galaxiide—The Galaxiide are trout-like fishes of the 
southern rivers, where they take the place of the trout of the 
northern zones. The species lack the adipose fins and have 
the dorsal inserted well backward. According to Boulenger 
these fishes, having no mesocoraoid, should be placed among 
the Haplomi. Yet their relation to the Haplochitonide is very 
close and both families may really belong to the Isospondyli. 
Galaxias truttaceus is the kokopu, or “trout,” of New Zealand. 
Galaxias ocellatus is the yarra trout of Australia. Several other 
species are found in southern Australia, Tasmania, Patagonia, 
and the Falkland Islands, and even in South Africa. This very 
wide distribution in the rivers remote from each other has given 
rise to the suggestion of a former land connection between 
Australia and Patagonia. Other similar facts have led some 
geologists to believe in the existence of a former great con- 
tinent called Antarctica, now submerged except that part which 
constitutes the present unknown land of the Antarctic. 

Order Xenomi.— We must place near the Haplomi the 
singular group of Xenomi (Sevos, strange; @pos, shoulder), 
regarded by Dr. Gill as a distinct order. Externally these fish 


> 


The Scyphophori, Haplomi, and Xenomi 423 


much resemble the mud-minnows, differing mainly in the very 
broad pectorals. But the skeleton is thin and papery, the two 
coracoids forming a single cartilaginous plate imperfectly divided. 
The pectorals are attached directly to this without the inter- 
vention of actinosts, but in the distal third, according to 
Dr. Charles H. Gilbert, the coracoid plate begins to break up 


Tic. 333.—Alaska Blackfish, Dallia pectoralis (Bean). St. Michaels, Alaska. 


into a fringe of narrow cartilaginous strips. 

“In the deep-sea eels of the order Heteromi there is a some- 
what similar condition of the coracoid elements inasmuch as 
the hypercoracoid and hypocoracoid though present are merely 
membranous elements surrounded by cartilage and the acti- 
nosts are greatly reduced. It seems probable that we are 
dealing in the two cases with independent degeneration of the 
shoulder-girdle and that the two groups (Xenomi and Heteromt) 
are not really related.”’ (Gilbert.) 

Of the single family Dalliide, one species is known, the 
Alaska blackfish, Dallia pectoralis. 

This animal, formed like a mud-minnow, reaches a length 
of eight inches and swarms in the bogs and sphagnum swamps of 
northwestern Alaska and westward through Siberia. It is found 
in countless numbers according to its discoverer, Mr. L. M. 
Turner, ‘““wherever there is water enough to wet the skin of 
a fish,’ and wherever it occurs it forms the chief food of the 
natives. Its vitality is most extraordinary. Blackfishes will 
remain frozen in baskets for weeks and when thawed out are 
as lively asever. Turner gives an account of a frozen individual 
swallowed by a dog which escaped in safety after being thawed 
out by the heat of the dog’s stomach. 


CHAPTER XXVI 


ACANTHOPTERYGII; SYNENTOGNATHI 
& 1) |RDER Avantasia ae the Spiny-rayed Fishes. — The 
j Im} most of the remaining bony fishes constitute a natural 
i group for which the name Acanthopterygit (axavia, 
spine; zrépv&, zrepov, fin or wing) may be used. This name 
is often written Actinoptert, a form equally correct and more 
euphonious and convenient. These fishes are characterized, 
with numerous exceptions, by the presence of fin spines, by 
the connection of the ventral fins with the shoulder-girdle, 
by the presence in general of more than one spine in the an- 
terior part of dorsal and anal fins, and as a rule of one spine and 
five rays in the ventral fins, and by the absence in the adult 
of a duct to the air-bladder. Minor characters are these: 
the pectoral fins are inserted high on the shoulder-girdle, the 
scales are often ctenoid, and the edge of the upper jaw is formed 
by the premaxillary alone, the maxillary being always toothless. 

But it is impossible to define or limit the group by any 
single character or group of characters. It is connected with 
the Malacopterygit through the Haplomit on the one hand by 
transitional groups of genera which may lack any one of these 
characters. On the other hand, in the extreme forms, each 
of these distinctive characters may be lost through degenera- 
tion. Thus fin spines, ctenoid scales, and the homocercal tail 
are lost in the codfishes, the connection of ventrals with shoulder- 
girdle fails in the Percesoces, etc., and the development of the 
air-duct is subject to all sorts of variations. In one family 
even the adipose fin remains through all the changes and 
modifications the species have undergone. 

The various transitional forms between the Haplomi and 


the perch-like fishes have been from time to time regarded as 
424 


Acanthopterygii; Synentognathi 425 


separate orders. Some of them are more related to the perch, 
others rather to ancestors of salmon or pike, while still others 
are degenerate offshoots, far enough from either. 

On the whole, all these forms, medium, extreme and tran- 
sitional, may well be placed in one order, which would include 
the primitive flying-fishes and mullets, the degraded globefishes, 
and the specialized flounders. As for the most part these are 
spiny-rayed fishes, Cuvier’s name Acanthopterygit, or Acanthopteri, 
will serve us as well as any. The Physoclysti of Miller, the 
Thoracices of older authors, and the Ctenordet of Agassiz in- 


clude substantially the same series of forms. The order Teleo- 


cephali of Gill (redeos, perfect; «xepadn, head) has been lately 
so restricted as to cover nearly the same ground. In Gill’s 
most recent catalogue of families, the order Teleocephali in- 
cludes the Haplomz and rejects the Hemibranchti, Lophobranchii, 
Plectognatht, and Pediculati, all of these being groups charac- 
terized by sharply defined but comparatively recent characters 
not of the highest importance. As originally arranged, the order 
Teleocephali included the soft-rayed fishes as well. From it the 
Ostariophyst were first detached, and still later the [sospondyli 
were regarded by Dr. Gill as a separate order. 

We may first take up serially as suborders the principal 
groups which serve to effect the transition from soft-rayed to 
spiny-rayed fishes. 

Suborder Synentognathi.— Among the transitional forms be- 
tween the soft-rayed and the spiny-rayed fishes, one of the most 
important groups is that known as Synentognatht (curv, to- 
gether; év, within; yvados, jaw). These have, in brief, the fins 
and shoulder-girdle of Haplomz, the ventral fins abdominal, the 
dorsal and anal without spines. At the same time, as in the 
spiny-rayed fishes, the air-bladder is without duct and the 
pectoral fins are inserted high on the side of the body. With 
these traits are two others which characterize the group as a 
suborder. The lower pharyngeal bones are solidly united into 
one bone and the lateral line forms a raised ridge along the 
lower side of the body. These forms are structurally allied 
to the pikes (Haplomz), on the one hand, and to the mullets 
(Percesoces), on the other, and this relationship accords with 
their general appearance. In this group as in all the remain- 


420 Acanthopterygii; Synentognathi 


ing families of fishes, there is no mesocoracoid, and in very 
nearly all of these families the duct to the air-bladder disappears 
at an early stage of development. 

The Garfishes: Belonide.— There are two principal groups 
or families among the Synentognathi, the Belonide, with strong 
jaws and teeth, and the Exocetide, in which these structures 
are feeble. Much more important characters appear in the 
anatomy. In the Belonide the third upper pharyngeal is 
small, with few teeth, and the maxillary is firmly soldered to 
the premaxillary. The vertebre are provided with zygapophyses. 
The species of Belonide are known as garfishes, or needle- 
fishes. They resemble the garpike in form, but have nothing 
else in common. The body is long and slender, covered with 
small scales: Sharp, unequal teeth fill the long jaws and the 


Fig. 334.—Needle-fish, Tylosurus acus (Lacépéde). New York. 


dorsal is opposite the anal, on the hinder part of the body. These 
fishes are green in color, even the bones being often bright 
green, while the scales on the sides have a silvery luster. The 
species are excellent as food, the green color being associated 
with nothing deleterious. All are very voracious and some of 
the larger species, 5 or 6 feet long, may be dangerous even to 
man. Fishermen have been wounded or killed by the thrust 
of the sharp snout of a fish springing into the air. The garfishes 
swim near the surface of the water and often move with great 
swiftness, frequently leaping from the water. The genus 
Belone is characterized by the presence of gill-rakers. Belone 
belone is a small garfish common in southern Europe. Belone 
platura occurs in Polynesia. The American species (Tylosurus) 
lack gill-rakers. Tylosurus marinus, the common garfish of 


Acanthopterygii; Synentognathi 427 


the eastern United States, often ascends the rivers. Tylosurus 
raphidoma, Tylosurus fodiator, Tylosurus acus, and other species 
are very robust, with short strong jaws. Athlennes hians is a 
very large fish with the body strongly compressed, almost 
ribbon-like. It is found in the West Indies and across the 
Isthmus as far as Hawaii. Many other species, mostly belong- 
ing to Tylosurus, abound in the warm seas of all regions. 
Tylosurus ferox is the long tom of the Australian markets. 
Potamorrhaphis with the dorsal fin low is found in Brazilian 
rivers. A few fossil species are referred to Belone, Belone flava 
from the lower Eocene being the earliest. 

The Flying-fishes: Exoceetide.—The family of Exocetide in- 
cludes the flying-fishes and several related forms more or less 
intermediate between these and the garfishes. In these fishes 
the teeth are small and nearly equal and the maxillary is sepa- 
trate from the premaxillary. The third upper pharyngeal is 
much enlarged and there are no zygapophyses to the vertebre. 

The skippers (Scombresox) have slender bodies, pointed jaws, 
and, like the mackerel, a number of detached finlets behind 
dorsal and anal, although in other respects they show no affinity 
to the mackerel. The common skipper, or saury (Scombresox 
saurus), is found on both shores of the North Atlantic swimming 
in large schools at the surface of the water, frequently leaping 
for a little distance like the flying-fish. They are pursued by 
the mackerel-like fishes, as the tunny or bonito, and sometimes 
by porpoises. According to Mr. Couch, the skippers, when 
pursued, “mount to the surface in multitudes and crowd on 
each other as they press forward. When still more closely 
pursued, they spring to the height of several feet, leap over 
each other in singular confusion, and again sink beneath. Still 
further urged, they mount again and rush along the surface, 
by repeated starts, for more than one hundred feet, without 
once dipping beneath or scarcely seeming to touch the water. 
At last the pursuer springs after them, usually across their course, 
and again they all disappear together. Amidst such multi- 
tudes—for more than twenty thousand have been judged to 
be out of the water together—some must fall a prey to the enemy; 
but so many hunting in company, it must be long before the 
pursuers abandon. From inspection we could scarcely judge 


428 Acanthopterygii; Synentognathi 


the fish to be capable of such flights, for the fins, though numerous, 
are small, and the pectoral far from large, though the angle 
of their articulation is well adapted to raise the fish by the 
direction of their motions to the surface.”’ 

A similar species, Cololabis saira, with the snout very much 
shorter than in the Atlantic skipper, is the Samma of the fisher- 
men of Japan. 

The hard-head (Chriodorus athertnoides) has no beak at all 
and its tricuspid incisor teeth are fitted to feed on plants. In 
this genus, as in the flying-fishes, there are no finlets. The hard- 
head is an excellent food-fish abundant about the Florida Keys 
but not yet seen elsewhere. 

Another group between the gars and the flying-fishes is that 
of the halfbeaks, or balaos, Hemirhamphus, etc. These are also 


Fig. 335.—Saury, Scombresox saurus (L.). Woods Hole. 


vegetable feeders, but with much smaller teeth, and the lower 
jaw with a spear-like prolongation to which a bright-red mem- 
brane is usually attached. Of the halfbeaks there are several 
genera, all of the species swimming near the surface in schools 
and sometimes very swiftly. Some of them leap into the air 
and sail for a short distance like flying-fishes, with which group 
the halfbeaks are connected by easy gradations. The com- 


Me, 


SA AA 7 = 
aes reais re avs ae 
re ay 


ee ZO Sia ae Bh) 
~ nn Beene EEC Maen es a tie 
ee ea < 


eae I 
Fic. 386 —Halfbeak, Hyporhamphus unifasciatus (Ranzani). Chesapeake Bay. 


Wet 


monest species along our Atlantic coast is Hyporhamphus uni- 
fasciatus; a larger species, Hemtrhamphus brasiliensis, abounds 
about the Florida Keys. Euleptorhamphus longtrostris, a ribbon- 
shaped elongate fish, with long jaw and long pectorals, is taken 
in the open sea, both in the Altantic and Pacific, being common 
in Hawaii. The Asiatic genus Zenarchopterus is viviparous, 


6zt 


(Sx0[[ay 19yyV) “peyow 
Suravy ‘Bag 


UBUISBT, WOT} Us 


) 


498 


adg 


O18 


sapoeu 


*(souuel 


AT 


oue[B 


A 


1q omistaed YOY 07 ‘suBooTsn1o URaUIET o1IserEd 


) uojonun sajnnuory ‘Yysy-sUIA,,y UelBaysny— LES 


“Ly 


"£320 Acanthopterygii; Synentognathi 


having the anal fin much modified in the male, forming an 
intromittent organ, as in the Pwcilitde. One species occurs in 
the river mouths in Samoa. 

The flying-fishes have both jaws short, and at least the 


Fic. 888 —Sharp-nosed Flying-fish, Fodiator acutus (Val.). Panama. 


pectoral fins much enlarged, so that the fish may sail in the air 
for a longer or shorter distance. 

The smaller species have usually shorter fins and approach 
more nearly to the halfbeaks. Fodiator acutus, with sharp 
jaws, and Hemuiexocetus, with a short beak on the lower jaw, 
are especially intermediate. The flight of the flying-fishes is 
described in detail on p. 44. 

The Catalina flying-fish, Cypselurus californicus, of the shore 
of southern California is perhaps the largest of the known species, 
reaching a length of 18 inches. To this genus, Cypselurus, 
having a long dorsal and short anal, and with ventrals en- 
larged as well as pectorals, belong all the species strongest in 
flight, Cypselurus heterurus and furcatus of the Atlantic, Cypse- 
lurus simus of Hawaii and Cypselurus agoo in Japan. The very 
young of most of these species have a long barbel at the chin 
which is lost with age. 

In the genus Exonautes the base of anal fin is long, as long 
as that of the dorsal. The species of this group, also strong 
in flight, are widely distributed. Most of the European flying- 
fishes, as Exonautes rondeleti, Exonautes rubescens, and Exo- 
nautes vinciguerre, belong to this group, while those of Cypse- 
lurus mostly inhabit the Pacific. The large Australian species 
Exonautes unicolor belongs to this group. In the restricted 
genus Exocetus the ventral fins are short and not used in flight. 
Exocetus volitans (evolans) is a small flying-fish, with short 


| 


Se 


Acanthopterygii ; Synentognathi 431 


ventral fins not used for flight. It is perhaps the most widely 
distributed of all, ranging through almost all warm seas. 
Parexocetus brachypterus, still smaller, and with shorter, grass- 
hopper-like wings, is also very widely distributed. An ex- 
cellent account of the flying-fishes of the world has been given 
by Dr. C. F. Litken (1876), the University of Copenhagen, 


Fic. 339.—Catalina Flying-fish, Cypselurus calijornicus (Cooper). Santa Barbara. 


which institution has recetved a remarkably fine series from 
trading-ships returning to that port. Later accounts have 
been given by Jordan and Meek, and by Jordan and Ever- 
mann. 

Very few fossil Exocetide are found. Species of Scombresox 
and Hemirhamphus are found in the Tertiary, the earliest being 
Henurhamphus edwardsi from the Eocene of Monte Boleca. No 
fossil flying-fishes are known, and the genera, Exocetus, Exo- 
nautes, and Cypselurus are doubtless all of very recent origin. 


CHAPTER XXVII 


PERCESOCES AND RHEGNOPTERI 


UBORDER Percesoces.—In the line of direct ascending 
transition from the Haplomi and Synentognathi, the 
| pike and flying-fish, towards the typical perch-like 


forms, we find a number of families, perch-like in essential 
regards but having the ventral fins abdominal. 

These types, represented by the mullet, the silverside, and 
the barracuda, have been segregated by Cope as an order called 
Percesoces (Perca, perch; Esox, pike), a name which correctly 
describes their real affinities. In these typical forms, mullet, 
silverside, and barracuda, the affinities are plain, but in other 
transitional forms, as the threadfin and the stickleback, the 
relationships are less clear. Cope adds to the series of Percesoces 
the Ophiocephalide, which Gill leaves with the Anabantide 
among the spiny-rayed forms. Boulenger adds also the sand- 
lances (Ammodytide) and the threadfins (Polynemide), while 
Woodward places here the Crossognathide. In the .present 
work we define the Percesoces so as to include all spiny-rayed 
fishes in which the ventral fins are naturally abdominal, except- 
ing those having a reduced number of gill-bones, or of actinosts, 
or other peculiarities of the shoulder-girdle. The Ammodytide 
have no real affinities with the Percesoces. The Crossognathide 
and other families with abdominal ventrals and the dorsal spines 
\ rolly obsolete may belong with the Haplomi. Boulenger places 
the Chiasmodontide, the Stromatetde, and the Tetragonuride 
among the Percesoces, an arrangement of very doubtful validity. 
In most of the Percesoces the scales are cycloid, the spinous 
dorsal forms a short separate fin, and in all the air-duct is 
wanting. 

The Silversides: Atherinide.—The most primitive of living 


Percesoces constitute the large family of silversides (Atherinide), 
432 


Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 433 


known as “fishes of the King,’’ Pescados del Rey, Pesce Rey, or 
Peixe Re, wherever the Spanish or Portuguese languages are 
spoken. The species are, in general, small and slender fishes 
of dry and delicate flesh, feeding on small animals. The mouth 
is small, with feeble teeth. There is no lateral line, the color 
is translucent green, with usually a broad lateral band of silver. 
Sometimes this is wanting, and sometimes it is replaced by 
burnished black. Some of the species live in lakes or rivers, 
others in bays or arms of the sea, but never at a distance from 
the shore or in water of more than a few feet in depth. The 
larger species are much valued as food, the smaller ones, equally 
delicate, are fried in numbers as “‘ whitebait,” but the bones are 
firmer and more troublesome than in the smelts and young 
herring. The species of the genus Atherina, known as “‘friars,”’ 
or “brit,” are chiefly European, although some occur in almost 
all warm or temperate seas. These are small fishes, with the 
mouth relatively large and oblique and the scales rather large 
and firm. Atherina hepsetus and A. presbyter are common in 
Europe, Atherina stipes in the West Indies, Atherina bleekeri 
in Japan, and Atherina insularum and A. lacunosa in Polynesia. 
The genus Chirostoma contains larger species, with project- 
ing lower jaw, abounding in the lakes of Mexico. Chiro- 
stoma humboldtianum is very abundant about Mexico City. 
Like all the other species of this genus it is remarkably excellent 
as food, the different species constituting the famous “ Pescados 
Blancos” of the great.lakes of Chapala and Patzcuaro of the 
western slope of Mexico. A very unusual circumstance is this: 
that numerous very closely related species occupy the same 
waters and are taken in the same nets. In zoology, generally, 
it is an almost universal rule that very closely related species 
occupy different geographical areas, their separation being 
due to barriers which prevent interbreeding. But in the lake 
of Chapala, near Guadalajara, Prof. John O. Snyder and the 
present writer, and subsequently Dr. S. E. Meek, found ten 
distinct species of Chirostoma, all living together, taken in the 
same nets and scarcely distinguishable except on careful 
examination. Most of these species are very abundant through- 
out the lake, and all reach a length of twelve to fifteen inches. 
These species are Chirostoma estor, Ch. lucius, Ch. sphyrena, 


434 Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 


Ch. ocotlane; Ch. lerme, Ch. chapale, Ch. grandocule, Ch. labarce, 
Ch. promelas, and Ch. bartoni. <A similar assemblage of species 


Fic. 840.—Pescado blanco, Chirostoma humboldtianum (Val.). Lake Chaleo, City 
of Mexico. 


nearly all different from these was obtained by Dr. Seth E. 
Meek in the lake of Patzcuaro, farther south. In this lake 
were found Ch. attenuatum, Ch. patzcuaro, Ch. humboldtianum, 
Ch. grandocule, and Ch. estor. The lake of Zirahuen, near 
Chapala, contains Ch. estor and Ch. ztrahuen. 

Still another species, Ch. jordani, is found about the city of 
Mexico, where it is sold baked in corn-husks. Along the coasts 
of Peru, Chile, and Argentina is found still another assemblage 
of fishes of the king, with very small scales, constituting the 
genera Basilichthys and Gastropterus (Pisciregia). Basilichthys 
microlepidotus is the common Pesca del Rey of Chile. The 
small silversides, or “brit,” of our Atlantic coast belong to 
numerous species of Menidia, Menidia notata to the northward 
and Menidia memidia to the southward being most abundant. 


. Le Maat, 


Fic. 341.—Silverside or Brit, Kirtlandia vagrans (Goode & Bean). Pensacola. 


Kirtlandia laciniata, with ragged scales, is common along the 
Virginia coast, and K. vagrans farther south. Another small 
species, very slender and very graceful, is the brook silver- 


Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 435 


side Labidesthes sicculus, which swarms in clear streams from 
Lake Ontario to Texas. This species, three to four inches 
long, has the snout produced and a very bright silvery stripe 
along the side. Large and small species of silversides occur 


Fia. 342.—Blue Smelt or Pez del Rey, Atherinopsis californiensis Girard. 
San Diego. 
in the sea along the California coast, where they are known 
familiarly as “blue smelt”’ or ‘‘Peixe Re.’ The most impor- 
tant of these and the largest member of the family, reaching 
a length of eighteen inches, is Atherinopsis californiensis, an 
important food-fish throughout California, everywhere wrongly 
known as smelt. Atherinops affinis is much like it, but has 


‘Fie. 343 —Flower of the surf. Iso flos-maris, Jordan & Starks. Enoshima, 


Y-shaped teeth. Tso flos-maris, called. Nami-no-hana, or 
flower of the surf, is a shining little fish with belly sharp like 
that of a herring. It lives in the surf on the coast of Japan. 
Melanotenia nigrans of Australia (family Melanotentide) has 
the lateral band jet-black, as has also Melaniris balsanus of the 
rivers of southern Mexico. Atherinosoma vorax of Australia has 
strong teeth like those of a barracuda. 

Fossil species of Atherina occur in the Italian Eocene, the 
best known being Atherina macrocephala. Another species, 
Rhamphognathus paralepoides, allied to Menidia, occurs in the 
Eocene of Monte Bolca. 


436 Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 


The Mullets: Mugilide.—The mullets (Mugtlide) are more 
clumsy in form than the silversides, robust, with broad heads 
and stouter fin-spines. The ventral fins are abdominal but 
well forward, the pelvis barely touching the clavicle, a con- 
dition to be defined as ‘‘subabdominal.’”” The small mouth 
is armed with very feeble teeth, often reduced to mere fringes. 
The stomach is muscular like the gizzard of a fowl and 
the species feed largely on the vegetation contained in mud. 
There are numerous species, mostly living in shallow bays 
and estuaries, but some of them are confined to fresh waters. 
All are valued as food and some of them under favorable con- | 
ditions are especially excellent. 

Most of the species belong to the genera Mugil, the mullet of 
all English-speaking people, although not at all related to the 
red mullet or surmullet of the ancient Romans, Mullus barbatus. 

The mullets are stoutish fish from one to two feet long, 
with blunt heads, small mouths almost toothless, large scales, 
and a general bluish-silvery color often varied by faint blue 
stripes. The most important species is Mugil cephalus, the 
common striped mullet This is found throughout southern 
Europe and from Cape Cod to Brazil, from Monterey, California, 
to Chile, and across the Pacific to Hawaii, Japan, and the Red 
Sea. 

Mr. Silas Stearns compares a school of mullets to barnyard 
fowls feeding together. When a fish finds a rich spot the others 
flock about it as chickens do. The pharyngeals form a sort of 
filter, stopping the sand and mud; the coarse parts being ejected - 
through the mouth. 

The young mullet feed in schools and often swim with the 
head at the surface of the water. 

The white or unstriped mullets are generally smaller, but 
otherwise differ little. Mugil curema is the white mullet of 
tropical America, ranging occasionally northward, and several 
other species occur in the West Indies and the Mediterranean. 
The genus Mugil has the eye covered by thick transparent 
tissue called the adipose eyelid. In Liza the adipose eyelid is 
wanting. Liza capito, the big-headed mullet of the Mediterra- 
nean, is a well-known species. Most of the mullets of the south 
seas belong to the genus Liza. Liza melinoptera and Liza 


Percesoces and Rhegnopteri AAT, 


ceruleomaculata are common in Samoa. The genus Querimana 
includes dwarf-mullets, two or three inches long, known as 
whirligig-mullets. These little fishes gather in small schools 
and swim round and round on the surface like the whirligig- 
beetles, or Gyrinide, their habits being like those of the young 
mullets; some young mullets having been, in fact, described 
as species of Querimana. The genus Agonostomus includes fresh- 
water mullets of the mountain rivers of the East and West Indies 
and Mexico, locally known as trucha, or trout. Agonostomus 
nasutus of Mexico is the best-known species. 

The Joturo, or Bobo, Joturus pichardt, is a very large robust 
and vigorous mullet which abounds at the foot of waterfalls 


Fic. 344.—Joturo or Bobo, Joturus pichardi Poey. Rio Bayano, Panama. 


in the mountain torrents of Cuba, eastern Mexico, and Central 
America. It is a good food-fish, frequently taken about Jalapa, 
Havana, and on the Isthmus of Panama. Its lips are very 
thick and its teeth are broad, serrated, loosely inserted incisors. 

Fossil mullets are few. Mugil radobojanus is the earliest 
from the Miocene of Croatia. 

The Barracudas: Sphyrenide.—The Splyrenide, or barracu- 
das, differ from the mullets in the presence of very strong 
teeth in the bones of the large mouth. ‘The lateral line is also 
developed, there is no gizzard, and there are numerous minor 
modifications connected with the food and habits. The species 
are long, slender swift fishes, powerful in swimming and vora- 
cious to the last degree. Some of the species reach a length of 
six feet or more, and these are almost as dangerous to bathers 


438 Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 


as sharks would be. The long, knife-like teeth render them | 
very destructive to nets. The numerous species are placed 
in the single genus Sphyrena, and some of them are found in | 
all warm seas, where they feed freely on all smaller fishes, their 
habits in the sea being much like those of the pike in the lakes. 
The flesh is firm, delicate, and excellent in flavor. In the larger 
species, especially in the West Indies, it may be difficult of 
digestion and sometimes causes serious illness, or “ichthyosism.”’ 

: 


Fic. 345.—Barracuda, Sphyrena barracuda Walbaum. Florida. 


Sphyrena sphyrena is the spet, or sennet, a rather small 
barracuda common in southern Europe. Sphyrena borealis of 
our eastern coast is a similar but still feebler species rarely 
exceeding a foot in length. These and other small species are 
feeble folk as compared with the great barracuda (Sphyrena 
barracuda) of the West Indies, a robust savage fish, also known 
as picuda or becuna. Sphyrena commersoni of Polynesia is a 
similar large species, while numerous lesser ones occur through | 
the tropical seas. On the California coast Sphyrena argentea 
is an excellent food-fish, slenderer than the great barracuda 
but reaching a length of five feet. 

Several species of fossil barracuda occur in the Italian 
Eocene, Sphyrena bolcensis being the earliest. 

Stephanoberycide.—We may append to the Percesoces, for 
want of a better place, a small family of the deep sea, its 
affinities at present unknown. The Stephanoberycide have the } 
ventrals 1, 5, subabdominal, a single dorsal without spine, and 
the scales cycloid, scarcely imbricated, each with one or two 
central spines. The mouth is large, with small teeth, the skull 
cavernous, as in the berycoids, from which group the normally 
formed ventrals abdominal in position would seem to exclude it. 
Stephanoberyx mone and S. gilli are found at the depth of a 
mile and a half below the Gulf Stream. Boulenger first placed 


Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 439 


them with the Percesoces, but more recently suggests their re- 
lationship with the Haplomt. Perhaps, as supposed by Gill, 
they may prove to be degenerate berycoids in which the ven- 
tral fins have lost their normal connection. 

Crossognathide.— A peculiar primitive group referred by 
Woodward to the Percesoces is the family of Crossognathide 
of the Cretaceous period. As in these fishes there are no fin- 
spines, they may be perhaps better placed with the Haplomt. 
The dorsal fin is long, without distinct spines, and the abdom- 
inal ventrals have six to eight rays. The mouth is small, 
with feeble teeth, and the body is elongate and compressed. 
Crossognathus sabandianum occurs in the Cretaceous of Switzer- 
land and Germany, Syllemus latifrons and other species in 
the Colorado Cretaceous, and Syllemus anglicus in England. 
The Crossognathide have probably the lower pharyngeals sep- 
arate, else they would be placed among the Synentognatht, a 
group attached by Woodward, not without reason, to the 
Percesoces. 

Cobitopsidez.—Near the Crossognathide may be placed the 
extinct Cobitopside, Cobitopsis acuta being recorded from the 


Fic. 346. —Cobitopsis acuta Gervais, restored. Oligocene of Puy-de-Déme. 
(After Woodward.) 


Oligocene of Puy-de-Déme in France. In this species there 
is a short dorsal fin of about seventeen rays, no teeth, and 
the well-developed ventral fins are not far in front of the anal. 
This little fish bears a strong resemblance to Ammodytes, but 
the affinities of the latter genus are certainly with the 
ophidioid fishes, while the real relationship of Cobitopsis is 
uncertain. 

Suborder Rhegnopteri.—The threadfins (Polynemide) are al- 
lied to the mullets, but differ from them and from all other 
fishes in the structure of the pectoral fin and its basal bones, 
or actinosts. 

The pectoral fin is divided into two parts, the lower com- 
posed of free or separate rays very slender and thread-like, 


440 Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 


sometimes longer than the body. Two of the actinosts of the 
pectoral support the fin, one is slender and has no rays, while 
the fourth is plate-like and attached to the coracoids, support- 
ing the pectoral filaments. The body is rather robust, covered 
with large scales, formed much as in the mullet. The lateral 


Fic. 347. Pin cies of a Threadfin, Polydactylus approximans 
(Lay & Bennett). 
line extends on the caudal fin as in the Scienide, which group 
these fishes resemble in many ways. The mouth is large, 
inferior, with small teeth. The species are carnivorous fishes 
of excellent flesh, abounding on sandy shores in the warm 
seas. They are not very active and not at all voracious. The 


=a 


sna Te 
‘ saat 
oF oD 


cag 


2 : 
er i. 


Fig. 348.—Threadfin, Polydactylus octonemus (Girard). Pensacola. 


coloration is bluish and silvery, sometimes striped with black. 
Most of the species belong to the genus Polydactylus. Poly- 


Percesoces and Rhegnopteri 441 


dactylus virginicus, the barbudo, with seven filaments, is common 
in the West Indies and Florida. Polydactylus octonemus with 
eight filaments is more rare, but ranges further north. Poly- 
dactylus approximans, the raton of western Mexico, with six 
filaments, reaches San Diego. Polydactylus plebejus is common 
in Japan and other species range through Polynesia. In India 
isinglass is made from the large air-bladder of species of Poly- 
dactylus. The rare Polynemus quinquarius of the West Indies 
have five pectoral filaments, these being greatly elongate, much 
longer than the body. 
No extinct Polynemide are recorded. 


Fig. 348a.—Striped Mullet, Mugtl cephalus (L.). Woods Hole, Mass. 


CHAPTER XXVIII 


PHTHINOBRANCHII: HEMIBRANCHII, LOPHO- 
BRANCHII, AND HYPOSTOMIDES 


UBORDER Hemibranchii.— Still another transitional 
group, the Hemzbranchit, is composed of spiny- 
= rayed fishes with abdominal ventrals. In this sub- 
order there are other points of divergence, though none of 
high importance. In these fishes the bones of the shoulder-girdle 
are somewhat distorted, the supraclavicle reduced or wanting, 
and the gill structures somewhat degenerate. The presence 
of bones called interclavicles or infraclavicles, below and behind 
the clavicle, has been supposed to characterize the order of 
Hemibranchit. But this character has very slight importance. 
In two families, Macrorhamphoside and Centriscide, the inter- 
clavicles are absent altogether. In the Fistulariide they are 
very large. According to the studies of Mr. Edwin C. Starks, 


Fie, 349. Fia. 350. 


Fic. 849.—Shoulder-girdle of a Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnxus. 


(After Parker.) ¢ y 
Fia. 350.—Shoulder-girdle of Fistularia petimba Lacépéde, showing greatly ex- 
tended interclavicle, the surface ossified. 


the bone in question is not a true infraclavicle. It is not identical 
with the infraclavicle of the Ganoids, but it is only a backward 


extension of the hypocoracoid, there being no suture between 
442 


Phthinobranchii 443 


the two bones. In those species which have bony plates in- 
stead of scales, this bone has a deposit of bony substance or 
ganoid enamel at the surface. This gives it an apparent 
prominence as compared with other bones of the skeleton, 
but it has no great taxonomic importance. Dr. Hay 
unites the suborders Hemzbranchit, Lophobranchti, and Hypo- 
stomides to form the order Phthinobranchti (p#ivas, waning; 
Bpayyos, gill), characterized by the reduction of the gill-arches. 
These forms are really nearly related, but their affinities with 
the Percesoces are so close that it may not be necessary to form 
a distinct order of the combined group. Boulenger unites 
the Hemibranchi with Lampris to form a group, Catosteomi, 
characterized by the development of infraclavicles; but we 
cannot see that Lampris bears any affinity to the stickle- 
backs, or that the presence of infraclavicle has any high 
significance, nor is it the supposed infraclavicle of Lampris 
homologous with that of the Hemibranchtt. The dorsal fin 
in the Hemibranchiw has more or less developed spines; spines 
are also present in the ventral fins. The lower pharyngeals 
are separated; there is no air-duct. The mouth is small and 
the bones of the snout are often much produced. The preopercle 
and symplectic are distinct. The group is doubtless derived 
from some transitional spiny-rayed type allied to the Percesoces. 
The Lophobranchs, another supposed order, represent simply 
a still further phase of degradation of gills and ventral fins. 
Dr. Gill separates these two groups as distinct orders and 
places them, as aberrant offshoots, near the end of his series 
of bony fishes. We prefer to leave them with the other transi- 
tional forms, not regarding their traits of divergence as of any 
great importance in the systematic arrangement of families. 

The Sticklebacks: Gasterosteide.— The sticklebacks (Gaster- 
osteide) are small, scaleless fishes, closely related to the 
Fistularude so far as anatomy is concerned, but with very 
different appearance and habits. The body often mailed, the 
dorsal is preceded by free spines and the ventrals are each 
reduced to a sharp spine with a rudimentary ray. The jaws 
are short, bristling with sharp teeth, and these little creatures 
are among the most active, voracious, and persistent of all 
fishes. They attack the fins of larger fishes, biting off pieces, 


444 Phthinobranchii 


and at the same time they devour the eggs of all species acces- 
sible to them. In almost all fresh and brackish waters of the 
north temperate zone these little fishes abound. “‘It is scarcely 
to be conceived,’’ Dr. Giinther observes, ‘“what damage these 
little fishes do, and how greatly detrimental they are to the 
increase of all the fishes among which they live, for it is with 
the utmost industry, sagacity, and greediness that they seek 
out and destroy all the young fry that come their way.” 

The sticklebacks inhabit brackish and fresh waters of the 
northern hemisphere, species essentially alike being found 
throughout northern Europe, Asia, and America. The same 
species is subject to great variation. The degree of develop- 
ment of spines and bony plates is greatest in individuals living 
in the sea and least in clear streams of the interior. Each of 
the mailed species has its series of half-mailed or even naked 
varieties found in the fresh waters. This is true in Europe, 
New England, California, and Japan. The farther the indi- 
viduals are from the sea, the less perfect is their armature. 
Thus, Gasterosteus cataphractus, which in the sea has a full 
armature of bony plates on the side, about 30 in number, will 
have in river mouths from 6 to 20 plates and in strictly fresh 
water only 2 or 3 or even none at all. 

The sticklebacks have been noted for their nest-building 
habits. The male performs this operation, and he is provided 
with a special gland for secretion of the necessary cement. 
Dr. Gill quotes from Dr. John A. Ryder an account of this 
process. The secretory gland is a “large vesicle filled with a 
clear secretion which coagulates into threads upon contact 
with water. It appears to open directly in front of the vent. 
As soon as it is ruptured, it loses its transparency, and what- 
ever secretion escapes becomes whitish after being in contact 
with water for a short time. This has the same tough, elastic 
qualities as when spun by the animal itself, and is also composed 
of numerous fibers, as when a portion is taken that has been 
recently spun upon the nest. Thus provided, when the nuptial 
season has arrived the male stickleback prepares to build 
his nest, wherein his mate may deposit her eggs. How this 
nest is built, and the subsequent proceedings of the stickle- 
backs, have been told us in a graphic manner by Mr. John K. 


Phthinobranchii 445 


Lord, from observations on Gasterosteus cataphractus on Van- 
couver Island, although the source of his secretion was mis- 
understood: 

“The site is generally amongst the stems of aquatic plants, 
where the water always flows but not too swiftly. He first 
begins by carrying small bits of green material which he nips 
off the stalks and tugs from out the bottom and sides of the 
bank; these he attaches by some glutinous material, that he 
clearly has the power of secreting, to the different stems destined 
as pillars for his building. During this operation he swims 
against the work already done, splashes about, and seems 
to test its durability and strength; rubs himself against the 
tiny kind of platform, scrapes the slimy mucus from his sides 
to mix with and act as mortar for his vegetable bricks. Then 
he thrusts his nose into the sand at the bottom, and, bringing 
a mouthful, scatters it over the foundation; this is repeated 
until enough has been thrown on to weight the slender fabric 
down and give it substance and stability. Then more twists, 
turns, and splashings to test the firm adherence of all the 
materials that are intended to constitute the foundation of 
the house that has yet to be erected on it. The nest, or nursery, 
when completed is a hollow, somewhat rounded, barrel-shaped 
structure worked together much in the same way as the plat- 
form fastened to the water-plants; the whole firmly glued 
together by the viscous secretion scraped from off the body. 
The inside is made as smooth as possible by a kind of plastering 
system; the little architect continually goes in, then, turning 
round and round, works the mucus from his body on to the 
inner sides of the nest, where it hardens like tough varnish. 
There are two apertures, smooth and symmetrical as the hole 
leading into a wren’s nest, and not unlike it. 

“All this laborious work is done entirely by the male fish, 
and when completed he goes a-wooing. Watch him as he 
swims towards a group of the fair sex enjoying themselves 
amidst the water-plants arrayed in his best and brightest 
livery, all smiles and amiability; steadily and in the most 
approved style of stickleback love-making this young and 
wealthy bachelor approaches the object of his affections, most 
likely tells her all about his house and its comforts, hints 


446 Phthinobranchii 


delicately at his readiness and ability to defend her children 
against every enemy, vows unfailing fidelity, and in lover fashion 
promises as much in a few minutes as would take a lifetime to 
fulfill. Of course she listens to his suit; personal beauty, 
indomitable courage, backed by the substantial recommendations 
of a house ready built and fitted for immediate occupation, 
are gifts not to be lightly regarded. 

“Throwing herself on her side the captive lady shows her 
appreciation, and by sundry queer contortions declares herself 
his true and devoted spouse. Then the twain return to the 
nest, into which the female at once betakes herself and therein 
deposits her eggs, emerging, when the operation is completed, 
by the opposite hole. During the time she is in the nest (about 
six minutes) the male swims round and round, butts and rubs 
his nose against it, and altogether appears to be in a state of 
defiant excitement. On the female leaving, he immediately 
enters, deposits the milt on the eggs, taking his departure through 
the back door. So far his conduct is strictly pure; but I 
am afraid morality in stickleback society is of rather a lax 
order. No sooner has this lady, his first love, taken her depart- 
ure, than he at once seeks another, introduces her as he did 
the first, and so on, wife after wife, until the nest is filled with 
eggs, layer upon layer, milt being carefully deposited betwixt 
each stratum of ova. As it is necessary there should be two 
holes, by which ingress and egress can be readily accomplished, 
so it is equally essential in another point of view. To fertilize 
fish-eggs, running water is the first necessity; and, as the holes 
are invariably placed in the direction of the current, a steady 
stream of water is thus directed over them.” 

To the genus Gasterosteus the largest species belong, those 
having three dorsal spines, and the body typically fully covered 
with bony plates. Gasterosteus aculeatus inhabits both shores of 
the Atlantic and the scarcely different Gasterosteus cataphractus 
swarms in the inlets from southern California to Alaska, Siberia, 
and northern Japan. Half-naked forms have been called by 
various names and one entirely naked in streams of southern 
California is named Gasterosteus williamsoni. Its traits are, 
however, clearly related to its life in fresh waters. 

In Pygosteus pungitius, a type of almost equally wide range, 


Phthinobranchii 447 


there are nine or ten dorsal spines and the body is more slender. 
All kinds of waters of the north on both continents may yield 


t 


Fig. 351.—Three-spined Stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus L. Woods Hole, Mass. 


this species or its allies and variations, mailed or naked. The 
naked, A peltes quadracus, is found in the sea only, along the 
New England coast. 

Eucalia tnconstans is the stickleback of the clear brook 
from New York to Indiana and Minnesota. The male is jet 


Fig. 352.—Four-spined Stickleback, A peltes quadracus Mitchill. Woods Hole, Mass 


black in spring with the sheen of burnished copper and he is 
intensely active in his work of protecting the eggs of his own 
species and destroying the eggs and fry of others. Spznachia 
spinachia is a large sea stickleback of Europe with many dorsal 
spines. 

No fossil Gasterosteide are recorded, and the family, while 
the least specialized in most regards, is certainly not the most 
primitive of the suborder. 

The Aulorhynchide.— Closely related to the sticklebacks is 
the small family of Aulorhynchide, with four soft rays in the 


~ 


448 Phthinobranchii 


ventral fins. Aulorhynchus, like Spinachia, has many dorsal 
spines and an elongate snout approaching that of a trumpet- 
fish. Aulorhynchus flavidus lives on the coast of California 
and Aulichthys japonicus in Japan. The extinct family of Pro- 
tosyngnathide is near Aulorhynchus, with the snout tubular, the 
ribs free, not anchylosed as in Aulorhynchus, and with the first 
vertebrze fused, forming one large one as in Aulostomus. Proto- 
syngnathus sumatrensis occurs in Sumatra. Protaulopsis bolcensis 
of the Eocene of Italy has the ventral fins farther back, and is 
probably more primitive than the sticklebacks. 

Cornet-fishes: Fistulariide.— Closely related to the stickle- 
backs so far as structure is concerned is a family of very dif- 
ferent habit, the cornet-fishes, or cornetas (Fistularitide). In 
these fishes the body is very long and slender, like that of a 
garfish. The snout is produced into a very long tube, which 
bears the short jaws at the end. The teeth are very small. 
There are no scales, but bony plates are sunk in the skin. The 
ventrals are abdominal, each with a spine and four rays. The 
four anterior vertebrae are very much elongate. There are 
no spines in the dorsal and the backbone extends through the 
forked caudal, ending in a long filament. The cornet-fishes 
are dull red or dull green in color. They reach a length of 
two or three feet, and the four or five known species are widely 
distributed through the warm seas, where they swim in shallow 
water near the surface. Fistularia tabaccaria, the tobacco- 
pipe fish, is common in the West Indies, Fistularia petimba, 
F. serrata, and others in the Pacific. A fossil cornet-fish of very 
small size, Fistularia longtrostris, is known from the Eocene 
of Monte Bolca, near Verona. Fistularia kenigi is recorded 
from the Oligocene of Glarus. 

The Trumpet-fishes: Aulostomide.—The Aulostomide, or trum- 
pet-fishes are in structure entirely similar to the Fistu- 
lariide, but the body is band-shaped, compressed, and scaly, 
the long snout bearing the feeble jaws at the end. There 
are numerous dorsal spines and no filament on the tail. 
Aulostomus chinensis (maculatus) is common in the West Indies, 
Aulostomus valentint abounds in Polynesia and Asia, where 
it is a food-fish of moderate importance. A species of Aulosto- 
mus (bolcensis) is found in the Italian Eocene. Allied to it is 


Phthinobranchii 449 


the extinct family Urosphenide, scaleless, but otherwise similar. 
Urosphen dubia occurs in the Eocene at Monte Bolea. Urosphen 


Fie. 353.—Trumpet-fish, Aulostomus chinensis (L.) Virginia. 


is perhaps the most primitive genus of the whole suborder of 
Hemuibranchi1. 

The Snipefishes: Macrorhamphoside.—Very remarkable fishes 
are the snipefishes, or Macrorhamphoside. In these forms 


Fig. 354.—Japanese Snipefish, Macrorhamphosus sagifue Jordan & Starks. 
Misaki, Japan. 

the snout is still tubular, with the short jaws at the end. The 

body is short and deep, partly covered with bony plates. The 

dorsal has a very long serrated spine, besides several shorter 

ones, and the ventral fins have one spine and five rays. 

The snipefish, or woodcock-fish, Macrorhamphosus scolopax, 
is rather common on the coasts of Europe, and a very similar 
species (MM. sagifue) occurs in Japan. The Rhamphoside, re- 
presented by Rhamphosus, an extinct genus with the ventrals 
further forward, are found in the Eocene rocks of Monte 
Bolca. RKhamphosus vastrum has minute scales, short dorsal, 
and the snout greatly attenuate. 

The Shrimp-fishes: Centriscide.—One of the most extraor- 
dinary types of fishes is the small family of Centriscide, found 
in the East Indies. The back is covered by a transparent 
bony cuirass which extends far beyond the short tail, on which 
the two dorsal fins are crowded. Anteriorly this cuirass is 


450 Phthinobranchii 


composed of plates which are soldered to the ribs. The small 
toothless mouth is at the end of a long snout. 


Fig. 355.—Shrimp-fish, Moliscus strigatus (Ginther). Riu Kiu Islands, Japan. 


These little fishes with the transparent carapace look very 
much like shrimps. Centriscus scutatus (Amphisile) with the 
terminal spine fixed is found in the East Indies, and oliscus 
strigatus with the terminal spine movable is found in southern 
Japan and southwards. 

A fossil species, 4oliscus heinrichi, is found in the Oligocene 


Fic. 356 —Aoliscus heinrichi Heckel. Eocene of Carpathia. Family Centriscide. 
(After Heckel.) 


of various parts of Europe, and Centriscus longirostris occurs 
in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. 

In the Centriscide and Macrorhamphoside the expansions 
of the hypocoracoid called infraclavicles are not developed. 

The Lophobranchs.— The suborder Lophobranchii (Ao@os, 
tuft; Bpayyos, gill) is certainly an offshoot from the Hemi- 
branchii and belongs likewise among the forms transitional 
from soft to spiny-rayed fishes. At the same time it is a 
degenerate group, and in its modifications it turns directly 
away from the general line of specialization. 

The chief characters are found in the reduction of the gills 
to small lobate tufts attached to rudimentary gill-arches. The 
so-called infraclavicles are present, as in most of the Hemi- 
branchii, Bony plates united to form rings take the place of 
scales. The long tubular snout bears the short toothless jaws at 
the end. The preopercle is absent, and the ventrals are seven- 
rayed or wanting. The species known as pipefishes and sea-horses 
are all very small and none have any economic value. They are 


Phthinobranchii 451 


numerous in all warm seas, mostly living in shallow bays among 
seaweed and eel-grass. The muscular system is little developed 
and all the species have the curious habit of carrying the eggs 
until hatched in a pouch of skin under the belly or tail; this 
structure is usually found in the male. 

The Solenostomide.— The Solenostomide of the East Indies 
are the most primitive of these fishes. They have the body 
rather short and provided with spinous dorsal, and ventral 
fins. The pretty species are occasionally swept northward to 
Japan in the Black Current. Solenostomus cyanopterus is a 
characteristic species. Solenorhynchus elegans, now extinct 
(with the trunk more elongate), preceded Solenostomus in the 
Eocene of Monte Bolca. 

The Pipefishes: Syngnathide.—The Syngnathide are very long 
and slender fishes, with neither spinous dorsal, nor ventra] 
fins, the body covered by bony rings. Of the pipefish, 
Syngnathus, there are very many species on all northern coasts, 
Syngnathus acus is common in Europe, Syngnathus fuscum 
along the New England coast, Syugnathus californiense in 
California, and Syngnathus schlegeli in Japan. Numerous 
other species of Syngnathus and other genera are found further 
south in the same regions. Corythroichthys is characteristic 
of coral reefs and Microphis of the streams of the islands of 
Polynesia. In general, the more northerly species have the 
greater number of vertebre and of bony rings. Tiphle tiphle 
is a large pipefish of the Mediterranean. This species was 
preceded by Tiphle albyi (Stphonostoma) in the Miocene of 
Sicily. Other pipefishes, referred to as Syngnathus and Cala- 
mostoma, are found as fossils in Tertiary rocks. 

The Sea-horses: Hippocampus.—8oth fossil and recent forms 
constitute a direct line of connection from the pipe-fishes to the 
sea-horses. In the latter the head has the form of the head 
of a horse. It is bent at right angles to the body like the head 
of a knight at chess. There is no caudal fin, and the tail in 
typical species is coiled and can hardly be straightened out. 
Calamostoma of the Eocene, Gasterotokeus of Polynesia, and 
Acentronura of Japan are forms which connect the true sea- 
horses with the pipefish. Gasterotokeus has the long head 
and slender body of the pipefish, with the prehensile finless 


452 


Phthinobranchii 


Fic. 357. —Solenostomus cyanopterus Bleeker. 


Misaki, Japan. 


a 


oe 


Phthinobranchii 453 


tail of a sea-horse. Most of the living species of the sea-horse 
belong to the genus Hippocampus. These little creatures 
have the egg-sac of the male under 
the abdomen. They range from 
two inches to a foot in length and 
some of the many species may be 
found in abundance in every warm 
sea. Some cling by the tails to 
floating seaweed and are swept to 
great distances; others cling to eel- 
grass and live very near the shore. 
The commonest European species 
is Hippocampus hippocampus. Most 
abundant on our Atlantic coast is 
Hippocampus hudsonius. Hippo- 
campus coronatus is most common 
in Japan. The largest species, ten 
inches long, are Hippocampus in- 
gens of Lower California and kel- 
loggt in Japan. Many species, es- 
pecially of the smaller ones, have 
the spines of the bony plates of the 
body ending in fleshy flaps. These 
are sometimes so enlarged as to 
simulate leaves of seaweed, thus 
2 serving for the efficient protection 
Hig. 358,—Sea-horse, Hippocampus Of the species. These flaps are 

Saree ee EA developed to an extreme degree in 
Phyllopteryx eques, a pipefish of the East Indies. 

No fossil sea-horses are known. 

The following account of the breeding-habits of our smallest 
sea-horse (Hippocampus zostere) was prepared by the writer 
for a book of children’s stories: 

“He was a little bit of a sea~-horse and his name was Hippo- 
campus. He was not more than an inch long, and he had a 
red stripe on the fin on his back, and his head was made of bone 
and it had ashape just like a horse’s head, but he ran out to a 
point at his tail, and his head and his tail were all covered with 
bone. He lived in the Grand Lagoon at Pensacola in Florida, 


454 Phthinobranchii 


where the water is shallow and warm and there are lots of 
seaweeds. So he wound his tail around a stem of seaweed 
and hung with his head down, waiting to see what would happen 
next, and then he saw another little sea-horse hanging on 
another seaweed. And the other sea-horse put out a lot of 
little eggs, and the little eggs all lay on the bottom of the sea 
at the foot of the seaweed. So Hippocampus crawled down 
from the seaweed where he was and gathered up all those little 
eggs, and down on the under side of his tail where the skin is 
soft he made a long slit for a pocket, and then he stuffed all 
the eggs into this pocket and fastened it together and stuck it 
with some slime. So he had all the other sea-horse’s eggs in 
his own pocket. 

“Then he went up on the seawrack again and twisted his 
tail around it, and hung there with his head down to see what 
would happen next. The sun shone down on him, and by and 
by all the little eggs began to hatch out, and each one of the 
eggs was a little sea-pony, shaped just like a sea-horse. And 
when he hung there with his head down he could feel all the 
little sea-ponies squirming inside his pocket, and by and by 
they squirmed so much that they pushed the pocket open, 
and then every one crawled away from him, and he couldn’t get 
them back, and so he went along with them and watched to 
see that nothing should hurt them. And by and by they hung 
themselves all up on the seaweeds, and they are hanging there 
yet. And so he crawled back to his own piece of seaweed and 
twisted his tail around it, and waited to see what would happen 
next. And what happened next was just the same thing over 
again.”’ 

Suborder Hypostomides, the Sea-moths: Pegaside.—The small 
suborder of Hypostomides (i206, below; ordéua, mouth) con- 
sists of the family of Pegastde. These “sea-moths” are 
fantastic little fishes, probably allied to the sticklebacks, but 
wholly unique in form. The slender body is covered with 
bony plates, the gill-covers are reduced to a single plate. The 
small mouth underneath a long snout has no teeth. The pre- 
opercle and the symplectic are both wanting. The ventrals 
are abdominal, formed of two rays, and the very large pec- 
toral fin is placed horizontally like a great wing. 


Phthinobranchii 455 


The species, few in number, known as sea-moths and sea- 
dragons, rarely exceed four inches in length. They are found 


Fic. 359 —Sea-moth, Zahses umitengu Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. 
(View from below.) 


in the East Indies and drift with the currents northward to 
Japan. The genera are Pegasus, Parapegasus, and Zalises. 
The best-known species are Zalises draconis and Pegasus voli- 
tans. 

No fossil species of Pegastd@ are known. 


CHAPTER XXIX 


SALMOPERCZ AND OTHER TRANSITIONAL 
GROUPS 


UBORDER Salmoperce, the Trout-perches: Percopside. 
—More ancient than the Hemzbranchii, and still more 
distinctly in the line of transition from soft-rayed to 

spiny-rayed fishes, is the small suborder of Salmoperce. This 

is characterized by the presence of the adipose fin of the salmon, 


Fic. 3860.—Sand-roller, Pecropsis guttatus Agassiz. Okoboji Lake, Ia. 


in connection with the mouth, scales, and fin-spines of a perch. 
The premaxillary forms the entire edge of the upper jaw, the 
maxillary being without teeth. The air-bladder retains a 
rudimentary duct. The bones of the head are full of mucous 
cavities, as in the European perch called Gymnocephalus and 
Acerina. There are two spines in the dorsal and one or two 
in the anal, while the abdominal ventrals have each a spine and 
eight rays. Two species only are known among living fishes, 
these emphasizing more perfectly than any other known forms 
the close relation really existing between spinous and soft- 
rayed forms. The single family of Percopside would seem to 
find its place in Cretaceous rocks rather than in the waters of 


to-day. 
456 


j| 


Salmoperce and Other Transitional Groups 457 


Percopsis guttata, the trout-perch or sand-roller of the Great 
Lakes, is a pale translucent fish with dark spots, reaching a 
length of six inches. It abounds in the Great Lakes and their 
tributaries and is occasionally found in the Delaware, Ohio, 


Fic. 361 —Oregon Trout-perch, Columbia transmontana Eigenmann. Umatilla 
River, Oregon. 
Kansas, and other rivers and northwestward as far as Medi- 
cine Hat on the Saskatchewan. It is easily taken with a hook 
from the piers at Chicago. 

Columbia transmontana is another little fish of similar type, 
but rougher and more distinctly perch-like. It is found in 
sandy or weedy lagoons throughout the lower basin of the 
Columbia, where it was first noticed by Dr. Eigenmann in 1892. 


Fic. 362.—Erismatopterus endlicheri Cope. Green River Eocene. (After Cope.) 


From the point of view of structure and classification, this 
lett-over form is one of the most remarkable of American fishes. 

Erismatopteridz.—Here should perhaps be placed the family of 
Erismatopteride, represented by Erismatopterus levatus and other 
species of the Green River Eocene shales. In Erismatopterus the 


458 Salmoperce and Other Transitional Groups 


short dorsal has two or three spines, there are two or three 
spines in the anal, and the abdominal ventrals are opposite 
the dorsal. Allied to Eris- 


matopterus is Amphiplaga of 
the same deposits. 

We cannot, however, feel 
sure that these extinct frag- 
ments, however well preserved, 
belonged to fishes having an 
adipose fin. Among spiny- 
rayed fishes the Percopside 
alone retain this character, and 
the real affinities of Erisma- 
topterus may be with A phredo- 
deride and other percoid 
forms. 

The relations of the extinct 
family of Asineopide are also 
still uncertain. This group 
comprises fresh-water fishes 
said to be allied to the Aphre- 
doderide, but with the pelvic 
bones not forked. Asineops 
pauctradiata, squamifrons and 
viridensis are described from 
the Green River shales. With : ; 
Erismatopterus all these fishes . e Tours Gatun eae cee 
may belong to the suborder the enlarged infraclavicle. (After 
of Salmoperce, but, as above Boclensre) 
stated, the possession of the adipose fin, the most characteristic 
trait of the Salmoperce, cannot be verified in the fossil remains. 

Suborder Selenichthyes, the Opahs: Lamprididea.—We may bring 
together as constituting another suborder certain forms of uncer- 
tain relationship, but which seem to be transitional between 
deep-bodied extinct Ganoids and the forms allied to Platax, 
Zeus, and Antigonia. The name of Selenichthyes (enAnvn, moon; 
iyOus, fish) is suggested by Boulenger for the group of opahs, 
or moonfishes. These are characterized by the highly com- 
pressed body, the great development of a large hypocora- 


Salmoperce and Other Transitional Groups 459 


coid, and especially by the structure of the ventral fins, 
which are composed of about fifteen rays instead of the one 
spine and five rays characteristic of the specialized perch- 
like fishes. The living forms of this type are further char- 
acterized by the partial or total absence of the spinous 
dorsal, by the small oblique mouth, and the prominence of 
the ventral curve of the body. A thorough study of the 
osteology of these forms living and fossil will be necessary 
before the group can be properly defined. The large bone 
above mentioned was at first considered by Boulenger as 
the interclavicle or infraclavicle, the hypocoracoid being re- 
garded by him as displaced, lying with the actinosts. But it 
is certain, from the studies of Mr. Starks, that this bone is the 
real hypocoracoid, which in this case is simply exaggerated in 
size, but placed as in ordinary fishes. 

The single living family, Lampridide, contains but one species, 
Lampris guttatus, known as opah, moonfish, mariposa, cravo, 
Jerusalem haddock, or San Pedro fish. This species reaches a 
length of six feet and a weight cf 500 to 600 pounds. Fig. 84 
is taken from a photograph of an example weighing 317} pounds 
taken near Honolulu by Mr. E. L. Berndt. The body is almost 
as deep as long, plump and smooth, without scales or bony 
plates. The vertebra are forty-five in number, and the large 
ventrals contain about fifteen rays. The dorsal is without 
spines, the small mouth without teeth. The color is a “rich 
brocade of silver and lilac, rosy on the belly, everywhere with 
round silvery spots.’ The head and back have ultramarine 
tints, the jaws and fins are vermilion. On a drawing of this 
fish made at Sable Island in 1856, Mr. James Farquhar wrote 
(to Dr. J. Bernard Gilpin): ‘Just imagine the body, a beau- 
tiful silver interspersed with spots of a lighter color about the 
size of sixpence, the eyes very large and brilliant, with a golden 
ring around them. You will then have some idea of the splen- 
did appearance of the fish when fresh. If Caligula had seen 
them I might have realized a fortune.” 

The skeleton of the opah is very firm and heavy. The 
flesh is of varying shades of salmon-red, tender, oily, and of 
a rich, exquisite flavor scarcely surpassed by any other fish 
whatsoever. 


460 Salmoperce and Other Transitional Groups 


The opah is a rare fish, swimming slowly near the surface and 
ranging very widely in all the warm seas. It was first noticed 
in Norway by Gunner, the good bishop of Throndhjem, about 
1780. It was soon after recorded from Elsinore, Torbay, and 
Madeira, and is occasionally taken in various places in Europe. 
It is also recorded from Newfoundland, Sable Island, Cuba, 
Monterey, San Pedro Point (near San Francisco), Santa Cata- 
lina, Honolulu, and Japan. 

The specimen studied by the writer came ashore at Mon- 
terey in an injured condition, having been worsted in a struggle 
with some better-armed fish. 

Allied to Lampris is the imposing extinct species known as 
Semiophorus velifer from the Eocene of Monte Bolca near Ve- 
rona, the type of the extinct family of Semtophoride. This is 
a deep compressed fish, with very high spinous dorsal and 
very long, many-rayed ventrals. Other related species are 
known also from the Eocene. There is no evidence of any 
close relation between these fishes with Caranx or Platax, with 
which Woodward associates Senuophorus. 

The Semiophoride differ from the Lampridide chiefly in the 
development of the spinous dorsal fin, which is composed of 
many slender rays. 

Suborder Zeoidea.— Not far from the Selenichthyes and 
the Berycoidet we may place the singular group of John 
Dories, or zeoid fishes. These have the ventral fins thoracic 
and many-rayed, the dorsal fin provided with spines, and the 
post-temporal, as in the Chetodontide, fused with the skull. 
Dr. Boulenger calls attention to the close relation of these 
fishes to the flounders, and suggests the possible derivation of 
both from a synthetic type, the Amphistiide, found in the 
European Eocene. The Amplhisttide, Zeide, and flounders 
are united by him to form the group or suborder Zeorhombt, 
characterized by the thoracic ventrals, which have the rays 
not I, 5 in number, by the progressive degeneration of the fin- 
spines and the progressive twisting of the cranium, bringing 
the two eyes to the same side of the head. It is not certain 
that the flounders are really derived from Zeus-like fishes, but 
no other guess as to their origin has more elements of proba- 
bility. 


z 
Fic. 364.—Semiophorus velifer Volta. Eocene. (After Agassiz, per Zittel.) 
461 


| 


462 Salmoperce and Other Transitional Groups 


We may, however, regard the Zeoidea on the one hand and 
the Heterosomata on the other as distinct suborders. This is 


certain, that the flounders are descended from spiny-rayed 
forms and that they have no affinities with the codfishes. 

Amphistiidea.—The Amphisttide, now extinct, are deep-bodied, 
compressed fishes, with long, continuous dorsal and anal in which 
a few of the anterior rays are simple, slender spines scarcely 
differentiated from the soft rays. The form of body and the 
structure of the fins are essentially as in the flounders, from which 
they differ chiefly by the symmetry of the head, the eyes being 
normally placed. Amphisttum paradoxum is described by Agas- 
siz from the upper Eocerie. It occurs in Italy and France. 
In its dorsal and anal fins there are about twenty-two rays, 
the first three or four undivided. The teeth are minute or 
absent and there is a high supraoccipital crest. 

The John Dories: Zeide.—The singular family of Zeide, 
or John Dories, agrees with Chetodonts in the single char- 
acter of the fusion of the post-temporal with the skull. The 
species, however, diverge widely in other regards, and their 
ventral fins are essentially those of the Berycoids. In all the 
species there are seven to nine soft rays in the ventral fins, as 
in the Berycoid fishes. Probably the character of the fused 


for 


‘purpsugy ‘dorado 


‘snauury “vaqn{ snag ‘kioq uyor oY. — 998 “Ol 


464 Salmoperce and Other Transitional Groups 


post temporal has been independently derived. The anterior 
vertebre in Zeus, as in Chetodon, are closely crowded together. 
In the Zeide the spinous dorsal is well developed, the body 
naked or with very thin scales, and provided with bony warts 
at least around the bases of dorsal and anal fins. The species 
are mostly of small size, silvery in color, living in moderate 
depths in warm seas. The best-known genus is Zeus, which is 
a group of shore-fishes of the waters of Asia and Europe. The 
common John Dory (called in Germany Harings-K6nig, or 
king of the herrings), Zeus faber, abounds in shallow bays on 
the coasts of Europe. It reaches a length of nearly a foot, 
and is a striking feature of the markets of southern Europe. 
The dorsal spines are high, the mouth large, and on the sides 
is a black ring, said by some to be the mark of the thumb of 
St. Peter, who is reported to have taken a coin from the mouth 
of this species. A black spot on several other species is asso- 
ciated with the same legend. 

On the coasts of Japan abounds the Matao, or target-fish 
(Zeus japonicus), very similar to the European species and 
like it in form and color. Zenopsis nebulosa and Zen itea also 
occur on the coasts of Japan. The remaining Zeide (Cyttus, 
Zenopsis, Zenion, etc.) are all rare species occasionally dredged 
especially in the Australian region. Zeus priscus is recorded 
from the Tertiary, and Cyttoides glaronensis from the upper 
Eocene of Glavus. 

Grammicolepide.—The Grammicolepide, represented by a 
single species, Grammicolepis brachiusculus, rarely taken off the 
coast of Cuba, is related to the Zeide. It has rough, ridged, 
parchment-like scales deeper than long. The ventrals are 
thoracic, with the rays in increased number, as in Zeus and 
Beryx, with each of which it suggests affinity. 


CHAPTER XXX 


BERYCOIDEI 


WHE Berycoid Fishes.— We may place in a separate 
ee x J order a group of fishes, mostly spiny -rayed, which 

: appeared earlier in geological time than any other 
of the spinous forms, and which in several ways represent the 
transition from the isospondvlous fishes to those of the type of 
the mackerel and perch. In 
the berycoid fishes the ventral 
fins are always thoracic, the 
number of rays almost always 
greater than I, 5, and in all 
cases an orbitosphenoid bone 
is developed in connection 
with the septum between the 
Fig. 367.—Skull of a Berycoid fish, Beryx orbits above. This bone is 

splendens Cuy. & Val., showing the or- found in the Tsospondyli and 
bitosphenoid (OS), characteristic of all 5: 02 Ono 
Berycoid fishes. other primitive fishes, but ac- 
cording to the investigations 
of Mr. E. C. Starks it is wanting in all percoid and scombroid 
forms, as well as in the Haplomi and in all the higher fishes. 
This trait may therefore, among thoracic fishes, be held to define 
the section or suborder of Berycordez. 

These fishes, most primitive of the thoracic types, were more 
abundant in Cretaceous and Eocene times than now. The 
possession of an increased number of soft rays in the ventral 
fins is archaic, although in one family, the Monocentride, the 
number is reduced to three. Most of the living Berycoidez 
retain through life the archaic duct to the air-bladder char- 
acteristic of most abdominal or soft-rayed fishes. In some 
however, the duct is lost. For the first time in the fish series 


the number of twenty-four vertebre appears. In most spiny- 
465 


4606 Berycoidei 


rayed fishes of the tropics, of whatever family, this number is 
retained. 

In every case spines are present in the dorsal fin, and in 
certain cases the development of the spinous dorsal surpasses 
that of the most extreme perch-like forms. In geological 
times the Berycoids preceded all other perch-like fishes. They 
are probably ancestral to all the latter. All the recent species, 
in spite of high specialization, retain some archaic characters. 

The Alfonsinos: Berycide.—The typical family, Berycide, is 
composed of fishes of rather deep water, bright scarlet or 
black in color, with the body short and compressed, the scales 
varying in the different genera. The single dorsal fin has a 
few spines in front, and there are no barbels. The suborbi- 
tals are not greatly developed. 

The species of Beryx, called in Spanish Alfonsino, Beryx 
elegans and Beryx decadactylus, are widely distributed at mod- 


Fic. 368,—Beryx splendens Lowe. Gulf Stream. 


erate depths, the same species being recorded from Portugal, 
Madeira, Cuba, the Gulf Stream, and Japan. The colors are 
very handsome, being scarlet with streaks of white or golden. 
These fishes reach the length of a foot or more and are valued 
as food where sufficiently common. 

Numerous species of Beryx and closely allied genera are 
found in all rocks since Cretaceous times; Beryx dalmaticus, 
from the Cretaceous of Dalmatia, is perhaps the earliest. Beryx 
insculptus is found -in New Jersey, but no other Berycoids 


ie 
x naam 


a ey! ul 


Berycoidei 467 


are yet known as fossils from North America. Sphenocephalus, 
with four anal spines, is found in the chalk, as are also species 
of Acrogaster and Pycnosterinx, these being the earliest of fishes 
with distinctly spiny fins. 

The Trachichthyide are deep-sea fishes with short bodies, 
cavernous skulls, and rough scales. The dorsal is short, with 
a few spines in front. The suborbitals are very broad, often 
covering the cheeks, and the anal fin is shorter than the dorsal, 
a character which separates these fishes from the Berycide, in 


Fic. 369.—Hoplopteryx lewesiensis (Mantell), restored. | English Cretaceous 
Family Berycide. (After Woodward.) 


which group the anal fin is very long. The belly has often 
a serrated edge, and the coloration is red or black, the black 
species being softer in body and living in deeper water. Species 
of Hoplostethus, notably Hoplostethus mediterraneus, are found 
in most seas at a considerable depth. Trachichthys, a genus 
scarcely distinguishable from Hoplostethus, is found in various 
seas. The genus Paratrachichthys is remarkable for the anterior 
position of the vent, much as in Aphredoderus. Species occur 
in Japan and Australia. Gephyroberyx, with the dorsal fin 
notched, is known from Japan (G. japonicus) and Madeira (G. 
darwint). 

We- may also refer to the Trachichthyide certain species 
of still deeper waters, black in color and still softer in texture, 
with smaller scales which are often peculiar in form. These 
constitute the genera Caulolepis, Anoplogaster, Melamphaés, 


468 Berycoidei 


and Plectromus. In Caulolepis the jaws are armed with very 
strong canines. 

Allied to the Trachichthyide are also the fossil genera Hop- 
lopteryx and Homonotus. Hoplopteryx lewesiensis, from the 
English chalk, is one of the earliest of the spiny-rayed fishes. 

The Soldier-fishes: Holocentride.— The soldier-fishes (Holo- 
centride), also known as squirrel-fishes, Welshmen, soldados, 
matajuelos, malau, alehi, etc., are shore fishes very characteristic 


Fig. 370.—Paratrachichthys prosthemius Jordan & Fowler, Misaki, Japan. Family 
Trachichthyide. 


of rocky banks in the tropical seas. In this family the flesh 
is firm and the large scales very hard and with very rough 
edges. There are eleven spines in the dorsal and four in the 
anal, the third being usually very long. The ventral fins have 
one spine and seven soft rays. The whole head and body are 
rough with prickles. The coloration is always brilliant, the 
ground hue being scarlet or crimson, often with lines or stripes 
of white, black, or golden. The fishes are valued as food, and 
they furnish a large part of the beauty of coloration so charac- 
teristic of the fishes of the coral reefs. The species are active, 
pugnacious, carnivorous, but not especially voracious, the 
mouth being usually small. 

» The genus Holocentrus is characterized by the presence of 
a large spine on the angle of the preopercle. Its species are 


Berycoidei 469 


especially numerous, Holocentrus ascenscionis, abundant in 
Cuba, ranges northward in the Gulf Stream. WHolocentrus 


Fie. 371.—Soldier-fish, Holocentrus ascenscionis (Osbeck). 


suborbitalas, the mojarra cardenal, is a small, relatively dull 
species swarming about the récks of western Mexico. Holo- 


Fig. 372.—Soldier-fish, Holocentrus ittodai Jordan & Fowler. Riu Kiu Islands, 
4 Japan. 


centrus spinosissimus is a characteristic fish of Japan. Many 
other species abound throughout Polynesia and the East Indies, 
as well as in tropical America. Holocentrus ruber and Holo- 


470 Berycoidei 


centrus diadema are common species of Polynesia and the East 
Indies. Other abundant species are H. spinifer, H. microstomus, 
and H. violascens. 

Holocentrus marianus is the marian of the French West 
Indies Holocentrus sammara, and related large-mouthed species 
occur in Polynesia. 

In Myripristis the preopercular spine is wanting and the 
air-bladder is divided into two parts, the anterior extending 
to the ear. Myripristis jacobus is the brilliantly colored candil, 


NS : 
Fic. 373.—Ostichthys japonicus (Cuv. & Val.). Giran, Formosa. 


or “‘Frére Jacques,’’ of the West Indies. Species of Myripris- 
tis are known in Hawaii as u-u. A curious method of catching 
Myripristis murdjan is pursued on the Island of Hawaii. 
A living fish is suspended by a cord in front of a reef inhabited 
by this species. It remains with scarlet fins spread and glisten- 


ing red scales. Its presence is a challenge to other individuals, 


who rush out to attack it. These are then drawn out by a 
concealed scoop-net, and a fresh specimen is taken as a decoy. 
Myripristis pralinius, M. multiradiatus, and other species 
occur in Polynesia. Ostichthys is allied to Myripristis but 
with very large rough scales. Ostichthys japonicus is a large 
and showy fish of the waters of Japan. Ostichthys pillwaxt 


Berycoidei 471 


occurs at Honolulu. Holotrachys lima is a small, brick-red fish 
with small very rough scales found throughout Polynesia. 

Fossil species of Holocentrus, Myripristis, and related extinct 
genera occur in the Eocene and Miocene. Holocentrus macro- 
cephalus, from Monte Bolca Eocene, is one of the best known. 
Myricanthus leptacanthus from the same region, has very slender 
spines in the fins. . 

The Polymixiide.—The family of Polymixiide, or barbudos, 
is one of the most interesting in Ichthyology from its bewilder- 
ing combination of characters belonging to different groups. 
With the general aspect of a Berycoid, the ventral rays I, 7, 


Fic. 374.—Pine-cone Fish, Monocentris japonicus (Houttuyn). Waka, Japan. 


and the single dorsal fin with a few spines, Polymixia has the 
scales rather smooth and at the chin are two long barbels which 
look remarkably like those of the family of Mullide or Sur- 
mullets. As in the Mullide, there are but four branchiostegals. 
In other regards the two groups seem to have little in common. 
According to Starks, the specialized feelers at the chin are 
different in structure and must have been independently 
developed in the two groups. In Polymixia, each barbel is 
suspended from the hypohyal; three rudimentary branchioste- 
gals forming its thickened base. In Mullus, each barbel is sus- 
pended from the trip of a slender projection of the ceratohyal, 
having no connection with the branchiostegals. Polymixia pos- 


472 Berycoidei 


sesses the orbitosphenoid bone and is a true berycoid, while 
the Mullide are genuine percoid fishes. 

Four species of Polymixia are recorded from rather deep 
water: Polymixia nobilis from Madeira, Polymixia lowet from 
the West Indies, Polymixia berndti from Hawaii, and Poly- 
mixia japonica from Japan. All are plainly colored, without 
red. 

The Pine-cone Fishes: Monocentride.—Among the most ex- 
traordinary of all fishes is the little family of Monocentride, 
or pine-cone fishes. Monocentris japonicus, the best-known 
species, is common on the coasts of Japan. It reaches the 
length of five inches. The body is covered with a coat of mail, 
made of rough plates which look as though carelessly put 
together. The dorsal spines are very strong, and each ventral 
fin is replaced by a very strong rough spine. The animal fully 
justifies the remark of its discoverer, Houttuyn (1782), that 
it is “‘ the most remarkable fish which exists.” It is dull golden 
brown in color, and in movement as sluggish as a trunkfish. 
A similar species, called knightfish, Monocentris glorie-marts, 
is found in Australia. No fossils allied to Monocentris are 
known. 


CHAPTER XXXI 
PERCOMORPHI 


UBORDER Percomorphi, the Mackerels and Perches. — 

We may place in a single suborder the various groups 

of fishes which cluster about the perches, and the 
mackerels. The group is not easily definable and may con- 
tain heterogeneous elements. We may, however, arrange 
in it, for our present purposes, those spiny-rayed fishes 
having the ventral fins thoracic, of one spine and five rays 
(the ventral fin occasionally wanting or defective, having a 
reduced number of rays), the lower pharyngeal bones separate, 
the suborbital chain without backward extension or bony 
stay, the post-temporal normally developed and separate from 
the cranium, the premaxillary and maxillary distinct, the 
cranium itself without orbitosphenoid bone, having a structure 
not greatly unlike that of perch or mackerel, and the back- 
bone primitively of twenty-four vertebree, the number increased 
in arctic, pelagic, or fresh-water offshoots. 

The species, comprising the great body of the spiny-rayed 
forms, group themselves chiefly about two central families, 
the Scombrid@, or mackerels, and the Serranide, the sea-bass, 
with their fresh-water allies, the Percide, or perch. 

The Mackerel Tribe: Scombroidea—The two groups of Per- 
comorphi, the mackerel-like and the perch-like, admit of no 
exact definition, as the one fully grades into the other. The 
mackerel-like forms, or Scombroidea, as a whole are defined by 
their adaptation for swift movement. The profile is sharp an- 
teriorly, the tail slender, with widely forked caudal; the scales 
are usually small, thin, and smooth, of such a character as not 
to produce friction in the water. 

In general the external surface is smooth, the skeleton 


light and strong, the muscles firm, and the species are carniv- 
473 


a 


474 Percomorphi 


orous and predaceous. But among the multitude of forms are 
many variations, and some of these will seem to be exceptions 
to any definition of mackerel-like fishes which could possibly 
be framed. 

The mackerels, or Scombroidea, have usually the tail very 
slender, composed of very strong bones, with widely forked 
fin. In the perch and bass the tail is stout, composed largely 
of flesh, the supporting vertebre relatively small and spread out 
fan-fashion behind. Neither mackerels nor perch nor any of 
their near allies ever have more than five soft rays in the ventral 
fins, and the persistence of this number throughout the Per- 
comorphi, Squamipinnes, Pharyngognatht, and spiny fishes 
generally must be attributed to inheritance from the primitive 
perch-like or mackerel-like forms. In almost all the groups 
to be considered in this work, after the Berycoidea the ventral 
rays are I, 5, or else fewer through degeneration, never more. 
In the central or primitive members of most of these groups 
there are twenty-four vertebra, the number increased in cer- 
tain forms, probably through repetitive degeneration. 

The True Mackerels: Scombride.— We may first consider 
the great central family of Scombride, or true mackerels, 
distinguished among related families by their swift forms, 
smooth scales, metallic coloration, and technically by the 
presence of a number of detached finlets behind the dorsal 
and anal fins. The cut of the mouth is peculiar, the spines 
in the fins are feeble, the muscular system is extremely strong, 
the flesh oily, and the air-bladder reduced in size or altogether 
wanting. As in most swift-swimming fishes and fishes of 
pelagic habit, the vertebra are numerous and relatively small, 
an arrangement which promotes flexibility of body. It is 
not likely that this group is the most primitive of the scombroid 
fishes. In some respects the Stromateide stand nearer the 
primitive stock. The true mackerels, however, furnish the 
most convenient point of departure in reviewing the great 
group. 

In the genus of true mackerels, Scomber, the dorsal fins 
are well separated, the first being rather short, and the scales 
of the shoulders are not modified to form a corselet. There 
are numerous species, two of them of general interest. The 


Percomorphi 475 


common mackerel, Scomber scombrus, is one of the best known 
of food-fishes. It is probably confined to the Atlantic, where 
on both shores it runs in vast schools, the movements varying 
greatly from season to season, the preference being for cool 
waters. The female mackerel produces about 500,000 eggs 
each year, according to Professor Goode. These are very 
minute and each is provided with an oil-globule, which causes 
it to float on the surface. About 400,000 barrels of mackerel 
are salted yearly by the mackerel fleet of Massachusetts. Single 
schools of mackerel, estimated to contain a million barrels, 
have been recorded. Captain Harding describes such a school 


Fic. 375.—Mackerel, Scomber scombrus L. New York. 


as “‘a windrow of fish half a mile wide and twenty miles 
long.” 

Professor Goode writes: 

“Upon the abundance of mackerel depends the welfare of 
many thousands of the citizens of Massachusetts and Maine. 
The success of the mackerel-fishery is much more uncertain 
than that of the cod-fishery, for instance, for the supply of 
cod is quite uniform from year to year. The prospects of 
each season are eagerly discussed from week to week in 
thousands of little circles along the coast, and are chronicled 
by the local press. The story of each successful trip is passed 
from mouth to mouth, and is a matter of general congratulation 
in each fishing community. A review of the results of the 
American mackerel-fishery, and of the movements of the fish 
in each part of the season, would be an important contribution 
to the literature of the American fisheries. 

“The mackerel-fishery is peculiarly American, and its history 
is full of romance. There are no finer vessels afloat than the 


476 Percomorphi 


American mackerel-schooners—yachts of great speed and 
unsurpassed for seaworthiness. The modern instruments of 
capture are marvels of inventive skill, and require the highest 
degree of energy and intelligence on the part of the fisher- 
men. The crews of the mackerel-schooners are still for the 
most part Americans of the old colonial stock, although the 
cod and halibut fisheries are to a great extent given up to 
foreigners. 

“When the mackerel is caught, trout, bass, and sheeps- 
head cannot vanquish him in a gastronomic tournament. In 
Holland, to be sure, the mackerel is not prized, and is accused 
of tasting like rancid fish-oil, and in England, even, they are 
usually lean and dry, like the wretched skeletons which are 
brought to market in April and May by the southern fleet, 
which goes forth in the early spring from Massachusetts to 
intercept the schools as they approach the coasts of Carolina 
and Virginia. They are not worthy of the name of mackerel. 
Scomber Scombrus is not properly in season until the spawning 
time is over, when the schools begin to feed at the surface in 
the Gulf of Maine and the ‘ North Bay.’ 

‘Just from the water, fat enough to broil in its own drip- 
pings, or slightly corned in strong brine, caught at night and 
eaten in the morning, a mackerel or a bluefish is unsurpass- 
able. A well-cured autumn mackerel is perhaps the finest of 
all salted fish, but in these days of wholesale capture by the 
purse-seine, hasty dressing and careless handling, it is very dif- 
ficult to obtain a sweet and sound salt mackerel. Salt mack- 
erel may be boiled as well as broiled, and a fresh mackerel 
may be cooked in the same manner. Americans will usually 
prefer to do without the sauce of fennel and gooseberry which 
transatlantic cooks recommend. Fresh and salt, fat and lean, 
new or stale, mackerel are consumed by Americans in immense 
quantities, as the statistics show, and whatever their state, 
always find ready sale.” 

Smaller, less important, less useful, but far more widely 
distributed is the chub-mackerel, or thimble-eyed mackerel, 
Scomber japonicus (Houttuyn, 1782), usually known by the 
later name of Scomber colias (Gmelin, 1788). In this species 
the air-bladder (absent in the common mackerel) is moder- 


. 2 


Percomorphi 477 


ately developed. It very much resembles the true mackerel, 
but is of smaller size, less excellence as a food-fish, and keeps 
nearer to the shore. It may be usually distinguished by the 
presence of vague, dull-gray spots on the sides, where the true 
mackerel is lustrous silvery. 

This fish is common in the Mediterranean, along our Atlantic 
coast, on the coast of California, and everywhere in Japan. 

Scomber antarcticus is the familiar mackerel of Australia. 
Scomber loo, silvery, with round black spots, is the common 
mackerel of the South Seas, locally known as Ga. 

Scomber priscus is a fossil mackerel from the Eocene. 

Auxis thazard, the frigate mackerel, has the scales of the 
shoulders enlarged and somewhat coalescent, forming what is 
called a corselet. The species ranges widely through the seas 
of the world in great numbers, but very erratic, sometimes 
myriads reaching our Eastern coast, then none seen for years. 
It is more constant in its visits to Japan and Hawaii. Fossil 
species of Auxzs are found in the Miocene. 

The genus Gymnosarda has the corselet as in Auxis, but the 
first dorsal fin is long, extending backward to the base of the 
second. Its two species, Gymmnosarda pelamis, the Oceanic 
bonito, and Gymnosarda alleterata, the little tunny, are found 
in all warm seas, being especially abundant in the Mediterra- 
nean, about Hawaii and Japan. These are plump fish of mod- 
erate size, with very red and very oily flesh. 

Closely related to these is the great tunny, or Tuna (Thunnus 
thynnus) found in all warm seas and reaching at times a weight 
of 1500 pounds. These enormous fishes are much valued by 
anglers, a popular “Tuna Club”’ devoted to the sport of catch- 
ing them with a hook having its headquarters at Avalon, on 
Santa Catalina Island in California. They are good food, 
although the flesh of the large ones is very oily. The name 
horse-mackerel is often given to these monsters on the New 
England coast. In California, the Spanish name of tuna has 
become current among fisherman. 

Very similar to the tuna, but much smaller, is the Albacore 
(Germo alalonga). This reaches a weight of fifteen to thirty 
pounds, and is -known by its very long, almost ribbon-like pec- 
toral fins. This species is common in the Mediterranean, and 


478 Percomorphi 


about the Santa Barbara Islands, where it runs in great schools 
in March. The flesh of the albacore is of little value, unless, 
as in Japan, it is eaten raw. The Japanese (Germo macropterus) 
is another large albacore, having the finlets bright yellow. It is 
found also at Hawaii and in Southern California. 

The bonito (Sarda sarda) wanders far throughout the Atlan- 
tic, abounding on our Atlantic coast as in the Mediterranean, 
coming inshore in summer to spawn or feed. Its flesh is red 
and not very delicate, though it may be reckoned as a fair food- 


Fic. 876.—The Long-fin Albacore, Germo alalunga (Gmelin). Gulf Stream. 


fish. It is often served under the name of “Spanish mackerel”’ 
to the injury of the reputation of the better fish. 

Professor Goode writes: 

“One of these fishes is a marvel of beauty and strength. 
Every line in its contour is suggestive of swift motion. The 
head is shaped like a minie bullet, the jaws fit together so 
tightly that a knife-edge could scarcely pass between, the eyes 
are hard, smooth, their surfaces on a perfect level with the 
adjoining surfaces. The shoulders are heavy and strong, the 
contours of the powerful masses of muscle gently and evenly 
merging into the straighter lines in which the contour of the 
body slopes back to the tail. The dorsal fin is placed in a 
groove into which it is received, like the blade of a clasp-knife 
in its handle. The pectoral and ventral fins also fit into depres- 
sions in the sides of the fish. Above and below, on the pos- 
terior third of the body, are placed the little finlets, each a little 
rudder with independent motions of its own, by which the 
course of the fish may be readily steered. The tail itself is a 


Percomorphi 479 


crescent-shaped oar, without flesh, almost without scales, com- 
posed of bundles of rays flexible, yet almost as hard as ivory. 
A single sweep of this powerful oar doubtless suffices to propel 
the bonito a hundred yards, for the polished surfaces of its 
body can offer little resistance to the water. I have seen a 
common dolphin swimming round and round a _ steamship, 
advancing at the rate of twelve knots an hour, the effort being 
hardly perceptible. The wild duck is said to fly seventy miles 
in an hour. Who can calculate the speed of the bonito? It 
might be done by the aid of the electrical contrivances by which 
is calculated the initial velocity of a projectile. The bonitoes 
in our sounds to-day may have been passing Cape Colony or 
the Land of Fire day before yesterday.” 

Another bonito, Sarda chilensis, is common in California; 
in Chile, and in Japan. This species has fewer dorsal spines 
than the bonito of the Atlantic, but the same size, coloration, 
and flesh. Both are blue, with undulating black stripes along 
the side of the back. 

The genus Scomberomorus includes mackerels slenderer in 
form, with larger teeth, no corselet, and the flesh comparatively 
pale and free from oil. 

Scomberomorus maculatus, the Spanish mackerel of the West 
Indies, is one of the noblest of food-fishes. Its biography 


Fic. 377.—The Spanish Mackerel, Scomberomorus maculatus (Mitchill). New York. 


was written by Mitchill almost a century ago in these 
words: 

“A fine and beautiful fish; comes in July.” 

Goode thus writes of it: 

“The Spanish mackerel is surely one of the most graceful 


480 Percomorphi 


of fishes. It appeals as scarcely any other can to our love of 
beauty, when we look upon it, as shown in Kilbourn’s well- 
known painting, darting like an arrow just shot from the bow, 
its burnished sides, silver flecked with gold, thrown into bold 
telief by the cool green background of the rippled sea; the 
transparent grays, opalescent whites, and glossy blacks of its 
trembling fins enhance the metallic splendor of its body, until 
it seems to rival the most brilliant of tropical birds. Kilbourn 
made copies of his large painting on the pearly linings of sea- 
shells and produced some wonderful effects by allowing the 
natural luster of the mother-of-pearl to show through his trans- 
parent pigments and simulate the brilliancy of the life-inspired 
hues of the quivering, darting sea-sprite, whose charms even 
his potent brush could not properly depict. 

“It is a lover of the sun, a fish of tropical nature, which 
comes to us only in midsummer, and which disappears with 
the approach of cold, to some region not yet explored by ich- 
thyologists. It is doubtless very familiar in winter to the 
inhabitants of some region adjacent to the waters of the Carib- 
bean or the tropical Atlantic, but until this place shall have 
been discovered it is more satisfactory to suppose that with 
the bluefish and the mackerel it inhabits that hypothetical 
winter resort to which we send the migratory fishes whose 
habits we do not understand—the middle strata of the ocean, 
the floating beds of Sargassum, which drift hither and thither 
under the alternate promptings of the Gulf-stream currents 
and the winter winds.” 

The Spanish mackerel swims at the surface in moderate 
schools and is caught in abundance from Cape May south- 
ward. Its white flesh is most delicious, when properly grilled, 
and Spanish mackerel, like pampano, should be cooked in 
no other way. 

A very similar species, Scomberomorus sierra, occurs on the 
west coast of Mexico. For some reason it is little valued as 
food by the Mexicans. In California, the Monterey Spanish 
mackerel (Scomberomorus concolor) is equally excellent as a 
food-fish. This fish lacks the spots characteristic of most 
of its relatives. It was first found in the Bay of Monterey, 
especially at Santa Cruz and Soquel, in abundance in the autumn 


Percomorphi 481 


of 1879 and 1880. It has not, so far as is known, been seen 
since, nor is the species recorded from any other coast. 

The true Spanish mackerel has round, bronze-black spots 
upon its sides. Almost exactly like it in appearance is the 
pintado, or sierra (Scomberomorus regalis), but in this species 
the spots are oblong in form. The pintado abounds in the 
West Indies. Its flesh is less delicate than that of the more 
true Spanish mackerel. The name sverra, saw, commonly 
applied to these fishes by Spanish-speaking people, has been 
corrupted into cero in some books on angling. 

Still other Spanish mackerel of several species occur on 
the coasts of India, Chile, and Japan. 

The great kingfish, or cavalla (Scomberomorus cavalla), is 
a huge Spanish mackerel of Cuba and the West Indies, reaching 
a weight of too pounds. It is dark iron-gray in color, one 
of the best of food-fishes, and is unspotted, and its firm, rich 
flesh resembles that of the barracuda. 

Still larger is the great guahu, or peto, an immense sharp- 
nosed, swift-swimming mackerel found in the East and West 
Indies, as well as in Polynesia, reaching a length of six feet 
and a weight of more than a hundred pounds. Its large 
knife-like teeth are serrated on the edge and the color is 
almost black. Acanthocybium solandri is the species found in 
Hawaii and Japan. The American Acanthocybium  petus, 
occasionally also taken in the Mediterranean, may be the 
same species. 

Fossil Spanish mackerels, tunnies, and albacores, as well 
as representatives of related genera now extinct, abound in 
the Eocene and Miocene, especially in northern Italy. Among 
them are Scomber antiquus from the Miocene, Scombrinus 
macropomus from the Eocene London clays, much like Scomber, 
but with stronger teeth, Sphyrenodus priscus from the same 
deposits, the teeth still larger, Scombramphodon crossidens, 
from the same deposits, also with strong teeth, like those of 
Scomberomorus. Scomberomorus is the best represented of 
all the genera as fossil, Scomberomorus speciosus and numerous 
other species occurring in the Eocene. A fossil species of 
Germo, G. lanceolatus, occurs at Monte Bolca in Eocene rocks. 
Another tunny, with very small teeth is Eothynnus salmonens, 


482 Percomorphi 


from the lower Eocene near London. Several other tunny- 
like fishes occur in the lower Tertiary. 

The Escolars: Gempylide.—More predaceous than the mack- 
érels and tunnies are the pelagic mackerels, Gempylide, known 
as escolars (“‘scholars’’), with the body almost band-shaped 
and the teeth very large and sharp. Some of these, from 
the ocean depths, are violet-black in color, those near the 
surface being silvery. Escolar violaceus lives in the abysses 
of the Gulf Stream. Ruvettus pretiosus, the black escolar, 
lives in more moderate depths and is often taken in Cuba, 
Madeira, Hawaii, and Japan. It is a very large fish, black, 
with very rough scales. The flesh is white, soft, and full of 
oil; sometimes rated very high, and at other times too rank 
to be edible. The name escolar means scholar in Spanish, but 
its root meaning, as applied to this fish, comes from a word 
meaning to scour, in allusion to the very rough scales. 

Promethichthys prometheus, the rabbit-fish, or conejo, so- 
called from its wariness, is caught in the same regions, being 
especially common about Madeira and Hawaii. Gempylus 
serpens, the snake-mackerel, is a still slenderer and more voracious 
fish of the open seas. Thyrsites atun is the Australian “barra- 
cuda,”’ a valued food-fish, voracious and predaceous. 

Scabbard- and Cutlass-fishes: Lepidopide and Trichiuride. — 
The family of Lepidopide, or scabbard-fishes, includes degen- 
erate mackerels, band-shaped, with continuous dorsal. fin, 
and the long jaws armed with very small teeth. These are 
found in the open sea, Lepidopus candutus being the most 
common. This species reaches a length of five or six feet 
and comes to different coasts occasionally to deposit its spawn. 
It lives in warm water and is at once chilled by the Teast cold; 
hence the name of frostfish occasionally applied to it. Several 
species of Lepidopus are fossil in the later Tertiary. Lepido- 
pus glarisianus occurs in the Swiss Oligocene, and with it 
Thyrsitocephalus alpinus, which approaches more nearly to the 
Gempylide. 

Still more degenerate are the Trichiuride, or cutlass-fishes, 
in which the caudal fin is wanting, the tail ending in a hair-like 
filament. The species are bright silvery in color, very slender, 
and very voracious, reaching a length of three to five feet. 


) 
6 
| 
4 


Percomorphi 483 


Trichiurus lepturus is rather common on our Atlantic coast. 
The names hairfish and silver-eel, among others, are often given 
to it. Trichiurus japonicus, a very similar species, is common 


ax 


Fic. 378.—Cutlass-fish, Trichiurus lepturus Linneus. St. Augustine, Fla. 


in Japan, and other species inhabit the tropical seas. Tri- 
chiurichthys, a fossil genus with well-developed scales, precedes 
Trichiurus in the Miocene. 

The Palzorhynchide.—The extinct family of Palcorhynchide 
is found from the Eocene to the Oligocene. It contains very 


Fic. 379.—Palworhynchus glarisianus Blainville. Oligocene. (After Woodward.) 


long and slender fishes, with long jaws and small teeth, the 
dorsal fin long and continuous. The species resembles the 
Escolar on the one hand and the sailfishes on the other, and 
they may prove to be ancestral to the Istiophoride. Hemi- 
rhynchus deshayesi with the upper jaw twice as long as the 
lower, sword-like, occurs in the Eocene at Paris; Palgorhynchum 
glarisianum, with the jaws both elongate, the lower longest, is 
in the Oligocene of Glarus. Several other species of both genera 
arestecordeds ss 

The Sailfishes: Istiophoride.—Remotely allied to the cutlass- 
fishes and still nearer to the Palgorhynchide is the family of 
sailfishes, Istiophoride, having the upper jaw prolonged into 


484 Percomorphi 


, a sword made of consolidated bones. The teeth are very feeble 
and the ventral fins reduced to two or three rays. The species 
are few in number, of large size, and very brilliant metallic 
coloration, inhabiting the warm seas, moving northward in 
summer. They are excellent as food, similar to the swordfish 
in this as in many other respects. The species are not well 
known, being too large for museum purposes, and no one having 
critically studied them in the field. Istiophorus has the dorsal 
fin very high, like a great sail, and undivided; Istiophorus n- 
gricans is rather common about the Florida Keys, where it 
reaches a length of six feet. Its great sail, blue with black 
spots, is a very striking object. Closely related to this is 
Istiophorus orientalis of Japan and other less known species 
of the East Indies. 

Tetrapturus, the spearfish, has the dorsal fin low and divided 
into two parts. Its species are taken in most warm seas, 
Tetrapturus 1mperator throughout the Atlantic, Tetrapturus am~ 
plus in Cuba, Tetrapturus mitsukurit in Japan and in Southern 
California. These much resemble swordfish in form and habits, 
and thev have been known to strike boats in the same way. 

Fossil Istiophoride are known only from fragments of the 
snout, in Europe and America, referred provisionally to Istio- 
phorus. The genus X iphiorhynchus, fossil swordfishes from the 
Eocene, known from the skull only, may be referred to this 
family, as minute teeth are present in the jaws. Xiphiorhyn- 
chus priscus is found in the London Eocene. 

The Swordfishes: Xiphiide.— The family of ‘swordfishes, 
Xiphiide, consists of a single species, Xiphias gladius, of world- 


Fic. 380.— Young Swordfish, Xiphias gladius (Linneus). (After Lutken.) : 


wide distribution in the warm seas. The snout in the sword- 
fish is still longer, more perfectly consolidated, and a still more 
effective weapon of attack. The teeth are wholly wanting, 
and there are no ventral fins, while the second of the two fins 
on the back is reduced to a slight finlet. 


Percomorphi 485 


The swordfish follows the schools of mackerel to the New 
England coasts. ‘Where you see swordfish, you may know 
that mackerel are about,’ Goode quotes from an old fisherman. 
The swordfish swims near the surface, allowing its dorsal fin 
to appear, as also the upper lobe of the caudal. It often leaps 
out of the water, and none of all the fishes of the sea can swim 
more swiftly. 

“The pointed head,” says Goode, “the fins of the back and 
abdomen snugly fitting into grooves, the absence of ventrals, 
the long, lithe, muscular body, sloping slowly to the tail, fit 


Fic. 381 —Swordfish, Xiphias gladius (Linneus). (After Day.) 


it for the most rapid and forcible movement through the water. 
Prof. Richard Owen, testifying in an England court in regard 
to its power, said: 

“Tt strikes with the accumulated force of fifteen double- 
handed hammers. Its velocity is equal to that of a swivel-shot, 
and is as dangerous in its effects as a heavy artillery projectile.’ 

“Many very curious instances are on record of the encoun- 
ters of this fish with other fishes, or of their attacks upon ships. 
What can be the inducement for it to attack objects so much 
larger than itself it is hard to surmise. 

“Tt surely seems as if a temporary insanity sometimes takes 
possession of the fish. It is not strange that, when harpooned, 
it should retaliate by attacking its assailant. An old sword- 
fish. fisherman told Mr. Blackford that his vessel had been 
struck twenty times. There are, however, many instances of 
entirely unprovoked assault on vessels at sea. Many of these 
are recounted in a later portion of this memoir. Their move- 
ments when feeding are discussed below, as well as their alleged 
peculiarities of movement during the breeding season. 


486 Percomorphi 


“It is the universal testimony of our fishermen that two 
are never seen swimming close together. Capt. Ashby says 
that they are always distant from each other at least thirty 
or forty feet. 

“The pugnacity of the swordfish has become a byword. 
Without any special effort on my part numerous instances of 
their attacks upon vessels have in the last ten years found their 
way into the pigeon-hole labeled ‘Swordfish.’”’ 

Swordfishes are common on both shores of the Atlantic 
wherever mackerel run. They do not breed on our shores, 
but probably do so in the Mediterranean and other warm seas. 
They are rare off the California coast, but five records existing 
(Anacapa, Santa Barbara, Santa Catalina, San Diego, off Cerros 
Island). The writer has seen two large individuals in the 
market of Yokohama, but it is scarcely known in Japan. As 
a food-fish, the swordfish is one of the best, its dark-colored 
oily flesh, though a little coarse, making most excellent steaks. 
Its average weight on our coast is about 300 pounds, the 
maximum 625. 

The swordfish undergoes great change in the process of de- 
velopment, the very young having the head armed with rough 
spines and in nowise resembling the adult. 

Fossil swordfishes are unknown, or perhaps cannot be dis- 
tinguished from remains of Jstiophoride. 


CHAPTER XXXII 


CAVALLAS AND PAMPANOS 


ww} |HE Pampanos: Carangide.—We next take up the great 
‘Ay family of Pampanos, Carangid@, distinguished from 
L@| the Scombride as a whole by the shorter, deeper 
ay: the fewer and larger vertebree, and by the loss of the pro- 
vision for swift movement in the open sea characteristic of the 
mackerels and their immediate allies. A simple mark of the 
Carangideé is the presence of two separate spines in front of 
the anal fin. These spines are joined to the fin in the young. 
All of the species undergo considerable changes with age, and 
almost all are silvery in color with metallic blue on the back. 

Most like the true mackerel are the “leather-jackets,’’ or 
“runners,” forming the genera Scomberoides and Oligoplites. 
Scomberoides of the Old World has the body scaly, long, slender, 
and fitted for swift motion; Scomberoides sancti-petri is a widely 
diffused species, and others are found in Polynesia. In the 
New World genus Oligoplites the scales are reduced to linear 
ridges imbedded in the skin at different angles. Oligoplites 
saurus is a common dry and bony fish abounding in the West 
Indies and ranging north in summer to Cape Cod. 

Naucrates ductor, the pilotfish, or romero, inhabits the 
open sea, being taken—everywhere rarely—in Europe, the 
West Indies, Hawaii, and Japan. It is marked by six black 
cross-bands. Its tail has a keel, and it reaches a length of about 
two feet. In its development it undergoes considerable change, 
its first dorsal fin being finally reduced to disconnected spines. 

The amber-fishes, forming the genus Seriola, are rather 
robust fishes, with the anal fin much shorter than the soft dor- 
sal. The sides of the tail have a low, smooth keel. From a 
yellow streak obliquely across the head in some species they 


receive their Spanish name of coronado. The species are 
487 


488 Cavallas and Pampanos 


numerous, found in all warm seas, of fair quality as food, and 
range in length from two to six feet. 


Fic. 382.—Pilot-fish, Naucrates ductor (Linnzus). New Bedford, Mass. 


Seriola dorsalis is the noted yellow-tail of California, valued 
by anglers for its game qualities. It comes to the Santa Bar- 


Fic. 3883.—Amber-fish, *eriola lalandi (ou8 & Val.). Family Carangide. Wood's 
ole. 


bara Islands in early summer. Seriola zonata is the rudder- 
fish, or shark’s pilot, common on our New England coast. The 
banded young, abundant off Cape Cod, lose their marks with 
age. Seriola hippos is the ‘‘samson-fish” of Australia. Seri- 
ola lalandi is the great amber-fish of the West Indies, occa- 
sionally venturing farther northward, and Seriola dumertlt 
the amber-jack, or coronado, of the Mediterranean. The deep- 
bodied medregal (Sertola fasciata) is also taken in the West 
Indies, as is also the high-finned Sertola rivoliana. Species 
very similar to these occur in Hawaii and Japan, where they 


Cavallas and Pampanos 489 


are known as Ao, or bluefishes. Seriola lata is fossil in the 
mountains of Tuscany. 

The runner, Elegatis bipinnulatus, differs from Seriola in 
having a finlet behind dorsal and anal. It is found in almost 
all warm seas, ranging north once in a while to Long Island. 

The mackerel scads (Decapterus) have also a finlet, and on 
the posterior part of the body the lateral line is shielded with 
bony plates. In size and form these little fishes much resemble 
small mackerel, and they are much valued as food wherever 
abundant. Decapterus punclatus, known also as cigar-fish and 
round-robin, frequently visits our Atlantic coasts from the West 
Indies, where it is abundant. Decapterus russelli is the Maru- 
ajt, highly valued in Japan for its abundance, while Decapterus 
muroadsi is the Japanese muroaji. 

Megalaspis cordyla abounds in the East Indies and Poly- 


Fic. 384.—The Saurel, Trachurus trachurus (Linnezus). Newport, R. I. 


nesia. It has many finlets, and the bony plates on the lateral 
line are developed to an extraordinary degree. 

In Trachurus the finlets are lost and the bony plates extend 
the whole length of the lateral line. The species known as 
saurel and wrongly called horse-mackerel are closely related 
and some of them very widely distributed. 

Trachurus trachurus common in Europe, extends to Japan 
where it is the abundant maaji. Trachurus mediterraneus is 
common in southern Europe and Trachurus symmetricus in 
California. Trachurus picturatus of Madeira is much the same 


490 Cavallas and Pampanos 


as the last named, and there is much question as to the right 
names and proper limits of all these species. 

In Trachurops the bony plates are lacking on the anterior 
half of the body, and there is a peculiar nick and projection 
on the lower part of the anterior edge of the shoulder-girdle. 
Trachurops crumenophthalma, the goggler, or big-eyed scad, 
ranges widely in the open sea and at Hawaii, as the Akule, is 
the most highly valued because most abundant of the migra- 
tory fishes. At Samoa it is equally abundant, the name being 
here Atule. Trachurops torva is the meaji, or big-eyed scad, of 
the Japanese, always abundant. 

To Caranx, Carangus, and a number of related genera, charac- 
terized by the bony armature on the narrow caudal peduncle, a 
host of species may be referred. These fishes, known as cavallas, 


Fig. 385.—Yellow Mackerel, Carangus chrysos (Mitchill). _Wood’s Hole. 


hard-tails, jacks, etc., are broad-bodied, silvery or metallic black 
in color, and are found in all warm seas. They usually move from 
the tropics northward in the fall in search of food and are espe- 
cially abundant on our Atlantic coast, in Polynesia, and in Japan. 
About the Oceanic Islands they are resident, these being their 
chosen spawning-grounds. In Hawaii and Samoa they form a 
large part of the food-supply, the ulua (Carangus forster) and the 
malauli (Carangus melampygus) being among the most valuable 
food-fishes, large in size and excellent in flesh, unsurpassed in 
fish chowders. Of the American species Carangus chrysos, 
called yellow mackerel, is the most abundant, ranging from Cape 


Cavallas and Pampanos 491 


Cod southward. This is an elongate species of moderate size. 
The cavalla, or jiguagua, Carangus hippos, known by the black 
spot on the opercle, with another on the pectoral fin, is a widely 
distributed species and one of the largest of the tribe. Another 
important food-fish is the horse-eye-jack, or jurel, Carangus 
latus, which is very similar to the species called ulua in the Pacific. 
The black jack, or tifiosa, of Cuba, Carangus funebris, is said to be 
often poisonous. This is a very large species, black in color, 
the sale of which has been long forbidden in the markets of 
Havana. The young of different species of Carangus are often 
found taking refuge under the disk of jelly-fishes protected by the 
stinging feelers. The species of the genus Carangus have well- 
developed teeth. In the restricted genus of Caranx proper, the 
jaws are toothless. Caranx speciosus, golden with dark cross- 
bands, is a large food-fish of the Pacific. Cztula armata is another 
widely distributed species, with some of the dorsal rays produced 
in long filaments. 

In Alectis ciliaris, the cobbler-fish, or threadfish, the arma- 
ture of the tail is very slight and each fin has some of its rays 
drawn out into long threads. In the young these are very 
much longer than the body, but with age they wear off and 
grow shorter, while the body becomes more elongate. In 
Vomer, Selene, and Chloroscombrus the bony armature of the 
tail, feeble in Alectis, by degrees entirely disappears. 

Vomer setipinnis, the so-called moonfish, or jorobado, has 
the body greatly elevated, compressed, and distorted, while the 
fins, growing shorter with age, become finally very low. Selene 
vomer, the horse-head-fish, or look-down, is similarly but even 
more distorted. The fins, filamentous in the young, grow 
shorter with age, as in Vomer and Alectis. The skeleton in these 
fishes is essentially like that of Carangus, the only difference 
lying in the compression and distortion of the bones. Cliloro- 
scombrus contains the casabes, or bumpers, thin, dry, com- 
pressed fish, of little value as food, the bony armature of the 
tail being wholly lost. 

To the genus Trachinotus belong the pampanos, broad- 
bodied, silvery fishes, toothless when adult, the bodies covered 
with small scales and with no bony plates. 

The true pampano, Trachinotus carolinus, 13 one of the 


492 Cavallas and Pampanos 


finest vf all food-fishes, ranking with the Spanish mackerel and 
to be cooked in the same way, only by broiling. The flesh is 
white, firm, and flaky, with a moderate amount of delicate oil. 
It has no especial interest to the angler and it is not abundant 
enough to be of great commercial importance, yet few fish 
bring or deserve to bring higher prices in the markets of the 


Fic. 386.—The Pampano, Trachinotus carolinus (Linneus). Wood’s Hole. 


epicures. The species is most common along our Gulf coast, 
ranging northward along the Carolinas as far as Cape Cod. 

Pampano in Spanish means the leaf of the grape, from the 
broad body of the fish. The spelling “‘pompano”’ should there- 
fore be discouraged. 

The other pampanos, of which there are several in tropical 
America and Asia, are little esteemed, the flesh being dry and 
relatively flavorless. Trachinotus palometa, the gafftopsail pam- 
pano, has very high fins and its sides have four black bands 
like the marks of a grill. The round pampano, Trachinotus 
falcatus, is common southward, as is also the great pampano, 
Trachinotus goodet, which reaches a length of three feet. Trach- 
inotus ovatus, a large deep-bodied pampano, is common in 
Polynesia and the East Indies. No pampanos are found in 
Europe, but a related genus, Lichia, contains species which much 
resemble them, but in which the body is more elongate and 
the mouth larger. 

Numerous fossils are referred to the Carangide with more 


Cavallas and Pampanos 493 


or less certainty. Azpichthys pretiosus and other species occur 
in the Cretaceous. These are deep-bodied fishes resembling 
Seriola, having the falcate dorsal twice as long as the anal and 
the ventral ridge with thickened scales. Vomeropsis (longispina 
elongata, etc.), also from the Eocene, with rounded caudal, 
the anterior dorsal rays greatly elongate, and the supraoccipital 
crest highly developed, probably constitutes with it a distinct 
family, Vomeropside. Several species referable to Carangus 
are found in the Miocene. Archeus glarisianus, resembling 
Carangus, but without scales so far as known, is found in the 
Oligocene of Glarus; Seriola prisca and other species of Seriola 
occur in the Eocene; Carangopsis brevis, etc., allied to Caranx, 
but with the lateral line unarmed, is recorded from the Eocene 
of France and Italy. 

Ductor leptosomus from the Eocene of Monte Bolca 
resembles Naucrates; Trachinotus tenuiceps is recorded from 
Monte Boleca, and a species of uncertain relationship, called 
Pseudovomer minutus, with sixteen caudal vertebre is taken 
from the Miocene of Licata. 

The Papagallos: Nematistiide.—Very eles! to the Carangide, 
and especially to the genus Seriola, is the small family of 
Nematistiide, containing the papagallo, Nematistius pectoralis 
of the west coast of Mexico. This large and beautiful fish has 
the general appearance of an amber-fish, but the dorsal spines 
are produced in long filaments. The chief character of the 
family is found in the excessive division of the rays of the 
pectoral fins. 

The Bluefishes: Cheilodipteride.—Allied to the Carangid@ is 
the family of bluefishes (Cheilodipteride, or Pomatomide). The 
single species Chetlodipterus saltatrix, or Pomatomus saltatrix, 
known as the bluefish, is a large, swift, extremely voracious fish, 
common throughout most of the warmer parts of the Atlantic, 
but very irregularly distributed on the various coasts. Its 
distribution is doubtless related to its food. It is more abun- 
dant on our Eastern coast than anywhere else, and its chief 
food here is the menhaden. The bluefish differs from the 
Carangid@ mainly in its larger scales, and in a slight serration 
of the bones of the head. Its flesh is tender and easily torn. 
As a food-fish, rich, juicy, and delicate, it has few superiors. 


494 Cavallas and Pampanos 


Its maximum weight is from twelve to twenty pounds, but 
most of those taken are much smaller. It is one of the most 
voracious of all fish. Concerning this, Professor Baird observes: 

“There is no parallel in point of destructiveness to the 
bluefish among the marine species on our coast, whatever may 
be the case among some of the carnivorous fish of the South 
American waters. The bluefish has been well likened to an 
animated chopping-machine the business of which is to cut 
to pieces and otherwise destroy as many fish as possible in a 


Fic. 387.—Bluefish, Cheilodipterus saltatriz (L.). New York. 


given space of time. All writers are unanimous in regard to 
the destructiveness of the bluefish. Going in large schools 
in pursuit of fish not much inferior to themselves in size, they 
move along like a pack of hungry wolves, destroying every- 
thing before them. Their trail is marked by fragments of fish 
and by the stain of blood in the sea, as, where the fish is too 
large to be swallowed entire, the hinder portion will be bitten 
off and the anterior part allowed to float away or sink. It is 
even maintained with great earnestness that such is the glut- 
tony of the fish, that when the stomach becomes full the con- 
tents are disgorged and then again filled. It is certain that 
it kills many more fish than it requires for its own support. 
“The youngest fish, equally with the older, perform this 
function of destruction, and although they occasionally devour 
crabs, worms, etc., the bulk of their sustenance throughout 
the greater part of the year is derived from other fish. Noth- 
ing is more common than to find a small bluefish of six or eight 
inches in length under a school of minnows making continual 
dashes and captures among them. The stomachs of the blue- 


a 


Cavallas and Pampanos 495 


fish of all sizes, with rare exceptions, are found loaded with 
the other fish, sometimes to the number of thirty or forty, 
either entire or in fragments. 

“As already referred to, it must also be borne in mind that 
it is not merely the small fry that are thus devoured, and which 
it is expected will fall a prey to other animals, but that the focd 
of the bluefish consists very largely of individuals which have 
already passed a large percentage of the chances against their 
reaching maturity, many of them, indeed, having arrived at 
the period of spawning. To make the case more clear, let us 
realize for a moment the number of bluefish that exist on our 
coast in the summer season. As far as I can ascertain by the 
statistics obtained at the fishing-stations on the New England 
coast, as also from the records of the New York markets, kindly 
furnished by Middleton & Carman, of the Fulton Market, the 
capture of bluefish from New Jersey to Monomoy during the 
season amounts to no less than one million individuals, aver- 
aging five or six pounds each. Those, however, who have 
seen the bluefish in his native waters and realized the immense 
numbers there existing will be quite willing to admit that 
probably not one fish in a thousand is ever taken by man. If, 
therefore, we have an actual capture of one million, we may 
allow one thousand millions as occurring in the extent of our 
coasts referred to, even neglecting the smaller ones, which, 
perhaps, should also be taken into account. 

“An allowance of ten fish per day to each bluefish is not 
excessive, according to the testimony elicited from the fisher- 
men and substantiated by the stomachs of those examined; 
this gives ten thousand millions of fish destroyed per day. And 
as the period of the stay of the bluefish on the New England 
coast is at least one hundred and twenty days, we have in 
round numbers twelve hundred million millions of fish devoured 
in the course of a season. Again, if each bluefish, averaging 
five pounds, devours or destroys even half its own weight of 
other fish per day (and I am not sure that the estimate of some 
witnesses of twice this weight is not more nearly correct), we 
will have, during the same period, a daily loss of twenty-five 
hundred million pounds, equal to three hundred thousand 
millions for the season. 


496 Cavallas and Pampanos 


“This estimate applies to three or four year old fish of at 
least three to five pounds in weight. We must, however, allow 
for those of smaller size, and a hundred-fold or more in number, 
all engaged simultaneously in the butchery referred to. 

“We can scarcely conceive of a number so vast; and how- 
ever much we may diminish, within reason, the estimate of the 
number of bluefish and the average of their capture, there 
still remains an appalling aggregate of destruction. While the 
smallest bluefish feed upon the diminutive fry, those of which 
we have taken account capture fish of large size, many of them, 
if not capable of reproduction, being within at least one or 
two years of that period. 

“Tt is estimated by very good authority that of the spawn 
deposited by any fish at a given time not more than 30 per 
cent. are hatched, and that less than 10 per cent. attain an age 
when they are able to take care of themselves. As their age 
increases the chances of reaching maturity become greater and 
greater. It is among the small residuum of this class that the 
agency of the bluefish is exercised and whatever reasonable 
reduction may be made in our estimate, we cannot doubt that 
they exert a material influence. 

“The rate of growth of the bluefish is also an evidence of 
the immense amount of food they must consume. The young 
fish which first appear along the shores of Vineyard Sound, 
about the middle of August, are about five inches in length. 
By the beginning of September, however, they have reached 
six or seven inches, and on their reappearance in the second 
year they measure about twelve or fifteen inches. After this 
they increase in a still more rapid ratio. A fish which passes 
eastward from Vineyard Sound in the spring weighing five 
pounds is represented, according to the general impression, 
by the ten- to fifteen-pound fish of the autumn. If this be the 
fact, the fish of three or four pounds which pass along the 
coast of North Carolina in March return to it in October weigh- 
ing ten to fifteen pounds. 

“As already explained, the relationship of these fish to the 
other inhabitants of the sea is that of an unmitigated butcher; 
and it is able to contend successfully with any other species 
not superior to itself in size. It is not known whether an 


Cavallas and Pampanos 497 


entire school ever unite in an attack upon a particular object of 
prey, as is said to be the case with the ferocious fishes of the 
South American rivers; should they do so, no animal, however 
large, could withstand their onslaught. 

“They appear to eat anything that swims of suitable size— 
fish of all kinds, but perhaps more especially the menhaden, 
which they seem to follow along the coast, and which they 
atack with such ferocity as to drive them on the shore, where 


Fie. 388.—Sergeant-fish, Rachycentron canadum (Linnzeus). Virginia. 


they are sometimes piled up in windrows to the depth of a 
foot or more.” 

The Sergeant-fishes: Rachycentride.— The Rachycentride, or 
sergeant-fishes, are large, strong, swift, voracious shore fishes, 
with large mouths and small teeth, ranging northward from the 
warm seas. The dorsal spines are short and stout, separate 
from the fin, and the body is almost cylindrical, somewhat like 
that of the pike. 

Rachycentron canadum, called cobia, crab-eater, snooks, or 
sergeant-fish, reaches a length of about five feet. The last 
name is supposed to allude to the black stripe along its side, 
like the stripe on a sergeant’s trousers. It is rather common 
in summer along our Atlantic coast as far as Cape Cod, espe- 
cially in Chesapeake Bay. Rachycentron pondicerrianum, equally 
voracious, extends its summer depredations as far as Japan. 
The more familiar name for these fishes, Elacate, is of later date 
than Rachycentron. 

Mr. Prime thus speaks of the crab-eater as a game-fish: 

“Tn shape he may be roughly likened to the great northern 
pike, with a similar head, flattened on the forehead. He is 
dark green on the back, growing ‘ighter on the sides, but the 


498 Cavailas and Pampanos 


distinguishing characteristic is a broad, dark collar over the 
neck, irom which two black stripes or straps, parting on the 
shoulders, extend, one on each side, to the tail. He looks as 
if harnessed with a pair of traces, and his behavior on a fly-rod 
is that of a wild horse. The first one that I struck, in the 
brackish water of Hillsborough River at Tampa, gave me a 
hitherto unknown sensation. The tremendous rush was not 
unfamiliar, but when the fierce fellow took the top of the water 
and went along lashing it with his tail, swift as a bullet, then 
descended, and with a short, sharp, electric shock left the line 
to come home free, I was for an instant confounded. It was 
all over in ten seconds. Nearly every fish that I struck after 
this behaved in the same way, and after I had got ‘the hang 
of them’ I took a great many.” 

The Butter-fishes: Stromateide.— The butter-fishes (Stroma- 
teide) form a large group of small fishes with short, compressed 
bodies, smooth scales, feeble spines, the vertebra in increased 
number and especially characterized by the presence of a series 
of tooth-like processes in the oesophagus behind the pharyn- 
geals. The ventral fins present in the young are often lost in 
the process of development. 

According to Mr. Regan, the pelvic bones are very loosely 
attached to the shoulder-girdle as in the extinct genera Platy- 
cormus and Homosoma. This is perhaps a primitive feature, 
indicating the line of descent of these fishes from berycoid 
forms. 

We unite with the Stromateide the groups or families of 
Centrolophide and Nomeide, knowing no characters by which 
to separate them. 

Stromateus fiatola, the fiatola of the Italian fishermen, is an 
excellent food-fish of the Mediterranean. Poronotus triacan- 
thus, the harvest-fish, or dollar-fish, of our Atlantic coast, is a 
common little silvery fish six to ten inches, as bright and almost 
as round as a dollar. Its tender oily flesh has an excellent 
flavor. Verysimilar to it is the poppy-fish (Palometa simillima) 
of the sandy shores of California, miscalled the ‘California 
pampano,” valued by the San Francisco epicure, who pays 
large prices for it supposing it to be pampano, although admit- 
ting that the pampano in New Orleans has firmer flesh and 


i] 


Cavallas and Pampanos 499 


better flavor. The harvest-fish, Peprilus paru, frequently 
taken on our Atlantic coast, is known by its very high fins. 


Fic. 389.—Harvest-fish, Peprilus paru (Linnezus). Virginia. 


Stromateoides argenteus, a much larger fish than any of these, 
is a very important species on the coasts of China. 

Psenopsis anomala takes the place of our butter-fishes in 
Japan, and much resembles them in appearance as in flavor. 

To the Stromateide we also refer the black ruff of Europe, 
Centrolophus niger, an interesting deep-sea fish rarely straying 
to our coast. Allied to it is the black rudder-fish, Palinurich- 
thys perciformis, common on the Massachusetts coast, where 
it is of some value as a food-fish. A specimen in a live-box 
once drifted to the coast of Cornwall, where it was taken unin- 
jured, though doubtless hungry. Other species of ruff- and 
rudder-fish are recorded from various coasts. 

Allied to the Stromateide are numerous fossil forms. Omo- 
soma sachelalme and other species occur in the Cretaceous at 
Mount Lebanon. Platycormus germanus, with ctenoid scales 


500 Cavallas and Pampanos 


resembling a berycoid, but with the ventral rays I, 5, occurs 
in the Upper Cretaceous. Closely related to this is Berycopsis 
elegans, with smoother sca‘es, from the English Chalk. 

Gobiomorus gronovit (usually called Nomeus gronovit), the 
Portuguese man-of-war-fish, is a neat little fish about three 
inches long, common in the Gulf 
of Mexico and the Gulf Stream, 
where it hides from its enemies 
among the poisoned tentacles of 
the Portuguese man-of-war. 
Under the Portuguese man-of- 
war and also in or under large 
jelly-fishes several other species 
are found, notably Carangus 
medusicola and Peprilus paru. 
Many small species of Psenes, 
a related genus, also abound in 
the warm currents from tropical 
seas. 

The Rag-fishes: Icosteidze. — 
Allied to the butter-fishes are 
the deep-water Icosteide, fishes 
of soft, limp bodies as unre- 
sistent as a wet rag, Icosteus 
enigmaticus of the California 
coast being known as ragfish. 
Schedophilus medusophagus feeds 
on meduse and salpa, living on 
the surface in the deep seas, Tg.,,905_Portueuew, Man.of war 
Mr. Ogilby thus speaks of a Stromateide. 
specimen taken in Ireland: 

“It was the most delicate adult fish I ever handled; within 
twenty-four hours after its capture the skin of the belly and 
the intestines fell off when it was. lifted, and it felt in the hand 
quite soft and boneless.”” A related species (S. heatht) has been 
lately taken by Dr. Charles H. Gilbert at Monterey in California. 

The family of Acrotide contains a single species of large size. 
Acrotus willoughbyt, allied to Icosteus, but without ventral fins 
and with the vertebrae very numerous. The type, five and one- 


Cavallas and Pampanos 501 


quarter feet long, was thrown by a storm on the coast of Wash- 
ington, near the Quinnault agency. 

The family of Zaproride contains also a single large species, 
Zaprora silenus, without ventrals, but scaly and firm in sub- 
stance. One specimen 24 feet long was taken at Nanaimo on 
Vancouver Island and a smaller one at Victoria. 

The Pomfrets: Bramide.— The Bramide: are broad-bodied 
fishes of the open seas, covered with firm adherent scales. The 
flesh is firm and the skeleton heavy, the hypercoracoid espe- 
cially much dilated. Of the various species the pomfret, or 
black bream (Brama raiz), is the best known and most widely 
diffused. Itreaches a length of two to four feet and is sooty black 
in color. It is not rare in Europe and has been occasionally 
taken at Grand Bank off Newfoundland, at the Bermudas, off 
the coast of Washington, on Santa Catalina Island, and in Japan. 
It is an excellent food-fish, but is seldom seen unless driven 
ashore by storms. 

Steinegeria rubescens of the Gulf of Mexico is a little-known 
deep-sea fish allied to Brama, but placed by Jordan and Ever- 
mann in a distinct family, Ste:negeriide. 

Closely related to the Bramide@ is the small family of Ptera- 
clid@, silvery fishes with large firm scales, living near the sur- 
face in the ocean currents. In these fishes the ventral fins 
are placed well forward, fairly to be called jugular, and the 
rays of the dorsal and anal, all inarticulate or spine-like, are 
excessively prolonged. The species, none of them well known, 
are referred to four genera—Pteraclis, Bentenia, Centropholis, 
and Velifer. They are occasionally taken in ocean currents, 
chiefly about Japan and Madeira. 

Fossil forms more or less remotely allied to the Bramide are 
recorded from the Eocene and Miocene. Among these are Acan- 
thonemus, and perhaps Pseudovomer. 

The Dolphins: Coryphenide.—The dolphins, or dorados 
(Coryphenide), are large, swift sea-fishes, with elongate, com- 
pressed bodies, elevated heads, sharp like the cut-water of a 
boat, and with the caudal fin very strong. The long dorsal 
fin, elevated like a crest on the head, is without spines. The 
high forehead characteristic of the dolphin is developed only in 
the adult male. The flesh of the dolphin is valued as food. 


502 Cavallas and Pampanos 


Its colors, golden-blue with deep-blue spots, fade rapidly at 
death, though the extent of this change has been much exag- 
gerated. Similar changes of color occur at death in most bright- 
colored fishes, especially in those with thin scales. The common 
dolphin, or dorado (Coryphena hippurus), is found in all warm 


Fic. 391—Dolphin or Dorado, Coryphena hippurus Linneus. New York. 


seas swimming near the surface, as usual in predatory fishes, 
and reaches a length of about six feet. The small dolphin, 
Coryphena equisetis, rarely exceeds 2} feet, and is much more 
rare than the preceding, from which the smaller number of 
dorsal rays (53 instead of 60) best distinguishes it. Young 
dolphins of both species are elongate in form, the crest of the 
head not elevated, the physiognomy thus appearing very differ- 
ent from that of the adult. Goniognathus coryphenoides is an 
extinct dolphin of the Eocene. 

The name dolphin, belonging properly to a group of small 
whales or porpoises, the genus ‘Delphinus, has been unfortu- 
nately used in connection with this very different animal, which 
bears no resemblance to the mammal of the same name. 

Other mackerel-like families not closely related to these 
occur in the warm seas. The Letognathide are small, silvery 
fishes of the East Indies. Leiognathus argentatus (Equula) is 
very common in the bays of Japan, a small silvery fish of mod- 
erate value as food. Gazza minuta, similar, with strong teeth, 
abounds farther south. Lezognathus fasciatum is common in 
Polynesia. A fossil species called Parequula albyt occurs in the 
Miocene of Licata. 

The Kurtide are small, short-bodied fishes of the Indian 
seas, with some of the ribs immovably fixed between rings 


Cavallas and Pampanos 593 


formed by the ossified cover of the air-bladder and with the 
hypocoracoid obsolete. Kurtus indicus is the principal species. 
The Menide.—Near the Kurtide we may perhaps place the 
family of Menide, of one species, Mene maculata, the moon-fish 
of the open seas of the East Indies and Japan. This is a small 
fish, about a foot long, with the body very closely compressed, 
the fins low and the belly, through the extension of the pelvic 
bone, a good deal more prominent than the back. The ventral 


Fic. 892 —Mene maculata (Bloch & Schneider). Family Menide. Japan. 


fins have the usual number of one spine and five soft rays, a 
character which separates Mene widely from Lampris, which 
in some ways seems allied to it. 

Another species of Menide is the extinct Gasteronemus 
rhombeus of the Eocene of Monte Bolca. It has much the same 
form, with long pubic bones. The very long ventral fins are, 
however, made of one spine and one or two 1ays. A second 
species, Gasteronemus oblongus, is recorded from the same rocks. 

The Pempheridez.—The Pempheride, “deep-water catalufas,”’ 
or ‘‘magifi,’’ are rather small deep-bodied fishes, reddish in 
color, with very short dorsal, containing a few graduated spines. 


504 Cavallas and Pampanos 


and with a very long anal fin. These inhabit tropical seas at 
moderate depths. Pempheris bears a superficial resemblance to 


Fic. 893 —Gasteronemus rhombeus Agassiz. (After Woodward.) Menide. 


Beryx, but, according to Starks, this resemblance is not borne 
out by the anatomy. Pempheris mullert and P. poeyt are found 


Fic. 394—Catalufa de lo Alto, Pempheris mulleri Poey. Havana. 


in the West Indies. Pempherts otaitensis and P. mangula range 
through Polynesia. 


5) 


Very close to the Pempheride is the small family of Bathy- 
cluperd@. ‘These are herring-like fishes, much compressed and 


Cavallas and Pampanos 


Giran, Formosa. 


Fic. 395 —Pempheris nyctereutes Jordan & Evermann. 


There are but one or two dorsal 


with a duct to the air-bladder. 


The ventrals are of one spine and five rays as in perch, 


like fishes, but placed behind the pectoral fins. 


spines. 


This feature- 


Alcock, the 


due to the shortening of the belly, is regarded by 


discoverer, as a result of degeneration, 


and the family was 


—The Louvar, Luvarus imperialis Rafinesque. 


Luvaride. 


‘amily 


EF 


Fig. 396 


(After Day.) 


The persistent air-duct 


placed by him among the herrings. 


formed ventrals 


If we trust the indications of the skeleton, 


ally 


excludes it from the Percesoces, the norm 


from the Berycoidet. 


506 Cavallas and Pampanos 


we must place the family with Pempherts, near the scombroid 
fishes. 

Luvaride.—Another singular family is the group of Louvars, 
Luvaride. Luvaris imperialis. The single known species is a large, 
plump, voracious fish, with the dorsal and anal rays all un- 
branched, and the scales scurf-life over the smooth skin. It is 
frequently taken in the Mediterranean, and was found on the 
island of Santa Catalina, California, by Mr. C. F. Holden. 

The Square-tails: Tetragonuride.—The J etragonurid@ are long- 
bodied fishes of a plump or almost squarish form, covered 
with hard, firm, very adherent scales. Tetragonurus cuvieri, the 
single species, called square-tail, or escolar de natura, is a 
curious fish) looking as if whittled out of wood, covered with 
a compact armor of bony scales, and swimming very slowly in 
deep water. It is known from the open Atlantic and Medi- 
terranean and has been once taken at Woods Hole in Massa- 
chusetts. According to Mr. C. T. Regan the relations of this 
eccentric fish are with the Stromateide and Bramide, the skele- 
ton being essentially that of Stromateus, and Boulenger places 
both Tetragonurus and Stromateus among the Percesoces. 

The Crested Band-fishes: Lophotide.—The family of Lopho- 
tide consists of a few species of deep-sea fishes, band-shaped, 
naked, with the dorsal of flexible spines beginning as a high 
crest on the elevated occiput. The first spine is very strong. 
The ventrals are thoracic with the normal number, I, 5, of fin- 
rays. Lophotes cepedianus, the crested bandfish, is occasionally 
taken in the Mediterranean in rather deep water. Lophotes 
capellei is rarely taken in the deep waters of Japan. 

It is thought that the Lophotide may be related to the 
ribbon-fishes, T@niosomi, but on the whole they seem nearer 
to the highly modified Scombroidei, the Pteraclide for 
example. 

In a natural arrangement, we should turn from the Bramt- 
de to the Antigontide and the Ilarchide, then passing over 
the series which leads through Chetodontide and Teuthide 
to the Plectognaths. It is, however, necessary to include here, 
alongside the mackerels, though not closely related to them, the 
parallel series of perch-like fishes, which at the end become 
also hopelessly entangled, through aberrant forms, with other 


7 


Cavallas and Pampanos 


nm 


eh 


series of which the origin and relations are imperfectly under- 
stood. As the relations of forms cannot be expressed in a linear 
series, many pages must intervene before we can take up the 
supposed line of development from the Scombroid fishes to 
those called Squamipinnes, 


CHAPTER XXXIII 
PERCOIDEA, OR PERCH-LIKE FISHES 


FIERCOID Fishes——We may now take up the long 
series of the Percoidea, the fishes built on the type 
of the perch or bass. This is a group of fishes of 
ie erse habits and forms, but on the whole representing better 
than any other the typical Acanthopterygian fish. The group 
is incapable of concise definition, or, in general, of any defini- 
tion at all; still, most of its members are definitely related 
to each other and bear in one way or another a resemblance 
to the typical form, the perch, or more strictly to its marine 
relatives, the sea-bass, or Serranide.- The following analysis 
gives most of the common characters of the group: 

Body usually oblong, covered with scales, which are 
typically ctenoid, not smooth nor spinous, and of moderate 
size. Lateral line typically present and ‘concurrent with 
the back. Head usually compressed laterally and with the 
cheeks and opercles scaly. Mouth various, usually terminal 
and with lateral cleft; the teeth various, but typically pointed, 
arranged in bands on the jaws, and in several families, on the 
vomer and palatine bones also, as well as on the pharyngeals; 
gill-rakers usually sharp, stoutish, armed with teeth, but some- 
times short or feeble; lower pharyngeals almost always separate, 
usually armed with cardiform teeth; third upper pharyngeal 
moderately enlarged, elongate, not articulated to the cranium, 
the fourth typically present; gills four, a slit behind the fourth; 
gill membranes free from the isthmus, and usually not con- 
nected with each other; pseudobranchize typically well 
developed. Branchiostegals few, usually six or seven. No 
bony stay connecting the suborbital chain to the preopercle. 
Opercular bones all well developed, normal in position; the 


preopercle typically serrate. No cranial spines. Dorsal fin 
508 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 509 


variously developed, but always with some spines in front, 
these typically stiff and pungent; anal fin typically short, 
usually with three spines, sometimes with a larger number, 
rarely with none; caudal fin various, usually lunate; pectoral 
fins well developed, inserted high; ventral fins always present, 
thoracic, separate, almost always with one spine and five rays, 
the Aphredoderide having more, a few Serranide having fewer. 
Air-bladder usually present, without air-duct in adult; simple 
and generally adherent to the walls of the abdomen. Stomach 
cecal, with pyloric appendages, the intestines short in most 
species, long in the herbivorous forms. Vertebral column well 
developed, none of the vertebree especially modified, the number 
1o+14=24, except in certain extratropical and fresh-water 
forms, which retain primitive higher numbers. Shoulder-girdle 
normally developed, the post-temporal bifurcate attached to the 
skull, but not coossified with it; none of the epipleural bones 
attached to the center of the vertebrae; coracoids normal, the 
hypercoracoid always with a median foramen, the basal bones of 
the pectoral (actinosts or pterygials) normally developed, three or 
four in number, hour-glass-shaped, longer than broad; premaxil- 
lary forming the border of the mouth usually protractile; bones 
of the mandible distinct. Orbitosphenoid wanting. 

The most archaic of the perch-like types are apparently 
some of those of the fresh waters. Among these the process 
of evolution has been less rapid. In some groups, as the 
Percide, the great variability of species is doubtless due to 
the recent origin, the characters not being well fixed. 

The Pirate-perches: Aphredoderide.— Among the most re- 
markable of the living percoid fishes and probably the most 
primitive of all, showing affinities with the Salmoperce, is the 
Pirate-perch, Aphredoderus sayanus, a little fish of the low- 
land streams of the Mississippi Valley. The family of Aphre- 
doderide agrees with the berycoid fishes in scales and structure 
of the fins, and Boulenger places it with the Berycide. Starks 
has shown, however, that it lacks the orbitosphenoid, and the 
general osteology is that of the perch-like fishes. The dorsal 
and anal have a few spines. The thoracic ventrals have one 
spine and eight rays. There is no adipose fin and probably no 
duct to the air-bladder. A singular trait is found in the posi- 


510 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


tion of the vent. In the adult this is in front of the ventra) 
fins, at the throat. In the young it is behind the ventral fins 


AS 


Fic. 397.—Pirate Perch, Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams). Illinois River. 


as in ordinary fishes. With age it moves forward by the pro- 
longation of the horizontal part of the intestine or rectum’ 
The same peculiar position of the vent is found in the berycoid 
genus Paratrachichthys. 

In the family Aphredoderide but one species is known, 
Aphredoderus sayanus, the pirate-perch. It reaches a length 


Fia. 398.—Everglade Pigmy Perch, SS ee evergladei Jordan. Everglades of 
orida. ’ 


es 


of five inches and lives in sluggish lowland streams with muddy 
bottom from New Jersey and Minnesota to Louisiana. It is 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 511 


dull green in color and feeds on insects and worms. It has no 
economic value, although extremely interesting in its anatomy 
and relationship. 

Whether the Asineopide, fresh-water fishes of the American 
Eocene, and the Erismatopteride, of the same deposits (see page 
450) are related to A phredoderus or to Percopsis is still uncertain. 

The Pigmy Sunfishes: Elassomide.—One of the most primitive 
groups is that of Elassomide, or pigmy sunfiches. These are 


Fie. 399.—Skull of the Rock Bass, Ambloplites rupestris. 


very small fishes, less than two inches long, living in the swamps 
of the South, resembling the sunfishes, but with the number of 
dorsal spines reduced to from three to five. Elassoma zonatum 
occurs from southern Illinois to Louisiana. Elassoma ever- 
gladet abounds in the Everglades of Florida. In both the body 


512 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


is oblong and compressed, the color is dull green crossed by 
black bars or blotches. 

The Sunfishes: Centrarchide.—The large family of Centrar- 
chide, or sunfishes, is especially characteristic of the rivers of 
the eastern United States, where the various species are 
inordinately abundant. The body is relatively short and 
deep, and the axis passes through the middle so that the back 
has much the same outline as the belly. The pseudobranchie 
are imperfect, as in many fresh-water fishes, and the head is 
feebly armed, the bones being usually without spines or serra- 
tures. The colors are often brilliant, the sexes alike, and all 
are carnivorous, voracious, and gamy, being excellent as food. 
The origin of the group is probably Asiatic, the fresh-water 
serranoid of Japan, Bryttosus, resembling in many ways an 
American sunfish, and the genus Kuhlia cf the Pacific showing 
many homologies with the black bass, Micropterus. 


Fie. 400 —Crappie, Pomozxis annularis Rafinesque. Ohio River. 


Crappies and Rock Bass. — Pomoxis annularis, the crappie, 
and Pomoxis sparoides, the calico-bass, are handsome fishes, 
valued by the angler. These are perhaps the most prim- 
itive of the family, and in these species the anal fin is 
larger than the dorsal. The flier, or round bass, Centrarchus 
macropterus, with eight anal spines, is abundant in swamps 
and lowland ponds of the Southern States. It is a pretty fish, 
attractive in the aquarium. Acantharchus pomotis is the 
mud-bass of the Delaware, and Archoplites interruptus, the 


€1s 


C9pPynys “MA “UW “AC Aq est] Wor) "(Cyey) swwmjnuun srxowog ‘oiddvay— Op ‘PW 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


514 


The latter is a large and gamy 


fish, valued as food and interesting as being the only fresh- 


“perch”’ of the Sacramento. 


—Rock Bass, Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque.) Ecorse, Mich. 


Fic. 402. 


water fish of the nature of perch or bass native to the west of 


The numbers of this species, according 


Mountains. 


ky 


the Roc 


=) f 


ae 


Delaware River. 


Mesogonistius chetodon (Baird). 


’ 


Sunfish 


Fic. 408.—Banded 


(Ameturus nebulosus) 


to Mr. Will S. Green of Colusa, California, have been greatly 


reduced by the introduction of the catfish 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes Gig 


into the Sacramento. The perch eats the young catfish, and 
its stomach is torn by their sharp pectoral spines. Another 


n 


DON 


SSS 
SSeS 
SSS 


<3 
<> 


SoS 


Fic. 404.—Blue-Gill, Lepomis pallidus (Mitchill), Potomac River. 


species of this type is the warmouth (Chenobryttus gulosus) 
of the ponds of the South, and still more familiar rock-bass 


Fic. 405.—Long-eared Sunfish, Lepomis megalotis (Rafinesque). From Clear 
Creek, Bloomington, Indiana. Family Centrarchide. 


or redeye (Ambloplites rupestris) of the more northern lakes 
and rivers valued as a game- and food-fish. A very pretty 


516 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


aquarium fish is the black-banded sunfish, Mesogonistius cheto- 
don, of the Delaware, as also the nine-spined sunfish, Enneacan- 
thus gloriosus, of the coast streams southward. Apomotis cyanel- 
lus, the blue-green sunfish or little redeye, is very widely dis- 
tributed from Ohio westward, living in every brook. The dis- 
section of this species is given on page 26. To Lepomis belong 
numerous species having the opercle prolonged in a long flap 
which is always black in color, often with a border of scarlet or 
blue. The yellowbelly of the South (Lepomis auritus), ear-like 
the showily colored long-eared sunfish (Lepomis megalotis) of the 


Fic. 406.—Common Sunfish, Eupomotis gibbosus (Linnzus). Root River, Wis. 


southwest, figured on page 2, the bluegill (Lepomis pallidus), 
abundant everywhere south and west of New York, are mem- 
bers of this genus. The genus Hupomotis differs in its larger 
pharyngeals, which are armed with blunt teeth. The common 
sunfish, or pumpkinseed, Ewpomotis gibbosus, is the most familiar 
representative of the family, abounding everywhere from Min- 
nesota to New England, then south to Carolina on the east slope 
of the Alleghanies, breeding everywhere in ponds and in the 
eddies of the clear brooks. 

The Black Bass.—The black bass (Micropterus) belong to the 
same family as the sunfish, differing in the larger size, more 
elongate form, and more voracious habit. The two species are 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 517 


among the most important of American game-fishes, abounding 
in all clear waters east of the Alleghanies and resisting the evils 
of civilization far better than the trout. 

The small-mouthed black bass, Micropterus dolomieu, is the 
most valuable of the species. Its mouth, although large, is 
relatively small, the cleft not extending beyond the eye. The 
green coloration is broken in the young by bronze cross-bands. 
The species frequents only running streams, preferring clear 
and cold waters, and it extends its range from Canada as far 
to the southward as such streams can be found. Dr. James A. 
Henshall, an accomplished angler, author of the ‘‘ Book of the 
Black Bass,” says: “The black bass is eminently an American 
fish; he has the faculty of asserting himself and of making 
himself completely at home wherever placed. He is plucky, 
game, brave, unyielding to the last when hooked. He has the 
arrowy rush and vigor of a trout, the untiring strength and 
bold leap of a salmon, while he has a system of fighting tactics 
peculiarly his own. I consider him inch for inch and pound 
for pound the gamest fish that swims.”’ 

In the same vein Charles Hallock writes: “No doubt the 
bass is the appointed successor of the trout; not through heri- 
tage, nor selection, nor by interloping, but by foreordination. 
Truly, it is sad to contemplate, in the not distant future, the 
extinction of a beautiful race of creatures, whose attributes 
have been sung by all the poets; but we regard the inevitable 
with the same calm philosophy with which the astronomer watches 
the burning out of a world, knowing that it will be succeeded 
by a new creation. As we mark the soft varitinted flush of 
the trout disappear in the eventide, behold the sparkle of the 
coming bass, as he leaps in the morning of his glory! We hardly 
know which to admire the most—the velvet livery and the 
charming graces of the departing courtier, or the flash of the 
armor-plates of the advancing warrior. The bass will unques- 
tionably prove himself a worthy substitute for his predecessor 
and a candidate for a full legacy of honors. 

“No doubt, when every one of the older states shall become 
as densely settled as Great Britain itself, and all the rural aspects 
of the crowded domain resemble the suburban surroundings 
of our Boston; when every feature of the pastoral landscape 


518 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


shall wear the finished appearance of European lands, and every 
verdant field be closely cropped by lawn-mowers and guarded 
by hedges, and every purling stream which meanders through 
it has its water-bailiff, we shall still have speckled trout from 
which the radiant spots have faded, and tasteless fish, to catch 
at a dollar a pound (as we already have on Long Island), and 
all the appurtenances and appointments of a genuine English 
trouting privilege and a genuine English ‘outing.’ 

“Tn those future days, not long hence to come, some ven- 
erable piscator, in whose memory still lingers the joy of fishing, 
the brawling stream which tumbled over the rocks in the tangled 
wildwood, and moistened the arbutus and the bunchberries 


Fie. 407.—Small Mouth Black Bass Micropterus dolomieu Lacépéde. 


which garnished its banks, will totter forth to the velvet edge 
of some peacefully flowing stream, and having seated himself 
on a convenient point in a revolving easy-chair, placed there 
by his careful attendant, cast right and left for the semblance 
of sport long dead. 

“Hosts of liver-fed fish rush to the signal for their early 
morning meal, and from the center of the boil which follows 
the fall of the handfuls thrown in my piscator of the ancient 
days will hook a two-pound trout, and play him hither and yon, 
from surface to bottom, without disturbing the pampered gour- 
mands which are gorging themselves upon the disgusting viands; 
and when he has leisurely brought him to land at last, and the 
gillie has scooped him with his landing-net, he will feel in his 
capacious pocket for his last trade dollar, and giving his friend 
the tip, shuffle back to his house, and lay aside his rod forever.” 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 519 


The black bass is now introduced into the streams of Europe 
and California. There is little danger that it will work injury 
to the trout, for the black bass prefers limestone streams, ‘and 
the trout rarely does well in waters which do not flow over 
granite rock or else glacial gravel. 

The large-mouth black bass (Muicropterus salmoides) is very 
much like the other in appearance. The mouth is larger, in 
the adult cleft beyond the eye; the scales are larger, and in 
the young there is always a broad black stripe along the sides 
and no cross-bands. The two are found in the same region, but 
almost never in the same waters, for the large-mouth bass is a 
fish of the lakes, ponds, and bayous, always avoiding the swift 
currents. The young like to hide among weeds or beneath 
lily-pads. From its preference for sluggish waters, its range 
extends farther to the southward, as far as the Mexican State 
of Tamaulipas. 

Phoplarchus is a genus of fossil sunfishes from the Eocene 
of South Dakota and Oregon. Plioplarchus sexspinosus, sep- 
temspinosus, and whitet are imperfectly known species. 

The Saleles: Kuhliide.—Much like the sunfishes in anatomy, 
though more like the white perch in appearance and habit, 
are the members of the little family of Kuhlitde. These are 
active silvery perches of the tropical seas, ponds, and river- 
mouths, especially abundant in Polynesia. Kuhlia malo is 
the aholehole of the Hawaiians, a silvery fish living in great 
numbers in brackish waters. Auslia rupestris, the salele of the 
Samoan rivers, is a large swift fish of the rock pools, in form, color, 
and habits remarkably like the black bass. It is silvery bronze 
in hue, everywhere mottled with olive-green. The sesele, Ausilia 
marginata, lives with it in the rivers, but is less abundant. The 
saboti, Kuhlia teniura, a large silvery fish with cross-bands on 
the caudal fin, lives about lava-rocks in Polynesia from the 
Galapagos to Samoa and the East Indies, never entering rivers. 
Still other species are found in the rock pools and streams of 
Japan and southward. 

The skeleton in Kuhlia is essentially like that of the black 
bass, and Dr. Boulenger places the genus with the Centrarchide. 

The True Perches: Percide.—The great family of Percide 
includes fresh-water fishes of the northern hemisphere, elon- 


ozs 


CPPS “MUL AC Aq ast] wor) -(owy) saprowpos snsajdownrpy ‘ssege yous, poyynour-osieJ—goF “DIT 


ws4s 2 


MS, 


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5 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes Salt 


gate in body, with the vertebre in increased number and with 
only two spines in the anal fin. About ninety species are 
recorded, the vast majority being American. The dwarf perches, 
called darters (Etheostomine), are especially characteristic of 
the clear streams to the eastward of the plains of the Missouri. 
These constitute one of the greatest attractions of our American 
river fauna. They differ from the perch and its European allies in 
their small size, bright colors, and. large fins, and more technic- 
ally in the tudimentary condition of the pseudobranchiz and 
the air-bladder, both of which organs are almost inappreciable, 
The preopercle is unarmed, and the number of the branchioste- 
gals is six. The anal papilla is likewise developed, as in the 
Gobtide, to which group the darters bear a considerable super- 
ficial resemblance, which, hewever, indicates no real affinity. 

Relations of Darters to Perches.— The colors of the Ethe- 
ostomine, or darters, are usually very brilliant, species of 
Etheostoma especially being among the most brilliantly colored 
fishes known; the sexual differences are often great, the females 
being, as a rule, dull in color and more speckled or barred than 
the males. Most of them prefer clear running water, where 
they lie on the bottom concealed under stones, darting, when 
frightened or hungry, with great velocity for a short distance, 
by a powerful movement of the fan-shaped pectorals, then 
stopping as suddenly. They rarely use the caudal fin in swim- 
ming, and they are seldom seen floating or moving freely in 
the water like most fishes. When at rest they support them- 
selves on their expanded ventrals and anal fin. All of them 
can turn the head from side to side, and they frequently lie 
with the head in a curved position or partly on one side of the 
body. The species of Ammocrypta, and perhaps some of the 
others, prefer a sandy bottom, where, by a sudden plunge, 
the fish buries itself in the sand, and remains quiescent for 
hours at a time with only its eyes and snout visible. The 
others lurk in stony places, under rocks and weeds. Although 
more than usually tenacious of vitality, the darters, from their 
bottom life, are the first to be disturbed by impurities in the 
water. All the darters are carnivorous, feeding chiefly on the 
larve of Diptera, and in their Way voracious. All are of small 
size; the largest (Percina rex) reaches a length of six inches, 


522 Percoidea, or Perce-like Fishes 


while the smallest (Microperca punctulata) is one of the small- 
est spiny-rayed fishes known, barely attaining the length of 
an inch and a half. In Europe no Etheostomine are found, 
their place being filled by the genera Zingel and Aspro, which 
bear a strong resemblance to the American forms, a resemblance 
which may be a clew to the origin of the latter. 

The Perches.— The European perch, Perca fluviatilis, is 
placed by Cuvier at the head of the fish series, as representing 
in a high degree the traits of a fish without sign of incomplete 
development on the one hand or of degradation on the other. 
Doubtless the increased number of the vertebre is the chief 
character which would lead us to call in question this time- 
honored arrangement. Because, however, the perch has a 
relatively degenerate vertebral column, we have used an allied 
form, the striped bass, as a fairer type of the perfected spiny- 
rayed fish. Certainly the bass represents this type better than 
the perch. 

But though we may regard the perch as nearest the typically 
perfect fish, it is far from being one of the most highly specialized, 
for, as we have seen in several cases, a high degree of speciali- 
zation of a-particular structure is a first step toward its degra- 
dation. 

The perch of Europe is a common game-fish of the rivers. 
The yellow perch of America (Perca flavescens) is very much 
like it, a little brighter in color, olive and golden with dusky 
cross-bands. It frequents quiet streams and ponds from Min- 
nesota eastward, then southward east of the Alleghanies. “As 
a still-pond fish,” says Dr. Charles Conrad Abbott, “if there is 
a fair supply of spring-water, they thrive excellently; but the 
largest specimens come either from the river or from the inflow- 
ing creeks. Deep water of the temperature of ordinary spring- 
water, with some current and the bed of the stream at least 
partly covered with vegetation, best suits this fish.” The 
perch is a food-fish of moderate quality. In spite of its beauty 
and gaminess, it is little sought for by our anglers, and is much 
less valued with us than is the European perch in England. 
But Dr. Goode ventures to prophesy that “before many years 
the perch will have as many followers as the black bass among 
those who fish for pleasure” in the region it inhabits. “A 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 523 


fish for the people it is, we will grant, and it is the anglers from 
among the people who have neither time nor patience for long 
trips nor complicated tackle who will prove its steadfast friends.”’ 
The boy values it, according to Thoreau. When he returns 
from the mill-pond, he numbers his perch as ‘‘real fishes.” 
“So many unquestionable fish he counts, and so many chubs, 
which he counts, then throws away.” 

In the perch, the oral valves, characteristic of all bony fishes, 
are well developed. These structures recently investigated by 


Fie. 409 —Yellow Perch, Perca flavescens Mitchill. Potomac River. 


Evelyn G. Mitchill, form a fold of connective tissue just behind 
the premaxillary and before the vomer. They are used in respi- 
ration, preventing the forward flow of water as the mouth closes. 

Several perch-like fishes are recorded as fossils from the 
Miocene. . 

Allied to the perch, but long, slender, big-mouthed, and 
voracious, is the group of pike perches, found in eastern America 
and Europe. The wall-eye, or glass-eye (Stizostedion vitreum), is 
the largest of this tribe, reaching a weight of ten to twenty 
pounds. It is found throughout the region east of the Mis- 
souri in the large streams and ponds, an excellent food-fish, 
with white, flaky flesh and in the north a game fish of high 
tank. The common names refer to the large glassy eye, con- 
cerning which Dr. Goode quotes from some “ardent admirer ”’ 
these words: “Look at this beautiful fish, as symmetrical in 
form as the salmon. Not a fault in his make-up, not a scale 


| 


524 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


disturbed, every fin perfect, tail clean-cut, and his great, big 
wall-eyes stand out with that life-like glare so characteristic of 
the fish.” 

Similar to the wall-eye, but much smaller and more trans- 
lucent in color, is the sauger, or sand-pike, of the Great Lakes and 


Fic. 410.—Sauger, Stizostedion canadense (Smith). Ecorse, Mich 


Northern rivers, Stizostedion canadense. This fish rarely exceeds 
fifteen inches in length, and as a food-fish it is of correspond- 
ingly less importance. 

The pike-perch, or zander, of central Europe, Centropomus 
(or Sandrus) lucioperca, is an excellent game-fish, similar to 


Se 
Fic. 411.—The Aspron, Aspro asper (Linnwus). Rhone River. Family Percide. 
(After Seelye.) 


the sauger, but larger, characterized technically by having the 
ventral fins closer together. Another species, Centropomus vol- 
gensis, in Russia, looks more like a perch than the other species 
do. Sandroserrus, a fossil pike-perch, occurs in the Pliocene. 
Another European fish related to the perch is the river ruff, 
or pope, Acerina cernua, which is a small fish with the 
form of a perch and with conspicuous mucous cavities in 
the skull. It is common throughout the north of Europe 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes §25 


and especially abundant at the confluence of rivers. Gymno- 
cephalus schretzer of the Danube has the head still more cav- 
ernous. Percarina demidoffi of southern Russia is another 
dainty little fish of the general type of the perch. A fossil 
genus of this type called Smerdis is numerously represented in 
the Miocene and later rocks. The aspron, Aspro asper, is 
a species like a darter found lying on the bottoms of swift rivers, 
especially the Rhone. The body is elongate, with the paired 
fins highly developed. Zingel zingel is found in the Danube, 
as is also a third species called Aspro streber. In form and 
coloration these species greatly resemble the American darters, 
and the genus Zingel is, perhaps, the ancestor of the entire 
group. Ztngel differs from Perctna mainly in having seven 
instead of six branchiostegals and the pseudobranchie better 


Fic. 412.,—The Zingel, Zingel zingel (Linneus). Danube River. (After Seelye.) 


developed. The differences in these and other regards which 
distinguish the darters are features of degradation, and they 
are also no doubt of relatively recent acquisition. To this 
fact we may ascribe the difficulty in finding good generic char- 
acters within the group. Sharply defined genera occur where 
the intervening types are lost. The darter is one of the very 
latest products in the evolution of fishes. 

The Darters: Etheostomine.— Of the darters, or etheosto- 
mine perches, over fifty species are known, all confined to the 
streams of the region bounded by Quebec, Assiniboia, Colo- 
rado, and Nuevo Leon. All are small fishes and some of them 
minute, and some are the most brilliantly colored of all fresh- 
water fishes of any region, the most ornate belonging to the 
large genus called Etheostoma. The largest species, the most 
primitive because most like the perch, belong to the genus Perctna, 


526 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


First among the darters because largest in size, most perch- 
like in structure, and least degenerate, we place the king darter, 
Percina rex of the Roanoke River in Virginia. This species 
reaches a length of six inches, is handsomely colored, and looks 
like a young wall-eye. 

The log-perch, Percina caprodes, is near to this, but a little 
smaller, with the body surrounded by black rings alternately 


Fig. 413,—Log-perch, Percina caprodes (Rafinesque). icking Co., Ohio. 


large and small. In this widely distributed species, large 
enough to take the hook, the air-bladder is present although 
small. In the smaller species it vanishes by degrees, and in 
proportion as in their habits they cling to the bottom of the 
stream. 

The genus Hadropterus includes many handsome species, 
most of them with a black lateral band widened at intervals. 


Fic. 414.—Black-sided Darter, Hadropterus aspro (Cope & Jordan). 
Chickamauga River. 
The black-sided darter, Hadropterus aspro, is the best-known 
species and one of the most elegant of all fishes, abounding in 
the clear gravelly streams of the Ohio basin and northwestward. 
Hadropterus evides of the Ohio region is still more brilliant, 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 527 


with alternate bands of dark blue-green and orange-red, most 
exquisite in their arrangement. In the South, Hadropterus 
nigrofasctatus, the crawl-a-bottom of the Georgia rivers, is 
a heavily built darter, which Vaillant has considered the ances- 
tral species of the group. Still more swift in movement and 
bright in color are the species of Hypohomus, which flash their 
showy hues in the sparkling brooks of the Ozark and the Great 
Smoky Mountains. Hypohomus aurantiacus is the best-known 
species. 

Diplesion blennioides, the green-sided darter, is the type 
of numerous species with short heads, large fins, and coloration 


Fig. 415 —Green-sided Darter Diplesion blennioides Rafinesque Clinch River. 
Family Percide. : 
of speckled green and golden. It abounds in the streams of 
the Ohio Valley. 
The tessellated darters, Boleosoma, are the most plainly 
colored of the group and among the smallest; yet in the 


es 


oe 
La 


Fic. 416.—Tessellated Darter, Boleosoma olmstedi (Storer). Potomac River. 


delicacy, wariness, and quaintness of motion they are among 
the most interesting, especially in the aquarium. Boleosoma 


528 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


nigrum, the Johnny darter in the West, and Boleosoma olmstedi 
in the East are among the commonest species, found half hid- 
den in the weeds of small brooks, and showing no bright colors, 
although the male in the spring has the head, and often the 
whole body, jet black. 

Crystallaria asprella, a large species almost transparent, 
is occasionally taken in swift currents along the limestone 


Fic. 417.—Crystal Darter, Crystallaria asprella (Jordan). Wabash River. 


banks of the Mississippi. Still more transparent is the small 
sand-darter, Ammocrypta pellucida, which lives in the clearest 
of waters, concealing itself by plunging into the sand. Its 
scales are scantily developed, as befits a fish that chooses this 


Fie, 418. —Sand-darter, Ammocrypta clara (Jordan & Meek). Des Moines River. 


method of protection, and in the related Ammocrypta beant of 
the streams of the Louisiana pine-woods, the body is almost 
naked, as also in Joa vitrea, the glassy darter of the pine-woods 
of North Carolina. 

In the other darters the body is more compressed, the move- 
ments less active, the coloration even more brilliant in the 
males, which are far more showy than their dull olivaceous 
mates. 

To Etheostoma nearly half of the species belong, and they 


Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 529 


form indeed a royal series of little fishes. Only a few can be 
noticed here, but all of them are described in detail and many 


Fic. 419.—Etheostoma jordani Gilbert. Chestnut Creek, Verbena, Ala. 


are figured by Jordan and Evermann (‘Fishes of North and 
Middle America,”’ Vol. I). 

Most beautiful of all fresh-water fishes is the blue-breasted 
darter, Etheostoma camurum, red-blue and olive, with red spots, 


fh 
RSS ; 
RSLS HA eee 


Fic. 420.—Blue-breasted Darter, Etheostoma camurum (Cope),the most brilliantly 
colored of American river fishes. Cumberland Gap, Tenn. 


like a trout. This species lives in clear streams of the Ohio 
valley, a region perhaps to be regarded as the center of abun- 
dance of these fishes. 

Very similar is the trout-spotted darter, Etheostoma macu- 
latum, dusky and red, with round crimson spots. Etheostoma 
rufilineatum of the French Broad is one of the most gaudy of 
fishes. Etheostoma australe of Chihuahua ranges farthest south 
of all the darters, and Etheostoma boreale of Quebec perhaps 
farthest north, though Etheostoma iowe, found from Iowa to the 
Saskatchewan, may dispute this honor. Etheostoma ceruleum, 


530 Percoidea, or Perch-like Fishes 


the rainbow darter or soldier-fish, with alternate oblique bands 
of blue and scarlet, is doubtless the most familiar of the bril- 
liantly colored species, as it is the most abundant throughout 
the Ohio valley. 

Etheostoma flabellare, the fan-tailed darter, discovered by 
Rafinesque in Kentucky in 1817, was the first species of the series 
made known to science. It has no bright colors, but its move- 
ments in water are more active than any of the others, and it 
is the most hardy in the aquarium. 

Psychromaster tuscumbia abounds in the great limestone 
springs of northern Alabama, while Copelandellus quiescens 
swarms in the black-water brooks which flow into the Dismal 
Swamp and thence southward to the Suwanee. It is a little fish 
not very active, its range going farther into the southern lowlands 
than any other. Finally, Microperca punctulata, the least darter, 
is the smallest of all, with fewest spines and dullest coiurs, must 
specialized in the sense of being least primitive, but at the same 
time the most degraded of all the darters. 

No fossil forms nearly allied to the darters are on record. 
The nearest is perhaps Mioplosus labracoides from the Eocene at 
Green River, Wyoming. This elongate fish, a foot long, has 
the dorsal rays IX-1, 13, and the anal rays II, 13, its scales 
finely serrated, and the preopercle coarsely serrated on the 
lower limb only. This species, with its numerous congeners 
from the Rocky Mountain Eocene, is nearer the true perch 
than the darters. Several species related to Perca are also 
recorded from the Eocene of England and Germany. A species 
called Luctoperca skorpili, allied to Centropomus, is described from 
the Oligocene of Bulgaria, besides several other forms imper- 
fectly preserved, of still more doubtful affinities. 


CHAPTER XXXIV 


THE BASS AND THEIR RELATIVES 


Cardinal-fishes. Apogonide.—The A pogontde or car- 
dinal-fishes are perch-like fishes, mostly of small size, 
a with two distinct short dorsal fins. They are found in 
the warm seas, and many of them enter rivers, some even in- 
habiting hot springs. Many of the shore species are bright red 
in color, usually with black stripes, bands, or spots. Still others, 
however, are olive or silvery, and a few in deeper water are 
violet-black. 

The species of Apogon are especially numerous, and in 
regions where they are abundant, as in Japan, they are much 


Fie. 421.—Cardinal-fish, Apogon retrosella Gill. Mazatlan. 


valued as food. Apogon imberbis, the ‘king of the mullet,’ is 
a common red species of southern Europe. Apogon maculatus 
is found in the West Indies. Apogon retrosella is the pretty 


“cardenal” of the west coast of Mexico. Apogon lineatus, 
531 


532 The Bass and their Relatives 


semilineatus and other species abound in Japan, and many 
species occur about the islands of Polynesia. Epzgonus tele- 
scopium is a deep-sea fish of the Mediterranean and Telescoptas 
and Synagrops are genera of the depths of the Pacific. Pa- 
ramta with strong canines is allied to Apogon, and similar in color 
and habit. 

Allied to Apogon are several small groups often taken as 
distinct families. ~ The species of Ambassis (Ambasside) are 
little fishes of the rivers and bays of India and Polynesia, 
resembling small silvery perch or bass. All these have three 
anal spines instead of two as in Apogon. Some of these enter 
rivers and several are recorded from hot springs. Scombrops 
boops, the mutsu of Japan, is a valued food-fish found in rather 
deep water. It is remarkable for its very strong teeth, although 
its flesh is feeble and easily torn. A still larger species in Cuba, 
Scombrops oculata, known as Escolar chino, resembles a barra- 
cuda. These fishes with fragile bodies and very strong teeth 
are placed by Gill in a separate family (Scombropide). Acro- 
poma japonicum is a neat little fish of the Japanese coast, with 
the vent placed farther forward than in Apogon. It is the 
type of the Acropomide, a small family of the Pacific. Eno- 
plosus armatus is an Australian fish with high back and fins, 
with a rather stately appearance, type of the Enoploside. In 
his last catalogue of families of fishes Dr. Gill recognizes Scom- 
bropide and Acropomide as distinct families, but their relation- 
ships with Apogon are certainly very close. Many genera 
allied to Apogon and Ambassis occur in Australian rivers. 
Several fossils referred to Apogon (Apogon spinosus, etc.) occur 
in the Eocene of Italy and Germany. 

The Anomalopide.—The family of Anomalopide is a small 
group of deep-sea fishes of uncertain relationship, but per- 
haps remotely related to Apogon. Anomalops palpebrata is 
found in Polynesia and has beneath the eye a large luminous 
organ unlike anything seen elsewhere among fishes. 

The Asineopide.— Another family of doubtful relationship 
is that of Astneopide, elsewhere noticed. It is composed of 
extinct fresh-water fishes found in the Green River shales. In 
Asineops squamifrons the opercles are unarmed, the teeth 
villiform, and the dorsal fin undivided, composed of eight or 


— sa 


The Bass and their Relatives 533 


nine spines and twelve to fourteen soft rays. The anal spines, 
as in Apogon, are two only, and the scales are cycloid. 


Fic. 422.—A pogon semilineatus Schlegel. Misaki, Japan. 


The Robalos:* Oxylabracide.— The family of Robalos (Oxy- 
labracide or Centropomide) is closely related to the Serranide, 
differing among other things in having the conspicuous lateral 
line extended on the caudal fin. These are silvery fishes with 


Fic. 423.—Robalo, Oxylabrax undecimalis (Bloch). Florida. 


elongate bodies, large scales, a pike-like appearance, the first 
dorsal composed of strong spines and the second spine of the 


* The European zander is the type of Lacépéde’s genus Centropomus. 
The name Centropomus has been wrongly transferred to the robalo by most 
authors. 


534 The Bass and their Relatives 


anal especially large. They are found in tropical America 
only, where they are highly valued as food, the flesh being 
like that of the striped bass, white, flaky, and of fine flavor. 
The common robalo, or snook, Oxylabrax (or Centropomus) un- 
decimalis, reaches a weight of fifteen to twenty pounds. It 
ranges north as far as Texas. In this species the lateral line 
is black. The smaller species, of which several are described, 
are known as Robalito or Constantino. 

The Sea-bass: Serranide.—The central family of the percoid 
fishes is that of the Serranide, or sea-bass. Of “these about 
400 species are recorded, carnivorous fishes found imall warm 
seas, a few ascending the fresh waters. In general, the species 
are characterized by the presence of twenty-four vertebrae and 
three anal spines, never more than three. The f#ésh-water 
species are all more or less archaic and show traits suggesting 
the Oxylabracide, Percide, or Centrarchide, all of which are 
doubtless derived from ancestors of Serranide. Among the 
connecting forms are the perch-like genera Percichthys and 
Percilia of the rivers of Chile. These species look much like 
perch, but have three anal spines, the number of vertebrae 
being thirty-five. Percichthys trucha is the common, trucha, or 
trout, of Chilean waters. 

Lateolabrax japonicus, the susuki, or bass, of Japan, is one 
of the most valued food-fishes of the Orient, similar in quality to 
the robalo, which it much resembles. This genus and the 
East Indian Centrogenys waigiensis approach Oxylabrax in 
appearance and structure. Niphon spinosus, the ara of Japan, 
is a very large sea-bass, also of this type. Close to these bass, 
marine and fresh water, are the Chinese genus Siniperca and 
the Korean genus Coreoperca, several species of which abound 
in Oriental rivers. In southern Japan is the rare Bryttosus 
kawamebart, a bass in structure, but very closely resembling 
the American sunfish, even to the presence of the bright-edged 
black ear-spot. There is reason to believe that from some 
such form the Centrarchide were derived. 

Other bass-like fishes occur in Egypt (Lates), Australia 
(Percalates, etc.), and southern Africa. Oligorus macquariensis 
is the great cod of the Australian rivers and Ctenolates ambiguus 
is the yellow belly, while Percalates colonorum is everywhere 


The Bass and their Relatives 535 


the “perch” in Australian rivers. The most important mem- 
ber of these transitional types between perch and sea-bass is 
the striped bass, or rockfish (Roccus lineatus), of the Atlantic 
coast of the United States. This large fish, reaching in extreme 
cases a weight of 112 pounds, lives in shallow waters in the sea 
and ascends the rivers in spring to spawn. It is olivaceous in 
color, the sides golden silvery, with narrow black stripes. About 
1880 it was introduced by the United States Fish Commission 
into the Sacramento, where it is now very abundant and a 
fish of large commercial importance. To the angler the 
striped bass is always “a gallant fish and a bold biter,” and 
Genio Scott places it first among the game-fishes of America. 

The white bass (Roccus chrysops) is very similar to it, but 
shorter and more compressed, reaching a smaller size. This 
fish is abundant in the Great Lakes and the upper Mississippi 
as far south as Arkansas. 

The yellow bass (Morone interrupta), a coarser and more 
brassy fish, replaces it farther south. It is seldom seen above 
Cincinnati and St. Louis. The white perch (Morone amert- 
cana) is a little fish of the Atlantic seaboard, entering the sea, 
but running up all the rivers, remaining contentedly land- 
locked in ponds. It is one of the most characteristic fishes 
of the coast from Nova Scotia to Virginia. It is a good pan 
fish, takes the hook vigorously, and in a modest way deserves 
the good-will of the angler who cannot stray far into the moun- 
tains. Very close to these American bass is the bass, bars, or 
robalo, of southern Europe, Dicentrarchus labrax, a large olive- 
colored fish, excellent as food, living in the sea about the mouths 
of rivers. 

The Jewfishes.—In the warm seas are certain bass of immense 
size, reaching a length of six feet or more, and being robust 
in form, a weight of 500 or 600 pounds. These are dusky 
green in color, thick-headed, rough-scaled, with low fins, vora- 
cious disposition, and sluggish movements. In almost all 
parts of the world these great bass are called jewfish, but 
no reason for this name has ever been suggested. In 
habit and value the species are much alike, and the jewfish 
of California, Stereolepis gigas, the prize of the Santa Catalina 
anglers, may be taken as the type of them all. Closely related 


g£$ 
(Cazis yeinqyen 


jjey ouo "MU Ad Aq Oy] WOd]) “I 1) DUDIWIUD 9U0L0 [YT ‘Vad AYM— PHF OL 


The Bass and their Relatives 37 
to this is the Japanese ishinagi, Megaperca ischinagi, the jew- 
fish, or stone-bass, of Japan. Another Japanese jewfish is the 
Abura bodzu, or “fat priest,’’ Ebisus sagamius. In the West 
Indies, as also on the west coast of Mexico, the jewfish, or guasa, 
is Promicrops ttatara. The black grouper, Garrupa nigrita, 
is the jewfish of Florida. The European jewfish, more often 
called wreckfish, or stone-bass, is Polyprion americanus, and 
the equally large Polyprion oxygenetos is found in Australia, 
as is also another jewfish, Glaucosoma hebraicum, the last 
belonging to the Lutianide. Largest of all these jewfishes is 
Promicrops lanceolata of the South Pacific. This huge bass, 


Wn 


Fic. 425.—Florida Jewfish, Promicrops itaiara (Lichtenstein). 
St. John’s River, Fla. 


according to Dr. Boulenger, sometimes reaches a length of 
twelve feet. 

Related to the jewfishes are numerous smaller fishes. One 
of these, the Spanish-flag of Cuba, Gomoplectrus hispanius, is 
rose-colored, with golden bands like the flag of Spain itself. 
Other species referred to Acanthistius and Plectropoma have, 
like this, hooked spines on the lower border of the preopercle. 

The Groupers.—In all warm seas abound species of Epine plielus 
and related genera, known as sea-bass, groupers, or merous. 
They are mostly large voracious fishes with small scales, pale 
flesh of fair quality, and from their abundance they are of large 
commercial importance. To English-speaking people these fishes 
are usually known as grouper, a corruption of the Portuguese 
mame garrupa. In the West Indies and about Panama there 
are very many species, and still others abound in the Mediter- 


538 The Bass and their Relatives 


ranean, in southern Japan, and throughout Polynesia and 
the West Indies. They have very much in common, but differ 
in size and color, some being bright red, some gaudily spotted 
with red or blue, but most of them are merely mottled green 
or brown. In many cases individuals living near shore are 
olivaceous, and those of the same species in the depths are 
bright crimson or scarlet. We name below a few of the most 
prominent species. Even a bare list of all of them would take 


Fic. 426.—Epinephelus striatus (Bloch), Nassau Grouper: Cherna criolla. 
Family Serranide. 
many pages. Cephalopholis cruentatus, the red hind of the 
Florida Keys, is one of the smallest and brightest of all of them. 
Cephalopholis fulvus, the blue-spotted guativere of the Cubans, 
is called negro-fish, butter-fish, yellow-fish, or redfish, accord- 
ing to its color, which varies with the depth. It is red, yellow, 
or olive, with many round blue spots. Epinephelus adscen- 
scionis, the rock-hind, is spotted everywhere with orange. 
Epinephelus guaza is the merou, or giant-bass, of Europe, a 
large food-fish of value, rather dullin color. Epinephelus striatus 
is the Nassau grouper, or Cherna criolla, common in the West 
Indies. Epinephelus maculosus is the cabrilla of Cuba. Epi- 
nephelus drummond-hayi, the speckled hind, umber brown, spotted 
with lavender, is one of the handsomest of all the groupers. 
Epinephelus morio, the red grouper, is the commonest of all 
these fishes in the American markets. In Asia the species 
are equally numerous, Epinephelus quernus of Hawaii and the 
red [Epinephelus fasciatus of Japan and southward being food- 


The Bass and their Relatives 539 


fishes. of importance. Epinephelus merra, Epinephelus gilberti, 
and Epinephelus tauvina are among the more common spe- 
cies of Polynesia. Epinephelus corallicola, a species profusely 


Fie. 427.—John Paw or Speckled Hind, Epinephelus drummond-hayi Goode 
Pensacola. 

spotted, abounds in the crevices of corai reefs, while Cepl- 

olopholis argus and C. leopardus are showy fishes of the deeper 

channels. Mycteroperca venenosa, the yellow-finned grouper, 

is a large and handsome fish of the coast of Cuba, the flesh 

sometimes poisonous; when red in deep water it is known as 


Fic. 428—Epinephelus morio (Cuvier & Valenciennes), Red Grouper, or Mero. 
Family Serranide 


the bonaci cardenal. Mycteroperca bonaci; the bonaci arara 
sells in our markets as black grouper. Mvycteroperca microlepis 


_ 


ots 


(Cuuruoagy 1ai}y) 


‘Ody OMoN *(JaVqSQ) sruorsuUaIspd SN} nydaud 7 ‘puryy Pey— ber “OUT 


The Bass and their Relatives 541 


is commonest along our South Atlantic coast, not reaching 
the West Indies, and Mycteroperca rubra, which is never red, 
enters the Mediterranean. Mycteroperca falcata is known in 
the markets as scamp, and Mycteroperca venadorum is a giant 
species from the Venados Islands, near Mazatlan. Diploprion 
bifasciatus is a handsome grouper-like fish with two black 
cross-bands, found in Japan and India. Variola louti, red, 
with crimson spots and a forked caudal fin, is one of the most 
showy fishes of the equatorial Pacific. 


Fie. 480.—Yellow-fin Grouper, Mycteroperca venenosa (Linneus). Havana. 


The small fishes called Vaca in Cuba belong to the genus 
_Hypoplectrus. Their extraordinary and unexplained variations 
in color have been noticed on page 88. The common species— 
blue, orange, green, plain, striated, checkered, or striped— 
bears the name of Hypoplectrus unicolor (Fig. 431). 

The Serranos.—In all the species known as jewfish and 
grouper, as also in the Oxylabracide and most Centrarchide, 
the maxillary bone is divided by a lengthwise suture which 
sets off a distinct supplemental maxillary. This bone is want- 
ing in the remaining species of Serranide, as it is also in those 
forms already noticed which are familiarly known as bass. 
The species without the supplemental maxillary are in general 
smaller in size, the canines are on the sides of the jaws instead 
of in front, and there is none of the hinged depressible teeth 
which are conspicuous in the groupers. The species are abundant 
in the Atlantic, but scarcely any are found in Polynesia, and 
few in Japan or India. 


542 The Bass and their Relatives 


Serranus cabrilla is the Cabrilla of the Mediterranean, a 
well-known and excellent food-fish, the original type of the 
family of Serranide. Serranellus scriba is the serran, a very 
pretty shore-fish of southern Europe, longer known than any 
other of the tribe. On the coast of southern California are 
also species called Cabrillas, fine, large, food-fish, bass-like in 
form, Paralabrax clathratus, and other less common species. 
The Cabrillas and their relatives are almost all American, a 
few straying across to Europe. One of the most important 
in the number is the black sea-bass, or black will, of our Atlantic 


Fic. 481 —Hypoplectrus unicolor nigricans (Poey). Tortugas, Fla. 


coast, Centropristes striatus. This is a common food- and 
game-fish, dusky in color, gamy, and of fine flesh. The squirrel- 
fishes (Diplectrum) and the many serranos (Prionodes) of the 
tropics, small bright-colored fishes of the rocks and reefs, must 
be passed with a word, as also the small Paracentropristis of 
the Mediterranean and the fine red creole-fish of the West 
Indies, Paranthias furcifer. In one species, Anyperodon leuco- 
grammicus of Polynesia, there are no teeth on the palatines. 
The barber-fish (Anthias anthias) of southern Europe, bright 
red and with the lateral line running very high, is the type of 
a numerous group found at the lowest fishing level in all warm 
seas. All the species of this group are bright red, very hand- 


eS Oe ee 
le ak ee 


ta ee 
2 


& Val.). Natural size: young. 


niveatus (Cuv. 


lus 
raph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt.) 


Epi 


(Photo 


Snowy Grouper, 


3 


54 


544 The Bass and their Relatives 


some, and excellent as food. Hemzianthias vivanus, known 
only from the spewings of the red snapper (Lutianus aya) at 
Pensacola, is one of the most brilliant species, red, with golden 
streaks. The genus Plesiops consists of small fishes almost 
black in color, with blue spots and other markings, abounding 
about the coral reefs. In this genus the lateral line is inter- 
rupted and there is some indication of affinity with the Opzs- 
thognathide. 

In the soapfishes (Rypticus) the supplemental maxillary 
appears again, but in these forms the dorsal fin is reduced to 
two or three spines and there is none in the anal. Rypticus 
saponaceus, so called from the smooth or soapy scales, is the 


Fia. 433.—Soapiish, Ryplicus bistrispinus (Mitchill). Virginia. 


best known of the numerous species, which all belong to trop- 
ical America. Grammtstes, with eight dorsal spines, is a related 
form in Polynesia, bright yellow, with numerous black stripes. 
Numerous species referred to the Serrantde occur in the Eocene 
and Miocene rocks. Some are related to Epinephelus, others to 
Roccus and Lates. In the Tertiary lignite of Brazil is a species 
of Percichthys, Percichthys antaquus, with Properca beaumont, 
which seem to be a primitive form of the bass, allied to 
Dicentrarchus. Prolates heberti of the Cretaceous, one of the 
earliest of the series, has the caudal rounded and is apparently 
allied to Lates, as is also the heavily armed Acanus regley- 
stanus of the Oligocene. Smerdis minutus, a small fish from the 
Oligocene, is also related to Lates, which genus with Koccus and 
Dicentrarchus must represent the most primitive of existing 
members of this family. Of both Smerdis and Dutcentrarchus 
(Labrax) numerous species are recorded, mostly from the Mio- 
cene of Europe. 


1 ARCHAMIA LINEOLATA (EHRENBERG) 


2 


GRAMMISTES SEXLINEATUS (THUNBERG 
3 PHAROPTERYX MELAS (BLEEKER) 


PERCH-LIKE FISHES OF THE CORAI, REEFS. SAMOA 


—— 


The Bass and their Relatives 545 


The Flashers: Lobotide.—The small family of Lobotide, flash- 
ers, or triple-tails, closely resembles the Serranide, but there 


Fic. 434—Flasher, Lobotes surinamensis (Bloch). Virginia. 


are no teeth on vomer or palatines. The three species are 
robust fishes, of a large size, of a dark-green color, the front 
part of the head very short. They reach a length of about 


Fic. 485 —Catalufa, Priacanthus arenatus Cuv. & Val. Woods Hole, Mass. 


three feet and are good food-fishes. Lobotes surtnamensts 
comes northward from the West Indies as far as Cape Cod. 


Shufeldt.) 


WwW. 


(From life by Dr. R. 


pecimen. 


Young s 


Bigeye, Pseudopriacanthus altus Gill. 


436 


Vic. 


The Bass and their Relatives 547 
Lobotes pacificus is found about Panama. Lobotes erate, com- 
mon in India, was taken by the writer at Misaki, Japan. 

The Bigeyes: Priacanthide.—The Catalufas or bigeyes (Pria- 
canthide) are handsome fishes of the tropics, with short, 
flattened bodies, rough scales, large eyes, and bright-red color- 
ation. The mouth is very oblique, and the anal fin about as 
large as the dorsal. The commonest species is Priacanthus 
cruentatus, widely diffused through the Pacific and also in the 
West Indies. This is the noted Aweoweo of the Hawaiians, 
which used to come into the bays in myriads at the period of 
death of royalty. It is still abundant, even after Hawaiian 
royalty has passed away. 

Pseudopriacanthus altus is a short, very deep-bodied, and 
very rough fish, scarlet in color, occasionally taken along our 
coast, driven northward by the Gulf Stream. The young fishes 
are quite unlike the adult in appearance. Numerous other 
species of Priacanthus occur in the Indies and Polynesia. 

The H'stiopteride.—Another family with strong spines and 
rough scales is the group of Histiopteride. Histiopterus typus, 
the Matodai, is found in Japan, and is remarkable for its very 
deep body and very high spines. Equally remarkable is the 
Tengudai, Histiopterus acutirostris, also Japanese, remarkable 
for the long snout and high fins. Both are rare in Japanese 
markets. All these are eccentric variations from the perch- 
like type. 

The Snappers: Lutianide.—Scarcely less numerous and varied 
than the sea-bass is the great family of Lutsantde@, known 
in America as snappers or pargos. In these fishes the maxillary 
slips along its edge into a sheath formed by the broad preor- 
bital. In the Serranide there is no such sheath. In the Lutt- 
amide there is no supplemental maxillary, teeth are present 
on the vomer and palatines, and in the jaws there are distinct 
canines. These fishes of the warm seas are all carnivorous, 
voracious, gamy, excellent as food though seldom of fine grain, 
the flesh being white and not flaky. About 250 species are 
known, and in all warm seas they are abundant. 

To the great genus Lutianus most of the species belong. These 
are the snappers of our markets and the pargos of the Spanish- 
speaking fishermen. The shore species are green in color, mostly 


a oo 


gbs 


( 3 
0 | J ) . . 
U yl ae i 
UUBULIOA 19yyV oon of | 7 at Ig v Ar) 


“SD. 


The Bass and their Relatives 549 


banded, spotted, or streaked. In deeper water bright-red_spe- 
cies are found. One of these, Lutianus aya, the red snapper or 
pargo guachinango of the Gulf of Mexico, is, economically 
speaking, the most important of all these fishes in the United 
States. It is a large, rather coarse fish, bright red in color, 
and it is taken on long lines on rocky reefs chiefly about Pen- 
sacola and Tampa in Florida, although similar fisheries exist 
on the shores of Yucatan and Brazil. 

A related species is the Lutianus analis, the mutton snapper 
or pargo criollo of the West Indies. This is one of the staple 


Fic. 488.—Lutianus apodus (Walbaum), Schoolmaster or Cajf. Family Lutianide. 


fishes of the Havana market, always in demand for banquets 
and festivals, because its flesh is never unwholesome. The 
mangrove snapper, or gray-snapper, Lutianus griseus, called 
in Cuba, Caballerote, is the commonest species on our coasts. 
The common name arises from the fact that the young hide 
in the mangrove bushes of Florida and Cuba, whence they sally 
out in pursuit of sardines and other small fishes. It is a very 
wary fish, to be sought with care, hence the name “lawyer,” 
sometimes heard in Florida. The cubero (Lutianus cyanop- 
terus) is a very large snapper, often rejected as unwholesome, 
being said to cause the disease known as ciguatera. Certain 
snappers in Polynesia have a similar reputation. The large red 
mumea, Lutianus bohar, is regarded as always poisonous in 
Samoa—the most dangerous fish of the islands. L. letoglossus is 


550 The Bass and their Relatives 


also held under suspicion on Tutuila, though other fishes of 
this type are regarded as always safe. Other common snappers 


\ > , 
Fic. 439.—Hoplopagrus guntheri Gill. Mazatlan. 
of Florida and Cuba are the dog snapper or joct (Lutianus joci), 


the schoolmaster or caji (Lutianus apodus), the black-fin snapper 
or sese de lo alto (Lutianus buccanella), the silk snapper or 


Fie. 440.—Lane Snapper or Biajaiba, Lutianus synagris (Linneus). Key West. 


pargo de lo alto (Lutianus vivanus), the abundant lane snapper 
or biajaiba (Lutianus synagris), and the mahogany snapper 


The Bass and their Relatives Gat 


or ojanco (Lutianus mahogant). Numerous other species occur 
on both coasts of tropical America, and a vastly larger assem- 
blage is found in the East Indies, some of them ranging north- 
ward to Japan. 

Hoplopagrus gzinthert is a large snapper of the west coast 
of Mexico, having very large molar teeth in its jaws besides slit- 


Fie. 441.—Yellow-tail Snapper, Ocyurus chrysurus (Linneus). Key West. 


like nostrils and other notable peculiarities. From the stand- 
point of structure this species, with its eccentric characters— 
is especially interesting. The yellow-tail snapper or rabirubia 
(Ocyurus chrysurus) is a handsome and common fish of the 


Fic. 442.—Cachucho, Ffelis oculatus (Linnzus). Havana. 


West Indies, with long, deeply forked tail, which makes it a 
swifter fish than the others. Another red species is the dia- 
mond snapper or cagon de lo alto, Rhomboplites aurorubens. 
All. these true snappers have the soft fins more or less scaly. 


552 The Bass and their Relatives 


In certain species that swim more freely in deep waters, these 
fins are naked. Among them is the Arnillo, Apsilus dentatus, 
a pretty brown fish of the West Indies, and its analogue in 
Hawaii, Apsilus brighamz, red, with golden cross-bands. Aprion 
virescens, the Uku of Hawaii, is a large fish of a greenish color 
and elongate body, widely diffused throughout Polynesia and 
one of the best of food-fishes. A related species is the red 
voraz (Aprion macrophthalmus) of the West Indies. 

Most beautiful of all the group are the species of Etelis, 
with the dorsal fin deeply divided and the head flattened above. 
These live in rather deep water about rocky reefs and are fiery 
red in color. Best known is the Cuban species, Etelis oculatus, 
the cachucho of the markets. Equally abundant and equally 


Fig. 443 —Nenocys jessie Jordan & Bollman. Family Lutianide. 
Galapagos Islands. 


beautiful are Etelis carbunculus of Polynesia, Etelis evurus of 
Hawaii, and other species of the Pacific islands. 

Verilus sordidus, the black escolar of Cuba, has the form 
of Etelis, but the flesh is very soft and the color violet-black, 
indicating its life in very deep water. Numerous small silvery 
snappers living near the shore along the coast of western Mexico 
belong to the genera called Xenichthys, Xenistius, and Xenocys. 
Xenistius californiensis is the commonest of these species, 
Xenocys jessie, the largest in size, with black lines like a striped 
bass. To the genus Dentex belongs a large snapper-like fish of 


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Fia. 444—Aphareus furcatus (Lacépéde). Odawara, Japan. Family Lut 


553 


554 The Bass and their Relatives 


the Mediterranean, Dentex dentex. Very many related species 
occur in the old world, the prettily colored Nemipterus virgatus, 
the Jtoyort of Japan being one of the best known. Another 
interesting fish is Aphareus furcatus, a handsome, swift fish of 
the open seas occasionally taken in Japan and the East Indies. 
Glaucosoma burgerit is a large snapper of Japan, and a related 
species, Glaucosoma hebraicum, is one of the “‘jewfishes”’ of 
Australia. Numerous fossil forms referred to Dentex occur in 
the Eocene of Monte Bolca, as also a fish called Ctenodentex 
lackeniensis from the Eocene of Belgium. 

The Grunts: Haemulide.— The large family of Hemulide, 
known in America as grunters or roncos, is represented with the 


PTA 
LL 
ae, 2 
SAL EY 


‘ 


Fie. 445.—Grunt, Hamulon plumieri (Bloch). Charleston, 8. C. 


snappers in all tropical seas. The common names (Spanish, 
roncar, to grunt or snore) refer to the noise made either with 
their large pharyngeal teeth or with the complex air-bladder. 
These fishes differ from the Lutianine mainly in the feebler 
detention, there being no canines and no teeth on the vomer. 
Most of the American species belong to the genus Hemulon 
or red-mouth grunts, so called from the dash of scarlet at the 
corner of the mouth. Hemulon plumieri, the common grunt, or 
ronco arard, is the most abundant species, known by the 
narrow blue stripes across the head. In the yellow grunt, 
ronco amarillo (H@mulon sciurus), these stripes cross the whole 


The Bass and their Relatives bist 


body. Inthe margate-fish, or Jallao (Hemulon album), the larg- 
est of the grunts, there are no stripes at all. Another common 
grunt is the black spotted sailor’s choice, Ronco prieto (Hemulon 
parra), very abundant from Florida southward. Numerous other 
grunts and “Tom Tates”’ are found on both shores of Mexico, 
all the species of Hemulon being confined to America. Aniso- 
tremus includes numerous deep-bodied species with smaller 
mouth, also all American. Anisotremus surinamensis, the 
pompon, abundant from Louisiana southward is the commonest 
species. Antsotremus virginicus, the porkfish or Catalineta, 


Ws 
SEEREENS 


Fia. 446.—Porkfish, Anisotremus virginicus (Linnzus). Key West. 


beautifully striped with black and golden, is very common 
in the West Indies. Plectorhynchus of Polynesia and the coasts 
of Asia contains numerous large species closely resembling 
Amsotremus, but lacking the groove at the chin character- 
istic of Antsotremus and Hemulon. Some of these are striped 
or spotted with black in very gaudy fashion. Pomadasis, a 
genus equally abundant in Asia and America, contains silvery 
species of the sandy shores, with the body more elongate and 
the spines generally stronger. Pomadasts crocro is the com- 
monest West Indian species, Pomadasis hasta the best known 
of the Asiatic forms. Gnathodentex aurolineatus with golden 
stripes is common in Polynesia. . 


556 The Bass and their Relatives 


The pigfishes, Orthopristis, have the spines feebler and the 
anal fin more elongate. Of the many species, American and 
Mediterranean, Orthopristis chrysopterus is most familiar, ranging 
northward to Long Island, and excellent as a pan fish. Para- 
pristipoma trilineatum, the Isaki of Japan, is equally abundant 
and very similar to it. Many related species belong to the 
Asiatic genera, Terapon, Scolopsis, C@sio, etc., sometimes 
placed in a distinct family as Teraponide. Terapon servus 
enters the streams of Polynesia, and is a very common fish 
of the river mouths, taken in Samoa by the boys. Terapon 
theraps is found throughout the East Indies. Terapon richard- 
sont is the Australian silver perch. Ce@sio contains numerous 
small species, elongate and brightly colored, largely blue and 
golden. Scolopsis, having a spine on the preorbital, contains 
numerous species in the East Indies and Polynesia. These are 
often handsomely colored. Among them is the taiva, Scolopsis 
trilineatus of Samoa, gray with white streaks and markings of 
delicate pattern. A fossil species in the Italian Eocene related 
to Pomadasis is Pomadasis furcatus. Another, perhaps allied 
to Terapon, is called Pelates quindecimalis. 


Fic. 447—The Red Tai of Japan) Pagrus major Schlegel. Family Sparide. 
(After Kishinouye.) 

The Porgies: Sparide.— The great family of Sparide or 

porgies is also closely related to the Hemulide. The most 

tangible difference rests in the teeth, which are stronger, and 


i ee oe eee 
biti ee 


Sc a mee 


Saline: a 


The Bass and their Relatives 557 


some of those along the side of the jaw are transformed into 
large blunt molars, fitted for grinding small crabs and shells. 
The name porgy, in Spanish pargo, comes from the Latin 
Pagrus and Greek zaypos, the name from time immemorial 
of the red porgy of the Mediterranean, Pagrus pagrus. In this 


Fic. 448.—Ebisu, the Fish-god of Japan, bearing a Red Tai 
(Sketch by Kako Morita.) 


species the front teeth are canine-like, the side teeth molar. It 
is a fine food-fish, very handsome, being crimson with blue 
spots, and in the Mediterranean it is much esteemed. It also 
breeds sparingly on our south Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 


‘ 


558 The Bass and their Relatives 


Very similar to the porgy is the famous red tai or akadai 
of Japan (Pagrus major), a fish so highly esteemed as to be, 
with the rising sun and the chrysanthemum, a sort of national 
emblem. In all prints and images the fish-god Ebisu (Fig. 448), 
beloved of the Japanese people, appears with a red tai under his 
arm. This species, everywhere abundant, is crimson in color, and 
the flesh is always tender and excellent. A similar species is 


Fic. 449.—Scup, Stenotomus chrysops (Linneus). Woods Hole, Mass. 


the well-known and abundant “schnapper”’ of Australia, Pagrus 
unicolor. Another but smaller tai or porgy, crimson, sprinkled 
with blue spots, Pagrus cardinalis, occurs in Japan in great 
abundance, as also two species similar in character but without 
red, known as Kuroda or black tai. These are Sparus latus 
and Sparus berda. The gilt-head of the Mediterranean, Sparus 
aurata, is very similar to these Japanese species. Sparus sarba 
in Australia is the tarwhine, and Sparus australis the black 
bream. The numerous species of Pagellus abound in the Medi- 
terranean. These are smaller in size than the species of Pagrus, 
red in color and with feebler teeth. Monotaxis grandoculis, 
known as the “mu,” is a widely diffused and valuable food-fish 
of the Pacific islands, greenish in color, with pale cross-bands. 
Very closely related is also the American scup or fair maid 
(Stenotomus chrysops), one of our commonest pan fishes. In 


a eh — 


ts 7 = 


i 
. 
| 
| 


The Bass and their Relatives 559 


this genus and in Calamus the second interhzmal spine is very 
greatly enlarged, its concave end formed like a quill-pen and 


Fie. 450.—Calamus bajonado (Bloch & Schneider), Jolt-head Porgy. Pez de Pluma. 
Family Sparide. 


including the posterior end of the large air-bladder. This 
arrangement presumably assists in hearing. Of the penfishes, 


Fie. 451.—Little-head Porgy, Calamus proridens Jordan & Gilbert. Key West. 


or pez de pluma, numerous species abound in tropical America, 
where they are valued as food. Of these the bajonado or 
jolt-head porgy (Calamus bajonado) is largest, most common 


560 The Bass and their Relatives 


and dullest in color. Calamus calamus is the saucer-eye porgy, 
and Calamus proridens, the little-head porgy. Calamus leucosteus 
is called white-bone porgy, and the small Calamus arctifrons 
the grass-porgy. 

The Chopa spina, or pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, is a little 
porgy with notched incisors, exceedingly common on our South 
Atlantic coast. 

In some of the porgies the front teeth instead of being canine- 
like are compressed and truncate, almost exactly like human 
incisors. These species are known as sheepshead, or sargos. 

Diplodus sargus and Diplodus annularis are common sargos of 
the Mediterranean, silvery, with a black blotch on the back of 


Fie. 452.—Diplodus holbrooki Bean. Pensacola. 


the tail. Diplodus argenteus of the West Indies and Dziplodus 
holbrooki of the Carolina coast are very close to these. — 

The sheepshead, Archosargus probatocephalus, is much the 
most valuable fish of this group. The broad body is crossed 
by about seven black cross-bands. It is common from Cape 
Cod to Texas in sandy bays, reaching rarely a weight of fifteen 
pounds. Its flesh is most excellent, rich and tender. The 
sheepshead is a quiet bottom-fish, but takes the hook readily 
and with some spirit. Close to the sheepshead is a smaller 
species known as Salema (Archosargus unimaculatus), with blue 


The Bass and their Relatives 561 


and golden stripes and a black spot at the shoulder. It abounds 
in the West Indies. . 

On the coast of Japan and throughout Polynesia are nu- 
merous: species of Lethrinus and related genera, formed and 


Fie. 453—Archosargus unimaculatus (Bloch), Salema, Striped Sheepshead. 
Family Sparide. 


colored like snappers, but with molar teeth and the cheek with- 
out scales. A common species in Japan is Lethrinus richardsont. 

Fossil species of Diplodus, Sparus, Pagrus, and Pagellus 
occur in the Italian Eocene, as also certain extinct genera, 
Sparnodus and Trigonodon, of similar type. Sparnodus macro- 
phthalmus is abundant in the Eocene of Monte Bolca. 

The Picarels: Mznidz.—The /e@nide, or Picarels, are elongate, 
gracefully formed fishes, remarkable for the extreme protrac- 
tility of the upper jaw. Sptcara smarts and several other 
small species are found in the Mediterranean. Emumelichthys 
contains species of larger size occurring in the West Indies and 
various parts of the Pacific, chiefly red and very graceful in 
form and color. Emmelichthys vittatus, the boga, is occasionally 
taken in Cuba, Erythrichthys schlegeli is found in Japan and 
Hawaii. 

The Mojarras: Gerride.— The Gerride, or Mojarras, have 
the mouth equally protractile, but the form of the body is 
different, being broad, compressed, and covered with large 


562 The Bass and their Relatives 


silvery scales. In some species the dorsal spines and the third 
anal spine are very strong, and in some the second interhemal 
is quill-shaped, including the end of the air-bladder, as in Calamus, 
Most of the species, including all the peculiar ones, are American. 
The smallest, Eucinostomus, have the quill-shaped interhemal 


Fic. 454.—Mojarra, Xystema cinereum (Walbaum). Key West. 


and the dorsal and anal spines are very weak. The commonest 
species is the silver jenny, or mojarra de Ley, Eucitnostomus 
gula, which ranges from Cape Cod to Rio Janeiro, in the surf 
along sandy shores. Equally common is Eucinostomus cali- 
forniensis of the Pacific Coast of Mexico, while Euctnostomus 
harengulus of the West Indies is also very abundant. Ulema 
lefroyt has but two anal spines and the interhemal very small. 
It is common through the West Indies. Xystema, with the 
interhemal spear-shaped and normally formed, is found in 
Asia and Polynesia more abundantly than in America, although 
one species, Xystema cinereum, the broad shad, or Mojarra 
blanca, is common on both shores of tropical America. 
Xystema gigas is found in Polynesia, X. oyena in Japan, and 
X. filamentosum in Formosa and India. Xystema massalongot 
is also fossil in the Miocene of Austria. The species of Gerres 
have very strong dorsal and anal spines and the back much 
elevated. Gerres plumiert, the striped mojarra, Gerres bra- 
siliensts, the patao, Gerres oltsthostomus, the Irish pampano, 
and Gerres rhombeus are some of the numerous species found 


The Bass and their Reeves 563 


on the Florida coast and in the West Indies. The family of 
Leiognathide, already noticed (page 502), should stand next to 
the Gerride. 


Fic. 455 —Irish Pampano, Gerres olisthostomus Goode & Bean. Indian River, Fla. 


The Rudder-fishes: Kyphoside.—The Kyphoside, called rud- 
der-fishes, have no molars, the front of the jaws being oc- 
cupied by incisors, which are often serrated, loosely attached, 


SPPVORIWN 
nyeeaeaeee 
NS 


PpLI IF: 
34 AAA ei rt Te 
Seg agvne ots 


Fic. 456—Chopa or Rudder-fish, Kyphosus sectatrix (Linneus). 
Woods Hole, Mass. 
and movable. The numerous species are found in the warm 
seas and are chiefly herbivorous. 
Boops boops and Boops salpa, known as boga and salpa, 


564 The Bass and their Relatives 


are elongate fishes common in the Mediterranean. Other Med- 
iterranean forms are Spondyliosoma cantharus, Oblata melanura, 
etc. Girella nigricans is the greenfish of California, every- 
where abundant about rocks to the south of San Francisco, 
and of considerable value as food. Almost exactly like it 
is the Mejinadai (Girella punctata) of Japan. The best-known 
members of this group belong to the genus Kyphosus. Kyphosus 
sectatrix is the rudder-fish, or Chopa blanca, common in the 
West Indies and following ships to the northward even as far 
as Cape Cod, once even taken at Palermo. It is supposed 
that it is enticed by the waste thrown overboard. Kyphosus 
elegans is found on the west coast of Mexico, Kyphosus tahmel 
in the East Indies and Polynesia, and numerous other species 
occur in tropical America and along the coasts of southern 
Asia. Sectator ocyurus is a more elongate form of rudder-fish, 
striped with bright blue and yellow, found in the Pacific. 
Medialuna californiensis is the half-moon fish, or medialuna, 
of southern California, an excellent food-fish frequently taken 
on rocky shores. Numerous related species occur in the Indian 
seas. 

Fossil fragments in Europe have been referred to Boops, 
Spondyliosoma, and other genera. 


Fie. 457.—Blue-green Sunfish, Apomotis cyanellus (Rafinesque). Kansas River. 
(After Kellogg.) 


| 


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PS eee 


CHAPTER XXXV 


THE SURMULLETS, THE CROAKERS AND THEIR 
RELATIVES 


E Surmullets, or Goatfishes: Mullide—The Mullide 
(Surmullets) are shore-fishes of the warm seas, of mod- 
a > erate size, with small mouth, large scales, and possess- 
ing the notable character of two long, unbranched barbels 
of firm substance at the chin. The dorsal fins are short, 
well separated, the first of six to eight firm spines. There 
are two anal spines and the ventral fins, thoracic, are formed 
of one spine and five rays. The flesh is white and tender, 
often of very superior flavor. The species are carnivorous, 


Fic. 458.—Red Goatfish, or Salmonete, Pseudupeneus maculatus Bloch. 
Family Mullide (Surmullets.) 


feeding chiefly on small animals. They are not voracious, 
and predaceous fishes feed freely on them. The coloration is 
generally bright, largely red or golden, in nearly all cases with 
an under layer, below the scales, of red, which appears when 
the fish is scaled or placed in alcohol. The barbels are often 
bright yellow, and when the fish swims along the bottom these 
are carried in advance, feeling the way. Testing the bottom 


565 


566 Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 


with their feelers, these fishes creep over the floor of shallow 
waters, seeking their food. 

The numerous species are all very much alike in form, and 
the current genera are separated by details of the arrangement 
of the teeth. But few are found outside the tropics. 

The surmullet or red mullet of Europe, Mullus barbatus, 
is the most famous species, placed by the Romans above all 
other fishes unless it be the scarus, Spartsoma cretense. From 
the satirical poets we learn that ‘“‘enormous prices were paid 
for a fine fish, and it was the fashion to bring the fish into the 
dining-room and exhibit it alive before the assembled guests, 
so that they might gloat over the brilliant and changing colors 
during the death-agonies.”’ It is red in life, and when the 
scales are removed, the color is much brighter. 

It is an excellent fish, tender and rich, but nowhere so extrav- 
agantly valued to-day as was formerly the case in Rome. 


Ne) A te 
PO) ORR ARDS RRR RR 
A ae 


ee ae 


~ 
Fie. 459—Golden Surmullet, Mullus auratus Jordan & Gilbert. 
Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


Mullus surmuletus is a second European species, scarcely differ- 
ent from Mullus barbatus. 

Equally excellent as food and larger in size are two Polyne- 
sian species known as kumu and munu (Pseudupeneus porphyreus 
and Pseudupeneus bifasciatus). Mullus auratus is a small sur- 
mullet occasionally taken off our Atlantic coast, but in deeper 
water than that frequented by the European species. Psew- 
dupeneus maculatus is the red goatfish or salmonete, common 
from Florida to Brazil, as is also the yellow goatfish, Pseudu- 


(SYIVOHU NOISSONAO) HSIAMVHM ‘HOOVaLaOOS 


\ 
ih 
AISARA ay 


Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 567 


peneus martinicus, equally valued. Many other species are 
found in tropical America, Polynesia, and the Indies and Japan. 
Perhaps the most notable are Upeneus vittatus, striped with 
yellow and with the caudal fin cross-barred and the belly sul- 
phur-yellow, and Upeneus arge, similar, the belly white. The 
common red and black-banded “moana” or goatfish of Hawaii 
is Pseudupeneus multifasciatus, 

No fossil Mullide are recorded, so far as known to us. 

The Croakers: Scienide.— The family of Scienide (croak- 
ers, roncadors) is another of the great groups of food-fishes. 
The species are found on every sandy shore in warm regions 
and all of them are large enough to have value as food, while 
many have flesh of superior quality. None is brightly colored, 
most of the species being nearly plain silvery. 

Special characters are the cavernous structure of the bones 
of the head, which are full of mucous tracts, the specialization 


Fie. 460.—Spotted Weakfish, Cynoscion nebulosus. Virginia. 


(and occasional absence) of the air-bladder, and the presence 
of never more than two anal spines, one of these being some- 
times very large. Most of the species are marine, all are car- 
nivorous; none inhabits rocky places and none descends to depths 
in the sea. At the least specialized extreme of the family, 
the mouth is large with strong canines and the species are 
slender, swift, and predaceous. 

The weakfish or squeteague (Cynoscion regalis) is a type 
of a multitude of species, large, swift, voracious, but with ten- 
der flesh, which is easily torn. The common weakfish, abun- 
dant on our Atlantic coast, suffers much at the hands of its 


568 Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 


enemy and associate, the bluefish. It is one of the best of all 
our food-fishes. Farther south the spotted weakfish (Cyno- 
scion nebulosus), very incorrectly known as sea-trout, takes its 
place, and about New Orleans is especially and justly prized. 
The California “bluefish,” Cynoscion parvipinnis, is very 
similar to these Atlantic species, and there are many other 
species of Cynoscion on both coasts of tropical America, form- 
ing a large part of the best fish-supply of the various markets 
of the mainland. On the rocky islands, as Cuba, and about 
coral reefs, Scienide are practically unknown. In the Gulf 
of California, the totuava, Cynoscion macdonaldi, reaches a 
weight of 172 pounds, and the stateliest of all, the great 
“white sea-bass”’ of California, Cynoscion nobilis, reaches 100 
pounds. In these large species the flesh is much more firm 
than in the weakfish and thus bears shipment better. Cynoscion 
has canines in the upper jaw only and its species are all Ameri- 
can. In the East Indies the genus Ofolithes has strong canines 
in both jaws. Its numerous species are very similar in form, 


habits, and value to those of Cynoscion. The queenfish, Seri- 


phus politus, of the California coast, is much like the others of 
this series, but smaller and with no canines at all. It is a very 
choice fish, as are also the species of Macrodon (Ancylodon) 
known as pescadillo del red, voracious fishes of both shores 
of South America. 

Plagioscion squamosissimus and numerous species of Pla- 
gioscion and other genera live in the rivers of South America. 
A single species, the river-drum, gaspergou, river sheepshead, or 
thunder-pumper (A plodinotus grunniens), is found in streams 
in North America. This is a large fish reaching a length of 
nearly three feet. It is very widely distributed, from the Great 
Lakes to Rio Usumacinta in Guatemala, whence it has been 
lately received by Dr. Evermann. This species abounds in 
lakes and sluggish rivers. The flesh 1s coarse, and in the Great 
Lakes it is rarely eaten, having a rank odor. In Louisiana and 
Texas it is, however, regarded as a good food-fish. In this 
species the lower pharyngeals are very large and firmly united, 
while, as in all other Scienide, except the genus Pogonzas, these 
bones are separated. In all members of the family the ear- 
bones or otoliths are largely developed, often finely sculptured. 


ij 


Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 569 


The otoliths of the river-drum are known to Wisconsin boys 
as “lucky-stones,” each having a rude impress of the letter o 
The names roncador, drum, thunder-pumper, croaker, and the 
like refer to the grunting noise made by most Scienide in the 
water, a noise at least connected with the large and divided 
air-bladder. 

Numerous silvery species belong to Larimus, Corvula, Odon- 
toscion, and especially to Bazrdiella, a genus in which the second 
anal spine is unusually strong. The mademoiselle, Bairdiella 


Fic. 461.—Mademoiselle, Bairdiella chrysura (Linneus). Virginia. 


chrysura is a pretty fish of our Atlantic coast, excellent as a 
pan fish. In Bairdiella ensifera of Panama the second anal 
spine is enormously large, much as in a robalo (Oxylabrax). 

In Stellifer and Nebris, the head is soft and spongy. Stelli- 
jer lanceolatus is occasionally taken off South Carolina, and 
numerous other species of this and related genera are found 
farther South. 

Scienops ocellata is the red-drum or channel bass of our 
South Atlantic coast, a most important food-fish reaching a 
weight of seventy-five pounds. It is well marked by a black 
ocellus on the base of the tail. On the coast of Texas, this 
species, locally called redfish, exceeds in economic value all other 
species found in that State. 

Pseudosciena aquila, the maigre of southern Europe, is 


570 Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 


another large fish, similar in value to the red drum. Pseudo- 
sctena antarctica is the kingfish of Australia. To Sciena belong 
many species, largely Asiatic, with the mouth inferior, without 
barbels, the teeth small, and the convex snout marked with 
mucous pores. Scienu umbra, the ombre, is the common 
European species, Sciena saturna, the black roncador of Cali- 
fornia, is much likeit. Sciena delictosa is one of the most valued 


Fic. 462.—Red Drum, Scienops ocellata Linneus. Texas. 


food-fishes of Peru, and Sciena argentata is valued in Japan. 
Species of Sct@na are especially numerous on the coasts of India. 

Roneador stearnsi, the California roncador, is a large fish with a 
black ocellus at the base of the pectoral. It has some importance 
in the Los Angeles market. The goody, spot, or lafayette (Leio- 
stomus xanthurus) is a small, finely flavored species abundant 
from Cape Cod to Texas. Similar to it but inferior is the little 
roncador (Genyonemus lineatus) of California. The common 
croaker, Micropogon undulatus, is very abundant on our Eastern 
coast, and other species known as verrugatos or white-mouthed 
drummers replace it farther South. 

In Umbrina the chin has a short thick barbel. The species 
abound in the tropics, Umbrina cirrosa in the Mediterranean; 
Umbrina coroides in California, and the handsome Umbrina 
roncador, the yellow-tailed roncador, in southern California. 
The kingfish, Menticirrhus, differs in lacking the air-bladder, 
and lying on the bottom in shallow water the lower fins are 
enlarged much as in the darters or gobies. All the species are 
American. All are dull-colored and all excellent as food. Men- 
ticirrhus saxatilis is the common kingfish or sea-mink, abundant 


Surmullets, Croakers, etc. ort 


from Cape Ann southward, Menticirrhus americanus is the 
equally common sand-whiting of Carolina, and Menticirrhus 


S 


Fig. 463.—Yeilow-fin Roneador, Umbrina sinaloew Scofield. Mazatlan. 


littoralis the surf-whiting. The California whiting or sand- 
sucker is Menticirrhus undulatus. 

Pogontas chromis, the sea-drum, has barbels on the chin and 
the lower pharyngeals are enlarged and united as in the river- 


A 
Fic. 464—Kingfish, Menticirrhus americanus (Linnzeus). Pensacola. 


drum, Aplodinotus. It is a coarse fish common on our Atlantic 
coasts, a large specimen taken at St. Augustine weighing 146 
pounds. Other species of this family, belonging to the genus 
Eques, are marked with ribbon-like stripes of black. Eques 
lanceolatus, known in Cuba as serrana, is the most ornate of these 
species, looking like a butterfly-fish or Cheetodon. 

Several fossil fragments have been doubtfully referred to 
Sciena, Umbrina, Pogonias, and other genera. Otoliths or 


572 Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 


ear-bones not clearly identifiable are found from the Miocene 
on. These structures are more highly specialized in this group 
than in any other. 


Fic. 465—Drum, Pogonias chromis (Linneus). Matanzas, Fla. 


The Sillaginide, etc.—Allied to the Scienid@ is the small family 
of Kisugos, Stllaginide, of the coasts of Asia. These are slender, 
cylindrical fishes, silvery in color, with a general resemblance 
to small Scienas. 

Sillago japonicus, the kisugo of Japan, is a very abundant 
species, valued as food. Sillago sthama ranges from Japan to 
Abyssinia. 

A number of small families, mostly Asiatic, may be appended 
to the percoid series, with which they agree in general characters, 
especially in the normal structure of the shoulder-girdle and 
in the insertion of the pectoral and ventral fins. 

The Lactaritde constitute a small family of the East Indies, 
allied to the Scienide, but with three anal spines. The mouth 
is armed with strong teeth. Lactarius lactarius is a food-fish of 
India. 

The Nandid@ are small spiny-rayed fishes of the East Indian 
streams, without pseudobranchie. 

The Polycentride are small fresh-water perch-like fishes of 
the streams of South America, without lateral line and with 
many anal spines. 


Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 573 


The Jawfishes: Opisthognathide, etc.—The Pseudochromi- 
pide are marine-fishes of the tropics with the lateral line inter- 
rupted, and with a single dorsal. They bear some resemblance 
to Plestops and other aberrant Serranide. 


Fic. 466.—Gnathypops evermanni Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. 


Very close to these are the Optstognathide or jawfishes with 
a single lateral line and the mouth very large. In certain 
species of Opisthognathus, the maxillary, long and curved, extends 
far behind the head. The few species are found in warm 


Fic. 467.—Jawfish, Opisthognathus macrognathus Poey. Tortugas, Fla. 


seas, but always very sparingly. Some of them are handsomely 
colored. 

The Stone-wall Perch: Oplegnathide.—A singular group evi- 
dently allied to the Hemulide is the family of Oplegnathide. 
In these fishes the teeth are grown together to form a bony beak 
like the jaw of a turtle. Except for this character, the species 
are very similar to ordinary grunts. While the mouth resembles 


574 Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 


that of the parrot-fish, it is structurally different and must have 
been independently developed. Oplegnathus punctatus, the 
‘stonewall perch’”’ (ishigakidai), is common in Japan, as is also 


Fic. 468.—Opisthognathus nigromarginatus. India. (After Day.) 


the banded Oplegnathus fasciatus. Other species are found in 
Australia and Chile. 

The Swallowers: Chiasmodontide.—The family of swallowers 
Chiasmodontide, is made up of a few deep-sea fishes of soft 
flesh and feeble spines, the opercular apparatus much reduced. 


Fic. 469.—Black Swallower, Chiasmodon niger Johnson, containing a fish larger 
than itself. Le Have Bank. 

The ventrals are post-thoracic, the rays 1, 5, facts which point 
to some affinity with the Opzsthognatlide, although Boulenger 
places these fishes among the Percesoces. Chtasmodon niger, the 
black swallower of the mid-Atlantic, has exceedingly long teeth 
and the whole body so distensible that it can swallow fishes of 
many times its own size. According to Gill: 

“It espies a fish many times larger than itself, but which, 
nevertheless, may be managed; it darts upon it, seizes it by 


OCEANOPS LATOVITTATA (LACKPEDE) 


a 
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, 
4 
, 
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= 6 
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ar : 
agi ete. 
ee as neal — 


a 


Surmullets, Croakers, etc. Sls 


the tail and gradually climbs over it with its jaws, first using 
one and then the other; as the captive is taken in the stomach 
and integuments stretch out, and at last the entire fish is passed 
through the mouth and into the stomach, and the distended 
belly appears as a great bag, projecting out far backwards and 
forwards, over which is the swallower with the ventrals dislo- 
cated and far away from their normal place. The walls of the 
stomach and belly have been so stretched that they are trans- 
parent, and the species of the fish can be discerned within. But 
such rapacity is more than the captor itself can stand. At 
length decomposition sets in, the swallower is forced belly up. 
wards, and the imprisoned gas, as in a balloon, takes it upwards 
from the depths to the surface of the ocean, and there, perchance, 
it may be found and picked up, to be taken home for a wonder, 
as it is really. Thus have at least three specimens found their 
way into museums—one being in the United States National 
Museum—and in each the fish in the stomach has been about 
twice as long, and stouter in proportion, than the swallower— 
six to twelve times bulkier! Its true habitat seems to be at a 
depth of about 1,500 fathoms.” 

Allied to this family is the little group of Champsodontide of 
Japan and the East Indies. Champsodon vorax looks like a 
young Uranoscopus. The body is covered with numerous 
lateral lines and cross-lines. 

The Malacanthide.— The Malacanthide are elongate fishes, 
rather handsomely colored, with a strong canine on the premaxil- 
lary behind. Malacanthus plumitert, the matajuelo blanco, a 
slender fish of a creamy-brown color, is common in the West 
Indies. Other species are found in Polynesia, the most notable 
being Malacanthus (or Oceanops) lativittatus, a large fish of a 
brilliant sky-blue, with a jet-black lateral band. In Samoa this 
species is called gatasami, the “eye of the sea.”’ 

The Blanquillos: Latilide.—The Latilide, or blanquillos, have 
also an enlarged posterior canine, but the body is deeper and the 
flesh more firm. The species reach a considerable size and are 
valued as food. Lopholotilus chameleonticeps is the famous 
tilefish dredged in the depths under the Gulf Stream. It is a 
fish of remarkable beauty, red and golden. This species, Pro- 
fessor Gill writes, ‘“‘was unknown until 1879, when specimens 


576 Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 


were brought by fishermen to Boston from a previously unex- 
plored bank about eighty miles southeast of No Man's Land, 
Mass. In the fall of 1880 it was found to be extremely abun- 
dant everywhere off the coast of southern New England at a 
depth of from seventy-five to two hundred and fifty fathoms. 
The form of the species is more compressed, and higher, than 
in most of the family, and what especially distinguishes it is 
the development of a compressed, ‘fleshy, fin-like appendage 
over the back part of the head and nape, reminding one of the 
adipose fin of the salmonids and catfishes.’ It is especially 
notable, too, for the brilliancy of its colors, as well as for its size, 
being by far larger than any other member of its family. A 
weight of fifty pounds or more is, or rather, one might say, was 
frequently attained by it, although such was very far above 
the average, that being little over ten pounds. In the reach of 
water referred to, it could once be found abundantly at any 
time, and caught by hook and line. After a severe gale in March, 
1882, millions of tilefish could be seen, or calculated for, on the 
surface of the water for a distance of about three hundred miles 
from north to south, and fifty. miles from east to west. It 
has been calculated by Capt. Collins that as many as one thou- 
sand four hundred and thirty-eight millions were scattered 
over the surface. This would have allowed about two hundred 
and twenty-eight pounds to every man, woman and child of 
the fifty million inhabitants of the United States! On trying 
at their former habitat the next fall, as well as all successive 
years to the present time, not a single specimen could be found 
where formerly it was so numerous. We have thus a case of a 
catastrophe which, as far as has been observed, caused com- 
plete annihilation of an abundant animal in a very limited 
period. Whether the grounds it formerly held will be reoccupied 
subsequently by the progeny of a protected colony remains to 
be seen, but it is scarcely probable that the entire species 
has been exterminated.” It is now certain that the species 
is not extinct. 

Caulolatilus princeps is the blanquillo or “whitefish” of 
southern California, a large handsome fish formed like a dol- 
phin, of purplish, olivaceous color and excellent flesh. Other 
species of Caulolatilus are found in the West Indies. Latilus 


Surmullets, Croakers, etc. SOT, 


japonicus is the amadai or sweet perch of Japan, an excellent 
food-fish of a bright crimson color. 

The Pinguipedide of Chile resemble the Latilide, having 
also the enlarged premaxillary tooth. The ventrals are, how- 
ever, thickened and placed farther forward. 

The Bandfishes: Cepolidze.—The small family of Cepolide, or 
bandfishes, resemble the Latilide somewhat and are probably 
related to them. The head is normally formed, the ventral fins 
are thoracic, with a spine and five rays, but the body is drawn 
out into a long eel-like form, the many-rayed dorsal and anal 
fins meeting around thetail. The few species are crimson in 
color with small scales. They are used as food, but the flesh 
is dry and the bones are stiff and numerous. Cepola tenia is 
common in the Mediterranean, and Acanthocepola krusensterni 
abounds in the bays of southern Japan. 

The Cirrhitidee.—The species of the family C7rrhitide strongly 
resemble the smaller Serranid@ and even Serranus itself, but 
the lower rays of the pectoral fins are enlarged and are undi- 
vided, as in the sea-scorpions and some sculpins. In these 
fishes, however, the bony stay, which characterizes Scorpenide 
and Cottide, is wholly absent. It is, however, considered possible 
that this interesting family represents the point of separation 
at which the mail-cheeked fishes become differentiated from the 
typical perch-like forms. Gomitistius zonatus, the takanohadai, 
is a valuable food-fish of Japan, marked by black cross-bands. 
Paracirrlutes forstert and other species of Cirrhitus and Paracir- 
rhites are very pretty fishes of the coral reefs, abundant in the 
markets of Honolulu, the spotted Czrrhitus marmoratus being 
the most widely diffused of these. Only one species of this 
family, Cirrhitus rivulatus, a large fish, green, with blue mark- 
ings, is found in American waters. It frequents the rocky 
shores of the west coast of Mexico. 

Allied to the Cirrhitide is the small family of Latridide, 
with a long dorsal fin deeply divided, and the lower rays of 
the pectoral similarly modified. Latris hecateia is called the 
“trumpeter ’’ in Australian waters. It is one of the best food- 
fishes of Australia, reaching a weight of sixty to eighty pounds. 

Another small family showing the same peculiar structure 
of the pectoral fin is that of the Aplodactylide. The species 


578 Surmullets, Croakers, etc. 


of Aplodactylus live on the coasts of Chile and Australia. They 
are herbivorous fishes, with flat, tricuspid teeth, and except 
for their pectoral fins are very similar to the Kyphoside. 


Fic. 470—Cirrhitus rivulatus Valenciennes. Mazatlan. 


The San¢dfishes: Trichodontide.—In the neighborhood of the 
Latridide, Dr. Boulenger places the Trichodontide or sandfishes, 
small, scaleless, silvery fishes of the northern Pacific. These 


Fic. 471.—Sandfish, Trichodon trichodon (Tilesius). Shumagin Islands, Alaska. 


are much compressed in body, with very oblique mouths, with 
fringed lips and, as befits their northern habitat, with a much 
increased number of vertebre. They bury themselves in sand 
under the surf, and the two species, Trichodon trichodon and 
Arctoscopus japonicus, range very widely in the regions washed 
by the Japan current. These species bear a strong resemblance 
to the star-gazers (Uranoscopus), but this likeness seems to be 
superficial only. 


CHAPTER XXXVI 


LABYRINTHICI AND HOLCONOTI. 


is the group of Labyrinthici, composed of perch-like 

‘ fishes which have a very peculiar structure to the 
pharyngeal bones and respiratory apparatus. This feature is 
thus described by Dr. Gill: 

“The upper elements of one of the pairs of gill-bearing 
arches are peculiarly modified. The elements in question 
(called branchihyal) of each side, instead of being straight 
and solid, as in most fishes, are excessively developed and pro- 
vided with several thin plates or folds, erect from the surface 
of the bones and the roof of the skull, to which the bones are 
attached. These plates, by their intersection, form chambers, 
and are lined with a vascular membrane, which is supplied 
with large blood-vessels. It was formerly supposed that the 
chambers referred to had the office of receiving and retaining 
supplies of water which should trickle down and keep the gills 
moist; such was supposed to be an adaptation for the sus- 
tentation of life out of the water. The experiments of Surgeon 
Day, however, throw doubt upon this alleged function, and 
tend to show: (1) that these fishes died when deprived of access 
to atmospheric air, not from any deleterious properties either 
in the water or in the apparatus used, but from being unable 
to subsist on air obtained solely from the water, aerial respira- 
tion being indispensable; (2) that they can live in moisture 
out of the water for lengthened periods, and for a short, but 
variable period in water only; and (3) that the cavity or recep- 
tacle does not contain water, but has a moist secreting surface, 
in which air is retained for the purpose of respiration. It 
seems probable that the air, after having been supplied for aerial 


respiration, is ejected by the mouth, and not swallowed to be 
579 


580 Labyrinthici and Holconti 


discharged per anum. In fine, the two respiratory factors 
of the branchial apparatus have independent functions: (1) 
the labyrinthiform, or branchihyal portion, being a special modi- 
fication for the respiration of atmospheric air, and (2) the gill 
filaments discharging their normal function. If, however, 
the fish is kept in water and prevented from coming to the 
surface to swallow the atmospheric air, the labyrinthiform 
apparatus becomes filled with water which cannot be dis- 
charged, owing to its almost non-contractile powers. There 
is thus no means of emptying it, and the water probably 
becomes carbonized and unfit for oxygenizing the blood, so 
that the whole of the respiration is thus thrown on the branchie. 
This will account for the fact that when the fish is in a state 
of quiescence, it lives much longer than when excited, whilst 
the sluggishness sometimes evinced may be due to poisoned 
or carbonized blood.” 

Four families of labyrinth-gilled fishes are recognized by 
Professor Gill; and to these we may append a fifth, which, how- 
ever, lacks the elaborate structures mentioned above and 
which shows other evidences of degeneration. 

The Climbing-perches: Anabantide.—The family of Anaban- 
tide, according to Gill, ‘“‘includes those species which have the 


Fic. 472 —The Climbing Perch, Anabas scandens Linneus. Opercle cut away to 
show the gill-labyrinth. 
mouth of moderate size and teeth on the palate (either on the 
vomer alone, or on both the vomer and palatine bones). To 
the family belongs the celebrated climbing-fish. 
“The climbing-fish (Anabas scandens) is especially note- 
worthy for the movability of the sub-operculum. The oper- 


ij 


is 


Labyrinthici and Holconoti 581 


culum is serrated. The color is reddish olive, with a blackish 
spot at the base of the caudal fin; the head, below the level 
of the eye, grayish, but relieved by an olive band running from 
the angle of the mouth to the angle of the pre-operculum, and 
with a black spot on the membrane behind the hindermost 
spines of the operculum. 

“The climbing-fish was first made known in a memoir, 
printed in 1797, by Daldorf, a lieutenant in the service of the 
Danish East India Company at Tranquebar. Daldorf called 
it Perca scandens, and affirmed that he himself had taken one 
of these fishes, clinging by the spine of its operculum in a slit 
in the bark of a palm (Borassus flabelliformis) which grew near 
a pond. He also described its mode of progression; and his 
observations were substantially repeated by the Rev. Mr. John, 
a missionary resident in the same country. His positive evi- 
dence was, however, called into question by those who doubted 
on account of hypothetical considerations. Even in popular 
works not generally prone to even a judicious skepticism, 
the accounts were stigmatized as unworthy of belief. We 
have, however, in answer to such doubts, too specific informa- 
tion to longer distrust the reliability of the previous reports. 

“Mr. Rungasawmy Moodeliar, a native assistant of Capt. 
Jesse Mitchell of the Madras Government Central Museum, 
communicated to his superior the statement that ‘this fish 
inhabits tanks or pools of water, and is called Panaz fert, i.e, 
the fish that climbs palmyra-trees. When there are palmyra- 
trees growing by the side of a tank or pool, when heavy rain 
falls and the water runs profusely down their trunks, this fish, 
by means of its opercula, which move unlike those of other 
fishes, crawls up the tree sideways (i.e., inclining to the sides 
considerably from the vertical) to a height of from five to seven 
feet, and then drops down. Should this fish be thrown upon 
the ground, it runs or proceeds rapidly along in the same manner 
(sideways) as long as the mucus on it remains.’ 

“These movements are effected by the opercula, which, it 
will be remembered, are unusually mobile in this species; they 
ean, according to Captain Mitchell (and I have verified the 
statement), be raised or turned outwards to nearly a right 
angle with the body, and when in that position, the suboper- 


582 Labyrinthici and Holconoti 


culum distends a little, and it appears that it is chiefly by the 
spines of this latter piece that the fish takes a purchase on 
the tree or ground. ‘I have,’ says Captain Mitchell, ‘ascer- 
tained by experiment that the mere closing of the operculum, 
when the spines are in contact with any surface, even common 
glass, pulls an ordinary-sized fish forwards about half an inch,’ 
but it is probable that additional force is supplied by the cau- 
dal and anal fins, both of which, it is said, are put in use when 
climbing or advancing on the ground; the motion, in fact, is 
described as a wriggling one. 

“The climbing-fish seems to manifest an inclination to 
ascend streams against the current, and we can now understand 
how, during rain, the water will flow down the trunk of a tree, 
and the climbing-fish, taking advantage of this, will ascend 
against the down-flow by means of the mechanism already 
described, and by which it is enabled to reach a considerable 
distance up the trunk.’’ (Gill.) 

The Gouramis: Osphromenide.—‘‘ The Osphromenide are fishes 
with a mouth of small size, and destitute of teeth on the 
palate. To this family belongs the gourami, whose praises have 
been so often sung, and which has been the subject of many 
efforts for acclimatization in France and elsewhere by the French. 

“The gourami (Osphromenus goramy) has an oblong, oval 
form, and, when mature, the color is nearly uniform, but in the 
young there are black bands across the body, and also a blackish 
spot at the base of the pectoral fin. The gourami, if we can 
credit reports, occasionally reaches a gigantic size, for it is 
claimed that it sometimes attains a length of 6 feet, and weighs 
150 pounds, but if this is true, the size is at least exceptional, 
and one of 20 pounds is a very large fish; indeed, they are 
considered very large if they weigh as much as 12 or 14 pounds, 
in which case they measure about 2 feet in length. 

“The countries in which the gourami is most at home lie 
in the intertropical belt. The fish is assiduous in the care of 
its young, and prepares a nest for the reception of eggs. The 
bottom selected is muddy, the depth variable within a narrow 
area, that is, in one place about a yard, and near by several 
yards deep. 

“They prefer to use, for the nests, tufts of a peculiar grass 


ct 


a EG ae ag 


ee 


Labyrinthici and Holconoti 583 


(Panicum jumentorum) which grows on the surface of the water, 
and whose floating roots, rising and falling with the movements 
of the water, form natural galleries, under which the fish can 
conceal themselves. In one of the corners of the pond, among 
the plants which grow there, the gouramis attach their nest, 
which is of a nearly spherical form, and composed of plants 
and mud, and considerably resembles in form those of some 
birds. 

“The gourami is omnivorous, taking at times flesh, fish, frogs, 
insects, worms, and many kinds of vegetables; and on account 
of its omnivorous habit, it has been called by the French colo- 
nists of Mauritius porc des riviéres, or ‘river-pig.’ It is, how- 
ever, essentially a vegetarian, and its adaptation for this diet 
is indicated by the extremely elongated intestinal canal, which 
is many times folded upon itself. It is said to be especially 
fond of the leaves of several araceous plants. Its flesh is, 
according to several authors, of a light-yellow straw-color, firm 
and easy of digestion. They vary in quality with the nature 
of the waters inhabited, those taken from a rocky river being 
much superior to those from muddy ponds; but those dwelling 
at the mouth of rivers, where the water is to some extent brack- 
ish, are the best of all. Again, they vary with age; and the 
large, overgrown fishes are much less esteemed than the small 
ones. They are in their prime when three years old. Dr. Vin- 
son says the flavor is somewhat like that of carp; and, if this 
is sO, we may entertain some skepticism as to its superiority; 
but the unanimous testimony in favor of its excellence natu- 
rally leads to the belief that the comparison is unfair to the 
gourami. 

“Numerous attempts have been made by the French to 
introduce the gourami into their country, as well as into several 
of their provinces; and for a number of years consignments of 
the eggs, or the young, or adult fish, were made. Although 
at least partially successful, the fish has never been domiciliated 
in the Republic, and, indeed, it could not be reasonably expected 
that it would be, knowing, as we do, its sensitiveness to cold and 
the climates under which it thrives. 

“The fish of paradise (Macropodus viridi-auratus) is a species 
remarkable for its beauty and the extension of its fins, and 


584 Labyrinthici and Holconoti 


especially of the ventrals, which has obtained for it the generic 
name Macropodus. To some extent this species has also been 
made the subject of fish-culture, but with reference to its beauty 
and exhibition in aquaria and ponds, like the goldfish, rather 
than for its food qualities. 

“The only other fish of the family that needs mention is the 
fighting-fish (Betta pugnax). It is cultivated by the natives of 
Siam, and a special race seems to have been the result of such 
cultivation. The fishes are kept in glasses of water and fed, 
among other things, with the larve of mosquitoes or other 
aquatic insects. ‘The Siamese are as infatuated with the com- 
bats of these fishes as the Malays are with their cock-fights, and 
stake on the issue considerable sums, and sometimes their own 
persons and families. The license to exhibit fish-fights is farmed, 
and brings a considerable annual revenue to the king of Siam. 
The species abounds in the rivulets at the foot of the hills of 
Penang. The inhabitants name it ‘pla-kat,’ or the ‘fighting- 
Ssh 

The Helostomide are herbivorous, with movable teeth on the 
lips and with long intestines. Helostoma temminckt lives in 
the rivers of Java, Borneo, and Sumatra. 

The Luctocephalide of East Indian rivers have the supra- 
branchial organ small, formed of two gill-arches dilated by a 
membrane. In these species there are no spines in the dorsal 
and anal, while in the Anabantide and Osphromenitde numerous 
spines are developed both in the dorsal and anal. Luctocephalus 
pulcher indicates a transition toward the Ophicephalide. 

The Snake-head Mullets: Ophicephalide.—The family of Op/i- 
cephalide, snake-head mullets, or China-fishes, placed among 
the Percesoces by Cope and Boulenger, seems to us nearer 
the Labyrinthine fishes, of which it is perhaps a degenerate 
descendant. The body is long, cylindrical, covered with firm 
scales which on the head are often larger and shield-like. The 
mouth is large, the head pike-like, and the habit carnivorous and 
voracious. There are no spines in any of the fins, but the tho- 
racic position of the ventrals indicates affinity with perch-like 
forms and the absence of ventral spines seems rather a feature of 
degradation, the more so as in one genus (Channa) the ventrals 
are wanting altogether. The numerous species are found in 


Labyrinthici and Holconoti 585 


the rivers of southern China and India, crossing to Formosa and 
to Africa. They are extremely tenacious of life, and are carried 
alive by the Chinese to San Francisco and to Hawaii, where 
they are now naturalized, being known as “ China-fishes.”’ 


Fic. 473 —Channa formosana Jordan & Evermann. Streams of Formosa. 


These fishes have no ‘special organ for holding water on the 
gills, but the gill space may be partly closed by a membrane. 
According to Dr. Gunther, these fishes are ‘able to survive 
drought living in semi-fluid mud or lying in a torpid state 
below the hard-baked crusts of the bottom of a tank from 
which every drop of water has disappeared. Respiration is 


ZY, 


Fig. 474.—Snake-headed China-fish, Ophicephalus barca. India. (After Day.) 


probably entirely suspended during the state of torpidity, but 
whilst the mud is still soft enough to allow them to come to the 
surface, they rise at intervals to take in a quantity of air, by 
means of which their blood is oxygenized. This habit has been 
observed in some species to continue also to the period of the 
year in which the fish lives in normal water, and individuals 
which are kept in a basin and prevented from coming to the 
surface and renewing the air for respiratory purposes are suffo- 
cated. The particular manner in which the accessory branchial 
cavity participates in respiratory functions is not known. It 
is a simple cavity, without an accessory branchial organ, the 


586 Labyrinthici and Holconoti 


opening of which is partly closed by a fold of the mucous mem- 


brane. 
Ophicephalus striatus is the most widely diffused species in 


China, India, and the Philippines, living in grassy swamps and 
biting at any bait from a live frog to an artificial salmon-fly. 
It has been introduced into Hawaii. Ophicephalus marulius 
is another very common species, as is also Channa ortentalts, 
known by the absence of ventral fins. 

Suborder Holconoti, the Surf-fishes.—Another offshoot from the 
perch-like forms is the small suborder of Holconoti (6A.«os, furrow; 
veros, back). It contains fishes percoid in appearance, with much 
in common with the Gerride and Sparide, but with certain 


¥y . 
Fic. 475.—White Surf-fish, viviparous, with young, Cymatogaster aggregatus Gibbons. 
San Francisco. 


striking characteristics not possessed by any perch or bass. All the 
species are viviparous, bringing forth their young alive, these being 
in small number and born at an advanced stage of development. 
The lower pharyngeals are solidly united, as in the Labride, 
a group which these fishes resemble in scarcely any other respects. 
The soft dorsal and anal are formed of many fine rays, the 
anal being peculiarly modified in the male sex. The nostrils, 
ventral fins, and shoulder-girdle have the structure normal 
among perch-like fishes, and the dorsal furrow, which sug- 
gested to Agassiz the name of Holconoti, is also found among 
various perch-like forms. 


Labyrinthici and Holconoti 587 


The Embiotocide.—The group contains a single family, the 
Embiotocide, or surf-fishes. All but two of the species are confined 


Fic. 476—Fresh-water Viviparous Perch, Hysterocarpus traski Gibbons. 
Sacramento River. 
to California, these two living in Japan. The species are rela- 
tively small fishes, from five inches to eighteen inches in length, 
with rather large, usually silvery scales, small mouths and 
small teeth. They feed mainly on crustaceans, two or three 
species being herbivorous. With two exceptions, they inhabit 


Fic. 477—Hypsurus caryi (Agassiz). Monterey. 


the shallow waters on sandy beaches, where they bring forth 
their young. They can be readily taken in nets in the surf. 


" 


588 Labyrinthici and Holconoti 


As food-fishes they are rather inferior, the flesh being some- 
what watery and with little flavor. Many are dried by the 


Fig. 478.—White Surf-fish, Damalichthys argyrosomus (Girard). British Columbia 


Chinese. The two exceptions in distribution are Hysterocar- 
pus traskt, which lives exclusively in fresh waters, being con- 
fined to the lowlands of the Sacramento Basin, and Zalembius 
rosaceus, which descends to considerable depths in the sea. In 
Hysterocarpus the spinous dorsal is very greatly developed, 


Fig. 479.—Thick-lipped Surf-fish, Rhacochilus torotes Agassiz. Monterey, Cal. 


seventeen stout spines being present, the others having but | 
eight to eleven and these very slender. 
The details of structure vary greatly among the different | 


Labyrinthici and Holconoti 589 


species, for which reason almost every species has been prop- 
erly made the type of a distinct genus. The two ‘species 
found in Japan are Ditrema temmincki and Neoditrema ran- 
sonnett. _In the latter species the female is always toothless. 
Close to Ditrema is the blue surf-fish of California, Embiotoca 
jacksont, the first discovered and perhaps the commonest 
species. T@ntotoca lateralis is remarkable for its bright colora- 
tion, greenish, with orange stripes. Hypsurus caryt, still brighter 
in color, orange, green and black, has the abdominal region 
very long. Phanerodon furcatus and P. atripes are dull silvery 
in color, as in Damalichthys argyrosomus, the white surf-fish, 
which ranges northward to Alaska, and is remarkable for the 
extraordinary size of its lower pharyngeals. Holconotus rhodo- 
terus is a large, rosy species, and Amphistichus argenteus a large 


bane ea 
A TS 
LOAN URARM MEH DEL tN) 
ipa ? 


ie 
yy f 
wl Wi 


sh) 
PUA YANR 
FRR UN 


Z 


fin 
2 Zip NN )) hy Hy) 
i) hy yy) } 

ra ~ 


Y 


Fie. 480—Silver Surf-fish (viviparous), Hypocritichthus analis (Agassiz). 
Monterey. 
species with dull yellowish cross-bands. Rhachochtlus toxote s 
is the largest species in the family and the one most valued 
as food. It is notable for its thick, drooping, ragged lips. 
Hyperprosopon arcuatus, the wall-eye surf-fish, is brilliantly 
silvery, with very large eyes. H. agassizt closely resembles 
it, as does also the dwarf species, Hypocritichthys analis, to 
which the Japanese Neoditrema ransonnett is very nearly re- 
lated. The other species are all small. Abeona minima and 
A. aurora feed on seaweed. Brachyistius frenatus is the smallest 
of all, orange-red in color, while its relative, Zalembius rosaceus, 


590 Labyrinthici and Holconoti 


is handsomest of all, rose-red with a black lateral spot. Cyma- 
togaster aggregatus, the surf-shiner, is a little fish, excessively 
common along the California coast, and from its abund2znce 
it has been selected by Dr. Eigenmann as the basis of his studies 


Fig. 481.—Viviparous Perch (male), Hysterocarpus traski Gibbons. Battle Creek, 
Sacramento River. (Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) 
of these fishes. In this species the male shows golden and 
black markings, which are wanting in the silvery female, and 
the anterior rays of the anal are thickened or otherwise modified. 
No fossil embiotocoids are recorded. 


CHAPTER XXXVII 
CHROMIDES AND PHARYNGOGNATHI 


UBORDER Chromides.—The suborder Chromtdes con- 
tains spiny-rayed fishes similar to the perch-like 
forms in most regards, but strikingly distinguished 
by the complete union of the lower pharyngeal bones, as in the 
Holconott and Pharyngognatht, and still more remarkably by 
the presence of but one nasal opening on each side. In all the 
perch-like fishes and in nearly all others there are two nasal 
openings or nostrils on each side, these two entering into the 
same nasal sac. In all the Chromudes the lateral line is incom- 
plete or interrupted, and the scales are usually large and ctenoid. 
The Cichlide.—The suborder Chromides includes two fami- 
lies, Cichlide, and Pomacentride. The Cichlide are fresh-water 
fishes of the tropics, characterized by the presence of three to 
ten spines in the anal fin. In size, color, appearance, habits, 
and food value they bear a striking resemblance to the fresh- 
water sunfishes, or Centrarchide, of the eastern United States. 
This resemblance is one of analogy only, for in structure the 
Cichide have no more in common with the Centrarchide than 
with other families of perch or bass. The numerous species 
of Cichlide are confined to tropical America and to correspond- 
ing districts in Africa and western Asia. Tilapia nilotica 
abounds in the Nile. Tzlapia galilea is found in the river 
Jordan and the Lake of Galilee. This species is supposed to 
form part of the great draught of fishes recorded in the Gospels, 
and a black spot on the side is held to commemorate the touch 
of Simon Peter. Numerous other species of Cichlide, large and 
small, abound in central Africa, even in the salt ditches of the 
Sahara. 
The species of Cichla, especially Cichla ocellaris, of the rivers 
of South America, elongate and large-mouthed, bear a strong 
591 


592 Chromides and Pharyngognathi 


analogy to the black bass of farther north. A vast number 
of species belonging to Heros, Acara, Cichlasoma, Geophagus, 
Chetobranchus, and related genera swarm in the Amazon region. 
Each of the large rivers of Mexico has one or more species; one 
of these, Heros cyanoguttatus, occurs in the Rio Grande and the 
rivers of southern Texas, its range corresponding with that of 
Tetragonopterus argentatus, just as the range of the whole family 
of Cichlide corresponds with that of the Characinide. No other 
species of either family enters the United States. A similar 
species, Heros tetracanthus, abounds in the rivers of Cuba, and 
another, Heros beant, called the mojarra verde, in the streams 
of Sinaloa. In the lakes and swamps of Central America Cich- 
lide and Charactnide are very abundant. One fossil genus is 
known, called Priscacara by Cope. Priscacara clivosa and 
other species occur in the Eocene of Green River and the Great 
Basin of Utah. In this genus vomerine teeth are said to be 
present, and there are three anal spines. None of the living 
Cichlide has vomerine teeth. 

The Damsel-fishes: Pomacentride.—The Pomacentride, called 
rock-pilots or damsel-fishes, are exclusively marine and have in 
all cases but two anal spines. The species are often very bril- 
liantly colored, lustrous metallic blue and orange or scarlet 
being the prevailing shades among the bright-colored species. 
Their habits in the reef pools correspond very closely with those 
of the Chetodontide. With the rock-pilots, as with the butterfly- 
fishes, the exceeding alertness and quickness of movement make 
up for lack of protective colors. With both groups the choice 
of rocky basins, crevices in the coral, and holes in coral reefs 
preserves them from attacks of enemies large enough to destroy 
them. In Samoa the interstices in masses of living coral are 
often filled with these gorgeous little fishes. The Pomacentride 
are chiefly confined to the coral reefs, few ranging to the north- 
ward of the Tropic of Cancer. Sometimes the young are colored 
differently from the adult, having sky-blue spots and often 
ocelli on the fins, which disappear with age. But one species 
Chromis chromts, is found in the Mediterranean. Chromts 
puncttpinnis, the blacksmith, is found in southern California, 
and Chromts notatus is the common dogoro of Japan. One of 
the largest species, reaching the length of a foot, is the Gari- 


“ 


Chromides and Pharyngognathi 593 


baldi, Hypsypops rubtcundus, of the rocky shores of southern 
California, This fish, when full grown, is of a pure bright 


Fic. 482.—Garibaldi (scarlet in color), Hypsypops rubicunda (Girard). 
La Jolla, San Diego, Cal. 


Fie, 483.—Pomacentrus leucostictus (Miller & Troschel), Damsel-fish, 
Family Pomacentride. 


scarlet. The young are greenish, marked with blue spots. 
Species of Pomacentrus, locally known as pescado azul, abound 


594 Chromides and Pharyngognathi 


in the West Indies and on the west coast of Mexico. Pomacen- 
trus fuscus is the commonest West Indian species, and Pomacen- 
trus rectifrenum the most abundant on the west coast of Mexico, 
the young, of an exquisite sky-blue, crowding the rock pools. 
Pomacentrus of many species, blue, scarlet, black, and golden, 
abound in Polynesia, and no rock pool in the East Indies is 
without several forms of this type. The type reaches its greatest 
development in the south seas. About forty different species of 
Pomacentrus and Glyphisodon occur in the corals of the harbor 
of Apia in Samoa. 

Almost equally abundant are the species of Glyphisodon. The 
“cockeye pilot,’’ or jaqueta, Glyphisodon marginatus, green with 


we 


A ae 
i 


ee 


A RAEY | 


aS 


See, 


<> + 
wiesee 


Fie. 484.—Cockeye Pilot, Glyphisodon marginatus (Bloch). Cuba. 


black bands, swarms in the West Indies, occasionally ranging 
northward, and is equally common on the west coast of Mexico. 
Glyphisodon abdominalis replaces it in Hawaii, and the Asiatic 
Gly phisodon saxatilis is perhaps the parent of both. Glyphtsodon 
sordidus banded with pale and with a black ocellus below the 
soft dorsal is very common from Hawaii to the Red Sea, and is 
a food-fish of some importance. Glyphisodon celestinus blue, 
with black bands, abounds in the south seas. 


Chromides and Pharyngognathi 595 


The many species of Amphiprion are always brilliant, red 
or orange, usually marked by one or two cross-bands of creamy 
blue. Amphtprion melanopus abounds in the south seas. 
Azurina hirundo is a slender species of lower California of a 
brilliant metallic blue. All these species are carnivorous, feed- 
ing on shrimps, worms, and the like. 

Microspathodon is herbivorous, the serrated incisors being 
loosely implanted in the jaws. Mucrospathodon dorsalis, of the 
west coast of Mexico, is of a deep indigo-blue color, with streamer- 
like fins. Microspathodon chrysurus, of the West Indian coral 
reefs, black with round blue spots and the tail yellow. This 


Fie. 485.—Indigo Damsel fish, Microspathodon dorsalis (Gill). Mazatlan, Mex. 


family is probably of recent origin, as few fossils are referred 
to it. Odonteus pygmaeus of the Eocene perhaps belongs to it. 
Suborder Pharyngognathi.—The wrasses and parrot-fishes, con- 
stituting the group called Pharyngognathi (papvy, gullet; yvados, 
jaw), by Johannes Miller, have the lower pharyngeal bones 
much enlarged and solidly united, their teeth being either 
rounded or else flat and paved. The nostrils, ventral fins, 
pectoral fins and shoulder-girdle are of the ordinary perch- 
like type. The teeth are, however, highly specialized, usually 
large and canine-like, developed in the jaws only, and the gills 
are reduced in number, 34 instead of 4, with no slit behind the 
last half gill. The scales are always cycloid and are usually large. 
In the tropical forms the vertebre are always twenty-four in 


590 Chromides and Pharyngognathi 


number (10+14), but in northern forms the number is largely 
increased with a proportionate increase in the number and 
strength of the dorsal spines. All the species are strictly marine, 
and the coloration is often the most highly specialized and 
brilliant known among fishes, the predominant shade being 
blue. 

All are carnivorous, feeding mainly on crustaceans and 
snails, which they crush with their strong teeth, there being 
often a strong canine at the posterior end of the premaxillary, 
which holds the snail while the lower jaw acts upon it. The 
species are very numerous and form the most conspicuous 
feature in the fish markets of every tropical port. They abound 


Fic. 486 —Tautog, Tautoga onitis (L.). Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


especially in the pools and openings in the coral reefs. All are 
good for food, though all are relatively flavorless, the flesh 
being rather soft and not oily. 

The Wrasse Fishes: Labride.—The principal family is that of 
the Labride, characterized by the presence of separate teeth 
in the front of the jaws. Numerous fossil species are known 
from the Eocene and Miocene. Most of these are known only 
from the lower pharyngeal bones. Labrodon is the most widely 
diffused genus, probably allied to Labrus, but with a pile of 
successional teeth beneath each functional tooth. The species 
are mostly from the Miocene. 

The northern forms of Labride are known as wrasse on the 


CIPPINYS “MA “UW AC Aq opty wtoAT) *CT) sywo vbonny, ‘BoynvI— peF “PIT 


598 Chromides and Pharyngognathi 


coasts of England. Among these are Labrus bergylta, the ballan 
wrasse; Labrus viridis, the green wrasse; Labrus osstphagus, 
the red wrasse; and Labrus merula, the black wrasse. Acan- 
tholabrus pallont and Centrolabrus exoletus have more than 
three anal spines. The latter species, known as rock cook, is 
abundant in western Norway, as far north as Throndhjem, its 
range extending to the northward beyond that of any other 
Labroid. Allied to these, on the American coast, is the tautog 
or blackfish, Tautoga onitis, a common food-fish, dusky in 
color with excellent white flesh, especially abundant -on the 
coast of New England. With this, and still more abundant, is 
the cunner or chogset, Tautogolabrus adspersus, greenish-blue 


Fic. 488.—Capitaine or Hogfish, Lachnolaimus jalcatus. Florida. 


in color, the flesh being also more or less blue. This fish is 
too small to have much value as food, but it readily takes the 
hook set for better fishes. 

In the Mediterranean are found many species of Crentlabrus, 
gaily colored, each species having its own peculiar pattern and 
its own arrangement of inky spots. Among these are Crenila- 
brus mediterraneus, Crenilabrus pavo, and Crenilabrus griseus. 
With these are the small species called Ctenolabrus rupestris, 
the goldsinny, much like the American cunner, and the long- 
nosed Symphodus scina. 

Of the many West Indian species we may notice the Capi- 


aie age 


’ 
. 


Chromides and Pharyngognathi 599 


taine or hogfish, Lachnolaimus maximus, a great fish, crimson 
in color, with its fin spines ending in long streamers; Bodianus 
rufus, the Spanish lady-fish or pudiano, half crimson, half 
golden. Halicheres radiatus, the pudding-wife (a mysterious 
word derived from “oldwife’’ and the Portuguese name, pudi- 
ano), a blue fish handsomely mottled and streaked. Of the 
smaller species, Clepticus parre, the janissary, with very small 
teeth, Halicheres bivittatus, the slippery-dick, ranging north- 
ward to Cape Hatteras, and Doratonotus megalepis, of an intense 
grass-green color, are among the most notable. The razor- 
fish, Xyrichthys psittacus, red, with the forehead compressed 
to a sharp edgé, is found in the Mediterranean as well as through- 
out the West Indies, where several other species of razor-fish 
also occur. 

Scarcely less numerous are the species of the Pacific Coast 
of America. Pimelometopon pulcher, the redfish or fathead of 


Fig. 489.—Razor-fish, Xyrichthys psittacus (Linneus). Tortugas, Fla. 


southern California, reaches a length of two feet or more. It 
abounds in the broad band of giant kelp which lines the Cali- 
fornia coast and is a food-fish of much importance The 
female is dull crimson. In the male the head and tail are black 
and on the top of the head is developed with age a great adipose 
hump. A similar hump is found on the adult of several other 
large labroids. Similar species on the coast of South America, 
differing in color and size of scales, are Pimelometopon darwini, 
Trochocopus opercularis, and Bodianus diplotenia. The seno- 
rita, Oxyjulis californica, is a dainty cream-colored little fish 


600 Chromides and Pharyngognathi 


of the California coast, Hualichwres semicinctus, the kelpfish, 
light olive, the male with a blue shoulder bar, is found in south- 
ern California. On the west coast of Mexico are numerous 
species of Thalassoma, Halichewres, Pseudojulis, Xyrichthys 
and Iniistius, all different from the corresponding species in 
the West Indies, and equally different from the much greater 


Fic. 490 —Redfish (male), Pimelometopon pulcher (Ayres). San Diego. 


variety found in Hawaii and in Samoa. About the Polynesian 
and West Indian islands abound a marvelous wealth of forms of 


Fic. 491.—Lepidaplois perditio (Quoy & Gaimard). Wakanoura, Japan. 


every shade and pattern of bright. colors—blue, green, golden, 
scarlet, crimson, purple—as if painted on with lavish hand and 
often in the most gaudy pattern, although at times laid on 
with the greatest delicacy. The most brilliant species belong 
to Thalassoma and Julis, the most delicately colored to Stetho- 


. 


ee ee ee eo 


hind ae ae ee A, BM * 


2, 4 
Vat tate. Oe : 
pent 


1 PLATYGLOSSUS MARGINATUS (RUPPELI 


2 PLATYGLOSSUS FLOS-CORALLIS JORDAD 


3 HALICHG@RES CENTIQUADRUS (LACEPEDE 


LABRIDAS OF THE CORAL REEFS, SAMOA 


Chromides and Pharyngognathi 601 


julis and Cirrhilabrus. In Gomphosus the snout is prolonged 
on a long slender tube. In Chezlio the whole body is elongate. 
In Intistius the first two dorsal spines form a separate fin, 
the forehead being sharp as in Xyrichthys. Other widely 
distributed genera are Anampses, Lepidaplois, Semicossyphus, 
Duymeria, Platyglossus, Pseudolabrus, Hologymnosus, Macro- 
pharyngodon, Corts, Julis, Hemipteronotus, Novaculichthys, 
Cheilinus, Hemigymnus, and Cymolutes. Halicheres is as abund- 
ant in the East Indies as in the West, one of its species 
Halicheres pecilopterus being common as far north as Hako- 
date in Japan. In this species as in a few others the sexes 
are very different in color, although in most species no external 
sexual differences of any sort appear. In the East Indian 
genus, Pseudocheilinus, the eye is very greatly modified. The 
cornea is thickened, forming two additional lens-like structures. 

The small family of Odacide differs from the Labride in 
having in each jaw a sharp cutting edge without distinct teeth 
anteriorly, the pharyngeal teeth being pavement-like. The 
scales are small, very much smaller than in the Scaride, the 
body more elongate, and the structure of the teeth different. 
The species are mostly Australian, Odax balteatus being the 
most abundant. It is locally known as kelpfish. 

In the Szphonognathide the teeth are much as in the Odacide, 
but the body is very elongate, the snout produced as in the 
cornet-fishes (Fistularza), and the upper jaw ends in a long skinny 
appendage. Szphonognathus argyrophanes, from Australia, reaches 
a length of sixteen inches. 

The Parrot-fishes: Scaride.—The parrot-fishes, or Scarid@, are 
very similar to the Labride in form, color, and scales, but 
differ in the more or less complete fusion of the teeth, a char- 
acter which varies in the different genera. 

Of these the most primitive is Calotomus, confined to the 
East Indies and Polynesia. In this genus the teeth are united 
at base, their tips free and imbricated over the surface of the 
jaw. 

The species are dull in color, reddish or greenish. Caloto- 
mus japonicus is the Budai or Igami of Japan. Calotomus 
sandwichensis and Calotomus trradians are found in Hawaii, 
and Calotomus xenodon on the offshore islands of Mexico. 


602 Chromides and Pharyngognathi 


In Calotomus the dorsal spines are slender. In Scaridea (balia) 
of the Hawaiian Islands the first dorsal is formed of pungent 
spines as in Spartsoma. 


Fie. 492. Fig, 493. 
Fic. 492.—Pharyngeals of Italian Parrot-fish, Sparisoma cretense (L.). 
a, upper; 6, lower. 
Fic. 493.—Jaws of a Parrot-fish, Calotomus xenodon Gilbert. 


Cryptotomus ot the Atlantic is also a transitional group 
having the general characters of Sparisoma, but the anterior 


Fia. 494. —Cryptotomus beryllinus Jordan & Swain. Key West, Florida. 


teeth more separate. The several species are all small and 
characteristic of the West Indian fauna, one species, Crypto- 
tomus beryllinus, ranging northward to Long Island. 


s 


1 STETHOJULIS CASTURI GUNTHER 
STETHOJULIS BANDANENSIS BLEEKER) 


3 LEPLOJULIS PARDALIS KNER 


LABRIDA OF THE CORAL REEFS, SAMOA 


Chromides and Pharyngognathi 603 


In the large genus Sparisoma the teeth are more com- 
pletely joined. In this group, which is found only in the trop- 
ical Atlantic, the lower pharyngeals are broader than long and 


Fic. 495. —Sparisoma hoplomystar (Cope). Key West. 


hexagonal. The teeth of the jaws are not completely united, 
the dorsal spines are pungent, the lateral line not interrupted, 
and the gill membranes broadly united to the isthmus. 

Of the numerous species the dull-colored Sparisoma flaves- 


Fic. 496 —Sparisoma abildgaardi (Bloch), Red Parrot-fish, Loro Colorado. 
Family Scaride. 


cens is most abundant in the West Indies and ranges farther 
north than any other, Sparisoma cretense, the Scarus of the 


604 Chromides and Pharyngognathi 


ancients, is found in the Mediterranean, being the only member 
of the family known in Europe and the only Spartsoma known 
from outside the West Indian fauna. 

Other West Indian species are the red parrot-fish, Sparisoma 
abildgaardi, Sparisoma xystrodon, Sparisoma hoplomystax, the 
last two being small species about the Florida Keys, and the 
handsome Sparisoma viride from the West Indies. 

Scarus is the great central genus of parrot-fishes. Its mem- 
bers are especially abundant in Polynesia and the East Indies, 
the center of distribution of the group, 
although some extend their range to 
western Mexico, Japan, the Red Sea, and 
Australia, and a large number are found 
in the West Indies. Most of them are 
fishes of large size, but a few, as the West 
Indian Scarus croicensts, reach the length 
of less than a foot, and other still smaller 
species (Scarus evermannt, Scarus boll- 
mant) are found only in water of consider- 
able depth (200 fathoms). 


3 é Fic. 497 —Jaws of Blue 
The genus Scarus is characterized by  Parrot-fish, Meats Pare 


not only the almost complete fusion of its us (Bloch). 

teeth, but by numerous other characters. 

Its lower pharyngeals are oblong and spoon-shaped, the teeth 
appearing as a mosaic on the concave surface. The gill-mem- 


Vig. 498. bic, 499. 
Fic. 498.—Upper pharyngeals of an Indian Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus. 
Fic. 499.—Lower pharyngeals of a Parrot-fish, Scarus strongylocephalus (Bleeker). 


branes are. scarcely united to the narrow isthmus, the lateral 
line is interrupted, the dorsal spines are flexible, and there 


Chromides and Pharyngognathi 605 


are but few scales on the head. These, as well as the scales 
of the body, are always large. The most highly specialized 


Fic. 500.—Scarus emblematicus Jordan & Rutter. Jamaica. 


of its species have the teeth deep blue in color, a character 
which marks the genus or subgenus Pseudoscarus. Of the species 
of this type, the loro, Pseudoscarus ce@lestinus, and the more 
abundant guacamaia, Pseudoscarus guacamaia (Fig. 100) of 
the West Indies, are characteristic forms. The perrico, Pseudo- 


Fic. 501.—Scarus ceruleus (Bloch). Blue Parrot-fish. Loro, Azul. 
Family Scaride. 


scarus perrico of the west coast of Mexico, and the great blue 
parrot-fish, or galo, of Hawaii and Samoa, Pseudoscarus jordant, 
belong to this type. Pseudoscarus jordani was formerly tabu 
to the king in Hawaii, and its brilliant colors and toothsome 


909 


‘wprimog ATR], “Ysyoureg ‘1oprouryog xz yoorge vynjoa SNLDIS— FOG “DI 


HdAL ‘H’IVHS B® Nvauor XVLIVT NOGOATIVS NO SNhUVOSOGANSa 


, 
- 
FuaEbestSetvcrsedrei ui isi ose 


S 


i. |. of ee end ‘ a. 
~~ aa Tita eee 
i) s fn" 2 


. 7 ; 
tT ee eee very 
i so. gS ya Z 


: it 


Chromides and Pharyngognathi 607 


flesh (when eaten raw) made it the most highly valued fish 
at the royal banquets of old Hawaii. It still sells readily at a 
dollar or more per pound. To this type belong also the blue 
parrot-fish, Pseudoscarus ovifrons, of Japan. In the restricted 
genus Scarus proper the teeth are pale. The great blue parrot- 
fish, of the West Indies, Scarus ceruleus, belongs to this 
group. This species, deep blue in color, reaches a large size, 
and the adult has a large fleshy hump on the forehead. 
Lesser parrot-fish with pale teeth and with showy coloration 
are the West Indian species Scarus teniopterus, Scarus vetula, 
Scarus croicensis, etc. 

Very many species of both Scarus and Pseudoscarus, green, 
blue, red-brown, or variegated, abound about the coral reefs 
of Polynesia. About twenty-five species occur in Samoa. 


Fic. 503.—Slippery-dick or Doneella, Halicheres bivittatus (Bloch), a fish of the 
coral reefs, Key West. Family Labride. 

Pseudoscarus latax and P. ultramarinus being large and 

showy species, chiefly blue. Pseudoscarus prasiognathus is 

deep red with the jaws bright blue. 

Fossil species referred to Scarus but belonging rather to Spari- 
soma are found in the later Tertiary. The genera Phyllodus, 
Egertonia, and Paraphyllodus of the Eocene perhaps form a 
transition from Labride to Scaride. In Paraphyllodus medius 
the three median teeth of the lower pharyngeals are greatly 
widened, extending across the surface of the bone. 


CHAPTER XXXVIII 
THE SQUAMIPINNES 


Squamipinnes.— Very closely allied to the Per- 
comorphi is the great group called Squamipinnes 
(squama, scale; pinna, fin) by Cuvier and Epelasmia 
by tae With a general agreement with the Percomorphi, it 
is distinguished by the more or less complete soldering of the 
post-temporal with the cranium. In the more specialized 
forms we find also a soldering of the elements of the upper 


W) ia 
Pia 


Fic. 504—Monodactylus argenteus (Linneus). From Apia, Samoa. 
Family Scorpidide. 
jaw, and a progressive reduction in the size of the gill-opening. 
The ventral fin retains its thoracic insertion, and, as in the 
perch mackerel-like forms, it has one spine and five rays, never 


any more. The ventral fins are occasionally lost in the adult, 
608 


The Squamipinnes 609 


as in the Stromateide, or they may lose part of their rays. The 
name Squamipinnes refers to the scaly fins, the typical species 
having the soft rays of dorsal, anal, and caudal, and sometimes 
of other fins densely covered with small scales. In various 
aberrant forms these scales are absent. The name Epelasmia 
(Et, above; éAacpos, plate) refers to the thin upper pharyn- 
geals characteristic of certain forms. The transition from 
this group to the Sclerodermi is very clear and very gradual. 
The Squamipinnes, Sclerodermi, Ostracodermi, and Gymnodontes 
form a continuous degenerating series. On the other hand the 
less specialized Squamtpinnes approach very closely to forms 
already considered. The Antigoniide are of uncertain affinities, 
possibly derived from such forms as Histiopteride, while Platax 
show considerable resemblance to scaly-finned fishes like the 
Kyphoside and Stromaterde. The Scorpidide seem intermediate 
between Stromateide and Platacide. In such offshoots from 
Scombroidet or Percoidet the group doubtless had its origin. 

We may begin the series with some forms which are of 
doubtful affinity and more or less intermediate between the 
Squamtpinnes and the more primitive Percomor phi. 

The Scorpidide.—This family has the general appearance of 
Platax and Ilarches, but the teeth are not brush-like, and the 
post-temporal is free from the skull as in perch-like fishes. The 
species inhabit the Pacific. Scorprs georgianus is a food-fish of 
Australia, with the body oblong. Monodactylus argenteus, the 
toto of Samoa, is almost orbicular in form, while Psettias sebe is 
twice as deep as long, the deepest-bodied of all fishes in propor- 
tion to its length. 

The Boarfishes: Antigoniidze.—The boarfishes (Antigontid@) are 
characterized by a very deep body covered with rough scales, 
the post-temporal, as in the Chetodontide and the Zeide, being 
adnate to the skull. 

These fishes bear some resemblance to Zeus, but there is no 
evidence of close affinity nor is it clear that they are related to 
the Chetodontide. Capros aper, the boarfish, is common in 
southern Europe, reaching a length of less than a foot, the 
protractile mouth suggesting that of a pig. The diamond- 
fishes, Antigonta, are deeper than long and strongly compressed, 
the body being covered with roughish scales.. The color is 


East Indies. 


Psettia sebe Cuv. & Val. 


505. 


Fia. 


610 


The Squamipinnes 611 


salmon-red and the species live just below the depths ordinarily 
explored by fishermen. Antigonia capros is found at Madeira 
and in the West Indies, Antigonia steindachneri about Hawaii 
and in Japan, while the smaller Antigonia rubescens is abundant 
in the Japanese bays at a depth reached by the dredge. An 
extinct genus, Proantigonia from the Miocene is said to connect 
Antigonta with Capros. 

The Arches: Toxotide.—The archers, Toxotide, have the body 
compressed, the snout produced, and the dorsal fin with but five 
spines. The skeleton differs widely from that of Chetcdon and 
the family should perhaps rather find its place among the per- 
coids. Toxotes jaculatrix is found in the East Indies. The 
name alludes to its supposed habit of catching insects by shoot- 
ing drops of water at them through its long mouth. 

The Ephippide.—With the typical Squamtpinnes, the teeth 
become very slender, crowded in brush-like bands. The least 
specialized family is that of Ephippide, characterized by the 
presence of four anal spines and a recumbent spine before the 
dorsal. The principal genus, Ephtppus (Scatophagus),; is repre- 
sented by Ephtppus argus, a small, bass-like fish, spotted with 
black, found in the Indian seas, and ranging northward to For- 
mosa. Species referred to Ephtppus (Scatophagus) are recorded 
from the Italian Eocene of Monte Bolca, where a species of 
Toxotes has been also found. 

The Spadefishes: Ilarchide.—In the Jlarchide the dorsal is 
divided into two fins, the spinous part being free from scales. 
In various regards the species are intermediate between ordinary 
perch-like forms and the chetodonts. In these fishes the body 
is very deep and, with the soft fins, closely covered with roughish 
scales. In Ilarches (Ephippus), represented by Ilarches orbis 
of the Indian seas, these scales are relatively large. This 
species is a common food-fish from India to Formosa. 

In the American genus, Chetodipterus, the scales are quite 
small. The spadefish (Chetodipterus faber), sometimes called also 
moonfish or angel-fish, is a large, deep-bodied fish, reaching a 
length of two feet. It is rather common from Cape Cod to Cuba, 
and is an excellent pan fish, with finely flavored white flesh. 
The young are marked by black cross-bands which disappear 
with age, and in the adult the supraoccipital crest is greatly 


612 The Squamipinnes 


thickened and the skull otherwise modified. A very similar 
species, Chetodipterus zonatus, occurs on the west coast of 
Mexico. Species allied to Chatodipterus are fossil in the Italian 
Eocene. The Drepanide of the East Indies are close to the 
warchide. Drepane punctata is a large, deep-bodied fish resem- 
bling the spadefish but with larger scales. 


HAN 
ye 


= 


ee 


Fic. 506.—Spadefish, Chetodipterus faber (L.). Virginia. 


The Platacide.—Closely related to the Jlarchtde is also the 
East Indian family of Platacide, remarkable for the very great 
depth and compression of the body, which is much deeper than 
long, and the highly elevated dorsal and anal still further empha- 
size this peculiarity of form. In this group the few dorsal 
spines are closely attached to the soft rays and the general 
color is dusky. In the young the body is deeper than in the 
adult and the ventral fins much more produced. The best- 
known species is the tsuzume or batfish (Platax orbtcularts), 
which ranges from India through the warm current to northern 
Japan. Platax tetra, farther south, is very similar. Platax 


le A i a AL ai cata Nice: ti ai Pagani iaaes tenes items eit elena eth 


[es =e 


ey 


The Squamipinnes 613 


altisstmus, with a very high dorsal, is fossil in the Eocene of 
Monte Bolca. 

The Butterfiy-fishes: Chetodontide.—The central family of 
Squamipinnes is that of the butterfly-fishes or Chetodontide. 
In this group the teeth are distinctly brush-like, the mouth 
small, the dorsal fin continuous and closely scaly, and the ven- 
tral fins with one spine and five rays. The species are mostly 
of small size and brilliant and varied coloration, yellow and 
black being the leading colors. They vary considerably with 
age, the young having the posterior free edges of the bones of 


Fic. 507.—Butterfly-fish, Chatodon capistratus Linneus. Jamaica. 


the head produced, forming a sort of collar. These forms have 
received the name of Tholichthys, but that supposed genus 
is merely the young of Chetodon. The species of Chetodontide 
abound in rock pools and about coral reefs in clear water. They 
are among the most characteristic forms of these waters and 
their excessive quickness of movement compensates for their 
conspicuous coloration. In these confined localities they have, 
however, few enemies. The broad bodies and spinous fins make 
them rather difficult for a large fish to swallow. They feed 


614 The Squamipinnes 


on small crustaceans, worms, and the like. The analogy to the 
butterfly is a striking one, giving rise to the English name, 
butterfly-fish, the Spanish mariposa, and the Japanese chocho- 
uwo, all having the same meaning. Fossil chetodonts are 
rather few, Chetodon pseudorhombus of the Pliocene of France, 
Holocanthus mucrocephalus and Pomacanthus subarcuatus of the 
Eocene, being the only species recorded by Zittel. 

In the principal genus, Chetodon, the colors are especially 


Fie. 508.—Black Angel-fish, Pomacanthus arcuatus (Linneus). Barnegat, 
New Jersey. 


bright. There is almost always a black bar across the eye, 
and often black ocelli adorn the fins. This genus is wanting 
in Europe. Chetodon capistratus, striatus, and numerous other 
species are found in the West Indies; Chetodon humeralis and 
nigrirostris are common on the coast of Mexico. The center 
of their distribution is in Polynesia and the East Indian Archi- 
pelago. Chetodon reticulatus, lineolatus, ulietensis, ornatis- 
simus, ephippion, setifer, and auriga are among the most showy 
species. Numerous closely related genera are described. In 
some of these the snout is prolonged into a long tube, bearing 


4 


1 MEGAPROTODON TRIFASCIALIS (QUOY & GAIMARD) (FAMILY CHAETODONTID 2) 
2 OXYMONACANTHUS LONGIROSTRIS (BLOCH & SCHNEIDER) (FAMILY MONACANTHIDA:) 


FISHES OF THE CORAL REEFS, SAMOA 


AR a A tn 


\ 


The Squamipinnes 615 


the jaws at its end. Of this type are Chelmo in India, Forcipiger 
in Polynesia, and Prognathodes in the West Indies. Hentochus 
(macroleptdotus). has one dorsal spine greatly elongated. Mzcro- 
canthus strigatus, one of the most widely distributed species, is 
known by its small scales. Megaprotodon (trifascialis) has four 
anal spines instead of three as in the others. 

The species of Holacanthus, known as angel-fishes, are larger 
in size, and their colors are still more showy, being often scarlet 
or blue. In this genus the preopercle is armed with a strong 


RAMA 
SRO 
es 


Fie. 509.—Angel-fish or Isabelita, Holacanthus ciliaris (Linnzeus). Jamaica. 
Family Chetodontide. 


spine, and there are fourteen or more strong spines in the dorsal. 
This genus has also its center of distribution in the East Indies, 
whence two species (septentrionalis and ronin) with concentric 
stripes of blue range northward to Japan. Holacanthus tibicen, 
jet-black with one yellow cross-band, is found from the Riu Kiu 
Islands southward. The angel-fish or isabelita (Holacanthus 
ciliaris), orange-red, sky-blue, and golden, as though gaudily 
painted, is the best-known species. The vaqueta de dos colores 
or rock beauty (Holacanthus bicolor), half jet-black, half golden, 
is scarcely less remarkable. Both are excellent food-fishes of the 
West Indies. Holacanthus passer is a showy inhabitant of the 
west coast of Mexico. Holacanthus diacanthus, orange, barred 


616 The Squamipinnes 


with blue, is one of the gaudiest inhabitants of the coral 
reefs of Polynesia. Holacanthus flavissimus, golden with some 
deep-blue markings, and Holacanthus nicobariensis, blackish with 
white circles, are found with other species in the same waters. 
The genus Pomacanthus (Pomacanthodes) includes American 
species only, still larger in size and differing from Holacanthus in 
having nine to eleven spines only in the dorsal fin. The young 
of Pomacanthus are blackish, crossed by many curved yellow 
cross-bands, which disappear entirely with age. Three species 


A ft ZZ 


ye 


Fic. 510—Rock Beauty, Holacanthus tricolor (L.). Puerto Rico. 


are known, Pomacanthus arcuatus, the black angel, chirivita 
or portugais, Pomacanthus paru, the Indian-fish or paru of the 
West Indies, and Pomacanthus zonipectus, “Mojarra de las 
Piedras,” of the west coast of Mexico. All are good food-fishes, 
but lacking the brilliant colors of Holacanthus and the fine 
pattern usual in Chetodon. 

The Pygeide.—Between the Chetodontide and the Acanthuride 
we would place the extinct family of Pygeide, of the Eocene. In 
Pygeus gigas and other species the dorsal spines are strong and 
numerous; there are 5 to 8 species in the anal fin, the scales 
are shagreen-like, and the teeth seem coarser than in the Cheto- 
dontide. ‘The tail is apparently unarmed, and the soft dorsal, as 
in Chetodon, is much shorter than the spinous. To this family 


The Squamipinnes 617 


the Eocene genera, Aulorhamphus (bolceusis), with produced 
snout, and Apostasis (croaticus), with long spinous dorsal, prob- 
ably belong. 

The Moorish Idols: Zanclide.— The family of Zanclide in- 
cludes a single species, the Moorish idol or kihi kihi, Zanclus 
canescens. In this family the scales are reduced to a fine sha- 


\ 


~ 
TNS 

7 me 
Ss , 
Y 


Fie. 511—The Moorish Idol, Zanclus canescens (Linneus). From Hawaii. 
Family Zanclide. (Painting by Mrs. E. G. Norris.) 


green, and in the adult two bony horns grow out over the eye. 
The dorsal spines are prolonged in filaments and the color is 
yellow crossed by bars of black. Zanclus canescens is a very 
handsome fish with the general appearance and habit of a 
Chetodon, but the form is more exaggerated. It is found 
throughout Polynesia, from Japan to the off-shore islands of 


618 The Squamipinnes 


Mexico, and is generally common, though rarely entering rock 
pools. 

Zanclus eocenus is recorded from the Italian Eocene. 

The Tangs: Acanthuride.—In the next family, Acanthuride, 
the surgeon-fishes or tangs, the scales remain small and shagreen- 
like, the body is more elongate, the gill-openings still more 
restricted, and the teeth are flattened and incisor-like. The pubic 
bone is more elongate, and in all the species some sort of arma- 
ture is developed on the side of the tail. The spinous dorsal 


Fie. 512.—Teuthis cewruleus (Bloch & Schneider), Blue Tang; Medico. 
Family Teuthidide. : 


in all is less developed than the soft dorsal. The species abound 
in the warm seas, especially about the tide pools, and are used 
as food. They undergo considerable changes with age, the 
caudal armature being developed by degrees. Nearly all are 
dull brown in color, but in some a vivid ornamentation is added. 


Fossil forms are found from the Eocene and later. Most of 


these are referable to Teuthis and Acanthurus. 

The principal genus is Teuihis, characterized by the presence 
on each side of the tail of a sharp, knife-like, movable spine 
with the point turned forwards and dropping into a sheath. 
This spine gives these fishes their name of surgeon-fish, doctor- 


The Squamipinnes 619 


fish, lancet-fish, tang, barbero, etc., and it forms a very effective 
weapon against fish or man who would seize one of these 
creatures by the tail. The species have the center of distribution 
in the East Indies and have not reached Europe. Three species 
are found in the West Indies. The blue tang (Teuthis ceruleus) 
is chiefly bright blue. The common tang, Teuthis chirurgus, is 
brown with bluish streaks, while a third species, Teuthis bahit- 
anus, has a forked caudal fin. Very close to this species is 
Teuthts crestonis, of the west coast of Mexico, and both are 
closely related to Teuthis matoides, found from India to Hawaii, 

Teuthis triostegus, of Japan and Polynesia and the East 
Indies, is covered with cross-bands alternately black and pale. 


Fic. 513.—Brown Tang, Teuthis bahianus (Ranzani). Tortugas, Fla. 


In Hawaii this is replaced by the very similar Teuthis sand- 
wichensis. Many species are found about Hawaii and the other 
Polynesian Islands. Teuthis achilles has a large blotch of bril- 
liant scarlet on the tail, and Teuthis olivaceus a bright-colored 
mark on the shoulder. Teuthis lineatus, yellow with blue 
stripes, a showily colored fish of the coral reefs, is often poison- 
ous, its flesh producing ciguatera. 

Zebrasoma differs from Teuthis in having but 4 or 5 dorsal 
spines instead of roor11. In this genus the soft dorsal fin is very 
high. Zebrasoma flavescens, sometimes brown, sometimes bright 


620 The Squamipinnes 


yellow, is common in Polynesia; Zebrasoma veliferum, cross- 
barred with black, is also common. 

Ctenochetus (strigosus), unlike the others, is herbivorous and 
has its teeth loosely implanted in the gums. This species, black 
with dull orange streaks, was once tabu to the king of Hawaii, 
who ate it raw, and common people who appropriated it were 
put to death. 

In Xesurus the caudal lancelet is replaced by three or four 
bony tubercles which have no sharp edge. Xesurus scalprum 
is common in Japan, and there are three species or more on 
the west coast of Mexico, Xesurus punctatus and Xesurus 
laticlavius being most abundant. 

In Prionurus (microlepidotus) of the tropical Pacific the 
armature is still more degraded, about six small plates being 
developed. 

In Acanthurus (Monoceros, Naseus), the unicorn-fish and its 
relatives, the ventral fins are reduced, having but three soft rays, 
the caudal spines are very large, blunt, immovable, one placed 
in front of the other. In most of the species of Acanthurus 
along, bony horn grows forward from the cranium above the 
eye. This is wanting in the young and has various degrees of 
development in the different species, in some of which it is 
wholly wanting. The species of Acanthurus reach a large size, 
and in some the caudal spines are bright scarlet, in others blue. 
Acanthurus unicornts, the unicorn-fish, is the commonest species 
and the one with the longest horn. It is abundant in Japan, 
in Hawaii, and in the East Indies. 

Axinurus thynnoides of the East Indies has a long, slim body, 
with slender tail like a mackerel. 

Suborder Amphacanthi, the Siganide.— The Amphacanthi 
(aut, everywhere; akavéa, spine) are spiny-rayed fishes cer- 
tainly related to the Teuthidide, but differing from all other 
fishes in having the last ray of the ventrals spinous as well as 
the first, the formula being I, 4, I. The anal fin has also six 
or seven spines; and the maxillary is soldered to the premax- 
illary The skeleton is essentially like that of the Acanthu- 
ride. 

The single family, Szganide, contains fishes of moderate 
size, valued as food, and abounding about rocks in shallow 


The Squamipinnes 621 


water from the Red Sea to Tahiti. The coloration is rather 
plain olive or brown, sometimes with white spots, sometimes 
with bluish lines. The species are very much alike and all 
belong to the single genus Szganus. One species, Szganus 
fuscescens, dusky with small, pale dots, is a common food- 
fish of Japan. Others, as Siganus oramin and Siganus ver- 
muculatus, occur in India, and Szganus punctatus, known as lo, 
abounds about the coral reefs of Samoa. Siganus vulpinus 
differs from the others in the elongate snout. 

A fossil genus, Archoteuthis (glaronensts), is found in the 
Tertiary of Glarus. It differs from Szganus in the deeper body 
and in the presence of six instead of seven spines in the anal 


CHAPTER XXXIX 
SERIES PLECTOGNATHI 


degeneration, are the three suborders of Sclerodermi, 
Ostracodermi, and Gymnodontes, forming together the sertes or 
suborder of Plectognatht. As the members of this group differ 
from one another more widely than the highest or most 
generalized forms differ from the Acanthuride, we do not regard 
it as a distinct order. The forms included in it differ from 
the Acanthuride much as the swordfishes differ from ordinary 
mackerel. The Plectognathi (zAexros, woven together; yvadéos, 
jaw) agree in the union of the maxillary and premaxillary, 
in the union of the post-temporal with the skull, in the great 
reduction of the gill-opening, and in the elongation of the pel- 
vic bones. All these characters in less degree are shown in 
the Squamipinnes. We have also the reduction and final entire 
loss of ventral fins, the reduction and loss of the spinous dor- 
sal, the compression and final partial or total fusion of the 
teeth of the upper jaw, the specialization of the scales, which 
change from bony scutes into a solid coat of mail on the one 
hand, and on the other are reduced to thorns or prickles and 
are finally altogether lost. The number of vertebre is also 
progressively reduced until in the extreme forms the caudal 
fin seems attached to the head, the body being apparently 
wanting. Throughout the group poisonous alkaloids are 
developed in the flesh. These may produce the violent disease 
known as ciguatera, directly attacking the nervous system. 

The three suborders of plectognathous are easily recognized 
by external characters. In the Sclerodermi (oxAepos, hard; 
dépua, skin) the spinous dorsal is present and the body is 


622 


Series Plectognathi 623 


more or less distinctly scaly. The teeth are separate and 
incisor-like and the form is compressed. In the Ostracodermi 
(6atpakos, a box; Séppa, skin) there is no spinous dorsal, the teeth 
are slender, and the body is inclosed in an immovable, bony 
box. In the Gymnodontes (yvyvos, naked; ddovs, tooth) the 
teeth are fused into a beak like that of a turtle, either con- 
tinuous or divided by a median suture in each jaw, the spinous 
dorsal is lost, and the body is covered with thorns or prickles 
or else is naked. 

The Scleroderms.—The Sclerodermi include three recent and 
one extinct families. Of the recent forms, Triacanthide is 
the most primitive, having the ventral fins each represented 
by a stout spine and the skin covered with small, rough scales. 
The dorsal has from four to six stiff spines. 

Triacanthodes anomalus is found in Japan, Hollardia hol- 
lardi in Cuba. Triacanthus brevirostris, with the first spine very 
large, is the common hornfish of the East Indies ranging north- 
ward to Japan. 

The Trigger-fishes: Balistide.—The Balistide, or trigger-fishes, 
have the body covered with large rough scales regularly arranged. 


Fic. 514—The Trigger-fish, Balistes carolinensis Gmelin. New York. 


The first dorsal fin is composed of a short stout rough spine, 
with a smaller one behind it and usually a third so placed that 
by touching it the first spine may be set or released. This 


624 Series Plectognathi 


peculiarity gives the name of trigger-fish as well as the older 
name of Balistes, or cross-bow shooter. There are no ventral 
fins, the long pelvis ending in a single blunt spine. The numer- 
ous species of trigger-fishes are large coarse fishes of the trop- 
ical seas occasionally ranging northward. The center of dis- 
tribution is in the East Indies, where many of the species are 
most fantastically marked. JBalistes carolinensis, the leather- 
jacket, or cucuyo, is found in the Mediterranean as also on the 
American coast. Balistes vetula, the oldwife, oldwench, or 
cochino, marked with blue, is common in the West Indies, 
as are several other species, as Canthidermis sufjlamen, the 
sobaco, and the jet-black Melichthys piceus, the black oldwife, 
or galafata. Several species occur on the Pacific Coast of 
Mexico, the Pez Puerco, Balistes verres, being commonest. 
Still others are abundant about the Hawaiian Islands and 
Japan. The genus Balistapus, having spinous plates on the 
tail, contains the Jargest number of species, these being at the 
same time the smallest in size and the most oddly colored. 
Balistapus aculeatus and Balistapus undulatus are common 
through Polynesia to Japan. Most of the tropical species 
of Balistide are more or less poisonous, causing ciguatera, the 
offensive alkaloids becoming weaker in the northern species. 
Melichthys radula abounds in Polynesia. In this species great 
changes take place.at death, the colors changing from blue and 
mottled golden green to jet black. Other abundant Polynesian 
species are Nanthichthys lineopunctatus, Balistes vidua, Balistes 
bursa, and Balistes flavomarginatus. 

The File-fishes: Monacanthide.—Closely related to the Balis- 
tide are the Monacanthide, known as filefishes, or foolfishes. In 
these the body is very lfean and meager, the scales being 
reduced to shagreen-like prickles. The ventral fins are 
teplaced by a single movable or immovable spine, which is 
often absent, and the first dorsal fin is reduced to a single spine 
with sometimes a rudiment behind it. The species are in 
general smaller than the Balistide and usually but not always 
dull in color. They have no economic value and are rarely 
used as food, the dry flesh being bitter and offensive. The 
species are numerous in tropical and temperate seas, although 
none is found in Europe. On our Atlantic coast, Stephano- 


Series Plectognathi 625 


lepis hispidus and Ceratacanthus schepfi are common species. 
In the West Indies are numerous others, Osbeckia levis and 


\ 


Fie. 515 —File-fish, Osbeckia levis (scripta). Woods Hole, Mass. 


Alutera giintheriana, largest in size, among the commonest. Both 
of these are large fishes without ventral spine. Monacanthus 
chinensis, with a great, drooping dewlap of skin behind the 


Fic. 516—The Needle-bearing File-fish, Amanses scopas of Samoa. 


ventral spine, is found on the coast of China. Of the numerous 
Japanese species, the most abundant and largest is Pseudomon- 


626 Series Plectognathi 


acanthus modestus, with deep-blue fins and the ventral spine 
immovable. Another is Stephanolepts cirrhifer, known as Kawa- 
muki, or skin-peeler. Alutera monoceros, and Osbeckia scripta, 
the unicorn fish, abound in the East Indies, with numerous 
others of less size and note. In the male of the Polynesian 
Amanses scopas (Fig. 516) the tail is armed with a brush of 
extraordinarily long needle-like spines. 

In Stephanolepis spilosomus the caudal fin is of a brilliant 
scarlet color, contrasting with the usual dull colors of these 
fishes. In Oxymonacanthus longirostris the body is blue with 
orange checker-like spots and the snout is produced in a long 
tube. About the islands of Polynesia, filefishes are relatively 
few, but some of them are very curious in form or color. 

The Spinacanthide.—In the extinct family Spinacanthide 
the body is elongate, high in front and tapering behind. The 


Fic. 517 —Common File fish, Stephanolepis hispidus (Linneus). Virginia. 


first dorsal has six or seven spines, and there are rough spines 
in the pectoral. The teeth are bluntly conical. Spinacanthus 
blennioides and S. imperalis are found in the Eocene of Monte 
Bolea. These are probably the nearest to the original ances- 
tor among known scleroderms. 

The Trunkfishes: Ostraciide.—The group Ostracodermi con- 
tains the single family of Ostractide, the trunkfishes or cuck- 


Series Plectognathi 627 


olds. In this group, the body is enveloped in a bony box, 
made of six-sided scutes connected by sutures, leaving only 


Fig. 518—Horned Trunkfish, Cowfish, or Cuckold, Lactophrys tricornis (Linnzus). 
Charleston, 8S. C. 


the jaws, fins and tail free. The spinous dorsal fin is wholly 
wanting. There are no ventral fins, and the outer fins are 


Fic. 519.—Horned Trunkfish, Ostracion cornutum (Linneus). East Indies. 
(After Bleeker.) 

short and small. The trunkfishes live in shallow water in 

the tropical seas. They are slow of motion, though often 

brightly colored. 


Fie. 520—Spotted Trunkfish, Lactophrys bicaudalis (Linnwus). Cozumel Island, 
Yucatan. 


Against most of their enemies they are protected by the 
bony case. The species range from four inches to a foot in 


628 Series Plectognathi 


length, so far as known. They are not poisonous, and are 
often baked in the shell. Three genera are recognized: Lac- 
tophrys with the carapace, three-angled; Os- 
tracion with four angles, and Aracana, resem- 
bling Ostracion, but with the carapace not 
closed behind the anal fin. In each of these 
genera there is considerable minor variation 
due to the presence or absence of spines on 
the bony shell. In some species, called cuck- 
olds, or cowfishes, long horns are developed 
over the eye. Others have spines on some 
other part of the shield and some have no Fra. 521.—Spotted 
spines at all. No species are found in via eiee 
Europe, and none on the Pacific coast of btcaudalis (Lin- 
America. The three-angled species, called are 

Lactophrys, are native chiefly to. the West Indies, sometimes 
carried by currents to Guinea, and one is described from 
Australia. Lactophrys tricornis of the West Indies has long 


Fig. 522.—Spineless Trunkfish, Lactophrys triqueter (Linneus). Tortugas. 


horns over the eye; Lactophrys trigonus has spines on the lower 
parts only. Lactophrys triqueter is without spines, and the 
fourth American species, Lactophrys bicaudalis, is marked by 
large black spots. The species of Ostracion radiate from the 
East Indies. One of them, Ostracion gibbosum, has a turret- 
like spine on the middle of the back, causing the carapace to 
appear five-angled; Ostracion diaphanum has short horns over 
the eye, and Ostracion cornutum very long ones; Ostracion 


re 


Series Plectognathi 629 


immaculatus, the common species of Japan, is without spines; 
Ostracion sebe of Hawaii and Samoa is deep, rich blue with 
spots of golden. Aracana is also of East Indian origin; Ara- 
cana aculeata, with numerous species, is common in Japan. 


Fic. 523——Hornless Trunkfish, Lactophrys trigonus (Linneus). Tortugas, Fla. 


A fossil species of Ostracion (O. micrurum) is known from the 
Eocene of Monte Bolca. 

The Gymnodontes.— The group of Gymnodontes, having the 
teeth united in a turtle-like beak, carry still further the degen- 


Ua wy 
Fic. 524.—Skeleton of the Cowfish, Lactophrys tricornis (Linnzus). 
eration of scales and fins. There is no trace of spinous dorsal, 
or ventral. The scales are reduced to thorns or prickles, or 
are lost altogether. All the species have the habit of inflating 
themselves with air when disturbed, thus floating, beily up- 
ward, on the surface of the water. Very few, and these only 
northern species, are used as food, the flesh of the tropical 
forms being generally poisonous, and that often in a higher 
degree than any other fishes whatever. 
The Triodontide.— The most generalized family is that of 
the Triodontide. These fishes approach the Balistide in several 


630 Series Plectognathi 


regards, having the body compressed and covered with rough 
scales The teeth form a single plate in the lower jaw, but 
are divided on the median line above. The compressed, fan- 
like, ventral flap is greatly distensible. Triodon bursarius, 
of the East Indies and northward to Japan, is the sole species of 
the family. 

The Globefishes: Tetraodontide.—In the Tetraodontide (globe- 
fishes, or puffers), each jaw is divided by a median suture. 
The dorsal and anal are short, and the ventrals are reduced 


Fic. 525.—Silvery Puffer, Lagocephalus levigatus (Linneus). Virginia. 


in number, usually fifteen to twenty (7+13 to 7+9). The 
walls of the belly are capable of extraordinary distension, so 
that when inflated, the fish appears like a globe with a beak 
and a short tail attached. The principal genus Spherotdes 
contains a great variety of forms, forming a closely intergrad- 
ing series. In some of these the body is smooth, in others more 
or less covered with prickles, usually three-rooted. In some 
the form is elongate, the color.silvery, and the side of the belly 
with a conspicuous fold of skin. In these species, the caudal 
is lunate and the other fins faleate, and with numerous rays. 
But these forms (called Lagocephalus) pass by degrees into 
the short-bodied forms with small rounded fins, and no clear 
line has yet been drawn of the genera of this group. In these 
species each nostril has a double opening. Lagocephalus lago- 
cephalus, large and silvery, is found in Europe. Lagocephalus 
levigatus replaces it on the Atlantic Coast of North America. 
In Japan are numerous forms of this type, the venomous 
Lagocephalus sceleratus being one of the best known. Numerous 
other Japanese species, Spheroides xanthopterus, rubripes, 
pardalis, ocellatus, vermiculatus, chrysops, etc., mark the 


Series Plectognathi 631 


transition to typical Spheroides. Spheroides maculatus is com- 
mon on our Atlantic coast, the puffer, or swell-toad of the 


Fie. 526.—Puffer, inflated, Spheroides spengleri (Bloch). Woods Hole, Mass. 


coastwise boys who tease it to cause it to swell. Spheroides 
spenglert and S. testudineus abound in the West Indies. 
Spheroides politus on the west coast of Mexico. 


Fic. 527.—Puffer, Spheroides maculatus (Schneider). Noank, Conn. 


In Tetraodon the nasal tentacle is without distinct opening, 
its tip being merely spongy. The species of this genus are 
even more inflatable and are often strikingly colored, the young 
sometimes having the belly marked by concentric stripes of 
black which disappear with age. Tetraodon hispidus abounds 
in estuaries and shallow bays from Hawaii to India. In 
Hawaii, it is regarded as the most poisonous of all fishes 
(muki-muki) and it is said that its gall was once used to 


632 Series Plectognathi 


poison arrows. Tetraodon fahaka is a related species, the 
first known of the family. It is found in the Nile. Tetraodon 
lacrymatus, black with white spots, is common in Polynesia. 
Tetraodon aérostaticus, with black spots, is frequently taken in 
Japan, and Tetraodon setosus is frequent on the west coast 
of Mexico. This species is subject to peculiar changes of color. 
Normally dark brown, with paler spots, it is sometimes deep 
blue, sometimes lemon-yellow and sometimes of mixed shades. 


Fig. 528.—Tetraodon meleagris (Lacépéde). Riu Kiu Islands. 


Specimens showing these traits were obtained about Clarion 
Island of the Revillagigedos. No Tetraodon occurs in the West 
Indies. Colomesus psittacus, a river fish of the northern part 
of South America, resembles Spheroides, but shows consider- 
able difference in the skull. 

But few fossil Tetraodontide have been recognized. These 
are referred to Tetraodon. The earliest is Tetraodon pygmeus 
from Monte Bolca. 

The Chonerhinide of the East Indies are globefishes hav- 
ing the dorsal and anal fins very long, the vertebre more 
numerous (12+17), twenty-nine in number. Chonerhinus 
naritus inhabits the rivers of Sumatra and Java. 

The little family of Tropidichthyide is composed of small 
globefishes, with a sharply-keeled back, and the nostrils almost, 
or quite, wanting. The teeth are as in the Tetraodontide. 
The skeleton differs considerably from that of Spheroides, 
apparently justifying their separation as a family. The species 


Series Plectognathi 633 


are all very small, three to six inches in length, and prettily 
colored. In the West Indies Tropidichthys rostratus is found. 
Tropidichthys solandri abounds in the South Seas, dull orange 
with blue spots. Tropidichthys rivulatus is common in Japan 
and several other species are found in Hawaii. 


= 


—__— 


Fie. 529 —Bristly Globefish, Tetraodon setosus Rosa Smith. Clarion Island, Mex. 


Other species occur on the west coast of Mexico, in Poly- 
nesia, and in the East Indies. 

The Porcupine-fishes: Diodontide.—In the remaining fami- 
lies of Gymnodontes, there is no suture in either jaw, the teeth 


Fig. 5380.—Porcupine-fish, Diodon hystrix (Linneus). Tortugas Islands. 


forming an undivided beak. The Diodontide, or porcupine-fishes, 
have the body spherical or squarish, and armed with sharp 
thorns, the bases of which are so broad as to form a continuous 
coat of mail. In some of them, part of the spines are movable, 
these being usually two-rooted; in others, all are immovable 


634 Series Plectognathi 


and three-rooted. All are reputed poisonous, especially in the 
equatorial seas. 

In Diodon the spines are very long, the anterior ones, at 
least, movable. The common porcupine-fish, Diodon hystrix, is 
found in all seas, and often in abundance. It is a sluggish fish, 
olive and spotted with black. It reaches a length of two feet 
or more, and by its long spines it is thoroughly protected from 
all enemies. A second species, equally common, is the lesser 
porcupine-fish, Diodon holacanthus. In this species, the frontal 
spines are longer than those behind the pectoral, instead of the 
reverse, as in Diodon hystrix. Many species of Diodon are 
recorded from the Eocene, besides numerous species from later 
deposits. One of these, as Heptadiodon heptadiodon from the 
Eocene of Italy, with the teeth subdivided, possibly represents 
a distinct family. Dzodon erinaceus is found in the Eocene of 
Monte Bolea and Progymnodon hilgendorfi in the Eocene of 
Egypt. 

In the rabbit-fishes (Chilomycterus) the body is box-shaped, 


4 


Fig. 5381.—Rabbit-fish, Gistonians schepfi (Walbaum). Noank, Conn. 
covered with triangular spines, much shorter and broader at 
base than those of Diodon. Numerous species are known. 

Chilomycterus schepfi is the common rabbit-fish, or swell- 
toad of our Atlantic coast, light green, prettily varied with black 
lines. The larger Chilomycterus ajfinis, with the pectoral fin 
spotted with black, is widely diffused through the Pacific. It 
is rather common in Japan, where it is the torabuku, or tiger 
puffer. It is found also in Hawaii, and it is once recorded by 
Dr. Eigenmann from San Pedro, California, and once by Snod- 
grass and Heller, from the Galapagos. 


Series Plectognathi 635 


The Head-fishes: Molide.—The head-fishes, or Molide, also 
called sunfishes, have the body abbreviated behind so that the 
dorsal, anal, and caudal seem to be attached to the posterior 
outline of the head. This feature, constituting the so-called 
gephyrocercal tail is a trait of specialized degradation. 

Mola mola, the common head-fish or sunfish, is found occa- 
sionally in all tropical and temperate seas. Its form is almost 


Fig. 532.—Headfish (adult), Mola mola (Linnzus). Virginia. 


circular, having been compared by Linnzus to a mill-wheel 
(mola), and its surface is covered with a rough, leathery skin. 
It swims very lazily at the surface of the water, its high dorsal 
often rising above the surface. It is rarely used as food, though 
not known to be poisonous. The largest example known to the 
writer was taken at Redondo Beach, California, by Mr. Thomas 
Shooter, of Los Angeles. This specimen was 8 feet 2 inches in 


636 Series Plectognathi 


length, and weighed 1200 pounds. Another, almost as large, 
was taken at San Diego, in April, 1904. No difference has been 
noticed among specimens from California, Cape Cod, Japan, 
and the Mediterranean. The young, however, differ con- 
siderably from the adult, as might be expected in a fish of such 
great size and extraordinary form. 

Fragments named Chelonopsis, and doubtfully 
referred to Mola, are found in the Pliocene of 
Belgium. Certain jaws of cretaceous age, attrib- 
uted to Mola, probably belong, according to 
Woodward, to a turtle. 


Fic. 583.—The King of the Mackerel, Ranzania makua Jenkins, 
from Honolulu. (After Jenkins.) 


In the genus Ranzania, the body is more 
elongate, twice as long as deep, but as in Mola, 
the body appears as if bitten off and then pro- 


vided with a fringe of tail. The species are 
rarely taken. Ranzania truncata is found in the Mediterranean 


and once at Madeira. Ranzania makua, known as the king of 
the mackerels about Hawaii, is beautifully colored brown and 
silvery. This species has been taken once in Japan. 

In Hawaii it is believed that all the Scombroid fishes are sub- 
ject to the rule of the makua and that they will disappear it 
this fish be killed. By a similar superstition, Regalecus glesne 
is “king of the herrings’’ in Norway and about Cape Flattery, 
Trachypterus rex salmonorum is “ king of the salmon.”’ 


CHAPTER XL 


PAREIOPLITA, OR MAILED-CHEEK FISHES 


wwH|HE Mailed-cheek Fishes. — The vast group of Parei- 
“hd oplite (Loricati) or mailed- enees fishes is charac- 
-*| terized by the presence of a “bony stay’ or back- 
ae directed process from the third suborbital. This 
extends backward across the cheek toward the preopercle. In 
the most generalized forms this bony stay is small and hidden 
under the skin. In more specialized forms it grows larger, 
articulates with the preopercle, and becomes rough or spinous 
at its surface, Finally, it joins the other bones to form a coat 
of mail which covers the whole head. In degenerate forms it 
is again reduced in size, finally becoming insignificant. 

The more primitive Pareioplite (mxapeia, cheek; dzdit7:, 
armed) closely resemble the Percomorphi, having the same 
fins, the same type of shoulder-girdle, and the same insertion 
of the ventral fins. In the more specialized forms the ventral 
fins remain thoracic, but almost all other parts of the anatomy 
are greatly distorted. In all cases, so far as known to the 
writer, the hypercoracoid is perforate as in the Percomorphit. 
There are numerous points of resemblance between the Czr- 
rhitide and the Scorpenide, and it is probable that the Scor- 
pemde with all the other Pareioplite sprang from some per- 
ciform stock allied to Cirrhitide and Latridide. 

Fossil mailed-cheek fishes are extremely few and throw little 
light on the origin of the group. Those belong chiefly to the 
Cottide. Lepidocottus, recorded from the Miocene and Oligo- 
cene, seems to be the earliest genus. 

The Scorpion-fishes: Scorpenide.—The vast family of Scor- 
penide, or scorpion-fishes, comprises such a variety of forms 


as almost to defy diagnosis. The more primitive types are 
637 


638 Series Plectognathi 


percoid in almost all respects, save in the presence of the sub- 
ocular stay. Their scales are ctenoid and well developed. 
The dorsal spines are numerous and strong. The ventral fins 
are complete and normally attached; the anal has three strong 


Fic. 534.—Rosefish, Sebastes marinus Linnwus. Cape Cod. 


spines. The cranium shows only a trace of spiny ridges, and 
the five spines on the preoperculum are not very different from 
those seen in some species of bass. The gill-arches are, however, 
different, there being but 3} gills and no slit behind the last. 


’ 


Fie. 585.—Skull of Scorpenichthys marmoratus Girard,showing the suborbital stay (a). 


Otherwise the mouth and pharanx show no unusual characters. 
In the extremes of the group, however, great changes take 
place, the head becomes greatly distorted with ridges and 
grooves, the anal spines are lost, and the dorsal spines variously 
modified. The scales may be lost or replaced by warts or 


Series Plectognathi 639 


prickles and the ventral fins may be greatly reduced. Still 
the changes are very gradual, and it is not easy to divide the 
group into smaller families. 

The most primitive existing genus is doubtless Sebastes. 
The familiar rosefish, Sebastes marinus, is found on both shores 
of the north Atlantic. It is bright red in color and is valued 
as food. As befits a northern fish, it has an increased number 
of vertebree (31) and the dorsal spines number 15. From its 
large haddock-like eye it has been called the Norway haddock. 
It is an important food-fish in New England as well as in north- 
ern Europe. 

In the north Pacific Sebastes gives place to Sebastolobus, 
with three species (macrochir, altivelis, and aiascanus), all bright- 


Fie. 586.—Sebastolobus altivelis Gilbert. Alaska. 


ted fishes of soft substance and living in rather deep water. 
Sebastolobus is characterized by its two-lobed pectoral fin, the 
lower rays being enlarged. 

The genus Sebastodes, with its rougher-headed ally Sebas- 
tichthys, with 13 dorsal spines and the vertebre 27, ranges far- 
ther south than Sebastes and forms one of the most character- 
istic features of the fauna of California and Japan, 50 species 
occurring about California and 25 being already known from 
Japan. One species (Sebastichthys capensis) is recorded from 
the Cape of Good Hope, and two, Sebastichthys oculatus and 
S. darwint, from the coast of Chile. 


640 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


Within the limits of Sebastodes and Sebastichthys is a very large 
range of form and color, far more than should exist within the 
range of a natural genus. On the other hand, all attempts at 
generic subdivision have failed because the species form a number 
of almost perfectly continuous series. At one extreme are species 
with large mouths, small scales, relatively smooth cranium, 
and long gill-rakers. At the other extreme are robust species, 
with the head very rough, the mouth moderate, the scales 
larger, and the gill-rakers short and thick. Still other species 
have slender cranial spines and spots of bright pink in certain 
specialized localities. These approach the genus Helicolenus 
as other species approach Scorpena. 

The various species are known in California as rockfish, or 
rock-cod, in japan as Soi and Mebaru. In both regions they 
form a large part of the bulk of food-fishes, the flesh being 
rather coarse and of moderate flavor. All the species so far 
as known are ovoviviparous, the young being brought forth 
in summer in very great number, born at the length of about 
4 of an inch. The species living close to shore are brown, black, 
or green. Those living in deeper waters are bright red, and 
in still deeper waters often creamy or gray, with the lining of 
the mouth and the peritoneum black. The largest species 
reach a length of two or three feet, the smallest eight or ten 
inches. None is found between Lower California and Peru 
and none south of Nagasaki in Japan. Of the California species 
the following are of most note: Sebastodes paucispinis, the 
Bocaccio of the fishermen, from its large mouth, is an elongate 
fish, dull red in color, and reaching a very large size. In deeper 
waters are Sebastodes jordani and Sebastodes goodei, the former 
elongate and red, the latter more robust and of a very bright 
crimson color. Sebastodes ovalis, the viuva, and Sebastodes 
entomelas are grayish in hue, and the related Sebastodes 
proriger is red. The green rockfish Sebastodes flavidus is 
common along the shore, as also the black rockfish, known 
as péche prétre or priestfish, Sebastodes mystinus. Less com- 
mon is Sebastodes melanops. Similar to this but more orange 
in color is the large Sebastodes miniatus. Somewhat rougher- 
headed is the small grass rockfish, Sebastodes atrovirens. On 
the large red rockfish, Sebastichthys ruberrimus, the spinous 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 641 


ridges are all large and rough serrate. On the equally large 
Sebastichthys levis these ridges are smooth. Both these species 
are bright red in color. Sebastichthys rubrovinctus, called the 
Spanish-flag, is covered with broad alternating bands of deep 
crimson and creamy pink. It is the most handsomely colored 
of our marine fishes and is often taken in southern California. 
Sebastichthys elongatus is a red species with very large mouth. 
Several other species small in size are red, with three or four 
spots of bright pink. The commonest of these is the corsair, 


Fic. 587 —Priest-fish, Sebastodes mystinus Jordan & Gilbert. Monterey, Cal. 


Sebastichthys rosaceus, plain red and golden. Another species 
is the green and red flyfish, Sebastichthys rhodochloris. Sebas- 
tichthys constellatus is spotted with pink and Sebastichthys chlo- 
rostictus with green. To this group with pink spots the South 
American and African species belong, but none of the Japa- 
nese. Sebastodes aleutianus is a large red species common in 
Alaska and Sebastodes ciliatus a green one. About the wharves 
in California and northward the brown species called Sebas- 
tichthys auriculatus is abundant. In the remaining species 
the spinous ridges are progressively higher, though not so sharp 
as in some of those already named. Sebastichthys. maliger has 
very high dorsal spines and a golden blotch on the back. In 
Sebastichthys caurinus and especially Sebastichthys vexillaris 
the spines are very high, but the coloration is different, being 
reddish brown. Sebastichthys nebulosus is blue-black with golden 


642 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


spots. Sebastichthys chrysomelas is mottled black and yellow. 
Sebastichthys carnatus is flesh-color and green. Sebastichthys 
rastrelliger is a small, blackish-green species looking like Sebas- 
todes atrovirens, but with short gill-rakers. Sebastichthys hop- 
kinst and Sebastichthys gilberti are small species allied to it. 
The treefish, Sebastichthys serriceps, has very high spines on the 
head, and the olive body is crowned by broad black bands. 
Still more striking is the black-banded rockfish, Sebastichthys 


Fic. 538.—Sebastichthys serriceps Jordan & Gilbert. Monterey, Cal. 


nigrofasciatus, with very rough head and bright red body with 
broad cross-bands of black. 

Of the Japanese species the commonest, Sebastodes inermis, 
the Mebaru, much resembles Sebastodes flavidus. Sebastodes 
fuscescens looks like Sebastodes melanops, as does also Sebastodes 
taczanowskit, Sebastodes matsubare and S. flammeus and S. 
iracundus, bright-red off-shore species, run close to Sebastodes 
aleutianus. Sebastichthys pachycephalus suggests Sebastichthys 
chrysomelas. Sebastodes steindachneri and S. itinus are brighter- 
colored allies of Sebastodes ovalis and Sebastodes scythropus and 
Sebastodes joyneri represent Sebastodes proriger. Sebastichthys 
trivittatus, green, striped with bright golden, bears some resem- 
blance to Sebastichthys maliger. Sebastichthys elegans, Sebastich- 
thys oblongus, and Sebastichthys mitsukurti, dwarf species, pro- 
fusely spotted, have no analogues among the American forms. 
Sebastodes glaucus of the Kurile Islands has 14 dorsal spines 


i ela 


<a  t Seh leme - 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 643 


and is not closely related to any other. Fourteen dorsal 
spines are occasionally present in Sebastichthys elegans. All 
the other species show constantly 13. 

The genus Sebastiscus has the general appearance of Sebas- 
todes, and like the latter possesses a large air-bladder. It how- 
ever agrees with Scorpena in the possession of but 12 dorsal 
spines and 24 vertebre. The two known species are common 
in Japan. Sebastiscus marmoratus, mottled brown, is everywhere 


Fic. 539.—Banded Rockfish, Sebastichthys nigrocinctus (Ayres). Straits of Fuca. 


abundant along the coast, and the pretty Sebastiscus albofasciatus, 
pink, violet, and golden, represents it in equal abundance in 
deeper water. 

The genus Sebastopsis differs from Sebastodes only in having 
no teeth on the palatines. The species, all of small size and 
red or varied coloration, are confined to the Pacific. Sebastop- 
sis xyris occurs in Lower California and Sebastopsis guamensis 
and S. scaber in Polynesia. Species of this genus are often 
found dried in Chinese insect boxes. 

Helicolenus differs from Sebastiscus only in the total absence 
of air-bladder. The species are all bright crimson in color, very 
handsome, and live in deep water. Helicolenus dactylopterus is 
rather common in the Mediterranean, and is sometimes taken 
in the Gulf Stream, and also in Japan, where two or three other 
species occur. 


644 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


Neosebastes is much like Sebastodes, but the suborbital stay 
bears strong spines and the dorsal is very high. Neosebastes 
panda is found in Australia, and N. entaxisin Japan. Setarches is 
distinguished by the cavernous bones of its head. Species are 
found in both the Atlantic and Pacific in deep water. Several 
other peculiar or transitional genera are found in different parts 
of the Pacific. 

In Scorpena the head is more uneven in outline than in 
Sebastodes and Sebastichthys, skinny flaps are often present on 
head and body, the air-bladder is wanting, there are 12 dorsal 


Fic. 540—Florida Lion fish, Scorpena grandicornis Cuv. & Val. Key West. 


spines and 24 vertebra, and on each dorsal spine is a small 
venom-secreting gland. The species are very numerous, highly 
varied in color, and found in all warm seas, being known as scor- 
pion-fishes or Rascacios. Two species, Scorpena scrofa and 
Scorpena porcus, are common in the Mediterranean, being re- 
garded as good food-fishes, though disliked by the fishermen. 

Of the numerous West Indian species, Scorpena plumiert, 
Scorpena grandicornis, and Scorpena brasiliensis are best known. 
Scorpena guttata is common in southern California and is an 
excellent food-fish. Scorpena mystes is found on the west coast 
of Mexico. Scorpena onaria and S. izensis are found in Japan. 
Fossil remains referred to Scorpena are recorded from the Terti- 
ary rocks. 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 645 


In the islands of the Pacific are numerous dwarf species 
less than three inches long, which have been set apart as a 
separate genus, Sebastapistes. The longest known of these is 
Sebastapistes strongensis, named from Strong Island, abundant 
in crevices in the corals throughout Polynesia, and much dis- 
liked by fishermen. 

The genus Scorpenopsis differs from Scorpena in the absence 
of palatine teeth. It is still more fantastic in form and color. 


Fig. 541.—Sea-scorpion, Scorpena mystes Jordan. Mazatlan. 


Scorpenopsis currhosa, Scorpenopsis fimbriata, and other species 
are widely distributed through the East Indies and Polynesia. 

The lion-fishes (Pterots) of the tropical Pacific are remarkable 
for their long pectoral fins, elongate dorsal spines, and zebra-like 
coloration. The numerous species are fantastic and hand- 
somely colored, but their poisoned, needle-like spines are dreaded 
by fishermen. They lurk in crevices in the coral reefs, some 
of them reaching a foot in length. 

Inimicus japonicus, common in Japan, has a depressed and 
monstrous head and a generally bizarre appearance. It is usually 
black in color but is largely bright red when found among red 
alge. <A related species, [nimicus aurantiacus, is blackish when 
near shore, but lemon-yellow in deep water (see plate). A 
related species in the East Indies is Pelor filamentosum, called 
Nohu or Gofu in Polynesia. 

Still more monstrous are the species of Synanceia, short, 
thick-set, irregularly formed fishes, in which the poisoned spines 


646 


Fic, 542,—Lion-fish or Sausolele (the dorsal spines envenomed), Pterois volitans (Linnweus). Family Scorpenide. 
(From a specimen from Samoa.) 


1 PTEROIS SAUSAULELE JORDAN & SEALE. (FAMILY SCORPASNIDAZ) 
2 VALENCIENNEA VIOLIFERA JORDAN & SEALE. TYPE. (FAMILY GOBIID) 


FISHES OF THE CORAL POOLS, SAMOA 


> 
: 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 647 


reach a high degree of venom. The flesh in all these species 
is wholesome, and when the dorsal spines are cut off the fishes 
sell readily in the markets. These fishes lie hidden in cavities 
of the reefs, being scarcely distinguishable from the rock itself. 
(See Fig. 64.) 

The black Emmydrichthys vulcanus of Tahiti lies in crevices 
of lava, and could scarcely be distinguished from an irregular 
lump of lava-rock. 


Fic. 543.—Black Nohu, or Poison-fish, Zmmydrichthys vulcanus Jordan. A species 
with stinging spines, showing resemblance to lumps of lava among which it 
lives. Family Scorpenide. From Tahiti. 

A related form, Erosa erosa, the daruma-okose of Japan, is 
monstrous in form but often beautifully colored with crimson 
and gray. ~* 

In Congiopus the very strong dorsal spines begin in the 
head, and the mouth is very small. Dr. Gill makes this genus 
the type of a distinct family, Congiopodide. 

Besides these, very many genera and species of small poison- 
fishes, called okose in Japan, abound in the sandy bays from 
Tokio to Hindostan and the Red Sea. Some of these are hand- 
somely colored, others are fantastically formed. Paracentro- 
pogon rubripinnis and Minous adamsi are the commonest species 
in Japan. Trachicephalus uranoscopus abounds in the bays of 
hina. Snyderina yamanokamt occurs in Southern Japan. 

But few fossil Scorpenidw are recorded. Scorpenopterus 
siluridens, a mailed fish from the Vienna Miocene, with a warty 
head, seems to belong to this group, and Ampheristus toliapicus, 


648 


Satsuma, Japan. 


Family Scorpenide. 


Fic. 544.—Snyderina yamanokami Jordan & Starks. 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 649 


with a broad, depressed head, is found in the London Eocene, 
and various Miocene species have been referred to Scorpena. 
Sebastodes rose is based on a fragment, probably Pleistocene, 
from Port Harford, California. 


The small family of the Caracanthide consists of little fishes 
xs 


Fie. 545 —Trachicephalus uranoscopus. Family Scorpenide. From 
Swatow, China. 


of the coral reefs of the Pacific. These are compressed in form, 
and the skin is rough with small prickles, the head being feebly 
armed. The species are rare and little known, brown in color 
with pale spots. 

The Skilfishes: Anoplopomide.— The small family of  skil- 
fishes or Anoplopomide consists of two species found on the 


Fie. 546—Skilfish, Anoplopoma fimbria (Pallas). California. 


coast of California and northward. These resemble the Scor- 
pemde, having the usual form of nostrils, and the suborbital 
stay well developed. The skull is, however, free from spines, 
the scales are small and close-set, and the sleek, dark- 
colored body has suggested resemblance to the mackerel or 
hake. Anoplopoma fimbria, known as skilfish, beshow, or coal- 
fish, is rather common from Unalaska to Monterey, reaching 
a length of two feet or more. In the north it becomes very 


650 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


fat and is much valued as food. About San Francisco it is 
dry and tasteless. 

The Greenlings: Hexagrammide.— The curious family of 
greenlings, Hexagrammide, is confined to the two shores of the 
North Pacific. The species vary much in form, but agree in 
the unarmed cranium and in the presence of but a single nostril 
on each side, the posterior opening being reduced to a minute 
pore. The vertebre are numerous, the scales small, and the 
coloration often brilliant. The species are carnivorous and 
usually valued as food. They live in the kelp and about rocks 
in California and Japan and along the shores of Siberia and 


Fic. 547,—Atka-fish, Pleurogrammus monopterygius (Pallas). Atka Island. 


Alaska. The atka-fish (Pleurogrammus monopterygius) is one 
of the finest of food-fishes. This species reaches a length of 
eighteen inches. It is yellow in color, banded with black, and 
the flesh is white and tender, somewhat like that of the Lake 
whitefish (Coregonus clupeiformis), and is especially fine when 
salted. This fish is found about the Aleutian Islands, espe- 
cially the island of Atka, from which it takes its name. It is 
commercially known as Atka mackerel. 

In this genus there are numerous lateral lines, and the dorsal 
fin is continuous. In Hexagrammos, the principal genus of the 
family, the dorsal is divided into two fins, and there are about 
five lateral lines on each side. 

Hexagrammos decagrammus is common on the coast of Cali- 
fornia, where it is known by the incorrect name of rock-trout. 
It is a well-known food-fish, reaching a length of eighteen inches. 


a 


i 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 651 


The sexes are quite unlike in color, the males anteriorly with 
blue spots, the females speckled with red or brown. 
Hexagrammos octogrammus, the common greenfish of Alaska, 
and the greenling Hexagrammos stelleri, are also well-known 
species. Close to the latter species is the Abura ainame, or 


Fie. 548.—Greenling, Heragrammos decagrammus (Pallas). Sitka. 


fat cod, Hexagrammos otakii, common throughout Japan. The 
red rock-trout, Hexagrammos superciliosus, is beautifully varie- 
gated with red, the color being extremely variable. Other 
species are found in Japan and Kamchatka. Agrammus agram- 


S 
Fie. 549.—Cultus Cod, Ophiodon elongatus (Girard). Sitka, Alaska. 


mus of Japan differs in the possession of but one lateral line. 
Ophiodon elongatus, the blue cod, cultus cod, or Buffalo cod of 
California, is a large fish of moderate value as food, much resem- 
bling a codfish, but with larger mouth and longer teeth. The 
flesh and bones are deeply tinged with bluish green. Cultus 
is the Chinook name for worthless. Zantolepis latipinnts is 
a singular-looking fish, very rough, dry, and bony, occasionally 
taken on the California coast. Oxylebius pictus is a small, hand- 
some, and very active little fish, whitish with black bands, com- 


652 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


mon among rocks and alge on the California coast. It is, 
however, rarely brought into the markets, as it shows great 
skill in escaping the nets. 

No fossil Hexagrammide are known. 

The Flatheads or Kochi: Platycephalide.—The family of Pla- 
tycephalide consists of spindle-shaped fishes, with flattened, 
rough heads and the body covered with small, rough scales. 
About fifty species occur in the East Indian region, where the 
larger ones are much valued as food. The most abundant 
species and usually the largest in size is Platycephalus insidiator, 
the kochi of the Japanese. The genus Jnsidiator contains smaller 
species with larger scales. In all these the head is very much 
depressed, a feature which separates them from all the Scor- 
penide. Hoplichthys langsdorfi, the nezupo or rat-tail of Japan, 
is the type of a separate family, Hoplichthyide, characterized by 
a bony armature of rough plates. Bembras japonicus, another 
little Japanese fish, with the ventrals advanced in position and 
the skin with rough plates, is the type of the family of 
Bembradide. 

The Sculpins: Cottide—The great family of Cottide or scul- 
pins is one especially characteristic of the northern seas, where 
a great variety of species is found. These differ in general 
from the Scorpenide, from which they are perhaps derived, 
in the greater number of vertebre and in the relative feeble- 
ness or degeneration of the spinous dorsal, the ventrals, and 
the scales. In all these regards great variation exists. In 
the most primitive genus, Jordania, the body is well scaled, 
the spinous dorsal well developed, and the ventral rays 1, 5. In 
Hemitripterus a large number of dorsal spines remains, but the 
structure in other regards is highly modified. In the most 
degraded types, Cottunculus, Psychrolutes, Gilbertidia, which 
are also among the most specialized, there is little trace of 
spinous dorsal, the scales are wholly lost, and the ventral fin 
is incomplete. Most of the species of Cottide live on the bot- 
tom in shallow seas. Some are found in deep water and a few 
swarm in the rivers. All are arctic or subarctic, none being 
found to the south of Italy, Virginia; California, and Japan. 
None are valued as food, being coarse and tough. Scarcely 
any is found fossil. . 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 653 


Of the multitude of genera of Cottide we notice a few of 
the most prominent. Jordania zonope, a pretty little fish of 
Puget Sound, is the most primitive in its characters, being closely 
allied to the Hexagrammide. 

Scorpemchthys marmoratus, the great sculpin, or cabezon, of 
California reaches a length of 24 feet. It has the ventral rays 


Fic. 550.—Jordania zonope Starks. Puget Sound. 


1, 5, although almost in all the other sculpins the rays are. 
reduced to 1, 3 or 1, 4. The flesh has the livid blue color seen 
in the cultus cod, Ophiodon elongatus. 

To Icelinus, Artedius, Hemilepidotus, Astrolytes, and related 
genera belong many species with the body partly scaled. These 


Fic. 551.—Astrolytes notospilotus (Girard). Puget Sound. 


are characteristic of the North Pacific, in which they drop to 
a considerable depth. Jcelus, Triglops, and Artediellus are 
found also in the North Atlantic, the Arctic fauna of which is 
derived almost entirely from Pacific sources. The genus Hemi- 
lepidotus contains coarse species, with pvands of scales. The 
“Trish lord,” Hemilepidotus jordam, a familiar and fantastic 


654 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


inhabitant of Bering Sea, is much valued by the Aleuts as a 
food-fish, although the flesh is rather tough and without much 


Fie. 552.—Irish Lord, Hemilepidotus jordanit Bean. Unalaska. 


flavor. Almost equally common in Bering Sea is the red scul- 
pin, Hemulepidotus hemilepidotus, and the still rougher Cera- 


Fig. 553.—Triglops pingeli Kroyer. Chebucto, Canada. 


j 
tocottus diceraus. The stone-sculpin, or buffalo-sculpin, Enophrys | 
bison, with bony plates on the side and rough horns on the preo- . 

) 


Fic. 554.—Buffalo Sculpin, Znophrys bison (Girard). Puget Sound. 


percle, is found about Puget Sound and southward. In all 
these large rough species from the North Pacific the preopercle 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 655 


is armed with long spines which are erected when the fish is 
disturbed. This makes it almost poaceae le for any larger 
fish to swallow them. 


Fic. 555.—Ceratocottus diceraus (Cuv. & Val.). Tolstoi Bay, Alaska. 


The genera Cottus and Uranidea include the miller’s thumbs, 
also called in America, blob and muffle-jaws, of the Northern 


<< 


. AS 


Fie. 556.—Elanura ws Gilbert. Bering Sea. 


rivers. These little fishes are found in Europe, Asia, and America 
wherever trout are found. They lurk under weeds and stones, 


Fig. 557.—Yellowstone Miller’s Thumb, Cottus punctulatus (Gill). 
Yellowstone River. 


moving with the greatest swiftness when disturbed. They are 
found in every cold stream of the region north of Virginia, and 
they vie with the sticklebacks in their destruction of the eggs 


and fry of salmon and trout. Cottus gobio is the commonest 
species of Europe. Cottus tctalops is the most abundant of the 
several species of the eastern United States, and Cottus asper in 
streams of the Pacific Coast, though very many other species 


Fic. 558.—Miller’s Thumb, Uranidea tenuis Evermann & Meek. Klamath Falls. 


exist in each of these regions. The genus Uranidea is found 
in America. It is composed of smaller species with fewer 
teeth and fin-rays, the ventrals 1, 3. Uvranidea gracilis is the 
commonest of these, the miller’s thumb of New England. 
Rheopresbe fujiyame is a large river sculpin in Japan. 


656 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 
; 
| 


Fic. 559.—Cottus evermanni Gilbert. Lost River, Oregon. 


Trachidermus ansatus is another river species, the ‘‘ mountain- 
witch”? (yama-no-kami) of Japan, remarkable for a scarlet 
brand on its cheek, conspicuous in life. 

The chief genus of Atlantic sculpins is Myoxocephalus, con- 
taining large marine species, in structure much like the species 
of Cottus. Mvyoxocephalus bubalis is the European fatherlasher, 
or proach; the European sculpin is Myoxocephalus scorpius. 
The very similar daddy sculpin of New England is Myoxocepha- 
lus grenlandicus, This species swarms everywhere from Cape 
Cod northward. 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 657 


According to Fabricius, Myoxocephalus grenlandicus is 
“abundant in all the bays and inlets of Greenland, but prefers a 
stony coast clothed with seaweed. It approaches the shore in 


Fie. 660.—California Miller’s Thumb, Cottus gulosus Girard. McCloud River,Cal. 
(Photograph by Cloudsley Rutter.) 

spring and departs in winter. It is very voracious, preying on 

everything that comes in its way and pursuing incessantly the 

smaller fish, not sparing the young of its own species, and devour- 

ing crustacea and worms. It is very active and bold, but does 

not come to the surface unless it be led thither in pursuit of 


Fic. 561—Pribilof Sculpin, Myoxocephalus niger (Bean). St. Paul Island, 
Bering Sea. 


other fish. It spawns in December and January and deposits 
its red-colored roe on the seaweed. It is easily taken with a 
bait, and constitutes the daily food of the Greenlanders, who 
are very fond of it. They eat the roe raw.” 

The little sculpin, or grubby, of the New England coast is 
Myoxocephalus @neus, and the larger eighteen-spined sculpin is 
Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus. Still more numerous. and 


658 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


varied are the sculpins of the North Pacific, Myoxocephalus 
polyacanthocephalus being the best known and most widely 
diffused. Oncocottus quadricornis is the long-horned sculpin of 
Arctic Europe, entering the lakes of Russia and British 


oO 
Fic. 562.—18-spined Sculpin, Myoxocephalus octodecimspinosus (Mitchill). 
Beasley Point, N. J. 

America. Triglopsis thompsoni of the depths in our own Great 
Lakes seems to be a dwarfed and degenerate descendant of 
Oncocottus. 

The genus Zesticelus contains small soft-bodied sculpins from 
the depths of the North Pacific. Zesticelus profundorum was 


Fic. 563 —Oncocottus quadricornis (L.). St. Michael, Alaska. 


taken in 664 fathoms off Bogoslof Island and Zesticelus bathybius 
off Japan. In this genus the body is very soft and the skeleton 
feeble, the result of deep-sea life. Another deep-water genus less 
degraded is Cottunculus, from which by gradual loss of fins the 
still more degraded Psychrolutes (paradoxus) and Gilbertidia 
(sigolutes) are perhaps descended. In sculpins of this type the 
liparids, or sea-snails, may have had their origin. Among the 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 659 


remaining genera Gymnocanthus (tricuspis, etc.) has no vomer- 
ine teeth. Leptocottus (armatus) and Clinocottus (analis) abound 
on the coast of California, and Pseudoblennius (percoides) is 


UWS 


Fic. 564 —Blepsias cirrhosus Pallas. Straits of Fuca. 


found everywhere along the shores of Japan. Vellitor centro- 
pomus of Japan is remarkable among sculpins for its compressed 
body and long snout. Dialarchus snyderi of the California rock- 


Wet 


We 


Fic. 565 —Sea raven, Hemitripterus americanus (Gmelin). Halifax, Nova Scotia. 


pools is perhaps the smallest species of sculpin, Blepsias (cir- 
rhosus), Nautichthys (oculofasciatus), and Hemuitripterus (ameri- 
canus), the sea-raven, among the most fantastic. In the last- 
named genus the spinous dorsal is many-rayed, as in Scorpe- 
nide@, a fact which has led to its separation by Dr. Gill as a dis- 


660 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


tinct family. But the dorsal spines are equally numerous in 
Jordania, which stands at the opposite extreme of the cottoid 
seires. 

In Ascelichthys (rhodorus), a pretty sculpin of the rock-pools 
of the Oregon region, the ventral fins are wholly lost. Ereunias 
grallator, a deep-water sculpin from Japan, without ventrals and 


Fic. 566.—Oligocottus maculosus Girard. Sitka. 


with free rays below its pectorals, should perhaps represent a 
distinct family, Ereuniide. 

The degeneration of the spinous dorsal in Psychrolutes and Gil- 
bertidia of the North Pacific has been already noticed. These 
genera seem to lead directly from Cottunculus to Liparis. 

Fossil Cottide are few. Eocottus veronensis, from the Eocene 
of Monte Bolca, is completely scaled, with the ventral rays 1, 5. 
It is apparently related to Jordanza, but is still more primitive. 
Lepidocottus (aries and numerous other species, mostly from the 
Miocene) is covered with scales, but apparently has fewer than 
five soft rays in the ventrals. Remains of Oncocottus, Icelus, 
and Cottus are found in Arctic Pleistocene rocks. The family 
as a whole is evidently of recent date. 

The Rhamphocottide consist of a single little sculpin with a 
large bony and singularly formed head, found on the Pacific 
Coast from Sitka to Monterey. The species is called Rhampho- 
cottus richardsont. 

The Sea-poachers: Agonide.—The sea-poachers or alligator- 
fishes, Agonide, are sculpins inclosed in a coat of mail made by 
a series of overlying plates, much like those of the sea-horses or 
the catfishes of the family Loricariide. So far as structure 
goes, these singular fishes are essentially like the Cottide, but 


199 


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662 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


Fic. 568 —Sleek Sculpin, Psychrolutes paradoxus (Giinther). Puget Sound. 
Perret nT mea 


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Fie. 569.—Gilbertidia sigolutes (Jordan). Puget Sound. 


Fie. 570.—Richardson’s Boule sch ee richardsoni (Ciinther). 
Puget Sound. 


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664 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


with a different and more perfect armature. The many species 
belong chiefly to the North Pacific, a few in the Atlantic and on 
the coast of Patagonia. Some are found in considerable depth of 
water. All are too small to have value as food and some have 


Fic. 573.—Agonoid-fish, Pallasina barbata (Steindachner). Port Mulgrave, Alaska 


most fantastic forms. Only a few of the most prominent need 
be noticed. The largest and most peculiar species is Percis 
japonicus of the Kurile Islands. Still more fantastic is the 
Japanese Dractscus sachi with sail-like dorsal and anal. Agonus 
cataphractus, the sea-poacher, is the only European species. 
Podothecus acipenserinus, the alligator-fish, is the commonest 
species of the North Pacific. Pallasina barbata is as slender as 


Fic. 574—Aspidophoroides monopterygius (Bloch). Halifax. 


a pipefish, with a short beard at the chin. Aspidophoroides 
monopterygius of the Atlantic and other similar species of the 
Pacific lack the spinous dorsal fin. ‘ 
No fossil Agonide are known. 
The Lump-suckers: Cyclopteride.— The lump-suckers, Cyciop- 
teride, are structurally very similar to the Cottide, but of very 
different habit, the body being clumsy and the movements 
very slow. The ventral fins are united to form a sucking disk 
by which these sluggish fishes hold fast to rocks. The skeleton 
is feebly ossified, the spinous dorsal fin wholly or partly lost, 
the skin smooth or covered with bony warts. The slender 
subortal stay indicates the relation of these fishes with the — 
Cottide. The species are chiefly Arctic, the common lump- 
fish or ‘‘cock and hen paddle,” Cyclopterus lumpus, abounding 
on both shores of the North Atlantic. It reaches a length of 
twenty inches, spawning in eel-grass where the male is left to 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 665 


watch the eggs. Cyclopterichthys ventricosus is a large species 
with smooth skin from the North Pacific. 

The Sea-snails: Liparidide.— The sea-snails, Liparidide are 
closely related to the lumpfishes, but the body is more elongate, 


tadpole shaped, covered with very lax skin, like the ‘“‘ wrinkled 
skin on scalded milk.’”’ In structure the liparids are still more 
degenerate than the lumpfishes. Even the characteristic ven- 


Fic. 576.—Liparid, Crystaltias matsushime (Jordan and Snyder). 
Family Liparidide. Matsushima Bay, Japan. 


tral disk is lost in some species (Paraliparis; Amitra) and in 
numerous others the tail is drawn out into a point (leptocercal), 
a character almost always a result of degradation. The dorsal 
spines are wanting or imbedded in the loose skin, and all trace 
of spines on the head is lost, but the characteristic suborbital 
stay is well developed. The numerous species are all small, 
three to twelve inches in length. They live in Arctic waters, 


666 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


often descending to great depths, in which case the body is very 
soft. One genus, Enantioliparis, is found in the Antarctic. In 
the principal genus, Liparis, the ventral disk is well developed, 
and the spinous dorsal obsolete. Liparis liparis is found on 
both shores of the North Atlantic, and is subject to large varia- 
tions in color. Liparts agassizi is abundant in Japan and north- 
ward, and Liparis pulchellus in California. In the most primi- 
tive genus, Neoliparis, a notch in the fin indicates the separation 
of the spinous dorsal. Neoliparis montagui is common in Europe, 
replaced in New England by Neoliparis atlanticus. Careproctus, 
with numerous elongate species, inhabits depths of the North 
Pacific. In Paraliparis (or Hilgendorfia) ulochir, the ventral 


ered iy, 


Fig. 577.—Snailfish, Neoliparis mucosus (Ayres). San Francisco. 


disk is gone and the lowest stage of degradation of the 
Loricate or Scorpena-Cottus type of fishes is reached. No fossil 
lump-suckers or liparids are recorded, although remains of 
Cyclopterus lumpus are found in nodules of glacial clay in 
Canada. 

The Baikal Cods: Comephoride.—The family of Comephoride 
includes Comephorus batkalensis, a large fresh-water fish of 
Lake Baikal in Siberia, having no near affinities with any other 
existing fish, but now known to be a mail-cheek fish related to 
the Cottide. The body is elongate, naked, with soft flesh and 
feeble skeleton. The mouth is large, with small teeth, and 
the skull has a cavernous structure. There are no ventral 
fins. The spinous dorsal is short and low, the second dorsal 
and anal many-rayed, and the pectoral fins are excessively long, 
almost wing-like; the vertebrae number 8 +35 =43, and unlike 
most fresh-water fishes, the species has no air-bladder. Little 
is known of the habits of this singular fish. Another genus is 
recently described under the name of Cottocomephorus. 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 667 


Suborder Craniomi: the Gurnards, Triglide.—A remarkable off- 
shoot from the Paretoplite is the suborder of gurnards, known 
as Craniomt (xpaviov, skull; Gos, shoulder). In these fishes 
the suborbital stay is highly developed, much as in the Agonide, 
bony externally and covering the cheeks. The shoulder-girdle 
is distorted, the post-temporal being solidly united to the cra- 
nium, while the postero-temporal is crowded out of place by 
the side of the proscapula. In other regards these fishes resemble 
the other mail-cheek forms, their affinities being perhaps closest 
with the Agonide or certain aberrant Cottide as Ereunias. 

In the true gurnards or Triglide the head is rough and 
bony, the body covered with rough scales and below the pectoral 
fin are three free rays used as feelers by the fish as it creeps 
along the bottom. These free rays are used in turning over 
stones, exploring shells and otherwise searching for food. The 
numerous species are found in the warm seas. In Europe, 


Fic. 578 —Sea-robin, Prionotus evolans (L.). Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


the genus Trigla, without palatine teeth and with the lateral 
line armed, is represented by numerous well-known species. 
Trigla cuculus is a common form of the Mediterranean. Cheli- 
donichthys, similar to Trigla but larger and less fully armed, is 
found in Asia as well as in Europe. Several species occur in the 
Mediterranean. Chelidonichthys kumu is a common species in 
Japan, a large fish with pectorals of a very brilliant variegated 
blue, like the wings of certain butterflies. 

Lepidotrigla, with larger scales, has many species on the 
coasts of Europe as well as in China and Japan. Lepzidotrigla 


668 Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 


alata, a red fish with a peculiar bony, forked snout, is common 
in Japan. The American species of gurnards, having teeth 
on the palatine, belong to the genus Prionotus. Northward 
these fishes, known as sea-robins, live along the shores in 


Fic. 579 —Flying Gurnard, Cephalacanthus volitans (L.). Virginia. 


shallow water. In the tropics they descend to deeper water, 
assuming a red color. Prionotus carolinus is the commonest 
species in New England. Prionotus strigatus, the striped sea- 
robin, and Prionotus tribulus, the rough-headed sea-robin, are 
common species along the Carolina coast. None has much 
value as food, being dry and bony. Numerous fossil species 


Lee: , 


ib BS SS 


Fic. 580.—Peristedion miniatum Goode & Bean. Depths of the Gulf Stream. 


referred to Trigla are found in the Miocene. Podopteryx, from 
the Italian Miocene, with small pectorals and very large ven- 
trals, perhaps belongs also to this family, but its real affinities 
are unknown. 

The Peristediide.— The Peristediide are deep-water sea- 
robins, much depressed, with flat heads, a bony coat of mail, 


AZIS IVUOLVN SGUXIHL-OML LOOKV 


(SOE NNI'I) SNVLVYIOA SQHLNVOVW IVHdHO 
HSI LV&@ ‘GUVNUND DNIATA 


Pareioplite, or Mailed-cheek Fishes 669 


and two free feelers on the pectoral fin instead of three. The 
species of Peristedion are occasionally taken with the dredge. 
Peristedion cataphractum is rather common in Europe. The 
extinct Pertstedion urcianense is described from the Pliocene 
of Orciano, Tuscany. 

The Flying Gurnards: Cephalacanthide.— The flying gur- 
nards, Cephalacanthide, differ in numerous respects and are 
among the most fantastic inhabitants of the sea. The head 
is short and bony, the body covered with firm scales, and the 
very long, wing-like pectoral fin is divided into two parts, 
the posterior and larger almost as long as the rest of the body. 
This fin is beautifully colored with blue and brownish red. The 
first spine of the dorsal fin is free from the others and more 
or less prolonged. The few species of flying gurnard are much 
alike, ranging widely in the tropical seas, and having a slight 
power of flight. The flying robin, or batfish, called in Spanish 
volador or murcielago, Cephalacanthus volitans, is common on 
both coasts of the Atlantic, reaching a length of eighteen 
inches. Cephalacanthus petersen is found in Japan and Cepha- 
lacanthus orientalis in the East Indies, Japan, and Hawaii. The 
immature fishes have the pectoral fins much shorter than in 
_the adult, and differ in other regards. Cephalacanthus pliocenicus 
occurs in the Lower Pliocene of Orciano, Tuscany. 

Petalopteryx syriacus, an extinct flying gurnard found in 
the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, is an ally of Cephalacanthus. 
The body is covered with four-angled bony plates, and the 
first (free) spine of the dorsal is enlarged. 


CHAPTER XLI 
GOBIOIDEI, DISCOCEPHALI, AND TAZNIOSOMI 


UBORDER Gobioidei, the Gobies: Gobiide.—The great 
family of Gobtide, having no near relations among 
the spiny-rayed fishes, may be here treated as form- 

ing a distinct suborder. 

The chief characteristics of the family are the following: 
The ventral fins are thoracic in position, each having one spine 
and five soft rays, in some cases reduced to four, but never 
wanting. The ventral fins are inserted very close together, 
the inner rays the longest, and in most cases the two fins are 
completely joined, forming a single roundish fin, which may be 
used as a sucking-disk in clinging to rocks. The shoulder-girdle 
is essentially perch-like in form, the cranium is usually depressed, 
the bones being without serrature. There is no lateral line, 


the gill-openings are restricted to the sides, and the spinous’ 


dorsal is always small, of feeble spines, and is sometimes 
altogether wanting. There is no bony stay to the preopercle. 
The small pharyngeals are separate, and the vertebre heat 
in normal number, ro +14 =24. 

The species are excessively numerous in the tropics and 
temperate zones, being found in lakes, brooks, swamps, and 
bays, never far out in the sea, and usually in shallow water. 
Many of them burrow in the mud between or below tide-marks. 
Others live in swift waters like the darters, which they much 
resemble. A few reach a length of a foot or two, but most of 
the species rarely exceed three inches, and some of them are 
mature at half an inch. 

The largest species, Philypnus dormitor, the guavina de 
rio, is found in the rivers of Mexico and the West Indies. 
It reaches a length of nearly two feet and is valued as 


food. Unlike most of the others, in this species there are 
670 


tc 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 671 


teeth on the vomer. Other related forms of the subfamily 
of Eleotrine, having the ventral fins separate, are Eleotris 
pisoms, a common river-fish everywhere in tropical America; 
Eleotris fusca, a river-fish ee from Tahiti and Samoa 


Candle ‘Nd Z 
eee sit 


Fic. 581.—Guavina de Rio, Philypnus dormitor (Bloch & Schneider). Puerto Rico. 


to Hindostan; Dormitator maculatus, the stout-hodied guavina- 
mapo of the West Indian regions, with the form of a small 
carp. Guavina guavina of Cuba is another species of this type, 
and numerous other species having separate ventrals are found 
in the East Indies, the West Indies, and in the islands of Poly- 
nesia. Some species, as Valenciennesia strigata of the East 


Fic. 582—Dormeur, Eleotris pisonis Gmelin. Tortugas, Fla. 


Indies and Vireosa hane of Japan, are very gracefully colored. 
One genus, Eviota, is composed of numerous species, all minute, 
less than an inch in length. These abound in the crevices in 
coral-heads. Eviota epiphanes is found in Hawaii, the others 
farther south. Hypseleotris guntheri, of the rivers and springs 
of Polynesia, swims freely in the water, like a minnow, never 
hugging the bottom as usual among gobies. 


672 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


Of the typical gobies having the ventrals united we can 
mention but a few of the myriad forms, different species being 


, Mis, i 
LY 
Ce aye A 


, 
MY ? 


Fic. 583—Guavina mapo, Dormitator maculatus (Schneider). Puerto Rico. 


abundant alike in fresh and salt waters in all warm regions. 
In Europe Gobtus jozo, Gobius ophiocephalus, and many others 


Fic. 584 —Vireosa hane Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. 


are common species. The typical genus Gobius is known by 
its united ventrals, and by the presence of silken free rays on 


Fic. 585.—Esmeralda de Mar, Gobionellus oceanicus (Pallas). Puerto Rico, 


the upper part of the pectoral fin. Mapo soporator swarms 
about coral reefs in both Indies. Gobtonellus oceanicus, the 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Teniosomi 673 


esmeralda or emerald-fish, is notable for its slender body 
and the green spot over its tongue. Gobiosoma alepidotum 
and other species are scaleless. Barbulifer ceuthwcus lives in 
the cavities of sponges. Coryphopterus similis, a small goby, 
swarms in almost every brook of Japan. The species of Ptero- 


Fig. 586 —Pterogobius daimio Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. 


gobius are beautifully colored, banded with white or black, or 
striped with red or blue. Pterogobius virgo and Pterogobius 
daimio of Japan are the most attractive species. Species of 
Cryptocentrus are also very prettily colored. 

Of the species burrowing in mud the most interesting is 
the long-jawed goby, Gullichthys mirabilis. In this species 


Fic. 587.—Darter Goby, Aboma etheostoma Jordan. Mazatlan, Mex. 


the upper jaw is greatly prolonged, longer than the head, as in 
Opisthognathus and Neoclinus. In the ‘‘American Naturalist” 
for August, 1877, Mr. W. N. Lockington says of the long- 
jawed goby: 

“T call it the long-jawed goby, as its chief peculiarity con- 
sists in its tremendous length of jaw. A garpike has a long jaw, 
and so has an alligator, and it is not unlikely that the title will 
call up in the minds of some who read this the idea of a terrible 


| = 


674 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


mouth, armed with a bristling row of teeth. This would be 
a great mistake, for our little fish has no teeth worth bragging 
about, and does not open his mouth any wider than a well- 
behaved fish should do. The great difference between his 
long jaws and those of a garpike is that the latter’s project 
forward, while those of our goby are prolonged backward 
immensely. 

“The long-jawed goby was discovered by Dr. J. G. Cooper 
in the Bay of San Diego, among seaweed growing on small 
stones at the wharf, and in such position that it must have 
been out of the water from three to six hours daily, though 
kept moist by the seaweed. 

“On a recent occasion a single Gillichthys, much larger than 
any of the original types, was presented by a gentleman who 
said that the fish, which was new to him, was abundant upon 
his ranch in Richardson’s Bay, in the northern part of the 
Bay of San Francisco; that the Chinamen dug them up and 
ate them, and that he had had about eleven specimens cooked, 


Fic. 588—Long-jawed Goby, Gillichthys mirabilis Cooper. Santa Barbara. 


and found them good, tasting, he thought, something like eels. 
The twelfth specimen he had preserved in alcohol, in the interest 
of natural science. This gentleman had the opportunity of 
observing something of the mode of life of these fishes, and 
informed us that their holes, excavated in the muddy banks of 
tidal creeks, increase in size as they go downward, so that the 
lower portion is below the water-level, or at least sufficiently low 
to be kept wet by the percolation from the surrounding mud. 
‘“‘When the various specimens now acquired were placed side 
by side, the difference in the relative length of their jaws was 
very conspicuous, for while in the smallest it was about one- 
fifth of the total length, in the largest it exceeded one-third. 
“As the fish had now been found in two places in the bay, 


—— 
al 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Teniosomi 675 


I thought I would try to find it also, and to this end sallied 
out one morning, armed with a spade, and commenced pros- 
pecting in a marsh at Berkeley, not far from the State Univer- 
sity. For a long time I was unsuccessful, as I did not know by 
what outward signs their habitations could be distinguished, 
and the extent of mud-bank left bare by the retreating tide 
was, as compared with my powers of delving, practically limit- 
less. 

“At last, toward evening, while digging in the bend of a 
small creek, in a stratum of soft, bluish mud, and at a depth of 
about a foot below a small puddle, I found five small fishes, 
which at first I believed to belong to an undescribed species, 
so little did they resemble the typical G. mzrabilis, but which 
proved, upon a closer examination, to be the young of that 
species. There was the depressed, broad head, the funnel- 
shaped ventral ‘disk’ formed by the union of the two ventral 
fins, and the compressed tail of the long-jawed goby, but where 
were the long jaws? The jaws were, of course, in their usual 
place, but their prolongations had only just begun to grow along 
the sides of the head, and were not noticeable unless looked for. 
A comparison of the various specimens proved conclusively 
that the strange-looking appendage is developed during the 
growth of the fish, as will be seen by the following measure- 
ments of four individuals: 

“Tn the smallest specimen the maxillary expansion extends 
beyond the orbit for a distance about equal to that which inter- 
venes between the anterior margin of the orbit and the tip of 
the snout; in No. 2 it reaches to the posterior margin of the 
preoperculum; in No. 3 it ends level with the gill-opening; 
while in the largest individual it passes the origin of the pectoral 
and ventral fins. 

“What can be the use of this long fold of skin and cartilage, 
which is not attached to the head except where it joins the 
mouth, and which, from its gradual development and ultimate 
large dimensions, must certainly serve some useful purpose? 

“Do not understand that I mean that every part of a crea- 
ture is of use to it in its present mode of life, for, as all natural- 
ists know, there are in structural anatomy, just as in social 
life, cases of survival; remains of organs which were at some 


676 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


former time more developed, parallel in their nature to such 
survivals in costume as the two buttons on the back of a man’s 
coat, once useful for the attachment of a sword-belt. But in 
this fish we have no case of survival, but one of unusual develop- 
ment; the family (Gobtide) to which it belongs presents no 
similar case, although its members have somewhat similar 
habits, and the conviction grows upon us, as we consider the 
subject, that the long jaws serve some useful purpose in the 
economy of the creature. In view of the half-terrestrial life 
led by this fish, I am inclined to suspect that the expansion of 
the upper jaw may serve for the retention of a small quantity of 
water, which, slowly trickling downward into the mouth and gills, 
keeps the latter moist when, from an unusually low tide or a 
dry season, the waters of its native creek fail, perhaps for several 
hours, to reach the holes in which the fishes dwell. It may be 
objected to this view that, were such an appendage necessary or 
even useful, other species of Gobiide@, whose habits are similar, 
would show traces of a similar adaptation. This, however, by 
no means follows. Nature has many ways of working out the 
same end; and it must be remembered that every real species, 
when thoroughly known, differs somewhat in habits from its 
congeners, or at least from its family friends. To take an 
illustration from the mammalia. The chimpanzee and the 
spider-monkey are both quadrumanous and both arboreal, yet 
the end which is attained in the former by its more perfect 
hands is reached in the latter by its prehensile tail. 

“Why may not the extremely long channel formed by the 
jaw of this rather abnormal member of the goby family be 
another mode of provision for the requirements of respiration? ” 

Of the Asiatic genera, Periophthalmus and Boleophthalmus 
are especially notable. In these mud-skippers the eyes are 
raised on a short stalk, the fins are strong, and the animal has 
the power of skipping along over the wet sands and mud, even 
skimming with great speed over the surface of the water. It 
chases its insect prey among rocks, leaves, and weeds, and out 
of the water is as agile as a lizard. Several species of these 
mud-skippers are known on the coasts of Asia and Polynesia, 
Periophthalmus barbarus and Boleophthalmus chinensis being 
the best known. Awaous crassilabris is the common oopu, or 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 677 


river goby, of the Hawaiian streams, and Lentipes stimpsoni is 
the mountain oopu, capable of clinging to the rocks in the 


—— ZZ 


Fig. 589.—Pond-skipper, Boleophthalmus chinensis (Osbeck). Bay of Tokyo, Japan. 
(Eye-stalks sunken in preservation.) 


tush of torrents. Paragobiodon echinocephalus is a short thick- 
set goby with very large head, found in crevices of coral reefs 


of Polynesia. 


~~ 


Fic. 590.—Mud-skippy, Periophthalmus oarbarus (L.). Mouth of Vaisigono River, 
Apia, Samoa. 


In numerous interesting species the first dorsal fin is wanting 


or much reduced. The crystal goby, Crystallogobius mnilssont, 
of Europe is one of this type, with the body translucent. Equally 


678  Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


translucent is the little Japanese shiro-uwo, or whitefish, Leuco- 
psarion peterst. Muistichthys luzonius of the Philippine Islands, 
another diaphanous goby, is said to be the smallest of all verte- 
brates, being mature at half an inch in length. This minute 
fish is so very abundant as to become an important article of 
food in Luzon. The rank of “smallest-known vertebrate ”’ has 
been claimed in turn for the lancelet (Asymmetron lucayanum), 
the top minnow, Heterandria formosa, and the dwarf sunfish 
(Elassoma zonatum). Mistichthys luzonius is smaller than any 
of these, but the diminutive gobies, called Eviota, found in 
interstices of coral rocks are equally small, and there are several 
brilliant but minute forms in the reefsof Samoa. The snake-like 
Eutenichthys gilli of Japanese rivers is scarcely larger, though 
over an inch long. Typhlogobius californiensis, “the blindfish 
of Point Loma,” is a small goby, colorless and blind, found 
clinging in dark crevices of rock about Point Loma and Dead 
Man’s Island in southern California. 

Its eyes are represented by mere rudiments, their loss being 
evidently associated with the peculiar habit of the species, 


Fic. 591—Euteniichthys gillii Jordan & Snyder. Tokyo, Japan. 


which clings to the under side of stones in relative darkness, 
though in very shallow water.: The flesh is also colorless, the 
animal appearing pink in life. 

In the Japanese species Luciogobus guttatus, common under 
stones and along the coast, the spinous dorsal, weak in numer- 
ous other species, finally vanishes altogether. Other gobies 
are band-shaped or eel-shaped, the dorsal spines being continu- 
ous with the soft rays. Among these are the barreto of Cuba, 
Gobioides broussoneti, and in Japan Tenioides lacepedet and 
Trypauchen wake, the latter species remarkable for its strong 
canines. Fossil gobies are practically unknown. A few frag- 
ments, otoliths, and partial skeletons in southern Europe have 
been referred to Gobius, but no other genus is represented. 


SO 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 679 


The family of Oxudercide contains one species, Oxuderces 
dentatus, a small goby-like fish from China. It is an elongate 
fish, without ventral fins, and with very short dorsal and anal. 

Suborder Discocephali, the Shark-suckers: Echeneidide.—Next 
to the gobies, for want of a better place, we may mention the 
singular group of Discocephali (dicxos, disk; xe@ydy, head). 
In this group the first dorsal fin is transformed into a peculiar 
laminated sucking-disk, which covers the whole top of the head 
and the nape. In other respects the structure does not diverge 
very widely from the percoid type, there being a remarkable re- 
semblance in external characters to the Scombroid genus Rachy- 
centron. But the skeleton shows no special affinity to Rachy- 


centron or to any perciform fish. The basis of the cranium is 


Fic. 592.—Sucking-fish, or Pegador, Leptecheneis naucrates (Linneus). Virginia. 


simple, and in the depression of the head with associated modi- 
fications the Discocephali approach the gobies and blennies 
rather than the mackerel-like forms. 

The Discocephali comprise the single family of shark-suckers 
or remoras, the Echeneidide. All the species of this group 
are pelagic fishes, widely diffused in the warm seas. All cling 
by their cephalid” disks to sharks, barracudas, and other free- 
swimming fishes, and are carried about the seas by these. They 
do not harm the\shark except by slightly impeding its move- 
ment. They are carnivorous fishes, feeding on sardines, young 
herring, and the likes. When a shark, taken on the hook, is 
drawn out of the waterthe/sucking-fish leaves it instantly, 
and is capable of much speed in swimming on its own account. 
These fishes are all dusky in color, the belly as dark as the back, 
so as to form little contrast to the color of the shark. 

The commonest species, Leptecheneis naucrates, called pega- 
pega or pegador in Cuba, reaches a length of about two feet 
and is almost cosmopolitan in its range, being found exclusively 
on the larger sharks, notably on Carcharias lamia, It has 


680 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


20 to 22 plates in its disk, and the sides are marked by a dusky 
lateral band. 

Almost equally widely distributed is the smaller remora, 
or shark-sucker (Echeneis remora), with a stouter body and 
about 18 plates in the cephalic disk. This species is found 
in Europe, on the coast of New York, in the West Indies, 
in California, and in Japan, but is nowhere abundant. Another 
widely distributed species is Remorina albescens with 13 plates 
in its disk. Remoropsis brachyptera, with 15 plates and a long 
soft dorsal, is also occasionally taken. Rhombochirus osteochir 
is a rare species of the Atlantic with 18 plates, having the pec- 


Fic. 593.—Rhombochirus osteochir (Cuy. & Val.). Wood’s Hole, Mass. 


toral rays all enlarged and stiff. The louse-fish (Phtheirichthys 
lineatus) is a small and slender remora having but 10 plates 


in its disk. It is found attached, not to sharks, but to barra- - 


cudas and spearfishes. 

A fossil remora is described from the Oligocene shales in 
Glarus, Switzerland, under the name of Opisthomyzon glaronen- 
sis. It is characterized by the small disk posteriorly inserted. 
Its vertebree are 10+13=24 only. Dr. Storms gives the follow- 
ing account of this species: 

“A careful comparison of the proportion of all the parts 
of the skeleton of the fossil Echenets with those of the living 
forms, such as Echeneis naucrates or Echeneis remora, shows 
that the fossil differs nearly equally from both, and that it was 
a more normally shaped fish than either of these forms. The 
head was narrower and less flattened, the preoperculum wider, 
but its two jaws had nearly the same length. The ribs, as 
also the neural and hemal spines, were longer, the tail more 
forked, and the soft dorsal fin much longer. In fact it was 
a more compressed type, probably a far better swimmer than 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Teniosomi 681 


its living congeners, as might be expected if the smallness of 
the adhesive disk is taken into account.” 

Concerning the relations of the Discocephali Dr. Gill has 
the following pertinent remarks: 

“The family of Scomberoides was constituted by Cuvier for 
certain forms of known organization, among which were fishes 
evidently related to Caranx, but which had free dorsal spines. 
Dr. Giinther conceived the idea of disintegrating this family 
because, iter alias, the typical Scomberoides (family Scombride) 
have more than 24 vertebre and others (family Carangide) 
had just 24. The assumption of Cuvier as to the relationship of 
Elacate (Rachycentron) was repeated, but inasmuch as it had ‘more 
than 24 vertebre’ (it had 25=12+13) it was severed from 
the free-spined Carangide and associated with the Scombride. 
Elacate has an elongated body, flattened head, and a longi- 
tudinal lateral band; therefore Echenets was considered to be 
next allied to Elacate and to belong to the same family. The 
very numerous differences in structure between the two were 
entirely ignored, and the reference of the Echeneis to the Scom- 
bride is simply due to assumption piled on assumption. The 
collocation need not, therefore, longer detain us. The posses- 
sion by Echeneis of the anterior oval cephalic disk in place of a 
spinous dorsal fin would alone necessitate the isolation of the 
genus as a peculiar family. But that difference is associated 
with almost innumerable other peculiarities of the skeleton 
and other parts, and in a logical system it must be removed 
far from the Scombride, and probably be endowed with sub- 
ordinal distinction. In all essential respects it departs greatly 
from the type of structure manifested in the Scombride and 
rather approximates—but very distantly—the Gobzoidea and 
Blennioidea. In those types we have in some a tendency to 
flattening of the head, of anterior development of the dorsal 
fin, a simple basis cranii, etc. Nevertheless there is no close 
affinity, nor even tendency to the extreme modification of the 
spinous dorsal exhibited by Echeneis. In view of all these facts 
Echeneis, with its subdivisions, may be regarded as constitu- 
ting not only a family but a suborder. . . . Who can consistently 
object to the proposition to segregate the Echenetdide as a sub- 
order of teleocephalous fishes? Not those who consider that 


682 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


the development of three or four inarticulate rays (or even less) 
in the front of the dorsal fin is sufficient to ordinarily differen- 
tiate a given form from another with only one or two such. Cer- 
tainly the difference between the constituents of a disk and 
any rays or spines is much greater than the mere development 
or atrophy of articulations. Not those who consider that the 
manner of depression of spines, whether directly over the follow- 
ing, or to the right or left alternately, are of cardinal importance; 
for such differences, again, are manifestly of less morphological 
significance than the factors of a suctorial disk. Nevertheless 
there are doubtless many who will passively resist the propo- 
sition because of a conservative spirit, and who will vaguely 
refer to the development of the disk as being a ‘ teleological modi- 
fication,’ and as if it were not an actual fact and a develop- 
ment correlated with radical modifications of all parts of the 
skeleton at least. But whatever may be the closest relations 
of Echeneis, or the systematic value of its peculiarities, it is 
certain that it is not allied to Elacate any more than to hosts 
of scombroid, percoid, and kindred fishes, and that it differs im 
toto from it notwithstanding the claims that have been made 
otherwise. It is true that there is a striking resemblance, espe- 
cially between the young—almost as great, for example, as 
that between the placental mouse and the marsupial Antecht- 
nomys—but the likeness is entirely superficial, and the scientific 
ichthyologist should be no more misled than would be the scien- 
tific therologist by the likeness of the marsupial and placental 
mammals.”’ 

Suborder Tzniosomi, the Ribbon-fishes.—The suborder Teni- 
osomt (raivia, ribbon; ca@pa, body), or ribbon-fishes, is made 
up of strange inhabitants of the open seas, perhaps aberrant 
derivatives of the mackerel stock. The body is greatly elongate, 
much compressed, extremely fragile, covered with shining 
silvery skin. The ribbon-fishes live in the open sea, probably 
at no very great depth, but are almost never taken by collectors 
except when thrown on shore in storms or when attacked 
by other fishes and dragged above or below their depth. When 
found they are usually reported as sea-serpents, and although 
perfectly harmless, they are usually at once destroyed by their 
ignorant captors. The whole body is exceedingly fragile; 


—— 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 683 


the bones are porous, thin, and light, containing scarcely any 
calcareous matter. In the Teniosomi the ventral fins are 
thoracic, formed of one or a few soft rays. More remarkable 
is the character of the caudal fin, which is always distorted 
and usually not in line with the rest of the body. The teeth 
are small. The general structure is not very different from 
that of the cutlass-fishes, Trichiuride, and other degraded off- 
shoots from the scombroid group. The species are few and, 
from the nature of things, very imperfectly known. Scarcely 
any specimens are perfectly preserved. When dried the body 
almost disappears, both flesh and bones being composed chiefly 
of water. 

The Oarfishes: Regalecide— The Kegalecide, or oarfishes, 
have the caudal fin obsolete and the ventrals reduced to long 
filaments, thickened at the tip. The species reach a length 
of twenty or thirty feet, and from their great size, slender forms, 
and sinuous motion have been almost everywhere regarded 
as sea-serpents. The very long anterior spines of the dorsal 
fin are tipped with red, and the fish is often and not untruth- 
fully described as a sea-serpent “having a horse’s head with 
a flaming red mane.” 

The great oarfish, Regalecus glesne (see Fig. 113), was long 
known to the common people of Norway as king of the herrings, 
it being thought that to harm it would be to-drive the herring 
to some other coast. The name “king of the herrings” went 
into science as Regalecus, from rex, king, and halec, herring. 
The Japanese fancy, which runs in a different line, calls the 
creature ‘“‘Dugunonuatatori,’’ which means the “cock of the 
palace under the sea.”’ 

The Atiantic oarfish is named Kegalecus glesne, from the 
Norwegian farm of Glesnzs, where the first recorded specimen, 
described by Ascanius, was taken 130 years ago. Since then 
the species has been many times found on the shores of Great 
Britain and Norway, and once at Bermuda, and also twice in 
Florida. 

In this species the body is half-transparent, almost jelly-like, 
light blue in color, with some darker cross-stripes, and the 
head has a long jaw and a high forehead, suggesting the head 
of a horse. The dorsal fin begins on the head, and the first 


684 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


few spines are very long, each having a red tuft on the end. 
When the animal is alive these spines stand up like a red 
mane. 

The creature is harmless, weak in muscle as well as feeble 
in mind. It lives in the deep seas, all over the world. After 
great storms it sometimes comes ashore. Perhaps this is 
because for some reason it has risen abeve its depth and so 
lost control of itself. When a deep-water fish rises to the surface 
the change of pressure greatly affects it. Reduction of pressure 
bursts its blood-vessels, its swim-bladder swells, if it has one, 
and turns its stomach inside out. If a deep-water fish gets 
above its depth it is lost, just as surely as a surface fish is when 
it gets sunk to the depth of half a mile. 

Sometimes, again, these deep-sea fishes rush to the shore 
to escape from parasites, crustaceans that torture their soft 
flesh, or sharks that would tear it. 

Numerous specimens have been found in the Pacific, and 
to these several names have been given, but the species are 
not at all clearly made out. The oldest name is that of Regalecus 
russelli, for the naturalist Patrick Russell, who took a specimen 
at Vizagapatam in 1788. I have seen two large examples of 
Regalecus in the museum at Tokio, and several young ones 
have recently been stranded on the Island of Santa Catalina 
in southern California. A specimen twenty-two feet long lately 
came ashore at Newport in Orange County, California. The 
story of its capture is thus told by Mr. Horatio J. Forgy, of 
Santa Ana, California: 

‘‘On the 22d of February, 1901, a Mexican Indian reported 
at Newport Beach that about one mile up the coast he had 
landed a sea-serpent, and as proof showed four tentacles and 
a strip of flesh about six feet long. A crowd went up to see 
it, and they said it was about twenty feet long and like a fish 
in some respects and like a snake in others. Mr. Remsberg 
and I, on the following day, went up to see it, and in a short 
time we gathered a crowd and with the assistance of Mr. Pea- 
body prepared the fish and took the picture you have received. 

“It measured twenty-one feet and some inches in length, 
and weighed about 500 or 600 pounds. 

“The Indian, when he reported his discovery, said it was 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Txniosomi 685 


alive and in the shallow water, and that he had landed it himself. 

“This I very much doubt, but when it was first landed it 
was in a fine state of preservation and could have easily been 
shipped to you, but he had cut it to such an extent that ship- 
ment or preservation seemed out of the question when we first 
saw it. 

“At the time it came ashore an unusual number of peculiar 
fishes and sharks were found. Among others, I found a small 
oarfish about three feet long in a bad state of preservation in 
a piece of kelp. One side of it was nearly torn off and the 
other side was decayed.” 

Mr. C. F. Holder gives this account of the capture of oar- 
fishes in southern California: 

“From a zoological point of view the island of Santa Cata- 
lina, which lies eighteen miles off the coast of Los Angeles 
County, southern California, is very interesting, many rare 
animals being found there. Every winter the dwellers of 
the island find numbers of argonaut-shells, and several living 
specimens have been secured, one for a time living in the aqua- 
rium which is maintained here for the benefit of students and 
the entertainment of visitors. A number of rare and interest- 
ing fishes wander inshore from time to time. Several years 
ago I found various Scopeloid fishes, which up to that time 
had been considered rare, and during the past few years I have 
seen one oarfish (Kegalecus russell:) alive, while another was 
brought to me dead. From reports I judge that anumber of 
these very rare fishes have been observed here. The first was 
of small size, not over two feet in length, and was discovered 
swimming in shallow water along the beach of Avalon Bay. 
I had an opportunity to observe the radiant creature before 
it died. Its ‘topknot’—it can be compared to nothing else— 
was a vivid red or scarlet mass of seeming plumes—the dorsal 
fins, which merged into a long dorsal fin, extending to the tail. 
The color of the body was a brilliant silver sheen splashed with 
equally vivid black zebra-like stripes, which gave the fish a 
most striking appearance. 

‘The fish was a fragile and delicate creature, a very ghost 
of a fish, which swam along where the water gently lapped 
the sands with an undulatory motion, looking like one of its 


686 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi | 


names—the ribbon-fish. The fortunate finder of this specimen 
could not be persuaded to give it up or sell it, and it was its : 
fate to be pasted upon a piece of board, dried in the sun as a ; 
‘curio,’ where, as if in retaliation at the desecration of so rare 
a specimen, it soon disappeared. 

‘This apparently was the first oarfish ever seen in the United : 
States, so at least Dr. G. Brown Goode wrote me at the time 
that it had not been reported. In 1899 another oarfish was | 
brought to me, evidently having been washed in after a storm 
and found within a few yards of the former at Avalon. The 
discoverer of this specimen also refused to allow it to be properly 
preserved, or to donate or sell it to any one who would have 
sent it to some museum, but, believing it valuable as a ‘curio,’ 
also impaled it, the delicate creature evaporating under the 
strong heat of the semitropic sun. ; 

“This, as stated, was the second fish discovered, and during 
the past winter (1900) a fine large specimen came in at New- : 
port Beach, being reported by H. J. Forgy, of Santa Ana. The ; 
newspapers announced that a Mexican had found a young sea- ] 
serpent at Newport, and investigation showed that, as in hun- : 
dreds of similar instances, the man had found a valuable prize 
without being aware of it. According to the account, the 
discoverer first saw the fish alive in the surf and hauled it 
ashore. Being ignorant of its value, he cut it up, bringing in 
a part of the scarlet fins and a slice of the flesh. This he showed 
to some men, and led the way to where lay the mutilated remains 
of one of the finest oar- or ribbon-fishes ever seen. The speci- 
men was twenty-one feet in length, and its weight estimated 
at five hundred pounds. The finder had so mutilated it that 
the fish was ruined for almost any purpose. If he had packed 
it in salt, the specimen would have returned him the equivalent 
of several months’ labor. Apparently the man had cut it up 
in wanton amusement. 

“This recalls a similar incident. I was on one occasion 
excavating at San Clemente Island, and had remarked that 
it was a singular fact that all the fine stone ollas were broken. 
‘Nothing strange about that,’ said a half-breed, one of the 
party. ‘I used to herd sheep here, and we smashed mortars 
and ollas to pass away time.’”’ 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Txniosomi 687 


The Dealfishes: Trachypteridea.— The family of Trachypteride 
comprises the dealfishes, creatures of fantastic form and silvery 
coloration, smaller than the oarfishes and more common, but of 
similar habit. 

Just as in Norway the fantastic oarfish was believed to be 
the king of the herrings and cherished as such, so among the 
Indians of Puget Sound another freak fish is held sacred as the 
king of the salmon. The people about Cape Flattery believe 
that if one does any harm to this fish the salmon will at once 
leave the shores. This fable led the naturalists who first discov- 
ered this fish to give it its name of Trachypterus rex-salmonorum. 

In Europe a similar species (Trachypterus atlanticus) has 
long been known by the name of dealfish, or vogmar, neither 
of these names having any evident propriety. 

The dealfish is one of the most singular of all the strange 
creatures of the sea. It reaches a length of three or four feet. 
Its body is thin as a knife and would be transparent were it 
not. covered over with a shining white pigment which gives to 
the animal the luster of burnished silver. On this white surface 
is a large black blotch or two, but no other colors. The head 
is something like that of the oarfish, to which animal the deal- 
fish bears a close relationship. Both have small teeth and 
neither could bite if it would, and neither wants to, for they 
are creatures of the most inoffensive sort. On the head of the 
dealfish, where the oarfish has its mane, is a long, streamer-like 
fin. At the end of the tail, instead of the ordinary caudal fin, 
is a long, slim fin which projects directly upwards at right 
angles to the direction of the back-bone. No other fish shows 
this strange peculiarity. 

The dealfish swims in the open sea close to the surface of 
the water. It does not often come near shore, but it is occa- 
sionally blown on the beach by storms. Tyrachypterus rex- 
salmonorum has been recorded two or three times from Puget 
Sound and twice from California. The finest specimen known, 
the one from which our figure is taken, was secured off the Faral- 
lones in 1895 by a fisherman named W. C. Knox, and by him 
sent to Stanford University. The specimen is perfect in all its 
parts, a condition rare with these fragile creatures, and its 
picture gives a good idea of the mysterious king of the salmon. 


889 


, P Csouoyeae,T oy} JO Waywy uguttoeds & W101 7) 

@, ~ : i : J 

prmwajdhyov. T, ATU, J qloqiyy a3 uBpsloe UWNLoUoU)DS-TAL sniadhymiy “uowypeg af} jo Bury 10 ‘ysypeaq@—Pse “OT, 
LD I) i he DH cI 


ro 


Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 689 


Four of these fishes have been obtained on the coast of Japan, 
and have been described and figured by the present writer in 
the annals of the Imperial University of Tokyo. These are 
different from the California species and are named Trachypterus 
ishikawe, but they show the same bright silver color and the same 
streamers on the head and tail. Probably they, too, in Japan 
are kings of something or other, or perhaps silver swans from 


‘the submarine palace, for along such lines the Japanese fancy 


is more likely to run. 

The young of the dealfish has the caudal symmetrical, and 
the dorsal spines and ventral rays produced in very long 
streamers. 

According to Goode and Bean, the dealfishes are ‘‘ true deep- 
sea fishes, which live at very great depths, and are only found 
when floating dead on the surface or washed ashore by the 
waves. Almost nothing is known of their habits except through 
Nilsson’s observations in the far north. This naturalist, as well 
as Olafson, appears to have had the opportunity of observing 
them in life. They say that they approach the shore at flood- 
tide on sandy, shelving bottoms, and are often left by the 
retreating waves. Nilsson’s opinion is that its habits resemble 
those of the flatfishes, and that they move with one side turned 
obliquely upward, the other toward the ground; and he says 
that they have been seen on the bottom in two or three fathoms 
of water, where the fishermen hook them up with the imple- 
ments employed to raise dead seals, and that they are slow’ 
swimmers. This is not necessarily the case, however, for the 
removal of pressure and the rough treatment by which they 
were probably washed ashore would be demoralizing, to say the 
least. Tvichiurus, a fish similar in form, is a very strong, swift 
swimmer, and so is Kegalecus. Whether or not the habits of 
Trachypterus arcticus, on which these observations were made, 
are a safe guide in regard to the other forms is a matter of 
some doubt, but it is certain that they live far from the surface, 
except near the arctic circle, and that they only come ashore 
accidentally. They have never been taken by the deep-sea 
dredge or trawl-net, and indeed perfect specimens are very 
rare, the bodies being very soft and brittle, the bones and fin- 
rays exceedingly fragile. A considerable number of species have 


690 Gobioidei, Discocephali, and Tzniosomi 


been described, but in most instances each was based on one 
or two specimens. It is probable that future studies may be 
as fruitful as that of Emery, who, by means of a series of twenty- 
three specimens, succeeded in uniting at least three of the 
Mediterranean species which for half a century or more had 
been regarded as distinct. The common species of the eastern 
Atlantic, Trachypterus atlanticus, is not rare, one or more speci- 
mens, according to Gunther, being secured along the coast of 
northern Europe after almost every severe gale. We desire to 
quote the recommendation of Dr. Giinther, and to strongly 
urge upon any one who may be so fortunate as to secure one 
of these fishes that no attempt should be made to keep it entire, 
but that it should be cut into short lengths and preserved in 
the strongest spirits, each piece wrapped separately in muslin.”’ 

The family of Stylephoride is known from a single specimen 
of the species, Stylephorus chordatus, taken off Cuba in 1790. 
In this form the tail ends in a long, whip-like appendage, twice 
as long as the head. 

No fossil dealfishes or oarfishes are known. 


CHAPTER XLII 
SUBORDER HETEROSOMATA 


from the order of spiny-rayed fishes is the great group 
W-+) of flounders and soles, called by Bonaparte Heterosomata 
(ones, differing; oda, body). The essential character of this 
group is found in the twisting of the anterior part of the cra- 
nium, an arrangement which brings both eyes on the same side 
of the head. This is accompanied by a great compression of the 
body, as a result of which the flounders swim horizontally or 
lie flat on the sand. On the side which is uppermost both eyes 
are placed, this side being colored, brown or gray or mottled. 
The lower side is usually plain white. In certain genera the right 
side is uppermost, in others the left. In a very few, confined 
to the coast of California, the eyes are on the right or left side 
indifferently. 

The process of the twisting of the head has been already 
described (see p. 75). The very young have the body trans- 
lucent and symmetrical, standing upright in the water. Soon 
the tendency to rest on the bottom sets in, the body leans to 
left or right, and the lower eye gradually traverses the front 
of the head to the other side. This movement is best seen in 
the species of Platophrys, in which the final arrangement of the 
eyes is a highly specialized one. 

In some or all of the soles it is perhaps true that the eye 
turns over and pierces the cranium instead of passing across 
it. This opinion needs verification, and the process should be 
studied in detail in as many species as possible. The present 
writer has seen it in species of Platophrys only, the same genus 
in which it was carefully studied by Dr. Carlo F. Emery of 


Bologna. In the halibut, and in the more primitive flounders 
691 


692 Suborder Heterosomata 


generally, the process takes place at an earlier stage than in 
Platophrys. 

Optic Nerves of Flounders.—In the Bulletin of the Museum of 
Comparative Zoology (Vol. XL, No. 5) Professor George H. 
Parker discusses the relations of the optic nerves in the group 
of flounders or flatfishes. 

In the bony fishes the optic nerves pass to the optic lobes 
of the brain, the one passing to the lobes of the opposite side 
simply lying over the other, without intermingling of fibers, 
such as takes place in the higher vertebrates and in the more 
primitive fishes. 

According to Parker’s observations, in ordinary bony fishes 
the right nerve may be indifferently above or below the other. 
In 1000 specimens of ten common species, 486 have the left 
nerve uppermost and 514 the right nerve. In most individual 
species the numbers are practically equal. Thus, in the had- 
dock, 48 have the left nerve uppermost and 52 the right nerve. 

In the unsymmetrical teleosts or flounders, and soles, this 
condition no longer obtains. In those species of flounder with 
the eyes on the right side 236 individuals, representing sixteen 
species, had the left nerve uppermost in all cases. 

Of flounders with the eyes on the left side, 131 individuals, 
representing nine species, all have the right nerve uppermost. 

There are a few species of flounders in which reversed 
examples are so common that the species may be described 
as having the eyes on the right 
or left side indifferently. In all 
these species, however, whether 
Fic. 595 — Young Flounder, just dextral or sinistral, the relation 

ry rear ae hey ea eyes: of the nefves conforms to the 
type and is not influenced by 
the individual deviation. Thus the starry flounder (Platich- 
thys) belongs to the dextral group. In 50 normal specimens, 
the eyes on the right have the left nerve dorsal, while the 
left nerve is also uppermost in 50 reversed examples with eyes 
on the left. In 15 examples of the California bastard halibut 
(Paralichthys californicus), normally sinistral, the right eye is 
always uppermost. It is uppermost in 11 reversed examples. 
Among the soles this uniformity or monomorphism no 


Suborder Heterosomata 693 


longer obtains. In 49 individuals of four species of dextral 
soles, the left nerve is uppermost in 24, the right nerve in 25. 
Among sinistral soles, or tonguefishes, in 18 individuals of two 
species, the left nerve is uppermost in 13, the right nerve in 5. 

Professor Parker concludes from this evidence that soles 
are not degenerate flounders, but rather descended from primi- 
tive flounders which still retain the dimorphic condition as 
te the position of the optic nerves, a condition prevalent in 
all bony fishes except the flounders. 

The lack of symmetry among the flounders lies, therefore, 
deeper than the matter of the migration of the eye. The asym- 
metry of the mouth is an independent trait, but, like the migra- 
tion of the eye, is an adaptation to swimming on the side. Each 
of the various traits of asymmetry may appear independently of 
the others. 

The development of the monomorphic arrangement in 
flounders Professor Parker thinks can be accounted for by the 


Fie. 596.—Larval Flounder, Pseudoplewronectes americanus. 
(After S. R. Williams.) 


principle of natural selection. In a side-swimming fish the 
fixity of this trait has a mechanical advantage. The unmeta- 
morphosed young of the flounder are not strictly symmetrical, 
for they possess the monomorphic position of the optic nerve. 
The reversed examples of various species of flounders (these, 
by the way, chiefly confined to the California fauna) afford 
“striking examples of discontinuous variation.”’ 

A very curious feature among the flounders is the possession 
in nine of the California-Alaskan species of an accessory half- 
lateral line. This is found in two different groups, while near 
relatives in other waters lack the character. One species in 
Japan has this trait, which is not found in any Atlantic species, 


694 Suborder Heterosomata 


or in any other flounders outside the fauna of northern Cali- 
fornia, Oregon, and Alaska. 

Ancestry of Flounders.— The ancestry of the flounders is 
wholly uncertain. Because, like the codfishes, the flounders 
lack all fin-spines, they have been placed by some authors after 
the Anacanthint, or codfishes, and a common descent has been 
assumed. Some writers declare that the flounder is only a 
codfish with distorted cranium. 

A little study of the osteology of the flounder shows that 
this suppositicn is without foundation. The flounders have 


Fic. 598. 
Fies. 597 and 598.—Larval stages of Platophrys podas, a flounder of the Mediterra- 
nean, showing the migration of the eye. (After Emery.) 


thoracic ventrals, not jugular as in the cod. The tail is homo- 
cercal, ending in a large hypural plate, never isocercal, except 
in degraded soles, in which it is rather leptocercal. The shoulder- 
girdle, with its perforate hypercoracoid, has the normal perch- 
like form. The ventral fins have about six rays, as in the perch, 
although the first ray is never spinous. Pseudobranchie are 
developed, these structures being obsolete in the codfishes. The 
gills and pharyngeals are essentially as in the perch. 

It is fairly certain that the Heterosomata have diverged from 
the early spiny-rayed forms, Zeoidei, Berycoidei, or Scombroidet 


ar Ae a eae, li egy” ins mel sR tie ism at Ma anand 


~ 


=a 


Suborder Heterosomata 695 


of the Jurassic or Cretaceous, and that their origin is prior to 
the development of the great perch stock. 

If one were to guess at the nearest relationships of the group, 
it would be to regard them as allies of the deep-bodied mackerel- 
like forms, as the Stromateide, or perhaps with extinct Berycoid 
forms, as Platycormus, having the ventral fins wider than in the 
mackerel. Still more plausible is the recent suggestion of Dr. 
Boulenger that the extinct genus Amplistium resembles the primi- 
tive flounder. But there is little direct proof of such relation, 
and the resemblance of larval flounders to the ribbon-fishes may 
have equal significance. But the ribbon-fishes themselves may 
be degenerate Scombroids. In any case both ribbon-fishes and 


Fic. 599.—Platophrys lunatus (Linneus), the Peacock Flounder. 
Family Pleuronachder. Cuba. (From nature by Mrs. H. C. Nash.) 


flounders find their nearest living relatives among the Bery- 
coidei or Zeoidei, and have no affinity whatever with the 
isocercal codfish or with other members of the group called 
Anacanthinz. 

The Heterosomata are found in all seas, always close to the 
bottom and swimming with a swift, undulatory motion. They 
are usually placed in a single family, but the degraded types 
known as soles may be regarded as forming a second family. 

The Flounders: Pleuronectide.—In the flounders, or Plewronec- 
tide, the membrane-bones of the head are distinct, the eyes large 
and well separated, the mouth not greatly contracted, and the jaws 


696 Suborder Heterosomata 


always provided with teeth. Among the 500 species of flounders 
is found the greatest variation in size, ranging in weight from 
an ounce to 500 pounds. The species found in arctic regions 
are most degenerate and these have the largest number of ver- 
tebre and of fin-rays. The halibut has 50 vertebra (16 +34), 
the craig-flounder 58, while in Etropus and other tropical forms 
the number is but 34 (10 +24). The common flounders of 
intermediate geographical range (Paralichthys dentatus, etc.) show 
intermediate numbers as 40 (10 +30). 


Fic. 600,—Heterocercal tail of young Trout, Salmo fario Linnweus. (After Parker 
& Haswell.) : 
Fic. (01.—Homocercal tail of a Flounder, Paralichthys californicus. 


It is, perhaps, related to the greater pressure of natural selection 
in the tropics, showing itself in the better differentiation of the 
bones and consequently smaller number of the vertebre. 

Fossil flounders are very few and give no clue as to the origin 
of the group. In the Eocene and Miocene are remains which 
have been referred to Bothus (Rhombus). Bothus minimus is 
the oldest species known, described by Agassiz from the Eocene 
of Monte Bolca. In the Miocene are numerous other species of 
Bothus, as also tubercles referable to Scophthalmus. 

On the testimony of fossils alone the genus Bothus, or one 


Suborder Heterosomata 697 


of its allies, would be the most primitive of the group. If it be 
so, the simpler structure of the halibut and its relatives is due 
to degeneration, which is probable, although their structure has 
the suggestion of primitive simplicity, especially in the greater 
approach to symmetry in the head and the symmetry in the 
insertion of the ventral fins. 

Soles have been found in the later Tertiary rocks. Solea 
kirchbergiana of the Miocene is not very different from species 


Fic. 602—Window-pane, Lophopsetta maculata. Virginia. 


now extant in southern Europe. No remains referable to 
allies of the halibut or plaice are found in Tertiary rocks, and 
these relatively simple types must be regarded as of recent origin. 

The Turbot Tribe: Bothine.—The turbot tribe have the mouth 
large, the eyes and color on the left side, and the ventral 
fins unlike, that of the left side being extended along the ridge 
of the abdomen. The species are found in the warm seas only. 
They are deeper in body than the halibut and plaice, and some 
of them are the smallest of all flounders. It is probable that 
these approach most nearly of existing flounders to the original 
ancestors of the group. 

Perhaps the most primitive genus is Bothus, species of 
which genus are found in Italian Miocene. The European 


698 Suborder Heterosomata 


brill, Bothus rhombus, is a common fish of southern Europe, 
deep-bodied and covered with smooth scales. 

Very similar but much smaller in size is the half translu- 
cent speckled flounder of our Atlantic coast (Lophopsetta macu- 
lata), popularly known as window-pane. This species is too 
small to have much value as food. Another species, similar 
to the brill in technical characters but very different in appear- 
ance, is the turbot, Scophthalmus maximus, of Europe. This 
large flounder has a very broad body, scaleless but covered 
with warty tubercles. It reaches a weight of seventy pounds and 
has a high value as a food-fish. There is but one species of tur- 
bot and it is found in Europe only, on sandy bottoms from 


Fic. 603.—Wide-eyed Flounder, Syacium papillosum Linneus. Pensacola, Fla. 


Norway to Italy. In a turbot of twenty-three pounds weight 
Buckland found a roe of five pounds nine ounces, with 14,311,260 
eggs. The young retains its symmetrical condition for a relatively 
long period. No true turbot is tound in America and none in 
the Pacific. Other European flounders allied to the turbot and 
brill are Zeugopterus punctatus; the European whiff, Lepido- 
rhombus whiff-jagonis; the topknot, Phrynorhombus regius; the 
lantern-flounder, Arnoglossus laterna, and the tongue-fish, Eucz- 
tharus linguatula, the last two of small size and feeble flesh. 

In the wide-eyed or peacock flounders, Platophrys podas in 
Europe, Platophrys lunatus, etc., in America, Platophrys mancus 
in Polynesia, the eyes in the old males are very far apart, 
and the changes due to age and sex are greater than in any 
other genera. The species of this group are highly variegated 
and lie on the sand in the tropical seas. Numerous small 


Suborder Heterosomata 699 


species allied to these abound in the West Indies, known in a 
general way as whiffs. The most widely distributed of these 
are Citharichthys spilopterus of the West Indies, Citharichthys 
gilbertt and Azevia panamensis of Panama, Orthopsetta sordida 
of California, and especially the common small-mouthed Etropus 
crossotus found throughout tropical America. Numerous other 
genera and species of the turbot tribe are found on the coasts 
of tropical Asia and Africa, most of them of small size and weak 
structure. 

Samaris cristatus of Asia is the type of another tribe of 
flounders and the peculiar hook-jawed Oncopterus darwini of 
Patagonia represents still another tribe. 

The Halibut Tribe: Hippoglossine.—In the great halibut tribe 
the mouth is large and the ventral fins symmetrical. The 
arctic and subarctic species have the eyes and color on the 


Fic. 604.—Etropus crossotus Jordan & Gilbert. Cedar Keys, Fla. 


right. Those of the warmer regions (bastard halibut) have the 
eyes and color on the left. These grow progressively smaller 
in size to the southward, the mouth being smaller and more 
feebly armed in southern species. 

The largest of the family, and the one commercially of far 
greatest importance, is the halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). 
This species is found on both shores of both oceans, north of 
about the latitude ot Paris, Boston, Cape Mendocino, and Mat- 
sushima Bay in Japan. Its preference is for offshore banks 


. 


700 Suborder Heterosomata 


of no great depth, and in very many localities it exists in great 
abundance, reaching a length of 6 to 8 feet and a weight of 600 
pounds. It sometimes ranges well out to sea and enters deeper 
waters than the cod. The flesh is firm, white, and of good 
quality, although none of the flatfishes have much flavor, the 
muscles being mostly destitute of oil. Small halibut, called 
“chicken halibut,’’ are highly esteemed. 

Dr. Goode states that the “history of the halibut fishery has 
been a peculiar one. At the beginning of the present century 
these fishes were exceedingly abundant on George’s Banks; since 
1850 they have partially disappeared from this region, and the 
fishermen have since been following them to other banks, and 
since 1874 out into deeper and deeper water, and the fisheries 
are now carried on almost exclusively in the gullies between 
the offshore banks and on the outer edges of the banks, in 
water 100 to 350 fathoms in depth. 

“The halibut with its large mouth is naturally a voracious 
fish, and probably would disdain few objects in the way of fresh 
meat it would come across. ' It is said, however, to feed more 
especially upon crabs and mollusks in addition to fish. These 
fish ‘they waylay lying upon the bottom, invisible by reason 
of their flat bodies, colored to correspond to the general color 
of the sand or mud upon which they rest. When in pursuit of 
their prey they are active and often come quite to the surface, 
especially when in summer they follow the capelin to the shoal 
water near the land. They feed upon skates, cod, haddock, 
menhaden, mackerel, herring, . lobsters, flounders, sculpins, 
grenadiers, turbot, Norway haddock, bank-clams, and anything 
else that is eatable and can be found in the same waters.’ Fre- 
quently halibut may be seen chasing flatfish over the bottom of 
the water. About Cape Sable their favorite food seems to be 
haddock and cusk. <A very singular mode of attacking a cod 
has been recorded by Captain Collins, an experienced fisherman 
and good observer. They often kill their prey by blows of the 
tail, a fact which is quite novel and interesting. He has described 
an instance which occurred on a voyage home from Sable Island 
in 1877: ‘The man at the wheel sang out that he saw a hali- 
but flapping its tail about a quarter of a mile off our starboard 
quarter. I looked through the spy-glass and his statement was 


Suborder Heterosomata 7Ol 


soon verified by the second appearance of the tail. We hove 
out a dory, and two men went with her, taking with them a 
pair of gaff-hooks. They soon returned, bringing not only the 
halibut, which was a fine one of about seventy pounds weight, 
but a small codfish which it had been trying to kill by striking 
it with its tail. The codfish was quite exhausted by the repeated 
blows and did not attempt to escape after its enemy had been cap- 
tured. The halibut was so completely engaged in the pursuit 
of the codfish that it paid no attention to the dory and was 
easily captured.’ 

‘“The females become heavy with roe near the middle of the 
year, and about July and August are ready to spawn, although 
‘some fishermen say that they spawn at Christmas’ or ‘in the 
month of January, when they are on the shoals.’ The roe of 
a large halibut which weighed 356 pounds weighed 44 pounds, 
and indeed the ‘ovaries of a large fish are too heavy to be lifted 
by a man without considerable exertion, being often 2 feet or 
more in length.’ A portion of the roe ‘representing a fair 
average of the eggs, was weighed and found to contain 2185 
eggs,’ and the entire number would be 2,182,773.” 

Closely allied to the halibut are numerous smaller forms 
with more elongate body. The Greenland halibut, Retnhardtius 
hippoglossoides, and the closely related species in Japan, 
Reinhardtius matsuure, differ from the halibut most obviously 
in the straight lateral line. The arrow-toothed halibut, 
Atheresthes stomias, lives in deeper waters in the North Pacific. 
Its flesh is soft, the mouth very large, armed with arrow-shaped 
teeth. The head in this species is less distorted than in any 
of the others, the upper eye being on the edge of the disk in 
front of the dorsal fin. For this reason it has been supposed 
to be the most primitive of the living species, but these traits 
are doubtless elusive and a result of degeneration. 

Eopsetta jordani is a smaller halibut-like fish, common on 
the coast of California, an excellent food-fish, with firm white 
flesh, sold in San Francisco restaurants under the very erroneous 
name of “‘English sole.’’ Large numbers are dried by the 
Chinese for export to China. A similar species, Hippoglossoides 
platessoides, known as the “sand-dab,’”’ is common on both 
shores of the North Atlantic, and several related species are 


7o2 Suborder Heterosomata 


found in the North Pacific. Verasper variegatus of Japan is 
notable for its bright coloration, the lower side being largely 
orange-red. 

In the bastard halibuts, Paralichthys, the eyes and color 
are on the left side. These much resemble the true halibut, 
but are smaller and inferior as food, besides differing in details 
of structure. The Monterey halibut (Paralichthys californicus) 
is the largest of these, reaching a weight of sixty pounds. This 
species and one other from California (Xystreurys liolepis), 
normally left-sided, differ from all the other flounders in having 


Fic. 605.—Halibut, Hippoglossus hippoglossus Linnweus. Marmot I., Alaska. 


the eyes almost as often on the right side as on the left side, 
as usual or normal in their type. The summer flounder (Para- 
lichthys dentatus) replaces the Monterey halibut on the Atlantic 
Coast, where it is a common food-fish. Farther south it gives 
way to the Southern flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma) and 
the Gulf flounder, Paralichthys albigutta. In Japan Para- 
lichthys olivaceus is equally common, and in western Mexico 
Paralichthys sinaloe. The four-spotted flounder of New Eng- 
land, Paralichthys oblongus, belongs to this group. Similar 
species constituting the genus Pseudorhombus abound in India 
and Japan. 

The Plaice Tribe: Pleuronectine.—The plaice tribe pass grad- 
ually into the halibut tribe, from which they differ in the 
small mouth, in which the blunt teeth are mostly on the blind 
side. The eyes are on the right side, the vertebra are numerous, 
and the species live only in the cold seas, none being found in 
the tropics. In most of the Pacific species the lateral line 


Suborder Heterosomata 703 


has an accessory branch along the dorsal fin. The genus 
Pleuronichthys, or frog-flounders, has the teeth in bands. Pleu- 
ronichthys cornutus is common in Japan and three species, 
Pleuronichthys cenosus being the most abundant, are found 
on the coast of California. Closely related to these is the 
diamond-flounder, Hypsopsetta guttulata of California. Paro- 
phrys vetulus is a small flounder of California, so abundant 
as to have considerable economic value. Lepidopsetta bilineata, 
larger and rougher, is almost equally common. It is similar 
to the mud-dab (Limanda limanda) of northern Europe and 
the rusty-dab (Limanda ferruginea) of New England. 

The plaice, Pleuronectes platessa, is the best known of the 
European species of this type, being common in most parts 
of Europe and valued as food. Closely related to the plaice 
is a second species of southern Europe also of small size, Flesus 


AAG ELLLAAA AA, 


ees 
YE 


Fic. 606.—Wide mouthed Flounder, Paralichthys dentatus (L.). St. George I., Md. 


flesus, to which the name flounder is in England especially 
applied. The common winter flounder of New England, 
Pseudopleuronectes americanus, is also very much like the plaice, 
but with more uniform scales. It is an important food-fish, 
the most abundant of the family about Cape Cod. The eel- 
back flounder, Liopsetta putnami, also of New England, is 
frequently seen in the markets. The males of this species 
have scattered rough scales, while the females are smooth. 
The great starry flounder of Alaska, Platichthys stellatus, is the 
largest of the small-mouthed flounders and in its region the most 


704. Suborder Heterosomata 


abundant. On the Pacific coast from Monterey to Alaska and 
across to northern Japan it constitutes half the catch of 
flounders. The body-is covered with rough scattered scales, 
the fins are barred with black. It reaches a weight of twenty 
pounds. Living in shallow waters, it ascends all the larger 
rivers. 

An allied species in Japan is Kareitus bicoloratus, with scat- 
tered scales. Clidoderma asperrimum, also of northern Japan, 
has the body covered with series of warts. 

In deeper water are found the elongate forms known as 
smear-dab and flukes. The smear-dab of Europe (Mzicro- 


Fie. 607.—Eel-back Flounder, Liopsetta putnami (Gill). Salem, Mass. 


stomus kitt) is rather common in deep water. Its skin is very 
slimy, but the flesh is excellent. The same is true of the 
slippery sole, Microstomus pactficus, of California and Alaska, 
and of other species found in Japan. Glyptocephalus cyno- 
glossus, the craig-fluke, or pole-flounder, of the North Atlantic, 
is taken in great numbers in rather deep water on both coasts. 
Its flesh is much like that of the sole. A similar species 
(Glyptocephalus zachirus) with a very long pectoral on the 
right scale is found in California, and Microstomus kitahare in 
Japan. 


Suborder Heterosomata 705 


The Soles: Soleidz.—The soles (Soleid@) are degraded flounders, 
the typical forms bearing a close relation to the plaice tribe, 
from which they may be derived. There are three very differ- 
ent groups or tribes of soles, and some writers have thought 
that these are independently derived from different groups of 
flounders. This fact has been urged as an argument against 
the recognition of the Soleide as a family separate from the 
flounders. If clearly proved, the soles should either be joined 
with the flounders in one family or else they should be divided 
into two or three, according to their supposed origin. 

The soles as a whole differ from the flounders in having the 
bones of the head obscurely outlined, their edges covered by 
scales. The gill-openings are much reduced, the eyes small 
and close together, the ventral fins often much reduced, and 
sometimes the pectoral or caudal also. The mouth is very 
small, much twisted, and with few teeth. 

The species of sole, about 150 in number, abound on sandy 


, Ss 
Fic. 608.—Starry Flounder, Platichthys stellatus (Pallas). Alaska. 


bottoms in the warm seas along the continents, very few being 
found about the Oceanic Islands. The three subfamilies, or 
tribes, may be designated as broad soles, true soles, and tongue- 
fishes. 

The Broad Soles: Achirine.—The American soles (Achirine), 
or broad soles, resemble the smaller members of the turbot tribe 


706 Suborder Heterosomata 


of flounders, having the ventral fin of the eyed side extended 
along the ridge of the abdomen. The eyes and color are, how- 
ever, on the right side. The eyes are separated by a narrow 
interorbital ridge. In most of these forms the body is broad 
and covered with rough scales. The species are mostly less 
than six inches long, and nearly all are confined to the warmer 
parts of America, many of them ascending the rivers. A very 
few (Aseraggodes, Pardachirus) are found in Japan and China. 
Some are scaleless and some have but a single small gill-open- 
ing on the blind side. The principal genus is Achirus. Achirus 
fasciatus, the common American sole, or hog-choker, is abun- 
dant from Boston to Galveston. Achirus lineatus and other 
species are found in the West Indies and on the west coast of 
Mexico. Almost all the species of Achirus are banded with 
black and the pectorals are very small or wanting altogether. 
All these species are practically useless as food from their very 
small size. 


Fic. 609.—Hog-choker Sole, Achirus lineatus (L.). Potomac River. 


The European Soles (Soleine).—The European soles are more 
elongate in form, with the ventral fins narrow and not extended 
along the ridge of the abdomen. The eyes are on the right side 
with no bony ridge between them. No species of this type is 


Suborder Heterosomata 707 


certainly known from American waters, although numerous in 
Europe and Asia. The species have much in common with 
the plaice tribe of flounders and may be derived from the same 
stock. One species, as above noted, is found in the Miocene. 

The common sole of Europe, Solea solea, is one of the best 
of food-fishes, reaching a length, according to Dr. Gill, of twenty- 
six inches and a weight of nine pounds. As usually seen in 
the markets it rarely exceeds a pound. It is found from Nor- 
way to Italy, and when properly cooked is very tender and 
delicate, superior to any of the flounders. According to Dr. 
Francis Day, it appears to prefer sandy or gravelly shores, 
but is rather uncertain in its migrations, for, although mostly 
appearing at certain spots almost at a given time, and usually 
decreasing in numbers by degrees, in other seasons they dis- 
appear at once, as suddenly as they arrive. Along the British 
seacoast they retire to the deep as frosts set in, revisiting the 
shallows about May if the weather is warm, their migrations 
being influenced by temperature. The food of the sole is to a 
considerable extent molluscous, but it is also said to eat the 
eggs and fry of other fishes and sea-urchins 

The spawning season is late in the year and during the 
spring months. The ova are in moderate number; a sole of 
one pound weight has, according to Buckland, about 134,000 
eggs. The newly hatched, according to Dr. Day, da not appear 
to be commonly found so far out at sea as some other species. 
They enter into shallow water at the edge of the tide and are 
very numerous in favorable localities. 

As is well known, the sole is one of the most esteemed 
of European fishes. In the words of Dr. Day, ‘‘ the flesh of this 
fish is white, firm, and of excellent flavor, those from the deepest 
waters being generally preferred. Those on the west coast 
and to the south are larger, as a rule, than those towards the 
north of the British islands. In addition to its use as food, 
it is available for another purpose. The skin is used for fining 
coffee, being a good substitute for isinglass, and also as a 
material for artificial baits. 

“The markets are generally supplied by the trawl. The 
principal English trawling-ground lies from Dover to Devonshire. 
They may be taken by spillers, but are not commonly captured 


708 Suborder Heterosomata 


with hooks; it is suggested that one reason may be that spillers 
are mostly used by day, whereas the sole is a night feeder. 
They are sometimes angled for with the hook, baited with 
crabs, worms, or mollusks; the most favorable time for fishing 
is at night, after a blow, when the water is thick, while a land 
breeze answers better than a sea breeze.”’ 

Several smaller species of sole are found in Europe. In 
Japan Zebrias zebra, black-banded, and Usinosita japonica, 
known as Usinéshita, or cow’s tongue, are common. Farther 
south are numerous species of Synaptura and other genera peculiar 
to the Indian and Australian regions. 

The Tongue-fishes: Cynoglossine.—The tongue-fishes are soles 
having the eyes on the left side not separated by a bony ridge, 
the two being very small and apparently in the same socket. 
The body is lanceolate, covered usually with rough scales, 
and as often with two or three lateral lines as with one. The 
species are mostly Asiatic. Cynoglossus robustus and other spe- 
cies are found in Japan, and in India are many others belong- 
ing to Cynoglossus and related genera. The larger species are 
valued as food. The single European species Symphurus nigres- 
cens, common in the Mediterranean, is too small to have any 
value. Symphurus plagiusa, the tongue-fish of our coast, is 


Fic. 610.—Symphurus plagiusa (L.). Beaufort, N. C. 


common on our sandy shores from Cape Hatteras southward. 
Symphurus plagusia, scarcely different, replaces it in the West 
Indies. Symphurus atricandus is found in San Diego Bay, and 
numerous other species of no economic importance find their 
place farther south. 


CHAPTER XLIII 


SUBORDER JUGULARES 


ewhi/HE Jugular-fishes.—In all the families of spiny-rayed 
¢hy| fishes, as ranged in order in the present work, from 

: the Berycide to the Soleide, the ventrals are 
thoracic in position, the pelvis, if present, being joined to the 
shoulder-girdle behind the symphysis of the clavicles so that 
the ventral fin falls below or behind the pectoral fin. To this 
arrangement the families of Bembradide and Pinguipedide offer 
perhaps the only exceptions. 

In all the families which precede the Berycide in the linear 
series adopted in this work, the ventral fins when present are 
abdominal, the pelvis lying behind the clavicles and free from 
them as in the sharks, the reptiles, and all higher vertebrates. 

In all the families remaining for discussion, the ventrals 
are brought still farther forward to a point distinctly before 
the pectorals. This position is called jugular (Lat. jugulum, 
throat). 

The fishes with jugular ventrals we here divide into six 
groups, orders, and suborders: Jugulares, Haplodoct, Xenopterygii, 
Anacanthim, Opisthom, and Pediculati. The last two groups, and 
perhaps the Anacanthini also, may well be considered as dis- 
tinct orders, being more aberrant than the others. 

For the most primitive and at the same time most obscurely 
defined of these groups we may retain the term applied by 
Linnzus to all of them, the name /ugulares. This group in- 
cludes those jugular-fishes in which the position of the gills, the 
structure of the skull, and the form of the tail are essentially 
as in ordinary fishes. It is an extremely diversified and perhaps 
unnatural group, some of its members resembling Opisthogna- 


thide and Malacanthide, others suggesting the mailed-cheek 
709 


710 Suborder Jugulares 


fishes, and still others more degenerate. The fishes having 
the fins thus placed were long ago set apart by Linnzus, 
under the name of “ Jugulares,’’ Callionymus being the genus 
first placed by him in this group. Besides their anterior inser- 
tion, the ventrals in the /ugulares are more or less reduced in 
size, the rays being usually but not always less than JI, 5 in 
number and more often reduced to one or two, or even wholly 
lost. 

In general, the jugular fishes are degenerate as compared 
with the perch-like forms, but in certain regards they are often 
highly specialized. The groups showing this character are 
probably related one to another, but in some cases this fact is 
not clearly shown. In most of the jugular-fishes the shoulder- 
girdle shows some change or distortion. The usual foramen 
in the hypercoracoid is often wanting or relegated to the inter- 
space between the coracoids, and the arrangement of the 
actinosts often deviates from that seen in the perciform fishes. 

The Weevers: Trachinide.— Of the various families the 
group of weevers, Trachinide, most approaches the type of 
ordinary fishes. In the words of Dr. Gill, these fishes are 
known by ‘an elongated body attenuated backward from 
the head, compressed, oblong head, with the snout very short, 
a deeply cleft, oblique mouth, and a long spine projecting 
backward from each operculum and strengthened by exten- 
sion on the surface of the operculum, as a keel. The dorsal 
fins are distinct, the first composed of strong, pungent spines 
radiating from a short base and about six or seven in number. 
The second dorsal and anal are very long. The pectorals 
have the lower rays unbranched, and the ventrals are in 
advance of the pectorals, and have each a spine and five rays. 
The species of this family are mostly found along the European 
and western African coast; but singularly enough a species 
closely related to the Old World form is found on the coast of 
Chile. None have been obtained from the intermediate regions 
or from the American coast. Two species are found in England, 
and are known under the name of the greater weever (Trachinus 
draco), about twelve inches long, and the lesser weever 
(Trachinus vipera), about six inches long. They are perhaps 
the most dreaded of the smaller English fishes. The formid- 


Suborder Jugulares 711 


able opercular spines are weapons of defense, and when seized 
by the fisherman the fish is apt to throw its head in the direc- 
tion of the hand and lance a spine into it. The pungent dorsal 
spines are also defensive. Although without a poison gland, 
such as some fishes distantly related have at the base of the 
spines, they cause very severe wounds, and death may occur 
from tetanus. They are therefore divested of both opercular 
and dorsal spines before being exposed for sale. The various 
popular names which the weevers enjoy, in addition to their 
general designation, mostly refer to the armature of the spines, 
or are the result of the armature; such are adder-fish, sting- 
fish, and sting-bull.”’ 

No species of Trachinide is known from North America or 
from Asia. In these fishes, as Dr. Boulenger has lately shown, 
the hypercoracoid is without foramen, the usual perforation 
lying between this bone and the hypercoracoid. A similar con- 
dition exists in the Anacanthini, or codfishes, but it seems to 
have been developed independently in the two groups. In the 
relatives of the Trachinide the position of this foramen changes 
gradually, moving by degrees from its usual place to the lower 
margin of the hypercoracoid. Species referred to Trachinus are 
recorded from the Miocene as well as Trachinus. 

The extinct group of Callipterygide found in the Eocene of 
Monte Bolca seems allied to the Trachinide. It has the dorsal 
fin continuous, the spines small, the soft rays high; the scales 
are very small or wanting. Callipteryx speciosus and C. recti- 
candus are the known species. 

The Nototheniide.—In the family of Nototheniide the for- 
amen is also wanting or confluent with the suture between the 
coracoids. To this family belong many species of the Antarctic 
tegion. These are elongate fishes with ctenoid scales and a 
general resemblance to small Hexagrammide. In most of the 
genera there is more than one lateral line. These species are 
the antipodes of the Cottide and Hexagrammide; although lack- 
ing the bony stay of the latter, they show several analogical 
resemblances and have very similar habits. 

The Harpagijeride, naked, with the opercle armed with spines, 
and resemble sculpins even more closely than do the Notothenide. 
Harpagifer is found in Antarctic seas, and the three species of 


712 Suborder Jugulares 


Draconetta in the deeper waters of the North Atlantic and Pacific. 
These little fishes resemble Callionymus, but the opercle, in- 
stead of the preopercle, bears spines. The Bovichthyide of New 
Zealand are also sculpin-like and perhaps belong to the same 
family. Dr. Boulenger places all these Antarctic forms with the 
foramen outside the hypercoracoid in one family, Notothentide. 
Several deep-sea fishes of this type have been lately described 
by Dr. Louis Dollo and others from the Patagonian region. 
One of these forms, Macrias amissus, lately named by Gill and 
Townsend, is five feet long, perhaps the largest deep-sea fish 
known, The family of Percophide, from Chile, is also closely 


Fig. 611.—Pteropsaron evolans Jordan & Snyder. Sagami Bay, Japan. 


allied to these forms, the single species differing in slight respects 
of osteology. 

Closely related to the family of Notothentide and perhaps 
scarcely distinct from it is the small family of Pteropsaride, 
which differs in having but one lateral line and the foramen 
just above the lower edge of the hypercoracoid. The numer- 
ous species inhabit the middle Pacific, and are prettily colored 
fishes, looking like gobies. Pteropsaron is a Japanese genus, 
with high dorsal and anal fins; Parapercis is more widely diffused. 
Osurus schauinslandi is one of the neatest of the small fishes of 
Hawaii. Several species of Parapercis and Neopercis occur in 


Suborder Jugulares 73 


Japan and numerous others in the waters of Polynesia. Pseu- 
deleginus majort of the Italian Miocene must belong near Para- 
percis. 

The Bathymasteride, or ronquils, are perhaps allied to the 
Notothenude; they resemble the Opisthognathide, but the jaws 
are shorter and they have a large number of vertebre as befits 
their northern distribution. Ronquilus jordani is found in Puget 
Sound and Bathymaster signatus in Alaska. The ventral rays 
are I, 5, and the many-rayed dorsal has a few slender spines in 
front. 

The Leptoscopide.—The Leptoscopide of New Zealand re- 
semble the weevers and star-gazers, but the head is unarmed, 
covered by thin skin. 

The Star-gazers: Uranoscopide.— The Uranoscopide, or star- 


Fic. 612.—Bathymaster signatus Cope. Shumagin Is., Alaska. 


gazers, have the head cuboid, mostly bony above, the mouth 
almost vertical, the lips usually fringed, and the eyes on the 
flat upper surface of the head. The spinous dorsal is short and 
may be wanting. The hypercoracoid has a foramen, and the 
body is naked or covered with small scales. The appearance is 
eccentric, like that of some of the Scorpenide, but the anatomy 
differs in several ways from that of the mailed-cheek fishes. 
The species inhabit warm seas, and the larger ones are food- 
fishes of some importance. One species, Uranoscopus scaber, 
abounds in the Mediterranean. Uranoscopus japonicus and 
other species are found in Japan. Astroscopus y-grecum is the 
commonest species on our Atlantic coast. The bare spaces on 
the top of the head in this species yield vigorous electric 
shocks. Another American species is Astroscopus guttatus. In 
Japan and the East Indies the forms are more numerous and 
varied. Ichthyscopus lebeck, with a single dorsal, is a fantastic 


714 Suborder Jugulares 


inhabitant of the seas of Japan, and Anema monopterygium in 
New Zealand. . 


Uranoscopus peruzzii, an extinct star-gazer, has been de- 
scribed from the Pliocene of Tuscany. 


Fie. 613.—A Star-gazer Ariscopus iburius Jordan & Snyder. Iburi, Japan. 7 


The Dragonets: Callionymidea.—Remotely allied to the Uvra- 
noscopide is the interesting family of dragonets, or Callionymide. | 
These are small scaleless fishes with flat heads, the preopercle 
armed with a strong spine, the body bearing a general resem- 
blance to the smaller and smoother Cottide. The gill-openings 
are very small, the ventral fins wide apart.” The colors are } 
highly variegated, the fins are high, often filamentous, and the 
sexes differ much in coloration and in the development of the 
fins. The species are especially numerous on the shores of 
Japan, where Callionymus valenciennesi, Callionymus beniteguri, 
and Calliurichthys japonicus are food-fishes of some slight impor- \ 
tance. Others are found in the East Indies, and several large 
and handsome forms are taken in the Mediterranean. Calliony- 
mus draco, the dragonet, or “sculpin,”’ reaches the coast of Eng- 
land. In America but three species have been taken. These 
are dredged in deep water in the East Indies. In other parts 
of the world these fantastic little creatures are shore-fishes, 
creeping about in the shallow bays. Species of Synchiropus, 
colored like the coral sands, abound in the Polynesian coral 
reefs. 

A fossil species of Callionymus (C. macrocephalus) are found 
in the Miocene of Croatia. 

The family of Rhyacichthyide is a small group of Asiatic 
fishes allied to the Callionymide, but less elongate and differing 
in minor details. They are found not in the sea, but in mountain 
streams. Khyacichthys (formerly called by the preoccupied 
name Platyptera) is the principal genus. 


1 KELLOGGELLA CARDINALIS JORDAN & SEALE. TYPE. (FAMILY GOBIIDA) 
2 SYNCHIROPUS LILI JORDAN & SEALE. TYPE. (FAMILY CALLIONYMIDA) 
3 PETROSCIRTES ATRODORSALIS GUNTHER. (FAMILY BLENNIIDA) 


FISHES OF THE CORAL REEFS, SAMOA 


Sil 


CIPPINUS “M “A “AC Aq ey wOLT) 


“yjoqqy snzoynb sndoossoyspy ‘19zeS-1033— Fg “PLL 


716 Suborder Jugulares 


The Trichonotide, with wide gill-openings and cycloid scales, 
are also related to the Callionymide. The species are few, small, 
and confined to the Indian and Australian seas. Another small 
family closely related to this is the group of Hemerocetide of 
the same region. 

The Dactyloscopide.—In this and the preceding families of 
jugular fishes the ventral rays remain 1, 5, as in the typical 
thoracic forms. In most of the families yet to be described 
the number is I, 3, a character which separates the little fishes of 
the family of Dactyloscopide from the Uranoscopide and Lepto- 
scopide. Dactyloscopus tridigitatus is a small fish of the coral 
sands of Cuba. The other species of this family are found 
mostly in the West Indies and on the west coast of Mexico. 
Several genera, Myxodagnus, Gillellus, Dactylagnus, etc., are 
recognized. In the structure of the shoulder-girdle these 
species diverge from the star-gazers, approaching the blennies, 
and their position is intermediate between Trachinide and 
Blenniide, 


y 


CHAPTER XLIV 
THE BLENNIES: BLENNIIDA 


number of species with elongate body, numerous dor- 
sal spines, without suborbital stay or sucking-disk, 
al the ventrals jugular, where present, and of one spine and 
less than five soft rays. Most of them are of small size, living 
about rocks on the sea-shores of all regions. In general they 
are active fishes, of handsome but dark coloration, and in the 
different parts of the group is found great variety of structure. 
The tropical forms differ from those of arctic regions in the 
much shorter bodies and fewer vertebre. These forms are most 
like ordinary fishes in appearance and structure and are doubt- 
less the most primitive. Of the five hundred known species of 


Fic. 615 —Sarcastic Blenny, Neoclinus satiricus Girard. Monterey. 


blennies, we can note only a few of the most prominent. To 
Clinus and related genera belong many species of the warm 
seas, scaly and ovoviviparous, at least for the most part. The 
largest of these is the great kelpfish of the coast of California, 
Heterostichus rostratus, a food-fish of importance, reaching the 
length of two feet. Others of this type scarcely exceed two 


inches. Neoclinus satiricus, also of California, is remarkable 
717 


718 The Blennies: Blenniide 


for the great length of the upper jaw, which is formed as in 
Opisthognathus. Its membranes are brightly colored, being 
edged with bright yellow. Gibbonsia elegans is the pretty ; 
“senorita’’ of the coralline-lined rock-pools of California. Lepi- 
soma nuchipinne, with a fringe of filaments at the nape, is very 


Fie. 616.—Kelp Blenny, Gibbonsia evides Jordan & Gilbert. San Diego. 


abundant in rock-pools of the West Indies. The species of 
Auchenopterus abound in the rock-pools of tropical America. 
These are very small neatly colored fishes with but one soft ray } 
in the long dorsal fin. Species of Tripterygion, Myxodes, Cris- 
ticeps, and other genera abound in the South Pacific. 

In Blennius and its relatives the body is scaleless and the 
slender teeth are arranged like the teeth of a comb. In most ; 


Fic. 617.—Blennius cristatus L. Florida. 


species long, fang-like posterior canines are developed in the 
jaws. Blennius is represented in Europe by many species, blen- 
nius galerita, ocellaris, and basiliscus being among the most com- 
mon. Certain species inhabit Italian lakes, having assumed a 
fresh-water habit. The numerous American species mostly 


The Blennies: Blenniide 719 


belong to other related genera, Chasmodes bosquianus being 
most common. Blennius yatabei abounds in Japan. In Petro- 


\ Ybin 


Fie. 619.—Lizard-skipper, Alticus saviens (Forster). A blenny which lies out of 
water on lava rocks, leaping from one to another with great agility. From 
nature; specimen from Point Distress, Tutuila Island, Samoa. (About one- 
half size.) 


species are mainly Asiatic and Polynesian and are very prettily 
colored. Petroscirtes elegans and P. trossulus adorn the Japanese 


720 The Blennies: Blenniide 


rock-pools and others, often deep blue in color, abound in the 
coral reefs of Polynesia. 

The rock-skippers (Sularias, Alticus, etc.) are herbiv- 
orous, with serrated teeth set loosely in the jaws. These live 
in the rock-pools of the tropics and leap from rock to rock when 
disturbed with the agility of lizards. They are dusky or gray 
in color with handsome markings. One of them, Erpichthys or 
Alticus saliens in Samoa, lives about lava rocks between tide- 


Fia. 620 —Emblemaria atlantica Jordan. Pensacola, Fla. 


marks, and at low tide remains on the rocks, over which it runs 
with the greatest ease and with much speed, its movements 
being precisely like those of Pertophthalmus. As in the species 
of the latter genus, otherwise wholly different, this Alticus 
has short ventral fins padded with muscle. 


Fic. 621.—Scartichthys enosime Jordan & Snyder, a fish of the rock-pools of the 
sacred island of Enoshima, Japan. Family Blenniide. 

Erpichthys atlanticus is found in abundance on both coasts 

of tropical America. Many species abound in Polynesia and 

in both Indies. Salarias enosime lives in the clefts of lava 


, 


The Blennies: Blenniidz FP 


rocks on the shores of Japan. Ophioblennius (webb?) is remark- 
able for its strong teeth, Emblemaria (nivipes, Atlantica) for its 
very high dorsal. Many other genera allied to Blennius, Clinus, 
and Salarias abound in the warm seas. 


Fic. 622.—Zacalles bryope Jordan & Snyder. Misaki, Japan. 


The Northern Blennies: Xiphidiine, Sticheinie, etc——The blen- 
nies of the north temperate and arctic zones have the dorsal 


Fic. 623.—Bryostemma tarsodes Jordan & Snyder. Unalaska. 


fin more elongate, the dorsal fin usually but not always com- 
posed entirely of spines. The scales are small and the ventral 


EE sin DEN 


Fic. 624.—Ezerpes asper Jenkins & Evermann, Guaymas, Mexico. 
Family Blenniide. 


fins generally reduced in size. These are divided by Dr. Gill 
into several distinct families, but the groups recognized by him 
are subject to intergradations. 


72, The Blennies: Blenniide 


Chirolophis (ascanii) of north Europe is remarkable for the 
tufted filaments on the head. These are still more developed in 
Bryostemma of the North Pacific, Bryostemma polyactocepha- 
lum and several other species being common from Puget Sound 
to Japan. Apodichthys (flavidus) of California is remarkable 
for a large quill-shaped anal spine and for the great variation 
in color, the hue being yellow, grass-green, or crimson, according 
to the color of the alge about it. There is no evidence, how- 
ever, that the individual fish can change its color, and these color 
forms seem to be distinct races within the species. Xererpes 
fucorum of California lies quiescent in the sea-weed (Fucus) after 
the tide recedes, its form, color, and substance seeming to corre- 
spond exactly with those of the stems of algae. Pholis gunnellus 


Fig. 625.—Gunnel, Pholis gunnellus (L.). Gloucester, Mass. 


is the common gunnel (gunwale), or butter-fish, of both shores 
of the North Atlantic, with numerous allies in the North Pacific. 
Of these, Enedrias nebulosus, the ginpo, or silver-tail, is especially 
common in Japan. Xiphidion and Xiphistes of the California 
coast, and Dictyosoma of Japan, among others, are remarkable 
for the great number of lateral lines, these extending crosswise 


Fic. 626.—Xiph’stes chirus Jordan & Gilbert. Amehitka I., Alaska. 


as well as lengthwise. Cebedichthys violaceus, a large blenny of 
California, has the posterior half of the dorsal made of soft rays. 
Opisthocentrus of Siberia and north Japan has the dorsal spines 


The Blennies: Blenniidz 723 


flexible, only the posterior ones being short and stiff. The 
snake-blennies (Lumpenus), numerous in the far North, are 
extremely slender, with well-developed pectorals and ventrals. 
Lumpenus lampetreformts is found on both shores of the Atlantic. 
In Sticheus a lateral line is present. There is none in Lumpe- 
nus, and in Ernogrammus and Ozorthe there are three. All 
these are elongate fishes, of some value as food and especially 
characteristic of the Northern seas. Fossil blennies are almost 
unknown. Pterygocephalus paradoxus of the Eocene resembles 


Fic. 627.—O2zorthe dictyogramma (Hertzenstein), a Japanese blenny from Hakodate: 


showing increased number of lateral lines, a trait characteristic of many fishes’ 


of the north Pacific. 


the living Cristiceps, a genus which differs from Clinus in having 
the first few dorsal spines detached, inserted on the head. The 
first spine alone in Pterygocephalus is detached and is very 
strong. A species called Clinus gracilis is described from the 
Miocene near Vienna, Blennius fossilis from the Miocene of Cro- 


Fic. 628.—Sticheus punctatus Fabricius St. Michael, Alaska. 


atia, and an uncertain Oncolepis isseli from Monte Bolea. The 
family is certainly one of the most recent in geologic times. 
The family of Blennide, as here recognized, includes a very 
great variety of forms and should perhaps be subdivided into 
several families, as Dr. Gill has suggested. At present there 
is, however, no satisfactory basis of division known. 

The Quillfishes: Ptilichthyide.— The Ptilichthyide, or quill- 
fishes, are small and slender blennies of the North Pacific, with 


724 The Blennies: Blenniide 


very numerous fin-rays. /Ptilichthys goodei has go dorsal spines 
and 145 soft rays. Another group of very slender naked blen- 
nies is the small family of X7phastide from the South Pacific. 


Wa, / PHBL jt fh, 
Ma TE el 17P/ tg/'7; 


Fic. 629 —Bryostemma otohime Jordan & Snyder. Hakodate, Japan. 
Family Blenniide. 


The jaws have excessively long canines; there are no ventral 
fins. The dorsal fin is very high and the caudal ends in a long 
thread. 


Fic. 680 —Quillfish, Ptilichthys goodei Bean. Unalaska. 


The Blochiide.— Of doubtful relationship is the extinct 
family of Blochide. In this group the body is elongate, 
covered with keeled plates imbricated like shingles. The 


Fic. 631.—Blochius longirostris Volta, restored. 
Upper Eocene of Monte Bolea. (After 
Woodward.) 


dorsal is composed of many slender spines, and the vertebre 
much elongate. In Blochius longirostris (Monte Bolea Eocene) 


CA 


eq Jeqjy) 


“BIPUT “UOSUTEMG Dla/7j98 DISD 


ydix—ee9 “S11 


726 The Blennies: Blenniide 


has very long jaws, lined with small teeth. Zittel regards the 
family as allied to the Belonorhynchide, but the prolongation 
of the jaws may be a character of analogy merely. Woodward 
places it next to the Blenniide, supposing it to have small and 
jugular ventral fins. But as the presence of ventral fins is 
uncertain, the position of the family cannot be ascertained 
and it may really belong in the neighborhood of Ammodytes. 
The dorsal rays are figured by Woodward as simple. 

The Patecide, etc.—The Patecide are blenny-like fishes of 
Australia, having the form of Congriopus, the spinous dorsal being 
very high and inserted before the eyes, forming a crest. Patecus 
fronto is not rare in South Australia. The Gnathanacanthide 
is another small group of peculiar blennies from the Pacific. 
The Acanthoclinide are small blennies of New Zealand with 
numerous spines in the anal fin. Acanthoclinus littoreus is the 
only known species. 

The Gadopside, etc-—The family of Gadopside of the rivers 
of New Zealand and southern Australia consists of a single 
species, Gadopsis marmoratus, resembling the scaly blennies 
called Clinus, but with long ventrals of a single ray, and three 
spines in the anal fin besides other peculiarities. The species 
is locally very common and with various other fishes in regions 
where true trout are unknown, it is called “trout.” 

The Cerdalide are small band-shaped blennies of the Pacific 


Fic. 633.—Wrymouth, Cryptacanthodes maculatus. New York. 


coast of Panama. The slender dorsal spines pass gradually 
into soft rays. Three species are known. 

The wrymouths, or Cryptacanthodide, are large blennies 
of the northern seas, with the mouth almost vertical and the 


The Blennies: Blenniide TOT, 


head cuboid. The wrymouth or ghostfish, Cryptacanthodes 
maculatus, is frequently taken from Long Island northward. 
It is usually dusky in color, but sometimes pure white. Other 
genera are found in the north Pacific. 

The Wolf-fishes: Anarhichadide.—The wolf-fishes (Anarhi- 
chadid@) are large blennies of the northern seas, remarkable for 
their strong teeth. Those in front are conical canines. Those 
behind are coarse molars. The dorsal is high, of flexible spines. 


Fie 634 —Wol-fish, Anarhichas lupus (L.). Georges Bank. 


The species are large, powerful, voracious fishes, known as 
wolf-fishes. Anarhichas lupus is the common wolf-fish of the 
north Atlantic, reaching a length of four to six feet, the body 


Fig. 685.—Skull of Anarrhichthys ocellatus Ayres. 


marked by dark cross-bands. Other similar species are found 
both in the north Pacific and north Atlantic. Anarhichas 
lepturus, plain brown in color, is common about the Aleutian 
Islands. 


i. 


720. The Blennies: Blenniidz 


In the wolf-eel (Anarrhichthys ocellatus) of the coast of Cali- 
fornia, the head is formed as in Anarhichas but the body is 
band-shaped, being drawn out into a very long and tapering 
tail. This species, which is often supposed to be a “sea-serpent,” 
sometimes reaches a length of eight feet. It is used for food. 
It feeds on sea-urchins and sand-dollars (Echinarachinius) 
which it readily crushes with its tremendous teeth. 

The skull of a fossil genus, Laparus (alticeps), with a resem- 
blance to Anarhichas, is recorded from the Eocene of England. 

The Eel-pouts: Zoarcide.—The remaining blenny-like forms 
lack fin spines, agreeing in this respect with the codfishes and 
their allies. In all of the latter, however, the hypercoracoid 
is imperforate, the pseudobranchiz are obsolete, and the tail 
isocercal. The forms allied to Zoarces and Ophidion, and which 
we may regard as degraded blennies, have homocercal (rarely 
leptocercal) tails, generally but not always well-developed pseu- 
dobranchiz and the usual foramen in the hypercoracoid. 

The Zoarcide, or eel-pouts, have the body elongate, naked, 
or covered with small scales, the dorsal and anal of many soft 
rays and the gill-openings confined to the side. Most of the 
species live in rather deep water in the Arctic and Antarctic 
regions. Zoarces viviparus, the “mother of eels,’’ is a commen 
fish of the coasts of northern Europe. In the genus Zoarces, 


Fig. 686.—Eel-pout, Zoarces anguillaris Peck. Eastport, Me. 


the last rays of the dorsal are short and stiff, like spines. The 
species are viviparous; the young being eel-like in form, the 
name ‘‘ mother of eels”’ has naturally arisen in popular language. 
The American eel-pout, sometimes called mutton-fish, Zoarces 
anguillaris, is rather common north of Cape Cod, and a similar 
species, Zoarces elongatus, is found in northern Japan. 
Lycodopsis pacifica, without spines in the dorsal, replaces 
Zoarces in California. The species of Lycodes, without spines 


| 


—_——— 


The Blennies: Blenniidz 729 


in the dorsal, and with teeth on the vomer and palatines, are 
very abundant in the northern seas, extending into deep waters 
farther south. Lycodes reticulatus is the most abundant of 
these fishes, which are valued chiefly by the Esquimaux and 


Fie. 637.—Kel-pout, Lycodes reticulatus Reinhardt. Banquereau. 


other Arctic races of people. Numerous related genera are 
recorded from deep-sea explorations, and several others occur 
about Tierra del Fuego. Gymnelis, small, naked species brightly 
colored, is represented by Gymmnelis viridis in the Arctic and 
by Gymnelis pictus about Cape Horn. 


Fie. 638 —Lycenchelys verrilli (Goode & Bean). Chebucto, Nova Scotia. 


The family of Scytalinide contains a single species, Scytalina 
cerdale, a small snake-shaped fish which lives in wet gravel 
between tide-marks, on Waada Island near Cape Flattery in 
Washington, not having yet been found elsewhere. It dives 


Fic. 6389 —Scytalina cerdale Jordan & Gilbert. Straits of Fuca. 


among the wet stones with great celerity, and can only be taken 
by active digging. 
To the family of Congrogadide belong several species of 


730 The Blennies: Blenniide 


eel-shaped blennies with soft rays only, found on the coasts of Asia. 
Another small family, Derepodichthyide, is represented by one 
species, a scaleless little fish from the shores of British Columbia. 

The Xenocephalide consist of a single peculiar species, Xeno- 
cephalus armatus, from the island of New Ireland. The head 
is very large, helmeted with bony plates and armed with spines. 
The body is short and slender, the ventrals with five rays, the 
dorsal and anal short. 

The Cusk-eels: Ophidiide.— The more important family of 
Ophidiide, or cusk-eels, is characterized by the extremely ante- 
rior position of the ventral fins, which are inserted at the throat, 
each one appearing as a long forked barbel. The tail is lepto- 


Fie. 640 —Cusk-eel, Rissola marginata (De Kay). Virginia. 


cercal, attenuate, the dorsal and anal confluent around it. Ophi- 
dion barbatum and Rissola rochet are common in southern 
Europe. Kissola marginata is the commonest species on our 
Atlantic coast, and Chilara taylori in California. Other species 
are found farther south, and still others in deep water. Genyp- 
terus contains numerous species of the south Pacific, some 
of which reach the length of five feet, forming a commercial 
substitute for cod. Genypterus capensis is the klipvisch of the 
Cape of Good Hope, and Genypterus australis the “Cloudy Bay 
cod” or ‘‘rock ling” of New England. Another large species, 


Fic. 641—Lycodapus dermatinus Gilbert. Lower California. 


Genypterus maculatus, occurs in Chile. A few fragments doubt- 
fully referred to Ophidion and Fierasfer occur in the Eocene and 
later rocks. The Lycodapodide contain a few small, scaleless 
fishes (Lycodapus) dredged in the north Pacific. 


The Blennies: Blenniidze 731 


Sand-lances: Ammodytide.— Near the Ophidiide are placed 
the small family of sand-lances (Ammodytide). This family com- 
prises small, slender, silvery fishes, of both Arctic and tropical 
seas, living along shore and having the habit of burying them- 
selves in the sand under the surf in shallow water. The jaws 
are toothless, the body scarcely scaly and crossed by many cross- 
folds of skin, the many-rayed dorsal fin is without spines, and 
the ventral fins when present are jugular. The species of the 
family are very much alike. From their great abundance they 
have sometimes much value as food, more perhaps as bait, still 
more as food for salmon and other fishes, from which they 
escape by plunging into the sand. Sometimes a falling tide 


Fic. 642.—Sand-lance, Ammodytes americanus De Kay. Nantucket. 


leaves a sandy beach fairly covered with living “lants”’ looking 
like a moving foam of silver. Ammodytes tobtanus is the sand- 
lance or lant of northern Europe. Ammodytes americanus, 
scarcely distinguishable, replaces it in America; and Ammodytes 
personatus in California, Alaska, and Japan. This is a most 
excellent pan fish, and the Japanese, who regard little things, 
value it highly. 

In the genus Hyperoplus there is a large tooth on the 
vomer. In the tropical genera there is a much smaller number of 
vertebre and the body is covered with ordinary scales instead 


Fic. 648.—Embolichthys mitsukurii (Jordan & Evermann). Formosa. 


of delicate, oblique cross-folds of skin. These tropical species 
must probably be detached from the Ammodytide to form a 
distinct family, Bleekeriide. Bleekeria kallolepis is found in 
India, Bleekeria gilli is from an unknown locality, and the 
most primitive species of sand-lance, Embolichthys mitsukurit, 


732 The Blennies: Blenniide 

occurs in Formosa. In this species, alone of the sand-lances, 
the ventral fins are retained. These are jugular in position, 
as in the Zoarcide, and the rays are I, 3. The discovery of 
this species makes it necessary to separate the Ammodytide 
and Bleekeriide widely from the Percesoces, and especially from 
the extinct families of Crossognathide and Cobitopside with which 
its structure in other regards has led Woodward, Boulenger, and 
the present writer to associate it. 

Although an alleged sand-lance, Rhynchias septipinnis, with 
ventral fins abdominal, was described a century ago by Pallas, 
mo one has since seen it, and it may not exist, or, if it exists, it 
may belong among the Percesoces. The relation of Ammodytes 
to Embolichthys is too close to doubt their close relationship. 
According to Dr. Gill the Ammodytide belong near the Heme- 
rocetide. 

The Pearlfishes: Fierasferide.—In the little group of pearl- 
fishes, called Fierasferide or Carapide, the body is eel-shaped 


Fic. 644.—Pearlfish, Fierasjer dubius Putnam, embedded in a layer of mother-of- 
pearl. La Paz, Lower California. (Photograph by Capt. M. Castro.) 
with a rather large head, and the vent is at the throat. Numer- 
ous species of Fierasfer (Carapus) are found in the warm seas. 
These little fishes enter the cavities of sea-cucumbers (Holo- 
thurians) and other animals which offer shelter, being frequently 
taken from the pearl-oyster. In the Museum of Comparative 


The Blennies: Blenniidz 733 


Zoology, according to Professor Putnam, is “one valve of a 
pearl-oyster in which a specimen of Fierasfer dubius is beauti- 
fully inclosed in a pearly covering deposited on it by the 
oyster.” A photograph of a similar specimen is given above. 
The species found in Holothurians are transparent in texture, 
with a bright pearly luster. Species living among lava rocks, 
as Jordanicus umbratilis of the south seas, are mottled black. 
Since this was written a specimen of this black species has been 
obtained from a Holothurian in Hilo, Hawaii, by Mr. H. W. 
Henshaw. 


Fic. 645 —Pearlfish, Fierasfer acus (Linnzus), issuing from a Holothurian. 
Coast of Italy. (After Emery.) 


The Brotulide.—The Brotulide constitute a large family of 
fishes, resembling codfishes, but differing in the character of 
the hypercoracoid, as well as in the form of the tail. The 
resemblance between the two groups is largely superficial. We 
may’ look upon the Brotulide as degraded blennies, but the 
Gadid@ have an earlier and different origin which has not yet 
been clearly made out. Most of the Brotulide live in deep 
water and are without common name or economic relations. 
Two species have been landlocked in cave streams in Cuba, 
where they have, like other cavefishes, lost their sight, a phenom- 
enon which richly deserves careful study, and which has been 
recently investigated by Dr. C. H. Eigenmann. These blind 


ape The Blennies: Blenniide 


Brotulids, called Pez Ciego in Cuba, are found in different caves 
in the county of San Antonio, where they reach a length of 
about five inches. As in other blindfishes, the body is translu- 


Fic. 646.—Brotula barbata Schneider. Cuba. 


cent and colorless. These species are known as Lucifuga sub- 
terranea and Stygicola dentata. They are descended from allies 
of the genera called Brotula and Dinematichthys. Brotula bar- 
bata is a cusk-like fish, occasionally found in the markets of 


Fic. 647. —Blind Brotula. Lucifuga subterranea (Poey), showing viviparous habit. 
Joignan Cave, Pinar del Rio, Cuba. (Photograph by Dr. Eigenmann.) 
Havana. Similar species, Brotula multibarbata and Sirembo 
inermis, are common in Japan, and Brosmophycis marginatus, 
beautifully red in color, is occasionally seen on the coast of 
California. Many other genera and species abound in the 
depths of the sea and in crevices of coral reefs, showing much 

variety in form and structure. 

The Bregmacerotide are small fishes, closely related to the 
Brotulids, having the hypercoracoid perforate, but with sev- 
eral minor peculiarities, the first ray of the dorsal being free 
and much elongate. They live near the surface in the open 
sea. Bregmaceros macclellandi is widely diffused in the Pacific. 


The Blennies: Blenniide 735 


Ateleopodidz.—The smiall family of Ateleopodide includes long- 
bodied, deep-water fishes of the Pacific, resembling Macrourus, 
but with smooth scales. The group has the coracoids as in 
Brotulide, and the actinosts are united in an undivided plate. 
Ateleopus japonicus is the species taken in Japan. 

Suborder Haplodoci.—We may here place the peculiar family 
of Batrachoidide, or toadfishes. It constitutes the suborder 
of Haplodoct (azioos, simple; doxos, shaft) from the sim- 
ple form of the post-temporal. This order is characterized 
by the undivided post-temporal bone and by the reduction 
of the gill-arches to three. A second bone behind the post- 
temporal connects the shoulder-girdle above to the vertebral 
column. The coracoid bones are more or less elongate, suggest- 
ing the arm seen in pediculate fishes. 

The single family has the general form of the Cottide, the 
body robust, with large head, large mouth, strong teeth, and 
short spinous dorsal fin. The shoulder-girdle and its structures 
differ little from the blennioid type. There are no pseudo- 
branchize and the tail is homocercal. The species are relatively 
few, chiefly confined to the warm seas and mostly American, 
none being found in Europe or Asia. Some of them ascend 
rivers, and all are carnivorous and voracious. None are valued 


Fic. 648.—Leopard Toadfish, Opsanus pardus (Goode & Bean). Pensacola. 


as food, being coarse-grained in flesh. The group is probably 
nearest allied to the Trachinide or Uranoscopide. 

Opsanus tau, the common toadfish, or oyster-fish, of our 
Atlantic coast, is very common in rocky places, the young 
clinging to stones by a sucking-disk on the belly, a structure 


736 The Blennies: Blenniidze 


which is early lost. It reaches a length of about fifteen inches. 
Opsanus pardus, the leopard toadfish, or sapo, of the Gulf coast, 
lives in deeper water and is prettily marked with dark-brown 
spots on a light yellowish ground. 

In Opsanus the body is naked and there is a large foramen, 
or mucous pore, in the axil of the pectoral. In the Marcgravia 
cryptocentra, a large Brazilian toadfish, this foramen is absent. 
In Batrachoides, a South American genus, the body is covered 
with cycloid scales. Batrachoides surinamensis is a common 
species of the West Indies. Batrachoides pacifict occurs at 
Panama. The genus Porichthys is remarkable for the develop- 
ment of series of mucous pores and luminous spots in several 
different lateral. lines which cover the body. These luminous 
spots are quite unlike those found in the lantern-fishes 
(Myctophide) and other Iniomi. Their structure has been 
worked out in detail by Dr. Charles Wilson Greene. 

The common midshipman, or singing fish, of the coast of 
California is Porichthys notatus. This species, named mid- 
shipman from its rows of shining spots like brass buttons, is 
found among rocks and kelp and makes a peculiar quivering 
or humming noise with its large air-bladder. 

Porichthys porosissimus, the bagre sapo, is common on 
all coasts of the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. Po- 


Fie. 649 —Singing Fish or Bagre Sapo, Porichthys porosissimus (Cuv. & Val.). 
alveston. 
richthys margaritatus is found about Panama and Porichthys 
porosus in Chile. 
The species of Thalassophryne and Thalassothia, the poison 
toadfishes, are found along the coasts of South America, where 
they sometimes ascend the rivers. In these species there is 


The Blennies: Blenniide he Gi 


an elaborate series of venom glands connected with the hollow 
spines of the opercle and the dorsal spines. Dr. Gunther gives 
the following account of this structure as shown in Thalasso- 
‘phryne reticulata, a species from Panama: 

“In this species I first observed and closely examined the 
poison organ with which the fishes of this genus are provided. 
Its structure is as follows: (1) The opercular part: The oper- ° 
culum is very narrow, vertically styliform and very mobile; it is 
armed behind with a spine, eight lines long in a specimen of ro} 
inches, and of the same form as the venom fang of a snake; it 
is, however, somewhat less curved, being only slightly bent 
upward. It has a longish slit at the outer side of its extremity 
which leads into a canal perfectly closed and running along 
the whole length of its interior; a bristle introduced into the 
canal reappears through another opening at the base of the 
spine, entering into a sac situated on the opercle and along the 
basal half of the spine; the sac is of an oblong-ovate shape and 
about double the size of an oat grain. Though the specimen 
had been preserved in spirits for about nine months it still con- 
tained a whitish substance of the consistency of thick cream, 
which on the slightest pressure freely flowed from the opening 
in the extremity of the spine. On the other hand, the sac could 
be easily filled with air or fluid from the foramen of the spine. 
No giand could be discovered in the immediate neighborhood 
of the sac. (2) The dorsal part is composed of the two dorsal 
spines, each of which is ten lines long. The whole arrange- 
ment is the same as in the opercular spines; their slit is at the 
front side of the point; each has a separate sac, which occupies 
the front of the basal portion. 

Suborder Xenopterygii.— The clingfishes, forming the sub- 
order Nenopterygii (Servos, strange; 7Tepvés, fin), are, perhaps, 
allied to the toadfishes. The ventral fins are jugular, the rays 
I, 4 or 1, 5, and between them is developed an elaborate suck- 
ing-disk, not derived from modified fins, but from folds of the 
skin and underlying muscles. 

The body is formed much as in the toadfishes. The skin 
is naked and there is no spinous dorsal fin. The skeleton shows 
several peculiarities; there is no suborbital ring, the palatine 
arcade is reduced, as are the gill-arches, the opercle is reduced 


738 The Blennies: Blenniide 


to a spine-like projection, and the vertebre are numerous. The 
species are found in tide-pools in the warm seas, where they 
cling tightly to the rocks with their large ventral disks. 


Fic. 650.—Aspasma ciconie Jordan & Snyder. Wakanoura, Japan. 


Several species of Lepadogaster and Mirbelia are found in 
the Mediterranean. Lepadogaster gouant is the best-known 
European species. Aspasma ciconie and minima occur about 
the rocks in the bays of Japan. 

Most of the West Indian species belong to Gobiesox, with 
entire teeth, and to Arbaciosa, with serrated teeth. Some of these 


Yo mn, 


Fic. 651.—Clingfish, Caularchus mewandricus (Girard). Monterey, Cal. 


species are deep crimson in color, but most of them are dull 
olive. Gobiesox virgatulus is common on the Gulf Coast. Caun- 
larchus m@andricus, a very large species, reaching a length of 
six inches, abounds along the coast of California. Other genera 
are found at the Cape of Good Hope, especially about New 
Zealand. Chorisochismus dentex, from the Cape of Good Hope, 
reaches the length of a foot. 


CHAPTER XLV 
OPISTHOMI AND ANACANTHINI 


&)|RDER Opisthomi.—The order Opisthomi (omic On, behind; 
@os, shoulder) is characterized by the general traits 
of the blennies and other elongate, spiny- rayed 
fishes, but the shoulder-girdle, as in the Apodes and the 
Heteromi, is inserted on the vertebral column well behind the 
skull. 

The single family, Mastacembelide, is composed of eel-shaped 
fishes with a large mouth and projecting lower jaw, inhabiting 
the waters of India, Africa, and the East Indies. They are 
small in size and of no economic importance. The dorsal is 
long, with free spines in front and there are no ventral fins. 
Were these fins developed, they should in theory be jugular in 
position. There is no air-duct in Mastacembelus and it seems 
to be a true spiny-rayed fish, having no special relation to 


Fig. 652.—Mastacembelus ellipsijer Boulenger. Congo River. (After Boulenger.) 


either Notacanthus or to the eels. Except for the separation 
of the shoulder-girdle from the skull, there seems to be no 
reason for separating them far from the Blennioid forms, and 
the resemblance to Notacanthus seems wholly fallacious. 

Mastacembelus armatus is a common species of India and 
China. In Rhynchobdella the nasal appendage or proboscis, con- 
spicuous in Mastacembelus, is still more developed. Ahynchob- 
della aculeata is ccmmon in India. 

Order Anacanthini—We may separate from the other 


jugular fishes the great group of codfishes and their allies, 
739 


740 Opisthomi and Anacanthini 


retaining the name Anacanthini (avaxavos, without spine) 
suggested by Johannes Muller. In this group the hyper- 
coracoid is without foramen, the fenestra lying between this 
bone and the hypocoracoid below it. The tail is isocercal, the 
vertebrae in a right line and progressively smaller backward, 
sometimes degenerate or whip-like (leptocercal) at tip. Other 
characters are shown in the structure of the skull. There are 
no spines in any of the fins; the ventrals are jugular, the scales 
generally small, and the coloration dull or brownish. The 
numerous species live chiefly in the northern seas, some of 
them descending to great depths. The resemblance of these 
fishes to some of the Blennioid group is very strongly marked, but 
these likenesses seem analogical only and not indicative of true 
affinity. The codfishes probably represent an early offshoot from 
the ancestors of the spiny-rayed fishes, and their line of evolution 
is unknown, possibly from Ganoid types. | Among recent fishes 
there is nothing structurally nearer than the Nototheniide and 
Brotulide, but the line of descent must branch off much farther 
back than either of these. For the present, therefore, we may re- 
gard the codfishes and their allies (Anacanthint) as a distinct order. 

The Codfishes: Gadida.—The chief family is that of the Gadide, 
or codfishes. These are characterized by a general resemblance 
to the common codfish, Gadus callarias. This is one of the best 


Fic. 653.—Codfish, Gadus callarias L. Eastport, Me. 


known of fishes, found everywhere on the shores of the North 
Atlantic, and the subject of economic fisheries of the greatest 
importance. Its flesh is white, flaky, rather tasteless, but takes 
salt readily, and is peculiarly well adapted for drying. The 
average size of the codfish is about ten pounds, but Captain 


| 
| 
| 


Opisthomi and Anacanthini 741 


Nathaniel Atwood of Provincetown records one with the weight 
of 160 pounds. 

“The cod ranks among the most voracious of ordinary 
fishes, and almost everything that is eatable, and some that 
is not, may find its way into its capacious maw.” 

“The codfish in its mode of reproduction exhibits some 
interesting peculiarities. It does not come on the coast to 
spawn, as was once supposed, but its eggs are deposited in mid- 
sea and float to the surface, although it does really, in many 
cases, approach the land to do so. Prof. C. O. Sars, who has 
discovered its peculiarities, ‘found cod at a distance of twenty 
to thirty Norwegian miles from the shore and at a depth of 
from one hundred to one hundred and fifty fathoms.’ The 
eggs thus confided to the mercy of the waves are very numerous; 
as many as 9,100,000 have been calculated in a seventy-five- 
pound fish. ‘When the eggs are first seen in the fish they are 
so small as to be hardly distinguishable; but they continue 
to increase in size until maturity, and after impregnation have 
a diameter depending upon the size of the parent, varying 
from one-nineteenth to one-seventeenth of an inch. A five- 
to eight-pound fish has eggs of the smaller size, while a twenty- 
five-pound one has them between an eighteenth and a seven- 
teenth.’ There are about 190,000 eggs of the smaller size to 
a pound avoirdupois. They are matured and ejected from Sep- 
tember to November.” 

Unlike most fishes, the cod spawns in cooling water, a trait 
also found in the salmon family. 

The liver of the cod yields an easily digested oil of great 
value in the medical treatment of diseases causing emaciation. 

The Alaska cod, Gadus macrocephalus, is equally abundant 
with the Atlantic species, from which it differs very slightly, 
the air-bladder or sounds being smaller, according to the fisher- 
men, and the head being somewhat larger. This species is found 
from Cape Flattery to Hakodate in Japan, and is very abundant 
about the Aleutian Islands and especially in the Okhotsk Sea. 
With equal markets it would be as important commercially 
as the Atlantic cod. In the codfish (Gadus) and related genera 
there are three dorsal and two anal fins. In the codfish the 
lateral line is pale and the lower jaw shorter than the upper. 


742 Opisthomi and Anacanthini 


The haddock (Melanogrammus e@glifinus) closely resembles 
the cod and is of similar quality as food. It is known at sight 
by the black lateral line. It is found on both shores of the 
Atlantic and when smoked is the “ finnan haddie”’ of commerce. 


Fic. 654.—Haddock, Melanogrammus eglifinus (L.). Eastport, Me. 


The pollack, coalfish, or green cod (Pollachius carbonarius) 
is also common on both shores of the north Atlantic. It is darker 
than the cod and more lustrous, and the lower jaw is longer, 
with a smaller barbel at tip. It is especially excellent when 
fresh. 

The whiting (Merlangus merlangus) is a pollack-like fish com- 
mon on the British coasts, but not reaching the American shores. 


Fie. 655.—Pollock, Theragra chalcogramma (Pallas). Shumagin I., Alaska. 


It is found in large schools in sandy bays. The Alaska pollack 
(Theragra chalcogramma) is a large fish with projecting lower jaw, 
widely diffused in the north Pacific and useful as a food-fish to 
the Aleutian peoples. It furnishes a large part of the food of 
the fur-seal (Callorhinus alascanus and C. ursinus) during its 
migrations. The fur-seal rarely catches the true codfish, which 


Opisthomi and Anacanthini 743 


swims near the bottom. The wall-eyed pollack (Theragra 
jucensis) is found about Puget Sound. Smaller codfishes of 
this type are the wachna cod (Eleginus navaga) of Siberia and 
the Arctic codling (Boreogadus saida), both common about Kam- 
chatka, the latter crossing to Greenland. 

Several dwarf codfishes having, like the true cod, three dor- 
sal fins and a barbel at the chin are also recorded. Among 
these are the tomcod, or frostfish, of the Atlantic (Microgadus 
tomcod), the California tomcod (Microgadus proximus), and 
Micromesistius poutassou of the Mediterranean. These little 
cods are valued as pan fishes, but the flesh is soft and without 
much flavor. 

Other cod-like fishes have but two dorsals and one anal fin. 
Many of these occur in deep water. Among those living near 
shore, and therefore having economic value, we may mention a 
few of the more prominent. The codlings (Urophycis) are repre- 
sented by numerous species on both shores of the Atlantic. 


Fie. 656.—Tomcod, Microgadus tomcod (Walbaum). Woods Hole, Mass. 


Urophycis blennoides is common in the Mediterranean. Uro- 
phycis regius, on our South Atlantic coast, is said to exhibit 
electric powers in life, a statement that needs verification. 
In the Gulf of Mexico Urophycis floridanus is common. Far- 
ther north are the more important species Urophycis tenuts, 
called the white hake, and Urophycis chuss, the squirrel-hake. 
The ling (Molva molva) is found in deep water about the North 
Sea. 

A related genus, Lota, the burbot, called also ling and, in 
America, the lawyer, is found in fresh waters This genus con- 


744 Opisthomi and Anacanthini 


tains the only fresh-water members of the group of Anacanthinzi. 

The European burbot, Lota lota, is common in the streams 
and lakes of northern Europe and Siberia. It is a bottom fish, 
coarse in flesh and rather tasteless, eaten sometimes when boiled 
and soaked in vinegar or made into salad. It is dark olive in 
color, thickly marbled with blackish. 

The American burbot, or lawyer (Lota maculosa), is very 
much like the European species. It is found from New Eng- 
land throughout the Great Lakes to the Yukon. It reaches a 
length of usually two or three feet and is little valued as food 
in the United States, but rises much in esteem farther north. 
The liver and roe are said to be delicious. In Siberia its skin 
is used instead of glass for windows. In Alaska, according to 
Dr. Dall, it reaches a length of six feet and a weight of sixty 
pounds. 


Fic. 657.—Burbot, Lota maculosa (Le Sueur). New York. 


The rocklings (Gatdropsarus and Enchelyopus) have the 
first dorsal composed of a band of fringes preceded by a single 
ray. The species are small and slender, abounding chiefly in the 
Mediterranean and the North Atlantic. The young have been 


Fic. 658 —Four-bearded Rockling, Enchelyopus cimbrius (Linneus). 
Nahant, Mass. > 


called “mackerel-midges.’””’ Our commonest species is Enchely- 
opus cimbrius, found also in Great Britain. 
The cusk, or torsk, Brosme brosme, has a single dorsal fin 


Opisthomi and Anacanthini 74.5 


only. It is a large fish found on both shores of the North Atlan- 
tic, but rather rare on our coasts. 

Fossil codfishes are not numerous. Fragments thought to 
belong to this family are found in English Eocene rocks. 

Nemopteryx troscheli, from the Oligocene of Glarus, has three 
dorsal fins and a lunate caudal fin. Other forms have been 
referred with more or less doubt to Gadus, Brosmius, Strinsia, 
and Melanogrammus. 

Gill separates the “three-forked hake” (Raniceps trifur- 
cus) of northern Europe as a distinct family, Ranicipitide. In 
this species the head is very large, broad and depressed, differ- 
ing in this regard from the codlings and hakes, which have also 
two dorsal fins. The deep-water genus, Bathyonus, is also 
regarded as a distinct family, Bathyonide. 

The Hakes: Merluciide.—Better defined than these families 


Fic. 659.—California Hake, Merluccius productus (Ayres). Seattle. 


is the family of hakes, Merluciide. These pike-like codfishes 
have the skull peculiarly formed, the frontal bones being paired, 
excavated above, with diverging crests continuous forward 
from the forked occipital crest. The species are large fishes, 
very voracious, without barbels, with the skeleton papery and 
the flesh generally soft. The various species are all very much 
alike, large, ill-favored fishes with strong teeth and a ragged 
appearance, the flesh of fair quality. Merluccius merluccius, 
the hake or stock-fish, is common in Europe; Merluccius bilinearis, 
the silver hake, is common in New England, Merluccius pro- 
ductus in California, and Merluccius gayi in Chile. 

The Grenadiers: Macrouride.— The large family of grena- 
diers, or rat-tails, Macrouride, is confined entirely to the oceanic 


746 Opisthomi and Anacanthini 


depths, especially of the north Atlantic and Pacific. The head is 
formed much as in the codfishes, with usually a barbel at the chin. 
There are two dorsals, the second like the anal being low, but 
the leptocercal tail is very long and tapering, ending in a fila- 


Fic. 660.—Coryphenoides carapinus (Goode & Bean), showing leptoceral tail. 
Gulf Stream. 
ment. without caudal fin. The scales are usually rough and 
spinous. The species are usually large in size, and dull gray or 
black in color. 
The best-known genus is Macrourus. Macrourus berglax 
is found on both shores of the north Atlantic. Macrourus 


Fic. 661.—Grenadier, Celorhynchus carminatus Goode & Bean. Martha’s Vineyard. 


bairdi is abundant in off-shore dredgings from Cape Cod to Cuba. 
Macrourus cinereus, the pop-eye grenadier, outnumbers all other 
fishes in the depths of Bering Sea. Calorhynchus japonicus is 
often taken by fishermen in Japan. Coryphenotdes rupestris 
is common in the north Atlantic. Bogoslovius clarkt and 
Albatrossia pectoralis were dredged by the Albatross about the 
voleanic island of Bogoslof. Trachyrhynchus trachyrhynchus 
is characteristic of the Mediterranean. Nematonurus goodei is 
common in the Gulf Stream, and Dolloa longifilis is found off 


Opisthomi and Anacanthini 747 


Japan. Other prominent genera are Bathygadus, Gadomus, Re- 
gania, and Stetndachnerella. 


| Fic. 662.—Steindachnerella argentea (Goode & Bean). Gulf Stream. 


The Murenolepide are deep-sea fishes, with minute eel-like 
scales, and no caudal fin. The ventrals are five-rayed and there 
are 10 pterygials. 


ORDER PEDICULATI: THE ANGLERS 


HIME Angler-fishes.—The few remaining fishes possess also 


; 
: 
CHAPTER XLVI | 
lary 


jugular ventral fins, but in other regards they show so 

P| many peculiarities of structure that we may well con- ; 
sider them as forming a distinct order, Pediculati (pedicula, 
a foot-stalk), although the relation of these forms to the : 
Batrachoidide seems a very close one. 

The most salient character of the group is the reduction and : 
backward insertion of the gill-opening, which is behind the 
pectoral fins, not in front of them as in all other fishes. The 
hypocoracoid and hypercoracoid are much elongate and greatly 
changed in form, so that the pectoral fin is borne on the end of a 
sort of arm. The large ventrals are similarly more or less ex- 
serted. The spinous dorsal is much reduced, the first spine 
being modified to form a so-called fishing-rod, projecting over 
the mouth with a fleshy pad, lure, or bait at its tip. The form 
of the body varies much in the different families. The scales 
are lost or changed to prickles and the whole aspect is very 
singular, and in many cases distinctly frog-like. The species are 
mostly tropical, some living in tide-pools and about coral reefs, 
some ‘on sandy shores, others in the oceanic abysses. 

The nearest allies of the Pediculates among normal fishes 
are probably the Batrachotdide. One species of Lophiide is 
recorded among the fossils, Lophius brachysomus, from the 
Eocene of Monte Bolca. No fossil Antennartide are known. 
Fossil teeth from the Cretaceous of Patagonia are doubtfully 
named “ Lophius patagonicus.”’ 

The Fishing-frogs: Lophiide.—In the most generalized family, 
that of the fishing-frogs (Lophiide), the body is very much 
depressed, the head the largest part of it. The mouth is exces- 


sively wide, with strong jaw-muscles, and strong sharp teeth. 
748 


Order Pediculati: The Anglers 749 


The skin is smooth, with dermal flaps about the head. Over the 
mouth, like a fishing-rod, hangs the first dorsal spine with a lure 
at the tip. The fishes lie flat on the bottom with sluggish move- 
ments except for the convulsive snap of the jaws. It has*beén 
denied that the bait serves to attract small fishes to their destruc- 
tion, but the current belief that it does so is certainly plausible. 

Mr. Saville Kent recently expressed doubt as to whether the 
fishing-frogs really use the first spine for purposes of angling. 
In no other group, however, is the coloring more distinctly 
that of the rocks and alge among which the fishes lurk. 

The great fishing-frog of the North Atlantic, Lophius piscato- 
rius, is also known as angler, monkfish, goosefish, allmouth, 


« 
Fig. 663 —Anko or Fishing-frog, Lophius litulon (Jordan). Matsushima Bay, Japan. 


wide-gape, kettleman, and bellows-fish. It is common in shal- 
low water both in America and Europe, ranging southward to 
Cape Hatteras and to the Mediterranean. It reaches a length 
of three feet or more. A fisherman told Mr. Goode that “he 
once saw a struggle in the water, and found that a goosefish had 
swallowed the head and neck of a large loon, which had pulled 
it to the surface and was trying to escape. There is authentic 
record of seven wild ducks having been taken from the stomach 
of one of them. Slyly approaching from below, they seize 
birds as they float upon the surface.” 


750 Order Pediculati: The Anglers 


The genus Lophius of northern range has a vertebral col- 
umn of about thirty vertebree. Lophius litulon occurs in Japan. 
In the North Pacific is found Lophiomus, similar in appearance 
but smaller in size, ranging southward to the equator, a 
southern fish having but eighteen vertebrae. Lophiomus setigerus 
is the common anko of Japan, and other species are recorded 
from Hawaii and the Galapagos. 

The Sea-devils: Ceratiide.—The sea-devils, or Ceratiid@, are 
degenerate anglers of various forms, found in the depths of the 
arctic seas. The body is compressed, the mouth vertical; the 
substance is very soft, and the color uniform black. Dr. Gunther 
thus speaks of them: 

“The bathybial sea-devils are degraded forms of Lophius; 
they descend to the greatest depths of the ocean. Their bones 


Fic. 664 —Cryptopsaras couesi Gill. Gulf Stream. 


are of an extremely light and thin texture, and frequently other 
parts of their organization, their integuments, muscles, and 
intestines, are equally loose in texture when the specimens are 
brought to the surface. In their habits they probably do not 
differ in any degree from their surface representative, Lophius. 
The number of the dorsal spines is always reduced, and at the 
end of the series of these species only one spine remains, with a 


Order Pediculati: The Anglers 751 


simple, very small lamella at the extremity (Melanocetus john- 
sont, Melanocetus murrayi). In other forms sometimes a 


Fic. 666—Caulophryne jordani Goode & Bean. Gulf Stream. Family Ceratiide. 


second cephalic spine, sometimes a spine on the back of the 
trunk, is preserved. The first cephalic spine always retains 
the original function of a lure for other marine creatures, but 
to render it more effective a special luminous organ is sometimes 


752 Order Pediculati: The Anglers 


developed in connection with the filaments with which its ex- 
tremity is provided (Ceratias bispinosus, Onetrodes eschrichtit). 
So far as known at present these complicated tentacles attain 
to the highest degree of development in Himantolophus and 
AZge@onichthys. In other species very peculiar dermal appen- 
dages are developed, either accompanying the spine on the back 
or replacing it. They may be paired or form a group of three, 
are pear-shaped, covered with common skin, and perforated at 
the top, a delicate tentacle sometimes issuing from the foramen,”’ 

Of the fifteen or twenty species of Ceratitde described, none 


aa 


Fic. 667—Sargassum-fish, Plerophryne tumida (Osbeck), Florida. 
Family Antennariide. 


are common and all are rare catches of the deep-sea dredge. 
Caulophryne jordant is remarkable for its large fins and the 
luminous filaments, Linophryne lucifer for its large head, and 
Corynolophus reinhardti for its luminous fishing-bulb. 

The Frogfishes: Antennariide.—The frogfishes, Antennartide, 
belong to the tropical seas and rarely descend far below the sur- 
face. Most of them abound about sand-banks or coral reefs, 
especially along the shores of the East and West Indies, where 
they creep along the rocks like toads. Some are pelagic, drifting 


Order Pediculati: The Anglers 753 


about in floating masses of seaweed. All are fantastic in form 
and color, usually closely imitating the objects about them. 
The body is compressed, the mouth nearly vertical, and the skin 
either prickly or provided with fleshy slips. 

The species of Pterophryne live in the open sea, drifting with 
the currents in masses of sargassum. Two species, Pterophryne 
tumida and Pterophryne gibba, are found in the West Indies and 
Gulf Stream. Two others very similar, Pterophryne histrio and 
Pterophryne ranina, live in the East Indies and drift in the Kuro 


Fic. 668 —Fishing-frog, Antennarius nox Jordan. Wakanoura, Japan. 


Shiwo of Japan. All these are light olive-brown with fantastic 
black markings. 

The genus Antennarius contains species of the shoals and 
reefs, with markings which correspond to the colors of the rocks. 
These fishes are firm in texture with a velvety skin, and the pre- 
vailing color is brown and red. There are many species wher- 
ever reefs are found. Antennarius ocellatus, the pescador, is 
the commonest West Indian species. Antennarius multiocel- 
latus, with many ocellated spots, is the Martin Pescador of Cuba, 
also common. 

On the Pacific coast of Mexico the commonest species is 
Antennarius strigatus. In Japan, Antennarius tridens abounds 
everywhere on the muddy bottoms of the bays. Antennarius 


754 Order Pediculati: the Anglers 


nox is a jet-black species of the Japanese reefs, and Antennarius 
sanguifluus is spotted with blood-red in imitation of coralline 
patches. Many other species abound in the East Indies and in 


(Fie. 669.—Shoulder-girdle of a Batfish, Ogcocephalus radiatus (Mitchill). 


Polynesia. The genus Chaunax is represented by several deep- 
water species of the West Indies, Japan, etc. 

The Gigactinide of the deep seas differ from the Ogcoce- 
phalide, according to Boulenger, in the absence of ventrals. 


Fic. 670-—Frogfish, Antennarus scaber (Cuvier). Puerto Rico. 

The Batfishes: Ogcocephalide.—The batfishes, Ogcocephalide, 
are anglers with the body depressed and covered with hard 
bony warts. The mouth is small and the bony bases of the 


eS ene 


Order Pediculati: the Anglers FAN 
pectoral and ventral fins are longer than in any other of the 
anglers. The species live in the warm seas, some in very shallow 
water, others descending to great depths, the deep-sea forms 
being small and more or less devenerate. These walk along like 
toads on the sea-bottoms; the ventrals, being jugular, act as fore 
legs and the pectorals extend behind them as hind legs. 

The common sea-bat, or diablo, of the West Indies, Ogcocepha- 
lus vespertilio, is dusky in color with the belly coppery red. 
It reaches the length of a foot. The angling spine is very short, 
hidden under the long stiff process of the snout. Farther north 


Fia. 671.—Ogcocephalus vespertilio (L.). Florida. 


occurs the short-nosed batfish, Ogcocephalus radiatus, very simi- 
lar, but with the nostril process, or snout, blunt and short. Zali- 
eutes elater, with a large black eye-like spot on each side of the 
back, is found on the west coast of Mexico. In deeper water 
are species of Halieutichthys in the West Indies and of Halieutea 
in Japan. Dzbranchus atlanticus has the gills reduced to two 
pairs. Malthopsis consists of small species, with the rostrum 
prominent, like a bishop’s miter. Two species are found in the 
Pacific, Malthopsis mitrata in Hawaii and Malthopsis tiarella in 


Japan. 
And with these dainty freaks of the sea, the results of cen- 


turies on centuries of specialization, degeneration, and adapta- 
tion, we close the long roll-call of the fishes, living and dead. 


756 Order Pediculati: the Anglers 


And in their long genealogy is enfolded the genealogy of men 
and beasts and birds and reptiles and of all other back-boned 
animals of whom the fish-like forms are at once the ancestors, 
the cousins, and the younger brothers. When the fishes of the 
Devonian age came out upon the land, the potentiality of the 


Fic. 672.—Batfish, Ogcocephalus vespertilio (L.). Florida. 


higher methods of life first became manifest. With the new 
conditions, more varied and more exacting, higher and more 
varied specialization was demanded, and, in response to these 
new conditions, from a fish-like stock have arisen all the birds 


and beasts and men that have dwelt upon the earth. 
Py 


Fic, 673.—Batfish, Ogcocephalus vespertilio (Linneeus). Carolina Coast. 


THE END. 


RESUME OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES AND 
FISH-LIKE VERTEBRATES 


We here present a résumé of the classification of the families and higher 
groups of fishes and of the other aquatic Chordata, as adopted in this yolume, 
a few slight changes being made in certain groups. The names of extinct 
families are printed in italics. 


Branch or Phylum CHORDATA 
Division PROTOCHORDATA 
Class ENTEROPNEUSTA 
Order ADELOCHORDATA 
Harrimaniide 
Glandicepitide 
Balanoglossidz 
Class TUNICATA 
Order LARVACEA 
Appendiculariide 
Order ASCIDIACEA 
Ascidiidee 
Cynthiide 
Clavellinide 
Molgulid 
Botryllide 
Polystyelidze 
Didemnide 
Distomide 
Polyclinide 
Pyrosomide 
Order THALIACEA 
Salpide 
Division VERTEBRATA 
Class LEPTOCARDII 
Branchiostomide (Lancelets) 
Class CYCLOSTOMI 
Order HYPEROTRETA 
Eptatretide (Borers) 
Myxinide (Hagfishes) 
757 


758 


Classification of Fishes 


Order HYPEROARTIA 
Petromyzonide (Lampreys) 
Mordaciide 

Class ELASMOBRANCHII 
Subclass SELACHIT 

Order PLEUROPTERYGII 
Cladoselachide 

Order ACANTHODEI 
Acanthoesside 
Diplacanthide 
Ischnacanthide 

Order ICHTH YOTOMI 
Pleuracanthide 

Order NOTIDANI 
Hexanchide (Cow-sharks) 
Chlamydoselachide (Frill-sharks) 

Order CESTRACIONTES 
Cochliodontide 
Hybodontide 
Orodontide 
Heterodontide (Bull-head Sharks) 
Psammodontide 
Tamiobatide 

Order ASTEROSPONDYLI (GALEOIDEI) 
Scylliorhinide (Cat-sharks) 
Hemiscylliide 
Orectolobide 
Ginglymostomide (Nurse-sharks) 
Odontaspidide (Sand-sharks) 
Mitsukurinide (Goblin-sharks) 
Alopiide (Threshers) 
Pseudotriakide 
Lamnide (Man-eater Sharks) 
Cetorhinide (Basking-sharks) 
Rhineodontide 
Carchariide (Common Sharks) 
Sphyrnide (Hammer-head Sharks) 

Order TECTOSPONDYLI (SQUALOIDED) 
Squalide (Dog-fishes) 

Dalatiide 
Echinorhinide (Bramble-sharks) 


4 
{ 
} 


Classification of Fishes 759 


Order TECTOSPONDYLI (SQUALOIDEI)—Continued 
Squatinide (Angel-sharks) 
Pristiophoride (Saw-sharks) 

Order BATOIDEI (HYPOTREMA) 
Pristidz (Sawfishes) 
Rhinobatide (Guitar-fishes) 
Rajide (Skates) 
Narcobatide (Torpedoes) 
Petalodontide 
Pristodontide 
Dasyatide (Sting-rays) 
Aétobatide (Eagle-rays) 
Psammodontide 
Mobulide (Devil-rays) 

Subclass HOLOCEPHALI 

Order CHIM/EROIDEI 
Chimeride (Chimeras) 
Rhinochimeride 
Callorhynchide (Bottle-nose Chimeras) 
Ptyctodontide 
Squalorajide 

_ Myriacanthide 
Class OSTRACOPHORI 

Order HETEROSTRACI 
Thelodontide 
Psammosteide 
Drepanas pide 
Pteras pide 

Order OSTEOST RACI 
Cephalas pide 
Thyestide 
Odontodontide 

Order ANTIARCHA 
Asterolepide 

Order ANASPIDA 
Birkeniide 

Class TELEOSTOMI 
Subclass CROSSOPTERYGII 
Order HAPLISTIA 
Tarrasstide 


760 


Classification of Fishes 


Order RHIPIDISTIA 
Holoptychiide 
Megalichthyide 
Osteole pide 
Onychodontide 

Order ACTINISTIA 
Celacanthide 

Order CLADISTIA 
Polypteride (Bichirs) 

Subclass DIPNEUSTI 
Series SIRENOIDEA 

Order CTENODIPTERINI 
Uronemide 
Dipteride 
Ctenodontide 

Order SIRENOIDEI 
Ceratodontide (Barramundas) 
Lepidosirenide (Loalaches) 

Series ARTHRODIRA 

Order STEGOPHTHALAMI 
Macro petalichthyide 
Asterosteide 

Order TEMNOTHORACI 
Chelonichthyide 

Order ARTHROTHORACI 
Coccosteide 
Dinichthyide 
Titanichthyide 
Mylostomide 
Selenosteide 

Order CYCLIZ 
Palos pondylide 

Subclass ACTINOPTERI 
Series GANOIDEI 

Order LYSOPTERI 
Paleoniscide 
Platysomide 
Dorypteride 

_Dictyo pygide 

Order CHONDROSTEI 

Chondrosteide 


Classification of Fishes 761 


Order CHONDROSTEI—Continued 
Belonorhynchide 
Acipenseride (Sturgeons) 

Order SELACHOSTOMI 
Polyondontide (Paddle-fishes) 

Order PYVCNODONTI 
Pycnodontide 

Order HOLOSTEIL (RHOMBOGANOIDEA) 
Semionotide 
Lepidotide 
Isopholide 
Macrosemiide 
Aspidorhynchide 

Order GINGLYMODI 
Lepisosteide (Garpikes) 

Order HALECOMORPHI (CYCLOGANOIDEI) 
Pachycormide 
Protos phyrenide 
Liodesmide 
Amiatidz (Bowfins) 

Series TELEOSTEI 

Order ISOSPONDYLI 
Pholido phoride 
Archeomenide 
Oligopleuride 
Leptolepide 
Elopide (Ten-pounders) 
Megalopide (Tarpons) 
‘Spaniodontide 
Pachyrhizodontide 
Albulidz (Lady-fishes) 
Thryptodontide 
Chanide (Milk-fishes) 
Pterothrissidz 
Hiodontide (Moon-eyes) 
Chirocentride (Dorabs) 
Ichthyodectide 
Ctenothrisside 
Phractolemide 
Notopteridx 
Clupeide (Herrings) 


Classification of Fishes 


Order ISOSPONDYLI—Continued 

Engraulide (Anchovies) 

Dorosomide (Gizzard-shads) 

Osteoglosside 

Phareodontide =| 

Pantodontide 

Alepocephalide 

Gonorhynchidz 

Cromeriide 

Salmonide (Salmon and Trout) 

Thymallide (Graylings) 

Argentinide (Smelts) 

Microstomide 

Salangide (Ice-fishes) 

Stomiatide 

Astronesthide 

Malacosteide 

Chauliodontide 

Gonostomatide 

Aulopide 

Synodontide (Lizard-fishes) 

Benthosauride 

Bathypteroide 

Ipnopide 

Rondeletiide 

Cetomimide 

Myctophide (Lantern-fishes) 

Chirothricide 

Rhinellide 

Exocoetoidide 

Mauroliciide 

Plagyodontide (Lancet-fishes) 

Evermannellide 

Paralepide 

Sternoptychide 

Idiacanthide 

Enchodontide 1] 

Dercetide . 

Stratodontide | 
Order LYOPOMI | 

Halosauride ; 


Classification of Fishes 763 


Order SYMBRANCHIA 
Suborder ICHTHYOCEPHALI 
Monopteride (Rice-eels) 
Suborder HOLOSTOMI 
Symbranchidee 
Amphipnoid 
Chilobranchide 
Order APODES 
Suborder ARCHENCHELI 
Urenchelyide 
Suborder ENCHELYCEPHALI 
Anguillide (Eels) 
Simenchelyide (Pug-nosed Eels) 
Synaphobranchide 
Leptocephalide (Conger-eels) 
Mureenesocide 
Ilyophide 
Heterocongride 
Myride 
Dysommide 
Ophichthyide (Snake-eels) 
Nettastomide (Duck-billed Eels) 
Nemichthyide (Snake-eels) 
Suborder COLOCEPHALI 
Murenide (Morays) 
Myrocongridz 
Moringuide 
Order CARENCHELI 
Derichthyide 
Order LYOMERI 
Eurypharyngide (Gulpers) 
Saccopharyngide 
Order HETEROMI 
Pronotacanthide 
Notacanthide (Spring-eels) 
Lipogenyidz 
Order OSTARIOPHYSI 
Suborder HETEROGNATHI 
Characide (Characins) 
Erythrinide 


704 Classification of Fishes 


Suborder EVENTOGNATHI 
Cyprinide (Carp and Minnows) 
Catostomide (Suckers) 
Cobitide (Loaches) 
Homalopteriide 
Kneriide 

Suborder NEMATOGNATHI 
Diplomystide 
Siluride (Catfishes) 

Sisoride 
Bunocephalide 
Plotoside 
Chacide 
Clariide 
Hypophthalmide 
Pygidiidz 
Argidz 
Loricariide 
Callichthyide 

Suborder GYMNONOTI 
Electrophoride (Electric Eels) 
Gymnotide (Carapos) 

Order SCYPHOPHORI 
Mormyride 
Gymnarchide 
Haplochitonide 
Galaxiide (New Zealand Trout) 
Order HAPLOMI 
Esocide (Pikes) 
Umbride (Mud-minnows) 
Peeciliide (Killifishes) 
Amblyopside (Cave Blindfishes) 
Crossognathide 
Cobito pside 
Order XENOMI 
Dalliide (Blackfishes) 
Order ACANTHOPTERI 

Suborder SYNENTOGNATHI 
Belonide (Garfishes) 
Exoccetide (Flying-fishes) 


Classification of Fishes 765 


Suborder PERCESOCES 
Atherinidee (Silversides) 
Mugilide (Mullets) 
Sphyrenide (Barracudas) 

Suborder RHEGNOPTERI 
Polynemide (Thread-fins) 

Suborder HEMIBRANCHII 
Gasterosteide (Sticklebacks) 
Aulorhynchide 
Protosyngnathide 
Fistulariide (Cornet-fishes) 
Aulostomidze (Trumpet-fishes) 

Macrorhamphoside (Snipe-fishes) 
Uros phenide 
Kham phoside 
Centriscidze (Shrimp-fishes) 

Suborder LOPHOBRANCHII 
Solenostomide 
Syngnathide (Pipefishes and Sea-horses) 

Suborder HYPOSTOMIDES 
Pegaside (Sea-moths) 

Suborder SALMOPERCAE 
Percopside (Trout-perch) 
Erismato plerid @ 

Suborder SELENICHTHYES 
Lampride (Opahs) 
Semiophoride 

Suborder ZEOIDEA 
Amphistiide 
Zeide (John-dories) 
Grammicolepide 

Suborder BERYCOIDEA 
Berycide (Alfonsinos) 
Trachichthyide 
Holocentride (Soldier-fishes) 
Polymixiide 
Monocentrid# (Pine-cone Fishes) 
Stephanoberycide 

Suborder PERCOMORPHI 
Group SCOMBROIDEA 

Scombride (Mackerels) 


706 Classification of Fishes 


Group SCOMBROIDEA—Continued 
Gempylide (Escolars) 
Lepidopide (Frost-fishes) 
Trichiuridz (Cutlass-fishes) 
Paleorhynchide 
Istiophoride (Sailfishes) 
Xiphiide (Swordfishes) 
Carangide (Cavallas) 
Nematistiide (Papagallos) 
Vomeropside 
Cheilodipteride (Pomatomide) (Bluefishes) | 
Rachycentride (Sergeant-fishes) 
Stromateide (Harvest-fishes) 
Icosteide (Ragfishes) 
Acrotide t 
Zaproride , 
Bramide (Pomfrets) 
Steinegeriide 
Pteraclide 
Coryphenide (Dolphins) 
Equulide 
Lactariide : 
Menide 
Luvaride (Louvars) 
Pempheride 
Bathyclupeide 
Tetragonuride 

Group PERCOIDEA 
Centrarchide (Sunfishes) 
Aphredoderide (Pirate-perches) 
Kuhliide (Seseles) 
Elassomide (Pygmy-perches) 
Oxylabracidze (Centropomide) (Robalos) 
Percide (Perches and Darters) 
Apogonide (Apogonichthyide) (Cardinal-fishes) 
Ambasside (Parambassidz) 
Scombropidz 
Acropomide 
Enoplosid 
Anomalopidz 
Asineopide 


a aes 


j 
: 
; 
} 


Classification of Fishes 767 


Group PERCOIDEA—Continued 
Serranide (Basses and Groupers) 
Lobotide (Flashers) 
Priacanthide (Big-eyes) 
Histiopteridz 
Lutianide (Snappers) 
Cesionide 
Hemulide (Grunts) 
Scorpidae 
Sparide (Porgies) 

Meenidze (Picarels) 
Gerridze (Mojarras) 
Kyphoside (Rudder-fishes) 
Mullidee (Goat-fishes) 
Scieenide (Croakers) 
Sillaginidze 
Oplegnathide (Stone-wall Fishes) 
Nandide 
Polycentride 
Pseudochromidee 
Opisthognathide (Jawfishes) 
Trichodontide (Sand-fishes) 
Chiasmodontide (Swallowers) 
Champsodontide 
Malacanthidee (Matajuelos) 
Latilide (Blanquillos) 
Pinguipedidz 
Cepolidz (Ribbon-fishes) 
Cirrhitide (Hawk-fishes) 
Latridide (Trumpeters) 
Aplodactylidze 

Suborder KURTOIDEA 

Kurtide 

Suborder LABYRINTHICI 

Anabantidx (Climbing-fishes) 

Osphromenide (Gouramies) 

Helostomide 

Luciocephalidz 

Ophicephalidz (Snakefishes) 

Suborder HOLCONOTI 

Embiotocide (Surf-fishes) 


Classification of Fishes 


Suborder CHROMIDES 
Cichlide (Cichlids) 
Pomacentride (Demoiselles) 

Suborder PHARYNGOGNATHI 
Labride (Wrasses) 

Scaride (Scarichthyide) (Parrot-fishes) 
Odacide 
Siphonognathide 

Suborder SQUAMIPINNES 
Antigoniide (Boarfishes) 
Toxotide (Archers) 
Ephippide 
Tlarchide (Spadefishes) 
Drepanide 
Platacide (Batfishes) 
Chetodontide (Butterfly-fishes) 
Zanclide (Moorish idols) 
Acanthurid (Surgeons) 

Suborder AMPHACANTHI 
Siganide 

Suborder SCLERODERMI * 
Triacanthide 
Balistide (Trigger-fishes) 
Monacanthide (Filefishes) 
Spinacanthide 

Suborder OSTRACODERMI * 
Ostraciide (Trunkfishes) 

Suborder GYMDODONTES * 
Triodontide (Pursefishes) 
Chonerhinidze 
Tetraodontide (Puffers) 
Diodontide (Rabbit-fishes) 
Heptadiodontdie 

, Molidz (Headfishes) 

Suborder GOBIOIDEA 
Gobiide (Gobies) 
Oxudercidee 

Suborder DISCOCEPHALI 
Echeneide (Remoras) 


* These three suborders constitute the series called Plectognathi. 


Classification of Fishes 


Suborder SCLEROPAREI 
Scorpenide (Rockfishes) 
Caracanthide 
Anoplopomatid (Skil-fishes) 
Ophiodontide (Blue Cods) 
Oxylebiide 
Zaniolepide 
Hexagrammide (Greenlings) 
Platycephalide 
Hoplichthyide 
Bembridz 
Cottidz (Sculpins) 
Ereuniidz 
Rhamphocottide 
Comephoridz (Baikal-fishes) 
Agonidz (Sea-poachers) 
Cyclopteridee (Lumpfishes) 
Liparide (Snailfishes) 

Suborder CRANIOMI 
Triglidee (Gurnards) 
Peristediide =~ 
Cephalacanthide (Flying Gurnards) 

Suborder TAXSNIOSOMI 
Lophotidee 
Regalecide (Oarfishes) 
Trachypteride (Dealfishes) 
Stylephoride 

Suborder HETEROSOMATA 
Pleuronectide (Flounders) 
Soleidz (Soles) 

Suborder JUGULARES 
Trachinide (Weevers) 
Calli plerygide 
Nototheniidz 
Harpagiferide 
Bovichthyide 
Percophide 
Pteropsaridz 
Bathymasteridze (Ronquils) 
Leptoscopidee 
Uranoscopide (Star-gazers) 


769 


If? 


Classification of Fishes 


Suborder JUGULARES—Continued 
Dactyloscopidz 
Callionymide (Dragonets) 
Rhyacichthyide 
Trichonotide 
Hemeroceetide 
Blenniide (Blennies) 
Xiphidiide (Gunnels) 
Ptilichthyidz (Quillfishes) 
Xiphasiide 
Patecide 
Blochiide 
Gnathanacanthide 
Acanthoclinide 
Gadopside 
Cerdalide 
Anarrhichadide (Wolf-fishes) 
Cryptacanthodide (Wry-mouths) 
Zoarcide (Eel-pouts) 
Scytalinide 
Congrogadide 
Derepodichthyide 
Xenocephalide 
Ophidiidz (Cusk-eels) 
Lycodapodide 
Ammodytide (Sand-lances) 
Bleekeriide 
Tierasferide (Pearl fishes) 
Brotulide (Brotulas) 
Bregmacerotide . 

Suborder HAPLODOCI 
Batrachoidide (Toadfishes) 

Suborder XENOPTERYGII 
Gobiesocide (Clingfishes) 

Suborder OPISTHOMI 
Mastacembelide 

Suborder ANACANTHINI 
Gadide (Codfishes) 
Ranicipitide 
Bathyonide 
Merluciide (Hakes) 


Classification of Fishes 


771 . 
; 
Suborder ANACANTHINI—Continued 
Macruridee (Grenadiers) ' 
Ateleopodide 
Murenolepidae 


Order PEDICULATI 
Lophiid (Fishing-frogs) 
a = Ceratiida 
qn Antennariide (Frogfishes) 
Gigantactinide 
Ogcocephalide (Sea-bats) 


INDEX : oe 


- : . <a ‘ 
ee 7 
i _ 
- : 
7 a i: : 
7 v 
. «a 
S ——— 2 7 


INDEX 


(Illustrations are indicated by an asterisk.) 


Aboma, 673* 
Abramis, 387* 
abundance of food-fishes, 138 
Acanthopterygii, 424-431 
order of, 424 
Acanthuride, 618 
Achirine, 705 
Achirus, 706* 
Acipenser, 256* 
Actinistia, order of, 230 
Actinopteri, subclass, 246 
adaptations of fishes, 51-78 
to environment, 42 
adult male, of Lepidosiren, 
242* 
fEoliscus, 450* 
“Ethoprora, 60* 
ZEtobatis, 215* 
African catfish, 404* 
Agassiz, on fish fauna of New 
England, 111 
agency of ocean currents, 96 
Agonide, 660 
agonoid fish, 664* 
air-bladder, 11 
of carp, 379* 
Alaska cod, 741 
grayling, 137*, 343* 
pollack, 742 
Albacore, 477 
Goode on, 478 
long-fin, 478* 
Albula, 37*, 271* 
Albulide, 271 
alcohol, use of, 161 
Aldrich, photo by, 112 
Aldrovandia, 361* 
Alectis, 491 
Alepocephalus, 284* 
alewife, 276* 
Alfonsinos, 466 
alimentary canal, 29 
alkaloids in fish, 54, 56, 57 
alligator-fish, 664 
alligator-gar, 261* 
allmouth, 749 
Alopiide, family of, 193 
Alticus, 83*, 719* 
Amanses, 625* 
amber-fishes, 487, 488* 
amber-jack, 488 


Ambloplites, 514* 
skull of, 511* 
Amblyopside, 419 
Amblyopsis, 421* 
Ameiurus, 400* 

destroyed by 
ihe 
American charr, 333 
American trout, origin of, 320 
Amia, 262* 
Amiide, 262 
Ammocrypta, 44*, 528* 
Ammodytes, 731* 
Ammodytide, 731 
Amphacanthi, suborder of, 
620 
amphibians, 227 
origin of, 226 
Amphistiide, 462 
Amphistium, 462* 
Anabantida, 580 
Anabas, 580* 
Anableps, 414 
Nelson on, 415 
Anacanthini, 739-747 
anadromous fishes, 46 
Anarichadide, 727 
Anarhichas, 727* 
Anarrhichthys, skull of, 727* 
ancestry of flounders, 694 
Anchovia, 280* 
anchovy, silver, 280* 
ancient outlet of Lake Bonne- 
ville, r12 
angel-fish, 615* 
angler-fishes, 74, 748 
anglers, 748-756 
angling, 145 
Young on, 145 
Anguilla, 366* 
larva of, 367* 
Anguillide, 365 
Anisotremus, 555* 
Anko, 16*, 749* 
Anomalopide, 532 
Anoploma, 649* 
Anoplopomide, 649 
Antennariide, 752 
Antennarius, 753, 754* 
Antigoniide, 609 
Apeltes, 447* 


lampreys, 


Aphareus, 553* 
Aphredoderidx, 509 
Aphredoderus, 510* 
Apia, coral reefs of, 87* 
Aplodactylide, 577 
Apodes, 362-377 

order of, 364 
Apogon, 531*, 533* 
Apogonide, 531 
Apomotis, 25*, 564* 
Archencheli, 364 
arches, 611 
archipterygium, of Neocerat- 

odus, 240* 

Archosargus, 29*, 561, 561* 
Arctic codling, 743 
Arctic species, in lakes, 125 

Malmgren on, 126 
Argentinide, 345 
Argyropelecus, 62* 
Argyrosomus, 289, 290* 
Ariscopus, 717* 
arm of frog, 227* 
amnillo, 552 
Arthrodires, 245* 
Asineopide, 532 
Aspasma, 738* 
Aspidophoroides, 664* 
Aspro, 524* 
aspron, 524* 
Astroscopus, 59*, 715* 
Ateleopide, 735 
Atherinide, 432 
Atherinopsis, 435* 
Atka-fish, 137*, 650* 
Atka mackerel, 650 
Atlantic salmon, 312 

as a food-fish, 315 
Aulopide, 353 
Aulorhynchide, 447 
Aulostomide, 448 
Aulostomus, 449* 
Australian flying-fish, 429* 
aweoweo, 547 
ayu, 130%, 338, 339* 


bagre sapo, 736* 
Baikal cods, 666 
Baird, on bluefish, 494 
Bairdiella, 569* 
bajonado, 559 


775 


Index 


776 


Balistes, 56*, 623* 
Balistide, 623 
banded rockfish, 643* 
banded sunfish, 514* 
bandfishes, 577 
barbero, 619 
barracuda, 438* 
barracudas, ae 


blanquillos, 575 

| bleak, 382 
blennies, 717-738 
Blennius, 718* 
blenny, kelp, 718* 

sarcastic, 717* 

Blepsias, 659* 
blind Brotula, 734* 


buffalo-cod, 651 
buffalo-fishes, 391, 392* 
shoulder-girdle of, 379* 
buffalo-selpin, 654* 
bullhead shark, 187* 
bumpers, 491 
burbot, 743, 744* 
butter-fishes, 498, 538 


Barramunda, 2 blind cave-fish, 420* butterfly-fish, 613* 
Giinther on, ae blindfishes, 734 butterfly-fishes, 613 
barriers, of Mammouth Cave, 421* 


local, 107 
mountain-chains as, 119 
to dispersion of river-fishes, 


blob, 655* 
Blochiide, 724 
Blochius, 724* 


cabezon, 653 
cabra mora, 18* 
cachucho, 551*, 552 


106-128 blueback salmon, 296 Calorhynchus, 746* 
to movement of fishes, 94 | blue-breasted darter, 84*,|cagon de lo alto, 551 
waterfalls and cascades, 109 529* Calamus, 559* 


watersheds as, 114 
basal bone of dorsal fin, 
220* 


blue cod, 651 
| bluefin cisco, 290* 
bluefishes, 133*, 493, 494* 
basking-shark, 196, 197* Baird on, 494 
bass, and their relatives, 531-| California, 568 
564 destructiveness of, 494 

bassalian fishes, 99 blue-gill, 515* 
bastard halibut, 702 blue-green sunfish, 
batfish, 669, 754, 756* 564* 

shoulder-girdle of, 754* dissection of, 25* 
Bathymaster, 713* blue parrot- -fish, 605* 
Bathymaster-dx, 713 blue parrot- -fish, jaws of, 


calico-bass, 512 
calico-salmon, 295 
California hagfish, 169* 
lancelet, 165* 
miller’s-thumb, 657* 
sucker, 393* 
Callbreath’s hatchery, 310 
Callichthyide, 4o4, 714 
Callipterygida, 711 
Callorhynchus, egg of, 34* 
Calotomus, jaws of, 602 
Campostoma; 31*, 386* 


24, 25%, 


Batrachoidide, 735 
Batoidei, suborder of, 206 
becuna, 438 

Beleosoma, 527* 


604* 
blue-samlet, 435* ~ 
blue tang, 618* 
boarfishes, 609 


candil, 470 
candle-fish, 347 


Cantor, on fighting-fish, 49 


capelin, 349* 


bellows-fish, 740 bobo, 437* capitaine, 598* s 
Belonide, 426 bocaccio, 640 Caracanthide, 649 
Berndt, phote by, 132* boga, 563 Carangide, 487 


Berycide, 466 
Berycoid fishes, 465 

skull of, 465* 
Berycoidei, 465-472 
Beryx, 466* 


bonaci arara, 539 

bonaci cardenal, 539 

bonito, 479 

bony fishes, 264 
classification of, 265 


Carassius, 360* 
Carcharias, 199* 
carcharioid sharks, 197 
Carcharodon, 196* 
cardinal-fishes, 531* 


skull of, 465* Bothine, 697 caribe, 380 
t ugna%- 48> beshow, 649 bottle-nosed ceaeans evg of, | Carangus, 490* 
ee biajaiba, 550* 34* carp, 382, 389 
= bowfins, 262* 


bigeye, 546*, 547 
bishop-fish, 151 
black angel-fish, 614* 
black bass, 516 
Hallock on, 517 
Henshall on, 517 
large-mouthed, 519 
small-mouthed, 134*, 518 
black-fin s apper, 550 
black grouper, 5390 
black nohu, 52*, 647* 
black-nosed dace, 383* 
black roneador, 570 
black-sided darter, 526* 
black swallower, 27*, 574* 


Gill on, 574 brown tang, 53%, 619* destroyed by lampreys, 
black tai, 558 Brycon, 381 177* 
blackfish, Alaska, 423* Bryostemma, 721*, 724* electric, 58*, 4o2* 
bIacksmith, 592 budai, 601 fossil, 405 


Brachymystax, 291 
brain or sensorium, 39 

of fish, 11 

of monkfish, 204* 
Branchiostoma, 165* 
bream, 382 
Bregmacerotide, 734 
Brevoortia, 277* 
bristly globefishes, 633* 
brit, 434* 
broad soles 705 
brook-trout, 333 334*, 335 
Brotula, 734* 
Brotulide, 733 


Carpiodes, 392* 


carp-suckers, 391, 392* 


casabes, 491 
Cassiquaire, 
through, 116 
catadromous fishes, 48 


Catalina flying-fish, 43*, 430, 


431* 
catalineta, 555 
catalufa, 545* 


catalufa de lo alto, 504* 


catalufas, 503 
catfishes, 


African, 51, 396-406 


channel, 398, 300* 


dispersion 


catfishes, 
Old World, 401 
sea, 397, 398* 
spine of, 396 
Catostomide, 390 
Catostomus, 393 
pharyngeal teeth of, 394 
Caularchus, 70, 738* 
Caulophryne, 751* 
causes of dispersion, 127 
cavallas, 481, 487-507 
cave-fish, 420 
Cayuga Lake, lampreys of, 
173-178 
centers of distribution, 97 
central fact of distribution, 95 
Centrarchide, 5 2 
Centriscidz, 449 
Centropomus, 133* 
Cephalacanthide, 669 
Cephalacanthus, 668* 
Cepolide, 577 
Ceratias, 751* 
Ceratiide, 750 
Ceratocottus, 655* 
Ceratodontidz, family of, 239 
Ceratodus, teeth of, 240* 
Ceratoscopelus, 356* 
Cerdalidz, 726 
Cestraciont sharks, teeth of, 
188* 
Cetomimus, 355* 
Cetorhinidz, family of, 196 
Cetorhinus, 197* 
Chetodipterus, 134*, 612* 
Chetodon, 613* 
Chetodontide, 613 
Chamsodontide, 575 
Chanide, 271 
Channa, 585* 
channel-bass, 569 
channel-cat, 398 
channel-catfish, 399* 
Chanos, 272* 
characters of Elasmobranchs, 
181 
charr, 330 
Chauliodus, 352* 
Cheilodipteride, 493 
Cheilodipterus, 494* 
Chiasmodon, 27*, 574* 
Chiasmodontide, 574 
Chilomycterus, 634* 
Chimera, 222* 
chimeras, 218-223 
Dean on, 220 
relationship of, 220 
skeleton of, 221* 
Woodward on, 219 
Chimeride, family of, 221 
China-fishes, 585 
chirivita, 616 
Chirostoma, 138*, 434* 


Index 


Chirothricide, 356 

| Chirothrix, 273 

Chlamydoselachide, 
of, 186 

Chlamydoselachus, 186* 

Chlarias, 404* 

Chlariide, 403 

Chlevastes, 86 

chogset, 598 

Chologaster, 419* 

Chondrostei, order of, 253 

Chondrosteus, 254* 

Chonerhinide, 632 

chopa blanco, 564 

chopa spina, 560 

Chromides, 591-607 

suborder, 591 

chub mackerel, 476 

chub of Great Basin, 388* 

chub of Pacific slope, 388 

chub-sucker, 124%, 391* 

chum, 295 

Cichlide, 591 

Ciguatera, 54, 56,: 57, 549, 
622, 624 


family 


Cirrhitide, 577 
Cirrhitus, 578* 
cisco, 289, 290* 
Cladistia, order of, 231 
Cladoselache, 183* 
Clark, handwriting and 
sketch by, 348* 
classification 
of bony fishes, 265 
of Dipnoans, 238 
of Elasmobranchs, 181 
of Ganoids, 249 
climbing-fish, Gill on, 580 
climbing-perch, 580* 
clingfishes, 70*, 737, 738* 
sucking-disks of, 70 
Clupea, 140*, 275* 
Clupeide, 275 
Clupeoidea, 268 
coalfish, 649 
cobbler-fish, 491 
cobia, 497 
Cobitopside, 439 
Cobitopsis, 439* 
cockeye-pilot, 594* 
codfishes, 140*, 740* 
dwarf, 743 
eggs of, 741 
Ccelacanthus, 230* 
coho, 295 
collecting, methods of, 158 
collection of fishes, 157-162 
Colocephali, suborder of, 371 
Colorado River trout, 329* 
coloration, 
effect of spirits on, 88 
intensity of, 85 
nuptial, 83 


777 


coloration, 

recognition-marks, 84 

sexual, 83 

variation of pattern, 88 
colors of fishes, 79-89 
Columbia, 457* 
Comephorid, 666 
common 

eel, 366* 

filefish, 54*, 626* 

skate, 209* 

sturgeon, 255* 

sucker, 393* 

sunfish, 6*, 516* 
conejo, 482 
conger-eels, 368, 369* 

larva of, 369* 
Congrogadide, 729 
continents, map of, 92 
coral-reef fishes, 88 
coral reefs, at Apia, 87* 
Corax, teeth of, 200* 
Coregonus, 130*, 286, 287%, 

288* 
cormorant fishing, 142*, 143, 
144*, 339 

Whitney on, 339 
cornet-fishes, 448 
coronado, 488 
corsair, 641 
Corynolophus, 60* 
Coryphena, 502 
Coryphenoides, 746* 
Cottide, 652 
Cottus, 657* 
Cowfish, 627* 

skeleton of, 31*, 629* 
cow-shark, 184* 
crab-eater, 497 

Prime on, 497 
Craniomi, suborder of, 667 
crappie, 387, 512*, 513* 
cravo, 459 
creekfish, 391* 
crested bandfishes, 506 
Cristivomer, 337* 
croakers, 565-578 
Crossognathidx, 439 


Crossopterygian fish, 228%, 


Crossopterygians, orders of, 
228 

Crossopterygil, 224-234 
Cryptacanthodes, 726* 
Cryptacanthodidx, 726 
Cryptopsaras, 750* 
Cryptotomus, 602* 
crystal 

darter, 528* 

goby, 677 
Crystallaria, 528* 
Crystallias, 665* 


778 


Ctenodipterini, order of, 238 
Ctenothrissa, 274* 
Ctenothrissidx, 274 
Cuban fishes, 123 
cubero, 549 
cub-shark, 199* 
cuckold, 627* 
cultus cod, 651* 
cunner, 598 
cusk, 744 
cusk-eel, 730* 
cutlass-fishes, 482, 483* 
cutthroat-trout, 325 
Evermann on, 326 
Cycliz, 245 
Cyclopteride, 664 
Cyclopterus, 665* [202 
Cyclospondyli, suborder of, 
Cyclostomes, 167-178 
extinct, 168 
orders of, 168 
Cymatogaster, 32*, 586* 
Cynoglossine, 708 
Cynoscion, 567* 
Cyprinide, 382 
fossil, 393 
number of species, 384 
Cyprinodon, 415* 
Cypselurus, 43*, 431* 


dace, 382 
black-nosed, 383* 
species of, 385 
Dactyloscopide, 716 
daddy-sculpin, 656 
Dalatiide, family of, 203 
Daldorf, on tree-climber, 49 
Dallia, 423* 
Damalichthys, 588* 
damsel-fishes, 592, 593* 
indigo, 595* 
darters, 
black-sided, 525, 526* 
blue-breasted, 529* 
crystal, 528 
fantail, 530 
goby, 673* 
green-sided, 1or*, 527* 
johnny, 528 ; 
least, 530 
rainbow, 530 
relation to perch, 521 
sand, 528 
tessellated, 527 
Dasyatide, 212 
Dasyatis, roo, 213* 
Davis, on planting of salmon- 


fry, 309 
day-chub, head of, 386* 
dealfishes, 687, 688* 
Dean, 
on chimeras, 220 
on lateral line, 21 


Index 


Death Valley fish, 418* 
deep-sea angler, 751* 
Derepodichthyidx, 730 
Derichthys, 375* 
devil-ray, 216* 
diablo, 755 
diamond-fishes, 609 
Diaphus, 355* 
Dictyopygide, 252 
Diodon, 15*, 633* 
Diodontide, 633 
Diplesion, 101*, 527* 
Diplodus, 560* 
Diplomystus, 278* 
Dipnoans, classification of, 
238 
Discocephali, 670-690 
Gill on, 681 
Dismal Swamp fish, 419* 
dispersion, causes still 
operation, 127 
dissection of the fish, 24- 
31 
distribution, 
agency of ocean currents, 


in 


6 
barriers against, 97 
centers of, 97 
effect of temperature, 95 
equatorial zone, 104 
of fresh-water fishes, 103 
laws of, gt 
of littoral fishes, ror 
local barriers to, 107 
of marine fishes, 99 
northem zone of, 103 
southern zone of, 105 
doctor-fish, 618 
dogfish, 202* 
dogoro, 592 
dog-salmon, 295 
dog-snapper, 550 
dollar-fish, 498 
Dolly Varden 
336%, 337* 
dolphin, 502* 
Doncella, 106*, 607* 
dorado, 502* 
Doras, 
Giinther on, 402 
dormeur, 671* 
Dormitator, 672* 
Dorosoma, 297* 
Dorosomatidz, 279 
dorsal fin, of Holoptychius, 
229* 
Dorypterid, 251 
Dorypterus, 252 
Draciscus, 663* 
dragonets, 714 
drum, 572* 


trout, 136, 


eagle-ray, 215* 


Ebisu, 557* 
Echeneidide, 679 
Echinorhinide, 
204 

economic fisheries, 142 
eel-back flounder, 704* 
eel, common, 366* 
eel-fairs, 365 
eel, food of, 366 

larva of, 366, 367 
eel-like fishes, 362-377 
eel-pout, 728*, 729* 
eels, 362 

conger,’ 368, 369* 

duck-bill, 370 

long-necked, 372 

pug-nosed, 367 

snake, 369 

species of, 367 


family of, 


88s ; 
of bottle-nosed chimera, 
34* 
of fishes, 32, 34* 
of hagfish, 34* 
of Port Jackson shark, 35*, 
188* 
eighteeen-spined sculpin, 658* 
Elasmobranchii, 180-217 
Elasmobranchs, 
characters of, 181 
clas-ification of, 181 
subclasses of, 182 
Elassoma, 510* 
Elassomide, 511 
electric catfish, 58*, 4o2* 
electric eel, 58 
electric fishes, 58 
Electris, 671* 
elephant-fish, 222* 
Elopide, 269 
Elops, 269* 
Embiotocide, 587 
Emblemaria, 720* 
Embolichthys, 731* 
embryo, of Lepidosiren, 243* 
Emmydrichthys, 52*, 647* 
Empetrichthys, 418* 
Enchelycephali, suborder of, 
365 
Enchelyopus, 744* 
Engraulidide, 280 
Enophrys, 654* 
Entosphenus, 175* 
Ephippide, 61x 
Epinephelus, 18*, 538*, 539*, 
540* 543* 
equatorial 
fishes, to2 
zone of distribution, 104 
Ereunias, 661* 
Ericymba, 384* 
Erimyzon, 124, 391* 
Erismatopteride, 457 


Erismatopterus, 457* 
Erpetoichthys, 234* 
escolars, 482 
esmeralda de mar, 672* 
Esocidz, 409 
Esox, 137*, 410*, 411* 
Etelis, 551* 
Etheostoma, 84*, 529* 
Etheostomine, 525 
Etmopterus, 61*, 203* 
Etropus, 699* 
eulachon, 129*, 347* 
sketch by Clark, 348* 
Eupomotis, 6*, 12*, 516* 


European chub, pharyngeal 


bones of, 382* 
European soles, 706 
Eurynotus, 251* 
Eurypholis, 359*, 360* 
Eutzniichthys, 678* 
Eyventognathi, 382 
everglade 

minnow, 416* 

pigmy perch, 510* 
Evermann, 

on golden trout, 323 

on Two-Ocean Pass, 117 
Exerpes, 721* 
Exoceetide, 427 
Exoglossum, head of, 386* 
Exonautes, 429* 
exoskeleton, 18 
exterior of fish, 14-23 
extinction of species, 93 
eves, of flounders, 74 


fading of pigment, 888 

fair-maid, 558 

fallfish, 386 

family 
Alopiide, 193 
Anguillide, 365 
Ceratodontide, 239 
Cetorhinidz, 196 
Chimeride, 221 
Chlamydoselachide, 186 
Dalatiidz, 203 
Echinorhinide, 204 
Heterodontide, 188 
Hexanchide, 185 
Lamnide, 194 
Lepisosteide, 259 
Mitsukurinide, 191 
Mobulide, 216 
Moringuide, 372 
Pristiophoride, 205 
Psammodontide, 215 
Pseudotriakid, 193 
Rhineodontide, 197 
Scylliorhinide, 189 
Sphyrnide, 200 
Squalidz, 202 

fantail darter, 530 


Index 


fathead, 599 

faunal areas, 102 

favorable waters have most 
species, 110 

Felichthys, 398* 

fiatola, 498 

Fierasfer, 45*, 732* 


779 


fish, 


teeth of, 4 
tide-pool, 45 
viviparous, 32*, 33%, 118* 


fish-god of Japan, 557* 
fisheries, 143 


economic, 142 


issuing from Holothurian, | fishes, 


= the 
Fierasferide, 732 
fighting-fish, 49, 584 
filefish, 95*, 625* 
common, 626* 
needle-bearing, 625* 
finnan haddie, 742 
fins, 
of Crossopterygians, 22 
of the fish, 22 
fish, 
in action, 10 
air-bladder in, 11 
alimentary canal of, 29 
anadromous, 46 
body form of, 14 
brain of, 11, 39 
breathing of, 4 
catadromous, 48 
color of, 5 
coral reef, 88 
definition of, 1 
disease transmitted by, 57 
of Dismal Swamp, 419 
dissection of, 2 
eggs of, 32, 34* 
electric, 58 
exterior of, 14-23 
face of, 4 
fins of, 8, 22 
flight of, 43 
form of, 3 
four-eyed, 414* 
habits of, 38 
hearing of, 7 
iniomous, 61 
instinct in, 40 
intestine of, 31 
jaws of, 28* 
lateral line in, 8 
luminous organs of, 59 
measurement of, 17 
migratory, 46 
muscles of, 23 
mythology of, 149-156 
of paradise, 583 
pine-cone, 471*, 472 
poisonous flesh in, 55 
pugnacity of, 48 
quiescent, 44 
scales of, 18 
sight of, 5 
skeleton of, 9 
spines of, 51 
spiral valve in, 30 


bassalian, 99 
berycoid, 465 

bony, 264 

butter, 498 
cardinal, 531 
collection of, 157-162 
colors of, 79-89 
corner, 448 

Cuban, 123 

cutlass, 482 

damsel, 592 
distribution of, go—105 
eel-like, 362 
elephant, 222 
equatorial, 102 

flesh of, 129 

as food for man, 128-148 
guitar, 207, 208* 
jugular, 709 
labyrinthine, 579 
lancet, 357, 358* 
lantern, 352 

littoral, ror 

lizard, 355 

lowland, 122 

lung, 235 
mailed-cheek, 637 
most specialized, 102 
nest-building by, 445, 443 
paddle, 256 

parrot, 601 

pelagic, 999 
percoid, 508 

poison, 52 

how to preserve, 159 
records of, 161 
ribbon, 682 

river, 106 

rudder, 563 

sail, 483 

saw, 206, 207* 
scabbard, 482 

how to secure, 157 
sergeant, 497 
shark-like, 180 
shrimp, 449 

snipe, 449 

soldier, 468 
spiny-rayed, 424 
surf, 586 

tropical, 142 
trumpet, 448 
upland, 120 

viper, 352 
viviparous, 586* 


780 


fishes, 
watersheds crossed by, 115 
wolf, 727 
wrasse, 596 
fishing, 
apparatus, 144 
for ayu, 142%, 144* 
cormorant, 142*, 144%, 
339 
methods of, 143 
for tai, 147* 
fishing-frog, 16*, 748, 749%, 
a3" 
Fistularia, 
shoulder-girdle of, 442 
Fistulariide, 448 
flashers, 545* 
flatfishes, 691 
flatheads, 652 
flesh of fishes, 129 
flight of fish, 43 
Gilbert on, 43 
Florida 
jewfish, 537* 
lion-fish, 644* 
flounder, eel-back, 704 
homocercal tail of, 696* 
larval, 693* 
larval stages of, 75*, 77* 
shoulder-girdle of, 247* 
wide-eyed, 698* 
wide-mouthed, 703* 
young, 76*, 692* 
flounders, 695 
ancestry of, 694 
eyes of, 74 
optic nerve of, 692 
flower of the surf, 435* 
flying-fish, 43*, 427 
Australian, 429* 
Catalina, 430 
sharp-nosed, 430* 
flying gurnards, 668*, 669 
flying robin, 669 
Fodiator, 430* 
food 
of eels, 366 
of lampreys, 171 
food-fishes, 
abundance of, 138 
relative rank of, 129 
foolfishes, 624 
Forgy, on capture of oarfish, 


formalin, value of, 160 
fossil 

catfishes, 405 

Cyprinide, 393 

flounders, 696 

herring, 278* 

remora, Storms on, 680 

Salmonide, 341 
four-bearded rockling, 744* 


Index 


four-eyed fish, 414* 

Marsh on, 414 
four-spined stickleback, 447* 
fresh-water fishes, 103 
fresh-water vivaparous perch, 

587* 

frigate-mackerel, 477 
frill-shark, 186* 
frog, arm of, 227 
frogfishes, 752, 754* 
frostfish, 743 
Fundulus, 417* 


Gadide, 740 
Gadopside, 726 
Gadus, 140*, 740* 
gaff-topsail cat, 398* 
Galaxiide, 422 
Galeichthys, 398* 
Galeus, 198* 
galliwasp, 353 
Ganoidei, series, 247 
Ganoids, 246-263 : 
classification of, 249 
garfishes, 426 
Garibaldi, 80*, 593* 
garpikes, 260 
imaginary, 154 
gaspergou, 568 
Gasterosteida, 443 
Gasterosteus, 447* 
shoulder-girdle of, 442* 
Gastronemus, 504* 
Gastrostomus, 375* 
gatasami, 575 
Gempylide, 482 
geographical distribution, go— 
105 
Germo, 478* 
Gerres, 563* 
ghostfish, 727 
Gibbonsia, 718* 
Gigactinide, 754 
Gilbert, : 
on electric organs, 59 
on flight of fishes, 43 
Gilbertidia, 662* 
Gill 
on black-swallower, 574 
on climbing-fish, 580 
on Discocephali, 681 
on labyrinthine fishes, 579 
on Lopholotilus, 575 
on Trachinide, 710 
gill-basket of lamprey, 166* 
Gillichthys, 674* 
gilt-head, 558 
ginpo, 722 
globefishes, 69, 98*, 630 
bristly, 633* 
Glyphisodon, 594* 
Gnathanacanthide, 726 
Gnathonemus, 408* 


goatfishes, 565 
gobies, 670 
Gobiide, 670 
Gobioidei, 670-690 
Gobiomorus, 46, 500* 
Gobionellus, 672* 
goblin-sharks, 191, 192* 
gofu, 82* 
golden surmullet, 131*, 566* 
golden trout, 322 
Evermann on, 323 
goldfish, 360* , 389 
Gonorhynchide, 280 
Goode, 
on Albacore, 478 
on halibut fishery, 700 
on mackerel, 475 
on Spanish mackerel, 479 
Goodea, 33* 
goosefish, 749 
goujon, 401 
gourami, habits of, 582 
Grammicolepide, 464 
grand écaille, 270* 
grass porgy, 560 
grayling, 343 
Alaskan, 343* 
of Europe, 344 
Michigan, 345* 
and smelt, 343-361 
gray snapper, 548*, 549 
Great Basin, chub of, 388* 
fish fauna of, 111 
great oarfish, 683 
Great Lake trout, 337* 
great parrot-fish, 139* 
great sculpin, 653 
green-back trout, 328* 
green cod, 742 
Greene, on photophores, 62 
greenfish 
of Alaska, 651 
of California, 564 
greenlings, 650, 651* 
green rockfish, 640 
green-sided darter, ro1*, 527* 
grenaciers, 745, 746* 
grilse, 294* 
griset or cow-shark, 184* 
grouper, 537 
black, 539 
Nassau, 53 
red, 539 
snowy, 543* 
yellow-finned, 539 
grubby, 657 
grunts, 554* 
guacamaia, 139* 
guahu, 48x 
guasa, $37 
guativere, 538 
guavina de rio, 670, 671* 
guavinamapo, 671, 672* 


guitar-fishes, 207, 208* 
gulper-eel, 375* 
gulpers, 374 
gunnel, 722* 
Gunther, 
on Barramunda, 241 
on Doras, 402 
on poison-organs, 52 
on poisonous fishes, 737 
on preserving fish, 159 
on zones of distribution, 


103 
gurnards, 667 
Gymnodontes, 629 
Gymnonoti, order of, 406 
Gymnothorax, 373*, 374* 
Gyrodus, 258* 
Gyroptychius, 230* 


habits 
of fishes, 38 
of lancelot, 164 
of Lepidosiren, 243 
haddock, 742* 
Hadropterus, 526* 
Hemulide, 552 
hagfishes, 70, 71*, 168 
California, 169* 
egg of, 34* 
species of, 170 
hake, 743, 745 
Halecomorphi, order of, 261 
halfbeak, 428* 
half-moon fish, 564 
halibut, 141*, 700, 702* 
halibut fishery, Goode on, 
‘00 
halibut tribe, 699 
Halichceres, 106*, 607* 
Hallock, on black bass, 
Syl 
hammer-head sharks, 
201* 
Haplistia, 228 
Haplochitonide, 351 
Haplodoci, 735 
Haplomi, 407-423 
hard-tails, 490 
Harpagiferide, 711 
harvest-fish, 16*, 498, 499* 
hatcheries, Jadgeska, 310 
head of day-chub, 386* 
headfishes, 635* 
headlight fish, 60%, 355* 
Helicolenus, 643 
Helostomide, 584 
Hemibranchii, suborder of, 
442 
Hemilepidotus, 654* 
Hemitripterus, 659* 
Henshall, on black 


200, 


bass, 


Index 


herring, 140*, 
fossil, 278* 
product of, 139 

heterocercal tail, 

696* 

heterodontide, 188 

Heterodontus, 187* 
egg of, 35* 
lower jaw of, 187* 
teeth of, 188* 

Heterognathi, 380 

Heteromi, order of, 376 

Heterosomata, 691-708 

Hexagrammide, 650 

Hexagrammos, 651* 

Hexanchide, 185 

Hexanchus, 184* 

hickory-shad, 279* 

Hiodon 272* 

Hiodontide, 272 

Hippocampus, 15*, 78*, 451, 

453* 

Hippoglossine, 699 

Hippoglossus, 141*, 702* 

Histiopterida, 547 

hog-choker sole, 706* 

hogfish, 598* 

Holacanthus, 615*, 616* 

Holcolepis, 269* 

Holder, on capture of oarfish, 

685 

Holocentride, 468 

Holocentris, 469* 

Holocephali, 218-223 

Holoconoti, 579-590 
suborder of, 586 

Holoptychius, dorsal fin of, 

229* 
homocercal tail, of flounder, 


275* 


Hoplopagrus, 550* 
Hoplopteryx 467* 
horned 

dace, 386, 387* 

pout, 399, 400% 

trunkfish, 627* 
hornless trunkfish, 629* 
horsehead-fish, development 

of, 36* 

hound-sharks, 198 
Hucho, 329, 330* 
humpback salmon, 295, 296* 
Hybodus, teeth of, 188* 
Hyperoartia, 170 
Hyperotreta, 168 
Hypocritichthys, 589* 
Hypophthalmidz, 404 
Hypoplectrus, 542* 
Hyporhamphus, 428* 
Hypostomides, 442-455 
Hypsurus, 587* 
Hysterocarpus, 587%, 590 


517 
Heptranchias, teeth of, 185* " Hypsypops, 80*, 593* 


of trout, 


781 


icefishes, 350, 351* 

ichthyosis, 438 

Icosteid, soo 

Ictalurus, 399* 

Ictiobus, 392* 
shoulder- -girdle of, 379* 

igami, 601 

Tlarchide, 611 

inconnu, 291* 

Indian-fish, 616 

Indian sawfish, 72* 

indigo damsel- fish, 595* 

Inimicus, 645 

iniomous fishes, 61 

Tniomi, suborder of, 352 

instincts, 
classification of, 40 
of courtship, 41 
habits and adaptations, 38- 

50 
variability of, 42 

Ipnopid, 354 

Ipnops, 354* 

Irish lord, 653, 654* 

Irish pampano, 563* 

Isabelita, 615* 

Iso, 435* 

Isospondyli, 264-284 
relationships of, 267 
Woodward on, 265 

Istieus, 273* 

Istiophoride, 483 

Isuropsis, 194* 

Isurus, teeth of, 195* 

Italian parrot-fish, 


pharyn- 
geals of, 602* 


Ito, 330* 


jacks, 490 
Jadgeska hatchery, 310 
jallao, 555 
Janassa, teeth of, 211* 
janissary, 599 
Japanese 
blenny, 8* 
filefish, 95* 
samlet, 130*, 339* 
sea-horse, 78* 
snipefish, 449* 
jaqueta, 594 
jawfishes, 573* 
jaws 
of blue parrot-fish, 604* 
of fish, 28* 
of Nemichthys, 42*, 371* 
of parrot-fish, 602 
peculiarities of, 73 
Jerusalem haddock, 459 
jewfish, Florida, 537* 
jewfishes, 535 
jiguagua, 491 
jocu, 550 
john-dories, 462, 463* 


782 


john-paw, 539* 


Johnson, on interbreeding of 


salmon, 317 
jolt-head porgy, 559* 
Jordanella, 416* 
Jordania, 653* 
jorobado, 491 
joturo, 437* 

Joturus, 437** 
jJugular-fishes, 709 
Jugulares, 709-716 
jurel, 491 


Kamchatka lamprey, 176* 
Kamloops trout, 324 
kelp-blenny, 718* 

Kerr, on Lepidosiren, 243 
kettleman, 749 

killifishes, 413 

king of the mackerel, 636* 
king of salmon, 688* 
Kingfish, 570, 571* 
king-salmon, 294* 
Kirtlandia, 434* 

kisugo, 572 

klipvisch, 730 

Kneriide, 422 

Kochi, 652 

Kuhliide, 519 

kumu, 566 

Kyphoside, 563 


Labride, 596 
Labyrinthici, 579-590 


Index 


lampreys, 

mischief by, 173 

of Oregon, 175* 

running of, 174 

structure of, 167 

Surface on, 172 
Lampris, 132* 

shoulder-girdle cf, 458* 
lancelet, 163 

California, 165* 

habits of, 164 

origin of, 165 

species of, 164 
lancet of surgeon-fish, 53 
lancet-fishes, 357, 358*, 619 
lane-snapper, 550* 
lantern-fishes, 352, 356* 
large-mouthed black _ bass, 

519, 520% 


little-head porgy, 559 
littoral fishes, 1or : 


distribution of, 100 

Tiuranus, 86* 

lizard-fishes, 353* 

lizard-skipper, 83*, 719* 

loaches, 394 

Lobotes, 545 

Lobotide, 545 

local barriers, 107 

Lockington, on long-jawed 
goby, 673 

log-perch, 526 

long-eared sunfish, 1, 2*, 3%, 


515* 
long-fin albacore, 478* 
long-jawed goby, 673, 674* 
Lockington on, 673 
long-necked eels, 372 
Lophiide, 748 
Lophius, 16*, 749* 
Lophobranchii, 442-455 
Lopholotilus, 575 
Lophopsetta, 697* 
Lophotide, 506 
Lord, on _nest-building of 
sticklehacks, 445 
Loricaria, 405* 
Loricariide, 404 
Lota, 744* 
louse-fish, 680 
louvar, 505* 
lower jaw 
of Heterodontus, 187* 
of Neoceratodus, 242* 


of common eel, 367* 

of conger-eel, 369* 

of eel, 366 

of Lepidosiren, 244* 
larval flounder, 77*, 693* 
lateral line, 8, 20 

Dean on, 21 

function of, 21 
Latilide, 575 
Latridide, 577 
laws of distribution, gt 
lawyer, 743 
le monstre marin, 150%, 151* 
least darter, 530 
Lendenfeld, on luminous or- 


labyrinthine fishes, gill in, 579 
Lachnolaimus, 598* 
Lactariide, 572 
Lactophrys, 31*, 627, 628*, 
629* 
face view of, 628* 


gans, 61 
length of intestine, 31 
leopard-toadfish, 735* 
Lepidaplois, 600* 


skeleton of, 629* 242* 
ladyfish, 271* embryo of, 243* 
transformation of, 37* Kerr on, 243 
Lagocephalus, 630* larva of, 244* 


Lepidosirenide, 242 
Lepidostei, order of, 259 
Lepisosteide, family of, 259 
Lepisosteus, 261* 

Lepomis, 2*, 3*, 515* 
Leptecheneis, 69*, 679* 
Leptocardii, 163-166 
Leptocephalus, larva of, 369* 
Leptolepide, 268 
Leptolepis, 268* 
Leptoscopide, 713 
Leuciscus, 388* 

_ Pharyngeal bones of, 382* 


8 743 
lion-fish, 646* 

Florida, 644* 
Liopsetta, 704* 
liparid, 665* 
Liparidide, 665 


lake herring, 289 
Lake Tahoe, trout of, 327 
lake sturgeon, 256* 
Lamna, teeth of, 194* 
Lamnide, family of, 194 
Lamnoid sharks, 190 
Lampetra, 172, 176* 
Lampridide, 458 
lampreys, 70, 167-178 
ascending brook, 175* 
breeding habits of, 178 
catfishes destroyed by, 177* 
of Cayuga Lake, 174-178 
defined, 170 
fod of, 171 
gill-basket of, 166* 
Kamchatka, 176* 
larval, 172* 
metamorphosis of, 171 


Lepidosiren, adult male of, 


of Polypterus, 232* 
lower pharyngeals 

of parrot-fish, 604 

of Placopharynx, 390* 
lowland fishes, 122 
Luciocephalidz, 584 
luminous organs, 59, 60%, 61, _ 

62, 64% 

lumpfish, 665* 
lump-suckers, 664 
lungfishes, 235-245 
Lutianide, 547 
Lutianus, 140*, 548*, 550* 
Luvaridre, 506 
Luvarus, 505* 
Lycenchelys, 729* 
Lycodapus, 730* 
Lycodes, 729* 
Lyomeri, order of, 374 
Lyopomi, order of, 36r 
Lysopteri, order of, 249 


Mackenzie River saimon, 291 
mackerel, r41* 

Atka, 650 

frigate, 477 

Goode on, 475 

king of, 636* 


Index 783 


mackerel, midshipman, 736 Murena, 372* 

midges, 744 luminous organs of, 64* | murcielago, 669 

shark, 194* phosphorescent organ of, | muscles of the fish, 23 

sharks 190 65*, 66* muskallunge, 411* 

Spanish, 479* migratory fish, 46 mutsu, 532 

thimble-eyed, 476 milkfish, 272* mutton-snapper, 140*, 549 

tribe, 473 miller’s-thumb, 655*, 656* Mycteroperca, 541* 
mackerels, 473, 474, 475* California, 657* Myctophide, 355 
Macrorhamphoside, 449 Yellowstone, 655 Myctophum, 356* 
Macrorhamphosus, 449* Minnows, 382, 412 Myliobatide, 214 
Macrouridx, 745 everglade, 416 Myoxocephalus, 656, 657%, 
mademoiselle, 569* round, 415 658* : 
mad-toms, 51*, 401* silver-jaw, 384* Myrichthys, 370* 
Menidie, 561 sword-tail, 418* mythology of fishes, 149-156 
mahogany-snapper, 550 minor faunal areas, 102 Myxine, egg of, 34* 
maigre, 569 Misaki Biological Station, 47* 
mailed catfish, 405* mischief done by lampreys,| Nandide, 572 
mailed-cheek fishes, 637-669 173 “| Narcine, 57, 210* 
Malacanthide, 575 Mitsukurina, 192* Narcobatide, 210 
male red salmon, 294* Mitsukurinide, family of, r91 | Nassau grouper, 538* 
Mallotus, 349* Mobulide, family of, 216 natural selection, effect of, 106 
Malma trout, 336* mojarras, 561, 562* effect on species, 93 
Mammoth Cave, blindfish of,! blanca, 562 Naucrates, 488* 

421 cardenal, 469 needle-bearing filefish, 62 4* 

man-eating shark, 195 de las piedras, 616 needle-fish, 426* 
Manta, 216* de ley, 562 negro-chub, 386 
map of continents, 92 mola, 635* negro-fish, 538 
margate-fish, 555 Molide, 635 Nelson, on Anablebs, 415 
marine fishes, Monacanthide, 624 nematistiide, 493 

barriers to movement, 94 |monkfish, 149, 749 Nematognathi, 396-406 

distribution of, 99 brain of, 204* families of, 397 
mariposa, 459 Rondelet on, 149 Nemichthys, 15*, 155*, 371* 
Marsh, on four-eyed fish, 414] Monocentride, 472 jaws of, 42* 
Mastacembelide, 739 Monocentris, 14*, 471* Neoceratodus, 240* 
Mastacembelus, 739* Monodactylus, 608* archipterygium of, 240 
masu, 296* monstrous goldfish, 360* lower jaw of, 242* 
matao, 464 mooneye, 272* shoulder-girdle of, 235* 
Maurolicide, 357 moonfish, 132*, 459, 491, 503| _ upper jaw of, 241* 
mayfish, 417* Moorish idol, 617* Neoclinus, 717* 
measurements of fish, 17 Moorish idols, 617 Neoliparis, 666* 
mebaru, 642 moray, 374* Neosebastes, 644 
Meddaugh, photo by, 50* morays, 371 nerve-cells and fibers, 38 
medialuna, 564 Moringuide, family of, 372 | nest-building, 443 
medico, 618* Mormyridz, 407 nest of fish, 13 
Megalichthyidz, 229 Morone, 536* New England fish fauna, 111 
Melanogrammus, 742* mountain chains, as barriers, | northern blennies, 721 
Mene, 503* 119 northern zone of distribution, 
menhaden, 277* mouth 103 
Menide, 503 of brook lamprey, 172* Notacanthus, 377 
Menticirrhus, 571* of lake lamprey, 172* Notidani, order of, 184 
Merluciide, 745 of lamprey, 172* Notogoneus, 281* 
mermaid, the, 149 mud-minnow, 412* Nototheniide, 711 
mero, 539* mud-minnows, 412 Notropis, 384, 385* 
merou, 538 mud-skippers, 676, 677* Notropteridz, 274 
Mesogonistius, 514 muffle-jaws, 655 numbfish, 57*, 210* 
Mesturus, 259* Mugil, 441* nuptial — 
metamorphosis, of lamprey, | Mugilid, 436 coloration, 83 

171 mullets, 436 tubercles, 386* 

Michigan grayling, 345* snake-head, 584 
Microgadus, 743* striped, 441* oarfish, 152*, 153* 
Micropterus, 134*, 518*, 520*| Mullide, 565 capture of, 6840 
Microspathodon, 595* Mullus, 131*, 566* ocean currents, affecting dis- 
Microstomidz, 350 munu, 566 tribution, 96 


784 


Ocyurus, 551* 
Odacidz, 601 
Ogcocephalide, 754 
Ogcocephalus, 755*, 756* 
Oligocottus, 660* 
Oncorhynchus, 292, 293*, 
294*, 296*, 300* 301* 
of Monterey Bay, 303* 
Onocottus, 658* 
opah, 132*, 458, 459 
Ophicephalid, 584 
Ophicephalus, 585* 
Ophichthus, 370* 
Ophidiide, 730 
Ophiodon, 651* 
Opisthognathide, 573 
Opisthognathus, 573*, 574* 
Opisthomi, 739-747 
Ophlegnathide, 573 
optic nerve of flounder, 692 
order, 
Acanthopterygii, 424 
Actinistia, 230 
Anacanthini, 739 
Apodea, 364 
Asterospondyli, 186 
Carencheli, 372 
Chondrostei, 253 
Cladistia, 231 
Crossopterygians, 228 
Ctenodipterini, 238 
Gymnonoti, 406 
Halecomorphi, 261 
Heteromi, 376 
Isopondyli, 265 
Lepidostei, 259 
Lyomeri, 374 
Lyopomi, 361 
Lysopteri, 249 
Notidani, 184 
Opisthomi, 739 
Pediculati, 748-756 
Pycnodonti, 258 
Scyphophori, 407 
Selachostomi, 256 
Sirenoidei, 239 
Symbranchia, 365 
Tectospondyli, 200 
Xenomi, 422 
Oregon 
lamprey, 175* 
sucker, pharyngeal 
of, 304* 
trout-perch, 457* 
organs, of nutrition, 27 
origin 
of Amphibians, 226 
of lancelets, 165 
Osbeckia, 625* 
Osmerus, 346* 
Osphromenide, 582 
Ostariophysi, 378-395 
Osteoglosside, 282 


teeth 


Index 


Ostichthys, 470* 

Ostraciidz, 626 

Ostracion, 627* 

Ostracophori, 223 

ouananiche, Van Dyke on, 
316 

Owen, on swordfish, 485 

Oxylabrax, 533* 

Ozorthe, 8*, 723* 


Pacific slope, chubs of, 388 
paddle-fishes, 71, 256, 257* 
Pagrus, 556* 
Palenomiscum, 250* 
Palwoniscide, 250 
Paleorhynchide, 483* 
Palworhynchus, 483* 
Pallasina, 664* 
pampano, Irish, 563* 
pampanos, 487-507 
Pantodontidz, 283 
Papagallos, 493 
Paralichthys, 696*, 703* 
shoulder-girdle of, 247* 
Paratrachichthys, 468* 
Pareioplite, 627-669 * 
parent-stream theory, 305 
pargo criollo, 140*, 549 
pargo de lo alto, 550 
pargo guachinango, 549 
Pargos, 547 
parr, 314 
parrot-fishes, 595, 601, 606* 
jaws of, 28*, 602 
pharyngeals of, 602* 
paru, 616 
Patecide, 726 
patao, 562 
peacock flounder, 695* 
pearl-fishes, 45*, 732* 
issuing from Holothurian, 


(kk 
péche prétre, 640 
Pecropsis, 456* ; 
pegador, 69*, 679* 
Pegaside, 454 
peixe re, 433 
pelagic fishes, 99 
Pelligrin, on poisonous fish, 55 
Pemphris, 504*, 505* 
penfishes, 559 
Peprilus, 16*, 499* 
Perca, 523* 
Percesoces, 432-441 
perches, 473, 522 
climbing, 580* 
of Europe, 522 
everglade pigmy, 510 
pirate, 509 
relation to darters, 521 
true, 519 
viviparous, 587, 590 
yellow, 523* 


Perch-like fishes, 508-530 
Percide, 519 
Percina, 526* 
percoid fishes, 508 
Percoidea, 507-530 
Percomorphi, 473-486 
Percopside, 456 
Periophthalmus, 677* 
Peristediidz, 668 
Peristedion, 108*, 668* 
pescado azul, 593 
pescado blanco, 138*, 434* 
pescados del rey, 433 
pesce rey, 433 
Petalodontidx, 211 
peto, 481 
Petromyzon, 171*, 177* 
mouth of, 172* 
pez de pluma, 559 
pez del rey, 435* 
Phaneropleuron, 239* 
Phareodus, 283* 
pharyngeal bones, of Euro- 
pean chub, 382* 
pharyngeal teeth, of Oregon 
sucker, 394* 
pharyngeals, of Italian par- 
rot-fish, 602* 
Pharyngognathi; 591-607 
Philypnus, 671* 
Pholis, 722* 
photophores, 59 
in iniomous fishes, 61 
of Porichthys, 62 
Phthinobranchii, 442-455 
picarels, 561 
pickerel, 412 
picuda, 438 
pigmentation, 79 
pigmy sunfishes, 511 
pike, 137*, 409, 410* 
pike-perch, 524 
pilot-fish, 487, 488* 
Pimelometopon, 600* 
pine-cone fish, r4*, 471*, 472 
pinfish, 560 
Pinguipedide, 577 
pink salmon, 295 
pintado, 481 
pipefishes, 451 
pirate-perches, 509, 510* 
Placopharynx, lower pharyn- 
geal of, 3, 390* 
Plagyodus, 358* 
plaice tribe, 702 
Platacida, 612 
Platichthys, 705* 
Platophrys, 75*, 76*, 695* 
larval, 694* 
Platycephalide, 652 
Platysomida, 250 
Plecoglossus, 130*, 339* 
Plectognathi, 622-636 


Plenniide, 717-738 
Pleurogrammus, 137*, 650* 
Pleuronectidie, 695 
Pleuronectine, 702 
Plotosid, 403 
Pogonias, 572* 
poisonous fishes, 52*, 54, 55, 
57, 82%, 549, 622, 647%, 
737 
Giinther on, 737 
pole-flounder, 704 
Poleophthalmus, 677* 
Polistotrema, 71*, 169* 
pollack, 742* 
Polycentride, 572 
Polydactylus, 440* 
Polymixiide, 471 
polyodon, 257* 
Polypteridz, 234 
Polypterus, 228*, 233* 
lower jaw of, 232* 
shoulder-girdle of, 226* 
Polyrhizodus, teeth of, 212 
Pomacanthus, 614* 
Pomacentride, 592 
Pomacentrus, 593* 
Pomatomus, 132* 
Pomolobus, 276* 
pompano, 492* 
BOM POD ID 
Pomoxis, 512*, 513* 
pond-skipper, 677* 
poppy-fish, 498 
porcupine-fish, 15*, 633* 
porgies, 556 
porgy, 558 
jolt-head, 559* 
little-head, 559* 
Porichthys, 21*, 64*, 736* 
luminous organs of, 64%, 


65*, 66* 
photophores of, 62, 63 
porkfish, 555* 
Port Jackson shark, egg of, 
35%, 188* 


portugais, 616 
Portuguese man-of-war fish, 
46*, 500* 
preserving fishes, 
in alcohol, 161 
in formalin, 160 
Giinther on, 159 
Priacanthide, 547 
Priacanthus, 545* 
Pribilof sculpin, 657* 
priestfish, 640, 641* 
Prime, on crab-eater, 497 
primitive herring-like 
269* 
Prionotus, 667* 
Pristidide, 206 
Pristiophorus, 73*, 205* 
Pristis, 72*, 207* 


fis), 


Index 


Promicrops, 537* 
protection, 

of young, 35 

through poison, 54 
protective 

coloration, 79, 82* 

markings, 81 
Protopterus, 245* 
Psammodontide, family of, 

215 

Psephurus, 257* 
Psettias, 610* 
Pseudochromipide, 573 
Pseudopleuronectes, 77*, 693* 
Pseudopriacanthus, 5 46* 
Pseudoscarus, 139* 
Pseudotriakide, family of, 193 
Pseudupeneus, 138%, 565* 
Psychrolutes, 662* 
Pterogobius, 673* 
Pterois, 646* 
Pterophryne, 752* 
Pteropsaride, 712 
Pteropsaron, 712* 
Pterothrisside, 273 
Ptilichthyide, 723 
Ptilichthys, 724* 
Ptychocheilus, 48, 50*, 388* 
pudding-wife, 599 
pudiano, 599 
puffer, 631* 

inflated, 631* 
puffers, 630 
pugnacity of fishes, 48 
pug-nosed eels, 367, 368* 
Pycnodonti, order of, 258 
Pygeidee, 616 
Pygidiide, 404 


quiescent fish, 44 
quillfishes, 723, 724* 
Quinnat salmon, 292, 293%, 
303* 
young male, 301* 


rabbit-fish, 482, 634* 
rabirubia, 551 
Rachycentride, 497 
Rachycentron, 497 
Rafinesque, on 
garpike, 154 
ragfishes, 500 
rainbow darter, 530 
rainbow trout, 135*, 
321*, 322* 
Raja, 209* 


imaginary 


320, 


| Rajidz, 208 


Rangeley trout, 135*, 331* 
Ranzania, 636* 
ray, devil, 216* 
eagle, 215* 
sting, 213* 
rays, 206 


785 


razor-back sucker, 394* 
razor-fish, 599* 
realms of distribution, 103 
recognition-marks, 84 
records of fishes, 161 
red-drum, 569, 570* 
red-eye, 387 
redfin, 385 
redfish, 600* 
red goatfish, 138*, 565* 
red grouper, 539* 
red hind, 5 40* 
red mullet, 566 
red parrot-fish, 603* 
red salmon, 294*, 300* 
red tai, 556* 
red-throated trout, 325 
red voraz, 552 
Reed, on trout fishing, 335 
reflex action in fish, 39 
Regalecidx, 683 
Regalecus, 152*, 153*, 683 
relationship, 
of chimeras, 220 
of darters to. perches, 521 
of Tsospondyli, 267 
relative rank of foodfishes, 
129 
remoras, 69, 679 
Remsberg, photo by, 152* 
requins, 197 
Rhacochilus, 588* 
Rhamphocottide, 660 
Rhamphocottus, 662* 
Rhegnopteri, 432-441 
suborder of, 439* 
Rhine, suborder of, 204 
Rhinellus, 357* 
Rhineodontide, family of, 
107 
Rhinichthys, 383* 
Rhinobatidz, 207 
Rhinobatus, 208* 
Rhinochimeeride, 222 
Rhipidistia, 228 
Rhombochirus, 680* 
Rhyacichthyide, 714 
ribbon-fishes, 682 
Richardson’s sculpin, 662* 
Rio Grande trout, 329* 
Rissola, 730* 
river-drum, 568 
river-fishes, 106 
roach, 382 
robalo, 133*, 533*; 569 
rock-bass, 512, 514* 
skull of, 511* 
rock-beauty, 616* 
rock-cod, 640 
rockfish, 640 
rock-hind, 18* 
rock-pilots, 592 
rock-skipper, 719* 


786 


rocklings, 730 
four-bearded, 744* 

Rocky Mountain whitefish, 
287* 

romero, 487 

roncador, yellow-fin, 571* 

ronco amarillo, 554 

ronco arara, §54 

Rondelet, on monkfish, 149 

Rondeletiide, 355 

rosefish, 638* 

round minnow, 415* 

Rudarius, 95* 

rudder-fishes, 488, 563 

Rutter, photo by, 321, 388, 
590, 657* 

Rypticus, 544* 


saboti, 519 
sailfishes, 483 
sailor’s choice, 555 
saké, 295 
Salangide, 350 
Salanx, 351* 
salele, 519 
salema, 561* 
Salmo, 135*, 136*, 312, 321*, 
322*, 324, 327%, 328%, 
320* 
tail of, 696* 
salmon, 
after spawning, 300* 
artificial propagation of, 
312 
Atlantic, 312 
breeding changes in, 303 
canning of, 311 
colors of, 302 
of Columbia, 306 
diminution of, 311 
dying after spawning, 301 
of Europe, 315 
humpback, 296* 
hybrids, 317 
interbreeding of, 317 
ocean habits of, 297 
packing of, 311 
parent-stream theory, 305 
Quinnat, 292 
red, 296 
running of, 297-299 
species of, 292 
value of pack, 304 
salmon family, 285 
salmon fishery, output of, 211 
salmon-fry, marking of, 308 
planting of, 308 
salmon packing, 311 
salmonete, 138*, 565* 
Salmonide, 285-342 
fossil, 341 
Salmoperce, 456-464 
salpa, 563 


Index 


Salvelinus, 135*, 


336%, 337* 
samlet, 339* 
samson-fish, 488 
sand-darter, 44*, 528* 
sandfishes, 578* 
sand-lances, 731* 
sand-roller, 456* 
sand-whiting, 571 
San Pedro fish, 459 
sapo, 736 
sarcastic-blenny, 717* 
sargassumefish, 752* 
sargos, 560 
sauger, 524* 
saurel, 489* 
saury, 427, 428* 
sausolele, 646 
sawfishes, 71, 206, 207* 

Indian, 72* 
saw-sharks, 73*, 205* 
scabbard-fishes, 482 
scales, 18, 19* 

cycloid, 20 
Scapanorhynchus, 193 
Scaphirhynchus, 256* 
Scaridz, 601 
Scartichthys, 720* 
Scarus, 605*, 606* 

jaws of, 604* 

lower pharyngeals of, 604* 

upper pharyngeals of, 604* 
Sceloderms, 623 
Schilbeodes, 51, 401* 
Scienida, 567 
Scienops, 570* 
Scomber, 141*, 475* 
Scomberomorus, 131*, 479* 
Scombresox, 428* 
Scombridz, 474 
Scombroidea, 473 
Scorpena, 644*, 645* 
Scorpznichthys, 653 

skull of, 638* 
Scorpenide, 637 
Scorpenopsis, 645 
Scorpidide, 609 
scorpion-fishes, 637 
sculpins, 652 

eighteen-spined, 658* 

Pribilof, 657* 

Richardson’s, 662* 

sleek, 662 
scup, 558* 
Scylliorhinide, family of, 189 
Scyphophori, 407-423 
Scytalina, 729* 
Scytalinide, 729 
sea-bass, 534 
sea-bat, 755 
sea-catfish, 397 
sea-devils, 216*, 750 


136*, 330,|sea-drum, 571 
331*, 332%, 333%, 334%, | Sea-horses, 15*, 451, 453* 


breeding habits of, 453 
sea-mink, 570 
sea-moths, 454, 455* 
sea-poachers, 660 
sea-raven, 659* 
sea-robin, 667* 
sea-scorpion, 645* 
sea-Sserpent, 151 
sea-snails, 665 
seal-fish, 350 
Sebastapistes, 645 
Sebastes, 638* 
Sebastichthys, 642*, 643* 
Sebastiscus, 643 
Sebastodes, 639, 641* 
Sebastolobus, 639* 
Sebastopsis, 643 
Selachii, 183 
Selachostomi, order of, 256 
Selene, 36* 

Semiophorus, 461* 
Semotilus, 387* 
sennet, 438 
sergeant-fish, 497* 
Series, 

Ganoidei, 247 

Ostariophysi, 378-395 
Seriola, 488* 
serrana, 571 
Serranida, 534 
serranos, 541 
sese de lo alto, 550 
sexual coloration, 83 
shad, 276 
shark, 

Port Jackson, 188* 

soup-fin, 198* 
shark-like fishes, 180-217 
sharks, 180 

basking, 196 

carcharioid, 197 

goblin, ror 

hammer-head, 200, 201* 

hound, 198 

lamnoid, 190 

mackerel, 190 

man-eating, 195 

thresher, 193 
shark’s pilot, 488 
shark-suckers, 679 
sharp-nosed flying-fish, 430* 
sheatfish, 4o2 oe 8 
sheepshead, 29*, 560 
shiner, 382, 387* 

species of, 385 
shoulder-girdle, 

inner view of, 379* 

. of batfish, 754* 

of Fistularia, 442* 

of flounder, 247* 

of Neoceratodus, 235* 


shoulder-girdle 
of Opah, 458* 
of Polypterus, 226* 
of stickleback, 442* 
of threadfin, 440* 


shovel-nosed sturgeon, 256* 


shrimpfish, 450* 
shrimpfishes, 449 
Shufeldt, 


photo by, 2, 6, 12, 334, 410, 
513; 520, 536, 543, 540%, 


~ 597) 715 
sierra, 481 


Sierra Nevada, fish fauna of, 


113 
Siganide, 620 
silk-snapper, 550 
Sillagninide, 572 
Siluride, 397 
silver anchovy, 280* 
silver hake, 745 
silver jenny, 562 
silver salmon, 295 
silver surf-fish, 118* 
silverfin, 385* 
silver-jaw minnow, 384* 
silversides, 432, 434* 
silvery puffer, 630* 
Simenchelys, 368* 
singing-fish, 21*, 736* 
Siphonognathide, 6o0r 
Sirenoidei, order of, 239 
siscowet, trout, 338 
Sisoridz, 403 
skates, 208, 209* 
skeleton 

of chimera, 221* 

of cowfish, 629* 

of fish, 9 
skilfishes, 649* 
skipper, 427 
skull 


of Anarrhichthys, 727* 

of berycoid fish, 465* 

of rock-bass, 511* 

of Scorpeenichthys, 638* 
sleek-sculpin, 662* 


slippery-dick, 106*, 599, 607* 
small-mouth black bass, 134*, 


518* 
smelt, 345, 346* 


smelt and grayling, 343-361 
Smith, H. M., photo by, 175* 


snailfish, 666* 
snake-eels, 86*, 369 


snake-head China-fish, 585* 


snake-head mullets, 584 
snappers, 547 
snipe-fishes, 449 

snook, 534 

snowy grouper, 543* 
Snyder, photo by, 147* 
Snyderina, 648* 


Index 


soapfishes, 544* 
soldier-fishes, 468, 469* 
sole, hog-choker, 706* 
Soleidee, 705 

Soleine, 706 
Solenostomide, 451 
Solenostomus, 452* 
soles, 705 

soup-fin shark, 198* 


southern zone of distribution, 


105 

spadefish, 134, 612* 
spadefishes, 611 
Spanish-flag, 537 
Spanish lady-fish, 599 


Spanish mackerel, 131*, 479* 


Goode on, 479 
Sparide, 556 
Sparisoma, 28*, 603* 

pharyngeals of, 602 
species 


absent through barriers, 91 
absent through failure of 


foothold, 91 
Arctic, in lakes, 125 


changed through selection, 


93 
excess in favorable wat rs, 


110 

extinction of, 93 

of eel, 367 

of lancelet, 164 
speckled hind, 539* 
speckled trout, 135*, 333* 
spet, 438 
Spheroides, 631* 
Sphyrena, 438* 
Sphyrenide, 437 
Sphyma, 201* 
Sphymide, family of, 2co 
Spinacanthide, 626 
spineless trunkfish, 628* 
spines, 

of catfish, 51 

of sting-ray, 54 

venomous, 52 
spiny-rayed fishes, 424 
spiral valve, 30 
spotted trunkfish, 627* 

face view of, 628* 
spotted weakfish, 567* 
Squalide, family of, 202 
Squalus, 202* 
squamipinnes, 608-621 
square-tails, 506 
Squatina, brain of, 204* 
squawfish, 48*, 50*, 288* 

stranding of, 50* 
squeteague, 567 
squirrel-fishes, 542 
squirrel-hake, 743 


star-gazers, 59*, 713, 714*, 


715* 


787 


starry-flounder, 692, 705* 
steelhead, 319 
steelhead-trout, 136*, 324* 
Steindachnerella, 747* 
Stelgis, 662* 
Stenodus, 291* 
Stenotomus, 558* 
Stephanoberycide, 438 
Stephanolepis, 54*, 626 
Sternoptychide, 360 
Sticheine, 721 
Sticheeus, 723 
sticklebacks, 443 
four-spined, 447 
nest-building habits of, 443 


shoulder-girdle of, 442* 

three-spined, 447 
sting-rays, 100, 212, 213* 

spines of, 54 
Stizostedion, 524* 
Stomias, 351* 
Stomiatide, 351 
stone-bass, 537 
stone-roller, 31*, 386* 
stone-sculpin, 654 
stone-wall perch, 573* 
Storms, on fossil remoras, 680 
striped mojarra, 562 
striped sheepshead, 561* 
Stromateide, 498 
structure, of lamprey, 167 
sturgeons, 254 

common, 255* 

lake, 256 


shovel-nosed, 256* 
Stylephoridz, 690 
subclass, 

Actinopteri, 246 

Crossopterygii, 225 

Dipneusti, 235-245 

Elasmobranchs, 182 

Teleostei, 264 
suborder, 

Amphacanthi, 620 

Archencheli, 364 

Batoidei, 206 

Cestraciontes, 187 

Chromides, 591 

Colocephali, 371 

Craniomi, 667 

Cyclospondyli, 202 

Discocephali, 679 

Enchelycephali, 365 

Galei, 189 

Gobioidei, 670 

Haplodoci, 735 

Hemibranchii, 442 

Holconoti, 586 

Hypostomides, 454 

Iniomi, 352 

Percesoces, 432 

Percomorphi, 473 

Pharyngognathi, 595 


—— ree 


788 


suborder, 
Rhegnopteri, 439 
Rhine, 204 
Salmoperce, 456 
Selenichthys, 458 
Synentognathi, 425 
Teniosomi, 682 
Xenopterygii, 737 
Zeoidea, 460 
sucker, 390 
California, 393* 
carp, 391 
common, 393* 
Oregon, 394 
razor-back, 394* 
sucking-disks, 70 
sucking-fish, 69*, 679* 
Suletind watershed, 115 
Sunapee trout, 332* 
sunfishes, 512 
banded, 514 


blue-green, 24, 25*, 564* 


common, 6*, 12*, 516 

long-eared, 1, 2*, 3%, 515 

pigmy, 511 
Surface, 

on lampreys, 172 

photo by, 177* 
surf-fishes, 586, 588* 
surgeon-fishes, 618 

lancet of, 53 
surmullets, 565-578 

golden, 566* 
swallowers, 574 
swampy watersheds, 123 
sweetfish, 338 
swell-toad, 634 
swordfishes, 71, 484, 485* 

Owen on, 485 
swordtail-minnow, 418* 
Syacium, 698* 
Symbranchia, order of, 363 
Symphurus, 708 
Synanceia, 82*, 645 
Synaphobranchus, 368* 
Synechodus, teeth of, 188 
Synentognathi, 424-431 

suborder of, 425 
Syngnathid, 451 


Teniosomi, 670-690 
Tahoe trout, 136*, 327* 
tai fishing, 147* 
tangs, 618 
target-fish, 464 
tarpon, 270* 
tarwhine, 558 
tautog, 596*, 597* 
Tautoga, 596*, 597* 
Tectospondyli, order of, 200 
teeth 

of Ceratodus, 240* 


of Cestraciont sharks, 188*! Trichodon, 578* 


Index 


teeth 
of chimzras, 219 
of Corax, 200* 
of Heptranchias, 185* 
of Isurus, 195* 
of Janassa, 211* 
of Lamna, 194* 
of Polyrhizodus, 212* 
peculiarities of, 73 


Teleostei, 
class, 224 
subclass of, 264 
temperature, affecting dis- 
tribution, 95 
tench, 387 


tenguzame, 192* 
ten-pounder, 269* 
tessellated darter, 527* 
Tetradontide, 630 
Tetragonuride, 506 
Tetraodon, 55*, 98*, 633* 
Teuthis, 53*, 618*, 619* 
Thaleichthys, 129, 347* 
Theragra, 742* 
thick-lipped surf-fish, 588* 
thimble-eyed mackerel, 476 
thread-eel, 15*, 155*, 371* 
jaws of, 371* 


threadfin, shoulder-girdle of, 


44o* 
threadfish, 49x 


three-spined stickleback, 447* 


thresher-shark, 193 
Thymallide, 343 
Thymallus, 137*, 343%, 345* 
tide-pool fishes, 46 
tide-pools of Misaki, 47* 
tile-fish, 575 
toadfishes, 735 

leopard, 735* 

poison, 730 

tomcod, 743* 
tongue-fishes, 708 
top-minnows, 417 
torabuku, 634 
torpedo, 58*, 402* 
torpedoes, 210 
torsk, 744 
totuava, 568 
Toxotide, 611 
Trachicephalus, 649* 
Trachichthyide, 467 
Trachinide, 710 

Gill on, 710 
Trachinotus, 492* 
Trachurus, 489* 
Trachypteride, 687 
Trachypterus, 688* 
transitional groups, 456-464 
tree-climbing fish, 49 
treefish, 642 
Trichiurus, 483 


4 


Trichodontide, 578 
Trichonotide, 716 
trigger-fishes, 56*, 623* 
Tnglide, 667 

Triglops, 65 4* 
Triodontide, 629 
triple-tails, 545 


tropical fishes, variety of, 
142 

Tropidichthyidz, 632 

trout, 312 
black-spotted, 318 
brook, 333 
of Colorado River, 329* 
cutthroat, 325 


Dolly Varden, 336, 337- 
Great Lake, 337* 
green-back, 328 
heterocercal tail of, 696* 
Kamloops, 324 
Malma, 336 
rainbow, 320 
Rangeley, 331* 
red-throated, 325 
Rio Grande, 329* 
speckled, 333* 
steelhead, 319 
Sunapee, 332* 
Tahoe, 327* 
of Western America, 319 
yellowfin, 328 
trout-perches, 456 
trout-worm, figured, 326 
trucha, 534 
true 
eels, 364 
mackerels, 474 
perches, 519 
sharks, 180-217 
trumpet-fishes, 448, 449* 
trunkfishes, 626 
Tuna, 477 
tunny, 477 
turbot tribe, 697 
Twin Lakes, trout of, 328 
Two-Ocean Pass, 116 
described by Evermann, 
117 
Tylosurus, 426* 
Typhlichthys, 420* 


ulchen, 129*, 347* 
Umbra, 412* 
Umbrina, 571* 
Undina, 231* 
unicorn-fish, 620 
upland fishes, 120, 121 
upper jaw, of Neoceratodus, 
241* 
upper pharyngeals, of Indian 
parrot-fish, 604* 
Uranidea, 656* 
Uranoscopide, 713 


Index 


vaca, 541 

Van Dyke, on ouananiche, 
316 

variety of tropical fishes, 142 

Vierosa, 672* 

viper-fishes, 352 

viscera, 24 

viuva, 640 

viviparous fish, 1r8* 

viviparous perch 587*, 590% 

volador, 669 


white perch, 536* 
white  surf-fish, 32%, 586%, 
588* 

Whitman, on instincts, 42 
wide-eyed flounder, 76%, 698* 
wide-mouthed flounder, 703* 
Williams, on flounder eye, 75 
window-pane, 697* 
wolf-fishes, 727%, 728 
woodcock-fish, 449 
Woodward, 

on chimeras, 219 


wachna cod, 743 on Isospondyli, 265 


wall-eye, 523 wrasse fishes, 596 

waterfalls and cascades, as] wrasses, 595 
barriers, 109 wreckfish, 537 

watersheds, wrymouth, 726* 


as barriers, rr4 
how crossed, 115 
swampy, 123 
Suletind, rrs 
weakfish, spotted, 567* 
Weberian apparatus of carp, 
379% ‘ 
weevers, 710 
whale-shark, 197 
white bass, 535 
white-bone porgy, 560 
white chub, 384* 
whitefish, r30*, 286, 287%, 
288* 


Xenocephalidz, 730 
Xenocys, 552* 
Xenomi, order of, 422 
Xenopterygii, 737 
Xiphasia, 725* 
Xiphias, 484%, 485* 
Xiphiide, 484 
Xiphiidine, 721 
Xiphistes, 722* 
Xiphophorus, 418* 
Xyrauchen, 394* 
Xyrias, 370* 
Xyrichthys, 599* 

of California, 576 Xystema, 562* 
Rocky Mountain, 287* 
Sault, 289 


yellow 
white hake, 743 


bass 535 


789 


yellow 
catfish, yor 
goatfish, 566 
mackerel, 490* 
perch, 523* 
yellowfin 
grouper, 541* 
roncador, 571* 
trout, 328* 
Yellowstone miller’s-thumb, 
655* 
yellow-tail, 488 
yellow-tail roncador, 570 
snapper, 551* 
Young, on angling, 145 
young flounder, 692* 
young swordfish, 484* 


Zacalles, 721* 
Zalises, 455* 
Zanclide, 617 
Zanclus, 617* 
zander, 524, 533 
Zaprora, 501 
Zeid, 462 
Zenomi, 407-423 
Zeoidea, suborder, 460 
Zesticelus, 658 
Zeus, 463* 
zingel, 525* 
Zoarces, 728* 
Zoarcide, 728 , 
zoogeography, go 
Zygonectes, 417 


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